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 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH 
 
 A STUDY OF THE DRINK-QUESTION 
 
 BY 
 
 AXEL aUSTAFSON 
 
 LONDON 
 KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH & CO., 1, PATEENOSTER SQUARE 
 
 1884
 
 (The rights of translation and of reproduction are resented.)
 
 DEDICATION. 
 
 To my wife, who has fully shared with me 
 the hard year's work of which this httle book 
 is the outcome, I dedicate it in gratitude and 
 admiration for the genius and devoted labour, 
 literary experience and skill, by which every 
 page of it has benefited. 
 
 London, May 29, 1884.
 
 PEEFACE= 
 
 In the time which I have been able to devote to this 
 work — begun in April, 1883 — it has been my endeavour 
 to formulate with thoroughness and impartiality as to 
 evidence, and with conscientious care and clearness as 
 to combination and deduction, all that is clearly known 
 and proven regarding the grave problem of alcohol 
 and human life. 
 
 At the outset of this study, I entertained, besides a 
 good deal of general ignorance on the subject and a 
 mass of erroneous notions, the idea that there probably 
 existed a safe dietetic dose of alcohol ; that such a 
 limitation in the use of alcohol could be secured by 
 suitable legislation, and thus the rank evil of drunken- 
 ness be stayed ; and that a proper preliminary to this 
 end would be an inquiry into what in the various 
 countries had been deemed the most successful systems 
 of licensing.
 
 Vlll PREFACE. 
 
 In researches which covered the examination of 
 some three thousand works, dealing more or less 
 directly with the alcohol question, I found excellent 
 matter on special aspects of it, but no single work 
 which attempted to treat of it in a comprehensive 
 manner. The world-literature on alcohol is enormous, 
 largely consisting of conflicting or dubious statements ; 
 records of experiments made by different authorities 
 reaching divergent conclusions ; cogent reasoning 
 threaded by disintegrating fallacies ; and contradictory 
 promulgations by one and the same author in various 
 works, and not infrequently in different parts of the 
 same work. 
 
 Though the task of distinguishing, from among the 
 traces along such a shore, between the flotsam and 
 jetsam of the fluctuating tides of popular prejudices 
 and notions, and the actual deposit marking the 
 gradual progress of Truth's laborious but certain 
 advance, might fitly engage far greater powers than 
 mine, I have not felt deterred from making this earnest 
 attempt. 
 
 The general difficulty in selecting from super- 
 abundance of material is well understood, but when the 
 aim is to make a sound and suitable garment, three 
 times the quantity of cloth needed does not make up 
 for its being blemished and perforated in every yard. 
 This has been one great obstacle in the selection and
 
 PREFACE. IX 
 
 arrangement of quotations from the various authors, i.e., 
 to winnow facts and significances from conflicting evi- 
 dence and unsound arguments, to pick out and put into 
 their proper relations the clearest, truest, most conse- 
 quent dicta I could find, so as to form a whole and 
 well-proportioned statement of the sum of experience 
 and fact concerning this question. 
 
 It will not be difficult to cite from authorities 
 quoted by me, in one sense, other passages which may 
 seem to modify or even perhaps contradict those I 
 have selected. I can forestall criticism on such 
 grounds only by saying that unconscious shuffling or 
 deliberate equivocation on the part of an author cannot 
 take from the intrinsic value of any truth which he 
 has once seen, stated, and served, any more than could 
 Galileo's recantation stop the sun. 
 
 It cannot be useful to perpetuate a man's poorer 
 and weaker words merely in order to destroy the due 
 effect of his best utterances. And though individual 
 inconsistencies have a certain value, it is not to them 
 we must chiefly look for the solution of a great question 
 of race import, but to the general tenor and character 
 of the testimonies given by the cloud of witnesses who, 
 whether from a mixture of motives or in single-minded- 
 ness, have studied it ; and it is from the points of 
 consent where scientists, philosophers, and humani- 
 tarians have met and agreed, that we may hope to
 
 X PREFACE. 
 
 begin a path toward the whole and definite truth about 
 alcohol and man. 
 
 With the avowed aim of dealing with the whole 
 liquor question from every side and standpoint, it has 
 not been possible within the limits of a work cheap 
 enough to be in reach of the working classes, to deal 
 fully with the drink question of all countries in 
 Chapters X. and XIII., on " Social Results " and 
 " What can be Done ? " And for many reasons Great 
 Britain is almost exclusively considered in both these 
 chapters, especially in the last. In each of the 
 thirteen chapters I have tried to include only what 
 belongs under its particular heading, and to the best 
 of my ability, the contents of each chapter, and all the 
 chapters in relation to each other, have been arranged 
 and proportioned so as to bring the whole into good 
 focus for the reader, at whatever point he may incline 
 to take up the subject. 
 
 In making quotations the following rules have 
 been observed : — to give the title of the work, with 
 place and date of publication ; to quote from the latest 
 edition, and, if another work by the same author 
 intervenes, to re-mention in full the preceding work if 
 it is again referred to in the same chapter ; to translate 
 the titles of foreign works into English, except in 
 cases of classical or such modern titles as have not 
 been included in the bibliography, or when by trausla-
 
 PREFACE. XI 
 
 tion the finding of tlie worli cited would be made more 
 dil3Scult. Such quotations as have been rendered 
 from other tongues into the English have been mostly 
 translated by myself, because, when I tried to use 
 translations already made, it frequently appeared that 
 they were inaccurate, and therefore I thought that if 
 fault should be found with the translated portions of 
 my book, I would prefer being responsible for my own 
 than others' mistakes in that line. 
 
 The footnotes are not less valuable in their bearing 
 on the drink question than the body of the text from 
 which they are eliminated for easily seen reasons, 
 generally to prevent break or tenuity in the argument. 
 
 The appendix, with the exception of the abstract 
 from the last report of the British Commissioners of 
 Lunacy, deals exclusively with the rights and means 
 of legal suppression of the liquor traffic. In order to 
 enable the reader to find any passage by the table of 
 contents as readily as by the general index, the text 
 has been divided throughout the book into numbered 
 paragraphs, accompanied by marginal notes, which are 
 found in the same order in the table of contents ; and 
 the readiest method of utilizing the bibliography has 
 been explained in the brief preface to it. 
 
 In the preparation of this work I have received 
 cordial encouragement and the kindest assistance from 
 many friends of temperance reform and from many not
 
 Xll PREFACE. 
 
 identified with it, to each and all of whom my grateful 
 thanks are due, and are here warmly rendered. Among 
 the names of those to whom I am more especially 
 indebted for help and sympathy indispensable to 
 my undertaking are Mr. Samuel Morley, M.P., Dr. 
 Xorman Kerr, Dr. James Edmunds, Mr. Kobert Eae, 
 Dr. Dawson Burns, Dr. K. Garnett, Mr. John P. Ander- 
 son, Mr. G. W. Eccles, Mr. J. W. Leng, Mr. T. H. 
 Evans, Mr. F. Sherlock, the Eev. Dr. de CoUeville, the 
 Archbishop of Canterbury, the Dean of Westminster, 
 Canon Henry J. Ellison, Earl Shaftesbury, and Mr. 
 J. W. Kolckmann, the German publisher, all of 
 England; to Mr. L. 0. Smith of Stockholm, Dr. L. 
 Lunier of Paris, Baron Lynden and the Rev. A. von 
 Scheltema of Holland. 
 
 While the book has been going through the press, 
 I have used every power and facility at my command 
 in the labour of revision and bringing up to date. 
 This has involved a rearrangement and transposition 
 of portions of the contents, and through the latter 
 some slight verbal errors have crept in, and been 
 discovered too late for correction in this edition. 
 
 As to the title of the book, though it may at first 
 appear exaggerated and sensational, I believe it to be 
 a scientifically accurate description of the nature and 
 career of alcohol in the life of man. " Life never is, it 
 is always becoming ; it is not a state, but a flow," says
 
 PREFACE. xiii 
 
 Professor J, Molesehott. And of death Dr. Hufelaud 
 says, "Generally speaking, death is not a change 
 undergone in a moment, but a gradual passage from a 
 condition of active to a condition of latent life." 
 
 As there are many springs and foundations of life, so 
 there are, doubtless, many foundations of death, deaths 
 national, individual, intellectual, moral, and spiritual, 
 as well as physical, but among them alcohol, if the 
 true story of it is told by those who bear witness in 
 this work, is pre-eminently a destroyer in every depart- 
 ment of life, and therefore is truly the foundation of 
 death. 
 
 45, Upper Gloucester Place, 
 
 PoRTMAN Square, London, N.W., 
 May 28, 1884.
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 DEINKING AMONG THE ANCIENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 § 1. Difference between ancient and modern ideas of life, 
 especially as regards drinking. § 2. Soma, and its charac- 
 teristics. § 3. The ancient wine traditions — Myths about 
 the vine as being the forbidden frnit — Traditions as to 
 Noah and Satan planting the vine — Origin of the pnrple 
 grape. § 4. Origin, history, and character of Bacchus- 
 worship — The Eleusinian mysteries. § 5. Proofs in historic 
 records of the destroying power of drink — Assyria, Media, 
 Persia, Egypt, Greece, and Rome — Drinking among the 
 Sueves, ancient Scots, Jews, and Mohammedans ... 1 
 
 CHAPTER 11. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE DISCOVEKY OF DISTILLATION. 
 
 § 6. Causes of ignorance regarding the discovery of distillation 
 — Nature and meaning of distillation. § 7- China and 
 distillation — Arabia and distillation — Geber, Rhazes, Albu- 
 cassis, Raimundus, LuUus, and Aruoldus Villa-Novus. 
 § 9. Reasons for the alchemists' belief in alcohol, and for 
 the credulity of the masses. § 10. Various names for 
 alcohol — Derivations of the word alcohol ... ... 25 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 PRELIMINAEIES TO THE STUDY OF MODERN DRINKING. 
 
 § 11. Survey of the origin and progress of the sciences of 
 chemistry and physiology — Aristotle's four-element theory 
 — First establishment of the existence of chemical elements
 
 XVI CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 — Lavoisier's discovery of the basis of oxidation — The 
 foundation of scientific physiology laid in 1850 in the cell 
 discovery. § 12. How alcohol became a prominent subject 
 for chemical investigation — Discovery of ethyl, methyl, and 
 amyl alcohols — The great number of groups, series, and 
 varieties of alcohols — The elements of alcohol — The natural 
 sources of alcohols — The meaning and processes of fer- 
 mentation — The nature, action, and influence of ferments 
 on life. § 13. Date of the first discovery of the real nature 
 of alcoholic ferments — Generation of yeast fungi — The 
 lethal nature of alcoholic fermentation — Saccharine fer- 
 mentation in explanation of the traces of alcohol found in 
 water, air, and earth — Alcohol in bread fermentation — 
 Alcohol in living organisms, plants, and animals. § 14. The 
 tendency of alcohol to decompose into elements. § 15. The 
 various chemical and industrial uses for alcohols. § 16. 
 Sources of the alcohols found in drinks. — Malting — Various 
 alcoholic drinks ... ... ... ... ... S-l 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 17. Universality of liquor adulteration — Various poisons used 
 in processes of adulteration. § 18. Reasons why wines 
 are adulterated — Adulterations of Rhine wine. § 19. Port 
 wine and sherry adulterations — The London Times on sherry 
 adulteration. § 20. The Daily Telegraph on Spanish wine 
 manufacture from raw spirits — The Daily Nevjs on the 
 pending wine adulteration treaty with Spain — -Wine-forti- 
 fying with raw potato-spirit in London docks under 
 Government supervision. § 21. Special ills and diseases 
 directly traceable to the adulterating ingredients in wines. 
 § 22. Beer adulteration — Lupulit ... ... ... 46 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS ; OR, EFFECTS OP ALCOHOL ON THE 
 PHYSICAL ORGANS AND FUNCTIONS. 
 
 § 23. Difficulty in fixing the normal limit of human life- 
 Opinions of Dr. L. Herman, Dr. J. R. Farre, and Prof. P. 
 Flourens on this point — Man's responsibility in this matter 
 — Ignorance the chief cause and alcohol the chief agent 
 in shortening life. § 24. The wisdom manifested in the 
 laws controlling and preserving oi'ganic life. § 25. Chemical 
 elements of the human body — How it is maintained — Defi- 
 nition of food — Division of foods — The processes of uutri-
 
 CONTENTS. XVll 
 
 tion. § 26. The nature and dual mission of the blood — Its 
 constituent parts and their mission — Water the paramount 
 need of the system — Drs. W. B. Carpenter and Austin Flint 
 on this point— Drs. Becquerel, Rodier, and Albin Koch on 
 the predominance of water in the blood. § 27. Definition 
 and division of poisons. § 28. The attitude of the medical 
 profession concerning the use of alcohol — Is alcohol food ? 
 — Dr. Baer's statement that alcohol contains no tissue- 
 making compounds — Dr. Klein's testimony to its worthless- 
 ness as a food — How the idea of its being a food came 
 about. § 29. Alcohol tried by food-tests. § 30. Alcohol 
 inimical to life — Dr. A. Carlysle on this point — A variety 
 of conditions qualifying the effects of alcohol on man. 
 § 31. The hurtful effect of alcohol on nutrition twofold : 
 viz. retardation of the processes of digestion and assimilation, 
 and interference with the purely aqueous nature of the blood 
 — Description of its effects on digestion — The rapidity of 
 its entrance into the blood alone preserves the digestion 
 from ruin — Drs. Todd and Bowman on this point — Dr. F. R. 
 Lees' summary of the effects of alcohol on digestion — The 
 effects of alcohol on the stomach itself — Dr. William Beau- 
 mont's experiments on the stomach of the Canadian hunter, 
 St. Martin — General summary of the effects of alcohol on 
 digestion and the stomach. § 32. Preliminary comment on 
 the effects of alcohol on the blood. § 33. Remarks on the 
 food elements in alcoholic drinks — The Lancet on the 
 nutritious elements in wines — Special consideration of malt 
 liquors — The food in alcoholic drinks not in the alcohol, but 
 in the residuals — Drs. J. W. Beaumont and T. L. Brunton 
 on the character of the fat in the system of malt-liquor 
 drinkers — Why Dr. W. A. Hammond regards alcohol as a 
 food — The meaning of alcoholic preservation of tissue. 
 § 34. Special consideration of the action of alcohol on the 
 blood — Dr. C. H. Shulz on the nature of alcoholic degenera- 
 tion of the blood — Dr. Dumas, the physiologists Booker and 
 Virschow, Dr. Baer, Prof. Herman and Prof. Dogiel on the 
 same — The effect of alcoholic degeneration of the blood on 
 the nutrition of the tissues — Dr. Boker's experiments 
 proving that alcohol, by retarding oxidation, tends to turn 
 man's body into a preserved compost. § 35. How alcohol 
 wastes and poisons the water of the system — The " drink- 
 crave " a result of thirst — Dr. Flint on this point — The 
 exactions made by alcohol upon the water of the system — 
 The systemic need of water misunderstood as a need for 
 alcohol. § 36. Alcoholic degeneration of the blood-vessels 
 — Dr. James Edmunds on this point — Sir James Paget's 
 warning to his disciples against surgical operations even 
 on moderate drinkers. § 37. Theories as to what becomes 
 of alcohol after it enters the blood current, by Baron Liebig, 
 Drs. L'Allemand, Perrin, and Duroy, Prof. Bauer, and Drs. 
 
 b
 
 XVIU CONTENTS. 
 
 Bonchardat and Sandras. § 38. The difficulty of arriving 
 at definite conclusions on this point — A solution possibly to 
 be found in the action of hydrolytic ferments — Dr. E. G. 
 Figg on the presence of alcohol in the breath — Dr. James 
 Hinton's Physiology for Practical Use on the same — Alcohol 
 discovered in skin evaporations — Drs. E. G. Figg and T. L. 
 Brunton on this point — Alcohol found in the urine — Drs. 
 L'AUemand, Perrin, and Dnroy, William Beaumont, John 
 Percy, E. G. Figg, and Herr Kuyper on alcohol in the brain. 
 § 39. Effects of alcohol on the temperature of the body — 
 Opinions on this point by Drs. Dumeril, Dumarquay, and 
 Lecoint, Drs. Nasse, Prout, Davies, and Edward Smith, 
 Prof. Binz and Drs. Dujardin, Beaumetz, and Audige — 
 Practical evidences that alcohol reduces the temperature 
 of the body — Plausible theories for reconciling the fall of 
 bodily temperature with the Liebigian combustion theory. 
 § 40. Alcohol and the nervous system — Physiology of the 
 nei-vous system — Dr. James Cantile on the character and 
 functions of the nervous system — Parallel physiological 
 effects of alcohol on the nervous and muscular tissues — 
 Alcohol acts directly on the brain — Dr. Baer on this point 
 — Possible solution of the riddle why alcohol when taken 
 rapidly, intoxicates less and more slowly than when 
 gradually taken, by sipping — The division of special nerve- 
 affectants into stimulants and narcotics — Conflicting defini- 
 tions of these terms by Dr. A. Billing, Sir J. Forbes, Drs. 
 Headland, T. King Chambers, and T. L. Brunton — Defini- 
 tion of stimulants and their division into invigorators and 
 prostraters — Definition of narcotics, and their division into 
 pseudo-stimulants and plain narcotics — Further explanation 
 of the term pseudo-stimulants — Alcohol a narcotic poison — 
 Dr. Thomas Trotter, in 1804, speaks of the medical con- 
 troversy as to whether alcohol is a narcotic or stimulant — 
 Prof. Christison, Drs. Figg, Anstie, and Edmunds on this 
 point — The twofold narcotizing action of alcohol on the 
 brain and nerves — Alcohol's interference with the powers 
 of co-ordination and temporary abolition of sensation — Prof. 
 John Fiske on incipient alcoholic paralysis — Drs. Nicol, 
 Mossop, and E. Smith on the tendency of alcohol to paralyze 
 vision — The quality of the brain decides the quality of 
 its communicating powers — Dr. J. Crichton Brown on this 
 point — Alcohol degrades the quality of brain and nerves — 
 Dr. Parkes on the paralyzing effect of alcohol on the power 
 of transmitting thought — Dr. Howie on the same — Dr. 
 J. J. Eidge's experiments with minute doses of alcohol, 
 proving its paralyzing effects upon feeling, weight, and 
 vision — Dr. Scougal, in confirmation of Dr. Eidge, adding 
 that the sense of hearing is similarly affected by alcohol. 
 § 41. How the alcoholic nerve. degradation assists in pro- 
 ducing the drink- crave — Dr. Anstie and Prof. Fiske on this
 
 CONTENTS. XIX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 point — general practical conclusions as to the narcotic re- 
 sults from the use of alcohol. § 42. Dr. E. G. Figg on the 
 injurious effects of alcohol when used as a mental stimulant 
 — Sir Andrew Clark on the same — Mr. A. Arthur Reade's 
 summary from one hundred and thirty-two letters on this 
 point — The Rev. Stopford A. Brooke's testimony on this 
 point. § 43. Proofs and opinions for the statement that 
 alcohol reduces the capacity for physical labour — -Drs. 
 Beddoes and Bonders, Baron Leibig, and Drs. Parkes and 
 WoUowicz on this point. § 44. General summary of the 
 physiological results of the use of alcohol ... ... 57 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 PATHOLOGICAL EESULTS ; OE, DISEASES CAUSED BY ALCOHOL. 
 
 § 45. Definitions of the terms disease and health — Dr. Huss, 
 the originator of the term alcoholism and its division into 
 acute and chronic. § 46. Meaning of the term chronic 
 alcoholism — The general scope of alcoholism — Prof. Chris- 
 tison on general diseases due to the use of alcohol — Dr. 
 Murchison on continued fevers, and on functional diseases of 
 the liver — Mr. Startin on skin diseases — Dr. Norman Kerr 
 on alcohol as a cause of erysipelas — Sir William Temple, 
 Dr. Erasmus Darwin, and Dr. Garrod on gout — Dr. Drys- 
 dale on beer and gout — Testimony of Bromley Davenport, 
 M.P. — Dr. B, W. Richardson's summary of the functional 
 diseases and organic diseases from alcohol — Prof. Kraft- 
 Ebing on alcoholic tremor — The Scientific American on 
 general diseases resulting from beer. § 47. Dr. Huss on 
 acute alcoholism — Prof. Kraft-Ebing on the analogy of 
 acute alcoholic intoxication with insanity — Dr. Mason on 
 alcoholic insanity — Mania-a-potit ; characteristics, ex- 
 amples — Delirium tremens, its symptoms and general 
 characteristics — Dr. Maudsley's description of delirium 
 tremens — Prof. Kraft-Ebing on crimes committed under 
 alcoholic hallucinations — Dr. Mason on alcoholic epilepti- 
 form mania, on chronic alcoholic mania; on chronic 
 alcoholic melancholia and its painful delusions — Conclusions 127 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 MORAL RESULTS. 
 
 § 48. Inquiry into the relations between drink and crime — 
 Erroneous inferences of a writer in the Pall Mall Gazette 
 on this point — Relations between sobriety and crime as 
 contrasted with those between drink and crime — Examples
 
 XX CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 of imintentional alcolioHc criminality — The kind of drink 
 used and the temperament and the circumstances of the 
 drinker largely determine the character of the manifesta- 
 tions of drunkenness — The true field of direct alcoholic 
 criminal activity. § 49. General summary of physiological 
 and mental results — Dr. Christoph. Wilhelm Hufeland on 
 the difficulty of eradicating the drinking habit — Fable of 
 the drunken man and sober pig — Physical and moral 
 effects parallel — Notable exception to this nile — Charles 
 Lamb's pathetic warning. § 50. The effect of alcoholism 
 on the will — Difference between will and intention — 
 Instance of the power of drink to annihilate the will — 
 Moral insolvency of the drinker in the various relations 
 and responsibilities of life : as son, citizen, neighbour, 
 friend, husband, and father — Home of the drunken wife 
 and mother as contrasted with the same home when the 
 husband is the drunkard, and the wife and mother bears 
 her burdens in patience and sobriety. § 51. The effect of 
 alcohol in producing gradual weakening and final destruc- 
 tion of character — Clever disguises assumed by the alcohol- 
 ized will : in political life, for example — How alcoholism 
 spoils the relations between master and working man and 
 the general relations of life — Gradations produced by 
 alcoholism : first moral unreliability, then tm'pitude and 
 crime — The forger, the burglar, the murderer — The negative 
 loss of will — The positive loss of will — Eev. Dr. W. E. 
 Channing on the difference between poverty with and with- 
 out drink — The foundation of human happiness, worth, and 
 progress — Drink the deadly enemy of these — Drink tends, 
 however unequally, slowly, insidiously, and with whatever 
 delay of apparent signs, to undermine and destroy will, 
 moral perception, conscience, affection, self-respect, and 
 regard for others in whomsoever forms this evil habit ... 152 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 HEREDITY; OK, THE CURSE ENTAILED ON DESCENDANTS BY ALCOHOL. 
 
 § 52. The laws of generation a protection to the race — The 
 responsibility of parentage — Drs. Marc Lorin, Bourgeois, and 
 Eigg on the general laws of heredity — The scope of hereditary 
 effects. § 53. Various authorities on alcoholic heredity — 
 Dr. E. Darwin, Rev. Edward Barry, Dr. Eosch, Dr. Morel, 
 Dr. Figg, Dr. Lanceraux, Dr. Maadsley, Prof. Jaccoud, Dr. 
 Baer, Dr. Gendson, and Dr. Kerr — Dr. Lewis D. ]\Iason on 
 hereditary drink-crave— Prof. Kraft-Ebing on hereditary 
 alcoholic diseases and final extinction of family ... 171
 
 CONTENTS. XXI 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THERAPEUTICS ; OE, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE, 
 
 § 54. A sixteenth-centary opinion of alcohol as a medicine. 
 § 55. Dr. Norman Kerr on the " Medical History of the 
 Temperance Movement" — Dr. Higginbottom on the advan- 
 tages of total abstinence as a prescription — The first anti- 
 alcohol Medical Declaration of 1839, drawn up by Dr. 
 Julius Jeffreys — Second anti-alcohol Medical Declaration 
 of 1847, by Mr. John Dunlop — Third anti-alcohol Medical 
 Declaration of 1871, by Dr. E. A. Parkes— Establishment 
 of the Quarterly Medical Temperance Journal, in 1869 — 
 The British Medical Journal concerning alcohol as a 
 medicine, Sept., 1871 — Dr. McMurtry's eloquent appeal to 
 the medical profession, in the Medical Temperance Joiirnal, 
 Oct., 1871 — Origin of the third British Medical Declaration 
 — Opinions expressed by the Times, Lancet, and Pall Mall 
 Gazette on the importance of this document — Wording of 
 the third Medical Declaration — General effect produced by 
 it on the public mind — Medical opinions evoked by its 
 publication : Dr. Henry Monroe, Dr. J. J. Ritchie, and Dr. 
 Higginbottom — Address to Mr. Robert Rae in acknowledg- 
 ment of his great services in the cause of temperance 
 reform, and of the important part taken by him in getting 
 this declaration before the public. § 56. Dr. Charles 
 Hare on the decline in the use of alcohol as a medicine 
 since 1872. § 57. Former and present opinions on the use 
 of alcohol as a medicine — Points regarding alcoholic pre- 
 scriptions and their preparations — Principal therapeutic 
 uses of alcohol : as a stimulant, as a narcotic, as an anti- 
 spasmodic (Dr. Edmunds on this point), as an anti-septic, 
 and as an anti-pyretic — Dr. S. C. Smith on the comparative 
 worthlessness of anti-septics — The Rev. Dr. Hancock on 
 water treatment in fevers — Dr. Billing on water treatment 
 in typhus fever — Dr. Thomas Beaumont on the same — Dr. 
 William Cayley on the merits of cold-bath treatment in 
 typhoid fever in Germany and France — Dr. A. T. Myers 
 on the great mortality from typhoid fever at St. George's 
 Hospital (1877-1883) under alcoholic treatment — The 
 British Medical Journal's (March 1, 1884) summary of the 
 cold-bath treatment discussions, before the London Medical 
 Society — The exclusion of alcohol from the Dosemetric 
 thei-apeutics. § 58. Dr. Nicolls' report on the results of 
 sixteen years' non-alcoholic treatment of diseases in the 
 Longford Poor Law Union — Origin, foundation, and work 
 of the London Temperance Hospital — Dr. Edmunds' state- 
 ment, including table, regarding the character of the non- 
 alcoholic treatment of disease in this hospital. § 59. The
 
 XXll CONTENTS, 
 
 PAGE 
 
 effects of the use of alcohol on mothers and theii- offspring 
 — Dr. Thomas Trotter and Sir Anthony Carlisle on this 
 point — Drs. Eosch and Grindrod on the evils of the use of 
 alcohol during lactation — Drs. E. G. Figg and E. Smith on 
 the hurtful effects of the use of alcohol during pregnancy 
 and lactation — Dr. Edmunds on the diet of nursing mothers, 
 and on the special effects of beer-drinking during lactation 
 Dr. Harrison Branthwaite on infant mortality from the use 
 of ale and stout during lactation — Dr. J. C. Eeid's warning 
 against alcoholic prescription ... ... ... 181 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 SOCIAL RESULTS; OR, THE GENERAL EFFECTS ON SOCIETY 
 CAUSED BY ALCOHOL. 
 
 § 60. General value of statistics. § 61. Inconsistency of the 
 attitude of Parliament toward the drink-question. § 62. 
 Various weighty opinions on the destructive effects of 
 alcohol upon society : Bnffon, the Rev. H. W. Beecher, the 
 Times, Dr. Germain Marty, Mr. W. E. Gladstone — Opinions of 
 the judges of the United Kingdom : Mr. M. O'Shaughnessy, 
 Mr. Justice Grove, Mr. Justice Fitzgerald, Baron Dowse, 
 Mr. RafQes (Stipendiary Magistrate of Liverpool), Lord 
 Chief Justice Coleridge, Mr. Justice Denman, Baron 
 Huddleston, and Mr. Justice Hawkins. § 63. Mr. William 
 Hoyle's drink statistics — The Rev. Dawson Bums on the 
 annual expenditure in drink as compared with other 
 expenditure in Great Britain — Mr. Stephen Bourne on 
 the same from an opposite point of view — Mr. Hoyle's 
 "Drink Traffic and its Evils" — Mr. Hoyle's table "show- 
 ing the Population, Total Cost and Average Cost per Head 
 of Intoxicating Liquors in the United Kingdom for various 
 years from 1820 to 1870, and for each subsequent year up 
 to 1882 " — Statements by Sir William Collins and ex- 
 Bailie Lewis to the Scotch Temperance Convention, March 
 3, 1884, regarding the condition of affairs in Glasgow, 
 due to drink — The relations between drink and poverty — 
 Dr. Dawson Burns on drinking as the mainspring of 
 pauperism. § 64. Parliamentary report in 1834, on in- 
 temperance — Reports of Drs. Parkes and Sanderson, state- 
 ment by Sir Wilfrid Lawson, address by Lord Derby, by Mr. 
 Edward Jones of the Toxteth Board of Guardians, and by 
 the Rev. John Kii'k, on the relations between drink and 
 poverty — Testimony of Mr. William Hoyle, Miss Mary 
 Bayley, Mr. George R. Sims, and Mr. Caine, M.P., on this 
 point — Canon Farrar's sermon on drink, in Westminster 
 Abbey, Nov. 19, 1883 — George R. Sims on Rorrihle London
 
 CONTENTS. XXIU 
 
 —The "Dastman's " speech in Exeter Hall, Nov. 21, 1883 
 — Condition of the children of drunkards — Comparison 
 between the revenue returns from drink in prosperous and 
 unprosperons years — Address by Cardinal Manning — Im- 
 portant evidence of Charles Saunders before the parlia- 
 mentary committee on drink, in 1834 — Eeport of the special 
 sanitary commissioner of the Lancet, in 1872 — Practical 
 conclusions— The Daily Telegraph (Oct. 25, 1883) on Why 
 should London wait ? — The Bitter cry of Outcast London. 
 § 65. Mortality from drink — Statement by Coroner Wakley 
 in 1839 — Testimony of Dr. Norman Kerr — Eeport of the 
 Harveian Society — Sir Wm. Gull on alcoholic infanticide — 
 Mortality among liquor-dealers; statements on this point by 
 Dr. Kerr and Mr. David Lewis — Notice concerning publicans, 
 issued by the General Assurance Office in 1881 — Statement 
 of Dr. Edmunds — Relative longevity of drinkers and 
 abstainers, as furnished by the United Kingdom Temper- 
 ance and General Provident Institution for Mutual Life 
 Insurance — Statement of Mr. W. B. Robinson, chief con- 
 structor R.N., concerning the " value of life being increased 
 by taking no intoxicating drinks." § 66. Schlegel on 
 drink as a cause of insanity and suicide — Dr. Ganghofner's 
 estimate of alcoholic insanity in America, England, and 
 Holland — Dr. Lockhart Robertson's computation for 
 England and Germany — House of Commons report for from 
 1865 to 1875 — Mr. Hoyle on alcoholic insanity in England 
 and Wales — Last report of the commissioners of lunacy — 
 Dr. Shepherd's statement — Statements by Earl Shaftesbury 
 and Dr. Gilchrist before the Lunacy Commission of 1877 — 
 Mr. Hoyle on the increase of alcoholic lunacy in England 
 and Wales— Dr. T. S. Cleriston and W. J. Corbet, M.P., on 
 the same — Sanger on alcohol as a cause of prostitution — 
 Summary of the report on drink laid before the Belgian 
 Chambers by Frere-Orban in 1868. § 67. Dr. Edward 
 Young on the annual drink bill of the United States — Mr. 
 Powell, of New York, on the liquor industry of the United 
 States — The New York Temperance Advocate on the liquor 
 revenue of the United States (1863-1882) — London Even- 
 ing Standard on liquor consumption in the United States — 
 The New York Herald on the number of liquor-shops in 
 New York city, in 1883 — Dr. Howard Crosby on this point 
 — The condition of Birmingham in this respect; evidence 
 of Mr. J. Chamberlain, M.P., before the Lords' Committee 
 on Intemperance in 1879 — The Fall Mall Gazette on the 
 number of public-houses in proportion to the population of 
 the various states of the union — Drs. Lee, Wilkins, and 
 Mason on alcoholic insanity in the United States — Dr. 
 Mann, of New York, on general alcoholic insanity — Maxime 
 du Camp on the drink petrolomania in Paris during the 
 siege — Dr. Baer on the deterioration in the French anny
 
 XXIV CONTENTS. 
 
 FAGB 
 
 caused by drink — Dr. E. Lanceranx on alcoholism and 
 decrease in population — Dr. Baer on alcohol and insanity 
 in Prussia — Dr. Finkelburg of the Eussian Health Com- 
 mission on alcohol, insanity, and crime in Eussia . . . 226 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 ORIGIN AND CAUSES OF ALCOHOLISM. 
 
 68. Drs. Baer and E. G. Figg on the existence of races (some 
 of them only recently extinct) who knew nothing of in- 
 toxicants — Origin of the mischief. § 69. Likeness between 
 the development of the race and the individual — The in- 
 dividual searches for happiness — The race searches for 
 happiness — Both mistake the ignis fatuus for the Star — 
 First gropings towards knowledge by means of the senses 
 — Alcohol believed to be a great agent for producing happi- 
 ness — Natural appetites and passions changed into un- 
 natural lusts by the abnormal development of the senses 
 • — Spiritual and mental progress under these conditions — 
 The two great factions into which this development has 
 divided mankind ; the graspers who succeed, the graspers 
 who fail — Alcohol a paramount agent in restricting man 
 to life in the world of the senses — The Eev. Dr. Crane on 
 the Arts of Intoxication — True exaltation counterfeited by 
 the fleeting excitement of alcohol — Self-deception has 
 made man miss happiness all round ; in religion, in science 
 — Illustration of this — What happiness is, and how it can 
 be found. § 70. Supplementary causes explaining the 
 power alcohol has obtained over mankind — The effect of 
 high living and smoking in vitiating taste, smell, and 
 digestion, and thereby provoking a desire for strong drink 
 — The force of example because of the sympathetic unity 
 of the race — Plutarch on the force of association — Thomas 
 Tryon on the force of example upon children — T. Campbell 
 on the influence and effects of habitual intercourse in 
 daily life — The force of habit because of natural laws : 
 conscious and openly acknowledged eflTects — Mr. Spurgeon 
 on the responsibility of parents in the matter of drink — 
 We never see our own personal danger — Dr. Wm. Ellery 
 Channing on the responsibility of the wealthy classes toward 
 the poor in the question of abstinence — The force of 
 hereditary habit — Soren Kirkegaard on the force of evil 
 habit — The force of habit become instinct — Difficulty for 
 the race as for the individual to break the chains of habit 
 — Difficulty of adjusting our social relations in harmony with 
 our personal convictions — The great responsibility resting 
 with the throne in this respect — The Canterbury Convoca-
 
 CONTENTS. XXV 
 
 FACE 
 
 tions (1883) on the use of wine in the Lord's Sapper — Mr. 
 John Sebright on instinct — Mr. Herbert Spencer and Mr. 
 Shirley Hibberd on the same — Prof. J. J. Eomanes on the 
 force of habit-formed instinct becoming nature in a 
 depraved sense. § 71. History waiting to say something 
 new ... ... ... ... ... ... 283 
 
 CHAPTER XII, 
 
 SPECIOUS EEASONINGS CONCERNING THE USE OP ALCOHOL. 
 
 § 72. Similarity of process in body -poisoning and mind-poison- 
 ing — The danger of half-truths — The two conditions in 
 which man will admit that evil is evil — Hyper-sensitive 
 individuality a great obstacle in the way of personal 
 reform — The necessity of convincing the masses, the self- 
 deceived as well as the honest searchers and the ignorant 
 — The great need of general and positive knowledge on 
 the subject. § 73. The fallacy of the boast that the virility 
 of the English nation proves the comparative harmlessness 
 of drink — Brief epitome of England's drink history — 
 Bergenroth on the attitude of the English court concerning 
 water-drinking in 1498 — Citation from Camden's Annals, 
 1581 — Dr. William Bullein, in speaking of the evils of drink 
 in 1595, makes no mention of distilled liquors — Citation 
 from the Compleat Gentleman (1622) ; from Tryon's Way 
 to Health, Long Life, and Happiness (1683)^ — Hard drinking 
 not common in England until the seventeenth century — 
 Citation from De Foe's Poor Man's Plea ; from Sir John 
 Harrington's Nugce Antiquce ; from Bishop Benson in 
 Lecky's History of England (1878) — The Rev. Dr. Dawson 
 Burns on the specious arguments used to prove that the 
 commission of crime in so-called sober countries, justifies 
 the assumption that drink is not at the bottom of most of 
 the crime committed in Great Britain. § 74. Habitual 
 drunkenness universally condemned — Moderate drinking 
 the nucleus of dispute — No fixed standard of moderation 
 possible — Dr. John Cheyne on this point — Fourteen glasses 
 of wine daily, the moderation limit of a German temper- 
 ance society in the sixteenth century — In our day modera- 
 tion entirely optional — The elasticity of the term as seen 
 in its usual definitions — The Lancet on publicans, and 
 specious reasoning about moderation— The practical worth- 
 lessness of the plea of moderation — Dr. Grindrod (Bacchus, 
 1839) on moderate drinking as the preparatory stage of 
 drunkenness — Dr. J. Baxter on moderate drinking — Drs. 
 Copland, Gamett, James Johnson, Macrorie, Gordon, Sewall, 
 Sir Henry Thompson, Sir William Gull, and Dr. W. B.
 
 XXVI CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Carpenter on the same — The late Samuel Bowly on 
 moderation versus total abstinence — A valuable suggestion 
 by Mr. C. Kegan Paul — The deceptive character of the 
 relief attributed to the moderate use of alcohol in cases of 
 exhaustion from labour. § 76. Dr. R. B. Grindrod on the 
 effects produced by moderate drinking upon temper and 
 judgment — Dr. Baer on the effects produced on mental 
 processes by alcohol — Dr. Hewitt on the character of 
 moderate drinking among the French — The moral respon- 
 sibility of the moderate drinker — The Rev. Stopford A. 
 Brooke on this point — The Rev. James Smith in refuta- 
 tion of the argument that moderation is better than absti- 
 nence — C. Kegan Paul on the same point — Charles Lamb's 
 warning appeal to young men. § 77. Dr. Howard Crosby's 
 objections to the temperance pledge, and Mr. Wendell 
 Phillips' reply. § 78. The fallacy of positive deductions 
 in arguing the general from the exceptional — Examples — 
 The meaning of the plea for longevity ... ... 305 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 ■WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 
 
 79. Why past temperance efforts failed — Their character — 
 Early moderation societies — Special reasons for their 
 failure — Characteristics of the modem temperance move- 
 ment the basis for hope of permanent reform — Initiation 
 of the present popular temperance movement ; how it pro- 
 gressed, collapsed, and revived. § 80. Summary of the 
 character and extent of the powers and obligations of the 
 British Government in internal reforms — The sovereign 
 power and hence responsibility of the masses — The people 
 responsible for the moi'ality of Parliament and Government, 
 not the Government for that of the people. § 81. Dangers 
 attending political agitation on moral issues — The para- 
 mount importance of sobriety for the protection of national 
 independence — The battle of Hastings lost through drink 
 — The Echo on drunkenness in the army — Lord Wolseley 
 on the army and drink— Cardinal Manning on the same — 
 Major-General Sir Evelyn Wood in confirmation of Cardinal 
 Manning's statement. § 82. Mischiefs that have resulted 
 from prematurely driving the liquor-dealers into self- 
 defence unions, by indiscriminate political agitation for 
 prohibition — The earliest moment when prohibition can 
 become a practical and beneficent fact — The hopeful omen 
 of the Queen's speech opening Parliament, ISS^. § 83. 
 Various preparatory measures for general prohibition — 
 Local option : Sir Wilfrid Lawson's scheme — The local
 
 CONTENTS. XXVll 
 
 option resolution of the great temperance meeting in Edin- 
 burgh, March 3, 1884 — The attitude of the Government 
 toward it — The question of compensation to the publicans 
 — The publican's side of the question — The public's side of 
 the question— A hint to licensed victuallers how to pre- 
 pare themselves and their houses for the inevitable- 
 Scheme for reconciling the conflicting interests involved in 
 prohibition with due regard to health, morality, and 
 revenue. § 84. The paramount duty of the Government 
 regarding exportation of liquor, and particularly in case of 
 internal prohibition — Mr. Robert Rae on this point — Cete- 
 wayo's remonstrances with England — The liquor treaties 
 with Siam and Madagascar in 1883. § 85. National slavery 
 under the liquor revenue — Brief summary of the history of 
 licensing — ^The Grocers' Licence Act ; the Saturday Review, 
 the Practitioner, the Spectator, the Alliance Neivs, and the 
 Lancet on the various evil results of this Act — The attitude 
 of the Church of England Temperance Society toward it ; 
 Canon Leigh's advice to the Women's Union to boycott liquor- 
 selling grocers — The Temperance Record on the increasing 
 intemperance among women as being largely due to the 
 Grocers' Licence Act — Mr. George R. Sims on the social 
 effects of the grocers' licences — The most pressing reason 
 for the repeal of the grocers' licences. § 86. Various lesser 
 legislative measures ; restriction of the power of renewing 
 licences ; low windows compulsory for public-houses ; pro- 
 hibition of the employment of women as bar-tenders — 
 Public conveyances should neither bear the names of, nor 
 have their stations at, public-houses — -Canon Ellison on 
 juvenile intemperance in Liverpool and Manchester — In- 
 stances of juvenile intemjaerance cited by the Daily News, 
 December, 1883 ; by the Glohe — Imprisonment a proper 
 penalty for the crime of selling or giving drink to children 
 — The Lancet's opinion on this point — Early habits and 
 home example largely responsible for the prevalence of 
 this vice among adults. § 87- Sir William Armstrong on 
 prohibition of the propagation of vice and poverty. § 88. 
 Dr. Norman Kerr and the Dalrymple Home — Dr. Thomas 
 Hawksley on the cure of habitual drunkards — The Lam- 
 beth Board of Guardians on the necessity of reform in the 
 Habitual Dmnkards' Act. § 89. The need of international 
 relations in view of thorough drink legislation — The need 
 of international agreement for the general suppression of 
 liquor traffic on the seas. § 90. Need for the establish- 
 ment of a permanent national commission of inquiry into 
 the whole question of alcohol and man. § 91. The origin 
 and establishment of temperance coffee-tavems in England 
 — Their character and usefulness — The prominent part 
 taken by Mrs. George Bayly in this movement — Reasons 
 for the poor results of the coflee-taverns in London — The
 
 XXVIU CONTENTS. 
 
 Daily Chronicle on the mismanagement of these establish- 
 ments — Sugo^estion for merging the coffee-tavern project 
 into that of the steam-kitcheu — first efiPorts and progress of 
 the steam-kitchen movement on the Continent--Mrs. Lina 
 Morgenstern's steam-kitchen in Berlin — Mr. L. 0. Smith's 
 steam-kitchen in Stockholm, and his own account of their 
 importance and work. § 92. Pure water the greatest 
 essential for life and health — Mr. Thomas Tryon on water, 
 1697 — Dr. George Cheyne on the same, 1725 — Water 
 ordinance in Antwerp — The agitation for pure water supply- 
 in London during the last twenty-five years — A writer in 
 the Pall Hall Gazette on the present quality of the water 
 supply in London — The New York Medical Record on water 
 for infants— Dr. James Wilson on the therapeutic proper- 
 ties of water — The Lancet on water-drinking — Dr. Plohn's 
 bibliography on water in Dr. Ziemssen's Handbook of General 
 Therapeutics — Interesting testimony of Dr. Morel to the 
 recuperative power of natural functions when perversions 
 of them are desisted from. § 93. Importance of instruct- 
 ing children to understand their own bodies, especially in 
 regard to the harm alcohol does to them — Testimony of the 
 Lord Bishop of Exeter ; of the Eev. Dr. Adamson, of the 
 Edinburgh School Board — Why the popular education 
 system is poor — Leon Dounat's estimates of the relative 
 amounts expended on education and war by the European 
 powers — Ex-Bailie Lewis on the inadequacy of the Com- 
 pulsory Education Act, and of sanitary agencies to uproot 
 or essentially diminish the vice and misery produced by 
 the public-house — Dr. Channing's definition of education; 
 his views on the true use of wealth — Temperance teachings 
 in the schools of Massachusetts, 1872 — Labours of the 
 National Temperance League for the spread of temperance 
 education — Cardinal Manning's order for the establishment 
 of branches of the Catholic Total Abstinence League in 
 every Catholic school in the Archdiocese of Westminster — 
 Efforts to establish temperance education in German 
 schools, and in the schools of Canada, Australia, and the 
 United States — The school savings-bank system in Sweden 
 — Poverty the worst enemy of popular education, and 
 drink the chief cause of poverty — Statement by Mr. E. N. 
 Buxton, chairman of the Loudon school board — Statement 
 by the Right Hon. Mr. Mundella on drink in its bearing 
 upon education — Poverty will never yield until drink is 
 removed — Mr. Gladstone on poverty, House of Commons, 
 1843 — Lord Salisbury's suggestions for the alleviation of 
 poverty. National Review, November, 1883 — Mr. Cham- 
 berlain on the same topic. Fortnightly Review, December, 
 1883 — Dangers from supplanting moral impetus by mere 
 political agitation — Earl Shaftesbury on the mischief of 
 State aid, Nineteenth Century, December, 1883 — Earl
 
 CONTENTS. xxix 
 
 Shaftesbury's statement that " it is impossible, absolutely 
 impossible, to do anything to permanently or considerably 
 relieve poverty until we have got rid of the curse of drink" 
 — A working man's letter suggesting the establishment of 
 a Government Labour Registry Office, Daily News, Decem- 
 ber, 1883 — Sober working men's relief banks — Mr. Francis 
 Peek on the responsibility of the rich in the question of 
 poverty and drink — Mr. Henry George's scheme of land 
 nationalization as a cure for poverty — Neither time, con- 
 ditions, nor people prepared for it — The foundation of any 
 individual or national regeneration must be laid in temper- 
 ance — Suggestions as to what might be expected supposing 
 land nationalization should be accomplished without tem- 
 perance reform — Evening Standard' s account of the scenes 
 on Brighton beach after the wreck of the Simla — Similar 
 scenes following the rescue of the cargo of the wrecked 
 Royal Adelaide — Mr. Joseph Cowen on the paramount im- 
 portance of sobriety. § 94. Di*. Channing on the reform- 
 ing power of innocent pleasures and amusements — The 
 power and province of the stage in this direction — The 
 moral and refining influence of the Princess's Theatre under 
 the management of Mr. Wilson Barrett — The late Duke 
 of Albany on the duty of the rich in providing pleasure for 
 the poor — The Newcastle Chronicle on the provision of 
 amusements as a check on drink and crime. § 95. The 
 great responsibility resting upon magistrates, physicians, 
 and the clergy in regard to the drink evil — The responsi- 
 bility of the Church in regard to the drink evil — Origin 
 and growth of the Church of England temperance move- 
 ment — Appeal to the Lords' Committee of 1880 by Canon 
 Henry J. Ellison, for effective legislation in favour of tem- 
 perance — Archbishop Benson's position regarding temper- 
 ance reform — Purposes and mission of the Church of Eng- 
 land Temperance Society — The Bishop of Carlisle on the 
 success of the labours of this society, St. James' Hall, 
 November 20. 1883 — Canon Basil Wilberforce in denuncia- 
 tion of Church proprietorship in public-houses — Practical 
 expression by the Ecclesiastical Commissioners of their 
 interest in the promotion of temperance and education. 
 Temperance Record, November 8, 1883 — The question of the 
 use of wine in the Lord's Supper — Decision of the Upper 
 House in the Convocations of Canterbury, July, 1883 — 
 Modern discoveries, as to the nature and effects of alcohol, 
 leave the conscientious clergyman no alternative — The 
 Rev. Moses Stewart on total abstinence as a qualification 
 for Church membership — The Rev. B. Parsons on the con- 
 stant risks incurred by attendance at the Lord's Supper — 
 Mr. E. C. Delevan on the use of wine in the Communion — 
 Archdeacon Jeffreys, of Bombay, on the same — The Lord 
 Bishop of Exeter and Canon Wilberforce on the same;
 
 XXX CONTENTS. 
 
 various important considerations involved in this question. 
 § 96. Dr. Channing on drink customs — The origin and age 
 of the drink customs — Strutt on the same — The Queen's 
 opposition to the social bondage of the drink customs ; her 
 insight into the national dangers from drink, and her sym- 
 pathy with temperance reform — The interest manifested 
 by the Prince of Wales in the temperance reform — The 
 interest shown by the late Duke of Albany in the condition 
 of the poor and in temperance reform — The practical in- 
 auguration of drinking toasts in water, by the Metropolitan 
 Board of Works, 1883 — Toasts drunk in unf ermented wines 
 at the inauguration luncheon of the Society for the Study 
 and Cure of Inebriety, April 25, 1884 — Prince Puckler on 
 the absurdities of the drink customs — The Rev. B. Parsons 
 on the same ; a working man on the same — The Eev. James 
 Smith on the same — Success of Mr. Samuel Morley, 
 M.P., and of Earls Shaftesbury and Stanhope, in securing 
 the abolition of the custom of the payment of wages at 
 public-houses — The Eev. Wm. Moister on the variety and 
 prevalence of social drinking habits — 'Dr. J. G. Holland on 
 the duty of society in this respect. § 97. Dr. Chapin on 
 the responsibility of wealth for the prevalence of the drink 
 evil — Lord Claud Hamilton's statement (St. James' Hall, 
 May 19, 1870) concerning the pi'ohibition estate in Tyrone 
 — Evidence of Mr. T. W. Russell on the prohibition estate 
 of Bessbrook ; Mr. J. G. Richardson's evidence on the same 
 — Statement of Mr. A. E. Eccles concerning the prohibition 
 village of White Coppice — The Saltaire prohibition estate 
 — The prohibition real estate companies of Mr. John 
 Roberts in Liverpool, and the Artisans and Labourers' 
 General Dwelling Company in London — Pall Mall Gazette 
 on this point — Mr. Hepworth Dixon's description of the 
 results of the prohibition in St. Johnsbury, Vermont — 
 Success of prohibition in the town of Pullman, U.S.A. 
 § 98. Temperance measures which might be adopted by 
 the wealthy railway companies of Great Britain — Dr. J. G. 
 Holland on " Rum and Railroads " — The lead taken by 
 engineer George Stephenson — Action by the West Lancashire 
 Railway Company in this direction— Growing success of 
 the total abstinence movement on the Midland line, and in 
 the Railway Union at large — Oatmeal drink supplied by 
 the Great Eastern Railway Company to their employes — 
 The Toronto Globe, February 6, 1884, on "Drinking and 
 Positions of Trust " — Mr. W. J. Spicer's circular to the 
 Grand Trunk Railway — Mr. Bronson Howard's account of 
 the origin of temperance reform on the lakes and the ocean. 
 § 99. Suggestions made by Mr. Samuel Morley, M.P., 
 that an Abstainer's Union should be attached to every 
 commercial concern — Action of the aristocracy of England 
 in favour of the Blue Ribbon movement and other temper-
 
 CONTENTS. XXxi 
 
 PAGE 
 
 ance measures — The significance of the Blue Ribbon move- 
 ment — Mr. Gladstone on the significance of the Blue Ribbon 
 movement. § 100. The plan and organization of the Tem- 
 perance Federation of Great Britain, 1883. § 101. The 
 foundation of all temperance reform lies in individual 
 character and worth — The hope of temperance reform, 
 like the hope of all other refonns, is vested in love, labour, 
 humility, and unselfishness ... ... ... ,..331
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 A STUDY or THE DEINK QUESTION. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 DRINKING AMONG THE ANCIENTS. 
 
 § 1. Whether we look at the individual, family, com- 
 munity, nation, tribe, or race of man, human advancement 
 seems always to liave been surest and most tliorougli when 
 the lessons of the past have been allowed to bear fruit in 
 the present. The Drink Question is a problem co-extensive 
 with almost the whole preserved history of mankind ; and 
 although opinions may be divided as to the effects of drink 
 in our day, that the past must furnish valuable suggestions 
 on this point will not be disputed, and therefore some 
 knowledge of the past history of drink is a necessary 
 preparation for the study of this question in the present. 
 
 In trying to form some notion of the drinking habits 
 of the ancients, it is necessary to keep certain facts in 
 mind, facts pei'taining to their time and status, and almost 
 wholly absent from ours. 
 
 The ancient mind in its general tendency towards Difference 
 mysticism and away from materialism — the reverse of the between an- 
 mind of to-day — revered all unexplained phenomena, wor- modem ideas 
 shipped all those numberless forces and force manifesta- e|a\'f'''as^^' 
 tions which it could not master or account for, and stood in regards 
 awe before the, to them, — yes even to us, — essentially veiled '^"'^''•"s- 
 principle of intoxication. This awe of the phenomena of 
 intoxication is the one characteristic of ancient nature-
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 •worship wLicli perhaps better than any other illustrates 
 the truth that external nature — being always essentially 
 the same, and impressing man in each age according to the 
 intelligence of that age in essentially the same manner 
 — infused into the religions of the past a striking similarity. 
 
 Distillation was unknown among the ancients (ex- 
 cepting possibly the Chinese), and therefore they could 
 know nothing of our distilled liquors, brandy, whisky, 
 gin, rum, liqueurs, etc. Another thing to remember is 
 that though they had fermented drinks, such as soma , and 
 grape, palm, fig, pomegranate, apricot, and grain wines, 
 they held, in their childlike veneration of the unknown, 
 a superstitious reverence for fermentation, while their very 
 ignorance of its causes and processes made it exceedingly 
 difficult for them to preserve their fermented drinks from 
 turning into vinegar. 
 
 But as the ancients, ignorant of distillation, could not, 
 as is now the practice, fortify their wines with distilled 
 spirits, their most common drinks must have been unfer- 
 mented juices, either pressed direct from the fresh fruit, 
 or from juices boiled down and kept in skins or earthen pots 
 and jars, deposited for coolness in the ground or under 
 water ; or extracted from dried grapes — raisins soaked in 
 water, etc. 
 
 Their fermented drinks likewise were usually boiled 
 down and kept as the unfermented. As to the strength 
 of their fermented drinks, it seems probable that then, as 
 now, the average was below 15 per cent, of alcohol, but 
 here it must be remembered that the ancients rarely drank 
 fermented wines undiluted, and when they did so, were 
 in the habit of drinkiog copiously also of pure water ; and 
 also that the art of adulteration, now perfected almost 
 beyond the possibility of detection, was then very little 
 understood or practised ; for certainly the aromatizing with 
 spices, and sharpening with tar and other substances, as 
 practised by the ancients, cannot be held comparable, for 
 their intoxicating or poisonous effects, with our modern 
 scientific and most unscrujjulous mysteries of drink 
 concoctions. 
 
 Again, the drinking of fermented liquors was largely 
 a religious rite with* the angjysnts ; their banquets were even 
 opened with propitiatory or grateful libations to the deities.
 
 DRINKING AMONG THE ANCIENTS. 3 
 
 while ;wg nse our numberless and highly alcoholized drinks 
 as social and physical stimulants and an odyn es. 
 
 In a word, the fermented drinks of the ancients were 
 but little adulterated, almost invariably diluted, and asso- 
 ciated with a reverential, if undeveloped and mystic worship. 
 While we use both fermented and spirituous liquors, highly 
 adulterated, and " fortified," and drink not to God, or 
 with religious aspiration, but to please the palate, excite 
 the senses and passions, ki ll tim e, forget sorrows, deaden 
 anxiety, drown conscience, and gain brute courage for 
 infamy and crime. 
 
 § 2. The vai'ious ancient religions have come -with 
 apparent spontaneity to remarkably similar conclusions 
 as to the origin and history of their intoxicants. 
 
 For instance, somcAvhere in the great records of the 
 East Indians, it is related that the plant from which the soma 
 draught was prepared, Avas brought down from heaven by 
 a falcon ; and a legend among their antipodes, the Huron 
 Indians of North America, also ascribes tKe origin of their 
 intoxicant — the tobacco plant — to heavenly intervention. 
 
 In the Rig-Vedas {rig, verb, to praise, and veda, 
 knowledge) the Brahminic Bible and — according to our 
 best Vedic scholars. Professors Miiller and Von Roth — 
 the greatest and truest of extant records * of our East 
 Indian progenitors, we find that they had two kinds of 
 intoxicating drinks, soma and sura . 
 
 Soma (the name of the moon, and also of the king of important 
 plants) is at present a plant unknown. From the juice ddnk'history 
 of it, the V edic people prepared an intoxicating drink. ofour Vedic 
 
 It has been asserted by some that an intoxicating drink 
 that has been for a long time back prepared by the Indians 
 from the juice of Sarcostemma acidum, is the same as the 
 ancient soma ; but this can scarcely be so, as som^a was 
 a pleasantly sweet drink, whereas the Sarcostevima product 
 is a disagreeably bitter one, and to Europeans quite 
 intolerable. 
 
 * It is known witli certainty that the Rig-Vedas have remained 
 just as they now stand in John Mnir's Original Sanscrit Texts, 
 for nearly three thousand years. But before their collection, which 
 was probably made yet a thousand years earlier, these hymns had 
 been only orally transmitted, the oldest evidently for some fifteen 
 hundred or two thousand years.
 
 4 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Then again, Sarcostemma does not grow in the Seven 
 River Land, the home of the Vedic peoples. 
 
 Sura, probably the wine of rice, was not common 
 
 among them, not nsed, at the sacrifices, and its use, never 
 
 in high favour, is often condemned in the Vedas. 
 
 The real Soma was worshipped as containing the vivifying prin- 
 
 character of ^iple of the universe. It was therefore an essential to the 
 
 soma, and ^ i ^ _ -, ,^ 
 
 the indifa- gods, Dut as it grew on the earth the gods had to descend 
 worship. thither to receive it. And they were supposed to do this 
 at the daily sacrifices which took place at sunrise, noon, 
 and sunset. 
 
 In some recent writings on the drink question it has 
 been asserted that our Vedic ancestors were really a set 
 of drunkards, and citations from the numerous hymns to 
 Indi'a have been made in proof of this assertion. Bat the 
 most authoritative interpretations of the Vedas do not 
 sustain this charge. 
 
 As pure worshippers of the great phenomena of nature 
 our Vedic forefathers were enthusiastic lovers of light and 
 fearers of darkness. Indra was the favourite god of the 
 Vedic nations, and therefore, in spite of his being regarded 
 as the youngest, received a very great number of hymns 
 in praise of his lofty attributes of wisdom and strength. 
 Yet with this mass of hymns to search among. Oriental 
 science has not yet reached unanimity of opinion as to 
 what special contemplation of nature lies at the foundation 
 of Indra-worship. But by such evidences as the hymns 
 contain, and also by supposed etymological derivations of 
 Indra's name — the word Indra is cognate with certain 
 Sanscrit words meaning blue — a majority of authorities 
 incline to think that Indra signified the personification of 
 the blue heaven reigning over and dispersing the rain- 
 clouds by combat with supposed cloud-giants, which Indra, 
 or the blue heaven, destroys, setting free the waters they 
 had held captive. This seems to clearly explain why the 
 god Indra was always by his devotees assumed to be 
 exceedingly hungry and thirsty : — 
 
 " Heartily, as a friend serves a friend, the fire broiled 
 For him, with its great power, three hundred cattle, 
 And with these, that he might have strength to slay the dragon, 
 Indra drank three lakes of soma, i^ressed by man." 
 
 V. 29, 7.
 
 DEIXKING A3I0NG THE AXCIENTS. 
 
 How natural that the Vedic peoples, in their worship 
 of the god whom they conceived to be their saviour from 
 terrible droughts and famines, should be eagerly anxious 
 to supply him with as much soma (universal life-essence) 
 as he required for the performance of his blessed office. 
 Of course so much of the soma as was not poured on the 
 sacrificial fire, the melting butter, horseflesh, or other 
 offering, was probably not thrown away. But even fi-om 
 this it cannot be fairly construed that gross drunkenness 
 was common, for the priests were evidently not a numerous 
 body. 
 
 Another thing to be considered is the fact that though Unique 
 we possess no practical knowledge of soma, the Vedas of soma, 
 furnish abundant unanimous testimony to its unique 
 properties. Besides its agreeable and refreshing qualities, 
 it must have had certain properties wholly unknown in 
 any other intoxicants. Indeed, the Eig-Vedas tell us that 
 soma was a power in favour of morality, having the effect 
 of intensifying and concentrating the moral impulses, which 
 cannot be said of any now known intoxicant ; nor, so far 
 as I have heard or read, has this effect been claimed for 
 any other intoxicant. 
 
 For example, we read (translated freely, but with faith- 
 ful literalness as to the meaning) in the Rig-Veda (x. 25), 
 this hymn of praise and adjuration to soma : — 
 
 " Awaken in us a noble nature of heart ! 
 Quicken us with understauding and knowledge, 
 So that thy friendship may be unto us, Juice, 
 As unto the cows is the grass of the meadows. 
 
 " Everywhere over the whole earth the people, 
 By thy heart's grace, are softened and blest ; 
 So strives also my longing towards thee, 
 That I too may receive of thy favour. 
 
 " Over our herds is thy watch kept, Juice, 
 As they move numberless in the fields. 
 On each thing that hath breath of life thine eye 
 Gazes, and thou givest it strength to live." 
 
 Such is the light which the Big-Vedas themselves throw 
 upon the ^question of the effects of soma drinking, and if 
 a kind of inebriation attended the habit, it seems to have 
 been distinct in nature and consequences from what is
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 meant by drunkenness in our day, for there is both aspira- 
 tion toward, and expectation of great good, such as could 
 never have been expressed after even only one experience 
 of the effects of drunkenness as we know it, with its 
 appalling headaches, its dullness, lethargy, melancholy, and 
 incapacity. The above verses — and the Vedas furnish 
 many more of a like significance — are a pean to soma as 
 the source of light and strength. Nowhere in modern 
 Bacchanal song is such a key-note struck. But even were 
 soma intoxication essentially the same as modern drunken- 
 ness, the som^a drunkard, believing in soma as the drink 
 of his deities, and as a source of inspiration and energy, 
 is morally far above the modern drunkard. 
 
 The sura, on the other hand, as we find in Indian 
 history, became later a national curse, so that the great 
 moral reformer, Manu, who lived six hundi'ed years before 
 Christ, found it necessary to impose the severest penalties 
 on sura drinkers. For instance, he directed that those 
 who relapsed into the habit after once abstaining, should 
 be compelled to drink some of it while it was ignited. 
 
 § 3. Just as many of the legends and traditions of the 
 traditions, polytheistic nations of antiquity taught that the intoxication- 
 giving substances were direct favours of heaven to man, so 
 likewise do several of the traditions and legends belonging 
 to the monotheistic beliefs of antiquity point to Paradise 
 as the land of the grape ; some, indeed, claiming the vine 
 as the tree of good and evil, and Noah as the planter of 
 the only grape saved from the Deluge. 
 
 Let us take a glance at the ancient wine traditions of 
 that great race which, though for close on tw^o thousand 
 years a landless people, and numbering in Europe accord- 
 ing to the latest census only five and a half million souls, 
 and spread over all lands, yet maintains a coherent organiza- 
 tion, successfully avoiding amalgamation with or absorption 
 by other nations or races, keeping its own interests intact 
 while rivalling the Christian world in many aspects, out- 
 flanking her in some and commanding her in others — the 
 Jews. 
 
 No country is better adapted for vine culture than the 
 plateau of Palestine, but since the Mohammedan occupa- 
 tion this has been restricted to a few localities, the principal 
 being in the environs of Hebron. 
 
 Ancient 
 wine-
 
 DRINKING AMONG THE ANCIENTS. 7 
 
 Vine culture was very flourishing in the independent 
 days of Israel, and wine was the chief product of the 
 country, and a fruitful theme of its traditions. 
 
 Kotzebue, in his Journey througli Fersia, says that all 
 the reasonings of the ancients on the subject seemed to 
 indicate the Promised Land as the native country of the 
 vine, and even the Greeks in their mythology, place the 
 inventors of wine in S}Tia and the adjacent countries. 
 At the present day a spot near Mount Ararat is still 
 sho\\Ti as the place where Noah is said to have planted the 
 first vine. 
 
 The Talmud — that gigantic collection of teachings, Myths about 
 statutes, laws, traditions, legends, etc., peculiar to the beLgthe^for- 
 Jewish race — enlarges npon the statements concerning bidden fruit, 
 man's earliest existence as given in those much pondered- 
 on, succinct, yet baffling first chapters of Genesis, and 
 records of the Rabbi Jehuda that he thought the vine was 
 the forbidden fruit.* 
 
 But the Jews are not alone in the belief that wine Various 
 caused the fall of man. The eniifl^nt theologian, Dr. °Pi|,°Jcaused' 
 Lio^tfoot, is said to have held this idea, and Mr. More- the fail of 
 wo^ . in his thoughtful work on Inebriating Liquors "*°" 
 (Dublin, 1838), makes the pertinent suggestion that Milton 
 probably entertained- some such opinion when, in Paradise 
 Lost, he wrote of the fj^iiL " whose mortal taste brought 
 death into the world, and all our woes." 
 
 " Soon as the force of that fallacious fruit 
 That with exhilarating vapour bland 
 About their spirits had played and inmost powers 
 Made err — was now exhaled." 
 
 But nearly thirty years before the appearance of Paradise 
 Lost there was published in London (1638) an incon- 
 sequent and shallow little work — though significant in 
 this connection — written by one Dr. Whitaker, entitled 
 The Tree of Human Life, or The Blood of the Grape, etc., 
 which opens in these words : — " This subject is blood, in 
 that is life ; it is of the vine and that is the plant of life, 
 
 * It is curious to find that, according to the Eev. Baring Gould's 
 Legends of Old Testament Characters, from the Talmud and other 
 Sources, the inhabitants of the island of St. Vincent thought that the 
 tobacco plant was the forbidden fruit.
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 and if I should say a species of that was in Paradise, my 
 opinion might not in all places and amongst all persons 
 be rejected . . . for as that (the forbidden fruit) was 
 called the tree of life, so is the vine, and they do not only 
 agree in the appellation but in their nature and effects 
 also." 
 
 Morewood (op. cit.) says that the Madagascar natives 
 believe that " the four rivers of Paradise consisted of milk, 
 wine, honey, and oil, and that Adam, who required no 
 sustenance, having, contrary to God's command, drank of 
 the wine and tasted the fi-uits, was driven from the garden 
 and subjected to the punishments entailed on him and 
 his postei'ity." 
 
 Many learned theologians, both Jew and Gentile, hold 
 that drink existed before the Flood, and that the Deluge 
 came as a Nemesis for excessive drinking, basing this 
 belief on the words of Jesus : " For as in those days which 
 were before the Flood they were eating and drinking . . . 
 and they knew not until the Flood came and took them all 
 away." — Vide Matt. xxiv. 38, 39. 
 
 Other Jewish doctors say that the vine which Noah 
 planted was one which the Deluge swept out of Paradise ; 
 a sprig from that Noah, findino' it, planted it, and that in the very same 
 day m which it was planted it grew up, bloomed, and bore 
 fruit, which Noah pressed, and swallowing its juice became 
 drunken.* 
 
 * Adam Pabroni, an Italian writer of tbe eighteenth century, in a 
 work on the Art of making Wine, attributes to Mutardi-ben-Yasif, an 
 Arab author (13 f. 10), the following curious legend of the vine : — 
 
 " Noah, being come out of the ark, ordered each of his sons to 
 build a house. Afterwards they were occupied in sowing and in 
 planting trees, the pippins and fruit of which they had found in the 
 ark. The vine alone was wanting, and they could not discover it. 
 Gabriel then informed them that the devil had desired it, and indeed 
 had some right to it. Hereupon Noah summoned him to appear in 
 the field, and said to him, ' Oh, cm'sed ! why hast thou carried away 
 the vine from me ? ' * Because,' replied the devil, ' it belonged to 
 me.' ' Shall I part it for you ? ' said Gabriel. ' I consent,' answered 
 Noah, ' and will leave him a fourth.' ' That is not sufficient for him,' 
 said Gabriel. ' Well, I will take half' replied Noah, ' and he shall 
 take the other.' ' That is not sufficient yet,' responded Gabriel ; ' he 
 must have two-thirds, and thou one ; and when thy wine shall 
 have boiled upon the fire until two-thirds are gone, the [remamder 
 shall be assigned for your use.' " 
 
 Dr. F. E. Lees, in his Temperance Text-Boole (London, 1884), cites 
 
 Beliefs that 
 the Deluge 
 wasapunish- 
 ment for 
 drunkenness. 
 
 That the vine 
 which Noah 
 planted was
 
 DRINKING AMONG THE ANCIENTS. 9 
 
 As to the planting of the vine by Koah, the TaMud ^|^^'^'"°'^^ °^ 
 and other Jewish writings give essentially similar descrip- satan piant- 
 tions. In Baring Gould's (op. cit.) the following version '"g*'^*' ^i"*'- 
 is quoted from Jalkut, Genesis folio 6a : — 
 
 " Bowed under bis toil, dripping with perspiration, 
 stood the patriarch Noah labouring to break the hard 
 clods. All at once Satan appeared to him and said, 
 ' What new undertaking have you in hand, what new fruit 
 do you expect to extract from these clods ? ' 
 
 " ' I plant the grape,' answered the patriarch. 
 
 " ' The grape ! Proud plant ! Most precious fruit ! 
 Joy and delight to men ! Your labour is great, will you 
 allow me to assist you? Let us share the labour of 
 producing the vine.' 
 
 " The patriarch in a fit of exhaustion consented. Satan 
 hastened and got a lamb, slaughtered it, and poured its 
 blood over the clods of earth. ' Thence,' said Satan, ' shall 
 it come that those who taste of the grape shall be soft 
 spirited and gentle as this lamb.' 
 
 " But l^oah sighed. Satan continued his work ; he 
 caught a lion, slew it, and poured the blood upon the soil 
 prepared for the plant. ' Thence shall it come,' said he, 
 ' that those who taste the juice of the grape shall be 
 courageous as the Hon.' Noah shuddered. 
 
 " Satan continuing his work, seized and slew a pig and 
 drenched the soil with its blood. ' Thence shall it come,' 
 
 the following from a still earlier work (tlian Fabroni's), Letters Writ 
 hy a Turkish Spy (London, 1693) : — 
 
 " Noali and his sons planted all sorts of trees, but when they came 
 to look for the Vine, it could not be found. Then it was told Noah 
 by the Angel, that the Devil had stolen it away, as having some right 
 to it. Wherefore Noah cited the Devil to appear before the Angel ; 
 who gave judgment that the Vine should be divided between them 
 into three parts, whereof the Devil should have two [as much as to 
 say that its fermented wine does twice as much evil as good] — to 
 which both parties consented. This was the decision of Gabriel : 
 That when two-thirds of the liquor of this Fruit should be evaporated 
 away in boiling over the fire, the remainder should be lawful for Noah 
 and his posterity to drink. And thou knowest that we Mussulmans 
 generally obey this law in preparing our Wine. Let the Devil, 
 therefore, in the name of God, have his share in the tempting fruit, 
 for when that which inebriates [the al-ghol, or evil-spirit] is separated 
 by fire from the rest, this liquor becomes pure, holy, and blessed. 
 This is the sentence of the ancients." — Vol. v. Lett. 12.
 
 10 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 said he, ' that those who drink of the juice of the grape in 
 excess, shall be filthy, degraded, and bestial as swine.' " 
 
 Dr. J. Hamburger * gives a similar version : — 
 
 " As Noah was occupied planting the vine, Satan drew 
 near. ' What do you plant there ? ' he asked. 'A vine,' 
 said Noah. ' Of what kind ? ' ' Its fruit is sweet,' replied 
 Noah, ' whether fresh or dried, and it also gives wine 
 which rejoices the heart of man.' ' So ! Let us be 
 comrades in this planting,' said Satan. ' So be it,' 
 answered Noah. Satan then went away and returned 
 with a lamb, a lion, a pig, and an ape, which he killed one 
 after another so that the vine should be di-enched with 
 their blood. Then turning to Noah he said, ' These are 
 the signs of the power of wine. We see man before he 
 has taken wine as innocent as the lamb ; but soon after 
 enjoying it, he is subjected to various changes. The 
 temperate enjoyment of wine makes him brave as a lion, 
 the intemperate use of it turns him into a pig.' " 
 
 Colin de Plancy gives a Mussulman tradition as 
 follows : — 
 
 "When Ham had set out the vine, Satan brought and 
 poured upon it a peacock's blood. When its leaves began 
 to appear he poured over them the blood of an ape ; when 
 the grapes began to form he watei-ed them with the blood 
 of a lion, and upon the ripe fi'uit he spilled the blood of 
 a pig. The vine thus nurtured with the blood of these 
 four animals has acquired these jDroperties : the first glass 
 of wine animates the drinker so that his vivacity is great 
 and his colour heightened ; in this condition he resembles 
 the peacock. When the fumes of the liquor rise to his 
 head, he becomes as gay and full of antics as an ape. 
 When he has become drunken he rages as the lion, and in 
 the height of this condition he falls and grovels like the 
 pig sprawling out in heavy slumber." 
 
 In the Midrasch, r. 1, M. Absch 37, it is stated that 
 when Noah was working on his vine plantation he was 
 thus addressed by the Arch-Da3mon : — " I have shared in 
 thy labours, beware that thou dost not trench on my 
 boundary lest I do thee harm." Noah did not heed the 
 warning, but " drank to excess, and passed the boundary 
 
 ' Real Encyclopedie fiir Bibel in Talmud (Breslau, 1870), part 1, 
 pp. 1039-10i2,
 
 DRINKING AMONG THE ANCIENTS. 11 
 
 of the domain of tlie dEemons, and lay naked in his 
 tent." 
 
 In the Midrasch BerescMt Bahba, by Dr. Anguste 
 Wiinsche, we read that Rabbi Jochanan finding in the 
 Hebrew letters which give the story of the vine, that 
 those spelling the word " woe " occurred fourteen times, 
 warned his people against the use of wine. 
 
 According to Tabari, an Arabian historian,* Ham, for Origin of the 
 having laughed at the drunkenness of his father, was 
 cursed by Noah that his skin should become black, as well 
 as all the fruits which were to grow in the land he should 
 inhabit ; and thus came the purple grape, which was the 
 white grape before Ham transplanted it. 
 
 § 4. Let us also examine the mythological web which Summary of 
 both veiled and defined the spiritual needs and religious in- and character 
 clinations of the ancients, and essentially formulated the "^ Bacchus- 
 character and shape of the drink question among them. 
 We know that among the ancient Romans, Bacchus was 
 the god of wine, and that the infamous Bacchanalia, sup- 
 pressed by the Senate's decree (b.c. 186), were the chief 
 expression of Bacchus- worship among them. 
 
 But Bacchus- worship was not confined to Rome, neither 
 did it originate in Rome, nor was the sensual worship the 
 only or even the chief worship, as we shall see later on. 
 
 In the first periods of historic times, Bacchus- worship 
 was a worship of all the active forces in nature, especially 
 those of generation. We may therefore be justified in 
 supposing that when certain exciting properties of wine 
 were discovei^ed by the Bacchus-worshippei's, they attached 
 especial value to it, so that wine-worship to the sensually 
 inclined became identical with Bacchus- worship. Aristo- 
 phanes, in the fourth century, calls wine the milk of Venus. 
 
 Bacchus had, beside his local names, innumerable other 
 names signifying the countless various manifestations and 
 properties in man, beast, and plant, which he was supposed 
 to inspire, create, or enjoy. 
 
 He bore different names, also, in different countries. The original 
 Several myths designate Noah as the original Bacchus, tho^uginto be 
 and of these the myth in India, about Satyavarman, is ^''^''■ 
 the most striking. As the ninth chapter of Genesis relates 
 how Noah planted a vineyard, made wine, got drunk, and 
 * Died A.D. 922.
 
 12 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Noah said to 
 be Saturn, to 
 whom is at- 
 tributed the 
 discovery of 
 wine. 
 
 Similarity 
 
 between 
 
 Greek and 
 
 Egyptian 
 
 Bacclius- 
 
 worship. 
 
 Bacchus- 
 worship and 
 tlie serpent. 
 
 was in a sliamefiil state cliscovei-ed by his three sons Shem, 
 Ham, and Japlieth ; so the East Indian Purana (tradition) 
 tells of Satyavarman who, in a disgraceful condition of 
 drunkenness, was seen by his three sons Shema, Chama, 
 and Yapeti. But Satyavarman of India was Adonis in 
 Phoenicia, and this divinity, again (Selden, De Diis Syr., 
 Syntagma 11), was the same as Osiris among the Egyptians, 
 Dionysos or Bakchos in Greece, and Bacchus or Liber in 
 Rome. Exactly how and where Bacchus- worship originated 
 is not known, and the order of its spread is also matter of 
 dispute. But these points, though so interesting, being 
 non-essential to our purpose, we may not linger on them. 
 
 Morewood (op. cit.) states, according to Bockhart, 
 that Cadmus first brought the worship of Bacchus among 
 the Grecians, and that wine was introduced to them by 
 the Syrians. He also thinks that Noah was the same 
 as Saturn, and Plutarch attributes the discovery of wine to 
 that deity. On the other hand, Alfred Maury, in his History 
 of the Religions of Ancient Greece (Paris, 1869), maintains 
 that Greece had its Bacchus-worship independent of the 
 Egyptian Osiris-worship, and that it was when regular 
 communication between the two countries was established, 
 during the Saitic dynasty, that the Greeks first discovered 
 the similarity between their own and the Egyptian Bacchus- 
 worship. 
 
 As the ancients had several Baccbuses, so they had also 
 more than one parentage for the god, whose father was in 
 all cases the same, namely Jupiter, but not so the mother. 
 In Egypt the mother of Osiris (the Sun, and later on, the 
 Nile, which, fructified the land) was Isis, goddess of the 
 fruitfulness of earth, and the source of wisdom, which is 
 granted only to those who " by persistence in lives sober, 
 temperate, and isolated from sensual pleasures, voluptuous- 
 ness and passions, aspire to participation in the divine 
 nature." 
 
 But the Greeks and Romans attributed their Bacchus 
 to a dual, really a triple motherhood. Two of the three 
 were, however, of essentially the same nature, Semele and 
 Proserpina the ravished daughter of Ceres, whom Jupiter 
 approached under the guise of a snake, the reptile which 
 plays so important a part in the Bacchus rites (the 
 serpent and the forbidden fruit !).
 
 DRINKING AMONG THE ANCIENTS. 13 
 
 A golden image of a serpent was placed in the lap of 
 the newly initiated, the satyi^s were represented with 
 serpents coiled around, their heads, and the serpent was 
 consecrated to Bacchus. In these ceremonies wine was 
 indispensable, the worshippers were drunken, and the 
 infamous character of these orgies are the lasting obloquy 
 of the peoples who tolerated them.* 
 
 In the mythologies of India, Egypt, Greece, Rome, etc., 
 the serpent itself was worshipped as the divinity of death, 
 as is seen often in the designs graven on ancient tombs. 
 The serpent was also placed at the head of the graven 
 images of Hecate, the goddess of the kingdom of the dead 
 (Genesis ii. 17), and in all sorcery and necromancy the 
 serpent has been an essential factor. 
 
 Another strange symbol of Bacchus is the horns. In 
 Egypt the bull Apis was consecrated to Bacchus ; in 
 Phrygia, Zagraeus (Bacchus) was represented Avitli hoi'ns. 
 A horned image of him is often seen in the front of public- 
 houses in England. 
 
 Drunkenness and sensuality were, however, but one Eieusinian 
 side of the ancient Bacchus-worship ; another phase as ™^^ ^"^*' 
 opposite to it as light is to darkness was the so-called 
 Eieusinian mysteries, especially the " gTeater mysteries," 
 which were ob.served in the Attican city of Eleusis on the 
 Eieusinian Bay. According to Strabo, the Eieusinian 
 temple could at one period accommodate from twenty to 
 thirty thousand people at a time. What is known with 
 certainty about the "greater mysteries " of the Eieusinian 
 Bacchus-worship is very limited. 
 
 The works of the few writers of antiquity who ventured 
 to treat of these mysteries — such as Melanthius, quoted by 
 Athenseus and by the Scholiast of Aristophanes ; Hiceus, 
 spoken of by Clemens of Alexandria ; and one or two more 
 — have tracelessly disappeared. All we know is that the 
 Eleusinians worshipped Bacchus as the son of Ceres (in 
 Greece, Demeter, the same as Isis in Egypt), and that their 
 worship chiefly consisted of contemplations and demon- 
 strations of the unity of God and the immortality of the 
 soul. From two extraordinary papers on the subject 
 of the Eieusinian Mysteries, contributed by Mr. Henry 
 M. Alden, editor of Har])ers Magazine, to the Atlantic 
 * See Juvenal, vi. 321, and Lactantius, Just., div. 120.
 
 14 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Monthly, during 1859-60, I quote these few passages as 
 revealing more of the elusive and subtle spirit of the 
 theme than any modern writing I am acquainted with, 
 and as not being outdone in this quality by any of the 
 native ancient authors : — " The story of the stolen 
 Proserpina is itself an afterthought, a fable invented to 
 explain the mysteries. The Eleusinia are older than 
 Eleusis — older than Demeter, even the Demeter of 
 Thrace — certainly as old as Isis, who was to Egypt what 
 Demeter was to Greece — the Great Mother of a thousand 
 names, who also had her repeatedly endless sorrow for the 
 loss of Osiris. . . . The worship of this Great Mother is 
 not more wonderful for its antiquity in time than for its 
 prevalence as regards space. To the Hindu she was the 
 Lady Isani. She was the Ceres of Roman mythology, the 
 Cybele of Phrygia and Lydia, and the Disa of the north. 
 According to Tacitus (^Germania, c. 9) she was worshipped 
 by the ancient Suevi. She was worshipped by the Mus- 
 covite, and representations of her are found upon the 
 sacred drums of the Laplanders. She swayed the ancient 
 world fi-om its south-east corner in India to Scandinavia 
 in the north-west ; and everywhere she is the ' Mater 
 dolorosa.' And who is it, reader, that in the Christian 
 world struggles for life and power under the name of the 
 Holy Virgin and through the sad features of the Madonna ? 
 . . . And what do we read on the tablet of Isis ? — ' I am 
 all that has been, all that is, all that is to be ; and the veil 
 which is over my face no mortal hand has ever raised.' 
 Not to Demeter nor even to Isis do the Eleusinia primarily 
 point, but to the human heart, — ' I am the First and the 
 Last— Mother of Gods and men. As deep as my mystery, 
 so deep is my sorrow. For lo ! all generations are mine. 
 But the fairest fruit of my holy garden was plucked by 
 ray mortal children, since which Apollo among men and 
 Artemis among women have raged with their fearful 
 arrows. My fairest children, whom I have brought forth 
 and nourished in the light, have been stolen by the 
 children of darkness. By the flood they were taken, and I 
 wandered forty days and forty nights upon the waters ere 
 again I saw the face of the earth.' . . . Life in its central 
 idea is an entire and eternal solitude. Tet each individual 
 nature so repeats, and is itself repeated in, every other, that
 
 DRINKING AilONG THE ANCIENTS. 15 
 
 there is insured tlie possibility botli of a world revelation 
 in the soul and of a self-incarnation in the world ; so that 
 every man's life, like Agrippa's mirror, reflects the 
 universe, is made the embodiment of his life — is made to 
 beat with a human pulse. We do all, therefore, Hindu, 
 Egyptian, Greek or Saxon, claim kinship both with earth 
 and the heavens, with the sense of sorrow we kneel upon the 
 earth, with the sense of hope we look into the heavens." 
 
 Haggermacker, in his able work on the subject published 
 in 1880, says that the mysteries dealt with the symbolic 
 representation of the myth about Demeter and the im- 
 mortality of the soul. 
 
 We find also that such great men of the past as Pindar 
 and Plato in Greece, Cicero, the slave philosopher 
 Epictetus, and the noble and learned Emperor Marcus 
 Aurelius in Rome, were enthusiastic admirers and zealous 
 advocates of these mysteries. They were abolished by 
 Emperor Theodosius the Great (379-397), in the same 
 general decree which extinguished the sacrificial fires on 
 all the yet remaining altars of polytheism. 
 
 § 5. Historic records of the nations of antiquity are 
 replete with proofs that the chief destroyer of individual 
 and national greatness was drink. The early Medes and 
 Persians gave rigorous education to their youth, who were 
 brought up on a regimen of bread, cresses, and water, in 
 order to accustom them early to temperance, and to 
 strengthen their bodies. Nor were the four great Asiatic 
 monarchies of antiquity, Assp'ia, Babylonia, Media, and 
 Persia, conquered and destroyed by the sword until their 
 earlier characteristics of manliness, patriotism, and morality 
 had been sapped by di'unkenness and debaxichery. 
 
 The vast Assyrian power whose' foundation reaches Assyria and 
 beyond historic record, after incorporating Ii'an, Syria, '^"°'^" 
 Babylonia, Egypt, Asia Minor, etc., was at last subdued by 
 the rebel sober provinces of Media and Babylonia ; and 
 that prince of voluptuaries, Sai'danapalus, last independent 
 ruler of Assyria, when he saw that all was lost, betook 
 himself to the funeral pyre, together with his women, his 
 servants, and his treasures. We are told that his motto 
 was — 
 
 " Eat, drink, play, and know that thou art mortal ; drain 
 present delights, there is no voluptuousness after death."
 
 16 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Jledia and 
 drink. 
 
 Persia and 
 drink. 
 
 Familiar, but always impressive, is the account liistory 
 gives us of the visit of the young twelve-year-old Cyrus 
 to his grandfather. King Astyages of Media. The little 
 fellow, destined later to overthrow Media and Babylonia, 
 and to found the great Persian monarchy, was so astonished 
 and disgusted at the riotous drunkenness of the Median 
 court, he refused to touch the wine, a custom expected of 
 him as cupbearer to his gi'andfather. He could not under- 
 stand how the people were willing to drink till they had 
 fallen into such a bestial state. 
 
 " You seemed," he exclaimed, taming to his grand- 
 father, and referring to a recent banquet— "you seemed to 
 have forgotten yourself, to not know that you were the 
 king, and when you wished to dance you could not stand ! 
 My father drinks merely to quench his thirst." 
 
 And time brought the days when this Cyrus subjugated 
 Media and deposed his grandfather (B.C. 559). A few 
 years after, when combined against by Babylonia and 
 Lydia, Cyrus was defeated just outside the walls of 
 Babylon. But IS^abunahid (Belshazzar) the victor, instead 
 of following up his success, arranged in its celebration that 
 infamous feast in the midst of which the ominous " Mene, 
 mene, teJcel, TJpliarsin! " was flashed along the wall by the 
 unknown hand, and during this fatuous debauch Cyrus, 
 re-gathering his remaining forces, stormed the unprepared 
 city and slew Belshazzar in his cups. 
 
 Persia,* in its turn becoming weakened and emasculated 
 by wine and the habits it generates, passed under the con- 
 quering hand of Alexander the Great, f ^^Q same who for a 
 time withstood the corrupting influences of Persian sybari- 
 tism, and the intoxications of his own triumphs, but of whose 
 death by intemperance Seneca writes : " Here is this hero, 
 invincible by all the toils of prodigious marches, by all the 
 
 * Persian history attributes the discovery of fermentation to 
 Jemsheed, a monarch who lived very soon after the Flood. Being ex- 
 ceedingly fond of grapes, he on one occasion thought to save some for 
 future eating by packing them away in a jar. Of course, when he 
 next resorted to them, he found in the stead of the luscious fruit, wine. 
 Tradition says that Jemsheed's beautiful cup, cai-ved out of ruby, and 
 filled with " the elixir of life, lies buried under the ruins of Istakhar." 
 
 t Alexander's physician, Androcydes, warned him in these words : 
 "Eemember, O king, . . . hemlock is poison to man, and wine is like 
 hemlock." — Pliny, lib, xiv. chap. v.
 
 DRINKING AMONG THE ANCIENTS. 17 
 
 dangers of sieges and combats, by the most violent extremes 
 of heat and cold, here he lies, conquered by his intem- 
 perance, and struck to earth by the fatal cup of Hercules." 
 
 It is difficult to imagine more horrible deeds than were 
 done by some of the Persian rulers when under the influence 
 of drink. On the plea of giving his people proof that wine 
 had no effect on his nerves, Cambyses ordered his cup- 
 bearer — the son of his chief officer Prexaspes — to go to the 
 opposite side of the room, and there to stand quietly with 
 his left arm raised over his head. Prexaspes was present, 
 but before he could even imagine what was to happen, 
 Cambyses had taken aim "with a bow and arrow and shot 
 the boy through the heart. He then had the heart cut out 
 from the youth's yet trembling body, and held it triumph- 
 antly before the wretched father's eyes, exclaiming that he 
 desired that this proof that wine did not harm him should 
 be made known to his subjects ; yet it is to be observed 
 that Cambyses (according to Herodotus) confined di'inking 
 to himself, his army being allowed only water. This fiend 
 married his own sister, and in a drunken debauch, during 
 her pregnancy, kicked her to death. 
 
 What views about drinking were held in ancient Persia 
 is apparent from such facts as, for example, that preferment 
 in office largely depended on how much a man could drink 
 without losing his reason. Indeed, Cyi'us, who fell in a 
 duel with his brother Artaxerxes, had urged, among other 
 reasons why he should be chosen before his brother, that 
 he could drink a greater quantity than Artaxerxes " with- 
 out being inebriated, or his passions disagreeably excited." 
 And Athenaeus (the Greek grammarian from Naukratis 
 in Egypt) mentions that one of the Dariuses desired no 
 gTeater encomium than that it should be engraved on his 
 tomb that he could drink a very great quantity of wine 
 without being- drunken.* 
 
 * The Classical Journal for April, 1813, gives this specimen of 
 old Persian poetry. The first is a ghazaP from Shefalee. 
 
 " With your liver intoxicated with blood, it is delightful to reel 
 
 * The ghazal is a form of Persian poetry introduced into German 
 literature by Eiickert and Platen, and consists in repeating the 
 rhymes of the first two lines in the fourth, sixth, and eighth lines, 
 etc,, the intervening lines not rhyming, and the measure being a 
 matter of option. 
 
 C
 
 18 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Egypt and 
 drink. 
 
 Temperance 
 efforts in 
 Egypt. 
 
 As the great Asiatic monarcliies fell first by wine and 
 then by the sword, so Egypt, the history of whose vast 
 and highly civilized power reaches back over three thou- 
 sand years before Christ, fell likewise into the slough of 
 drink and licentiousness, and was conquered by the Persian 
 province (b.C. 332). Subsequently, Alexander the Great 
 took it ; then Greek culture gradually drove away the 
 Egyptian, and, after the battle of Actium, it became a 
 Roman province till conquered by the Arabs in A.D. 641. 
 
 The Egyptians, whose country was famous for its corn, 
 are regarded as the earliest brewers, and it is claimed that 
 they knew how to extract the juice of barley nearly two 
 thousand years before Christ ; but when they learned to 
 ferment it, does not appear. They very early used what 
 they called grain wine at their libations (the religious 
 ceremony of pouring wine either upon the ground or on a 
 sacrifice — living or dead — in honour of a deity) . Herodotus 
 tells us that beer or wine drawn from barley was the liquor 
 principally used, and he describes the clergy as feasting 
 upon the sacrifices and quaSing the sacred wine. 
 
 From about four to three hundred years before Christ, 
 the Egyptians had a number of grain-wine manufactories 
 at Pelusium on the Nile. But the ancient Egyptians knew 
 also how to make intoxicating drinks from fermented 
 juices, such as those of the palm, fig, and pomegranate. 
 
 The condition of Egypt, before its invasion and desola- 
 tion by the Persians, as regards temperance and morality 
 was, as we know, most lamentable. Men and women 
 gloried in drunkenness and shame. The few remnants of 
 sculpture and painting that remain from the art of those 
 days give ample proof of the condition of the people at that 
 time. Masters are represented as carried home from their 
 banquets in sottish unconsciousness. The dames are repre- 
 sented struggling with nausea from their too copious 
 bibbing, and hurrying the maids with the necessary bowl. 
 Josephus speaks of them as the most debauched people. 
 
 Yet great efforts had been made from time to time to 
 
 like a flame ! intoxicated with blood it is delightful to wallow on the 
 ground ! whilst jovial, to plunder the bower like the breeze, to cull 
 the rose, on which the gardener has bestowed his willing care, is 
 delightful. But in a drunken fit, never be thou so weak as to rise up 
 the first to make peace, because to be angry afresh is delightful."
 
 DRINKING AMONG THE ANCIENTS. 19 
 
 save Egypt from this evil. Several of the Pharaohs issued 
 stringent mandates against drunkenness, and the ominous 
 ceremony — apparently not commanded— of placing in the 
 centre of the banquet tables, when the wine was " beginning 
 to tell," a skeleton crowned with a funeral wreath, dates 
 from those days. 
 
 Among the many devices to check intemperance, was 
 a law that the friends and relatives of the dead should 
 abstain from all wine and luxuries for a certain time (from, 
 forty to seventy days subsequent to the death) according 
 to the rank and station of the departed ; the higher the 
 rank or importance the longer was the abstention to be 
 observed, which is significant of the great respect really 
 felt for temperance. 
 
 " If," as Morewood so eloquently says of ancient Egypt 
 {op. cit.), "a secret glow of veneration arises for a nation 
 so long distinguished in the annals of antiquity for all that 
 was majestic and mighty, whether we consider its almost 
 superhuman structures, its profound erudition, its wonder- 
 ful inventions, or the splendour, pomp, and glory which 
 surrounded its early inhabitants," how different the feeling 
 which presses on the heart of him who, standing to-day in 
 the shadow of the Sphinx, sees only the lonely Nile and the 
 far-stretching torrid sands, both alike as dumb and vestige- 
 less to him of those nobler realities as are its strong lips 
 and fixed unsleeping eyes ! 
 
 But, in speaking of antiquity, we generally mean not 
 the Assyrians, Babylonians, Medes, Persians, or even the 
 Egyptians, but the Greeks and Romans. The other great 
 nations, with the exception of the Jews, have left but small 
 traces in literature, science, and art, in comparison wdth 
 those of Greece and Rome, who for so many centuries, 
 mutually and antagonistically, but absolutely, ruled the 
 whole civilized world for the time, politically, intellectu- 
 ally, and morally. ISTotwithstanding which, they exist no 
 more. 
 
 Who can point to a living, genuine remnant of either 
 of these nations ? 
 
 What destroyed them ? Is there danger that through 
 the same causes, great civilized powers of our time may in 
 their turn coUapse and disappear ?
 
 20 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Greece and 
 drink. 
 
 Athens. 
 
 Sparta. 
 
 Home and 
 drink. 
 
 In speaking of Greece, thought always reverts to the 
 two contrasting rivals, those republics of Athens and 
 Sparta, so long dominating all the others. 
 
 In Athens the severe laws of Draco condemned to death 
 any person convicted of being drunk. The wise laws of 
 Solon (Diog. Laert. in Solon i.) condemned an archont (the 
 highest public functionary in Athens after the abolition of 
 royalty, B.C. 1068) to a heavy fine for the first time he was 
 intoxicated, and in case of relapse — to death. A citizen 
 seen to enter a drinking shop was dishonoured for ever, 
 and no more was required to cause the banishment of a 
 senator from the Ai'eopagus (high court of Athens). 
 
 In martial, brave, but cruel and perfidious Sparta — 
 where domestic affections were crushed out by law, and 
 the common decencies and moralities held in contempt in 
 accordance with the Lycurgan institutions, which among 
 other things enjoined common public baths for both 
 sexes, and placed no restraint on the sexual appetites — 
 they did fear the results of drinking. In fact, it is claimed 
 that Lycurgus himself gave the command that annually 
 the helotes (slaves) of Sparta should be intoxicated, and of 
 the orgies ensuing among them the youth should be made 
 spectators, to infuse in them aversion to drink. 
 
 But not only in Athens and Sparta was this rigour 
 shown ; Pittacus of Mitylene (island of Lesbos) punished 
 crimes committed in drunkenness with double penalties. 
 
 But in Greece, as in the great monarchies of the East, 
 drunkenness prevailed against the efforts at restraining it. 
 
 Wine culture, after passing from Persia and Syria to 
 Greece and the Archipelago, was brought later on to Italy 
 and Southern France. 
 
 In the first days of Rome wine was almost unknown. 
 Even as late as the second Samnite war (327-304) the 
 Dictator Papirius vowed a small cup of wine to Jupiter as 
 the most costly gift, if he should be victorious ; which he 
 was (309) . That is, almost a hundred and fifty years after 
 the foundation of Rome, wine was rarer than gems. 
 
 And for centuries after the Samnite wars, though 
 •wine was imported in increasing quantities, drinking 
 habits did not become general, until the time of Julius 
 Ccesar, Avhen it began to be cultivated in Italy. During
 
 DRINKING AMONG THE ANCIENTS. 21 
 
 tlie reiofns of Auo-ustns and his immediate successors, ■Mvine 
 culture and wine making became a passion among the 
 Romans. During the empire it abounded, and history 
 shows beyond question that enervation, loose morals, cor- 
 ruption, and crime increased among the Romans in almost 
 an exact ratio to the increase of their habits of drinking. 
 
 Even the Stoics — those severe philosophers who held 
 that human conduct must be restrained within the exact 
 interpretation of the four cardinal virtues, Prudence, 
 Justice, Temperance, and Fortitude — even they sometimes 
 intoxicated themselves for the " refreshment of their souls." 
 The women were as abandoned to drink and loose-living, 
 and prided themselves on being able to stand as much wine 
 as the men. And most conspicuous in these debaucheries 
 were the C^sars, and the emperors Caligula, Nero, Vitel- 
 lins, Domitian, etc. And yet in this very Rome, steeped in 
 drunkenness, licentiousness, and crime, the Vestal Fire was 
 kept inviolate and sacred, and we find, in Tacitus (A7inals,xv. 
 36), that even the monster Nero, having dared to violate 
 the temple of Vesta (by entering therein), was "seized 
 with a sudden agitation and tremor in his body, as if the 
 goddess had struck him with teri'or in the consciousness of 
 his ill-deeds ; " and the same multitudes who could abandon 
 themselves to all excesses of the Bacchanalia approved the 
 condemnation to living burial of a vestal on mere suspicion 
 of impurity, and could callously look on at the whipping 
 to death (according to law, Livy, xxii. 57) of a vestal's 
 paramour — so little was it understood that national safety 
 depends on character, not on the inviolability of shrines. 
 Have these lessons of the past borne fruit in the present ? 
 
 But Rome had not always been such a cauldron of Temperance 
 seething vices. According to Dionysius of Halicamassus, ^^^^ ^^ 
 Romulus promulgated a law which permitted the husband 
 to kill hismfe for drinking wine, as for committing adultery. 
 The death penalty for adultery, as we know, was frequently 
 inflicted in the early days of Rome, and Pliny (book xiv. 
 chap. 13) relates that a certain Ignatius Mecennius, having 
 killed his wife for having drunk wine, was acquitted by 
 Romulus ; and Fabius Pictor, in his Annals, states that a 
 Roman lady was starved to death by her own relations, 
 because she had picked the lock of a chest in w^hich were 
 the keys of a wine-cellar ; and Pliny also assures us that
 
 22 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Seneca's de- 
 scription of 
 the results of 
 intemper- 
 ance in an- 
 cient Rome. 
 
 Cneius Domitius, a Roman judge, in a like case sentenced 
 the defendant in these lines : " That it seemed she had 
 drunk more wine, without her husband's knowledge, than 
 was needful for the preservation of her health, and that 
 therefore she should lose the benefit of her dowry." 
 
 The custom of greeting women by kissing on the 
 mouth is said to date from this time, (!) and to have been 
 adopted in order to discover if they had tasted wine. 
 
 That the famous vine-planting edict, which forbade 
 throughout the empire the further culture of the vine, and 
 commanded the destruction of one-half the vines then 
 flourishing in its vast dependencies, was issued by Rome's 
 worst debauchee, the Emperor Domitian, signifies how 
 profound was the dread of the effects of drinking upon the 
 nation's life and prosperity, even as felt by one of its most 
 supine votaries. This edict remained in force for a hundred 
 and eighty years, and then the Emperor Probus abolished 
 it as far as France, Spain, and South- Western Hungary 
 were concerned. 
 
 The terrible consequences of wine drinking in ancient 
 Rome are memorably described by Nero's famous teacher, 
 the noble Stoic philosopher Seneca, in his 95th Epistle, 
 § 16 : — " These excesses result in pallor, quivering of the 
 nerves in the wine-soaked body, and a leanness from 
 indigestion, more pitiful than the emaciation of hunger ; 
 uncertain and unsteady gait, distension of the bowels, 
 which are forced to continually take in more than they are 
 constructed to hold or make use of, yellow and blotched 
 complexion, deterioration and rottenness of the fluids of 
 the system, cramping of the hands from hardening of the 
 ligaments, dullness and torpor of the nerves, alternating 
 with tremor. And the indescribable faintness of these 
 victims, the torments they suffer by reason of disordered 
 sight and hearing, creeping headaches, etc., etc., what 
 language can convey ? " 
 
 Syracuse. 
 
 Cartilage. 
 
 As with Babylon, so with Syracuse — during a drunken 
 debauch in celebration of victory, it was reconquered by 
 the vanquished. 
 
 Sober Carthage, sinking under drunken and licentious 
 habits, fell a prey to her rival Rome, yet Rome did not 
 learn the lesson.
 
 DRINKING AMONG THE ANCIENTS. 23 
 
 Julius Caesar, in his Commentaries, wrote of the Sneves The Sueves. 
 — that martial people who filled the heart of Germany, 
 from the Danube to the Baltic — that they prevented even 
 the importation of wine, so convinced were they of its 
 destructiveness to strength and virtue. But these also fell 
 to drink and then to the sword. 
 
 " The writings of Hector Boetius," says Dr. Ralph Drink 
 Barnes Grindrod (Bacchus, 1839), " show the severity of aSt*''" 
 the Scottish laws and the utter detestation in which in Scots, 
 ancient times that nation held drunkenness. The laws of 
 the ancient Scots in relation to those who kept houses for 
 the sale of drink were peremptory and severe. ... It is said 
 that Argadus, Administrator of Scotland (a.d. 160), con- 
 fiscated their goods, pulled down the houses, and banished 
 the men ; and under King Constantine the Second (a.d. 
 861), if they did not submit to the law they were to be hung. 
 One of this king's laws commanded young persons of either 
 sex to abstain entirely from the use of inebriating liquors. 
 Death was the punishment on conviction of drunkenness. 
 The same law and same penalty extended to all persons 
 who held a magisterial or other public post." 
 
 As to the Jews, all readers of the Old Testament know The Jews, 
 that — in spite of the patriotism, the marvellous coherence 
 and vitality which makes the race unique among the nations 
 — the kingdoms of Israel and Judah were strangled by the 
 vine ; and as to the Mohammedans, usually and justly The Jfoham- 
 regarded as the most abstemious of peoples, private ™®^*'^- 
 drunkenness is teri-ibly prevalent among them nowadays, 
 though perhaps less so in Turkey than in Tunis and other 
 Mohammedan countries.* 
 
 * It is well known that tlie prophet Mohammed rigorously con- 
 demned drunkenness, and it is related of him that in the fourth year 
 of the Hegira, while his forces were contending with neighbouring 
 tribes, some of his principal men, betaking themselves to play and 
 drink, quarrelled in the heat of their cups, and raised such broils 
 among his followers as to threaten the overthrow of all his designs, 
 to prevent which mischiefs in the future, he forbade the use of wine, 
 and also all games of hazard, for ever. Both to strengthen and 
 illustrate this commandment, he told the allegory of the two angels, 
 Arut and Marut (Prideaux's Life of Mahomet), who were sent from Mohammed's 
 heaven to administer justice in Babylon in her ancient days : to wit, drink 
 that once a -woman, whose affairs had been arranged for her by these allegory, 
 angelic judges, invited them to dinner. She placed wine before her 
 guests, and though God had enjoined them not to touch wine, they
 
 24 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Thus tte history of the past offers a vast array of 
 concurrent testimony that as long as drink was un- 
 known to a nation, it remained comparatively strong and 
 prosperous ; and that in the measui^e that nations have 
 succumbed to drink, they have lost their independence, 
 and passed in the most terrible harlotry from master to 
 master, until given over by the gangrene of decay to oblivion. 
 
 drank, and then tempted the woman. She pretended to yield to 
 their wishes, biit made the conditions that first one of the angels 
 should carry her to heaven, and the other should bring her back 
 again. On coming into the presence of the Almighty, she told Him 
 how she had been tempted, and had saved herself by seeking shelter 
 with Him. In reward for her chastity, the Almighty changed her into 
 the morning-star, and the angels were given their choice of being 
 punished for their sin at that time or in the futm-e. They chose 
 immediate punishment, and were suspended by the feet with an iron 
 chain in a pit near Babylon, where they are doomed to remain until 
 the day of judgment. For which reasons God forbade His servants 
 ever to use wine. And in the Koran we read, " Wine and gambling 
 are abominable inventions of Satan. Beware of forgetting God, 
 because the demon would employ wine and gambling to fire in us the 
 flame of impurity, and turn us away from adoration and prayer." 
 
 Some of the sultans and caliphs took extraordinary measures to 
 prevent drunkenness. Soliman I. ordered that melted lead should 
 be poured down the throats of drinkers.
 
 ( 25 ) 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 HISTOET OF THE DISCOVERY OF DISTILLATION. 
 
 § 6. Although medifeval history gives us many both in- 
 teresting and instructive facts as to the eifects of drink and 
 the efforts made to combat the evil during the dark and 
 early Middle Ages, its record in the main is so similar to 
 that of antiquity — with the exception that condemnation 
 of the habit became more general, yet weaker, and indul- 
 gence more univei'sal and excessive — that I need not here 
 dwell upon it,* but proceed at once to the history of the 
 discovery of distillation. 
 
 Owing to two acts of shameful barbarity, we are left in Reasons for 
 nearly the same uncertainty regarding the discovery of regafdingthe 
 distillation, as by chance, we are in regard to the discovery discovery of 
 of the physical fact of fermentation. All the ancient 
 Egyptian works on alchemy, some of which in all probability 
 would have solved the question still baflHing us, as to when, 
 where, how, and by whom the art of spirit distillation was 
 first discovered, were ruthlessly destroyed by the Roman Barbarities of 
 Emperor Diocletian in his superstitious fear lest the aM^^^^y 
 Egyptians should, by converting all available metals into 
 gold, secure the means to regain their independence. And 
 three hundred years later, when Egypt was taken from the 
 Romans by Caliph Omar's chief commander Amru, that 
 barbarian destroyed the famous Ptolemeian Library at 
 Alexandria, reputed to have numbered 700,000 volumes, 
 explaining his irreparable villainy on the silly pretext that 
 
 * Those who wish to pursue inquiry in this direction will find 
 abundant information in Morewood's Inebriating Liquors (1838) ; 
 Rev. Father Bridget's Discipline of Brink (1876) ; Mr. Samuelson's 
 History of Brink (1878) ; and in the works to which these authors 
 refer.
 
 26 THE FOUXDATIOX OF DEATH. 
 
 if the contents of ttese books agreed with the Koran they 
 were nseless, if against it they were pernicious, and, 
 therefore, in either case, their destruction was proper. 
 Reasons why That such a secrct as the art of distillation should be 
 was kept^^'^ Confined to recondite works, and not spread, but indeed be 
 secret. guarded from general knowledge, is not very surprising 
 
 when the position of the discoverer (or participant in the 
 discovery) is considei-ed. He might at first have imagined 
 that he had at last discovered that life elixir which in the 
 dark ages seems to have been the one ray of hope to man ; 
 and though experiment must soon have disproved this 
 theory, he was still, unless sheltered by exceptionally high 
 and favoured station, in danger of his life from the 
 machinations of public and private avarice ; and, again, 
 subject to total loss of the special advantages of his know- 
 ledge, should it be generally disseminated. 
 
 Distillation, generally speaking, may be said to have 
 preceded the discovery of fermented drinks, because who- 
 ever first condensed (and any one might have done so) 
 some of the steam rising from boiling water, would be the 
 first distiller, and in a like sense he who should be the first 
 to (for any reason) boil fermented liquor, and condense 
 some of its vapours on a cool surface, would, whether he 
 knew it or not, be the first spirit distiller. 
 
 But so long as such facts were accidents — that is, not 
 results of man's understanding or intention, but occuning 
 without attracting observation to the processes — they were 
 practically not discoveries. 
 disUulHon.*'^ I>istiUation* is "the volatilization of a liquid in a 
 closed vessel by heat, and its subsequent condensation in 
 a separate vessel by cold." f But the ancients applied the 
 term to most operations of transformation, purification, 
 and analysis. Some solids as well as liquids may be dis- 
 tilled (but not all of them) ; for example, iodine, arsenic, 
 chlorides of mercury, etc. 
 Spirit. Spirit is a term which, though specially applied to 
 
 alcohol, is applicable to any liquid produced by distillation. 
 •Spint distil- Spirit distillation is the operation of extractino- spii'it 
 
 latlOU. p ^ ^ ■ IT. 
 
 from a substance by evaporation and condensation. 
 
 * Latin, de and stillare ; Italian, distillare ; French, distiller ; 
 Spanish, destilar — to flow or fall in drops, 
 t Webster's Dictionary.
 
 HISTORY OF THE DISCOVERY OF DISTILLATION. 27 
 
 Spirit distillation merely sifts out the alcoliol. Alcohol 
 boils at 173° Fahr., while water reaches boiling' point first 
 at a temperature of 212° Fahr. Consequently cider or gTape 
 or any juice containing saccharine matter, when subjected 
 to heat, boils the alcohol first, which, in the shape of steam, 
 can be passed into and deposited in a separate vessel. The 
 point in this process is to secure the boiling point of the 
 alcohol without reaching the heat at which the water will 
 boil. 
 
 Hectification is the re-distillation of what has already Rectification. 
 been distilled. Its object is to separate more completely 
 the water which may have been vaporized with the 
 alcohol. 
 
 S 7. The original discovery of spirit distillation* is very Discovery of 
 
 . . ... suirit distil- 
 
 naturally sought for in those countries of antiquity dis- lation attri- 
 tinguished for the greatest civilization and culture, and p^f^^gt"*^ 
 Avriters on the subject are tolerably unanimous in pointing 
 to the Far Eastf and, most of them, to China. J " Humboldt cw°»- 
 says that the process used by us in making sugar was 
 brought from Oriental Asia, and that even the cylinders 
 placed horizontally and put in motion by a mill with 
 cauldrons and purifying apparatus, such as are to be seen. 
 
 * "There runs an old German legend, prevalent to this day in the 
 duchy of Saxe-Meiningen, which details circumstantially his Satanic 
 Majesty's claim to this important invention. The monarch of the 
 infernal regions, so the story goes, was once fairly outwitted by a 
 Steinbach man, who ti-icked the great enemy of mankind into 
 entering an old beech-tree, where he found himself trapped vrithoub 
 power of escape, and did not regain his freedom till the tree was cut 
 down. As soon as he was liberated, Old Nick rushed frantically to 
 his dominions to see how things had fared during his absence. To 
 his dismay he found hell emiJty. Casting about him for some means 
 of refilling Pandemonium with lost souls, he hit upon the idea of 
 inventing brandy. Delighted with this happy thought, he hurried' 
 at once to the city of Nordhausen, and set up a distillery there, which 
 was so successful that all the rich men of the place came to him to 
 learn this new art of brandy-making, and in due time, abandoning 
 theii" other business, became distillers themselves. ' And thus,' says 
 the old chronicler of the legend, ' it happened that to the jDresent day 
 there is no other place in the world where there is so much of brandy 
 burned as at Nordhausen.' " — Licensed Victuallers' Guide, July, 1880. 
 
 t The Asiatic Journal of ISiO cites an old Hinda manuscript, 
 according to which a distilled liquor resembling brandy, called 
 Kea-sum, was known in India from most ancient times. 
 
 X Samuel Morewood.
 
 28 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 in the West Indies, are purely of Chinese origin, and were 
 in use at a period long anterior to the visit of any European 
 to that country. ... In China, a country which has 
 preserved its civil polity for so many thousand years, the 
 art of distillation was known far beyond the date of any 
 fofbeS? of its authentic records. . . . That the Chinese were 
 the Chinese vcrscd in all the secrets of alchemy, or, rather, in that 
 the original hrancli of it which had for its object a universal panacea, 
 d-snIT^"^''°^ long before this fancy engaged the speculations of European 
 while seek- practitioners, there is abundant proof, since some of their 
 iito'*^^ *^'**'' empirics have from an early period boasted of a specific 
 among their drugs which insures an immortality like that 
 conferred on Godwin's ' St. Leon.' The search after this 
 elixir vitce originated, it appears, among the disciples of 
 the philosopher Lao-kiun, who flourished six hundred 
 years before Christ. Not content with tlie tranquillity of 
 mind which that teacher of wisdom endeavoured to in- 
 culcate, and considering death as too great a barrier to its 
 attainment, they betook themselves to chemistry, and after 
 the labour of ages in a vain endeavour to prevent the 
 dissolution of our species, and after the destruction of three 
 of their emperors, who fell victims to the immortalizing 
 draught, they, like the alchemists of Europe, ended their 
 researches under the pretence of discoveries which were 
 never made. 
 
 " The Emperor Vu-Ti, who reigned in the year 177 B.C., 
 when about to put one of his ministers to death for drink- 
 ing a cup of this liquor which had been prepared for him- 
 self, was convinced of his weakness aiid folly by the 
 following wise and sensible remonstrance of his minister : — 
 " ' If this drink, sire, hath made me immortal, how can 
 you put me to death ? But if you can, how does such a 
 frivolous theft deserve it ? '" * 
 
 Dr. Baer, of Berlin, in his AlcoJiolismus (1878), says 
 that " SantscJiu, a spirit distilled from various grains in 
 China, but especially from rice, has been a common drink 
 in China and Japan for several hundred years." 
 
 That the Arabs knew anything of distillation previous 
 to their intercourse with the Chinese empire (in A.D. 715) 
 is contested. 
 
 * Da Halde, Annals of the MonarcUs, vol. i. p. 177.
 
 HISTORY OF THE DISCOVERY OF DISTILLATION, 29 
 
 Dr. Magnus Huss, in his excellent work Alcoholismus 
 (Stockholm, 1849-1851), says that " the art of distillation 
 was first discovered in Ai^abia, but as regards arrack at 
 least, the Chinese and Indians seem to have been their 
 teachers." 
 
 But there is ample reason for supjiosing that spirit dis- Distillation 
 tillation was practically known in Arabia long before the '" ^^ "*" 
 time generally accepted as the earliest. There seems little 
 doubt that Geber (Abou-Moussah Diafar-el-Soli) knew Geber. 
 the process of distillation. According to Leo Afi'icanus,* 
 Geber lived in the seventh century, according to others 
 in the eighth. He was called Pricce because of his great 
 learning. Several of his works in Arabic, and one English 
 translation, are to be found in the British__Museum. In 
 his Liber Investigationis Magisterii, Geber himself describes 
 distillation and re-distillation, and proves that be under- 
 stood the processes and the value of the retort (vessel in 
 which substances are subjected to distillation or decom- 
 position by heat). " Distillation is the raising of aqueous 
 vapour in any vessel in which it is placed. There are 
 various modes of distillation. Sometimes it is performed 
 by means of fire, sometimes without it. By means of fire 
 the vapour either ascends into a vessel or descends, as 
 when oil is extracted from vegetables. . . . When we 
 distil oil by means of water we obtain fair and clean oil. 
 . . . By means of water, then, we must proceed with every 
 vegetable, and things of the same nature, to ascertain their 
 elementary parts. ... If not pure at first, put it back 
 until it becomes sufficiently pure. . . . N.B. — At first it 
 will send over only the water with which it was moistened, 
 then the liquor to be distilled." f 
 
 Whether Geber knew about alcoholic distillation is not 
 distinctly stated. That, however, he or some disciple of 
 his probably did so, we are led by a variety of circumstances 
 to infer, and Morewood {op. cit.) quotes the saying that 
 " Al-Mokanna, the veiled, prophet, whose life and actions Ai-Mokan- 
 are" so "^autifully detaiTeoEy Moore in his Lalla Boohh, °^'® 'i<^^*'»- 
 when likely to be taken by the troops under the command 
 of Almohdis' general, in the year Hegira 163, or 980 of 
 
 * Hist. Crit. PMlosophicB, 1, vol. iii. p. 136. 
 
 + Cited from Geber by Samuel Morewood, in his History of 
 Inebriating Liquors, Dublin, 1838.
 
 30 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Rhazes, the 
 
 Moorish 
 
 physician. 
 
 Albucassis, 
 a Moorish 
 physician. 
 
 Raimundus 
 
 Lullus. 
 
 Arnoldus 
 
 Villa-Novus. 
 
 our era, to avoid falling into tlie hands of his enemies, 
 after poisoning his whole family and followers, threw him- 
 self into a vessel of aquafortis." 
 
 § 8. As regards Europe, it appears certain that Rhazes 
 (Mohammed Aboubekr ibn Zakaria el Rhazi, 850-923), 
 the celebrated Moorish physician, called the phoenix of his 
 age on account of his vast learning, jiractised spirit dis- 
 tillation. Dr. J. Friend, in his History of Physic (London, 
 1726, vol. i.), says, " As to distillation, M. Le Clerc fixes 
 the epoch of it in the time of Avicenna " (a Moorish 
 physician who died about 1036), "who, as he supposes, 
 first applied this sort of knowledge in the way of medicine ; 
 . , . if it be, as perhaps it may be . . . derived from the 
 Arabians, the honour of the invention ought rather to be 
 restored to Rhazes." Hoefer, in his great work. History of 
 Chemistry, says positively that Rhazes knew how to distil 
 spirit from grain, but for some reason his discovery did 
 not become a matter of general knowledge. 
 
 Two hundred years later another distinguished Moorish 
 physician and chemist, Albucassis, or Aboul Casim (Chalaf 
 Ben Abbas el-Zahravi, died a.d. 1106), is claimed to have 
 discovered the art of distillation, and in his case at least 
 there are positive proofs. The Arab historian, Wiistenfeld, 
 in his History of Arabian Physicians and Naturalists (1840), 
 demonstrates with documents that Albucassis knew how 
 to make brandy, which disposes of the erroneous but 
 familiar assertion — resting on the unsupported statement 
 of Andersen in his History of Commerce — that distillation 
 was discovered so late in the twelfth century as 1150. 
 And yet it was first in the days of Raimundus Lullus 
 (1234-1315) and Arnoldus Villa-Novus (1238-1314) that 
 the knowledge of distillation began to be spread. 
 
 Raimundus Lullus, born on the Spanish island Majorca, 
 was first a theologian of eminent merits, but falling in love 
 with a charming girl who was afflicted with cancer, he 
 gallantly attacked physic and chemistry in the hope of 
 learning how she might be cured, and his studies in 
 chemistry were so thorough that he became one of the most 
 famous of alchemists. He improved upon the crude mode 
 of spirit distillation by using salts for the elimination of 
 water.* 
 
 * Ars magna Lulli, or " LuUus's great art," was an ingenious
 
 HISTORY OF THE DISCOVERY OF DISTILLATION. 31 
 
 Of Arnoldus Villa-N"ovus, Professor of Medicine at 
 Montpelier, France, Dr. Thomson (System of Chemistry, 
 vol. ii. 1817) says, " He was the first to form tinctures 
 and introduce tliem into medicine ; " and citing from Crell's 
 Annals (1796), Dr. Thomson adds, "He is said also to 
 have been the first who obtained the oil of turpentine." 
 He is chiefly known for the zeal with which, he advocated 
 the use of alcohol, being as identified with its spread as 
 Friar Hernandez with that of tobacco, and as Peter the 
 Hermit with the recovery of the Holy Gi'ave. 
 
 § 9. When we consider that the alchemists — whose Reasons for 
 philosophy, founded by Hermes Trismegistus, was based on mfsts'^beiief 
 Aristotle's doctrine of four elementary substances of the in aicoboi. 
 universe, air, water, fire, and earth — had been constantly 
 labouring for hundreds of years, by means of various com- 
 binations, to extract from these elements the universal 
 essence of life, is it wonderful that on obtaining this 
 mysterious spirituous fluid, comprising ingredients of all 
 these elements, yet baffling their efforts at analysis, they 
 should at once cry out that at last was found the philo- 
 sopher's stone, the fifth element, the quintessence, the 
 elixir of life ? " 
 
 The Adepts (those credited with having found the Reasons for 
 philosopher's stone, and therefore pei-fect in alchemic art), of th'e^''"^''^ 
 judging from the burning sensation it produced, and the masses. 
 fact that it is obtained only by the well-managed and 
 careful application of heat, believed that spirit contained 
 the principles of fire.* 
 
 Is it wonderful that when they found out their terrible 
 mistake, they were exceedingly loth to acknowledge it, 
 the belief of the masses being the only plank for their 
 otherwise absolutely lost reputation ? 
 
 Is it strange that the masses of the nations who had 
 been for centuries kept in feverish expectancy of the great 
 
 attempt at systematic arrangement of tlie ideas necessary in general 
 knowledge and ordinary commnnication, letters to be used as signi- 
 fying the fundamental ideas, and mathematical figures to indicate 
 their relations. Going at last as a missionary to Maui-itania (north- 
 west coast of Africa), he was stoned to death at the age of eighty, by 
 the natives. 
 
 * The North American Indians seem by natural instinct to have 
 reached a similar conclusion in their simple effective appellation — 
 fire-vifater.
 
 32 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Various 
 names for 
 alcohol. 
 
 Derivations 
 of the word 
 alcohol. 
 
 discovery, should, on hearing the " lo triomphe ! " of their 
 wisest leaders, make the eager chorus of that cry and 
 clamour for the poisoning draught which they believed to 
 be the " Water of life " ? 
 
 § 10. When first discovered, the distilled spirit was 
 known by a variety of names, such as aqua ardens, aqua- 
 fortis, vinum ardens, vinum adustimn (burnt) , spiritus ardens, 
 etc. Arnoldus Villa- Novus called it aqua-vitce or aqua-vini. 
 Raimundus Lullus often called it aqua ardens and aqua 
 vitce ardens. It was also called mercurius vegetabilis, 
 because bodily substances capable of being evaporated 
 through circulating heat were termed mercurial, as it is 
 by means of intense heat that mercury in the form of 
 fumes is expelled fi'om metallic minerals. " This name, 
 however," says H. Kopp, in his Jlistory of Chemistry 
 (Braunschweig, 1847), "came into disuse in the sixteenth 
 century, and from that time forth the term alcohol became 
 steadily more general." 
 
 In the word alcohol the Arabic article al is prefixed, 
 as in the word aZ-chemy, to denote the superlative degree 
 of the cohol, or in Arabic, koM ; in Chaldaic, cohal ; in 
 Hebrew, Tcaal ; which means fine, that is, exceedingly fine 
 and subtle. This word was used in Arabia as the name of 
 an almost ethereally fine powder with which the Eastern 
 dames were wont to tinge their eyebrows and eyelashes ; 
 hence because this fluid was found in Arabia, and was 
 among fluids as fine and volatile as this cosmetic among 
 powders, Europeans gave to it the sarue name.* 
 
 According to Dr. Edward Johnson, it is founded upon 
 the Eastern superstition of the earth being infested with 
 wicked spirits, and that when the first effect of this newly 
 discovered drug was seen upon men, the Arabians imagined 
 the persons to be possessed of a devil, which had either 
 assumed the form of the liquid, or entered the body along 
 with it, in which case they would in fright exclaim, " Al 
 ghole, Al ghole," the evil ghost or spirit. f And even when 
 ■ this notion was put aside, the vast amount of mischief 
 
 * Rev. Dr. J. Guthrie, in his Temperance Physiology (Glasgow, 
 1877), thinks the word alcohol is " probably derived from the Ai'abic 
 kahaia, equivalent to the Hebrew cachal, to paint." 
 
 t " O thou invisible spirit of wine, if thou hast no name to be 
 known by, let us call thee Devil ! " — Cassio in Othello, Act ii. so. 3.
 
 HISTORY OF THE DISCOVERY OF DISTILLATION. 33 
 
 which the liquid still wrought amongst mankind caused 
 the i-etention of the name " Al ghole," which in course of 
 time has been corrupted to alcohol. 
 
 " Kopp thinks," says Dr. Baer (oj). cit.), " that the word 
 came from the Arabic technique, and meant poivder and to 
 pulverize, and that the spirit di'awn over the carbonate of 
 potassium to free it from water, was first called spirihis 
 alcalisatus (alkali meaning salt), and thereafter by trans- 
 position spiritus a\co\isatits, which term went into alcool 
 spiritics vini. So, for example, does Libavius * put together 
 vini alcool and vinum alcalisatum. 
 
 Says Dr. Huss (op. cit.), "When we remember that 
 just at that period the medical science was at its lowest 
 ebb, the masses placing their trust especially in arcana 
 and universal remedies, we find it quite natural that a 
 remedy so generally praised and so agreeable to the taste 
 should become a household article, and from a medical The spread 
 become a dietetic necessity,— ^at first on the pretext of its 
 antidotal and strength-giving properties, but soon also on 
 account of its intoxicating nature, — in cot as well as castle. 
 And with such rapidity and avidity did this abuse spread, 
 that by the middle of the seventeenth century, it was 
 common among all classes, and chemistry was required 
 to find new avenues of production in order to satisfy the 
 cravings for drink. And this was found in the distillation 
 of all kinds of gi'ain and fruit, and lastly potatoes." 
 
 * Libavius, who died in 1616, wrote the first chemical text-book, 
 called Alchemia.
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 PRELIMINARIES TO THE STUDY OF MODERN DRINKING. 
 
 § 11. Thus far we have taken a brief survey of the drinking 
 customs among tlie ancients, of the effects of the habits 
 and the notions then prevalent ; and have touched on the 
 discovery of distillation, and the spread of the use of 
 alcohol as a life-elixir, as medicine, and as a beverage. 
 
 But before dealing with the effects of alcohol on man, 
 since distilled as well as fermented drinks became common 
 in Europe, it will be necessary to say something about 
 chemistry and physiology in order to be intelligible to the 
 great masses who have so little time to keep abreast with 
 the progress of scientific knowledge, but who use their 
 narrow opportunities with an eagerness and energy de- 
 serving far more respect and attention than they receive. 
 
 That power of ancient thought over modern investiga- 
 tion, of which we have spoken, is practically illustrated 
 by the history of chemistry.* The Greek philosopher 
 Aristotle's Terminology, for example— a work arranging 
 and defining technical terms — is not yet displaced by any 
 other, and his general theories still undei^lie modern realism. 
 A writer on almost every subject, Aristotle wrote also some 
 works on plants and animals, and thus really originated 
 the sciences of botany and physiology ; and though these 
 works are now regarded as among his weakest efforts, and 
 notwithstanding the patent eiTors in them, they were, 
 
 * Chemistry, that branch of science which treats of the composition, 
 decomposition, and changes of substances ; chemist, a person versed 
 in chemistry ; chemically, according to the natural laws of chemistry ; 
 chemicals, substances jDroducing chemical eifects ; molezule, an in- 
 divisible comjiouud of matter j atom, indivisible ultimate of matter.
 
 PRELIMINAEIES TO THE STUDY OF MODERN DRINKING. 
 
 owing to the weiglit of his great name, paramount over all 
 other authorities for two thousand years, other investiga- 
 tions beingr fenced within the lines he had drawn. 
 
 It was first by the demonstration of the famous Irish The dis- 
 philosopher and chemist, R. Boyle (1627-1691), of the chemical 
 existence of chemical elements, that Aristotle's " four ^jj™®^"J,^' 
 elements" theory was finally and definitely disproved, and oxygen. 
 Two of the chief elements in all life-combinations, nitrogen 
 and oxygen, were not discovered, however, till 1772 and 
 1774 respectively, the first by Rutherford and the second 
 by Priestley and Scheele. But Lavoisier was the first to 
 use these discoveries in laying the foundation of a philo- 
 sophical science. 
 
 From Boyle's time and until the time of Antoine Lavoisier's 
 Laurent Lavoisier (1743-1794) it was supposed that the SusiTo"/ 
 more complex compounds in the animal and vegetable oxidation, 
 worlds were peculiar, that is, foreign to the mineral or 
 inorganic, and were termed organic compounds because 
 they are highly complex substances which constitute 
 organic bodies, to distinguish them from the substances 
 composing the mineral creation, which were termed in- 
 organic compounds. Lavoisier dispelled this notion, and 
 showed that just as oxygen, by combustion of carbon, forms 
 carbonic acid, and, in combination with hydrogen, water 
 in external nature ; so the oxygen in the inhaled air pro- 
 duces corresponding changes in the carbon and hydrogen 
 it finds in the animal organism. While engaged in experi- 
 ments which he hoped might change the faint ray into the 
 broad light of day, Lavoisier was seized and brought before 
 Danton, who, when Lavoisier begged for only fourteen 
 days more in which to complete his experiments that the 
 results might be saved to mankind, brutally exclaimed 
 that France wanted neither scholars nor chemists, and 
 hurried him to the guillotine.* 
 
 * " The man is thouglit a knave or fool 
 
 Or bigot plotting crime, 
 Who, for the advancement of his kind, 
 
 Is wiser than his time. 
 For him the hemlock shall distill; 
 
 For him the axe be bared ; 
 For him the gibbet shall be built ; 
 
 For him the stake prepared.
 
 36 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 The founda- 
 tion of scien- 
 tific physi- 
 ology laid in 
 1850, in the 
 cell dis- 
 covery. 
 
 The estab- 
 lishment of 
 organic 
 scientific 
 physiology 
 in 1855. 
 
 Lavoisier had lived, however, to found the chemico- 
 phjsiological science, indicating the intimacy and inter- 
 dependence existing between all parts of the physical 
 universe, and in this pointing out to us the vast scope of 
 scientific physiology. But immediately upon his death his 
 theories were scouted as the dreams of a visionary, and 
 even so late as 1835 the famous German physiologist 
 Joannes Miiller, in his Handbook of Physiology, ridiculed 
 them, saying that the theory of water formation from 
 hydrogen was invented to support that of combustion, but 
 afterwards founded his brilliant chemico-physiological 
 school on the basis laid by Lavpisier.* 
 
 It was first by the establishment tlirough Schwann — 
 one of Miiller's most competent disciples — and Von Mohl, 
 of the theory of the cell, termed by Professor Huxley the 
 "basis of life" (1850-51), that a stable foundation for 
 scientific physiology was laid ; and the probable truth of 
 this cell basis of life has been demonstrated by the vast 
 structure already reared on that slender beginning. 
 
 Thus physiology, from being regarded merely as the 
 science of the organs and their functions in animals and 
 plants, has become what the name indicates (physiology 
 — Greek, physis, nature, and logos, discourse) the science of 
 nature, though its investigations of the inorganic world, 
 the plants, and even of the animals, are daily becoming 
 more experimental in oi'der to obtain clues for solving some 
 of the manifold mysteries of the human organism. 
 
 From about 1855 dates the scientific researches in 
 organic f physiology, and chemico-physiological science 
 is therefore not quite thirty years old. In that time it has 
 
 Him shall the scorn and wrath of men 
 
 Pursue with deadly aim ; 
 And malice, envy, spite, and lies 
 
 Shall desecrate his name. 
 But truth shall conquer at the last ; 
 
 For round and round we run, 
 And ever the right comes uppermost 
 And ever is justice done." 
 
 Charles Mackay. 
 * With Morveau, Lavoisier formed the modem chemical 
 nomenclature. 
 
 t The term organic is now applied simply to the compounds of 
 carbon, irrespective of their complexity (Baker's Physiology).
 
 PRELIMINARIES TO THE STUDY OF MODERN DRINKING. 37 
 
 made tremendous progress, but has not yet solved all the 
 mysteries of physical life, nor can it be faii'ly expected that 
 it should have done so within such a space, though many 
 seem to have expected it. 
 
 § 12. Alcohol has played a most prominent part in How alcohol 
 chemical researches from the first, and for several reasons, pro^nent 
 In the experiments made with alcohol, when the demand subject for 
 became greater than could be supplied by the original vestigation. 
 methods, it was soon found that alcohol possessed the 
 most marked and highly valuable properties for chemical 
 experiments, the power of solving — with some notable 
 exceptions, as we shall find later on — most chemical sub- 
 stances, and of mixing in almost any proportions with 
 most fluids. 
 
 Then the demand made by both drinkers and abstainers, 
 and more and more imperatively made, for information as 
 to the exact efi^ects of drink on the human system, has 
 further stimulated the scientific study of alcohol, so that 
 researches in this direction have been disproportion- 
 ately greater than those referring to other chemical 
 compounds. 
 
 Until 1828 it was supposed that there was only one Discovery of 
 kind of alcohol (viz. ethyl- alcohol — the name being derived ^gtilyi, 
 from the first syllable in the Greek word aither, ether, and and amyi 
 another Greek word, hyla, wood, hence wood-ether — which 
 is the name for the spirit of wine), but in that year Dumas 
 and Peligot proved that the distilled spirit of wood — 
 known in trade as methylated (or methyl-alcohol, from 
 Greek, vieta, with, and hyla, wood, hence wood-spirit) spirit, 
 discovered by Taylor- — was an alcohol. In 1839 the spirit 
 extracted from the starch of potato was found to contain 
 amyl very largely, and was called amyZ-alcohol, from the 
 Greek word amylon, meaning fine meal or starch. Alcohols The great 
 have since been discovered by the hundred, necessitating gr™pg and 
 elaborate systematizations of the various series in groups varieties of 
 and divisions. 
 
 Of all these series and groups of alcohols we are 
 chiefly, if not exclusively, concerned with the first or fatty 
 series — so called because they were looked upon as pro- 
 ductive of fat. Of these, only two, ethyl and amyl, 
 require extensive treatment, though five of these groups 
 are generally found together in all alcohols, viz. : —
 
 38 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 The elements 
 of alcohol. 
 
 Oxygen. 
 
 Hydrogen. 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 Methyl, or, according to Gerhardt, in Greek numerals, prolyl or Is^. 
 Ethyl, „ „ „ deutyl or 2nd. 
 
 Propyl, „ „ „ trityl or 3rd. 
 
 Butyl, „ „ „ tetryl or 4th. 
 
 Amyl, „ „ „ pentyl or 5th. 
 
 To show the reader how complex even this series is, 
 I may mention that each of these five groups contains several 
 kinds, and the number is constantly increasing. As an 
 example, Basset, the French chemist, in his great work on 
 Distillation, published sixteen years ago, mentions : — • 
 
 79 kinds of methyl. 
 17 „ butyl. 
 15 „ propyl. 
 
 9 „ amyl. 
 
 7 „ ethyl. 
 
 All alcohols * are composed of three elements, viz. 
 oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon. 
 
 Oxygen (Greek, oxys, sharp, and genein, to generate, 
 so called because originally supposed to form an essential 
 part of acids) is a gaseous element, without positive taste, 
 colour, or smell, but possessing strong chemical attraction, 
 and forming about one-sixth part of common air. Its slow 
 combination with other elements results in oxidation, and 
 its sudden combination in combustion. 
 
 Hydrogen (Greek, hydoor, water, and genein, to gene- 
 rate), the lightest of all known gaseous elements, is found 
 in small but variable proportion in the air. Its increase 
 produces rain, and it forms about one-ninth part of water. 
 It is colourless, highly inflammable, and forms an essential 
 part of almost all organic bodies. 
 
 Carbon is a non-gaseous, non-metallic element. It 
 forms the chief element in charcoal, enters largely into 
 mineral coals, and in its pure crystallized state forms the 
 diamond. It is combustible, and predominates in all 
 organic compounds. In its chemical properties it differs 
 from other elements in this respect, that it is capable of 
 
 * " Alcohol is the collective name of a class of organic unions 
 whicli in their characteristics and modes of formation stand close to 
 the ordinary ethyl-alcohol. They are all neutral, but unite, when 
 freed from the watery elements, with acids, making compound ethers, 
 from which they can again be restored by the addition of the 
 elements of water." — Brockhaus' Conversation-Lexicon, vol. i. (1884) 
 Ed. 13, now in process of publication.
 
 PRELIMINARIES TO THE STUDY OF MODERN DRINKING. 39 
 
 uniting with hydrogen in various definite proportions, thus 
 forming the vast variety of hydro-carbons, and when also 
 combined wuth oxygen giving rise to the carbo-hydrates 
 which are found throughout the vast plant world. 
 
 The chief substance among the carbo-hydrates, from The natural 
 which alcohol is derived, is sugar — a most varied and aSois"^ 
 vastly extended siibstance not confined to the plant world, 
 but spreading throughout the whole dominion of life. 
 Scientists group sugars according to their different views. 
 The simplest arrangement, I find, is one of three groups : — 
 
 First gTOup. — Glucose (Greek, glykos, sweet), which 
 comprises principally grape sugar, fruit sugar, and inosit 
 — a sweet found in many plants, but chiefly belonging to 
 the muscles of the heart and tissues of the lungs of the 
 higher animals. 
 
 Second group. — The true svigars, viz., cane-sugar, lactose 
 (Latin, lac, milk) or milk sugar. 
 
 The thii'd group mostly contains cellulose, or the chief 
 substance for cell formation, i.e. starch, dextrine or starch- 
 gum, and gluten. From all these various sugars alcohol 
 can be obtained ; by direct fermentation from the glucose, 
 and by the conversion of the second and third groups into 
 glucose, and then into alcohol. Alcohol has also been 
 obtained, though in small amounts only, by synthesis, or 
 chemical composition. 
 
 Fermentation is the general name applied to the first The meaning 
 processes of nature's taking to pieces some organic com- of femen-'"^^ 
 pound or body, either for further construction of organic Nation, 
 life-supply ; or for dissolution into elements — the principle 
 of life having fled. 
 
 Fermentation (Latin, fervere, to boil) was a tei'm ori- 
 ginally used concerning all phenomena where a liquid or 
 pasty mass was seen to lift or bubble, discharging gas with- 
 out an apparent cause. Chemically it means a reaction in 
 which an organic compound under the influence of a ferment 
 changes inadetermined sense atthe expense of the substance. 
 
 It is now known that all fermentation is the work of The nature, 
 
 -\^ -\ • . » , • • n 1 action, and 
 
 so-called micro-organisms,* or active organisms so small influence of 
 
 ferments ou 
 * Micro-organisms called bacteria at once set feeding on the dead ^i^^- 
 tissues ; but if excluded, or even through chemical processes stopped 
 in their enterprises, fermentation ceases.
 
 40 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 that, as Professor Fliigge, of Gottingen, states (in his work 
 on Ferments and Micro-parasites, published at Leipsic, Zvly, 
 1883) : — " They stand on the border of invisibility, even 
 to the eye armed with the best optical means, and yet, with 
 their undreamt-of spread and deeply invading activity, 
 play a most important role in the household of nature and 
 the existence of man. They cause the destruction of life- 
 less organic substances, occasion the oxidation of otherwise 
 non-oxidable stuffs. They provide the plants continually 
 with their chlorophyll " (Greek, klooros, light green) — " the 
 green colouring matter of the leaves and stalks of plants — 
 excite the most diverse fermentations, and to us they are 
 an indispensable means of preparing our ordinary foods. 
 . . . On the other hand, they live as parasites on our 
 cultivated plants, and bring about their degeneration and 
 death. They produce at times the severest diseases, both 
 in lower and higher animals, and at times threaten man 
 with murderous epidemics. ... In air, in earth, water, 
 everywhere we find these same little organisms ; we recog- 
 nize them in our nearest surroundings, in the home, in the 
 food, as permanent companions, and incidentally as for- 
 midable enemies. Most of these important little lives are 
 plants of very elementary structure and the simplest 
 procreative processes, but of extraordinary powers of 
 multiplication. A few of them belong to the lowest 
 animals. 
 Pateofthe K 13, j^g -we have seen, alcoholic fermentation, though 
 
 rirst Qis- . -■- 
 
 coveryofthe known from prehistoric times, was not understood. Later 
 real nature -^ ^^^ observed as limited to sweet substances, but the 
 
 oi aicouoiic , "TIT 
 
 ferments. secret of the fermentation processes has remained unsolved 
 till our day. The real nature of the alcoholic ferments 
 or yeasts as living fungi, was first discovered in 1835 by 
 Cagniard Latour, and in 1837 the already mentioned 
 German, Schwann, proved that the atmosphere is always 
 charged with ferments. Since then the microscopic science, 
 headed by such men as Kolliker, Pasteur, Liebig, Nageli, 
 and others, has succeeded in revealing a universe of micro- 
 scopic plants and animals. 
 Generation ^\^q yeast fungi consist of single cells generated by 
 
 fungi. sprouting, at one or both ends of the mother-cell, smaller 
 
 membrane-like bladders which, filling with part of the 
 contents from the mothex*-cell, gradually assume her form
 
 PRELDUXARIES TO THE STUDY OF MODERX DPJXKING. 41 
 
 and size, being divided from ter by a wall ; the procreation 
 from cell to cell by this process is infinitelj rapid. 
 
 By alcoholic fermentation, glucose is dissolved into from 
 30 to 31 per cent, alcohol, 60 per cent, carbonic-acid gas,* 
 and a small portion of other compounds, the chief of them 
 being from 2'5 to 5'6 per cent, glycerine, and 04 to 0"7 
 succinic acid, etc. 
 
 All fermentations can be di-vaded into two groups : The lethal 
 the one for maintaining life, and the other for producing ako^o^Uc^ 
 death and dissolution into original elements. Alcoholic fermenta- 
 fermentation belongs to the latter group, because, as far 
 as known, alcohol can never be obtained from any living 
 organism, substance, or chemic compounds containing life 
 — death and decay being necessary pre-conditions for its 
 natural production. And as alcoholic fermentation is a 
 saccharine fermentation, and as saccharine fluids are 
 inherent in all organic compounds — saccharine ferments 
 being spontaneously present wherever saccharine fluids 
 exist — and as all organic compounds are subject to the 
 law of death and decay, it follows that all organic sub- 
 stances, in a certain proportion to their saccharine con- 
 tents, may be productive of alcohol, i.e. be alcoholizable. 
 And these facts have been practically demonstrated in the 
 various domains of nature by recent chemical experiments, 
 though the alcohol discovered has been small in quantity, 
 owing probably to its volatility and proneness to oxidation 
 and further dissolution. 
 
 Thus, for example, we are told by the French scientist Saccharine 
 Muntz, that he had found traces of alcohol in water, and tion explains 
 that he had reason to believe that the carburetted body I^cohoUound 
 indicated by Boussingault and De Saussure as being m water, air, 
 
 •^ ° ° and earth. 
 
 * CarboiuG-acid gas forms 0*03 to 0"06 per cent, of the atmo- 
 sphere. It streams forth from active volcanoes, as well as from, many 
 fis3m:es in the earth, e.g. the Dog Cave at Xaples, the vapour caves 
 at Pyrmont, Vichy, Haaterive, the Death Valley in Java, etc. 
 Carbonic-acid gas is generally formed in plant or animal decom- 
 positions ; for instance, wood, tallow, oil, are changed through 
 atmospheric combustion into carbonic acid and water. Where organic 
 substances are richly strewn in the ground there is also much 
 carbonic acid, hence the presence of so much of this deadly gas in 
 coal mines, etc. Animals expirate carbonic acid gas, because through 
 oxidation, organic substances are solved into carbonic acid gas and 
 water.
 
 42 THE FOUNDATIOiSr OF DEATH. 
 
 present in tlie atmosphere was alcoliol. And there is 
 every reason to believe this to be a fact, there being 
 always in the air, as in the water, saccharine compounds. 
 So also, when we are told that there is alcohol in the soil, 
 we have reason to credit it. We know the soil consists 
 chiefly of the material residue of organic and inorganic 
 decomposition, and of course in earth, as in air and water, 
 alcohol is a product of the decompositions of saccharine 
 particles. 
 
 May not the carbonic-acid gas, or deadly vapour found 
 especially in coal mines, be a residue in no small degree of 
 the carbonic-acid gas formed in far distant ages by the 
 alcoholic fermentation of the organic matter which h.as 
 been through succeeding ages turned into coal ? And 
 may it not be that the alcohol obtained through dry dis- 
 tillation — i.e. through heat and exchision of air — is to 
 some extent only the released product of natural ancient 
 fermentations ? * 
 Alcohol in In the preparation of bread the yeast changes the 
 
 ^^^ ' starch into dextrine or grape sugar. In the further 
 
 fermentation the grape sugar changes about 2 per cent, of 
 the flour into carbonic acid and alcohol ; the carbonic-acid 
 gas causes the sponginess of the dough, the alcohol in the 
 baking evaporates. Bread kept for some days in a warm 
 room through the action of spontaneous ferment re-acquires 
 alcohol from, according to Bolas, 0'12 to 0"32 per cent., 
 and if left longer it is soured by the action of acetic 
 ferments into sour bread.f 
 
 * " Alcohol trom Smoke. — The latest instance of the utilization 
 of waste products is that effected at Elk Rapids, Michigan, with the 
 gaseous matter given forth by a blast furnace in which are manu- 
 factured fifty tons of charcoal iron a day. In the case to which we 
 refer, the vast amount of smoke from the pits, formerly lost in the 
 air, is now turned to account by being driven by suction or draught 
 into stills surrounded by cold water, the results of the condensation 
 being — first, acetate of lime ; second, methyl-alcohol ; third, tar ; 
 the fourth part produces gas, which is consumed under the boilers. 
 Each cord of wood produces 29,000 cubic feet of smoke, 2,900,000 
 feet of smoke handled in the twenty -four hours producing 12,000 lbs. 
 of acetate of lime, 200 gallons of alcohol, and 25 lbs. of tar." — Louis- 
 ville Medical Neiv,<i, March 17, 1883. 
 
 t " Some New York bakers are, it appears, exercising their 
 minds with the reflection that about one thousand gallons of alcohol 
 are daily wasted in the ovens of the Empire City, and they have
 
 PRELIMINARIES TO THE STUDY OF MODERN DRINKING. 43 
 
 But alcohol has also been detected in the wastes of Alcohol in 
 livinsf organisms. Gutzeit claims to have found ethyl and l'"*""^ organ- 
 
 11^11 • -I • ^ 1 • 1 • 1 • isnas, plants, 
 
 methyl alcohols mixed with butyric and acetic ethers m and animals, 
 growing plants — parsnips, and in Anthriscus cerefoliuTYi and 
 Heracleuvi giganteum and other plants. 
 
 Alcohol as a purely natural product is not confined to 
 the plant world. According to attested results of ex- 
 periments by Becamp, alcohols and acids ai'c constant and 
 immediate outcomes of animal death, so that very shortly 
 after death takes place alcoholic fluids are obtainable from 
 the tissues. 
 
 But it is claimed that alcohol is to be found not only 
 in dead but even in living animals. Marcownicoff detected 
 alcohol in the urine of diabetic patients, and recently it 
 has been proved that in the excrements of all healthy per- 
 sons alcohol is traceable, and the reason is not very far to 
 seek. The glucose in the body is acted upon by the always 
 spontaneously present ferments of glucose ; alcohol and 
 carbonic acid must be the result. 
 
 § 14. As alcohol is one of the chief products in the first 
 chemical combination of organic dissolution, so it is but 
 natural that it should possess strong potential tendencies 
 towards further dissolutions, and as oxidation is the chief 
 agent in both solution and dissolution, so alcohol has a 
 
 been making inquiries as to how they may save the spirit. It is a 
 fact that wherever yeast fermentation is allowed to set in, there 
 alcohol is produced, and that it is quite possible, by condensing the 
 vapours from a batch of bread in the process of baking, to recover 
 quite a considerable quantity of alcohol. But the New York bakers 
 are would-be plagiarists. Some years ago a company was started in 
 London to make bread and recover the alcohol, but owing partly to 
 the bad arrangemem;s adoptecf^nd 2Dartly"To"the opposition of rival 
 bakersTTIie scheme was a failm-e. The rival bakers adopted the 
 simple expedient of announcing that their bread was sold'"Srrth all 
 the gin in it ;" and sti;g;n^e'to sa^ they obtained the publ ic cus tom. 
 although there was no more alcohol in their bread than in that made 
 by the company. It is quite possible to obtain a small quantity of 
 alcohol from the vapours arising from a baker's oven, but any 
 attempt to k ill two b irds with one stone in this case results in the 
 practical escgjje of both ; for "it fTie ba ker y is convgrted into a 
 distillery the bi^d is s poil t, and the spirits are scarcely worth the 
 trouble, seeing that they can be made cheaply enough by legitimate 
 means, and any attempt to make them illegitimately would bring on 
 the baker all the rules and regulations of the Excise." — Echo, 
 January 26, 1884.
 
 44. 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 The ten- 
 dency of 
 alcohol to 
 decompose 
 Into ele- 
 ments. 
 
 strong attraction to oxidation, and rapidly goes over from 
 one combination to another, gradually freeing the atoms 
 until finally only the original elements of its composition 
 — namely, oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen — remain, set free 
 to enter into new combinations. 
 
 The irresistible tendency of alcohol to dissolve things 
 into their elements, by means of oxidation and hydration, 
 is shown in the very process of distillation, for notwith- 
 standing the elaborate precautions to obtain what is called 
 pure alcohol — we see the alcohol itself proceeding— some 
 of it — into further stages of dissolution by freeing one or 
 more atoms belonging to alcoholic compounds, such as 
 acetic ethers and aldehydes. 
 
 As an example of the successively rapid changes towards 
 absolute dissolution which alcohols pass through if free to 
 do so, I may cite changes peculiar to ethyl -alcohol, the 
 naost common, least intoxicating, and with which we are 
 most concerned. Its chemical formula C.,HgO, or two 
 parts carbon, six parts hydrogen, and one part oxygen, 
 easily changes. H being freed, we have acetic ether ; 
 another H being removed, there is aldehyde. With this 
 result, double the O and we have acetic acid or spirit of 
 vinegar, etc. (any alcoholic drink exposed only for a short 
 tirae to the air changes in part into these compounds). 
 All acids substitute an for H., thus : — 
 
 Methylic ... 
 
 ... CH,0 
 
 Formic 
 
 CH^O 
 
 Ethylic ... 
 
 ... C^HgO 
 
 Acetic 
 
 ... CoH.O. 
 
 Propylic ... 
 
 ... C3H3O 
 
 Propionic . . . 
 
 ... CjHgO, 
 
 Butylio . . . 
 
 ... C,H,„0 
 
 Butyric 
 
 ... C,H,0, 
 
 Amylic ... 
 
 ... CjH^G 
 
 Valeric 
 
 ... C.H.oO 
 
 Caproylic 
 
 ... CeHi.O 
 
 Caproic 
 
 ... CgH^a 
 
 for alcohols. 
 
 § 15. Methyl and ethyl alcohols have been found useful 
 in various ways in civilization — methyl in particular, because 
 of its comparative cheapness. Methyl- alcohol, as methy- 
 Various uses lated spirit (which is ethyl-alcohol mixed with methyl- 
 alcohol to such an extent as to spoil it for drinking), is very 
 extensively used as varnish, in methyl-aniline colouring, as 
 oil for spirit lamps, and for dissolving resin and fatty sub- 
 stances generally, essential oils, ethers, alkaloids, most 
 organic acids and certain" of their salts. It enters largely 
 into the manufacture of candles, india-rubber, and collodion, 
 in which shape it is specially used by photographers, for
 
 PRELIMINARIES TO THE STUDY OF MODERX DRINKING. 45 
 
 aromatic waters, cleansing of glass, etc. Pettenkofer, the 
 Munich chemist and physiologist, discovered some years 
 ago how, by means of alcoholic vapours, to restore faded 
 oil paintings. Aldehyde is principally used in silver 
 amalgamation on. glass. 
 
 § 16. But in nothing is alcohol more used than in Sources of 
 intoxicating d rink s, in all of which it forms the chie f found iu " 
 intoxicating p rinc iple. The alcohol is obtained from grapes, brinks. 
 whence by fermentation wine, and by distillation of wine, 
 wine alcohol, which, containing about .30 per cent, of water, 
 gives the true brandies ; tree fruits — apples, pears, peaches, 
 etc., which, by fermentation, produce ciders, and whose 
 distillations give apple, pear, and peach spirit, and whose 
 dilution by water gives the fi"uit brandies. By similar 
 processes, currant, lemon, and other brandies are obtained. 
 But the most prominent sources of alcohol are potatoes, 
 sugar refuse, andgrains ; of the latter especially barley, 
 rye, and maize, because of the abundance of starch which 
 they contain, which by diastatic ferment is turned into 
 dextrine, then grape sugar, then spirit. 
 
 The process of dextrine development in grain is called Malting. 
 the malting, by which the grain, first being caused to 
 sprout in warm moisture, is then slowly heated till the life 
 principle is extinct. 
 
 The spirit from sugar refuse is called rum; that from various 
 potatoes, barley, rye, and maize, whiskies and gins. The driiiks.'° 
 gins are flavoured with strong aromatics, especially juniper 
 berries. Barley is chiefly used in the manufacture of 
 beers. And beer is a comparatively weak alcoholic drink 
 in a state of second fermentation, generally flavoured with 
 hop. 
 
 Fermented milk is called kor^iss, and in Rusgia, by 
 distillation of koumiss, a brandy called araca asa is obtained. 
 A rrack is a brandy obtained from rice ; absinthe a cordial 
 of alcohol flavoured with wormwood ; tafia is a brandy 
 from molasses, and kirsch a brandy from the blackberry.
 
 46 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 CHAPTER lY. 
 
 ADULTEEATIOKS. 
 
 Univer?aiity R 17. All adulteration is induced by desire for profit, and 
 adulteration, therefore its unscrupnlousness is limited only by the pro- 
 bability of success. Detection and consequent loss is the 
 only thing the adulterator fears. When we remember 
 these facts, together with the marvellous adulterability * 
 of alcoholic liquors, we can no longer wonder at its vast 
 extension, and the employment therein of all kinds of 
 poisons. 
 
 The chief means of all kinds of liquor adulterations is, 
 of course, water, because while it costs nothing, it gives 
 a greatly increased, though fictitious, value to the drink 
 by increasing its volume. That water makes the liquor 
 less harmful is no justification for its employment, and 
 those who do justify it ignore the moral character of the 
 act, at the same time that they tacitly imply the harmful 
 consequences from drinking liquor. But we find also our 
 strongest poisons, such as strychnia, stramonium, sulphuric 
 acid, oil of clove, bitter almond, sugar of lead, used together 
 with innocent mixtures, all of which in certain proportions 
 
 * In his work on Alcohol and its Physical Effects (New York, 
 1874), Colonel Dudley says — 
 
 " With few exceptions the entire liquor traffic of the world is not 
 only a fraud, but — perhaps without all the dealers being aware of the 
 fact — it amounts to a system of drugging and poisoniug. The 
 business of making adulterated liquoi's has been so simplified that 
 any novice who knows how to make a punch or a cocktail can learn 
 in a short time to make any kind of liquor that will pass muster with 
 nine-tenths of the community." 
 
 Bouchardat says, " The wine sold by retailers consists of alcohol, 
 colouring matters, water, and a very small quantity of natural wine."
 
 ADULTERATIONS. 47 
 
 are disguisable in alcohol, as well as substitutable for it. 
 Alfred Foamier, iu his celebrated article in the New Dic- 
 tionary of Medical and Surgical Practice (Paris, 1864), says 
 of thirty-six samples of spirits and brandy retailed at low- 
 price in the Faubourg of Rouen, and seized by the police, 
 twenty-oue contained sulphuric acid, and five acetic acid. Enumeration 
 And Dr. Parkes (Hyqiene, London, 1878) gives no less than of yarious 
 
 ^ t^ fj ' ^ ' y <-} poisons us6u* 
 
 nineteen poisons in his formidable table of adulterations. 
 Among these are ferrous sulphate, sulphuric acid, essentia 
 bina, colocynth, colchicin, cocculus indicus, strychnine, 
 tobacco, copper, and lead. 
 
 A "Practical Man" (London, 1826), in giving recipes 
 for adulteration, says that in a certain adulteration of brandy 
 other " fermentable matters are added to the must before 
 the fermentation has taken place ; " and of the depravity of 
 another adulteration he adds, " The acid used in combina- 
 tion of counterfeit brandy is commonly called spirit of 
 nitre, and some distillers use quicMime in rectifying their 
 spirits." In 1829 another work, very able and thorough 
 for its time, entitled Wine and Spirit Adidteration Un- 
 masked, tells us that " spirits of wine are generally made 
 from the fruits and refuse of all other spirits and compounds 
 put together and distilled." 
 
 Here is a short simple recipe for making old Jamaica 
 mm : — 
 
 " Sixty gallons proof spirit and one pound of rum 
 essence" (rum essence is composed from acetic ether, 
 saltpetre, wine ether, butyric-acid ether, birch-oil tincture, 
 oak bark, etc., mixed). Very simple, but just think of 
 drinking corn whisky while supposing it to be Jamaica 
 rum ! Dr. Riant gives a recipe for making rum of new- 
 scraped leather, oak bark, oil of clove, tar, and molasses 
 alcohol. 
 
 § 18. The liquors most adulterated are the wines, and Reasons for 
 for many reasons. The art of vinification to even the of wlnes!'"^" 
 most skilled and honest wine-makers is a very difficult 
 science. The accidents of manufacture, such as season, 
 fervidity of fermentation, prolonged access of air, and 
 numerous others, materially affect the colours and flavours 
 of the wines, and, indeed, the present public taste — long 
 accustomed to only same-tasting wines, because of their 
 adnlterations — would have nothing to do with pure wines
 
 48 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Rhine wine 
 adultera- 
 tions. 
 
 Port wine 
 adultera- 
 tions. 
 
 •wMcli wanted tlie familiar adulterated flavours. Thus 
 even the would-be honest wine-dealer has hardly any alter- 
 native to the selling of adulterated wines ; and chemical 
 science has discovered abundant means and methods both 
 for adultei-ation and for artificial manufacture. 
 
 We find that wine adulteration commences from the 
 moment the fruit is gathered. Says Dr. Thudichum, in his 
 lecture on Wines (London, 1869) — 
 
 " Spanish, Portuguese, and French wines of the South 
 are plastered ; that is to say, plaster of Paris is dusted over 
 the grapes immediately after they are gathered, or while 
 they are in the press, or while they are in a state of 
 must." 
 
 Mr. Walter McGee, under the novi de plume " Pedro 
 Verdad," wrote A Booh about Sherry (London, 1876), a 
 trenchant essay on sherry adulteration and the incapacity 
 displayed by the appointed Government analysts for its 
 detection, writes the following concerning the Rhine 
 wines : — 
 
 " In the district of N^euwied, things have come to a 
 sorry pass indeed. The evil has been imported by wine- 
 dealers from abroad, who come in numbers every autumn, 
 and, whether the vintage promises well or ill, buy up the 
 growing grapes, and make from them five or six times the 
 quantity of wine which the press of an honest vintner 
 would produce. The reader will ask, ' How is that 
 possible ? ' Here is the explanation. 
 
 " During the vintage, at night, when the moon has 
 gone down, boats glide over the Rhine, freighted ^vith a 
 soapy substance manufactured from potatoes and called 
 by its owners sugar. This stuff is thrown into the vats 
 containing the tnust ; water is introduced from pumps and 
 wells, or, in case of need, fi'om Father Rhine himself. 
 When the brewage has fermented sufficiently, it is strained 
 and carried away." 
 
 § 19. For some centuries past, ports and sherries have 
 been the principal wines drunk in England. Before the 
 Select Committee on Wines (House of Commons, 1852), 
 Cyrus Redding stated that though the annual export of port 
 wine amounted to only twenty thousand pipes, no less than 
 sixty thousand were consumed ; a goodly amount being 
 concocted out of Cape wines, cider, and brandies, etc., most
 
 ADULTERATIONS. 49 
 
 of the spurious ports being concocted in the London docks, 
 presumably for exportation. 
 
 Mr. Vizetellj, the British Wine Commissioner to the 
 Vienna Exposition, writes in his Wines of the World 
 (London, 1875) : "Nowadays spurious port is prodaced on 
 a large scale at Tarragona", in Spain, which imports con- 
 siderable quantities of dried elderberries, presumably for 
 deepening the colour, if not actually for adulterating the 
 so-called ' Spanish Reds.' A couple of years ago I tasted 
 scores of samples of fictitious ports in every stage of early 
 and intermediate development, rough, fruity, fiery, rounded 
 and tawny, in the cellars of some of the largest manu- 
 facturers at Cette, and saw some thousands of pipes of 
 converted Rousillon wines lying ready for shipment to 
 England and various northern countries, as vintage port." 
 
 Mr. Shaw, in his Wine, the Vine, and the Cellar 
 (London, 18G3), relates this illustrative anecdote, told by 
 Lord Palmerston to a deputation waiting upon him : — 
 
 " I remember my grandfather. Lord Pembroke, when 
 he placed wine before his guests, said, ' There, gentlemen, 
 is my champagne, my claret, etc. I am no great judge, 
 and I give you these on the authority of my wine merchant ; 
 but I can answer for my port, for I made it myself.' " 
 
 Mr. Vizetelly (op. cit.) says about sherry: "The wine sherry 
 which forms the bulk of the better class of sherries ^"g**'^'*" 
 imported into England is of the third quality, and is 
 known as raya. In its natural state it is sound and dry, 
 of a pale greenish yellow colour, and has no particular 
 character. Much of the low-class sherry shipped from 
 Cadiz is blended, moreover, with poor white wine from the 
 Contado de Niebla. When the wine is designed for ship- 
 ment, it is sweetened and flavoured to disguise its 
 deficiencies of taste, and coloured in order that it may be 
 palmed off as old and matured — colouring matter and 
 reddish-brown liquid strongly charged with sulphate of 
 potash — then to prevent fresh fermentation, proof spirits 
 are added." 
 
 Mr. Walter Burton, late of Her Majesty's Customs, 
 asserts that of many thousand tests which he had made at 
 the London Customs House, the average showed 37 per 
 cent, of proof spirit, while some exhibited as much as 
 50 pre cent. 
 
 E
 
 50 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 IMr. James Denman, in his pamphlet, Wine as it should 
 he (London, 1866), cites the following significant advertise- 
 ment from a prominent London morning journal, Septem- 
 ber 29th, 1866 :— 
 
 " Partner Wanted. — A practical distiller, having been 
 experimenting for the last seventeen years, can now produce 
 a fair port and sherry by fermentation, without a drop of 
 grape juice, and wishes a party with from £2000 to 
 £3000 capital, to establish a house in Hamburg for the 
 manufacture of his wines. Has already a good connection 
 in business." 
 
 And a writer on Wine and the Wine Trade in the 
 Edinburgh Bevieiv (July, 1867) says — 
 
 " All the refuse wine, red or white, old samples, heeltaps 
 
 of bottles, half-tasted glasses, are thrown down and passed 
 
 away into the collecting barrel — just as the cook throws 
 
 any kind of meat and soup liquor into his stock-pot — and 
 
 with the addition of a little spirit and colouring matter, it 
 
 comes out very good eighteen-shilling port. Mr. Shaw has 
 
 shoAvn us how ' curious old brown sherry '* is made already 
 
 by the aid of ' the doctor.' " 
 
 Times' leader In a leading article in the Times (December 10th, 1873") 
 (Dec. 10, 1 ° ^ ' ' 
 
 1873) on we read : — 
 
 sheiry " The Correspondence which we have lately published 
 
 on the manufacture of the liquid sold in this country under 
 the name of ' Sherry,' seems calculated to shake even the 
 robust faith of the British householder in the merits of his 
 favourite beverage. The correspondence had its origin in 
 the fate of an unfortunate gentleman who was found, by 
 the verdict of a coroner's jury, to have died from an over- 
 dose of alcohol, taken in four gills of sherry ; and, as it 
 proceeded, it gradually unfolded some of the mysteries of 
 the processes by which the product called sherry is obtained. 
 In the first place, it seems that the grapes, before being 
 trodden and pressed, are dusted over with a large quantity 
 of plaster of Paris (sulphate of lime), an addition which 
 removes the tartaric and malic acids from the juice, and 
 leaves sulphuric acid in their stead, so that the ' must ' 
 contains none of the bitarti'ate of potash which is the 
 natural salt of wine, but sulphate of potash instead, usually 
 
 * At present termed by publicans the drinh of all nations, and 
 not limited to wines by any means.
 
 ADULTERATIONS. 51 
 
 in tte proportion of about two ounces to a gallon. Besides 
 this, the common varieties of ' must ' receive an additional 
 pound of sulphuric acid to each butt, by being impregnated 
 with the fumes of five ounces of sulphur. When fermenta- 
 tion is complete, the wine may contain from a minimum of 
 about 14, to a maximum of 27'5 per cent, of proof spirit ; 
 but it is not yet in a state to satisfy the demands of the 
 English market, neither can it be trusted to travel without 
 undergoing secondary fermentation or other changes. It 
 is therefore treated with a variety of ingredients to impart 
 colour, sweetness, and flavour ; and it receives an addition 
 of sufficient brandy to raise the alcoholic strength of the 
 mixture to 35 per cent, as a minimum, or in some cases 
 to as much as 59 per cent, of proof spirit. When all this 
 has been done, it is shipped in the wood for England, 
 where it is either bottled as ' pure ' wine, or is subjected 
 to such further sophistications as the ingenuity of dealers 
 may suggest. 
 
 " Surely it would not exceed the duty of a Government 
 which has done so much to protect the population from 
 disease, by enforcing sanitary regulations — drainage, house- 
 cleaning, etc. — to interfere vigorously and repress this 
 abominable traffic." 
 
 § 20. All wines intended for export are '■^fortified " — that 
 is, alcoholized — on the pretext that only by this method can 
 they be prevented from souring, a questionable statement 
 when asserted of any well-made and matured wine. It is, 
 however, accepted as a truth by the various European 
 Governments, and naturally the cheapest stuff that will 
 answer the purpose is used in this fortification. 
 
 Mr. Vizetelly says, " It is notorious that Spaniards are 
 not dram-drinkers, yet for a long time Spain imported 
 annually some 1,600,000 gallons of British spirits. 
 
 " It is true that it does so no longer, but simply because 
 Prussia, where it markets to-day, furnishes it with a 
 cheaper article distilled fi^om potatoes and beetroot. It is 
 notorious, moreover, that spirit of the same low class is 
 extensively used in England to fortify port wine in bond. 
 The Custom returns give the total number of 'operations,' 
 as fortifying of wine in the docks is delicately termed, at 
 820 for the year 1872." 
 
 The Daily Telegraph (September 12, 1883), in a leader ^«% ^eie-
 
 52 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 (Sept. 12, 
 1883) on 
 Spanish wine 
 manufac- 
 tured fr. m 
 raw German 
 spirits. 
 
 The Daily 
 Jfeics Madrid 
 correspon- 
 dent on the 
 proposed 
 •wine-adul- 
 teration 
 treaty with 
 Spain. 
 
 Ex-Custom 
 officer W. 
 Burton's 
 expose of 
 wine-making 
 from raw 
 potato spirit 
 in London 
 docks, under 
 Government 
 supervision. 
 
 on the political relations between Germany and Spain, 
 sajs — 
 
 " N'ot only does Spain in politics approach Germany ; 
 in their commercial negotiations her statesmen have made 
 many concessions to Prince Bismarck. The Peninsula 
 furnishes a kind of medium between the raw alcohol of 
 Germany and the palates of the wine-drinkers of the 
 world. Spain imports vast quantities of spirits from the 
 North, mixes them with her own wines, exports them as 
 genuine products of her soil to Finance, where, stamped 
 with the names of famous localities or firms, they, like the 
 Tricolor, make the tour of the world. This French demand 
 for Spanish wines so steadily increases, owing to the 
 ravages of the phylloxera, that out of the produce of her 
 own soil Spain could not possibly meet the demand. Hence 
 the commercial importance of her friendship for Germany." 
 
 This information as to the character of Spanish wines 
 reads curiously side by side with the statements, in the 
 London morning papers (December 7, 1883), that England 
 is about to conclude a commercial treaty with Spain, the 
 nature of which can be judged from these innocent 
 comments of the Daily Neivs' Madrid correspondent : 
 " Even the most extreme pretensions of the Spanish 
 wine-growers only aimed at getting thirty-two or thirty- 
 four degrees for the ultimate limit of the one shilling duty 
 in a definitive treaty some day, and that limit would 
 include fortified wines as well as natural." Thus not 
 only are there to be special facilities for importing, 
 and poisoning the English with vile German whisky 
 flavoured with Spanish wines ; but apparently a premium 
 is to be offered to Spain for declining the less vile but 
 costlier British spirits for German, which, excepting 
 under the guise of Spanish wines, would not be drunk in 
 this country ! 
 
 It was but a few years ago that the ex- Custom officer, 
 Mr. Walter Burton, drew public attention to the fortifying 
 of wines in the Custom wine-houses and under the actual 
 superintendence of Government officials. 
 
 "A wine-jobber," he remarks, "having, say, 1000 
 gallons of wine, can add thereto 100 gallons of spirit, 
 making a total of 1100 gallons of wine, thereby converting 
 in a few minutes 200 gallons of crude potato spirit diluted
 
 ADULTERATIONS. 53 
 
 with London water, and costing about one shilling per 
 gallon, into, it may be, a ' special sherry ' or ' vintage port.' 
 There is, as far as I am aware, no record kept of the 
 quantity of spirit so turned into wine ; but seeing that a 
 large staff of officers are continuously employed in super- 
 intending such operations, the increase to our stock in 
 wines fi"om this source must be considerable. It is for the 
 public to say whether this system of manufacturing wine ' 
 at their expense is to be continued. It is bad enough to 
 have flavoured spirit and water imported into this country 
 under the guise of wine, but it is still more objectionable 
 to pay public officers to legalize the manufacture of such 
 compounds in our own docks and warehouses to the 
 manifest injury of the revenue and of the public health." 
 Such sherry is what is had "at taverns and refreshment 
 bars at public dinners, and which figures on the wine list 
 of the majority of hotels at six shillings the bottle." 
 
 The Licensed Victualler'' s 8hni)le Guide (London, 1878), Wine rectifi- 
 under head of Fortifying says, " It frequently happens p*e'°ar^'''* 
 that wines left in the docks a long time become what is chalk 
 termed 'pricked' (a tendency to acidity). Indeed, they verti'^euaf" 
 often reach England in such condition ; in this case it is i^te as ists. 
 well to have them racked on to spirit. Any merchant or 
 agent can superintend the operation. When port is 
 absolutely sour, it is good to drop a pound of prepared 
 chalk into the pipe, and allow it to remain three days; 
 then fine with eggs, and, when bright, rack off with the 
 highest proportion of spirits allowed by the Customs. This 
 process leaves a little flatness, but is a frequent restorative, 
 and renders the wine useful, at any rate for blending 
 purposes." 
 
 § 21. Dr. Brinton, in his work on Food and its Digestion 
 (London, 1861), says, " The addition of brandy to vdr^e is, 
 of course, a rank adulteration." 
 
 Dr. McCulloch, in his Art of Mahing Wine, observes 
 that " the admixture of alcohol decomposes the wine." 
 
 Dr. Garrod, in his System of Medicine, writing on the 
 causes of gout, says, " The wines to be carefully avoided are 
 port, sherry, madeira, and any in which the fermentation 
 has been checked by the addition of alcohol." 
 
 The writer of the article on Wine and the Wine Trade The per- 
 (Edinbtirgh Bevieio, July, 1867), a propos of these leo-alized ^^'^ious
 
 54 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 practice 
 of hetero- 
 gen ous 
 mixture of 
 wines in the 
 wine trade. 
 
 Various ills 
 caused by 
 drinking 
 adulterated 
 ■wines. 
 
 adulterations, says, "It is, we think, very qnestionable 
 whether wines of different vintages, but of the same 
 country, should be mixed at all, as is now universally done 
 in bond for home consumption. Chemically, they cannot 
 perfectly agree ; and in order to keep the peace among 
 them more, alcohol is poured in to pay the constable. But 
 there can be no question whatever of the atrocity of 
 pouring all kinds of wine, white and red, of all countries 
 and all ages, sweet and sour and bitter, into vats, as is 
 now done in the docks, adding spirit to them to keep them 
 from perishing, as they do vnth preparations in our 
 museums, and then exporting them to other countries. 
 But do they always go to other countries ? The evidence 
 of the authorities of the Customs at the docks tells a very 
 different tale. Mr. Cole, Comptroller of the Customs in 
 the London Docks, among numerous other examples of 
 heterogeneous mixtures of wines vatted in these docks, 
 gives us the following, dated October 16, 1850 : — 
 
 " ' Spanish wine, 1529 gallons ; of Fayal wine, 544 
 gallons ; of French wines, 4492 gallons ; of Cape wines, 
 689 gallons ; of Portugal wine, only 117 gallons, with 
 155 gallons of brandy, the result obtained being 7524 
 gallons, minus 8 gallons loss ; and the grand result is 
 7533 gallons of port wine.' " 
 
 And the celebrated phj^sician and chemist, Dr. Bergeron, 
 of Paris, says that alcoholization of wine introduces in 
 wine a proportion of alcohol which, not being intimately 
 associated with the other principles of the "must " in the 
 labour of fermentation, finds itself there in a kind of free 
 state, and acts with the same suddenness and energy on 
 the organism as diluted alcohol. 
 
 As to champagnes, Wetherbee says, in his Toxicology, 
 that a " portion of so-called champagne wines is composed 
 of the expressed juice of turnips, apples, and other 
 vegetables, to which sufiicient sugar of lead is added to 
 produce the necessary sweetness and astringency." The 
 Wine Guide (London, 1874) counsels wine merchants to 
 clear cloudy and musty wines with sugar of lead, and Dr. 
 Orfila, in his work on Poisons (Paris, 1852), says, " Of all 
 the frauds this is the most dangerous. Susrar of lead 
 gives a sweet, astringent, metallic taste, constriction of the 
 throat, paiu in the stomach, vomiting, fetid eructation,
 
 ADULTERATIONS. 
 
 thirst, coldness of limbs, convulsions, delirium, etc." This, 
 then, is the explanation of the terrible splitting headaches 
 after fashionable champagne snppers. 
 
 Dr. Baer states that in the adulteration of wines the 
 colouring matters play a deadly part. " Not only light 
 wines, but mixtures, in which there has never been any 
 grape juice, are artificially dyed and brought into the trade 
 as precious red wines. To this end vegetable dyes are 
 used, such as mallow-bloom, whortleberries, elderberries, 
 cochineal, and logwood . . . and in modern times the 
 aniline dye fuchsia, especially dangerous because of the 
 arsenic it contains. Very serious symptoms have followed 
 a few days' use of this — albuminuria, colic, emaciation, etc. 
 . . . Certain processes resorted to in wine cooperage are 
 very unhealthy . . . alkalies — carbonate of lime and quick- 
 lime are added to fix the superfluous acids, and plaster of 
 Paris to heighten the colour and increase its power of 
 keeping. In the sulphurating of the wine casks, when the 
 sulphur is fi'om arsenic, this poison also may gain access 
 to the wine." 
 
 § 22. At the close of his work on Wines (London, 1880), Beeraduiter- 
 Mr. Vizetelly devotes some attention to beer, and says that 
 " the popular notion that the intoxicating influence of 
 English beer is due exclusively to its alcoholic strength is 
 an erroneous one, for there are many beers containing only 
 a very small quantity of alcohol, that are highly stupefying, 
 most likely due to the use of cocculus indicus." 
 
 Of course the chief adulterations used for beers are 
 water and salt. To conceal the water dilution, and as 
 substitutes for hops, a number of bitter stuffs are used. 
 Picric acid, aloes, quassia, buckbean, cocculus indicus, 
 and gentian supply the taste of hops ; phosphoric acid 
 the hop aroma ; and for the headings or froths, concoc- 
 tions of alum, copperas, sweet wort, molasses, and cocculus 
 indicus are used. As a substitute for alcohol, the cocculus 
 indicus beny, which in its poisonous power surpasses 
 prussic acid, is being imported in steadily increasing 
 quantities into England. A querist in the Fharmaceutical 
 Journal (for 1874) pointed out that " the stocks for a 
 previous month had been 1066 bags," and asked, " Is there 
 any legitimate use for the same ? " The Lancet declaimed 
 not, and had " no hesitation in affirming that a very large 
 
 ation.
 
 56 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 portion of it is put into malt liquor to give it strength and 
 headiness. A viler agent could not well be introduced 
 into beer than the berry, the stupefying effects of which 
 are so well known that it is frequently used to kill fish and 
 birds." 
 
 As substitutes for malt and sugar, unmalted grain, 
 ryes, maize starch, syrups, and glycerine are used. To 
 give age, or rectify staleness, oil of vitriol and sulphuric 
 acids are chiefly used. Sulphate of iron is the ingredient 
 which gives it the metallic bitter taste so loved by beer- 
 di'inkers. Lime and lead composites are employed to 
 neutralize the action of the acids. 
 The narcotic Another intoxicant, though genei-ally regarded as non- 
 lupuut alcoholic, is the lupulit, an extract from the hop-flower 
 
 gland. It contains ethereal oils, tannic acid, bitter staffs, 
 resin, etc., and the narcotic effect is chiefly due to the 
 resinous part.
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS ; OR, EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL ON THE 
 PHYSICAL ORGANS AND FUNCTIONS. 
 
 " Delight not in meats and drinks that are too strong for Nature, 
 but always let Nature be stronger than your food. 
 
 " Let your food be simple, and drinks innocent, and learn of 
 wisdom and experience how to prepare them aright." — Aphorisms 
 25 and 32. Try on. 1691. 
 
 " Two lives go to make up the life of a nation. There is, first of 
 all, the individual life, and then the collective life of the individuals, 
 which makes what we call ' the life of the nation ; ' but if I may be 
 forgiven for saying so, far before the life of a nation is the life of 
 every individual soul who forms a part of it — and if the question of 
 the proper use of alcoholic drinks is important for our welfare as a 
 nation, surely in a much stronger sense it is important for us, as 
 individual souls, fraught with all the business of eternity upon our 
 backs, to determine what is the right use of alcohol. Now, if this 
 question is important in this twofold aspect, what a solemn sense of 
 responsibility must be upon the shoulders of those who come forward 
 to speak about it, and especially upon the shoulders of those who 
 come forward and speak about it with authority ! Two things, as it 
 seems to me, are necessary : one is, that he who presumes to speak 
 authoritatively upon this subject shall know it ; and the next is that, 
 however dear a certain side of the question may be to him, he should 
 speak about it not with the mere desire to succeed, not with the 
 desire of triumph, but with a loving, reverent, solemn desire to state 
 the truth about it, and nothing but the truth." — An Enemy of the 
 Race, Lecture by Sir Andrew Clark, London. 
 
 " When I think of the terrible effects of the abuse of alcohol, I 
 am disposed to give up my profession, to give up everything, and go 
 forth upon a holy crusade, preaching to all men — Beware of this 
 enemy of the race ! " — Alcohol in Small Bases, Lecture by Sir Andrew 
 Clark, London. 
 
 § 23. The greatest pKysiologists are agreed that the proper Dr. L.Her- 
 
 of human 
 life-limit. 
 
 length of life allotted to man cannot be known. Dr. L. ^Tuman*^^
 
 58 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Alcohol a 
 chief ageut 
 in abbre- 
 viating life. 
 
 Dr. J. R. 
 
 Farre's 
 opinion on 
 the same 
 point. 
 
 Professor 
 Flourens' 
 epigram. 
 
 Hermann, of Zurich, in the recent edition of his Physiology 
 (Berlin, 1882), says, " For all animal life there exists a 
 tolerably certain life-limit, so that we must regard the ex- 
 tinction of function as a normal process ; but as to man 
 the typical life-limit is not definable because of the many 
 harmful conditions that accompany civilization." 
 
 The present average age of man. is not over fi.ftj years, 
 while, according to the Old Testament, from two hundred 
 to six hundred years "was once not an extraordinary life- 
 limit, and both marriages and child-births after one hundred 
 years of age are recorded among the ancient people of God. 
 The question raised at this point by reference to such 
 records as these, is of course not one of faith or doctrine ; 
 but one of rational inference that an average longevity 
 greater than any reached in our day, or within modern 
 history, was the probable basis of such statements. 
 Herodotus (Book III. chap, vi.) says of the Macrobians 
 (Ethiopians) in the time of Cambyses, that they were re- 
 markable "for their beauty and their massive proportions 
 of body, in both of which they surpassed all other men 
 . . . they lived to be a hundred and twenty years old, and 
 some to a longer period, and yet they fed on. roasted meat 
 and used milk for their drink." 
 
 Dr. John Richard Farre, when examined before the 
 Parliamentaiy Committee appointed in 183-1 to inquire 
 into the cause and extent of drunkenness, gave it as his 
 opinion, based on the evidences of revelation and both 
 sacred and profane history, that " by the last grant of 
 Providence to man, his life is one hundred and twenty 
 yeai'S," and that where diseases arising from other causes 
 do not shorten it, the reason why so few attain that age is 
 to be found in the use of drink, in which the masses of the 
 community continually indulge. He instanced the deaths 
 of Pitt and Fox as due to the use of alcohol, by which they 
 sought to supplement energies already too exhaustingly 
 taxed. 
 
 Professor P. Flourens, of the College de France, in his 
 work on Human Longevity (Paris, 1854), considers one 
 hundred years to be the normal length of man's life. 
 " Few men, indeed," he says, "reach that age, but how 
 many do what is necessary to reach it ? With our way of 
 living, our passions and worries, man no longer dies, hut
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 59 
 
 Mils Jiimself / ^' To prolong life, that is, to make it last as 
 long as the constitution indicates that it should, there is 
 a means and a very certain means, and that is to live 
 soberly." 
 
 And within the present short limit of life what an Man's re- 
 infinite amount of disease, and of disease-aborted powers, inTuis ' ' ^ 
 we find bound up ; for as deliberately as he kills himself, matter. 
 does man poison and thwart himself during the period 
 which nature is able to eke out. 
 
 Even now individual cases occur of life-limit reaching 
 and exceeding one hundred years, as in the year 1881 deaths 
 were recorded in England of some ninety-one persons of one 
 hundred years and upwards, the oldest one hundred and 
 twelve. But this fact points only to general possibilities, 
 and it is my purpose here to show that science and obser- 
 vation have furnished proof that the chief enemy of the 
 longevity and health of the race is alcohol. 
 
 The main cause is ignorance — I mean the pernicious ignorance 
 ignorance which knoAvs a thing in a general sense, without cause of the 
 acting upon this knowledge in a particular sense, and brevity of 
 thereby developing both knowledge and practice into a 
 true science of living, in oui' own individual behalf and 
 for others. 
 
 We are here concerned with this form of ignorance in 
 regard to the general physical laws of the construction of 
 the body and the maintenance of its health,* and with 
 
 * Every man knows that his physical body is his means for being 
 and doing. He knows that to this end he mnst respect, care for — 
 yes, revere his body. And the inherent law of self-defence and 
 self-preservation — by ignorance so often sadly perverted into self- 
 destruction — seeks to teach this fact. 
 
 Nobody, when the matter is brought plainly before him, will 
 hesitate to admit that he ought to live in such a manner that all his 
 faculties, capacities, and powers should receive the best development 
 and activity ; but in jiractice this tniism is almost imknown. And 
 with our social life and institutions, only an exceedingly small pro- 
 portion of mankind, even with the best intention in the world, could 
 approximately reach this ideal. Sufficient and agreeable rest, enough 
 of undisturbed sleep, congenial and healthy occupations, sufficient 
 amount and variety of healthy foods, fresh and pure air and water, 
 healthy dwellings, these are all essential for bodily vigour and health ; 
 but to how many of the toiling millions who labour for bread, either 
 by muscle or brain, are these essentials vouchsafed ? 
 
 On the other hand, how many of those so-called fortunate ones.
 
 60 THE FOUXDATIOX OF DEATH. 
 
 especial reference to tlie use of alcoTiol, whicli but for this 
 ignorance would not have continued to this date an 
 ingredient in our beverages. 
 The inherent § 24^. Before Considering definite theories as to what 
 manifested alcohol does and becomes after it enters the living organism, 
 in organic ft is well that the starting-point of tbougbt sbould be that 
 of the marvellous — apparently mecbanical — wisdom in- 
 herent in organic life, wbich makes all portions of our 
 being unite with unanimitj and harmony to utilize that 
 which is useful, to reduce and reject that which, is not ; 
 and by which the body, previous to disease, signifies un- 
 mistakably its approval or disapproval of the treatment it 
 receives — as, for instance, in hunger or thii'st, its intima- 
 tions are imperative, irresistible, and can be silenced only 
 by obedience or death. 
 
 It is essential, also, to bear in mind that this very 
 power enables the body — like the mind — to adapt itself to 
 such gradual derangement and degradation of the great 
 mass of its minor requirements as produce imperfect con- 
 ditions, which by habit become chi'onic or second nature. 
 Thecheroicai § 25. Chemical analysis has demonstrated that the 
 The'human^ humau body contains from fifteen to seventeen chemical 
 body. elements : — Carbon, 13'5 ; hydi-ogen, 9'5 ; nitrogen, 2"5 ; 
 
 oxygen, 72"0 ; phosphorus, 1'15; calcium (metallic), 1 '3 ; 
 wdth minute quantities of sulphur and iron. These 
 elements form the various organic compounds which make 
 up the body, but as all of them are extremely unstable * in 
 
 who could command all these blessings, are wise enough to value 
 them more than the satisfaction of loose desires, sensations, and 
 passions ? 
 
 * " The animal organic compounds are characterized by their 
 complexity, for in the first place many elements enter into their 
 composition. . . . Again, many atoms of the same element occur in 
 each molecule. This latter fact no doubt explains the reason of the 
 instahility of organic compounds, as many of them are unsaturated 
 bodies, or, in other words, bodies containing atoms which are not 
 satisfied according to chemical law by combination with equivalent 
 atoms of other elements. . . . Another great cause of the instability 
 arises from the fact that many organic compounds contain the 
 element nitrogen, which may be called negative or undecided in its 
 affinities, and may be easily separated from its combination with 
 other elements. From the foregoing it is evident that animal tissues, 
 containing as they do these organic nitrogenous compounds, are 
 extremely prone to undergo chemical decomposition, and this is
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL EESULTS. 61 
 
 their character — life and health necessitating their constant 
 change, dissolution, and elimination — the body requires 
 constantly a re-supply of renovating materials which are 
 broadly called food. Whatever, therefore, contains any of in what food 
 the above-mentioned elements in a form cbemically soluble 
 and assimilable by the body, is in that proportion a food. 
 
 By " food," therefore, is meant any substance, in solid, Definition of 
 liquid, or gaseous form, which, when taken internally, ^°°^- 
 supplies some needed substance or force ; in a word, any- 
 thing which, taken internally, supplies with innocency to 
 the tissues any requii-ement of the body, is food. 
 
 Besides fresh air and pure water, the body needs con- 
 stant supply of tissue and force- supplying foods. Foods, 
 without exception, have their origin in the constructive 
 action of plant life. Sometimes we take the materials 
 directly from the vegetable kingdom, and sometimes from 
 the flesh of animals who have subjected the coarser vege- 
 table products to a preliminary digestion. Latent energy, 
 in the complex organic substances known as food, is thrown 
 out upon their decomposition into simpler forms of 
 material. Upon the amount of the force thus released, 
 and upon the decomposability of the organic compound, 
 depends the food value — innocency in relation to the body 
 being assumed. 
 
 Poods may be broadly divided into three classes : — Division of 
 
 First, Regular foods — such alimentary materials as are [^re|™*° 
 
 usually considered food. classes- 
 Second, Condiment ary foods — those which please the condimen- 
 
 palate and smell, includinsr spices and sauces. These ^'^''J'' Suppie- 
 
 ■"■ . mcntiirv 
 
 should be used with great discretion, in order that the andinci- 
 appetite may not be vitiated. •^^°*''i f°°'^^- 
 
 Third, Supplementary and Incidental foods — foods 
 suited to irregular conditions, to diseases, etc. ; such as 
 some medicines, certain substances which in particular 
 states of health are useful to expel poisons or impurities, 
 to remove obstructions, repair damages, etc. 
 
 Generally, however, only such substances as properly Division of 
 
 the Eegular 
 especially the case since they also contain a large quantity of water, ^ 
 a condition most favourable for the breaking up of complicated com- 
 pounds." — W. Morrant Baker's Handbook of Physiology. London, 
 1880.
 
 62 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 The process 
 of nutrition. 
 
 The nature 
 and twofold 
 mission of 
 the blood. 
 
 The consti- 
 tuent parts 
 of blood. 
 
 Water the 
 
 belong to the first class are commonly accepted as foods. 
 These have been divided into many groups, but the only 
 accurate division is the chemical one, viz., the nitrogenous 
 and the non- nitrogenous : the nitrogenous,* such as 
 albumen (the vphite o£ an egg, vegetable albumen in 
 cereals and in the juices of plants ; fibrine, the coagulating 
 ingredient in blood, and the gluten in cereals, etc.) ; and the 
 non-nitrogenous, divided in two groups, viz., the fats or 
 hydro-carlaons, and starch and sugar or the carbo- 
 hydrates. 
 
 The change of foods f into tissue and the releasing of 
 its energy is a series of intricate processes. After being 
 mingled with the saliva, the food enters the stomach, where 
 it is thoroughly mixed with the gastric juice, and as soon 
 as any portions are fit for blood-making, they are drawn 
 into the blood, while the residual matters are carried off 
 through the intestines. 
 
 § 26. Blood is tissue in solution (that is, food prepared 
 for renewal of tissue, and food which, having been used in 
 tissue-making, has become waste), and in its coursing 
 through all the parts of the body it fulfils the double 
 mission of feeding and of scavenging the tissues. 
 
 The blood consists chiefly of two compounds — the 
 blood-plasma or serum, a colourless fluid, in which the 
 blood-corpuscles float ; and the blood-corpuscles themselves, 
 which contain the colouring matter. 
 
 The principal function of the corpuscles seems to be 
 to carry backwards and forwards between the lungs and 
 tissues, the oxygen which they require and the carbonic 
 acid which they give out. Upon the sufiiciency, healthful- 
 ness, and normal circulation of the blood, therefore, the 
 health and the life of the individual depend. 
 
 But although foods are vitally important for the 
 
 * It is a cnrions fact that althougli the bulk of the atmosphere 
 consists of no less than 75 per cent, of nitrogen, still the living body- 
 is unable to obtain any of it direct from the atmosphere ; and as 
 nitrogen is an element that does not exist in all foods, it has been 
 found convenient to divide foods into the two classes here mentioned. 
 
 t The harder the mental or physical labour, the more easy of 
 digestion should the foods be, their mastication should be the more 
 thorough, and after eating the digestive process should be further 
 assisted by rest.
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 
 
 63 
 
 support of life, water is even more impoi"tant. "Water is 
 the medium or vehicle in which all the chemical changes of 
 the body are performed, and in this sense it is an essential 
 auxiliary to the food-materials of the body. Dr. W. B. 
 Carpenter, in his prize essay On the Use and Abuse of 
 Alcoholic Liquors in Health and Disease (London, 1849). 
 says, " It is through the medium of the ivater contained in 
 the animal body that all its vital functions are carried on. 
 No other liquid than water can act as the solvent for the 
 vainous articles of food which are taken into the stomach. 
 It is water alone which forms all the fluid portion of the 
 blood, and thus serves to convey the nutritive material 
 through the capillary pores into the substance of the solid 
 tissues. It is water, which, when mingled in various pro- 
 portions with the solid components of the various textures, 
 gives to them the consistence which they severally require. 
 And it is water, which takes up the products of their 
 decay, and by the most complicated and wonderful system 
 of sewerage, conveys them out of the system." Dr. Austin 
 Flint, in his Physiology of Man (New York, 1866), says, 
 concerning water, that it " is by far the most important 
 of the inorganic principles. It is present at all periods of 
 life, existing even in the ovum. It exists in all parts of 
 the body ; in the fluids — some of which, as the lachrymal 
 fluid and perspiration, contain little else — and in the 
 hardest structures, as the bones or the enamel of the teeth." 
 He supplies the following table of Quantity of Water in the 
 various parts of the body — parts per thousand : — 
 
 paramount 
 need of the 
 system. 
 
 Dr. W. B. 
 
 Carpenter 
 on the 
 paramount 
 importance 
 of water to 
 life. 
 
 Teeth 100 
 
 Bones ... ... ... 130 
 
 Tendons 500 
 
 Articular cartilages ... 550 
 
 Skin 575 
 
 Liver ... ... ... 618 
 
 Muscles of man... ... 725 
 
 Ligaments ... ... 768 
 
 Mean of blood 780 
 
 Milk of human female . . . 887 
 
 Chyle of man 
 
 Bile 
 
 Urine 
 
 Human lymph 
 
 Human saliva 
 
 Gastric juice 
 
 Perspiration 
 
 Tears 
 
 Pulmonary vapour 
 
 904 
 905 
 933 
 960 
 983 
 984 
 986 
 990 
 997 
 
 Dr. Austin 
 Flint on the 
 same. 
 
 Of the Functions of Water, he says — " As a constituent 
 of organized tissue, it gives to cartilage its elasticity, to 
 tendons their pliability and toughness ; it is necessary to 
 the peculiar power and resistance of the bones, . . . and to
 
 64 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 T>TS. Bec- 
 querel and 
 Rodier on 
 the propor- 
 tion of water 
 in blood. 
 
 I)r. Albin 
 Koch on the 
 same. 
 
 Definition of 
 poison. 
 
 Division of 
 poisons into 
 two groups — 
 Absolute and 
 Incidental 
 poisons. 
 
 the proper consistence of all parts of the body. It has 
 other important functions as a solvent. Soluble articles 
 of food are introduced in solution in water. The ex- 
 crementitious matters, which are generally sokible in water, 
 are dissolved by it in the blood, carried to the organs of 
 excretion, and discharged in a watery solution from the 
 body." 
 
 The French physicians, Becquerel and Rodier, in their 
 treatise. Pathological Chemistry as applied to Medical 
 Practice (Paris, 1854), state, as to the constitution of the 
 blood, that it consists of — 
 
 Water ... ... ... ... ... 781-600 
 
 Globules ... ... ... ... 135-000 
 
 Albumen ... ... ... ... ... 70-000 
 
 Fibrine ... ... ... ... 2-500 
 
 Chlorides of sodinm, potassium, magnesium, etc. . . . 3-500 
 
 And the Danish physician. Dr. Albin Koch, states that 
 by dividing the blood into 1000 parts we find that it 
 consists of 789 parts of water, 131 of blood-corpuscles, 
 71 parts albumen, and the remainder are salts, fats, etc. 
 
 Water, therefore, is the overwhelming need of the 
 system, as the sufferings from excessive thirst prove ; 
 death by thirst is more rapid and distressing than by 
 starvation. 
 
 § 27. As by food is meant anything which feeds tissue 
 or replenishes force, with innocency to the organism, so by 
 poison is meant anything which, when taken into the body, 
 does harm to it. 
 
 Poisons may be divided into two groups — Absolute 
 poisons, or such as &re always hurtful or useless, and 
 Incidental poisons, such as are determined in their ill or 
 good effect by the condition of the body ; and these may 
 be interchangeable with the second and third groups of 
 foods, according to the condition of the person taking 
 them. 
 
 Even the regular foods may at times act as poisons, 
 and the absolute poisons act as foods, but such occasions 
 are rare. 
 
 Any substance not a food, if used as a food, acts as a 
 poison. 
 
 § 28. For an authoritative answer to the question 
 whether alcohol is a food or a poison, we look naturally
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 65 
 
 to the physician ; but, unfortunately, the most renowned 
 physicians differ in their opinions on the subject. 
 
 Although for upwards of four centuries warning voices 
 have from time to time been raised against the use of 
 alcoholic drinks, it is only within the memory of the 
 still living that these voices have been listened to in 
 earnest. 
 
 During the last thirty years — that is, since the establish- 
 ment of a scientific system of physiology— scientists have 
 laboured most indefatigably to find out what are the effects 
 of alcohol. Some light has been gained, but only a very 
 few points have been accepted as proven. Hundreds of 
 able medical authorities have devoted much time and care 
 to watching the phenomena of drink, and the records of 
 these endeavours are a proud memorial to the sincerity and 
 earnestness of the medical profession. 
 
 The most eminent members of the medical profession The present 
 have made public the apparently irreconcilable results of physicians 
 their varied experiments. Others, seeinsr only the un- on fie 
 
 . ' O «/ SUulGCt 01 
 
 certainty and confusion on the subject, have eluded the the use of 
 difficulty by declaring the outcry against alcohol to be ^^'^°^°^- 
 nonsense, and by affirming that while many perish from 
 excessive drinking, those who drink moderately are 
 benefited, and that if it is not indispensable for the preser- 
 vation of health, it is of great importance to it. A still 
 greater number — the rank and file of medical men — yet 
 hold that alcohol is always bad for young people, but that 
 for healthy adults, when taken in very small quantities, 
 one to two ounces daily, it is, if not beneficial, at least harm- 
 less. A few remain neutral as to its effects ; and a few 
 take a decided stand against its use as a diink, and differ 
 widely in almost every instance as to its use and value 
 medicinally. 
 
 We must, therefore, try, by a collection and careful 
 analysis of comparisons and deductions, to arrive at the 
 result. 
 
 First, as regards alcohol itself. We saw in chapter iii. Theimpor- 
 how important a role the recently discovered world of played by 
 microscopic animals and plants, called ferments, play in the ^^^ ™' world 
 economy of both life and death ; how it is through the in the visible 
 activity of these minute creations that both animals and ^°''''^'
 
 66 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 people are swept away by what are termed infectious 
 diseases : for example, the rinderpest and plenro-pnenmonia 
 among cattle ; the plague, yellow fever, and cholera among 
 men. That, on the other hand, but for the activity of 
 other kinds of these invisible forces, life would be impos- 
 sible ; that it is by means of the diastatic ferments * that 
 digestion becomes possible ; by means of this activity in- 
 soluble albumen becomes soluble (peptone) ; starch and 
 some cellulose are changed into dextrine or gi'ape sugar; 
 fats are split up ; and cane sugar, which is insoluble in 
 protoplasm, becomes soluble glucose. (These minute 
 organisms, moreover, are the scavengers of nature.) 
 especially in And WO saw that alcohol, which is obtained from the 
 aiTOhoi."^ saccharine matters of grapes, cereals, potatoes, beets, etc. — 
 that is, from the principal carbo-hydrates — is also the 
 product of digestive or diastatic ferments (ferments that 
 feed on the albuminous accompaniments of saccharine 
 substances), such as those through whose activity starch 
 and cellulose become grape sugar, and cane sugar becomes 
 glucose. 
 
 Is alcohol a Can alcohol be called a food on the ground that it 
 
 supplies tissue ? I have already pointed out that the 
 nutritive powers of foods depended on the proportion in 
 which they held compounds of elements which could be 
 made available for the renovation of the body ; and 
 
 Alcohol is (chap, iii.) that hitherto alcohol has not been found in 
 
 not found in j.i i- • • j. • ±^ j. j £ j 
 
 the living the livmg Organism, except m the wastes and. reiuse, and 
 
 organism, even in these only in infinitesimal traces, so loth is the 
 
 occasional body to harbour alcohol. 
 
 refuse*"*'"' ^^^ ^^ Science should succeed in discovering traces of 
 alcohol in living tissue, it would be at most only in such 
 infinitesimal quantities as those of copper and lead ; and 
 surely no one, because copper and lead had been traced 
 in the body, would suggest that we should supply ourselves 
 with these compounds by the use of salts of copper and 
 lead as foods ! 
 
 * To these ferments belong the so-called ptyalin found in the 
 Baliva, the ferments in the pancreatic juice which change starch into 
 soluble glucose, also the ferments of the liver which act on the 
 glycogen ; other ferments change cane and milk sugar into glucose. 
 The hydrolytic or unknown processes of life are supposed to bo due 
 to the activity of various ferments.
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 67 
 
 Dr. A. Baer, of Berlin, in his treatise on Drink Craving Dr. a. Baer 
 (1881), states that " alcohol contains neither albumen, nor fi^'^o/jT' 
 fat, nor any other substance either present in the animal food, 
 organism or arising by chemical changes in the body and 
 replacing a part of the same." 
 
 We see everywhere ai'ound us, thanks to the progress 
 of the temperance reform, people sound in mind and body, 
 who never touch alcohol. The following very practical Dr. Kiein'g 
 testimony to the uselessness of alcohol as a food 1 find in t^e worth- ° 
 Dr. L. A. Klein's* lecture f on the effects of the use of l^^j^^f °^ 
 alcohol during the siege of Paris : — food. 
 
 " It was just the time when the wine-merchants are 
 used to buy their stock for the year when the war broke 
 out, so we had plenty of wines of every description. It 
 was distributed by the Government very liberally indeed. 
 
 "We drank because we had nothing to eat. We found 
 most decidedly that alcohol was no substitute for bread 
 and meat. We also found that it was not a substitute for 
 coals. Ton know how cold the weather was during the 
 winter. We of the army had to sleep outside Paris on 
 the frozen ground, and in the snow, and when we got up 
 in the morning we were as stiff as planks. We had plenty 
 of alcohol, but it did not make us warm. We thus found 
 out by bitter experience that alcohol did not make us warm, 
 did not replace food of any kind, and did not replace coals. 
 Let me tell you there is nothing that will make you feel 
 the cold more, nothing which wall make you feel the 
 dreadful sense of huns:er more, than alcohol." 
 
 But thoiigh the conclusion is clear that alcohol is not Reasons for 
 food, there are reasons for the general belief that it is ; that"aicohoi 
 such, for example, as the outward appearances attending is food, 
 its use, the heightened colour, the temporarily increased 
 vivacity of mind and manner and surface temperature, the 
 lessened requirement of regular foods ; all which seems to 
 indicate that alcohol does, in some kind and degree, feed 
 the system. It is also claimed that alcohol has in critical 
 cases saved life that must else have been inevitably lost ; J 
 
 * French staff-surgeon. 
 
 t See Medical Temperance Journal, October, 1873. 
 t There have been cases in which alcohol has been said to have 
 Bnpported life. But it also appears to have been proved that life has
 
 68 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 and when to this is added the scientific testimony that 
 alcohol is a product of the chief carbo-hydrate, sugar — 
 which is known to be one of the most important foods of 
 the body — it is not strange that alcohol should have come 
 to be generally regarded a food. The validity of all these 
 reasons for such belief will be examined in due order 
 when the particular results to the body from the use of 
 alcohol come under consideration. 
 Alcohol tried S 29. Here let us try alcohol by some of the ereneral 
 
 by the tests .."'j.pj "^ ° 
 
 of foods. tests or foods. 
 
 1. The regular foods are essential to life. It is 
 positively proved that alcohol is not essential either to 
 life or health. 
 
 2. The periodic need felt for regular foods ceases each 
 time after being moderately supplied ; even the momen- 
 tarily importunate craving (caused by some special want) 
 when abundantly satisfied also ceases, or, if satiated or 
 persistently denied, may even change to aversion. — With 
 alcohol, the craving, if steadfastly denied, will gradually 
 cease ; but if satisfied, it begets abnormal craving, and that 
 craving, having once taken hold, becomes the most in- 
 satiable of human passions. As Linnaeus said, " Man sinks 
 gradually by this fell poison ; first he favours it, then warms 
 to it, then burns for it, then is consumed by it."* 
 
 3. Regular foods, when taken in their proper ratio, are 
 easy of digestion, and give the system a calm increase 
 of vigour. — Alcohol deranges digestion and disturbs the 
 action of nerve-tissue. 
 
 To judge from these tests, therefore, alcohol is not only 
 not a regular food, but, if used as such, acts as a poison. 
 
 But alcohol is a product of saccharine fermentation; 
 and sugar is a very important food. 
 Dr. Flint on Dr. Flint says (op. cit.) — 
 
 Ince^Fsugar " Sugar is an important element of food at all periods 
 
 to nutrition. 
 
 been maintained by chewing slioe-leather. Does this bring shoe- 
 leather within the category of foods ? Life has also been said to 
 continue quite anomalously, with a total absence of diet. Is-then 
 nothing a food ? Whether alcohol is a supplementary or incidental 
 food is dealt with later on in chapter x. on Therapevtiat. 
 
 * Dissertatio Sistens Inebriantia,hj Dr. Linna;us, Upsala, Sweden, 
 1762 : " Agunt adeoque hsec inebriantia ut ignis potentialis qniin, 
 radu, favet, calescit, urit, comburit."
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 69 
 
 of life. In the young child it is introduced in considerable 
 quantities with the milk. In the adult it is introduced 
 partly in the form of cane sugar, but mostly in the form 
 of starch, which is converted into sugar in the process of 
 digestion. With the exception of milk sugar, which is 
 only present during lactation, all the sugar in the body 
 exists in a form resembling glucose, into which milk sugar, 
 cane sugar, and starch are all converted, either before they 
 are absorbed or as they pass through the liver. In addition 
 to these external sources of sugar, it is continually manu- 
 factured in the economy by the liver, whence it is taken up 
 by the blood passing through this organ. It disa])pears 
 from the blood in its passage through the lungs. In the 
 present state of science we are only justified in saying that 
 sugar is important in the process of development and 
 nutrition at all periods of life. The precise way in which 
 it influences these processes is not fully understood." 
 
 But the body, although richly supplied with and always Sugar never 
 requiring sugar, never converts it into alcohol, not even in iXJaicohoi 
 disease, and hence we see such use of sugar is foreign to in the 
 the economy of the body. The oxidation of sugar in the even h*! "° 
 body is an innocent process of breaking up into carbonic i'^*'^*'*7, 
 acid and water. These products are eliminated by the nature of 
 respiration, while the force released is used by the system, fgrmenta- 
 Alcoholic fermentation results in two poisonous compounds, tion. 
 alcohol and carbonic acid.* 
 
 * The lethal or death nature of alcohol * is apparent in its very 
 
 * " The Fermentation of Food in our stomach is performed after 
 a manner imperceiatible, wherein all is quiet and silent, provided the 
 Meats and Drinks be of a suitable Quality and not too great in 
 Quantity." But in alcoholic fermentation — " when the sleeping 
 silent Powers or original Properties in all sweet Liquors or Juice, are 
 disturbed, as they are in a full or strong Ferment, all the Art in the 
 World cannot incircle or tame them ; for Fermentation is an opposite 
 and contrary motion to Nature and threatens the total destruction of 
 the whole — being, as it were, a Death to the United Powers and Uni- 
 form Principles, a destruction of Multiplication and prevention of all 
 farther Progi'ession — and does, as it were, in a moment disunite — the 
 original Forms become tumultuous, each Form with a rapid invading 
 Motion laying, as I may say, violent hands on the sweet original 
 Quality . . . for Fermentation in the strictest and best Sense, is no 
 other than a certain vegetative and insensible Delirium of Madness ; 
 all its operations when the Fermented Liquor is strong and Spirituous,
 
 70 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Alcohol 
 inimical 
 to life. 
 l)r. A. Car- 
 lysle on this 
 point. 
 
 The in- 
 fluence of 
 alcohol on 
 the human 
 system, 
 subject to 
 various 
 qualifying 
 conditions. 
 
 § 30. Tlie general effects of alcohol in the animal world 
 are inimical to life. Dr. A. Carlysle, in his work, On the 
 Pernicious Effects of Fermented and Spirituous Liquors, as 
 Part of Human Diet (London, 1810), says that "no living 
 animal or plant can be supported by such fluids, ... on 
 the contrary, they all become sickly and perish under their 
 influence." In the animal world the poisonous natui'e of 
 alcohol is easily tested. Put only a few ounces of alcohol 
 in a pail of water in which are living fish, and in a few 
 minutes they will die. Or, expose a fly to alcoholic vapour 
 in a closed vessel, and it will speedily die. 
 
 In treating of the special effects of alcohol on the 
 human system, it must be premised that these effects are 
 greatly influenced by a variety of conditions, such as kind 
 and purity of the alcohol or alcohols taken ; whether 
 diluted or not ; in large or small quantities ; whether taken 
 habitually or occasionally ; in health or disease ; by children 
 or adults ; on full or empty stomachs ; the temperament of 
 the taker, etc., etc. Still, excepting in rare instances, and 
 only when the dose taken is very small, the trained observer 
 can always trace harmful results from its iise by man ; and 
 if observers of the physiological effects of alcohols on man 
 had generally given due consideration to each of these 
 qualifying conditions, there is good reason for believing 
 that most of the contradictory results of experiments which 
 now exist as a chief stumbling-block in the way of this 
 study would have been reconciled or removed. 
 
 componnds. The distillate called alcohol consists of a variety of 
 poisonous substances. Besides the ethyl, amyl, and butyl alcohols, 
 there are acetic aldehydes and ethers, essential oils, variously named 
 ethereal and fusil oils, and a number of other volatile unknown com- 
 pounds, all of which, when left at liberty, evaporate and dissipate 
 beyond the ken of man. 
 
 are in proportion ; and the same as being Disbanded from under the 
 Government of its Superior Officers, so soon as a quantity of it is 
 introduced into Man's Body, it plunders Nature of all its Sweet 
 Virtues by drying and parching them up ; and at the same time 
 breaks the Government of the Senses, turning Eeason and Wisdom 
 adrift ; so that the Bodj^ is in no better Condition than a Ship without 
 either Pilot or Eudder." — Tryon's Letters (Letter 37, " Of Fermen- 
 tation"). London, 1700.
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 71 
 
 § 31. Alcoliol exercises two powerful iBfluences on the Alcohol's 
 two essential means of the maintenance of life — foods and ^^rtful in- 
 water ; viz., retardation of the processes of digestion and fluence on 
 assimilation ; and interference with the aqueous nature of 
 the blood, and hence two general harmful results — indi- 
 gestion and thirst, both of which are considered, curable 
 with alcohol, instead of with light, well-masticated foods 
 and pure water, supplemented, at times — in extreme cases 
 of indigestion — with artificial pepsine, etc. 
 
 First, as regards the retardation of the processes of its effects in 
 digestion and assimilation of foods by alcohol. Its effects digestiM. 
 on the two classes of foods (nitrogenous and non-nitro- 
 genous) is similar, though stronger in the case of nitro- 
 genous foods, the albumen of which it coagulates. Of 
 course the larger and stronger the dose the greater is its 
 influence on digestion. It is a fact of common observation 
 that drunkards may vomit half- digested or wholly un- 
 digested food, hours and days after its ingestion, showing 
 the power alcohol has to prevent digestion. 
 
 But when alcohol is taken in small doses only, it is said 
 to have quite a different effect — that of promoting instead 
 of hindering digestion, by inciting a copious flow of the 
 gastric secretion. 
 
 The use of artificial means to restore natural processes 
 to their original health, is the kind of work for which the 
 physician is especially educated, and the means so used 
 come under the general head of medicine. If alcohol acts 
 as a promoter of digestion, it is acting as a medicine, and 
 therefore belongs to the medicine chest and cannot be pre- 
 scribed as a beverage, and should be treated of in this 
 regai-d under the head of therapeutics. 
 
 But the fact of the very general belief in and use of 
 alcohol as an excellent tonic of digestion makes it necessary 
 to deal with it here. 
 
 In health, digestion is a natural process, which not only 
 does not require, btit would be impaired by artificial pro- 
 motion. In nearly all cases indigestion arises from irregu- 
 larity at meals ; poor, badly prepared, ill-cooked, and 
 insufficiently masticated foods ; want of exercise, or undue 
 and ill-timed exercise, etc., etc., all aberrations from the 
 normal conduct of the body.
 
 72 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 A wise physician is familiar witli these things, and 
 knows that a return to obedience to the simple laws of 
 health will generally remove indigestion, and that artificial 
 means are the last that can be properly resorted to ; and 
 that when such are required, artificial pepsiue and a number 
 of harmless compounds will serve his purpose. 
 
 A profuse amount of gastric juice will, no doubt, digest 
 food more rapidly than a small amount, and therefore 
 the abundant secretion of gastric juice provoked by the 
 daily taking of a small amount of alcohol may for some 
 time promote digestion. 
 
 But to urge digestion is no more desirable than to urge 
 growth. What is pre-eminently desirable is that these 
 processes shall be natural; that there shall be no extortion, 
 which always involves two very bad things^ — exhaustion 
 and waste. 
 
 By the enormous exudation which alcohol causes from 
 the walls of the stomach the alcohol is diluted and rendered 
 less acrid. Unless the dose of alcohol be large, it is 
 very quickly diluted and absorbed into the blood to pre- 
 vent its acting mischievously on the digestion and the 
 stomach. In this process the intense afiinity between 
 alcohol and water plays an important part. Blood, as has 
 been shown, consists overwhelmingly of water, and water 
 is promptly difi^used into the alcohol in the stomach, 
 at the same time that the alcohol is absorbed from the 
 stomach into the blood by the water in it. The arrest of 
 the digestion, therefore, is more or less affected and quickly 
 superseded, by the completeness and rapidity of the 
 entrance of the alcohol into the blood current. 
 Trof. Dogiei Prof . Dogiel, in a paper on Monatomic Alcohols, read 
 
 on the to Russian savants at Kasan, in 1873, said that the 
 
 of its alcohol can be detected in the chyle of the thoracic duct, 
 
 tnlr^ as well as in the blood, a minute and a half after its intro- 
 biood. duction to the stomach. 
 
 Now, the solving power in the gastric juice is the 
 pepsine, as we know, but this is itself insoluble in alcohol, 
 and when mixed with alcohol, is hindered in its own office 
 by the coagulating influence alcohol exerts on the foods. 
 
 Drs. Todd and Bowman, in their work. The Physiological 
 Anatomy and Physiology of Man (London, 1856, chap. xxiv. 
 On Digestion^, say, "The use of alcoholic stimulants also
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 73 
 
 retards digestion, by coagulating: the pepsine, and thereby 
 interfering with its action. "Were it not that wine and 
 spirits are rapidly absorbed, the introduction of them into 
 the stomach in any quantity would be a complete bar to 
 the solution of the food, as the pepsine would be pre- 
 cipitated from solution as quickly as it w^as secreted by the 
 stomach." 
 
 It must, however, be noted that the alcohol, though. Alcohol a 
 apparently helpful at the moment by procuricg a profuse PJyrJ.g'^of 
 flow of gastric juice, secures this temporary effect at the chronic 
 cost of great waste of this precious fluid, not only at the ^'^ '^^* '""' 
 time, but by necessitating — because of the degradation of 
 the blood of which gastric juice is an outcome — larger and 
 larger recun"ent demands upon it, while steadily im- 
 poverishing it in quality and weakening the activity of its 
 solving power, the pepsine ; and the stomach, must ulti- 
 mately become banki'upt from these extortions, and indi- 
 gestion, with its train of countless diseases, must ensue. 
 
 Dr. F. R. Lees, in his essay. Is Alcohol a Medicine ? Dr. F. R. 
 (London, 1866), admirably sums up the effects of alcohol n,a^yyf^"e 
 on digestion and the stomach in these words : — effects of 
 
 " Should it be objected that, though alcohol cannot digestion!^ 
 directly give force, it can aid the stomach to digest more 
 food, which loill ultimately supply the material of tissue, I 
 reply, this is a blunder in inference and a mistake in fact. 
 For, firstly, alcohol has no advantage as a local stimulant 
 over a little ginger or pepper, in exciting a flow of juice, 
 but, as an angesthetic, interferes wdth perfect alimentation, 
 and, in especial, arrests that change of matter in the body 
 which supplies ih.Q valuable raaterial of the gastric juice 
 itself. Hence, secondly, while more fluid may flow, it is 
 not so strong in its digestive power. This, thirdly, agrees 
 with fact, since a:bstainers have better and more regular 
 appetites than moderate drinkers, and can eat and digest 
 more. Fourthly, alcohol irritates the mucous surface of 
 the debilitated stomach, though it may deaden the feeling 
 of pain for a while. Fifthly, experiments have often proved 
 that alcohol retards digestion, hardening the food and pre- 
 cipitating the pepsine of the digestive juice." 
 
 The effects of alcohol on the stomach itself depend, of 
 course, upon the relative rapidity with which the alcohol
 
 74 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 ivS drawn into the blood current, wHcli in turn depends 
 greatly upon tlie relative amount and dilution of the 
 alcohol (and the proportion of salts and ethers in the 
 alcoholic liquor) at any one time present in the stomach ; 
 the relative health and age of the taker ; the familiarity of 
 his stomach with alcohol ; the power and activity of the 
 excrementory organs, etc., etc., all of which are considera- 
 tions absolutely essential to a scientific prescription of 
 alcohol as a promoter of digestion, and some of which 
 are quite beyond certainty of calculation. In one word 
 — even on the assumption that alcohol may be used as a 
 m.edicine, it is quite clear that no general prescription of 
 it could ever be justifiable, but that prescription of it must 
 always be based on a careful diagnosis of each particular 
 case. 
 
 If the stomach is little accustomed to alcohol and the 
 
 dose taken is not very large, the damage done by it in a 
 
 fairly healthy adult organism is comparatively smaU. The 
 
 water yielded by the mucus of the stomach, as well as by 
 
 the increased flow of the gastric jnice, for the dilution of 
 
 the alcohol, together with the rapid absorption of the 
 
 alcohol into the blood, co-operate to lessen the injury to 
 
 the mucous membrane of the stomach. 
 
 Dr. William Still, the results of the ingestion of alcohol are never 
 
 Beaumont's innocent, and how little feelings and general signs indicate 
 
 on the the real condition of the stomach, even after liberal in- 
 
 tbe™auadian ^^i^lsr^nce in alcohol, was conclusively demonstrated in Dr. 
 
 hunter, William Beaumont's * Experiments and Observations on the 
 
 t. artm. Qdgf^lQ Juice and the Physiology of Digestion (Plattsburg, 
 
 1833). His observations were based on the phenomena 
 
 exhibited in the famous case of the Canadian huntsman, 
 
 Alexis St. Martin, who Avas accidentally shot, the ball 
 
 entering his side and piercing the stomach. He recovered 
 
 from the wound, but an opening remained, which was 
 
 ■used " as a door by which to introduce substances into the 
 
 stomach, and as a window through which to look in and 
 
 examine effects." 
 
 Dr. Beaumont tried St. Martin's stomach with alcohol, 
 and as this hunter had been a man of temperate habits the 
 results were most valuable. After a few days of free in- 
 dulgence in spirits by St. !Martin, Dr. Beaumont made 
 * Surgeon- General of the United States army.
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 75 
 
 these observations by means of the aperture in the patient's 
 stomach : " The inner membrane of the stomach unusually 
 morbid, the erythematous (inflammatory) appearance more 
 extensive, the spots more livid than usual — from the surface 
 of some of which exuded sviall drops of grumous blood — the 
 aphthous (ulcerous) patches larger and more numerous, 
 the mucous covei-ing thicker than common, and the gastric 
 secretions much more vitiated. The gastric fluids extracted 
 were mixed with a large proportion of thick ropy mucus, 
 and considerable muco-purulent matter, slightly tinged with 
 blood, resembling the discharge fi"om the bowels in some 
 cases of chronic dysentery. Notwithstanding this diseased 
 appearance of the stomach, no very essential aherration of its 
 functions was nnanifested. St. Martin complained of no 
 symptoms indicating any general derangement of the 
 system, except an uneasy sensation at the pit of the stomach, 
 and some vertigo, with dimness and yellowness of vision, 
 on stooping downi and rising again ; had a thin yellowish- 
 brown coat on his tongue, and his countenance was rather 
 sallow, pulse uniform and regular , appetite good, rests quietly, 
 and sleeps as usual."* 
 
 Thus we find that in large doses alcohol arrests diges- Summary of 
 tion and damages the mucous membrane of the stomach, a^ohoi^oa 
 and in the proportion that it is undiluted ; that in small digestion, 
 doses it rapidly leaves the stomach ; that in all except the 
 most minute doses it provokes an extraordinary flow of 
 secretion which is more or less wasted ; that this of itself — 
 if alcohol be habitually taken — will, by constant overdraw- 
 ing on the natural resources of the blood whence the gastric 
 juice is distilled, impoverish the blood and degenerate the 
 gastric juice, until impaired digestion becomes chronic 
 indigestion. 
 
 § 32. But we shall presently see that the action of 
 alcohol in the blood accelerates this condition, because 
 alcohol degrades the blood itself. As the gastric j uice is 
 incapable of altering alcohol, it enters the blood as alcohol ; 
 and as in the blood is the life, so anything injurious to the 
 
 * The next observations made by Dr. Beanmont instanced the 
 rapidity with which St. Martin's stomach recovered its normal con- 
 dition after a very few days' abstinence, and he adds, "The free use 
 of ardent spirits, wine, beer, or any intoxicating liquors, when con- 
 tinued for some days, has invariablyproduced these morbid changes."
 
 76 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 The effects 
 of alcohol on 
 the blood. 
 
 The food 
 elements in 
 alcoholic 
 drinks. 
 
 The Lancet 
 on the 
 nutritious 
 elements in 
 wines. 
 
 blood is hurtful to life. As in the case of food, alcohol, in 
 being di-awn into the blood current, passes through the 
 liver.* The general effects of alcohol on the blood (tissue 
 in solution, both for renovation and what has been wasted) 
 are to some extent similar to those it exerts on the food in 
 the stomach ; it retards the oxidation of the food portions 
 in the blood, and occupies as much as it can of the water 
 contained in the blood. Hence there is an arrest of both 
 the functions of the blood, the renewal of used-up tissue, 
 and the carrying off of the refuse. 
 
 The fact that alcoholic liquors almost always con- 
 tain some residual undecomposed saccharine substances, 
 which in themselves are feeding, and the fact that practical 
 experiments have shown that under an alcoholic regimen 
 there is an increase of bodily weight ; these two facts have 
 greatly helped to spread the error that alcohol is food. 
 I will therefore touch on these two points before pro- 
 ceeding with the question of alcohol and the blood. 
 
 § 33. It has already been shown that alcohol itself is 
 not food ; that if food exists in alcoholic drinks it is not 
 found in the alcohol, and therefore unsweetened spirituous 
 liquors which (minus adulterations) consist almost wholly 
 of alcohol and water, are not feeding — a truth made 
 apparent in the lean and wasted appearance of spirit- 
 drinkers. In the case of drinkers of sweetened spiritous 
 liquors this truth is less manifest, and is apparently quite 
 contradicted in the case of the consumer of malt liquors, 
 by a robust and rosy appearance. 
 
 It has already been seen from Dr. Klein's testimony 
 regarding the use of wine by the French troops during 
 the siege of Paris, that wine, used as food, proved useless 
 and worse than useless. An analytical report in the 
 Lancet (Oct. 26, 1867) says, as to the real amount of 
 nutritious elements found in wines : — 
 
 " In every 1000 grain measures of the clarets and 
 burgundies tested, the mean amount of albuminous matter 
 present was only 1^ grain, whilst in 1000 grains by weight 
 of raw beef there are no less than 207 grains of such 
 matter. That is, the quantities being equal, beef-steak is 
 
 * In chapter vi. it will be seen that the organ which, next to 
 the brain, suffers most from alcohol, is the liver.
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL KESULTS. 77 
 
 156 times more nutritious than wine " so far as albumen 
 is concerned. 
 
 Of course this is not a fixed standard as to wines, 
 which vary in the amount of food they contain (see chap, 
 iv. on " Adulterations ") according to the perfection of the 
 vinification. The poorer that is, the greater the proportion 
 of undecomposed residual food matters, but the more 
 dangerous also are these, especially as producers of gout. 
 
 But malted liquors, beer, ale, and stout, are commonly Malt liquors 
 supposed to be not only innocent but healthy and ^^^g'j^ered 
 nutritious ; and that this notion is spreading appears 
 from the fact that during late years the number of beer- 
 drinkers is on the increase in almost all countries, and for 
 this reason I wish to deal with the beer question more in 
 detail. 
 
 Some consider malt liquors to be harmless on the 
 erroneous supposition that they do not contain the same 
 alcohols as other intoxicants ; others base their notion of 
 the innocency of such liquors on their knowledge that 
 they ordinarily contain but a comparatively small amount 
 of alcohol, and are therefore comparatively harmless. 
 Malt liquors are held to be nutritious because they are 
 prepared from malt, and because malt-liquor drinkers 
 usually grow fat and bear a superficial appearance of health. 
 
 In chapter iii, it was shown that the intoxicating prin- 
 ciple in all unadulterated alcoholic drinks is the alcohol, 
 and therefore, whether taken in large or small quantities, 
 the tendencies to structural degeneration and the develop- 
 ment of the " drink-crave " are the same in small beer as 
 in rum or whisky. The glass of beer prepares the palate 
 for the glass of whisky,* just as the taking of the penny or 
 shilling prepares the way for the theft of the pound. The 
 incipient stages of a downward career are nearly always 
 
 * Beer-drinking is usually the starting-point for becoming a 
 drankard, and malt liquors are especially dangerous by reason of the 
 salt put into them. In an article on Drinks and Drinking (Eng- 
 lish Mechanic, December 8, 1882), Dr. James Edmunds says, "One 
 reason why beer-drinkers go back so soon and so repeatedly to the 
 public-house is because salt is put into their beer for them ; the salt 
 gives a certain piquancy to the flavour of the beer by irritating the 
 nerves of the tongue, and it serves also to set the kidneys going, and 
 bring the customer back to the public-house."
 
 78 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Dr. Lyon 
 Playfair on 
 
 the relative 
 feeding 
 powers of 
 barley and 
 malt. 
 
 The food in 
 alcoholic 
 drink is not 
 in the 
 alcohol, but 
 in the 
 rebiduals. 
 
 seemingly innocent, but when the sincere mind, perceiving 
 the danger, resists the insidious approach of evil, it quickly 
 discovers that the gentle, scarcely perceptible first slips — ■ 
 full of specious compromise and self-deception — hold the 
 essence of the deepest fall possible. 
 
 As to the last point urged in favour of beer-drinking, 
 that it gives bulk and ruddy complexion, and hence that 
 the barley in the beer must be as nutritious as it is in the 
 loaf ; it will be seen that this also is fallacious. Malt 
 liquors consist of from three to thirteen per cent, of alcohol, 
 with more or less undecomposed albuminous residues of the 
 saccharine matters in the malt, with some salts — and to 
 this extent, therefore, beer is food. But, in the first place, 
 malt is not quite so nutritious as grain. 
 
 In speaking of the feeding of cattle with malt or barley. 
 Dr. Lyon Playfair says, " Barley in the act of germinating 
 loses a certain amount, both of the constituents which 
 form the flesh and those which form the fat of the animal. 
 A given weight of barley is therefore of greater nutritious 
 value, both as regards the production of muscle and fat, 
 than the same weight converted into malt."* 
 
 It must be recollected that malt, in being turned into 
 alcohol, goes through a process, like the grape and potato, 
 of organic degradation, and therefore, though malt is 
 food, it does not follow that the alcohol made from malt is 
 food. In fact, if there is food in the alcoholic drinks, 
 whether malted or spirituous, it is not in the alcohol, but 
 in the residual substances that remain undecomposed. 
 
 The fat in the beer-drinker is composed of these 
 albuminous residues, which, having been alcoiiolized, resist 
 the action of the various solvents in the system, and 
 therefore, being neither fit for use in the body nor re- 
 ducible to a form in which they can be excreted, they 
 have to be stored away so as to prevent obstruction to the 
 
 * Dr. Edmunds kindly writes mc on this point : " I am not sure 
 that Dr. Playfair has seen the whole truth in relation to the use of 
 malted grain as food for cattle. Granting that the quantity of 
 energy derivable from malted grain is less than that from nnmalted 
 grain, the question remains whether the greater solubility of the 
 saccharized starch in malted grain does not in some cases ensure 
 more perfect absorption into the system, and thus that in food value, 
 for the practical purposes of fattening, malted grain may be of more 
 value than unmalted."
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 79 
 
 circulation, and hence, so long as tliere is room, they are 
 packed away immediately under the skin, and thus the 
 fat and healthy appearance of the beer-drinker ! When 
 there is no more room immediately under the skin, the fat 
 has to be deposited in the interior of the body, and hence 
 the common diseases of fatty degeneration of the kidneys, 
 liver, heart, etc. 
 
 Dr. J. W. Beaumont, in an. address on alcohol and Dr. j. w. 
 nutrition (Sheffield, 1863), alluding to the fact that fh'eXracter 
 brewers' men, who almost subsist on malt liquors, are of the fat ia 
 remarkably fat, said, " This is conceded, but their stout- of'mait-''™ 
 ness does not arise from the alcohol. Where obesity ''^"°'' 
 results from drinking malt liquors, it is from the nutri- 
 ment contained in the saccharine portion of the con- 
 stituents of the beverage, and not from the alcohol." 
 
 Dr. T. Lauder Brunton, in his paper on the Infltience Dr. T. L. 
 of Stimulants and Narcotics on Health (contributed to the S'™"'" "" 
 Book of Health, 1883), says that " Wine has a less power- 
 ful local effect upon the stomach and intestines, and is 
 less likely to destroy the digestive powers, than spirits. 
 At the same time it does not contain any nutritious sub- 
 stances in addition to alcohol, and so it does not tend of 
 itself to fatten. Consequently, the wine-drinker is neither 
 emaciated like the gin-drinker, nor bloated like the beer- 
 drinker. As the beer-drinker takes beer in addition to 
 other nutriment, he has a tendency to become fat and 
 bloated at one time, although he may afterwards become 
 thin and emaciated, from his digestion also suffering like 
 that of the spirit-drinker. N^ot withstanding the apparent 
 stoutness and strength of beer-drinkers, they are by no 
 means healthy. Injui-ies which to other people would be 
 but slight, are apt to prove serious in them ; and when it 
 is necessary to perform surgical operations upon them, the 
 risk of death is very much greater than in others." 
 
 The credit of the discovery that alcohol is a food because I'r. Ham- 
 it tends to increase the bodily weight, belongs to Dr. W. aicohofbeing 
 A. Hammond, of New York, who, after practical experi- ^ ^''°^ ^^- 
 ments upon himself, explains in his Physiological Effects tissue- 
 of Alcohol and Tobacco upon the Human System (Phila- propgrtl^ 
 delphia, 1863), that alcohol is a food, because it "increases 
 the weight of the body by retarding the metamorphosis
 
 80 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH, 
 
 of the old and promoting the formation of new tissues, 
 and limiting the consumption of fat." In an address to 
 the New York Neurological Society (1874), Dr. Hammond 
 (its president) reiterated these opinions, enlarging upon 
 them in these words : " There are two facts which cannot 
 be laid aside, and these are, that the body gained in 
 weight, and that the excretions were diminished when 
 alcoholic fluids were taken. These phenomena were doubt- 
 less due to the following causes : first, the i-etardation of 
 the decay of the tissues ; second, the diminution in the 
 consumption of fat in the body ; and third, the increase of 
 the assimilative powers of the system, by which the food 
 was more completely appropriated and applied to the 
 formation of tissues. After such results," says Dr. Ham- 
 mond, " are we not justified in regarding alcohol as 
 food ? If it is not food, what is it ? " Hence, Dr. Ham- 
 mond concludes that alcohol is food, because it preserves 
 tissue ! 
 
 Irrespective of any scientific knowledge, it ought to be 
 obvious that, if alcohol reduces appetite, and therefore 
 consumption of food, and yet increases weight, it must be 
 doing harm. 
 The meaning But it is diflBcult to understand what benefit is expected 
 Dreservatio ^'^ ^^ derived from the tissue-preserving properties of 
 of tissue. alcohol. Tissue-preservation, if it means anything, must 
 mean disease, just as much, though in an opposite sense, 
 as fever means disease ; because tissue-preserving can 
 mean nothing else but interference with the natural re- 
 novation and depuration of the system, and that can 
 scarcely be pointed to as an advantage, except presumably 
 for prolonging life during starvation — a presumption with- 
 out foundation — and possibly in wasting fevers, in which 
 case, however, there would be required an intelligent com- 
 putation as to whether or not the retarded oxidation 
 would adequately compensate for the impairment of the 
 blood. 
 
 Health requires a proper balance between want and 
 supply, and anything disturbing this balance produces 
 disease — and retarded oxidation, which disturbs both of 
 the processes which make the health balance, can be nothing 
 but disease. 
 
 As to the increase of his weight recorded by Dr. Ham-
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 81 
 
 mond, it miglit be due to conditions contrary to health. 
 It is really curious what importance is attached to 
 weight. It is well known that people of light weight 
 have as good health, as much energy, capacity, and endur- 
 ance, as heavy people, and very generally more, and that 
 there are both light and heavy people who equally lack 
 these precious blessings. Of course circumstances alter 
 cases. Weight tells in forcing one through a crowd or 
 mob ; boatmen and blacksmiths need it, but neither the 
 athlete nor the boatman vrill use alcohol to increase his 
 weight ! 
 
 § 34. Let us now return to the considei'ation of the 
 effects alcohol has on the blood, and in the course of the 
 argument the real character of alcoholic tissue-preserva- 
 tion will also become further apparent. 
 
 In the opening of this chapter it was pointed out that 
 blood is tissue in solution (water solution). On the main- 
 tenance of the purely aqueous character of the blood, the 
 supply and scavenging of the tissues greatly depend ; and 
 no substance is innocent which, entering the blood, 
 materially alters this condition. Alcohol falls by this test. 
 Its coagulating and dissolving powers — which, thanks to 
 the rapidity of its entrance into the blood, are not allowed 
 at once to ruin the digestion and the stomach — have freer 
 play in the blood-current, though the profuse saturation 
 does lessen its harmful effects. 
 
 Alcohol being itself a feebly oxidized body, it is eager Special con- 
 to absorb oxygen wherever obtainable. The life-processes tifj^lnauence 
 of the body depend on the combustion which continually of alcohol on 
 
 • 11 ■, . A T_ ■ \. i. ■•• the blood. 
 
 goes on m ail its parts. As was shown m chapter ui., 
 oxygen is an essential factor in this process, hence the 
 large proportion of oxygen in the body — and it is the 
 function of the blood-corpuscles to carry oxygen to all 
 portions of the system. Alcohol, because of its feeble 
 oxidation, in entering the blood, seizes on this oxygen 
 and takes as much of it as it can ; and, of coioi'se, the 
 greater the amount of alcohol, the more oxygen does it 
 withdi'aw from the blood, and hence the more is the com- 
 bustion in the body retarded. And in ithe measure that 
 the blood-corpuscles are robbed of oxygen, in that ratio 
 do they also become degenerated. 
 
 The German Dr. Carl H. Schuiz, as long ago as 1834, r>r. Cari h. 
 
 „ Schulz on
 
 82 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 alcoholic 
 degeneration 
 of the blood. 
 
 ; 
 
 Dr. Dumas, 
 
 the physi- 
 ologists 
 Biicker and 
 Virschow, 
 Dr. Baer, 
 Prof. Her- 
 mann, and 
 Prof. Dogiel 
 on the same. 
 
 demonstrated* that alcohol produces premature decay and 
 death of the blood-corpuscles. " The colouring matter," he 
 says, " is dissolved out of them, the white corpuscles lose 
 their vitality, less oxygen can be absorbed, and less carbon 
 carried off." (Dr. Dumas attributes the alcoholic degenera- 
 tion of the blood to the action of alcoholic ferments feeding 
 on the albuminous portions of the saccharine fluids in the 
 blood.) And later experiments by such physiologists as 
 Bocker and Virschow led to similar conclusions ; and Dr. 
 Baer, in his Alcoliolismus (Berlin, 1878), quotes Prof. Her- 
 mann, of Zurich, who, after experimenting with blood mixed 
 with alcoholic vapour, describes the result as follows : — 
 " It soon became apparent that the yellow blood chains or 
 rolls, separate into their corpuscles, growing gradually paler 
 until they wholly vanish." And Prof. Dogiel (op. cit.) 
 says that alcohol rapidly causes the amoeboid movements 
 of the white corpiiscles to cease, and that at a certain con- 
 centi-ation the alcohol dissolves both the white and the red 
 corpuscles. This fact is further confirmed by the con- 
 dition observed in alcoholized blood when out of the body. 
 Prof. Dogiel observed that blood from an animal under 
 the influence of alcohol coagulates more slowly, and yields 
 less fibrine than normal blood. He further found that if 
 ethyl-alcohol be added to blood drawn from an artery, 
 putrefaction is retarded. This would seem to indicate that 
 the rate of putrefaction is very considerably determined 
 by the amount of alcohol present in a corpse. He also 
 found that arterial blood obtained from an intoxicated 
 animal decomposes more quickly than the normal blood. 
 Prof. Dogiel does not explain this, but it seems probable 
 that it is because alcohol prevents healthy blood oxidation, 
 and checks the removal of waste ; thus the blood becomes 
 impaired and fetid, and when let out of the body, the 
 alcohol evaporates, and the decomposing matters already 
 in the body will then, of course, more rapidly decompose 
 than would healthy blood. f If the blood contains about 
 
 See De alimentorum cocfione experimenta nova (Berlin, 1834), 
 and Die Wirkung des Brannhveins in der Trunksucht, in Huf eland's 
 Journal fur pract. Heilkunde, April, 1841. 
 
 t An indicator of impoverishment of the blood is the hair. 
 In an old work, entitled Letter on the TJnwlwlesomeness and 
 Destructiveness of Fermented, Distilled, and Spirituous Liquors, which
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 88 
 
 one per cent, of alcohol the vital functions are extinguished, 
 as the flame of a candle is, in air containing a certain pro- 
 portion of carbonic acid. About one-half per cent, of 
 alcohol in the blood produces drunkenness so profound 
 that all but the purely animal centres of nerve-life are in 
 a state of suspended animation ; life continues, but only 
 as the smoky flame of a candle burns in air surcharged 
 with carbonic acid. 
 
 Thus the whole process of nutrition becomes vitiated AicohoUc 
 through the ingestion of alcohol. The blood, impoverished oltheS" 
 itself, and I'obbed largely of oxygen (the means necessary 'i reiatioo to 
 for its purification), can only partially fulfil its offices of ofthe'tissues! 
 carrying new matter to the tissues, and of removing the 
 used-up tissue ; and the alcohol, at the same time, hardens 
 both the materials for new tissue making in the blood, 
 and the refuse matter ; and this refuse, which in the ordi- 
 nary course of healthy conditions would be cast out, is 
 largely retained in the blood. 
 
 The German Dr. Boker, by a well-devised and carefully Results of 
 excuted series of experiments, proved that the presence of ^^- ^oker'f^ 
 alcohol in the living system actually diminished the sum regarding'" 
 total of elimination of effete matter daily. alcoholic 
 
 p 1 1 1 1 • • • tissue-pre- 
 
 ihe character or the alcoholic tissue-preservation is servation. 
 further demonstrated in its action on the secretions from 
 the kidneys. It is well known that alcohol increases the 
 quantity of urine, but it is not equally well known that 
 the secretion of urea, which forms about half the solid 
 matter in the urine, and is the chief conveyancer out of the 
 body of nitrogenous waste, is diminished by the action of 
 alcohol, and that the portion by this means left in the 
 body is rank poison to it. 
 
 § 35. But the harm alcohol works to the whole nutrition 
 is further intensified by its waste of water. 
 
 Water, as was said in the introductory remarks on 
 
 was republished in 1750, Dr. Hales, a physician distinguished for his 
 careful physiological investigations, states — " It is the well-known 
 observation of the dealers in hair for wigs, that they can distinguish 
 the dram-drinker's hair by the touch, finding it harsh and dead- 
 ended and unfit for use. ... It is also found that these pernicious 
 drams not only alter the quality, but also, by their drying and 
 corrosive power, lessen the quantity of hair ; and, what is a melancholy 
 proof of the great prevalence of this wicked practice, there is now so 
 much less hair to be bought among the lower people."
 
 84 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 physiology, is even more important to life than foods are, 
 and therefore a permanently continued insuificiency in 
 the supply of water is even more injurious than a com- 
 parative insufficiency of food. 
 Water the Water is the means for cleansing the inside as well as 
 
 anYcieanser outside of the body. If a considerable portion of salt* 
 of the body, meat, for example, has been ingested, water is profusely 
 
 inside fts wGll o ^ i */ 
 
 as outside, sccreted for the dilution of its sharp principle and to wash 
 it out. The blood, in consequence of this extra demand, 
 becomes thick and unable to supply the necessary fluids to 
 the tissues ; hence a call for water, i.e., thirsb. 
 
 Now alcohol, besides being dangerous to the digestion, 
 blood, and tissues (in the measure that it is undiluted), 
 and hence forcing the body in self-defence to saturate it 
 with water (as it does an over-dose of salt, for example), 
 
 * In his prize essay On the Use and Abuse of Alcoholic Liquors in 
 Health and Disease (London, 1849), Dr. William B. Carpenter 
 admirably exposes the assumed resemblance between alcohol and salt 
 as an essential to health, or at least a healthful commodity. He says, 
 " It has been maintained that although alcohol cannot itself serve as 
 an article of nutriment, yet that, like salt, it is a valuable adjunct 
 to other articles ; and that, although in large quantity it may be 
 decidedly noxious, yet that in small it may be very beneficial. 
 Now, strange to say, the substance with which it has been thus com- 
 pared is that of all others to which it will least admit of being truly 
 likened. For salt is not a mere casual adjunct to our necessary food, 
 but is itself an indispensable ingredient of our diet. It is contained 
 in large proportion in the blood, and in every fluid that is secreted 
 from it, and enters into the composition of most of the tissues. It is 
 present, too, in most of the ordinary articles used as food, vegetable 
 as well as animal ; and when this natural supply is deficient, the 
 instinctive craving, both of man and animals, leads them to resort to 
 other sources, from which their bodies may derive the supply necessary 
 for the maintenance of their normal or healthful constitution. 
 Moreover, there is a vei'y beautiful provision in the economy for the 
 immediate excretion of any superfluity of this substance, which 
 passes out of the body nearly as rapidly as it is taken in ; so that it 
 is prevented from ever accumulating to an imdue amount in the 
 blood ; and the only mischief which an overdose of it can occasion is 
 the production of a temporary irritation of the stomach, occasioning 
 a craving for water, which speedily works a cure by carrying off the 
 offending matter. Now, all that salt is, alcohol is not. It is not one 
 of the proper components of the blood or of the tissues, and its 
 presence in the circulation is entirely abnormal. There is no in- 
 stinctive or natural craving for it."
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL KESULTS. 85 
 
 has, as before stated, a chemical aflBnity for water, and 
 therefore occupies it, in spite of the protests of the body 
 that no more can be spared. 
 
 And thus we have one source of the ^'' drink-crave,^^ The"drink- 
 which, as will be shown later on, becomes at last, by the resuft of* 
 degeneration of the nervous system, almost like a consti- thirst. 
 tutional need. " If drinking be long continued," says Dr. Er- Flint on 
 Austin Flint (op. cit.), "the assimilative powers become '®P°'"- 
 so weakened, that the proper quantity of food cannot be 
 appropriated, and alcohol is craved to supply a self- 
 engendered want" — {i.e., the want first engendered by 
 the deluding action of alcohol is met and momentarily 
 beguiled, only to be re-created by the originating agent 
 of the want). "The organism may in many instances be 
 restored to its physiological condition by discontinuing 
 the use of alcohol ; but it is generally some time before 
 the nutritive powers become active, and alcohol in the 
 meantime seems absolutely necessary to existence." 
 
 The foe is met by the system, at the very entrance xhe exaction 
 (the mouth), by water. Instantly that alcohol enters the ^adeby 
 mouth, it is mixed with a profuse secretion of saliva, yielded upon the 
 by the salivary glands in obedience to the sig-nal from the ^at^rofthe 
 
 -11 •• •ii/~ip system. 
 
 nerves m the mouth communicating with them. Of course 
 the same demand for water is made everywhere through- 
 out the body, in order to quench the flames of the burning 
 element as it enters the stomach, as it courses through the 
 blood-vessels, and as it is expelled from the system. 
 
 It is well known that, after a night's drinking bout, the 
 drinker's mouth in the morning is hot and dry. Why ? 
 Partly, no doubt, because of temporary paralysis of the 
 salivary gland nerves, but also because the drain upon and 
 waste of the water of the system has been too great to admit 
 of a sufficient preparation of saliva in time for breakfast. 
 
 And when we remember that the body consists of from 
 seventy-five to eighty per cent, of water, and that saliva — 
 so essential to digestion under the best circumstances — is 
 more necessary than ever when the whole nutritive system 
 and processes have been weakened and deranged — it 
 becomes still more apparent how much harm alcohol does 
 to the body. 
 
 Owing to ignorance about alcohol, the drinker, if he Thesystem's 
 can, meets the body's demand for water with some alcoholic 
 
 nei-d of 
 water mis-
 
 8G THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 understood drink, i.e., alcohol and water, but lie feels only partial satis- 
 airohor'^ ^""^ f action therefrom, because the water found in the drink he 
 takes has only been enough to partially satisfy the water 
 demand. 
 
 Drinkers of alcoholic beverages decry water-drinkers 
 for the quantities of cold w^ater they pour down their 
 throats. As a matter of fact — incontestable fact — alcohol- 
 drinkers take a great deal more of cold water than do 
 water-drinkers. There is, of course, no essential differ- 
 ence in the systemic construction and needs of an alcohol 
 and a pure- water drinker. Both require an equal amount 
 of water for the performance of their life functions. They 
 obtain about the same amount of water from their foods, 
 although, as a rule, the pure-water drinker eats more than 
 the alcohol-drinker, and therefore, perhaps, ordinarily 
 speaking, gets somewhat more water from his food. But 
 as to the ingestion of water as water, the alcohol- drinker 
 must drink a great deal more than the water-drinker, 
 because not only does the alcohol-drinker's system have 
 continually to wash out and dilute the alcohol, but the 
 alcohol itself also calls for water on its own account ; 
 hence further thirst, the call for more water ; and the call 
 is met, but only in connection wdth more alcohol also. And 
 the more anxiously the system cries out for pure water to 
 quench its thii-st, the larger and stronger doses does the 
 ignorant victim of alcohol pour down his throat ; and if not 
 stayed by the hand of Mercy, his thirst will not be slaked 
 except by the waters of Death. 
 The mischief § ^6. But it is not Only the blood itsclf that is harmed 
 alcohol does 'by alcohol ; just as it wounds and scorches the mucous 
 vessels. ' membrane of the stomach, so it ruins the blood-vessels. 
 Dr. James In his lecturc on Alcohol as a Medicine (London, 1867), 
 
 Ihis pi^il*"" ^^- James Edmunds says— 
 
 " The blood carries certain earthy matters in it in a 
 soluble state, these earthy matters being necessary for the 
 nutrition of the bones and other parts of the body. You 
 all know that when wine is fermented and turned from a 
 weak sweet wine into a strong alcoholic wine, you get 
 what is called a ' crust ' formed on the inside of the bottle. 
 What is that crust ? Why is it formed ? That ' crust ' 
 consists of saline or earthy matters which were soluble in 
 the saccharine grape- juice, but which are insoluble in the
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 8/ 
 
 alcoholic flaid. We find in drunkards that the blood- 
 vessels get into the same state as the wine bottles from the 
 deposit in their texture of earthy matter which has no 
 business to be deposited, and forms, as ifc were, a ' bees- 
 wing ' or 'crust' in the blood-vessels of the drunkard, in 
 his eye, and in all the tissues of his body. The result is 
 the tissues get weak and brittle, and in performing their 
 duties they break down ; thus the blood-vessels burst under 
 a little unusual strain, and we get apoplexy and sudden 
 death, and paralysis and slow miseries of all sorts." 
 
 In a letter to me March 24, 1884, Dr. Edmunds thus 
 elucidates this point : — " Just as when earthy salts are 
 thrown out of solution in ordinary water by merely boiling 
 it, a fur is deposited inside the kettle ; so the wine, during 
 its maturing process, deposits certain saline earthy matters 
 on the inside surface of the bottles, forming what is called 
 the 'beeswing,' and wines in the blood make similar 
 deposits on the sides of the blood-vessels. The ' beeswing ' 
 looked for by the drinker in the wine-bottle, is looked for 
 by the physician in the eye of the wine-drinker, as the 
 well-known arcus senilis. This arcus senilis is only an out- 
 ward and visible sign of general internal change, such as 
 earthy degeneration of the arteries, fatty degeneration of 
 the heart, cirrhotic degeneration of the liver and kidneys."* 
 
 And with such attested results on the blood and sir James 
 tissues from the use of alcohol, it is no wonder that ^^^^^l^ 
 Sir James Paget should warn his disciples against operating against 
 on drinkers, even "moderate" ones. operations oa 
 
 " Be rather afraid," he says, " of operating on those, of ™?^^^**g® 
 whatever class, who think they need stimulants before they 
 work ; who cannot dine till after wine or bitters ; who 
 always have sherry on the sideboard ; or are always sipping 
 brandy- and- water ; or are rather proud that, because they 
 can eat so little, they must often take some wine. Many 
 people who pass for highly respectable, and who mean no 
 
 * Dr. Henry Munroe, in his lecture on the Physiological Action of 
 AlcoJiol (Temperance Tracts, New York, 1874), states that "the eminent 
 French analytical chemist, Lecanu, found as much as 117 parts of 
 fat in 1000 parts of a drunkard's blood, the highest estimate of the 
 quantity in health being 85 parts, while the ordinaiy quantity is 
 not more than two or tkree parts ; so that the blood of the drunkard 
 contains forty times in excess of the ordinary quantity."
 
 88 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Various 
 theories as 
 to what be- 
 comes of 
 alcohol after 
 its entrance 
 into the 
 blood. 
 
 Baron 
 
 I^iebig's 
 theory. 
 
 Pr. Flint on 
 the function 
 of fat. 
 
 T)T. Drysdale 
 on the 
 relative 
 
 harm, are thus daily damaging their health, and making 
 themselves unfit to bear any of the storms of life." 
 
 When the effects of alcohol on the nervous system 
 come under consideration, it will be seen how the blood- 
 vessels suffer still further by the paralyzing tendency of 
 alcohol on the nerves controlling the vascular system. 
 
 § 37. The next point regarding alcohol and the blood 
 is what becomes of the alcohol after it has entered into the 
 blood-current. No point in the whole alcohol controversy 
 has been more hotly debated than this, and even to-day the 
 medical world and the physiologists stand divided upon it, 
 in numerous camps, under many leaders. 
 
 The first really earnest endeavours of science to clear up 
 this point are of comparatively recent date. The first 
 theory to receive any general adherence was that started 
 by Baron Justus von Liebig, some forty years ago, viz., 
 that as alcohol was obtained from the heat-generating 
 foods, it must be a heat-generator; that just as alcohol in 
 being burned in a lamp is transformed into carbonic acid 
 and water, while its energy is liberated as heat, so likewise 
 is it oxidized in the body, and transformed into the same 
 two compounds ; and hence alcohol must be a heat-gene- 
 rator, and, in that sense, a food. The absolute proof 
 recently obtained that a chief effect of the ingestion of 
 alcohol is the reduction of heat, of course disproves 
 this theory in toto ; but there are various other effects, 
 which, as will be seen later on, militate against Liebig's 
 theory. 
 
 His theory is, at best, based on pure assumption, viz., 
 that alcohol is to be classed with sugar and fat as special 
 heat-generators of the body. 
 
 Dr. Austin Flint {op. cit.) says on this point, " There is 
 no sufficient ground for supposing that fat has any such 
 exclusive function " (that of producing heat) ; " its office is 
 in connection with the general process of nutrition." As 
 to sugar, he says, " In the present state of science we are 
 only justified in saying that sugar is important in the 
 process of development and nutrition at all periods of 
 life. The precise manner in which it influences these 
 processes is not fully understood." 
 
 And Dr. Drysdale, in a lecture on the death-rate of 
 abstainers and non-abstainers (London, February 25,
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 89 
 
 1884), wittily observed that if alcohol was a food, then merits of 
 another heat-producer, paraffin, might as well be counted pafaffin'^as^ 
 in on the same grounds. respiratory 
 
 ° foods. 
 
 Liebig's theory gained numerous adherents, and even 
 to-day holds a place in the medical world. Some fifteen 
 years elapsed before any effective opposition could be made 
 to it, but in 1860 there appeared a work by three leading 
 French physicians, L'Allemand, Perrin, and Duroy, entitled Theories of 
 The Bole of Alcohol (Paris, 1860), which took the opposite pe'^Hn'°J,';j''' 
 view, declaring that alcohol leaves the body just as it Duroy 'as to 
 enters it, that is, as alcohol. comes of 
 
 From numerous most careful experiments on animals aicouoi. 
 — compared with such as it has been possible to make on 
 man — which established the identicalness of alcoholic effects 
 on beast and man, they concluded that alcohol is neither 
 oxidized, i.e., converted into carbonic acid and water, nor 
 changed into aldehydes and acetic acids in the organism, 
 but that it remains unchanged, and is expelled as alcohol 
 through the lungs, skin, and especially the kidneys. Says Dr. Perrin, 
 Perrin, in his article on the Physiological Action of ^^of. J. 
 Alcohol in the Encijclopcedic Dictionary of Medical Sciences Bouchardat 
 (Paris, 1865), "There is not found in the blood or the andSandras 
 
 ^ . , . ^ . .on the same. 
 
 expired air any trace of the ti'ansiormation or destruction 
 of the alcohol. It accumulates in the nerve centres and in 
 the liver, and finally it is excreted through the diverse 
 channels of elimination. Hence the conclusion that the 
 alimentary role of alcohol has no other pretence to a 
 scientific basis than that of an experimental error." 
 
 Neither of these opposing theories has been universally 
 accepted, and the great body of physicians stand between 
 these two — that is, they believe that alcohol is in part 
 oxidized and in part excreted, unchanged ; but they differ 
 widely as to the amount oxidized as well as the form of 
 oxidation. The followers of Bergeron think that most of 
 the alcohol, after remaining some time, is expelled, and 
 a small part only oxidized. 
 
 Prof. J. Bauer, on the other hand, in his Foods and 
 Dietetic Cure for Sick People, which forms the first part 
 of Prof. Ziemssen's Handbook of General Medicine (Leipsic, 
 1883), affirms that the greater part of alcohol is oxidized, 
 " being changed into carbonic acid and water," while " a
 
 90 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Difficulty of 
 arriving at 
 certain con- 
 clusiuus. 
 
 A possible 
 solution to 
 be fouiiil in 
 the hydro- 
 lytic 
 ferments. 
 
 small portion of the alcohol is in unchanged form put 
 forth from the body through the skin, lungs, and 
 kidneys." 
 
 Others — as, for instance, Drs. Bouohardat and Sandras, 
 and their large following, who hold that alcohol is partly 
 oxidized and partly excreted — claim that the oxidized 
 portion is converted into acetic acid. An infinite variety 
 of opinions exists as to how and in what proportion alcohol 
 is oxidized or excreted. 
 
 § 38. It is a difiicult matter to deduce a tenable theory 
 from analysis, comparison, and combination of the various 
 leading opinions on this point. One thing, however, seems 
 clear, that the Liebigian theory cannot be correct, because, 
 were alcohol a heat-generator, the heat of the body must 
 be increased by the taking of alcohol, which, as we now 
 know positively, is not the case. 
 
 This and other arguments against the theory of Liebig 
 will be considered later on. 
 
 On the other hand, the failure of the most careful and 
 exact efforts to obtain from the excretions of the body 
 anything like the ingested amount of alcohol, goes strongly 
 against the theory that all the alcohol passes through and 
 out of the system, unchanged. 
 
 Alcohol is a baffling and mysterious thing. Other 
 poisons, vegetable as well as mineral, generally single out 
 some specially vulnerable part of the system in which to 
 do their fell work ; but alcohol attacks the whole system 
 (with some special preference for the liver and brain), by 
 this diffusion making both the apj)arent degeneration of 
 the system more generally even, and hence less con- 
 spicuous, and the tracing of its results in the system also 
 more difficult. But as under some circumstances portions 
 of alcohol certainly disappear, it must be that the body, 
 in some manner unknown to us, is able to dispose of a 
 certain amount. 
 
 If Science would turn its ferreting eye in this direction, 
 it may be that a clue to this mystery would be found in 
 the discovery of some compound in the body of the drinker, 
 not existing in that of the non-drinker. It is certainly not 
 an unreasonable supposition that some of those hydrolytic 
 (hidden) ferments, whose office and functions so puzzle the 
 physiologist, may have a part in this mystery also.
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 91 
 
 One thing can be affirmed, that in whatever way 
 the body may be able to dispose of alcohol, there is 
 in that fact no valid argument weighing against the 
 evidence that it is out and out a poison, foreign to the 
 system (being found, if at all, only in infinitesimal traces 
 in the excrementitious matters), and that it damages and 
 deranges the whole nutritive and circulatory processes, and 
 also, as will presently be shown, particularly injures the 
 nervous system. 
 
 When alcohol is taken in large doses, we know that 
 some of it is excreted in unchanged form. A small part 
 goes direct from the stomach, out, as refuse ; some is 
 evidently exhaled, judging both from the foetid breath and 
 from the fact that a small percentage of the ingested 
 alcohol can be traced in the exhalations. 
 
 Dr. E. Gr. Figg (op. cit.) says, " Though I might Dr. E. G. 
 propound a very ingenious theory to show that the human pJffence*of 
 stomach, with its purse-like cardiac opening, is an elastic alcohol in 
 bottle, and that the affinity of alcohol for water rather and in the 
 than for either of its elements, would preclude the possi- ti''*"^- 
 bility of its decomposition, I prefer tangible facts to 
 plausible speculation. Having induced an individu.al to 
 swallow a glass containing two ounces of spirit (eleven 
 degrees above proof), I made him breathe through a tube, 
 the opposite extremity of which was submerged in a 
 tumbler containing two ounces of water, covered with a 
 bladder skin to prevent evaporation ; the fluid became 
 speedily impregnated with the characteristic odour of 
 alcohol. To meet the scepticism which might endeavour 
 to establish an analogy between this fluid and the essential 
 oil of lavenders or other fragrant substance, the perfume 
 of which has been known to pervade the atmosphere of 
 a room for weeks (without any appreciable diminution in 
 the quantity or quality of the original mass), and to anti- 
 cipate the inference that the bulk of the alcohol had 
 actually been decomposed and appropriated, though from 
 its volatile nature an infinitesimal portion had escaped 
 that process, and was then being discharged at the lungs, 
 I varied the experiment by causing a person intoxicated 
 for several hours to give sudden short expii"ations through 
 a tin funnel used for decanting liquids, the narrow ex-
 
 92 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 tremity of which, was in proximity to a gas-jet. The 
 contemporaneous evolution of blue lambent flame an- 
 nounced the presence and density of the spirit." 
 
 The writer of the article Alcohol in Dr. James 
 Hinton's Physiology for Practical Use (London, 1880) 
 Alcohol says, " If the breath of a person who has di'unk so 
 fn^the^'^'^*^ little even as a glass of light ale, containing three drachms 
 expirations. Only of Spirit, be conveyed through a test solution of 
 mntoii's chromic acid (one part bichromate of potash in three hun- 
 physioiopy dred of pure sulphuric acid, its delicacy is so OTeat that 
 
 TOT PvCLCtXCCtl • •/ o 
 
 Use (London, the presence of -yko ^^ ^ grain of alcohol can be detected by 
 1880). jti), the presence of alcohol can be attested by a distinct 
 
 colour-change." 
 
 Alcohol is also under these circumstances traceable in 
 the urine, and in all probability it is also thrown off by 
 the skin. Dr. E. G. Figg, in his lectures On the Physio- 
 logical Operation of Alcohol (Manchester, 1862), says, 
 " In alliance with the organs of the lungs and liver we 
 Aicohoiaiso have the shin, a depurating medium. ... In cases of 
 skfnTvapo- hepatic obstruction, as calculi in the biliary common duct, 
 i)*'*E^G ^^ ^^ onus of carrying off the bile is thrown on the skin and 
 Figg." kidneys, as evidenced in the surface of the one and the 
 
 colour of the secretion of the other — a responsibility in 
 which the lungs and intestines do not participate, though 
 the circulation has equal access to all. The fact that the 
 skin aids the liver in effecting the exit of noxious elements 
 in the circulation, accounts for the pustular excrescences 
 on the face and body of the drinker. It is not the agency 
 of the alcohol which produces them, but the carbon ; the 
 partial result of the disintegrated saccharine and adipose 
 tissues, retained in the arterial vessels by the alcohol 
 monopolizing the pulmonary capillaries in effecting its 
 escape." 
 Pr. T. L. Dr. T. Lauder Brunton (op. cit.) says, " The skin is 
 
 thTsame."" ^^ ^^^t Boft, with a slight satiny feeling, from which I 
 have seen Prof. Neumann discover the alcoholic ten- 
 dencies of a patient ; and perspiration is easily induced. 
 Later on, the skin becomes thick and discoloured, some- 
 times red and sometimes sallow, and becomes liable to 
 various diseases, the best known of which is acne rosacea, 
 often called bottle-nose. Besides this, the skin may be 
 affected with inflammation of various sorts, leading to the
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 93 
 
 formation of ulcers, vesicular, soaly, or pustular eruptions, 
 boils, and abscesses." 
 
 And as the skin, besides its depurating' office, is also 
 the moderation- valve of the heat in the body, this affection 
 of the skin is of great consequence to health. 
 
 As to the action of the kidneys in the elimination of 
 alcohol, an eminent physician writes to me that having 
 with a catheter drawn off the urine from a patient under 
 temporary alcoholic paralysis of the bladder, who was 
 therefore unable to pass it naturally, he found by careful 
 distillation that this urine contained '2275 per cent, of 
 alcohol ; i.e., rather more than 4^ of its volume consisted 
 of absolute alcohol. 
 
 A certain amount of. alcohol has been found in various 
 parts of the body of persons who have died in an 
 intoxicated state. L' Allemand, Perrin, and Duroy (op. Drs. L'Aiie- 
 cit.) found alcohol in the proportion of 1'34 per cent, in and'ouroy'"' 
 the brain. They were, however, by no means the first to 0° alcohol in 
 make such observations. The late Rev. John Guthrie, in 
 his Temperance Physiology (Glasgow, 1877), quotes the 
 following fi'om the statement made by Dr. William 
 Beaumont in an addi-ess to the Vale of Leven Temperance 
 Society (in 1830) as to a post-mortem examination : — " ' I Dr. Wiiiiam 
 dissected a man who died in a state of intoxication after a the s^ue. °" 
 debauch. The operation was performed a few hours after 
 death. In two of the cavities of the brain, the lateral 
 ventricles, was found the usual quantity of limpid fluid. 
 When we smelled it, the odour of the whisky was dis- 
 tinctly perceptible ; and when we applied the candle to a 
 portion in a spoon, it actually burned blue — the lambent 
 blue flame, characteristic of the poison, playing on the 
 surface of the spoon for some seconds.' Some doubts 
 having been expressed in regard to these and other cases 
 of alcohol being detected in the brain, Dr. Ogston, of 
 Aberdeen, said at the time, ' I am happy to be able to 
 add one case to their number. The body of a woman, 
 aged foi'ty, of the name of Cattie, who was believed to 
 have drowned herself in a state of intoxication, was found 
 on the 23rd of August, 1831, in the Aberdeenshire Canal. 
 In company with another medical man, I was requested 
 to examine the body, in order to report the cause of
 
 94 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH, 
 
 death, no one having witnessed the act. We discovered 
 nearly four ounces of fluid in the ventricles, having all the 
 physical qualities of alcohol, as proved by the united 
 testimony of two other medical men, who saw the body 
 opened, and examined the fluid.' " 
 Dr. John Dr. John Percy, in his essay * An Experimental In- 
 
 thesame. quiry Concerning the Presence of Alcohol in the Ventricles 
 of the Brain after Poisoning by that Liquid, etc. (Notting- 
 ham, 1839), states that by distilling blood drawn from 
 an alcoholized system, he had been able to obtain a fluid 
 which, by its dissolving camphor and burning with a 
 bluish flame, proved itself to be alcohol. In the brain he 
 found proportionately still more, from which he concluded 
 that a " kind of afl&nity existed between alcohol and the 
 cerebral matter." 
 
 Dr. Figg (op. cit.) mentions the following noteworthy 
 case : — " John Carter, a young athletic man, di'ank a pint of 
 rum at one efi:ort, dying comatose half an hour subsequently. 
 On the authority of a coroner's warrant, two medical men 
 (myself one) opened the body. The mouth, oesophagus, 
 stomach, cardiac cavities, and lungs presented no appreci- 
 able trace of the rum. Even on opening the cranium, we 
 found nothing to warrant a supposition of its presence. 
 On making a section into the lateral ventricles, however, it 
 flowed out in considerable quantities, altered in coloui% with 
 its characteristic odour." 
 HeiT Kuyper On this same point, the Lancet (October 27, 1883) says — • 
 "'^ ^^^ , " In the Zeitschrift fur anah/tische Chemie (Journal of 
 
 presence of . -i • ^ r~^^ ■ \ tt -it- t i <• 
 
 alcohol in Analytical bhemistry) Herr Kuyper records the tact that 
 the brain. j^^ -j^^g ascertained by distillation the presence of alcohol 
 in the brains and liver of two persons wlio had fallen into 
 the water when di-unk and had been drowned. In one 
 brain he found about one-fifth of a cubic inch of alcohol, 
 and in one Hver a little over half a cubic inch." 
 
 When we come to the consideration of the effects of 
 alcohol upon the nervous system, and the reflex action of 
 the latter on the tissues and vascular system, it will be 
 seen that large doses of alcohol paralyze the nerve centres, 
 and thus the necessary orders for its expulsion, reduction, 
 and change — which are given by the nervous system in 
 
 * A gold medal was awarded by the Medical Faculty of the 
 University of Edinburgh for this essay.
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 95 
 
 the case of smaller doses — are not forthcoiniDg, and hence 
 the enemy remains in possession of the strong-holds until 
 the nervous system can^rally sufl&cient forces to give the 
 requisite orders. 
 
 § 39. The consideration next in order is that of the Effects of 
 effect of alcohol on the temperature of the body. The alcohol on 
 temperature of warm-blooded animals — man included— ture ITthl ' 
 depends chiefly on two conditions, viz., the amount of ^°'^y- 
 combustion within the body, and the radiation of heat from 
 the body. These two conditions mutually assist each 
 other in keeping up an even temperature of the body, 
 about 98-6° Fahr. 
 
 The functions of life are gi'eatly affected by even small 
 changes of temperature, and only a few degrees above or 
 below the normal mean will extinguish life ; therefore 
 anything which causes great fluctuations in bodily tem- 
 perature is dangerous to health and life. It is at present 
 generally admitted that alcohol lowers the temperature of 
 the system, but not until recently has this fact been f ally 
 established. 
 
 As early as 1840, the French physicians, Drs. Dumeril, opjnionsthat 
 Dumarquay, and Lecoint claimed to have discovered that alcohol 
 the taking of alcohol reduced the temperature of the body, temperature 
 and shortly after the German physician ISTasse announced of the body— 
 the same idea, and at about the same time Dr. Prout, of Dumerii, 
 London, strengthened these claims by combating the anirLecohft' 
 oxidation theory on the ground that his experiments with i^r. Nasse, 
 moderate alcoholic doses had shown a reduction in the t>1' pav'ies, 
 exhalation of carbonic acid. Were Liebig's theory of ^'■•i^'"'>'i' 
 alcoholic combustion into carbonic acid and water correct, and Brs. ' 
 the amount of carbonic acid exhaled would be increased, 51''"'^"?" 
 
 . ' rieaumetz 
 
 as well as the temperature of the body heightened. and Audige. 
 
 In 1850, Dr. Davies, of Chicago, U.S., published the 
 results of his extensive series of experiments as to the 
 effects of different articles of food and drink on the tem- 
 perature of the body, as well as the amount of carbonic 
 acid exhaled from the lungs. He says — 
 
 " These experiments proved conclusively that during 
 the active period of digestion after taking ordinary food, 
 whether nitrogenous or carbonaceous, the temperature of 
 the body is always increased; but after taking alcohol, in 
 the form, of either fermented or distilled drinks, the tem-
 
 96 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Practical 
 proofs that 
 alcuhol 
 reduces the 
 temperature 
 of the body. 
 
 perature begins to fall within half an hour, and continues 
 to decrease for from two to three hours. The extent and 
 duration of the reduction of temperature was in direct 
 projjortion to the amount of alcohol taken." 
 
 Notwithstanding these and many other convincing 
 testimonies — by Dr. Edward Smith,* of London, for ex- 
 ample — the question remained almost at a standstill until 
 the publication in the Practitioner of September, 1869, 
 of Prof. Binz's article on the Influence of Alcohol on the 
 Tempei-ature of the Body. 
 
 This revived the issue. Prof. Binz stated that from 
 numerous experiraents which he had made with small 
 doses of alcohol, using the centigrade thermometer, he had 
 found that the experiments proved that small quantities 
 of alcohol lowered the temperature considerably. Half a 
 glass of light hock, or a small glass of cognac, caused a 
 fall of from 0"4° to 0"6° in a very short time. In experi- 
 ments upon dogs with fatal doses, there was a fall in the 
 temperature amounting to between 4° and 5°, in from one 
 to two hours, at which period death took place. 
 
 The recent magnificent experiments on pigs by Drs. 
 Dujardin-Beaumetz and Audige, at Paris (La Temperance, 
 No. 1. Paris, 1884), seem to absolutely preclude the possi- 
 bility of further controversy on this point — that the in- 
 variable result of the use of alcohol as a drink is the lower- 
 ing of the temperature, even though at first it may increase it. 
 
 During the campaign in 1812 in Russia, so fatal for 
 France, it was found that almost all those soldiers who 
 used alcoholic drinks succumbed to the cold and fatigue, 
 while only a small proportion of abstainers fell victims to 
 these rig'ours. 
 
 The Esquimaux, Greenlanders, Laplanders, and other 
 inhabitants of the coldest regions of the globe, have prac- 
 tically experienced that alcohol unfits them for enduring 
 their climates. 
 
 As regards the Laplanders ; some years ago it was 
 feared by the Swedish Government that the race would 
 fi'eeze to death because of drink. An intelligent Laplander, 
 while on a visit to Stockholm, was converted to total 
 abstinence, and became its apostle in his native land with 
 
 * Author of Practical Dietary, London, 1865.
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 97 
 
 such success that the fears of the extinction of this in- 
 teresting race have disappeared. 
 
 Alcoholic drinks are generally dispensed with in Arctic 
 expeditions, experience having shown that thej chill 
 instead of warm. The mercantile and war navies of 
 several countries have abolished the use of alcoholics by 
 their sailors ; others, among them those of England, do 
 not prohibit the use of liquors in the fleet, but offer a 
 petty inducement as a premium on abstention, giving 
 instead of liquors good coffee and tea. It is the invariable 
 testimony that abstainers are best capable of enduring 
 fatigue and withstanding the fury of the elements. 
 
 Some defenders of Liebig's theory have sought to Plausible 
 reconcile the oxidation of the alcohol, and the fall in recondtiiig 
 bodily temperature, by asserting that the heat srenerated ^^'^ f''" "^ 
 m the combustion of the alcohol is rapidly reduced by with the 
 skin-radiation resulting from the effects alcohol exerts in Liebigian 
 
 ,., ,. .,, . * combustion 
 
 dilating the capillaries. theory. 
 
 Even though this reasoning were sound, it can scarcely 
 be said to mend matters ! Liebig's disciples defend the 
 use of alcohol only on the gi'ound of its being a respiratory 
 food. But if the heat thus generated is more than balanced 
 by the heat given out, it is not easy to see what good can 
 come from its use as a heat-generator. 
 
 Were this explanation a true one, there would surely 
 be that in it which should lead the advocates of the use 
 of alcohol to pause. 
 
 What a truly extraordinary procedure on the part of 
 the body — to surrender warmth so necessary to health, 
 and which under normal circumstances it would never let 
 go ! It would almost seem, figuratively speaking, as if 
 alcohol, taking life by the throat, forced the life-current 
 to spring to the surface for air and strength to combat 
 its throttler. 
 
 As we have already seen, it is chiefly by means of 
 skin-radiation of heat, properly proportioned to that 
 generated by combustion within, that the mean tempera- 
 ture is maintained ; and the rapidity and amount of such 
 radiation depends on the porosity of the skin, and the 
 intimacy of the connection between the blood-filled 
 capillaries and these safety-valves. Now, fat is a non- 
 
 H
 
 98 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 conductor of heat, and, being placed immediately under 
 tlie skin, prevents the ordinary radiation of heat. (Hence 
 one reason why fat people suffer so much from heat.) 
 But if the Liebig radiation theory were true, fat drinkers 
 would scarcely suffer any reduction in bodily temperature 
 as compared with persons in normal flesh. 
 
 Under certain conditions taking a small quantity of 
 alcohol causes dryness of the skin, due probably to a sort 
 of cutaneous nerve-paralysis. By the lessened exhalation 
 of vapour from the skin under these conditions, loss of 
 heat may be checked and the temperature raised. This 
 increase of heat is not generated by the alcohol, which 
 invariably reduces temperature, but is due to the shut- 
 ting up within the body of the heat generated by the 
 oxidation of food, together with various noxious elements 
 which under natui^al conditions are thrown off by skin 
 radiation. 
 The effect of § 40. The last and most important physiological con- 
 the°nervous sideration in the study of alcohol is that of its effect on 
 system. the nervous system. 
 
 The innumerable strands of the grayish (in essence 
 unknown) substance which pervade the tissues everywhere, 
 and which in their totality form the nervous system, are 
 more delicate, and their soundness of even more importance 
 to health and life, than is the soundness of the tissues ; or, 
 more exactly speaking, the nerves are of the fii-st import- 
 ance, because it is first through them that the tissues are 
 operated upon. The nervous system is the immediate agency 
 of the life-principle, protecting, guiding, and controlling 
 the varioiis life manifestations. 
 
 It has been observed that the nerves do not all have the 
 same general functions, and they have therefore been 
 classed in two large divisions : — 
 Physiology 1. The Gerehro-spinal, including the brain and spinal 
 
 vouB^system. cord, with the nerves proceeding from them. Their fibres 
 are chiefly, though not exclusively, distributed through 
 the skin and the other sensory organs, and through the 
 voluntary muscles. 
 
 2. The Sympathetic division, which consists of, firstly, 
 a double chain of ganglia and fibres extending in front of 
 the whole spinal column, and from which proceed branches 
 to the cerebro-spinal nerves. Secondly, various ganglia,
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 99 
 
 plexuses, and nerve fibres, extending branches to the 
 thoi-acic and abdominal viscera. And, iJiirdly, a series of 
 nerves controlling the blood-vessels, and known as the 
 vaso-motor nerves, and which are connected with both 
 the cerebro-spinal and sympathetic systems. 
 
 The intertwining and union of these systems of nerves, 
 the mutual interdependence between them and the vascular 
 system, the indissoluble union of mind and body, all com- 
 bine to constitute the great difficulty in the way of dealing 
 clearly with this part of the subject, since for the sake 
 of clearness we are constantly compelled to distinguish be- 
 tween the interlacing psychological and physiological facts. 
 
 In the Influence of Exercise on Health, contributed to Dr. .Tames 
 the Booh of Health (London, 1883) by Dr. James Cantile, [jf^^^^r^te 
 he says, "The voluntary muscles are under the direction and functions 
 and regulation of the cerebro-spinal system. This consists Nous's "Btem 
 of the hrain, resident in the cranium or brain-case, and the 
 prolongation from it that goes down the spine under the 
 name of ' pith,' or spinal cord. From the brain and spinal 
 cord NERVES pass to the muscles, carrying the impulse to 
 the muscles ; they are called motor nerves. A nerve on 
 reaching a muscle breaks up into fine filaments, and supplies 
 every part of the muscle. It is by the medium of the 
 nerves that the will acts on the muscles ; the impulse gene- 
 rated in the brain, flies down the spinal cord and along 
 the nerves to a muscle. 
 
 " The nerves are like telegraph-wires laid on between 
 station and station ; the originating battery, the brain, 
 sends an impulse along the wires, the nerves, to work a 
 machine at the other end, the muscle. But just as it is 
 possible to send opposite electric currents along one wire, 
 so in a nerve we have opposite currents. The one we have 
 just spoken of is a downward current, from the brain to 
 the muscles ; but there is also an upward current carrying 
 messages from the skin and muscles to the brain ; these 
 nerves are called sensory nerves, or nerves of sensation, 
 because they carry the impressions of our sensation to the 
 brain, where the knowledge gained from them is converted 
 into motion, or stored up as memory, etc., for future use. 
 The two sets of impulse are conveyed along separate fibres 
 that are firmly bound together ; but close to the spinal cord 
 the fibres separate, and we see a motor and sensory bundle.
 
 100 . THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 " The involuntary muscles of the bodj are under the 
 regulation of a separate system of nerves, which, as it 
 presides over the organs of the more animal or vegetative 
 part of our existence, is called the vegetative system. This 
 consists of a double chain of small nervous masses called 
 ganglia united together by nerves. The chains are arranged 
 on either side of the spine. From the ganglia, nerves pass 
 to the heart, lungs, and the organs of the alimentary canal, 
 liver, pancreas, etc. — in fact, to all the abdominal and 
 thoracic viscera. On account of the ready disturbance of 
 all parts of this system, when any one part is excited, it is 
 called the sympatJietic system. 
 
 " Hence we find we have two sets of muscles presided 
 over in the main by two sets of nerves : the voluntary 
 muscles by the cerebro-spinal system, and the involuntary 
 by the sympathetic. The chief diif erence between the two 
 sets is that one, the sympathetic system, acting on the 
 heart, lungs, and digestive system, continues in action 
 from the birth to the death of the individual, knowing 
 neither rest nor stoppage, as we understand rest ; whilst 
 the other, the cerebro-spinal system presiding over the 
 voluntary muscles, requires long intervals of quietude 
 provided for by sleep." 
 Parallel -^^ i^ is first through the action on nerves that the 
 
 effects of tissues are reached, it is plain that the affection of the 
 the nervous nerves is of prior importance to that of the tissues, though 
 tiss™'^*'^'*^*'^ it is also true that the effects conveyed through the nerves 
 to the tissxies recoil on the nerves ; for, like the rest of the 
 body, the nervous system goes through the processes of 
 decomposition and renovation, and therefore is dependent 
 for its effectiveness on food ; and as alcohol interferes with 
 the digestion and degrades and deteriorates the whole 
 process of nutrition, it follows that it harms the nervous 
 system, and hence the conclusion that, as alcohol ruins the 
 body, so it ruins the mind. Indeed, we trace alcoholic 
 effects on the nerves parallel with those on the muscular 
 tissues ; such as degeneration of the nerve-tissue, the 
 bursting of blood-vessels, and flooding the brain with 
 blood, etc. 
 
 As to the effects of alcohol on the nervous system, except 
 in the grosser manifestations — those of " jollity " and 
 drunkenness — there is little unanimity of opinion among
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 101 
 
 experts, and as yet their research has covered but a cora- 
 parativelj small portion of the whole field. 
 
 It has long been a disputed point whether the peculiar 
 sensations conveyed by the brain after the ingestion of 
 alcohol are the result of reflex action, * or of direct action 
 on the nervous system. It seems to be settled now, what- The first 
 ever the subsequent reflex action may be, that the first action action of 
 
 ' . •/ ' alconol oTi 
 
 of alcohol on the brain is made direct through the blood. the brain is 
 Dr. Baer (op. cit.) says, "Experiments on brute and ^'^^g^g^^^ 
 man teach that in a comparatively short time after its this point, 
 injection, subcutaneously or into the food channels, alcohol 
 disappeai-s from its place of introduction, being taken into 
 the blood." And he proves that the primary act of alcohol 
 in the system is its entering the blood, by the established 
 fact that drunkenness is produced more rapidly through 
 the direct injection in the blood than by its introduction 
 into the body through any other channel. 
 
 It seems, therefore, probable that some portion of the Possible 
 alcohol, the moment it enters the mouth, is drawn into the'rlddie'' 
 the blood, which hies direct to the brain with it. "^^y alcohol. 
 
 In this, it seems to me, may be found the solution of one rapidly, in- 
 of the hitherto most puzzling riddles of the alcohol question, to^'cates ipss 
 
 V ■ 1 • T • ^ •!! a*^" more 
 
 VIZ., why a man who sips his drink gets more quickly siowiythan 
 drunk than he who gulps it down almost at once. For, if Jny°a1[en,"' 
 it were — as most authorities claim that it is — only by by sipping. 
 reflex action that alcohol operates on the system, then, 
 obviously, an ordinary dose, swallowed almost at once, 
 would more quickly intoxicate than would the same dose 
 slowly sipped. 
 
 * " By reflex action is meant the power which nerve-centres 
 possess of receiving and perceiving an impression brought to them 
 by a nerve from some part, and, as the result, of transmitting an 
 impression through another nerve to some other, it may be distant, 
 part. Thus an impulse conducted by nerves from without inward, 
 reaches a centre, and by that centre, as the result, an impulse is sent 
 through other nerves which conduct it from within outward. So, it 
 is said, an impression or impulse is reflected by a nerve-centre. If, 
 for a famiUar instance, the skin be pricked, the part is suddenly 
 withdrawn. An impression is conveyed from the spot injured through 
 a nerve to a nerve-centre, and hence another impression is sent by 
 the centre through another nerve to muscle, which then contracts 
 and moves the part away." — W. S. Savory, surgeon to St. Bartholo- 
 mew's Hospital, in his introductory chapter in the Book of Health 
 (London, 1883).
 
 102 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 If we remember the processes — that the saliva, on 
 alcohol's entrance into the mouth, instantly dilutes it with 
 water (and, for all that we know, in other ways minimizes 
 the harmful effect before it enters the stomach) ; that in 
 the stomach all of the alcohol — except the very small 
 portion of it that goes out with the refuse — is farther 
 diluted, as far as is practicable, by the gastric juice, in 
 order to still further lessen its evil power before it enters 
 the blood ; — when we bear all this in mind, it will be seen 
 that in the case of the alcohol being slowly sipped, time 
 would be given to all these defensive functions to act in 
 the completest manner of which the body is capable, and 
 thus the resulting intoxication would be much slighter 
 than in the case of alcohol being speedily swallowed. 
 
 But directly the reverse is usually the case. Why ? 
 In the first place, during sipping, the vapour of the alcohol 
 is inhaled, and thus instantly taken by the lungs into the 
 blood and thence to the brain. (It is well known that 
 workmen in spirit vaults are intoxicated by inhalation of 
 the spirituous vapours alone.) Secondly, there seems no 
 doubt that sipped wine is usually held in the mouth long 
 enough for some small portion to be drawn directly into 
 the blood from the mouth and thence also to the brain, 
 and, hence, he who slowly sips his alcohol gets more quickly 
 intoxicated than he who, by swallowing it rapidly, subjects 
 it to the more manifold digestive processes, thereby re- 
 tarding the directness and reducing the force of its 
 assault on the brain. 
 
 The action of alcohol on nerves has been a hotly dis- 
 puted question, and much confusion, largely due to the lack 
 of clear and accepted definitions, still exists on this point. 
 
 Nerve affectants are generally divided into two groups 
 — stimulants and narcotics. The difficulty in properly 
 defining these groups is similar to that I experienced in 
 defining foods, because in neither case does there exist 
 authoritative definitions. 
 
 It is most unfortunate that science has not yet reached 
 that height of accuracy which would furnish us with 
 authoritative general definitions, because just as much as 
 in our verbal communications it is necessary to have an 
 accepted authoritative meaning for every word in order
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 103 
 
 that a common understanding' may be arrived at bj all 
 who use it; just as necessary is strictness in definitions of 
 technical terms and phrases. Confusion in terms springs 
 from and produces confusion in thought, and as regards 
 alcohol this confusion will continue as long as strict defini- 
 tions of, for example, such terms as food, poison, stimulant, 
 narcotic, moderate, temperate, large, excessive, use, abuse, 
 etc., are lacking. 
 
 As to stimulants, for example, in his Principles of various con- 
 Medicine (London, 1841) Dr. Archibald Billing says — flictingdefi- 
 " Tonics give strength, stimulants call it forth. Stimulants stimulants 
 excite action, but action is not strength. On the contrary, ^"^^"s'^'^bI^i"^ 
 over-action increases exhaustion." ling, Forbes, 
 
 Sir John Foi'bes wrote an essay of great merit on The ^^w*^' 
 Character of Stimulants (London, 1848), in which he says — Chambers, 
 
 " The healthy fabric should be quite capable of main- B°unton. 
 taining itself in vigour upon a proper diet, and with a due 
 quantum of sleep and exercise, without any adventitious 
 assistance. But if not, assistance should be sought from 
 alteratives rather than from stimulants, which may produce 
 a temporary excitement, but which tend to destroy the 
 balance of the whole. The very nature of the stimulant 
 is fco produce a subsequent depression, and to lose its force 
 by frequent repetition. The depression is proportional to 
 the temporary excitement, and the loss is thus at least 
 equivalent to the gain." 
 
 But, taking a great authority in Materia 3fedica, Dr. 
 Headland, we find narcotics defined to mean the same as 
 Dr. Forbes means by stimulants. Dr. Headland says — 
 
 " Narcotics are medicines which pass from the blood to 
 the nerves and nerve-centres, and act so as first to exalt 
 nervous force and then to depress it." 
 
 In his Clinical Lectures (London, 186.5) Dr. T. King 
 Chambers says, " What is a stimulant ? It is usually held 
 to be something which spurs on an animal to a more 
 vigorous performance of its duties. It seems doubtful if 
 on the healthy nervous system this is ever the effect of 
 alcohol, even in the most moderate doses and for the 
 shortest periods of time." 
 
 Again taking one of the latest medical opinions, that 
 of Dr. T. Lauder Brunton (op. cit.), we find the following 
 definitions : —
 
 104 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH, 
 
 " By stimulants we mean those things whicli seem to 
 increase our vital powers for the time being, and thus to 
 give us feelings of greater strength or comfort. By nar- 
 cotics we mean such substances as lessen our relationship 
 "with the external world. When used to a slight extent, 
 narcotics simply afford pleasure by lessening the restraining 
 or depressing effect which external circumstances exert 
 upon the individual. Small quantities thus allow freer 
 play to fancy. But in large quantities they abolish all 
 the mental faculties, and render the person who has taken 
 them completely torpid and incapable of voluntary thought 
 or action. Their abuse may lead not only to individual 
 but to national disaster. The most important stimulants 
 are alcohol in its various forms, tea, coffee, and cocoa. 
 The most important narcotics are alcohol, tobacco, opium, 
 chloral, and Indian hemp." 
 
 According to Dr. Brunton, therefore, stimulants are so 
 only in seeming, their manifestations are spurious. On 
 the other hand, narcotics are so only in a physical sense, 
 as in the mental sense they are liberators of the mind ; i.e., 
 mental stimulants, when moderately indulged, becoming 
 anaesthetics vs^hen taken in excess. According to him, 
 alcohol in moderate quantities is a stimulant — that is, a 
 giver of spurious strength; and in large quantities a 
 narcotic — that is, a duller of the senses to impressions from 
 the external world. 
 Dr.Brunton's Apparently for the purpose of fortifying this peculiar 
 feiiie^ofhTs position. Dr. Brunton (op. cit.), after stating that "a 
 positiou. very large quantity of spirits taken at a draught " will 
 produce " great depression, or perhaps even stoppage of 
 the heart's beats," assumes that " the impression made is 
 transmitted by the sensory nerves of the stomach up to 
 a nerve-centre, known as the medulla oblongata, at the 
 upper end of the spinal cord, and tlience down by the 
 so-called inhibitory, or restraining nerves, to the heart. 
 When taken in smaller quantities, however, the effect is 
 quite different ; the impression it makes on the stomach 
 is transmitted to the medulla oblongata by the sensory 
 nerves, but instead of being sent down the inhibitory 
 nerves, it is transmitted by the stimulating nerves of the 
 heart, and thus increases the rapidity and strength of its 
 pulsations."
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 105 
 
 Retaining the division of nerve- affectants into Stimu- Definition of 
 lants and Narcotics, I will define stimulant to mean such l^-^^'^'f^tg 
 food, medicine, or exercise as would in itself be energizing, invigorators 
 and will divide stimulants, according to their effects on g"i.^tor8" 
 man, into two classes — Invigorators and Prostrators. 
 Bodily exercise, for instance, ranks among stimulants ; 
 whether it acts as an invigorator or prostrator being 
 dependent upon the kind and degree of the exercise and 
 the condition of the body. 
 
 Narcotics, on the contrary, are poisons, of a paralyzing Definition 
 nature, and may be divided into two classes ; plain narcotics, „? narcotic" 
 or those whose paralyzing effect is patent, and pseudo- 
 stimulants, or those narcotics whose benumbing effects 
 assume the guise of temporary stimulation, inasmuch as 
 their action is expended primarily upon the inhibitory 
 centres. 
 
 Hence among narcotics are found alcohol, chloroform, 
 opium, hemp, betel, tobacco, coca, thorn-apple, henbane, etc. 
 
 Most of these narcotics are, in small doses, pseudo- 
 stimulants, and in large doses, plain narcotics. Alcohol 
 is pre-eminently of this double character ; a pseudo-stimu- 
 lant when taken in small doses, and a plain narcotic when 
 heavily imbibed. 
 
 With the small — the pseudo-stimulant— dose of alcohol, Meaning of 
 there is tempoi'arily all the appearance of heightened ^^'^ 'J?''™ 
 
 •• 1 T Tn p 11 1 pseudo- 
 
 activity, but the life-forces expend themselves to no pur- stimulant, 
 
 pose — or to a purpose which should not have existed, the ampie^" 
 
 necessity to dispose of the intruder. 
 
 The paralyzing effect of alcohol on the nerves may be 
 compared to the effect produced on the machinery of a 
 clock, by a gradual redaction of the weight of its 
 pendulum ; the machinery runs faster and faster, but this 
 activity is valueless — the real principle, the time-keeping 
 faculty, is paralyzed. 
 
 Thus the animated appearance, the throbbing of the 
 arteries, the peculiar sparkle in the eye, the flush of the 
 face, and the activity manifested by the drinker are signs 
 of danger.* The extra activity is caused by the systematic 
 
 * The angry man shows the same signs — the flaming eye, tnrgid 
 vein, etc., that, in the case of alcohol-drinking, are claimed as signs 
 of benefit. In both cases, however, the appearances are the results 
 of resentment. The angry man is calling on his reserve force for
 
 106 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Alcohol 
 clearly a 
 narcotic 
 poison. 
 
 effort to avert harm, and originates in the incipient 
 paralysis of the nerves caused by alcohol. 
 
 In fact, such signs, "when they result fi"om the ingestion 
 of alcohol, are no more signs of healthy action than the 
 downhill velocity of a coach, when the drag is taken off 
 its wheel, is an evidence of safe progress. 
 
 As deceptive as the outward manifestations are the 
 inward sensations of ease, pleasure, and comfort resulting 
 from the drinking of alcohol. They are all signs of 
 paralysis. 
 
 The starving man, after the acute pangs of hunger 
 have reached the point where paralysis from inanition 
 attacks the nerves, experiences the most agreeable sensa- 
 tions, and sees the most delicious banquets set before him. 
 Similar is the result in the case of death by freezing ; 
 when the cold has paralyzed the nerves of sensation, happy 
 visions of shelter and warmth lull the sufferer into the 
 fatal sleep. 
 
 A like incipient paralysis of the nerves furnishes the 
 pleasing sensations resulting from the use of alcohol. 
 
 Alcohol is therefore clearly a narcotic poison, though 
 this fact has long been a matter of dispute. In his well- 
 known Essay on Drunlcenness (London, 1804), Dr. Thomas 
 Trotter says on this point, "As an article in Materia 
 Iledica, physicians have referred alkohol to the class of 
 narcotics ; medicines which induce stupor and sleep, among 
 which are reckoned opium, banque, cicuta, belladonna, 
 hyociamus nicotiana, lauro-cerefus, etc. The operation of 
 narcotics has lately given birth to much controversy in 
 medical writing, the one party contending for a primary- 
 sedative power in these medicines, which by suspending 
 sense and motion" produce "that condition of the body called 
 sleep. On the other hand, it is argued that the first effects 
 of narcotics are stimulant, and that sleep " follows " as a 
 consequence of preceding excitement ; they are therefore 
 Prof christi- *^ ^^ Considered as only indirectly sedatives." One of 
 Bon.Dr.Figg, the highest authorities on poison. Prof. Christison, affirms 
 Anstie on that " alcohol Constitutes a powerful narcotic poison." 
 
 subduing or punishing the external offender ; the alcohol-dosed 
 system is collecting its reserve force to conquer and expel the 
 internal foe.
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 107 
 
 Dr. E. G. Figg {op. cit., 1862) says the same ; and Dr. 
 Anstie, in liis Stimulants and Narcotics (London, 1864), 
 denies even tlie temporary strengthening of the body from 
 alcohol, and arrives at " one distinct conclusion — which 
 appears to be very great — namely, that as in the case of 
 chloroform and ether, the symptoms which are commonly 
 described as an evidence of excitement, depending upon 
 the stimulation of the nervous system preliminary to the 
 recurrence of narcosis, are in reality an essential of the 
 narcotic ; i.e., the paralytic influence." 
 
 Dr. James Edmunds (op. cit.) says, " Supposing that Dr. James 
 we were able by the use of alcohol to elicit latent S*!™""!^*"^ 
 
 «/ , ^ tae same. 
 
 strength, and, as it were, carry a patient round the 
 corner, i.e., through the crisis, when he might recover 
 himself and go on safely — why, if that were so, the 
 influence of alcohol would be invaluable in exhausting 
 diseases, for it would often enable us to save life. But 
 alcohol is never a stimulant at all when we come to examine 
 it. It never acts as anything but a paralyzer. What are 
 the reasons from which it has been argued that alcohol in 
 small doses is a stimulant, instead of a narcotic, as it is 
 in full doses ? These — that while in the one the brain is 
 paralyzed, in the other the man will talk faster; that 
 while in the one the man's heart is paralyzed and his 
 vessels distended, in the other the man's heart acts more 
 vigorously, and his pulse beats more strongly. And it is 
 inferred that because his heart beats more strongly, and 
 the blood-vessels seem to be more active, the circulation 
 must go on more actively, and that in cases of fainting 
 and in cases of accident the circulation will often be kept 
 up where otherwise it would fail. Let me ask if there is 
 not a more probable explanation of the force with which 
 the heart acts under the influence of a small dose of alcohol 
 than that of supposing that the influence is in one case 
 that of a narcotic, in the other that of a. stimulant. 
 
 " We have an analogy in the act of breathing. When 
 we see a man breathing quietly we know that he is com- 
 fortable, but when we see a man with asthma, we know 
 that the air cannot get into his chest, nor its circulation 
 go on aright in his lungs. What do we see ? We see 
 him breathing with most wonderful ' vigour,' let us call it. 
 Is that any better for the man ? Is that any indication
 
 108 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 that lie has got more air ? No physiologist would for a 
 moment suggest that it was. He would say that the 
 terrible breathing we see where an asthmatic patient leans 
 out of window and strains all his breathing muscles to 
 gasp for air, was an indication he could not get air into 
 him, instead of an indication that he got more air. Yet 
 that is a precisely analogous illustration, and the parallel 
 will hold if we analyze by every scientific and physiological 
 test. For instance, if the aeration of the blood be ob- 
 structed in the capillaries of the lungs, the breathing 
 becomes more frequent and more vigorous ; but this accele- 
 rated action is always called ' difficult breathing,' and is 
 evidence that the true respiratory changes are obstructed 
 instead of being promoted. If the obstruction continue, 
 this difficult or accelerated breathing rapidly exhausts the 
 patient ; the effort cannot be maintained very long, and 
 death necessarily follows. 
 
 " If in a healthy animal we leave the heart and lungs 
 intact, and the blood-vessels unobstructed, and simply 
 close the windpipe with a ligature, violent efforts are made 
 to inspire ; but as no fresh air reaches the lung-cells, the 
 necessary exchanges between the blood and air cannot be 
 made, the blood ceases to pass on through the otherwise 
 unobstructed capillaries, the arteries behind get gorged, 
 the heart makes a few violent struggles to force on the 
 blood, but the circulation becomes arrested all through the 
 body, and death ensues. 
 
 " Here, in the phenomena of asphyxia, we see that the 
 mere non-completion of the proper exchanges between the 
 blood and the air absolutely arrests the blood-currents, 
 while all the circulatory organs remain perfect, and the 
 heart strains every fibre to urge on the life-stream. If 
 instead of at once suffocating the animal, we allow it to 
 breathe air containing its full proportion of oxygen, but 
 containing also ten per cent, of carbonic-acid gas, we get, 
 first, a retardation of narcosis of the respiratory actions in 
 the lungs, like that which alcohol, when mixed with 
 healthy blood, produces in the tissues of the body. 
 Breathing becomes quickened, as in persons suffering from 
 any other impediment to respiration, and the heart acts 
 violently and rapidly ; but as the carbonic-acid gas is 
 carried by the blood all over the body, narcosis overtakes
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 109 
 
 the brain and voluntary muscles, then the involuntary 
 breathing muscles, and lastly the heart itself. Under these 
 circumstances death is caused by a gradual asphyxia, so 
 precisely like that caused by extreme drunkenness that 
 nothing but the actual presence of alcohol in the body 
 would enable the physician to tell one from, the other. 
 But until the narcosis has extended equally to every part 
 of the body, we get effects like those primary effects of 
 alcohol which are called ' stimulating ; ' i.e., we get violent 
 and rapid pulsation of the heart, etc., etc. Yet carbonic- 
 acid gas is the most perfect type of a narcotic poison, and 
 it kills the deity of the fire-worshippers as remorselessly 
 as it poisons every animal tissue."* 
 
 In a subsequent paper on the Physiological Influence 
 of Alcohol (1874) Dr. Edmunds again sums up the narcotic 
 effects of alcohol in these words : " The so-called stimu- 
 lating effects of alcohol are really only finer shades of that 
 same narcotic influence which produces general stupefac- 
 tion and universal paralysis when the agent is given in 
 large doses." 
 
 The narcotizing action of alcohol is twofold, i.e., direct The twofold 
 and reflex. Its direct action is that of its direct assault on a^t\on*'of°^ 
 the brain, whose highest functions it attacks with most aicoboi oa 
 severity, because the higher the function the more delicate and nen°es. 
 and sensitive, and hence more susceptible to injury, is the 
 brain-matter involved. Its I'eflex action is to paralyze the 
 telegraphic nerve-apparatus by which the dazed and dulled 
 superior brain sends its orders for the expulsion of the 
 enemy. Hence the moral and spiritual functions — those of 
 reverence for God, of aspiration ; the principles of self- 
 abnegation — modesty, love, patience, and fortitude, are the 
 first victims of alcohol, while the coarser powers of the 
 brain are at first comparatively little affected, and hence 
 the orders for the reduction of the enemy devolve on these 
 inferior functionaries instead of being received from the 
 highest. 
 
 It is well known that — in the case of contending illustration 
 
 OQ this point. 
 * This is from an nnrevised newspaper report of what Dr. 
 Edmunds then said — which accounts for the careless diction. The 
 facts and opinions stated are, however, so clear and important that 
 I have reproduced it here.
 
 110 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 armies — no matter how superior in every respect the one 
 foe may be to the other, and no matter how certain the 
 ultimate result of the engagement may be, if, at the very 
 outset, the inferior force should succeed in disabling both 
 from action and command the chief of the superior force 
 and those next in power and in knowledge of his plans, 
 many lives will be uselessly wasted, because the lower 
 officers, ignorant of the plan of battle and not holding that 
 supremacy over the men which the general possessed, 
 issue contradictory and inadequate orders, resulting in a 
 confusion which costs heavily before the chief can resume 
 his powers and lead to victory. 
 
 Similar, tliough infinitely more complex, are the 
 paralyzing effects of alcohol on man. Under these the 
 highest functions of the brain send muddled or no orders 
 to the sub-functions, and they in their turn (the extent of 
 the confusion, of course, being largely determined by the 
 amount of alcohol ingested, and the health, conditions, 
 temperament, and intrinsic character of the drinker) send 
 stupid or no messages to their subordinates, and so on. 
 
 But the lower the grade of a faculty, the coarser are 
 the nerve-molecules and therefore the less susceptible of 
 paralysis, but also the less qualified are such faculties 
 — as in the case of the army deprived of its leaders — 
 either to conceive or carry out the work of the highest 
 functions ; and hence in the body of man, as in the 
 demoralized army, we find dire confusion perverting or 
 destroying orders passed from higher to lower nerve- 
 centres, and from nerves to tissues — and, as a result, the 
 various manifestations of naental and physical disorders 
 which are termed lack of co-ordination of ideas, lack of 
 co-ordination of muscles, systemic demoralization, the 
 wreck of manhood. 
 
 Destruction ^^® co-ordinating powers of voluntary action are the 
 
 of the powers next to yield after the moral ; the mechanical powers 
 tion?"'^ '°*' yield last. For instance, if we put something in a drunken 
 man's hand, if he be not too far gone, he will clutch it 
 firmly, though without interest, idea, or intent — the action 
 of his hand being entirely mechanical ; as is also the 
 clinging of his legs to the saddle and the sides of the 
 horse if he is put on horseback. His body sways about
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. Ill 
 
 helplessly, but the involuntary muscles of Ms legs, called 
 into action by tlie touch, cling to what touches them. 
 The further alcoholic paralysis extends, the less does the 
 victim know of shocks or pains. It is commonly known 
 that a drunken man can fall a considerable distance and 
 experience, in appearance at least, comparatively small 
 damage. About three years ago a di-unkeu man jumped 
 from London Bridge into the Thames. He was picked up 
 by a sailor, taken to a hospital, and in a few days showed 
 no effects of the shock. 
 
 It is also a fact of common observation that drunken 
 persons can go about with ugly gashes and bruises on 
 their bodies, without seeming in the least aware of these 
 injuries ; and in the case of the hunter St. Martin, it was 
 seen what a horrible condition could be produced in the 
 stomach by alcohol, with comparatively no sensations of 
 inconvenience to the patient. 
 
 It is the same kind of paralysis which — when the vaso- 
 motor nerves under its effects partially lose their con- 
 tracting influence on the capillaries at the same time that 
 the heart puts on extra force to expel the foe — makes the 
 capillaries dilate so that the blood rushes into and partly 
 remains in these minute blood-vessels. This state of things 
 suffuses the skin with a glow, and thus heat is no doubt 
 wasted. 
 
 Prof. John Fiske, of Cambridge, Mass., U.S., in a keen Prof. John 
 controversial essay on Tobacco and AlcoJiol (Boston, 1869), F'®?^^ ''" 
 
 ., -^ 11111 incipient 
 
 says ot the nerve symjjtoms produced by alcohol — alcoholic 
 
 " The first narcotic symptom produced by alcohol is a P*'^'*'^*'^- 
 symptom of incipient paralysis ; the flushing of the face 
 is caused by the paralysis of the cervical branch of the 
 sympathetic. This symptom usually occurs some time 
 before the conspicuous manifestation of the ordinary signs 
 of intoxication, which result from paralysis of the cerebrum ; 
 we may search in vain among the phenomena of intoxica- 
 tion for any genuine evidences of that heightened mental 
 activity which is said to be followed by a depressive 
 recoil. There is no recoil, there is no stimulation. There 
 is nothing but pai^alytic disorder from the moment narcosis 
 begins. From the outset the whole nervous system is 
 lowered in tone, the even course of nutrition disturbed, and 
 the rhythmic discharge of its functions interfered with."
 
 112 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Out-ide Still it would seem that, at least in cases of small 
 
 temperature doses, the dilation of capillaries is only in part the result 
 qulamesthe of vaso-motor nerve paralysis, which would seem to be 
 dilation of largely influenced by surrounding temperature. In large 
 laiies. doses, no doubt, alcohol has such a paralyzing effect on 
 
 the vaso-motor nerves that the capillaries are dilated 
 almost the same in cold as in heat ; hence the danger 
 of freezing to death. But in small doses this is not the 
 case, because even though the drinker does not in a 
 warm room feel the effects of drink, he becomes quickly 
 intoxicated after entering the cold air, which seems to 
 point the fact that in a warm room the system risks 
 less from driving the alcoholized blood to the surface 
 for oxidation, than from keeping it back in the interior ; 
 while in the cold atmosphere it is safer to let the poison 
 work through the interior of the system. And therefore 
 we see, as in the case of the outward manifestations — the 
 glow of the eye, etc. — the agreeable sensations caused by 
 the blood pouring to the surface are deceptive ; it is not an 
 increase, but a decrease of heat, the surface being warmed 
 at the expense of the interior. And universal practical 
 experience proves the fact. 
 
 It would seem, however, to have been demonstrated 
 that the minutest quantities of alcohol have some paralyzing 
 effect on the vaso-motor nerves. 
 
 The Rev. Mr. Merriman, of Worcester, Mass., U.S., 
 in a most excellent essay, entitled A Sober View of Absti- 
 nence (Medical Temperance Journal, London, 1882), says — 
 Drs Nicoi " -^^'^- ^i<^ol and Mossop of Edinburgh, conducting a 
 
 Mossop, and series of experiments upon each other, examined the base 
 narcotic" ' ^ of the eye by means of the ophthalmoscope while the system 
 effects on the was Under the influence of various drugs. They found 
 that the nerves controlling the delicate blood-vessels of 
 the retina were paralyzed, and the vessels themselves con- 
 gested, by a dose of two drachms of rectified spirits — less 
 than a quarter of an ounce of absolute alcohol— or about 
 a table-spoonful of brandy. Here was a genuine paralysis, 
 'a real physical damage to the nervous tissue.' The nar- 
 cosis caused by this minute dose was, of course, less 
 extended, but just as real as that which occurs when a 
 man becomes dead-drunk. 
 
 " As the nerves and blood-vessels of the eye have a
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 113 
 
 peculiarly intimate connection with the brain, this experi- 
 ment would seem to show ns through this little window, 
 as it were, to the cerebrum, how it is that even half a 
 glass of light wine ' goes to the head ' of many people, that 
 is, causes for a moment a slight dizziness and blurring of 
 sight ; and also how it is that, as Dr. E. Smith has shown, 
 all the senses, particularly the sight, are blunted by very 
 small doses of alcohol. Is it impertinent to suggest that 
 even smaller quantities than this quarter of an ounce 
 may cause incipient narcosis, if only we had an instru- 
 ment sharp enough to detect it ? If so, the distinction 
 in kind between the effects of large and of smaU doses, 
 vanishes." 
 
 The quality of the brain decides the clearness and The quality 
 rapidity with which a message for any part of the body is decMes'th'e" 
 conceived. The soundness of the various nerves through quality of its 
 which the message is transmitted decides the accuracy and eating""'' 
 speed with which it will reach its destination ; and the power. 
 relative health of the communicating agent, and of the 
 tissue deputed by it to put the order into execution, 
 decides the degree of perfection with which the transaction 
 will be finished. 
 
 Dr. J. Crichton Browne, in his paper on Education and Dr. j. Cnch- 
 the Nervous System (Book of Health, London, 1883), says: ^^^"S^^o^t. 
 " The rate at which a nervous impulse travels along a 
 nerve to a muscle can be accurately measured, and this 
 has been found to vary much in different animals. In 
 a frog, such an impulse travels at the rate of twenty-eight 
 metres per second, and in a man at the rate of thirty-three 
 metres per second. And in different individual men the 
 rate of nerve conduction varies slightly. But it is in more 
 complex nervous operations that the influence of quality 
 of nerve-matter in determining rate of action becomes 
 more manifest. Thus, as regards sensory impressions and 
 voluntary actions founded upon them, the observations 
 of astronomers show that of a number of persons intently 
 watching for the transit of a star across the meridian, 
 some will record the event a third or even half a second 
 earlier than others, the difference between individuals 
 in this respect being known as the personal equation. 
 M. Hirsh has shown that there are differences in the
 
 114 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 rapidity with which impressions are transmitted through 
 the nerves of sight, hearing, and touch, and common 
 observation affords abundant illustrations of different rates 
 of action in nerve-centres connected with mental processes. 
 If a man, when out walking, asks his way, and receives 
 some rather complicated directions as to the route to be 
 taken, he will frequently repeat these directions aloud 
 once or twice before he fully comprehends them. The 
 words have been instantaneously received and appropriated 
 so as to be capable of reproduction, but the interpretation 
 of them takes appreciable time. The lower process has 
 been rapid, the higher has been more deliberately per- 
 formed. And common observation also affords abundant 
 illustration of different rates of rapidity of mental pro- 
 cesses in different persons, and thus guides to a rough 
 estimate of the quality of brain-matter. One man is 
 spoken of as quick-witted ; another, as slow of thought. 
 One is said to be vivacious, another lethargic ; and for 
 scientific purposes differences of this kind are summoned (?) 
 up in temperaments, in which rapidity of mental action 
 and quality of brain-substance are indicated by certain out- 
 ward characteristics. From the nervous to the lymphatic 
 temperament, through the sanguine and bilious and inter- 
 mediate temperaments, compounded of these, there is a 
 gradual diminution in the rate of nerve-action, and in the 
 fineness of quality of nerve-substance." 
 
 The manner in which alcohol — even when taken in 
 
 very minute quantity — interferes with the healthfulness 
 
 of nerve-communication, is another proof that it is always 
 
 narcotic, i.e., a nerve-paralyzer. 
 
 TheiatfiDr. Dr. E. A. Parkes, in the Manual of Practical Hygiene 
 
 S-dtothe (London, 1878), gives the following description of the 
 
 iiaraiyzirif; nervc-paralvzing effects of alcohol : — 
 
 effectofalco- t, t i. i i i j. j. ,, ,• 
 
 hoi on the J-H most persons alcohol acts at once as an anaesthetic, 
 
 transmuun ^^^ lessens also the rapidity of impressions, the power of 
 thought. thought, and the perfection of the senses. In other cases 
 
 it seems to cause increased rapidity of thought, and excites 
 
 imagination, but even here the power of control over a 
 
 train of thought is lessened." 
 t'heS^'*°" In a lecture on Physiological Aspects of the Alcohol 
 
 Question, to the conference of Liverpool teachers con-
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 115 
 
 vened by the National Temperance League, June 9, 1883, 
 Dr. Howie said, " In the present day we can calculate 
 with precision the exact time, to a minute fraction of a 
 second, which is required to transmit a message from the 
 brain to the hand or any other portion of the body, and it 
 has been distinctly shown that it takes much longer to send 
 such a message after the person experimented upon has 
 taken even a small dose of a narcotic. A message which 
 could be sent in 0"1904 of a second required 0'29 70 seconds 
 for its performance after two glasses of hock had been 
 administered to the subject of experiment, thus showing 
 how much even a slight narcotic effect interferes with the 
 vital action of nervous tissue." 
 
 How instantaneous is the disorganizing and crippling r)r. J. i. 
 effect of this nerve-paralysis upon the mental powers, after teresUnsj ex- 
 even the smallest dose of alcohol, is shown by Dr. J. J. periments 
 Ridge, in his interesting experiments, the results of which, doses of 
 published in the Medical Temperance Journal for April, alcohol. 
 1882, are almost entirely reproduced here : " If alcohol is 
 at first a stimulant, of course the functions under con- 
 sideration should be more easily and accurately performed. 
 There are three of the functions of the nervous system 
 which seemed most suitable for test purposes. These are 
 (1) the sense of touch, or feeling ; (2) the sense of weight, 
 or the muscular sense ; and (3) the sense of sight, or 
 vision. I have tested each of these senses in the following 
 ways : — 
 
 " 1. Feeling. — An instrument was constructed in which 
 were two points in an upright position, and about half an 
 inch apart. A third upright point was situated between 
 the two, and was capable of being moved in a straight line 
 nearer to one or other of the stationary points. These 
 three points were covered in so as to be invisible, but the 
 forefinger could be passed through a hole in order to feel 
 them. The middle point was moved by a rack and pinion, 
 and the person tested was requii-ed to move it until, in his 
 opinion, it was as nearly as possible equally distant from 
 the two outside points. The movement of the middle 
 point was recorded on a dial invisible to the subject of the 
 experiment. This form of instrument was preferred to the 
 ordinary sesthesiometer, because in that instrument (in 
 using which the person has to state the earliest moment
 
 116 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 that lie can distinguish the points of a pair of compasses 
 as two, while they are gradually separated) imagination 
 might more easily vitiate the conclusions. 
 
 FEELING. 
 
 i 
 
 Number of degrees 
 
 §, 
 
 Number of degrees 
 
 
 Amount 
 
 s 
 
 on the dial 
 
 ? 
 
 
 on the dial 
 
 eS 
 
 of absolute 
 
 Xi 
 
 from exact centre 
 
 
 
 From exact centre 
 
 
 alcohol 
 
 I 
 
 be/ore alcohol. 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 after alcohol. 
 
 < 
 
 given. 
 
 A 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 9-3 
 
 2 drachms 
 
 A 
 
 6 
 
 30 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 24 
 
 46 
 
 45 
 
 5 
 
 28 
 
 2 drachms 
 
 A 
 
 8 
 
 40 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 — 
 
 16 
 
 33 
 
 24 
 
 7 
 
 30 
 
 — 
 
 23-5 
 
 2 drachms 
 
 A 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 1 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 2 drachms 
 
 A 
 
 75 
 
 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 1115 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 115 
 
 2 drachms 
 
 
 115 
 
 189-8 
 
 
 " This table shows that alcohol in small doses exercises 
 a narcotic influence on the nerves of sensation, or renders 
 the perception of minute differences of size less keen and 
 delicate. The numbers, though apparently large, do not 
 represent a large actual distance between the points. 
 They simply indicate the relative difference, the average 
 before alcohol being twenty-three, and afterwards almost 
 thirty-eight. The only conclusion that can safely be 
 drawn is that there is certainly no improvement, no 
 increased sensitiveness after small quantities of alcohol, 
 but, on the contrary, slight deterioration. 
 
 " 2. Weight. — The amount of muscular force required 
 to overcome different resistances is measured by a special 
 sense connected with the muscles, but exercised by the 
 nerves. Comparison between two weights requires the 
 action of the judgment. The more acute the perceptive 
 faculties are, so much the more readily will the judgment 
 decide upon small differences between two weights. The 
 effect of alcohol on this muscular sense was determined by 
 an arrangement in which a weight was attached to a 
 certain lever, and the person experimented upon was 
 required to slide an equal weight along another lever, 
 exactly similar to the fii'st, until, in his opinion, the weights 
 appeared to be the same. It is obvious that the position 
 of the weights on each lever ought to be exactly the same, 
 and, therefore, the more sensitive the muscular sense is,
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 
 
 117 
 
 the nearer will the individual be able to place them before 
 he ceases to detect any diii'erence. 
 
 " The following table gives the particulars of the 
 various trials, the average results both before and after 
 alcohol, the quantity of alcohol administered, and the 
 general average of the whole. All the individuals tested 
 were adult men, and the alcohol was diluted with at least 
 three times its bulk of water. 
 
 WEIGHT. 
 
 
 Distance between 
 
 1 
 
 Distance between 
 
 
 Amount 
 
 1 
 
 the weights, in 
 
 the weights, in 
 
 1 
 
 of absolute 
 
 •S 
 
 millimetres, before 
 
 > 
 
 'A 
 
 millimetres, after 
 
 fe 
 
 alcohol 
 
 I 
 
 alcohol. 
 
 alcohol. 
 
 > 
 
 •< 
 
 given. 
 
 A 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11-00 
 
 7 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1350 
 
 i drachm 
 
 Non-A 
 
 22 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 — 
 
 16-50 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 — 
 
 20 
 
 00 
 
 1 drachm 
 
 A 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 — 
 
 4-75 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 — 
 
 5 
 
 75 
 
 1 drachm 
 
 A 
 
 4-5 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 6-90 
 
 13 
 
 11 
 
 12-5 
 
 18 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 50 
 
 2 drachms 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 — 
 
 4-00 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 — 
 
 8 
 
 00 
 
 2 drachms 
 
 Non-A 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 — 
 
 3-25 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 — 
 
 6 
 
 00 
 
 2 drachms 
 
 A 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 2-25 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 — 
 
 3 
 
 75 
 
 2 drachms 
 
 A 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 5-25 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 6 
 
 50 
 
 2 drachms 
 
 A 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 4-40 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 20 
 
 2 drachms 
 
 Non-A 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 
 2-50 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 
 5-75 
 
 4 drachms 
 
 
 60-60 
 
 90.95 
 
 
 General average, 6-060 before; 9-095 after. 
 
 "From this table certain facts are apparent: — (1) 
 That in every case the average sensibility to weight and 
 power of discrimination was decidedly diminished by small 
 doses of alcohol, the general average indicating that the 
 sensibility is diminished about one-third, or 66"4 per 
 cent. (2) That single trials are not reliable, since many 
 circumstances may unite to produce a fallacious result. 
 Thus, some of the trials after alcohol were actually more 
 accurate than some of those before it, although the average 
 of each individual conforms to the general average of the 
 whole. (3) That non- abstainers are affected, as well as 
 abstainers. (4) That small doses act in a similar way to 
 large doses, and that the difference is only in degree, not 
 in kind. 
 
 "3. Vision. — This was tested by noting the distance at 
 which a row of letters could be read with one eye, without
 
 118 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 alcohol, and then the distance at which the same letters, 
 differently arranged, could be read with the same eye 
 afterwards. The distance varies very greatly in different 
 individuals ; hut, of course, in the same individual it would 
 remain the same, provided that the alcohol had no effect. 
 Indeed, one might naturally expect a slight improvement 
 in the latter trials, by reason of the eyes becoming accus- 
 tomed to the formation of the fancy letters employed. The 
 following table gives the results obtained : — 
 
 VISION. 
 
 
 Distance of distinct 
 vision, in feet, 
 
 s 
 
 Distance of distinct 
 vision, in feet. 
 
 2 
 
 Amount of 
 
 absolute 
 
 alcohol 
 
 given. 
 
 ,0 
 
 T 
 < 
 
 before alcohol. 
 
 > 
 
 < 
 
 after alcoliol. 
 
 > 
 
 A 
 
 7 
 
 r-25 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 6-81 
 
 7 
 
 6-75 
 
 6-50 
 
 5-75 
 
 6-50 
 
 i drachm 
 
 Non-A 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 8-5 
 
 7-87 
 
 8-75 
 
 6-75 
 
 5-75 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 31 
 
 1 drachm 
 
 A 
 
 10-5 
 
 10-75 
 
 10-5 
 
 10-5 
 
 10-56 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 7-5 
 
 9-5 
 
 8 
 
 50 
 
 1 drachm 
 
 Non-A 
 
 425 
 
 5-25 
 
 5-25 
 
 — 
 
 4-91 
 
 4-50 
 
 4-50 
 
 4-25 
 
 — 
 
 4 
 
 41 
 
 2 drachms 
 
 A 
 
 10-25 
 
 9 
 
 7-25 
 
 — 
 
 8-83 
 
 9 
 
 9-25 
 
 8 
 
 — 
 
 8 
 
 75 
 
 2 drachms 
 
 A 
 
 11-25 
 
 11-25 
 
 10-25 
 
 9-5 
 
 10-56 
 
 10-5 
 
 10-5 
 
 11 
 
 8-5 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 2 drachms 
 
 A 
 
 15 
 
 10-5 
 
 13 
 
 — 
 
 12-80 
 
 13 
 
 10-5 
 
 12 
 
 — 
 
 11 
 
 80 
 
 2 drachms 
 
 A 
 
 9-25 
 
 10-25 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 9-75 
 
 8-50 
 
 8 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 8 
 
 25 
 
 4 drachms 
 
 A 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 5-75 
 
 — 
 
 5-91 
 
 5-25 
 
 4-75 
 
 4-75 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 91 
 
 4 drachms 
 
 A 
 
 16 
 
 15-5 
 
 15-75 
 
 
 15-75 
 
 14-75 
 
 14-5 
 
 15-25 
 
 
 14-83 
 
 4 drachma 
 
 
 93-75 
 
 85-38 
 
 
 General average, 9-375 before ; 8-538 after. 
 
 " Here, again, it is clear that every one of the in- 
 dividuals experimented on was affected injuriously by the 
 alcohol. On the average, everyone had to approach nearer 
 in order to distinguish the same letters. The general 
 average indicates that it required an approach of nearly 
 one foot to compensate for the injury done by the alcohol. 
 To put it another way, the distance had to be shortened, 
 on the average, 9 per cent. 
 
 " In testing all three of these senses it ought in fairness 
 to be borne in mind that considerable advantage was given 
 to alcohol by the unavoidable necessity that the test with 
 alcohol should follow the test without it. For thus, in 
 every case, the alcohol gets all the credit of the improve- 
 ment due to experience and practice. If this fallacy could 
 have been avoided, it seems probable that the difference in
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 119 
 
 favour of total abstinence would have been even greater 
 than it really was. 
 
 " As two drachms of alcohol was the amount given in 
 the majority of cases, it may be just worth a line to 
 indicate that this represents one tablespoonful of spirits ; 
 not quite half a glassful of port or sherry ; a small wine- 
 glassful of claret or champagne ; and not quite a quarter 
 of a pint of ale. Now, these quantities are considerably 
 short of the ' physiological minimum,' which is supposed 
 not to do any one any harm. Indeed, the fact is established 
 — that from the moment when sufficient alcohol has been 
 taken to affect the nervous system at all, to the total 
 extinction of nervous energy by a fatal quantity, there is 
 progressive paralysis of every form of nerve function, 
 capable of accurate determination, which has hitherto been 
 experimented on. 
 
 " It is to be carefully observed that, notwithstanding 
 this real deterioration of various powers, the individual is 
 not conscious of any alteration, and nothing but an unmis- 
 takable test can convince him that he is not so accurate or 
 capable as he was before. Whether this arises simply 
 from the inability of the judgment to compare the intensity 
 of two impressions reaching it separately, and after an 
 interval of from fifteen to thirty minutes, or whether it 
 arises from incipient paralysis, or weakening of the 
 judgment itself, is not easy to determine. Probably both 
 causes operate to account for the failure to perceive the 
 difference. 
 
 " One thing becomes very clear — namely, that the highest 
 possible perfection of the nervous system, is only possible with 
 strict total abstinence. 
 
 " Alcohol has, also, clearly no right to be called a 
 stimulant. It is a narcotic from first to last, as Dr. Wilks 
 and others have heretofore asserted, and the symptoms of 
 stimulation are only the result of the peculiar, balanced 
 condition of many functions, between accelerating and 
 checking nerves ; the narcotizing of a checking nerve 
 producing for the time being the same visible effect as the 
 stimulation of an accelerating nerve. Alcohol, like other 
 drugs, has its special preferences for certain nerve-tracts 
 over others, and there is no doubt that in some persons one 
 nervous function is more susceptible, and in others
 
 120 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Recent testi- 
 mony in con- 
 firmation of 
 Dr. J. J. 
 Ridge's ex- 
 periments. 
 
 Conditions 
 qualifying 
 length, ex- 
 tent, and 
 character 
 of alcoholic 
 paralysis. 
 
 Theories re- 
 garding the 
 effects of al- 
 cohol on the 
 nerves in 
 producing 
 the drink- 
 craving. 
 
 Dr. Anstie on 
 the same. 
 
 Prof. Fiske 
 on the same. 
 
 General con- 
 clusions as to 
 
 anotter. Nevertheless, its tendency may be broadly 
 indicated as a paralyzer of nerve-function, or, more shortly, 
 as a trne narcotic." 
 
 In a letter dated March 21, 1884, Dr. J. J. Ridge writes 
 to me as follows : " Yery recently Dr. Scougal, of New 
 Mill, has repeated and confirmed my conclusions, and adds 
 that the sense of hearing is similarly affected by alcohol. 
 
 The health, temperament, alcoholic heritage, and resis- 
 tive power of the drinker ; the state of his stomach as to 
 food; the vitality of the blood, activity of the excrementary 
 organs, foreign ingredients in the alcoholic drink ; — these 
 and other conditions and circumstances combine to deter- 
 mine and qualify the length, extent, and character of 
 alcoholic paralysis, and the amount of damage done, just 
 as they do in regard to the nutritive processes ; and must 
 equally be considered in forming an estimate of the effects 
 of alcohol upon the nervous system. 
 
 § 41. In the preceding portion, on alcohol and digestion, 
 it has been shown that the terrible drink-craving was caused 
 by the avidity with which alcohol absorbs the water from 
 the tissues, but it does not depend exclusively on those 
 chemical properties of alcohol. One of the peculiarities 
 inherent in all forms of sensuous excitation is that artificial 
 excitement produces a cry for more of the excitant, and 
 the more imperatively in proportion to the delicacy of the 
 functions thus abused. 
 
 Says Dr. Anstie (op. ciY.), " A certain quantity of 
 nervous tissue has ceased to fill the role of nervous tissue, 
 and there is less impressible matter upon which the 
 narcotic might operate. And hence it is that the confirmed 
 drunkard, opium eater, or coquero requires more and more 
 of his accustomed narcotic to produce the intoxication 
 which he delights in — to saturate his blood to a high 
 degree with the poison, and thus to insure an extensive 
 contact with the nervous matter." 
 
 Prof. John Fiske {op. cit.) says, " The perpetual 
 craving of the drinker in all probability is due to the 
 gradual alteration in the molecular structure of the nervous 
 system, caused by frequently repeated narcosis." 
 
 Alcohol, therefore, is a narcotic always — from beginning 
 to end, never anything else but a narcotic. Indeed, were
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 
 
 121 
 
 it otherwise, it would not be used in the ways that it is. the narco- 
 Therefore, those who drink in the hope of increasing the of a"icohoL*^ 
 pleasure of living, miss their object, as do those who drink 
 in the hope of augmenting their mental powers. The 
 lawyer, taking his glass before delivering his brief, dulls 
 his anxiety as to the issue and his embarrassment in 
 speaking; the orator, taking his glass as an inspiration, 
 will possibly, by the irritation and jostle of ideas due to 
 narcosis, be able to reproduce from his reserve stores of 
 knowledge some flashy, perhaps eloquent periods, but 
 rarely coherent or deep reasoning ; in neither case do feeling 
 or thought become clearer or keener, but memory and fear 
 are deadened, and a mechanical courage to stolidly get 
 over what cannot be adequately faced, is often temporarily 
 acquired. 
 
 § 42. Recent years have furnished the strongest proofs 
 and testimony that the notion of alcohol as an auxiliary in 
 brain- work is fallacious. 
 
 Dr. E. G. Figg (op. cit.) says, "In a person drinking Dr. e.g. 
 to stimulate a natural mental function, we soon witness effects of 
 an alteration of object ; for, experimentally convinced that alcohol when 
 in the insolvency of the cerebral system as a basis, and mental 
 the defective co-operation of the blood, that extraordinary stimulant. 
 exhibition is not attainable, he must rest satisfied with 
 reaching that which was once the normal standard of his 
 powers, but from which he has retrograded in the collapse 
 of frequent excess." 
 
 In a word, alcohol disappoints and betrays all except 
 those who seek sloth and death for body and mind. 
 
 In a lecture on The Effects of Alcoholic Liquors upon 
 Health and TFor^•, delivered in Hon. Samuel Morley's 
 warehouse, by Sir Andrew Clark, January 6, 1882, he said, 
 " Every adult man who finds himself after trial — and every 
 man should try — to be a thousand times better without 
 alcohol, should not resume it, because he will work better, 
 he will enjoy more, he will have a longer exemption from 
 disease, he will probably live longer, and certainly he will 
 be better in all the higher relations of life. ... I dare say 
 if a man took a glass of wine, as sometimes people do to 
 overcome nervousness, he might succeed, and indeed I am 
 bound to say that that sort of help alcohol sometimes can 
 give to a man, but it gives it curiously enough at the
 
 122 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 expense of blunting his sensibilities. . . . That is my 
 testimony as to the effect of alcoholic liquors upon health 
 and upon work, namely, that for all purposes of sustained, 
 enduring, fruitful work it is my experience that alcohol 
 does not help but hinders it. ... I am bound to say 
 that for all honest work alcohol never helps a human soul. 
 Never, never ! " 
 
 Mr. A. Arthur Reade, in his work, Study and 
 Stimulants (London, 1883), composed of one hundred and 
 thirty-two letters and citations from various eminent 
 literary and other brain workers, says in his concluding 
 comments, " From a review of these one hundred and 
 thirty-two testimonies ... I find " that " not one resorts 
 to alcohol for stimulus to thinking, and only two or three 
 defend its use under special circumstances — ' useful at a 
 pinch ' under ' physical or mental exhaustion.' Not one 
 resorts to alcohol for inspiration." 
 
 I quote from Mr. Reade's volume the following concise 
 and comprehensive testimony (given at Bedford Chapel, 
 July 20th, 1882), by the Rev. Stopford A. Brooke: "It 
 has been said that moderate doses of alcohol stimulate 
 work into greater activity, and make life happier and 
 brighter. My experience since I became a total abstainer 
 has been exactly opposite. I have found myself able to 
 work better. I have a greater command over any powers 
 I possess. I can make use of them when I please. When 
 I call upon them they answer ; and I need not wait for 
 them to be in the humour. It is all the difference betAveen 
 a machine well oiled and one which has something among 
 the wheels which catches and retards the movement at 
 unexpected times. As to the pleasure of life, it has been 
 also increased. I enjoy Nature, books, and men more 
 than I did — and my previous enjoyment of them was not 
 small. Those attacks of depression which come to every 
 man at times who lives too sedentary a life, rarely visit me 
 now, and when depression docs come from any trouble, I 
 can overcome it far more quickly than before. The fact 
 is, alcohol, even in the small quantities I took it, while it 
 did not seem to injure health, injured the fineness of that 
 physical balance which means a state of health in which 
 all the world is pleasant. That is my experience after four 
 months of water- di-inking, and it is all the more striking
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL KESULTS. 123 
 
 to me, because for the last four or five years I have been 
 a very moderate drinker. I appeal to the young and the 
 old to try abstinence for the very reasons they now use 
 alcohol — in order to increase their power of work and their 
 enjoyment of life. Let the young make the experiment of 
 "working on water only. Alcohol slowly corrupts and cer- 
 tainly retards the activity of the brain of the greatest 
 number of men. They will be able to do all they have to 
 do more swiftly. This swiftness will leave them leisure, 
 the blessing we want most in this overworked world. And 
 the leisure not being led away by alcohol into idleness, 
 into depression which craves unnatural excitement, into 
 noisy or slothful company, will be more nobly used, and 
 with greater joy in the usage. And the older men, who 
 find it so difiicult to find leisure, and who when they find 
 it cannot enjoy it because they have a number of slight 
 ailments which do not allow them perfect health, or which 
 keep them in over- excitement or over-depression, let them 
 try — though it will need a struggle — whether the total 
 abandonment of alcohol will not lessen all their ailments, 
 and by restoring a better temper to the body — for the 
 body with alcohol in it is like a house with an irritable 
 man in it — enable them not only to work better, but to 
 enjoy their leisure. It is not too much to say that the 
 work of the world would be one-third better done, and 
 more swiftly done, and the enjoyment of life increased by 
 one-half, if no one took a drop of alcohol." 
 
 § 43. The working classes do mostly believe that alcohol Opinions that 
 increases their capacity for labour. Of course they are ^u°e'^*'tije^' 
 deceived by the general sensations and appearances, and capacity for 
 practical tests have proved the fallacy of their belief. Beddoes*^ ^'^' 
 
 Dr. Beddoes (in Mygeia, 1802) shows by comparison Dpnders, 
 that drinkers, all other circumstances being equal, could Parke^s, and 
 do less work than non-drinkers. Count Woi- 
 
 " Alcohol," says Dr. Baer, quoting from Dr. Donders, 
 " is no savings-bank for muscular strength, as, in time, 
 it utterly destroys it." 
 
 "Brandy, in its action on the nerves," says Baron 
 Liebig, " is like a bill of exchange drawn on the health of the 
 labourer, which for lack of cash to pay it, must be constantly 
 renewed. The workman consumes his principal instead of 
 interest, hence the inevitable bankruptcy of the body."
 
 124 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 But the crucial test for the working classes is found 
 in the resnlts of the experiments of Drs. Parkes and 
 Wollowicz.* 
 
 From long-protracted comparative experiments, alter- 
 nately with water and with alcohol, on a strong and healthy 
 man, they found by counting the heart's beats on days of 
 water-drinking and days of spirit ingestion, that alcohol 
 greatly increased the heart's action. In summarizing these 
 results they say — 
 
 " Admitting that each beat of the heart was as strong 
 during the alcoholic period as in the water period (and it 
 was really more powerful), the heart on the last two days 
 of alcohol was doing one-fifth more work. 
 
 " Adopting the lowest . estimate which has been given 
 of the daily work of the heart, viz., as equal to 122 tons 
 lifted one foot, the heart during the alcoholic period did 
 daily work in excess equal to lifting 158 tons one foot, 
 and in the last two days did extra work to the amount of 
 24 tons lifted as far. 
 
 " The period of rest for the heart was shortened, 
 though, perhaps, not to such an extent as would be inferred 
 from the number of beats, for each contraction was sooner 
 over. 
 
 " The heart on the fifth and sixth days after alcohol 
 was left off, and apparently at the time when the last 
 traces of alcohol were eliminated, showed in the sphygmo- 
 graphic tracings signs of unusual feebleness, and, perhaps 
 in consequence of this, when the brandy quickened the 
 heart, again the tracings showed a more rapid contraction 
 of the ventricles, but less power than in the alcoholic period. 
 The brandy acted, in fact, on the heart, whose nutrition 
 had not been perfectly restored. 
 
 " It will seem at first sight almost incredible that such 
 an excess of work could be put upon the heart, but it is 
 perfectly credible when all the facts are known. 
 
 " The heart of an adult man makes, as we see above, 
 73"57 strokes per minute. This number multiplied by 
 sixty for the hour, and again by twenty-four for the entire 
 day, would give nearly 106,000 as the number of strokes 
 
 * See Bibliography — Experiments on the Effect of Alcohol on the 
 Human Body. — Experiments on the Action of Red Bordeaux Wtne 
 (Claret) on the Human Body. London, 1870.
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESULTS. 125 
 
 per day. There is, however, a reduction of stroke, pro- 
 duced by assuming the recumbent position and by sleep, 
 so that for simplicity's sake we may take off the 6000 
 strokes, and, speaking generally, may put the average at 
 100,000 in the entire day. With each of these strokes the 
 two ventricles of the heart as they contract lift up into 
 their respective vessels three ounces of blood each ; that 
 is to say, six ounces with the combined stroke, or 600,000 
 in the twenty-four hours. The equivalent of work rendered 
 by this simple calculation would be 116 foot-tons; and if 
 we estimate the increase of work induced by alcohol, we 
 shall find that four ounces of spirit increase it one-eighth 
 part, and eight ounces one-fourth part." 
 
 Identical results were reached by these physicians in 
 their experiments with claret. There was the " marked 
 effect on the heart . . . the twenty ounces (of claret), 
 containing almost two fluid ounces of alcohol, were mani- 
 festly too much for the subject ... he felt hot and 
 uncomfortable, was flushed, the face was somewhat con- 
 gested, and he was a little drowsy. . . . Moreover, alcohol 
 then began to appear in the urine. . . . With regard to 
 this healthy man taking any alcohol, we have no hesitation 
 in saying he would be better without it." 
 
 § 44. To sum up, we see that alcohol is a substance General sum- 
 entirely alien to the body, and incapable of being trans- physiological 
 formed into anything useful to it; that it hinders the results of 
 digestion, wastes the digestive fluids, tends to dissolve 
 and damage the blood, and thus vitiates and retards 
 all the life-processes — its action on the stomach and 
 blood producing structural degeneration throughout the 
 system. 
 
 As to its effect on the nervous system, we see that it 
 works through the blood directly on the brain and nerves ; 
 that it narcotizes, and that in this narcotizing it espe- 
 cially deadens the feelings of care, responsibility, and 
 discretion, and npon the bodily powers its effects are 
 shown in the failure of the power to co-ordinate compli- 
 cated series of muscles, and in blunting the acuteness of 
 the senses. 
 
 Its aSinity for water causes thirst for water, which the 
 drinker mistakes for liquor- thirst, his mistake being
 
 126 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH, 
 
 strengthened by the spasmodic demand of the nervous 
 ganglia for more irritation — hence the body's irresistible 
 craving for drink. These being the effects of alcohol on 
 the whole organism, it follows that no one is or can be 
 strengthened by its use, and that, whether used in modera- 
 tion or excess, it is, speaking from the standpoint of 
 physiology alone, an unmitigated curse to man, and as the 
 poisoner of water — maa's chief source of life — it is the 
 great founder of death.
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 PATHOLOGICAL RESULTS, OR DISEASES CAUSED BY ALCOHOL. 
 
 § 45. In the previous part I have dealt with the chemical 
 action and reaction between the body and alcohol. 
 
 In this, the pathological — or disease portion — I shall 
 deal briefly with the disagreeable experiences which Nature 
 forces upon man in her protest against his use of alcohol. 
 The difficulties hitherto encountered are here multiplied 
 and intensified. All the complexities and intricacies, and 
 the apparent contradictions which bewilder and confuse 
 the physiological inquirer, confident the physician with 
 large reinforcements. Even if alcoholic drinks were never 
 adulterated, the exact diagnosing of alcoholic diseases 
 would still be a matter of supreme difficulty. Where, for 
 example, can a non-alcoholic standard be found, and 
 without such an authoritative criterion how can accuracy 
 be hoped for ? But not only is there no criterion to judge 
 from, but unadulterated alcohol is a scarcely known 
 article. 
 
 But let us renaember that without alcohol there 
 would be no adulterations, while without the adulterations 
 there would still be alcohol. 
 
 Before considering the subject of alcoholic diseases, let Definition of 
 us agree on definitions of the terms disease and health. disease^and 
 
 Disease is a self-suggesting word — dis-ease, i.e., dis- beaitii. 
 turbance, dis-order. Health we may define as ease, peace, 
 order. Health, therefore, is that state of individual being 
 in which the body and mind are unanimous about the joy 
 of living. 
 
 This broad definition of health may almost provoke 
 scorn ; not because it is not true, but because it is absurdly 
 inapplicable to life as we find it ; because being true, then
 
 128 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Dr. Huss, the 
 originator of 
 the term 
 akohotism, 
 and its 
 division 
 into acute 
 and chronic. 
 
 health is an iinknown blessing, and there is nothing but 
 disease in the world ; a terrible verdict to pronounce on 
 man's misuse of himself and his fellow-beings. 
 
 Practically, then, health is that state of being in which 
 no part of body or mind offers any palpable, or more than 
 evanescent signs of serious individual disturbance ; disease 
 is the palpable manifestation of disturbance of the regular 
 processes of Hfe. 
 
 Alcoholismus, or alcoholism, is the name for all diseases 
 in any way found to be due to the use of alcohol. The term 
 was first used by Dr. Magnus Huss, of Stockholm, in his 
 Alcoholismus (1849-1851). He divides alcoholism into 
 two groups : Acute alcoholism and Chronic alcoholism* 
 Acute alcoholism (drunkenness and its immediate con- 
 sequences) is principally of a mental character, and the 
 precursor and preparer of chronic alcoholism (the graver 
 chronic mental disorder) ; but as chronic alcoholism is both 
 of a physical and mental character, I will — in order to 
 connect the physical phenomena as a whole with the 
 mental phenomena as a whole — first deal with the chronic 
 physical phenomena, then with acate alcoholism, and then 
 with the chiefly mental phenomena and diseases. 
 
 A. Physical Phenomena and Diseases. 
 
 § 46. " The term chronic alcoholism,''^ says Dr. Huss, 
 " applies to the collective symptoms of a disordered condition 
 of the mental, motor, and sensory functions of the nervous 
 system, these symptoms assuming a chronic form, and 
 without their being immediately connected with any of 
 these (organic) modifications of the central or peripheric 
 portions of the nervous system, which may be detected 
 during life or discovered after death by ocular inspection ; 
 such symptoms, moreover, affecting individuals who have 
 
 * Dr. James Edmunds says that in chronic alcoholism, " the body 
 is one whose tissues are damaged, to begin with, by the long-continned 
 use of alcohol. The case displays all the phenomena of the sot. With 
 every temporary depression in health, a coinparatively mild chill or 
 a little excess in the habitual use of alcohol suffices to bring on an 
 attack of delirium tremens. This differs from acute alcoholism in 
 that the subject is more prone to prostration and death, though the 
 symptoms are less violent, and that recovery is much slower."
 
 PATHOLOGICAL RESULTS. 129 
 
 persisted for a considerable length of time in the habit of 
 drinking." 
 
 Strictly speaking, chronic alcoholism includes all The scope of 
 chronic diseases, physical or mental, coming within the * '^" " '*'"■ 
 scope of either of the following categories : — 
 
 1. Disorders occasioned by strain imposed on the system 
 by alcohol. 
 
 2. Diseases traceable to general system-degeneration 
 produced by alcohol. 
 
 3. Diseases which but for alcoholic system-degeneration 
 might have been averted or resisted. 
 
 Neither place nor time are here afforded for going into 
 the pathogeny, symptomatology, diagnosis, or nosology of 
 alcoholic diseases, and we shall only quote some of the 
 general utterances of the great authorities on these points, 
 leaving the reader to discover, not what diseases do, but 
 what diseases do not directly or indirectly owe, in part at 
 least, their existence, character, and pi'evalence to alcohol. 
 
 Prof. Christison, of Edinburgh, in a letter to the Chair- Prof. Christi- 
 man of the Massachusetts State Board of Health, dated general 
 July 26th, 1870, says of intoxication — diseases due 
 
 " I recognize certain diseases which originate in the aicohoL** " 
 vice of drunkenness alone, which are delirium tremens, 
 cirrhosis of the liver, many cases of Bright's disease of the 
 kidneys, and dipsomania, or insane drunkenness. 
 
 " Then I recognize many other diseases in regard to 
 which excess in alcoholics acts as a powerful predisposing 
 cause, such as gout, gravel, aneurism, paralysis, apoplexy, 
 epilepsy, cystitis, premature incontinence of mine, ery- 
 sipelas, spreading cellular inflammation, tendency of wounds 
 and sores, to gangrene, inability of the constitution to resist 
 the attacks of the diseases at large. 1 have had a fearful 
 amount of experience of continued fever in our infirmary 
 during many an epidemic, and in all my experience I have 
 only once known an intemperate man of forty and upwards 
 to recover." 
 
 Prof. Christison also claims that three-fourths, or even 
 four-fifths, of Bright's disease in Scotland is produced by 
 alcohol. 
 
 In a Treatise on the Continued Fevers of Great Britain p^. MurcW- 
 (London, 1874), Dr. C. Murchison says : — sononcon- 
 
 " A single act of intoxication may also predispose to fevers. 
 
 K
 
 180 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 typhus. Iliave known several instances of persons exposed 
 
 for months to the poison in its most concentrated form, 
 
 who were not attacked until immediately after a debauch. 
 
 There is no greater error than to imagine that a liberal 
 
 allowance of alcoholic stimulants fortifies the system 
 
 against contagious diseases." 
 
 Dr. Murchi- In the Croonian Lectures of 1874, to the members of 
 
 tC!na" ""'^' the Royal College of Physicians, on Functional Diseases 
 
 dueasesof q/ the LivcT, Dr. Murchison said — 
 
 " It is the prevalence of beer and spirit drinking, and 
 consequent liver-clogging, which accounts for the wide- 
 spread use and countless forms of patent pills, such as 
 Cockle's, Morison's, Holloway's, and others. These are 
 taken by millions every week, and people find that if they 
 do not take them they become bilious and unwell. They 
 are all of a purgative nature, and by occasionally hurrying 
 unspent material out of the system they give temporary 
 relief to the overwrought liver. The wear and tear of this 
 process must, however, tend to shorten life. 
 
 " The sallow and unhealthy appearance of the face of 
 the drinker indicates the diseased liver, the most common 
 disease being the so-called cirrhosis or shrinkage of the 
 liver, commonly termed in England the ' gin-drinker's 
 liver.' " 
 Mr. startin ^^ Ji^lj) 1882, Mr. James Startin stated that — 
 
 o|' skin " Sixty per cent, of the cases of skin disease which he 
 
 has to deal with are due, in one way or another, to alcohol. 
 His position, both as a consultant and surgeon to St. John's 
 Hospital for Diseases of the Skin, render his experience 
 large and his testimony important. There can be no doubt 
 that the universal abandonment of alcoholic beverages 
 would conduce as much to the health and clearness of the 
 skin among the general population as among those female 
 prison inmates who are declared, on unimjDcachable 
 authority, so frequently to recover their good looks by the 
 unalcoholic regimen of their enforced retreat." 
 
 In a lecture at Exeter Hall (April 18, 1882) Dr. 
 Norman Kerr, in speaking of the diseases due to alcohol, 
 stated that probably 60 per cent, of the cases of erysipelas 
 were occasioned by it. 
 
 Sir William Temple, in his essay upon the Cure of 
 Gout by Moxa (Nimeguen, June, 1677), says —
 
 PATHOLOGICAL RESULTS. i:?l 
 
 " Among all the diseases to whicli the intemperance of 
 this age disposes, I have observed none to increase so much 
 as the gout, nor any, I think, of worse consequence to 
 mankind. . . . And if intemperance be allowed to be the 
 common mother of the gout, or dropsy, and of scurvy, etc., 
 I think temperance deserves the first rank among public 
 virtues, as well as those of private men ; and I doubt 
 whether any can pretend to the constant steady exer- 
 cise of prudence, justice, or fortitude, without it. . . . 
 I have known so great cures, and so many, done by 
 obstinate resolutions of di'inking no wine at all, that I 
 put more weight upon the part of temperance than any 
 other." 
 
 Dr. Erasmus Darwin, in bis famous work, Zoonomia Dr. Darwin 
 (London, 1794), vol. i. sect. xxi. p. 251 (" On Drunken- °" soui. 
 ness "), says concerning gout — 
 
 " I am well aware that it is a common opinion that the 
 gout is as frequently owing to gluttony in eating as to 
 intemperance in drinking fermented or spirituous liquors. 
 To this I answer that I have seen no person afflicted with 
 gout who has not drank freely of fermented liquor, as wine 
 and water, or small beer; though as the disposition to all 
 diseases which have originated from intoxication is in some 
 degree hereditary, a less quantity of spirituous potation 
 will induce the gout in those who inherit the disposition 
 from their parents." 
 
 In his work on TJie Nature and Treatment of Gout Pr- ^arro<i 
 (London, 1859), Dr. Alfi-ed Baring Garrod says — on gout. 
 
 " There is no truth in medicine better established than 
 that the use of fermented or alcoholic liquors is the most 
 powerful of all the predisposing causes of gout ; nay, so 
 potent that it may be a question whether the malady 
 would ever have been known to mankind had such, 
 beverages not been indulged in. Stout and porter rank 
 next to wine in predisposing to gout ; cider and similar 
 beverages will also act to some extent as predisposing causes 
 of gout." 
 
 Dr. Charles Drysdale, in his address before the Public Dr. Drysdaie 
 Health Section of the British Medical Association, at °" ^'^" "'"' 
 Sheflaeld (Aug. 3, 1876), said— ^ 
 
 " The drinking of beer is the greatest cause of gout 
 among the population of London."
 
 lo2 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Tilt? testi- At the Licensed Victuallers' Dinner, given at Birming- 
 
 "inlmier^' ^^^ (August 9, 1877), Mr. W. Bromley Davenport, M.P., 
 Davenport, gave this amusinglj naive testimony regarding gout and 
 
 Lo'i^'Gran- ^^^6 :— 
 
 ^■iiie re- " My brother-in-law, Loi'd Granville, about two years 
 
 Rout through ago, told me he intended to give up wine altogether. I 
 abstinence, .j^^s very sorry to hear it, because I thought it might injure 
 him. He tells me he has given up wine, and whereas he 
 used to suffer from the gout, he is now not troubled wnth 
 it. If I were to look into my secret soul — if the priest in 
 absolution got hold of me, and got into my soul, which I 
 hope he will not — I should have to admit I was a little 
 annoyed at finding him so well. I was, because his system 
 and mine were so totally opposed, and I was a little bit 
 disappointed." 
 
 ])]■. Richard- Dr. B. W. Richardson, in his Diseases of Modern Life 
 
 waryofThe (^^^ edition, London, 1877. On Functional Disorders 
 Junctional and Organic Diseases from Alcohol), g-ives the following 
 
 disorders . ^ . . . " 
 
 and organic clear and comprehensive summary of diseases springing 
 
 aicohoT^""" from alcohol :— 
 
 " The simplest form of the disease is seen in those who 
 have become habituated to the use of alcohol up to the first 
 degree. In this degree the alcohol, when in action, is pro- 
 ducing arterial relaxation, and the extreme or pei-ipheral 
 circulation is sui'charged with blood. Persons who are 
 thus far habituated to it find in the agent what seems to 
 them to be a daily necessity. They rise in the morning 
 imperfectly refreshed by sleep, and they discover in the 
 first meal of the day, in the ordinary breakfast of domestic 
 life, a very imperfect sustainment. As the day advances 
 some want is felt generally ; the stomach seems to require 
 a fillip, the nervous system is languid, the mind is dull, and 
 the muscles are easily wearied. There is, in addition, a 
 sense of central feebleness, as though the heart were wait- 
 ing for an expected and necessary support. Under the 
 apparent necessity created by these desires, some alcohol is 
 imbibed and relief is for the time obtained. The relief is 
 speedily determinate, and the power for work or for play 
 is restored. But the effect is of short duration ; after a 
 brief period the alcohol is demanded again, eitlier with or 
 without food, and at each meal it is felt to be as essential
 
 PATHOLOGICAL RESULTS. 133 
 
 as the food itself — naj, it is often felt to be so essential that 
 food is as nothing without it. 
 
 " The first symptoms indicating the evil influence of Alcoholic 
 alcohol are, as I have said, functional, and I may add, ^^P'^P"'*- 
 fljictaating. They are at first commonly called dyspeptic 
 symptoms. The stomach and alimentary canal are sur- 
 charged with gases ; and flatulency is a constant source of 
 annoyance. With this there is frequent depression of 
 mind and ready irritation. The emotional centres are easily 
 excited, and to laugh or to cry seems often to be but 
 the work of a thought in act, and of a moment in time. 
 The action of the bowels is irregular; at one time there is 
 a constipated, at another time a relaxed condition. The 
 function of the kidney is equally disturbed. 
 
 " Noises and ringing and buzzing sounds are heard in sensory dis- 
 the head, now suddenly and for brief periods, agfain for turbance 
 
 . . ^ ^ from alcoliol 
 
 longer or even very long periods of time. The cause of 
 these sounds is simple enough. The arterial tension being 
 reduced, the blood flowing through the internal carotid 
 arteries into the skull, throug'h the bony channel called the 
 carotid canal, presses on the walls of the relaxed vessel, 
 dilated under the pressure of the blood, and conveys vibra- 
 tion, from the pressure of the blood, to the walls of the bony 
 canal. The vibration is coramunicated direct to the im- 
 mediately contiguous auditory apparatus, and thus every 
 movement of the blood becomes a murmur of sound, varied 
 in intensity and quality by the varying tension of the 
 artery. 
 
 " The external surface of the body in this state is Vascular 
 easily affected and disordered. The vessels of the skin t^^^g^i^''' 
 are markedly relaxed when the influence of alcohol is 
 re-excited by a renewed dose ; the face and ears redden, 
 and the whole of the cutaneous surface seems in a glow. 
 At first the vessels regain their calibre wlien the alcohol 
 ceases to exert an influence on them ; but by-and-by, under 
 the frequent repetition of the relaxation, the vessels begin 
 to retain the unnatural change to which they have been 
 subjected, and in the extreme parts, such as the cheek and 
 the nose, they assume a distinctive appearance of confirmed 
 vascular relaxation. For the same reason — deficient tonicity 
 of the vessels — the cutaneous secretion is irregular ; a 
 small amount of exertion creates a too free perspiration ; a
 
 134 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 little excess of covering to the body has the same effect. 
 The perspiration is profuse, and, condensing quickly on 
 the skin, as water, instead of going off in vapour with a 
 warm glow, is clammy, heavy, and most oppressive. At 
 times the secretion from the skin is extremely acid. 
 
 " During this state eruptions on the skin are not un- 
 frequent. An eczematous eruption occurring in some ex- 
 treme parts, as the toes, and consisting at first of a slight 
 vesicular rash, with a thin fluid discharge, and afterwards 
 with a scale which is cast off with much irritation, is one 
 of the most common series of signs of the reduced nei'vous 
 control over vascular supply induced by alcohol. 
 Symptoms of " The temperate alcoholic, suffering a deterioration of 
 systemic organic structure which he himself does not, perchance, 
 recognize, but which is always present in him, in some 
 form or degree, feels, as his years advance, other phenomena 
 of disease. He detects too acutely changes of season. 
 The summer is more than genial to him, it is life-giving ; 
 the autumn is dreary, the winter depressing, and the first 
 months of spring, with their keen easterly winds, are 
 almost destructive. Neuralgic, rheumatic, or gouty pains, 
 varied according to the diathesis of the man, tease or 
 torment ; and at last, long before the natural period for 
 cessation from active work has arrived, the man is an old 
 man. His relaxed vessels are ready to give way under 
 light pressure, and his life is ready to depart under 
 natural shocks which to a man of healthy structure would 
 be but as passing vibrations resisted by the force within 
 the body and neutralized. 
 Orsaiiic " Disease of the heart is a common organic malady 
 
 rtisiases from incident to the alcoholic constitution of body. The form of 
 Disease of the disease is usually either a degeneration of the muscular 
 heart. fibre — an interposition within the fibre of fatty substance, 
 
 by which the true inuscular elements are partially replaced ; 
 or a degeneration produced from excess of fluid between 
 the muscular elements. 
 
 " In these states the power of the heart to propel the 
 blood is enfeebled, and, although for a much longer time 
 than might be expected the heart responds to the agent 
 that is destroying it, and continues to beat more freely 
 when the extreme vessels are paralyzed and the artei-ial 
 recoil is weakened, a time at last conies when the very 
 
 I
 
 PATHOLOGICAL RESULTS. 135 
 
 absence of the recoil is the forerunner of death. For it is 
 by the recoil of the great arteries that the heart itself is 
 fed with the sustaining blood. 
 
 " Disease of the blood-vessels is another phase of the 
 organic disease from alcohol. This change, also a deteriora- 
 tion of structure, may precede the changes in the heart, or 
 may run with them. 
 
 " In men whose hearts are principally strong, the 
 vascular form of disease is often the first, and is the cause 
 of death while the heart remains comparatively sound. 
 The deterioration is, as a rule, in the arterial vessels, and 
 may occur in them, either in their wider courses or in 
 theii" minute or peripheral course. In the larger arteries, 
 the change induced in the coats of the vessel may be a 
 deposit, calcareous or bony-like, a thinning, a dilatation, 
 or an atheromatous or fatty transformation of tissue. 
 Whichever of these changes occurs, the result is that the 
 vessel is weakened at the part, and the elastic coat of the 
 vessel, upon the recoil of which so much depends, is 
 rendered helpless. The arch of the great aorta, the basilar 
 artery of the brain, the arteries of the heart itself, are 
 parts of the arterial circuit very subject to this modifica- 
 tion of structure from alcohol. Sometimes the diseased 
 vessel becomes plugged with coagulated blood, and through 
 it, then, no more blood can flow ; sometimes, under a little 
 undue pressure, the vessel gives way, and the escape of 
 blood, through the rupture, leads to rapid dissolution. 
 
 " In the minute vessels — I mean the vessels that lie 
 intermediate between the arterial trunks and the returning 
 veins — the changes produced are infinitely refined and 
 subtle. It is probable that all the structural organic 
 deteriorations from alcohol commence in this minute 
 circulation in which the processes of nutrition are during 
 health in active progress. 
 
 "The sufferers from alcoholic phthisis are usually The lungs: 
 somewhat advanced in life ; the average age has been forty- pilthl^'Js''^ 
 eight years. They are often considered healthy persons 
 until they are stricken with the particular affection, and 
 the figure and conformation of their bodies is good. They 
 are not of the class of drinkers who sleep long, take little 
 exercise, and grow dull, pale, and pasty-looking, but are 
 those who take moderate or short hours of rest, go on
 
 136 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 actively through their duties, and, primed by frequent 
 resort to the spirit cup, live as much, work as much, see 
 as much, and enjoy as much as they can. They are rarely 
 intoxicated, but constantly are ' mellow.' Beer and thin 
 wines are to them as water ; they can take strong wine 
 ad libitum, and even under strong spirit are less influenced 
 than other men, unless — to use the pitiful jest in which 
 they indulge — they ' pile on the agony.' 
 
 " For many years these sufferers, owing to a splendid 
 conformation of body, may live apparently uninfluenced 
 by any disease, in' which respect they differ from alcoholics 
 generally, and in fact are instanced by the votaries of 
 Bacchus as men who drink deep and seem never the worse 
 for drinking. 
 
 " This wonderful health is, however, after all, apparent 
 only. Questioned closely, it is soon discovered that the 
 victims have long been out of health ; that a slight in- 
 fluence, such as a cold, has easily depressed them ; that 
 subjected to unusual excitement or unusual fatigue, their 
 balance of strength against exertion is weakened, and that 
 an extra quantity of alcohol has often been wanted to 
 bring them tip to their required activity. Nevertheless, 
 liiey pass for healthy men : they look healthy, and they 
 retain their good looks to the last. The blotched skin, 
 the purple-red nose, the dull protruding eye, the vacant 
 stare, the alcoholic face of the complete sot, is not traceable 
 in them; neither is the wan, pale, sunken cheek of the 
 ordinary consumptive observable. The face, in short, is 
 the best part of these subjects of alcoholic phthisis. When 
 they are fatally stricken, often when their muscles have 
 lost their power, and the clothes hang like sacks on the 
 emaciated body, their countenance is still ruddy, and the 
 expression finn ; so that friends, too ready to be hopefully 
 deceived, believe in recovery when every chance of it has 
 passed away. In some instances death is so quick from 
 this disease, that the body generally is not greatly emaciated, 
 but, like the face, conveys the deception of strength. There 
 is no remedy whatever for alcoholic phthisis. It may be 
 delayed in its course, but it is never stopped ; and not 
 unfrequently, instead of being delayed, it runs on to a 
 fatal termination more rapidly than is common in any 
 other type of disorder.
 
 PATHOLOGICAL RESULTS. 137 
 
 '' The organ of the body whicla most frequently perhaps The live. : 
 undergoes structural changes from alcohol is the liver, i^'^^^'^^- 
 The capacity of this organ for holding active substances 
 in its cellular parts is one of its marked physiological 
 distinctions. In instances of poisoning by arsenic, anti- 
 mony, strychnine, and other poisonous compounds, we 
 find, in conducting our analyses, the liver to be as it were 
 the central depot of the foreign matter. It is, practically, 
 the same in poisoning with alcohol. The liver of the 
 confirmed alcoholic is probably never free from the in- 
 fluence of the poison ; it is too often saturated with it. 
 
 " The effect oi the alcohol upon the liver is through 
 the minute membranous or capsular structure of the organ, 
 upon which it acts to prevent the proper dialysis and free 
 secretion. The organ at first becomes large from the dis- 
 tension of its vessels, the surcharge of fluid matter, and 
 the thickening of tissue. After a time there follow con- 
 traction of membrane and slow shrinking of the whole 
 mass of the organ in its cellular parts. Then the shrunken, 
 hardened, roughened mass is said to be " hob-nailed," a 
 common but expressive term. By the time this change 
 occurs, the body of him in whom it is developed is usually 
 dropsical in its lower parts, owing to the obstruction ofi^ered 
 to the returning blood by the veins, and death is certain. 
 
 "The kidney, in like manner with the liver, suffers The kidnevs: 
 deterioration of structure from the continued influence of Calculus. 
 alcoholic spirit. Its minute structure undergoes fatty 
 modifications; its vessels lose their due elasticity and 
 power of contraction ; or its membranes permit to pass 
 through them that colloidal part of the blood which is 
 known as albumen. This condition reached, the body 
 loses in power as if it Avere being gradually drained even 
 of its blood. For the colloidal albumen is the primitively 
 dissolved fluid out of which all the other tissues are by 
 dialytical processes to be elaborated. In its natural desti- 
 nation it has to pass into and constitute every colloidal 
 part. 
 
 "In the eyeball certain colloidal changes take place The eyes- 
 from the influence of alcohol, the extent of which have as Cataract. 
 yet been hardly thought of, certainly not in any degree 
 studied, as in future they will be. We have learned of 
 late years that the colloidal lens, the great refracting
 
 138 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 medium of the eyeball, may, like other colloidals, be 
 rendered dense and opaque by processes which disturb the 
 relationship of the colloidal substance and its water. By 
 such process of disturbance the lens of the living eye can 
 be rendered opaque, and the disease called cataract can be 
 artificially produced. Sugar, and many salts in excess in 
 the blood, will lead to this perversion of structure, and in 
 course of time alcohol, acting after the manner of a salt, 
 is capable, in excess, of causing the modification. In the 
 eyeball, moreover, alcohol injures the delicate nervous 
 surface upon which the image of all objects we look at is 
 first impressed. It interferes with the vascular supply of 
 this surface, and it leads to changes of structure which are 
 indirectly destructive to the perfect sense of sight. 
 Sleepless- " A perverted state of the vessels of the brain, and an 
 
 °*^^" unnatural tension to which they are subjected from the 
 
 stroke of the heart that is under the influence of alcohol, 
 sets up one telling and most serious phenomenon — I mean 
 insomnia, inability to partake of natural sleep. 
 Xervous " The brain and spinal cord, and all the nervous matter, 
 
 ficoho?^'^'*™ like other parts, become subject, under the influence of 
 alcohol, to organic deterioration. The membranes en- 
 veloping the nervous substance undergo thickening ; the 
 blood-vessels are subjected to change of structure by which 
 their resistance and resilience are impaired ; and the true 
 nervous matter is sometimes modified, by softening or 
 shrinking of its texture, by degeneration of its cellular 
 structure, or by interposition of fatty particles. 
 
 " These deteriorations of cerebral and spinal matter give 
 rise to a series of derangements, which show themselves 
 in the worst forms of nervous disease. 
 Epilepsy " Epilepsy is but an extension of the spasmodic start, 
 
 from alcohol, rpj^g seizure usually occurs at first in the night and during 
 sleep, and may not be distinguished by the sufi^erer himself 
 from one of many old attacks of what he probably calls 
 ' nightmare.' In time some evidence is left of it in form 
 of bruise or bitter tongue. It is cured sometimes spon- 
 taneously by simple total abstinence from alcohol. In its 
 later stages it is, however, as incurable as any other type 
 of this serious and intractable malady. 
 Paralysis " AlcolioHc paralysis developes itself in two forms of 
 
 from alcohol, paralytic disease. It is in some instances local, affecting
 
 PATHOLOGICAL RESULTS. 139 
 
 one liml) or one side of the body, and leaving tbe will and 
 the memory entire, or at most but slightly enfeebled. It 
 is a paralysis that in a chronic manner runs counterpart 
 with that deficient power of co-ordination of the muscular 
 movements which marks the passage from the second to 
 the third degree of acute intoxication. It comes on steadily, 
 gradually, and for a long period seems, to the victim of it, 
 to be temporarily relieved by the use of the agent that 
 produces it. At last it is complete, and as a rule — to 
 which rule nevertheless there are, happily, many exceptions 
 — it is irrecoverable. The exceptions to the rule would, no 
 doubt, be much more numerous if the injunction of the 
 physician ' to abstain absolutely ' were not only duly 
 enforced and solemnly promised, but faithfully earned out. 
 
 " The second form of alcoholic paralysis is general in its 
 development and accomplishment. It commences com- 
 monly after a long stage of muscular feebleness, persistent 
 dyspepsia, persistent foetor of the breath, and many other 
 warnings, with thickness of the speech and general failure 
 of muscular power. To these symptoms succeeds that 
 alienation from the natural mental state, known as loss of 
 memory. This extends even to forgetfulness of the 
 commonest of things ; to names of familiar persons, to 
 dates, to duties of daily life. Strangely, too, this failure, 
 like that which indicates, in the aged, the era of second 
 childishness and mere oblivion, does not at first extend to 
 the things of the past, but is confined to events that are 
 passing. On old memories the mind, for a limited time, 
 retains its power ; on new ones it requires constant 
 prompting and sustainment. 
 
 " If this failure of mental power progress, it is followed 
 with further loss of volitional power. The muscles remain 
 ready to act, but the mind is incapable of stirring them 
 into action. The speech fails at first, not because the 
 mechanism of speech is deficient, but because the cerebral 
 power is insufficient to call it forth. The man is reduced 
 to the condition of the dumb animal. The failure of 
 speech indicates the descent still deeper to a condition of 
 general paralysis in which all the higher faculties of mind 
 and will are powerless, and in which nothing remains to 
 show the continuance of life except the parts that remain 
 under the dominion of the chain of organic or vegetative
 
 140 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Prof. Kraft- 
 Ebing on 
 alcoholic 
 tremor. 
 
 Scientific 
 American 
 on general 
 diseases re- 
 sulting from 
 beer. 
 
 nervous matter — the picture is one of breathing death ; of 
 final and perpetual dead intoxication." 
 
 In his FsycMatrie (Stuttgart, 1883), Prof. Kraft-Ebing 
 says of the distressing uncontrollable tremor attending 
 habitual drunkenness — 
 
 " The integrity of the motor-functions suffers early 
 among drunkards. The most important, earliest, most 
 frequent, most lasting disturbance is tremor of the 
 voluntary muscles. It is most pronounced in tongue, lips, 
 face, hands. It may, however, become wide-spread. ... It 
 is remarkable that this alcoholic tremor, besides its form 
 and general character, is most pronounced in the sober 
 condition, and diminishes after partaking of alcohol. 
 
 " It often develops at the beginning of the disease by 
 reason of increased reflex excitability of the spinal cord to 
 general convulsive movements and twitching in the calves. 
 These occur especially at the moment of falling asleep, and 
 next to the phtintasms are the principal reason of the 
 increased difiiculty in getting to sleep from which these 
 patients suffer." 
 
 As regards the general diseases resulting from the use 
 of beers, I quote the following abstract from the Scientific 
 American, published in the Temperance Record, July 5, 
 1883.— 
 
 " For some years past a decided inclination has been 
 apparent all over the country to give up the use of whisky 
 and other strong alcohols, using as a substitute beer and 
 other compounds. This is evidently founded on the idea 
 that beer is not harmful, and contains a large amount of 
 nutriment ; also that bitters may have some medical 
 quality which will neutralize the alcohol it conceals, etc. 
 These theories are without confirmation in the observations 
 of physicians' chemists. The use of beer is found to 
 produce a species of degeneration of all the organism, 
 profound and deceptive. Fatty deposits, diminished circu- 
 lation, conditions of congestion, perversion of functional 
 activities, local inflammations of both the liver and the 
 kidneys are constantly present. Intellectually a stupor 
 amounting almost to paralysis arrests the reason, changing 
 all the higher faculties into mere animalism, sensual, 
 selfish, sluggish, varied only with, paroxysms of anger that
 
 PATHOLOGICAL RESULTS. 141 
 
 are senseless and bratal. In appearance the beer-drinker 
 may be the picture of health, but in reality he is most 
 incapable of resisting disease. A slight injury, a severe 
 cold, or shock to the body or mind, will commonly provoke 
 acute disease, ending fatally. Compared with inebriates 
 who use different kinds of alcohol, he is more incurable, 
 more generally diseased. The constant use of beer every 
 day gives the system no recuperation, but steadily lowers 
 the vital forces. It is oui' observation that beer-drinking 
 in this country produces the very lowest form of inebriety, 
 closely allied to criminal insanity. The most dangerous 
 class of ruffians in our large cities are beer-drinkers. It is 
 asserted by competent authority that the evils of heredity 
 are more positive in this class than from other alcoholics. 
 Recourse to beer as a substitute for other forms of alcohol 
 merely increase the danger and fatality. Public sentiment 
 and legislation should comprehend that all forms of alcohol 
 are dangerous when used." 
 
 B. Mental Phenomena and Diseases. 
 
 § 47. The mental phenomena due to alcohol depend 
 upon the physiological disorders produced by the alcohol 
 on the nervous system, and in the degree of their violence 
 and subtlety cause derangement in the manifestations of 
 intelligence. 
 
 Under the category of acute alcoholism science includes 
 all those appalling, though apparently evanescent, pheno- 
 mena which present themselves after alcohol has been 
 swallowed. 
 
 In his Alcoholismiis (vol. ii., 1851), Dr. Huss, of Stock- Dr. Huss on 
 holm, says, "Acute alcoholism may be divided into two ^J^"'^ 
 
 •'t'c,, , *'. ,,, alcoholism. 
 
 groups, i. feuch symptoms as appear m persons at the 
 time of intoxication, but who are not often intoxicated. 
 2. Such as characterize the condition of those habitually 
 intoxicated. The first condition is that of drunkenness ; 
 the second is that of drink craze (^delirium, tremens). In 
 the condition of drunkenness three distinct degrees may 
 be tolerably clearly discerned, in spite of the variations 
 depending upon the amount and quality of the dose — the 
 age, sex, temperament, and disposition of the drinker. 
 
 " The first degree is marked by increased activity of
 
 142 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 several of tlie mental and bodily functions, increased 
 temperature of the skin, -which receives a richer colour, 
 a keener sparkling of the eye, a stronger muscular activity, 
 the movements being more lively and energetic, the pulse 
 high, the heart-beats fuller, the mood easy, and both past 
 and future fade, the present becoming all. This state is 
 usually termed ' jolly.' 
 
 " It continues for a short time, and then languor over- 
 takes all the functions whose activity has thus been 
 heightened. 
 
 " The second degree is known by alternately depressed 
 and exalted activity, morally as well as physically. The 
 face becomes red, burning, and often blazing. The eye 
 loses lustre, stares, sometimes in a feeble, inane way, some- 
 times with a ferocious expression ; the eai"s are filled with 
 rushing, ringing noises, the pulses of the temple and neck 
 beat violently, the neck-veins are strongly distended ; feel- 
 ings of faintuess are experienced. The vision is blurred 
 . and confused, the tongue errant and stuttering, the heart 
 throbs strugglingly, the voluntary muscles lose their 
 elasticity, i.e., their continuous elasticity; the walk is 
 uncertain, stumbHng and reeling ; the skin is hot and 
 perspires, the secretion of urine is unusually great, the 
 breath smells of alcohol, the intelligence is in a high 
 degree disordered, and mistakes are made both in deed 
 and word, which the sufferer barely, if at all, remembers 
 when he returns to sobriety. 
 
 " The third degree is characterized by a more or less 
 complete suspension of intelligence, feeling, and power of 
 motion. The face takes on a bluish-red hue ; i\ie eye is 
 staring and glassy, with distended pupil ; the breathing 
 is a snoring and puffing with open mouth, from which 
 often dribbles a frothy, blood-mixed saliva, stinking with 
 alcohol ; the heart and pulses beat weakly, even to an 
 almost imperceptible degree ; the skin temperature declines 
 till finally it becomes cold and clammy. 
 
 " The muscular system is so enfeebled that, if support 
 is removed from the extremities, they fall down as would 
 a dead mass, and so completely is feeling deadened that 
 the hardest pinch is not felt, and both hearing and vision 
 are equally dulled. Consciousness is totally vanished, and 
 full coma has taken place. This state of unconsciousness
 
 PATHOLOGICAL RESULTS. 143 
 
 is what is meant by the term ' dead drunk,' and may con- 
 tinue for eight, twelve, even twenty-four hours, and some- 
 times longer. 
 
 " Though, after the first degree of drunkenness, the 
 normal condition returns without marked results, it is not 
 the case after the second and third degrees have been 
 experienced. After awakening from these the head is 
 heavy, sometimes faint and dizzy, aching and thumping, 
 especially over the eyes, which are weak, expressionless, 
 and bloodshot ; the tongue is coated, there is a bitter and 
 disgusting flavour in the mouth, great thirst is felt, with 
 aversion for food ; vomiting, a sense of tension in the pit 
 of the stomach, foetid eructions, diarrhoea, and heavy de- 
 pression and weakness of body and mind follow before the 
 heart and pulse begin to beat firmly and normal health 
 returns. 
 
 " When death occurs from drink, the brain smells of 
 alcohol, and is overfilled with blood, the lungs are packed 
 with black blood, the heart and veins are sometimes filled 
 with thick, and at times coagulated blood — all the same 
 general signs marking death from narcotic poisons. 
 
 " The second group of alcoliolismus acutus is delirium 
 tremens, or mania- a-potii, " (described by Pliny as sleep 
 agitated by furies). *' To this state a person comes after a 
 long use of alcoholic drinks, whether he has taken them 
 periodically or steadily, and with or without the immediate 
 results of being drunk. Indeed, a course of drinking which 
 has not resulted in drunkenness tends more directly to a 
 final culmination in this dread disease. 
 
 " The outbreak of this disease is usually preceded by 
 gastric disorders for a longer or a shorter pei-iod, followed 
 by insomnia, with inclination to fantasies. In other in- 
 stances it breaks out suddenly without premonitions, but 
 in such cases — with very rare exceptions — it has been 
 provoked by some accidental causes, such as violent emotion, 
 exterior hurt, great loss of blood, etc. 
 
 " The characteristic manifestations of this disease are 
 similar, consisting chiefly in insomnia, hallucinations, and 
 trembling of the muscles. A certain unrest takes posses- 
 sion of the whole being of the victim. He cannot keep 
 his thoughts together, he is intensely irritable ; sleep dis- 
 appears or is broken with visions ; the face and eyes assume
 
 144 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Prof. Kraft- 
 Ebing on the 
 analogy of 
 acute 
 
 alcoholic in- 
 toxication 
 with 
 insanity. 
 
 a livelier seeming ; the hands, arms, and legs trem^ble in 
 spite of his efforts to restrain this tremor, and at last the 
 full delirium leaps forth. This may be continuous or 
 intermittent ; is generally most violent at night and easiest 
 during the forenoon. At its height it is violent frenzy, 
 but at moments is a preternatural quiet or a burst of joy ; 
 these spurious lulls being of all kinds and grades. This 
 condition continues ordinarily for three, four, and some- 
 times six or seven days, when it succumbs to sleep, which 
 is critical, lasting for eight, twelve, or twenty-four hours, 
 sometimes even more, and usually accompanied by profuse 
 sweating. On awakening from this the sick man sees no 
 visions, bat feels clear in mind, though feeble and dejected, 
 and is convalescent. In other cases this sleep is short, 
 disturbed constantly with troubled visions, the powers sink 
 more and more into collapse, and in this state death often 
 closes the scene." 
 
 Prof. Kraft-Ebing, one of the first of living authorities 
 on insanity, describes {op. cif.) the relations between 
 drunkenness and insanity as follows : — " Acute alcoholic 
 intoxication furnishes by far the most striking analogy with 
 insanity, a;t the same time the most comprehensive one, as 
 it represents all the forms of the same. We find here 
 all the forms of insanity, from the condition of slight 
 melancholy — as intoxication sometimes produces it in the 
 form of the so-called drunlxen misery — up to those extreme 
 states of complete cessation of psychical functions. The 
 most severe form of insanity — -paralytic dementia — is, 
 under the form of intoxication, sometimes so completely 
 copied as to be with difficulty distinguished. Strictly 
 speaking, intoxication is nothing but artificial madness. 
 In most cases, the fii'st effects of alcohol are seen in 
 slightly insane excitement. 
 
 " All bodily and mental actions are increased, the flow 
 of thought quickened. The tacititrn become talkative, 
 the quiet lively. A heightened estimate of self leads to 
 boldness, bold behaviour, cheerfulness. A greater need 
 for muscular movement, a true impulse for exercise, shows 
 itself in singing, screaming, laughing, dancing, and all 
 kinds of wanton and very often aimless acts. 
 
 " The laws of decency are still respected, form and 
 manner are observed, a certain self-control is exercised.
 
 PATHOLOGICAL RESULTS. 145 
 
 But witli progressive intoxication a consecution of refined 
 ideas and moral judgments which control and influence the 
 sane, are abrogated just as in maniacs. 
 
 "At this stage the drunken man abandons himself 
 entirely, reveals the defects of his character and his secrets 
 (m vino Veritas), sets at defiance manners and decency, 
 becomes cynical, bru.tal, arrogant, violent. Now he has 
 also lost the capability of judging of his position — he con- 
 siders himself just as little drunk as the maniac considers 
 himself mad, and is oif ended if one makes a just diagnosis 
 of his case. . . . There is a growing inclination to all the 
 lowest forms of vagabondism ; brutal disregard of the 
 rights and feelings of others, excessive sensuality and total 
 shamelessness leading the drunkard to all sorts of profligacy 
 in the open street ; the craze for reckless purchase and 
 equally instant and reckless destruction of what has been 
 bought, and the revolting egoistic delusions in which the 
 drinker fancies he is enormously wealthy, an emperor, or 
 claims to be Christ or God Himself ; and the tragical 
 hallucination that he is pursued for the purposes of 
 robbery or poison. 
 
 " Finally, it comes to a state of mental weakness, to a 
 loss of consciousness, a vanishing of the senses ; there 
 appear hallacinations, illusion and confusion occur, and a 
 state of deep idiotic stupor ; and just as with the paralytic, 
 slobbering speech, staggering gait, uncertain movements, 
 conclude the disgusting scene. The similarity between 
 artificial and real insanity is further proved by the fact that 
 sometimes — always where there exists a peculiar tendency 
 to insanity— intoxication exhausts itself in the very 
 beginning as acute delirium or transitory mania ; or even 
 that a single intoxication produces immediate and lasting 
 madness." 
 
 Since the days of Dr. Huss, medical science has Dr. Mason on 
 
 alcoholic 
 
 insanity. 
 
 developed yet further divisions of acute alcoholism. In *i"=''^"i"^ 
 
 Dr. Lewis D. Mason's* address on Alcoholic hisanity at 
 the annual meeting of the American Association for the 
 Cure of Inebriates (April 26, 1883), I find the following 
 divisions of acute alcoholism : — 
 
 * Consulting Physician, Inebriate Asylum, Fort Hamilton, Long 
 Island, U.S. 
 
 L
 
 146 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH, 
 
 Jfania-a- 
 potu. 
 
 Character- 
 istics. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 " 1. Acute alcoholic mania, or mania- a-potu. 
 
 " 2. Acute alcoholic delirium, or delirium tremens. 
 
 " 3. Alcoholic epileptiform mania. 
 
 " Mayiia-a-potu does not, as a rule, occur in the 
 habitual di^unkard, but in persons who occasionally drink 
 to excess. The patient is unconscious of his acts during 
 the paroxysm, and usually extremely ashamed and re- 
 pentant." Ordinarily the attack is brief, but, " in exceptional 
 instances, the person may remain maniacal for four or 
 five days after a drinking bout. . . . There is no crime in 
 the calendar that these alcoholic maniacs may not comruit ; 
 theii' reason is temporarily dethroned ; they are uncon- 
 scious of, not the chai'acter of their actions alone, but of 
 the acts themselves, and are therefore irresponsible. 
 
 " One characteristic of this mania is that the natural 
 strength of the person may be greatly increased, and a man 
 of ordinary physical development may thus become a giant 
 in his alcoholic fury. . . . Another marked characteristic 
 of mania-a-potu is that it is not preceded or followed by 
 delusions or hallucinations, as other forms of alcoholic 
 insanity are. The assaults are apparently motiveless, the 
 frenzy cyclonic, in its oftentimes terrible results. . , . The 
 following case occurred in my experience. 
 
 " The person was a United States contractor, and at 
 times received large sums of money from the Government. 
 He was an occasional inebriate : during the period of his 
 debauches he was very violent, dangerous to his wife and 
 those about him, making assaults on every one. After the 
 paroxysms of mania passed off, he was repentant, extremely 
 grieved, and did all in his power to amend the evil he had 
 done. After one of his fits of intemperance, in a mood of 
 repentance, he sought to conciliate his wiie by the ex- 
 penditure of a large sum of money. He rented a villa on 
 the Hudson, furnished it extravagantly, bought horses 
 and carriages, and employed a retinue of servants, and in 
 every way strove to make restitution for his past misdeeds. 
 Some time after this — though not a lengthy period — he 
 received a large sum of money from the Government, and 
 again went on one of his debauches, returning home a mad- 
 man. He procured an axe ; his wife fled at his approach, 
 and locked herself in a room at the top of the house ; the 
 servants escaped to a neighbour's. Tlie maniac had full
 
 PATHOLOGICAL KESULTS. 147 
 
 control of the premises, and proceeded to demolish, the 
 furniture. A grand Steinway piano was reduced to 
 splinters, and ruin spread in every direction as his insane 
 fury dictated. Fortunately, he met no one, or homicide 
 would most certainly have been added to his acts of 
 destruction. His wife eventually procured a divorce, and 
 he died in an asylum. His son became an inebriate, and, 
 coming under my care, I was enabled to obtain the family 
 history. 
 
 " The son was a periodical inebriate, and, when under 
 the influence of alcohol, was, like his father, a maniac, 
 aggressive, homicidal, and with exceedingly dangerous and 
 destructive tendencies." 
 
 Dr. Mason also cites the following from the fourth 
 annual report of the !New York State Inebriate Asylum 
 (1866) : — "A young man in Madison Co. in this State, in 
 the year 1857, while under the attack {mania- a-jp otu) , killed 
 his father and mother and cut out their hearts, which he 
 roasted and ate. He was arrested, thro"\vn into prison, 
 and indicted for murder. He was brought into court for 
 trial, where Judge Gray, of the Supreme Court, stated that 
 the case could not be tried, as there was no motive to 
 prompt a man to commit such a crime, and the man was 
 sent to the Insane Asylum." 
 
 " In acute alcoholic delirium, or delirium, tremens,^' Delirium 
 continues Dr. Mason — " the latter synonym being often a *''^™™^- 
 misnomer, as tremor is not nnfrequently absent," but, 
 unlike mania-a-potu, is always attended by hallucinations 
 or delusions — " optical delusions are present, and these its 
 are readily misconstrued by a disordered intellect into all symptoms, 
 kinds of forms and fantasies, horrible or grotesque. There 
 is perversion of the hearing, and natural sounds receive 
 undue importance, and are readily misinterpreted by the 
 delirious patient. There is less perversion of taste and 
 smell than of the other senses ; but the fact that the former 
 may be perverted is of interest, as accounting, in some 
 measure, for the delusion of poisoning so common in the 
 m.ore subacute and chronic forms of alcoholic mania. 
 
 "The delirium is characterized by great changeableness its genorai 
 of delusions, although there is one delusion of fixed pro- f^ttcs"^' '^' 
 minence to which all others are secondary. The perversion 
 of the various senses form, or change, or direct the
 
 us 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 l>r. 
 
 Maudsley's 
 description 
 of delirium 
 tremens. 
 
 character of tlie delusions, which, are accompanied by 
 hallucination.s of hearing, vision, and tactile sensation. 
 Ordinary sounds receive undue importance, or are con- 
 verted into terrible threats, the air is full of voices, visions 
 constantly appear and disappear. Commonplace objects 
 assume the form of demons or other horrid objects. 
 Hypereesthesia of the skin, perverted tactile sensation, gives 
 the belief that insects are crawling over the integumen. 
 Irregular chilly sensation and formication, or pricking 
 sensations, are easily converted by the delirious patient into 
 snakes, rats, or other vermin. The patient borrows his 
 delusions largely from his surroundings, although all 
 authorities agree that the avocation of the patient, or the 
 last prominent act he may have engaged in, establish the 
 central delusion of his delirium. If his delusion partakes 
 largely of personal danger, he makes repeated attempts to 
 escape, and often effects his purpose with great cunning. 
 
 " He will assault those about him in his attempts to 
 get away, or if he imagines they are his enemies. These 
 acts of violence are generally seen in the more maniacal 
 form of delirium. Delusions of a melancholic character 
 are not unfrequently present ; pi'cparations are being made 
 for his funeral, the table is a bier, the sheets are his shroud ; 
 or he is to be drowned, or hung, or terribly abused in some 
 way ; he begs for mercy, he prajs for deliverance, and in 
 a paroxysm of terror may commit suicide if not closely 
 watched." 
 
 In this connection Dr. Mason quotes the follo^ving from 
 Dr. Maudsley : — 
 
 ^^ Delirium tremens might be described justly as an acute 
 alcoholism, since there is a chronic alcoholism which is 
 characterized by the slow and gradual development of 
 similar symptoms ; in truth, a chronic delirinin tremens 
 which is called the insanity of alcoholism. Premonitory 
 of it is the same sleeplessness, the same motor restlessness, 
 the same nausea and w^ant of appetite, that go before 
 delirium tremens. Instead, however, of the rapidly rising 
 excitement, the changing hallucinations and delirious in- 
 coherence then following, there is great mental disquietude 
 with morbid suspicions or actual delusions of wrong in- 
 tended or done against him, of wilful provocations and 
 persecutions by neighbours, of thieves about his premises,
 
 PATHOLOGICAL RESULTS. 149 
 
 of unfaithfulness on the part of his wife, and the like 
 suspicions, which are frequently attended with such hallu- 
 cinations of hearing, of sight, of tactile sensation, as 
 threatening voices heard, insulting gestures or mysterious 
 signs seen, electrical agencies felt. In this state a violent- 
 tempered man, resolved to be even with the scoundrels 
 whom he declares to be persecuting him, sometimes does 
 sad deeds of violence." 
 
 Prof. Kraft-Ebing, in his book on Judicial Psycho- prof. 
 Pathology (Stuttgart, 1875), citesauthoritiesforsometerrible Kraft-Ebing 
 
 OD crinitis 
 
 crimes committed under the hallucinations produced by committed 
 drink ; for example, that of the murder committed by Thiel, "i"^hoiic 
 a German workman, industrious and orderly, and a most haiiucina- 
 affectionate and loving husband and father. In a state of *''"*''■ 
 drunkenness, Thiel was suddenly possessed by the idea 
 that he ought to kill his child. He sprang from the bed, 
 where this idea came to him, and, sinking in terror upon 
 his knees, clasped his hands, and cried out, " Lord Grod ! 
 Lord Jesus ! I must kill my child ! " But the poor wretch 
 overcame this frenzy, patted the little fellow on the head, 
 and bade him sleep. Soon after, the frightful temptation 
 returned with overwhelming power ; he seized an axe and 
 murdered the child, muttering agonized prayers and weep- 
 ing bitterly as he did the deed, which at once sobered the 
 miserable father. 
 
 If drink can thus fearfully and totally pervert the 
 affections, how terrible and subtle must be its effect on 
 the whole moral being ? 
 
 Of alcoholic epileptiform mania Dr. Mason says. Dr. Mason 
 " There is no form of mania more dangerous than that on alcoholic 
 
 ,., ., ., . ■ n Ti Til epileptiform 
 
 which occurs m the epileptic when influenced by alcohol ; mauia. 
 it matters not whether his epilepsy be directly due to 
 alcohol or to other causes. . . . He is most dangerous 
 because ' he adds to the impulses — sometimes so terrible — 
 to which he is subject from his disease, those which he 
 draws from intoxication.' " 
 
 The symptoms in chronic alcoholic insanity are divided 
 by Dr. Mason into several groups. 
 
 He describes the first — chronic alcoholic mania — chronic 
 maniacal type — homicidal tendencies — as " one of the most alcoholic 
 dangerous types of mania that is met with, especially 
 when the mental alienation is not ushered in or accom-
 
 150 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH, 
 
 Its 
 symptoms. 
 
 Chronic 
 
 alcoholic 
 
 melancholia. 
 
 Its painful 
 delusions. 
 
 panied hj a febrile conrlition, or other symptoms that 
 usually point out a departure from, health. He is therefore 
 not regarded as a sick man by his friends, although they 
 may think he acts a little ' queer ; ' he is moody, taciturn, 
 he whispers his suspicions, he picks out his special enemies, 
 he prepares himself against assault, carries weapons on 
 his person, or conceals them in a secret place, he broods 
 over his fancied wrongs ; finally, times and place suit his 
 purpose, the revengeful design he has been nursing for 
 months and hinting about to his immediate acquaintances 
 now finds an outlet, and the press publishes a case of 
 " murder in cold blood ; " his history by degrees comes 
 out, experts are summoned, his true condition is ascer- 
 tained, and he is sent to an asylum. One very common 
 delusion is that of marital unfaithfulness ; some one, 
 generally a near acquaintance who is on visiting terms 
 with his family, is selected as the one who has destroyed 
 the sanctity of his hearth and home. Too often his insane 
 delusions are treated as simply jealousy, but it is a morbid 
 jealousy of the most intense character, and will in its insane 
 fury take the life of some innocent victim. It is a good 
 rule not to take the homicidal vagaries of an intemperate 
 man as a matter of trifling importance, but when he 
 breathes out — it may be threatening and slaughter, 
 although it may be in an undertone — let him be promptly 
 arrested and examined as to his sanity." 
 
 Of chronic alcoholic melancholia — suicidal tendencies — 
 Dr. Mason says, " The patient is depressed, weeps readily, 
 to a certain extent he is confidential, seems to crave sym- 
 pathy. He will follow you about, and ask your aid against 
 supposed evils that are impending over him. I recall 
 one case where the patient beHeved that his funeral 
 would take place in a few hours. He could hear people 
 preparing for it ; he begged me to delay, if possible, the 
 ceremony ; he was exceedingly sorrowful and depressed. 
 The delusions are various ; persons dead are living, and 
 the living are dead. Events that have happened long 
 since are being re-enacted. Delusions as to locality, as I 
 have said, are often marked. The delusion of poison in 
 the food or drink is oftentimes a very troublesome one. 
 Such persons, however, will take ale or other stimulants 
 when they refuse food, a perversion of taste being the
 
 PATHOLOGICAL RESULTS. 151 
 
 probable cause of this form of delusion we bave referred 
 to. This delusion is usually subsidiary to more prominent, 
 or leading mental aberrations. The central or prominent 
 delusion is the first to come, the last to leave. As his 
 disordered intellect rights itself, he clings to this often- 
 times persistently, and finally, when his reasoning powers 
 retuim, he listens to argument, and gives up his delusions 
 as a fallacy. It is a curious fact, as in the case we have 
 mentioned, that in subsequent attacks or relapses the 
 same delusions so prominent in previous attacks return, 
 and remain with the same persistency." 
 
 It would seem as if the intelligent and thoughtful 
 would find in the manifestations of the simplest forms of 
 drunkenness alone, an all-sufficient warning against the use 
 of alcohol. Yet these are but the first signals in a series 
 of warnings so terrible that, in view of them, it is truly 
 surprising that alcoholism ever became a universal ill ; or 
 would be so, did we not in this very fact discover one of 
 the worst effects of the evil — the stultifying of moral 
 sensibility. 
 
 In the mental phenomena included under the head 
 of alcoholic insanity, we find that the physical channels 
 for the expression of intelligence have been so corroded 
 and mutilated by alcohol, that the communication between 
 body and mind becomes always partially, sometimes 
 wholly, vitiated, and what is left of it so perverted, that 
 the alcoholic has practically reversed the " descent of 
 man " — has dropped himself to a plane where morally the 
 beasts are above him. And still greater than the evil thus 
 done to himself and those around him, is that which he 
 does to succeeding generations in transmitting this curse.
 
 152 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 CHAPTER YII. 
 
 MORAL RESULTS. 
 
 Inquiry into § 48. One of the most difficult points to Settle in the 
 between investigation of the drink question is that of alcohol as 
 drink and g^ cause of Crime. That drink is a chief cause of crime 
 
 crimG. 
 
 is disputed not only by those who wish to prevent 
 the truth from being kno^vn, but also by some of those 
 who really wish to know the truth ; and such marshalling 
 of accurate data, philosophical research, medical and 
 psychical analysis, as would take it out of dispute, has 
 not yet, it seems, been adequately brought to bear upon 
 it. If, as the judges of criminal courts affirm, and as 
 facts everywhere seem to confirm, drink is the chief 
 cause of crime, it is of the first importance that a know- 
 ledge of this fact should be grounded in the popular mind, 
 as it would undoubtedly and naturally do more than any- 
 thing else to convince the general public of the i-eal scope 
 and character of the drink evil. The importance of this 
 is emphasized at intervals by the publication in reputable 
 journals of ingenious documents, which by omitting the com- 
 parative data, necessary to a correct understanding, and by 
 erroneous deductions, convey impressions wide of the truth. 
 Erroneous Qne example will suffice in illustration. In the Pall 
 
 a writer in Mali Gazette (Nov. 9, 1883) appeared the following : — 
 
 tlie Pall Mall 
 
 Gazette.i^ov. "Is DrINK THE ChIEF SOUECE OF CrIME ? 
 
 9, 1883. 
 
 " A correspondent writes to us as follows on the subject 
 of intemperance and crime : — - 
 
 "It is by no means an unusual circumstance for judges 
 at assizes and recorders at courts of quarter sessions, while 
 addressing grand juries, and deploring the increase of
 
 MOEAL RESULTS. 153 
 
 crime, to speak of its close relationship with intemperance, 
 regarding the one as the sure harbinger of the other. If 
 the accepted theory be true, the districts where drunken- 
 ness more extensively prevails would be the most prolific 
 in crime, and drunkenness and crime would rise and fall 
 in the social barometer in equal degrees. Is it so ? Let 
 US see. 
 
 " The residents of the rural districts of Durham are 
 more prone to habits of intoxication than those of any 
 other county in England, and this evil, unfortunately, is 
 on the increase. In 1879 the number of persons charged 
 by the county police with the offence of drunkenness was 
 7178; in 1880 the number was 8088; in 1881, 9124 
 The number of crimes committed in the same districts 
 was, in 1879, 549 ; in 1880, 414 ; in 1881, 426. While, 
 therefore, drunkenness has been increasing, crime has been 
 decreasing, and while the charges of drunkenness for the 
 year amount to nearly fifteen for every thousand of the 
 population, the crimes only reach 0'7 per thousand.* The 
 people of Essex may be considered the most sober of all 
 the inhabitants of the country. The charges for drunken- 
 ness last year numbered 289, or 0"9 to every thousand. 
 The number of crimes committed there numbered 455, or 
 nearly twice the number of charges against persons for 
 drunkenness ; but in Durham twenty persons would be 
 charged with drunkenness to one charged with a crime 
 that would be necessary to be tried by a jury. Pro rata 
 with the population also crime is twice as extensive in 
 Essex as in Durham. 
 
 "Northumberland is another county where intemperance 
 runs high, yet the number of crimes committed by the 
 rural population was in 1879, 7Q. In 1880 the number 
 was 102 ; and in 1881, 67, or 0'3 per thousand of the 
 population. In 1879 the number of persons charged with 
 drunkenness by the police was 1916 ; in 1880, 1967 ; in 
 1881, 2145 ; so that here also, while drunkenness has been 
 increasing, crime has been decreasing. Bedfordshire is 
 another county where drunkenness exists to a very limited 
 extent. The number of persons charged here with drunken- 
 ness in 1879 was 232 ; in 1880, 206 ; in 1881, 176, or 
 equal to 1"7 for every thousand of the population. The 
 * See testimony of Justice Hawkins in chapter X.
 
 154 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 crimes coramitted here were, in 1879, 76 ; in 1880, 82 ; 
 in 1881, 102 ; or equal to I'O per thousand — so that crime 
 is three times greater in Bedfordshire than in Northum- 
 berland." 
 
 The writer goes over Lancashire, Shropshire, Sunder- 
 land, etc., in the same manner, and suggests at the close 
 that — 
 
 " It would be an easy matter to multiply the number 
 of these illustrations to show that the close relationship 
 between drunkenness and crime is a fallacy, and that the 
 real source of crime exists in some influence, or some 
 failing in moral rectitude, outside that which leads to 
 intemperance." * 
 
 * Referring to this docnment in the Pall Mall Gazette, the Alliance 
 News (November 17, 1883) says — 
 
 " In some police districts large numbers of drunken cases are 
 dismissed without being taken formally before the magistrates. 
 This especially prevails where such cases are in overwhelming 
 abundance. Moreover, as a rule, in districts where drunkenness is 
 most abundant, the tone of public feeling against it is apt to be most 
 relaxed, and the disposition to regard tipsy noisiness as a peccadillo 
 not worthy the notice of the police is pretty sure to be most preva- 
 lent. In such districts Watch Committees and magistrates are often 
 personally implicated in the liquor traffic, and naturally fail to en- 
 courage their servants, the policemen, to be strict to mark and severe 
 to seize. Where mayors, aldermen, and other leading public men are 
 addicted either to liquor-selling or to liquor-tippling, even their 
 silent influence will always act as a damper on the zeal of the con- 
 stable. Hence it commonly happens that where there is most 
 drunkenness the number of apprehensions by the police tends to 
 dwindle, whereas these are likely to be more numerous where public 
 opinion is most widely awake to the enormity and iniquity of the 
 liquor traffic. Considerations like these are quite sufficient to show 
 the folly of using the police books of different districts in proof of the 
 comparative drunkenness of those districts. For the rest we need 
 only add that when the judges protest, as earnestly as they are 
 always doing, that most of the crime that comes before them officially 
 is evidently caused by strong drink, they speak not in view of the 
 number of police apprehensions of drunkards, but in direct recognition 
 of the plain and undeniable facts that present themselves to their 
 senses in dealing with criminal cases in their own courts. To doubt 
 the correctness of their conclusions on such a matter is equivalent to 
 writing down some of the most able men in the kingdom as poor, 
 brainless, chattering fools." 
 
 I may add that the deference due to such statements as those 
 made by the Pall Mall Gazette's correspondent must equally be due 
 to statements of precisely similar scope and grasp ; as, for instance,
 
 MORAL RESULTS. 155 
 
 These figures might mislead very many who are not 
 specially and amply informed upon the subject, and not 
 familiar with the various data, or the way in which such 
 data essentially affects computation, comparison, and 
 deduction.* 
 
 This " correspondent " challenges the almost unanimous 
 testimony of the principal judges of the United Kingdom 
 — a testimony covering scores of years of experience — that 
 drink is the chief cause of crime. In this challenge one of 
 two things is plainly intimated : either that the Judicial 
 Bench of Great Britain have been and are fools or knaves ; 
 either these men, whose business it is to inquire into the 
 causes of crime and to pronounce the verdict of law upon 
 the criminal, have been, and are, all incompetent, or else 
 have deliberately deceived the public. Certainly no sober 
 Englishman will admit the former ; and as to the latter, 
 it would be difficult to discover or devise a motive, or a 
 combination of motives, sufficient to induce even one — 
 still less a long succession of judges — to concur in such 
 a misrepresentation. Even were judges constitutionally 
 prone to misstatements, no public body could be less 
 interested in doing so, on the topic in question. 
 
 In statins' the increase in arrests for drunkenness during 
 the last three or four years — since the temperance agita- 
 tion has become vitally a popular factor — the Pall Mall 
 correspondent does not manifest any knowledge of the 
 well-known fact that the laws against drunkenness in 
 public have been enforced with increased vigour during 
 this period, in various parts of the United Kingdom. Yet 
 this fact is essential to an approximately accurate com- 
 parison of the general relations between di-ink and crime. 
 For instance, during the reign of Queen Anne, when 
 intoxication was regarded as a feat rather than a degrada- 
 
 those of a recent writer on the Topography of Intemperance (Mac- 
 millan's Magazine, Jan. 1882), who naively alludes to " this singularity 
 in both towns and counties, that generally the larger number of 
 public-houses will be found where there is the smallest amount 
 of drunkenness, and ... in Durham drunkenness prevails to a far 
 greater extent than in any other English county." Ergo, make the 
 people sufficiently and unanimously drunk and there will be no crime ; 
 multiply public-houses and there will be no drunkenness ! ! ! Durham 
 seems on the whole a most remarkable county ! 
 
 * See opening remarks of chaiJter X. concerning statistics.
 
 156 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Relations 
 between 
 sobriety and 
 crime as con- 
 trasted with 
 the same be- 
 tween drink 
 and crime. 
 
 Examples of 
 iinintentional 
 alcoholic 
 criminality. 
 
 The quality 
 of drunken- 
 ness shown 
 to be 
 
 dependent on 
 the liind of 
 drink used, 
 and on the 
 tempera- 
 ment and 
 circum- 
 stances of 
 the drinker. 
 
 tion, and hardly any one was arrested for it ; crime was 
 terribly prevalent— what would this correspondent have 
 deduced from statistics of the relations between drink and 
 crime then ? 
 
 However difficult it may be to demonstrate the exact 
 relations between drunkenness and crime, there is happily 
 not the same difficulty in establishing the relations between 
 sobriety and crime ; of a hundred persons in the dock, 
 few, if any, are total abstainers ; and the relations between 
 sobriety and the absence of crime is being daily practically 
 demonstrated on various prohibition estates, as at Bess- 
 brook in Ireland, etc. 
 
 So far as I have been able to pursue investigation on 
 this point, I have been specially impressed with the 
 following facts. 
 
 Crimes are not often conceived or committed during 
 actual drunkenness, though often very di'eadful ones do 
 result from the negligence and oblivion of drink ; such as 
 the sea captain commits, when an overdose of grog makes 
 him steer his ship on dangerous reefs ; or the engineer, 
 whose extra glass means a mismanaged engine, a collision, 
 and the mangling and killing of people trusted to his care ; 
 or the drunken officer, when he muddles the order of his 
 commander, and prematurely or altogether mistakenly 
 exposes his men to slaughterous fire ; or the drunken 
 physician, whose reckless prescription or whose total 
 neglect results in the death of some beloved one and the 
 blasting of dear human hopes ; or the drunken lawyer, 
 who tipples away the life, honour, or property of his 
 helpless client. 
 
 The quality of drunkenness depends greatly on the 
 nature of the intoxicant used, as well as upon the tempera- 
 ment and physical condition of the drinker. For example, 
 it is well known that drunkenness occasioned by malt 
 liquors generally induces a sluggishness of mind, a lethargy 
 of the senses, to which frenzy or ferocity in thought or 
 act, to which the formation of a plan, or execution of 
 one previously conceived, are almost impossible. 
 
 It must be remembered, however, that the effect of 
 malt liquors is greatly determined by the quality of the 
 hops and the presence or absence of coccuhis indicus or other 
 adulterating ingredients. In an article on Beer and
 
 MORAL RESULTS. 157 
 
 Crime {Medical Times and Gazette, London, April, 1872), 
 the following statement with regard to beer occurs : — ■ 
 " Its intoxicating power is far greater than can be ac- 
 counted for by the mere alcohol it contains. . . . Cheap 
 and coarse varieties of the hop, a plant nearly allied to 
 the Indian hemp or bliang, may be capable of producing 
 a furious delirium quite apart from alcoholic intoxica- 
 tion. ... A magistrate's clerk once told us that the 
 worst assaults and crimes of violence in his district were 
 men who drank at public-houses supplied by one particular 
 brewery." 
 
 Wines — with the exception of the strongest and most 
 viciously adulterated — generally cause an idiotic jollity, 
 silly good-humour, meaningless generosity, coupled often 
 with a kind of loose frankness of sensuality. Brief choler, 
 sufficient for the commission of sudden crimes, is possible 
 to this condition, but evil designs previously harboured are 
 unlikely to recur or be carried out. 
 
 On the other hand, spirituous liquors,* especially those 
 containing quantities of fusil oil — such as raw whiskies, 
 gin, etc. — excite almost invariably a demon-like frenzy, 
 and. when thus intoxicated, people who in a sober state 
 would neither conceive of, nor countenance violence, lust, 
 or destruction of property or life, become capable of any 
 imaginable infamy and crime. 
 
 These distinctions, which deserve most careful atten- The true 
 tion, and a large variety of sub-distinctions and dilferen- afcohoUc"^^'^' 
 tiations, are necessary to any proper comprehensive criminal 
 estimate of the relations between drinking and crime. ^'^ '^' ^" 
 But the general truth remains, that not in the drunken 
 state, but in the various intermediary stages between 
 sobriety and intoxication, lies the field of alcoholic criminal 
 activity. 
 
 § 49. It has been seen in the foregoing pages how General 
 alcoholic drinking lowers the whole plane of physical health ; ph™'iJ,togicai 
 that it ruins digestion, poisons the circulation, making it and meutai 
 sluggish, as in the amphibious creatures ; that it preserves 
 waste tissue and checks excretion, — making the human 
 body, so to speak, a case or cask of preserved compost ; 
 
 * " Beer is brutalizing ; wine impassions ; whisky infuriates, but 
 eventaally unmans." — Dr. Bock, of Leipsic, in article on the " Moral 
 Effects of Food and Drink," in British Medical Journal (1879).
 
 158 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH, 
 
 that this internal condition is presently externally adver- 
 tised in disgusting changes of the countenance and bearing ; 
 that the nervous system after continued over-excitation 
 becomes eccentric and fitful in its action — small causes 
 putting it to the highest tension of irritability, while great 
 reasons for excitement are regarded with apathy ; that 
 these derangements are attended with baleful visions, 
 impure fantasies, weariness with self and disgust with 
 life ; the whole hydra evil culminating in idiocy, insanity, 
 and temptations to and commission of all kinds of crimes 
 and sensualities, theft, incendiarism, suicide, and murder. 
 
 Thus, in one terrible group we have the physical and 
 
 mental results of alcoholism inextricably involved with 
 
 the moral results, one causing the other and vice versa, in 
 
 a system of consecutive inseparable reactions — a banyan 
 
 tree of human misery. 
 
 Dr.Hufeiand " Other vices," says Dr. Huf eland, in his work on 
 
 insusce ti Poisoning hy Brandy (1802), "admit the hope of amend- 
 
 bility to ment, but this performs its work of destruction thoroughly, 
 
 th™drUik[ng ^^^ without the prospect of remedy, for it extinguishes in 
 
 habit. the system all susceptibility for remedy," and indeed all 
 
 consciousness of the need of such susceptibility. 
 
 Fable of the I remember once reading a fable to this effect : — Once 
 
 **'T'^b'™*° there was lying by the side of a ditch, a pig. On the 
 
 pig. other side lay a man. The pig was sober, the man was 
 
 drunk. The pig had a ring in its nose, the man had a 
 
 ring on his finger. Some one passing exclaimed so that 
 
 the pig heard it — " One is judged from the company he 
 
 keeps." Instantly the pig rose and went away. 
 
 As the alcohol-poisoned body, in its need for its life- 
 essential — water — takes more and ever more of the poison 
 that creates but never slakes that thirst, so the alcohol- 
 poisoned mind — in its need of the pure medium for its 
 manifestations with which it was originally endowed — all 
 clouded and astray, plunges deeper and deeper into all 
 forms of reckless, coarse excesses, its hope for ever mocked 
 by its own rudderless di'ifting continuance in sin-begetting 
 sin. 
 Physical and For though body and spirit are distinct, yet in this life 
 parallel*'^'* and for this life's purposes they are indissoluble, man 
 having no expression beyond the manifesting power of the 
 physical mechanism he dwells in. Thus it is seen once
 
 MOKAL RESULTS. 159 
 
 and for all that a physical effect is a moral effect. As the 
 sap in the tree permeates to the least curl in the least 
 rootlet, and so determines what the tree shall be in the 
 air, so whatsoever permeates man's physical system de- 
 termines in kind and degree the manifestation of his 
 spirit. 
 
 But in saying that a physical effect is always a moral A notable 
 effect, one great exception must be made by marking the tms^ruie? 
 distinction between harm voluntarily and harm arbitrarily 
 incurred. For example, an upright man, clean in mind, 
 heart, and habit, who would not of himself under any 
 temptation abuse his body, or ignore those rights of others 
 invested in its purity, may in many ways be forced to do 
 so through poverty, by exhausting labour, bad air, and 
 poor food ; or through wanton caprice he might be bound 
 hand and foot, and have alcohol poured down his throat 
 till he was " dead drunk," — and instances for my meaning 
 might be multiplied ad infinitum from facts. 
 
 In these cases the body suffers just as much as if the 
 abuses had occurred by the consent of the will, but the 
 mind and character do not — a beautiful evidence of the 
 existence in the body of a tenant superior to and distinct 
 from itself. 
 
 Of course such arbitrary injury could be inflicted, 
 could extend over such a period as to undermine the moral 
 force, but the very fact that it takes time and much time 
 to do such devil's work as this, only serves to point my 
 distinction. 
 
 But wherever a physical effect is produced by the will's 
 consent, we may look for the moral result in kind, and at 
 last for the most deplorable of all results — in the extinction 
 of will either to consent or reject. 
 
 In his Confessions, Charles Lamb, one of the brightest charies 
 of gentle spirits ever extinguished in the baleful fires of Lamb's 
 alcoholism, wrote : — warning. 
 
 " Could the youth, to whom the flavour of his first 
 wine is delicious, look into my desolation, and be made to 
 understand what a dreary thing it is when a man feels 
 himself going down a precipice with open eyes and a 
 passive will — to see his destruction and to have no power 
 to stop it, and yet to feel it, all the way, emanating fi'om 
 himself j to perceive all goodness emptied out of him, and
 
 160 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 yet not be able to forget a time when it was otherwise — to 
 
 bear about the piteous spectacle of self-ruin ! " 
 
 The effect of § 50. The chief power by which we attain and maintain 
 
 on the^wiTi. t^'^6 womanhood and manhood is the power of will, of 
 
 sane decision. And this power is the fii'st stronghold to be 
 
 attacked by alcoholism. If alcohol were a sentient being, 
 
 it could hardly act with greater apparent intelligence than 
 
 it does in its insidious sapping and mining of the will, as 
 
 if it knew, that redoubt once carried, no further resistance 
 
 need be feared. In this subjugation of the will, alcohol 
 
 incidentally but very remarkably defines the distinction 
 
 between will and intention — so often mistaken for each 
 
 other, to the moral shipwreck of the mistaking ones. 
 
 Difference Will forms and carries out intention, but intention is not 
 
 between will .,x;.n l 
 
 andinten- ""^^- . .,i • i 
 
 tion. ("The In alcoholism the will is destroyed, and intentions — 
 [spaved^wVth ^^^^ the arrows in a slain cliieftain's quiver — become the 
 ?°°'* . „ passive agents of the victor's bow. 
 
 —Martin Is there a more contemptibly pitiable sight than that of 
 
 Luther.) ^]^g wiU-less drunkard, who, with half-drained glass in his 
 shaking hand, assures you that it is " hizh 'ntenzhn to 
 shtop drink'ng " ? 
 Instance of Dr. John Cheyne, of Dublin, in A Statement of Certain 
 
 drfnk°tT'^°^ J^ec^s of Temperance Societies (1829), cites this remark- 
 annihilate able instance of the thraldom of drink, especially in its 
 the wiiL power to keep down the once conquered will. A gentleman 
 of birth and refined tastes, deservedly popular for his 
 attractive qualities, became habitually intemperate. A 
 dear friend wrote to him, " Tour family are in the utmost 
 distress on account of this unfortunate habit. They see 
 that your business is neglected, your moral influence is 
 gone, your health is ruined." To this he replied, "Your 
 remarks are indeed too true, but I can no longer resist 
 temptation. If a bottle of brandy stood on one hand 
 and the pit of hell yawned on the other, and if I knew 
 that I would be pushed in as surely as I took one 
 more glass, I could not refrain. . . . You are all very 
 kind. ... I ought to be grateful, . . . but spare your- 
 selves the trouble of trying to reform me; the thing is 
 now impossible." 
 
 Man's will being destroyed — facilis descensus Averni, 
 and that " Hell is the shadow of a soul on fire," becomes
 
 MORAL RESULTS. 161 
 
 the actual experience of the tempest-exhausted spirit, and 
 in that gloomy shadow the panic-stricken family of the 
 drunkard leads a rayless cowering life, more dreary than 
 Christian's in the Valleys of Humiliation and the Shadow 
 of Death — and there is no Great-heart to bear the poor 
 wife and mother company — to teach or defend the hapless 
 children. 
 
 As son, citizen, neighbour, husband, father, and friend. Moral in- 
 the drunkard is insolvent ; his responsibilities in all these th'^d°*^^°^ 
 relations are like obligations discharged by spurious notes, in the 
 first consciously— for he is not a sot at once — afterwards reipon^! ^'^'^ 
 mechanically offered. His mother ! Does he remember biiities of 
 the never- weary love, the gentle, watchful care and service ^^- ^^"^'^ 
 and self-sacrifice, which rouuded his young life day by 
 day ? N"ay, to get a quartern of whisky he would pawn 
 the bed on which she lies dying. 
 
 His fellow-citizens, his neighbours, his friends ! Why, citizen, 
 they are persons to be borrowed from, if they wiU lend ; to i^eighbour, 
 be stolen from, if they won't ; to be chicaned, cheated, 
 cajoled, worried, and wearied into giving the means for 
 drink — almost always on pleas of a chance that can only 
 be secured by a little ready money (for drones and knaves 
 are cunning in the use of pleas which could honestly be 
 urged by the deserving), a dodge deceiving neither; and 
 the meanness of the drunkard in these relations, grafts a 
 reflex meanness and sense of guilty partnership upon the 
 one who helps him down. 
 
 The drunkard's wife ! Is she a being to cherish, watch Husband 
 over, and serve as a sane man finds his happiness in ^nd father. 
 doing ? Oh no, a victim to vent all his unleashed and 
 degraded passions on, to cheat, to wheedle, to poison, to 
 make into a penny-earning drudge, and to beget poisoned 
 offspring from. 
 
 There is the reverse side, where the wife is the one 
 who drinks away her intelligence, and sinks into the 
 deepest mire of degradation, neglecting her husband and 
 her children, destroying love, respect, and hope, bringing 
 her family to want and despair, and keeping them there. 
 
 Such a home is the most miserable spot on earth — it 
 is more wretched than the home where all are drunkards, 
 for the contrast between the vain efforts and piteous hope- ^°™^°f''"' 
 lessness of the husband and father striving as he does to and mother.'' 
 
 M
 
 162 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 retain liis own manhood, to be mother as well as father 
 to his helpless children, and the complete and obstinate 
 resistance of the besotted companion and spoiler of his 
 days — is one to make the stoutest hope for the race falter. 
 To such a home comes the weary father from his work at 
 night — to see the dirt and the disorder he was forced to 
 leave unremedied in the morning — grown worse for the 
 orgie of the day — to see the children huddled away from 
 the mumbling, blear-eyed, towzled, filthy-smelling heap on 
 the straw, which is all they know of motherhood, and all 
 he will ever know of wifehood ; wailing for food, or too 
 cold to wail, or perhaps stupefied fi^om fear, or perhaps 
 sucking at the half -drained bottle which has fallen from 
 the mother's palsy-loosened clutch, too stunted and 
 blunted to be glad to see him, even though he brings them 
 the only food and the only care they ever get. 
 
 This is as much worse than where the father alone is 
 
 the drunkard, as the degraded woman is a worse and lower 
 
 creature than the degraded man. Worse, too, because to 
 
 womanhood and motherhood God has given the dominating 
 
 moral effectiveness, whether for good or evil. 
 
 As con- And in the drunkard's home, where the faithful wife 
 
 theMmT 3'"<1 mother bears her burden without sinking into the sin 
 
 home when -which causes it, you will see something of the meaning of 
 
 mother bears home saved to him and his family, something of the clean- 
 
 her burdens ^iuggg and svstem which produce some kind of daily 
 
 in patience .•'„ , -i,, pi-i ^ ^ 
 
 and sobriety, routine, a time for and a semblance of daily meals, however 
 meagre the fare ; the little ones are washed and combed, 
 and, as far as may be, saved from the worst contact of the 
 slums, where the father's sin locates the home ; and often 
 in one or more of the children you will see a wonderful 
 moral force and power of sympathy and helpfulness, by 
 which the unfortunate mother's steps are stayed, and her 
 heart saved from utterly breaking ; for whatever poison 
 the child has received from its father, the mother's love 
 and virtue has also entered in to combat — to transmute, 
 and, if not to eradicate, at least to prevent its gaining 
 the supremacy ; and often it seems that the mother's 
 character has been able to wholly form and infuse that of 
 the child, confining the evil birthright bestowed by the 
 erring father to the child's stunted and crippled body. 
 Rarely indeed are such signs of hope found among the
 
 MORAL RESULTS. 163 
 
 offspring of the debauched mother, whatever the father may 
 be, and in those rare cases it is generally found that such 
 children were born before the mother had become degraded. 
 
 And how terrible in its deprivations is the curse entailed 
 by the alcoholized father on such children as the mother's 
 virtue has partially saved, not only the hospitals — with their 
 bedridden little forms, always painfully wistful, and often 
 lovely little faces — but the streets, with their misshapen 
 figures of malformed and half-limbed, wan-faced, and pre- 
 m.aturely old children bear witness. 
 
 Oh, fathers and mothers in pleasant homes, where 
 want and its temptation have never come, whose little ones 
 are rosy with health and innocent sheltered happiness, 
 whose fair white shapes, clear radiant eyes, soft eager 
 voices, and kisses dew-pure, fill you with delight and 
 reverence, and make you understand at least why He 
 should say, " Of such is the kingdom of Heaven ! " Oh, 
 take heed, take heed for those other wronged and defrauded 
 little ones who are worse than motherless, fatherless, and 
 homeless, and for their sakes, and that such as they may 
 no more be called out of the darkness into yet darker life 
 — for these surely good and loving reasons put away — and 
 be first in putting for ever away from your lips, and your 
 homes, and your example — this one indulgence, not missed 
 from among your luxuries, that by your easy and self- 
 benefiting sacrifice you may enter into such fellowship • 
 with the humblest as will rebuke, inspire, and sustain 
 them. For what we have done unto the least of these, 
 that alone shall we be able to take with us to speak for us 
 when we have left all the possessions and all the distinc- 
 tions of this world behind. 
 
 § 51. Though there are grades and varieties of alcoholic The gradual 
 degradation, and all do not sink equally low or manifest like ^^j finaf^ 
 degrees and kinds of lusts, ferocities, or bestial indifference, destruction 
 yet the dark picture given is the true picture of the •** '=^*'"*'^*^'"- 
 general effect of alcoholism on the moral being of man. 
 And if we closely study the details which make this dark 
 whole, we shall see more and more of the subtle and 
 intricate ways by which the loss of will ^^nravels the 
 character stitch by stitch, till it has neither form nor 
 significance, and is but a limp thread trailed hither and 
 thither by the fitful winds of temptation.
 
 1G4 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 The clever 
 
 disguises 
 
 assumed 
 
 by the 
 
 alcoholized 
 
 will. 
 
 In political 
 life. 
 
 In the rela- 
 tions between 
 niastf'r and 
 man. 
 
 For though alcoholism always undermines the will, the 
 degree in which it does so is determined by the mental 
 quality and temperament of the drinker, and the extent to 
 which he canoes the habit. So that in some instances 
 moderate drinking has totally undermined the will, while 
 in others, excessive drinking has only partially overcome 
 this power. In all cases, however, the will is so far 
 sapped that every relation in life is more or less tainted 
 with the dry-rot of unreliability. 
 
 The loss of will by alcoholism has many deceiving 
 forms, often takes on the shape of good-natured concession, 
 as in the politician who, even while believing in the true 
 principle, and wishing well to the right measure in the 
 issue at stake, succumbs to the first sufficient urgency, 
 without regard to his own convictions, is called obliging, 
 and thinks himself so, but in reality yielded because 
 resistance was not in him. This is a negative action of 
 will-lessness, very multiform in its phases, very widespread 
 and vitiating in its effects on social and political life. 
 
 But there is another kind in which all will but self-will 
 is gone. The politician in this case is morally nil; he 
 does not even negatively lean toward integrity, he cares 
 only to gain some higher position, some more sounding 
 honour, some larger pay, and sells his vote and buys as 
 many of the votes of others as he can for the gaining of his 
 end, promising anything and everything without the 
 faintest intention of carrying it out. He is spoken of as a 
 man of iron will, sure to make his way, to carry his object, 
 and he thinks himself a man of strong will. He is only an 
 egoist, morally unable to resist, or even to hesitate at, any 
 evil whereby his selfish aim is assured. 
 
 Alcoholism comes in to spoil the relations between the 
 master and the working man. 
 
 The" drinking working man, no matter how skilled and 
 clever in his workmanship when sober, cannot claim the 
 full wages of his skill, because he cannot be relied on, and 
 his master is always on the look-out for a sober and steady 
 skilled artisan, with whom to oust and replace the drinkei*. 
 The latter may work well for many days, but suddenly one 
 morning he comes into the shop, and in three minutes has 
 blundei-ed away material worth a week's wages, or by his 
 derangement of the machinery some luckless comrade is
 
 MORAL RESULTS. 165 
 
 cut in pieces, or, if furious instead of maudlin, lie has in 
 a few minutes smashed more than he can make good in 
 weeks or months of labour. And yet, again, is missing for 
 days when work is pressing and hands cannot be spared. 
 
 The master who drinks, even though he be what is 
 called a moderate drinker, is thereby a tacit patron of all 
 this unreliability, and himself illustrates it, often failing to 
 carry out special promises to his men, thinking he will, 
 but lacking will-power to do more than think and promise, 
 and his unreliability further vitiates the relations between 
 master and man. In every relation in life alcoholism, 
 whether slowly or swiftly, surely destroys all certainty but And in 
 the certainty of disaster and downfall, for the individual, general hfe. 
 for governments, for the race. 
 
 The tragedies and crimes to which alcoholism leads are Alcoholism's 
 as various as the moral unreliabilities which are the first gradations 
 
 , . from moral 
 
 steps towards crimes. unreii- 
 
 The crimes are not committed only or most frequently to turpitude 
 during actual drunkenness, but as the results of a long and crimes, 
 course of the drinking habit which has sapped the will, 
 ossified the heart, paralyzed the conscience. 
 
 The forger must be sober, but to be capable of forgery The forger. 
 he must — perhaps not in all, but in most cases — have been 
 morally emasculated by drink, or have inherited the 
 absence of moral perception and moral force which 
 alcoholism brought about in his progenitors. 
 
 The burglar must be wary and cool, but alcohol and its The burglar, 
 effects must have gone before, either in him or his fathers, 
 ere he can choose this sort of livelihood. 
 
 The murderer lying in wait for his victim is cool — but The 
 somewhere in him or his fathers the demon of drink has '^"''i^rer. 
 persuaded him that gold is worth blood purchase. 
 
 On the other hand, these same crimes and various 
 others are also committed not in coolness nor in ferocity, 
 even when deliberated, but from inability to resist the 
 pressure of circumstances made up of goading needs, 
 stimulated and supplemented by sudden or gradually 
 augmenting temptations. In these two distinct orders of 
 criminals, guilty of precisely the same crimes, we see the 
 action of the loss of moral will in its two forms : the The negative 
 negative loss, which may exist with painful longings to be "^^ ° "' ' 
 better without power to even determine to try ; and the
 
 166 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 The positive 
 loss of will. 
 
 Rev. Chan- 
 ning on the 
 difference 
 between 
 poverty with 
 and without 
 drink. 
 
 positive loss, whicli means absence of the moral "will, i.e., 
 of desire to be good and true, as in avarice, cold-blooded 
 murder, and savage Inst. Prof. Kraft-Ebing says that 
 the drinker loses clear sense of what is honourable, moral, 
 and decent, grows indifferent even to such conflict between 
 good and evil within him as remains possible; indifferent 
 to the ruin of his family, to the contempt of his fellow- 
 citizens ; and that hand in hand with these results goes 
 that of increasing irritability, until his violent tempers 
 burst out without provocation and become literally un- 
 governable. 
 
 In associating the evils of intemperance with the evils 
 of poverty, we are apt to think of them as identical, and 
 the poverty as almost the worst of the two. 
 
 Rev. William Ellery Channing, in his address on 
 Temperance, in Boston (1837), thus ably discriminated on 
 this point : — 
 
 " Intemperance is to be pitied and abhorred for its own 
 sake, much more than for its outward consequences. These 
 consequences owe their chief bitterness to their criminal 
 source. We speak of the miseries which the di-unkard 
 carries into his family. But take away his own brutality, 
 and how lightened would be these miseries. We talk of 
 his wife and children in rags. Let the rags continue ; but 
 suppose them to be the effects of an innocent cause. 
 Suppose the di-unkard to have been a virtuous husband 
 and an affectionate father, and that sickness and not vice 
 has brought his family thus low. Suppose his wife and 
 children, bound to him by a strong love, which a life of 
 labour for their support and of unwearied kindness has 
 awakened ; and suppose them to know that his toil for 
 their welfare has broken down his frame ; suppose him 
 able to say, 'We are poor in this world's goods, but rich 
 in affection and religious trust. I am going from you, but 
 I leave you to the Father of the fatherless and to the 
 widow's God.' Suppose this, and how changed these 
 rags ! How changed the cold naked room ! The heart's 
 wai-mth can do much to withstand the winter's cold, and 
 there is hope, there is honour, in this virtuous indigence. 
 What breaks the heart of the drunkard's wife is not that 
 he is poor, but that he is a drunkard. 
 
 " We look too much at the consequences of vice, too
 
 MORAL RESULTS. 167 
 
 little at the vice itself. It is to be desired that when man 
 lifts a suicidal arm against his highest life, when he 
 quenches reason and conscience, that he and all others 
 should receive a solemn startling warning of the greatness 
 of his guilt ; that terrible outward calamities should bear 
 witness to the inward ruin which he is working ; for the 
 outward evils, dreadful as thej seem, are but faint types of 
 the ruin within. We should see in them God's respect to 
 His own image in the soul. His parental warnings against 
 the crime of quenching the intellectual and moral life." 
 
 In the sacredness of family life — as the foundation The founda- 
 and perpetual well-spring of human worth, happiness, and human 
 progress ; in the incorruptible faithfulness of men and happiness, 
 women, not to their pleasures and impulses, not even to progress^ 
 their individual aspii^ations, but to their plain daily duties 
 and responsibilities towards others, — whether these duties 
 have been voluntarily assumed or by circumstances forced 
 upon them— in these things in this conduct of life — though 
 personal hopes may be lost — manhood and womanhood 
 inflnitely more precious than any personal gain, remain 
 pure and effective ; and childhood — -the raost direct and 
 solemn of all the trusts a gracious Grod reposes in us — is 
 protected. 
 
 It is only when the passion of love is separated — 
 wrenched from its citadel and source in the crystal sphere 
 of modesty and true, deep affection where divine wisdom 
 planted it, to live for ever and be the for ever fresh and 
 for ever sweet inspiration to all human loyalties ; it is only 
 when selfishness and insidious self-betrayal outrages and 
 dislodges it, that it is lost out of God's meaning and 
 purpose, and becomes the sensual fury which goads men 
 and women to break all ties, all fidelities ; to forget what 
 honour is like, and grovel weakly in, or ferociously gloat 
 over, the degradation of all that is meant by the good 
 words " love " and " home." 
 
 And it is here in the home-world, the heart-world, that Dnnk the 
 drink, having subjugated the will, confused and gradually enemy of 
 obliterated moral distinctions, comes at last to its chief prey, tbese. 
 the affections, the emotions, the passions, and does the most 
 deadly, the most ruinous — because the most irreparable — of 
 all its fell work. In its blight the man who wooed with 
 fervour and wedded with pure intent, parts first, slowly,
 
 168 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 "witli self-respect, and then more rapidly with all other 
 respect, and sells or forsakes his wife, as callous to her 
 anguish — yes, actually becomes as incapable of under- 
 standing it as of caring for it — as he is indifferent to the 
 coarseness of the vile women he consorts with in her 
 stead ; or, worse, he makes his wife a physical sharer in 
 his own pollutions, regardless of the result to her or to 
 the children who may inherit. Brothers traffic in the 
 honour of their sisters ; some men gamble literally with 
 their wives for the stakes, or pledge their daughters for 
 cash to the lowest libertine that can pay — yes, and act as 
 the decoy in fulfilling the atrocious pledge ! * Finally, as 
 the circle narrows, as the lusts exhaust themselves, the 
 alcohol-driven wretch slinks more and more into the lowest 
 haunts, where unimaginable forms of sensuality submerge 
 him at last in imbecility, whose fainter and fainter gleams 
 of consciousness consist of impotent throes of the degraded 
 senses. Then total darkness, and the results of the work 
 of alcoholism are complete. 
 
 Of course, in dealing with a great, widely prevailing 
 evil, only the general sum of its effects can be presented 
 in any one work of ordinary dimensions ; and it is iinder- 
 stood that this sum comprises almost infinite variations of 
 kind, of method, of degrees, of effect that may not be 
 categorically specified. 
 
 For example, in showing that dinnk destroys will, moral 
 perception, conscience, affection, self-respect, and regard 
 for others — in saying, in a word, that the drinker sinks 
 into lower than bestiality until the final extinction of all 
 manliness, I am not asserting that every taster of wine 
 sinks to the lowest level, or that any one or all of these 
 evil results is at once and strongly manifested in every 
 drinker. If this were so, surely no books need be written, 
 no pledges taken, no prayers be made, no tears be shed 
 to save man from alcoholism. That which is asserted 
 is, that drink tends, however slowly and insidiously, and 
 
 * Cardinal M'Cabe, in a recent pastoral on the state of Ireland, 
 speaks of the degraded men and women " who, that their fierce 
 passion for drink may be satisfied, would sell wife, husband, or child 
 to any one who would minister but for a day to their iusatiable 
 cravings for diink."
 
 MORAL RESULTS. 169 
 
 with whatever delay of apparent signs, in every case to 
 these results ; if persisted in, manifests them in more or 
 less marked degrees, that the danger of the worst squarely 
 menaces whoever forms the habit, and that in a frightful 
 numerical proportion this worst has been and is being 
 daily realized all around us. 
 
 " At what particular point does any man cease to be 
 sober and begin to be drunk ? What quantity or strength 
 of alcohol may one imbibe with the perfect assurance of 
 retaining the sober equilibrium of all his faculties ? How 
 long may one be accustomed to a very moderate daily 
 quantity of wine or spirits without incurring any danger 
 of forming an appetite for strong drink ? These and other 
 such questions cannot be answered, because there is no 
 line discernible, and no ingenuity can calculate where or 
 when the line is crossed which separates moderation from 
 excess, sobriety from drunkenness. 
 
 " There is a point indefinitely near the starting point 
 of unmistakable sobriety, and yet some distance from it, 
 where a slight derangement of the mental powers, a little 
 dimness of intellectual vision, some lack of tenderness in 
 conscience, some relaxing of the power of will — all im- 
 perceptible, it may be, to others — become at least suspected 
 by the individual himself . . . but while it would be 
 uncharitable and rude in the estimation of society, and 
 libellous in the eye of the law, to call this by the name 
 of drunkenness ; yet, call it by what name we will, it is 
 a departure from strict absolute sobriety, and an incipient 
 movement along the line which leads to the grossest 
 intemperance. The higher nature has begun to lose, and 
 the lower to gain influence and strength ; it needs but a 
 little more impetus in the same dii^ection, it needs but 
 the same process repeated sufficiently often to create the 
 drunkard's appetite, and to procure the drunkard's name. 
 A start has already been made along that line which is so 
 thickly strewn with the wreck of much that was great 
 and noble lying in accumulated masses of degradation, 
 wretchedness, and crime." * 
 
 I have avoided exaggeration ; I have kept well within 
 
 * Temperance Reformation, and its Claims upon the Christian 
 Church, by Rev. James ymith (London, 1875).
 
 170 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 the bounds of the truth which my researches have nn- 
 expectedly revealed to me ; I have purposely refrained 
 , from citing from the multitudes of proved and certified 
 instances of the worst evils as I have described them, lest 
 by too greatly shocking and even stunning the sensibilities 
 of my readers I should thwart my hope of helping to 
 arouse deep feeling and genuine sustained effort to com- 
 prehend and overcome this, the worst, the secretest, the 
 stealthiest, bloodthii'stiest, cruelest, and strongest fiend that 
 has ever got into the hearts, the homes of men — to arouse 
 this feeling and this purpose in every heart this little book 
 reaches, as this feeling and purpose have been aroused in 
 mine.
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 HEREDITY, OR THE CURSE ENTAILED ON DESCENDANTS BT 
 ALCOHOL. 
 
 A law of ancient Carthage forbade all drinks but water on days 
 of marital intercourse. 
 
 " Drunkards beget drunkards." — Plutarch. 
 
 " The children of drunkards are not likely to have sound brains." 
 — Gellius. 
 
 " Dipsomania is always hereditary, always a spontaneous neurosis, 
 absolutely independent of the habits of the individual." — Dr. Folle. 
 TILLE. — See Quarterly Journal of Inebriety (October, 1883), p. 260. 
 
 § 52. The perpetuation of the human race, together with the 
 extinction of what is valueless to it — whether individual, 
 family, tribe, or nation — are closely regulated by laws which 
 in themselves manifest the profoundest wisdom. 
 
 On the laws of heredity especially, a seal is set which The laws of 
 no man can completely violate ; i.e., though he may infringe IrofJrtion w 
 upon and disregard all other general laws of his being, the race, 
 until to all intents and purposes they cease to be carried 
 out, the laws by which he bequeaths himself to new 
 generations will continue to effectuate themselves even 
 after he has lost the mental and physical individuality 
 through which the general laws act. 
 
 Were we insulated in our individualities instead of There?ponsi- 
 being intimately interdependent, we might do harm to parentage. 
 ourselves and deny all right of interference or even 
 remonstrance from without : but since in nothing can 
 we act without producing an endless consecution of effects 
 touching the lives and rights of others ; — in nothing can
 
 172 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 we have so little right to act without the thoughtfullest, 
 most unselfish regard to the claims of others, as in the 
 chief act for which we are qualified — the act of creating 
 a new being who shall partake of our essence in himself 
 and transmit the same, whatever its quality, to untold 
 successive generations. 
 
 For we are pre-eminently parents ; the race lives only 
 in the possible motherhood or fatherhood of each individual, 
 and the desire for children and devoted attachment to them 
 is the most ineradicable feeling and deepest fundamental 
 law of all healthy mature being. 
 
 Therefore, to what end the laws of heredity shall be 
 
 effectuated, is the foremost question which concerns us as 
 
 responsible beings. 
 
 Dr. Marc ^^- ^^^^-^c Lorin, in his General View of the Laivs of 
 
 i^rin on the Heredity (Thesis for the degfree in medicine, Paris, 1875), 
 
 general laws •' ^ ° > j /> 
 
 of heredity. SayS : 
 
 " The transmission of characteristics of species and 
 race is admitted by everybody who deals with the body or 
 the soul. Nobody fears to admit within these limits the 
 fatality of birth. It is thus that every historian refers to 
 the national character in explaining the events in the lives 
 of a people, recognizing its persistence, and pronouncing 
 the consequences often inevitable. The French of this day 
 recognize themselves in the portrait of the Ganls as di^wn 
 by Julius Ceesar. The modern Greeks are in many respects 
 the same whom Demosthenes addressed. If you take a 
 young savage whose pareiits were hunters, vain will be 
 your efforts to cultivate him and adapt him to the habits 
 of civilized life. The voice of his ancestor speaks to him, 
 incessantly recalling him to the instinct and adventures of 
 forest life. 
 
 " Heredity is the result of a very general law, by 
 virtue of which all the anatomic elements of the body 
 possess the property of giving direct birth to similar 
 elements, or of determining in their own vicinity a genera- 
 tion of elements of the same kind (Littre et Robin). The 
 phenomena of nutrition depend upon this same law, by 
 virtue of which the human body, incessantly renewed, 
 remains always identical with itself from the distribution 
 of atomic elements." 
 Dr. Bourgeois Dr. Bourgeois, in L' Amour (1860), says that —
 
 HEREDITY. 17*3 
 
 " In transmitting' the germ of life, parents transmit to 
 their children their own resemblance, physical and moral. 
 The children are parts of ourselv^es ; it is our flesh, our 
 blood, our souls, our examples, our lessons, our passions 
 which re-live in them." 
 
 Dr. E. G. Figo^, in his Physiological Operation of Alcohol Dr. Figg. 
 (Manchester, 1862), says — 
 
 " Is organic conformation transmissible to posterity ? 
 In our bitter experience we know it is. Half a dozen 
 brothers and sisters perish in phthisis, and the physician 
 explores the antecedents of the family for the origin of 
 the catastrophe. A man drops dead with valvular disease 
 of the heart, and on the transit of a few years the accident 
 is repeated in the person of his son, simply because the 
 basis of the disease was communicated in an organ 
 defectively constructed. 
 
 " And is a cerebral co7iformation less hereditary than 
 tubercular diathesis, or cardiac imperfection ? The very 
 breeders of horses insure docility in the progeny, by the 
 existence of that quality in the parentage. Consider the 
 mental vigour manifested in various families, generation 
 after generation. The Gregories, the Alisons, the Sheridans, 
 the Kembles, the Porters, the Munros ; if talent be in- 
 herited, it can only be conveyed with the peculiar cerebral 
 structure exhibiting it." 
 
 Although the ephemeral traits of the parents may The scope of 
 seldom reappear in the children — only that which has effects'*'^ 
 become individualized being genei-ally transmitted — yet 
 we constantly have evidence that even general undefinable 
 tendencies of our being, upward or downward, are trans- 
 missible ; yes, even the struggles and conflicts in the inmost 
 hearts of the parents, though never by them revealed, may 
 all, whether well or ill fought out, be reflected in the child. 
 And it is within the working of these laws that we find 
 intoxicants, especially alcohol, endangering — as does almost 
 no other evil — the whole future of the whole race of man ; 
 and to the startling words of Flourens, " Man no longer 
 dies, he kills himself," we may add, — Man not only kills 
 himself ; he kills his offspring in the womb, and degrades 
 that heaven-ordained crucible of life into a machine for 
 creating mental and moral and physical monstrosities — for 
 the spui'ious replenishment of the earth.
 
 174 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Various 
 authorities 
 on heredity. 
 
 Erasmus 
 Darwin. 
 
 Rev. Edward 
 Barry. 
 
 Dr. Rosch. 
 
 Dr. Moral. 
 
 § 53. The Frencli historian Amyot, and the English 
 philosopher Lord Bacon, were probably the first in modern 
 times to deal with the question of alcoholic heredity. 
 
 Erasmus Darwin, in his Botanical Garden (1781), 
 says, "It is remarkable that all the diseases from 
 drinking spirituous or fermented liquors are liable to 
 become hereditary, even to the third generation, gradually 
 increasing, if the cause be continued, till the family 
 becomes extinct." 
 
 In his Essay on Wedlock (Reading, 1806) the Rev. 
 Edward Barry says — 
 
 " It would be as nnreasonable to expect a rich crop 
 from a barren soil, as that strong and healthy children 
 should be born of parents whose constitutions have been 
 worn out with intemperance and disease. What a dreadful 
 inheritance is the gout, the scurvy, etc. ! How happy 
 had it been for the heir of many a great estate had he 
 been born a healthy beggar rather than to inherit his 
 father's fortunes at the expense of inheriting his disease ! 
 
 " Children born of intemperate parents bear in their 
 birth the germs of disease, die prematurely, or drag along 
 a languishing existence, useless to society, depraved and 
 possessed with evil instincts." 
 
 A like testimony is this of Dr. C. Rosch, in his The 
 Abuse of Spirituous Drinks (Tubingen, 1839) : 
 
 " The children of men and women who are given to 
 drink have always a weak constitution, are either delicate 
 and nervous to excess, or heavy and stupid. In the former 
 case they often fall victims to convulsions and die suddenly, 
 or become a prey to water on the brain, and later to 
 pulmonary phthisis. In the latter case they are seized by 
 atrophy, and sink into imbecility. In both cases they are 
 exposed to all the varied forms of scrofula, rash, and, on 
 reaching maturity, gout." 
 
 Dr. B. A. Morel, in his treatise on the Degeneration of 
 the Human Bace (Paris, 1857), says of alcoholic heredity, 
 " There is no other disease in which hereditary influences 
 are so fatally characteristic. Imbecility and idiocy are 
 the extreme terms of the degradation in the descendants 
 of drinkers, but a great number of intermediary stages 
 develop themselves, . , . beyond the positive data afforded 
 by observation of hereditary influences, it is impossible for
 
 HEREDITY. 175 
 
 us to form a just idea of certain monstrosities, physical 
 and moral. ... It is a law for the preservation of the race, 
 which strikes alcoholics with early impotence, and their 
 descendants are not only intellectually feeble, but this 
 degradation is joined with congenital impotence." 
 
 Dr. Figg says (op. cit.), "The brain of the drinkers Dr. Figg. 
 child is as often the miniature of that of his father, as is the 
 impress of his features. Education may do much for him, 
 conscience and self-respect more ; yet the germs of those 
 vices which, precipitated the parent's ruin will, in too many 
 instances, defy eradication. 
 
 " Perhaps tbe largest class of character is one to which, 
 no special reference has hitherto been made — a person 
 possessing a mediocrity of mental power, with a mind only 
 partially developed by education, conversing superficially 
 on a number of subjects, without thinking deeply on any ; 
 such characters are admirably adapted for the routine of 
 mere commercial or artisan life. By constant drinking, 
 however, even without reaching the point of intoxication, 
 such intellects may be almost obliterated. To them 
 reasoning was never habitual, consequently the cerebral 
 surface, under the contact of alcohol, is less injected than 
 the base ; hence the function of the intellectual brain is 
 completely superseded by that of the instinctive ; their 
 very few ideas, suggested by the society of the public- 
 house, or the sentiments current round the dinner tables 
 on the retiring of the ladies, admit of no variation or 
 argument. What wonder that they become social non- 
 entities, and assimilated to the beasts in their desire for 
 the gratification of mere animal appetites ! " 
 
 Dr. E. Lanceraux says, in his article Alcoholism Dr. Lance- 
 (Dict. Encycl. des Sciences Med., Paris, 1865), " The person ""aux. 
 who inherits alcoholism is generally marked with degenera- 
 tion particularly manifested in disturbances of the nervous 
 functions. As an infant he dies of convulsions or other 
 nervous disorders ; if he lives, he becomes idiotic or 
 imbecile, and in adult life bears these special characteris- 
 tics : the head is small (tendency to microcephalism), his 
 physiognomy vacant, a nervous susceptibility more or less 
 accentuated, a state of nervousness bordering on hysteria, 
 convulsions, epilepsy, sad ideas, melancholia, hypochondria, 
 — such are the effects, and these with a passion for alcoholic
 
 176 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Dr. 
 
 Maudsley. 
 
 Professor 
 Jaccoud. 
 
 Dr. Baer. 
 
 Dr. GendroD. 
 
 beverages, an inclination to immorality, depravity, and 
 cynicism, are the sorrowful inheritance, which, unfortunately 
 a great number of individuals given to drink bequeath to 
 their children." 
 
 Dr. Maudsley says that such children " come into the 
 world without having either the will or the strength to 
 struggle against their fate ; they are step-children of 
 nature, suffering under the heel of tyranny — the tyranny 
 of poor constitutions." 
 
 Prof. Sigismund Jaccoud says, in his Alcoholism (Fatlio- 
 logie Interne, Paris, 1877), " Of the children of drinkers, 
 some become imbeciles and idiots ; others are feeble in 
 mind, exhibit moral perversion, and sink by degrees into 
 complete degradation ; still others are epileptics, deaf and 
 dumb, sci-ofulous, hydrocephalic, etc. ... A survey of the 
 race leads us to affirm that alcoholism is one of the greatest 
 causes of the depopulation and degenei-ation of the 
 nations." 
 
 Dr. A. Baer (in Alcoholismus, 1878) calls attention to the 
 fact that " the inherited desire for drink often remains 
 latent, till by severe, acute, or chronic disease, or mental 
 excitement, the nervous system has become weakened, 
 when the alcoholic impulse leaps suddenly into activity." * 
 
 In his essay on Hereditary Alcoholism (Thesis for the 
 degree in medicine, Paris, 1880), Dr. E. Geudron says, 
 " The drinker is often incapable of having living children. 
 If he does have any, they are driven to drinking just as 
 he himself, and, being less robust, because degenerated, 
 they cannot withstand the effects, but fall -"actims to all 
 the accidents of alcoholism, united to those they have 
 inherited. These are — in tender years, terrible convulsions 
 on the least occasion ; later, nervousness of hysteria with 
 all the train of symptoms ; limited intelligence, gross 
 brutal character, and a spirit incapable of anything serious 
 or coherent. The heir to alcoholism is querulous, evil- 
 minded, possessed with a desire to destroy, not capable of 
 receiving a good education ; and his faults increase with 
 
 * The age at which symptoms of hereditary alcoholism break ont 
 varies. It generally awakes at special periods of physiological 
 changes ; snch as puberty, illness, pregnancy, or at the cessation of 
 the menstrual functions. Sudden and great mental emotion, or even 
 chUl, will sometimes suffice.
 
 HEREDITY. 177 
 
 his years. If born intelligent, lie may lapse into idiocy or 
 imbecility ; born witli infantile paralysis, lie may die from 
 epilepsy ; or, a hypochondriac, he may become insane, and 
 end his wretched existence in an asylum under the 
 delirium of imaginary persecutions ; if, indeed, he has not 
 been carried to the prisoner's dock for some crime for 
 which he bore little real responsibility.* , . . The conclu- 
 sions are that alcoholism is not extinguished vrith. the 
 drinking individual, but is transmitted to his descendants 
 under various forms, namely, convulsions in infancy, pro- 
 duced by the most trivial causes ; malformation of the 
 head and microcephalus ; tendency to strong drink ; feeble 
 general development ; trembling especially of the upper 
 limbs ; gastric troubles ; epilepsy ; precocious perversity 
 and cruelty ; mental weakness ; idiocy ; tendency to in- 
 sanity or mania." 
 
 In his address, The Heredity of Alcohol, delivered ^^- Norman 
 before the International Congress for the Study of Alco- 
 holism at Brussels (August, 1880), Dr. Norman Kerr 
 said, " Defective nerve-power and an enfeebled debilitated 
 morale form the favourite legacy of inebriates to their 
 offspi-ing. Some of the circle, generally the daughters, 
 may be nervous and hysterical ; others, generally the 
 sons, are apt to be feeble and eccentric, and to fall 
 into insanity when an unusual emergency takes place. 
 That the impairment of the bodily or mental faculties 
 arises from the intemperance of one or both heads of the 
 family, is demonstrated by the healthfulness and intel- 
 lectual vigour of children born while the parents were 
 temperate contrasted with the sickliness and mental 
 feebleness of their brothers and sisters born after the 
 parent or parents became intemperate. . . . The most dis- 
 tressing aspect of the heredity of alcohol is the transmitted 
 narcotic or insatiable craving for drink — the dipsomania 
 of the physician — which is every day becoming more and 
 more prevalent. Probably the alarming increase of the 
 alcoholic heredity in England is owing in great part to the 
 increase of female intemperance amongst us. It is well to 
 
 * If a sonnd knowledge of the laws of heredity were a sine qua 
 non qualification in the law-maker, might we not hope that curative 
 measures would supersede the punitive and inaugurate a nobler and 
 more effective moral code than we have ever known ? 
 
 N
 
 178 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Dr. Lewis D. 
 Mason on 
 alcoholic 
 insanity. 
 
 Prof. Kraft- 
 Ebing on 
 diseases of 
 alcoholic 
 heredity. 
 
 state that all the evil resulting from hereditary alcoholism 
 may he transmitted hy parents ivho have never been noted for 
 their drunkenyiess. Long- continued habitual indulgence in 
 intoxicating drinks to an extent far short of intoxication is 
 not only sufficient to originate and hand down a morbid 
 tendency, but is much more likely to do so than even repeated 
 drunken oibthreaks ivith intervals of perfect sobriety between." 
 
 The hereditary drink-crave is thus described by Dr. 
 Lewis D. Mason in his Alcoholic Insanity (New York, 
 1883) : " It is an irresistible impulse that drives a person 
 to alcoholic intoxication at stated or irregular periods. 
 The attack is preceded by a condition of melancholia, 
 anorexia, insomnia, and general restlessness. After the 
 debauch, or during it, the special effect of the alcohol on 
 the mental and physical condition becomes manifest — 
 tremor, hallucinations, sleeplessness, coated tongue, loss 
 of appetite, and other symptoms of gastric derangement. 
 The ' ii'resistible impulse ' is the characteristic feature of 
 this special form of monomania. The genesis of that 
 impulse, and the views of vai'ious writers as to its 
 pathological origin, the province of this paper will not 
 permit to touch. 
 
 " The point to be made here is that the hallucinations 
 and delusions are simply the result of the alcoholic 
 poisoning. 
 
 " The person again and again yields to the insane 
 impulse until death, either by some intercurrent disease, or 
 disease resulting from his alcoholic excesses, relieves him 
 from his sad heritage." 
 
 Of the children of parents who are guilty of alcoholic 
 excesses,* Prof. Kraft-Ebing, in his Psychiatrie (Stutt- 
 gart, 1883), says, "They come into the world as idiots, 
 
 * One of the laws of heredity of the ntmost importauce for 
 parents to consider is that of what I may call lacteal heredity (see 
 chapter IX.), i.e. what the child receives through the medium 
 of the milk, whether the milk of its mother or of a wet nurse. 
 Virtues, vices, physical characteristics, and the effects of habits 
 indulged in during lactation can be transmitted to the child. Thus, 
 even if the child be well-born to start with, it may acquire physical 
 diseases through the milk of a foster-mother. 
 
 The Pall Mall Gazette for August, 1883, tells the following 
 interesting anecdote bearing on this point : — 
 
 " The extent to which the chai-acter of an animal can be changed
 
 HEREDITY. 179 
 
 with hydrocephaloTis or neurotic-convulsive constitutions ; 
 and perisli in early years of convulsions. In those wlio 
 survive, epilepsy, hysteria, mental diseases, and weakness, 
 and exactly the severest forms of .mental impairment are 
 developed out of the morbid constitution of the nerve- 
 centres ; " and he gives the following terrible scheme as 
 to how nature disposes of generations springing from 
 drunkards : — 
 
 " 1st Generation. — Moral depravity, alcoholic excess. 
 
 " 2nd Generation. — Drink mania, attacks of insanity, 
 general paralysis. 
 
 " 3rd Generation. — Hypochondria, melancholia, apathy, 
 and tendencies to murder. 
 
 "4th Generation. — Imbecility, idiocy, and extinction of 
 family." 
 
 Thus it is seen that even the transmission of such 
 loathsome diseases as scrofula, tuberculosis, or syphilis is 
 neither so certain nor so permanent and blasting in effects 
 as those transmitted by alcoholism. Moreover, these 
 terrible diseases are in some degree susceptible of remedy, 
 and are localized. But the heredity from alcoholism is 
 chronic, and profoundly attacks the whole being. 
 
 Were the transmission absolute, that is, were there no 
 
 by the way in which it is brought up has seldom been more re- 
 markably illustrated than in the case of a sheep, which at present 
 is said by the Kokstaad Advertizer to be a great pet of the magistrate 
 at Matabiele, in South Africa. This sheep, when a lamb, left the 
 flock, attached itself to a Mr. Watson, who gave it to be suckled by 
 his bitch ' Beauty,' a bitch well known here, and was well taken 
 care of by her. When the lamb grew older it was noticed that it 
 would never sleep in any house but Mr. Watson's, and would some- 
 times lie outside the door cuddled up like a watch-dog. The most 
 wonderful thing about him is that as soon as the hotel bell rings for 
 dinner he is sure to be standing by one of the chairs at the top end 
 of the table, and when the owner sits down he will jump with his 
 front paws on his back, letting him know that he wants something 
 to eat, like a dog. He will not touch grass or eat beef, but will 
 gladly eat mutton, soap, candles, and drink coffee and tea with 
 sugar and milk. But " Schaap's " great love is for draught beer. 
 He will lift the can up with his front paws and hold it to his mouth, 
 and drink with such a relish that it can at once be seen he has been 
 led away by bad example. ' Schaap ' is a fine ram, clean fleece, 
 with very wicked eyes. All day he is seen running about with the 
 dogs as one of them, until the bell rings, then off he scampers to the 
 dining-room."
 
 180 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 laws mightier for the preservation of man than those he 
 violates and turns into engines of destruction, the race 
 might ere this have been extinguished. But the children 
 of drinking parents who escape the curse are the excep- 
 tions, and the escape is seldom, if ever, a complete one. 
 Either the mind, the body, or the character, in some bent, 
 formation, or trait, betrays the taint. 
 
 Selfish and ii-responsible conduct of life minus drink 
 may, and probably sometimes does, produce a similar 
 heredity ; yet it remains true that those who are neither 
 alcoholics themselves, nor the victims of alcoholic parentage, 
 are in the comparison seldom sufficiently blinded to the 
 meaning and duties of Hfe, to waste their physical, moral, 
 and mental resources, and then either heedlessly or 
 deliberately inflict the consequences on their offspring.
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THERAPEUTICS; OR, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 
 
 § 54. As alcohol (the distilled product) originated in the 
 chemists' and physicians' laboratories, thence gradually 
 spread to the homes of the favoured ones in life, and then 
 descended step by step the grades of social life, until its 
 use in drink by civilized man has driven pure water almost 
 out of the list of beverages ; so now there are signs that 
 it is retreating to the laboratory, like the Afreet to his 
 bottle in the Arabian Nights. And let us hope that when 
 alcohol is once driven back to its starting-place, man will 
 be wise enough to seal up the monster for ever. 
 
 The first medical treatise on the uses of alcohol was 
 one entitled Ueher den Gebrauch und Nutzen des Brannt- 
 weins (Concerning the Use and Utility of Brandy), written 
 by Dr. Michel Schrick, in 1483. 
 
 During the next hundred years after this date much A sisteenth- 
 and various consideration was given to the subject, and opini'onof 
 more or less clear opinions were formed as to the effect f,'^?^"'-. 
 of alcohol on man ; and by examining some of the views 
 entertained by " Theoricus," a prominent German of the 
 sixteenth century — i.e., about midway between the time 
 of its practical discovery and oui' age, and when it had 
 spread over the whole of Europe — we may be better able 
 to appreciate the changes which medical opinion has 
 undergone between then and now. 
 
 In the Hollinshed Chronicles (1577), "Theoricus" 
 describes the properties of alcohol in these words : — " It 
 sloweth age, it strengtheneth youth, it helpeth digestion, 
 it cutteth phlegme, it abandoneth melancholic, it relisheth 
 the heart, it lighteneth the mind, it quickeneth the spirits,
 
 182 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 it cm^etli the hydi'opsia, it healetli the strangirrie, it 
 pounces the stone, it expelleth gravel, it puffeth away 
 ventositie ; it keepeth and preserveth the head from whirl- 
 ing, the eyes from dazzling, the tong fi'om lisping, the 
 mouth fi'om snaffling, the teeth fi'om chattering, and the 
 throat from rattling ; it keepeth the weasen from stiffling, 
 the stomach from wambling, and the heart from swelling ; 
 it keepeth the hands fi^om shivering, the sinews from 
 shrinking, the veins from crumbling, the bones fi'om 
 aching, and the marrow fi-om soaking." 
 
 As we have seen, these diseases, with scores of kindi-ed 
 
 afflictions, are precisely the fi'uits which the use of alcohol 
 
 bears in the organism of man, and it would seem as if 
 
 " Theoiicus " must have been both a wag and a physician. 
 
 The following are some of the principal testimonies 
 
 and opinions, marking the progress of medical thought 
 
 against the indiscriminate use of alcohol in modem times. 
 
 Dr. isonnan § 55. At the Crystal Palace Jubilee Conference 
 
 medical (September, 1879), an essay on the Medical History of the 
 
 history of the Temperance Movement was read by Dr. Norman Kerr. 
 
 movement. " At no stage in the onward progTess of the temperance 
 
 movement," said Dr. KeiT, "have representatives of the 
 
 medical profession ever been wanting. In the early or 
 
 moderation stage, when the advocacy of tempei'ance 
 
 reformers was confined to abstinence fi-om ardent spirits, 
 
 a numerous company of ^sculapians was invariably in 
 
 the van. 
 
 " Leaving out of the reckoning altogether the many 
 unstinted commendations of temperance by the early 
 fathers of the healing art, while united temperance effort 
 was yet in the womb of time, from the ranks of the noble 
 profession of medicine emanated graphic expositions of 
 the physical, mental, and moral dangei-s accompanying 
 even limited alcoholic indulgence. 
 
 "In 1725 Dr. George Cheyne* had issued a second 
 edition of his fii'st work, in which he commends total 
 
 * "Neither were they ever designed by Nature and its Author for 
 the animal body as nourishment or common drink, and scarce deserve 
 a place in the apothecary's shop ; spirits having made more havock 
 among mankind by far than even gunpowder." — Natural Method of 
 curing Diseases of the Body and Disorders of the Mind, by Dr. George 
 Cheyne (London, 1742).
 
 THERAPEUTICS; OR, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 188 
 
 abstinence as the most natural, healthy, and safe mode of 
 living, and condemns moderate di-inking as unhealthy 
 and dangerous. 
 
 "In 1747 Dr. James wrote, 'Every person who drinks 
 a dram seems to me guilty of a gi'eater indiscretion than 
 if he had set fire to a house ; and for the same reasons 
 cordial waters are the most dangerous furniture for a 
 closet.' Again, ' I cannot forbear admiring the great 
 wisdom of Mohammed, who strictly forbade his followers 
 the use of fermented liquors for better reasons than are 
 generally apprehended.' 
 
 " Dr. Erasmus Darwin, author of The Botanic Garden 
 (London, 1794), calls wine 'a pernicious luxury in common 
 use, and injuring thousands.' 
 
 " In 1802 Beddoes pointed out the many dangers 
 attendant on the social and medical use of intoxicating 
 drinks, dwelling on the ' mischief from wine taken con- 
 stantly in moderate quantity,' and emphasizing ' The 
 enfeebling power of small portions of wine, regularly 
 drunk.' 
 
 " Dr. Trotter, two years later, denounces beer as a 
 ' poisonous morning beverage,' says ' wines strengthen 
 neither body nor mind ; ' and thus writes, ' When wine 
 was first introduced into Great Britain in the thirteenth 
 century, it was confined to the shop of the apothecary.' 
 
 "Writing to Dr. Joshua Harvey, in 1829, Dr. John 
 Cheyne, Physician- General to the Forces in Ireland, in a 
 letter published in Dublin, contends that the medical 
 profession ' ought to make every retribution in their 
 power for having so long upheld one of the most fatal 
 delusions which ever took possession of the human mind.' 
 
 "Mr. Higginbottom was probably an abstainer many 
 years before the birth of the movement, and had abandoned 
 the prescription of alcohol as early as 1832." 
 
 In a letter to a friend, written in 1836, Dr. Higgin- Dr. Higgin- 
 bottom* says, " I consider I shall do more in curing disease th"a™an- 
 
 * John Higginbottom, F.R.S., of Nottingham, was a keen and 
 able clinical practitioner, who wrote several classical papers on 
 practical medicine. His far-seeing and courageous stand against the 
 medical prescription of alcohol branded him as a maniac, and 
 ostracized him from practice among the higher classes of society. 
 Another man of Like conscience and courage was Mr. James Hawkins,
 
 1S4 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 tagpsofpre- and preventing disease in one year hy prescribing total 
 
 abstinMce!*^ abstinence, than I could do in the ordinary coiirse of an 
 
 extensive practice of a hundred years. I have already seen 
 
 diseases cured hy total abstinence that would not have been 
 
 cured hy any other means. If all stimulating drinks and 
 
 tobacco were banished from the earth, it would be a real 
 
 blessing to society, and in a few weeks they would never 
 
 be missed, not even as a mediciiie." * 
 
 Dr. Kerr in Dr. Kerr continues, in his Crystal Palace essay, "The 
 
 con inuation. ^]jj.gg well-known Declarations concerning alcohol merit 
 
 special mention. The first was drawn by Mr. Julius 
 
 Jeffreys in 1839, and was signed by Sir B. Brodie, Sir 
 
 James Clarke, Sir J. Eyre, Dr. Marshall Hall, Dr. A. T. 
 
 Thompson, Dr. A. Ure, the Queen's physicians ; Professor 
 
 Partridge, Professor Quain, Mr. Travers, Mr. Bransby 
 
 Cooper, and seventy-eight leaders in medicine and siu^gery. 
 
 This document declared the opinion to be en-oneous that 
 
 wine, beer, or spirit was beneficial to health ; that man in 
 
 ordinaiy health required no such stimulant, and could not 
 
 be benefited by the habitual employment of such in either 
 
 large or small quantities ; that, even in the most moderate 
 
 doses, alcoholic drinks did no good, while large quantities 
 
 (such as by many would be thought modei'ate) sooner or 
 
 later proved injurious to the human constitution, without 
 
 any exceptions." 
 
 First medical The Declaration drawn up by Dr. Julius Jeffreys,t here 
 
 on839*"°° alluded to, contained the following pai-agi-aphs :— 
 
 drawn up by "An opinion handed down from rude and ignorant 
 
 Jeffreys."^ times, and imbibed by Englishmen from their youth, has 
 
 become very general, that the habitual use of some portion 
 
 of alcoholic di'ink — as of wine, beer, or spirit — is beneficial 
 
 to health, and even necessary for those subjected to 
 
 habitual labour. 
 
 of 36, Cold Place, Commercial Road, formerly a staff assistant 
 surgeon at the battle of Waterloo. Like Dr. Higginbottom, he was 
 an earnest and consistent abstainer, and at the same cost to his 
 practice. Some valuable papers were contributed by him to the 
 Temperance Intelligencer for 1840 ; and he had the firmness and 
 sincerity to describe himself in the Medical Directory as " Teetotal 
 since 1837." 
 
 * From Anti-Bacchus, hy the Hev. B. Parsons (London, 1839). The 
 italics are by the Rev. Mr. Parsons. 
 
 t See Dr. Grindrod's Bacchus (1839).
 
 THERAPEUTICS; OR, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 185 
 
 " Anatomy, physiology, and the experience of all ages 
 and countries, when properly examined, must satisfy eveiy 
 mind well informed in medical science that the above 
 opinion is altogether eiToneous. Man in ordinary health, 
 like other animals, requires not any such stimulants, and 
 cannot be benefited by the habitual employment of any 
 quantity of them, large or small ; nor will their use during 
 his lifetime increase the aggi^egate amount of his labour. 
 In whatever quantity they are employed, they rather tend 
 to diminish it. 
 
 " When he is in a state of temporary debility from 
 illness, or other causes, a temporary use of them as of 
 other stimulant medicines may be desirable ; but as soon 
 as he is raised to his natui^al standard of health, a con- 
 tinuance of their use can do no good to him, even in the 
 most moderate quantities, while larger quantities (yet 
 such as by many persons are thought moderate) do, sooner 
 or later, prove injurious to the human constitution without 
 any exceptions." * 
 
 "The second Declaration," continues Dr. Kerr, "was Second 
 originated, and the many signatures published, by Mr. declaration 
 John Dunlop in 1847. More than two thousand of the most by Mr. John 
 eminent physicians and surgeons sigTied this, including iJS."^ "* 
 Sir R. Brodie, Sir J. Clarke, Sir W. Burnett, Sir J. Forbes, 
 Sir H. Holland, Sir A. Munro, Sir J. McGrigor, Sir R. 
 Christison, Dr. W. B. Carpenter, Dr. Copland, Dr. Niell 
 Amott, Dr. A. Farre, Professors Guy, Allen, Thomson, 
 Miller, McLeod, Easton, Anderson, McFarlane, Rainey, 
 Buchanan, Paris, Winslow, Alison, Syme, Henderson, 
 Lawi'ie, McKenzie, R. D. Thomson, Couper, and Simpson. 
 This certificate set forth that perfect health is compatible 
 with total abstinence from all intoxicating beverages ; that 
 all such drinks can, with perfect safety, be discontinued 
 either suddenly or gi'adually ; and that total and universal 
 abstinence from alcoholic liquors and intoxicating beverages 
 of all sorts would greatly contribute to the health, the 
 prosperity, the morality, and the happiness of the human 
 race. 
 
 "The third Declaration, which was prepared by Pro- The third 
 
 * The Rev. B. Parsons (cp. cit.) says, " To their honour it may be 
 told that five thonsand medical men in America have come forward 
 and given their testimony against alcohonc drinks."
 
 186 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 medical 
 Declaration 
 by Professor 
 Parkes in 
 1871. 
 
 Establish- 
 ment of the 
 Quarterly 
 Medical 
 Temperance 
 Journal, 
 1869. 
 
 The British 
 
 Medical 
 
 Journal 
 
 concerning 
 
 alcohol as a 
 
 medicine 
 
 (1871). 
 
 fessor Parkes, on tlie suggestion of Mr. Ernest Hart and 
 Mr. Robert Rae, in 1871, was signed by 269 leading 
 members of the hospital staffs. Among those signing 
 were Sir George Buitows, Sir Thomas Watson, Sir H. 
 Holland, Sir William Fergiisson, Sir James Paget, Sir 
 Ranald Martin, Sir Henry Thompson, Sii' Duncan Gibb, 
 and Sir James Bardsley." 
 
 The modem scientific temperance movement of England 
 may be said to have commenced with the publication of 
 Dr. F. R. Lees' Is Alcohol a Medicine ? (1866), and to have 
 taken full shape ^ath the establishment of the Quarterly 
 Medical Temperance Journal (1869), at the instance of Mr. 
 Robert Rae, secretary of the I^ational Temperance League. 
 In this quarterly will be found fairly reproduced almost 
 all the best medical literature of the subject that has 
 appeared since 1869. The intelligent advocacy of true 
 temperance in this journal called forth both rejoinders 
 and support in the medical press of Great Britain and 
 other countries, and finally the British Medical Journal, 
 the powerful organ of eleven thousand British physicians, 
 invited an investigation of the drink question. On the 
 30tli of September, 1871, the British Medical Journal 
 said — 
 
 " Looking to the ineffable misery and disaster, the 
 waste, degi'adation, suffering, and crime which are con- 
 stantly wrought in this and most civilized nations by 
 drink, we are far from thinking the importance of the 
 subject can be exaggerated. . . . The influence of medical 
 men, if they were united and agi-eed, might be all-powerful 
 on this subject ; and we should be glad to see a conference 
 of medical men, including those of the highest class, 
 originated in some really influential quarters, with a view 
 to giving this subject a more thorough discussion than it 
 has yet had. We should like to hear a discussion in which 
 Parkes, Edward Smith, Hughes Bennett, A. P. Stewart, 
 Paget, Jenner, and some of our leading provincial 
 practitioners, would take pari, in which the whole subject 
 should be probed. To what extent, if at all, are physicians 
 justified in recognizing alcohol as an article of daily food 
 in health ? Does the habit of prescribing alcoholic drinks 
 act injuriously upon the morals and welfare of the people ?
 
 THERAPEUTICS; OR, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 187 
 
 Is it possible or desirable to substitute the more enticing 
 forras of alcohol by medicinally and less alluring forms ? 
 We all of us sympathize with the ends which the National 
 Temperance League has in view. A small minority only 
 practically participate in their means of action. Can we 
 in any way, and in what way, help to excuse this nation 
 from the curses which di'ink brings upon its population ? " 
 
 This was followed by the strong appeal of Dr. A. H. H. 
 McMurtry, of Belfast, in an article On the Duty of Medical 
 Men in Relation to the Temperance Movement {Medical 
 Temperance Journal, October, 1871). 
 
 "The ignorance of the people," says Dr. McMurtry, Dr.McMur- 
 " encouraged as it has been by the attitude of the medical qTent^ appeal 
 profession towards the temperance movement, with regard *<> ^^.'^ 
 to the nature, properties, and real value of alcoholic drinks, profession 
 has constituted hitherto an almost impregnable barrier to (5*^''"^'*' 
 
 i^f' • Temperance 
 
 the progi'ess 01 truth on this subject. . . . Medical practice, journal, Oct. 
 
 and medical teaching, and perhaps medical science on the ^^^^^' 
 
 subject altogether, have begotten and fostered the popular 
 
 belief that alcohol is one of the good creatures of God. 
 
 The medical profession is responsible for the originating 
 
 and perpetuating of the great mistake that alcohol is a 
 
 wholesome thing. . . . The people's medical advisers 
 
 either teach, by precept and example, that they are not 
 
 injurious, or manifest an indifference to the evils produced 
 
 by theii' use, which implies that they do not think them 
 
 injurious. It matters little whether it is what they teach 
 
 or what they do not teach that is the cause of the popular 
 
 belief and popular custom ; for medical men are just as 
 
 culpable if they do not dispel this error, as if they actually 
 
 and directly taught it. They are just as responsible for 
 
 its consequences, because it is their special province and 
 
 privilege to diffuse that light and knowledge which alone 
 
 could prevent them. For to whom can the temperance 
 
 movement look, to whom should it look, for aid in exposing 
 
 this pernicious falsehood but to the medical profession ? 
 
 To whom else should a community suffering fi'om the 
 
 physical consequences of a physical poison appeal, not 
 
 only for their cure, but for their prevention ? . . . Apart 
 
 from the absolute duty of every man to abstain from the 
 
 unnecessary use of a poison, it is pre-eminently the duty 
 
 of medical men, who are naturally and justly considered
 
 188 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 guides in all that pertains to the preservation of health, to 
 see that the powerful influence of their example is on the 
 side of vii'tue and sobriety. Their superior knowledge of 
 the poisonous nature of alcohol implies a greater obligation 
 to abstain from it ; but it is their stronger and wider 
 influence which, in an especial manner, lays them under 
 a deeper responsibility to set the people a safe example in 
 this matter, and incurs upon them a deeper guilt if their 
 example leads the people astray. . . . Hence I maintain 
 that it is the duty of medical men either (1) to discard 
 alcohol altogether on the strength of the verdict which a 
 large proportion of the profession — not to mention com- 
 petent judges outside the profession — have pronounced 
 against it ; or else (2) to examine the matter for themselves 
 with an earnest and sincere desire to know the truth, 
 considering the incalculable evils which so many truthful, 
 unprejudiced, and thoroughly qualified men attribute solely 
 to the common and medicinal use of alcohol (such use 
 being founded on false notions of the nature and real 
 value of the drink), I hold that it is the bounden duty of 
 all who are in any degree responsible for this use of it, to 
 give the whole subject that honest and attentive consider- 
 ation which its importance demands. This would be a 
 more philosophic, honoui'able, and philanthropic course to 
 pursue than that so often adopted by medical men, of 
 refusing either to study the question for themselves or to 
 be instructed by those who have studied it. I should have 
 thought that, if no other or higher consideration were 
 sufiicient, the honour of their profession would be enough 
 to arouse them to defend it from the serious charge of 
 contributing, either knowingly or in wilful ignorance, to 
 the miseries of the human race. 
 
 " But suppose that, after having given the subject the 
 necessary investigation, they still believe that alcohol is an 
 indispensable article of the ' Materia Medica,' what then ? 
 What if some medical men have actually done so, and have 
 been forced to the conclusion that alcohol is a useful food 
 and a necessary medicine ? Then I tell them that it is 
 their duty (3) to choose the lesser of two evils. Prescribe 
 alcohol, eitherdieteticallyor medicinally, and you frequently 
 create or resuscitate, and always run a risk of creating or 
 resuscitating, supposing the patient survives, an uncon-
 
 therapeutics; or, alcohol as a medicine. 189 
 
 trollable and ultimately fatal appetite for intoxicating 
 drink. Thus in your desire to cui-e one disease, which 
 many believe could be cured more certainly and more 
 safely by other means, you administer a remedy which 
 may and often does produce another disease of a much 
 moi"e serious character, inasmuch as it involves not only 
 physical but moral injury to the patient, and untold misery 
 to his fi'iends. You also give rise to, and confirm, that 
 widespread faith in the necessity for and remedial powers 
 of alcoholic liquors, which I have said is at the very basis 
 of the di'inkiug customs, and is the remote origin of the 
 traffic itself and all its evils. For while I do not say that 
 all who drink do so because they think the drink is good for 
 them, I do say that all begin to drink ignorant of the fact, 
 and because they are ignorant of the fact, that alcohol is 
 inherently and essentially bad for them. And this igno- 
 rance is the result of the prescription and recommendation 
 by medical men of the various intoxicating productions of 
 the brewer and the distiller. And remember that the 
 advocates of alcohol can claim no especial advantages for 
 the alcoholic treatment which are not also claimed to a 
 superior degree for the non-alcoholic treatment, by those 
 who have expunged this agent from their list of remedies 
 altogether." 
 
 Stirred to the quick by these earnest words, Mr. Robert Origin of the 
 Rae, the secretary of the National Temperance League, medical"*"*^ 
 consulted with Mr. Ernest Hart, editor of the British Declaration. 
 Medical Journal, who advised that the counsel of Prof. 
 Parkes, of the Army Medical School, Netley, and other 
 prominent medical men, should be sought with reference 
 to the practicability of such a conference as had been 
 suggested in the British Medical Journal. Dr. Parkes 
 questioned the utility of a conference, and recommended 
 a Declai^tion instead. Mr. Rae urgently requested that 
 he would di^aft such a Declaration as the profession in 
 general would be prepared to sigTi. This was done, when 
 Mr. Rae submitted it without delay to Dr. Buitows, 
 Sir Thomas Watson, Sir James Paget, and Mr. Busk, 
 each of whom suggested a few alterations, which were 
 at once adopted. These four physicians then signed 
 the Declaration ; after which it was presented, at Dr. 
 Burrows' suggestion, * to some of the senior and most
 
 190 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 distinguislied members of the medical profession in London ' 
 
 for si2:nature." 
 
 Opinion of 
 the Times 
 as to the im- 
 portance of 
 the third 
 medical 
 Declaration. 
 
 The Lancet. 
 
 The Pall 
 Mall Gazette, 
 
 The Declaration, after being signed by two hundred 
 and sixty-nine leading members of the medical profession, 
 was printed with its full list of signatures in the Times 
 (January 1, 1872), which, in commenting on it three days 
 later, said : — 
 
 "It is very seldom that a great social question such 
 as that of the limits between a wholesome and safe use 
 of alcohol on the one hand, and injurious excess on the 
 other, evokes such a body of witnesses as that subscribed 
 to the medical protest in our columns. It is impossible 
 not to attach very great value to the deliberate opinion 
 of those who must know a good deal of the subject, and 
 who are not generally given to exaggeration. . . . That 
 two hundred and fifty medical men, including the naost 
 distinguished names in the profession, should have agreed 
 to a manifesto against the excessive and incautious adminis- 
 tration of alcohol, has taken the world rather by surprise, 
 as revealing a certain unsuspected background of actual 
 knowledge and unanimity. Of course there are protests 
 and dissents, but they do not come to much. . . . This 
 famous document, whether it be read with implicit agree- 
 ment or with criticism, is certain to call attention to the 
 histoiy and actual results of alcoholic stimulants wherever 
 there are eyes to see, and reason to understand." 
 
 " This list of names is very representative," says the 
 Lancet (December 23, 1871). "It is, indeed, so inclusive that 
 a few honoured names which are absent are conspicuous by 
 their absence.* It is so comprehensive that one is sur- 
 prised to miss a particular name that seems necessary to 
 give complete authority to the document." 
 
 And this from the Pall Mall Gazette has no uncertain 
 sound — 
 
 " Although there are those who express indignation at 
 
 * Apropros of these remarks by the Lancet, it is hut fair to recollect 
 that, with the exception of the names of Sir William Gull and Sir 
 William Jennor, it can hardly be said that any conspicuous medical 
 name is absent from this Declaration, and these two physicians were 
 at that time at Sandringham, attending upon the Prince of Wales in 
 his critical illness.
 
 THERAPEUTICS; OR, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 191 
 
 the assumption that alcohol is ever prescribed inconsider- 
 ately in large quantities, or that sufficient care is not 
 always taken to cut it oS at the right moment and to 
 arrest subsequent habits of induced tippling, there are too 
 many well-known examples of habitual evil induced by 
 medical prescription to ruake us hesitate to accept the 
 Declaration in its eveiy word and in all its meanings." 
 
 The Declaration read as follows : — 
 
 "As it is believed that the inconsiderate prescription The wording 
 of large quantities of alcoholic liquids by medical men for medlca'i "^*^ 
 theii' patients has given rise, in many instances, to the Declaration, 
 formation of intemperate habits, the undersigned, while 
 unable to abandon the use of alcohol in the treatment of 
 certain cases of disease, are yet of opinion that no medical 
 practitioner should prescribe it without a sense of gi^ave 
 responsibility. They believe that alcohol, in whatever 
 form, should be prescribed with as much care as any 
 powerful di'ug, and that the dii*ections for its use should 
 be so framed as not to be interpreted as a sanction for 
 excess, or necessarily for the continuance of its use when 
 the occasion is past. 
 
 " They are also of opinion that many people immensely 
 exaggerate the value of alcohol as an ai'ticle of diet, and 
 since no class of men see so much of its ill effects, and 
 possess such power to restrain its abuse, as members of 
 their own profession, they hold that every medical 
 practitioner is bound to exert his utmost influence to 
 inculcate habits of great moderation in the use of alcoholic 
 liquids. 
 
 " Being also fu'mly convinced that the gi^eat amount of 
 drinking of alcoholic liquors among the working classes of 
 this country is one of the greatest evils of the day, destroy- 
 ing — more than anything else — the health, happiness, and 
 welfare of those classes, and neutralizing, to a large extent, 
 the great industrial prosperity which Providence has 
 placed within the reach of this nation, the undersigned 
 would gladly support any wise legislation which would 
 tend to restrict, within proper limits, the use of alcoholic 
 beverages, and gi^adually introduce habits of temperance." 
 
 Though couched in terms less complete and uncom- General im- 
 promising than some desired, this document was yet " far duc?d°on the' 
 in advance of social sentiment and popular practice," and public mind
 
 192 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 by the publi 
 cation of it. 
 
 Medical 
 opinions 
 evoked by 
 the publica- 
 tion of the 
 third Decla- 
 ration. 
 Dr. Henry 
 Munroe. 
 
 it raised sucli a storm of discussion within the medical 
 profession, and led to such controversy in the daily press, as 
 made it famous almost ere the ink of it was dry, and the 
 animated dispute of which it was the nucleus did not 
 subside until some of the keenest intellects, ripest ex- 
 perience, and, fortunately, some of the noblest consciences 
 in and outside the medical profession, had wheeled into 
 line and spoken words which advanced the whole temper- 
 ance reform movement in the hearts and conviction of the 
 people, as almost nothing else could have done.* 
 
 In the great medical meeting in Exeter Hall (January 
 30, 1872), Dr. Henry Munroe, of Hull, said— 
 
 " Forty years ago we used to bleed — or rather, I should 
 say, ' phlebotomize ' — every one. I have sat at the table of 
 a hospital forty years ago, and when I have seen prescribed 
 
 * At about this time there were revivals of the temperance 
 movement in other countries. 
 
 Some six hundred of the physicians of Holland issued this 
 medical Declaration, even more stringent than the English one : — 
 
 "1. The moderate use of strong drinks is always unhealthy, even 
 when the body is in healthy condition. It does not do any good to 
 the digestion, but even interferes with that process ; for strong 
 drinks can only temporarily increase the feeling of hunger, but not 
 in favour of digestion, after which strong reaction must follow, and 
 evils which are usually attributed to other causes, but often result 
 from the habitual use with moderate drinkers. 
 
 " 2. The assertions that intoxicating drinks used moderately are 
 naturally innocent means of cheering up — that they are useful in 
 severe colds — or that they are with labouring men equivalents for 
 insufficient nourishment — or useful in misty and humid air — or for 
 people obliged to work in the water — or a protection against con- 
 tagious diseases — are without any foundation, and contradictory to 
 experience and to human reason ; and the habitual use of the same 
 has therefore an unhealthy effect, and an influence unlike what 
 people expect from them. 
 
 " 3. The habitual use of strong drinks works most perniciously 
 on all diseases, and especially on consumption. 
 
 " 4. Regarded as the usual drink of all classes, they are not only 
 improper on account of the above reasons, but also against moral 
 development and material prosperity, in such measure as to be con- 
 eidered and to be stamped as the greatest underminers of the actual 
 welfare of mankind." 
 
 In 1872 America manifested her sympathy with the movement, 
 and in May of that year, at the twenty-third annual meeting of the 
 American Medical Association — about one thousand members being 
 present — a resolution to discourage the use of alcohol in medical 
 practice was unanimously carried.
 
 THERAPEUTICS; OR, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 193 
 
 ' blue pill at night, and black draught in the morning,' I 
 have known what was going to be the next question. The 
 next question would be, ' Have you any pain anywhere ? ' 
 And woe to the patient if he said he had, or if even he 
 thought he had. The next line would be certain to be 
 Venesectio ad uncias duodecim ('bleeding to twelve ounces ') . 
 I have seen that repeated a dozen times in one morning 
 when I was a pupil, upon all sorts of persons, of all ages, 
 of all sizes, and of both sexes. A reaction took place in 
 the profession. We gave up the lancet, as we found that 
 people living in cities and towns were not always labouring 
 under inflammatory diseases. What we are labouring 
 under now is debility. Everything is debility now. We 
 went to the other extreme — therefore brandy became the 
 elixir vitce, the sole panacea for all the ills that flesh is heir 
 to. If a man were in collapse, brandy relieved him ; if in 
 the agony of colic, why, brandy revived him ; if life was 
 bui'ning out in fever, brandy cooled him ; and if he was 
 starved to death, why, brandy warmed him. In fact, 
 brandy was the pet drug of the Pharmacopoeia. Every- 
 thing else dwindled into obscurity. I will give you some 
 of my reasons for discontinuing the treatment of disease 
 with alcohol. I don't like to talk of myself, but I can tell 
 you that I have had twenty attacks of gout dimng the last 
 twenty years ; if that doesn't make a man wiser I don't 
 know what vsdll. During the first ten years of this period 
 I had sixteen attacks lasting from seven days to four 
 weeks ; but during the last ten years, since I abandoned 
 the use of alcoholic liquors in any shape whatever, I have 
 only had four attacks, two of them through accidents, and 
 the other two very mild, lasting only a few days. I have 
 tried brandy and water, I have tried beer, and I have tried 
 wine, and the whole category of such things, and I have 
 ascertained how much of each of them it vrill take to 
 induce an attack, and I have published these experiments 
 in the Medical Journal and need not repeat them to-night. 
 I determined to discontinue the use of such liquors, and 
 have been much more successful in practice ever since. 
 I ceased also to order any more for my patients, and they 
 are better too. In Hull, in the year 1849, we had the 
 cholera very bad indeed. It ravaged amidst us fearfully. 
 Above two thousand persons were buried in our cemetery, 
 
 o
 
 194 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 victims of this disease. I saw at least one hundred persons 
 a day in that dreadful disease, and most of those who died 
 were fi^om thirty to forty years of age. We tried the 
 brandy-and-opium treatment, and that was a failure. 
 Altogether we lost somewhere about forty or fifty per cent, 
 of the persons attacked by the stimulant treatment and 
 with opium. One medical man thought that the opium 
 with the bi-andy was not strong enough (something like 
 Mr. Skey), so he ordered that very strong doses of cam- 
 phine mixture should be administered, and he pledged 
 his reputation that this would cure any case of cholera, 
 but I believe it was a failure. The cholei'a took off 
 nearly all the drunkards. People whom I have seen 
 intoxicated at my surgery in the morning were dead the 
 same night, and buried the next morning. It was a 
 fearful thing. I rememher six cases of persons who were 
 so obstinate as to refuse to take any doctors' stuff or brandy. 
 I wrapped them up in blankets sprinkled with t^irpentine 
 and left them. Four out of that six are tvalking about 
 now. They recovered, but we lost fifty per cent, of the 
 others. Tui-ning to fever — I have tried alcohol in fever, 
 and I have treated fever without alcohol ; and my ex- 
 perience is that we lose five per cent, in treating cases of 
 fever without alcohol, and twenty-five per cent, with alcohol. 
 It is the experience of workhouses and hospitals that one 
 patient in ten of those treated loith brandy for fever died ; 
 but of those treated ivithout brandy only one death in thirty 
 cases occurred. I have treated many cases of delirium 
 tremens, and I have given alcoholic liquors heroically, but 
 had many deaths during that treatment ; but ivhen the 
 patients were isolated and cut off from all spirits and liquors, 
 I have never lost a case. It is a rare thing to lose a man 
 under such treatment. In i-egard to hgemorrhage and 
 violent floodings, I remember a case of this kind in which 
 I bad to sit up the whole night to give brandy, and 
 religiously gave it to the lady, and I have gone home in 
 the moniing with the reflection, ' What a wise provision it 
 is that we have such an excellent thing as brandy always 
 at hand ! ' I tried the case next time without brandy, 
 and the lady sooner got better, and there was no secondary 
 fever, and her remark was, ' I shall never try brandy 
 again.' I could go on multiplying these illustrations, but
 
 THERAPEUTICS; OR, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 19; 
 
 I must not tire you. With regard to the indiscriminate 
 use of alcohol, this ' Declaration ' says, it is ' believed ' it 
 has a tendency to promote the formation of habits of 
 intemperance. It seems singular, but I believe it to be 
 true, and it is a great sorrow to me now to think of, that 
 for twenty years I made many families unhappy. I believe 
 I have made many drunkards, not knowingly, not pur- 
 posely, but I recommended them to drink. It makes my 
 heart ache, even now, to see the mischief that I have made 
 in years gone by, mischief never to he remedied by any act of 
 mine. But in this respect at least I do not sin now, and 
 have not done so for the last ten years. I do not take 
 intoxicating drink myself, and I do not have it in my 
 house, and I do not give it to anybody else." 
 
 Dr. J. J. Ritchie, of Leek, said (in the same meeting), Dr. j. j. 
 " In my practice I have given no stimulants in fever for '^'^ "^' 
 years. I have never, so far as I remember, for ten or 
 twelve years, lost a single patient from typhoid fever, and 
 never given a single drop of stimulant therein." 
 
 The venerable Dr. Jno. Higginbottom, of N"ottingham, Dr. Higgin- 
 in a letter to the Times, dated January 12, 1872, referring ^°t*o™- 
 to this Declaration, said — 
 
 " I was educated in the opinion that alcohol was abso- 
 lutely necessary in the treatment of disease, and for the 
 first twenty years of my practice I gave it to my patients, 
 but for the last forty I have discontinued it altogether, not 
 having once prescribed it as a medicine. As early as 1813 
 I discontinued port wine in typhus fever (the term typhoid 
 was not come into use as a distinction at that early 
 pei-iod) , afterwards in English cholera, uterine heemorrhage, 
 delirium tremens, and in cases of exhaustion and sinking. 
 In the year 1827 I had lost all confidence in alcohol as a 
 medicine, from a conviction of its inefficiency, and also 
 from its very dangerous qualities. It is not necessary to 
 enter into the details of my practice, as I have given them 
 to my medical brethren in the Lancet and British Medical 
 Journal. In August, 1862, I had a paper read before the 
 British Medical Association, in London, on the non-alcoholic 
 treatment of disease. 
 
 " The result of my non-alcoholic treatment is, that 
 acute disease is much more readily cured, and chronic 
 disease more manageable. I have not known of any
 
 10<l THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 patients having been injured by my disuse of alcohol. It 
 is equally successful in surgical as in medical practice. 
 No person can form any idea of the superiority of the 
 practice of medicine and surgery when alcohol is removed 
 from it. It is the complete emancipation from the slavery 
 of alcohol, and the practitioner has a freedom he never 
 before experienced." 
 
 The important initiative, energizing, and effectuating 
 part taken by Mr. Robert Rae in getting this Declaration 
 before the public is eloquently testified to in the address * 
 
 * " To Kobert Rae, Esq., Secretary to the National Temperance 
 League. 
 
 " Dear Sir, — With feelings of very great pleasure we welcome you, 
 in the name of the Council of the British Medical Temperance Associa- 
 tion, on your return to the shores of old England. 
 
 " We do this all the more heartily and appropriately because you 
 have always taken such a deep interest in the medical aspect of the 
 great temperance reform, and because, by yoiu' intelligent efforts, 
 the medical profession has been largely influenced in favour of total 
 abstinence. 
 
 " It was at your initiative that the important medical Declaration 
 of 1871 was set on foot, and chiefly through your tact and perse- 
 verance that it was carried to a successful issue. From that time we 
 may date a new departure in the medical treatment of the question, 
 by which it received a mighty impetus. 
 
 "The very useful and encouraging series of breakfast meetings 
 given annually to the members of the British Medical Association 
 bear testimony to your untiring eSbrts and organizing skill. 
 
 " By your energy those great meetings held in the large hall 
 above, and addressed by medical men, were caiTied to a successful 
 issue, and exercised a mai-ked convincing, converting, and confirm- 
 ing influence. 
 
 " To you we are indebted for the establishment and able conduct 
 of the valued Medical Temperance Journal; and, lastly, our Associa- 
 tion itself is under a deep debt of gratitude to you for your kind 
 co-operation from the period of its origin to the present time. 
 
 " ' There are good works that are evident,' and such are your 
 labours in the temperance cause. We rejoice to see you again among 
 us, refreshed in body and mind, and trust that you may be spared to 
 see more abundantly the certain fruit of all your efforts to dispel the 
 pernicious ignorance respecting the action and tendency of alcohol 
 still so prevalent among all classes of society. 
 (Signed) " Benjamin Ward Richardson, M.D., LL.D., P.R.S., 
 
 " President. 
 " John James Ridge, M.D., B.S., B.A., B.Sc.Lond., 
 
 "Hon. Sec. 
 " Lower Room, Exeter Hall, 
 20th October, 1881."
 
 THERAPEUTICS; OE, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 197 
 
 which was presented to him by the Medical Temperance 
 Association — convened in Exeter Hall (October, 1881) — in 
 grateful acknowledgment of his vital and continual sei'vices 
 in tempei'ance refoi^m. 
 
 § 56. The publication of the third British medical 
 Declaration was the initiative of a marked departure in 
 raedical practice. 
 
 Dr. Charles Hare, president of the Metropolitan Branch Dr. Charles 
 of the British Medical Association, in an article in the ^^^il "^ ^ ^ 
 
 line in 
 
 British Medical Journal (July 28, 1883) states — licoirias 
 
 " I well remember the time (twenty to twenty-five medicine! 
 years ago) when alcohol-giving was so rampant that it 
 was difficult to see a patient who had been a few hours in 
 the hospital before the time of one's visit, who had not 
 already been put, almost as a matter of course, by the 
 physicians or clinical assistant, on three or foui' ounces of 
 brandy, or on double that amount of wine ; and because 
 I would not give way to that alcohol-craze, and ventured 
 to show that many serious diseases might be cured with 
 the administration of little or no alcohol, I was considered 
 (I well remember) the most unorthodox of teachers, if not 
 something worse than that. Rapid was the increase in 
 the use of alcohol between the years 1852 and 1862, and 
 indeed, in many cases, up to the year 1872 ; and you 
 cannot fail to trace therein the great influence of the 
 teachings and wi^itings of Dr. Todd, and especially of his 
 views on the Treatment of Acute Diseases. Thanks to the 
 careful, prudent, and honest energy of Dr. Parkes,* a 
 change of practice occurred, the consumption of alcohol 
 diminished so much as to show in 1882 a most remarkable 
 reduction in the cost of wine and spirits in all the hospitals 
 (except St. George's) from which I have received returns. 
 
 * The verdict of Dr. Parkes on the nse of alcohol as a medicine is 
 too thorough and conclusive not to be included here also : — 
 
 " If spirits neither give strength to the body nor sustain it against 
 disease — are not protective against cold and wet, and aggravate 
 rather than mitigate the effects of heat — if their use, even in modera- 
 tion, increases crime, injures discipline, and impairs hope and cheer- 
 fulness ; if the severest trials of war have been not merely borne, but 
 easily bome, most easily borne without them ; if there is no evidence 
 that they are protective against malaria or other diseases, then I 
 conceive the medical officer will not be justified in sanctioning their 
 issue under any circumstances."
 
 198 
 
 THE FOUNDATIOX OF DEATH. 
 
 Former and 
 present 
 opinions on 
 the use of 
 alcobol as a 
 medicine. 
 
 Tims (wittout making coiTections for the somewhat in- 
 creasing number of beds), the cost of wine and spirits 
 consumed every tenth year, from 1852 to 1882, at Guy's, 
 was £496, £1231, £1446, and £953 ; at Middlesex, £215, 
 £550, £413, and £353 ; at Westminster, £208, £432, £367, 
 and £137. 
 
 " On the other hand, the use of milk has most rapidly 
 increased in every hospital without exception, and has 
 replaced — I believe greatly to the advantage of the 
 patients — the alcohol in the treatment of disease. The 
 quantity consumed in 1852 at St. Bartholomew's cost 
 £684, and in 1882, £2012; at Guy's, £236 and £1488 
 respectively; at the London Hospital, £426 and £2427; 
 and so on." 
 
 § 57. But although alcohol has thus rapidly lost ground, 
 and many physicians of repute have dispensed with it 
 altogether, it is still considered and used as a great 
 therapeutic agent. Even those who use it most, however, 
 feel called upon to give reasons for their faith ; they must 
 tell how, when, and why they employ it. Formerly 
 alcoholic prescriptions constituted an important and com- 
 plicated chapter in therapeutics, owing to both professional 
 and public ignorance of the nature of alcohol, together 
 with the acceptability of the medicine to the patient, and 
 the convenience of the prescription to the physician. Then 
 it was considered to be of the utmost importance what 
 kind of wine, spirits, or malt liquors were prescribed, a pre- 
 caution now seen to have been largely based on ignorauce. 
 Investigation has proved that in all alcoholic liquors the 
 alcoholic ingredient is essentially the same, \'iz., ethyl- 
 alcohol. The other ingredients, such as various acids and 
 salts, odoriferous and flavouring ethers in minute quanti- 
 ties, and small portions of undecomposed albuminous 
 particles, are not the ingredients for which alcoholic drinks 
 are prescribed. If these are wanted, chemistry can furnish 
 them without the alcohol ; moreover, they exist in alcoholic 
 drinks in a proportion so minute, that excepting for a small 
 acceleration or retardation of digestion — largely dependent 
 upon the proportion of salts — medical science has not found 
 any exact therapeutic differences in their uses. But, 
 allowing that the most distinct differences had been proved 
 to exist, owing to the variety of liquors used, it still
 
 THERAPEUTICS; OR, ALCOHOL AS A IVIEDICINE. 199 
 
 remains an incontestable fact that, even thoiigli mysterious 
 seeds of health inhered in special liquor prescriptions, the 
 ripened science of liquor adulteration and its universal 
 practice make it absolutely impossible for a physician to 
 safely prescribe wines or spirits, or malt liquors, unless he 
 can personally supply the same, after having first ascer- 
 tained that they contain exactly what is required. 
 
 Hence, any medical man who, in prescribing alcohol, 
 does not prescribe it as alcohol, i.e., so many drops, dr'achms, 
 or ounces to so much water, is a quack. He orders a 
 thing of which he cannot prescribe the effects.* 
 
 While considering this point of alcoholic prescription it Some points 
 is proper to state that it is the physician's duty when pre- akohoUc^ 
 scribing alcohol, just as much as when prescribing any prescriptions 
 other " powerful drug," to use scientific language in the preparations, 
 prescription ; to disguise the taste of it in a compound pre- 
 paration, and to label it as what, it is — -poison. It seems 
 also proper to mention in this connection that ethyl-alcohol, 
 though a most excellpnt chemical solvent, can, in most cases, 
 be replaced by glycerine, or if ethyl-alcohol must be used, it 
 can be sufficiently disguised — without hurting its solving 
 powers — to prevent its being tempting.f 
 
 Therapeutically, J alcohol is prescribed for both external Thepnncipai 
 
 therapeutic 
 
 * As a rale, medical men know no more of the valae of wine as a uses of 
 medicinal agent than anybody else. ... A glass of sherry is their alcohol, 
 universal panacea for want of tone in the system ; but sherry may 
 mean anything but the thing it is really called. — The Times, Sept., 
 1865. 
 
 t Even granting all that its most enthusiastic defenders claim for 
 alcohol as a medicine, and even if the use of alcohol were confined to 
 the prescription of the physician, the medical profession are surely 
 justified in discontinuing its use on the ground of its proven dangerous 
 power to become master of body and mind. 
 
 As it is — when, instead of being confined to the doctor's dose, the 
 habit of alcoholic drink is a tmiversal one, and when doctors them, 
 selves are deprecating its use, and lamenting over its feai'ful results, 
 its medical defenders can hardly escape the imputation of mere 
 pecuniary self-interest ; knowing as they do that alcoholic drinks 
 have produced innumerable drunkards. 
 
 X A German work on Therapeutics (Hamburg, 1883), by the well- 
 known Dr. Harnack, furnishes a discriminating scheme for the use of 
 alcohol as a medicine, which is accepted by a large and eminent 
 portion of German physicians. 
 
 The digest of his scheme is as follows : —
 
 lant 
 
 200 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 and Internal use. Externally, principally as a caustic, its 
 use is, of course, less injurious. It has been found a most 
 efficient means of destroyiuj^ vermin in the hair, to be a 
 good lotion for irritable ulcers, and to have a cooling 
 effect when applied immediately to wounds made by ampu- 
 tation. 
 
 Internally it is used in manifold ways : — 
 
 1. As a stimulant. 
 
 2. As a narcotic. 
 
 3. As an antispasmodic. 
 
 4. As an antiseptic and antipyretic. 
 As a stimu- That alcohol never is a stimulant, was clearly shown in 
 
 chapter v., and therefore, when used as a stimulant, it 
 must of course be wrongly used. 
 
 It is a narcotic, and, like most narcotics, when taken in 
 small doses, it is a pseudo- stimulant. The system dislikes 
 and resists being put in chains, as much as a man would do ; 
 if the chains are too heavy, as in the case of a large dose of 
 narcotics, the system must temporarily submit, the struggle 
 being useless ; but when the fetters are comparatively 
 light, it at once musters its reserve forces to throw them 
 oif . And this activity, together with the feelings of relief 
 (the nerves having been dulled in the very attack), are 
 
 1. Calefacientia (heat-makers), or means for transforming living 
 force into heat ; or economization of the heat ah-eady generated. 
 Among these he counts tiu-pentines, camphors, ammonia, etc., but 
 not alcohol. 
 
 2. Antipyretica (fever-allayers). — Among which quinine, veratrin, 
 carbonic acid, and alcohol. 
 
 3. Excifantia (nerve-irritants). — Here we find alcohol fii'st in the 
 list, then camphors, ethers, oils, etc. 
 
 4. Intoxicants. — Ethers and alcohols. 
 
 5. Anoesthetica (temporary nerve-benumbers) . — Chloroform, ether, 
 but not alcohol. 
 
 6. Hijpnotica (sleep-givers). — Opium, morphia, herba, cannabis, 
 not alcohol. 
 
 7. Anodynes (pain-soothers). — Opium, morphia, chloral, not 
 alcohol. 
 
 8. Sedatives (nerve-quieters) . — Opium, chloral, not alcohol. 
 
 9. Tefanica (motor-stimulants).- — Strychnia, not alcohol. 
 
 10. Tonics (strength-givers). — Quinine, iron, strychnia, not alcohol. 
 
 11. Anti-Spasmodics (cramp-quellcrs). — Chloral, chloroform, 
 morphia, opium, belladonna, hyoscyamus, etc., not alcohol. 
 
 Thus he limits alcohol as a medicine to its uses in allaying fevers, 
 and as a nerve-irritant and intoxicant.
 
 THERAPEUTICS; OR, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 201 
 
 misunderstood, are supposed to be benefits, when in reality 
 thej are signs of paralysis, and the results of the system's 
 struggle to defeat its foe. 
 
 In cases where an artificial stimulant is useful, Dr. 
 Symes Thompson recommends the following prescription : — 
 "Quassia chips, a quarter of an ounce; cold water, a pint. 
 After standing for half an hour, strain ; the infusion is 
 then ready for use, and may be taken, a wineglassful at a 
 time, alone, or mixed with a teaspoouful or two of ' malt 
 extract.' " 
 
 Considered in its true character, as a narcotic, the As a 
 power of alcohol to deaden pain * is unquestionable. In 
 colic, for instance, a draught of hot water with alcohol no 
 doubt relieves the pain, but it accomplishes this by 
 deadening the nerves. It provokes a more copious flow of 
 the gastric juice, with the immediate effect of facilitating 
 the interrupted digestion. Still, we have even Drs. Todd 
 and Bowman's word, in their Physiological Anatomy (vol. ii. 
 p. 210), that alcohol '''' retards digestion by coagulating the 
 pepsine, and thus interfering loith its actionj^ so that the 
 supposed good is largely neutralized. 
 
 If the hot water, instead of being mixed with alcohol, 
 is flavoured with peppermint, ginger, etc., the water will 
 dilute the irritating contents of the stomach ; the heat of 
 the draught will soothe the irritated nerves, and the ginger, 
 peppermint, and other carminatives will aid the muscular 
 wall of the intestines to expel the gas and irritating 
 contents. 
 
 If this does not suffice, an emetic to free the stomach 
 from irritating ingesta, a purgative to clear the intestines 
 of crude or irritating substances, and a corrective, such as 
 simple chalk mixture, to neutralize soured and fermenting 
 foods, will effectually assist Nature without injuring her. 
 
 In obstetric cases, dosing with alcohol is often resorted 
 to for lessening the suffering with which child-birth is 
 attended ; and upon the field of battle, when chloroform 
 or ether are not at hand, a large dose of alcohol may 
 
 * The question whether there is not a conversion of the expression 
 of wrong, from that of pain into something of corresponding harm- 
 fulness to the system (though not in the same way observable), as 
 there is in the conversion of the natural forces of motion into heat, 
 etc., may not be unworthy of the consideration of scientists.
 
 202 , THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 prove an efficient ansestlietic for a patient during an 
 amputation . 
 
 As a narcotic alcohol is an arrester of vital action, and 
 
 primarily of nerve sensibility ; and tliis effect can certainly 
 
 be obtained by means of etber, chloroform, opium, and 
 
 other well-known drugs. 
 
 As an anti- As an antispasmodic, alcohol may, because of its narcotic 
 
 spasmodic, action, be at times found useful when other means are not 
 
 at hand. 
 Dr. Edmunds In AlcoJiol as a Medicine (Manchester, 1867), Dr. James 
 onthispoint. Bdmunds says, "In the case of a child cutting its teeth, 
 there is a nervous irritation which throws the whole body 
 out of gear, and the respiratory muscles become locked, as 
 it were, by the violence of the spasm of an attack of con- 
 vulsions. Here the patient may be killed by momentary 
 suffocation, through the very energy with which certain 
 parts of the body act, just as a machine may become 
 ' locked,' and in order to put it right you have to turn the 
 steam off. Under such circumstances alcohol sometimes 
 proves useful as a paralyzer and blunter of those extreme 
 sensibilities which evoke convulsive attacks." 
 
 In cases of emergency, such as laryngismus (spasmodic 
 croup) or convulsions, a small dose of spirit may be used 
 with good effect ; but such cases are exceptional, and should 
 be in the charge of skilled physicians. Certainly in all 
 ordinary cases of " spasm," " flatulency," etc., the di^aught 
 of hot water flavoui'ed with ginger, peppermint, etc., or, at 
 times, with a teaspoonful of sal-volatile, is a safer and 
 better remedy. 
 As an anti- The use of alcohol internally as an antiseptic and 
 
 ^'ni\^ reUc ctntipi/retic has been its best and longest defended strong- 
 hold, garrisoned still by discriminating physicians. 
 
 I will treat of these two uses in connection, as they are 
 often combined. 
 
 As we saw in chapter v., alcohol has the general 
 effect on the system of congesting the blood in the utter- 
 most capillaries, whose contractive powers it paralyzes. 
 The blood, charged with alcohol, goes to and remains 
 especially in that vast area of minute blood-vessels which 
 penetrate the most delicate parts of the organism, the very 
 parts most endangered by the ravages of exhausting fevers, 
 and as alcohol is so powerful an antiseptic, it has been
 
 THERAPEUTICS; OR, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 203 
 
 deemed a most useful agent in arresting the waste of 
 fevers. 
 
 Even vyere it so, it must not be forgotten that in this very- 
 antiseptic process, i.e., in the tendency of the albumen to 
 coagulate and the retarding of the transformation of the 
 hydro-carbons, alcohol does a vast amount of harm ; it 
 impoverishes and degenerates the blood by depleting the 
 blood-corpiiscles and by occupying, poisoning, and wasting 
 the water in the blood and tissues ; the degree of h.arm 
 done, as well as the extent of tissue-preservation, being 
 equally dependent upon the quantity and the degree of 
 saturation of the alcohol used. 
 
 And in addition to all this is the extra labour de- 
 manded of the entire machinery of the body in order to 
 expel alcohol and minimize the injuries done by it. Then 
 there is always the danger that the use of alcohol as a 
 medicine will lead to the evil habit of using it as a 
 beverage. 
 
 In the measure that alcohol preserves sick tissues 
 fi'om dangerously rapid waste, must it check the natural 
 processes of nutrition, and at the same time compel the 
 whole system to muster its last forces to cope, not with 
 its disease, but with its arch-foe alcohol. 
 
 Dr. Solomon C. Smith, in a paper upon Antiseptic In- Dr. s. c. 
 halations (British Medical Journal, February 23, 1884), says fh^'compara- 
 of antiseptics, " The term antiseptic, in fact, presupposes the "'^'^ worth- 
 existence of some such septic processes as we now know to aBtiseptics. 
 be caused by bacterial growth. It has long been thought 
 possible, by inhalations of creasote, to limit decomposition in 
 the expectoration ; but, now that the investigations of manj 
 observers have shown the constant presence of certain 
 bacteria in phthisical disease, the hope is that not only may 
 antiseptic inhalations control septic processes in dead 
 secretions, but that they may be destructive to those 
 micro-organisms which are at the root of tubercular disease 
 in living structures. To kill bacteria is one thing, to kill 
 germs is quite another. It has been proved that they can 
 stand a short boiling, that they can be floated in air- 
 bubbles through strong vitriol, that they can be washed 
 with carbolic solution of any strength short of five per 
 cent., without being killed, or losing their power of self- 
 multiplication. Is it likely, then, that any vapour which
 
 204 THE FOUXDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 could possibly be mbaled would be capable of destroying 
 organisms wbich are so retentive of their vitality ? I 
 think it is quite obvious that all evidence shows that it is 
 impossible, either to keep germs out of the body, or by 
 antiseptics to- kill them. What else, then, can inhalations 
 do ? " 
 
 Notwithstanding earnest protests against the use of 
 
 alcohol in typhus and in typhoid fevers, it has been a 
 
 general practice. Now that it begins to look as if alcohol 
 
 should be routed even from this stronghold, a glance at 
 
 some of the landmarks in this struggle is interesting. 
 
 The Rev. Dr. The Rev. Dr. Hancock, of London, in his Febrifugum 
 
 water°-trear- ^^f^gmim (1720), exalts the use of water in fevers, and his 
 
 ment in ideas are further elaborated by Dr. Robert Jackson, in his 
 
 Exposition of the Practice of A fusing Cold Water on the 
 
 Surface of the Body, as a Remedy for the Cure of Fever 
 
 (Edinburgh, 1808). 
 
 Dr. Billing Dr. Billing, who introduced clinical lectures, spoke 
 
 treatment in ^^J^oiigly to the point in his First Principles (1839), in these 
 
 typhus fever. WOrds : 
 
 " In typhus we should avoid stiviidants as much as 
 possible, inasmuch as the nervous centres being in a state 
 of congestion, neither they nor other organs have their 
 POWER increased bt THEM ; whcrcas hj indirect (sedative) 
 practice, we relieve the organs, and give them an opportunity 
 of recovering themselves. 
 
 " One thing necessary to the recovery of the nervous 
 system is artenal blood : to produce this of a good quality, 
 digestion and free respiration [food and fi'esh air] are 
 requisite. It is useless to supply other than fluid nutri- 
 ment. I have found milk the best — until some renewal of 
 the nervous energy takes place. The restoration will not 
 be expedited by stimulants. Experience teaches that 
 stimulation, except during inanition, only oppresses." 
 Dr. Thomas And Dr. Thomas Beaumont, of Bradford, said, in a 
 
 t^hTrmf ""^ paper read before the Royal Medical Society of Edinburgh 
 (April 7, 1843)— . 
 
 " In my own experience, which has extended over 
 nearly thirty years, I have almost invariably rejected the 
 use of wine in the treatment of fever ; for early in my 
 professional life I was engaged in a close attendance of 
 some months on a class of patients, most of whom could
 
 THERAPEUTICS; OR, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 205 
 
 Bot afford to procure wine, in the populous village of 
 Guiseley, where typhus ranged from the ordinary form of 
 continued fever, down to the worst kind of typlius gravior. 
 The number of cases, and the severity of the symptoms, 
 were truly frightful. I made ' a virtue of necessity,' and, 
 contrary to my professional prejudices, proceeded in almost 
 every case without a drop of wine. The result proved 
 most propitious, the rate of mortality being loiver than I 
 ever re^nember in an equal number of cases. From that 
 period I have regarded the use of stimulants in fever, and 
 especially of alcoholic stimulants, with considerable dis- 
 trust. If, indeed, the effect of alcohol be to carbonize the 
 blood — and of this there can be no reasonable doubt— then 
 its influence must be analogous to that of fever itself. The 
 truth is, alcohol is a treacherous stimulant, and though it 
 may rouse the depressed powers for a time, is invariably 
 followed by a corresponding collapse." 
 
 In the discussions which have recently taken place 
 before the Medical Society of London, upon the cold-bath 
 treatment in typhoid fever, the general character of the 
 evidence given against antipyretic treatment with di'ugs, 
 and especially alcohol, was conclusive. Dr. William Cayley Dr. Cayiey 
 furnished some remarkable data, stating that " during of cow™atii^ 
 seven years (1868-1874) the rate of mortality in the treatment 
 Prussian army from typhoid fever was fifteen per cent. — fever in 
 an extremely favourable rate, which spoke much for the an^r^nce 
 efficiency of the medical department. The antipyretic 
 treatment, chiefly in the foi-m of cold bathing, was then 
 introduced, and duiing the next seven years (1875—1881) 
 the rate was 9" 7 per cent. Here a comparison of exactly 
 similar instances was made. The men in the two cases 
 were of the same age, of the same social position, fed in 
 the same manner, clothed in the same manner, lodged in 
 the same manner, and, in all respects, placed under the 
 same conditions ; the only difference being in the mode of 
 treatment. But, as Grerman statistics on this question 
 were perhaps regarded as suspect, an appeal might be 
 made to French authorities, and here Professor Jaccoud 
 might be cited ; and perhaps his authority would have 
 more weight with many, inasmuch as he was decidedly 
 opposed to Brandt's method, but without having given it 
 a fair trial. He stated, in the debate on this subject at
 
 206 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 the Academy of Medicine last year, that, after a careful 
 collection of more than eighty thousand cases, he found 
 that the average rate of mortality in typhoid fever in 
 France, under the old methods of treatment, was about 
 nineteen per cent. ; vrhereas, under the new method, it was 
 below eleven per cent. It was now necessary to inquire 
 what was this new method which had effected this great 
 reduction in the rate of mortality. Professor Jaccoud had 
 his patients sponged with cold vinegar and water, if neces- 
 sary, as many as ten times in the twenty -four hours, which 
 he termed giving them a seance; and also administered, 
 from time to time, large doses of qainine or of salicylate 
 of soda. Now, whether a patient was sponged ten times 
 a day with cold vinegar and water, or had an occasional 
 cold bath, was a question, not of principle, but of detail. 
 In either case, the same end — namely, the persistent 
 reduction of temperature — would be effected. It need 
 hardly be said that the antipyretic treatment was not 
 bound up with the system of cold bathing, or of any 
 particular method of reducing temperature. Cold bathing 
 was, perhaps, the most efficient mode, and the one most 
 generally applicable, and which, on the whole, caused 
 least annoyance to the patient; but a large number of 
 cases were not suitable for it, and for these other means 
 must be adopted. Dr. Cayley stated that, in his opinion, 
 keeping the temperature down by the abstraction of heat 
 gave much better results than the repeated administration 
 of large doses of the antipyretic drugs, as these powerful 
 remedies could not be given in these large and frequently 
 repeated doses without incurring the risk of seriously 
 disturbing important functions. In his opinion, therefore, 
 they should be regarded as adjuncts to the other anti- 
 pyretic methods, and not as substitutes." 
 r»T. A. T. It was shown that the totality of deaths when alcohol 
 
 thrgreat """^-S used was decidedly greater than when it was not. 
 mortality X)r. A. T. Myers stated that from a collection of reports 
 iev™rat^st?' in the Medical Register of St. George's Hospital during 
 Hos'^ltai *^® ^^^^ seven years {i.e., 1877-1883) it was found that in 
 (1877-1883) a series of 281 cases, all excepting 13 per cent, having 
 Xo?ioiic been treated exclusively by " expectancy and alcohol," 
 treatment, the number of deaths had been 69, that is, a death-rate of 
 24 per cent.
 
 THERAPEUTICS; OR, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 207 
 
 The British Medical Journal (March 1, 1884), in 
 summing up the outcome of these important discussions, 
 says — 
 
 " Dr. Coupland, in his elaborate and able paper, Summary of 
 rightly says that cold bathing is the only measure which Ireatnlent**'^ 
 has succeeded, and he might have said on several occa- discussious, 
 sions, in saving life threatened by hyperpyrexia, and no London 
 one would dispute its efficacy as a last resort in such g''^'?'^*^ . 
 urgent cases. But it is the employment of the bath to British 
 control the whole course of the fever that he discusses in j^^^l^i 
 his paper. The conclusion at which he annves is one in March i, 
 common with Brandt, Jiirgensen, Liebermeister, Cayley, 
 and others, that the mean mortality of London from enteric 
 fever treated all round is fifteen to eighteen per cent. ; while 
 the mortality from cases treated by the cold bath would 
 appear to be from ten to seven per cent. This is so 
 material a reduction that, if the facts are to be relied 
 upon — and we think they are sufficient for the pui'pose — it 
 should ensure for this treatment a much more extended 
 sphere of application than it has hitherto obtained. It is 
 admitted on all hands that the reduction of temperature 
 by bathing is more decided and more persistent than by 
 any other means ; but, at the same time, we cannot think 
 that the ingenuity of the mechanical mind has exhausted 
 itself in its present measure of applying cold to the surface 
 of the body. It would hardly be an insuperable difficulty 
 to apply continuous cold to the surface, either dry or 
 moist, equivalent to that of the bath ; and it is quite 
 possible that in the ice-pack and the water-bed, or some 
 modification of it, the advantages might be obtained with- 
 out the necessity of taking the patient fi'om his bed." * 
 
 It is a happy aiagury for the future that the founder 
 of a new school of medicine (the Dosimetric), Dr. Ad. 
 Burggraeve, in his Handbook of Dosimetric Therapeutics 
 
 * The Medical Times (March 8, 1884) half grudgingly admits that 
 the cold batli (sponging or wet pack) is superseding the dmg treat- 
 ment in Germany. It says, " The bath treatment of enteric fever, 
 which, if not absolutely originated, was at least brought into promi- 
 nent notice for the &rst time in Germany, has lately been the 
 subject of discussion at the Medical Society of Leipsic. No over- 
 whelming consensus of oijinion was brought to light as to the 
 universal value of the treatment, although its acceptance would 
 appear to be general."
 
 208 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 (Ghent, 1876), does not even mention alcohol. For 
 typhoid fever he prescribes Seidlitz salt, phosphoric acid, 
 aconite, veratrine, etc. " The body must frequently be 
 sponged," he says, " with cold water or solution of salicylic 
 acid. In cases of high pyrexia the cold bath may be 
 necessary." 
 
 Thus, in its very citadel, as a therapeutic agent, 
 alcohol is found to be very inferior in value to other and 
 innocent remedies. 
 History and § 58. A foundation for hoping that the use of alcohol, 
 
 th "1!''''d°n even as a medicine, will ultimately be abolished, was laid 
 Temperance ten years ago in the erection of the London Temperance 
 Hospital. Hospital. 
 
 The first steps toward the establishment of this institu- 
 tion may be said to have been caused by the success of 
 Dr.s.NicoUs' non-alcoholic treatment of disease by Dr. S. Nicolls, the 
 resuUsoV^' medical officer of the Longford Poor Law Union, during 
 non-alcoholic sixteen years (till 1865). 
 
 disease. In his " Report " for the year ending 29th September, 
 
 1865, he gives these figures : — 
 
 Fever Admitted 142 Eecovered 135 Died 7 
 
 Scarlatina „ 33 „ 30 „ 3 
 
 Small-pox „ 48 „ 47 „ 1 
 
 Measles „ 8 „ 8 „ 
 
 Cases 231 Eecoveries 220 Deaths 11 
 
 " The treatment is altogetJier without alcohol in any form; 
 and the success will be seen to be the more conclusive 
 when the particulars of the fatal cases are perused : — 
 
 " Of the deaths in the fever wards, one was a boy aged 
 ten years, whose fever became complicated with pneumonia, 
 of which he died; two were members of the constabulary 
 force from a neighbouring Union, conveyed considerable 
 distances (I consider the journey acted unfavourably) ; 
 four were women, one of whom was deserted by her 
 husband, leaving six helpless children with her ; one was 
 a wandering mendicant brought in fi'om the gripe of a 
 ditch in a hopeless condition ; another was an unfortunate, 
 whose constitution had been broken down by intemperance ; 
 the fourth was a young woman who was recovering from 
 scarlatina when she was attacked with typhus. Of the 
 other four deaths, one was a case of confluent purple-pock.
 
 THEKAPEUTICS ; OR, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 209 
 
 in a boy eight years old ; tliree were from scarlatina, 
 occurring with very delicate children, not two years old. 
 The fever was, I dare say, of as bad a character as in the 
 other parts of Ireland. In many instances entire families 
 were brought in in a very had condition. I still continue 
 the treatment which for sixteen years I have found so 
 successful." 
 
 In 1867 Dr. James Edmunds, senior physician at the The origin, 
 British Lying-in Hospital, London, proposed a similar and work of 
 experiment at that institution. It worked for one year }^^ London 
 
 • 1 1 r> 1 T 1 ii T 1 ^ lemperance 
 
 With results or a reduced death-rate among both mothers Hospital. 
 and live-born children. But opposition, chiefly by sub- 
 scribers interested in the liquor trade, became so great as 
 to render continuance of this effort impracticable. About 
 two years later, however, a meeting, consisting practically 
 of those who had been thus handicapped at the British 
 Lying-in Hospital, was held at the National Temperance 
 League Rooms, and a committee was formed to further 
 the establishment in London of a General Temperance 
 Hospital. A temporary hospital was begun at 112, Gower 
 Street, which had only sixteen beds, but such success was 
 the result, that a fine freehold site was subsequently taken 
 upon the Hampstead Road, and one block, containing 
 fifty-two beds, was erected. 
 
 An aged gentleman who has been deeply impressed 
 with the results of its work, and is anxious to see the 
 hospital completed before his death, has placed some 
 £10,000 at the disposal of the Board, and a second wing 
 is now being erected (April, 1884). These blocks will 
 raise the number of beds to about one hundred and twenty, 
 while a large outdoor department will be in operation. 
 The plan includes also a school and institute for temper- 
 ance nurses, and a full medical school for medical practi- 
 tioners, for which adjoining portions of land are obtainable. 
 
 The Board of Management in its last report, May, 
 1883, proved this experiment to have been a success. " At 
 the present time," says this report, " not only are men of 
 distinction ready to admit the value of the principle, with 
 few limitations, but the medical oSicers of various public 
 institutions are applying it more or less completely, and 
 with a success which insures its widening adoption. . . . 
 The practical conclusion points to such a generous support 
 
 p
 
 210 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 of the Temperance Hospital, and such completion of its 
 scheme, as will keep its work prominently before the 
 public eye, and will lend the weight of its experience and 
 authority to a more general exclusion of alcohol from the 
 medical treatment of the sick." 
 
 And the following summary* of the results of cases 
 treated from the beginning in 1873 up till the last of 
 April, 1883 (nine years and seven raonths) certainly com- 
 pares favotu'ably with the reports issued by hospitals 
 where alcohol is still used as a medicine. 
 
 In-patients. 
 
 Cured ... ... ... ... ... 953 
 
 Believed ... ... ... ... 683 
 
 Died ... ... ... ... ... 77 
 
 Under treatment (April 30th, 1883) ... ... 52 
 
 Total number admitted ... ... 1765 
 
 It thus appears that during the ten years the total 
 number of patients admitted to the beds of the hospital 
 was 1765. If we deduct from this number the 62 then 
 still under treatment in the hospital, there will be left 
 1713 completed cases. Among these the 77 deaths make 
 a mortality of rather less than 4"5 per cent. Foui' and a 
 half per cent, is an extremely low mortality. The cases 
 include successful operations of Caesarian section, ovari- 
 otomy, lithotomy, amputations of thigh, etc., removal of 
 large cancerous tumours, and all the ordinary medical and 
 surgical cases which come under treatment in a London 
 general hospital. Part of this success is due to the dis- 
 tinction of its medical staff, to the model character of the 
 hospital, and to the devoted ladies who superintend the 
 nursing. But a large part of the success is undoubtedly 
 due to the fact that alcohol is practically disused. The 
 
 * Owing to the courtesy of Mr. C. E. Dumbleton, house surgeon 
 at the London Temperance Hospital, I am able to subjoin a continua- 
 tion of this table, up to March 15, 188-± : — 
 
 Cured ... ... ... ... ... 1265 
 
 Believed ... ... ... ... ... 809 
 
 Died ... ... ... ... ... 105 
 
 Under treatment ... ... ... ... 51 
 
 Total number admitted ... ... 2230
 
 THERAPEUTICS; OR, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 211 
 
 visiting physicians and surgeons are in no way tied with 
 regard to the use of alcohol, if they deem it desirable to 
 use it as a medicine. It is only stipulated that in the 
 event of any such exceptional case, they fully report the 
 naatter to the Board. As a matter of fact, alcohol has only 
 been used in one or two experimental cases, during these 
 ten years, and in these cases without beneficial results. 
 As an article of food and as a pharmaceutical vehicle, the 
 use of alcohol is formally excluded from the hospital. 
 
 The following table, in extenso, of all the cases of 
 typhoid fever treated in the beds of the London Temper- 
 ance Hospital, up to December 31, 1883, is taken from the 
 Medical Temperance Journal (April, 1884). (It will be 
 seen that the total mortality is a little over eleven per 
 cent.)
 
 212 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH, 
 
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 Usual cour.se of symptoms. 
 
 Excellent recovery. 
 Severe case. Complicated 
 
 with broncbo-pneumonia. 
 In very critical state when 
 
 admitted. Temperature 
 
 104°. 
 Ordinary case. 
 
 Admitted in extremely pro- 
 strate state. Symptoms in- 
 dicative of severe typhoid. 
 Serious congestion of both 
 lungs. Severe intestinal 
 bitmorrbage. I'urulent 
 stools. Fourteen evacu- 
 ations during one night. 
 Recovery rapid and com- 
 plete. 
 
 Severe case. 
 
 Complicated with pneumonia. 
 
 Extreme prostration. Bowels 
 moved seventeen and 
 eighteen times a day. 
 Ilieraorrhage from boweLs. 
 Highe.'itteniperaturel04°'2. 
 Good recovery. 
 
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 THERAPEUTICS; OR, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 213 
 
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 214 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
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 Severe case. Patient phthisi- 
 cal. Highest temperature 
 105°-2. Recovery Blow but 
 complete. 
 
 Suffering from an ovarian 
 cyst. Profuse intestinal 
 ha'morrhage. 
 
 Ordinary case. Highest tem- 
 perature I05°-2. 
 
 Ordinary case. Highest tem- 
 perature 104°-4. 
 
 Ordinary case. Highest tem- 
 perature 105°. 
 
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 with pneumonia of right 
 lung. Highest tempera- 
 ture 106°. Active delirium. 
 
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 perature 104°-8. 
 
 Highest temperature 104°4. 
 About eleven evacuations 
 
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 Highest temperature 105°. 
 
 Relapsed case. Admitted in 
 prostrate condition. Higli- 
 est temperature 103'^'6. 
 Frequent evacuations. 
 
 An old drinker. Had cir- 
 rhosisof liver, of whioli she 
 died. After convalescence 
 from typhoid. (I'ost-nior- 
 tera examination niailc) 
 
 Relapsed case. Admitted in 
 a prostrate condition. 
 Patient exhil)itcd marked 
 physical signs of phtliisis, 
 *>"* made a good recovery. 
 
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 therapeutics; or, alcohol as a medicine. 215 
 
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 216 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Dr. It will be seen that the mortality of this long series of 
 
 Edmunds's cases is verv much less than usual. As to his own 
 
 statement J . 
 
 regarding methods of treatment, Dr. Eiclmunds wintes : — 
 
 onhenon-^'^ " 1. I have prescribed no alcohol, and I have a strong 
 
 alcoholic conviction that in typhoid fever, as a general rtde, alcohol 
 
 the London is not Only not necessary, but that it is actually injurious. 
 
 Temperance j^g effect, when given in large doses, of lowering the 
 
 temperature is obtained more safely and more easily by 
 
 tepid sponging, the wet pack, simple diaphoretics — such 
 
 as the acetate of ammonia, moderate doses of citrate of 
 
 potash. On the other hand, reduction of temperatui^e, 
 
 when obtained by the large doses of alcohol which are 
 
 necessary, is followed by increased distaste for food, less 
 
 perfect digestion, and greater intestinal suffering. The 
 
 use of alcohol, also, in my opinion, predisposes to the 
 
 occui'rence both of intestinal liEemorrhage and of that fatal 
 
 complication — perforation of the intestine. 
 
 "2. I never feed my patients ' solely with cold milk.' 
 I always use more or less of well-boiled gruel, made from 
 fine clean oatmeal ; and, generally, I use a mixture of two 
 parts of thin gruel and one part of fresh new milk ; the 
 milk being added direct to the gruel as soon as this is 
 completely cooked, and thus becoming scalded but not 
 boiled. 
 
 "3. In cases of haemorrhage from the intestine, I never 
 select lead, but always turpentine, in thirty-drop doses 
 given upon loaf sugar, or shaken up in milk, and repeated 
 eveiy few houi^s. 
 
 " 4. In troublesome dian'hoea I give opium only as an 
 exceptional remedy. Covering" the abdomen with a hot 
 wet flannel and waterproof covering seems to me to relieve 
 the pain and tenderness better than the administration of 
 opium. 
 
 " 5. I always prescribe some daily dose of fresh fruit, 
 such as grape-juice, or fresh lemon-juice in sweetened 
 barley-water as a di'ink to be taken at the patient's dis- 
 cretion. Some such fresh vegetable element is much 
 longed for by the fever patient, and can generally be so 
 administered as not to increase the diarrhoea. The 
 haemorrhage, which so frequently occurs in typhoid, I 
 believe to be often due to having overlooked this necessity 
 for fresh vegetable juices. In all long illnesses, if fresh
 
 THERAPEUTICS ; OR, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 217 
 
 vegetable juices are not regularly administered, there arises 
 a purpurous tendency which predisposes to irrepressible 
 haemorrhage, and to extension of vilcei'ation. 
 
 " No alcohol has been administered, either dietetically, 
 pharmaceutically, or medicinally, in any one of the cases 
 of typhoid fever admitted to the Temperance Hospital, and 
 my medical colleagues and myself are perfectly satisfied 
 with our results." * 
 
 § 59. A consideration of paramount importance in con- The effects 
 nection with the question of alcohol as a medicine, is that aicohoron" 
 of its effects on mothers and their offspi'ing dui'ing preg- mothers and 
 nancy and lactation. For England, indeed, it is a question spring a 
 of the gravest moment to her future independence. Owing- question of 
 
 T ■ n T p T cc /~i >x- «jii • paramount 
 
 chiefly to the fatal Grrocers Licences Act, there is more importance, 
 drinking among the women of England to-day than among 
 the women of any other civilized country. With the gi'owth 
 of this evil, in secret until its dimensions have stripped it 
 of secresy, there has grown up a notion fostering the evil, 
 and in turn fostered by it, that intoxicating liquors are 
 especially beneficial to women during pregnancy and lacta- 
 tion ; and I wish, therefore, in this chapter to draw par- 
 ticular attention to this part of the subject. 
 
 In chapter viii. it was pointed out that certain and 
 terrible consequences befel the children and children's 
 children of transgressing parents, and that the shocking 
 results of alcoholic heredity were doubly certain when the 
 mother was the drinker. 
 
 But as nothing can be of more importance than the 
 proper beginning of life, and as it is proven that nothing 
 artificial does it greater general harm than alcohol, I 
 quote here important medical testimony on this point 
 dating from the opening of the present century. 
 
 Dr. Thomas Trotter, in his Essay on Drunkenness -^ Thomas 
 (London, 1804), says, "Drink containing ardent spirits, Trotter on 
 such as ^ane, punch, caudle ale, porter, must impreg-nate ^ ^°"^ ' 
 the milk, and thus the digestive organs of the babe must 
 be quickly injured. These must suffer in proportion to 
 
 * " At a meeting of the Manchester and Salford Temperance 
 Union, Dr. Meacham said he was medical officer of health for the 
 largest district in England, and no fewer than 49,000 patients had 
 been under his care. For fourteen years he had not prescribed 
 alcohol." — Temperance Review, March 6, 1884.
 
 218 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 the delicacy of their texture, and the diseases which flow 
 from this source are certainly not uncommon ... it is 
 well known that nurses are in the practice of giving spirits 
 in the form of punch to young children to make them 
 sleep. . . . Such children are known to be dull, drowsy, 
 and stupid, bloated in the countenance, with eyes inflamed, 
 subject to sickness at stomach, costive and pot-bellied. 
 The body is often covered with eruptions, and slight 
 scratches are disposed to ulcerate." 
 Sir Anthony In 1814 Sir Authony Carlisle said, " Of all errors in 
 
 the same. ^^^ emplo}Tnent of fermented liquors, that of giving them. 
 to children seems to be fraught with the worst consequences. 
 The next in the order of mischief is theii" employment by 
 nurses, and which I suspect to be a common occasion of 
 dropsy of the brain in young infants. I doubt much 
 whether the future moral habits, the temper and intel- 
 lectual propensities, are not greatly influenced by the early 
 effects of fermented liquors upon the brain and sensorial 
 organs." 
 Dr. Roschon In The Abuse of Intoxicating Liquors (Tiibingen, 1839), 
 aic-^ohoi*° Dr. Rosch, after condemning the custom of giving wine 
 during to women in childbirth, says, " Many diseases of children 
 
 owe their origin to the mother's use of spirituous liquors 
 while nui'sing." 
 Dr. Grindrod Dr. Grindrod {Bacchus, London, 1839) says — 
 
 " Alcoholic liquors propel the organs of nutrition and 
 lactation to increased action, but it is an action unnatural 
 and injuinous in its effects. The organs employed in these 
 important functions are regulated by laws on the due 
 performance of which depends the fulfilment of Nature's 
 intentions. Thus, for example, nutritious food forms the 
 only natural stimulant for the healthy action of the 
 stomach, and is the sole fountain of pure blood. Pure 
 milk, which is essential to the health of the child, depends 
 upon proper digestion. If the functions of the stomach 
 act imperfectly, the secretion of milk must, as a necessary 
 consequence, be defective. Hence whatever dei'anges the 
 functions of the stomach interferes with the healthy 
 lactation. The influence of alcoholic liquors on lactation 
 may be considei-ed in several points of view. In the first 
 place they interfere with healthy digestion. In this way 
 the quality of the milk secreted becomes deterioiuted in 
 
 on the same.
 
 THERAPEUTICS; OR, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 219 
 
 exact proportion to the amoimt of injuiy inflicted on the 
 organs of nutrition. In the second place they influence 
 the quantity of the secretion. The vessels employed in 
 this function, urged on by an alien impulse, produce an 
 unusual and enlarged supply. It does not follow, however, 
 that an increase in the amount of secretion is attended 
 with a proportionate increase in the quantum of nutriment. 
 The contrary is often the case. Milk may be secreted in 
 large quantities ill calculated to supply the ends of nature. 
 Hence numbers of puny emaciated children, the offspring 
 of parents who indulge in strong drink." 
 
 In his lectures on Tlie Physiological Operation of Alcohol Dr. E. G. 
 (1862), Dr. E. G. Figg, in speaking- of the infant before f^fftf '^* 
 birth and during lactation, says, " No one conversant alcohol pro- 
 with the principle of foetal nutrition will feel disposed to pregnancy"^ 
 controvert the opinion that the placenta is not only a lung and lactation, 
 to the unbom infant, but a digestive system, performing 
 the duty of the latter, by assuming at once the ofiice of 
 the stomach, an excreting intestine, a mesenteric gland, 
 and an assimilative organ. Independently of imparting 
 oxygen to the foetal blood in minute quantities, not 
 adequate to its perfect arterialization, and taking up 
 sustenance for it, the placenta removes impurities returned 
 from the foetal body ; not as the stomach does in the un- 
 digested material, nor as chyle, like the thoracic duct, 
 but in the maturely elaborated substance, transferred by 
 exosmose in a manner incomprehensible, inasmuch as the 
 membranous parieties of the placental cells appear to the 
 microscope impermeable to matter in a form so gi'oss as 
 atoms of fibrine. 
 
 " Whatever doubt may exist as to the modus operandi, 
 there is none whatever as to the fact ; of which any one 
 may convince himself bj examination of the surface of 
 every third or foui'th placenta delivered, which will be 
 found coated with ossific deposits of carbonate and phos- 
 phate of lime, which substances being in the foetal depart- 
 ment of that organ, could have reached it only thi'ough 
 the maternal cell-walls. The cows in the cotton districts 
 of England, when fed on the refuse of madder and other 
 vegetable dye stuffs, invariably stain the bones of the calf 
 ante partum. Experience, however, does not favour the 
 idea that the placenta exercises a selective discretion in
 
 220 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 appropriating that whicli may be ultimately available in 
 the infant frame, for the placenta receives and circulates 
 any poison or virus that may be presented in the maternal 
 system. An infant in utero is often affected with variola, 
 contemporaneously or immediately consecutive to the 
 coui'se of the disease in the mother. I have attended 
 a patient in Asiatic cholera, and a week later delivered 
 her of a dead foetus, in which the characteristic slate 
 colour infallibly indicated the cause of dissolution. 
 
 " These facts, even in a theoretical aspect, are quite 
 sufficient to establish the rationality of the proposition 
 that the alcohol swallowed by the pregnant mother must 
 act injui'iously on the child, not merely indirectly, by 
 rendering the material transfeiTed thi-ough the placenta 
 unfit for incorporation with the foetal tissues, but directly, 
 by affecting the nervous system of the foetus, just as it 
 does that of the mother. 
 
 " I may, in addition, appeal to the stethoscopic exami- 
 nation of two pregnant women. Dui-ing the progi'ess of 
 intoxication, though of course not synchronous, I found 
 that whenever the mother's pulse was excited, so was the 
 infant's heart. When the pulse of the parent, in a 
 more advanced stage, became full and round, the beat 
 of the heart in the child assumed a similar character ; 
 and when feeble and compressible in collapse, the heart 
 of the foetus was scarcely audible. What inference could 
 be di'awn from the cii'cumstances, but that when the 
 mother got drunk, the child got drunk ; when the mother 
 became insensible, the child became insensible ; and 
 when the mother was collapsed, the child was so also ? 
 Every midwife is acquainted with the effect produced 
 on the majority of healthy fceti, if the cold hand be 
 suddenly placed over the maternal hypogastric region. 
 The infant, influenced by a kind of instinctive con- 
 sciousness, springs from its position, imparting a sensible 
 impulse to the practitioner's hand through the uterine 
 parieties and intervening muscles, thus yielding as good 
 a test of the viable condition of the child as the stethoscope 
 could give. In one of the women I never could excite 
 these movements duinng her di'inking fits, though in the 
 other eminently present in the incipient stage of intoxica- 
 tion, but not producible after. I attended another, who
 
 THERAPEUTICS ; OR, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICIXE. 221 
 
 dated the death of her infant from an act of excess. The 
 child never moved subsequently to her intoxication, and 
 the premonitory symptoms of labour occun'cd in eight 
 days. 
 
 " In nursing mothers we have the same routine of mani- 
 festations, with a very slight vai-iation in the preliminary 
 circumstances. The breast here supersedes the placenta 
 as the paramount organ in Nature's regards. The nutritious 
 extracts fi'om the food replenish in the first instance this 
 repository of the infant's support, the maternal economy 
 (at this crisis a less important consideration) receiving 
 only the surplus contributions fi^om the digestive system. 
 So thoroughly insufficient is the mother's alcoholized 
 system for the double task of maintaining herself and 
 progeny, that we are waiTanted in placing the prosperity 
 of the infant in juxtaposition with that of the parent. If 
 the child becomes robust the mother becomes emaciated ; 
 vice versa, a robust, plethoric mother almost always insures 
 a cadaverous, debilitated infant. In asserting that the 
 essence of the food passes at once to the breast, without 
 adoption by the maternal tissues, I advance a theory con- 
 sistent with all analogy. If a cow be fed on tui-nips, she 
 imparts the peculiar odour of that vegetable to her milk. 
 The action of a drastic j)urgative taken by the mother is 
 established in the infant at the breast. Thi'ough the 
 same medium the dysentery in the mother is transfen^ed 
 to her child, commencing in aphtJious ulceration of the 
 mouth, extending by continuity thi^ough the whole in- 
 testinal canal, and resulting in the characteristic dis- 
 charges. So I have seen the disease aiTested in both by 
 the astringent principle of the opiates administered to 
 the parent, acting simultaneously and keeping the infant 
 in a somnolent condition. In this country, among the 
 lower classes, a glass of spirit tahen by the 'mother is a 
 popular and often effectual remedy for the tormina (gi'ipes, 
 colic) of an infant. We can guess at the quantity which 
 finds its way to the breasts by the effect. If the child be 
 fed fi'om a cup, a large teaspoonful of spii'it is often added 
 to a single meal, even when the recipient is not more than 
 a week old, that quantity being barely sufficient for the 
 purpose. This fact affords at least an approximate 
 standard for calculatipn as to the proportion of alcohol
 
 222 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 in each glass of spirit wliicli reached the infant after con- 
 sumption by the mother; and is, therefore, an excellent 
 rule for ascertaining the quantity passed through the 
 infant's system when the mother is habitually dissipated, 
 or perhaps erroneously attempts to relieve the mental 
 depression or corporeal exhaustion incidental to lactation 
 by an occasional glass. My acknowledgments are due to 
 Dr. Mackenzie, for his kindness in analyzing to the best 
 of his ability two specimens of milk sent by me for that 
 pui'pose, which were obtained fi'om nui\sing mothers, of 
 nearly the same age, of the same social i-ank, and three 
 months after parttu'ition. One was a temperate woman 
 in robust health, and substantially fed, whose milk con- 
 stituted the only sustenance of her cliild. The other was 
 an emaciated di-inker whose infant presented a miniatui-e 
 of herself. 
 
 Milk of temperate mother. Milk of drinking mother. 
 Salts 8-50 Salts 5-50 
 
 Casein ... ... 30 Casein 
 
 Oil 7-50 Oil 
 
 Water 81-0 Water 
 
 Alcohol 
 
 20 
 
 6-5 
 
 840 
 
 20 
 
 1000 1000 
 
 Dr. E.Smith ^ ^^s Practical Dietary (London, 1865), Dr. Edward 
 on the use Smith gives like testimony in these words: "Alcohols 
 during lacta- are largely used by many persons in the belief that they 
 tion. support the system and maintain the supply of milk for 
 
 the infant ; but I am convinced that this is a serioii^s error, 
 and is not an unfreqxLent cause of fits and emaciation in the 
 child." 
 Dr. James In his paper on Alcoholic Drinlis as an Article of Diet 
 
 ^"diet'^for" f^^ Nursing Mothers (Medical Temperance Journal, July, 
 nursing 1870), Dr. Edmunds, then senior physician to the British 
 mot era. Lying-in Hospital, thus puts this matter : — " The masti- 
 cation, digestion, and primaiy assimilation of the sucking 
 infant's food is thrown upon the mother's organs ; but 
 the tissues of the child are nourished precisely as are the 
 tissues of the mother, and a nursing mother requires 
 simply to digest a larger supply of wholesome and 
 appropriate food. As a matter of course mothers with 
 imperfect teeth or weak stomachs cannot perform the
 
 THERAPEUTICS; OR, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 223 
 
 digestion of extra food for tlie infant so well as those 
 mothers who have an abundance of reserve power in their 
 digestive apparatus, and with such patients the question 
 arises, how are they to make up for the deficiency which 
 they soon experience in the supply of milk ? They should 
 assist their digestive apparatus as much as possible by 
 securing an abundance of suitable and nutritious food, 
 prepared in the best way and as is most digestible, while 
 they should lessen the demands of their own system by 
 the avoidance of bodily fatigue and mental excitement. 
 These means, aided by that philosophical hygiene which 
 is at all times essential to the preservation of pure and 
 perfect health, will enable them to supply a maximujn 
 quantity of pui^e and wholesome milk; further calls 
 by the child require proper artificial food. Unfortunately 
 such advice fails to satisfy many anxious mothers, who 
 refuse to admit or believe that they are less robust or less 
 capable than other ladies of their acquaintance, and such 
 mothers fall easy victims to circulars vaunting the nourish- 
 ing properties of ' Hoare's Stout,' ' Tanqueray's Gin,' 
 or Gilbey's ' strengthening Port,' cii'culars which are 
 always backed up by the example and advice of lady 
 friends, who themselves have acquired the habit of using 
 these liquors, and who view as a reproach to themselves 
 the practice of any other lady who may not keep them in 
 countenance as the perfection of all moral and physical 
 propriety. It is a matter of common observation that a 
 glass of spirit taken at bedtime by a nursing mother, not 
 merely increases the flow of milk during the night, but 
 causes the child to sleep heavily. Under these circum- 
 stances the spii'it acts, not as a purgative, nor as a diuretic, 
 nor as a diaphoretic, nor does much of it pass off by the 
 lungs, but it acts as a lactagogue, because the breasts are 
 then in a state of great activity, and form the readiest 
 channel through which the mother's system can eliminate 
 the alcohol. In order to effect that elimination the breasts 
 have to discharge a prof user quantity of milk; but the 
 increased quantity of milk is produced by a mere addition 
 of alcohol and water, or it is produced by impoverishing 
 and straining the system of the mother. In either case 
 the poisonous influence of the alcohol is manifested in 
 narcotizing the child, and it cannot need much reflection
 
 224 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 to show that claildren ought not to have alcohol filtered 
 into them as receptacles for matters which the mother's 
 system finds it necessary to eliminate. Probably nothing 
 could be worse than to have the very fabric of the child's 
 tissues laid down from alcoholized blood." 
 Dr. Edmunds Of the effects of beer-drinking, he says, ' I have 
 f'jithe special observed the following facts : — The mothers frequently 
 beer-drink- make flesh, and even become corpulent ; often, however, at 
 lactation ^ the Same time they get pale, and where they are not con- 
 stitutionally robust in fibre they become inactive, short- 
 breathed, coarse-complexioned, nervous, and irritable, and 
 suffer fi'om weakness of the heart and a long train of 
 symptoms which are more or less severe according to 
 the constitution of the mother and the quantity of alcohol 
 she imbibes. The young mother prematurely loses the 
 bloom and beauty of youth. Often it is quite startling to 
 meet some lady, who dnring an interval of two years has 
 been transformed from a sprightly and charming young 
 woman into an uninteresting coarse-looking matron. She 
 has nursed her first infant for twelve months. With a 
 pure and rational diet, she would simply have acquired 
 a more dignified and womanly bearing, with a robuster 
 gentleness of manner ; but a liberal supply of ' nourish- 
 ing ' stout, a glass of port at luncheon, and a little gin- 
 and-water at bedtime, one after the other were adopted, 
 and imbibed regularly, in order to supply her infant TN^ith 
 ' milk.' The presence of a nerveless apathy, or unin- 
 telligent irritability, afterwards proved that a liberal 
 supply of ' stimulants ' was required to support her 
 strength, and, although she ceased nursing, her own sensa- 
 tions convinced her of the necessity of continuing them. 
 The outward and visible change is but an exponent of the 
 degenerations and diseases which are taking root within. 
 If there be a predisposition to insanity or consuruption, 
 these diseases are developed very rapidly, or they are 
 brought on where proper management might altogether 
 have tided over those periods of life at which the predis- 
 position is prone to become provoked into actual disease. 
 
 " Infants nursed by mothers who drink much beer also 
 become fatter than usual, and to an untrained eye some- 
 times appear as ' magnificent children.' But the fatness of 
 such children is not a recommendation to the more know-
 
 THERAPEUTICS; OR, ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 225 
 
 ing observer ; they are exceedingly prone to die of inflam- 
 mation of the chest (bronchitis) after a few days' illness 
 from an ordinary cold. They die very much more fre- 
 quently than other children of convulsions and diarrhoea 
 while cutting their teeth, and they are very liable to die 
 of scrofulous inflammation of the membranes of the brain, 
 commonly called " water on the brain," while their child- 
 hood often presents a painful contrast — in the way of 
 crooked legs and stunted or ill-shapen figure — to the 
 ' magnificent and promising appearance of their infancy.' " 
 
 And Dr. Harrison Branthwaite, in his first annual Dr. Branth- 
 report on The Sanitary Condition of Willesden (1882), ^ud^mor- 
 speaks feelingly of the increase in child-mortality, and taiityfrom 
 deploi'es "the pernicious habit of drinking large quantities aieand stout 
 of ale or stout by nursing mothers, under the idea that f^^a'tkjn 
 they thereby increase and improve the secretion of milk, 
 whereas they are in reality deteriorating the quality of 
 that upon which the infant must depend for health and 
 life." 
 
 On the 8th of January, 1881, Dr. J. C. Reid wrote to the Dr.. J. C. 
 British Medical Journal: "Truly he is a happy man — ing against" 
 a happy doctor I should say — who can honestly affirm that alcoholic 
 he never, by his alcoholic prescriptions, made a drunkard. 
 For myself, in my earlier days I was a firm believer in the 
 many supposed virtues of alcoholic compounds. It is 
 about fourteen years ago that the scales were removed 
 fi'om my eyes by the stem reality of facts, and my sole 
 regret now is that I held out so long against evidence of 
 the most startling kind. 
 
 " Many years ago, when I asked a noted drunkard to 
 sign the pledge, she replied bitterly that I was the last 
 man who ought to give her such advice. For it was my 
 own father who had taught her to love the drink. He 
 had prescribed whiskey for her in an illness, and she had 
 learned to love it. I succeeded with her for fifteen months, 
 but after that she fell into the old miserable habit."
 
 226 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 SOCIAL RESULTS, OR THE GENERAL EFFECTS ON SOCIETY CAUSED 
 BY ALCOHOL. 
 
 "Not one man in a thousand dies a natural death, and most diseases 
 have their rise froui intemperance." — Lord Bacon. 
 
 " People dread cholera, but brandy is a far worse plague." — 
 Balzac. 
 
 " If alcohol were unknown, half the sin and three quarters of 
 the poverty and unhappiness would disappear from the world." — 
 Edmund A. Parkes. 
 
 " Short of drunkenness (that is, in those effects of it which stop 
 short of drunkenness), I should say, from my experience, that alcohol 
 is the most destructive agent we are aware of in this country." 
 — Sir William Gull before the Lords' Select Committee of inquiry 
 into prevalence of intemperance, 1877- 
 
 § 60. In the preceding chapters I have endeavoured to 
 point out the multifarious deep-reaching evils which 
 alcohol entails on the individual who indulges in its use. 
 In this chapter I shall try to show how generally these 
 effects have been produced ; i.e., how many persons are 
 suffering from the habit of di'ink, and in what way and 
 degree it has acted on society and the State, especially 
 in regard to this country (England). 
 General To this end, wliich I can only hope to reach approxi- 
 
 BUitutics. niately, I must make use of statistics — both governmental 
 and others — which throw light on these points. And the 
 enormous amount of available statistics on this matter, 
 together with their scope ; the almost impossibility of 
 making any brief, and at the same time clear statistical 
 statement ; and the latitude of interpi-etation which almost 
 all statistics afford, has made this portion of the work very 
 difficult.
 
 SOCIAL RESULTS. 227 
 
 Modern Government statistics are definite, and convey 
 a definite meaning, but their purport may be modifiable 
 by a hundred different circumstances understood and 
 allowed for by few, excepting trained statisticians. l^Tot- 
 withstanding this, I cannot agree with those who deem 
 that to the general public, statistics are not worth their 
 cost in paper and ink. 
 
 All statistics have a great worth negatively at least ; 
 that is, as showing that the minimum of a national condi- 
 tion of prosperity or decline has been fairly ascertained. 
 Non- personal statistics, or such as relate to the gross 
 amount of produce, manufactures, food, drink, their cost, 
 etc., have even a positive value ; but those relating to 
 persons — excepting births, deaths, marriages, and the like 
 — all statistics involving self-interests, whether for conceal- 
 ing income, escaping taxation, or avoiding uncompensated 
 labour or expenditui'e of time in any way, or for escaping 
 the law, etc., etc., have only a comparatively negative value. 
 
 Statistics, for example, regarding convictions for 
 di'unkenness have only the value of showing how many 
 people the repressive force of the State has found it neces- 
 sary to punish for having deliberately entered into a 
 personally in-esponsible condition. But this would afford 
 not even relatively con-ect information as to the existing 
 amount of di'unkenness. In the first place, intoxicated 
 people, if not incapable, or deserted, or dangerously 
 violent, are seldom an^ested. Again, no police officer ven- 
 tures into private homes merely because there are drunken 
 people there ; he does not interfere with any peaceful 
 transfer of a drunken person from the place of drinking to 
 his home ; and any one who will take the trouble of looking 
 into public-houses, especially early in the mornings and 
 late at night, can form some idea of the inadequacy of the 
 police returns on drunkenness as a real indication of the 
 condition of the people on this point.* 
 
 * In giving the aggregates of the Blach List of crimes due to 
 drink in England during the Christmas week of 1883, and the first 
 week of 1884, as follows : — 
 
 26 perilons accidents throngh drink, 
 13 robberies through drink, 
 
 5 cases of drunken insanity, 
 63 drunken outrages and violent assaults,
 
 228 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Incon- 
 Bistency of 
 the attitude 
 of Parlia- 
 ment toward 
 the drink- 
 question. 
 
 Again, many inebriates escape from aiTest, or if arrested 
 are not counted in with the convicted, being saved by 
 intercession,* personal influence, position, birth, etc. 
 
 If thoughtful analysis of the ruin which alcohol works 
 for the individual, streng-thened by the continual spectacle 
 of its ghastly eifects which our homes and our streets 
 afford — if these do not awaken a sense of the paramount 
 duty of each and all to banish alcohol for ever fi'om the 
 lips of mankind, then no statistics, however tenible, 
 conclusive, and undeniable, could be of avail. 
 
 § 61. With some notable individual exceptions, Parlia- 
 ment does not yet seem to be imjjressed with its responsi- 
 bility in the battle against di'ink ; for although appalling 
 statistics, steadily increasing in dimensions, of crimes and 
 insanity, unanimously admitted to be the results of drink, 
 are annually laid befoi-e its members, yet petitions fi^om 
 towns and whole counties signed by overwhelming 
 majorities appeal in vain to Parliament to be allowed to 
 banish the temptation of di'ink fi'om their midst, or that 
 the number of places for the sale of alcoholic diinks may 
 be limited. 
 
 And yet as long ago as 1819-20, the British Parlia- 
 
 20 dranken stabbings, cuttings, and wonndings, 
 5 cases of drunken cruelty to children, 
 
 74 assaults on women through drink, 
 
 13 cases of juvenile intoxication, 
 
 70 drunken assaults on constables, 
 
 94 premature, sudden, or violent deaths through drink, 
 
 18 cases of suicide attempted through drink, 
 
 15 cases of drunken suicide completed, and 
 
 12 drunken manslaughters or murders, 
 the Alliance News (January 26, 1884) says, "And besides this, it 
 must be borne in mind that the reporters for the press are by no 
 means always disposed or enabled to record the part which strong 
 drink has manifestly had in the cases which they chronicle. A 
 Scottish con-espondent, in sending in his contributions to the Black 
 List, writes that ' There were nearly as many cases which we might 
 have legitimately inferred were equally due to drink, but as liquor 
 was not directly charged with the evil we had to do without the 
 record.' No doubt a similar remark might have been miade by all 
 our coadjutors." 
 
 * " A Plymouth publican was yesterday charged with having 
 drunken women on liis premises after closing time. He proved that 
 they were lodgers, and the charge was dismissed." — Echo (February 
 1, 1884).
 
 SOCIAL RESULTS. 229 
 
 mentary Committee on Drink stated that " public-houses 
 can only be regarded as Schools of Iniquity." 
 
 The moral ineriia of Parliament as regards this evil 
 is conspicuous in the continued Government supply of 
 alcoholic drinks to the inmates of the workhouses. 
 
 The Canterbury Convocations, in their report several 
 years ago on diink, said — 
 
 " It appears, indeed, that at least seventy-five per cent, 
 of the occupants of our workhouses, and a large proportion 
 of those receiving outdoor relief, have become pensioners 
 on the public directly or indirectly through di'unkenness." 
 
 This inertia is the more inexplicable when we remember 
 that it must be patent to legislators and governments that 
 the desperate spectre for years threatening Europe with 
 the assassination of her rulers and the overthrow of the 
 established order of things, is the alcohol-goaded despair, 
 not of stolid but of naturally earnest minds.* 
 
 They cannot be blind to the fact that the fitfulness and 
 the unintelligence of popular favour, the iiTationality 
 and pei'version of public opinion, as well as the dogged 
 adherence to a bad measure once advocated — as if the 
 mind groping and fumbling in a dark chamber, having 
 grasped something, hangs to it without any thought of 
 its meaning or use — are largely due to the general mental 
 derangement which general indulgence in alcohol induces. 
 
 Why do so many of the noblest thinkers of our time — 
 those who have looked seriously into the problems which 
 modem civilization presents — why do they despair' of the 
 future of the race ? Why is the general turn of mind in 
 our age stoically pessimistic or cynically materialistic ? 
 
 Why indeed ? unless it is that the later generations 
 of men, inheritors and fui-ther developers of the insidious 
 poison of alcohol, are becoming in mind, as in body, des- 
 sicated, life-sucked, so that the whole civilized race is not 
 only crumbling physically I (however imperceptibly to the 
 
 * Says John Disney, in Ancient Laws against Immorality (Cam. 
 bridge, 1729):— 
 
 " The vice of intemperance debases the genins and spirit of a 
 nation ; indisposes them to noble designs and generous actions ; and 
 either softens them to an effeminate indolence for the pubhc welfare, 
 or fires them to seditious tumults." 
 
 t Sir Henry Thompson, writing (March 15, 1873) to the late 
 Archbishop of Canterbury (Dr. Archibald Campbell Tait), claimed
 
 230 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 careless and indifferent) , but seems to be dwindling morally 
 into two more or less interchangeable but distinct types ; 
 the one not believing in the verity of God or the faith of 
 raan, without hope and without emotion — existing, indeed, 
 only in a narrow line of cynical intellectual activity ; the 
 other, alternating between weakened faith and craven 
 doubt, tossed by dark passions, temptations, and fui'ies, 
 not the least of which are momentary spiritual exaltations, 
 mocked by and toppling over in swdf tly succeeding debility 
 and despair. 
 
 Both these types wear a deceivingly fair exterior. We 
 often see magnificent boughs and beautiful foliage on trees 
 whose tranks ai^e but hollow crusts, worm-eaten fi'om core 
 to rim. For fruit, or fuel, or for weathering the storm 
 such a tree is naught, but yet the specious trunk manages 
 to hold up and flaunt the fair foliage ! 
 
 § 62. Eveiy one knows that abstinence is the exception 
 and drinking — whether moderate or excessive — the rule. 
 And those who, bearing this in mind, have attentively read 
 the preceding pages can feel what the results must be, far 
 more adequately than the most eloquent pen could portray 
 them, and will not find it difiicult to credit that almost 
 the whole state machinery of repression and punishment 
 of crime, the whole army of police, detectives, judges, 
 jailers, and hangmen, and the vast misery and expense of 
 jails and lunatic asylums — yes, the asylums for idiots and 
 the defective classes — might be done away with if — oh! 
 what a mighty i/".'— people would not touch alcoholic 
 liquors. 
 
 In practical testimony to this truth I may cite the 
 f ollowdng authorities : — 
 
 " Drink alone destroys — ruins — more people than all 
 destructive the other plagues together, which afflict humanity." — 
 alcohol upon Buffon's Discourse on Nature (1765). 
 
 " Every year I live increases my conviction that the 
 use of intoxicating drinks is a greater destroying force to 
 life and virtue than all other physical evils combined." — 
 H. W. Beecher to Young Men's Christian Association, New 
 York (1862). 
 
 Various 
 weighty 
 opinions on 
 
 society. 
 Buffou. 
 H. W. 
 Beecher, 
 
 that drinking " tends to deteriorate the race . . . and disqualifies 
 it for advance."
 
 SOCIAL RESULTS. 231 
 
 " The use of strong' drink produces more idleness, The Times. 
 ci"ime, disease, want, and misery than all other causes put 
 together." — Times (January 19, 1863). 
 
 " After running over the statistics of death from drink Dr. Gprmain 
 published in the various countries, after attending for ^a^rty. 
 some years the clinique of the gi'eat Parisian hospitals, 
 after consulting the registry of cases admitted to ' homes 
 for strangers,' one becomes perfectly convinced that 
 alcoholic poisoning is a more murderous plague, perhaps, 
 than the great epidemics which at different epochs have 
 devastated humanity. The pest, the cholera, the yellow 
 fever, break out suddenly and decimate a village, a province, 
 a whole country, but their passage is transitory in essence. 
 Alcoholism takes no holiday. ^^ — Dr. Germain Marty 
 (Medical Thesis, Paris, December 24, 1872). 
 
 " It has been said that greater calamities are inflicted w. E. Giad- 
 on mankind by intemperance than by the three great ^^°^^- 
 historical scourges, war, pestilence, and famine. This is 
 true for us, and it is the measure of our discredit and 
 disgi^ace." — "W. E. Gladstone (speech in House of Commons, 
 March 5, 1880). 
 
 Who can speak more authoritatively, or with more Opinions of 
 impartiality, concerning the relations between drink and ^nhe''^'^* 
 crime, than the judges of Great Britain ? * And what United 
 do they say ? Let us see. '°^ °™' 
 
 " 1 have been thii-ty years chairman of quarter sessions M.O'Shaugh- 
 in several counties in Ireland. I have, perhaps, presided ^'^^^y- 
 at more criminal trials than most men living, and I can 
 truly say that 1 have had scarcely a case before me with 
 reference to the class of offences known as against the 
 person, that was not the consequence of drunkenness." — 
 Mr. M. O'Shaughnessy, Q.C., Chairman of Quarter Sessions, 
 Co. Clare. 
 
 " Men go into public-houses respectable, and come out Mr. Justice 
 felons."— Mr. Justice Grove. ^'°'"- 
 
 " The crying and besetting crime of intemperance is a Mr. Justice 
 crime leading to all other crimes ; a crime which you may Fitzgerald. 
 very well say leads to nineteen-twentieths of the crimes of 
 this country." — Mr. Justice Fitzgerald, Dublin Assizes, 
 1878. 
 
 * See opening pages of chap. viii.
 
 232 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Baroa 
 Dowse. 
 
 Stipendiary 
 magistrate of 
 Liverpool. 
 
 Lord Chief 
 Justice Cole- 
 
 Mr. Justice 
 Denman. 
 
 Baron 
 Huddleston. 
 
 Sir Matthew 
 Hale. 
 
 " If our people were more sober I think crime would 
 alm.ost entirely disappear from our midst." — Baron Dowse, 
 at Wicklow, 1878. 
 
 Again, in charging the juiy in the Dublin Commission 
 Coiu't, November, 1881, the Baron said he " found that 
 drink was at the bottom of almost every crime committed 
 in Dublin. Even in cases that had no apparent connection 
 with drink at all, if closely investigated, as he himself had 
 done on many occasions, they would be found to have their 
 origin in drinJc.^' 
 
 The Bench of England confirms the Bench of Ireland. 
 In 1878 the stipendiary magistrate of Liverpool said — 
 
 " The moving cause of crimes of violence and disorder 
 in our midst is di^unkenness. We may set down thi'ee- 
 fourths, I think nine-tenths of them, as arising fi'om 
 drunkenness." 
 
 In 1881 Lord Chief Justice Coleridge stated from the 
 bench of the Supreme Court, that " Judges were weary 
 with calling attention to di'ink as the principal cause of 
 crime, but he could not refi'ain fi*om saying that if they 
 could make England sober they would shut up nine-tenths 
 of the prisons." 
 
 In his charge at the SuiTey Assizes, in August, 1882, 
 Mr. Justice Denman said — 
 
 " I don't know, in enforcing the considerations which 
 are placed before the judges as a part of their duty in the 
 proclamation against vice and immorality which has just 
 been read, that any judge can better discharge his duty 
 than by again and again calling the attention of the gentry 
 of the country, as well as inhabitants generally, to this 
 fact, that the gi'eat bulk — I might almost say the whole 
 — of the offences of violence which take place in the 
 counties of this land are dii'cctly ascribable to the habit 
 of drinking." 
 
 In the same month and year Baron Huddleston is 
 reported to have said to the grand jury at Swansea that — 
 
 " Of the forty-four cases down on the calendar, he found 
 almost all traceable, directly or indirectly, to the detestable 
 habit of drinking. Two hundred years ago, Sir Matthew 
 Hale, one of the most eminent judges that ever adorned 
 the English bench, declared that twenty years of obsei'^'^a- 
 tion taught him that the original cause of most of the
 
 SOCIAL RESULTS, 233 
 
 enormities committed by criminals was drink. Four out 
 of every five of them were the issue and product of drink- 
 ing in taverns and alehouses. Baron Huddleston feared 
 what was true then was true now, and that we have 
 improved very little, if at all." 
 
 At the Chester Spring Assizes, on the 13th of April, Mr. Justice 
 1883, Mr. Justice Hawkins, in charging the grand juiy, Hawkins, 
 said that — 
 
 " Although, numerically, the calendar was light, yet 
 there were in it charges recorded against several persons 
 of most serious offences. After referring to other cases, 
 his lordship touched upon the attempted murder of a child 
 by its mother by throwing it upon the fire, then pouring 
 scalding water upon it. The mother was under the in- 
 fluence of drink, and it was almost always the case, accord- 
 ing to his experience, that drink was at the root of crime. 
 Nine out of every ten crimes of violence that had come 
 before him were in one way or another attributable to 
 drink." 
 
 Again, on the 16th of July, 1883, Mr. Justice Hawkins 
 is reported to have said, in charging the grand jury at 
 the opening of the Durham Assizes, that he — 
 
 " Had had considerable experience in courts of law, 
 and every day he lived the more firmly did he come to the 
 conclusion that the root of all cri^ne was drink. It affected 
 people of all ages and both sexes — the middle-aged, the 
 young, the father, the son, the husband, and the wdfe. 
 It was drink which was the incentive to crimes of 
 dishonesty ; a man stole in order that he might provide 
 himself with the means of getting drink. It was di'ink 
 which caused homes to be impoverished, and they could 
 trace to its source the cause of misery which was to be 
 found in many a cottage home which had been denuded of 
 all the common necessities of life. Se believed that nine- 
 tenths of the crime of this country, and certainly of the county 
 of Durham, was engendered within public-houses* When 
 he came to that conclusion he thought it was his duty to 
 enjoin upon the m0,gistrates who had the power to check 
 in some respect the terrible ravages of drink, to do their 
 utraost to suppress it with all the power and authority 
 with which the law invested them. The county of 
 * See opening pages of chap. viii.
 
 234 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Mr. WiUiam 
 Hoyle's 
 drink 
 statistics. 
 
 The Rev. Dr. 
 Dawson 
 Burns on the 
 expenditure 
 of the 
 
 British Isles 
 annually ia 
 drink as 
 compared 
 with other 
 expenditure. 
 
 Durham was tbe one county in all England where crime 
 was most prevalent." 
 
 § 63. The statistics quoted below are principally taken 
 from various parts of the work of the indefatigable and 
 admittedly the best statistician on the subject of drink 
 — Mr. William Hoyle. 
 
 Commenting, in a leading article of great ability, on 
 Mr. Hoyle's statistics, the Times (March 29, 1881) says, 
 " Drinking baffles us, confounds us, shames us, and mocks 
 at us at every point. It outwits alike the teacher, the 
 man of business, the patriot, and the legislator. Every 
 other institution flounders in hopeless difficulties ; the 
 public-house holds its triumphant course. The adminis- 
 trators of public and private charity are told that alms 
 and oblations go with rates, doles, and pensions to the 
 all-absorbing bar of the public-house." 
 
 Estimating roughly in round numbers, so as to leave 
 more room for a comparative computation of vast numbers, 
 we find that the average of the gross total of the national 
 income during the last ten years (ending in 1881) was 
 £850,000,000 a year. According to Hoyle, the direct 
 average expenditure for drink annually, during the same 
 time exceeded £136,000,000, and he estimates that annually 
 £138,000,000 were indirectly spent or lost through drink — 
 a total drinking expenditure of £274,000,000. 
 
 " Deducting, say, £54,000,000 from this sum for 
 revenue," says Hoyle, " and for what some persons might 
 consider the needful use of these drinks in medicine or 
 otherwise, it still leaves a sum of £220,000,000 as the 
 annual economic loss to the nation in consequence of the 
 drinking customs of our population." 
 
 The Rev. Dr. Dawson Burns, in Christendom and the 
 Drinh Ciirse (London, 1875), makes this succinct summary 
 of the comparative loss to the nation annually occasioned 
 by drink : — " The British people annually expend on in- 
 toxicating liquors a sum of above a hundred and thirty 
 naillions sterling, the great bulk of it coming from the 
 pockets of men and women who would be seriously affronted 
 if any doubt were cast upon their religious sincerity. This 
 sum is sixty millions in excess of the national revenue. It 
 is one-sixth of the National Debt. It is one-fifth the value 
 of all the railway property of the United Kingdom. It is
 
 SOCIAL RESULTS. 235 
 
 equal to one-fonrtli of the whole income of the wage- 
 receiving- classes, and one-eighth of the income of all classes 
 united. It is equal to a yearly expenditure of £4 per head, 
 and of £22 per family, in the United Kingdom." 
 
 In a paper read before the Statistical Society of London Mr. Stephen 
 
 ■^ ^ T . . . 15ourne on 
 
 (April, 1880), Mr. Stephen Bourne, a noted statistician, the same. 
 arrived at similar results to Mr. Hoyle's, but from an 
 opposite point of view. 
 
 Mr. Hoyle estimates the harm done from computing the 
 pecuniary loss ; Mr. Bourne computes the pecuniary loss 
 from the harm done. The National Temperance League 
 Annual (1883) gives the following summary of Mr. Bourne's 
 paper : — 
 
 " Mr. Bourne estimates that of the people of this 
 country about 10^ millions are ' producers ; ' that of these 
 ' 65 or 70 per cent, are wholly employed in providing food, 
 drink, and other necessaries of life ; and that it is only the 
 remainder (three millions and a half) who are available 
 for the production of luxuries, and the accumulation of 
 wealth.' He further estimates that the producing power 
 of 1,097,625 persons is wholly absorbed by the liquor traffic ; 
 and that 884,000 who might be employed as producers of 
 wealth, are rendered economically useless by the damage 
 done by drink. The latter number being made up as 
 follows : — 
 
 By deaths, adult and infantile 
 
 ... 120,000 
 
 „ sickness of producers 
 
 150,000 
 
 „ ,, administrators 
 
 ... 185,000 
 
 „ pauperism 
 
 200,000 
 
 „ crime 
 
 ... 88,000 
 
 ,, professional and other service 
 
 50,000 
 
 „ revenue officials 
 
 6,000 
 
 „ army, navy, and merchant service ... 
 
 85,000 
 
 884,000' 
 
 " If there was no alcohol to be produced or consumed 
 there might be two millions of producers, or an addition 
 of 60 per cent, to our power of producing articles other 
 than those of daily use for stores. That is, as two millions 
 constitute about a fifth of the total number of producers, 
 the drink traffic absorbs about one-fifth of the productive 
 power of the nation. And the total income of the nation — 
 the total product of the industry of the nation, is variously
 
 236 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 estimated at from 850 millions to 1200 millions a year. 
 Mr. Grladstone puts it at about 1000 ruillions a year. One- 
 fifth of this sum is 200 millions. So that, measured in 
 money, the yearly cost of the drink traffic to the nation is 
 about 200 millions, a sum which approximates very closely 
 to that reached by Mr. Hoyle." 
 
 Roughly estimating the average liquor revenue during 
 the same ten years (1871-1881) at £32,000,000 annually, 
 and subtracting half this sum as the admitted average 
 amount which the State expends in preventing, i-epairing, 
 and punishing evils resulting from drink, we find that the 
 State annually expends between 150 and 200 million pounds 
 — most of which might be saved to the people — in order to 
 make sure of its own annual revenue of from fifteen to 
 twenty million pounds. 
 Mr. Hoyie's In the Drink Traffic and its Evils, Mr. Hoyle makes the 
 
 Traffic^and following Comparison of estimates : — " To manufacture 
 its Evils." the £13-1,000,000 worth of intoxicating liquors consumed 
 during each of the past twelve years, 80,000,000 bushels of 
 grain, or its equivalent in produce, has been destroyed 
 each year ; and, taking the bushel of barley at 53 lbs., it 
 gives us 4,240,000,000 lbs. of food destroyed year by year, 
 or a total for the twelve years of 960,000,000 bushels or 
 50,880,000,000 lbs. 
 
 " The genei'ally accepted estimate of grain consumed as 
 bread food by the population of the United Kingdom is 
 5^ bushels per head per annum ; if this be so, then, the 
 food which has been destroyed to manufacture the intoxi- 
 cating liquors which have been consumed in the United 
 Kingdom during the past twelve years would supply the 
 entire population with bread for four years and five months ; 
 or, it would give a 4-lb. loaf of bread to every family in the 
 United Kingdom daily during the next six years. 
 
 " If the grain and produce which have thus been de- 
 stroyed yearly were converted into flour and baked into 
 loaves, they would make 1,200,000,000 4-lb. loaves. To 
 bake these loaves it would require 750 bakeries producing 
 500 loaves each hour, and working ten hours daily during 
 the whole year. 
 
 " An acre of fairly good land is estimated to yield about 
 38 bushels of barley. If this be so, then, to grow the 
 grain to manufacture the £134,000,000 worth of liquor
 
 SOCIAL RESULTS. 
 
 237 
 
 whicla has been consumed yearly, it would take a cornfield 
 of more than 2,000,000 acres, or it would cover the entire 
 counties of Kent, Surrey, Middlesex, and Berkshire.* 
 
 " The value of the bread consumed annually in the 
 United Kingdom is estimated at £70,000,000. Mr. Caird 
 estimates the value of the butter and cheese consumed 
 yearly at £27,500,000, and that of milk at £26,000,000, 
 so that we have spent as much upon intoxicating liquors 
 each year during the past twelve years as upon bread, 
 butter, cheese, and milk, and leaving £10,000,000 yearly 
 to spare. 
 
 " The rent paid for houses in the United Kingdom is 
 
 * " Table showing the Population, Total Cost, and Average Cost 
 PEE Head of Intoxicating Liquors in the United Kingdom 
 for various Years from 1820 to 1870, and for each sub- 
 sequent Year up to 1882. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Total cost. 
 
 Average cost 
 per head. 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 1820 
 
 20,807,000 
 
 50,440,655 
 
 2 8 6 
 
 1825 
 
 22,571,000 
 
 67,027,263 
 
 2 19 5 
 
 1830 
 
 23,820,000 
 
 67,292,278 
 
 2 16 5 
 
 1835 
 
 25,443,000 
 
 80,527,819 
 
 3 3 
 
 1840 
 
 26,500,000 
 
 77,605,882 
 
 2 18 10 
 
 1845 
 
 27,072,000 
 
 71,632,232 
 
 2 12 11 
 
 1850 
 
 27,320,000 
 
 80,718,083 
 
 2 18 10 
 
 1855 
 
 28,188,000 
 
 76,761,114 
 
 2 14 6 
 
 1860 
 
 28,778,000 
 
 85,276,870 
 
 2 18 6 
 
 1865 
 
 29,861,000 
 
 106,439,561 
 
 3 11 3 
 
 1870 
 
 31,205,000 
 
 118,736,279 
 
 3 16 1 
 
 1871 
 
 31,513,000 
 
 125,586,902 
 
 3 19 1 
 
 1872 
 
 31,835,000 
 
 131,601,490 
 
 4 2 8 
 
 1873 
 
 32,124,000 
 
 140,014,712 
 
 4 7 8 
 
 1874 
 
 32,426,000 
 
 141,342,997 
 
 4 7 2 
 
 1875 
 
 32,749,000 
 
 142,876,669 
 
 4 7 3 
 
 1876 
 
 33,093,000 
 
 147,288,759 
 
 4 9 
 
 1877 
 
 33,446,000 
 
 142,007,231 
 
 4 4 10 
 
 1878 
 
 33,799,000 
 
 142,188,900 
 
 4 4 1 
 
 1879 
 
 34,155,000 
 
 128,143,865 
 
 3 15 
 
 1880 
 
 34,468,000 
 
 122,279,275 
 
 3 10 11 
 
 1881 
 
 34,929,000 
 
 127,074,460 
 
 3 12 3 
 
 1882 
 
 35,278,000 
 
 126,255,139 
 
 3 12 0' 
 
 — William Hoyle's Our National Brink Bill as it affects the Nation's 
 Well-being. London, 1884.
 
 238 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 about £70,000,000 per annum ; the money spent yearly 
 upon woollen goods is about £46,000,000, and upon cotton 
 goods £14,000,000, giving a total of £130,000,000; so 
 that we have spent upon intoxicating drinks each year 
 during the last twelve years as much as the total amount 
 of the house-rental of the United Kingdom plus the 
 money spent in woollen and cotton goods, and leaving 
 upwards of £4,000,000 to spare." 
 
 According to the Daily Review of Edinburgh (March 4, 
 1884), Sir William Collins, at the great Scottish Temperance 
 Convention (of the day previous), after moving the first reso- 
 lution, to wit, " That in the opinion of this convention, the 
 traffic in intoxicating liquors, as common beverages, is a pro- 
 lific source of drunkenness, insanity, pauperism, vice, crime, 
 misery, disease, and death ; and whilst thus proving ruinous 
 to individuals and families, is at the same time hurtful 
 to the trade and commerce of the nation, and utterly 
 opposed to the general pi'osperity and well-being of the 
 community," said that, " Assuming that the population of 
 Glasgow contributed their proportion to the national drink 
 bill, it would amount to nearly £2,000,000 per annum, or 
 £13 10s. per family, while the whole rental of dwelling- 
 houses in the city amounted to £1,233,371, or only 
 £10 15s. per family ; and the average rental of the houses 
 in which two-thirds of the people lived was only £6 10s., 
 or less than one-half of the average sum spent per family 
 on strong drink. On the other hand, the only result of 
 the yearly drink bill was a large expenditure in dealing 
 with the crime, poverty, and insanity whicli flowed from 
 the traffic as a natural result, and an untold amount of 
 misery, disease, and death to the slaves of the appetite, 
 and, would that he did not require to add, to the helpless 
 wives and still more helpless and innocent children. 
 Could they, as patriots and professing Christians, stand 
 longer by, and allow this state of things to continue ? The 
 nations of the past, who stood in the front rank of civiliza- 
 tion, where were they ? They fell because of their vices. 
 Could they, who have had higher privileges, hope to escape 
 from the consequences of their national vice and their 
 national sin ? " 
 
 And ex-Bailie Lewis, in a subsequent speech on the 
 same occasion, said that " He had just been favoured with
 
 SOCIAL RESULTS. 239 
 
 the able and elaborate report of Captain M'Call, of Glasgow, 
 which afforded evidence that during 1883 no fewer than 
 52,827 of the population of Glasgow were before a police 
 magistrate. Of that number 40,537 were charged with 
 drunkenness, simple assaults, etc. ; and again, of that 
 number 14,366 were dragged from the gutters and 
 gathered from the streets drunk and incapable. They had 
 thus 1 out of every 40 of the population drunk and in- 
 capable ; 1 out of every 15 charged with drunkenness and 
 assaults ; and 1 out of every 11 before a police magistrate. 
 Such was the condition of the western metropolis, whose 
 motto is, ' Let Glasgow flourish by the Preaching of the 
 Word.' It was right to observe that numbers of these 
 were recommitments, but when they considered the large 
 number of drunken persons who never fell into the hands 
 of the police, it did not materially alter the case." 
 
 All these figures point with a vengeance to the relations The relations 
 between drink and poverty. With the sum now annually ^*^'^\^'^''h 
 wasted in and throiigh drink, England could in a few poverty, 
 years pay the entire l^ational Debt, and each individual 
 could be comfortably housed, clothed, and fed. 
 
 It is a common opinion that poverty has more to do in 
 producing drink than drink in producing poverty, yet it 
 must, from the foregoing startling figures, be perfectly 
 obvious that there is no comparison between the two. 
 The £130,000,000 expended in drink are the direct outlay 
 only ; the best authorities declare that the mischief pro- 
 duced by this drink, estimated in money, more than equals 
 this sum, so that at least £250,000,000 form the gross total 
 of the annual national loss through drink, which must 
 inevitably produce a stupendous amount of poverty. That, 
 in this production of poverty, many afflicted through it do 
 not drink before being struck down by misfortune, is no 
 doubt true ; but the great mass of the impoverished are 
 so through drink, and further, though the poorer they 
 become the less do they have to expend in drink, yet the 
 little they do have is more certainly and exclusively spent 
 in that way, to the utter neglect of every other claim or 
 necessity. Thus drink first produces poverty, and then 
 pushes it beyond the reach of remedy.* 
 
 * " ' One in every eight of the population of rich and prosperons
 
 240 
 
 THE FOUNDATIOX OF DEATH. 
 
 Dr. Dawson 
 Burns on 
 drinkiDg as 
 the main- 
 spring of 
 pauperism. 
 
 That poverty causes drink in tlie sense that the 
 wretchedly poor drink to drown their misery is probably 
 in many instances true ; but in this argument it is often 
 forgotten that the abject poverty which drives this class 
 of people (meaning here all who turn to drink not from 
 vicious propensity, but under the goad of unbearable 
 woes) to drink, is directly due to the cii'cumstances and 
 conditions as to work and wages, etc., which the drink 
 traffic produces among the working classes, so that the 
 honest, decent poor are beaten down in their struggle to 
 keep on the level of decent poverty, and in their despair 
 seek refuge in the very evil they have fought against at 
 such heavy odds so long. 
 
 " If all testimony is not fallacious," says the Rev. Dr. 
 Burns (op. cit.), "the mainspring of Pauperism and of all 
 Destitution is Drinking ; and until that is overcome, little 
 reduction of the measure or burdens of this evil can be 
 expected. Any temporary diminution will disappear with 
 fluctuations of trade that are certain to occur. Without 
 a Temperance reform, every project for permanently 
 ameliorating our national impoverishment must be com- 
 paratively inefficient ; but with such a reform the desired 
 end could be accomplished to such an extent that the 
 
 England dies a pauper.' So we are told. But is not the statement 
 altogether incredible ? Is there in all broad England one prominent 
 statesman or one leading journaUst who would believe it, if it were 
 put before him ? I am convinced that there is not one. Yet it is 
 substantially accurate. Here are the facts — some of the facts — on 
 which it is based. In England and Wales during recent years, the 
 number of paupers at one time receiving relief has averaged 800,000. 
 Of these a little under 200,000 have been indoor, and a little over 
 600,000 have been outdoor paupers. Among the indoor paupers the 
 mortality is very great. The Registrar-General's returns show that 
 the deaths among indoor paupers constitute one-fifteenth of the 
 total number of deaths in the country. It is difficult to ascertain 
 with precision the number of deaths which yearly take place among 
 the 600,000 outdoor paupers. Would it be extravagant to assume 
 that the nimiber of deaths (not the death rate) amongst them must 
 be at least as great as among the 200,000 ? If it be assumed that 
 the number of deaths (not the death rate, observe) among the 600,000 
 is as great as among the 200,000 ; that is, if the death rate among the 
 former is one-third as great as among the latter, we are shut in to 
 the conclusion that of every fifteen deaths which take place in 
 England and Wales, two are the deaths of paupers. And that is a 
 greater proportion than one in eight." — Alliance News.
 
 SOCIAL RESULTS. 241 
 
 worst forms of indigence and wretcliedness would become 
 as rare as they are now common ; all classes would be 
 relieved, and it would be possible to extend adequate aid 
 to those who are most deserving, but who now are either 
 totally neglected or but scantily assisted." 
 
 § 64. This problem of poverty and degradation is now so 
 prominently before the public that it seems specially fitting 
 to call attention particularly to these evils as a result of 
 drink — to which fact, testimony of a very striking character 
 comes in on every side ; which, it is earnestly to be hoped, 
 will receive due attention from the Royal Commission for 
 devising means for housing the poor, now sitting. 
 
 The report of the Parliameutary Committee on Drink Pariia- 
 
 ofl884savs mentaiy 
 
 Oi lOO* bayb ^ ^ report on in- 
 
 " The loss of productive labour in every department temperance 
 of occupation, is to the extent of at least one day in six ^^ 
 throughout the kingdom (as testified by witnesses engaged 
 in various manufacturing operations), by which the wealth 
 of the country, created, as it is, chiefly by labour, is 
 retarded or suppressed to the extent of one million of 
 every six that is produced, to say nothing of the constant 
 derangement, imperfection, and destruction in every 
 agricultural and manufacturing process, occasioned by the 
 intemperance and consequent unskilfulness, inattention, 
 and neglect of those affected by intoxication, and pro- 
 ducing great injury in our domestic and foreign trade." 
 
 From the reports by Drs. Parkes and Sandei'son Reports of 
 (1871), I cite the following :- f^st^T. 
 
 " A tin-plate worker in constant work earns 22s. a son. 
 week. He has a wife, a careful, respectable woman, and 
 four children. The husband drank heavily. Sometimes 
 he brought home IBs., sometimes 16s., sometimes 12s. ; 
 last week he di^ank it all. If he would bi-ing 22s. a week 
 she would be happy as the day is long. This family of 
 six persons were living in one back room, paying Is. 6d. 
 a week rent. It was 10| feet long, 9 feet broad, and 8| 
 feet high. The furniture was a bed, table, and two rickety 
 chairs.. Two of the four children were sick." 
 
 Sir Wilfrid Lawson, M.P., addressing a meeting of the IfSw^' 
 United Kingdom Alliance, January 24, 1879, said — Lawsou. 
 
 " There were a great many causes working togethev 
 and causing the distress of the country at the present 
 
 R
 
 242 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 time. Everybody liad his notion about the causes of it. 
 He read in the Licensed Victuallers' Guardian the argu- 
 ment of the licensed victuallers for it. Their account 
 was that the distress was caused by over-trading, over- 
 trading was caused by dishonesty and hypocrisy, and 
 hypocrisy was caused by teetotalism. He was of the 
 contrary opinion. He believed if the bulk of the people 
 of this country were teetotalers there would have been 
 very little distress at the present time. The Lord Provost, 
 during the last few weeks that he had administered relief 
 to the distressed in Glasgow, had asked every applicant 
 if he was a teetotaler, and found he had not one teetotaler 
 come before him for relief. Not considering other 
 questions of foolish expenditure, he said the £140,000,000 
 which they spent every year in drink was quite sufficient 
 to account for the distress. So long as in a country like 
 this we went on spending that enormous amount of money, 
 it appeared to him impossible that we could have a return 
 to the prosperity which we should all like to see. The 
 question was, how to put this expenditure down ? It was 
 said by some, ' Educate the people,' but he would ask 
 how long we had to wait before these educational results 
 showed themselves ? During the last ten years we must 
 have spent upwards of twenty millions of public money 
 alone in educating the people, Avhilst intemperance had 
 rather increased than diminished. So that they would 
 see that education alone was not the cure. Some people 
 said that the people wanted better homes, and that would 
 be the remedy. But it was the drinkiiig that made the 
 bad home. It was not the bad homes that made the 
 drinking. Others there were who held that religion 
 would cure it. He admitted that truth was omnipotent, 
 but if they could not bring the truth home to the people 
 it was no good." 
 Address by On the 16th of January, 1880, Lord Derby, in an 
 
 Lord Derby, ^ddress to the Liverpool Penny Savings Bank Association, 
 said — 
 
 " It may seem almost ridiculous to speak of penny 
 savings in connection with the gTowth or decline of national 
 wealth : but yet look at the matter that way. I will not 
 repeat the old story of what the British liquor bill is — just 
 one hundred and forty millions, or £20 a head for every
 
 SOCIAL RESULTS. 243 
 
 family of five in the British Isles. Nor will I tell you that 
 half that sum saved would pay all the taxes of the year ; 
 but we all know that, without supposing the nation to 
 adopt very ascetic habits, or even to become as strictly 
 frugal as France, there is an enormous margin for reason- 
 able economy, and we do not, I think, always sufficiently 
 appreciate the fact that private frugality will enforce 
 public economy. Suppose only one quarter of the sum 
 spent in liquor or tobacco to be saved, that implies a 
 reduction of ten millions in the revenue, and do you 
 suppose any Chancellor of the Exchequer would go to ivorJc to 
 put on those ten millions again by taxation ? Not he ; he 
 would learn to do without them. It is a peculiarity of this 
 country, and I think a happy peculiarity, that the classes 
 whose incomes are under £150 a year — the class, that is, 
 who live on weekly wages — may relieve themselves almost 
 entirely from taxation if they think fit." 
 
 The next is quoted from the Alliance News (March 5, Address by 
 
 "[gg]^) . Mr. Edward 
 
 T -I 1 1 /• m Jones, of the 
 
 ' In an address to the ' ratepayers of Toxteth Park and Toxteth 
 others whom it may concern,' Mr. Edward Jones, of 4, Guardians. 
 Amberley Street, Liverpool, a member of the Toxteth 
 Board of Guardians, says, ' The Guardians of Toxteth 
 Park, in dealing with applications for relief from week to 
 week, were struck by the large number of these cases 
 which came from a particular district of the township. A 
 return was therefore ordered of the exact number of 
 applications for relief during a given period, from that 
 portion of the township to the north of Pfirk Street and 
 west of Park Road, as compared with the applications 
 from the rest of the township. These returns revealed 
 the " startling fact " that two-thu-ds of our pauperism 
 came from this district, comprising about one-eighth of 
 the area, and only one-fourth of the population ; the exact 
 numbers being, from the district marked A, with heavy 
 dark tints on the map, 911 applications for relief ; from 
 district B, 542 ; and from district C, 45, in the same period. 
 The amount of money spent in liquor in district A may be 
 gathered from the fact that over one hundred public- 
 houses, or about half the total number of public-houses in 
 the township, are maintained and doing a more or less 
 flourishing trade within or closely abutting upon this area.
 
 244 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Estimating the average "weekly takings " of each of these 
 public-houses at £20, and assuming that fully one-half of 
 the population here are sober, industrious people, who 
 spend little or nothing on drink, it may be taken for 
 granted that from 10s. to 20s. per week from many families 
 goes for liquor. How many struggling, sober, industrious 
 families, paying poor rates, are compelled to live on less 
 than those receiving parish relief spend in liquor when 
 they can get it ? The direct cost to the township of this 
 area, in poor rates, is not less than £10,000 per annum, or 
 equal to 6d. in the pound of the rates, over and above a 
 very liberal allowance for pauperism. To this may be 
 added the charge for extra police in these parts, the large 
 sums distributed in private charity, and the hundred other 
 ways in which the thriftless and the dissolute manage to 
 impose a heavy burden of taxation, voluntary and in- 
 voluntary, upon their neighbours. The money cost is not 
 the only or the worst part of the business. Murders, 
 stabbing, wounding, and other crimes of violence, are of 
 frequent occurrence here. The slaughter of innocent 
 babes, smothered by their drunken mothers, out-herods 
 Herod. The death rate within this area, if published 
 separately, would astonish the Health Committee and the 
 Town Council of Liverpool, and would stand in striking 
 contrast "with the rate of mortality in the portions of the 
 township without public-houses, which averages 10 in a 
 1000 in the rural district. Here it would probably be not 
 less than 40 per 1000. Vice and immorality from these 
 parts crowd our workhouse hospital, which must soon be 
 enlarged, at the cost of the ratepayers, and there is 
 displayed a state of things too revolting for description. 
 . . . The applications for painsh relief are few and far 
 between, and these few from the streets nearest the dark 
 area, though a large proportion of the inhabitants are of 
 the artisan and labouring class. The head constable 
 reports that his officers have very little to do in this 
 district. No complaint has ever been heard of the absence 
 of public-houses in the district, which is two miles long, 
 and nearly the same distance wide in its longest measure- 
 ment. That the people in the dark area do not wish 
 public-houses in their midst is pi'oved by the fact that they 
 are rapidly migrating into the bright area, and that
 
 SOCIAL RESULTS. 245 
 
 whenever memorials in favour of Sunday closing of public- 
 houses, and other restrictions, are got up, the people in 
 the dark area are most unanimous in signing them. A 
 motion for memorializing the Government in favour of 
 a measure for reducing the number of public-houses was 
 supported by seven members of the Toxteth Board of 
 Guardians, while eight voted against.' " 
 
 And the same journal (January 7, 1882) publishes the Address by 
 following from the pen of the Rev. John Kirk, D.D., joun Kirk 
 Edinburgh : — 
 
 " This United Kingdom of ours is threatened with 
 terrible poverty. The plague which is in various forms 
 coming upon us is emphatically national. ... A small 
 number of people are becoming enormously rich, while the 
 great mass of the community is becoming rapidly poor. 
 . . . Especially in London scores are dying of literal starva- 
 tion for lack of food to eat. ... It is to be expected that 
 explanations of this state of things should be given, but it 
 is immensely strange that the most obvious of all should 
 not even be suffered to be hinted at in the press, in the 
 pulpit, or on the platform ! . . . Above one hundred and 
 fifty millions of sterling money a year is actually being 
 handed over by the masses of the people into the hands 
 of a few families for worse than nothing ! The expenditure 
 of this money in liquor involves far more than an equal 
 loss in efficient labour, and in other ways. The ignorance 
 of the multitude is so great, the fascination of the liquor 
 is so powerful, the huge swindle is so supported by law 
 and government, and the stream of gold is so enormous, 
 that it is ostracism to lay it bare to the public eye, and 
 yet it is wonderful that it should be possible to be silent on 
 the subject, when the great body of the nation is rapidly 
 sinking into helpless poverty by this iniquity alone ! Only 
 look at the subject for a few moments. Allow this liquor 
 system to be suppressed, and at least three hundred 
 millions of sterling money annually will remain in the 
 ownership of the mass of the people. Let this sum as 
 a capital be employed as it is employed now wherever 
 liquor-selling has been suppressed ; let this wealth accumu- 
 late as it win, and must do, and what would even seven 
 ' bad harvests ' do ? The truth is palpable. These harvests 
 would not give the people serious concern. They would
 
 24)6 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 buy up our own farmers' grain, such as it is, at a good 
 price, and do the same with the American and other 
 grain. All would prosper, perhaps with the solitary excep- 
 tion of those who are now growing rich at the expense of 
 their country's thi^eatened ruin. . . . 
 
 " In the meantime, the subject is daily becoming one of 
 more terrible importance to the great mass of the people. 
 There is a fascination in alcohol so strong that its sale has 
 only to be introduced into a neighbourhood to make it 
 perfectly sure that it will carry everything before it. You 
 may educate and civilize as you can ; you may evangelize 
 in the best possible methods ; yet, if you keep up the 
 distribution of strong drink among a people, you may rob 
 them to any degree, and they will not even complain ! It 
 is incredible to what an extent the brewer and distiller 
 have men and women at their will — so is it incredible that 
 a Government can levy ten shillings of a tax on a liquor 
 that does not quite cost one shilling and fourpence. But, 
 however incredible, it is simple truth that so it is in reality ! 
 The very men who take the grain from our best fields, and 
 convert it into a fiery liquid, ruinous to soul and body, are 
 able to give ten shillings out of every eleven shillings and 
 fourpence to what is called ' the State,' and yet to make 
 large fortunes out of the remaining sixteenpence ! They 
 are able, too, to secure such a sentiment among a large 
 and influential portion of the community as surrounds 
 their amazing traffic with a sort of halo of respectability ! 
 And yet they dare not risk the power of licence for that 
 traffic on the vote of the ratepayers ! They dare not risk 
 it on the vote even of drunkai^is ! " 
 Mr. AViiiiam The following from Mr. William's Hoyle's pamphlet, 
 testimony ^^*'' ^CL^'ional Resources and hoiv they are Wasted, appeared 
 in the Alliance News (October 27, 1883) : — 
 
 " The policy has been, multiply the temptations to in- 
 temperance, and then fine the drunkard or send him to 
 prison. If he went on drinking till he or those dependent 
 upon him were impoverished, let him be packed off to the 
 workhouse. If by their dissipated conduct they lost their 
 characters and became vagi-ants, needing a night's lodging, 
 the policy was to make it unpleasant for them, and so 
 drive them to barns, brick-kilns, hay-ricks, or anywhere 
 else. If, when maddened by drink, or when impelled by
 
 SOCIAL RESULTS. 247 
 
 hunger, they committed crime, then their names were to 
 be put upon the black list, enrolled among the outcasts of 
 the nation, and over them was to be set the ever- watchful 
 eye of the policeman. And if their children rambled about 
 the streets uncared for, they were to be sent off to re- 
 formatory schools, where they would be supported and 
 trained at the expense of the good citizens of the com- 
 munity, and the parents relieved from the burdens and 
 expense of their charge, and thus enabled to have more 
 money and freedom wherewith to indulge in dissipation 
 and hurry on their own ruin. Such has been the policy 
 of our statesmen during the last thirty or forty years, and 
 to this policy we may attribute three-fourths, if not nine- 
 tenths, of the social evils that so grievously affect our land. 
 
 " During the entire period of the recent long depression 
 in trade, some very remarkable economic phenomena have * 
 presented themselves. In the first place, the warehouses 
 of the country have been crowded with goods wanting 
 customers, and side by side with these there have been 
 multitudes of persons in distress and want, needing the 
 goods which so overcrowded the warehouses. And then, 
 further, there have been the banks with their coffers 
 glutted with money seeking to be employed in carrying 
 out the purchase and the transfer of stocks in the ware- 
 houses to the backs and the homes of the people who were 
 in want ; at the same time wages have been comparatively 
 high, and the price of food has been low, thus giving a 
 large margin of the nation's income as available for invest- 
 ment in manufactured goods ; and yet the desired trade 
 has not come. How has this arisen ? 
 
 " There can only be one answer given to this question, 
 viz., the one given by the JEcoiiomist newspaper in its 
 annual trade review in 1876. The Economist then stated 
 that the dulness of trade arose from the fact that from 
 some cause or other the means of consumers had become 
 lessened ; or, in other words, people had become so 
 impoverished as to have no money with which to buy the 
 goods. 
 
 " What was it that had impoverished the people ? 
 There were several minor causes that had contributed to 
 this, chief among which were the bad harvests of the 
 country. The loss from this source was variously estimated
 
 248 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 in different years at from £20,000,000 to £50,000,000 
 per annum ; but the main cause of impoverishment was 
 this : the money which ought to have gone into the tills 
 of the grocer, the draper, the tailor, the furniture dealer, 
 etc., went into the till of the publican; £136,000,000 
 yearly thus spent, and another £100,000,000 sacrificed to 
 atone for the mischief which the expenditure of the 
 £136,000,000 caused, could have no other result than to 
 produce depression in trade. There was every element of 
 trade prosperity present, except the buying element, but, 
 unfortunately, that element, instead of applying itself to 
 the purchase of the goods which filled the warehouses, 
 wasted its resources at the public-house ; for instance, £4 
 per head were spent yearly in di'ink, and but eight shillings 
 on cotton goods, and so people were in poverty and rags, 
 and manufacturers could find no mai"ket for their goods. 
 
 " The question may arise in the minds of some of my 
 audience — What does it matter whether the money be 
 spent in dinnk or in manufactured goods, or in house- 
 building, or in improving land, or, indeed, in any way ? 
 for, it is said, does not the money circulate in the country 
 in one case just as much as in the other ? Let us look at 
 this point for a moment. 
 
 " I will suppose the case of one hundred men, each 
 earning £2 weekly. On an. average the men spend 12s. 
 per week each in drink, which, unfortunately, for many 
 men is not extravagant. At the eud of the year these one 
 hundred men will have spent £3120. Well, it is said, the 
 £3120 is not lost, for it is circulating through the country, 
 and, therefore, what does it matter how it is spent? 
 
 " Suppose, however, that instead of spending the 12s. 
 weekly in di'ink, they put the money into a building club 
 and invest it in building houses, the money would build 
 twenty houses worth £156 each, and at the end of the 
 year the £3120 would be circulating in the country just as 
 was the case when spent in drink. In the one case there 
 are £3120 circulating, plus nothing ; in the other case 
 there are £3120 circulating, plus twenty houses added to 
 the wealth of the nation. 
 
 " Let us pursue the comparison further. As a result 
 of the £3120 spent in drink, there would probably be 
 some hundreds of cases of drunkenness ; there would bo
 
 SOCIAL RESULTS. 249 
 
 neglect and loss of work ; there would often be cruelty 
 and misery at home ; there would be headaches, sickness, 
 accidents ; there would be neglect of families, pauperism, 
 crime, vagrancy ; there would probably be some addition 
 of persons to the unemployed population of the country, 
 and maybe also some parts of the families of the hundred 
 men would find their way down amongst the lapsed 
 masses of society. And there would further be the costs 
 and burdens resulting from this condition of things ; and 
 the waste of labour and cost of striving to neutralize and 
 remedy them. It is a low estimate to assume that from 
 these causes £2000 would be lost to society, in addition to 
 the £3120 of direct expenditure, or over £5000 in all. 
 
 " Let us follow the other expenditure in its results. 
 In the first place, we find some twenty or more men set to 
 work to build the houses. These, of course, would earn 
 weekly wages, and at the end of the week, themselves or 
 their wives would be ofB to the shops to purchase goods 
 for their families ; and besides this there would be the 
 absence of the drunkenness and misery which resulted 
 when, the money was spent in drink. 
 
 " In one case we have £3120 circulated, plus a further 
 indirect loss of some £2000, all of which is abstracted from 
 trade, plus resulting misery that is appalling. 
 
 " In the other case we get £3120 circulated, plus 
 twenty houses added to the nation's stock of wealth ; plus 
 employment found for twenty or more workmen ; plus 
 increased trade for the shopkeepers and naanufacturers ; 
 plus a diminished taxation owing to the absence of the 
 drink evil ; plus happiness to the families concerned, 
 instead of misery and maybe ruin. 
 
 " In order fully to appreciate the economic influence of 
 these two courses of action, we must carry the comparison 
 into the second year. The one hundred men who kept off 
 the drink start the year with twenty houses, valued at 
 £3120, whilst the others have nothing. If these houses 
 are let at 4s. each weekly, they will yield £200 per 
 annum, or it is an addition to the men's income of £2 each 
 yearly, for which the men do not work. The third year 
 it would be more, and the fourth year more again, and so 
 wealth would go on increasing, the demand for labour 
 would correspondingly grow, and along with both there
 
 250 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 "would be comfort and plenty instead of misery and 
 ruin. 
 
 " A moment's reflection will start the problem in the 
 mind of every thoughtful person ; if to redeem an ex- 
 penditure of £3120 from drink and transfer it to other 
 and legitimate channels, so much of economic and social 
 good results, what would have been the sum of the 
 economic and social good which would have resulted from 
 the redemption of the whole of the drink expenditure of 
 £136,000,000 yearly during the last ten years ? I fancy 
 that in such a case we should not have been here to-night 
 discussing problems, social, economic, etc., for the prob- 
 lems would have been solved, and the evils associated 
 with them would have disappeared. 
 
 " So far as economic result goes, waste of wealth is as 
 hurtful to trade and to the development of material pro- 
 gress when it occurs in the spending of money as in the 
 production of goods. For example, if a man with an 
 income of, say, 25s. weekly, throws 5s. of it into the sea, it 
 will be clear that he might as well only have an income of 
 20s. ; or if he does what is the same thing, squanders it in 
 a way that yields him no return of good, he would be 
 quite as well off financially and economically if his wages 
 were reduced to 20s. per week ; provided no portion of his 
 income were squandered away. 
 
 " But if the man spends his money in a way that not 
 only yields him no return of good, bvit which, instead of 
 good, entails evil upon him, upon his family, and perhaps 
 upon the community at large, then by the extent of the 
 losses and evils which result from such misspending of 
 money, to that extent is the waste of wealth still further 
 increased. If we assume that the damage resulting in 
 equal in extent, say, to four shillings, it will be clear that 
 society will be no better off than if the man's income were 
 only sixteen shillings, for the simple reason that, besides 
 the five shillings lost in the spending, there is four 
 shillings lost in damage done. 
 
 " It is an admitted fact in political economy that labour 
 is the chief, if not the only source of value, or, in other 
 words, of wealth. As a rule, things are valuable in pro- 
 portion to the cost of their production. It will follow, 
 therefore, that the labour of one week, if the income there-
 
 SOCIAL RESULTS. 251 
 
 from be properly expended, will create a demand for the 
 labour of the succeeding week. If, therefore, there were 
 only the current income fund to fall back upon, this, if 
 properly expended, would keep the industrial ball rolling ; 
 but when we remember that there is an accumulated 
 capital that seeks employment, and when we know that 
 money rightly laid out and labour rightly applied are 
 constantly reproducing themselves, and adding to the 
 capital stock which needs to find employment in purchasing 
 labour, or the pi-oducts of labour, which is the same thing, 
 it will be clear that there must be something terribly wrong 
 in our economical an^angements and habits, or it would 
 not be possible for pauperism and destitution to have a 
 place in our midst. 
 
 " But when one-fourth or one-third of the nation's 
 income is applied to purposes that yield no return of good, 
 but often of harm ; when we spend £136,000,000 yearly in 
 drink, and sacrifice £100,000,000 more to make good the 
 mischief which the drink does ; and when in many minor 
 ways we add to this waste, the total becomes a great one, 
 and is a constant draft upon the trading or buying fund of 
 the nation, and so it becomes impossible that the industrial 
 ball can be kept rolling, inasmuch as the fund needed to 
 secui^e this is so largely wasted ; for we cannot both waste 
 it and use it ; and we may try to amend our poor laws, we 
 may increase the repressive character of our criminal and 
 vagrant laws, we may seek to get better dwellings for the 
 working classes, we may labour to find work for our un- 
 employed population, or reform our land laws, and improve 
 the waste lands of the country — all good and many of them 
 very good in their way — but they can never compensate for 
 the waste of so much of the nation's income and wealth. 
 
 " If my hearers have been able to follow the facts and 
 arguments which have been adduced, they will probably 
 have come to the conclusion that the social questions which 
 give to our statesmen and philanthropists so much concern 
 would have no existence were it not for causes that we 
 ourselves set in operation. The question of how to secure 
 good trade, ensure fair and steady wages, provide work for 
 our unemployed population, remove the inequalities of 
 wealth and poverty which exist, how to banish pauperism 
 and vagrancy, and largely reduce crime and lunacy, how to
 
 Bayley. 
 
 252 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 lift Tip from degradation the lapsed masses of our country, 
 how to secure better dwellings for our working classes, 
 with other problems, are all bound up with the question of 
 the drinking habits of the nation ; remedy this, and all the 
 others will practically disappear." 
 Letter by Miss Mary Bayley writes in the Daily News (November 
 
 ^HssMary 19^ 1883) — 
 
 " Those of us who have long watched the steadily in- 
 creasing horrors of the homes of our London poor are 
 deeply thankful for the prominence you have lately given to 
 this subject. Your contributor says with truth that ' no 
 single reform, no single line of effort will meet the evil ; ' but 
 as regards both the small earnings mentioned, and the 
 doubt expressed whether even comfortable incomes would 
 avail much as things now are, I should like to call atten- 
 tion to the results of increased income in the past, and to 
 causes now adding to pressure in the labour market. The 
 five years which preceded 1877 were a time of unusual 
 prosperity in the way of earning money ; work was com- 
 paratively plentiful, and wages high. During those years 
 the increase in the consumption of intoxicating drink was 
 enormous ; the home consumption of cotton goods went 
 down eight per cent. Those who watched the homes of 
 the poor during those dreadful years state that their moral 
 condition then fell to a lower point than had ever been 
 known before. There were happy exceptions not a few ; 
 but to the vast majority the large sums earned brought 
 rather a diminution than an increase of all that is worthy 
 the name of prosperity. Turning now to the subject of 
 famine wages and competition for employment, even here 
 the door of prosperity is bolted and barred, not by want 
 of resources, but by our vices. When I retui^n from 
 homes whose belongings, all put together, would once have 
 failed to realize half a crown, and see that, though only 
 receiving the same wages as before, the reclaimed occupants 
 have become customers to the ironmonger, cabinet-maker, 
 crockery shop, linendraper, etc., I am at a loss to conceive 
 how great would be the natural increase in demand for 
 labour of all kinds if this change should become general. 
 And when reading the heartrending statistics of ill-paid 
 labour done by women, let us not forget that there are 
 tens of thousands of married women crowding up the
 
 SOCIAL RESULTS. 253 
 
 labour market who ought never to be there at all. I have 
 persuaded very many women to give up all paid labour, 
 and to devote themselves entirely to their families. I can 
 recall no instance where this change was not advantageous, 
 even pecuniarily, for the waste and destruction caused by 
 neglected children are indescribable. Where the wife has 
 to earn money the children are usually in rags. Just a 
 few indispensable articles of clothing are purchased ready- 
 made at a slop-shop, at a price so low one wonders how 
 anything can have been paid for making up. The mother 
 at home can encourage honest trade by buying decent 
 material which she makes up herself. But how is all this 
 possible while thousands upon thousands of pounds arc 
 swept into publicans' tills every Saturday and Sunday 
 night ? The sums that are still forthcoming to procure 
 intoxicating drink appear to me to disprove your contribu- 
 tor's statement that low wages are the main root of our 
 pi'esent distress. They are a fruit, though bearing seed, 
 it is true, and thus continually dropping fresh roots." 
 
 In his papers on " How the Poor live," published during George R. 
 the summer of 1883 in TJie Pictorial World, Mr. George R. f-How'^he 
 
 Sims says Poor live." 
 
 " The gin palaces flourish in the slums, and fortunes 
 are made out of men and women who seldom know where 
 to-morrow's meal is coming from. ... A copper or two 
 often obtained by pawning the last rag that covers the 
 shivering children on the bare floor at home, will buy 
 enough vitriol madness to send a woman home so besotted 
 that the wretchedness, the anguish, the degradation that 
 await her there have lost their grip. ... If I vs^ere asked to 
 say offhand what was the greatest curse of the poor, and 
 what was the greatest blessing, I think my answer to the 
 first query would be the public-house, and to the second, 
 the hospital." 
 
 And this from the Daily News (November 20, 1883) : — The testi- 
 " Speaking on Sunday night at the Great Central Hall, Mr.°Caine, 
 Shoreditch, which is within a stone's throw of some of the m.p. 
 London ' slums,' Mr. Caine, M.P., said that the question of 
 housing the London poor was one, he thought, in which 
 Parliament could help, not by building houses at the cost 
 of the State, but in removing as far as possible the causes 
 which resulted in the evils now being so widely discussed.
 
 254 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Canon 
 Farrar's 
 sermon on 
 drink in 
 Westminster 
 Abbey, Nov. 
 19, 1883. 
 
 George R. 
 Sims on 
 " Horrible 
 London." 
 
 Drink made the poor live where they did. Tales of poverty 
 had been told — how people had to make match-boxes at 
 2^d. per gross, how women had to work fourteen or fifteen 
 hours per day at shirt work ere they could earn a shilling, 
 how at waistcoat-making people could not get a living. 
 Why was it ? Because trade was depressed, was the 
 answer. Why was trade depressed? Because those who 
 wanted to buy could not buy. Who were those who 
 wanted to buy and could not ? People who took their 
 money to the public-house instead of laying the same out in 
 necessaries. If London next day became teetotal, £200,000 
 per week would be available. Two hundred thousand 
 families might have a pound per week each added to their 
 incomes." 
 
 On the occasion of the twenty-first anniversary of the 
 Church of England Temperance Society, November 19, 
 1883, a noble sermon on the drink evil was preached in 
 Westminster Abbey by Canon Farrar. 
 
 " We have beard much in these days," said he, " of 
 ' Horrible London,' and of the bitter cry of its abject. 
 What makes these slums so horrible ? I answer with 
 certainty, and with the confidence of one who knows — drink ! 
 What is the remedy ? I tell you every remedy you attempt 
 will be a miserable failure. I tell the nation with convic- 
 tion founded on experience that there will be no remedy till 
 you save these outcasts from the temptation of drink. Leave 
 the drink, and you might build them palaces in vain ; 
 leave the drink, and before the year is over your palaces 
 would be reeking with dirt and squalor, with infamy and 
 crime." * 
 
 Says Mr. Sims, in his paper on " Horrible London " in 
 the Daily News (November 23, 1883) — 
 
 " It is not fair to prove by facts and statistics the evil 
 of over-population and the evil of low wages, and to shrink 
 from revealing the evil of drink. That has to be removed 
 as w^ell as the others, and must be taken into account. 
 ... It is only when one probes this wound that one finds 
 how deep it is. Much as I have seen of the drink evil, it 
 was not until I came to study one special district, with a 
 view of ascertaining how far the charge of drunkenness 
 could be maintained against the poor as a body, that I had 
 * Church of England, Temperance Chronicle, Nov. 24', 1883.
 
 SOCIAL RESULTS. 255 
 
 any idea of tlie terrible extent to whicli this cause of 
 poverty prevails. 
 
 " Come to a coramon lodging-house, and see what class 
 of people fill the beds at fouvpence a night. Poor 
 labourers ? Yes. Loafers and criminals ? Yes. But 
 hundreds of men who have once been in first-class posi- 
 tions, and who have had every chance of doing well, are 
 to be found there also. 
 
 " For my purpose I will merely take the cases which 
 have di"ifted to the slum lodging-house through drink. 
 
 " The following have all passed recently through one 
 common lodging-house in one of the most notorious slums 
 of London : — 
 
 " A paymaster of the Royal Navy. 
 
 " Two men who had been college chums at Cambridge, 
 and met accidentally here one night, both in the last stage 
 of poverty. One had kept a pack of hounds, and succeeded 
 to a large fortune. 
 
 " A physician's son, himself a doctor, when lodging 
 here sold fusees on the Strand. 
 
 " A clergyman who had taken high honours. Last 
 seen in the Borough, drunk, followed by jeering boys. 
 
 " A commercial traveller and superintendent of a 
 Sunday school. 
 
 " A member of the Stock Exchange — found to be 
 suffering from delirium tremens — removed to work- 
 house. 
 
 " The brother of a clergyman and scholar of European 
 repute died eventually in this slum. Friends had ex- 
 hausted every effort to reclaim him. Left wife and three 
 beautiful children living in a miserable den in the neigh- 
 bourhood. Wife drinking herself to death. Children 
 rescued by friends and provided for. 
 
 " Brother of a vicar of a large London parish — died in 
 the slum. 
 
 " These are all cases which have passed through one 
 common lodging-house. What would the others show 
 had we the same opportunity of knowing their customers ? 
 These people have all been forced back on a rookery 
 through drink — sober, they need never have sunk so low 
 as that." 
 
 The following is quoted from the " Dustman's speech " The "Dust-
 
 256 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 mans 
 speech " in 
 Ex.ter Hall 
 (Nov. 21, 
 1833). 
 
 The con- 
 dition of 
 drunkards' 
 children. 
 
 at the Working-men's Meeting, November 21, 1883, in 
 Exeter Hall :— 
 
 " 1 say again, as a working man, that we have had 
 too much talk about a working man being robbed of 
 his liberty if he gives up intoxicating drink : that is 
 exactly when he gets his liberty. I say, God bless the 
 publicans and the distillers, and may they soon lose the 
 situation that they now have, for life to them is death to 
 us. 1 will show them why. If they lost their situations, 
 there would be more custom for other shopkeepers, and 
 the surroundings of neighbourhoods would be improved. 
 If there is anything that is interfering with the liberty 
 of the people at the present day, it is the consumption of 
 intoxicating drink." 
 
 As to the children of drunkards, the Alliance News 
 (September 27, 1879) says— 
 
 " Attention has of late been turned by correspondents 
 of Manchester to the poor children who are forced to pick 
 up a living in the streets at most untimely hours. The 
 writer of a letter in the Manchester Guardian, for example, 
 recounts how within half an hour of midnight he was 
 accosted by a lad of about eight years of age, who desired 
 him to buy a box of matches. The lad was crying bitterly, 
 and followed the writer a long way, beseeching him to 
 give him a penny for the box. Having been cheated 
 several times by children affecting great distress, the 
 writer ordered him rather gruffly to begone ; and he slunk 
 away, sobbing in a manner which went to the very heart. 
 Conscience compelled the hearer to turn back and question 
 the boy. He replied through his tears that he dared not 
 go home, because his mother would ' leather ' him, as he 
 had had bad luck that day. This precious mother, it 
 seems, had given him three-'halfpence in the morning, and 
 told him that he must not return until he had earned 
 sevenpence halfpenny, or else he would 'catch it.' He 
 invested one penny of this capital in two halfpenny boxes 
 of matches, which he sold in the course of the day for 
 one penny each. Then he bought another two, but had 
 only managed to dispose of one of them, leaving him at 
 that late hour with only twopence halfpenny and a box of 
 matches. His little brother had gone home before him, 
 and he could not help crying, as his mother always
 
 SOCIAL RESULTS. 257 
 
 ' leathered ' him if he did not come home with the money 
 in time. The lad was covered with rags and tatters from 
 head to foot, but he had an intelligent face, and spoke 
 both correctly and modestly. After rewarding him for his 
 information, the writer turned homeward, meditating on the 
 horrible fact that, with all our civilization, there should 
 exist parents who enslave their children, and deliberately 
 make their lives a blight to them and a curse to society. 
 
 " Subsequent revelations and reports of other letter 
 writers have shown beyond all doubt that children thus 
 abused always have parents who spend most of their 
 substance in drink. The child ragged and ill-used is ever 
 the drunkard's child. Education, clothing, food, home 
 care, all are swallowed down with the drink, and the poor 
 child is sent out with curses and threats to force sales on 
 a compassionate public, instead of being folded at home in 
 the arms of parental love. The philanthropists, whose 
 feelings are shocked on the discovery of so much cruelty, 
 at once set to work to devise some petty ameliorations and 
 palliatives. The children must, forsooth, be taken from 
 their parents, and thrust into industrial schools. Or there 
 must be a law passed forbidding children's sale of matches 
 or papers in the streets after a certain hour in the evening. 
 All the while the truth is overlooked, that so sure as 
 the existing cases of parental cruelty and of children's 
 nocturnal street-cries are dealt with, a new crop of 
 children, equally wretched, and equally needing deliver- 
 ance from their parents, will arise to point the finger of 
 scorn at the labours of the philanthropist. 
 
 " When a tree is evil, and brings forth evil fruit in 
 ceaseless profusion, they do nothing who confine their 
 efforts to the fruit. Clear away one crop, another still 
 succeeds ; and so it will be till Philanthropy, tired out, 
 folds her hands and sits down in sheer despaii\ But to 
 kill the root is to cut off the fruit ; and they who seek to 
 stop the sad fi'uit of drunken cruelty to children must go 
 down under the cruelty, which is the fruit, to the drunken- 
 ness, which is the stem of the tree, and again below that 
 to the liquor traffic, which is the root. Until this is done 
 nothing is done. The bitter crop removed, renews itself. 
 The hellish bough is torn away from the tree for a 
 moment; but uno avulso, non deficit alter."
 
 258 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Comparison 
 between the 
 revenue re- 
 turns from 
 drink in 
 prosperous 
 »nd un- 
 prosperous 
 years. 
 
 Address by 
 
 Cardinal 
 
 IVIanning. 
 
 Important 
 evidence of 
 Charles 
 
 Perhaps tlie best and most conclusive proof that drink 
 causes poverty, infinitely raore than poverty causes drink, 
 is seen by a comparison of the revenue returns in prosperous 
 and unprosperous years. 
 
 In the measure that England is prosperous the drink 
 bill increases ; on the other hand, in the measure that 
 trade and wages are depressed and the country poorer 
 thereby, the drink bill diminishes ; but if poverty were the 
 cause of drink, it would seem as if this would be exactly 
 reversed, i.e., in years of prosperity there should be less 
 intemperance, and vice versa. 
 
 " Can it be for a moment imagined that this great 
 commercial country, so wise and so skilful in all finance, 
 in all investments, and with its eyes open, can go on year 
 by year wasting a hundi^ed and forty millions of money in 
 the production of intoxicating drink, which when drunk is 
 gone ? Can there be a more complete waste ? Expend it 
 in the drainage of England and the culture of the land, 
 and there would be bread for the hungry mouths of the 
 people. Expend it in manufacture of cloth, and there 
 would be no man and no child without a coat upon his 
 back. Expend it in the building of houses fit for human 
 habitation, and there would not be a working man and 
 his family without a roof over his head. We talk of 
 profitable investments, and then waste a hundred and 
 thirty millions in the most unprofitable investment that 
 can be conceived by the imagination of man. Nay, I will 
 go further. It is not only waste. It has a harvest. It 
 is a great sowing broadcast. And what springs from the 
 furrow? Deaths; mortality in every form; disease of 
 every kind ; crime of every dye ; madness of evevj intensity ; 
 misery beyond the imagination of man ; sin, which it sur- 
 passes the imagination to conceive." * 
 
 That poverty, even when honourable and averse to 
 drink, can be coerced by its dire necessities into filling 
 the publican's till is seen in the digest of the Parliamentary 
 evidence on Drunkenness in 1834. 
 
 " (Charles Saunders called in and examined.) 
 
 " 383. What is your occupation ? — Coal-whipper. 
 
 * From an address on temperance delivered at Newcastle-on- 
 Tyne, by Cardinal Manning, and reported in the Alliance News, Sep- 
 tember 9, 1882.
 
 SOCIAL KESULTS 259 
 
 " 334. Have the goodness to state to the committee Saunders 
 the manner in which coal-whippers are engaged and paid, parlia-''^^ 
 — I have been in the habit of obtaining a living by coal- mentary 
 whipping for the last ten years. When I want employ- on'Drinkin 
 ment (me and the likes of me, of course) I have to go to 1834. 
 the publican to get a job, to ask him for a job ; and he 
 tells me to go and sit down and he will give me an answer 
 by-and-by. I go and sit down, and if I have twopence in 
 my pocket, of, course I am obliged to spend it, with a view 
 of getting a job; and probably, when two or three hours 
 have elapsed, by that time there is about fifty or sixty 
 people come on the same errand to the same person, for a 
 job. He keeps us three or four hours there ; and then he 
 comes out, and he looks round among us, and he knows 
 those well that can drink the most, and those are the 
 people that obtain employment first. Those that cannot 
 drink a great deal, and think more of their family than 
 others do, cannot obtain any employment ; those that 
 drink the most get the most employment. When the men 
 are made up for the ship, we go to work the next day 
 morning ; but we have to take what the publican calls 
 the alloiuance, such as a quartern of rum or three half- 
 quarterns, or a pot of beer ; then they have to take a pot 
 of beer off in a bottle on board — what he calls beer, but not 
 fit for a man to drink generally speaking; what I call 
 poison. I have actually teemed it overboard myself, before 
 I could drink it; I could not drink it, although I have 
 been sweating and as thirsty as a man could be, and have 
 put it overboard, and gone and dipped my bottle in a 
 backet of water. 
 
 "337. In the after part of the day, when your work 
 was over, where did you go then ? — Then when we had 
 done our day's work we came on shore, and we had to go 
 into the house again ; and perhaps we might want a 
 shilling or two to get our families a little support. The 
 landlord would tell us to go and sit down in the taproom, 
 and he would give us some by-and-by, and he would keep 
 us there till nine or ten at night; fii'st we would go for 
 a pint or a pot, to see whether he was getting ready, for 
 we dared not go empty handed, without a pot or a pint, 
 or to call for something by way of excuse. After keeping 
 us there until nine or ten at night, then he would give us 
 half a crown or three shillings.
 
 260 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Report of 
 the special 
 sanitary^ 
 commis- 
 sioner of the 
 Lancet ia 
 1872. 
 
 " 340. What would have happened if you had refused 
 to spend money in drink ? — Then we could have no employ- 
 ment ; and, moreover, if you had had what you thought 
 was requisite, if he did not think it was sufficient, he 
 would add more than what you had actually contracted 
 for ; and if you refused to pay this, and said, ' I have not 
 had so much, I won't pay it ' — ' Oh, won't you ? If you 
 do not, here is your money what you say it is ; go out and 
 never come in here again.' 
 
 " 341. Have you known anybody refused employment 
 because they would not contribute to the publican's demand 
 for drink ? — Yes ; I could find fifty. 
 
 " 342. Who have lost their employment because they 
 would not drink so much as the publican wished ? — Yes, 
 I could. 
 
 " 343. Could you not engage yourself to the captain of 
 the ship without going to the publican ? — No ; for the 
 publicans are some of them shipowners, and they are all 
 intermixed through the trade by one thing and another, 
 so that the captain or owner of the ship gives the favour 
 to the publican to employ the whippers." 
 
 A practical illustration of the degradation brought about 
 by drink and poverty combined is furnished in the report 
 of the special sanitary commissioner of the Lancet, made in 
 1872, in which the social condition of the poor at Liverpool 
 is thus described : — * 
 
 " There is here a form of poverty which can neither be 
 coaxed nor coerced ; fines are useless, imprisonment vain. 
 There are upwards of six thousand cellars occupied by 
 permission of the law, where at night drunkenness and 
 dirt, wretchedness and rags beggar description. The air 
 is redolent with broken sewers and human ordure ; it is 
 polluted with odours of filthy persons, foul rags, and 
 stinking fish. The very walls exhale a stench of vermin 
 and contagion. In not one room in ten is there a bed- 
 stead, in not one a wholesome bod. The inmates lie 
 upon the floor, from which they are separated by a bit of 
 straw or a bundle of dii-ty rags. Mothers and sons, 
 fathers and daughters, brothers and sisters, relations and 
 strangers of both sexes, lie indiscriminately together, many 
 
 * Since this date the sanitary condition of Liverpool slums has 
 been much improved.
 
 SOCIAL RESULTS. 261 
 
 of them all but naked, locked in each others' arms for 
 warmth." 
 
 In this fearful picture we see a condition — probably The meaning 
 chiefly due to intempei'ance, certainly greatly intensified and *" g^^^""^ 
 rendered hopeless by it — in which all distinctions by which degradation. 
 we know one another as worthy of life, hope, and love have 
 been destroyed. Six thousand such cellars in one city ! 
 
 Why, then, in that one city alone there must be physical 
 and moral poison enough to infect the whole social structure 
 of the world. But when we remember that Liverpool is 
 not alone, that there is no city without some such compost- 
 heap of vice, and remember, too, that unity of the race 
 which asserts itself, in vice as well as in virtue, over all 
 the most cleverly contrived and impregnable barriers of 
 class and caste, so that there is a mutual trickling and 
 percolating interchange of life-essence through the whole 
 stratification we call society ; then we begin to see some- 
 thinof of the tremendous danger and horror of the evil 
 
 o ... 
 
 that has been suffered to root itself with the life-roots of 
 the race. 
 
 To illustrate in part what I mean by saying that the 
 unity of the race overcomes the barriers of caste and class, 
 and asserts itself in vice as in virtue, I may point to the 
 invincible levelling power of the sexual passion — the power 
 given to us to inspire us to the highest plane of moral 
 being possible to this life, but by which we can, if we will, 
 sound the lowest abysses. It is the one touch of natirre 
 making the whole world kin ; making it kin on the pure 
 and lofty plane of pure and perfect home-life where sons 
 and daughters gi*ow up in the strengthening light of the 
 unselfish love which first united the husband and wife, 
 and now binds and inspires them in fatherhood and 
 motherhood ; making it kin in the populous world of the 
 merely pleasure-seeking ; and again making it kin in 
 those depths where it has sunk into the low and ravenous 
 sensual instinct of prey. 
 
 Wherever man exists, this one power, dominating for 
 good or ill, is our common inheritance and keeps oblite- 
 rating all external distinctions, drawing the race together, 
 and cementing life-relations in the present, and for 
 posterity, despite the strongest contrast and most insur- 
 mountable obstacles.
 
 2G2 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 " Why 
 sbuuld Lon- 
 don wait ? " 
 Daily 
 Telegraph, 
 Oct. 25, 1883. 
 
 Out of some of tliose six thousand cellars in Liverpool 
 — nests of utmost vice and degradation as they are — some 
 young girl may emerge, who, in spite of rags and dirt, and 
 every bad inheritance, may be fair, may have both wit and 
 pretty looks enough to catch the fancy of some gentleman's 
 son ; and if drink has done its usual work of strangling 
 the moral Kfe within him as inheritance and environments 
 have done it for her — the worst wrong that may follow 
 does follow, and if a child is born and lives, it may by an 
 advance in mental endowment take its vile moral heritage 
 where yet wider nemesis will be wi-ought. 
 
 For if those who dwell always in the safety and refine- 
 ment of real homes, imagine that the slums and dens of 
 vice are far fi'om them and theirs^that there can be 
 nothing in common between them, I must in conscience 
 hint that they may be making the dangerous mistake of 
 under-estimating the damning power of alcohol to obliterate 
 just those refined distinctions in which they trust. 
 
 Alcohol can and does lead the husbands, fathers, brothers, 
 and sons of just such prosperous homes into just such pits 
 of infamy. They do not go at once and with their eyes 
 open, but step by step, as surely as the drinking habit is 
 once formed. For alcohol is not satisfied with making men 
 act weakly and wrongly ; it will have them gravitate to 
 worse and worse, and is cunning to devise always some 
 lower and more blasting shame. It develops also that 
 other cunning of madness, quickness and watchful subtlety 
 to veil its ravages and deceive the solicitude of loving ones. 
 And the result is not only that besides the family we know 
 of, sheltered under the same roof with us, there are half- 
 brothers and half-sisters whom we never know, homeless 
 wanderers in friendless guilt and shame, or tenants of early 
 graves that cry louder than Abel's blood ; but the evil 
 comes home and the good wife and mother is made to un- 
 consciously impart the secret poison to her latest born. 
 
 Under the heading, " Why should London wait ? " the 
 Daily Telegraph (October 25, 1883) says, " It is, however, be- 
 ginning to be known Avhat cruel sights and scenes the wealth 
 and magnificence of London conceal. Men, women, and 
 children by hundreds of thousands exist among us in a 
 condition Avhich savages would scorn and beasts refuse to 
 bear. Without light, air, fresh water, or any of the veriest
 
 SOCIAL RESULTS. 263 
 
 necessities of human life, they are forced to congregate in 
 places wliere not only morality but the merest decency 
 becomes impossible. A majority among them are indus- 
 trious and patient people, eager to work while they can ; 
 for thieves, prostitutes, tramps, and beggars are, most of 
 them, better lodged than the victims of the vestry and the 
 caucus whose cause is now at stake. Into rotten and reek- 
 ing tenements they are di-iven helplessly by the process 
 which rebuilds the capital without making rightful provi- 
 sion for its weakest citizens, and their cry is drowned and 
 their sorrows overwhelmed in the ocean of existence which 
 surges around them. 'Every room,' says an explorer, 'in 
 these rotten and reeking tenements houses a family, often 
 two. In one cellar a sanitary inspector reports finding a 
 father, mother, three children, and four pigs ! In a room 
 a missionary discovered a man ill with small-pox, his wife 
 just recovering fi'om her eighth confinement, and the children 
 running about half- naked and covered with dirt. Here are 
 seven people living in one underground kitchen, and a 
 little dead child lying in the same chamber. Elsewhere is 
 a poor widow, her three children, and a child who had been 
 dead thirteen days. Her husband, who was a cabman, had 
 shortly before committed suicide. Here lives a widow and 
 her six children, including one daughter of twenty-nine, 
 one of twenty-one, and a son of twenty-seven. Another 
 apartment contains father, mother, and six children, two of 
 whom are ill with scarlet fever. In another nine brothers and 
 sisters, from twenty-nine years downwards, live, eat, and 
 sleep together. Here is a mother who turns her children 
 into the street in the early evening because she lets her 
 room for immoral purposes until long after midnight, when 
 the poor little wretches creep back again, if they have not 
 found some miserable shelter elsewhere.' Where there are 
 beds they are simply heaps of dirty rags, shavings, or straw. 
 Crime also, as a matter of course, spreads like a fungus in 
 decaying timber, where a child must make fifty-six gross 
 of match-boxes a day to earn the ten shillings a week which 
 thieving will easily bring him. There are women who 
 work at the needle seventeen hours per diem for the pay 
 of one shilling ! In St. George's-in-the-East large numbers 
 of children toil with their tiny fingers all day making sacks 
 at a farthing apiece ! One poor woman was found, con-
 
 264 THE FOUNDATIOX OF DEATH. 
 
 sumptive and emaciated, with a drunken husband and five 
 star\ang children ' eating a few green peas.' In a room at 
 Wych Street, ' on the third floor, over a marine store 
 dealer's, there was, a short time ago, an inquest as to the 
 death of a little baby. A man, his wife, and three children 
 were li\4ng in that room. The infant was the second child, 
 who had died, poisoned by the foul atmosphere ; and this 
 dead baby was cut open in the one room where its parents 
 and brothers and sisters lived, ate, and slept, because the 
 parish had no mortuary and no room in which post- 
 mortems could be performed ! ' In such abodes what room is 
 there for honesty, or faith, or hope ? Virtue herself departs, 
 ashamed, hopeless, and silent, fi^om ' homes ' where she has 
 nothing to offer, nothing to promise ; where Vice itself is 
 so miserable that it is more to be pitied than reproached. 
 
 " These are but slight and simple examples of the state 
 of things prevalent in the capital of Great Bi'itain ; widely, 
 notoriously, terribly prevalent ; of cases to be paralleled by 
 thousands and scores of thousands behind the splendid 
 streets and wealthy squares of London." 
 The Bitter From the little pamphlet entitled The Bitter Cry of 
 
 cast°Lmtd!on Outcast London, * I quote the following (showing the close 
 (1883). relation between drink, poverty, and shame) : — " The low 
 
 parts of London are the sink into which the filthy and 
 abominable fi^om all parts of the country seem to flow. 
 Entire courts are filled with thieves, prostitutes, and libe- 
 rated convicts. The misery and sin caused by drink in 
 these districts have often been told, but these horrors can 
 never be set forth either by pen or artist's pencil. In the 
 district of Euston Road is one public-house to every hundred 
 people", counting men, women, and children. Children who 
 can scarcely walk are taught to steal, and mercilessly beaten 
 if they come back from their daily expeditions without 
 money or raoney's worth. Many of them are taken by the 
 hand or carried in the arms to the gin-palace, and not 
 seldom may you see mothers urging and compelling their 
 tender infants to drink the fiery liquid. Lounging at the 
 doors, and lolling out of windows, and prowling about 
 street corners were pointed out several Avell-known members 
 of the notorious band of ' Forty Thieves,' who, often in 
 conspiracy with abandoned women, go out after dark to 
 
 * Issued by the Committee of tlie London Congregational Union.
 
 SOCIAL EESULTS. 265 
 
 rob people in Oxford Street, Regent Street, and other 
 thoroughfares. These particulars indicate but faintly the 
 moral influences from which the dwellers in these squalid 
 regions have no escape, and by which is bred ' infancy that 
 knows no innocence, youth without modesty or shame, 
 maturity that is mature in nothing but suffering and 
 guilt, blasted old age that is a scandal on the name we 
 bear.' " 
 
 § 65. The mortality from drink has been a much-disputed Mortality 
 question, and the many public utterances by men accounted 
 both competent and veracious have for some reason re- 
 ceived but slight attention fi^om the public ; and it is 
 perhaps not well known that the average figures now 
 generally accepted as approximately true have been com- 
 puted as long ago as in 1839. In the Rev. B. Parsons' statement by 
 Anti-Bacchus (1839) 1 find the following : — " At an inquest ^™"®'" . 
 held June, 1839, on a person who had died from the effects isse. 
 of intemperance, Mr. Wakley, coroner, made these remarks : 
 ' I think intoxication likely to be the cause of one-half the 
 inquests that are held.' Mr. Bell, the clerk of the inquests, 
 observed ' that the proportion of deaths so occasioned 
 were supposed to be three out of five.' ' Then,' said Mr. 
 Wakley, ' there are annually 1500 inquests in the Western 
 Division of Middlesex, and, according to that ratio, nine 
 hundred of the deaths are produced by hard diinking.' On 
 another occasion Mr. Wakley said, ' Gin may be thought 
 the best friend I have ; it causes me to hold annually one 
 thousand inquests more than I should otherwise hold. 
 Besides these, I have reason to believe that from ten to 
 fifteen thousand persons in this metropolis die annually 
 fi'om the effects of gin-dinnking, upon whom no inquests 
 are held.' These remarks appeared in most of the public 
 papers of the time, and are the more valuable because Mr. 
 Wakley, not long before he became coroner, spoke in the 
 House of Commons rather sneeringly of teetotalers ; the 
 observations made above were therefore extorted fi'om him 
 by the scenes he had witnessed." 
 
 In his Mortality of Intemperance (London, 1879) Dr. Testimony 
 Kerr says, " When, a few years ago, I instituted an man'^kerrr 
 inquiry into the causes contributing to the mortality in the 
 practice of several medical friends, it was with the avowed 
 object of demonstrating and exposing the utter falsity of
 
 266 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 the perpetual teetotal assertion, that 60,000 drunkards died 
 every year in the United Kingdom. 
 
 " I had not long pui'sued this line of inquiry before it 
 was made clear to me that there was little, if any, exagge- 
 ration in these temperance statistics ; and when asked to 
 present the final results of my investigation to the last 
 Social Science Congress, I was compelled to admit that at 
 least 120,000 of our population annually lost their lives 
 through alcoholic excess — 40,500 dying from their own in- 
 temperance, and 79,500 from accident, violence, poverty, or 
 disease arising from the intemperance of others." 
 
 The Marveian Society Report concludes that fourteen per 
 cent, of the mortality among adults is due to alcohol ; i.e., 
 about 39,000 in England and Wales, or 52,000 in Great 
 Britain ; thus the Harveian computation exceeds Dr. 
 Kerr's by 11,500. 
 
 On the occasion of the Jubilee of the British Medical 
 Association (held at Worcester, August, 1882), Dr. Kerr 
 reiterated his statements, and no one disputed their 
 accuracy ; it was even admitted that he was within the 
 truth. 
 SirWm.Gnii In a June number of the I^cho (1883) appeared a 
 infanticide? po'^'erful plea for the protection of infants, entitled Alco- 
 holic Infanticide. It stated that Sir W. Gull considered 
 alcohol as the " most destructive agent among the causes of 
 infant mortality," and cited the evidence of the coroners 
 concerning the fearfully frequent suffocation of helpless 
 little ones under the heavy bodies of their torpidly drunk 
 mothers — a kind of accident known as ' overlaying ; ' and 
 alluded to the weekly records of child-murder committed, 
 not from stupidity, but in the direct violence of the dxink- 
 frenzy, by braining the babe or casting it in the fire." The 
 Echo quoted Darwin, and Drs. Edis, Richardson, Bree, 
 and Elam, as testifying to great infant mortality from 
 drink, and to the evil hereditary results for those who 
 sui'vived. 
 
 The Lancet of about the same date suggested a frightful 
 significance for the overlaying mortality, to the effect that 
 it was by no means always accidental. 
 
 Mortality An appalling and pathetic feature in the drink mortality 
 
 deaiere."^'^*" Hst, and a most conclusive proof that drink is a foundation
 
 SOCIAL RESULTS. 267 
 
 of death, is ftirnislied by the statistics of death among the 
 liquor dealers themselves. 
 
 Dr. Kerr, in the essay just quoted from, says, " The Estimate of 
 mortality of piiblicans is so serious that the Registrar- '' 
 General's reports show that 138 die for every 100 em- 
 ployed in 70 leading occupations ; and in his last annual 
 report he draws attention to the remarkable increase in the 
 rate of mortality among grocers at every group of ages 
 since they have begun to retail spirits." 
 
 Mr. David Lewis, ex-raagistrate of the city of Edin- statement 
 burgh, in his Drink Problem and its Solution (1881), says DavidLewis. 
 — " So fi^equent have premature deaths become among 
 publicans, that one of the most wealthy and popular life 
 assurance associations in the kingdom (the Scottish 
 Widows' Fund) has issued a circular to all its agents in- 
 structing them that in future the life of no publican can 
 be insured upon any terms whatever. This example, we 
 observe, is being followed by several other associations in 
 this country and America." 
 
 And the General Assurance Office, on the 18th of Notice issued 
 February, 1881, issued a notice, which stated — " That in A"ssurance 
 consequence of the excessive mortality experienced in the Office in 
 
 . «/ L ^ 1881 
 
 case of innkeepers whose lives have been assured with 
 the company, it is hereby notified that from this date 
 the directors will not undertake these risks on any 
 terms." 
 
 Concerning the mortality among public-house keepers, statement 
 Dr. Edmunds, in his Use of Alcohol as a Medicine (1867), Edmunds, 
 says — • 
 
 " You will find that thirty per thousand of those die 
 every year where the normal average of other men is fifteen 
 — that is, where one workman dies two publicans die. Can 
 we account for that in any way ? What should we expect 
 if we looked into these facts ? The publican is better 
 clothed than the working man ; he is better housed and 
 better fed, and less exposed to casualty and accident which 
 occur to men in laborious, mechanical, and other trades ; 
 and therefore we should expect that the publican would 
 live longer than the ordinary working man. And so he 
 would, if it were not for this one fact which comes in — he 
 is mixed up with alcoholic liquors ; he is not, as a rule, a 
 drunkard, but he takes that which damages his stomach.
 
 268 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 a good many times a day, out of com.pliment to some friend 
 who asks him to take a drink ! " 
 
 Kelative 
 longevity of 
 drinkers and 
 abstainers, as 
 furnished by 
 the United 
 Kingdom 
 Temperance 
 and General 
 Provident 
 Institution 
 for Mutual 
 Life 
 Insurance. 
 
 As to the relative healthfulness of temperance or drink 
 the tables yearly made up by the United Kingdom Temper- 
 ance and General Provident Institution for Mutual Life 
 Insurance (established 1840) afford conclusive practical 
 evidence. The secretary of this institution, Mr. Thomas 
 Cash, kindly furnished me with the following condensed 
 but lucid statement : — 
 
 
 Expected 
 Claims. 
 
 1866-70 (five years) 
 1871-75 (five years) 
 1876-80 (five years) 
 1881-82 (two years) 
 
 549 
 723 
 933 
 439 
 
 Total (17 years) ... 
 
 2644 
 
 Temperance Section. 
 
 Actual. 
 
 General Section. 
 
 Expected 
 Claims. Actual. 
 
 411 1008 944 
 
 511 1268 1330 
 
 651 1485 1480 
 
 288 647 585 
 
 1861 4408 4339 
 
 Statement of 
 W. B. Robin- 
 son. Chief 
 Constructor, 
 R.N. 
 
 It will be seen from this that the claims in the tem- 
 perance section are only a little over seventy per cent, of 
 the expectancy, while in the general section they are but 
 slightly below the expectancy. 
 
 W. B. Robinson, Chief Constructor, R.N., in a paper 
 on The Value of Life being increased hy taking no 
 Intoxicating Drinks, read before the Economic Section of 
 the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 
 September 22, 1883, said that " The Sceptre Life Associa- 
 tion states that during ' the eighteen years of our history 
 ending December 31, 1882, we had 116 deaths in our 
 temperance section, against 270 expected deaths,' and in 
 ' this year, 1883, the same disproportion prevails, as we 
 have had fifty-one deaths, and only seven of them on the 
 lives of abstainers, whereas to be equal with non-abstainers 
 there should have been nineteen.' 
 
 " In the Emperor Life Assurance Office they have a 
 temperance branch, and they assure lives at a ' less rate 
 than moderate drinkers, thus giving them an immediate 
 bonus of from £3 to £7, according to age, on each £100 
 assurance.' 
 
 " In some accidental offices the assumed superior lives
 
 SOCIAL RESULTS. 269 
 
 of abstainers is recognized by a charge of 20 per cent, less 
 to teetotal than to moderate drinkers." * 
 
 § 66. Schlegel said, when this century was in its dawn — 
 " Drinking is the principal cause of insanity and suicide in schiegei on 
 England, Germany, and Russia, of licentiousness and drink as a 
 gambling in France, and of bigotry in Spain." sanitvand 
 
 Dr. F. Ganghofner, of Prague, in his address on the ^^i'^''^'^- 
 Influence of Alcohol on Man (Prague, 1880), says, "It is Dr. Gang- 
 estimated that in the asylums of America, England, and Hefner's 
 
 */ ' o ' cstinia,t6 of 
 
 Holland, the total number insane from drink ranges from alcoholic 
 15 to 20 per cent., and from 20 to 28 per cent, in the In^'Am^rica 
 asylums of France." England, and 
 
 In the Journal of Mental Science (April, 1869), Dr. ^''^^'"^■ 
 Lockhart-Robertson computes for England and Germany, Dr. Lock- 
 in 1844, one lunatic to every 808 inhabitants, and in 1868 so^^^o^l"*" 
 one lunatic for every 432 inhabitants. putation for 
 
 The third report on intemperance before the Select Gefma"ny'^"'* 
 Committee of the House of Commons shows, from 1865 to House of 
 1875, an increase in population of 13 per cent., in lunacy E°p™t°for 
 of 67 per cent., and in drunkenness of 130 per cent. from isea 
 
 Mr. Hoyle states that " The number of lunatics in *° ^** ^' 
 asylums and workhouses in the United Kingdom will be Mr. Hoyie on 
 slightly over 100,000, besides many not in asylums. In fnsan?ty^in 
 England and Wales, in the year 1860, there were 38,038, England and 
 but in 1880 they had increased to 71,191, being nearly 
 double, although the population had only increased 28 per 
 cent." 
 
 And I may add that, according to the last report of the 
 Commissioners of Lunacy, "the total number of lunatics, Last report 
 idiots, and persons of unsound mind, reo-istered as being: ^^}^^ "^'o™- 
 
 • -^^ ^ i ixr i i t p t missioners of 
 
 insane, m England and Wales, on the 1st of January, 1883, Lunacy. 
 was 76,765 ! " • 
 
 Dr. Edgar Shepherd, Medical Superintendent of Colney 
 Hatch Lunatic Asylum, stated a few years ago publicly that Dr. Shep- 
 he believed that 40 per cent, of the insanity in Great herd's state- 
 Britain was the result of drink. f In his annual report for 
 
 * For further information on this most practical point, see The 
 Comparative Death-Rate of Total Abstainers and Moderate Drinlcers 
 by Dr. C. R. Drysdale, in Med. Temp. Journal (Jan., 1884), The Vital 
 Statistics of Total Abstinence, by the Rev. Dawson Burns (March, 
 1884). 
 
 t Med. Chirurgical Journal, 1876.
 
 270 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Statements 
 by Earl 
 Sbaftesbury. 
 
 1877, Dr. Shepherd repeated this statement in these 
 words : — " A careful analysis of the year's admissions 
 clearly established a percentage of more than 28 as due to 
 this cause (intemperance), and I am persuaded, from the 
 character of the individuals and the form of their malady, 
 in other cases where the causation is not assigned or can- 
 not accurately be traced, that an addition of 12 per cent, 
 may directly or indirectly be attached to the same origin. 
 Thus we have an approximate record of 40 per cent, of the 
 madness of Middlesex as due to an unavoidable cause, and 
 that cause the growing passion for drink." 
 
 And again in January, 1882, he said, "I have seen no 
 reason to alter my opinion, so frequently expressed, as to 
 the part played by alcoholic intemperance in its causal 
 relation to insanity. Ko doubt many cases occur in which 
 some mental disturbance, generated by what is termed a 
 moral cause — notably loss of money or friends — leads, in 
 the first place, to excessive imbibition ; but I am per- 
 suaded that the prime mover of all that is disarranging is 
 intemperance. 
 
 And Dr. Pritchard Davies, Medical Superintendent 
 of the Barming Heath Asylum, says in the report for 
 November, 1883, " Believing, as I do, that the predis- 
 posing causes of insanity are very numerous, 1 am equally 
 convinced that but for the potent exciter alcohol, insanity 
 would be decreased by at least 50 per cent." 
 
 Earl Shaftesbury, permanent chairman of the Lunacy 
 Commission since 1845 (and acting chairman for many 
 years, having been on the Commission some fifty years), in 
 his reply to Hon. Stephen Cane, chairman of the Lunacy 
 Commission of the House of Commons, 1877, said that in 
 his opinion " intemperance is the cause of fully two-thirds 
 of the insanity that prevails either in the drunkards 
 themselves or their children ; " and in a recent address 
 in the House of Lords he stated that "fully six-tenths of 
 all the cases of insanity to be found in these realms 
 and in America arise from no other cause than intem- 
 perance." * 
 
 * If the reader will examine the table of causes from the thirty- 
 seventh Report of the Commissioners of Lunacy, July, 1883 (see 
 Appendix), and remember that to this percentage of lunacy we may 
 fairly add a large percentage of the other causes as being indirectly
 
 SOCIAL KESULTS. 271 
 
 Mr. Mulhall, tbe -world-statistician, in his contribution 
 on Insanity, Suicide, and Civilization, to the Contemporary 
 Review (June, 1883), scouts Lord Shaftesbury's estimate, 
 but admits that insanity in England caused by drink 
 amounts to nearly one-third of the total insanity of the 
 British kingdom ; besides which, he numbers 25,800 idiots 
 as owing their condition to drunken parentage. 
 
 Dr. Gilchrist, M.D., Medical Superintendent of the Dr. Gii- 
 Crichton Royal Institution, Dumfries, which has an average ^o"y ** ''^*''' 
 of some five hundred inmates yearly, stated before the 
 Lunacy Commission of 1877 that the larger proportion of 
 dipsomaniacs are " the most hopeless, in fact, of all cases 
 of insanity ; they are constitutionally defective." 
 
 Mr. Heatou, one of the Commissioners of Lunacy, 
 recently mentioned to me a case of a bi'illiant lady who 
 had now for the thirtieth time been brought to the asylurn 
 insane from drink. 
 
 In the above-mentioned article Mr. Mulhall also makes 
 this peculiar statement : — 
 
 " No one ever yet went mad from wine, any more than 
 from eating cabbage, although the ancients had that im- 
 pi-ession. It is when nations discard the use of wine for 
 stronger stimulants that insanity spreads devastation 
 among the masses." 
 
 French statistics of deaths for 1883 show that in three 
 French provinces, whose population was not one-tenth of 
 that in five others, but whose consumption of drink was 
 three times as great, there were 140 suicides, while in the 
 other five departments there were only sixteen ! 
 
 As at least 20 to 28 per cent, of the insanity in 
 French asylums is alcoholic, and as wine is the chief 
 drink of the Frenchman, the question is — was it wine or 
 cabbage ? 
 
 In a letter to the Times (September 5, 1883), William Mr. Hoyie 
 Hoyle says, " The returns of lunacy show that its increase fynac^"'^"''*^ 
 has been even greater than that of crime. In 1852 the England and 
 numbers of lunatics in England and Wales were 21,158 ; in ^^*^®^- 
 1881 the numbers were 73,113." 
 
 occasioned by drink (heredity over one-half), it will be apparent 
 that Lord Shaftesbury's report is not likely to prove an esacrgeration 
 ■when this subject has received even more close scientific investigation 
 than at present.
 
 272 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Dr. T. S. Clouston,* in his lecture on The Effects of the 
 Excessive Use of Alcohol on the Mental Functions of the 
 Brain, delivered to the students of the University of 
 Edinburgh (December 19, 1883), said, "We know as a 
 statistical fact that from fifteen to tvrenty per cent, of the 
 actual insanity of the country is produced by the excessive 
 use of alcohol. In that case, as we have about one person 
 to every thi^ee hundred in the population insane, it follows 
 that one person in every two thousand of our people, 
 counting men, women, and children, become insane, and 
 deprived of their reason, of their power of action, of their 
 power of enjoyment, and of their personal liberty from 
 this cause. This makes about 17,500 pex-sons at any one 
 given time in the British Empire who are so incapacitated 
 by reason of mental alienation, produced through the 
 excessive and continuous use of alcohol. These people are 
 as good as dead while they are insane ; they do no work 
 for the world or in the world, and all that makes life 
 worth having to them, they are deprived of. In these 
 cases you have got to the acme of the bad effects of 
 alcohol on the mental functions of the brain ; you have 
 arrived, as it were, at the worst that alcohol can do to a 
 man's mental functions, and you will all admit that it is a 
 bad enough result, and it occurs in the large number of 
 cases I have mentioned. 
 
 " But you must remember that these numbers are 
 merely of those so well known as to be available for 
 statistics, merely the registered persons who have been so 
 ill as to have been sent to asylums through the excessive 
 use of alcohol. For every one of these who had become 
 really insane, there are no doubt a large number who have 
 become partially affected in mind, but not to such an 
 extent as that it has been necessary to deprive them of 
 their liberty, but who, nevertheless, are aft'ected in mind 
 through the excessive use of alcohol to some extent, and 
 who are many of them partially insane." 
 
 And W. J. Corbet, M.P., in a striking paper. Is Insanity 
 on the Increase ? {Fortnightly Eevieiv, April, 1884) says 
 that after being engaged " for many years, and under 
 special circumstances, in studying the statistics of insanity, 
 
 * Physician Superintendent of the Eoyal Edinburgh Asylum at 
 Momingside, the largest insane asylum in Scotland.
 
 SOCIAL RESULTS. 
 
 273 
 
 I^haye reluctantly come to the conclnsion that facts and 
 figures establish clearly the progressive growth of the 
 malady." He summarizes his facts and figures in the 
 subjoined table : — 
 
 Date. 
 
 Country. 
 
 No. of 
 insane. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Ratio of 
 
 insane per 
 
 1000. 
 
 1862 
 
 England 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Total 
 
 England 
 
 Ireland 
 Scotland 
 
 Total 
 
 England 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Total 
 
 41,129 
 8,055 
 6,341 
 
 20,336,476 
 5,798,967 
 3,062,294 
 
 2-02 
 1-36 
 21 
 
 
 55,525 
 
 29,197,737 
 
 1-81 
 
 1872 
 
 58,640 
 
 10,767 
 
 7,606 
 
 23,074,600 
 5,368,696 
 3,339,226 
 
 2-54 
 2-04 
 2-26 
 
 
 77,013 
 
 31,782,522 
 
 2-41 
 
 1882 
 
 75,072 
 13,444 
 10,335 
 
 25,798,922 
 5,294,438 
 3,695,456 
 
 9-90 
 2-54 
 2-80 
 
 
 98,851 
 
 34,788,814 
 
 2-8 
 
 And thus comments thereon : " It is singular to note 
 that, save that the ratio of insane to sane is greatest 
 in England and least in Irelaud, the conditions through- 
 out are so alike as to be almost identical. The actual 
 growth of numbers is continuous and regular, as if 
 influenced by some inscrutable law ; there is a steady 
 unchecked cun^ent of increase, in accommodation, expen- 
 diture, numbers, and, strangest of all, in ' cures.' It 
 would be only wearisome to enter more fully into statisti- 
 cal details ; any one who wishes and has leisure can 
 scrutinize them for himself. The plain fact stands out, 
 however others may try to disguise it in words, that in 
 the brief course of two decades the insane in the three 
 kingdoms have nearly doubled in number, in spite of 
 the most elaborate and costly means provided to cure 
 them. There is, moreover, another alarming feature, in 
 that we evidently do not yet know the worst. The 
 ominous words, ' inadequate accommodation ' and 'increase 
 
 T
 
 274 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Sanger on 
 alcohol as a 
 cau'fe of 
 prostitution. 
 
 of provision,' run ttrongli the whole series of reports 
 fix)m beginning to end." 
 
 After saying that alcohol is a ctief cause in the pro- 
 duction of insanity, and having quoted the already 
 mentioned statement made by Lord Shaftesbury before 
 the Select Committee, Mr. Corbet says — 
 
 " I go a step further, and hold that there is abundant 
 evidence to prove that to dissipation, drunkenness, and 
 moral depravity, either directly or consequentially by 
 transmission to the next generation, is to be charged an 
 immense proportion of the annual increase of lunacy. No 
 person of authority, I think, will be found to deny that 
 evil and corrupt living in the parents bears fruit in an 
 unhealthy state both of body and mind in their offspring. 
 In the lower animals the transmission not only of generic 
 qualities, but even of individual singulai'ities, is a familiar 
 fact ; so with mankind it is not to be expected that a pure 
 stream will issue from a polluted source ; and how foul 
 and corrupt that source must be, any one who sees the 
 habits of the swarms of unfortunate creatures who nightly 
 crowd the streets of any of our great cities may determine 
 for himself. ... It is said that people nowadays are 
 impatient of restraint, and betray a tendency to abandon 
 all attempt at self-discipline and to yield to every impulse, 
 whether good or bad. If true, it is sad indeed, for it is, 
 and from time immemorial has been, an indication of 
 national decay. The great empires of old perished, not 
 from sudden and violent convulsions, but from the moral 
 degradation of their people, from internal rottenness 
 amounting to national insanity. Quern deus vult perdere 
 prius dementaty 
 
 In Sanger's History of Prostitution, its Extent, Causes, 
 and Effects (New York, 1858), we read — 
 
 " Apart from the drinking system, which I believe to be 
 the most prolific source of prostitution in Britain, the 
 following may be stated as among the principal causes : 
 one-fourth from being servants in inns and public-houses 
 and beer-shops, etc. Were the disuse of alcoholic drinks, 
 except under medical treatment, to become general, in six 
 months we should be rid of prostitution by at least one- 
 half." * 
 
 * In the House of Commons' Committee on Drink (1834) it waa
 
 SOCIAL RESULTS. 275 
 
 In a summing lap of the general results brought about summary of 
 m this country (England) by drink, I can hardly do better ^'J'nk ?aid "" 
 than quote the results summarized in the voluminous report before the 
 on drink laid before the Belgian Chambers of Representa- chambers by 
 tives by the then Minister of Instruction, Frere-Orban Frere-Orbaa 
 (Brussels, 1868), in which the following facts are given as 
 the drink results for England : — 
 
 1. Nine-tenths of the paupers (of whom, according to 
 Hoyle, there were over three and a half millions in 1881). 
 
 2. Three-fourths of the criminals. 
 
 3. One-halt' the diseases. 
 
 4. One-third of the insanity. 
 
 5. Three-fourths of the depravity of children and young 
 people. 
 
 6. One-third of the shipwrecks. 
 
 As to the condition in Belgium, the London Daily 
 News (March 8, 1884) says — 
 
 " A statement just issued by the Belgian Patriotic 
 League against Drunkenness thus sums up the present 
 aspect of the great drink question in Belgium : The 
 number of public-houses in that country, which was 53,000 
 in 1850, had increased to 125,000 in 1880, and is now 
 130,000. The number of suicides ■ during the last forty 
 years has increased 80 per cent., the number of insane 
 104 per cent. ; of convicts 135 per cent. Of the workmen 
 who die in the hospitals 80 per cent, are habitual drunkards. 
 The conclusion arrived at by the league is that the Belgians 
 are the most intemperate people in the world." 
 
 § 67. As to the United States, Mr. H. A. Thomson read 
 an able paper at the Melbourne International Conference, 
 1880, in which he said — 
 
 " Dr. Edward Young, chief of the Bureau of Statistics, 
 Washington, estimated the cost of liquor to the nation in Dr. Edward 
 1867 to be about 600,000,000 dollars. The estimate should J^^Z"'"''^^ 
 be much greater now. Dr. Hargreaves, in Our Wasted drink bin of 
 Resources (New York, 1876), makes the cost in 1872 to be states"'^ 
 735,720,048 dollars. Add to this direct cost the conse- 
 quential cost, and we have a drain upon the nation annually 
 of 1,500,000,000 dollars. Upon the basis of Dr. Young, 
 
 stated that at a dinner-party where the guests were nearly all dis- 
 tillers, one of them gave this toast — " The distillers' best friend, the 
 poor prostitutes of London ! "
 
 276 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 tlie cost of intoxicating beverages in the United States was 
 one-sixth of the value of its manufactures, which in 1870 
 were 4,232,325,442 dollars ; one-fourth of all the farm pro- 
 ductions and additions of stock in that year, valued at 
 2,447,538,658 dollars. All the slaughtered animals, home 
 manufactures, fi-uit products, market garden and orchard 
 products, which were in value 527,242,403 dollars, were 
 92,182,707 dollars less than the cost of our nation's di'inl: 
 bill. In the same year oiu' drink bill was 145,621,273 
 dollars more than the value of all furniture and house 
 fixtures . . . which were valued at 473,803,837 dollars, 
 and of all the articles of wear, including boots and shoes, 
 hats and caps, hosiery, etc., manufactured in the country. 
 Again, the value of all the food preparations of 1870 was 
 19,059,539 dollars less than the cost of the nation's drink 
 bill. We are shown by the same author that the cost of 
 liquor for ten years is nearly two-thirds of the assessed 
 value (9,914,780,825 dollars) of all the real estate in the 
 United States ; while the assessed value of all the personal 
 propei-ty (4,264,205,907 dollars) is but little more than 
 two-thirds of our drink bill for ten yeai'S." 
 
 Jir. Powell, And at the Crvstal Palace Temperance Jubilee (Sep- 
 
 on'TbriTquor Member, 1882), Mr.' Powtjll, of New York, read a paper of 
 
 industry of the same import, stating that — 
 
 statS!"""* " There were in 1881, 5210 distilleries. These consumed 
 
 31,291,146 bushels of grain, with an aggregate production 
 of 117,728,150 gallons of proof spirits. For the fiscal year 
 ending June 30, 1882, the total amount of revenue to the 
 National Treasury from distilled spirits was 69,873,408.18 
 dollars; from fermented liquors 16,153,920.42 dollars. The 
 total beer production for the same period, as reported to 
 the Internal Revenue Department, was 16,952,085 barrels. 
 A brewers' authority gives the number of breweries at 
 2830, and estimates that there are 1,681,870 acres of land 
 under cultivation for barley and hops. The author of 
 Our Wasted Resources gives the annual liquor bill of the 
 United States at 735,000,000 dollars. In 1880, according 
 to the record of the Internal Revenue Department, there 
 were of wholesale dealers in distilled spirits, 40!i5 ; of retail 
 dealers, 166,891 ; of wholesale dealers in fermented liquors, 
 2065 ; of retail dealers, 8952 ; an aggregate of both whole- 
 sale and retail dealers in both distilled and fermented
 
 SOCIAL RESULTS. 
 
 277 
 
 liquors of 181,973. Counting 1000 to a regiment, we have 
 a liqaor-selling army of 181 regiments, commissioned by 
 the Government of the United States to perpetuate the 
 kingdom of unrighteousness and to obstruct the onward 
 progi'ess of the temperance reform." 
 
 A recent number of the Xew York Temperance Advocate The New 
 gives the following summaiy of liquor revenue in the 
 .United States : — 
 
 Fiscal years ended 
 June 30. 
 1863 
 1864 
 1865 
 1866 
 1867 
 1868 
 1869 
 1870 
 1871 
 1872 
 1873 
 1874 
 1875 
 1876 
 1877 
 1878 
 1879 
 1880 
 1881 
 1882 
 
 Receipts from dis- 
 tilled ^pilits. 
 
 Dollars. Dollars. 
 
 5,176,530 1,628,934 
 
 30,329,149 2,290,009 
 
 18,731,422 3,734,928 
 
 33,268,172 5,220,553 
 
 33,542,952 6,057,501 
 
 18,655,631 5,955,769 
 
 45,071,231 6,099,879 
 
 55,606,094 6,319,127 
 
 46,281,818 7,389,502 
 
 49,475,516 8,258,498 
 
 52,099,372 9,324,938 
 
 49,444,090 9,304,680 
 
 52,081,991 9,144,004 
 
 56,426,365 9,571,281 
 
 57,469,430 9,480,789 
 
 50,420,816 9,937,052 
 
 52,570,285 10,729,320 
 
 61,185,509 12,829,803 
 
 67,153,975 13,700,241 
 
 69,873,408 16,153,920 
 
 York 
 
 Temperance 
 Advocate ou 
 „ . „ „ the liquor 
 Receipts from f^r- revenue of 
 mented liquors, the United 
 
 States (1863- 
 
 1882). 
 
 Total dollars 
 
 904,863,756 163,130,728 
 
 The Evening Standard (February 10, 1883), quoting London 
 from the just issued report of the National Bureau of f/*"^^. 
 Statistics for the United States, says — liquor con- 
 
 " The consumption (not manufactured) of distilled thruuited"^ 
 spirits during the years 1878, 1879, 1880, 1881, and 1882 states, 
 respectively, was 57,111,982, 54,278,475, 63,526,694, 
 70,607,081, and 73,556,036 gallons. For the same years the 
 consumption of wines, native and foreign, was 19,812,675, 
 24,532,015, 28,484,428, 24,231,106, and 25,628,071 gallons. 
 But the chief increase has been in malt liquors, which aggTe- 
 gated 310,653,2.53, 345,076,118, 414,771,690, 444,806,373, 
 and 527,051,236 gallons. 
 
 As to the drink traffic in N'ew York city, the New York The yeiu
 
 )H\ 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH, 
 
 York fferald 
 on the num- 
 ber of rum- 
 shops in New 
 York City. 
 
 Dr. Howard 
 < 'rosby on 
 the same 
 subject. 
 
 The condi- 
 tion of Bir- 
 mingham in 
 this respect ; 
 the evidence 
 of Mr. J. 
 Chamber- 
 lain, M.P. 
 
 The Pall 
 Mall Gazette 
 on the num- 
 ber of public- 
 houses in 
 proportion 
 to tlie in- 
 habitants of 
 the various 
 States of the 
 Union. 
 
 Herald (February 26, 1883) comments to the effect that 
 there are over ten thousand rum shops in the city of New 
 York, or one to every 125 inhabitants, one to every 25 
 families. "Various shops and stores where bread, meat, 
 and groceries can be procured foot up 7326 ; in other 
 words, there are 2749 more rum shops than food shops in 
 New York city." But, as regards London, as long ago as 
 1835, Mr. Mark Moore, in his evidence before the Parlia- 
 mentary committee on drink, stated that the number of 
 places for the sale of distilled spirits exceeded that of 
 bakers, butchers, and fishmongers together. 
 
 In a lecture delivered also in 1883, on the Glori/ and 
 Shame of New York, Dr. Howard Crosby said that there 
 were 12j0P0 grog shops in New York city, or one to every 
 hundred inhabitants. 
 
 But deplorable as these figures are, they do not measure 
 with some Great Britain fui'nishes. For example, at the 
 annual licensing sessions held at Birmingham, September 6, 
 1883, deputations from the Good Templars and the United 
 Kingdom Alliance " presented memorials against the grant- 
 ing of new licences, and urged the magistrates to withhold 
 others which were not absolutely necessary. Birmingham, 
 it was stated, had 22^0 licensed Jiouses, or orj£. td'every 35, 
 inhabitants. J. Chamberlain, MrFI7i^ his evidence before 
 the Lords Committee on Intemperance (1879), stated that 
 " out of seventy large towns, fifty have m ore pu blic-houses 
 than Bir ming ham." """ 
 
 Concerning public-houses in America, the Pall Mall 
 Gazette for May 4, 1883, furnishes the following statistics: — 
 
 " In N evad a there is one drinking saloon to every 65 
 inhabitants"; in Colorado, 'one to every Vof in California, 
 one to every 99 ; the rest of the States supplying the 
 following number of inhabitants to each drinking saloon : 
 — Oregon, 176; New Jersey, 179; New York, 192; 
 Louisiana, 200 ; Ohio, 225 ; Connecticut, 246 ; Massa- 
 chusetts, 256 ; Delaware, 258 ; Pennsylvania, 263 ; Rhode 
 Island, 266 ; Illinois, 267 ; Maryland, 293 ; Wisconsin, 
 304; Minnesota, 311 ; Missouri, 337; Michigan, 350; New 
 Hampshire, 376 ; Iowa, 377 ; Indiana, 380 ; Kentucky, 
 438 ; Nebraska, 487 ; Tennessee, 525 ; Texas, 549 ; Arkansas, 
 554 ; Alabama, 608 ; Georgia, 612 ; Florida, 653 ; Missis- 
 sippi, 654 ; Virginia, 693 ; North Carolina, 708 ; Maine,
 
 SOCIAL EESULTS. 279 
 
 791; Vermont, 812; West Virginia, 817; Kansas, 876; 
 and South Carolina, 708. It tlius appears that the twelve 
 States in which there were fewest drinking saloons were 
 all Southern, except Vermont, and leaving out, of course, 
 Maine and Kansas, in which States drinking saloons are 
 prohibited hj law." 
 
 Dr. Lee, of Philadelphia, in Report of Insanity (1868), Dr. Lee on 
 gave for the year 1860 one insane person to every 1305 f,',^°n°t"^ 
 inhabitants, and in 1868, one to every 7O0. In his Dr. wiikins 
 Insanity and Insane Asylums (Sacramento, 1872), Dr. E. T. '"''*'*' ^'^^■ 
 Wiikins, Commissioner in Lunacy for the State of Cali- 
 fornia, states (p. 211) that he is of opinion intoxication is 
 a far mightier cause of mental diseases than all other causes 
 put together. 
 
 In Alcoholic Insanity (New York, 1883), Dr. Lewis D. Dr. Mason's 
 Mason says, " In a study of 600 cases of inebriety treated statement, 
 at the Inebriate Asylum, Fort Hamilton, I found that 166 
 persons had 309 attacks of alcoholic mania in some form 
 at various times during their periods of alcoholic addiction. 
 In the annual report of the New York State Lunatic 
 Asylum for 1883, of the 412 cases tabulated, in 32, or in a 
 little less than one in 13, ' intemperance ' was stated as the 
 exciting cause." 
 
 The last United States census shows that there has 
 been a most alarming increase in the number of lunatics 
 and idiots during the last decade ; while the population 
 has increased by 30 per cent., the increase of the insane is 
 given as a little over 155 per cent. 
 
 In his Manual of Psychological Medicine (New York, Dr Mann, of 
 1883), Dr. Mann says, "It is impossible to estimate the New York. 
 
 ^' . , . • 1 T ^^ alcoholic 
 
 complex influences that intemperance exerts in the produc- insanity. 
 tion of insanity. All observers agree that it is intimately 
 connected with, and is one of the main exciting causes of, 
 insanity. . . . Many superintendents of foreign asylums 
 have estimated the admissions from intemperance at 25 per 
 cent, or higher, including not only the proximate but 
 remote cause of the disease. This percentage will be 
 largely increased if we take into account the great number 
 of cases in w4iich intemperance of parents causes the 
 insanity or idiocy of their offspring. Dr. L. Lunier estimates 
 that 50 per cent, of all the idiots and imbeciles to be found
 
 280 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 in the large cities of Europe have had parents who were 
 
 notorious drunkards." 
 iMaximedu And in the Revue des deux Mo7ides (1872) Maxime du 
 
 Camp on the Camp savs that th'e^requency of mental diseases in Paris 
 
 dnnk-petro- . ^ «' -iiiii • t ■ i-ii 
 
 lomaniaof IS Very largely attributable to the insobriety which has 
 fhe'sie-^^ enormously increased there dnring the last two years ; — 
 that in the siege the workman drank more than he fought, 
 and under the Com mun e drink was given out to make 
 them figjit ; that in ni ne mo nths' time Paris consumed 
 fiv e ti mes as much alcohol as formerly in ong year, with 
 the I'esults of prevalence of delirium tremens, and the 
 destructive outbreak of petrolomania. 
 
 Dr. Baer on Speaking of the general passion for drink in France, 
 
 tion'^^'t'hr' I^i'- Bcaer, in his Alcoholismus (Berlin, 1878), deplores the 
 
 French anay effect of this evil on the nation, and states that " unpreju- 
 
 driuk. ^ diced and highly intelligent men attribute the severe 
 
 defeats in the last war with Germany in no small degree 
 
 to the disorder, want of discipline, and incapability of 
 
 resistance which has been produced and nurtured in the 
 
 French army by the predominant craving for di-ink in both 
 
 military and civil life.* 
 
 " During the siege, Paris was seized by a mental 
 epidemic of acute alcoholism, and alcoholism is one of the 
 principal sources of the deeds of abomination and shame 
 occurring Avith the rising of the Co mmu ne." 
 
 Official statistics sm)w that in l5S2 there were 13,434 
 admissions to the French asylums. Of these, 10,184 were 
 new cases. The total number treated in these asylums 
 during the year was 58,760, of whom 31^00 were women 
 and 27,000 were men ; and it is estimated that a large 
 
 * In bis Hereditary Alcoholism (Medical Tliesis, Paris, 1880), 
 Dr. Gendron says — 
 
 " If we require proofs of the effects of alcoholic heredity ou stature 
 and muscular strength, we surely find them in the recruiting registers, 
 which show that certain districts where alcoholism prevails cannot 
 furnish the required average of conscripts. The arrondissement of 
 Domfront, in Normandy, consumes proportionately the largest amount 
 of alcohol ; in that arrondissement the canton of Pussaisand the com- 
 mune of Mantilly especially are notable for excessive drinking ; 
 even if all the able-bodied men were taken in Pussais, the recruitment 
 would still be insufficient, and Mantilly is in this respect below all 
 other communes."
 
 SOCIAL RESULTS. 281 
 
 proportion of tills yearly augmenting increase is due to 
 alcoholism. 
 
 Dr. E. Lanceraux, in his essay On AlcoJwUsm and its 
 Gonseqiiences (Paris, 1878), charges alcoholism with being 
 a principal cause of the decrease in the population of 
 France and other countries. " Assisted by tuberculosis," 
 says Dr. Lanceraux, " alcoholism has long been one of the 
 principal causes of decreased population in many quarters 
 of the world. These two causes united have contributed 
 much more than iron or fire to more and more reduce the 
 number of natives of North and South America. To 
 this also is due the progressive disparity among the 
 inhabitants of a g-reat number of islands in the Pacific ; 
 notably the Marquesas, Sandwich, Tahiti, and others. 
 But we need only to observe what is going on in oar own 
 midst to recognize alcohol as a cause of depopulation. 
 Many statisticians and economists are justly alarmed at 
 the deci^ease in population of one of the most favoured 
 provinces in France, and each furnishes his own ex- 
 planation of the fact. If we examine into the matter we 
 find that in I^ormandy, where a great quantity of brandy 
 is distilled, alc ohol ism is most ra mpa nt. The notion 
 prevails there thaiT it is necessaiy to give infants wine 
 anoKquor in order to strengtKen them. This pernicious 
 habit, together with the general alcoholic excesses so 
 common in Normandy, undoubtedly form one of the 
 principal sources of the decreasing population of this 
 rich province." 
 
 In a recent address before the National Association for Dr. Baer, of 
 the Protection of the Insane,* Dr. Baer said — ?f V"',°" , 
 
 . , r> 1 ■ 1 • • alcouol anil 
 
 " In comparing the number of drinking saloons m the insanity lu 
 different provinces of the kingdom of Prussia with the '''^^^''*- 
 number of insane, both in public institutions and in private 
 families, as gleaned from the census report of 1871, I was 
 enabled to show conclusively that everywhere where the 
 number of drinking places, i.e., the consumption of alcohol, 
 was the greatest, the ny.mber of insane was also the largest. 
 Without doubt, to my mind, it is in alcohol that we must 
 look for and will find the most potent cause of the develop- 
 ment and spread of mental diseases." 
 
 * American Psychological Journal (quarterly), Philadelphia (Oct. 
 1883).
 
 282 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Dr. Finkei- The Quarterly Journal of Inebriety (Hartford, Con- 
 
 temn ^""^ necticut, U.S.), October, 1883, says that, "According to 
 Health Com- Dr. Finkelburg, member of the Russian Public Health 
 the same in Commission, alcoholic liquors canse over two-fifths of all 
 Russia. i}^Q insanity, and five-eighths of all the criminality."
 
 ( 283 ) 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 ORIGIN AND CAUSES OF ALCOHOLISM. 
 
 § 68. It seems probable, from the great sum of testimony 
 — so probable that it may be assumed as certain — that 
 there was a time when the evil habit of alcoholic intoxication 
 was unknown to man. According to Dr. Baer, many races 
 still existing, or only recently extinct, had no knowledge 
 of intoxicants. 
 
 Dr. E. G. Eigg, in his paper On the Physiological 
 Operation of Alcohol (Temperance Spectator, London, 1862), 
 cites the following examples : — 
 
 " The Portuguese and other Arctic navigators testify 
 to the ignorance of the frigid zone in this particular. 
 Columbus and his Spanish successors described a race 
 more beautiful and refined than aborigines generally are, 
 amongst whom no trace of an intoxicant existed. The 
 French gave the same verdict as to the Northern American 
 continent, and the English, under Cook, so far as Australia 
 and the Polynesian islands are concerned, corroborate the 
 same fact. In the penetration of Africa from its eastern 
 or western coast, it has not been seen save as an article of 
 importation. In fact, in every locality first developed to 
 civilized enterprise, alcohol in any of its varieties was un- 
 known. Those describing the early habits of the Calmuc 
 Tartars will contest this statement, insisting thatthe 
 favourite beverage of those savages was a fermentation of 
 the milk of Imares. The truth" m this assertion conceded, 
 must "'hot the"Mucated chemist at once understand that 
 the fermentation referred to was merely the development 
 of lactic acid by transposition of the saccharine element in 
 the milk ? In his description of the Islands of the South
 
 iniscbief. 
 
 284 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Pacific, Melville mentions the existence of a liquor 
 affirmed to be an intoxicant from his own observation of its 
 apparent effect on those who partook of it. The mode 
 of preparation, however, refutes the idea that it was a 
 fermented fluid. It was simply the expressed juice of a 
 herb which was drunk before fermentation could have 
 been realized. Independently of this, we have the positive 
 testimony of John Williams, that the American traders 
 were the first to introduce intoxicants, and the earliest 
 inebriators of these Pacific Islands." 
 Origin of the But in the most remote historic period the use of 
 intoxicants had become comparatively common, and, with 
 the knowledge we now possess of the subtlety and stealthi- 
 ness of these poisons, we can easily see how individuality 
 was undermined by their use, and the natural passions 
 changed into insatiable demands, before man really under- 
 stood the origin of the mischief. And as his awakening 
 to these moral effects probably took place only when the 
 worst — the weakening of his power to resist — had been 
 accomplished, he invented, as moral weakness always does, 
 excuses for his excesses. 
 
 He denied the evil results of which he was both the 
 illustration and proof. He ascribed a host of excellent 
 effects to alcohol. When these benefits failed to appear, 
 and harm alone — harm that could not be hidden — followed 
 upon his indulgences, he charged the trouble to Providence, 
 or to the blind forces of nature, and posed as the victim of 
 mysteries with which he could not hope to contend. 
 
 These pleas are made, this self-deception is practised 
 still ; yet it is man who put himself into this pit, and now 
 at last he knows that it is so, and that it is he who most 
 lift himself out. 
 
 By his first ignorant indulgence ia intoxication, man 
 placed himself in a continuity of circumstances which 
 were certain to drag the individual and the race to lower 
 and lower life-levels ; not necessarily as regards outward 
 appearances, refinements, and comforts — civilization has 
 made marvellous progress in these directions — but as 
 regards the highest purposes of our being here and inhabit- 
 ing bodies at all, as i-egards our discovering and obeying 
 those laws of eternal truth which now and then in all of 
 us force, if only momentary, recognition. For the light of
 
 ORIGIN AND CAUSES OF ALCOHOLISM. 285 
 
 tlie Crown lield vainly over the head of the man with the 
 muck-rake does sometimes penetrate with a moment's 
 flash the rubbish we grope in. 
 
 § 69. The development of the race is like that of the Likeness in 
 individual : it begins in both in an eager desire to be happy ^ent^of race 
 and an eager search for the means of happiness. andin- 
 
 The baby finds this desire satisfied with plenty of milk, xhe in^ 
 warmth, soft couching-, and slumber. His mother's bosom, dividual 
 
 . • • SG&rcnss for 
 
 and the bed where he lies with her, makes his world. happiness. 
 
 A little later, the horizon widens to the walls of the 
 room and the vaguely wondered-at shining spaces which 
 the windows show. He finds that it hurts to fall. The 
 result is instantly unpleasant. He becomes cautious. 
 
 He finds that raisins taste good, that sugar is delicious. 
 He eats of these voraciously. The result is immediate 
 pleasure ; and when nausea and headache follow, it is the 
 nurse or mamma who is to blame, not his own gluttony. 
 By the time he has learned the last fact, the raisin and 
 sugar-eating habit is formed, and stands mightily in the 
 way of reform. The pleasure is sweet and immediate. He 
 tries to assure himself that the pain coming after is due 
 to some other cause ; to anything he is willing to give up, 
 rather than to the one thing he is unwilling to resign. 
 
 He is still a child, to whom the self of the senses is all 
 the self and all of happiness or unhappiness that exists. 
 
 As he grows older, various things — the widening of his 
 visible world, the strange interest felt in his own growth, 
 the influence of coinpanions and circumstances, the care 
 and guidance of his parents, etc., etc. — have all had their 
 effect on his development ; he has learned some self- 
 restraint, gained some little knowledge of himself, of his 
 relations to others ; and, if his circumstances have been 
 very favourable to moral growth, he begins to see that the 
 senses do not compass the whole meaning of happiness, 
 and learns that they are not even a chief part of it, that 
 happiness lies not in having good things for himself, but 
 in being worthy to have good things, whether they come 
 or not ; by desiring, above all things, the rights and 
 happiness of others ; by doing heartily all he can to bring 
 about general happiness — universal happiness ; and thus 
 actually, genuinely, and really being happy himself. 
 
 The child, grown to maturity in this way, leads a large
 
 286 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 life and a complete life, whatever his condition or position 
 may happen to be, because he irradiates real happiness. 
 He is a centre from which it rajs out, wherever that centre 
 be placed; and this irradiation has a widening effect, like 
 that of the circle around the stone cast in the water: it 
 never stops short of the two shores of life — the shore of 
 the beginning and the shore of the unending. 
 
 Self-denials for the sake of others are his dearest 
 indulgences, and as far removed in essence and effect from 
 the morbid, anchoretic, nobody-benefiting sacrifices of 
 St. Sinten StyliteT^and his'^lk as the s howe r of sweet 
 spring rain is different from the o utbre ak ot a se w er. 
 
 He\vill not think for one moment of the pleasure to 
 him of an otherwise perfectly innocent indulgence, if his 
 having, means temptation and struggle for any other. 
 The happiness of the senses, of self, has given place to the 
 only true or lasting happiness, the happiness of Abpu 
 Ben-Adhem, who " loved his fellow-men ! " 
 
 But if, on the other hand, the child is not well trained, 
 if his circumstances are those of the foolishly indulged 
 and pampered household pet, however talented and clever 
 he may be, and whatever else he may learn, he grows up 
 grossly and fatally ignorant of what Jig is her^for, of what 
 is due from hyjnself to hjmself, of what is due from him to 
 others. He is a centre from which radiates discontent, 
 greed, tyranny— towards whom must flow C 9pst ant tribute. 
 He will deny himself nothing that ho desires— =mo. not 
 even for his own good, in u gh le ss for the rjgh ts and 
 happiness of another. He is lonely, because he has spoiled 
 himself for his own society ; and over those who must be 
 with him he exerts an influence which, however it may 
 stir disgust, also contaminates and gradually di\ags them 
 into more or less real fellowship with him ; for the 
 sp ecta cle of s elfish ness, continually triumphing in its 
 exactions, is one oi the most dete rior ating in its effects 
 upon those who must constantly beholii^t. And especially 
 great is the ascendency of this kind of evil with the 
 individual and with society, when it is accompanied by the 
 intellectual flash es and ecc gnt ric humours, the shallow, 
 sudden gen££jj^ities — purely for sensati on sa ke, but cited 
 as virtues — which convivial circlg s so much affect. 
 The race ^g ^jj^j^ ^^^ individual, so with the race. In its infancy
 
 ORIGIN AND CAUSES OF ALCOHOLISM. 287 
 
 it found the taste of alcohol as the babe fonnd the sugar — searches for 
 sweet. The pain that came after it, it would not heed, and ^^pp^'^^^s- 
 when at last forced to heed by overwhelming evil results, 
 it sought, like the sugar- nauseated child, to secure itself 
 in its now all-enthralling habit bj evasions and specious 
 reasonings. 
 
 Later on, as the race grew into knowledge of things 
 good and evil, we have seen how, in spite of great general 
 advancement in many things — in spite of enormous strides 
 in all directions of scientific, philosophical, artistic, and 
 material knowledge — in spite, too, of what steam and elec- 
 tricity have done to melt and forge the nations, tribes, and 
 peoples into one brotherhood — a fraternity in no way so 
 cruelly betrayed as in its mutual upholding and guiltiness 
 of this deadly universal vice — in spite, too, of single in- 
 stances of the noblest individual heroism and self-abnega- 
 tion, of decades here and there in which national life and 
 character have shone with extraordinaiy lustre of inspira- 
 tion for all succeeding time — still we find that the habit of 
 alcoholic intoxication which the race formed in its child- 
 hood has been suffered to grow with its growth, and so 
 poisons us in our maturity that we do not, as a race, yet 
 comprehend what happiness is, but still continue to mistake 
 the temporary exaltations of alcohol, and other sense- 
 excitants, for real glimpses of that highest scope and 
 regnancy of being from which it shuts us out and down. 
 
 Reasoning from the past, we may feel sure that the 
 instinct of progress, the laws of development, of evolution, 
 which are coeval with man, must be his essential nature so 
 long as he exists. The eager desire to be happy, the eager 
 search for happiness, will go on. 
 
 And we may comfort ourselves at the outset with the 
 certainty that this desire, this search, this resistless out- 
 reaching impulse of man must in itself be good, for it ia 
 part of man as God made him. By it God is perpetually 
 calling to man, " Seek Me, find Me, and in Me find eternal 
 life, eternal joy ! " 
 
 But what concerns us instantly and mightily is to find 
 out what to seek, and how to seek it. 
 
 A little child stands alone at night in a great forest. Both mis- 
 He gropes for light, even though not quite understanding ■tgnisfatuut 
 what light is or what it can do for bim. A bright star, ^""^ ^^^ ^'^■^-
 
 288 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 First 
 gropings 
 toward 
 knowledge 
 by means of 
 the senses. 
 
 Alcohol 
 believed to 
 be a great 
 
 twinkling in tlie sky just over Lis father's roof, sends a 
 long Avhite raj — straight as truth is straight — by Avhich 
 the little one, if he only sees it, can go directly to his 
 father's door. Bnt at the same ruoment a glow-worm, 
 flitting and flashing before him, seems to his unlearned eye 
 a nearer and brighter light, and he stumbles after it 
 through bog and mire. At moments he clasps it in delight, 
 but again and again it eludes, it escapes, or, being clutched, 
 flares up and fades out ; Avhile the deladed child, bruised 
 and cold, goes ever farther and farther from home. 
 
 He was right to search for light — the tiny immortal 
 spark within him made such search natural and certain. 
 But he lacked wisdom to distinguish between the phantom- 
 flame of the will-o'-the-wisp and the pure perennial ray of 
 the star; and when the alternations of feverish triumph 
 and bitter disappointment had taught him his mistake, 
 he was exhausted — he lacked strength to return — and 
 besides, the star had grown to look very far away and dim, 
 for the fitful glimmer he followed had weakened his eyes, 
 and the habit of chasing it drew him on till he sank to 
 rise no more. 
 
 So with man in the earliest stages of his development. 
 The world of sensation was the first in which he found 
 himself. His reasoning faculties first applied themselves 
 here, and held back his spiritual perceptions. What felt 
 good, what felt bad ; what he wanted, what he didn't 
 Avant ; Avhat he liked to do, and what he didn't like to do ; 
 these things guided him. He did not analyze second, third, 
 and fourth results. 
 
 And in this stage of being his search for happiness, 
 instead of leading him out and up in life, chained him to 
 himself. He Avas his oaati horizon, his OAvn zenith and 
 nadir; for self-seeking — that is, the effort to please and 
 gratify only one's self — can only go on within the life of 
 the senses. Pleasurable sensations, physical delights ; 
 separated from all thought or care for the rights and 
 delights of others ; to be gained at the expense of these, at 
 any cost, so that they are gained ; these have been and are 
 the self-seeker's ideal of happiness — to him the glow-worm 
 inevitably obscures the star. 
 
 •»*• And in alcohol he believed he bad found the crowning 
 agent for producing a strange pleasure of its own, v\-hich
 
 ORIGIN AND CAUSES OF ALCOHOLISM. 289 
 
 had also power to enhance and vary kindred pleasures in- agent for 
 dulged in with it.* P-;3_ 
 
 By this undue development of the senses, the normal Natural 
 appetites, tastes, and passions of man were transformed and passions 
 into the various lusts of the flesh ; the lust of acquisition, changed into 
 arraying him against his brother in bloody conquests for lusts by the 
 power, for possessions, making him covet Na b ftth's vineyard ^g°g[™^ejjt 
 and Naboth's wife; the lust of ease, making him deaf to of the senses, 
 the cry of the down-trodden and impoverished, lest to listen 
 should prove troublesome ; the lust of gold, that Shylock 
 lust whose sordid outcry, " Qh, my ducats, my ducats ! Oh, 
 my daughter ! " shows to what level the lust of gold can 
 sink the sacredcst ties of love ; the lust of the eye, which 
 turns men' and women into birds of prey, and manhood and 
 womanhood into moral quicksands, where modesty, love, 
 and the divine purposes of sex are in^ecoverably degraded 
 and lo^t. 
 
 ;^ut while this was going on through the ages, the ^g"t*J|^^ro"* 
 spiritual and mental powers of man were also slowly un- gress under 
 folding and beginning to struggle through the meshes ^^o^g.'"^" 
 woven by the senses ; beginning also, though at first but 
 dimly and fitfully, to assert their sway as masters in the 
 stead of the usurping senses, and to find that these, in their 
 headlong, egoistic, untutored search for happiness, had 
 produced conditions wholly foreign to it. 
 
 * Of course, I do not mean to imply that the senses are in them- 
 selves coarse or degrading, or that all self-seeking is plainly and 
 vulgarly manifested, as the foregoing might seem to imply. The 
 senses are what they should be, when bearing their proper relation of 
 capable and docile servants to the rounded individuality of man. But 
 when they lead and control, they lose the invaluable qualities of the 
 faithful servant, without gaining one quality by which they can fitly 
 lead. f%.nd the man who abdicates to his senses, descends from the 
 throne where God placed him, and submits his head to his own heel,| 
 This is the condition of him whose search for happiness begins Ema 
 ends with self ; and it is an openly low or apparently refined condition 
 according to t^e great differences in the temperaments, personal con- 
 ditions, ^d surroundings of men. And alcohol — more than all intoxi- 
 cants — has great paramount power to bring about this surrender to 
 the senses ; for, as is well known and indisputable, passions of which 
 man is master in a sober state, alcohol will not only fire beyond his 
 control, but reinforce with others that never awakened in sobriety, 
 and make him do scores of shameful things of which, but for its in- 
 fluence, he would be utterly incapable. 
 
 U
 
 290 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 The two 
 great 
 
 factions into 
 ■which this 
 development 
 has divided 
 mankind. 
 The graspers 
 who succeed. 
 
 The graspers 
 who fail. 
 
 Alcohol a 
 powerful 
 agent in 
 restricting 
 man to the 
 life of the 
 eeuBCs. 
 
 Egoism and sensuality had put the world " out of joint," 
 had dismembered it, as it were, into two great factions — 
 the graspers who succeed, and the graspers who fail. 
 
 The first are the few, but the all-powerful in having 
 secured more than the lion's share of this world's treasures 
 and possessions, and the power to continue to gain and hold 
 these ; in having absorbed to their own service the results 
 of the general total of physical and mental labour ; and 
 who have, by the processes thus resulting, as well as by 
 the result itself, so removed themselves from the other 
 faction that, though they know it exists, they do not under- 
 stand the elements of which it is composed ; are cold to its 
 necessities, deaf to its claims, stone-blind to their own 
 responsibilities toward it, and therefore fatally indifferent 
 to, fatally ignorant of, the tragedy to which it tends. 
 
 The other faction — the graspers who do not succeed, 
 who, in the same self-seeking struggle for an ignis-fatuus 
 happiness, have been driven to the wall — they are innumer- 
 able, and they ignorantly hate and envy those whom they 
 fancy have attained the object of the unequal conflict, not 
 seeing that victory which consists in satisfaction of self and 
 the senses is really a worse defeat than their own, so far as 
 true happiness is concerned ; for it is of the rich man that 
 it is written, he shall not easily enter the kingdom of 
 heaven, while the poor man is assured he shall, if he only 
 will, find that kingdom within him. 
 
 Tet perhaps these — the poor, the depressed — see a little 
 further into the portent of this unnatural struggle ; they 
 have so little to hoard, so little treasure to guard, that they 
 hoard their own sense of wrong — not always seeing where 
 blame is due — and count over the coin of disappointment 
 which gluts the mints of resentment and despair. 
 
 In this tension, neither the rich nor the poor are happy, 
 neither are blameless. Both feel the undying yearning 
 which selfishness has done its utmost to destroy ; life, 
 exhausted in the intermittent, swiftly cloying pleasures 
 of the senses, beats wearily upon worn-out strings that 
 scarcely can any longer vibrate. And one means all- 
 powerful in producing and pi-otracting this delusion, a 
 means which more than any other has misled man's 
 search, and has done more than any other to place and 
 keep him in the world of the senses, in spite of spiritual
 
 ORIGIN AND CAUSES OF ALCOHOLISM, 291 
 
 and mental progress, a means within the reach of all, 
 clamoured for by all, and to be had in abundance by poor 
 as well as rich, is alcohol. 
 
 In his profound work. The Arts of Intoxication (London, Dr. Crane on 
 1877), the Rev. Dr. Crane says— moticluL 
 
 " He that gave our nature its depths did not design 
 that those depths should be stirred by trifles. He gave 
 them, not for luxury, but for utility in the great aim and 
 work of life. He never intended that the deepest, richest 
 tones of our nature should be evoked by every careless 
 touch of the keys. Human wants, human affections, the 
 demands which belong to time, and the infinite motives 
 which come to us from the eternal world are all designed 
 to touch each, its appropriate spring. The exalted enjoy- 
 ments of devotion should be richer, sweeter to our souls a 
 thousandfold than all worldly success or worldly pleasure. 
 And every right affection, every rational hope and desire, 
 is meant to be a motive power, and, according to its value, 
 to stir the heart and breathe into the soul inspirations which 
 lend light to the eyes, make the cheek glow, send the blood 
 bounding along its channels. . . . Man has made a fearful True ex- 
 discovery, not how to produce, but how to imitate these ^it^^tion 
 true exaltations. He has learned how to counterfeit the by the 
 golden coin with which God pays the worthy labourer. excUement 
 It has been discovered that certain poisonous drugs, of alcohol, 
 differing in the kind and degree of their effects, are potent 
 to lay a spell upon soul and body ; and, while every mental 
 faculty is unhinged, and every physical power is benumbed, 
 and the whole being rendered helpless and degraded, the 
 abused body may lie steeped in sensuous enjoyment, and 
 the abused mind be cheated with a seeming consciousness 
 of unwonted activity and augmented force and brilliancy. 
 And men have learned to covet the fleeting unnatural 
 pleasures. For the sake of an hour of such fevered di-eams 
 man is willing to face the horroi'S of a return to realities 
 which his guilty pleasures have despoiled of honour, peace, 
 and virtue ; is ready to pay the price of days of lassitude 
 and gloom, and even of pain, remorse, and death." 
 
 Self-deception, then, has made man miss happiness — Man's seif- 
 the happiness of the perfectly harmonious individual hls'JLaae 
 being and of the perfectly harmonized community of beings iii"' luiss 
 into which it was intended he should develop, and, by auiound!
 
 292 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 In religion. 
 
 An illustra- 
 tion of this. 
 
 circumscribing' him to the partial world of the senses, has 
 made him miss the truth at every turn, in religion no less 
 than in science. 
 
 In religion it has made him manufacture a God and a 
 scheme of salvation by which he escapes all responsibility 
 for his own being and doing. In science it has made him 
 insist that the senses bound the entire world of scientific 
 research and possibility ; that what cannot be demonstrated 
 by or to the senses has no existence ; while, by the 
 abnormal disproportionate development of the senses, the 
 clue they might afford in a state of perfect balance with 
 the other powers is lost. 
 
 For example, let us imagine that a man has grown up 
 without physical action ; that he has for years been sitting 
 in an artificial frame, which has locked all his muscles in 
 perfect stillness, with the exception of his ankles and feet ; 
 that these have done all the motion, all the living, for the 
 whole system, even to his ha\dng been fed through them 
 by the process of cutaneous absorption ; that, in this way, 
 though having originally all the component parts of feet, 
 they have lost all resemblance to feet as we see them 
 in the healthy human frame ; are distorted, unsightly, 
 monstrous, incapable of bearing him up, their very size 
 being part of their weakness for all the natural purposes 
 of feet. 
 
 The head of this man is but a little knob, his frame 
 puny and shrunken, he lacks all that ranks him with 
 normal man, he lives only in his feet. If he were to be 
 muSled and covered, so that all of him but his feet were 
 entirely hidden, and a physiologist should then be called 
 in to say, without help of any explanation, what the two 
 objects were and to what manner of creature they belonged, 
 he would be quite excusable if he did not know them 
 as feet, or if, guessing so far correctly, he constructed 
 anything but a man for the rest of the creature ! 
 
 Change the picture and transfer the developmental 
 excess to any other member, or organ, or set of functions ; 
 the result must always be equally false to nature and 
 truth, because equally out of balance with them. The fault 
 is not with the parts or powers excessively developed, nor 
 with those lying arbitrarily dormant ; it lies in the false 
 method, the spurious process producing these.
 
 ORIGIN AND CAUSES OF ALCOHOLISM. 203 
 
 Just as the framed man's feet lost all the fine inter- ■v\?T]at happi- 
 flowing curves, the subtle, complex elasticities which lend ^^^s is, and 
 themselves to the miracle of walking, so the spirit and the can be found. 
 mind of man, chained down to the special development of 
 the senses — which should only know themselves through 
 his controlling and aspiring consciousness of their real 
 purposes — have been excluded from the realization of the 
 exquisite happiness w'hich God Himself cannot bestow 
 until His child can conceive it ; and of which man only 
 first conceives when first he seeks the happiness of his 
 kind, and learns that by this path only comes happiness 
 to meet himself ; and, in learning this, learns also not to 
 seek it for its own sake, even though by the right way of 
 first securing it to others, but to seek it for the sake of 
 that blessing to others, by which it comes. 
 
 How is this proven ? 
 
 Because when we seek happiness in this way we have 
 it, serene, uncloying, rich, satisfying, constant, and this 
 though we have nothing else that men call pleasant and 
 good ; while, on' the other hand, in the height of physical, 
 sensuous self-gratification, we are always conscious of the 
 gnawing of for ever unsatisfied desire at the core of life, of 
 vague yet deep disappointment and emptiness, and thus 
 the goad of endless craving follows the ever-artificial 
 supply. 
 
 And hence, with all our apparent advancement, we are 
 to this day still writhing in fratricidal strife at the feet of 
 insatiable false gods, and as man sought alcohol first for 
 pleasiu'e, thinking it happiness, so now we, wiser, but, 
 alas ! not stronger, drink to forget, and if we can to dream, 
 instead of to know ; for di'ink has proven like the iron 
 frame which has suffered only the feet to grow. 
 
 § 70. The first cause of the hold alcohol has obtained Snppie- 
 upon man being that, in mistaking the gratification of the ^ug^^ex- 
 senses for the happiness he was born to seek and realize, plaining the 
 he mistook alcohol for its great agent ; the next, or akohoi has 
 supplementary causes — constituting very formidable rein- "btaintd 
 forcements — may be classed as follows : — (a) the physical, kind. 
 (6) the psychical ; the first relating to food and various 
 luxurious indulgences, notably, the use of tobacco. 
 
 It is a generally recognized fact that what is called "high 
 living," the use of highly spiced dishes, and the whole
 
 294 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 The force of 
 example 
 because of 
 the sym- 
 pathetic 
 unity of the 
 race. 
 
 Plutarch on 
 the lorce of 
 association. 
 
 range of epicurean habits provoke a desire for alcoholic 
 liquors. This is largely due to the vitiation of taste and 
 appetite, which sensuality in any of its forms must 
 inevitably produce, and unnatural feeding not only vitiates 
 the taste, but by imposing too much labour on the 
 stomach prompts it to call for irritant ; and tobacco, 
 although it acts to a certain extent as a counterpoison to 
 alcohol, creates by its vitiation of both taste and smell, a 
 demand for stronger tasting and stronger smelling foods, 
 and these, again, because of their indigestible character, 
 call for an excitation of more than the natural supply of 
 the gastric fluids ; and thus it is seen that in the physical, 
 as in the mental sphere of life, one wrong begets another, 
 and all are linked in various circles that, like the lessening 
 walls of the '■''Iron Shroud" press closer and closer until 
 the victim is crushed. 
 
 The psychical causes may be divided into — (1) The 
 force of example, because of the sympathetic unity of the 
 race ; (2) the force of habit, because of natural laws ; 
 (3) the force of hereditary habit ; (4) the force of habit 
 become instinct ; (5) the force of habit-formed instinct 
 become nature in a depraved sense. 
 
 The fact that humanity has a common basis of under- 
 standing- — if only that of signs — indicates a common 
 bond stretching along the whole line of human con- 
 sciousness. The reality of this bond is manifested in 
 the tremendous power which example, habit, and custom 
 have over us, and God's purpose in this bond is seen in 
 the impossibility it creates, for man's happily and pros- 
 perously ignoring — either as individual, community, or 
 nation — the divine command to love our neighbour as 
 ourself. 
 
 The force of example is tersely expressed in Plutarch's 
 words : " If you associate with a cripple you will soon 
 learn to limp yourself," and in the popular proverb, " One 
 is known by the company he keeps." 
 
 That this teaching can be abused ; that it can be 
 cunningly turned into a defence for the grossest selfish- 
 ness ; can be made to bear false witness against Plutarch 
 as one who would have unfortunates and victims generally 
 abandoned to their fate ; can be made to serve as justification 
 for never approaching the fallen and depraved — and, in a
 
 ORIGIN AND CAUSES OF ALCOHOLISM, 295 
 
 word, to make mercy and compassion intruders among the 
 human virtues — does not affect its true force of warning 
 against the kind of association and sympathy which de- 
 presses and weakens the sympathizer without cheering or 
 benefiting the sufferer, while it does help to further pro- 
 nounce the fact that sympathy, whether conscious or un- 
 conscious, sensible or sentimental, unselfish or self-seeking, 
 does powerfully, variously, and constantly affect our 
 development. AH progress hangs upon it, because only 
 by this bond do we have to do with one another. 
 
 Were we separate — that is, insulated entities — we could 
 not co-operate, we could not learn or profit from each 
 other's mistakes or successes, we should not really be 
 living in any sense in which as sympathetic beings we 
 conceive of life. 
 
 Thomas Tryon, in his work On the Method of Educating 
 Children (London, 1695), says of the force of example, 
 " The Fear of God, Temperance, Cleanliness, and Frugality, 
 are taught by precept and example, even as Arts and 
 Sciences are. ... If the Children see no disorderly nor 
 intemperate Examples, but have the Representation and 
 Character of the contrary Virtues continually placed before 
 their Eyes, they will undoubtedly conform themselves to 
 that Image." 
 
 In his Commentaries on Tobacco (Sydney, 1853), T. T. Campbell 
 Campbell says, " The habitual intercourse of persons, flue'nce'and 
 the communion of sentiments, unanimity of opinion, and effects of 
 the silent undervvorkiug force of imitation conspire to teVcourse ia 
 engender a sameness of ideas, a similitude of character "^^''y '*• 
 among members of the same group, and these, extending 
 fi^om groups to communities, cemented by the ties of 
 common privileges, unity of interests, and a common 
 attachment to place of birth, probably form the ground- 
 work of all patriotism. 
 
 "Imitation is an essentially active energy in the con- The force of 
 stitution of man, and one of the elements of habit. In of naturri*^*^ 
 youth especially we copy something of every human action laws. 
 or manner presented to our observation. It is in constant 
 operation in every stage of life, and is so potent that 
 persons living long together will insensibly acquire a 
 mutual resemblance in some points, so that it may be said 
 all society is a school of design, and every individual is a
 
 effects. 
 
 296 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 model for good or for evil to every other individual. Each 
 takes his copy, too, with all the secrecy of profound uncon- 
 sciousness, which enables the imitative faculty in man to 
 operate on the mind with an energy so much the more 
 sure and effective, engraining the lights and shades in 
 the pattern of the moral copyright with almost indelible 
 fixedness of colouring." 
 Conscious And besides the power of example which thus pro- 
 
 ^know-'^ foundly affects without our being directly aware of it, there 
 ledged is its Openly acknowledged force. " Why should I not 
 
 drink ? " says the clergyman ; * " the canon, the vicar, the 
 bishop, di'ink. What they do, surely I may." "And as 
 for me," says the common soldier, " I don't pretend to be 
 better or wiser than our general, colonel, captain ; they 
 all take their glass like gentlemen, why not I ? " " The 
 master has his wines," says the working man, "why 
 
 * The Daily Telegraph (April 24, 1883) thus pertinently com- 
 ments on the cases of Captain Kobinson and the clergyman's son 
 Beaumont : — 
 
 " John Joseph Beaumont's story is sad. Already, at twenty-six 
 years, he is said, by his drunken habits, to have ruined his father, a 
 clergyman of the Establishment, and forced him to resign a com- 
 fortable living. Appointed to a small office in the Inland Revenue, 
 Beaumont was turned away because of his habitual insobriety ; and 
 now he passes his time between delirium tremens out of doors and 
 convalescence in St. Pancras Workhouse. The law of to-day, unlike 
 that of the past, does not recognize destitution, from whatever cause, 
 as a punishable offence, and he is now at liberty to go on ruining his 
 relations— provided that field be not already closed to his enterprise 
 — contracting delirium ti-emens, and knocking for admission at the 
 workhouse door, until, failing reformation, death cuts short his 
 disgraceful career. Wliy men like Captain Robertson and Mr. 
 Beaumont help to swell the score of life's failures is a mystery beyond 
 solution (?). Both are apparently well-bred; both are more than 
 ordinarily well-educated. They had chances given them. The ball 
 was at their feet. Poets and publicists point to the examples of 
 what are called self-made men as being wonderful. We hear of 
 lads born in thatched cottages, and brought up at the plough's tail, 
 yet pressing through to the front, seizing upon the prizes of life, and 
 becoming wealthy in the mart, or reiiowued at the bar, in the senate, 
 and the councils of the State. In point of fact, such thrice-ennobled 
 representatives of the Peerage of tJenius are natural products of 
 civilized society. We are to watch for their advent and greet them 
 with applause. Yet not they, hut the weeds and wasters, the broken 
 captains and drunken pauper scholars, are the more truly remarkable 
 phenomena of an age like ours."
 
 ORIGIN AND CAUSES OF ALCOHOLISM. 297 
 
 shouldn't we have a glass of beer too ? " " Don't preach 
 to me," says the young man; "my father takes wine at 
 dinner always, so did my professors at college. I don't 
 care to be better than they." 
 
 In the Sivord and Trowel (London, April, 1884), Mr. 
 Spurgeon says — 
 
 " Children are taught to drink, encouraged to drink, 
 and praised for drinking ; the glass is even made a reward 
 for good conduct. It will be little wonder if they grow 
 up to equal and surpass their seniors, when precept and 
 example are pointed by contemptuous jests aimed at 
 abstainers. We have heard Christian people declare that 
 if their children acquired a taste for strong drink it should 
 be in after life, but they would not bear the responsibility 
 of training them in it ; and we have thought this to be 
 true common sense. But what is that spii'it which leads 
 a professed believer in Christ to put the bottle to his 
 neighbour's mouth, nay, to his child's mouth ? What is 
 that spirit which has induced some to trample upon the 
 scruples of the little one, and exclaim in angei-, ' I will 
 have none of such nonsense. Are you going to teach your 
 parents, and set up to be better than they ? ' Thousands 
 of boys are the victims of Bacchus, for their fathers train 
 them to take their share of beer ; this is mostly among the 
 working classes ; but are there not too many in all ranks 
 of society who in other shapes offer their children upon 
 the altar of the fiery fiend ? Let the careful parent think 
 this matter over before he further countenances wine at 
 juvenile parties, or at holiday festivals. It may seem a 
 trifle, . . . but when the son becomes a sot, it will afford 
 his father no pleasure to remember that he told him to 
 ' stick to his beer,' or taught him how to know a glass 
 of fine old port." 
 
 And thus both hereditary and acquired desires and 
 habits are propped by the example of those whom we love 
 and respect. And this propping is not materially weakened 
 by the knowledge that bishops, generals,* gentlemen, and 
 the sons of gentlemen have sometimes degenerated to the 
 
 * "For fifty years I have been in Her Majesty's service, and I do 
 not hesitate to say that some of the brightest ornaments of the service 
 have gone down and been degraded by drink." — Vice-Admiral Sir 
 William King Hall, Speech, London, May, 1879.
 
 298 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 We never 
 see our own 
 personal 
 danger. 
 
 Dr. Chan- 
 ning would 
 have the 
 wealthy 
 classes set 
 the example 
 of abstinence. 
 
 The force of 
 
 hereditary 
 
 habit. 
 
 ranks of tabitual drunkards, because the inciting power of 
 example (one of the most awful of our personal respon- 
 sibilities to one another) — that which influences us in the 
 way we want to go — is always more potent than its restrain- 
 ing force, which is likely to require some sacrifice of us ! 
 
 And it is certain that young people are in this matter 
 peculiarly victims to the force of example, because in 
 youth the imitative faculty is most susceptible, and they 
 follow example blindly from their childlike confidence in 
 those who set it ; not as, later, to find protection and 
 support in practices which they have learned are, at best, 
 questionable. 
 
 Then, too, in his own individual case man always sees 
 real drunkenness, degradation, delirium tremens — just as 
 he sees violent accident or death — as things possible, but 
 dim, far off, not coming to him, though happening all round 
 to others ! 
 
 " What is the example the more prosperous classes set 
 to the poorer ? " says the Rev. Dr. William Ellery Channing. 
 " Not that of self-denial, spirituality, of the great Christian 
 truth that human happiness lies in the triumph of the 
 mind over the body, in inward force and life. 
 
 " The great inquiry which the poor man hears among 
 those whose condition makes them his superiors, is — ' what 
 shall we eat and drink, and wherewithal shall we be 
 clothed ? ' Unceasing struggles for outward, earthly, 
 sensual good constitute the chief activity he sees around 
 him. To suppose that the poorer classes should receive 
 lessons in luxury and indulgence from the more prosperous, 
 and should yet resist the temptations to excess, is to expect 
 fi"om them a moral force in which we feel ourselves to be 
 sadly wanting." * 
 
 § 71. We know that by repeating an act or thought 
 until it has become spontaneous and as unconscious and 
 involuntary as our breathing, we have formed such thought 
 and action into habit, and habit is a part of human 
 development in which more watchfulness is needed than 
 in any other. 
 
 Habit is formed so easily — the force of example, every- 
 where, directly and indirectly influencing it — and forms by 
 
 * Evil of Intemperance (Boston, 1837).
 
 ORIGIN AND CAUSES OF ALCOHOLISM. 299 
 
 gradations that glide upon one another so imperceptibly, 
 that we are not only in its toils before we know it, but 
 often without knowing it at all, and it is not only the 
 strongest chain we forge around our own activity and 
 influences, but among the most binding tendencies we 
 transmit to our children. 
 
 And when to its force by inheritance is added the 
 powerful weight of sympathetic association — for our habits 
 gravitate us to those of like habits — it is little wonder 
 that the growing generation copies the faults and follies 
 of the passing one, even when benefiting by some of its 
 experience and research. For, as we have seen, the race 
 development has, after all, thus far been so predominantly 
 that of the senses, that great as have been its strides in 
 purely intellectual and speculative fields, the growing, like 
 the passing generation, and even in an intensified degree, 
 is still chiefly bound up in investigations and experiments 
 whose end is pleasurable — the gratification of self and the 
 senses — in eveiy imaginable form. 
 
 It seems a question whether the great mental advance- 
 ment of the race has not been in directions and of a nature 
 to prevent moral impulse, or at least check the best work 
 of reflection ; whether we have not had moral analysis 
 satisfied with its analytic power, rather than moral purpose 
 profiting seriously by moral analysis ; so that intellectual 
 progress and abnormal development of the senses have 
 helplessly followed parallel lines, waiting for the moral 
 and spiritual powers of man to bend them together and 
 initiate a new habit of being in which all man's powers 
 should grow into their normal relativ^e proportions. 
 
 Concerning the force of evil habit, the great Danish Soren Kirke- 
 thinker Soren Kirkegaard {Kjaerlighedens Gerninger, or |)^ee'^o''/evu^ 
 The Works of Love, Copenhagen, 1847) says — habits. 
 
 " Of all our enemies habit is perhaps the slyest, and 
 above everything is she sly enough never to let herself 
 be seen, for he who saw her would be saved fi'om her. 
 Against the visible enemy we fight in self-defence ; but 
 habit is like the soft, yet ferocious vampire that steals on 
 the sleeper, and, while sucking his blood, coolingly moves 
 its noiseless wings that his sleep may be the deeper. But 
 the vampire finds its prey among the sleeping, it lacks 
 power to lull the wakeful, while habit can creep sleep-
 
 300 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 The force of 
 habit become 
 instinct. 
 
 DifBculty for 
 the race as 
 for the in- 
 dividual to 
 break the 
 chains of 
 habit. 
 
 Difficulty of 
 adjusting our 
 social rela- 
 tions in 
 
 givingly over those wlio are awake, and do its vampire 
 work in slumber of its own producing." 
 
 And when habit has thus stolen upon us, it transforms 
 the whole being so as to harmonize it with the habit or 
 habits formed. The force of example and inherited 
 tendencies make individual habits into national character- 
 istics, and thus countries are ruled by the habitudes of 
 preceding epochs, by routine government, by national pre- 
 judices, as well as hj national ignorance and blindness to 
 the most crying vices. Just as the individual finds it 
 difficult to change any objectionable habit, because it has 
 become so natural that he does it before he thinks, or even 
 without thinking, so must it also be difficult for the nation 
 and the race to change national customs and habits im- 
 bedded by the lapse of centuries ; or even to take full note 
 of their power and tendency. 
 
 For example, the crime of murder, except among Thugs, 
 Assassins, the Vehmgericht, or during frenzied religious 
 or political upheavals, is generally abhorred and con- 
 demned, and punished by the death penalty. 
 
 But the institutions, habits, and customs which are 
 responsible for nine-tenths of the murders, are neither 
 generally condemned nor abrogated ; but are eagerly de- 
 fended and approved by most of those who wish to do — 
 and think they are doing — their parts as patriots and 
 citizens of a free country, in opposing interference with 
 the time-honoured rights and privileges of the Hquor 
 trade. 
 
 They know that liquor does an incredible amount of 
 wrong to the individual and to the nation. But habit — 
 the habit of inactivity in the matter, and the habit of 
 long participation in those social customs and commercial 
 interests which help to sustain the liquor trade — these 
 hold them off, and they intrench themselves in their non- 
 interference by all sorts of specious reasoning. 
 
 So great, indeed, is the power of ingrained habit, that 
 although evil, and passively recognized as such, it is strong 
 enough to transform the whole state and social organization 
 into accordance with it. 
 
 The tremendous power of custom and habit is almost 
 daily felt by those interested in temperance reform, in the 
 difficulty of deciding what is the right and wisest course
 
 ORIGIN AND CAUSES OF ALCOHOLISM. 301 
 
 to pursue in social relations. We know that alcohol is harmony 
 poison ; in offering it to a guest we oiier him not only pergonal 
 what is certainly non-beneiicial, but what is, in some more coEvicUons. 
 or less degree, positively deleterious — even were the con- 
 sideration solely that of physical health. 
 
 But, in addition to this, we know that we may be 
 starting him on the road to perdition ; for conscience, 
 self-control, moral dignity and purpose are not equally 
 dispensed in the moral constitutions of men, and the 
 exterior, with all its subtle indications, by no means surely 
 informs of the weakness or strength of a given in- 
 dividuality. 
 
 Yet the circumstances we are placed in by the drinking 
 customs of the country make it almost impossible for us 
 to act with our highest convictions, or even to feel sure 
 whether it would be best to do so at the present stage of 
 affairs. It is not well that temperance, or any cause bear- 
 ing the banner of reform, should be characterized by 
 narrowDcss, bigotry, iconoclastic prejudices, and vain- 
 glorious self-assertion and intolerance. Yet social drink 
 customs, associated as they are among the upper classes 
 with lavish hospitality and the most pleasing graces and 
 refinements of hfe, have often the effect of forcing the 
 appearance of this invidious contrast upon the temperance 
 movement ; and the whole force of habit weighs as yet on 
 the side of the drink customs. 
 
 These originated at the top of the ladder with the The great 
 royal prerogative and the Court, from the days when great wmyTesting 
 drinking capacity was thougfht to be one measure of fitness ^i*"^ ^^? 
 
 o tiiroiis ill 
 
 for occupancy of the throne; and came thence gradually this respect. 
 down through the various grades of society into universal 
 practice. 
 
 If the Court, recognizing its responsibility for this evil, 
 would take the lead and set the example in reform, the 
 most formidable of the hindrances to reform — the dx'ink 
 customs — could and would be easily overcome. 
 
 Another and most important instance of the strength 
 of rooted, ingrained habit was furnished last year (1883) 
 at the Canterbury Convocations, when the question of 
 using intoxicating wine at the Lord's Supper came up for 
 verdict before the ecclesiastical tribunal. After due con- 
 sideration, the prelates of the Church of England found
 
 302 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 it most " convenient that the clerjgfy should conform to 
 ancient and nnbroken nsage." Placed in the gravest 
 dilemma they evidently felt it might be wiser not to 
 countenance an innovation, lest, for complicated reasons, 
 the harm ensuing should be greater than the good. 
 
 It is scarcely possible to suppose that the majority 
 among them do not believe that alcohol — now known to 
 be a poison — is out of place at the Lord's Supper, yet, such 
 are the difficulties accumulating through the force of 
 habit and precedent around such a question, the verdict 
 given is by no means incompatible with such a conviction.* 
 If the drink evil was not in our very midst, if, like the 
 slave trade for example, it was flourishing in far distant 
 lands, what would England think of its results, and her 
 responsibilities concerning them, then ? 
 
 The foreigner who first sojourns in England, in London, 
 Liverpool, or Glasgow, shudders at the scenes in the streets 
 of these cities. After remaining a year or two, he becomes 
 accustomed to them, and in a measnre callous, though 
 never ceasing to feel shocked at the effect that has been 
 produced upon the children — the well-born, well-bred boys 
 and girls — who only on their way to school have seen and 
 heard enough before they are twelve years old to make 
 them familiar with and indifferent to spectacles of drunken- 
 ness and sensuality in some of their lowest forms. Habit 
 long pursued and transmitted becomes instinct, and at last, 
 in a depraved sense, natural. 
 Mr. John Mr. John Sebright, in his Observations ti-pon Instinct 
 
 ^^p^^^°^ (London, 1836), expresses an opinion that "the greater 
 part of the propensities that are generally supposed to be 
 instinctive are not implanted in animals by nature, but are 
 the result of long experience, acquired and accumulated 
 through many generations, so as in the course of time to 
 assume the character of instinct." 
 Mr. Herbert In a letter to the Athenoeum (London, April 5, 1884), 
 
 thesame*"^ Mr. Herbert Spencer quotes from his Principles of 
 Psychology (edition of 1855) : " On the one hand. Instinct 
 may be regarded as a kind of organized memory; on the 
 other hand. Memory may be regarded as a kind of incipient 
 instinct. Memory, then, pertains to all that class of 
 psychical states which are in process of being organized. 
 * See chapter xiii. 
 
 f^
 
 OKIGIN AND CAUSES OF ALCOHOLISM. 308 
 
 It continues so long as the organizing of them continues ; 
 and disappears when the organization of them is complete. 
 In the advance of the correspondence, each more complex 
 class of phenomena which the organism acquires the power 
 of recognizing, is responded to at first irregularly and un- 
 certainly ; and there is then a weak remembrance of the 
 relations. By multiplication of experiences, this remem- 
 brance becomes stronger, and the response more certain. 
 By further multiplication of experiences, the internal 
 relations are at last automatically organized in corre- 
 spondence with the external ones ; and so conscious 
 memory passes into unconscious or organic memory." 
 
 Mr. Shirley Hibberd, in an article, What is Instinct ? Mr. Shirley 
 (Intellectual Observer, London, July, 1863), says that J^l^game?'' 
 instinct is "the work of the mind rendered literally 
 uniform by habit . . . but no matter how strong the force 
 of habit, if initially it is the result of an act of reasoning 
 and the expression of a motive, and is followed for a 
 purpose, then it can never be separated from mind, 
 though when the habit is fixed it makes little or no 
 demand upon the mind until some exigency arises demand- 
 ins: a deviation from habitual rule." 
 
 o ^ . ... 
 
 In his essay on Instinct (E ncyclopcedia Britanmca, new 
 ed. vol. xiii.), Prof. J. J. Romanes says — 
 
 "By the effects of habit in successive generations. The force of 
 mental activities which were originally intelligent, become j^ng^/hict™!'^ 
 as if they were stereotyped into permanent instinct. coming 
 
 " Just as in the lifetime of the individual, adaptive depraved * 
 actions which were originally intelligent, may, by frequent sense. 
 repetitions, become automatic ; so in the lifetime of the 
 species, actions originally intelligent may, by frequent 
 repetition and heredity, so write their effects on the 
 nervous system that the latter is prepared, even before 
 individual experience, to perform adaptive actions mechani- 
 cally, which in previous generations w^ere performed 
 intelligently — called ' lapsing of intelligence.' We find 
 good evidence that new or chang'ed experience, when con- 
 tinued over a number of generations, is bequeathed to 
 future generations as a legacy of intuitive knowledge." 
 
 These definitions and analyses of habit and instinct 
 point to two of the most solemn and important facts of 
 human evolution : that of the present impossibility of
 
 304 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 History 
 waiting to 
 say some- 
 thing new. 
 
 conscientiously accepting the leading of our instincts, 
 except after uncompromising scrutiny ; and that of the 
 paramount obligation to try ourselves and our instincts by 
 tests of self-renunciation, combined with unflinching, con- 
 stant, and large consideration for others ; for we know 
 ourselves to have gone so far on the wrong way that we 
 cannot decide what is natural or true merely by the 
 guidance of feelings and instincts which are in themselves 
 so much the product of our wrong-going. And therefore, 
 even w^hen a man says of alcohol that he " knows it is 
 good for him," that "it agrees with him," his assertions, 
 if sincei-e — and such assertions often are — only prove how 
 thoroughly vitiated his system and its demands have 
 become. 
 
 The current saying that " History repeats itself " is a 
 puerile complaint and a querulous pretence. It is the 
 favourite epig-ram of our effete spirits, ever making the 
 same weary round within a circle of our own drawing, 
 till there is little power for searching or soaring beyond. 
 While we persist as a race in a life of selfishness and 
 sensual indulgence, no intellectual advance alone can set 
 ns free, or release History from her painful task of noting 
 our gyrations fi^om and to the same old points of departure. 
 
 If a child will not learn its lesson, the teacher cannot 
 advance it to the next room. The teacher can only explain 
 over and over again. If the child is content to be ignorant, 
 or unwilling to take the trouble of learning, we are not 
 surprised when he complains — " I'm tired of hearing that 
 old lesson over and over. I can't learn it ; I won't learn 
 it; thei-e'U be more just like it if I do ! I don't believe 
 there is any next room ! " 
 
 History repeats itself only so long as we make it 
 necessary to the learning of our lesson. She will say 
 something new, something grander than all that has gone 
 before, as soon as we will let her.
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 SPECIOUS REASONINGS CONCERNING THE USE OF ALCOHOL. 
 
 " Temperance is the unyielding control of reason over lust, and 
 over all wrong tendencies of the mind. Temperance means not only 
 frugality, but also modesty and self-government. It means abstinence 
 from all things not good and entirely innocent in their character." * — 
 Cicero. 
 
 § 72. Just as alcoliol, by its imperceptible action in filtrating Similarity of 
 poison throughout generation after generation of the body, body^Vison- 
 has poisoned the race, so the arguments in favour of its i"e ^^'^ 
 use, in filtrating their poison through the public mind poisoning. 
 from generation to generation, have shackled the reason, 
 judgment, and conscience, which would have succumbed 
 to no open and sudden onset, however formidable. 
 
 As falsehood is dangerous in the degree that it is mixed 
 with truth, so specious reasoning regarding drink is the of half "^'''^ 
 more dangerous in the degree that its warp is crossed with truths. 
 threads of religious, social, moral, and political truths. 
 
 Specious reasoning, always plausible and usually 
 clever, never strains popular comprehension or interpre- 
 tation, and seldom exacts profound thought. It wears a 
 mask of truth, under which it moves its features so in- 
 geniously that we scarcely suspect the mask. It appeals 
 to selfishness, calling it good nature ; it incites false 
 honour, calling it consideration and tact ; it flatters false 
 liberty, calling it individuality and self-respect. f 
 
 * For a voluminous and excellent compendium of authorities on 
 the true meaning of the word temperance, see The Morals of Temper- 
 ance, chap, i., in Dr. F. R. Lees' Temperance Text-Booh (vol. i. 
 London, 1884). 
 
 t " Invocation : Let us invoke all the powers on earth and under 
 
 X
 
 306 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 The two con- There are two conditions in which a man will admit 
 
 whkh^ili'ln ^'^^ ^° ^^ ^"^^^ • fii'st, before he has ever committed or 
 
 will admit expectsd to commit it ; last, when he has steeped himself 
 
 evu.^" IS ^^ -J. ^^ deeply, that there is neither shame nor hope enough 
 
 left to tempt him to lie about it. On the down grade you 
 
 will not get the truth from him, he will not tell it even 
 
 to himself. 
 
 So the man who does not drink, and the sot, will alike 
 tell you that drinking is a degTadation and a curse, but the 
 moderate drinker, of all grades of moderation, defends the 
 habit tenaciously ; at one point, or at another, wherever 
 you attack, you find him there, and in whatever shape best 
 opposes or neutralizes your attack. 
 
 Hyper-sensi- The ingenious reasonings and arguments which have 
 viTuahtya been woven around the habit of drink by those who love 
 great obstacle it, and who wish the justification of plenty of company in 
 ofpersomu i^> ^^^ very difficult to deal with. They are so much a 
 reform. matter of personal opinion, of mutual influence, of the 
 rooted love of pleasure curiously mixed with the desire to 
 
 the earth for the whole state of the British Distillery. And let us 
 implore the aid and assistance of those Immortal Shades who dared 
 to rival the Lord of Heaven, and are invested with the Power of the 
 Air, by which they po to and fro upon the Earth to deceive and 
 seduce Mankind : That there may never be wanting arguments to 
 delude, nor bribes to corrupt." — An Oration delivered before an Aiidience 
 of Distillers, by Baalzebub (London, 1760). 
 
 In the Pail Mall Gazette (April 5, 1884) I find the following :— 
 
 "proposal fok a mission to stakt a public-house. 
 
 " The Bishop of Bedford presided on Thursday night at a meeting 
 in the board-room of the S.P.C.K. office, at which were present 
 the Right Hon. Sir J. R. Mowbray, M.P., Mr. J. G. Talbot, M.P., the 
 Warden of All Souls and Keble, Canon Scott-Hilliard, and other 
 friends of the proposed movement for Oxford men Avorking in the 
 East End of London ; and it was proposed to place an ' Oxford 
 House ' in the parish of St. Andrew, Bethnal Green, of which the 
 Rev. Knight Bruce was in charge. Mr. Albert Pell, M.P., suggested 
 the propriety of the Oxonians buying a public. house. He said that 
 he should be happy to lease them one. He was not joking. A 
 publican could get at as many people as a person could reach. They 
 could take this house and insist that it should be conducted so that a 
 man could take his vife and children into it xnthout the ears of the 
 women being hurt, and if there was a little drunkenness, that was not 
 the greatest crime in the world, though people often spoke as if it 
 ivere."
 
 SPECIOUS REASONINGS OX THE USE OF ALCOHOL. 307 
 
 be considered conscientious, and with some real impulses 
 to do right ; and tlie whole sophistical mesh is so plausible 
 and. subtle (resulting from long inheritance of dr'ink habit, 
 drink custom, and drink sophistry, so that the selfishness 
 is well concealed even from the sophist himself), and so 
 personal, that the first outwork the reformer encounters — 
 or he who seeks help to be self-reforming— is that of 
 hyper-sensitive individuality. 
 
 Then there are the myriads of onlookers, intelligent it is not only 
 people, who are not quick or clever reasoners, but who deceWedfbut 
 sincerely search for, though they cannot argue about the for the 
 truth ; people who respect themselves and abhor debauchery, searchers and 
 who, meaning neither to deceive nor be deceived, are t^e ignorant 
 balancing this important question of moderate drinking — win in this 
 of drinking at all, with the intention of discovering ^tnfo.„ie 
 whether moderate indulgence is harmless in itself, and 
 whether it has a tendency to become immoderate. It is 
 also for these and their heirs for ever that victory in this 
 good struggle is to be won. And to win, it is not only 
 necessary to unwind all specious arguments and leave the 
 truth standing bare and clear ; it is necessary to do it in 
 such a way that the masses w^ill see that it is done, will be 
 convinced. 
 
 If every beer-shop and public-house were closed, every 
 brewery and distillery destroyed, every bottle broken, and 
 every di'op of alcoholic drink spilled out of England into 
 the ocean to-day, and no more of the same were admitted 
 within its borders for a year and a day, England might see 
 something of what abstinence could do, but she would not 
 experience the effects of abstinence voluntarily imposed 
 upon himself hy man, under the sincere conviction that in- 
 toxicating drinks are evil. It is this that is wanted every- 
 where, in every heart and life. Whether a little drink be 
 hurtful or harmless, is not now, if it ever was, the question. 
 What is wanted is the general diffusion of the knowledge The great 
 that alcohol is a poison to body and mind; that, though general and 
 the drinker may in his oivn person to all appearayices positive 
 escape baneful co7isequences, his children and children s on°he^sub- 
 children must often bear them. What is wanted is the i''^^' and 
 conviction that no m,an can guiltlessly indulge in that recognition 
 which, not being a necessity for himself, is, by his in- °espons^*^ 
 dulging, a snare to his brother. That drink is such a biiity.
 
 308 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 The fallacy 
 of the boast 
 that the 
 virility of 
 the English 
 nation 
 proves the 
 comparative 
 harmlessness 
 of drink. 
 
 Brief 
 
 epitome of 
 England's 
 drink 
 history. 
 
 BerRcnroth 
 on the atti- 
 tude of the 
 Court con- 
 ceminp; 
 water-drink- 
 ing in 1498. 
 
 snare, is abundantly proved by the fact that, "wherever 
 the custom of moderate drinking has been sanctioned by 
 the community, there has always been a large number in 
 that community to sink from moderation to excess. 
 
 § 73. In dealing with specious reasoning, we must 
 remember that even fools can make assertions which, 
 however groundless, a wise man will find it difficult to 
 successfully gainsay, and thorough indeed must be the 
 refutation of assertions made in the interests of self- 
 indulgence. 
 
 It is common in England (probably at present the 
 hardest drinking country in the world) to hear the 
 defenders of drink boast that the virility and might of 
 the English nation proves the outcry against alcohol to be 
 greatly exaggerated, if not unfounded. 
 
 Many peculiar local and historic circumstances (such, 
 for instance, as the insular position which has often com- 
 paratively sheltered England from the commotions and 
 anxieties of the continental Powers), combined with prudent 
 and vigorous statesmanship, have mightily contributed to 
 the foundation and maintenance of England's present 
 power, but we may be certain that the comparative sobriety 
 of the English race has done more. For however strong 
 the hold of this vice in the present, it is a fp.ct that the 
 English as a nation have not been hard drinkers more 
 than about two hundred years, which can be said of no 
 continental nation. 
 
 Beers and the use of hops became known in England 
 during the sixteenth century ; before that time, the 
 favourite drink of the people was ale and mead, the 
 substitute for hops being wormwood ; and at about the same 
 time tea and coffee were beginning to come into general 
 use, and acted modifyingly. 
 
 It appears from State documents that as early as the 
 fifteenth century, water, so far as the Court was concerned, 
 was regarded as unfit to drink. 
 
 Says Bergenrotb, in his Calendar of State Papers (No. 
 1156)— 
 
 " The Spanish ambassador at the court of Henry VII., 
 De Pucbla Talavera, writes to Ferdinand and Isabella 
 (July 17th, 1498) that the English queen, and Lady
 
 SPECIOUS EEASONINGS ON THE USE OF ALCOHOL. S09 
 
 Margaret, the king's mother, wish that the young Princess 
 Catherine of Arragon being affianced to the Prince of 
 Wales (though still living in Spain) should accustom her- 
 self to drink wine, since the water in England is not 
 drinkable, and even if it were the climate would not allow 
 the drinking of it." 
 
 It was through the marriage between the English and 
 French rojal houses that wine-drinking was first gradually 
 spread among the masses in England, by means of the 
 consequent favotirable tarilf to the importation of wine. 
 Before that time the masses did not generally drink ale, 
 and what they did drink was ordinarily of a very light 
 character, and excessive drinking was rare. Says Camden citation 
 (Annals, 1581)- _ ^^en-s 
 
 " The English, who hitherto had of all the Northern Annais,i5si. 
 nations shown themselves the least addicted to immoderate 
 drinking, and been commended for their sobriety, first 
 learned in these wars in the N^etherlands to swallow large 
 quantities of intoxicating liquors, and destroy their own 
 health by drinking that of others." 
 
 In his curious work. The Government of Health (London, in 1595 Dr. 
 1595), Dr. William Bullein says, "They that drinke wyne Sf™in 
 customably with measure, it doth profit them much and speaking of 
 maketli good digestion ; those people that use to drink evu^'makes 
 wyne seldom times, be distempered . . . ale and beere no mention 
 have no such virtue and goodness as -wyne hath." He iiquor! 
 does not mention distilled liquors. 
 
 Mr. Sherlock, iu his Shakespeare on hitemperance „., ,. , 
 
 /T 1 Tr)n-»\ p • ■ 1 -\ rm T-n Citationirom 
 
 (London, Ibhz), quotes from a section entitled The Flague the com- 
 0/ our English Gentry, of the Compleat Gentleman by Henry ^'an*(i622'r 
 Peacham (1622), the following: — 
 
 " Within these fiftie or threescore yeares it was a rare 
 thing with us to see a drunken man, our nation carrying 
 the name of the most sober and temperate of any other in 
 the world. But since we had to doe in the quarrell of the 
 Netherlands, the custom of drinking and pledging healthes 
 was brought over into England ; wherein let the Dutch be 
 their owne judges, if we equall them not ; yea, I think 
 rather excell them." 
 
 In his well-known work. Way to Health, Long Life, From 
 and Happiness (1683), Tryon says that formerly canary Jj^seaitK'^^ 
 (wine) was sold almost exclusively by apothecaries. ^^0 W^^
 
 310 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 arid Happi- 
 ness (1683). 
 
 Hard drink- 
 ing not com- 
 mon in 
 England 
 until the 
 17th century. 
 Citation from 
 Dr. Foe's 
 Poor Man's 
 Plea. 
 
 From Sir 
 John Har- 
 rington's 
 
 AntiqiUB. 
 
 From Bishop 
 Benson in 
 Lecky's 
 History of 
 England 
 (1878). 
 
 " Where there was one quart of wiiie drunk forty or fifty 
 years ago (wbicli would be about 1635) there is now ten 
 thousand . . . the use of tobacco and brandy a hundred 
 years since was hardly known. IN^ay, the use of our ale 
 and beer has hardly been above two hundred years." 
 Which shows that hard drinking did not become common 
 until the latter part of the seventeenth century. 
 
 Concerning the condition brought about by the Act 
 for Encouragement of Distillation, De Foe, in his Poor 
 Mans Plea, says — 
 
 " Drunkenness had become a science, and but that 
 instruction in it proved so easy, and the youth too apt to 
 learn, possibly we might have had a college erected for it 
 before now." And of the evil example set by the nobility, 
 he says, " Whoever gives himself the trouble to reflect 
 on the custom of our gentlemen in their families en- 
 couraging and promoting this vice of drunkenness among 
 the poor, will not think it a scandal upon the gentry of 
 England if we say that the mode of drinking that is now 
 practised had its origin in the practice of the country 
 gentlemen, and they again from the courts." 
 
 Then came free trade in liquors during Queen Anne's 
 reign. Sir John Harrington, in his Nugce Antiquce, 
 describing the Danish king Christian's visit to Queen 
 Anne of England, says — 
 
 " The ladies have abandoned their sobriety, and are 
 seen to roll about in intoxication. ... I see no man nor 
 woman either that can now command himself or herself." 
 
 The close of the eighteenth century saw little improve- 
 ment on this state of affairs. In Lecky's History of Eng- 
 land (1878) there is a graphic quotation from Bishop 
 Benson, picturing the condition of England at that time. 
 
 "Not only," says the bishop, "is there no safety of 
 living in this town (London), but scarcely any in the 
 country now. Robbery and murder are grown so frequent. 
 Our people are become what they never before were — cruel 
 and inhuman. Those cursed spirituous liquors, which to the 
 shame of our Government are so easily to be had, and are 
 in such quantities drunk, have changed the very nature of 
 our people." 
 
 Among the nobility and clergy, drinking has been 
 more or less prevalent for about five hundred years, but
 
 SPECIOUS REASONINGS ON THE USE OF ALCOHOL, oil 
 
 the English masses have been hard drinkers for only a 
 little over two hundred years, or about one hundred years 
 less than any other nation, America excepted. Therefore 
 the assertion that the strength of the English race is 
 evidence that drink is not injurious, is seen to be fallacious. 
 
 Rev. Dr. Dawson Burns, in his Christendom and the The Rev. Dr. 
 Drink Curse (London, 1875), eloquently exposes specious Burns on the 
 arguments of the character of evasion in these words : specious 
 " Nothing can be more superficial, not to say sophistical, used to prove 
 than the manner in which some literary men, who have ^f^llon of"*' 
 no practical knowledge of the subject, endeavour to meet crime in so- 
 the force of this argument, whether used for abstinence or countries" 
 prohibition, by referring to countries comparatively sober Justifies the 
 (such as Spain and some parts of the East) where crimes that drink"is 
 of great enormity are very common. Whatever may be the not at the 
 causes of such crimes there, they cannot prove that strong most of the 
 drink is not at the bottom of two-thirds or three-fourths ^jftedT™' 
 of the crimes committed in the United Kingdom ; and to Great 
 assume, as is done, that if the British causes were removed, '■'^'°- 
 the foreign ones would take their place, is an outrage on 
 common sense and knowledge of the world. Assuming 
 the facts to be as stated, they do but show what no one 
 ever doubted — that the causes of crime differ in different 
 countries ; the reasonable inference being, that eveiy 
 country should seek to remove those causes of crime that 
 are special to itself. Brigandage is rampant in some 
 countries, and has its peculiar causes ; but what would be 
 said by English writers if suitable means for the removal 
 of those causes were opposed on the ground that drinking 
 is the principal cause of crime in Great Britain ? Equally 
 ridiculous is the plea that because some sober countries 
 are subject to crime from peculiar causes, therefore British 
 crime is not owing to strong drink, or that the sum of it 
 would remain as before, if drinking were abolished, all 
 evidence and internal probability to the contraiy notwith- 
 standing. It may at the same time be doubted whether 
 the countries credited with this remarkable sobriety deserve 
 the praise, or at least whether the crimes committed there 
 are not largely due to the use of intoxicants by the 
 criminal part of the population. It was so dui'ing the
 
 312 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Indian Mutiny, when tlie sepoys, guilty of the worst 
 atrocities, were made mad with bhang and arrack. It 
 was so during the Communist rule in Paris, and the later 
 outrages of the Spanish revolutionists. And in Eastern 
 countries crime will be chiefly found to prevail among the 
 classes that do not comply with the rules of sobriety, while 
 those classes of the population free from drinking are 
 strikingly free from other offences. So it is in Turkey, 
 and so in India. It ought not to require much reasoning- 
 capacity to perceive that the absence of intoxicating 
 liquors must be favourable to the decrease of crime, and 
 that whatever may be the amount of crime where they are 
 unknown, their use would lead to an aggravation and an 
 increase." 
 
 Habitual 
 
 drunkenness 
 
 universally 
 
 condemned. 
 
 Moderate 
 drinking the 
 nucleus of 
 dispute. 
 
 JJo fixed 
 standard of 
 moderation 
 possible. 
 
 Dr. John 
 "Cheyne. 
 
 Fourteen 
 glasses of 
 wine per day 
 the modera- 
 tion limit of 
 a German 
 temperance 
 society in 
 the sixteenth 
 century. 
 lo our day, 
 
 § 74. All sensible people think alike on one feature of 
 the drink question : they agree in condemning habitual 
 drunkenness and sottishness as repulsive and contemptible. 
 
 But on the question of so-called " moderate " drinking 
 there is almost as much divergence of opinion as there is 
 latitude of interpretation. 
 
 The first thing Avould be to ascertain the standard of 
 moderation ; but no standard has yet been fixed, no 
 definition of the term been settled upon. Nor, indeed, 
 would it be possible to do so from the physiological stand- 
 point ; for while a single glass may produce drunkenness 
 in one man, another man might di^ink ten glasses and 
 show no signs of intoxication. 
 
 " They who have heard how large a quantity of fer- 
 mented liquor may sometimes be taken without injury," 
 says Dr. John CheyTie, in A Letter on the Effects of Wine 
 and Spirits (Dublin, 1829), "ought also to know how 
 small a quantity may prove injurious, otherwise the 
 question at issue has not been fairly submitted to their 
 judgment." 
 
 In Germany, in the sixteenth century, a temperance 
 society based its laws on the restriction of its members to 
 ''''fourteen glasses of tvine daily." In our day observation 
 shows that " moderation " means just as little as a man 
 chooses to drink, and also just as much as he chooses to 
 drink short of the point of evident intoxication, nor is the 
 line drawn even here by all, nor is there any one vested
 
 SPECIOUS REASONINGS ON THE USE OF ALCOHOL. 313 
 
 with authority to say that the line shall be drawn any- moderation 
 where. Ttlonai 
 
 On being asked to define the term, one man says, some of the 
 " Moderation is to drink no more than you know is good most usual 
 for you, and never under any circumstances to exceed that the term" 
 amount." Further questioning elicits the fact that the 
 quantity varies ; for example, his habit is to drink two or 
 three glasses of wine or beer at dinner daily, and a glass of 
 brandy now and then before going to bed ; in company, 
 he is, of course, not so strict ; it would be disloyal, bigoted, 
 unsocial, not to drink the health of the Queen, the Royal 
 Family, and other toasts ; but he understands himself 
 perfectly, and knows what he can bear ; he confesses to 
 having sometimes been a little "jolly," but nothing worse, 
 and he has only contempt for those who cannot thus con- 
 trol themselves. 
 
 This is a fair specimen of the moderate drinker's 
 definition of the term. Another moderate drinker cannot 
 tell you the quantity he takes. " I take a glass whenever 
 I feel like it," he says, " but I always stop at the right 
 point, and I don't frequent the public-house." Another 
 claims modei'ation on the ground that he is never exactly 
 " dead drunk," or that he is "only drunk now and then." 
 
 " We are assured," says the Lancet, in an article. Are The Lancet 
 Puhlicans the Enemies of Drunlcemiess ? (May, 1872) "that ancfspecious 
 they (the publicans) regard this vice with a horror in no reasoning 
 way second to the horror of teetotalers . . . from whom, moderation. 
 indeed, they only differ in the opinion they have formed 
 with regard to the best means of repressing the evil. 
 Teetotalers would diminish drunkenness by enjoining 
 abstinence from alcohol, . . . publicans, by enjoining 
 moderation." As to the meaning of moderation, the 
 Lancet says, " It is simply a matter of definition. A 
 learned judge once said that a man was not drunk so long- 
 as he could lie on the ground without holding on ; to reel 
 and stagger a little, to use foul language to decent people, 
 ... to squander the earnings that should support a 
 family, and gently punch the head of the partner of one's 
 joys and cares ; ... to do all this when under the influence 
 of drugged beer is not to be drunk, but only ' a little 
 fresh.' " 
 
 § 75. Physicians, who should certainly be the highest
 
 314 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 authorities, very rarely attempt to define a fixed standard 
 
 for moderation.* 
 Thepracticai But even if a moderation standard were theoretically 
 nessofthe found, its unattainability in practice at once becomes ap- 
 Piea of parent. 
 
 moderation. ■'^ t i , • ^ o , • t 
 
 in enapter iv. some general tacts were given regarding 
 the science of liquor adulteration and its prevalence, show- 
 ing that, except in rare instances, all alcoholic liquors 
 are, as a rule, adulterated. This fact alone makes the 
 observance of any standard of moderation impossible to 
 the majority. Bat even if alcoholic drinks were not often 
 adulterated, the moderation standard would still to the 
 vast majority of people remain utterly unattainable. It 
 was shown in chapter v. that the relative harm done by 
 alcohol directly depends on a variety of more or less 
 difficult, personal, and other circumstances and conditions ; 
 such as constitution, temperament, climate, antecedents, 
 
 * They sometimes attempt it, however. The late Dr. Anstie, for 
 example, gave his standard of moderation in an issue of the Prac. 
 titioner (early in 1871), on which the Temperance Record commented 
 as follows : — 
 
 " This is the nearest approach that we have ever met to a defini- 
 tion of the moderate use of alcohol, namely, not more than two ounces 
 of alcohol in twenty-four hours for an adult man, and not more than 
 three-fourths of an ounce for a woman. It would be a sad interrup- 
 tion to the enjoyment of a convivial party if Dr. Anstie's standard of 
 moderation were set up for its gnidance. There would be, in the first 
 place, the necessity of learning the amount of alcohol contained in 
 the wine or other inebriating liquor placed before the guests ; and the 
 size of the glasses would have to be made known, so that each person 
 might understand how many glasses he or she might take without 
 going beyond the bounds of moderation. And then, in the second 
 place, there would be great difiiculty in keeping to the right number 
 of glasses. For alcohol, when taken into the stomach, so affects the 
 nerves and brain as to make persons feel anxious for more of it. 
 This constitutes its most dangerous property. It exhilarates, and it 
 creates an alcoholic appetite which grows stronger by indulgence. It 
 would be extremely difficult to keep to the standard. In fact, to 
 propose to restrict or point out the quantity of alcoholic liquor which 
 may be safely used, would be to acknowledge that the drink is, as 
 the teetotalers assert, highly dangerous. It would be to make a dis- 
 tinction between alcoholic liquors and all the other articles of food 
 or drink that we use. The admirers of the liquors would naturally 
 revolt at the idea of fixing a very narrow limit to the consumption of 
 what they profess to consider the good creatures of God. We dispute 
 the utility of attempts to set bounds to the consumption of bx"ain-
 
 SPECIOUS REASONINGS ON THE USE OF ALCOHOL. 315 
 
 occapation, condition of tlie stomach, etc., etc. It may be 
 said tliat a skilful physician would be able to make 
 allowance for all these things. But this very fact proves 
 that a general standard is out of the question. And, 
 again, supposing these objections were the only ones, 
 and that the medical profession had really reached this 
 necessary proficiency, even then it would be only the rich 
 who could practise moderation ! 
 
 But even were a general standard for the individual 
 approximately reached, there are considerations which 
 would still make its observance practically impossible. 
 
 In chapter v. it was seen how the harm produced by 
 alcohol depends on (besides the conditions jast enu- 
 merated) the nature of the alcohols imbibed, and their 
 relative saturation with water. 
 
 Supposing, therefore, that the moderation quantum of 
 alcohol could be fairly ascertained, it would still be im- 
 possible to put the standard in practice, until every bottle 
 of wine, whisky, brandy, gin, beer, ale, etc., should be 
 scientifically tested, and the required saturation and 
 character of the alcohol be thus ascertained or prepared. 
 
 Thus it is seen that the term moderation, when applied 
 to intoxicating liquors, has no value, because it has no 
 reliable signification ; and that its chief use is to cover 
 with the mantle of i*espectability as much as possible the 
 varying grades of a habit bad from first to last, in what- 
 ever degree it is indulged in. It is but fair in this 
 connection to mention the fact that very many persons 
 ranking among moderate drinkers both have and con- 
 scientiously observe a fixed standard, and not only do not 
 exceed its limits, but sincerely believe that within those 
 limits the indulgence is harmless. 
 
 But why, after all, should there be this search for a 
 safe moderation dose ? If alcohol, while being the dan- 
 gerous article we know that it is, had yet been found to 
 
 poisoning drinks. Moderation may be theoretically right, but it is 
 ever proving practically wrong. All the victims of intemperance 
 began their use of strong drink in moderate quantities, and the drink 
 has made them what they are. The drink is truly a mocker ; men 
 flatter themselves that they know how to guide themselves — they 
 can distinguish the use from the abuse ; but they learn by painful 
 experience that the drink is strong, while men are weak."
 
 316 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Dr. Grindrod 
 {Bacchus, 
 1839) on 
 moderate 
 drinking as 
 the pre- 
 paratory 
 stage of 
 drunken- 
 ness. 
 
 Dr. J. Baxter 
 on moderate 
 drinking. 
 
 Dr. Copland 
 on the same. 
 
 be under certain conditions and in certain quantities 
 essential to life and health ; then, indeed, would it become 
 not only proper but an imperative necessity for us to find 
 out the right way to use it. But it is proved and admitted 
 by every one qualified to speak about it, and who values 
 the truth, that alcohol is not necessary to either life or 
 health ; that, on the contrary, neither are served by its 
 use, in any quantity. Why, then, search for a standard, 
 of moderatiou for the use of a thing, at best quite valueless, 
 and whose most jDrobable efi^ect is the formation of an 
 appetite in every way dangerous to the health of body 
 and mind ? 
 
 And what is the testimony of competent authorities as 
 to the results of moderate drinking ? 
 
 In Bacchus (London, 1839), Dr. Grindrod tells us that 
 " the habit of intoxication is a confirmed taste or appetite 
 for strong drink, acquii-ed in the first instance by moderate 
 indidgence. The state of intoxication is that high degree 
 of excitement of which moderate drinking is the preparatory 
 stage. 
 
 " One of the first stages of mtemperance is witnessed in 
 the anxiotis and tmeasy feelings which even moderate drinkers 
 invariably experience on occasions when they have been 
 accidentally deprii-ed of their accustomed allowance. Sen- 
 sations of this nature present undoubted evidence of the 
 existence and development of the inebriate propensity. 
 Indeed, the great danger of moderate drinking consists in 
 the inability to ascertain at what pi'ecise period in the 
 progress of the vice this unnatural sensation first com- 
 mences." 
 
 In Testimonies of Physicians (New York, 1830), Dr. J. 
 Baxter says, " The habit of moderate drinking has been the 
 principal cause of the widespread scourge of intemperance. 
 The laws of gravitation in impelling ponderous bodies 
 toward the centre are scarcely more certain than the 
 moderate use of liquor in begetting the drunken appetite." 
 
 As to the physiological results of moderate drinking, I 
 find the following medical opinions quoted by Dr. Grindrod 
 (op. cit.) : — 
 
 "In his Diet, of Tract. Med. (1835), Dr. Copland 
 says, ' There can be no doubt that, as expressed by the late 
 Dr. Gregory, an occasional excess is upon the whole less
 
 SPECIOUS REASONINGS ON THE USE OF ALCOHOL. 317 
 
 injurious to tlie constitution than the practice of daily 
 taking a moderate quantity of any fermented liquor or spirit.^ 
 
 "In his Lecture on Health (2nd edition, 1800), Dr. Dr. Garnett. 
 Garnett said, ' Those who drink only a moderate qiiantity 
 of wine, so as to make them cheerful, as they call it, but 
 not absolutely to intoxicate, may imagine that it will do 
 them no hai'm. The strong and robust may enjoy the 
 pleasures of the bottle and the table with seeming im- 
 punity, and sometimes for many years may not find any 
 bad effects from them ; but, depend upon it, if a full diet 
 of animal food be every day indulged in, with only a 
 moderate portion of wine, its baneful influence will blast 
 the vigour of the strongest constitution.' 
 
 " Dr. James Johnson avers that — ' A very considerable Dr. James 
 proportion of the middle and higher classes of life, as well J°^"^°"- 
 as the lower, commit serious depredations on their con- 
 stitutions, when they believe themselves to be sober 
 citizens, and do really abhor debauch. This is by drinking 
 ale and other malt liquors to a degree far short of intoxica- 
 tion, yet from long habit producing a train of effects that 
 embitter the later periods of existence.^ 
 
 "Said Dr. Macrorie, 'After having treated more than Dr.Macrorie. 
 three thousand cases in the town hospital, Liverpool, I 
 give it as my decided opinion that the constant moderate use 
 of stimulating drinks is m^ore injurious than the now and 
 then excessive indulgence in them.' 
 
 " Dr. Gordon, of Edinburgh, corroborated Dr. Macrorie, Dr. Gordon. 
 saying that in numerous post-mortem examinations made 
 on ' the bodies of persons who had died of various diseases 
 in a population much more renowned for sobriety and 
 temperance than that of London, there was the remarkable 
 fact that in all these cases there was, more or less, some 
 affection of the liver ; and these people had not been in 
 any shape or form intemperate, and they were moral and 
 religious people, who would have been shocked at the 
 imputation ; but they had been in the habit of drinking a 
 small quantity of spirits every day.' " 
 
 Dr. Sewall says, " 1 am persuaded that tens of thousands Dr. Sewaii. 
 of temperate drinkers die annually from diseases through 
 which the abstemious would pass in safety." 
 
 In a letter dated March 15, 1873, Sir Henry Thompson siriienry 
 wrote to the late Archbishop of Canterbury (Dr. Archibald '^'i^ompson.
 
 818 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Sir William 
 Gull. 
 
 Dr. B. W. 
 
 Carpenter. 
 
 Campbell Tait), "I have no hesitation in attributing a 
 very lai'ge proportion of some of the most painful and 
 dangerous maladies which come under my notice, as well 
 as those which every medical man has to treat, to the 
 ordinary and daily use of fermented drink, taken in the 
 quantity which is conversationally deemed moderate." 
 And Sir William Gull stated to the Lords' Select Com- 
 mittee of Inquiry into the Prevalence of Intemperance 
 (1877), that " all alcohol, and all things of an alcoholic 
 nature, injure the nerve-tissues pro tempore, if not alto- 
 gether, and are certainly deleterious to the health. I 
 think there is a great deal of injury being done by the use 
 of alcohol in what is supposed by the consumer to be a 
 most moderate quantity, to people who are not in the least 
 intemperate, to people supposed to be fairly well. It leads 
 to degeneration of tissues. It spoils the health and it 
 spoils the intellect. Short of drunkenness (that is, in 
 those effects of it which stop short of drunkenness), I 
 should say, from my experience, that alcohol is the most 
 destructive agent we are aware of in this country." 
 
 Although it is not easy, and perhaps not possible, to 
 demonstrate the nature and exact amount of harm resulting 
 to any particular individual from the occasional or even the 
 regular use of alcohol in very minute quantities, scientific 
 observation tends^ — as we have seen — to prove that it 
 always is, and acts as, a poison, whether in sickness or 
 health. 
 
 Dr. B. W. Carpenter, in his Temperance and Abstinence 
 (London, 1881), gives a very valuable analysis of both the 
 difficulty of tracing the direct results of extreme modera- 
 tion and of penetrating the web of specious reasoning 
 which is woven around it. He says, " ' The little I take 
 does me no harm,' is the common defence of those who 
 are indisposed to abandon an agreeable habit, and who 
 cannot plead a positive benefit derived from it ; but before 
 such a statement can be justified, the individual who 
 makes it ought to be endowed with the gift of prophecy, 
 and to be able to have present to his mind the whole 
 future history of his bodily fabric, and to show that, by 
 reducing the amount of his excess to a measure which 
 produces no immediately injurious results, he has not 
 merely postponed its evil consequences to a remote period,
 
 SPECIOUS REASONINGS ON THE USE OF ALCOHOL. 319 
 
 but has kept himself free from them altogether. The onus 
 prohandi lies with those who assume the absence of a con- 
 nection, which is indicated by every fact with which we 
 are acquainted. ... If the medical man has no hesitation 
 in regarding those severer derangements of the digestive 
 and excretory organs, which are so common amongst those 
 who commit habitual excesses in eating and drinking, as 
 the consequence of those excesses, why should he refrain 
 from attributing the milder but more protracted disorders 
 of the same organs to the less violent but more enduring 
 operation of the same cause ? 
 
 " Let it be remembered that we have multitudes of 
 cases, in which the long-continued agency of morbific 
 causes, of comparatively low intensity, has been proved to 
 be not less potent in the end than the administration of 
 a poison in a dose large enough to produce its obviously 
 and immediately injurious effects. Thus, a man Avho 
 would be rapidly suffocated by immersion in an atmo- 
 sphere of carbonic acid, may live for weeks, months, or 
 years in an atmosphere slightly contaminated by it, with- 
 out experiencing any evil effects which he can distinctly 
 connect with its influence, and yet who will now deny 
 that the constant action of this minute dose of aerial 
 poison is insidiously undermining his vital powers, and 
 preparing him to become the easy prey of any destructive 
 epidemic ? So, again, we see that a brief exposure to the 
 pestilential atmosphere of the swamps of the Guinea coast 
 is often sufficient to induce an attack of the most rapidly 
 fatal forms of tropical fever ; but it may be long before 
 the dweller among the marshy lands of temperate climates, 
 inhaling the paludal poison in its less concentrated form, 
 becomes affected with intermittent fever ; yet no one has 
 any hesitation in recognizing the connection of cause and 
 effect in the latter case, as in the former. So, again, the 
 resident in a town, where the insufficiency of the drainage 
 causes the surface-moisture to be imperfectly carried off, 
 and to be not merely charged with the malaria of vegetable 
 decomposition, but with the miasmatic emanations of 
 animal putrescence, may be free from serious disorder, if 
 the cause does not operate in sufficient intensity ; yet he 
 becomes liable in a greatly increased degree to the opera- 
 tion of almost every morbific agent, and especially to that
 
 820 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 The late 
 
 Samuel 
 
 Bowley. 
 
 A valuable 
 suggestion 
 by Mr. C. 
 Kegan Paul. 
 
 The decep- 
 tive cha- 
 
 of the various forms of fever-poison ; and no one who lias 
 paid even a slight degree of attention to the result of the 
 sanitary inquiries which have now been carried on for 
 many years past, hesitates in admitting the relation of 
 cause and effect between insufficiency of drainage and the 
 higher rate of mortality in undrained localities, although 
 not only days and weeks, but months and years, may be 
 required for the operation of that cause upon the animal 
 system." 
 
 But even supposing that an innocent dietetic dose of 
 alcohol had been discovered, all reasonable arguments tend 
 to prove that abstinence would even then be preferable to 
 moderation. In a letter published in the Temperance 
 Record (July 3, 1879), the late Samuel Bowley said, 
 " Total abstinence is simple, clear, and safe for all. 
 Moderation gives no help to the drunkard. Total absti- 
 nence, by God's blessing, has reclaimed thousands. Mode- 
 ration keeps alive the insidious temptation, but supplies no 
 strength to the weak to resist its power. Total abstinence, 
 by removing the temptation, effectually protects all. 
 Moderate drinking necessarily requires the continuance of 
 the manufacture and sale to supply its demands. Total 
 abstinence quietly, but effectually, annihilates the traffic 
 with all its abounding evils. Moderation attracts the 
 young by the apparent absence of danger. Total abstinence 
 removes the danger, and thus secures their permanent 
 safety. Moderation leads the masses to the public-house, 
 total abstinence keeps them outside." 
 
 In an article on Abstinence and Moderation in To-Day 
 (January, 1884), Mr. C. Kegan Paul very appositely says 
 that, even if an invalid believes that in giving up what is 
 called a moderate supply of alcohol, " he is giving up a 
 source of strength, either mental or bodily, I would 
 suggest, even supposing this to be a possible danger, that, 
 whereas he knows that drink is sapping his strength, 
 weakening his will, lowering his bodily tone, abstinence 
 can do no more, while it may do much less, and if he is to 
 be a weakling under any circumstances he had better be a 
 sober than a drunken invalid." 
 
 The worker, whether he is a clergyman, an author, or 
 a day-labourer, who turns to alcohol to build himself up
 
 SPECIOUS REASONINGS ON THE USE OF ALCOHOL. 321 
 
 aftei' a hard clay's work, simply balances one exhaustive racterofthe 
 process with another — the exhaustion of labour with the [rl^u^tedto 
 exhaustion of the system caused by its efforts to dispose the moderate 
 of the alcohol. A certain sense of relief, of apparent aufohoiin 
 return of equilibrium, may be felt because of the change cases of ex- 
 consequent upon the transfer of the exhausting process from labour, 
 from one domain of the system to another. But this sense 
 of relief is purchased at the expense of the sum total and 
 term of active efficiency. The nervous system irritated 
 by alcohol will exact larger and larger doses for procuring 
 the binef and deceptive reUef ; greater efforts will be 
 exacted of the system for getting rid of it, and thus the 
 two exhaustions going on in seemingly parallel lines, 
 will gradually manifest convergence until at last the 
 powers of endurance and labour will more or less abruptly 
 collapse. 
 
 § 76. Of the effects of "moderate" drinking on the Dr. Grindrod. 
 temper and disposition, Dr. Grindrod (op. cit.) remarks— pro!ufce(fby"' 
 
 " Experience demonstrates that the moderate but moderate 
 habitual use of inebriating liquors inflames the passions upontemper 
 and renders the disposition susceptible of even sliofht andjudg- 
 provocation. It weakens, if it does not to a great degree 
 destroy, the powers of reflection, deliberation, and judg- 
 ment ; the relations of things are viewed through a coloured 
 and distorted medium, and with these radical transitions 
 there follows an utter inability to estimate character 
 and actions, with dispassionateness and discrimination. 
 Aristotle observes that man while in a sober state reasons 
 with correctness, because he makes a proper use of his 
 judgment ; in a state of utter intoxication, he does not 
 reason at all ; when, however, he is partially under the 
 influence of wine, he reasons inaccurately, and therefore 
 readily falls into error and mischief." 
 
 Says Dr. Baer (AlcohoUsmus, Berlin, 1878), " Undis- Dr. Baer on 
 turbecl reflection and quiet comparison, ci'itical regard and prod^uced^on 
 delibei'ate judgment, impartial observation of facts and the mental pro- 
 weighing of their relationships — such are the mental alcohol. 
 processes to which mankind owes the entire treasure of 
 positive knowledge, including the progress of natural 
 science, technique, and industry ; such processes are cer- 
 tainly not promoted hy alcohol.^' 
 
 The Rev. Dr. Hewitt says that " the French drink to Dr. Hewitt 
 
 T
 
 322 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 on the cha- 
 racter of 
 moderate 
 drinking 
 among the 
 French. 
 
 just that point at wbicli the moral sense and judgment are 
 laid asleep, but all their other faculties remain awake. If 
 they do not drink to absolute stupefaction or intoxication, 
 it is because sensuality with Frenchmen is a science and a 
 system." 
 
 To-day it would not be fair to say this of Frenchmen 
 only. 
 
 The moral 
 responsi- 
 bility of the 
 moderate 
 drinker. 
 
 Equally deplorable are the effects of "moderate" 
 drinking on man's sense of duty to his fellows. 
 
 Moderate drinkers often argue that as they have 
 always beeu moderate, have never exceeded, nor even been 
 tempted to exceed, they can see no reason why they should 
 forego what they regard as an innocent indulgence, if not 
 a positive benefit, because there are weak people who lack 
 judgment or power to restrain their appetites within 
 proper limits.* 
 
 * "An analysis of the moral elements alleged to be strengthened 
 by temptation in the exceptional cases of 'superior' virtue, will not 
 justify the position of indifference to the fate and feebleness of 
 others. The moral elements involved are two-fold : intellectual and 
 emotional. First, a person declines to do a certain act, because, 
 though pleasant at the moment, it is unfitting in its relations, and 
 profitless in the long run. It is a violation of law, and therefore nn- 
 philosophical or foolish. All sin is so, if we could but see it : and 
 when we actually decline pleasant sins, we do see it. This may be 
 called the 'sense' of virtue. But, second, there is the 'sensibility' 
 of virtue. We decline sin as sin, that is, because it is a ' wrong ' 
 thing : because it is a relation which is bad objectively, and the doing 
 of which would put us in a bad relation subjectively . In other words, 
 our virtue is at once our purity, our humanity, and our piety ; we 
 abstain from transgressing law out of regard to the interests of our- 
 self and mankind, and out of reverence to the Creator of the law. If 
 these perceptions and feelings are strong, we shall act upon them 
 habitually — in other words, we shall crystallize our nature in the 
 mould of virtue. Is not that better than spasmodic attempts at 
 virtue, with the risk or reality of frequent failure ? But the state of 
 mind, and attitude of being, here described, is just as true of the 
 Abstainer from all strong-drink, as of the Abstainer from (what he 
 calls) ' excess.' Both resist temptation for essentially the same reasons 
 — but the one happens to know more accurately where the evil com- 
 mences, and the other certainly feels more tempted to yield to the 
 temptation in consequence of having a liking for the driuk. 
 
 ' Resist beginnings : whatso'er is ill, 
 Though it appear light and of little moment,
 
 SPECIOUS EEASOXINGS ON THE USE OF ALCOHOL. 323 
 
 In a letter to the Inquirer (J^ovember 18, 1882), the The Rev. 
 Rev. Stopford A. Brooke, after likening the conrse of the Krooke'on ' 
 drinker to a journey, says, "The question is, seeing that this point. 
 the journey is so deadly a one, ought a man to begin it at 
 all ? If he begin he is in danger of going on, and there is 
 not one inch of the way which is safe ; for alcohol has this 
 peculiar property, that it always lures onwards, that one 
 glass asks for another. The naoderate drinker is obliged 
 almost daily to resist that allurement, and he is in con- 
 tinued peril of failures to resist ; and, indeed, it is a wonder 
 be is not more afraid, for the whole mass of those who 
 have been killed by alcoholic diseases, who have been made 
 criminals and brutes by alcohol, whom alcohol has driven 
 mad, and who have sown in their children the seeds which 
 afterwards quickened weakness of constitution, on which 
 any disease seizes, into idiotcy or mania or early death, 
 began in the same way, went the first stage with the 
 moderate drinker, but could not resist the invitation for 
 more which the first stage invariably makes. It is because 
 all this is so terribly true that we say, and with justice 
 and fairness, that the moderate drinker is in danger, and 
 that the example he sets does more harm than he is 
 aware of." 
 
 But, regarding the habit for the moment as the innocent 
 indulgence or benefit which the moderate drinker claims, 
 what if these weak ones could be strengthened by this 
 self-denial on the part of the strong ? And if this does 
 not impress, let us come closer, and ask how it will be if 
 the weak one shall appear in our own household, be a 
 beloved son, who cannot stay his hand as we have been 
 able to stay ours ? 
 
 Ah ! then the narrow reasoning falls through, and in 
 the degradation of our own child we first feel how it is 
 that the thousands and tens of thousands of other parents, 
 mourning and ashamed, had a claim that we failed to 
 
 Think of it thus— that what it is, angmented, 
 
 Would mn to strong and sharp extremities ; 
 
 Deem of it, therefore, as a serpent's e^g, 
 
 Which, hatched, would, as its kind, grow mischievous ; 
 
 Then crush it in the shell.' 
 
 Shakespeee." 
 
 — Dr. F. R. Lees, in Temperance Text-Bool-, vol. i. (London, 1884).
 
 324 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 recognize, and how their shame and sorrow is our 
 
 reproach. 
 
 The Rev. Says the Rev. James Smith, in his Temperance Refor- 
 
 "in refutaUon '^nation and its Claims upon the Christian Church (London, 
 
 of the argil- 1875), "It is Urged against the temperance reformation 
 
 moderation that temperance is a greater virtue than abstinence. It is 
 
 'b^'t^'"'^'^*''*'^ urged that moderation is the dictate both of reason and 
 
 Scripture, abstinence the dictate of fanaticism and bigotry 
 
 — the latter, being unnatural and unreasonable, will defeat 
 
 its own end, and by producing a reaction will foster the 
 
 very evil it is meant to cure; you might as well abjure 
 
 food because some are gluttons, or take a pledge never to 
 
 speak because language is often abused, as abjure strong 
 
 drink or take a pledge to abstain because some become 
 
 drunkards. 
 
 " Such reasoning has a superficial look of plausibility, 
 but it will not bear examination. It assumes that strong 
 drink is a necessity, or least very useful, and that its 
 ordinary use is in accordance with nature and reason. 
 But if this be not so, if abstinence be more reasonable and 
 natural than di-inking, the argument is worthless. There 
 can be no reaction where there is nothing to react, and the 
 desire for strong drink never originates m abstinence from 
 it, but in the use of it. If it were a natural appetite, its 
 unnatural repression would, in all probability, produce a 
 reaction ; but it is not natural, and our contention is, that 
 the more the laws of nature are understood, the chai'acter 
 of strong di'ink examined, and the dictates of reason and 
 science obeyed, the more general will the practice of 
 abstinence become. 
 
 " It is, no doubt, a matter of frequent occurrence that 
 where intemperate habits have been already formed, a 
 period of enforced abstinence is succeeded by a deeper 
 debauch ; but such a case is quite beside the mark, unless 
 it can be shown that the craving for strong drink was 
 formed originally in consequence of abstinence, and that a 
 similar craving is likely to be formed in cases of habitual 
 voluntary abstinence, which is directly contrary to science 
 and experience. The analogy between abstinence from. 
 strong drink and from food is clearly inadmissible, unless 
 some specific kind of food of a highly unwholesome and 
 dangerous character be selected on which to base the
 
 SPECIOUS REASONINGS ON THE USE OF ALCOHOL. 825 
 
 argument ; but in that case the argument is manifestly 
 destroyed. We object to strong drink as a wrong kind of 
 drink, and we would equally object to any kind of food of 
 which the characteristic ingredient was alcohol." 
 
 In the Church Sunday School Magazine (September, c.Kegan 
 1883), Mr. C. Kegan Paul says— LmUoim' 
 
 " It is admitted that for the drunkard, for the man who 
 has a craving for drink, total abstinence is needful ; but we 
 are told that moderation is a better thing, and that those 
 who can use their liberty aright had better do so. Bat 
 see how such argument looks from the side of the drinker. 
 In the first place, not all who have these cravings, and 
 who are therefore in imminent danger, are ready to admit 
 that the case is so ill with them. They are not prepared 
 to say, as it were, to the world by the fact of abstinence, 
 that being unable to govern their appetites they put away 
 temptation once for all, nor is there any reason why they 
 should thus introduce every one into the dark secrets of 
 their souls. But knowing ' the plague of their own heart,' 
 they may well be content to have this private reason for 
 joining a band of persons who give up strong drink for 
 the equally true, but less urgent reason, that abstinence 
 for social causes, perhaps on all grounds of health and 
 morals, is the better way. 
 
 " Besides, there is something mocking and cynical in 
 going to a person to whom drink is a temptation — the 
 power of which is difficult to realize by those who have 
 given little attention to the matter — who is shaken by the 
 very scent of drink as by some outside physical force, who 
 craves for alcohol as the hart pants for the water-brooks, 
 even when he knows it is like the rill in German story, 
 Avhich babbled as it ran along, ' Whoever drinks of me 
 will become a wild beast ' — there is something cynical, I 
 say, in virtually appealing to such a one, ' Tou to whovi 
 this is so tremendous a struggle must malie it, hid I to lohom 
 it is next to none loill not share your hurden loith you.' " 
 
 But God sometimes speaks through a single individual 
 experience with a voice that smites like a sword sheer 
 through the most impregnable walls of plausible and 
 specious argument in which we selfishly intrench and con- 
 ceal a cherished evil. Nothing that any one can say, be 
 it ever so cleverly, in favour of alcoholic liquors, can stand
 
 S2G 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Oharlps 
 Lamb's 
 warning 
 appeal to 
 }-oung men. 
 
 Dr. Howard 
 Crosby's ob- 
 jections to 
 tlie temper- 
 ance pledge, 
 and Mr. 
 AVendell 
 Phillips' 
 reply. 
 
 for an instant before but one sucli heart-rent warning as 
 these words of Cliarles Lamb : — " if a wish could trans- 
 port me back to those days of youth, when a draught from 
 the next clear spring could slake any heats which summer 
 suns and youthful exercise had power to stir up in the 
 blood, how gladly would I return to thee, pure element, 
 the drink of children, and of childlike holy hermits ! In 
 my dreams I can sometimes fancy thy cool refreshment 
 purling over my burning tongue — but my waking stomach 
 rejects it. That which refreshes innocence only makes me 
 sick and faint. But is there no middle tvay betwixt total 
 abstinence and the excess which kills you ? For your 
 sake, readei-, and that you may never attain to my ex- 
 perience, with pain I must utter the dreadful truth, that 
 there is none, none." 
 
 § 77. The question of the worth and effectiveness of the 
 temperance pledge has evoked a deal of specious reasoning. 
 Dr. Howard Crosby, of IS^ew York, an influential advocate 
 of the so-called moderate use of alcohol, in his lecture 
 on A Calm Vietv of the Temperance Question, delivered in 
 Tremont Temple, Boston (January 10, 1881), declared, the 
 temperance pledge to be "a most pernicious instrument for 
 debauching the conscience . . . always an injury and never 
 a help to a true morality ... a substitute for principle, an 
 invitation to further sin." 
 
 In the same hall, two weeks later, Mr. Wendell 
 Phillips replied, and concerning the true significance of 
 taking the pledge, he said — 
 
 " Dr. Crosby passes to the great weapon of the temper- 
 ance movement, the pledge. This he calls ' unmanly,' ' a 
 strait jacket ; ' says it kills self-respect and undermines all 
 character. 
 
 " Hannah More said, ' We cannot expect perfection in 
 any one, but we may demand consistency of eveiy one.' 
 
 " It doe-sn't tend to show the sincerity of these critics 
 of our cause, when Ave find them objecting in us to what 
 they themselves uniformly practise on all other occasions. 
 If we continue to believe in their sincerity, it can only be 
 at the expense of their intelligence. Dr. Crosby is un- 
 doubtedly a member of a church. Does he mean to say 
 that when his church demanded his signature to its creed 
 and his pledge to obey its discipline, it asked what it was
 
 SPECIOUS REASONINGS ON THE USE OF ALCOHOL. 821 
 
 'unmanly' in him to grant, and wliat destroys an in- 
 dividual's character — that his submission to this is ' fore- 
 going his reasoning,' ' sinking back to his nonage ' ? etc. 
 Of course he assents to none of these things. He only 
 objects to a temperance pledge, not to a church one. 
 
 " The husband pledges himself to his wife, and she to 
 him for life. Is the marriage ceremony, then, a curse, a 
 hindrance to virtue and progress ? 
 
 " I have known men who, borrowing money, refused to 
 sign any promissory note : they thought it unmanly, and 
 evidence that I distrusted them. Does Dr. Crosby think 
 the world should change its customs and immediately 
 adopt that plan ? 
 
 " Society rests in all its transactions on the idea that 
 a solemn promise, pledge, assertion, strengthens and assures 
 the act. It recognizes this principle of human nature. 
 The witness on the stand gives solemn promise to tell the 
 truth; the officer, about to. assume place for one year or 
 ten, or for life, pledges his word and oath ; the grantor in 
 a deed binds himself for all time by record ; churches, 
 societies, universities, accept funds on pledges to appro- 
 priate them to certain purposes, and to no other — these 
 and a score more of instances can be cited. In any final 
 analysis all these rest on the same pi'inciple as the temper- 
 ance pledge. No man ever denounced them as unmanly. 
 I sent this month a legacy to a literary institution on 
 certain conditions, and I'eceived in return its pledge that 
 the money should ever be sacredly used as directed. The 
 doctor's principle would unsettle society, and if one pro- 
 posed to apply it to any cause but temperance, practical 
 men would quietly put him aside as out of his head. 
 
 " These cobweb theories, born of isolated cloister life, 
 do not bear exposure to the midday sun or the rude winds 
 of practical life. This is not a matter of theory. It must 
 be tested and settled by experience and results. Thousands 
 and tens of thousands attest the value of the pledge. It 
 never degraded, it only lifted them to a higher life." 
 
 § 78. To take up, in closing, some of the well-worn The fallacy 
 arguments, based on exceptional instances, which greatly of positive 
 help in forming and cementing the habit of drink, I may cite in arguing 
 the very common one of the man who says he has drunk tiie general 
 daily, one, two or three glasses of wine or beer, with or
 
 J28 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 from the 
 exceptional. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 wlttoiit a glass or two of whis ky, for the last t en,, fifteen, 
 or twenty years. " Just look at me ! " h e s ays. " Don't I 
 look ^well ? Why, I look in better health than you do, 
 and I V? never known a sick day. Don t that prove that 
 moderate drinking is gooj l ^^a maji ? " 
 
 This sort of talk never seems to arrest attention as to 
 the selfishness * of thinking of such a broad question only 
 as it concerns the individual. Concerning the individual, 
 it sounds convincing, and does convince, or rather satisfy 
 many. But considering it impartially, we have to inquire 
 into the character and condition of this man. Is he 
 tru stwor thy on other p oint s ? for if not, there is, of c ours e, 
 no reason to take his ie s^ira ony on thig. If he is ti'ust- 
 Avorthy, the value of his testimony depends upon what are 
 his notions ofl ^ jilth ; whether he means by health merely 
 the ability of daily attending in the usual raore or less 
 humdrum way to his duties, or the bounding energy which 
 maTes work a p leasu re, and leaves onea' siorplus for joj 
 and rest when wo"rk is done. We must know i¥nis parents 
 or grandparents drank, and to what degree ; whether he 
 was orderly or di^olute in his youth'pat what age he 
 began to use intoxicants, what his occupation has been, 
 and what care or precautions he has takenlo preserve his 
 health. On such and many other points full information 
 is essential to a just estimate of his evidence in favojir of 
 drinl^ing. 
 
 Until cases of moderate drinking continued through 
 two or three genejations can show generally healthy 
 descendants in the third generation, this plea, usually 
 claimed as a " knock -Hown " argument, has absolutely no 
 value, except to point The self- absorption of the man who 
 makes it, and those who are influenced by it. 
 
 Another argument very frequently advanced is that 
 drinkers, and not only moderate ones, l i y ^ longer than 
 other people, unless accident or high living carry them off. 
 
 Such an argfument regarding alcohol is neither better 
 
 * " One long-lived glutton or drunkard kills more by his example, 
 and the flattering hopes those who know not their own strength and 
 what they were made to bear, entertain, than Hippocrates ever 
 Baved." — Geoi'ge Cheyne, in Natural Method of curing the Diseases of 
 the Buihj and the Mind. (London, 1742.)
 
 SPECIOUS EEASONINGS ON THE USE OF ALCOHOL. 829 
 
 founded nor more logical than it would be if applied to 
 exceptioiialjpngevity in cases of persons living in malarial 
 localities, or surviving tlie ordeal of the Sier ra Le one, or 
 employed as needle-grinders in Sheffield.. According to 
 statistics, the age of the latter seldom exceeds fortj years. 
 In the face of this fact, occasional instances of a longer 
 term of existence among them would hardly lead to an 
 advocacy of the employment of needle-grinding as con- 
 ducive to long life. 
 
 Neither would the fact that a man and his family 
 have lived in fair health all their lives to a good, old 
 age over a foetid cesspool — as seems to have at times 
 happened — be likely to be advanced as an argument in 
 favour of generally establishing such reservoirs of 
 pestilence under the family hearth-stone ! I once heard 
 of an extraordinary accident happening to a man at work 
 where b lasti ng,- was being done. During a premature 
 explosion, a long piece of the drilling bar shot upward from 
 the pit which was being excavated, and, entering the man's 
 head under the chin, passed ve rtica lly entirely through his 
 head, and, still ascending, fell at last at some distance. 
 He" staggered and fell, and his instant death was naturally 
 expected. Not so . To the amazement of all, and the 
 downrightincredulity of ph ysicia ns, he recovered, and, 
 Avhereas he had been before the accident morose and un- 
 reliable, he was now genial and to be depended upon. But 
 from this it would hardly be argued that men should 
 subject themselves to this sort of exp erim ent as probably 
 conducive to improvement in temper and character ! 
 
 But even supposing this argument of alcoholic longevity 
 were true, are not the d rinke rs overwhelmingly morg 
 numerous than the abstainers ; and therefore, other things 
 being equal, the number of ag ed dr inkers would, of course, 
 be greater than that of ag ed a bstainers ; and what criterion 
 of comparison has been used for the longevity ? To judge 
 from the insurance and other statistics which are quoted 
 in chap, x., comparing, under equitable conditions, equal 
 numbers of drinkers and abstainers, it was found that 
 abstainers much more generally reached an advanced age 
 than drinkers. 
 
 But what does this plea for longevity mean, urged by
 
 330 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 people whose chief aim in life is not to live — is to kill 
 time, not to use it ; and who, if not successful in killing 
 time, do not anfrequently kill themselves ? 
 
 If longevity were the measure of effectiveness, if 
 drinkers counted each day a priceless boon to be used as 
 nobly as they knew how, then indeed would this argument, 
 if true, be powerful in favour of alcohol. But we have 
 yet to see a man whose character has been ennobled by 
 drinking, or a drinker Avho grows nobler and better as he 
 grows older. On the other hand, it is a fact that some of 
 the most effective lives have been short. And of only 
 three years of public work — such work as no man has 
 measured nor can measure — did not the Master say, " It is 
 finished " ?
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 
 
 " While drinking continues, poverty and vice will prevail ; and 
 until this is abandoned, no regulation, no efforts, no authority under 
 heaven, can raise the condition of the working classes. It is 
 worse than a plague or a pestilence, and the man is no friend to his 
 country who does not lift up his voice and proclaim his example 
 against it." — Mr. J. Livesey, in the Moral Reformer, July 1, 1831.* 
 
 " Drink, the only terrible enemy whom England has to fear." — 
 The late Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany. 
 
 § 79. In discussing the question of what can be done to 
 reduce and vanquish the drink-evil, the limits and propor- 
 tion of the present work restrict me in touching upon what 
 has been done — a noble record, full of interest — to only 
 such general mention or occasional particularization as is 
 essential to the consideration of further reform effort. 
 
 In the opening pages of this book it was pointed out 
 that among the ancients the severest laws were put in 
 force against drunkenness ; that it was even, and not 
 unfrequently, punished with death. Ancient legal and 
 historical writings are replete with edicts and instances 
 showing that drunkenness was treated as a great crime. f 
 
 Why did the temperance reform efforts in the past 
 fail? 
 
 Why have such efforts failed even up to the present 
 century ? 
 
 Why, at various times during the last fifty years, have 
 
 * Mr. Livesey's first public denunciation of alcohol, 
 t See ZenophoD, Plato, Athenseus, Plutarch, Pliny, Dion of Hali- 
 carnassus, Diodorus Siculus^ Strabo, and others.
 
 332 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Why past 
 temperance 
 cflorts failed. 
 
 Their cha- 
 racter. 
 
 Early 
 
 moderation 
 
 Societies. 
 
 apparently great strides towards temperance alternated 
 with great relapses ? 
 
 What reasons have we to expect or hope that the 
 present popular interest and labours in the cause of 
 temperance are sowing the seed of a permanent success ? 
 
 One large general difference between past and present 
 efforts in regard to temperance lies in this broad distinction 
 between the two ages, that in antiquity the nation was for 
 the government, or rather the sovereign ; while in our 
 days governments, generally speaking", exist for the people. 
 
 Antiquity lacked the innumerable means of bodily and 
 mental communication, which, irrespective of the demarca- 
 tions of birth, fortune, and special circum.stance, suflB.ce in 
 our day to bring men together on one common intellectual 
 level in the study of mankind. 
 
 Among the ancients, temperance decrees proceeded 
 from the sovereign. They were framed to include only 
 such of his subjects as enjoyed the royal favour, and to 
 these the royal mandates were a matter of blind obedience, 
 not of persuasion or conviction. Such decrees were as 
 fitful in their character and occurrence as the whims of the 
 monarch issuing them ; their observance depended on the 
 subjects' loyalty, usually an allegiance of craft or fear ; 
 and they contained no element of reform, although at long 
 intervals, great historians, philosophers, and physicians 
 sounded the note of warning. 
 
 In later ages the popes sometimes united with the 
 rulers of Europe to stay the e^dl of drink, but to little 
 purpose. So-called moderation societies were even formed 
 among the nobles of Germany. 
 
 Dr. Baer mentions, in his Alcoliolismus (Berlin, 1878), 
 that " The First Order of Moderation " was founded by 
 Frederick III. ; that the badge, a cross with a design of 
 tankards, and inscribed Avitli the motto Halt Mass (be 
 moderate), was worn by the emperor at festivities; that 
 his son, Maximilian I., publicly expressed his abhon^ence 
 of intemperance at a number of his diets; that the 
 knightly order of St. Christopher " for the abolition of 
 profanity and drinking," was founded early in the six- 
 teenth centur}' by Sigismund von Diodrichstein, a noble- 
 man of Carinthia and Styria ; and that a few years later 
 an abstinence fraternity was instituted by Louis, Count
 
 WHAT CAX BE DONE? 333 
 
 Palatine, and Rictard, Elector of Treves, fifteen bisliops 
 and princes, and many nobles entering it. 
 
 Dr. Baer also refers to the Palatine Order of the Golden Special 
 Ring, the symbol of membership being a gold ring, which theirfaUure. 
 was forfeited back to the community by any member who 
 proved recreant in drinking toasts ; and mentions the 
 famous temperance order founded by the Landgrave of 
 Hesse in 1600. 
 
 Yet all these societies, and numerous others which 
 succeeded them, like the efforts made in antiquity, soon 
 passed away. Why ? Chiefly for these reasons, first, 
 because they lacked what we possess — the knowledge that 
 alcohol is always a poison, and therefore naturally 
 imagined the only remedy necessary lay in moderation ; 
 secondly, because these societies did not originate in moral 
 conviction of the nature of the evil they were to operate 
 against : they were not formed with any reference to 
 rooting out intemperance among the people, but were due 
 rather to the proud egoism of the nobles, who, indifferent 
 to the vice as it existed among the masses, nevertheless 
 disdained to practise in common with them. 
 
 This century (nineteenth) has seen a marked departure Character- 
 from the whole past in a great many respects, but in ^oj^rn^^^. 
 perhaps nothing so decisively as in the constantly in- perance 
 creasing recognition of the sovereignty of the individual, ™°'*^'^'^^'^ • 
 and the absolute interdependence of all individuals, high 
 and low, rich and poor, of which recognition the general 
 education of all youth is a proud instalment. 
 
 Whence we have the steadily growing tendency to 
 level all barriers interfering with a universal mental 
 development ; and in the struggle for progress, in the 
 sturdy investigation of the causes of the inequalities which 
 constitute all the difference between worth and worth- 
 lessness, between happiness and misery, the students of 
 humanity have discovered that alcohol is a chief agent, 
 the chief agent, in the sense that intemperance produces, is 
 often produced by, is associated with, and gathers tw 
 itself, all other kinds of vice and degradation. 
 
 Hence the modem temperance movement is based on 
 knowledge, conviction, and aspiration, and on a sentiment 
 of fellowship and fraternity much deeper and stronger 
 than has ever been felt before.
 
 334 
 
 THE FOUNDATIOiSr OF DEATH. 
 
 The epoch 
 originating 
 the present 
 popular 
 temperance 
 movement ; 
 how it pro- 
 gressed, col- 
 lapsed, and 
 revived. 
 
 This points ihe essential diiJerence between the past 
 and the present. 
 
 About fifty years ago there sprang up almost simul- 
 taneously from among the hard-working masses of America, 
 Germany, Great Britain, and Sweden, the core of the pre- 
 sent popular temperance movement. 
 
 These little bodies took the position that alcoholic 
 drinks are always harmful, to the individual, society, and 
 the State. 
 
 They discontinued drinking among themselves. They 
 went, like the apostles of olden times, among the people 
 to preach the only temperance gospel ; they were loyal, 
 patient, and earnest, and their words, works, and lives 
 carried conviction into millions of hearts. 
 
 Still, in a few years the whole movement had subsided, 
 and most of those who had promised reform went back to 
 their old habits and associations, but — not all. 
 
 Meanwhile, the great advance made in physiological 
 science had naturally been applied to the investigation of 
 the effects of alcohol on the human system, and the 
 ominous dicta of that science, coupled with the appalling 
 rcDorts of the effects of drunkenness as made by a more 
 perfect statistical system, corroborated and strengthened 
 by the genuine and noble pleas of the little band of faith- 
 ful ones, re-awakened public interest, and this fresh 
 impulse, supported by increased practical knowledge of the 
 true character of the evil, has led to many attempts and 
 plans for reform. 
 
 § 80. The present remedial efforts are usually sum- 
 mai'ized under the following three heads — political, social, 
 and individual. 
 
 And this being the order in which success is most 
 generally anticipated, I will deal with them in this order, 
 although, for my own part, I believe that individual and 
 social reform must be the basis of any permanently good 
 temperance legislation. 
 
 There seems to be much misunderstanding and con- 
 fusion as to what may reasonably be expected from 
 Government. 
 Summary of As regards England, every Englishman knows that
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 335 
 
 this Government is theoretically of the people, through the character 
 the people, and for the people. Any Government lacking ofthe^'*^"*^ 
 this qnalification would soon cease to be. powersand 
 
 Modern English history teems with incidents sub- ofufe"""^ 
 stantiating this statement. Even a single unpopular British 
 
 1 ,, 1 rf • "l J ii Government 
 
 measure has more than once been sumcient to overthrow in internal 
 the Government passing it. All that exists, therefore, reforms, 
 politically speaking, by its very existence proves the 
 nation's acceptance thereof, just as much as its disappear- 
 ance would prove the nation's disapprobation. 
 
 But while this is true theoretically, and would, in any 
 matter which thoroughly aroused the masses, become true 
 in fact, we have to remember that the masses are slow to 
 bestir themselves. They are like the cow m the pasti^ re, 
 to use a homely illustration — -"calm, benevolent, cud-chew- 
 ing, drows ily 'Ihi Tifferent to what s ort of me asures or 
 r eform s are being adopted by the fence^akers, secr^jjig 
 and daily yieldjpg with little demur lu^j^ifeams of milk ; 
 Imt. if the fift w be t oo m uch baited, the udders secrete 
 little, yield less, and a viciojas not-to-be-mistaken k ick 
 upsets the milk-pail, milk, and ^^ 
 
 The masses have practically let their power slip out of The sove- 
 their hands, and, though"They can at aTrftime resuniejt, anf^^n^^*^' 
 busy anxT inured to routine, they are not readily rousedto J'^-'PO"^'- 
 do so. Then the .stiffrage is restricted, the"Taijd and masses. 
 wealth of the country is con troll ed by the few^agnates, 
 and while the masses acquiesce in this state oralfairs, the 
 will of the people a mount s to the will of the magnates. 
 
 This will is expressed through the members of Parlia- 
 ment, and the Government being party government, its 
 existence depends upon its loyalty to party interests. Both 
 of the ruling parties vie with each other for popular 
 favour — the Conservative in the direction of maintaining 
 the past in politics ; the Liberal in the direction of a 
 methodic, slow, and safe transformation and extension of 
 political powers and rights in accordance with the impera- 
 tive needs of the age. Both parties champion popular 
 opinion when out of oiEce, and both of them when in office, 
 as far as is safe for their tenure of office — forced perhaps 
 by exigencies and considerations they had not pre-estimated 
 — ignore and defy it. In such circumstances the Govern- 
 ment, being unable to pass measures without its party's
 
 83G THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 consent, cannot safely ignore or resist its party ; and, as 
 the wealth of the country is largely concerned in the liqaor 
 trade, and as the liquor trade is the largest and surest 
 resource of governmental revenue, it must be apparent 
 that pressure for complete or only partial prohibition, 
 unless such pressure be brought to bear by the solid masses 
 of the country, is not likely to meet with ready response 
 from either Pai-liament or Government. 
 The people Another mistaken notion as to the nature and function 
 
 f^Mhe^*''^^ of Government, is that of supposing it to be a moral 
 morality of guardian of the people. The office of a constitutional 
 and G™Mn- government is nothing more and nothing less than that of 
 inent,notthe faithfully executing the laws and decrees of the country in 
 for^that of an almost machine-like manner, and of taking no initiative 
 the people, for either making or abrogating laws without unmistak- 
 able evidence of the nation's readiness and desire. 
 
 The avalanches of contumely which have been heaped 
 upon governments for not supporting legislative measures 
 of or tending towards prohibition, have mostly sprung 
 from this erroneous assumption, that the Government is 
 the moral guardian of the nation.* If temperance is made 
 a national instead of a party question. Parliament and 
 Government will make no objection, because on national 
 questions Parliament speaks for the people, and on such 
 questions the Government is as sensitive to Parliament as 
 is the exchange to financiers. As long as the national will 
 is not pronouncedly against the liquor trade. Parliament will 
 remain practically deaf to special petitions ; but as soon as 
 the nation sees the evil of the liquor trade no Parliament 
 can uphold it. Any attempt by Government to fore- 
 stall the popular mind on this question would be a 
 usurpation of popular rights, likely to be productive of 
 
 * I wish, however, not to be misunderstood as meaning that 
 morality ought to be separated from politics. I think it indispensable 
 to vital morality that no division should exist between private and 
 public morality ; personally, I believe the two to be inseparable. 
 But it is the people who are responsible for the morality of Parliament 
 and Government, not the Government for that of the people. If a 
 country is animated by morality, its laws, representatives, and govern- 
 ment must be moral ; but if, on the contrary, greed, expediency, and 
 political sophistry are the motive forces of national life, they will 
 inevitably get their completest expression through the representative 
 and executive bodies.
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 337 
 
 more harm than good to the temperance cause ; * although 
 of course it is not onlj laudable, but the positive duty of 
 Government members to, in an unofficial capacity, assist in 
 educating the popular mind on this subject. 
 
 As Zschokke says, in his Brannhoein Pest (The Brandy 
 Pest, Aran, 1857), " All laws are powerless for ex- 
 tinguishing an evil which has taken root in the life of the 
 people ; it is from the people itself that the reform of 
 morals must proceed, but no government is strong enough 
 to bring it about." 
 
 § 81. It is a grave question whether the continuous Danccers 
 bending of all efforts in the direction of legislation does pont'ic'a"" 
 not divert the individual mind from the individual import- agitation on 
 ance of the subject ; whether this making of a profoundly ™'^" '**'^'^ * 
 moral subject into one of legislative controversy, of 
 making a national and race issue a shuttlecock between 
 political parties — a stake of gambling for office — is not 
 vitiating the cause of temperance. 
 
 The defence of the counti'y against invading armies 
 is not allowed to be a question of party tactics, neither 
 should the question which, in case of an invasion, would 
 more than any other decide the issue of the contest. 
 
 As in the case of an invasion, her army and navy would The para- 
 be England's dependence, the enforcement of absolute portance of 
 sobriety amons: the defenders of the country, officers and sobriety for 
 
 '.' IT T c /-I the piotec- 
 
 men alike, would seem to be a paramount duty of Grovern- tinn of 
 ment. History fui'nishes ample precedent that nearly all "ndeprad- 
 the ancient, many mediceval, and some of the modern ence. 
 powers (notably American) prohibited and prohibit drink- 
 ing in their armies and navies. 
 
 In the vigorous days of ancient Carthage and Rome, 
 the penalty for drunkenness in the army was death ; and 
 long after, when the people generally had become aban- 
 doned to drink and debauchery, the discipline of sobriety 
 was enforced among the troops, although at last they fell 
 to drink and then their countries were vanquished. 
 
 It is an historic fact that the Anglo-Saxon power was The battle of 
 
 lost tlirough 
 * " We win a snrer victory when public opinion is with us than drink. 
 when by catch-legislation we anticipate that public opinion, and suffer, 
 according to the law of the universe, a swift reaction." — -Bishop of 
 Rochester, in his address on Temperance at Victoria Hall, Lambeth, 
 Nov. 12, 1883. 
 
 Z
 
 338 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 conquered by its intemperance, just as were Babylon and 
 Syracuse of antiquity. Hume states that King Edgar 
 strove to check intemperance by allowing only one ale- 
 house to each town. Still, we find that the Anglo-Saxon 
 army passed the night before the momentous battle of 
 Hastings in drink and riot, while the numerically inferior 
 Norman forces passed it in prayer and fasting. 
 
 Says Fuller, in his Church History of Britain : — 
 " The English being revelling before, had, in the morn- 
 ing, their brains arrested for the arrearages of the undi- 
 gested fumes of the former night, and were no better than 
 drunk when they came to fight." * 
 
 England must look to it that the ravages from drink 
 are stopped before it is too late.f Commenting on the 
 
 * E. C. Delevan, in his Temperance Essays (New York, 1866), quotes 
 from the Richmond Enquirer, Confederate organ (Oct. 6, 1864), the 
 following concerning the downfall of the Confederacy of the Southern 
 States :— 
 
 " Do you ask for an explanation of these rapidly occurring disasters 
 in a portion of the State where the Confederates, until the 19th alt., 
 never suffered defeat ? Here is the key to our reverses. Officers 
 of high position, yes, of very high position, have, to use an honest 
 English word, been drank — too drunk to command themselves, much 
 less an army, a division, a brigade, or a regiment. And when officers 
 in high command are in the habit of drinking to excess, we may be 
 sure their pernicious example will be followed by those in lower 
 grades. The cavalry forces that had been operating in the valley 
 were already demoralized, and since their last visit to Maryland they 
 have been utterly worthless." 
 
 t In last year's session of Parliament (1882), it was stated, in 
 defence of the soldiers' beer-drinking, that the beer consumed by 
 them was not the vile stuif ordinarily sold; but this argument is 
 simply saying that there is a difference in the kinds and degrees of 
 harmfulness in a specified compound, since all alcohols in whatever 
 quantity or quality have been proven to be poisonous. 
 
 In a remarkable symposium contributed by several Belgian 
 military surgeons to the Beljian Army Journal (1879), one of the 
 writers urges earnestly that the drink-evil in the army should bo 
 combated by forbidding the sale of brandy and other spirits in the 
 canteens of the barracks. A vast quantity of spirits is, it is stated, 
 sold in these establishments, and it is in them that the young recruit 
 begins to drink and acquires a taste for liquor, with the sanction, as 
 it were, of the military authorities, who supply the premises where 
 the drinking goes on. And not only does the soldier in every interval 
 between drills repair to the canteen to refresh himself with a "nip," 
 but brandy is bought and carried into the men's rooms, where non- 
 commissioned officers and men carouse together, to the great prejudica
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 339 
 
 sreneral coBclition of some troops that had just passed The Echo on 
 through Canterhury en route to India, the Echo (January fn"the Trmy* 
 4, 1884) said, " The march through the town to the station 
 the next morning was most disgraceful. The men were 
 too drunk to keep ranks, and dropped portions of their 
 equipment as they staggered along. At the station they 
 were quite mutinous, I'efusing to obey orders ; and one, in 
 North-country brogue, was heard to say he would shoot 
 his captain when he reached India." 
 
 Some of the principal English officers, in both army 
 and navy, inveigh frequently against drinking among the 
 troops. In a letter to John Bayley, Esq., President of the 
 Grantham Temperance Association, April 21, 1881, Sir 
 Garnet, now Lord Wolseley, wrote : — 
 
 " The cause of temperance is the cause of social ad- Lord 
 vancement. Temperance means less crime, and more ^°t^g'a^ 
 thrift and more of comfort and prosperity for the people. and drink. 
 
 " Nearly all the crime in our army can be traced to 
 intoxication, and I have always found that when with any 
 army or body of troops in the field there was no issue of 
 spirits, and where their use was prohibited, the health as 
 well as the conduct of the men were all that could be 
 wished for." 
 
 And to a Good Templar meeting, held in Morley Hall, 
 Hackney, in November of the same year, he wrote : — • * 
 
 " About ninety per cent, of the crime in our array is 
 owing to drunkenness, and when our men are removed 
 from the temptation of intoxicating liquor, crime is prac- 
 tically unknown amongst them. During the operations I 
 conducted in South Africa in 1879, my own personal escort 
 was composed almost exclusively of teetotalers. They had 
 very hard work to do, but grumbling was never heard from 
 them, and a better behaved set of men I was never assisted 
 with — a fact which I attributed to their being almost all 
 total abstainers." 
 
 In his speech to the troops at Chatham, f Cardinal Cardinal 
 Manning narrates of Sir Charles Napier, that — the'same.*"' 
 
 of discipline. If this sale of spirits were forbidden, better coffee 
 would, it is argued, be provided in the canteens, and the soldier woald 
 drink this instead of brandy, to the great benefit of his health. 
 
 * See Alliance News, November 5, 1881. 
 
 t See The Universe, July 22, 1882.
 
 statement. 
 
 340 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 "Wlien lie was 'tumbled over, with, forty others, by 
 the sunstroke,' and being himself the only one who did not 
 succumb, he attributed his escape from death to the fact of 
 his being a total abstainer, sapng, ' the sun found no ally 
 in my brains.' " 
 
 Major-General Sir Evelyn TVood, in addressing the 
 same meeting, is reported * as saying : — 
 Major- " That his experience fully bore out what his Eminence 
 
 FvTn ^''^ had said. Some of the soldiers present would doubtless 
 AVood, in say, ' Oh, it's all very well for the Cardinal to talk about 
 of CMdinlr total abstinence ; but it won't do for us. We cannot act 
 Manning's up to it ! ' "Well, he could assure them it was a matter of 
 em»n YQcrret to him that, in his early career, in the navy and the 
 K^aval Brigade, he had not the advantages of being a total 
 abstainer. . . . Some four years ago, Colonel Hope, of the 
 12th, had told him. that if he had to go through his thirty 
 years' service again he would become a teetotaler. 
 Throughout the Crimea those were the best and most 
 healthy soldiers and sailors who did not touch intoxicating 
 drink. He (Sir Evelyn Wood) also served three years in 
 India, including the last fifteen months of the mutiny, and 
 he could positively state those who drank nothing were the 
 best men. He went to the Gold Coast, and during the 
 hundred and fifty days they were in one place he put in a 
 hundred and forty-six days' service, only to find himself 
 beaten by the attendance of a man who was a teetotaler. 
 During the last three years he had rounded the Cape of 
 Good Hope four times, and he found that the stokers who 
 had to work in the heated stokeholes of the large ocean 
 steamers never drank anything but barley water when in 
 the tropics. Throughout the Zulu campaign he had two 
 reo'iments under him, one young, and the other old. There 
 was little or nothing to choose between them for good 
 conduct or discipline, because they were unable to get any- 
 thing to drink. They were the 30th and the 90th Light 
 Infantry, and they stood at the head of the list of the 
 British army for good conduct. He had beforehand taken 
 particular care there should be no liquor in the place, as 
 he feared any signs of drinking might lead to a disaster 
 before the enemy." 
 
 § 82. A necessary step toward the solution of the liquor 
 * See The Universe, July 22, 1882.
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? S41 
 
 question, it seems to me, is that all points which make it a 
 party question should be removed. 
 
 As a result of political party agitation on this question, 
 we find the whole machinery of the wealth, intelligence, 
 and political influence interested in the defence of the 
 liquor trade, engaged in forming a third party strong- 
 enough to hold the balance of power in the House of 
 Commons. They have, happily, not yet succeeded. 
 
 It is still fresh in memory how the liquor-dealers in the Mischiefs 
 last election strained every point to secure the election of resuitedfrom 
 only such candidates as were in favour of their retaining prematureiy 
 their present privileges. The Alliance News (January 4, uquor- 
 1879) cites a conspicuous example. " At the election of a gpff^.^'e^fgnc^ 
 member for Bristol," it says, "Mr. R. C. Smart, Treasurer unions.by in- 
 of the Licensed Victuallers' Association, said, ' Politics poTitiSr'^''' 
 mean self-interest,' and Mr. Collins ' hoped and trusted agitation fur 
 they would all act according to their consciences for the ^"^^ ' ' i° • 
 henefit of the trade.' 
 
 And Canon Ellison,* in his admirable letter to Earl 
 Stanhope, on The Church of England Temperance Society in 
 the Recent Election (1880), drew further attention to this 
 point : — " The Licensed Victuallers," he says, " for the 
 first time, I believe, in our history, publicly, formally, as a 
 body with interests of their own separate from those of the 
 whole community, had drawn up their test for Parliamen- 
 tary candidates, upon the acceptance of which their 
 support, as a united body, was to depend. At a meeting 
 of the Licensed Victuallers' Protection Society of London, 
 Mr. J. F. Deacon, the chairman of the society, who presided 
 on the occasion, stated that very complete arrangements had 
 been made for dealing loith candidates at the General Election. 
 To every gentleman tvho sought their suffrages four test ques- 
 tions loould he submitted, and the ivay in lohich those questions 
 were answered woxdd decide their action toicards the candidate. 
 The questions are as folloics : — 
 
 " 1. Will you, if returned to Parliament, oppose every 
 Bill or measure which aims at transferring the licensing 
 powers from the present authorities (the Justices of the 
 Peace) to periodically elected local boards or bodies, 
 municipal, parochial, or the like ? 
 
 " 2. Will you support and advocate the principle that 
 
 * Chairman of the Church of England Temperance Society.
 
 342 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 for any depreciation in the value of the property of licensed 
 victuallers, insulting from future legislation, they should 
 be entitled to fair and full pecuniary compensation ? 
 
 " 3. Will you oppose any measure having for its objects 
 the curtailment of, or interference with, the present hours 
 of opening and closing public-houses, either on Sundays or 
 on other days of the week ? 
 
 "4. Will you give your support to any measure having 
 for its object the placing of all ' off ' licenses under the same 
 authority and regulation as other licenses ? " 
 
 And the state of affairs brought about by the prohibi- 
 tory agitation in the United States is shown in the Annual 
 Report of the Brewers' Congress, held at Washington, May, 
 1882. The following is a summary of it as published in 
 the supplement of the National Temperance Advocate, of 
 New York, June, 1883 :— 
 
 " The twenty-second annual convention of the United 
 States Brewers' Association was held in Washington, D.C., 
 May 11 and 12, 1882. A Washington brewer, Mr. Heurich, 
 representing the brewers of the national capital, called the 
 convention to order and made an address of welcome, in 
 which he congratulated the brewers upon their having 
 come to the capital when the United States Congress was 
 in session, with an opportunity to meet and greet their 
 senators and representatives, and the officers of the govern- 
 ment with whom they have, as brewers, business contact ; 
 concluding with an expression of the hope that their 
 coming might be made ' instrumental in clearing the dark 
 clouds which, in many parts of the country, threaten our 
 time-honoured business.' 
 
 " The president of the Association, Mr. H. B. Schar- 
 mann, of Brooklyn, N. Y., then delivered his annual address, 
 in which he congratulated the brewers that in this country 
 ' the consumption of beer has gone up during eighteen 
 years 679 per cent.' 
 
 " He gave the number of breweries at 2,474 ; stating 
 that 30,000 persons are employed in the beer business, and 
 that it has a capital of 152,524,720 dollars invested in it. 
 There were 8,536 retail, and 2,034 wholesale dealers in 
 malt liquors during the special- tax year ended April 30, 
 1881. 
 
 " There were reports submitted from the ' Agitation
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 343 
 
 Committee,' the ' Publication Committee,' by the attornej, 
 Mr. Schade, etc. The Agitation Committee reiterate their 
 claim for beer as a ' temperance ' beverage. 
 
 " The Publication Committee report that they have 
 printed and distributed nearly 115,000 pamphlets and 
 broadsides, and that these pamphlets are electrotyped, 
 and, ' after a certain number of the pamphlets have been 
 placed where most needed at the expense of the fund, 
 additional copies, where ordered, are furnished at the 
 actual cost of the paper and press-work.' 
 
 " The report of the attorney, Mr. Schade, recounts 
 among other things his successful opposition in Congress 
 to the Commission of Inquiry bill, and to the measures for 
 the pi'ohibition of the liquor tratfic in the District of 
 Columbia and the Territories. 
 
 " In response to the petitions from the brewers of Iowa, 
 Michigan, and Indiana for financial aid to help defeat pro- 
 hibition in those States, 2,000 dollars were appropriated to 
 Michigan, 3,000 dollars to Iowa, 5,000 dollars to Indiana, 
 and 500 dollars to Kansas. Much larger sums are under- 
 stood to have been contributed throuorh other channels." 
 
 As long as the masses have not become intellectually The earliest 
 convinced that the harm done by the liquor traffic is greater ^hen pro- 
 than the good claimed for it, such as the multifarious iiiwtioncan 
 employment of many, and the constant and large revenue practical and 
 it returns,* so long will any attempt to enforce prohibi- facT*^*^^"' 
 tionj fail, and in their failure promote the traffic. Every 
 
 * The terrible cost of these very advantages, in morals, health, 
 and finance have already been pointed out in the chai^ter on Social 
 Results. The Echo (February 7, 1884) states that in his message to the 
 Ohio State Legislature, Governor Forster " declares that in twelve 
 ruonths four thousand five hundred liquor saloons had gone out of 
 existence, and that two million dollars had been added to the 
 revenue." 
 
 f England and Ireland have already witnessed the beneficial 
 results of a partially effected prohibition. 
 
 In writing on The Police of the Metropolis in 1800, Mr. Colquhoun 
 describes the situation in London during the embargo on the dis. 
 tilleries, 1796-97, when bread and other foods and necessaries were 
 greatly increased in cost by the scarcity of grain ; yet the poor lived 
 better, were more comfortable, and paid their rent with less difficulty 
 than for many years previously, and there was both less brawling 
 and less pawning. " This," says Mr. Colquhoun, " can only be ac-
 
 344. THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 sincere friend of the temperance reform cries out with the 
 eloquent Canon Fari'ar : " How long do you mean this to 
 continue ? How long are our working classes to be hemmed 
 in with glaring temptations, and their dwellings to be 
 ringed by public-houses on all sides as with a cordon of 
 fire ? How long is the reeling* army of our drunkards to 
 be recruited by those who are now our innocent sons and 
 daughters ? " * 
 
 The writings of such men as Dr. F. R. Lees, in Eng- 
 land ; ex-Bailie D. Lewis, in Scotland ; Judge Pitman, in 
 America, and many others, have taken the question of the 
 justice, wisdom, and legality of prohibition theoretically 
 quite out of the list of disputable issues : it is only around 
 the question of its best practicable application that doubt 
 can still be entertained. 
 The hopeful The extension of suffi'age, " with the enlargements of 
 
 Queen's last the powers of ratepayers through the representative system, 
 speech. including among them the regulation of the traffic in 
 
 intoxicating liquors," promised in the Queen's speech, 
 opening Parliament (1884), is a hopeful omen that we 
 are at last to know what the people really think and 
 want.t 
 
 counted for by their bein^ denied the indulgence of gin, which had 
 become in a great measui-e inaccessible from its very high price." 
 And in Ireland a similar temporary prohibition measure had like con- 
 sequences, in allusion to which the writer of An Inquiry into the 
 Influence of Ardent Spirits in Ireland (1830) states, " The population 
 of Ireland was enabled to consume a greater quantity of articles of 
 Itixury and comfort than in years of absolute plenty." And yet, the 
 popular sympathy not being enlisted, these measures with all their 
 benefits could only be maintained for a short period, and when the 
 reaction came, drinking and crime became more prevalent than 
 before. 
 
 * Sermon in Westminster Abbey (November 19, 1883), on the 
 occasion of the twenty-first anniversary of the Church of England 
 Temperance Society. 
 
 t " The Grand Jury cannot withhold from the court the amaze- 
 ment and horror which they have felt during their investigations, at 
 the systematic countenance of and encouragement to vicious conduct, 
 by the facilities afforded by the numberless places of resort for 
 drinking and profligacy, thereby providing nurseries for crime and 
 destitution ; and they earnestly hope that some effectual steps may 
 be taken, either by the withholding of licenses or curtailing the hours 
 for the sale of intoxicating liquors, and thus grapple with a system 
 of demoralization as antagonistic to the interests of religion, and as
 
 WHAT CAN BE DOXE ? 345 
 
 § 83. But pending the general and full development of Various 
 popular conviction and will, up to the point of an irresistible measures for 
 demand that the traffic shall cease, there are various general pro- 
 valuable initiation legislative measures in that direction, 
 which might be taken. 
 
 First in point of time is Local Option; a measure Local option, 
 almost Avholly due to the untiring efforts and laboui's of 
 thirty active years by the United Kingdom Alliance, and 
 particularly to its brilliant and wise presidents, the late 
 Sir Walter Trevelyan, and the present Sir AVilfrid Lawson, 
 whose motion reads thus : " That the best interests of the Sir Wilfrid 
 nation urgently require some efficient measure of legisla- ^^g^^'^ 
 tion, by which, in accordance with the resolution already 
 passed and re-affirmed by this House, a legal power of 
 restraining the issue or i^enew-al of licenses for the sale 
 of intoxicating liquors may be placed in the hands of the 
 persons most deeply interested and affected, namely, the 
 inhabitants themselves," and whose work for securing this 
 reform during the years 1879 and 1880 fully equalled the 
 efforts of Mr. Gladstone to overthrow the Beaconsfield 
 government, both in energy, conclusiveness, and eloquence. 
 That his Avork promises to meet with deserved success is 
 shown in the victories he has ah^eady gained. 
 
 In 1880, before the election, Mr. Gladstone went out 
 of his way to declare that he was not in favour of local 
 option ; but when the measure was brought into the 
 House, Mr. Gladstone said : " I earnestly hope that at 
 some not very distant period it may be found practicable 
 to deal with the licensing laws, and in dealing with the 
 licensing laws to include the reasonable and just measure 
 for which my honourable friend (Sir Wilfrid Lawson) 
 pleads." 
 
 In three successive sessions of the present parliament 
 the local option resolution has been passed by steadily 
 largely increasing majorities ; on the 27th of April last it 
 was passed in the House of Commons by a majority of 87. 
 
 Concerning this result, the Times of the next morning 
 (April 28, 1883) said: "Sir Wilfrid Lawson must be 
 satisfied for the present with the reception he has gained 
 
 injurious to the social well-bein^ of all classes of the community as 
 it is degrading to us as an enlightened nation." — Presentment of the 
 Grand Jury at the Central Criminal Court (London, November, 1S62).
 
 346 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 temperance 
 meeting in 
 Kdinburgh, 
 March 3, 
 1884. 
 
 for his resolution in favour of Local Option. The announce- 
 ment of Sir William Harcourt that the Government accepts 
 the principle of the resolution and will take the respon- 
 sibility of giving effect to it, has put the whole question 
 on an entirely new level. The thing, it is now certain, 
 will be done ; Local Option in some form or other will be 
 granted ; the time and the manner alone remain to be 
 determined." 
 The Local At the great temperance meeting at Edinburgh, March 
 
 Option Reso- 3^ 1884, the Rev. Mr. Adamson, in supporting the resolution 
 the great (in favour of the Local Option resolution) — " That, whilst 
 resolved to maintain all existing legal restrictions on the 
 sale of intoxicating liquors, and whilst recognizing that 
 the House of Commons has affirmed that the ratepayers 
 should possess ' a legal power of restraining the issue and 
 renewal of licences,' this convention hereby declares that 
 no legislative measure on this subject will be satisfactory 
 which does not confer upon the ratepayers in parishes, 
 burghs, and other districts the full legal power of con- 
 trolling the drink traffic, and also of prohibiting it, where 
 a majority ' shall think meet and convenient ' that the 
 traffic should not exist " — added that " he wanted to say 
 that modern legislation was going straight in the direction 
 of trusting all matters pertaining to the social, moral, and 
 intellectual well-being of the people to the people them- 
 selves ; and he needed not to tell that great meeting that on 
 the whole they made a proper use of what they had got. At 
 present they elected their municipal authorities, the educa- 
 tion boards, the parochial boards, and they elected their 
 ministers of religion. . . . Why, then, should they withhold 
 from the common people the right to deal with the curse of 
 intemperance ? It was said those houses were put down 
 for the convenience of the people ; not for the convenience 
 of the men who hold the licences, but for the benefit of 
 the community at large. He concluded by saying they 
 would never rest satisfied till the people Avere entrusted 
 with the power to say whether public-houses should be set 
 down in their midst." 
 
 The attitude On May 7th (1884) a large deputation from this con- 
 
 ofthe vention waited upon Sir William Harcourt, who said to 
 
 toward it. them, " The views of the Government have been distinctly
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 347 
 
 stated as being in favour of the ratepayers having the 
 power of determining in each locah'ty what they desire 
 with reference to the drink traffic. I stated that last year 
 in my speech on Sir Wilfrid Lawson's local option resolu- 
 tion. I have nothing now to add to it, and nothing to 
 change. I adhere entirely without modification to what 
 I then stated on behalf of the Government. We desire 
 that the local authority should have complete control over 
 the drink traffic ; that the locality should determine what 
 houses should be licensed ; whether any, or none at all, or 
 how many ; when they should be opened or closed, etc. ; 
 in point of fact, that the locality should have complete and 
 absolute authority to treat this as a local question, and not 
 one as it has hitherto been regulated in every place by a 
 fixed statute, which seems to me not appropriate to a 
 question of this kind. We regard it as a question affecting 
 the general welfare of a particular community like any- 
 thing affecting its health, or morals, or those other 
 matters which are now- confided to its local authority. 
 . . . l^obody is more anxious than I am, or more willing, 
 to go far in the direction of restraining the evils of the 
 drink traffic — as far as possible." 
 
 In Sir Wilfrid Lawson's resolution there is no mention Tiie queption 
 of the much-agitated question of compensation * to the saih^rTtcTtiie 
 
 publicans, t publicans. 
 
 No doubt this point is a most delicate one, and difficult 
 of solution ; but it must be solved in some way. Many 
 arguments tell against material compensation, but there 
 are arguments of weight both as to expediency, honesty, 
 and justice, which indicate that the publicans should receive 
 some consideration in this matter. Their privileges have 
 been recognized for hundreds of years, during at least the 
 earlier part of which time it was not known that any evil 
 
 * See Appendix on compensation. 
 
 f " It is only with the growth of democracy that here also we 
 are slowly approaching a time when the rights of property will be 
 frankly subordinated to the rights of humanity and the good of tbe 
 body politic. At present such doctrine is ' unsound,' for in a society 
 still essentially plutocratic we recognize — though it is not considered 
 seemly so to express it — that a man may have a vested interest in 
 poisoning his neighbours, and must not be prevented from doing so 
 except upon adequate comjDensation." — Pall Mall Gazette, April 10, 
 1884.
 
 348 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 The publi- 
 cans' side of 
 the question. 
 
 The public's 
 side (if the 
 question. 
 
 inhered in drink itself, but only in its immoderate use. 
 Throng-h ignorance, the liquor trade occupied a moral 
 plane from Avhicli science has since overthrown it. 
 
 The fact that this ignorance is removed, that alcohol is 
 at last known to be rank poison, though it changes vitally 
 and fatally the moral position of those who sell it as a 
 common beverage, does not therefore absolve society from 
 all duty of consideration for the liquor-dealers ; nor is it 
 likely to prevent liquor-dealers — with whom long habitude 
 has also done its work, and in the continuance of whose 
 "time-honoured privileges," as they not untruly call them, 
 the homes and livelihood of hundreds and thousands of 
 persons are bound up — from mustering all their forces to 
 avert the legal ruin which abrupt or rapid prohibition, with- 
 out some reasonable pecuniary or other compensation, would 
 be to them. It may be that the character of a trade is not 
 always necessarily germane to the question of its right to 
 existence, especially if its very foundation was laid in legal 
 recognition and State protection. If in ignorance of the 
 fact and effects of contagion, we had legalized a business 
 in which men were authorized and licensed to vend disease- 
 infected garments, we could not, later on — when we had 
 become wiser — with justice, summarily deprive them of 
 the livelihood grounded in their and our ignorance, without 
 paying' due consideration to the conditions and necessities 
 which the change would involve for them. 
 
 On the other hand, it can be urged that if liquor- 
 dealers are entitled to compensation for loss of livelihood, 
 why not all those who are necessarily affected by the down- 
 fall of the liquor trade ? Why not the pawnbrokei's, 
 money-lenders, gamblers, police, physicians, lawyers, jailors, 
 and hangmen ? 
 
 Again, it is a truth that liquor-dealers as a body 
 mostly deal in adulterated or even wholly spurious wares,* 
 
 * A point illustrated — if illustration is needed — by the way in 
 which some evidently honest liquor-dealers reproach their adulterat- 
 ing bi'ethren; possibly in some instances from really disinterested 
 motives, but in most cases undoabtedly to check the spread of adulte- 
 ration, because in the proportion of its spread it puts the burden of 
 State duties on the few who do not adulterate. Liquor-dealers do not 
 pay license taxes for the use of water, therefore in the measure that 
 tiiey adulterate with water do they sell less liquor, and in the measure 
 that they sell less liquor do they have less to pay to the State ; and
 
 WHAT CAX BE DONE ? 349 
 
 and therefore forfeit, by fraud, their claims to compensa- 
 tion. And still State and society, knowing this as they 
 have known and do know it, and not having taken effective 
 measures to prevent and punish adulteration, have been 
 almost the same as silent partners in the transaction, and 
 have thereby lost much of that moral force which would 
 otherwise have entitled them to act more strictly with the 
 liquor-dealers in case of prohibition.* 
 
 Personally, I lean in the direction of those who think 
 publicans are entitled not exactly to compensation, but 
 certainly to consideration. 
 
 A hint to licensed victuallers of a way by which they a hint to 
 might gradually make themselves and their houses ready victuallers 
 for prohibition, and at the same time increase their claims pare them-' 
 to consideration when such change should arrive, was selves and 
 thrown out by the Lord Mayor of York, at the annual fort'he''''''' 
 dinner of the York Licensed Victuallers' Association, inevitable. 
 February 8, 1881. The Lord Mayor said that there -was 
 now a greater use of non-alcoholic drinks, and he thought 
 it would be wise on the part of those who held licences to 
 encourage their sale. It seemed to him that if the licensed 
 victuallers could pu.t themselves more in harmony with the 
 feeling in favour of the increased sobriety and for the con- 
 sumption of non-alcoholic drinks, they would further their 
 own interests in various ways, besides promoting public 
 sobriety. 
 
 Some licensed victuallers are acting upon this advice, 
 and furnish tea and coffee besides alcoholic drinks,t and 
 
 thus many a liquor-dealer with a roaring trade pays less to the State 
 than some who have a comparatively small custom ; hence the cry of 
 the non-adulterating liquor-dealers against the dishonest practice of 
 adulteration. 
 
 * Alliance Xeics, February 19, 18S1. 
 
 f "Now, if this Church of England Temperance Society would 
 bring about a revolution among the publicans and licensed victuallers 
 of this country, and if my colleagues and my friends (I am not 
 ashamed to call them friends) would allow one of their own set to 
 advise them to look to their own gains and to turn their houses — 
 those committee-rooms that they used to have, and which will be no 
 longer of use to them if this Bill passes in the House of Commons 
 for prohibiting the use of committee-rooms in public-houses — instead 
 of having those committee-rooms let once in every seven years ; why 
 not have wholesome refreshments where the best of everything can 
 be got ? and don't you think that the publicans and great brewers of
 
 350 THE FOUNDATIOX OF DEATH. 
 
 ib seems fullj probable that the liquor-dealers might 
 gradually become almost wholly dealers in non-alcoholic 
 drinks. 
 Scheme for In this direction also the State might greatly assist to 
 
 the°confli'cN promote the welfare of the people, by a scheme having due 
 ing interests re^fard to all three of the chief considerations — the health 
 probibitiyu and morality of the population, the necessities of the 
 rl''u-d"o exchequer, and the future of the publican, 
 health. Many persons, who, convinced of the evil of drink and 
 
 ™venu^'^'"^ desiring to abstain, have yet lacked strength to at once 
 break off their drinking habits, have tried and found suc- 
 cessful the simple plan of daily slightly diluting their 
 regular portion of whiskey, wine, or beer with, water, until 
 the rejection of a drink, thus gradually made insipid and 
 uninviting, for pure water, becomes easy and at last natural. 
 Now, it is in the power of the State, the people consent- 
 
 this conntry having the means of providing good food and good tea 
 and coffee at more moderate rates than tliose who have got to pay 
 rent for their houses, do not you tliink their profits would be larger ? 
 Coffee taverns, I think, are admirable institutions with the exception 
 that they do not sell coffee. (Hear, hear.) Anything more abomin- 
 able or more filthy than what is supposed to be sold for 2d. a cup in 
 coffee-palaces is not to be imagined, and at the very commencement 
 of this splendid movement already we must bring in a Reform Bill." 
 — Sir P. C. Owen's speech, E.^eter Hall, April 25, 1883, as reported 
 in Church of England Temperance Chronicle, May 5, 1883. 
 
 At a meeting of the Exeter Conservative Association, held in 
 Exeter on the 26th of February, 1884, Mr. J. P. Heath read aa 
 address on the Temperance Question, in which he said : — 
 
 " It must not be thought that licensed victuallers liked to see 
 drunkards on their premises, for such men were the greatest 
 nuisances they had to contend with, as they drove other customers 
 away, and placed the landlord under a penalty for supplying them 
 with liquor if they were in a state of intoxication, and he might 
 forfeit his licence thereby. . . . Neither must it be thouglit that inn- 
 keepers derived greater advantages from selling alcoholic than non- 
 alcoholic beverages, for he knew that more profit was made over the 
 sale of a bottle of soda-water than a glass of grog, and over the sale 
 of ginger beer than brewers' beer made from malt and hops. Brewers 
 were finding out that, and were turning their attention in many 
 instances to the manufacture of aerated waters, and through the 
 spread of temperance principles by persuasion and conversion any 
 licensed victualler would admit that his sale of temperance drinks 
 had largely increased of late years, and that he was equally willing 
 to provide accommodation for teetotalers who wished to use his 
 premises for the transaction of their business as for non. abstainers."
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 351 
 
 ing, to try a similar experiment of drink-cure for tbe 
 nation, by adopting an annually rising scale of license 
 duties, the price per glass of every kind of alcoholic drink 
 being definitely and permanently fixed by law ; the use of 
 all ingredients in drink save alcohol and water being 
 punished absolutely with imprisonment and loss of license, 
 whenever detected ; and detection, by whomsoever made, 
 to be always compensated by a fixed premium. Gradually 
 as the license duty increased, the liquor-dealer would seek 
 his compensation in increased water dilution, the public 
 would gradually become accustomed to weaker liquids, 
 and would finally reach the point where the gi-owing bodily 
 and mental health, and the insipidity of the drinks would 
 breed disgust. If, while this weaning process was going 
 on, the liquor-dealers kept good coffee, tea, cocoa, chocolate, 
 etc., their trade would gradually become established as 
 that of licensed victuallers really, instead of licensed 
 poisoners, and they could sell all the various non-alcoholic 
 drinks, and thus, properly speaking, suffer no real loss. 
 Meanwhile it would be the duty of the State to furnish 
 pure sparkling water to the public, and to the publicans 
 might be given the first chance of investment in securing 
 this inestimable boon. 
 
 § 84. When prohibition becomes law, there is one point The para- 
 which the temperance advocates should not lose sight of, ™°^e**^"'^ 
 namely, the exportation of liquor. The influence England Government 
 has exercised in this respect on her colonies and those exportatkin 
 savage nations forced by her fleets to trade with her, has ofnquor.and 
 put an immense responsibility on her shoulders.* in case of ^ 
 
 internal 
 * " I am sorry to say that since the cession to the British Govern- prohibition, 
 ment the Griquas have become a debased people, as much as before 
 they were respected. The first thing that the Government did after 
 the cession was to license a liquor-shop at Griqna Town and at other 
 places within the territory, and from that I trace the debasement of 
 the tribe. In order to show you the change that has taken place for 
 the worse, I may mention that prior to the cession I travelled for 
 fourteen years through a great part of the country, and I never saw 
 a drunken native. It was, in fact, against the laws of the country to 
 introduce brandy or other spirituous liquors ; but immediately after 
 the cession and the licensing of drinking the state of things un- 
 fortunately changed. At the time to which I have referred the 
 Griquas had a couucil and a court of justice, in which a regular record 
 of the proceedings was kept ; punishments were awarded for offences 
 according to civilized ideas, and the country was remarkably free
 
 352 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 QnotinfT from the Gazette of India (August 25, 1883), the 
 Alliance Neios of December 8, 1883, says, "A compara- 
 
 from crime." — lion. David Arnot, in Manchester Courier, March 13, 
 1879. 
 
 " Griqualand was annexed to the British Crown in 1871, and with 
 it a large tract of Bechnana territory. Up to that time, the chiefs, 
 Waterboer and Yanke (the former Griqua and the latter Bechnana), 
 had prohibited, as lar as possible, the sale of brandy in their respec- 
 tive territories. So soon as the country was annexed, canteens were 
 licensed and opened all over the country, and the people, who had 
 become more or less civilized and Christianized, began to go back 
 again. They took to drinking, and began to lose all they possessed. 
 This became so bad in Griqualand that, in 1877, the heads of the 
 Griqua tribe drew up a petition in the Dutch language for presenta- 
 tion to Her Majesty the Queen, imploring her to stop the sale of 
 drink, as it was brinoring them to rnin. — Eev. A. J. Unkey, Bedford, 
 August 14, toWm. Hoyle. Appeared in Alliance News, September 
 27, 1879. 
 
 The Friewl for April contains a letter from the Nonconformist and 
 Independent, from a missionary of the London Missionary Society, con- 
 cerning the Bechuanas, tlie people among whom Dr. Moffat so long 
 laboured. The writer, A. J. Wookey, says : — " Magistrates were 
 appointed to various districts to represent British authority amongst 
 the natives at a distance from Kimberlcy, which was the seat of 
 government and the great centre of European population. Gaols 
 were built and police enrolled. At the same time canteens were 
 licensed and opened in every available place for the sale of Cape 
 brandy. Licensed hawkers, travelling in waggons, carried the same 
 pernicious wares to all the native villages and hamlets, bringing dis- 
 turbance and misery wherever they came. They would even cross 
 the border, and, in defiance of the chiefs, carry on the sale in front 
 of their very doors. And if a chief attempted to interfere, he would 
 be threatened with the soldiers and police. One of the saddest sights 
 to be seen there any day was that of natives riding backwards and 
 forwards to these places on horseback or oxback, infuriated by drink, 
 or to see men and women rolling about or lying hopelessl}'' intoxicated 
 under the shadow of the staff bearing aloft the British flag. This was 
 the licensed process of civilization, under the patronage of the British 
 Government — the brandy shop, the magistrate's court, and the gaol. 
 The effect of this state of things, especially in these outlying districts, 
 was appalling, and many of the natives became more debased and 
 impoverished than ever they had been as heathen. Up to this time 
 the native chiefs had prohibited the sale of these drinks in their 
 country, well knowing the evils they brought. But the Government 
 deliberately broke down the feeble barriers, and flooded the country 
 with ruin. At Griqua Town the chief became the prey of the canteen- 
 keepers and others, and turned out a besotted imbecile ; and many of 
 his people are very little better. In 1877 a number of the chief native 
 inhabitants of Gi-iqua Town drew up a petition addressed to Her
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 853 
 
 tive statement of the import revenue for the four months 
 of the official year and of the twelve preceding years, 
 published in the Gazette of India of the 25th of August, 
 shows how far the imports of liquor are on the increase. 
 The average of the four months (April to 31st July) for 
 the ten years commencing Jrom 1871-72 shows the follow- 
 ing results, as compared with the revenue collected within 
 three succeeding years : — 
 
 Eevenue — Apeil to July. 
 
 
 Average 10 vears 
 
 
 
 
 up to 1880. 1881. 
 
 1882. 
 
 1883. 
 
 Bengal .. 
 
 . Es. 4,16,000 4,66,000 
 
 4,93,000 
 
 4,84,000 
 
 Bombay .. 
 
 . „ 2,30,000 3,56,000 
 
 3,61,000 
 
 3,66,000 
 
 Madras . . 
 
 . „ 1,57,000 1,76,000 
 
 1,79,000 
 
 1,76,000 
 
 Burmah .. 
 
 . „ 1,56,000 2,34,000 
 
 2,98,000 
 
 2,83,000 
 
 " What do these figures indicate ? That in Bengal the 
 average increase during the last three years, compared 
 with that of the ten years preceding, is 16 per cent., in 
 
 Majesty Qneen Victoria, imploring her to stay the ruin coming upon 
 them, and stop the sale of drink. This petition reached the Colonial 
 OiEce in November, 1877, but no notice was taken of it further than 
 an acknowledgment to the forwarder. Had the wrongs of these poor 
 people been inquired into at the time, it is probable that much misery 
 and bloodshed might have been averted ; but the cry of the helpless 
 was disregarded." — Alliance News, April 17, 1880. 
 
 The Temperance Record for Jnly 24, 1883, quotes Mr. McKay, 
 the Missionary of the American Board from Lake Victoria Nyanza, 
 as saj'ing : — " Go where j-ou will — Usequha, Usagara, Ugogo, Ungam- 
 wezi, Usukuma, Ukerewe, or Uganda — you will find every week, and, 
 when grain is plentiful, every night, every man, woman, and child, 
 even to the sucking infant, reeling with the effects of alcohol. On 
 this account, chiefly, I became a teetotaler on leaving the coast, and 
 have continued so ever since. I believe, also, that abstinence is the 
 true secret of continued and unimpaired health in the tropics. Who 
 wishes to introduce civilization into Africa ? Let a sine qua, non of 
 the enterprise be that its members be total abstainers. The West 
 Coast is ruined with rum ; it is killing the Kaflar in the South ; and 
 even at the East Coast, at Zanzibar, a vile liquor is distilled from the 
 sugar canes at Kokotoni, that is retailed by every Hindu, Banyan, 
 and Goa merchant in all the coast towns, to the destruction of the 
 Suaheli race. Matama or pinicum is the general malt, but, failing 
 that, Indian corn and a small millet called mewere are called into 
 requisition, the strength being often increased by the addition of 
 honey. On the shores of Kyanza, plaintains are plentiful, and from 
 them a wine is made which causes king and people to meet on the 
 low level of intoxication." 
 
 2 A
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Mr. Robert 
 Rae on this 
 point. 
 
 Bombay 56 per cent., in Madras 13, and in Burmali 74 ! 
 This increase is most significant. It is full 36 per cent, for 
 the -whole of British India, or at the rate of 12 per cent, 
 per annum. Is such a progress in the revenue deriv^ed 
 from spirits no cause for apprehension ? " 
 
 In his speech in St. James's Hall (May 19, 1870) the 
 Hindoo reformer. Baboo Keshub Chunder Sen, bitterly 
 complained of the curse the English liquor traific had been 
 to India. " The whole atmosphei'e of India," said he, 
 " seems to be rending with cries of thousands of poor 
 helpless widows, who curse the British Government for 
 having introduced that thing." 
 
 In the retrospect for 1882, in the Temperance League 
 Annual, Mr. Robert Rae, the secretary of the League, 
 says, " The influecne which the English nation exerts 
 on the social customs of the colonies is very great, and 
 in the matter of our drinking habits, incalculable harm 
 has been done to many of our dependencies. Temperance 
 reformers, recognizing this, are bound to do all in their 
 power to prevent other communities from being saddled 
 with an evil which they themselves are endeavouring to 
 get rid of." 
 
 He then speaks of the audience granted to the National 
 Temperance League by Cetewayo, of his cordial sympathy 
 with its views, and his assurances that he had issued a 
 proclamation against the introduction of spirits, which he 
 would, renew on his restoration. " Tour spirits and in- 
 Itranceswith toxicants are death," said the king, " but it is no good 
 England. shutting the door on my side, for I have no distilleries. 
 I think the proper way would be for the Natal Government 
 to assist me by placing restrictions upon the introduction 
 of spirituous liquors in my country.* 
 
 Cetewayo's 
 
 * The Alliance News (October 4, 1879) quotes the following from 
 the Birmingham Daily Mail : — "It has been discovered that Cetewayo 
 has most advanced notions on the subject of the liquor traffic. He 
 strictly prohibits the sale of Cape rum and other spirits in his country, 
 and a curious story appears in a contemporary to-day, showing how 
 this law was promulgated. A well-known trader, some time within 
 the last four years, on a visit to Uluiidi, surreptitiously introduced a 
 quantity of liquor ; and a native, a relapsed missionary convert, who 
 was working for the king, got outrageously drunk thereon, and meet- 
 ing the king abused him to his face, calling him every bad name in 
 the Zulu vocabulary. Instead of the king wreaking his vengeance
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 355 
 
 How needful strict laws against liquor exportation The liquor 
 would be if prohibition measures were passed, is fore- silmand"^'^ 
 shadowed by the two notable liquor treaties concluded Madagascar 
 during the last session : the first one with Siam,* in April ' 
 (1883), providing the importation of all kinds of spirits, 
 beers, and wines by British subjects on the same conditions 
 as those exacted of Siamese subjects ; and the second 
 with the government of Madagascar,t May 25th. Both 
 treaties leaving Siam and Madagascar bound literally hand 
 and foot to the liquor-traders in England and the British 
 subjects (a term specially and broadly defined) in both 
 these countries. Commenting on the treaty with Siam, 
 the Daily News says, " Much of the alcoholic liquor which 
 
 summarily npon the inebriated fool, he waited until the next day, 
 when the man was sober, and then accepted his apology, at the same 
 time expressing an opinion that they who supplied the drink were 
 more to blame than he was. A law was, however, thereufDon made 
 by Cetewayo wholly prohibiting the sale of spirits. 
 
 * The treaty with Siam has encouraged Holland, where the number 
 of public-houses is limited by law, to follow the example of Great 
 Britain, and force npon Siam a liquor treaty identical with the one 
 concluded by Great Britain. 
 
 t Says fhe Alliance News (September 13, 1879), "The effects of 
 rum on the native inhabitants of Madagascar are so pernicious, lead- 
 ing to commission of fearful crimes when under its influence, that a 
 number of Consuls, missionaries, and other influential residents of 
 Madagascar, have addressed a memorial to Queen Eanavalona, asking 
 that its importation into her kingdom may be prohibited absolutely. 
 The memorial and the reply sent by the Queen's Chief Minister are 
 in La tientinelle de Maurice of Aprd 28, and from the reply we give 
 the following translation, showing that the Queen is quite alive 
 to the necessity for restricting the sale of the spirit among her 
 subjects,: — - 
 
 " ' The Queen has directed me to thank you for the desire which 
 you express that she will not permit rum to enter her kingdom in such 
 quantity as to allow the people to drink of it to excess. That God 
 may bless your good idea is the earnest wish of the Queen. As for 
 myself, I have attentively considered your statements, and they have 
 afforded me much pleasure, and I take the liberty of thanking you, 
 for I see by them how great is the interest which you take in the 
 Malagasi nation. I have the honour to tell you, gentlemen, that 
 already a law has been framed which prohibits the drinking of rum 
 in the kingdom of Madagascar. In your letter you have shown the 
 effects of rum-drinking in all its hideousness, and above all how it 
 brutalizes men. You are right; and the Queen thanks you for your 
 thoughtfalness, which has been inspired by your friendship, and for 
 the great good of her people.' "
 
 tioQ THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 finds its way into countries in tlie position of Siam, is little 
 better than poison, and ought to be so labelled." 
 
 As to Madagascar, it is but eight years since the press 
 of England rung with praises of the Madagascan Queen 
 for her liquor prohibition proclamation (1876). 
 
 England's responsibility for the moral and social con- 
 dition of affairs in Madagascar is indicated in the following 
 query and answer in the House of Commons debate, 
 April 19, 1883 :— 
 
 " Mr. Buxton asked the Under-Secretary for Foreign 
 Affairs whether it was a fact that Tamatave, the px'incipal 
 port of Madagascar, was supplied to an enormous extent 
 with inferior and poisonous rum from Mauritius, for which 
 no other market could be found ; whether it had been the 
 cause of general and disgusting intoxication throughout 
 the town and neighbourhood ; whether the Hova Govern- 
 ment formerly imposed a duty of thirty-three per cent, 
 on the importation, and was only compelled by English 
 and other consular pressure to reduce such duty to ten 
 per cent. ? . . . 
 
 " Lord E. Fitzmaurice : ' 1 regret to say that it is a 
 fact that a large quantity of inferior rum is imported into 
 Madagascar from Mauritius, and it has, no doubt, been 
 the cause of the evils to which my honourable friend refers.' 
 
 If drink should be prohibited in England, and the 
 exportation at the same time not prevented, such treaties 
 as these (passed in order to make up for those £5,000,000 
 less of revenue * so much rejoiced over by the Chancellor 
 of the Exchequer, in the last budget ?) are significant of 
 how further internal deficits might be made up. 
 
 * The causes of this deficit were well pointed out by the Eight 
 Honourable Balfour, Lord Advocate of Scotland. "The weightiest 
 utterance on the liquor traffic in Scotland came from the highest 
 Scottish Parliamentary official, the Right Honoui'able Lord Advocate 
 Balfour. We read with much pleasure all that his lordship so elo- 
 quently said with regard to the progress made by the temperance 
 reformation, especially in Parliament, and we commend his lordship's 
 testimony to those who would fain believe that the temperance re- 
 formers are unable to move on. Of the £5,000,000 which is lost to 
 the revenue, a large share of ci'cdit is justly due to the prohibitionists. 
 The Cameron Act of 1876, the Irish Sunday Closing Act of 1878, and 
 the Steamboat Passengers Sunday Act of 1880 have been eminently 
 helpful in that beneficial reduction." — The Social Reformer, February, 
 1884.
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 857 
 
 § 85. Morewood, in liis Inebriating Liquors (1838), National 
 quotes the following pregnant saying of Plajfair : — under Uie 
 
 " When a nation becomes the slave of its revenue, and liquor 
 sacrifices everything thereto, abuses that favour revenue ''^^*'^"*^- 
 are difficult to reform." 
 
 And liquor legislation in England to this day has 
 proved the truth of this statement. For some thi-ee 
 hundred years it has been the case that in the measure 
 revenue has been needed, English Governments have 
 almost invariably encouraged distillation and increased 
 the facilities for the consumption of liquor. 
 
 As early as 1552 the first Licensing Act was passed : — Brief sum- 
 " An acte for keepers of ale-houses to be bound in recog- hlstm-y of'* 
 nizances, and giving the justices power to close ale-houses licensing. 
 in such town or towns as they shall think meet and 
 convenient." In 1553 a law was passed providing that 
 no town should be granted more than two wine licences, 
 excepting 22 ; among these last, London was allowed 40, 
 York 8, Bristol 6, and the others 4 and 3. But neither 
 Liverpool, Manchester, Birmingham, Sheffield, nor Leeds 
 were included among these exceptions. During James I.'s 
 reign (1603) licence was granted by letters patent. In 
 1643 the Long Parliament laid a tax on heer and ale for 
 the ensuing year, calling it by the new name excise, pro- 
 bably an anglicizing of the Belgian acciisse, signifying 
 tribute. 
 
 In 1753 an act was passed for the more easy conviction 
 of persons selling ale and strong liquors without licence. 
 In 1828 the liquor-dealers got permission to appeal to the 
 quarter sessions from decisions by justices of peace. In 
 1830 the pernicious Beer Act was passed, to rival the 
 public-house, it was claimed. In 1860 the Refreshment 
 Houses and Wine Licences Act was passed, " to facilitate 
 the sale and consumption of light foreign wines in con- 
 fectioners' shops and eating-houses." February 10, 1860, 
 Mr. Gladstone made a proposition for reducing the The Grocers' 
 duty on brandy from fifteen shillings per gallon to eight Licence Act. 
 shillings and twopence — the colonial duty ; and although 
 this effort failed, he succeeded in 1861 in passing the 
 Grocers' Licence Act. 
 
 The harm that Act has done is incalculable. Already
 
 i58 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 The Satur- 
 day Review 
 on the 
 Grocers' 
 Ivicence Act, 
 in reRard to 
 its effect in 
 the drawiug- 
 room. 
 
 in the Evidence on Drunhenness before the House of 
 Commons, 1834, it was shown that Grocers' Licences did 
 great harm. 
 
 The Saturday Review (January 21, 1871), in an article 
 on Vraiving-room Alcoholization, says in regard to the 
 results from these licences — 
 
 " If the Lancet laments, as it has done, the over-prescrip- 
 tion of stimulants which was ' too much in fashion a few 
 years ago,' its acknowledgment of the perhaps irreparable 
 evil is unseen by the general reader. The literature of 
 temperance societies and police reports does not affect the 
 divinities of our Olympus, who hardly guess the striking 
 resemblance between their nectar and the gin of the 
 ' masses.' . . . The rich escape the publicity of their 
 practices which befals our poor, and consequently we 
 cannot so well guess at the causes of that failure in duty at 
 home, and in discretion abroad, which appears to be on the 
 increase ; but there is reason to believe that the frequent 
 ' pick-me-up,' the mid-day and afternoon sherry or cham- 
 pagne, may have much to do with the pace at which young 
 men and maidens, old men and children, Mayfair mothers 
 and Belgravian beauties, are posting downhill. . . . In- 
 dulgence in any vice always entails others, but the distinct 
 effect of alcohol is so to affect the nerves and brain that 
 the material power to resist any temptation is lessened in 
 proportion to the quantity taken. This is hardly, then, a 
 safe stimulant for women, nor will it, even in small quan- 
 tities, advantageously develop their peculiarities. . . . 
 Supposing the lady of the house never exceeds the sherry 
 she can carry with dignity and self-approval, and get 
 decently through her daily round of deadly-lively occupa- 
 tion, she remains a proof that a woman with a taste for 
 strong liquors has seldom any other taste. Her maid puts 
 on her clothes, but she is careless of her appearance, and 
 even liable to personal unkemptness. She is often un- 
 punctual, fractious before her dram, and dull afterwards. 
 She does not cultivate friends or acquaintances who could 
 be any check to her practices. She likes her mankind to 
 be much away from the house, and if they take no notice 
 of the quantity of wine consumed in their establishment 
 she will be affectionate, if rather stupid, to them. Of what 
 is pure and noble in life she loses appreciation, while all
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 359 
 
 that is animal is intensified in her. If she has children, 
 they will probably suffer from constitutional depression and 
 weakness, and ' tone ' will be plentifully supplied by port 
 wine, and even bi-andy, from their infancy up. With the 
 career of the boys we are not here concerned, but of the 
 girls what may or may not be prophesied ? If they have 
 escaped positive disease by the time they are launched in 
 the world, they will be, at all events, dependent for their 
 ' go' in society on copious champagne and frequent sherry. 
 Naturally they will join the increasing mob of fast girls, 
 with all that is involved in that evil. We are sensible of 
 a distinct moral relaxation among women, and of a new 
 sort of unwomanly recklessness in the presence of men. 
 We complain of a prevalent coarseness even among the 
 virtuous, not only of manner, but of imagination and pur- 
 suits, and we are sometimes tempted to prefer the age of 
 Nell Gwynne or Madame de Pompadour to the actual con- 
 fusion of daredevil women and unabashed spinsters. It 
 would seem that alcohol has something to do with this 
 disorder, for the physical effects of it on women are proved 
 by medical investigation to be precisely what w^ould 
 denaturalize them." 
 
 Commenting on this article Dr. Anstie, in a paper on The Prac- 
 The Use and Abuse of Alcohol hy Women, in the Practitioner onThe same. 
 (March, 1871), says — 
 
 " The fact is, that all tipplers become more or less 
 untruthful, but that female tipplers invariably become 
 shameless and most skilful liars. And the favourite lie 
 which they invent as an excuse for theii" habits is an 
 apocryphal medical order ' to take plenty of support and 
 stimulants.' We have personally detected the manufac- 
 ture and skilful dissemination of this particular falsehood 
 in several instances, and the practice is notorious to 
 physicians who see much of nervous diseases." 
 
 And the >Spec^afor (February 18, 1871) says, in an article The 
 on Women and AlcoJwl— on woX 
 
 " It is ruin for them, as it is for men, and in both cases andaicouoi. 
 for the same reason, because any narcotizing poison, once 
 in possession of the system, paralyzes the will ; but it is ruin 
 far quicker, and, owing to the organization of society, 
 more complete. We are not inclined to believe what the 
 Saturday says and the Practitioner hints, that liquor impairs
 
 3G0 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 chastity in women more than in men ; but women depend 
 upon the will, which the influence of the poison cripples, 
 and suffer more visibly when its paralysis has thrown them 
 back defenceless upon impulse, whether the impulse be 
 kleptomania or concession to solicitations." 
 Protests Mrs. Dawson Burns, ^I'itiug in the Alliance Neics, 
 
 prfssalalnst January 4, 1879, says :-_ 
 
 the Grocers' "The motive prompting these Acts was good; it was 
 
 The Alliance avowedly to draw away the public-house and beershop 
 News. votaries. Statistics signally show a failure in that object ; 
 
 going still farther, they unfortunately prove that, rather 
 than lessening the one evil, these Acts open up channels 
 for a different class of women obtaining drink who would 
 rarely, on account of their social status, have ventured 
 into either a public-house or beershop. 
 
 " These licences, though not restricted to, are chiefly 
 granted to grocers, confectioners, the keepers of refresh- 
 ment bars, and restaurants ; and through such facilities 
 the mischief is extended to a section of our female popula- 
 tion Avho largely avail themselves of these means — women 
 who, by reason of their educational attainments and 
 position, exercise a wider influence than others. 
 
 " These Acts have led to two results : First, the well- 
 known habit of ladies, even young ladies, in their ordinary 
 walks and shopping, entering these more respectable 
 refreshment places, and partaking of stimulants Ijetween 
 the hours of meals. Second, the inducement they have 
 given to secret drinking by ladies in their own houses." 
 
 The same article quotes the following from the Lancet's 
 protest against the continuance of this Act, which protest 
 was signed by 920 physicians, surgeons, and medical 
 practitioners : — 
 
 " We, the undersigned, being members of the medical 
 profession, beg to i-ecord our strong persuasion that the 
 facilities for obtaining spirits, wines, stout, and ale, in 
 bottles, which are provided by the ' Grocers' Licence,' have 
 a most injurious tendency. We believe that women, 
 servants, and children of respectable households, who could 
 not, or would not, procure intoxicating drinks at public- 
 houses, are encouraged to purchase and use these liquors 
 by the opportunity offered when visiting the grocers' shops 
 for other purjioses. Female domestic servants are often
 
 WHAT CAX BE DONE ? 30 1 
 
 enabled to obtain bottles of spirits, wine, and beer at a 
 small cost on credit, or as ' commission ' on the household 
 bills. This trade is wholly removed from police super- 
 vision, and it is a direct incentive to secret drinking, a 
 practice more injurious to the health and moral and social 
 prosperity of the community than the ordinary trade in 
 intoxicating liquors as carried on by the licensed victuallers. 
 We protest against the continuance of this licence on 
 grounds moral and medical ; and we urge its consideration 
 by a ' Select Committee of the House of Peers ' now in- 
 vestigating the subject of intemperance, and the measures 
 expedient to reduce the evils of excess. The abolition of 
 this special licence we hold to be the first, and perhaps the 
 most practical, step within the province of the Legislature." 
 
 In the Lords Committee on Intemperance, 1879, 
 abundant proofs were given that the grocers' licences were 
 a most prolific cause of increased di'unkenness among 
 women. 
 
 Early in the present year (1883) the Lancet says : — iht Lancet 
 
 " When, some years ago, we made an energetic bat, as 
 it unhappily proved, a vain endeavour to influence public 
 opinion in favour of the total abolition of grocers' licences 
 to sell spirits and wines in bottles, we pointed out how 
 women obtained intoxicating beverages under cover of 
 ' groceries,' and how grocers not uncommonly gave 
 Christmas presents to customers and their servants in the 
 shape of bottles of brandy, whisky, or wine. At a recent 
 inquest on the body of an old woman, who was found dead 
 in her bed after a drinking bout, it was stated that a bottle 
 of whisky, which had been presented by the grocer, was 
 found under the bed-clothes nearly empty, but still clutched 
 by the poor victim of this false kindness, although the 
 hand with which she seemed to grasp it was dead. This 
 is only an incident, but it will serve to show how this most 
 mischievous licence tells against public and social prosperity 
 . . . Probably, hereafter, when much dire and irreparable 
 mischief has been wrought, it will be seen that this State 
 facility for the secret pursuit of vice, ' the grocers' 
 licence,' ought to be abolished." 
 
 And a little later, the Lancet adds : — 
 
 '• The demoralization of women by these most senseless 
 and mischievous licences is an e\i\ we have deplored, and
 
 362 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 The attitude 
 of the Church 
 of Kngliind 
 'J'emperance 
 Society. 
 
 Canon 
 Leigh's 
 advice to the 
 M'^ omen's 
 Union to 
 boycott 
 liquor-sell- 
 ing grocers. 
 
 The Temper- 
 ance Record 
 on the in- 
 creasing in- 
 temperance 
 among 
 women as 
 being largely 
 due to the 
 Grocers' 
 Licence Act.' 
 
 which would long since have found a suflBcient remedy but 
 that the great landlords of London and elsewhere would 
 find their personal interests affected by the passing of any 
 law putting an end to the social plague of the grocers' 
 licence. Unfortunately, these landlords occupy positions 
 of influence in the Legislature, and therefore the evil 
 cannot be wholly remedied. 
 
 The attitude of the Church of England Temperance 
 Society on this most important matter has been noble. Its 
 Women's Union addressed letters inquiring into the actual 
 facts as to the evils wrought by these licences, to " clergy- 
 men, medical men, coroners, and others." The responses 
 to these inquiries, published in pamphlet form early in 
 1883, fully substantiate by various and conclusive evidence 
 the fact that the grocers' licences have carried, and are 
 carrying, the evil of drink among women to an alarming 
 extent, and particularly increasing it among a class of 
 women who would not think of resorting to the public- 
 house. 
 
 In the Church of England Temjierance Chronicle (May 12, 
 1883), I find the following quoted from the speech of 
 Canon Leigh, delivered in Exeter Hall (April 26) : — 
 
 " I would wish to draw attention, as it has been drawn 
 over and over again, to the dreadful system of grocers' 
 licences, which I am qu.ite certain is contributing more than 
 anything else to the increase of drinking amongst women. 
 I should strongly urge iipon all the members of the 
 Women's Union never to deal with grocers who trade in 
 spirituous liquors, and to advise their friends not to do so 
 either." 
 
 Of the steadily increasing intemperance among women, 
 the Temperance liecord (November 15, 1883) says : — • 
 
 " It is one of the most discouraging features of our 
 time. Recent judicial statistics clearly show not only that 
 there is a greater proportionate increase of drunkenness 
 amongst women, but that in their case the habit is more 
 inveterate than in men. In the Judicial Statistics for 
 1882, I'ecently published, it is stated that the offenders who 
 have been convicted for any crime above ten times are 
 4391 males, and 8946 females, or 8"9 and 29'3 per cent, 
 respectively on the total commitments. In other words, 
 more than a quarter of all women in prison, whose offence
 
 WHAT CAX BE DONE ? 363 
 
 is not the first, have been in over ten times. A comparison 
 of five years will show how women have been steadily 
 getting worse in this respect : — 1878, 5673 females ; 1879, 
 6800 females; 1880, 6773 females; 1881, 7946 females; 
 1882, 8946 females. This preponderance of women, 
 according to the competent testimony of the Rev. J. W. 
 Horsley, is almost entirely due to the special character, and 
 the increase, of female intemperance. . . . One cause 
 against which the Lancet has nobly protested is what is 
 familiarly known as the Grocers' Licences Act. The repeal 
 of that Act, we feel persuaded, would put a decided check 
 upon the increase of female intemperance, and should be 
 urgently pressed upon the Legislature by all classes of 
 social reformers." 
 
 The following picture is taken from the chapter on Mr. Georcre 
 " The Secret Sin," in the Social Kaleidoscope by George R. the social 
 Sims. Drawn by a pen to which the world is deeply effects of the 
 indebted for a circumstantial knowledge of the drink-evil licences. 
 in its connection with poverty, and for striking practical 
 suggestions as to remedies and reforms, its details are 
 vouched for from personal observations. 
 
 " The pen almost hesitates brutally to describe a high- 
 bred, lovely woman by the word ' drunkard.' It seems as 
 if such an appellation could give rise in the mind of the 
 reader only to vicious, coarse, degraded womanhood. It is, 
 alas ! a revelation of these later days of modern civilization 
 that intemperance is almost as prevalent among the higher 
 ranks of female society as it is among the very lowest. 
 There is, however, this difference. Sally Giles, of Lant 
 Street, Borough, gets drunk in the public-house and rolls 
 about the streets ; Lady Clara Sangazur drinks in her 
 boudoir, and dozes off her ' bad headache ' in the quietude 
 of her bedchamber. We know through the police reports, 
 and we see with our eyes, the havoc which drink is making 
 among the low^er orders ; its ravages in the upper classes of 
 society are known only to the doctor and the friends of 
 the family, save when every now and then an aristocratic 
 divorce case reveals the fact that the lady was ' in- 
 temperate.' Seeing it not, good folks are inclined to 
 doubt its existence. Alas ! it is the great social evil of the 
 day ; and until it is thoroughly exposed, the means taken 
 to stamp it out must necessarily be insufficient. Look at
 
 364 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Mabel ISTortb, this fair young creature, the picture of health 
 and pleasure. Who among the admiring crowd about 
 would suspect that she is a dram-drinker, a woman who 
 gets helplessly drunk whenever she has the chance, and 
 who will pour ardent spirits down her throat like water ? 
 No one. But I, knowing the bistory of her case, deem it 
 my duty to drag her before the world in her real character 
 and lay bare the canker-worm in this lovely flower. I will 
 write no word of lier that is not true. I have seen her 
 within the last twelve hours, and I am yet trembling at 
 what I saw. But, lest I should be accused of endeavouring 
 to work up a sensational story out of au every-day cata- 
 strophe, let me give you the details of her case in the 
 ordinary matter-of-fact Avay. 
 
 " Mr. North looks anxiously at his wife in the refresh- 
 ment-room this evening, and sighs, because she has for 
 three days kept her promise to him that she would not 
 touch drink of any sort. Yielding to her earnest solicita- 
 tions, he has brought her to the ball, though he would 
 rather for the present she had avoided the excitement. 
 And now, flushed with the dancing and pleased with the 
 admiration her beauty has aroused, she has resented his 
 anxious and meaning glance, and has accepted iced cham- 
 pagne from the hand of her partner. Later on she returns 
 again for sherry. At supper she has more champagne. 
 After supper she goes again into the refreshinent-room 
 and has an ice. She eats half the ice, and feels faint. In 
 the ladies' dressing-rooin she knows she will find what she 
 requires, and thither she repairs. ' I feel faint,' she says 
 to the maid. The maid smiles, and produces the brandy- 
 bottle. She is used to her business, and she knows what 
 the lady of to-day takes for faintness. You who would 
 ape the manners and customs of modern fashion, mind 
 that you put a plentiful supply of brandy and gin in the 
 ladies' dressing-rooms — they look for it. You might as 
 well have no ices in the refreshment-room as no spirits in 
 this apartment. Presently North peremptorily bids his 
 wife put on her cloak and come ; he sees the warning look 
 in her eyes, and the nervous dread that some one else will 
 notice it comes upon him at once. She obeys, and they 
 drive home. In the carriage he remonstrates with her. 
 She is sleepy and sullen, and makes no reply. Only she
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 
 
 feels the sense of tliirst growing upon her, and when she 
 gets home she will drag another bottle of brandy from its 
 hiding-place in her maid's I'oom and empty it. 
 
 "The next day Mabel North's husband is the picture of 
 despair. Incensed at her open defiance of her plighted 
 word, he has taken her somewhat harshly to task, and 
 dared her to drink any more spirits. He has commanded 
 her to be temperate, as if that were any use. She defies 
 him openly. The spirit has done its work, and she laughs 
 foolishly, and tells him he may lock the cellar and do what 
 he likes, but she will get it still. He fancies he can be 
 clever enough to keep drink from her if he tries. He 
 locks up all the wine and spirits. She sends her servants 
 to the public-house. He finds it out, and threatens them 
 with dismissal if they repeat the offence. She goes out 
 and gets it herself, brings it in from the grocer's in the 
 carriage, and carries it upstairs under her cloak. For six 
 ■weeks she is in a semi-maudlin state of intoxication, and 
 his every effort to stop the supply is defeated. In despair 
 he takes away her money, and refuses to give her any. 
 He will pay all bills himself. The first result of this 
 arrangement is a discovery that there are five times as 
 many pounds of tea charged in the grocer's bill as could 
 possibly have been consumed. He makes inquiries, and 
 finds that tea in a grocer's bill means spirits ; that it is 
 supplied to the lady of the house in this manner, and is 
 called tea to deceive those it may be necessary to deceive. 
 Challenged, the grocer defends himself. He states that it 
 is the custom of the trade to supply ladies with spirits and 
 charge them as tea and sugar and sauce. It is the large 
 secret consumption of spirits by well-to-do women that 
 renders the grocers' licences so valuable. Ladies cannot 
 buy at the public-house ; to draw heavily on the cellar 
 would alarm the husband ; but an unlimited quantity can 
 be sent into the house quietly by the grocer, and charged 
 as tea or some other article of daily household consumption. 
 I have not the slightest doubt that the growth of secret 
 drinking among ladies is largely contributed to by the 
 system of grocers' licences. ... To watch the woman he 
 loves becoming gradually dead to fine feeling, dead to social 
 etiquette, and at last dead even to decency, is the lot of
 
 36G THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 more men at the present moment than the world di'eams 
 of. The secret is hideous, and is sacredly kept as long as 
 possible. . . . 
 
 " Mr. North made another despairing effort to rescue 
 his -wife. He set a watch upon her, aad kept her entirely 
 without money. At first, unable to obtain alcohol, she 
 drank scent ; but the cunning bred of dipsomania suggested 
 to her a means of obtaining both money and brandy." 
 She opened his correspondence, abstracted all sums it 
 chanced to enclose, and hid or destroyed all letters which 
 asked him for the return of sums she had borrowed. On 
 discovering this, her husband made inquiry in the neigh- 
 bourhood, and found that she had borrowed money wherever 
 she had upon any pretext found it possible to do so, and 
 had even borrowed valuable articles from different shops 
 and pawned them. He was forced to check these proceed- 
 ings by advertisement, in order to escape ruin. This 
 " seemed to break the last tie that restrained her. She 
 borrowed small sums of the servants, pawned her jewellery, 
 stole from her husband's pockets, resorted to every trick 
 she could think of to get money, and every farthing went 
 down her throat. 
 
 " Her health now began to give way, and she grew 
 violent. Once, when he seized her by the arm, she rushed 
 at her husband and tore his face with her nails ; she cursed 
 the servants if they interfered with her ; and the doctor 
 who attended her roundly told her at last that if she did 
 not alter, he would certify that she was mad and put her 
 under restraint. For a time this threat had an effect, but 
 the disease had advanced to a stage when it is rarely 
 cured. In a week she had a relapse, and, managing by 
 some means to get half a dozen of brandy into the house, 
 she drank the lot in four days, and was mad drunk. Like 
 a beautiful fiend, she tore about the room cursing and 
 raving, and shrieking that she was pursued by devils. 
 The servants, terrified by a sudden access of violence, 
 called her husband, and he entered the room and ran 
 towards her with a cry of horror. He had never seen her 
 like this before — a foul-mouthed madwoman, tearing at 
 the air, and threatening murder to any one who came near 
 her. As he ran towards her to secure her she flung up her 
 arms. . . .
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 367 
 
 " Slie met her death leaping from an open window to 
 avoid her husband ; and the coroner's verdict, translated 
 into plain English, says that her death was due to a 
 drunken frenzy. I have glossed over this ghastly picture, 
 merely suggesting the outlines of it. And yet, toned 
 down as it is, there will be hundreds who will question 
 its truth and say it is overdrawn. To such I would say, 
 Who are the men most likely to know ? The medical pro- 
 fession. Ask, then, any medical man whose practice lies 
 among women of the better, middle, and upper classes, and 
 he will tell you there is no doctor with any connection at 
 all who has not half a dozen lady secret drinkers on his 
 books. This secret drinking is a social cancer, and it is 
 eating away all that is noblest and best in womanly nature. 
 We have asylums for idiots and lunatics ; when are we to 
 have an asylum for dipsomaniacs ? " 
 
 When we remember that insanity is more prevalent and The most 
 less curable proportionately among drinking women than reason"for 
 among drinking men; that the children of the drinking tiie repeal of 
 mother are more certainly victims of alcoholic heredity in licences. 
 all its either fatal or most baneful and degrading forms, 
 than are those of the drinking father ; — when we remember 
 these things, then indeed does the necessity for the repeal 
 of such an Act as the Grocers' Licences come home with 
 overwhelming force. 
 
 § 86. Besides these large measures, there are many Various 
 minor legislative steps of more or less importance, both of fative^^^'^" 
 preventive and restrictive character, which might be taken, measures. 
 For example, it should no longer be left optional with Restriction 
 licensing magistrates to renew licences to publicans who ofrene^i^g" 
 are disreputable and strain or transgress the law. It ought licences. 
 to be compulsory to have large and low windows to public- Low 
 houses (as is the case on the continent), so that passers ^'^puYg^ory 
 could see what was going on within. If it is a respectable for public- 
 thing to frequent public-houses, why should the scenes 
 within be concealed ? If it is disreputable, why should it 
 have the encouragement of being specially screened, and 
 the police be at the same time hindered in their duty of 
 watching such places ? 
 
 Publicans ought to be forbidden to employ women as
 
 368 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Prohibition 
 of the em- 
 ployment of 
 ■women as 
 bar-tenders. 
 
 Public con- 
 veyances 
 should 
 neither bear 
 the names of, 
 nor have 
 their stations 
 at, public- 
 houses. 
 
 Canon 
 Ellison on 
 juvenile in- 
 temperance 
 in Liverpool 
 and Man- 
 chester. 
 
 bar-tenders.* Among incitements to drink, especially in 
 England, Denmark, and Sweden, are tke barmaids. Some 
 of the prettiest girls in England are to be found behind the 
 liquor bars, a fact illusti-ated bj the Annual Barmaid 
 Shows. The Dani-sh town of Veile has recognized the 
 presence of these girl bar-tenders, as a cause of intemper- 
 ance, by imposing restrictions on public-house keepers, who 
 are forbidden by the town authorities to employ servant- 
 maids under the age of forty years ! If such a law as this 
 could be passed and enforced in London, and other large 
 centres, w^hat incalculable good would be the result as 
 regards both drink and the social evil. It is well known 
 that the women thus employed are demoralized and de- 
 graded in body and mind. They live generally but a few 
 years, and the majority of them, whether death comes early 
 or late, die as abandoned women. Not a few students of 
 the social evil regard the public-house as the chief recruit- 
 ing office of the brothel. 
 
 The starting and stopping station of public omnibuses 
 should not be at public-houses, nor should these vehicles 
 be labelled from these resorts. 
 
 And publicans should not be allowed to sell drink to 
 known habitual drunkards, nor to children. 
 
 In a paper read some years ago in Liverpool, before the 
 National Association for Promoting Amendment in the 
 Laws relating to the Liquor Traffic, Canon Ellison quoted 
 the following from a country journal : — " On Monday 
 morning the magistrates of Liverpool had before them 
 
 * The Church of England Temperance Chronicle (February 17, 
 18S3) cites as follows from the Irish Temperance Learjxie Journal : — " The 
 disestablishment and disendowment of ' Barmaids ' is a coming 
 question. In many quarters there ai'e signs of the steady advance- 
 ment of a determination to do away with this blot upon English 
 civilization. Why fair girls should be stationed behind bars for ten, 
 twelve, and fourteen hours a day to bear the brunt of the meaningless 
 compliments of the brainless boobies who pay so many twopences for 
 the privilege, is more than passing strange. We put girls into 
 taverns to sell drink to men, and men into shops to sell ribbons to 
 girls ! " 
 
 " ' I have heard publicans say they wished they had never entered 
 the business, and would be glad to get out of it.' It was very diflBcnlt 
 for barmen and barmaids to get out of it, as no one would employ 
 them after they had been engaged in a public-house." — The Christia7i, 
 March G, 1883.
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 369 
 
 twenty bojs and girls under the age of seventeen, all of 
 whom had been found beastly drunk in the public streets 
 on Sunday, and incapable of taking care of themselves. . . . 
 Again, on a given Sunday 22,000 children were counted in 
 the public-houses and beershops of Manchester ; and the 
 clergyman, entering one of the beershops at one in the 
 morning, found it full of boys and girls di'inking." 
 
 During late years juvenile intemperance is on the instances of 
 increase. As recently as last Christmas the papers reported te^*perance 
 many pathetic examples. In the Daily Neics (December cited by the 
 28, 1883) appeared the following touching letter : — December!' 
 
 1883. 
 
 " Girls axd Dogs. 
 
 " Sir, — Your column of ' General Home News ' of this 
 morning has two items, which, as they are next to each 
 other in grim satire, ought not to be passed over without 
 public attention being called to them. The first is the 
 horrible stoi'y from Birmingham of two little gii'ls, nine 
 and twelve years old respectively, together with a cousin 
 ten years old, purchasing whisky, getting drunk, and 
 almost killing themselves. The next is the story of three 
 dogs at Castle Hedingham falling sick upon the road to the 
 meet for fox-hunting, presumably having been poisoned. 
 In this case ' great indignation was expressed by the 
 public,' ' and the hunting for the day was postponed.' A 
 reward of £50 has been offered for information which may 
 bring the guilt home to the perpetrators. And what about 
 the persons who supplied the drink to the three little 
 girls ? Apparently no jiublic indignation is expressed at 
 the Birmingham outrage. What, after all, are three 
 children more or less in our overcrowded towns ? The bay 
 of the foxhound is pleasant and cheery, and we cannot 
 afford to lose that music on the hillside. The bitter cry 
 of the outcast is not sweet, and the sooner we quench it in 
 the water of death the better. So, of course, £50 for the 
 discovery of the miscreant who poisoned the dogs ; for 
 the licensed trader who gave the children whisky, com- 
 pensation when the time comes to shut up his dram-shop. 
 We have received from Birmingham much political light 
 and leading. We shall wait anxiously to hear her voice, 
 in answer to the piteous wail of her three children 
 
 2b
 
 170 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 poisoned upon the nativity of the BetHehem infant. 
 Youi's, etc. 
 
 "Llewelyn D. Bevan. 
 "Highbury, N., December 27." 
 
 By the Globe. 
 
 Imprison- 
 ment u 
 proper 
 penalty for 
 the crime of 
 Helling or 
 giving drink 
 tu children. 
 
 A few days later the Globe, commenting on this wicked 
 condition of things, said — 
 
 " It is most painful to see, from the provincial police- 
 court records of Christmastide crime, that juvenile intem- 
 perance is increasing. Instances are reported all over 
 the kingdom, and in some the tipplers were girls of 
 tender years. Thus, at Birmingham, two little damsels, 
 the one nine and the other twelve, opened their money- 
 boxes one night, and invested the contents, 2s., in whisky. 
 Being joined by a ten-year-old cousin, the three sat down, 
 and then and there consumed every drop of the spirit. 
 They were afterwards found in a helpless state of intoxica- 
 tion, and the youngest still remains seriously ill. But a 
 boys' drinking-bout at Warrington actually terminated in 
 the death of one lad, aged twelve, from alcoholic poisoning. 
 He, and three other youngsters, bought a pint of whisky 
 and drank it out of an egg-cup, apparently in an undiluted 
 state. We could multiply these shocking instances almost 
 indefinitely, and the question therefore arises as to whether 
 some more stringent restrictions should not be placed on 
 the sale of stimulants to children. In the Warrington 
 case, the publican declared that he would not have sold the 
 whisky to the lads if he had thought they intended to 
 drink it themselves. The coroner, nevertheless, censured 
 him for his carelessness ; and never was reprimand more 
 richly deserved. When children ask to be served with 
 spirits, it rests with them to show that they are merely 
 employed as messengers, and any publican who does not 
 exact full evidence on that head would not be a bit too 
 heavily punished were his licence endorsed." 
 
 It ought to be practicable to pass a law preventing the 
 possibility of such degradation as this. No physician of 
 any standing denies that drink is a poison to the young, 
 and no father, mother, or guardian worthy of the name 
 will allow minors under their charge to drink. It ought, in- 
 deed, to be a prison offence for any full-grown person caught 
 in the act of forcing or coaxing little ones to drink.
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 371 
 
 "There can be no question," sajs the Lancet (Maj, The tancer* 
 1883), "but that some change is urgently necessary °P™°" °" 
 in relation to the facilities publicly offered for juvenile 
 drinking, and, consequently, juvenile inebriety. Even 
 ordinarily observant persons must have noticed the in- 
 creasing frequency of that most melancholy and humili- 
 ating of street spectacles — a drunken child. A drunken 
 vv^oman is a deplorable presentment of human nature, 
 but a drunken girl or boy is a more pitiful creature 
 still. We have recently seen girls of apparently thirteen 
 or fourteen years of age intoxicated with alarming fre- 
 quency. Surely a short Act should be passed to render 
 the supply of spirits, wine, or beer ' to be drunk on the 
 premises,' by a boy or girl under sixteen years of age, a 
 misdemeanour. All would unite in expediting such a 
 measure. At present, as it appears to us, even respectable 
 publicans have no objection to supply drink to mere 
 children, although they are conspicuously zealous in thrust- 
 ing these poor creatures into the street as soon as the first 
 indication of di-unkenness is apparent." 
 
 Unless the British Government soon attends to these 
 evils, it seems likely that Russia will take precedence in 
 reformatory legislation upon the drink question. Accord- 
 ing to a letter from Odessa to Sir Wilfrid Lawson, dated 
 March 21, ISB-l, and published in the Alliance News 
 March 29, the new Russian project for regulating the sale 
 of alcoholic liquors is thus quoted : 
 
 " Clause II. enacts that any publican supplying drink 
 to a person already intoxicated, or to young persons, is 
 liable to a fine of 850 roubles (about £85), and to the 
 deprivation of his licence or patent for three years, during 
 which period he will not be allowed to occupy himself in 
 any capacity whatever connected with the sale of liquors 
 — not even as a waiter." * 
 
 * The next two clauses are given as follows : — • 
 " Clause III. enacts that any publican supplying a person with 
 such a quantity of drink as to make him irresponsible for his actions, 
 and if such person, after leaving the premises, be robbed or injured 
 by accident, the publican in addition to the fine imposed under 
 clause II., shall make good any loss by robbery in the one case, or 
 pay all medical expenses in the other. 
 
 " Clause IV. declares that where a person through excessive 
 drinking dies in a public drinking-house, or if an intoxicated person
 
 372 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Early habits 
 and home 
 example 
 largely re- 
 sponsible for 
 the preva- 
 lence of this 
 vice among 
 adults. 
 
 Sir William 
 Armstrong 
 on pro- 
 hibition of 
 the propaga- 
 tion of 
 poverty and 
 vice. 
 
 r>r. Norman 
 Kerr and the 
 Dalrymple 
 Home. 
 
 There is no doubt that the amount of drunlcenness we 
 see among all classes of people is in a very great degree the 
 outcome of habits formed in earliest youth. The use of 
 alcohol is associated with home scenes around the parents' 
 table and with social pleasures ; it is carried on by the very 
 passivity and plasticity of man's moral development, up 
 through the whole period, of physical constrnction and 
 ripening, until it is fixed in and part of his maturity. 
 
 § 87. Another indirect prohibitory measure that may 
 become practicable applies to the prevention, by law, of pro- 
 pagation of the race by habitual drunkards. Why should 
 such a suggestion as this be adjudged out of the pale of 
 consideration ? Laws are made and executed, by which life 
 itself and all that is meant by individuality are under 
 given circumstances deemed forfeit. Why should there be 
 no laws, adequately conceived and eifected, which might 
 practically abrogate the death-penalty by guarding the 
 doors of life ? In an address to the Elswick Works Insti- 
 tute, August 8, 1883, Sir William Armstrong made the 
 following statement : — " The rapid growth of population is 
 adverse to moral development, and, by increasing com- 
 petition, for instance, tends to increase poverty. A crisis 
 must apparently come when further multiplication must be 
 controlled by legislation, and the violation of liberty may 
 be involved." 
 
 What Sir William Armstrong thus impressively says 
 of the propagation of poverty is certainly applicable to 
 the propagation of habitual di-unkards, even without dwell- 
 ing on the point that poverty and drunkenness produce 
 each other. 
 
 § 88. The brave efforts of Dr. Norman Kerr for the 
 realization and extension of the Dalrymple Home for the 
 cure of habitual drunkards, deserve encouragement and 
 support. But the authority of the management should also 
 be enlarged. The chief support of this or any similar insti- 
 tution should devolve upon the State. Any one who had 
 a respectable medical certificate that he was an eligible 
 applicant, should be admitted, and the satisfactory evidence 
 
 lose his life in any drunken brawl on the premises or after leaving 
 (cases, unhappily, not uncommon in Knssia), the publican shall suffer 
 two years' imprisonment and make a suitable provision for the wife 
 and family or dependent relatives of the deceased."
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 373 
 
 of a person's being an habitual drunkard should make his 
 removal to an asylum for habitual drunkards as compul- 
 sory as would be the removal of a proved lunatic to an 
 asylum for the insane, and State supervision should be as 
 strict as over our prisons and insane asylums — absolute 
 cure being the condition on which an inmate should be 
 allowed to re-enter the world. 
 
 Those who were present at the inauguration of the 
 Dalrymple Home (October 29, 1883), and heard the earnest 
 addi'esses by Sir Charles Tupper, ex-premier of Nova Scotia, 
 who instanced the model management and grand success 
 of such institutions in America ; * of Sir Spencer Wells, 
 
 * These details are from the Temperance Record (November 1, 
 1883) : " The Hon. Conrad Dillon, who has recently returned from a 
 rapid trip through the United States, has favoured us with a few 
 notes of visits paid by him to four institutions for the reclamation 
 and reformation of the victims of strong drink. 
 
 " At San Francisco, California, the Inebriates' Home is under the 
 management of a body of trustees who are recognized by the State, 
 and have power to receive and detain persons for certain periods. 
 The home is situated in a pleasant part of the city, and has accomnio- 
 dation for about sixty or seventy inmates, about two-thirds of whom 
 are males. Many of the patients go voluntarily, but others are com- 
 mitted under a judge's order for a term of twenty days. Dr. R. H. 
 McDonald, the president of the Pacific Bank, an active temperance 
 reformer and philanthropist, is the chairman of the trustees, who are 
 assisted by Dr. Jewell, the resident physician. The patients are 
 detained for a few days in the hospital, after which they have access 
 to the reading-rooms and other more cheerful parts of the building. 
 The women's department is of course entirely separated, though under 
 the same roof. No report is published of the home, and every effort 
 is made to avoid jaublicity, which might deter sufferers from taking 
 advantage of it. 
 
 " The Washingtonian Home of Chicago is somewhat larger. Here 
 the average number of inmates (all male) is about eighty, the total 
 number of admissions last year having been six hundred and seventy, 
 of whom one hundred and two wei'e police-court cases. The com- 
 mittee of directors have power to admit and detain prisoners com- 
 mitted to the bridewell for " intemperance, drunkenness, or any 
 misdemeanour caused thereby," for the term of their sentence. The 
 patients are required to contribute according to their means, though 
 many are admitted free. On the whole nearly sixty per cent, of the 
 expense is contributed by the inmates. The special feature of this 
 home is that an attempt is made not merely to recover, but to educate 
 the patients. During the first fortnight, as a rule, they remain in the 
 home, and attend a series of lectures on physiology, especially relating 
 to the effects of narcotics and stimulants on the various organs, as
 
 374 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 president Royal College of Surgeons ; Dr. Hare, president 
 of the Metropolitan. Branch of the British Medical Associa- 
 tion, and other well-known -workers in the temperance 
 cause, cannot help feeling that it is the great duty of 
 Englishmen to urge adequate legislation on this subject. 
 
 well as the effect of alcohol on the moral affections and passions. Pro- 
 fessor Wilkins, the superintendent, whose heart and soul is in the 
 work, soon makes an impression on all who have the slightest desire 
 to reform, and, by his kindly sympathy and advice, revives hope in 
 the breast of many a poor victim. If sufBcient progress is made at 
 the end of a fortnight, the patient goes out during the day to his 
 employment, returning for meals, and thus gradually slides back to 
 his place in the outer world. The experience meeting on Sunday 
 evening is a serious affair, and though the histories related are often 
 sad, many successful cases starting from declarations made there in 
 years gone by, testify to the value of the work. Friends of the 
 inmates and former inmates are welcome at the meetings. 
 
 " The Martha Washington Home, which is situated about six miles 
 out of the town, is conducted by the same board, and though only 
 opened recently, gives promise of that rewai'd which always attends 
 the untiring efforts of thoroughly earnest workers, guided alone by the 
 highest religions motives. The money raised by licences in Chicago 
 and Cooks County, amounting to about £1,200 a year, is entirely 
 devoted to these two institutions. 
 
 " The New York Christian Home for Intemperate Men, which was 
 till lately presided over by the Hon. W. E. Dodge, has recently moved 
 into a fine new building at the corner of the Madison Avenue, and 
 86th Street. Here the committee have power to receive and detain 
 inebriate men who enter voluntarily for a period not exceeding sixty 
 days, and every effort is made during that time for their " physical, 
 social, mental, and spiritual " improvement. The institution claims 
 that of the nine hundred men who have been received since 1877, a 
 majority give every evidence of living consistent lives. This result 
 is attributed to the prominent position given to religious instruction 
 and exhortation, and, indeed, unless patients express a desire to 
 refoim they are not allowed to remain. 
 
 " The value of these homes cannot be accurately estimated, for 
 many who have benefited most by them follow the example of the 
 nine lepers. That the work is of great practical value cannot be 
 doubted, though many will avail themselves of the relief and then 
 return straight to their old habits. The staj^ in all is too limited for 
 much good to be expected in old cases, but the easy access and 
 prospect of returning quickly to the world no doubt induces many to 
 avail themselves of the treatment at an earlier stage than they would 
 if the seclusion were longer. The facility for a recommencement of 
 work which is impossible in a country liomc, is an important feature, 
 as well as the opportunities offered for joining temperance societies 
 before throwing off the restraint of the home."
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 375 
 
 In his report (Marcli, 1884, about four months after 
 its inauguration) on the working of the Dalrymple Home, 
 made to the Medical Temperance Association, Dr. Kerr 
 said — 
 
 " Without an exception, all whose terms have as yet 
 expired have applied to be allowed to remain longer — as 
 long, in fact, as financial or business considerations will 
 admit of. 
 
 " With all this success, there is one regret, the necessity 
 of refusing many applications for admission. If the sum 
 of £2,500 were forthcoming, accommodation for twelve 
 more patients could be added, and we rely on the prompt 
 and libei'al support of the Christian and philanthropic 
 public. Were the committee supplied with adequate funds, 
 they would gladly establish a Home for Females, and a 
 thii'd Home for Habitual Drunkards of very limited 
 means. To free the existing Dalrymple Home from debt 
 £2,000 is still needed." 
 
 Dr. Thomas Hawksley is quoted in Church of England yit. Thomas 
 Temperance Society (October 6), as saying : — "It is useless Hawksieyon 
 to tell these fallen and unhappy ones of the virtues of habitual 
 temperance ; their consciences are dead, and an impervious drunkards. 
 and insatiable demon has possession of them. You might 
 as well attempt to reason with a hopeless lunatic. Until 
 the laws of the country treat this form of madness like 
 other lunacy, and deal with it by a sufficiently long sus- 
 tained coercion, so long, it is to be hoped, there will be 
 found a self-denying and heroic band of men and women 
 who, by a vow of total abstinence faithfully carried out, 
 show the right way to their weaker brethren, and demon- 
 strate how perfectly health and happiness may be sustained 
 without the smallest aid from agencies which to so great 
 an extent are proved to be the facilis descensus to all the 
 other sins and crimes of our fallen moral nature." 
 
 The Church of England Temperance Chronicle, November The Lambeth 
 15, 1883, says :— " At a meeting of the Lambeth Board of f^iLon 
 Guardians on Wednesday, it was moved — ' That this board, the necessity 
 being deeply impressed with the necessity of provision the'^HaWtuai 
 being: made for the more strinc^ent dealing with habitual drunkard's 
 
 . . Act 
 
 drunkards, do memorialize the Local Government Board 
 to take such steps as will lead to the law being so amended 
 as to give power to local authorities or boards of guardians
 
 376 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 to establisli and maintain inebriate retreats, eitlier in con- 
 nection with, existing Avorkliouses or asylums or in separate 
 establislinients, as may be tliouglit most desirable ; and, 
 furtber, that power be given to magistrates to commit 
 habitual drunkards to such retreats witb or without their 
 consent, provision being made for the recovery of the cost 
 of their maintenance when it is ascertained that persons 
 restrained have means for their own support, or that there 
 are relatives or guardians who under the existing law are 
 liable and able, wholly or partially, to maintain them.' — 
 The motion was carried, thei*e being only one dissentient." 
 The need of § 89- One powerful and comprehensive initiatory mea- 
 
 internationai suTO for Optional and prohibitory leo-islation, for which the 
 
 rdsitions in */ cu ^ 
 
 view of times seem ripe, is that of the establishment of international 
 drink"i^eis- relations On the drink question. There can be no doubt 
 lation. that for England to inaugurate a system of drastic liquor 
 
 legislation without such, an understanding with other 
 countries would seriously affect international commercial 
 relations ; i.e., if those countries in which such legislation 
 would most interfere with the existing order of things, had 
 not first been taken into England's confidence and invited 
 to co-operate, and had theii' just demands considered and, 
 so far as possible, satisfied. 
 
 But having faithfully made these efforts, England 
 
 ought then to carry her scheme into effect. And there 
 
 should be no question of compensation for direct losses to 
 
 other countries, and on exactly the same grounds and for 
 
 the same reasons that no compensation — except such as 
 
 Kes in special opportunities in proper fields of commerce 
 
 — ought to be made to dispossessed publicans. For 
 
 if publicans within the country are compensated, then, 
 
 logically and upon the same scale, ought compensation to 
 
 be extended to foreign ti^aders. 
 
 The need of Indeed, there are certain measures which only an 
 
 agreement"* international agreement Avould make possible, such, for 
 
 for the gene- instance, as the right to suppress the liquor traffic at sea. 
 
 sionof liquor In the International Conference at the Hague in 1881, the 
 
 geas"*^""*^^ fearful consequences in shipwrecks and loss of life due to 
 
 this cause were pointed out, and a resolution passed to try 
 
 and induce the respective governments to put an end to 
 
 that form of the traffic ; and it was recently stated by a 
 
 correspondent of the Liverpool Joiirnal of Commerce that
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 377 
 
 the British. Government are taking steps to put an end to 
 this traffic on the North Sea, and to that end would seek 
 to arrive at an understanding with the other countries who 
 are parties to the North Sea Fisheries Convention. 
 
 International exchange of information as to the various 
 legislative measures taken, the commissioning of official 
 representatives to international conferences on the drink 
 question, and other steps of a cognate nature, would all be 
 means for promoting the good work of bringing the nations 
 into a closer bond of common fellowship, and be, at the 
 same time, tending to bring about a most healthful spirit 
 of international emulation for good legislation. 
 
 § 90. Alcohol is so potent and subtle a destroyer of \'^® °*'^/',/'?'" 
 the best qualities in man and the race; so much more naentofa^ 
 formidable and complex in its effects than is any other P"?J*"f°* 
 foe to man's physical, mental, and moral health — to his commission 
 happiness and usefulness on earth — that this Government ^^to^t'ue"^^ 
 ought to insist upon the establishment of a permanent -nhoie 
 national commission, in every way fitted and provided aU;ohoi'and 
 with the necessary means for investigating the whole man. 
 question of alcohol and man. 
 
 It is a far greater evil than that of poverty, and, in 
 fact, as was pointed out in chapter x., poverty would 
 hardly prove a considerable problem to a sober nation, and 
 even if it were, a sober nation would be amply adequate 
 to cope with it. If the Royal Commission for Housing the 
 Poor will study the cause, the all-promoting cause, of 
 poverty — drink — and probe and expose this source of evil 
 in a thorough conscientious manner, then will its work 
 be, and deserve to be, blessed indeed, and its members will 
 reap for themselves the rich harvest of the people's con- 
 fidence and gratitude. But this should only precede, not 
 take the place of, the establishment of a permanent official 
 commission of inquiry into the whole drink question, 
 which should annually issue a full report of the results of 
 its investigation, the report to be sold at cost price all 
 over the land. The commission established in Switzerland 
 to this end might fui-nish suggestions for formation, 
 character, duties, responsibilities, etc. 
 
 Among reforms needed to facilitate effective legislation 
 generally would be that of an enactment by which members 
 directly interested in any legislation should de facto be
 
 37ii THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 disqualified from voting in sncli cases ; just as much, and 
 for precisely the same reasons, that interested parties are 
 excluded from juries. 
 
 § 91. Legislative and social efforts — essential fore- 
 runners of direct temperance legislation — have been for 
 some years continually increasing in number. One of 
 these, known as the coffee tavern and street stall move- 
 ment, has already become very popular.* 
 
 * It is of the utmost importance that the public mind should be 
 disabused of the idea that the various non-alcoholic drinks are 
 substitutes for alcohol, or that any sach substitutes are required. 
 Alcohol is a poison through and through ; the real substitutes for it 
 are also poisons, viz., ethers, chloral, etc. The Son of Temperance 
 (April, 1884) makes these pertinent remarks — 
 
 " When a man -nho sticks to alcohol sees an abstainer drinking a 
 'done or an 'ade, he naturally concludes that the vchole question at 
 issue is simply one as to the sort of tipple. The alcoholist declares 
 his weak wine to be no viler a compound nor more hui'tful than the 
 stuff drunk as a substitute by the abstainer. And in this particular 
 he is not very far wrong, for some of the so-called ' teetotal drinks ' 
 are the grossest of frauds upon the stomach as well as the pocket. 
 Drinking them thus confuses the issue, and makes it a question of 
 the sort of tipple, rather than one of the disuse of a worse than 
 worthless drink. It does even more. The habit of using a substitute 
 gives an impression that there is a natural want. Taste and expense 
 then become important factors. If there be no saving in the latter 
 the former prevails, and a lapse is the consequence. Many a man 
 who has by his own habits thus obscured the issue has been lost to 
 the movement. Then, again, quite apart from economic and physical 
 considerations, there is the habit of drinking for the mere purpose of 
 drinking. Substitutes perpetuate this ridiculous and pernicious 
 habit. What greater folly can be conceived than liquoring- up at all 
 hours of the day, and for every possible excuse ! Substitutes supply 
 the means, and the result is a waste of time and energy by continuance 
 in the old practice." 
 
 Among healthful invigorating drinks, besides water, are: Hot milk, 
 of which the Louisville Medical Neivs CNovember 10, 1883) says, 
 " Milk that is heated too much above 100° Fahr, loses, for the time, 
 a degree of its sweetness and density ; but no one fatigued by over- 
 exertion of body or mind who has ever experienced the reviving 
 influence of a tumbler of this beverage as hot as it can be sipped, 
 will willingly forego a resort to it because of its having been rendered 
 somewhat less acceptable to the palate. The promjjtness with which 
 its cordial influence is felt is indeed surprising. Some portions seem 
 to be digested and appropriated almost immediately ; and many who 
 fancy that they need alcoholic stimulants when exhausted by labour 
 of brain or body, will find in this simple draught an equivalent that
 
 WHAT CAN BE DOXE ? 379 
 
 The British coffee tavern temperance movement seems The origin 
 to have had its origin in the novel and very noble efforts fi^^ment'of 
 
 temperance 
 will be as abundantly satisfying and more enduring in its effects." coffee- 
 And oatmeal drink, the late Dr. Parkes' receipt for which is given pw^Qd" 
 here as found in the Church of England I'emperance Chronicle (June Their 
 9, 1883) : " The proportions are ^Ib. of oatmeal to two or three quarts character 
 of water, according to the heat of the day, and the work and thirst ; ^""^ "^'^' 
 it should be well boiled, and then an ounce or one and a half ounces 
 of brown sugar added. If you find it thicker than you like, add three 
 quarts of water. Before drinking it shake up the oatmeal well 
 through the liquid. In summer drink this cold ; in winter hot. You 
 will find this not only quenches thirst, but will give you more strength 
 and endurance than any other drink. If you cannot boil it, you can 
 take a little oatmeal mixed with cold water and sugar, but this is not 
 so good ; always boil it if you can. If at any time you have to make 
 a very long day, as iu harvest, and cannot stop for meals, increase 
 the oatmeal to ^Ib. or even fib., and the water to three quarts if yon 
 are likely to be very thirsty. If you cannot get oatmeal, wheat-flour 
 will do, but not quite so well. Those who tried this recipe last year 
 found that they could get through more work than when using beer, 
 and were stronger and healthier at the end of the harvest. Cold tea 
 and skim milk are also found to be better than beer, but not equal to 
 the oatmeal drink." 
 
 An excellent promoter of easy digestion is malt extract. Barley 
 possesses such an abundance of diastase or starch-digesting principle, 
 that malt or an extract from it, if properly prepared, is not only 
 nutritive by reason of the malt sugar, dextrine, and phosphates 
 which it contains, but highly digestive of other starchy foods also, as 
 bread, potatoes, etc. Many persons who are aware of the nutritive 
 and digestive properties of barley malt, resort to beer and other 
 fermented alcoholic liquors, prepared in part from malt, as the most 
 available or proper preparation. But this course is a most mistaken 
 one ; for in the first place, in the process of boiling the sweet wort 
 or infusion of malt for the manufacture of beer, aU the digestive 
 properties are entirely destroyed, as diastase is rendered quite inert 
 by a temperature of 130°. Therefore beer possesses no ability to aid 
 digestion, and the alcohol it contains we know to be a retarder of 
 digestion. Secondly, in brewing, the nutritive principles are almost 
 all sacrificed by fermentation for the production of alcohol. We 
 find, therefore, in beer hardly anything whatever of the nutritive 
 or digestive beneficial properties of malt, but simply a solution of 
 weak alcohol in a great deal of water, with such other additions as 
 brewers chose to make for the sake of colour or flavour. In order to 
 preserve the nutritive value of malt. Prof. Baron Liebig originated 
 the idea of evaporating the infusion or sweet wort to the consistency 
 of a symp, in which condition it would keep indefinitely. This pro- 
 cess, however, being conducted in an open pan or kettle, and by 
 boiling, the digestive principle was entirely destroyed. By the Kepler 
 process, the evaporation of sweet wort is conducted at a low temper-
 
 380 
 
 THE FOUNDATIOX OF DEATH. 
 
 The promi- 
 nent part 
 taken by 
 Jlrs. George 
 Bayly in this 
 movement. 
 
 Reasons for 
 the poor 
 results of 
 the coffee 
 taverns in 
 London. 
 
 of Captain and Mrs. George Bayly. In 1853 Mrs. Bayly 
 had started a series of Mothers' Meetings in dotting Dale 
 and its \'icinity for the purpose of rendering mutual assist- 
 ance in saving young men from the drink-shops, and 
 helping those women who snffered because of a drinking 
 husband or father. 
 
 It was finally resolved at these meetings that steps 
 must be taken to reach the drinking men directly, and 
 in relation to this, Captain Bayly, writing to me, April 11, 
 1884, says, " On the 1st of February, 1860, Mrs. Bayly 
 invited sixteen of the most notorious drunkards in the 
 Potteries (Kensington) to tea and spend the evening, 
 the result being that five signed the pledge, and in the 
 course of the year more than one hundi'ed signed. . . . At 
 a meeting a man said, ' We want a public-house without 
 the drink ! ' and on March 16th one was opened and called 
 the ' Workmen's Hall.' " 
 
 The " public-house without the drink " became the 
 coffee taverns of which, particularly during the last two or 
 three years, a great number have been established all over 
 the land, owing chiefly to the exertions of the Church of 
 England Temperance Society. That great good has been 
 accomplished through the agency of these taverns and 
 stalls cannot be doubted ; but while in Leeds and other 
 places the coffee taverns pay fifteen or twenty per cent., 
 in London the results have been most unsatisfactory, 
 because of the poor furnishing and wretched management 
 of these places. 
 
 At a meeting (March 15, 1884) of the relieving officers 
 
 atnre in vacuo, not exceeding 100° Fahr., so that the diastase is fully 
 preserved; and in this product all the valuable properties of malt 
 are preserved in concentrated form, viz., diastase, dextrine, malt 
 sugar, phosphates, and albumenoids, all highly necessary to the 
 human physical growth and health. The Medical Press and Circxdar 
 (London), in reporting on this subject, says that the Kepler Extract 
 of Malt is reliable, and is manufactured in such careful manner as to 
 ensure the preservation of its valuable constituents. It is very 
 delicious to the taste, and has been found by analysis to be exceedingly 
 rich in diastase, and consequently is a valuable digestive agent. The 
 Lancet reports upon the Kepler extract as the best known, and in 
 this country (England) the largest used extract of malt. It is as 
 distinct an advance in therapeutics as was the introduction of cod- 
 liver oil. Used with milk, with water, or with soda-water, it makes a 
 nourishing, refreshing drink.
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 381 
 
 of metropolitaa unions invited by the committee of the 
 National Temperance League, " Mr. Birch, for sixteen 
 years a relieving officer in the Holbom union district, said 
 he thought that drink produced three-fourths o£ the 
 pauperism with which they had to contend. . . . He 
 sincerely hoped that the friends of temperance would 
 endeavour to find some really palatable diink to take the 
 people off intoxicating beverages. As to the coifee taverns, 
 the stuff they sold was not worth drinking. The one they 
 opened in Gray's Inn Road sold articles which the British 
 working man could not be expected to consume, and it was 
 now shut up. . . . A relieving officer from the Whitechapel 
 district said he was glad the first speaker had put the 
 estimate of the drink-caused pauperism at three-fourths. 
 It was a low estimate, but it was one with which they 
 could all agree. Had it been put as high as nine-tenths, 
 he personally should not have objected to it. . . . Mr. 
 Wright said that he had an all-round experience of 
 London, and could testify that the great cause of pauperism 
 was di"ink. Another cause was the wretched homes in 
 which the people lived, making the public-house the only 
 bit of comfort they could get. His experience of the coffee 
 tavern was anything but to their credit. The articles sold 
 at them were so bad that he did not wonder at people 
 forsaking them for the public-house. There was one man 
 doing an immense and successful work for temperance, and 
 that was Mr. Lockhart. The viands he sold were worth 
 the money he charged for them, and his establishments 
 were greatly appreciated by the poor. Let the coffee 
 taverns imitate his method, and they would succeed." * 
 
 Recently a number of interesting letters on this subject 
 have appeared in the Daily Chronicle, on which, in its 
 editorial, April 21, 1884, it comments as follows: — 
 
 "That the Coffee Palace Movement, in the metropolis The Bail;/ 
 at least, has not been so brilliantly successful as its pro- i^^^^^^^f^ 
 motors anticipated must, we fear, be admitted. We have ment of these 
 received numbers of letters from correspondents complain- cents'.* " 
 ing of the wretched accommodation provided and the 
 doubtful quality of the refreshments supplied at many of 
 the establishments described as coffee palaces. ... It would 
 
 * Temperance Record, March 20, 1884.
 
 382 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 be unfair to deny that some of these temperance restaurants 
 are admirably conducted and well-found in every respect, 
 but, as a rule, the coffee palaces are scarcely places to 
 which a philosopher would resort in order to find justifi- 
 cation for taking a cheerful view of the problem of 
 existence. When we remember that the great object 
 of the coffee palace movement was to provide counter 
 attractions to the public-houses, and thus to mark the 
 commencement of a new era in the history of social 
 recreation and enjoyment, we cannot admit that the object 
 has been fulfilled. The muddy-brown liquid sold for coffee 
 at the coffee palaces is not calculated to impress people 
 with the advantages of a temperance dietary. If the 
 British workman is to be persuaded to give up his beer, he 
 must be offered something better than a washy solution of 
 horse-beans, rotten dates, and burnt figs. Genuine coffee 
 can be brewed for the price charged for the adulterated 
 rubbish which, if our numerous correspondents are to be 
 believed, is supplied at most of the coffee palaces. We 
 call attention to this matter in the interests of temperance, 
 and should be sorry to say anything detrimental to the 
 cause. We do not see how it is to prosper with the 
 assistance of adulteration. Coffee palaces cannot be suc- 
 cessful unless they supply the public with coffee. We 
 trust, therefore, that the promoters of the temperance 
 movement will endeavour to put a stop to the distribution 
 of the objectionable stuff at present sold at their 'palaces.' 
 The buildings themselves, too, would be better adapted to 
 the purpose for which they were designed if an appearance 
 of cheerfulness, comfort, and cleanliness were imparted to 
 them." 
 
 To be completely successful, English coffee taverns 
 must supply the best coffee, tea, etc., at the cheapest 
 rates, and to enable them to do this, the duty on tea, 
 coffee, cocoa, etc., ought to be removed, and Java coffee 
 should be as easily obtainable as any other kinds. The 
 ladies who superintend these taverns should thoroughly 
 understand how to prepare the drinks ; a book of com- 
 plaint of management should be on hand at all taverns, in 
 which complaints could be entered and subscribed to by 
 witnesses or partners in the grievance. Friends and sup- 
 porters of temperance should take a personal interest in
 
 WHAT CAX BE DONE ? 383 
 
 the attractiveness, propriety, excellence, and cheapness of 
 such taverns, securing for them the best bread and butter, 
 cold meats, cheese, coffee, tea, cocoa, chocolate, milk, etc. 
 
 They should have neat reading-rooms, with the prin- 
 cipal daily and weekly papers, magazines, and sterling light 
 and simple literature in plenty, not simply such books as 
 can be got at cheapest, at an auction, or given by some- 
 body without care or selection ; on the contrary, it should 
 be an absolute condition that none but thoroughly whole- 
 some books should be admitted, i.e., upon the decision of 
 a competent committee. There should be special meetings 
 and gatherings so arranged as to secure not only social 
 entertainment, but strengthening of the main purpose 
 which brings them together.* For unless the coffee tavern 
 outbids the conveniences of the liquor shop, it will be 
 beaten in the race. 
 
 But in order to meet the great requirement of the time Suggestion 
 — a substitute for the public-house ; a substitute not in the [hgMffee-" 
 sense of equivalent, but a substitute in the sense that it tavern pro- 
 shall displace and victoriously supplant the public-house onhesteam 
 — why should not the coffee-tavern system be merged in i^itchen. 
 a more comprehensive plan, by which not only healthy 
 drinks, good amusements, and wholesome literature, but 
 the entire physiological needs of man could be amply and 
 cheaply supplied ? 
 
 One of the first efforts in this direction was made at First efforts 
 the close of the last century by the famous scientist and of 'th^'^st^ea^m 
 philanthropist. Count Rumforcl, w^ho invented the well- kitchen 
 known Rumford soup. The institutions supplying the ontheconti- 
 Rumford soup, during 1818, and again in 1846, 1847, and ^^^;^^^^ 
 1848, did much to save Germany from the horrors of a Morgen- 
 
 Etem's steam 
 kitchen in 
 * The Echo (October 11, 1883) mentions a good movement m Berlin, 
 behalf of boys, as follows : — 
 
 " To-morrow a meeting will be held at the Mansion House to 
 promote the formation of a Working Lads' Institute for East London. 
 The object is to promote the welfare of the working lads of the 
 Metropolis by establishing in those neighbourhoods where large 
 numbers are employed or reside, institutes where such youths may 
 profitably spend their evening hours, and so be saved from tempta- 
 tions and snares of the streets, the public-houses, music-halls, and 
 ' penny gaffs.' In connection with each institute will be provided 
 healthy recreation, good and useful reading, and the means of 
 educational and moral improvement."
 
 384 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Mr. L. 0. 
 Smith's 
 steam 
 kitchen in 
 Stockholm, 
 and his own 
 account of 
 its import- 
 ance and 
 ■work. 
 
 general famine. In 1866 Mrs. Lina Morgenstern * built 
 her larsre and now famous steam kitchen, where all food 
 is prepared scrupulously in accordance with the highest 
 sanitary and scientific methods, is served daintily on the 
 premises, or sent to order, and in all cases sold at the 
 cheapest possible rates. This experiment is now being tried 
 in Stockholm with marked success by Mr. L. O. Smith, 
 the " ex-Brandy King " of Sweden, and there can be no 
 doubt of its success, if properly introduced, in England. 
 
 Co-operation is the watchword of the hour. We practise 
 it with advantage in commercial, industrial, and agricul- 
 tural pursuits, why should not co-operative food prepara- 
 tion and sale prove successful ? Indeed, so far as the 
 masses of both head and hand labourers are concerned, 
 there is every reason to expect that such co-operation will 
 prove in almost every respect more advantageous than any 
 other form. 
 
 I have not the space here for treating this great 
 question in detail, I can only throw out a hint or two, and 
 cite briefly from Mr. Smith's experiences. 
 
 It is impossible that food should be prepared either ^s 
 well or as cheaply in the labourer's home, with its generally 
 imperfect domestic facilities, as it could be in a large steam 
 kitchen specially and skilfully constructed, and stocked 
 with utensil and material for feeding thousands of persons. 
 And while poor and badly cooked food notably prepares 
 the stomach to crave for strong drink, nutritious, easily 
 digested, and well-cooked food as notably serves to render 
 the system less tolerant of strong drink, and good health 
 means temperate desires, better work, and that self-reliance 
 which makes a man able to take proper care of himself, 
 and be helpful to others also. From Mr. Smith's views of 
 the working and results of the steam kitchen system, as 
 reported in the Pall Mall Gazette (April 3, 1884), I make 
 the following' quotations : — 
 
 " Of the expenditure of a working man, 15 per cent, 
 only goes in house-rent, w^hile 60 per cent, goes in food. 
 Therefore, if you provide every working man with a free 
 house for ever, the effect is only equal to saving him 
 
 * Die Volksliicken Wirtscliafiliclie Artftalten fiir hillirie nalirende 
 uSchmaclihafteMassenspeisung im Krieg u Frieden. Lina Morgenstern. 
 Berlin, 1883.
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 385 
 
 15 per cent, of his wages. But if you can make a radical 
 reforinatioii in his food, you have a much greater margin 
 to play upon. If you could provide him with food twice 
 as nourishing as that which he gets now, so that he only 
 needs to buy half as much of it, or if you give him as 
 much food as he gets at present at half the price, you save 
 him at one stroke 30 per cent, of his wages, or twice as 
 much as the whole of his house-rent. And it can be 
 done." * 
 
 As to the best system of cooking, Mr. Smith says : 
 
 " I have examined almost every system of cooking that 
 is known to civilized man ; and I have now come to the 
 conclusion that no system is so good as that of cooking by 
 steam water bath, so economical, so efficient. In cooking 
 the great thing is temperature ; and by this means it is 
 possible either to roast or to boil each description of food 
 at the exact degree of the thermometer that is necessary. 
 The system at present in use in the barracks of the German 
 army is by far the best. I have bought up the patent for 
 Norway and Sweden ; and before long I expect to have 
 the machines in working order in every town in the whole 
 country. You may think this is a simple matter ; but let 
 me tell you the results. In Sweden the working man, at 
 the ordinary cook-shops, will pay Is. 'M. a day for three 
 meals for himself. At my kitchen I supply him with three 
 meals a day for 8(Z., making a saving of 40 per cent., and 
 for this 8fZ. I supply much better food — the very best that 
 can be bought anywhere, and much better cooked than you 
 can get in any hotels in London. I can do this and make 
 a profit at it — a profit of l^d. on each day. I charge them - ^ 
 
 more than cost price in order that the profits may accumu- 
 late for establishing other kitchens in other places, and for 
 furnishing the kitchens with adjuncts in the shape of music- 
 halls, libraries, etc., while a part of the accumulated profit 
 is devoted to providing pensions for members in old age." 
 
 And as to the management, he adds : 
 
 " Come to Stockholm, and I will show you my kitchen 
 in working order. Every Saturday night those who wish 
 to avail themselves of the kitchen must pay an advance 
 
 * In an Open Letter to the Worlcing Men of Sweden, Mr. Smith 
 says he even thinks that as much as 40 per cent, of the present costs 
 of food might thus be saved. 
 
 2c
 
 38G 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 for the whole seven days. They receive twenty-one tickets, 
 one for each meal. They can give them away if they 
 please, but they are never wasted. We know, therefore, 
 exactly to one meal how many will be required through 
 the week. At Berlin, where there is a society of charitable 
 ladies who supply cheap food for the people, they supply 
 it to any one who conies, and, as a consequence, they never 
 know whether their demand will be great or small, and 
 they have to eat up one day what is left over from another. 
 Under my system nothing is left over. We know exactly 
 what is wanted, and it is cooked fresh when it is vp anted. 
 The people can either come and eat their meal at the 
 kitchen, or they can bring it home in vessels which keep 
 it warm. I send out meals to factories and workshops in 
 vessels so constructed that they keep warm for hours. 
 There is nothing wasted, and the food is apportioned, 
 according to the season of the year, on the most scientific 
 principles. Care is taken to provide exactly the number 
 of grammes of fatty matter and albumen — in winter more 
 fat, in spring more albumen ; but the correct proportion is 
 always maintained. We have all varieties of food, each 
 cooked in its own proper way to perfection. In the course 
 of the year we have as many as sixty menus from which 
 people can take their choice. The economy resulting is 
 surprising. The waste of separate fires and separate 
 kitchen rooms is appalling. I undertake to provide any 
 family of man, wife, and two children, who will pay me 
 the rent of their kitchen and the cost of their fuel, with 
 dinner all the year round for nothing ! " 
 
 During his recent visit to London, Mr. Smith told me 
 
 that by next autumn he expected to have ten large steam 
 
 kitchens at work in Stockholm. 
 
 Pure water § 92. A remedial measure of the very first importance, 
 
 eHRcntiai for ill which State, Church, society, and the individual ought to 
 
 h^'^ith'^ co-operate, is that of procuring for all localities an abundant, 
 
 permanent, free supply of fresh, pure, sparkling water. 
 Mr Thomas " Spring or fountain water," says Thomas Tryon, in his 
 
 water 0697). Way to save Wealth (London, 1697), "is the most whole- 
 some and sweet of all drinks. A sober man coming to 
 a feast eats his meat (food) with six times more delight 
 than the other, because he brings an exact palate to taste, 
 and a clean and shai'p stomach to entertain it."
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? SS7 
 
 Tn An Tjssay on Health and Long Life (London, 1725), Dr. George 
 Dr. George Cheyne says — " Without peradventure water [j^g^game" 
 was the primitive original drink, and happy had it been (i725). 
 for the race of mankind if other mixed and artificial liquors 
 had never been invented. Water alone is sufficient and 
 effectual for all the purposes of human wants in drink. 
 Common sense will tell us that the purest and thinnest 
 water is fittest to circulate through tubes so infinitely 
 small as some in animal bodies are, and even that it alone 
 will nourish plants and bring them to perfection." 
 
 In dealing with the physiological effects of alcohol we 
 saw how overwhelming is the bodily need of water, that 
 water is the first, food the second, necessity. And there- 
 fore it may justly be claimed that for health and normal 
 living, the supply of pure water is as necessary as the 
 supply of pure food. 
 
 Some cities — Antwerp among others — have recently Water 
 secured this priceless boon for the inhabitants, and the Antvrap. "^ 
 laws for the water supply in Antwerp provide that in 
 whatsoever house the landlord has not complied with this 
 ordinance, he can be legally compelled at once to do so. 
 As to London, for upwards of thirty years there has been The agit»- 
 a constant agitation in this direction, though it has not as pure^w^ter 
 yet met with complete success. Early in 1859 an associa- supply in 
 tion for the erection of drinking-fountains was formed in during the 
 London bv Lord John Russell, and in April of that year it lasttwenty- 
 
 .-^ .•* five years. 
 
 held an important meeting.* 
 
 Lord Shaftesbury and the chairman. Lord Carlisle, 
 were the most prominent speakers. The latter said he 
 thought "all present would agree with him" that "gin- 
 palaces and beer-houses were the most besetting evils of 
 London, and that drinking-fountains would in some measure 
 alleviate these." 
 
 Earl Shaftesbury said that pure water was an im- 
 perative need ; they were to recollect the general condition 
 of the working classes in this respect. The water was 
 generally received into butts which stood in the outer yard, 
 
 * The first fountain, near St. Sepulchre's Church, in Skinner Street, 
 was built the same month. In June, 1862, the magnificent fountain 
 in Victoria Park was inaugurated by its donor, Miss — now Baroness 
 — Burdett-Coutts. Since then between three and four hundred have 
 been erected all over the metropolis.
 
 in London. 
 
 388 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 "where tliey absorbed all the foul air and gases that passed 
 over them.* 
 
 During last year an agitation of a more effective 
 
 character, and which gives promise of ultimate success, 
 
 A writer in called forth the following letter to the Fall Mall Gazette 
 
 the Pall Mall .. , .^ iqqo\ 
 
 Gazetteon (Angust IS, lobo) : 
 
 the present 
 
 watersuppiy " SiR, — Five of the metropolitan water companies draw 
 their supplies from the Thames above Teddington Lock. 
 The average daily flow of the river at the intakes during 
 August is 500,000,000 gallons. These companies abstract 
 68,000,000 gallons per day — that is, a little more than one 
 eighth of the total flow. They possess power to abstract 
 110,000,000 gallons per day. On the drainage area of the 
 Thames there dwell 900,000 people (including 200,000 in 
 towns of upwards of 2,000 inhabitants), and upon it there 
 live 60,000 horses, 160,000 cattle, 900,000 sheep, and 
 120,000 pigs. Their sewage and refuse pass into the 
 Thames, either directly or indirectly. The theory that 
 polluted river-water purifies itself in its flow has been 
 proved to be false. After filtration this water is sent to 
 London. It is considered very satisfactory when filtration 
 removes 28 per cent, of the organic impurities, leaving 
 72 per cent, to be supplied in solution to the consumer. 
 The companies derive a gross annual income of £750,000 
 for this supply. The volume of the flow in the river is 
 fairly constant, but the amounts of its pollution and of the 
 quantities abstracted daily are necessarily increasing ones. 
 The whole of these figures are taken from Bluebooks, and, 
 if disputed, the reference for each will be given. 
 
 " If it were possible for these companies to have a 
 reservoir containing 68,000,000 gallons of absolutely pure 
 w^ater, and into it were allowed to go the contents of 
 water-closets, household slops, and manufacturing refuse 
 of 112,500 people, in the same proportion in which they 
 respectively enter the Thames at the present time, and in 
 addition as much of the manure of 7,500 horses, 20,000 
 cattle, 112,500 sheep, and 15,000 pigs, as could find its 
 way there, and if 28 per cent., or even 50 per cent., of 
 
 * Recent inquiries into the circumstances of tbo London poor 
 liave shown that tlie condition of things deprecated in 1859, have not 
 been much improved in some of the London slums to-day.
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 389 
 
 these organic impurities were removed hj filtration, is 
 there any householder in London who would use it for 
 drinking and domestic purposes ? Yet this is pro rata 
 what thej uncomplainingly receive and use every day. — 
 I am, Sir, your obedient servant, 
 
 "S." 
 
 Undoubtedly there would be a hue and cry about the 
 enormous cost of an undertaking such as has heen carried 
 through in Antwerp, but suppose it were possible at the 
 same cost to equally liberally supply beer and wine, would 
 not the money be forthcoming ? And yet those compounds 
 are poisons, and water is the principal need of life. 
 
 There is little doubt that the use of intoxicating drinks 
 would be infinitely reduced if, instead of these dead fluids 
 from aqueducts and reservoirs, everybody in the large 
 centres of the world could have an abundance of always 
 fresh pure water always at hand.* Any one who has 
 drunk from a mountain spring realizes the diiference. 
 Grandly and permanently successful may the temperance 
 agitation hope to become if it can secure sufficient public 
 interest to obtain this priceless boon, this daily necessity 
 to health from the cradle to the grave, and one more calcu- 
 lated than is almost any other agent to widen the distance 
 between them. 
 
 Under the heading of Water for Infants, the New YorJc The .vej« 
 Medical Record (August 18, 1883) says :— nZorTon'"' 
 
 " With the exception of tuberculosis, no disease is so water for 
 fatal in infancy as intestinal catari'h, occurring especially '° ^^ ^' 
 during the hot summer months, and caused, in the majority 
 of cases, by improper diet. There are many upon whom 
 the idea does not seem to have impressed itself that an 
 infant can be thirsty without at the same time being 
 hungry. When milk, the chief food of infants, is given 
 in excess, acid fermentation results, causing vomiting, 
 diarrhoea, with passage of green or yellowish-green stools, 
 elevated temperature, and the subsequent train of symptoms 
 
 * Drinkers no less than abstainers ought to interest themselves in 
 this subject, because their drinks, besides the alcohol and various 
 adulterating compounds, consist, as they know, mostly of water — 
 exactly the same kind of water which the abstainer takes, minus the 
 other compounds.
 
 390 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Dr. James 
 Wilson on 
 the thera- 
 peutic pro- 
 perties of 
 water. 
 
 The Lancet 
 on water- 
 drinking. 
 
 which are too familiar to need repetition. The same thing' 
 w^ould occur in the adult if drenched with milk. The 
 infant needs not food, but drink. The recommendation of 
 some writers, that barley-water or gum-water be given to 
 the little patients in these cases, is sufficient explanation 
 of their want of success in treating this affection. Pure 
 water is perfectly iimocuous to infants ; it is difficult to 
 conceive how the seeming prejudice to it ever arose. Any 
 one who has ever noticed the avidity with which a fretful 
 sick infant drinks water, and marks the early abatement 
 of febrile and other symptoms, will be convinced that 
 water as a beverage, a quencher of thirst, a physiological 
 necessity, in fact, should not be denied to the helpless 
 member of society. We have often seen an infant who 
 has been dosed ad nauseam for gastro-intestinal irritability 
 assume, almost at once, a more cheerful appearance, and 
 rapidly grow better when treated to the much-needed 
 draught of water. If any prescription is valuable enough 
 to be used as routine practice, it is, ' Give the babies ivater.' " 
 
 Of both the health-preserving and medicinal qualities 
 of pure water. Dr. James Wilson writes : — 
 
 " There is no agent applied to the human body, ex- 
 ternally or internally, that has such influence in awakening 
 all the vital powers to their gi'cat i-estorative capabilities, 
 in arresting the progress of disease or preventing a fatal 
 termination, as pure water. Administered at various tem- 
 peratures, it is the most powerful remedy we possess ; a 
 stimulant, a sedative, a diuretic, a sudorific." 
 
 In an article on Water-drinMnrj , The Lancet (December 
 15, 1883) says— 
 
 "It is somewhat surprising that in a country in which 
 rain falls almost every day in large or small measure, the 
 use of pure water as a drink is not better understood than 
 it is. Even now that the sway of temperance is well estab- 
 lished, and continues to extend, we should be surprised to 
 learn that a majority of Englishmen do not habitually dis- 
 card the use of the natural beverage for one or other in 
 which it is compounded with foreign ingredients. Yet its 
 very purity from all but a salutary trace of mineral matter 
 is what renders it capable of exactly satisfying, and neither 
 more nor less than satisfying, the needs of thirsty tissue, 
 and of assisting by its mere diluent and solvent action,
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 891 
 
 without stimulation or other affection of function, the 
 digestion and excretion of food. No other qualifications 
 are necessarj. Given digestible, solid food, and fair — that 
 is, normal — digestive power, water alone is all-sufficient as 
 liquid. During the feebleness consequent on disease or 
 overwork everything is changed. There is blood, though 
 impoverished in quality, to receive and convey nutritive 
 material, and there are tissues to be fed ; but the vis a tergo, 
 the driving power of the heart, resides in a languid muscle, 
 and the alimentary canal, itself but poorly irrigated from 
 that centre of supply, receives w^hat food is taken only to 
 prove its incapacity to utilize it. Nature is flagging, and 
 a stimulant alone will make ends meet in the circle of 
 tissue-building processes. As a general rule, however, 
 abstinence holds the first rank, both in theory and practice. 
 We do not assert that the man w^ho regularly, and in 
 strict moderation, partakes of a light stimulant — claret, 
 for instance — may not, especially if he is equally regular 
 in regard to outdoor exercise, live comfortably to the full 
 term of human life ; but what we say is that the more 
 simply the man fares, the more he employs such adven- 
 titious measures for actual physical necessity, the more he 
 will gain in health, in life, in working power, and in 
 aptitude to benefit by stimulation when strength is failing 
 from disease or from decay. But if water be the drink, 
 how shall it be drunk ? The means must have regard to 
 the end required of them. To moisten food and prepare 
 it for digestion, it is hardly necessary to say that it should 
 be taken with a meal ; a couple of tumblerfuls at dinner 
 is not an excessive quantity for most persons. For thirst- 
 quenching properties nothing can surpass this simplest of 
 drinks, and all which approach it in efficacy owe their 
 power almost entirely to it. As to temperature, there is 
 no real gi-ound for supposing that one should not drink 
 a sufficiency of cold water when the body is heated by 
 exertion. The inhabitants of hot climates have no such 
 objection. Some tropical wells are dug so deep that the 
 water within them, even in hot seasons, is as cool as that 
 of a European spring. In fevers, too, the use of ice in 
 quantities sufficient to allay thirst is a part of rational and 
 legitimate treatment. The shock which has to be avoided 
 in all such states is not that which cools the mucous
 
 392 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 membrane, but tbat of slaarp cliill applied to the surface 
 of the body. Some persons, however, find it convenient 
 and beneficial to imbibe a certain amount of warm water 
 daily, preferably at bedtime. They find that they thus 
 obtain a bland diluent and laxative, without even the 
 momentary reaction whicli follows the introduction of a 
 colder fluid, and softened by abstraction of its calcareous 
 matter in the previous process of boiling. This method, 
 which is an accommodation to jaded stomachs, has its 
 value for such, though it is not great even for them ; but 
 it affords no noticeable advantage for those of greater tone. 
 The use of water as an aid to excretion deserves some 
 remark. In certain cases of renal disease it has been found 
 to assist elimination of waste by flushing without in any 
 way irritating the kidneys. Every one is probably aware 
 of its similar action on the contents of the bowel when 
 taken on the old-fashioned, but common-sense, plan of 
 drinking a glass of water regularly morning and evening, 
 without any solid food. Whatever may be true of harm- 
 less luxuries, enough has been said to show that health, 
 happiness, and work find stimulus enough in the un- 
 sophisticated well of nature." 
 Pr. noim's Those who imagine water to be such a weak and vapid 
 
 bibliography -^i^ino-, would be interested in examining the bibliography 
 
 on w&tcr in o' ,^7* .i 
 
 Dr. zienis- on water (by Dr. Plohn) published in Dr. Ziemssen s 
 ^book "Z^"^' Handbook of General Therapeutics (Leipsic, 1883), occupy- 
 (ienerai {xi<^ tweuty-ciglit lai'gc octavo close and small-printed pages, 
 Tierapeu ics. ^Y^^Mving the medical literature on water to be almost as 
 
 voluminous as the religious literature on the Bible. 
 Interesting Dr. Morcl, in Speaking of the fact that the practice 
 
 l)r'Morei°^ of milking cows all the year round, during long ranges of 
 to the re- generations has made the secretion of milk a constant 
 vdwcTof ° instead of temporary function, cites the interesting cognate 
 natural fact, that in Columbia, where circumstances, such as the 
 
 when per- great superabundance of cattle, etc., have interrupted this 
 thlmavti'^ practice, only a few years of freedom from its constraint 
 uesisted have suflficcd to restore the organization to its primitive 
 
 So if in our case the practice of drinking without 
 reference to real thirst, and in obedience to craving pro- 
 duced by injurious fluids, could be abrogated, and pure 
 water be permitted to resume its original office in the
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 393 
 
 system, which it would do in all likelihood in an astonish- 
 ingly short time, we are justified iu believing that it 
 would mark an epoch in the condition of mankind, not 
 only of physical, but of moral, mental, and spiritual health 
 far closer to the pure ideal of humanity than we have yet 
 reached or prefigured. 
 
 § 93. A great step in the direction of reform in part The import- 
 commenced, is that of educating the young to understand strucUng ' 
 and respect their bodies. As earlj as 1856, at the Congres de ^"^^^jgj.™^*^ 
 Bienfaisance (Brussels), it Avas proposed, as a means against their own 
 intemperance, that all obstacles to the spread of useful g°pec^;nyi„ 
 knowledge to the very lowest grades of society should be regard to the 
 removed ; and Frere-Orban, Belgian Minister of Finance, does\othem. 
 in his report on intoxicating drinks, to the Chamber, 
 (1868), proposed the establishment of " a public system of 
 education which tends to inculcate in the children, by 
 counsels, pictures, and writings, horror of excess and fear 
 of the evils sure to result from intemperance or the least 
 use of intoxicating drinks.'^ 
 
 The first active step in the direction of temperance 
 education in England was taken by the National Temper- 
 ance League, and in a special memorable meeting at Exeter Testimony 
 Hall (February 13th, 1878), the Lord Bishop of Exeter, in Bishop o°f 
 the chair, in a powerful and eloquent speech said, " Long Exeter. 
 before this we ought to have made it one of the ordinary 
 lessons in our elementary schools that one of the most 
 awful evils that ever afflicted the country is to be found in 
 the use of intoxicating liquors." 
 
 Rev. Dr. Adamson, of the Edinburgh School Board, at Of the Rev. 
 a public meeting at Galashiels (February, 1881), stated o/the EUin-' 
 that " Ninety- four per cent, of the cases iu which parents turgh School 
 failed to provide education for their children were found 
 to be addicted to intemperance." 
 
 Although elementary temperance literature has become 
 more familiar to the children since it was allowed among 
 text-books, very much yet remains to be done before either 
 the schools or the little ones can be in a fit state for 
 purposes of education. 
 
 The popular education system is poor because it is so Why the 
 meagrely supported by public funds. Leon Donnat, the education 
 Belgian Statistician, in speaking of the relative amount of
 
 394 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 system is 
 poor. 
 
 public money devoted to war and education, gives the 
 following figures per capita, quoted in the Fall Mall 
 Gazette for May 5, 1883 :— 
 
 Education. 
 
 Leon Don- •■ 
 nat's esti- 
 mates quoted jVanpp 90 
 
 in the Pail f/^^^'^® ; ~^ 
 
 Mall Gazette England 18 
 
 oftherela- Holland 17 
 
 tive amounts Sa^onv 11 
 
 expended on ^#^°''^ ^ ,\^ 
 
 education Wurtemberg... 11 
 
 and war by Bavaria 11 
 
 theEuropean Prussia 10 11 2 
 
 powers. 
 
 War. 
 d. 
 
 6 
 9 
 9 
 9 
 9 
 
 War. 
 s. d. 
 
 Russia 10 2 
 
 Denmark ... 8 8 
 
 Italy 7 6 
 
 Belgium 6 9 
 
 Austria 6 8 
 
 Switzerland ... 4 10 
 
 Education, 
 s. d. 
 
 n 
 
 7 
 8 
 3 
 6 
 
 Ex-Bailie 
 Lewis on the 
 inadequacy 
 of the Com- 
 pulsory 
 Education 
 Act and of 
 sanitary 
 agencies to 
 uproot or 
 essentially 
 diminish the 
 vice and 
 misery pro- 
 duced by the 
 public- 
 bouse. 
 
 This comparison, of course, takes no account of the 
 frightful waste entailed by the sacrifice of the labour of 
 able-bodied men during the period of military service." 
 
 As a consequence, there is neither the inducement nor 
 effort on the part of the State to engage the best minds 
 and characters in the education of the growing generation. 
 
 Again, education is poor because it is almost wholly 
 confined to the cultivation of the intellect : practical 
 goodness, patience, conscientiousness, and self-control do 
 not enter into the curriculum. 
 
 How inadequate purely intellectual training is likely 
 to be to fulfil the needs of well-rounded education, is 
 strikingly indicated by the statistics as to the results of 
 the Compulsory Education Act during the last ten years 
 at Edinburgh. At the great Temperance Convention in 
 Edinburgh, March 3, 1884, ex-Bailie David Lewis said 
 that " During the last ten years the Compulsory Educa- 
 tion Act had been in operation, and in this city had been 
 wrought M-ith an efficiency second to no other place in the 
 kingdom, while the educational system in Edinburgh was 
 equal to that of any city of Europe. During the last ten 
 years there had been expended on education in Edinburgh 
 a sum of £1,035,000, while there were at present engaged 
 a staff of 730 teachers. Notwithstanding the enormous 
 amount of moral and educational power here represented, 
 they found from the police returns that the number of 
 drunken cases had increased from 5317 in 1872 to 7236 
 in 1882, being an increase of 26 per cent., while the 
 increase of the population had only been 16 per cent. 
 Again, they found Edinburgh presented an illustration of
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 395 
 
 the extent to wliicli sanitary agencies were counteracted 
 by the drink evil. In 1867 an Act was passed for im- 
 proving the waste places of the city. Upwards of half 
 a million was expended in rooting out the haunts of 
 wretchedness and vice ; while another half-million was 
 expended on improved dwellings and other sanitary reforms. 
 That the results of this grand sanitary experiment had 
 been largely counteracted by the public-house w^as only 
 too apparent. From 1867 up till 1879, when they had 
 a change in the police law, the number of drunken cases 
 increased 43 per cent., w^hile the population had only 
 increased 16 per cent." 
 
 Says Dr. Channing*,* " To educate is something more Dr. ciian- 
 than to teach those elements of knowledge which are JJIuonof*^' 
 needed to get a subsistence. It is to exercise and call out education. 
 the higher faculties and affections of a human being. 
 Education is not the authoritative, compulsory, mechanical 
 training of passive pupils, but the influence of gifted and 
 quickening minds on the spirits of the young. 
 
 " Of what use, let me ask, is the ivealth of this community His views on 
 but to train tip a better generation thayi ourselves ? Of what ofVeaith!** 
 use is freedom, I ask, except to call forth the best powers 
 of all classes and every individual ? What but human 
 improvement is the great end of society ? 
 
 " The poorest child ought to have liberal means of self- 
 improvement, and were there a true reverence among us 
 for human nature and for Christianity, he would find 
 them." 
 
 Education is poor also because it almost wholly fails to 
 teach the knowledge of the body and how to take care 
 of it. 
 
 But in this respect a little light is breaking. 
 
 In sect. 10, chap. 38 of the Revised Statutes of Temperance 
 Massachusetts for 1872, occurs the following :— " It shall thetcho^oilof 
 be the duty of the president, professors, and tutors of the Massachu- 
 
 •• • setts 1872 
 
 University at Cambridge and of the several colleges, of 
 all preceptors and teachers of academies, and of all other 
 instructors of youth, to exert their best endeavours to 
 impress on the minds of children and youth committed 
 to their care and instruction the princij^les of piety and 
 justice, and a sacred regard for truth; love of their 
 * Temperance address, Boston, 1837.
 
 396 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 country, humanity, and universal benevolence ; sobriety, 
 industry, and frugality ; chastity, moderation, and temper- 
 ance." 
 The noble In England, owing to the faithful aiid skilful labours of 
 
 the'Nationai ^be National Temperance League,* temperance has become 
 Temperance a familiar theme in public schools. The Temperance Record 
 the spread of for September 13, 1883, notes that — 
 
 eStion"^ " ^^^^ Lords of the Committee of Council on Education 
 
 have added hygiene to the list of sciences towards instruc- 
 tion, in which aid is afforded by the Science and Art 
 Department. 
 
 " The syllabus of the subject that has been issued by 
 the Education Department is as follows : — 
 
 " ' Elementary Stage. — (1) Food, diet, and cooking ; 
 (2) water and beverages ; (3) removal of waste and 
 impurities; (4) air; (5) shelter and warming ; (6) local 
 conditions; (7) personal hygiene ; (8) treatment of slight 
 wounds and accidents. Advanced Stage. — (1) Food and 
 adulterations ; (2) water and beverages ; (3) examination 
 of air — chemical and microscopical ; (4) removal of waste 
 and impurities ; (5) shelter and warming ; (6) local con- 
 ditions ; (7) personal hygiene ; (8) prevention of disease. 
 The Honour A Stage embraces, in addition to the above sub- 
 divisions of the subject, (1) trades nuisances ; (2) vital 
 statistics ; and (3) sanitary law.' " 
 Cardinal And Cardinal Manning, according to the Daily Neios 
 
 order fofthe (November 28, 1883), "has issued an order that a branch 
 establish- of the Catholic Total Abstinence League of the Cross shall 
 branches he formed in every Catholic school in the Archdiocese of 
 of the Westminster ; and that the nianag-er of each school shall 
 
 Catholic .- ■ 1 1 o 1 -11 
 
 Total Absti- 08 the president oi each branch ; and temperance literature 
 League In ^^ ^° ^^ supplied to the pupils at weekly meetings of the 
 every branches." 
 
 ediooi'in the Considering the almost incalculable influence teachers 
 Archdiocese havB over children, and the fact that in the elementary 
 
 of A\ est- ... 
 
 miuster. schools of England there are over four millions of children, 
 what power must the teachers exert in determining the 
 whole future of the nation ! and if they will use this power 
 in impressing the gi'owing minds under their care with 
 a full and particular knowledge of the facts concerning 
 
 * The apostles of the National Temperance League are doing a 
 great work in both army and navy.
 
 WHAT CAX BE DONE ? 397 
 
 tlie evil of alcoliolic liquors, what a miglitj work for 
 temperance will be accomplished with the little ones them- 
 selves and, through them, in innumerable homes threatened 
 with or already fallen under this curse ! 
 
 That similar grand school reforms are going forward Efforts to 
 on the continent, is evident from the report, in the Temper- f'^'-^^^^^^ 
 ance Record (September 20, 1883), of "an address delivered education in 
 by Dr. Scholtz, of Bremen, on the 17th of May last, before ^/hoX; 
 the Allgemeine Deutsche Lehrerversammlung, a national 
 union of teachers, not exclusively, though of course largely, 
 composed of elementary teachers, which met this year in 
 that town. Dr. Scholtz propounded four theses, each of 
 which he defended in turn. (1) That the teaching of 
 hygiene should be obligatory in all schools. (2) Hygiene 
 should be treated as a part of natural science. (3) The 
 teaching of anatomy and physiology should be strictly 
 limited to such points as have a direct bearing on the 
 health of the individual. (4) Dr. Scholtz's last thesis 
 was, that in the seminaries (i.e., training colleges) hygiene 
 should be taught as an integral subject of study, for the 
 good reason that he who attempts to teach the elements of 
 a science should first be master of every part. The outline 
 he sketched of the subjects to be taught is nearly identical 
 with the syllabus recently issued by our department." 
 
 Elementary temperance teaching is at present furnished ^^^ '" 
 in many schools in Canada as well as in Australia, and the Austiairan, 
 Tevipe7-ance Record (January 31, 1884) contains an article on ^"'^ . 
 temperance work in United States' schools taken from the schools. 
 National Temperance Advocate of New York, which says — 
 
 " Already laws have been passed in Minnesota, Vermont, 
 and Michigan, placing among the required studies in all 
 schools supported by public money or under State control, 
 physiology and hygiene, which shall give special promi- 
 nence to the effect of alcoholic diinks upon the human 
 system, and teachers must be examined in this as in other 
 necessary studies. By circulating petitions and by other 
 means similar laws for compulsory temperance education 
 can be passed in every State, because people will vote for 
 the education of their children far sooner than they will 
 for prohibition." 
 
 The Pall Mall Gazette (February 16, 1884) says— 
 
 " An American Assembly-man, who holds that besides
 
 398 . THE FOUXDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 the three R's instruction in physiology and hygiene should 
 be given in the public schools of America, has drafted a 
 bill for that purpose. In his opinion it is necessary that 
 some knowledge of the human body, and of the conditions 
 under which that body can live in a healthy state, should be 
 imparted to a child. And not only should this be taught, 
 but it should be taught with especial reference to the effect 
 of narcotic and alcoholic poisons on the human system. 
 His bill requires that teachers applying for positions in 
 the public schools shall be examined with reference to 
 their knowledge of physiology and hygiene." 
 The school An institution in connection with the public schools in 
 
 system iif° Sweden which is greatly promotive of temperance is the 
 Sweden. school savings-bank system, by which the pupils, boys 
 and girls, are from their earliest years encouraged to 
 deposit small sums, of only a few ore (ten ore a little more 
 than one penny) at a time till a crown (a little over a 
 shilling) has been laid up, when it is transferred to the 
 real city savings-bank, so that when they come of age 
 they have a little nest-egg to begin life with, and at the 
 same time have acquired a rational practical habit of 
 economy. 
 
 The industry which goes naturally with economy and 
 temperance is also practically taught in the workshop 
 department of these schools in which the pupils receive 
 regular instruction in all sorts of useful handicraft, and 
 ornamental also. They receive twenty per cent, on the 
 sale of the tools and implements they make, from knife 
 handles and knife trays, to blackboard brushes and step- 
 ladders. These schools have special tuition in the laws of 
 health ; and as to the products of both animal and vegetable 
 kingdoms, the girls are taught all the mechanical processes 
 of milk and butter-making, the character and names of j all 
 portions of fish and flesh as sold in the markets, and how 
 to utilize them in the best methods of cooking, what to do 
 with bones, fat, etc. ; the same with regard to vegetable, 
 flax, hemp, etc. They are trained to describe the different 
 materials and values of the clothing they have on, where 
 in Sweden each particular animal product or fabi'ic are to 
 be found, etc., etc. A most admirable preparation against 
 the waste, carelessness, and degradation which are so 
 much the results of iofnorance.
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 399 
 
 But the woi-st cause why popular education fails, and Poverty the 
 the most difficult of remedy, is the miserable poverty * of ^f^pf^^T^ 
 the masses Avhose children form the vast majority of the education, 
 attendance at public schools ; and that drink is the chief thechie"f 
 cause of this poverty,t does not change the fact that the cause of 
 children, hungry, ill-clothed, and full of premature care, 
 are in no condition to study, or to profit by teaching. 
 
 Mr. E. N. Buxton, Chairman of the London School statement by 
 Board, in his opening address to that body, October 4, Buxton 
 1883, drew a dismal picture of the failure of the Education Chairman of 
 Act of 1870. Among other sad examples he quotes — school 
 
 " The School Management Committee lately had a Board, 
 report in which an analysis was made of the mode of living 
 of the parents whose children attend school in the metro- 
 polis. In one, the scholars came from 313 families, and 
 182 of these families live in a single room. In the second 
 school, the scholars came from 487 families, 400 of whom 
 lived in one room. In a third school, the children came 
 from 339 families, 289 of whom lived in one room." 
 
 In his address to his constituents at Sheffield (December statement by 
 11, 1883), Drink in its Bearing upon Education, the Right Hon. Mr' 
 Honourable Mr. Mundella, M.P., said — Mundeiiaon 
 
 ariiik in its 
 * The education of the wealthy is often, though in the very oppo- bearing upon 
 site direction, almost as ineffectual as that of the poor. With birth ^ "^* '°"" 
 and money, one or both, behind them, the young Farin toshes and 
 Lord Verisophts have it all their own way with their tutors and pro- 
 fessors ; at home, at school, at the university they are deferred to, 
 flattered, and coached into what is deemed a gentlemanly education. 
 The system fosters indolence, dissipation, and the concrete vices of 
 selfishness, totally unfitting them for doing their part in this or any 
 great work of reform. Yet it is as essential to the well-being of 
 society that the education of the wealthy should be practical, serious, 
 and broad as it is that the children of the poor should be properly 
 fed, clothed, and cared for before they are put to books. 
 
 " If I were called upon to name those within my knowledge who 
 have ruined their prospects in life, who have lost good situations and 
 have fallen from comparative care and competence to a state of 
 degradation, they would not be the men belonging to the labouring 
 class, following agricultural or mechanical pursuits ; but they would 
 be men of a superior class, of good education — men who have enjoyed 
 comfortable homes and good salaries, and who, in spite of all, have 
 fallen victims to this abominable and frightful vice of drink." — 
 Quotation from an address by Mr. Walter, M.P., proprietor of the 
 Times, cited in Eev. Dr. Dawson Burns' Christendom and the Drink 
 Curse (London, 1875). 
 
 t See Chap. x. pp. 234-265.
 
 400 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Poverty will 
 never yield 
 until drink 
 is removed. 
 
 Mr. Glad- 
 stone on 
 poverty, in 
 the House of 
 Commons, 
 in 1843. 
 
 " I^ow, here is a block containing 1082 families and 
 2153 children of school age ; mind, that excludes children 
 below five years of age, and above thirteen. There are 
 three schools in the block, two churches, three chapels, 
 and forty-one public-houses. ISTow, what does that mean ? 
 I want you just to think this out for a moment. For 
 these 1082 families — wretched, poverty-stricken, miserable 
 in all their surroundings — there are forty-one public- 
 houses ! That means that every twenty-five of these 
 wretched families have one public-house ! If you will 
 carry it out for yourselves — that is to say, if you consider 
 what it costs to maintain an average public-house in 
 London, and consider what these twenty-five families must 
 spend in drink to maintain it — you will form some idea 
 of one of the greatest causes of this misery among our 
 population. When Mr. Forster was passing his Education 
 Bill, Mr. Bartley made an investigation, which showed 
 that less than one penny per week per family in a square 
 mile of the East of London was spent on education, 
 and more than 4s. 3d. in drink. That means, in the 
 whole of this area of wretchedness of a mile square, the 
 education cost less than four shillings a year for the 
 family, and the drink more than £11." 
 
 Tet with all that England has done to relieve it, 
 especially during the last forty years, we see this poverty 
 not only not overcome, but steadily growing. Why ? 
 
 Because those who see and seek to alleviate poverty 
 do not first attack the root of the evil, drink. In chapters 
 vii. and x., on moral and social results, it was explained 
 at length how omnipotent a cau.se drink is, of all evils and 
 of poverty with all its concomitants of misery. 
 
 Forty years ago an agitation for the removal of poverty, 
 very similar to the present, shook the whole of England. 
 On the 13th of February, 1843, Mr. Gladstone said to the 
 House of Commons : — 
 
 " It is one of the most melancholy features in the social 
 state of this country that we see, beyond the possibility of 
 denial, that while there is at this moment a decrease in the 
 consuming powers of the people, an increase of the pres- 
 sure of privations and distress, there is at the same time a 
 constant accumulation of wealth in the upper classes, 
 an increase of luxuriousness of their habits and of their
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 401 
 
 means of enjoyment, which, however satisfactory it may be 
 as affording evidence of the existence and abundance of 
 one among the elements of national prosperity, yet adds 
 bitterness to the reflections which are forced upon us by 
 the distresses of the rest of our fellow-countrymen." 
 
 To-day most radical measures are proposed even by the Lord Saiis- 
 members of former cabinets, as well as by members of the bury'asug- 
 
 , •/ STGStions lor 
 
 present cabinet. Lord Salisbury, member of the Beacons- the aiievia- 
 field cabinet, and present leader of the Conservative party, poverty as 
 contributed to the National Bevieio (November, 1883), a made in the 
 notable paper on Tiahourers' and Artisans^ Dwellings, in Review. 
 which he advocates measures for the " housing of the November, 
 poor," of a state-socialistic nature. The following is a fair 
 digest of this article : — 
 
 " The housing of the poor in our great towns, especially 
 in London, is a much more difficult and much more urgent 
 question, for the increase of prosperity tends rather to 
 aggravate the existing evil than to lighten it. It is, in 
 fact, directly caused by our prosperity. ... 
 
 " Thousands of families have only a single room to 
 dwell in, where they sleep and eat, multiply and die. Tor 
 this miserable lodging they pay a price ranging from two 
 shillings to five shillings a week — a larger rent, on the 
 whole, than the agricultural labourer pays for a cottage 
 and garden in the country. It is difficult to exaggei-ate 
 the misery which such conditions of life must cause, or the 
 impulse which they must give to vice. . . . These over- 
 crowded centres of population are also centres of disease ; 
 the successive discoveries of biologists tell us more and 
 more clearly that there is in this matter an indissoluble 
 partnership among all human beings breathing in the 
 same vicinity. If the causes of disease were inanimate, no 
 one would hesitate about employing advances of public 
 money to render them innocuous. Why should the ex- 
 penditure become illegitimate because these causes happen, 
 to be human beings ? . . . The question remains whether 
 more can be done by Parliament than has been done, and 
 if so, in what direction ought it to move ? A more im- 
 portant subject of inquiry could hardly be suggested; for 
 it concerns, directly or indirectly, the well-being of hundreds 
 of thousands. ... I see a statement in the newspapers 
 that the Liberty and Property Defence League are prepar- 
 
 2d
 
 402 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Mr. Cham- 
 berlain on 
 the same 
 topic iu 
 Fortnightly 
 Review, 
 December, 
 1883. 
 
 ing to deivonnce any sucli interference as unsound in prin- 
 ciple. If this account of their views is a true one, I think 
 tliey have in this instance gone farther than sound reason- 
 ing and the precedents of our legislation will justify. . . . 
 This unhappy population has a special claim on any assist- 
 ance that Parliament can give. The evil has in a great 
 measure been created by Parliament itself. . . . Under 
 these circumstances, it is no violation even of the most 
 scrupulous principles to ask Parliament to give what relief 
 it can. Laissez faire is an admirable doctrine, but it naust 
 be applied on both sides." 
 
 This shows how keenly alive Lord Salisbury is to the 
 horrible condition of the poor in the city : how about 
 those in the country ? But he has not a word to say of 
 drink, the chief cause of it ; and, curiously enough, states 
 that " the evil has been in a great measure created by 
 Parliament itself." 
 
 Mr. Joseph Chamberlain, President of the Board of 
 Trade, contributed to the December number of the Fort- 
 nightly Review (1883) an article on the Housiiig of the 
 Poor, which is even more radical than Lord Salisbury's in 
 its suggestions for the removal of poverty. It opens with 
 this ominous paragraph — 
 
 " Social reform is in the air. In the pages of this 
 review able writers have for some time past endeavoured 
 to impress on statesmen and politicians the urgency of 
 social questions and the magnitude of the evils which have 
 silently undermined the extraordinary show of outward 
 prosperity on which we have been congratulating ourselves 
 during the last thirty years. Never before in our history 
 were wealth and the evidences of wealth so abundant ; 
 never before was luxurious living so general and so wanton 
 in its display ; and never before was the misery of the very 
 poor more intense, or the conditions of their daily life more 
 hopeless and more degraded. In the course of the last 
 twenty years it is estimated that the annual income of the 
 nation has increased by six hundred millions, but there are 
 still nearly a million persons constantly in receipt of parish 
 relief, and millions more are always on the verge of this 
 necessity. The vast wealth which modern progress has 
 created has run into ' pockets ; ' individuals and classes 
 have grown rich beyond the dreams of avarice, and are
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 403 
 
 busying themselves in inventing methods of wasting the 
 money which they are unable to enjoy. But the great 
 majority of the ' toilers and spinners ' have derived no 
 proportionate advantage from the prosperity Avhich they 
 have helped to create, while a population equal to that of 
 the whole metropolis has remained constantly in a state of 
 abject destitution and misery. Is it wonderful that from 
 time to time are heard murmurs of discontent and even of 
 impatient anger ? What manner of men and women must 
 these millions of paupers be if they can see without re- 
 pining or resentment the complacent exhibition of opulence 
 and case which is for ever flaunted in their faces, within a 
 few hundred yards of the noisome courts and alleys in 
 which they huddle for warmth and shelter, without a 
 single comfort, and in hourly anxiety for the barest 
 necessaries of life ? The cry of distress is as yet almost 
 inarticulate, but it will not always remain so. The needs 
 of the poor are gradually finding expression ; the measures 
 proposed for their relief are coming under discussion. The 
 wide circulation of sucb books as the ' Progress and. 
 Poverty,' of Mr. Henry George, and the acceptance which 
 his proposals have found among the working- classes, are 
 facts full of significance and warning. If something be not 
 done quickly to meet the growing necessities of the case, 
 we may live to see theories as wild and methods as unjust 
 as those suggested by the American economist adopted as 
 the creed of no inconsiderable portion of the electorate." 
 
 He also ignores drink as a chief agent in this misery, 
 and suggests a principal remedy in these words : — 
 
 " Let us go to the root of the matter, and state the 
 principle on which alone a radical reform is possible. The 
 expense of making towns habitable for the toilers ivho dwell in 
 them must be thrown on the land lohicli their toil ^inakes 
 valuable, and without any effort on the part of its owners. 
 
 " When these owners, not satisfied with the unearned 
 increment which the general pi'osperity of the country has 
 created, obtain exorbitant returns from their investment 
 by permitting arrangements which make their property a 
 public nuisance and a public danger, the State is entitled 
 to step in and to deprive them of the rights which they 
 have abused, paying only such compensation as will fairly 
 represent the worth of their property fairly used."
 
 404 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Pangers 
 from sup- 
 planting 
 moral im- 
 petus by 
 mere 
 political 
 agitation. 
 
 Earl Shaftes- 
 bury on the 
 mischief of 
 State aid, 
 Nineteenth 
 Centurt/, 
 December, 
 1S83. 
 
 Earl Shaftes- 
 bury's state- 
 ment that 
 "It is im- 
 possible, 
 absolutely 
 impossible, to 
 du unytLiug 
 
 If legislation could remove poverty, Mr. Clinmberlain's 
 remedy would doubtless go far towards doing so ; but if 
 this matter be left to legislation only, or chiefly, i.e., if the 
 question of poverty is made principally a political one, and 
 therefore through political interests and reasons introdiTced 
 into Parliament — instead of being brought there by force 
 of the earnest, calm, intelligent expression of the popular 
 will, because it is known and felt that the solution of the 
 poverty problem is of paramount importance to the welfare 
 of the whole nation — it is too likely to meet with the same 
 fate which has befallen other great moral measures when 
 dealt with from a chiefly political point of view. 
 
 Earl Shaftesbury, in his part. The Mischief of State Aid, 
 in the symposium on poverty and its remedies (Nineteenth 
 Century, December, 1883), admirably points this fact in 
 these words : 
 
 " If the State is to be summoned not only to provide 
 houses for the labouring classes, but also to supply such 
 dwellings at nominal rents, it will, while doing something 
 on behalf of their physical condition, utterly destroy their 
 moral energies. The State is bound in a case such as this 
 to give every facility by law and enabling statutes,* but 
 the "work itself should be founded and proceed on voluntary 
 effort, for which there is in the country an adequate 
 amount of "wealth, zeal, and intelligence. . . . Were a 
 central committee formed in the city of London, consisting 
 of gentlemen of power, wealth, and influence, who would 
 undertake to organize such a movement, form local com- 
 mittees (for local committees there must be in the several 
 districts), and issue an appeal, there would be in the present 
 day, few can doubt it, a ready and ample response. These 
 gentlemen would determine how far they could proceed 
 without new legislation ; though additional laws, if required 
 at all, would be required rather for the completion than for 
 the commencement of the work. The powers ah-eady in 
 existence should be called into operation. They are far 
 greater than most people are aware of." 
 
 These are invaluable suggestions, but, as Earl Shaftes- 
 bury himself told me, " It is impossible, absolutely impos- 
 sible, to do anything to permanently or considerably relieve 
 this poverty, until we have got rid of the curse of drink." 
 * Enabling Statutes, 14 and 15 Vict. chap. 34 of 1851.
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 405 
 
 And towards this end a report from such committees as toperma- 
 Lord Shaftesbury suggests, would undoubtedly accomplish consilerabi 
 
 much . relieve 
 
 The very removal of drink would make it physically Sntu'^'imve 
 impossible for the poor to sink so low as they now do, got rid of the 
 because it is only by means of the deadening, narcotizing driuk." 
 eifects that drink exercises on body and soul, that human 
 beings can be brought to endure the lowest kinds of 
 degradation. 
 
 Without the benumbing influence of drink, many would 
 awaken to their degraded condition, and this awakening 
 would enable poor relief committees to do most beneficent 
 and effective work. 
 
 For example, a Working Woman, in the column on The a working 
 London Poor {Daily News, December 1, 1883), suggests the letter, sug- 
 establishment of " A Labour Registry Office, conducted by ^'^'j'J-^J'^^ 
 Government or a company, where information might be mentofa 
 obtained as to every kind of labourer, mechanic, or clerk Labour™^"' 
 required. To be effectual, it should of course be necessary Registry 
 to have these offices in nil parts of the country, connected ^rews, "* ^ 
 perhaps with the post-office or workmen's clubs ; they could December, 
 be applied to by letter or personally. A certificate or 
 recommendation from the last employer should be made a 
 sine qua non ; thus enabling all good workmen to obtain 
 employment, which is far from being the case now. It 
 seems to me that the matter is worth a trial, especially as 
 a successful instance is before us of a domestic servants' 
 agency. At this establishment no servant is put on the 
 list until a form has been sent to the former master or 
 mistress, which they are desii^ed to fill up as to the 
 character of the servant applying for a place. This, if 
 conscientiously filled up, is a great deterrent to character- 
 less servants from applying." 
 
 Another remedy, which Government, and such poor Suggestion 
 relief committees as Earl Shaftesbury suggests, might estabi*ish- 
 co-operate in effecting, consists in the establishment of sober >^''"t of 
 working men's banks,* where those deemed by a proper ing men's ' 
 
 reliefbanks. 
 * A most valuable suggestion as to the formation and conduct of 
 working men's banks is given in Mr. L. O. Smith's Open Letter to the 
 Lahourers of Sweden (Stockholm, 1883). This letter is, as a whole, 
 so rich in j)ractical suggestions, that if translated and sown broad- 
 cast over Great Britain, it would do much to produce in working
 
 406 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 board of judges fit recipients of pecuniary aid, should 
 obtain it free of interest, and on the understanding tliat it 
 was left to their honour to return such sums when able to 
 do so. But no drinking person should be entitled to such 
 aid, simply on the ground of his unreliability, and the 
 probability that the money would go to tlie publican 
 rather than to the improvement of his own condition. 
 Special arrangements encouraging the deposit of savings, 
 with a view to the support of widows and children of sober 
 working-men, might be made in these banks ; and a special 
 department could be pro\'ided for the deposit of savings 
 from drink, which could be promoted by many carefully 
 considered regulations ; such, for instance, as the surety 
 that when the total amount of deposit of this character — 
 representing moral growth through resistance to tempta- 
 tion — should have reached a certain figure, it should be 
 augmented by a liberal gift, and a similar gift follow upon 
 a future specified increase ; so that reformed drinkers 
 would be strengthened in their reformation, not only by 
 knowing that something was safe for a rainy day, for 
 accident, for illness, or for some good enterprise for better- 
 ing their condition, but that in case of their death their 
 wives and children would be provided for. 
 
 If the aristocracy and the wealth of London would 
 establish and maintain an adequate institution of this 
 kind, the expense to them individually would be trifling 
 in proportion to their means, while the return in the 
 diminution of poor taxes, and in the imperishable wealth 
 of doing good, would be very great ; and, a still more vital 
 point, they would lessen the gross total of wrong which 
 saturates civilization, retarding human progress in the 
 proportion of the existing amount of ill. 
 
 There are links between the den and the palace, ties 
 between the millionnaire and the beggar, the A'irtuous and 
 the wicked. Generally there exists a constant gradation 
 between these conditions, at times there is a sudden trans- 
 position from the one to the other ; the connecting pro- 
 cesses are usually invisible, but they are none the less 
 real, and work out the results with terrible certainty 
 and accuracy. 
 
 men's minds an intelligent notion of how to improve their whole 
 economic, moral, social, and political position.
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 407 
 
 If England continue practically to ignore, or condone 
 and minimize the drink evil as the root of poverty, infamy, 
 and crime, she will reap the frnits of this error. Only 
 with the solution of this problem will real goodness, with 
 the happiness and peace they engender, come into those 
 hearts and homes where wealth and luxury now only 
 emphasize the unrest, the hollowness, and the hardness of 
 their prosperous inmates. 
 
 Contrasting the scenes in the London slums with the ^'^'■- ^'■^"?j^ 
 splendour and lavish luxury of London's wealthy homes, responsi- 
 Mr. Francis Peek (Social Wreckage, London, 1883) says, Snlhe^ 
 "How startling the contrast between the magnificence question of 
 there and the sordid destitution here ; between these fair, ^^^^^''^ '^"'' 
 richly clad, attractive women and those hideous human 
 beings of the same sex, who sit shivering in rags and 
 grimed with dirt ! Is it asked who is responsible for such 
 a contrast ? Surely every indolent man or woman, who, 
 living in ease and plenty, leaves things to take their 
 chance under the excuse of business for want of power, 
 but really with the unexpressed plea of Cain, ' Am I my 
 brother's keeper ? ' 
 
 " Retribution is the law of the universe. If we allow 
 our brothers and sisters to drag out their existence in 
 degTadation, pauperism, and crime, a time will come, even 
 in this world, when selfishness, pride, and indolence will 
 bring their bitter reward. If the Christian teaching of 
 brotherhood be ignoi'cd, the words ' liberty, fraternity, 
 equality ' may once more become a battle-cry of revenge 
 from those to whom the acknowledgment of their fraternity 
 has been denied. Every Englishman, every Englishwoman, 
 can do something, and they who decline to work in the 
 cause of the poor, fail not less in their duty to their 
 country and to their God." 
 
 I am impelled to repeat that if this problem of poverty 
 is left to legislation only, it will in the first instance be 
 most probably long delayed, while the royal commission 
 gathers evidence, and much time will be wasted in con- 
 troversy and fencing over the report, with danger of its 
 being ultimately shelved or rendered inoperative ; other 
 measures more suitable for legislation, and for that reason 
 more practicable, will be deferred, and when the longed- 
 for legislation does come, it will hardly, as the saying
 
 408 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 goes, be worth the caudle. Parliamentary effectiveness is 
 well summed up in the ancient threadbare hexameter : 
 
 " Parturiunt montes nascitur ridicnlus mus." 
 
 Generally speaking, legislation is satisfactory only in 
 the degree that a minimum of private and. corpoi-ate 
 interest is at stake, and as very large individual interests 
 are in manifold ways concerned in any legislation for poor- 
 maintenance by the State, it seems sang'uine to expect very 
 much directly from the present movement. 
 
 I wish, however, not to be understood, as saying or 
 meaning that the State has no responsibilities or power to 
 do much towards the alleviation of such suffering as the 
 press of England is now discussing ; nor would I, if I 
 knew it, say anything to check the beneficeut warmth 
 that has burst out toward the poverty-stricken. But it 
 is surely well to remember that even the most excellent 
 legislation, if not preceded by the necessary preparation 
 for its application and reception, must largely become a 
 failure. Legislation for poverty must more than any other 
 be preceded by moral education and reform ; otherwise 
 even the best legislation would only remove poverty, as 
 we remove fruit from a tree, leaving behind all that will 
 produce another harvest of the same. 
 
 This fact was terribly and thoroughly illustrated iu 
 the great French Revolution. The watchword of the 
 Assembly was, " Let no one bring up in opposition the 
 rights of property. The right of property cannot be the 
 right to starve fellow-citizens. The fruits of the earth, 
 like the air, belong to all men." 
 
 Wages were determined by law, and bounties were 
 created for the poor, 
 nianqui on In speaking of this time the eminent French economist, 
 
 oflcKbli'ltTve I^^^'^qiii? i^i liis History of Political Economy (Paris, 1860), 
 
 measures SayS 
 
 cure for* "All of wealth and felicity which philanthropic legis- 
 
 poverty. lation could, decree was decreed, but the people found that 
 public wealth followed other laws than those of compul- 
 sion. Governments and individuals Avere forced to seek the 
 elements of future greatness elsewhere than in mere legis- 
 lative programmes ; " they found " that the finest laws 
 are insufficient to secure to each citizen a prosperous
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 409 
 
 condition, unless he co-operates witli tliem in latoiir and 
 morality." 
 
 Laws, taen, are secondary considerations, proper con- individual 
 ditions and proper men being the first requisites. It may J)Ji°y g'ta^Je*^ 
 truly be said that ideal laws and institutions prematurely foundation 
 secured, i.e., secured to people unfit to appreciate, enforce, ° P^'og^'^^s. 
 and maintain them, result not only in swift and certain 
 disasters, and in complications wlaich have a long evil 
 evolution, but force realization of the ideal thus sought for 
 to recede into a more distant future than the processes of 
 wise approach would have made necessary. 
 
 A scheme for the relief of poverty, which has within a 
 few years taken great hold of the public mind, is that of 
 land nationalization, i.e., the transfer of laud from indi- 
 vidual to state ownership. (See p. 403.) It is of most 
 ancient origin, having been practically applied by several 
 of the great nations of antiquity. In modern times, during 
 the French Revolution, it was tried with signal failure, 
 when the Constituent Assembly of 1789 decided to put the 
 whole burden of taxation on the land, except the property 
 tax and custom duties. 
 
 However monsti'ous and absurd the present scheme of Mr. Henry 
 land nationalization may at first thought appear, it cannot ^c^°eme^of 
 be denied that its idea is noble ; and further, it must be lapd nation- 
 admitted that in theory this scheme, as advanced by Mr. curTfoT 
 Henry George — in essence the same as the schemes of poverty. 
 Stuart Mill and Herbert Spencer — is unassailable ; and 
 were the elements and conditions of society ideal in them- 
 selves and ideally adjusted, it would be practicable and a 
 blessing. But the practical solution of the problem— in 
 this case as in so many others — is quite different from the 
 theoretical one. 
 
 If we investigate the scheme of land nationalization to Jfeithertime, 
 see what are the possibilities for its becoming a blessing, Jj°° pe'opie 
 we are faced at the outset with conditions most unfit prepared 
 and people most unripe for so profound an experi- 
 ment. 
 
 No one who understands human character expects that 
 the landed proprietors would yield up their lands merely 
 because of a popular demand. Holders of the land, they 
 hold the power, and, holding the power, can defy public 
 opinion. A revolution, therefore, would be required, a
 
 410 THE FOUXDATIOX OF DEATH. 
 
 terrible and bloodj revolution for dispossessing the land- 
 lord. 
 
 History has shown that it is not the truest, most un- 
 selfish, and wise men who lead revolutions, but rather those 
 who can vie with and surpass the masses in inflamed 
 counsel, in passion, in uni'eflecting hardiliood, brutality, 
 and crimes. 
 
 And, after a successful revolution, what then? 
 
 In the stead of experienced and reflecting, if ofttimes 
 hard and selfish, governments, we should find an ignoi'ant, 
 selfish, bigoted populace, fi-enzied and seething under the 
 new tyrants, self-substituted for the former masters ? And 
 if the revolutionists had been unanimous in their vengeance 
 upon the holders of land, where would this unanimity be 
 when it came to the division of the spoils ? 
 
 Violence, arrogance, greed, these are the motives which 
 actuate and appeal to the masses in excited times, and 
 these would naturally be the characteristics of those who, 
 having led the revolution, would next assume leadership 
 in shaping the new order of things. And these certainly 
 are not the men most qualified to reconstitute humanity 
 upon a basis of liberty, equality, and fraternity, or fitted 
 to recast the whole mould of social life in a harmonious 
 correspondence with these principles. 
 
 The wolf is not the fitting guardian of the sheepfold, 
 nor is the coarse, brutal, successful revolutionist the right 
 agent to manage the affairs of the helpless. 
 
 Again, such a reconstruction as is implied by land 
 nationalization would require years and years of peace and 
 tranquillity for its realization. It would require not only 
 the wisest, fii'mest, and largest harmonious council of men, 
 but also the most unselfish, the most consistently self- 
 abnegating. 
 
 Where are these men to be found ? Where is that 
 great body of ofiicials who in the development and manage- 
 ment of this subversive experiment would need, and 
 indeed could have, no check upon their activity, but that 
 of their conscientiousness ? 
 
 There is not enough individual unselfishness — cultivated 
 and practical unselfishness — in the whole range of humanity 
 covered under the Avord civilization to stock one county 
 or state with enough religion, pure and undefiled, enough
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 411 
 
 of neighbonrlmess sucli as the Master taught, to make the 
 land nationalization experiment other than dangerously 
 revolutionary, and one whose worst effects would be 
 suffered by its noblest iipholders. 
 
 Where is the nation, the people, ready to accept all the 
 risks, adversities, and innumerable calamities certain to 
 accompany so stupendous a reconstruction of state and 
 society, and go on waiting for an indefinite period, patiently 
 for the outcome ? 
 
 Until man has been regenerated, thorough-going schemes 
 which involve a general levelling of social and economic 
 inequalities and distinctions must be premature, and there- 
 fore the land nationalization as now proposed is out of the 
 question ; selfishness cannot be permanently trusted to 
 guard against selfish and administer unselfish decrees. The founda- 
 And the foundation of any individual or national regene- indMduaf 
 ration must be laid in temperance. or national 
 
 This truth was inculcated and emphasized in the first must be laid 
 plea made by the founder of the modern English Temper- »« temper- 
 ance movement, Mr. Joseph Livesay (The Moral Reformer, 
 July 1, 1831), in these words : " While drinking contimies, 
 poverty and vice will prevail, and until this is abandoned no 
 regulations, no efforts, no authority under heaven, can raise 
 the condition of the icorhing classes." 
 
 Figures speak loudly and clearly on this point. In 
 round numbers the total rents in the United Kingdom 
 annually for farms is £60,000,000, and for houses, 
 £70,000,000, and the cost of the drink traffic, as we saw 
 in chap, x., far exceeds both these sums put together. 
 
 And when we remember that the increase or decrease Suggestions 
 of this enormous drink bill has depended chiefly upon might^e" 
 opportunity, that it has increased with the increase of expected, 
 prosperity and decreased with the decrease of prosperity, it land nation- 
 seems verv clear which reform, drink or land nationaliza- ^J.'^'^VJ'? 
 
 J. . . . __^ should be 
 
 tion, is of paramount importance to the nation. For accomplished 
 were land nationalization realized without temperance, tempwance 
 the enormously widened opportunity for drink would reform, 
 soon show, in overflowing lists of poverty, insanity, and 
 crime, how idle must all schemes of reform be which are 
 not based, in the first instance, on the self-control of the 
 individual, the very powder which drink most fatally 
 destroys.
 
 412 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Commenting on the appalling Blade List of drink 
 criminality occurring in Eiigland during the last week of 
 1883 and the first week of 1884, and summarized in the 
 Alliance News, the Grimsby News says — 
 
 " Mr. Henry George is going up and down lectviring 
 about 'Progress and Poverty,' and telling us that all the 
 evils from which we suffer may be directly or indirectly 
 traced to our land laws. Surely, even Mr. Geo7-ge must see 
 that no reform in land laws can do much for a nation that 
 permits itself to be demoralized in this way by the traffic in 
 strong drink. We spend twice as much on drink as on 
 rent, and the results are before us in this blackest of black 
 lists. Talk of our people now being able to enjoy them- 
 selves ' I'ationally ; ' how cau this be affirmed so long as in 
 two short weeks we produce results like these in our towns 
 and cities ? Some one has said that so long as we drink 
 bitter ale, our cities must send up their ' Bitter Cry,' and 
 we believe this is the sober truth. The other day Mr. 
 Chamberlain told the shipowners of this country that the 
 present loss of life among our seamen could not be any 
 longer allowed to go on, and that Parliament must take 
 decided action. It is high time that some one said the 
 same thing about the loss of life and character and pro- 
 sperity through the driuk traffic. The fact is, we are as a 
 nation thoroughly demoralized by this bloated interest." 
 
 It is not easy to picture what the condition of this 
 nation would be wei'e the scheme of laud nationalization 
 to be accomplished without having been preceded by 
 thorough temperance reform and that establishment of 
 individual self-control, of sanity of mind and conscience 
 inseparable from true temperance reform. The results 
 likely to spring from those ample opportunities for un- 
 limited supplies of drink, which the prosperity promised 
 to the individual by the land nationalization scheme 
 would afford, may be 2)artly understood from a considei'a- 
 tion of the scenes described in our papers and journals as 
 occurring at Brighton beach, early in 1884. I quote the 
 following from the Evening Standard (February 7, 1884) : — 
 The Evening " The disgusting sccnes which took place near Brighton, 
 descT^ption consequent upon some casks of beer and spirits from the 
 oitiie scenes ill-fatcd Simla being washed ashore, are enough to excite 
 casksthrown wondor as to how much a man is, even in the nineteenth
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 413 
 
 century, tlie superior of tlie beasts. It is a humiliating ashore from 
 fact that there is a considerable portion of the population on^jfr^j^'^on 
 who, if given free access to intoxicants, will drink until beach.° 
 they fall insensible. The crowd on the beach near Brighton 
 fell upon the casks like wild beasts, numbers became in- 
 toxicated, many would have been di'owned had not the 
 coastguard dragged them beyond the reach of the advancing 
 tide, several had the narrowest of escapes of death from 
 the quantity of spirits they had swallowed, and one man 
 actually died. It would seem, then, that it is from no 
 consideration of decency, morality, or self-respect that 
 a vast number of men are restrained from drinking to 
 a point of intoxication, but that it is simply a question of 
 expense. Given free liquor, and a mad debauch is in- 
 dulged in. Such a fact as this seems to show that all our 
 boasted advances, all the moral benefits of an extending 
 education, all the conventional restraints of society are 
 but surface deep, and that, given temptation — that is, 
 liquor without having to pay for it — a disgusting carouse, 
 which would disgrace the dwellers on a savage island, is 
 the result." 
 
 Unfortunately, this record by no means stands alone, similar 
 The Wet/mouth and Portland Guardian, in relating the iow"ing^the 
 scenes which followed upon the rescue of the cargo of the rescue of the 
 Royal Adelaide, wrecked in the winter of 1872, says: wrecked 
 "Amongst the cargo of the Royal Adelaide were a large ^j'f^-j 
 number of casks and bottles of spirits, and these, with the 
 rest of the cargo, have been constantly coming ashore. At 
 the time of the rescue of the passengers and crew there 
 were a number of fishermen and others who exerted them- 
 selves nobly, worked most iudefatigably, and deserved the 
 highest praise. When, therefore, the wreckage began 
 coming ashore, some spirit casks were broken open for the 
 refreshment of the men. The coastguardsmen and others, 
 too, remained in charge of the salved goods during the 
 whole of Monday night. . . . What was our astonishment, 
 on visiting the beach next morning, to find that not only 
 did the wreck of the vessel present a very melancholy 
 aspect, but that there was a much more appalling and 
 heart-sickening sight on the beach, viz., men lying about 
 in all directions in a state of the most beastly intoxication. 
 . . . Men were found lying insensible beside a cask o£
 
 414 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Mr. Joseph 
 Cowen on 
 the para- 
 mount im- 
 portance of 
 BObriety. 
 
 Dr. Chan- 
 ning on the 
 reforming 
 power of 
 innocent 
 pleasures 
 and amuse- 
 ments. 
 
 spirits, or with flasks, bottles, and other vessels beneath 
 them. In the vicinity of two or three casks there were 
 two men lying head to head in this condition. The first 
 fatal case was that of a lad employed as errand boy by 
 a Weymouth grocer. Then we heard of a man named 
 Smith, who was not expected to live another hour. On 
 proceeding to the Ferry Bridge, we saw two men, one of 
 whom was just brought from the beach insensible and died 
 immediately, and the other of whom had been lying in 
 a state of insensibility for upwards of three hours." And 
 the Temperance Record (December 7, 1872), in an article on 
 Drinking Disasters and ShipwrecJcs, says : " On the Irish 
 coast, after the recent wreck of the Kinsdale, upwards of 
 eighty men were lying in a state of stupor from the horrible 
 effects of the drink extracted from a hundred and fifty 
 barrels of ale that had been wa.shed ashore." 
 
 How true are Richard Cobden's w^ords, that " the 
 temperance cause lies at the foundation of all social and 
 political reform " ! 
 
 As Mr. Joseph Cowen, M.P., said, when addressing 
 a Blue Ribbon meeting at Newcastle-on-Tyne (January 19), 
 " Neither franchises nor education nor social transforma- 
 tions will, of themselves, keep people sober ; and sohriety 
 must precede all moral, mental, and political reformation, 
 if that reformation is to be real." * 
 
 § 94. There is a great lack of innocent and cheap 
 amusement for the masses, and a fatal plenty of cheap 
 amusements which are not innocent. 
 
 " Innocent pleasure," says Dr. Channing (op. ciY.), " has 
 not been sufiiciently insisted on. ... A people should be 
 guarded against temptation to unlawful pleasures by furnish- 
 ing the means of innocent ones, such as produce a cheerful 
 frame of mind, such as refresh instead of exhausting the 
 system, such as recur frequently rather than continue long, 
 such as send us back to our daily duties invigorated in body 
 and mind. . . . Such as we can enjoy in the presence and 
 society of respectable friends ; such as are chastened with 
 self-i'espcct, and accompanied with the consciousness that 
 life has a higher end than to be amused. ... In every 
 community there must be pleasures and relaxations and 
 * Report in Qood Templar's Watchword, February 4, 1884.
 
 WHAT CAX BE DONE ? 415 
 
 means of agreeable excitement, and if innocent ones are 
 not furnished, resort will be had to criminal. Man was 
 made to enjoy as well as to labour, and the state of society 
 should be adapted to this principle of human nature." 
 
 He speaks earnestly of the humanizing power of music,* The power 
 its influence in homes and in public assemblies, to protect oif the stage 
 from the vice of drink and its kindred dissipations. Of Jj'ir|,gJiQjj 
 the stage, he says, " The drama answers a high purpose 
 when it places us in the presence of the most solemn and 
 striking events of human history, and lays bare to us the 
 human heart in its most powerful, appalling, and glorious 
 woi'kings." 
 
 A play of this kind, which occupied with an almost '^'\®™^™^^ 
 unexampled success the boards of the Princess's Theatre, influence 
 London, for a year (1883), is the Stive?- King, a modern pri'^cess's 
 melodrama much in advance of recent popular works of Theatre 
 this class. In this play, Mr. Wilson Barrett, probably the malTagement 
 best living representative of the higher moral purposes ofMr.Wiisoa 
 and poetic possibilities of dramatic art, powerfully portrays 
 the story of a man Avho drinks away his chances and pro- 
 spects, the peace of his young wife, and the livelihood of 
 his childi'en, while he is yet young. 
 
 But he is brought to bay by the occurrence of a murder 
 of which he is innocent, but which he supposes himself to 
 have committed while in a di'unken frenzy. 
 
 His dreadful situation and the shame and anguish he 
 has brought upon his faithful wife and little ones com- 
 pletely sober him. Another clever turn in the plot, by 
 which he is supposed to have perished in a burning car 
 while fleeing from justice, gives him the opportunity to 
 
 * At the invitation of Mrs. EUicott, a meeting of the Popalar 
 Ballad Concert Committee was held on Saturday, in the drawing-room 
 of No. 35, Great Cumberland Place, Hyde Park. The Bishop of 
 Gloucester and Bristol presided. Mrs. Ernest Hart, the honorary 
 eecretary, gave an account of the movement, and spoke of the success- 
 ful formation of choral classes, in which the students were all young 
 men and women working in shops and factories. Lord Brabazon, 
 Sir Julius Benedict, Mr. Samuel Morley, M.P., Mr. Edmund Gurney, 
 Mr. Horsfall, Dr. Norman Kerr, and others spoke in support of 
 resolutions commending the objects of the society to general support. 
 — Temperance Record (April, 1883). And the Saturday concerts in 
 Exeter Hall, under the management of the National Temperance 
 League, during this and last winter, have done much to wean the 
 working people of London from the public-house.
 
 416 THE FOUXDATIOX OF DEATH. 
 
 repent and reform, of which he avails himself. In the 
 scenes which portray the moral descent, the abrupt shock, 
 and the moral recovery, there is a forceful illustration of 
 the impossibility of worthy character not based on self- 
 control and just regard to the rights of others ; and there 
 is preached a painfully impressive yet hopeful sermon on 
 the curse of drink. The men who write, the artists who 
 present such a play, do a distinct and signal service to 
 humanity. 
 
 Another play called Drinlc (an adaptation by the late 
 Mr. Charles Reade, of L'Assommoir), as presented at the 
 Adelphi, London, with Charles Warner in the leading role, 
 pictured the career of this vice in making total wreck 
 of the mental, moral, and physical qualities of the hero in 
 a manner almost too terrible to contemplate. 
 
 The lesson and the warning conveyed in this play 
 would, perhaps, be less deterrent to those in sorest need 
 of such admonition, the very hopelessness of the total 
 impression being calculated rather to palsy than to spur 
 the flagging will and limp moral impulse characteristic 
 of the victims of this vice. But to those not yet come 
 under its thrall, the spectacle is one to withhold them even 
 from the verge of danger. That many witnesses of both 
 these plays, sought merely for sensation, and carried 
 nothing away with them beyond the satisfaction of the 
 moment, or went from them to public-houses to drink in 
 mockery or bravado, or to dull uncomfortable flutterings 
 of conscience and reason, does not alter the fact that good 
 lessons were taught, and most efFectively illustrated, to a 
 large majority capable of appreciating and remembering 
 them. 
 
 But this question of healthy amusement, and elevating 
 recreation does not stop with music and the drama. 
 Human ingenuity has by no means exhausted itself ; hardly 
 can it be said to have as yet really taxed itself in the 
 provision of amusements which inspire and recreate as 
 well as please. In this direction most effective and blessed 
 work against the evil of drink can and ought to be 
 done.* 
 
 * Addressing Parliament in April, 1866, Mr. J. A. Roebnck, M.P., 
 said, " You close the picture-galleries and museums on holidays and 
 feast days, but you leave wide open the gin-shop and the beer-shop ;
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 417 
 
 In his address to the schools at Liverpool (January 26, The late 
 1884), the late Duke of Albany said, " I shall be glad to $"^/„fon 
 say a few words here about the pleasures of the poor and the duty of 
 the part that the rich may fitly take in providing them, proviang^ 
 For I believe that there are some persons — not careless pleasure for 
 or unkind persons only, but what may be called profes- ^ ^°°'^' 
 sional philanthropists — who hold that any attempt to 
 provide the poor with music, flowers, and amusements, and 
 the like, is merely foolish and sentimental, and that our 
 duty to them lies only in the more serious region of educa- 
 tion, religion, and so on. This is a point of view which 
 I can never quite understand. I cannot understand how a 
 vian can feel himself so separate from his fellotv -creatures as 
 to think that the pleasures ivhich are quite worth his attention 
 in his oiun case can become mere superfluotis trivialities in the 
 case of the poor men and wom^en and children ivho have so 
 few pleasures in all their lives'^ 
 
 " One of the most valuable of the reports on Intemper- The ve!«- 
 ance," says the Newcastle Chronicle (November 23, 1880), chronicle 
 " is that of nearly forty years ago of a House of Commons ^"J^n p[°' 
 Committee, and it suggested the multiplication of free amusements 
 libraries, of free parks, of public museums, and of allied on drink'and 
 institutions ; and though these may be costly to the nation, crime, 
 they are less costly and less burdensome to the ratepayer 
 than that appalling amount of drunkenness which feeds 
 crime and staggers the imagination to reahze its horrible 
 extent and effect. The beat of the wings of this destroy- 
 ing angel are now on the air, and, as in Egypt of old, we 
 may have the result that there is not a house where there 
 is not one as dead thi-ough this vice." 
 
 § 95. Irrespective of state and society generally, there The great 
 are several public bodies whose influence greatly affects this bimy"*' 
 evil of drink. One such body consists of the local magis- J^r.^Jjlf^^j^g" 
 trates who issue the annual liquor licenses. This body is physicians,' 
 vested with great authority, and could accomplish much creJgyfin 
 if imbued with an earnest patriotism and desire to do their regard to 
 part in diminishing the drink curse, and that the public evii.'^'" 
 would support them in efforts at reducing the number of 
 licensed public-houses seems probable from the steadily 
 
 hating convivial meetings, you make the people unsocial drunkards. 
 The gin-shop you love, because it increases your revenue." 
 
 2 E
 
 418 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 increasing number of petitions from various counties to 
 Parliament for local option or other means restricting tlie 
 liquor trade, and from boroughs to magistrates for reduc- 
 tion of licenses. 
 
 Last year offered a conspicuous example of public 
 sympathy with such measures. The magistrates of Rother- 
 ham, Avho refused to renew a number of off-licenses in that 
 borough, were by an overwhelming majority supported in 
 their decision in a meeting called to censure their action. 
 
 Then there are two great pi'ofessional bodies upon 
 whom we might almost say it ultimately depends whether 
 this drink evil shall be utterly conquered, i.e., the physicians 
 and the clergy. The physician's prescription extends 
 over the life of man from conception to the grave. If the 
 physicians, as a body, persist in using alcoholic medicines, 
 and as long as they do so, we may be able to check or 
 considerably diminish it, but uproot it — never ! 
 
 But the physicians, as we have seen, are rapidly be- 
 coming unanimous, both in opinion and practice, that 
 alcohol under nearly all circumstances is hurtful to 
 organic life, and it is a happy omen that a great many of 
 the voung students of medicine are total abstainers. 
 The re- Just as the State is largely interested in the success of 
 
 of°heCburch *^^ bquor traffic because of the revenues it brings in, so also 
 in regard to is the Church, materially speaking, even more concerned 
 " " ^" ' than the State in this traffic, because of contributions, 
 tithes, educational and religious endowments, by dealers, 
 and because of large ownership in public-house property. 
 
 In the days when this relation of things was first estab- 
 lished, drink, as we know, was regarded as a legitimate 
 and rational exhilaration of the senses ; it was even called 
 that "good creature of God," and coupled with His Word 
 in the phrase " Beer and the Bible." 
 
 This notion, though not dissipated everywhere even 
 yet,* has been vigorously pushed from its vantage in the 
 centre of general acceptance by the broad, shoulders of 
 Progress, the knowledge now universal, whether welcome 
 
 * The Alliance News (November 24., 1883) reports Mr. H. E. 
 Edwards as saying, in an address to a conference of licensed 
 victuallers in Birmingham, November 7, " It used to be ' Beer and the 
 Bible.' Now the Church says, ' Kick the beer-barrel away.' The 
 beer- barrel, however, will stand as long as the Church." 
 
 tbe drink 
 evil
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 419 
 
 or not, that alcoliol is always poison to body and mind, 
 and even especially to the latter. 
 
 Thus no alternative is left open to the Church but that 
 of severing itself from all association with it, and it must 
 be admitted that it has set bravely to work to do this. 
 
 When the modern temperance movement first began to The origin 
 obtain hold of the public heart of England, the Church oniJchurcii 
 opposed it strenuously, and the bitterness against it may of England 
 
 1 -T, 1 11-j i-nj_ 1 XI -n Ti temperance 
 
 be said to have reached its height when the iiivangeiical movement. 
 Alhance of Edinburgh proposed, in 1847, as subjects for 
 discussion — " How far the study of physical facts led to 
 infidelity, and the connection betwixt teetotalism and in- 
 fidelity." In 1862, some two hundred clergymen, headed 
 by Canon Henry J. Ellison, initiated a church temperance 
 movement, which, chiefly owing to the devotion, enthu- 
 siasm, tact, and capacity of Canon Ellison, has strengthened 
 and spread until now it virtually embraces the largest 
 portion of the Church of England. Of this movement, 
 known as the Church of England Temperance Society, 
 the Queen is patron, the Archbishop of Canterbury is 
 president ; all the bishops are enrolled under its banners, 
 and Canon Ellison is still its chairman. 
 
 When called before the Lord's Committee in 1880, 
 Canon Ellison said — 
 
 "I call your lordships' attention to the prayer of The earnest 
 
 '' i II- ,1 n p j_t • appeal, in trie 
 
 14,000 clergy, from whom i believe the call tor this com- name of the 
 mittee originated. In their memorial to the bishops they ^^^y^^l^ 
 ask this : ' We, the undersigned, clergy of the Church of Temperance 
 England, venture respectfully to appeal to your lordships, the'LcTrd's 
 as the only members of our order in Parliament, as such. Committee 
 most earnestly to support measures of the further restric- canon Henry 
 tion of the trade in intoxicating liquors in this country. ^j^j^-maiTof 
 We ai'e convinced, most of us, from an intimate acquaint- the society, 
 ance with the people, extending over many years, that [egisu^tlonla 
 their condition can never be greatly improved, whether favour of 
 intellectually, physically, or religiously, so long as in- ^™p^'''^°'=*- 
 temperance extensively prevails among them ; and that 
 intemperance will prevail so long as temptations to it 
 abound on every side.' I cannot help saying that seeing 
 that the excessive drinking of this country now is of such 
 a wholesale character, and has its roots so very deeply in 
 the habits of the population, you must attack it upon
 
 420 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Archbishop 
 Benson's 
 position re- 
 garding 
 temperance 
 reform. 
 
 every side. We believe it is like a great fortress — it must 
 be attacked by investment, by mine, by sap, and by direct 
 attack ; but whatever other agencies may be used, the 
 strong conviction of all those who, like myself, have been 
 engaged in parochial temperance work for many years, is, 
 that we can do very little without the assistance of the 
 legislature ; that so long (as this memorial says) as the 
 temptations exist to the extent that they do exist now, we 
 shall scarcely be able to make any impression upon the 
 intemperance of the country." 
 
 When the present president was the Archbishop- 
 Designate, he wrote from Truro (January 13, 1883), that 
 he would " gladly and anxiously use any opportunities 
 which the new position to which God has called him in 
 the Church may give him to promote by legislation and 
 other means the cause of tempei'ance in this country." 
 And now, in the beginning of the second year of his 
 great responsibilities as the Primate of all England, he has 
 preached a temperance gospel which will make the record 
 of his archiepiscopate grow ever brighter in the widening 
 light of man's advancement, as the years of reform and 
 pi'Ogress come gathering in with their blessings of en- 
 lightenment to the generations we work and hope for, but 
 shall not see in the flesh. On the occasion of the annual 
 meeting of the Church of England Temperance Society, 
 held at Lambeth Palace, April 29, 1884, he said — 
 
 " All England is caring about the housing of the poor 
 of London and the great towns, and must do its utmost 
 to put the poor into decent dwellings. But then, ladies 
 and gentlemen, what good will this have done if you have 
 not taught the people to abstain from drink ? To go in 
 for housing the poor properly is a pressing duty, but with 
 all the cleanliness and regulation that you introduce you 
 know it will be in vain unless yoa can teach the people to 
 keep themselves tempei'ate. Do not let us be content with 
 sweeping and garnishing the house. We have it upon our 
 Lord's word what that comes to when it is done by itself. 
 We must get a good spirit into the house if we wish the 
 seven spirits not to come back — spirits of evil in sevenfold 
 force, remember, and much moi'e wicked than the first. 
 It w'ould be but sweeping and garnishing if we clean and 
 clear and rebuild those houses, and do not teach the people
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 421 
 
 to be sober. . . . Tn no past time had the preachers of the 
 gospel to contend with the demon of drink as tbej hav^e 
 in this age of ours. To accept the gospel, to live con- 
 scientiously under the precepts of the gospel, to be fol- 
 lowers of Christ, to be built on the foundation of the 
 apostles and prophets, and to drink ! The two things 
 cannot co-exist. We must drive out the spirit of drink 
 by the Spirit of the gospel. Veiled or unveiled, drink 
 must be driven out, or else we have what we may call 
 whole countries and whole regions inaccessible to the word 
 of truth." * 
 
 On the 19th of November, 1883, the Church of England 
 Temperance Society celebrated its twenty-first anniversary, 
 and the sermon delivered by Canon Farrar in Westminster 
 Abbey, if indicating the real spirit of the Church on the 
 subject of temperance, shows that this society has nobly 
 understood its mission. 
 
 In calling for funds for the labours of the coming year, 
 the society thus explains its purpose : — 
 
 " To send into every diocese a resident and efficient Thepur- 
 
 . . •' poses and 
 
 organizing agent. mission of 
 
 " To carry on the rescue work of the society by earnest, pf®j?'^"^J|j 
 devoted police-court missionaries. Temperance 
 
 " To establish army, naval, workshop, servants', and ^°'^'*'y- 
 cabmen's branches. 
 
 " To prosecute the work of the branch in connection 
 with the missions to seamen society. 
 
 " To supply tracts, leaflets, and publications for general 
 circulation. 
 
 " To send gratuitously to clubs, schools, institutions, 
 and colleges, copies of the weekly Chronicle. 
 
 " To assist in providing coffee and cocoa stalls and 
 barrows, ninety of which have been sent out. 
 
 " To aid in the introduction of temperance teaching 
 into colleges and schools. 
 
 " To promote wise and remedial legislation as embodied 
 in the society's proposed bill. 
 
 " To form diocesan, parochial, and juvenile branch 
 societies. 
 
 " To send outfit and competent deputations (clerical 
 
 * Temperance Record, May 1, 1884.
 
 422 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 The Bishop 
 of Carlisle on 
 the success of 
 the labours 
 of this 
 (society (St. 
 James's 
 Hall, No- 
 vember 20, 
 lbS3). 
 
 Canon Basil 
 Wilbirforce 
 in deiiuucia- 
 tion of 
 
 and lay), and generally to extend the objects of the society 
 by moral, social, and educational means." 
 
 At the society's breakfast the next morning (November 
 20, 1883), in St. James's Hall, the Bishop of Carlisle, in 
 alluding to the activity of the Church in the directions of 
 relief and education, said — 
 
 " It would be in vain to attempt an enumeration of all 
 the works now going on quietly in parishes under the 
 direction of the clergy- — ^works of which the world knows 
 nothing beyond the limits of the pai'ish. 1 will mention 
 the works going on in one metropolitan parish, the report 
 of which lies before me. (1) The whole machinery of 
 confu'mation, including classes in which young and old 
 are prepared ; (2) instruction classes, in which the Scrip- 
 tures are taught and good books circulated ; (3) a provident 
 club ; (4) working classes, in which the poor are taught 
 habits of industry ; (5) parochial mission ; (6) a society 
 for aid during illness ; (7) a society for \'isiting the poor 
 and aiding their distress ; (8) a society for aiding church 
 singing ; (9) guilds for men and old and young women, 
 and promoting their religious welfare ; (10) mothers' 
 meetings for the study of good books ; (11) dispensaries 
 and aids for the sick ; (12) a society for district visitors 
 and their meetings ; (13) meetings for school teachers and 
 Sunday school teachers ; (14) ragged and night schools, 
 and their sujDport ; (15) soup kitchen for the poor ; 
 (16) societies for waifs and strajs, or children deserted 
 by their parents; (17) working men's benefit societies; 
 (18) multitudinous Christian charities supported by en- 
 dowment or subscription ; (19) needlework society ; (20) 
 penny banks ; (21) young men's friendly society for pro- 
 moting wholesome amusement for Sunday evenings ; (22) 
 juvenile guild — a branch of the same ; (23) a confraternity 
 society for communicants ; (24) young men's friendly 
 society ; (25) a branch of the C. E. T. S. ; (26) a society 
 in aid of the propagation of the gospel. Such are the 
 works going on quietly and unostentatiously in connection 
 with one Church."* 
 
 On every hand clergymen with the courage to speak 
 and act in accordance with their convictions are coming to 
 the front. Writing to the late Archbishop Tait of Cantei-- 
 * Church of England Temperance Chronicle, November 21', 1883.
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 423 
 
 bury, in July, 1882, Canon Basil Wilberforce denounced cimrchpro- 
 the holding by the Church of property in public-houses, f^'pl^i^i^^l^ 
 Since then, in various places, public-houses belonging to houses. 
 the Church have been closed. 
 
 Says the Tempera?ice Record (November 8, 1883) — 
 " A public-house of rather a low class, the Golden Practical ex- 
 Lion, in Gravel Lane, Southwark, has lately been vacated the Ecciesi- 
 by its tenant, and the Ecclesiastical Commissioners, to ^^\^^^^ Com- 
 
 J •11 -i-i- . . . I . missioners 
 
 whom the premises belong, m their desire to minimize their of their in- 
 interest in public-house property, have let it for half the promo'tioVof 
 rent offered by a firm of hrewers to Mr. Fegan, of the Boys' temperance 
 Home, Southwark, who proposes to open it as a place of tiou {Tem- 
 recreation for working boys in this densely crowded ^*''"".^*v[ 
 district, so that it will become a boon instead of a pest vember 8, 
 to the neighbourhood. The Golden Lion adjoins Mr. ^**^^- 
 Fegan's Home, and is now being rapidly prepared for its 
 new career." 
 
 The Dean of Westminster recently told me that he had 
 closed and pulled down a public-house in Westminster. 
 
 The most important and most difficult question which The question 
 confronts the Church is that of the use of wine in the ^^^ine^aUie* 
 Lord's Supper. Numbers of clergymen have, in obedience Lord's 
 to their convictions, introduced into this rite in their own "PP*^""' 
 churches the use of non-intoxicating instead of intoxicating 
 wine. I have been told that the Bishop of London grants 
 absolute freedom to the clergy of his diocese as to the 
 character of the wine used in the Communion. 
 
 In the Convocations of Canterbury last July (1883) 
 the subject came up for decision. 
 
 An appeal was made from the Lower House " praying " The decision 
 that the Upper House should " take stich measures as they IIq^^q ii/th" 
 may deem best for checking such innovation " (of using Convocations 
 unfermented wine in the Lord's Supper). In the answer bury, July, 
 we read, " This House is of opinion that agitation of any ^^^'■^■ 
 question on so sacred a subject is much to be deprecated, 
 as tending to distress many religious persons, to unsettle 
 the weak, and even to lead to schism ; that it is quite 
 unnecessary to raise the question referred to in the 
 gravamen, inasmuch as the Church, though always in- 
 sisting on the use of wine in the Holy Communion, has 
 never prescribed the strength or weakness of the wine to 
 be used, and, consequently, it is always possible to deal
 
 424 
 
 THE FOUNDATIOX OF DEATH. 
 
 Modern dis- 
 coveries — 
 as to the 
 nature and 
 effects of 
 alcoliol — 
 leave no 
 alternative 
 to the 
 
 conscientious 
 clergj'man. 
 
 with, even extreme cases without departing from the 
 custom observed bj the Church ; and that it is, there- 
 fore, most convenient that the clei-gy should conform to 
 ancient and unbroken usage, and should discountenance 
 all attempts to deviate from it " (Chronicle of Convocation, 
 1883).* 
 
 Thus the representative body of the Church of England, 
 though deprecating agitation on the subject of the use of 
 unfermented wine, does not positively condemn it. This 
 is a great step, because this issue, once having become 
 debatable, there can be no doubt as to its ultimate settle- 
 ment. Both iutoxicating and unfermented wines were used 
 by the Jews in the time of Christ, but we possess no know- 
 ledge whether the wine used by Jesus in the last supper 
 was intoxicating or unfermented. The best Hebrew 
 authorities, living and past, either regard intoxicating or 
 unfermented wines as equally lawful in Passover, or lean 
 in the direction of the unfermented, inasmuch as fermented 
 (leavened) food was forbidden at Passover. Therefore 
 either complete liberty as to the use of intoxicating or un- 
 fermented wines at the Lord's Supper must be granted, or, 
 to be consistent, the use of wine at all must be abandoned. 
 
 But aside from the question of the nature of the wine 
 used by Jesus, modern discoveries as to the nature and 
 effects of alcohol leave but one alternative in the use of 
 wine to any conscientious clergyman. 
 
 Jesus, when He took the cup and asked His disciples to 
 drink in remembrance of Him, was the same Jesus who 
 died on the cross that He might save sinners, was the 
 same Nazarene who, in His own prayer, teaches His 
 disciples, '^ Lead us not into temptation," who, in His agony 
 in the garden, begged His disciples to watch and pray 
 against temptation ; was the same Jesus who sternly told 
 His disciples that it was better for a man to pluck out his 
 eye or cut off his hand rather than that his whole body should 
 he cast into hell; was the same who said, " Woe unto the 
 world because of off'ences, for it must needs he that offences 
 come, bid woe to that man by whom the off'ence cometh." 
 
 Would He who spake these things desire the use of 
 intoxicating drink in sacramental commemoration of Him ? 
 
 A writer in the Ciiurch Quarterly Ueview early last 
 * See chapter xi., pp. 301, 302.
 
 WHAT CAX BE DONE? 425 
 
 year asserts tliat the belief in tlie efficacy of the sacrament 
 will protect the believer from harm. What authority is 
 there for such an assertion ? Has any promise been given 
 anywhere in the Bible to that effect ? (And what imputa- 
 tion on the character of this sacred rite lies in the mere 
 suggestion that special divine intervention is essential to 
 the safety of one participating in it !) Certainly, the saddest 
 facts of almost daily experience disprove such assertions. 
 
 To the reformed drunkard, alcohol is like the taste of 
 blood to the tamed lion or tiger. What shall be done for 
 those innumerable ones, who, knowing their inherited 
 predisposition to drink, can keep away from the public- 
 house only so long as they do not approach the communion 
 table ? 
 
 As long ago as 1826, the Rev. Moses Stewart (Prof, of The Rev. 
 Theology in Andover College, Mass., U.S.A.), in his Wines stewaiton 
 and Stronq Drinks of the Ancient Hebreivs, arrived at the ^"^^^ ^^^^^- 
 conclusion that " it is a matter of expediency and duty for qualification 
 our churches not to admit members in the future except Membership 
 on the gi'ound of total abstinence from the use of intoxi- 
 cating liquors and from all traffic in them." 
 
 The Rev. B. Parsons, in his Anti-Bacchus (London, The Rev. b. 
 1840), says, "We ought to substitute an innocent beverage thTcoifstaiit 
 for the poison which is now used at the Lord's table. . . . '''^^^I'V 
 Not long ago a reformed drunkard, and apparently a con- attendance at 
 verted man, approached the Lord's table of a church which t^^k ""^"^ "* 
 I could name ; mark the result. The wine tasted at the 
 sacred Communion revived the old passion, and he, who 
 seemed a saint, was corrupted by the sacramental wine, 
 went home, got drunk, and died a drunkard." 
 
 Mr. E. C. Delavan, in his Temperance Essays (New Mr. E. c. 
 York, 1866), in Letter 11, Relative to Communion Wine, the use of" 
 written in 1841, says, " Let us illustrate the sacrament of J,^^'^ ^^ ^'''^ 
 the Supper by the water used in baptism. What Christian 
 parent would be willing* to have such substances as com- 
 pose the liquor generally used at the Supper mingled with 
 the water with which his infant child is baptized ? Pure 
 water is the only proper symbol of baptism. The pure 
 blood of the grape, for the Supper." 
 
 In the Concordance of Scripture and Science (London, Archdeacon 
 1847), Mr. Peter Burne, in speaking of the use of in- Bombay, °^ 
 toxicants at the Communion, quotes the following remarks »" ti^e same.
 
 426 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 The Lord 
 Bishop of 
 
 Kxeter on 
 the same. 
 
 <^anon 
 AVilberforce 
 on the same. 
 
 made by Archdeacon Jeffreys, of Bombay : — "We agree to 
 abstain from all intoxicating drinks, except in a religious 
 ordinance, the plain interpretation of which is, that such 
 mischievous liquors are too bad to be used anywhere but 
 at the Lord's Supper. ... So long as intoxicating wine is 
 dealt round at the communion table, the reclaimed 
 drunkard (as well as anybody in danger of becoming one 
 — who is sure ?) has of right no business there, for the 
 sacred place is as morally unfit for him as the taproom 
 and the gin palace . . . It is a mockery of God to pray for 
 deliverance from evil and temptation while abandoning 
 oneself to it with open eyes." 
 
 The Lord Bishop of Exeter, who, in the Upper House 
 of Convocations, seconded the above-quoted decision as to 
 the use of wine in the Holy Eucharist, in an address at the 
 Guildhall (October 17, 1883), said, "The temptations of 
 the flesh are generally very strong, if they are near, and 
 when such temptations were near to some men, their 
 strength seemed to desert them altogether. The only 
 thing they could do was to get away and keep away from 
 such temptations altogether. Drunkards who had fallen 
 under this particular temptation of the flesh must be, if 
 they were to recover themselves at all, total abstainers." 
 
 Does this mean that the very ones who stand in 
 greatest need of the consolation and help of the most 
 sacred religious rites shall be shtit out of it? Or does it 
 mean that the form of the rite must be modified, to meet 
 the need of those for whom it was first instituted ?* 
 
 Canon Wilberforce answers these questions. Replying 
 
 * Eev. James Smith, in liis work ou The Temperance Reformation 
 and its claims upon the Christian Church (London, 1875), proposes : — 
 
 " The general adoption of the pure juice of the grape," and thinks 
 that it would be well " if the churclics could agree to adopt it both 
 as appropriate in itself and as a protest against the intemperance 
 that prevails." 
 
 If the use of unfcrmonted grape juice, even as an ordinary 
 beverage, could gradually replace the use of fermented liquors, it 
 would possibly, more than any other purely physical agent except 
 water, counteract and overcome the vitiated taste created by our long 
 use of alcoholic drinks. 
 
 There is, as far as I know, but one establishment in England 
 where genuine unfermented wine is to be procured, and that is at 
 Frank Wright's manufactory in South Kensington. It is claimed that 
 some two thousand churches now use it.
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 42/ 
 
 to the Rev. C. R. Chase, he remarked " that he had 
 known terribly real and undoubted instances in which 
 men, by partaking of wine from the sacramental cup, bad 
 been started on their downward course to a dishonoured 
 grave. If it came to be a question whether the wine or 
 the Christian should be banished from the table of the 
 Lord, he could not hesitate a moment as to which should 
 go. From the sacramental table over which he had more 
 immediate control intoxicating wine had now long been 
 banished, and in this he believed they were carrying out 
 the true spirit and meaning of the sacrament. If it was 
 not a spiritual communion with the blessed Lord, beyond 
 and above anything the mere elements could convey, then 
 it failed in the gi-eat purpose for which it was ordained."* 
 
 Will any one say that it is by Christ's command that various im- 
 the Communion is used as the bulwark and the recruiting r^rtant con- 
 office of the public-hoiTse ? "If good people can take involved in 
 intoxicating drink at the communion table on Sunday," tfou *^"*^*" 
 says the liquor seller, and all those who want a good 
 excuse for drinking, " there can be no great harm in a 
 glass at home, or even at the public-house." 
 
 Surely this consideration alone ought to suffice to 
 banish alcoholic di-ink from the sacrament. 
 
 'No doubt many clergymen and many Christians shrink 
 with sincere piety from making any change in the sacra- 
 mental rite, regarding it to have been taught and founded, 
 as now observed, by the Master Himself ; but will not all 
 personal shrinking, all minor scruples give way to the 
 larger and holier shrinking which must accompany our 
 knowledge, that alcohol is now proved to be a poison 
 which ruins body and soul ? It cannot be inappropiate to 
 say " minor scruples," since we are authoritatively assured 
 that the Church " has never prescribed the strength or 
 weakness of the wine to be used." 
 
 If the Church does insist upon the custom of using 
 alcoholic drink in the Communion, many, if not all, 
 conscientious persons may be driven to abstain from the 
 Lord's Supper, if not on their own account, lest offence 
 come through them to others. 
 
 Is it not better that " ancient and unbroken usage " in 
 this respect should be deviated from, in order that the 
 * League Journal, November, 3, 1883.
 
 428 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 ancient and unbroken usas^e of sin maybe overcome, in tbe 
 rite that remembers Him ? 
 
 Dr. Chan- 
 ning on 
 drink 
 customs. 
 
 The origin 
 and age of 
 the drink 
 
 Strutt on the 
 same. 
 
 § 96. The principal part for society to take in the 
 battle against drink is the abolition of the drink customs. 
 
 " In proportion as ardent spirits are banished from our 
 houses, our tables, our hospitalities," said Dr. Channing 
 (op. cit.), " in the proportion that those who have influence 
 and authority in the community abstain themselves and 
 lead their dependents to abstain from their use, the tempta- 
 tions to drink must disappear. It is objected, I know, 
 that if we give up what others will abuse, we must give 
 up everything, because there is nothing which men will 
 not abuse. I grant that it is not easy to define the limits 
 at which concessions ought to stop. Were we called upon 
 to relinquish an important comfort of life because others 
 were perverting it into an instrument of crime and woe, 
 we should be bound to pause and deliberate before we 
 acted. 
 
 " But no such plea can be set up in the case before us. 
 Ardent spirits are not an important comfort and in no 
 degree a necessity. They give no strength, they contribute 
 nothing to help. They neither aid men to bear the burden 
 nor discharge the duties of life." 
 
 The drink customs are very difficult to eradicate. They 
 have grown through the ages and become ingrained with 
 the growth of national and social life and institutions, and 
 in no country have they struck root so deeply as in England. 
 
 History relates that the Danish conquerors punished 
 with death any native who drank in their presence with- 
 out permission. Some writers claim that the custom of 
 pledging health originated at that time. Strutt, in bis 
 Manners and Customs of Ancient Britain, says — 
 
 " The meaning of a pledge was a security for the safety 
 of the individual drinking, who all the time was exposed 
 to the attack of an enemy by his arm being raised to his 
 head, his face partly covered, and his body unprotected. 
 When, therefore, a person was about to drink, he asked 
 the guest next to him if he would pledge him, and being 
 answered in the affirmative, the sword or dagger was raised 
 to protect him while drinking." 
 
 And this custom, sign of England's degradation under
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 429 
 
 the heel of her conqueror, not only was not dropped with 
 the slavery that imposed it, but outlived it, and by some 
 mysterious j)i"ocess got transposed into such a sign of 
 glorification at both official and private banquets, that to 
 omit it has until very recently been considered almost 
 tantamount to treason to the throne and the altur of 
 personal friendship ! 
 
 There are many drink customs. At the Temperance 
 Congress of 1862, a paper was issued enumerating four 
 hundred drink laws and usages ; * but the principal and 
 universally observed drink custom is that of drinking to 
 the health and success of persons and undertakings. 
 
 In chapter xi. it was shown how drinking originated 
 at Court, and afterwards became the vice of the masses ; 
 and how much might be hoped from the initiative of the 
 Court in temperance reform. 
 
 It would seem as if this responsibility was becoming felt 
 at Court. In his address to the York Licensed Victuallers' 
 Association, February 8, 1881, the Lord Mayor of York 
 said he bad accepted the invitation of the association with 
 much pleasure, especially when they had been so courteous 
 as to give him the liberty to refresh himself with whatever 
 beverage he thought proper. It reminded him of an 
 occasion when some one dining at her Majesty's table was The Queen's 
 drinking water, and it was pointed out to her Majesty, opposition to 
 who replied, " There is no compulsion at my table." bondage of 
 
 At the great Scottish Temperance Convention held in custoimMier 
 Glasgow on the 28th of April, 1884, Mr. Robert Rae, the insight into 
 secretary of the National Temperance League, said — dangifrs from 
 
 "It often happens that the Queen dines many people, drink, and 
 and I am glad to state that a good number of the guests with temper- 
 are teetotalers. Especially is this the case amongst her ancerefoim. 
 chaplains ; and to show that the temperance movement is 
 spreading in the Queen's establishment, I may say that 
 
 * A great number of these are mentioned with the sijecial 
 penalties to be inflicted on those who break them. As recently as 
 last June (1883) the papers furnish an account of how a labourer 
 named Ellis, an abstainer, was maltreated because he refused to stand 
 treat. "A pair of clamps — pieces of wood fastened by a screw in the 
 middle — were placed on his neck, and he was held till signs of 
 suffocation were apparent. He was then released, but he was in such 
 a condition that he had to be taken to the infirmary, where he 
 remains."
 
 4o0 THE FOUNDATIOX OF DEATH. 
 
 the last two house chaplains who were appointed were 
 total abstainers. It is a significant fact that nearly all 
 the new bishops recently created in the Church of 
 England have been total abstainers." 
 
 In her book, 3Iy Holidays in the HigJiIands, 1862-1882 
 (London, 1884), the Queen identifies herself in a very 
 simple and effective manner with the cause of temperance 
 reform. In referring to the work of her " dear and valued 
 friend," the late Dr. Norman Macleod, she mentions with 
 especial interest his sermon on the 2nd of October, 1870, 
 in these words :— 
 
 " Dr. Macleod gave us such a splendid sermon on the 
 war, and without mentioning France he said enough to 
 make every one understand what was meant, when he 
 pointed out how God would punish wickedness, and 
 vanity, and sensuality ; and the chapters he read from 
 Isaiah xxviii.,* and from Ezekiel, Amos, and one of the 
 Psalms, were really quite wonderful for the way in which 
 they seemed, to describe France." 
 
 Such expressions are a touching revelation of her 
 Majesty's anxiety concerning the condition of things in 
 her own realm, which has been practically evinced also by 
 her becoming patron of the Church of England Temper- 
 ance Society. 
 
 * " 1. Woe to the crown of pride, to the drunkards of Ephraim, 
 whose glorious beauty is a fading flower, whicii are on the head of 
 the fat valleys of them that are overcome with wine. 
 
 " 2. Behold, the Lord hath a miglity and strong one, which as a 
 tempest of hail and a destroying storm, as a food of mighty waters 
 overflowing, shall cas-t down to the earth -nith the hand. 
 
 " 3. The crown of pride, the drunkards of Ephraim, shall be 
 trodden under feet. 
 
 " 7. But they also have erred through wine, and through strong 
 drink are out of the way ; the priest and the prophet have erred 
 through strong drink, they are swallowed up of wine, they are out of 
 the way through strong drink ; they err in vision, they stumble 
 through judgment. 
 
 " 15. Because ye have said, We have made a covenant with death, 
 and with hell are we at agreement ; when the overflowing scourge 
 shall pass through, it shall not come unto us : for we have made lies 
 our refuge, and under falsehood have we hid ourselves. 
 
 " 16. Therefore, thus saith the Lord God, . . . 
 
 " 17. Judgment also will I lay to the line, and righteousness to 
 the plummet : and the hail shall sweep away the refuge of lies, and 
 the waters shall overflow the hiding-place." — Isaiah xxviii.
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 431 
 
 Thus it is seen that drink customs are no longer 
 a matter of rigorous observance at court. The Queen her- 
 self has done the temperance cause the inestimable service 
 of removing from the relations between host and guests, 
 from social etiquette and good manners, the burden of an 
 irksome obligation, in the exchange of social amenities ; 
 and society is no longer shielded under the pretence of 
 loyalty nor by the code of good breeding, in using her 
 formidable weapons of ridicule and satire against those 
 who seek, by appropriate means, to liberate themselves and 
 others from the evils of drink. 
 
 From a paper on Freemasonry and Temperance in the The jnt^errat 
 Western Morning News, the Good Templars Watchword bythe Prince 
 (January 28, 1884) quotes the following, showing the "emperanc" 
 interest felt by the Prince of Wales in temperance reform: — reform. 
 
 " Lodges can choose as to when and where members 
 shall take refreshments, and as to what shall be included 
 or excluded in connection with those refreshments. 
 Acting upon that privilege, a movement is progressing 
 in the order for lodge to decree that no intoxicating 
 liquors shall at any time be permitted to be introduced at 
 their refreshment boards ; and, in some instances, new 
 lodges are being formed with a clause in their bye-laws to 
 this eifect. Such an one, on a large scale, was opened at 
 Manchester in the beginning of last year, and now the 
 three towns are about to follow the same course. A 
 suggestion was made a few months since among a few of 
 the temperance brethren that it would be worth while to 
 ascertain if such a lodge could not be established there, 
 and on the question being put to the test, they were 
 astonished at the popularity of the movement. With 
 scarce an effort over sixty masons, nearly all of several 
 years' standing, and embracing numerous P.M.'s and 
 provincial officers, came forward at once as being desirous 
 to become members of the new lodge. The proposition 
 was then submitted to the heads of the order in the three 
 towns, when the whole of them, with, it is believed, only 
 one exception, signed a recommendation that a warrant 
 for the new lodge should be granted. The Provincial 
 Grand Master added his recommendation, and now the 
 information has been received that the Prince of Wales, 
 M.W. Grand Master, has been pleased to grant a warrant
 
 432 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 for the bolding of the said lodge under title of ' The St. 
 George, No. 2025.' The membership is not confined to 
 pledged teetotalers, nor will any attempt he made to so 
 limit it. At all its banquets and entertainments everj 
 endeavour will be made to make the social gatherings 
 enjoyable, but without the aid of alcohol. The three 
 principal officers named in the' warrant will be provincial 
 ofiicers, who are total abstainers — the W.M. for twenty- 
 eight years, the S.W. for eighteen years, and the J.W. a 
 life-long abstainer. There were nearly fifty petitioners for 
 the new lodge, and many of the brethren are active ' blue 
 ribbonists ' and total abstainers." 
 The interest At the distribution of prizes to the children of ele- 
 
 theTate'i)uke nientary schools by the Liverpool Council of Education 
 of Albany in (January 26, 1884), the late Duke of Albany* presiding, in 
 
 the condition ^ ,.•'„: ^' , , tv , ■ ^ 
 
 of the poor spcakmg 01 improved cookery and coiree taverns, said — 
 '*"'i'° " I should like to see a rapid lift given to the standard 
 
 reform. of cleanliness and care in the preparation of food in. the 
 
 poorest homes. T should like to see meals which are now 
 mere scrambles become points of real family union — 
 occasions for showing forethought and kindliness and self- 
 respect. And where circumstances make this too difficult, 
 I should like to see the family enjoying a cheap and decent 
 meal together at the coffee tavern, instead of the father 
 being at the alehouse and the wife and children with a 
 crust at home. And I think that if we can train the 
 children early to see the difference between what dirt and 
 waste and selfishness make of a poor man's dinner, and 
 what thrift and care and cleanliness can make of it at the 
 same cost, we shall be civilizing them almost more directly 
 than by our sums or our grammar, and shall be taking in 
 flank our great enemy, drink — drink, the only terrible 
 enemy whom England has to fear." f 
 
 Public bodies also are beginning to manifest a sense of 
 responsibility in this direction. 
 Thepracti- At the annual dinner of the Metropolitan Board of 
 
 * The late Duke of Albany was for nine years patron of the 
 Oxford Diocesan Branch and a president of the Church of England 
 Temperance Society. — Annual Report Church of England Temperance 
 Society, 1881.. 
 
 t The Duke of Connaught ascribes his good health during the 
 Egyptian cami^aign to his abstention from the use of intoxicating 
 liquor.
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 433 
 
 Works, April, 1883, the imperative toasts of loyalty, etc., cai inaugu- 
 were drunk in water. drinWn* 
 
 At the inauguration of the Society for the Study toasts in 
 and Cure of Inebriety (Rooms of the Medical Society Metrop^oman 
 of London, April 25, 1884), at Avhich about one hundred Board of 
 physicians were present, the toasts were drunk in un- April, 1883. 
 fermented wines. Toasts 
 
 In this struafo-le a2;ainst the public drink customs, the ''™"i^in 
 
 cj'^ .^ . \ . ' unfermented 
 
 remembrance of their inherent absurdities ought to weigh wines at the 
 greatly with intelligent people. _ JrncCoi" 
 
 "It is not usual," says the German Prince Puckler the Society 
 (according to Dr. Grindrod, op. cit.), " to take wine during and Cure ot'^ 
 dinner in England without drinking to another person. ^'^'^foF' 
 When you raise your glass, you look fixedly at the one i884. 
 with whom you are drinking, bow your head, and then The German 
 drink with great gravity. Certainly many customs of the puclTer on 
 South Sea Islanders, which strike us the most, are less theabsurdi- 
 ludicrous. It is esteemed a civility to challenge anybody drink 
 in this way to drink ; a messenger is often sent from one customs. 
 end of the table to the other to announce to B that A 
 wishes to take wine with him, whereupon each, and some- 
 times with considerable trouble, catches the other's eye, 
 and goes through the ceremony of the prescribed nod with 
 great formality, looking at the moment very like a Chinese 
 mandarin." 
 
 "Never perhaps," says the Rev. B. Parsons (oj). cit.), The Rev. b. 
 " was there a more irrational or absurd practice. As the'^same"" 
 though we could not express our loyalty to the Queen, our 
 good wishes to the bishops, clergy, and Church, or our 
 affection to our friends and country, without swallowing 
 a portion of poison ! In thousands of instances, love of. 
 drink, not love to the monarch, is the origin of the toast, 
 and those who are most noisy with their ' three times 
 three ' are swallowing their money, their morality, their 
 loyalty and patriotism all at the same time. Some of 
 these would cur.se God and the king for a pot of beer, and 
 others ruined by drinking and toasting are ready for any- 
 thing that would mend their affairs and get them some 
 drink. The most disloyal and disaffected of our country- 
 men are those who have beggared themselves by drinking. 
 It is impossible to tell the crime and misery which drink- 
 ing of toasts has originated. Louis XIV. of France is said 
 
 2 F
 
 434 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 to have foreseen tlie consequences, and to have prohibited 
 the drinking of toasts." 
 A working In 1864, A Working Man published a trenchant little 
 
 same"" * ^ pamphlet entitled Pliilosophy of Toasts and Health Drinking, 
 from which I quote the following : — ■ 
 
 " The toast is applied to the health of the living, and 
 to the memory of the dead ; to things far and near, past, 
 present, and to come ; through every department in all 
 the affairs of life, and prevails among all classes of society, 
 from the peer who toasts the Queen's health to the beggar 
 who drinks the publican's health with his last penny. . . . 
 The simple ' Luck ! ' of the poor gives way to the toast in 
 society. A gentleman stands on his feet and expatiates in 
 glowing terras, it may be on the virtues of the Queen, or 
 some other great one present or absent, living or dead, 
 and, whatever the toast may be, the speaker is sure to 
 conclude his speech by requiring the company to empty 
 their glasses for the success, health, or happiness of the 
 subject of the toast. If there existed any connection 
 between the real and the possible, between that which the 
 company desires to honour or promote, so that the one 
 could be regarded as the cause and the other as the effect, 
 or the one the means and the other the end, then there 
 might be some show in reason for the practice, and so far 
 a palliation of the evils resulting from excess. . . . But 
 where is the connection between health and prosperity 
 and the act of drinking strong liquor or wine ? Suppose 
 a doctor took it into his head some fine morning, that 
 instead of going out to visit his patients as usual, he would 
 swallow pills to their health in the laboratory, and that 
 he did so. He swallowed a pill to the health of each in 
 succession, according to the order of his visits. ' Well, 
 here goes a pill for the health of the man with the broken 
 arm,' etc. Twenty-two pills in all ! What would be the 
 state of the doctor ? what that of the patients ? and what 
 would be said of his actions ? " 
 
 Let us substitute for toasting with wine some kind of 
 
 spice, salt or pepper, and the absurdity of toasting becomes 
 
 as absurd in appearance as it is in fact. 
 
 TheRev. "The habit of toast-drinking, whether public or 
 
 wi'theBame* private," says the Rev. James Smith,* " is one which only 
 
 * Temperance Reformation and its claims upon the Christian 
 Church (London, 1875).
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 435 
 
 long-established usage and familiarity enable ns to regard 
 as otherwise than highly ridiculous, and in every way un- 
 worthy of an enlightened and civilized community. Does 
 anybody really imagine that the Qaeen enjoys better 
 health, that the army and navy are in a more flourishing 
 condition, that the Church, the Press, or the Government 
 do their work more efficiently because they are so frequently 
 and enthusiastically ' toasted ' ? Is there any rational 
 connection between the good wishes entertained and the 
 mode in which they receive expression ? If any one really 
 supposed that the person or subject in hand would prosper 
 all the better in proportion to the frequency and enthusiasm 
 of the toasting and the quantity of liquor consumed in the 
 process, there would be some excuse for his indulging in 
 the practice, whatever might be thought of his intellectual 
 development ! There was more reason, if less civilization, 
 in the action of the African mentioned by Dr. Livingstone, 
 who emptied his snuff-box at the foot of a tree, in order to 
 ensure the success of his comrades, who were engaged in 
 an elephant hunt ! He, poor savage ! performed this 
 ceremony ignorantly and superstitiously, believing that it 
 would have some real efficacy ; while we, enlightened 
 Christians ! perform an analogous heathenish ceremony, 
 knowing it to be meaningless and vain. If health-drinking 
 were confined to the health-giving beverage, water, the 
 folly of the custom would speedily become apparent to 
 all, and the practice would soon be numbered among the 
 antiquarian relics of a barbarous age." 
 
 There are many trade usages still extensively prevalent, 
 which tend to create and foster a love for strone: drink, 
 and are, consequently, instrumental in promoting intemjJer- 
 ance among those concerned. Among such customs may 
 be mentioned the payment ofioages at puhlic-houses, whereby 
 many are brought into temptation, the ycung and in- 
 experienced become the prey of confirmed inebriates, and 
 those who may be desirous to reform have difficulties 
 thrown in the way of their doing so. 
 
 Thanks to the efforts of the Hon. Samuel Morley, M.P., Successor 
 in the Commons, and of the Earls Stanhope and Shaftes- samuei"' 
 bury in the Lords, this mischievous practice was abolished Moriey.M.p., 
 in the spring session of 1883. ShafSJy 
 
 Besides the drinking customs and usages, there are the and stanhope
 
 436 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 in securing 
 the abolition 
 of the cus- 
 tom of the 
 payment of 
 wages at 
 public- 
 houses. 
 
 The Rev. 
 William 
 Cloister 
 on the 
 variety an(J 
 prevalence 
 of social 
 drinking 
 habits. 
 
 social drinking tabits to combat. The Rev. William 
 IMoister, in liis book, The Evil and the Remedy (London, 
 1877), well describes their variety and prevalence in the 
 following words : — 
 
 " Intoxicating drink, in some form or other, has at 
 length come to be used on a variety of occasions, the very 
 mention of which is somewhat startling, when we consider 
 its character and tendency. It is frequently given to 
 working men and others by employers of labour, to stimulate 
 them to greater exertion in the discharge of their respective 
 duties. It is introduced at almost all public and festive 
 gatherings ; at marriages, baptisms, and funerals ; at sales, 
 contracts, and friendly meetings ; and, in many otherwise 
 well-regulated families, spirits, wine, ale, or porter, are 
 placed on the table every day as common beverage at meal- 
 times as well as on other occasions. In many localities 
 the hospitality of the host is measured by the frequency 
 and earnestness with which he presses the intoxicating 
 cup on the attention of his guests. As soon as you arrive 
 at the dwelling of your friend, the all-important question 
 is put, "What Avill you take to drink ? " If you are weary 
 with your journey, you are urged to take a glass of wine, 
 beer, or other stimulating drink to refresh you ; if you are 
 cold, it is recommended to warm you ; and if you are warm, 
 it is represented as a cooling beverage. By some it is 
 taken before dinner to create an appetite : at meals as a 
 dilutant of food ; afterwards to aid digestion ; and imme- 
 diately before going to bed to induce sleep. 
 
 " In fact, alcoholic liquor, in some form, has come to be 
 regarded by many as a common necessaiy of life ; and as 
 such it is procured and kept in store for ordinary use, the 
 same as bread, butter, meat, and other provisions. If a 
 journey has to be taken, as a matter of course, the familiar 
 bottle is replenished with the favourite liquid and placed 
 in the basket or pocket with other refreshments. You 
 cannot travel far by rail or otherwise, without being pain- 
 fully reminded of the degeneracy of our race, and of the 
 fearful extent to which the drinking customs of our 
 country prevail among all classes." 
 
 It is, of course, necessary, in order to make headway 
 against these most widely observed and popular drink 
 customs and habits, to inspire a healthy public sentiment,
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 437 
 
 in -wliicli their continuaiice shall be clearly seen to be both 
 ridiculous and wronof. 
 
 In his paper on The Wine Question of Society (Scrihners Dr. J. G. 
 Monthly, Angast, 1872), the late Dr. J. G. Holland pro- t^e"my of 
 posed a method for arousing such healthy public sentiment society m 
 in these words: " 8ociety bids us furnish "svines at our * '^■'^^P^'^*- 
 feasts, and we furnish them just as generously as if we did 
 not know that a certain percentage of all the men who 
 drink it will die miserable drunkards, and will inflict 
 pitiful sufferings on those who are closely associated Avith 
 them. . . . What we need is a declaration of independence. 
 There are a great many good men and women who lament 
 the drinking habits of society most sincerely. Let these 
 all declare that they will minister no longer at the altar 
 of the great destroyer. Let them declare that the indis- 
 criminate offer of wine at dinners and social assemblies is 
 not only criminal but vulgar, as it undoubtedly is. Let 
 them declare, for the sake of the young, the weak, and 
 vicious — for the sake of personal character, and family 
 peace, and social purity, and national strength, that they 
 Avill discard wine from their feasts from this time forth 
 and for ever, and the work will be done. ... If the men 
 and women of good society wish to have less di'inking to 
 excess, let them stop drinking moderately. If they are 
 not willing to break off the indulgence of a feeble appetite 
 for the sake or doing a great good to a great many people, 
 how can they expect a poor broken-down wretch to deny 
 an appetite that is stronger than the love of wife and 
 children, and even life itself ? " 
 
 Perhaps no moral cause ever came up for general con- 
 sideration more requiring the uncompromising action that 
 is here suggested than the cause of temperance, or more 
 in need of the conciliating influence of perfect good breed- 
 ing and inexhaustible patience on the part of its upholders, 
 or one more endangered by irritating, unenlightened 
 prejudiced opinion, or having more to hope from the right 
 exercise of enlightened and noble public sentiment.* 
 
 § 97. In his Temperance Address at Boston (1846), Dr. chapin 
 the Kev. Dr. Chapin exclaimed— °ponJlbTiitv 
 
 "Who stand between the temperance movement and of wealthier 
 * See chapter xi. pp. 300, 301.
 
 438 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 the preva- 
 lence of the 
 drink evil. 
 
 Lord Claud 
 Hamilton's 
 ptatement in 
 St. James's 
 Hall (May 
 19, 1870), 
 about a pro- 
 liibition 
 estate in 
 Tyrone. 
 
 The evidence 
 of Mr. T. W. 
 Russell on 
 the prohibi- 
 tion estate of 
 Bessbrook. 
 
 its triunipli ? I answer the wealthy, the fashionable, the 
 influential. The rum power in our country is backed up 
 by the money power. Mammon and alcohol go hand in 
 hand." This was true then. How much more true it is 
 to-day, and truer still of Great Britain than of the United 
 States ? 
 
 Indeed, the whole wealth of England is in so com- 
 paratively few hands that practically the magnates, by 
 refusing the renewal of leases for public-houses on their 
 estates, could, in a very few years, establish an almost 
 complete prohibition, and, therefore, the wealth of this 
 country must be largely responsible for the fate of the 
 English temperance movement. But there are hopeful 
 signs that this responsibility is being rightly felt. 
 
 At St. James's Hall (May 19, 1870), Lord Claud 
 Hamilton, Ex-M.P., said about a prohibition estate of some 
 10,000 population in County Tyrone, Ireland, " the result 
 has been that whereas those high-roads w^ere, in former 
 times, constantly the scenes of strife and drunkenness, 
 necessitating the presence of a very considerable number 
 of police to be located in the district, at present there is 
 not a single policeman in the district. The poor rates are 
 half what they were before, and all the police and magis- 
 trates testify to the great absence of crime." Mr. Richard- 
 son's flax-mills at Bessbrook, on the Belfast and Dublin 
 railway, near Newry, are well known. 
 
 I quote here at length from the report of the evidence 
 given by Mr. T. W. Russell, of Dublin, and Mr. J. G. 
 Richardson, the proprietor of Bessbrook, before the Lords' 
 Committee on Intemperance (1880), as given in the Alliance 
 Neivs (May 15, 1880). Says Mr. Russell, "Bessbrook 
 was got possession of by Mr. John Grubb Richardson in 
 1847. It was just a hamlet of a few small houses, and now 
 he has built a very fine town there ; there is no such town 
 in Ireland, so far as sanitary arrangements are concerned. 
 He has made it a rule that he will let no house for the sale 
 of drink in any form, and, as a matter of fact, there has 
 ncvei- been a drop of drink sold in Bessbrook since Mr. 
 Richardson got possession of it. It is situated in the 
 county of Armagh, three miles from Newry. Newry is 
 a town of 14,000 inhabitants. Mr. Richardson has a large 
 mill at Bessbrook, which employs the whole of the people.
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 439 
 
 There has never been a police-barrack, nor a policeman, nor 
 a pawn-office in Bessbrook. I have a letter from the 
 inspector of police at Newry, stating that there were only 
 three cases of drunkenness from Bessbrook during the 
 eighteen months previous to his writing, and I am very 
 much of opinion that those were cases of farmers going 
 home from Newry and passing through Bessbrook on 
 their way ; but there everything is peace, prosperity, and 
 comfort. It was submitted to the vote by ballot of the 
 householders two years ago as a test, whether they would 
 prefer a public-house being admitted or not, and the vote 
 was nine to one against the introduction of public-houses. 
 There is a district, in county Tyrone, covering sixty-one 
 and a half square miles ; it adjoins the town of Dungannon, 
 and goes near to Cookstown, covering three gi-eat public 
 roads. I lived in the town of Dungannon for five years, 
 and there were public-houses on that territory when I first 
 went there ; but Mr. John Kinley Tener, who became the 
 agent of the properties in the district, refused, I believe, 
 to renew the leases of public-houses, and, as a matter of 
 fact, the public-houses vanished. There were police- 
 barracks in the centre ; they were closed in twelve months 
 afterwards, and the policemen removed. The poor rates 
 came down from Is. ^d. and Is. 6d. in the pound in the 
 different townlands to bd., 6d., and 8d. Of late a spirit 
 grocer has forced himself in upon the borders of that 
 district ; the magistrates resolutely refused a license within 
 the district, in order to keep the district clear; but a spirit 
 grocer has planted himself, in defiance of the public opinion 
 of the place, right on the border of the place, and I con- 
 ceive that he will do damage there. That I conceive a 
 very great hardship. This range of country belongs to 
 three pi'oprietors. The population were not consulted, but 
 I am bound to say when Mr. Tener gave up the agency 
 some years ago, they presented him with a carriage and 
 pair of horses, and an address, in which they referred to 
 his action of clearing oif the public-houses as one of the 
 greatest blessings which had occurred in the locality, and 
 hoped that his successor would take care that the same 
 rule prevailed. The population is 10,000. Now, I would 
 venture to say that if it is right to allow Mr. Richardson 
 and Mr. Tener to have the power to say, as Mr. Richardson
 
 same. 
 
 440 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 says, to 4000 people in Bessbrook, ' You stall not haA^e 
 a public-house for the sale of liquor, because I think it 
 will injure your interests and my interests,' and to carry 
 out that rule, — I do not think it can be wrong to allow 
 occupiers of property to say it, if they wish to say it, in 
 their localities." 
 The evidence And this is Mr. Richardson's testimony : — 
 Richardson' " ^ ^^ ^^^ owner of some very extensive linen-mills at 
 
 on the Bessbrook. It is a manufacturing town, containing about 
 
 4000 people, largely employed in a factory built by the 
 Richardson family, situated about two miles from Newry, 
 in the county of Armagh. The trade princii^ally carried 
 on there is the spinning, weaving, and bleaching of linens and 
 linen yarns of all kinds. About 3000 are employed in the 
 general work of the concern, and 1600 outside in handloom 
 weaving, etc. We began the concern in 1847, thirty-one 
 years ago, and being then convinced that strong drink 
 was the cause of serious injury, we resolved that no house 
 for its sale should be established in our colony, and our 
 experience has enabled us to prove that the absence of the 
 liquor traffic has been a real blessing to our population. 
 The result has been that we have been able to do without 
 police, have no pawn-shops, and have very few people sent 
 to the poorhouse, and have had no prostitution. I made 
 inquiry before coming to give evidence before this com- 
 mittee, and found that two persons, out of some 4000 
 people, were in the poorhouse — one a weak-minded woman 
 who came from Lurgan, twenty miles off, and who was for 
 a time out of charity brought to our place. On referring 
 to the poorhouse returns for last week, I found that there 
 w^ere eleven inside and nine outside persons receiving 
 relief in our electoral division, called Camlough, containing 
 more than 8000 people, while in Newry, a resjDectable 
 and wealthy town near us, containing by the last census 
 14,000 inhabitants, and which now probably contains 
 16,000, thei-e appear to be 126 inside and eleven outside 
 paupers. In the town of Newry there are 127 public- 
 houses, two spirit grocers, and fifteen to twenty wholesale 
 dealers in the liquor trade, making 149 in all ; thus giving 
 one dealer in liquor for every 126 persons, which shows 
 six and a half times as many in proportion to our electoral 
 division, wdiich is really a poor one, including the village
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 441 
 
 of Camlough, containing seven public-liouses, wliicli, no 
 doubt, add to the poverty of oui- district. So far as I can 
 remember, we have not had thirty cases before the bench 
 of magisti'ates out of our town of Bessbrook in the thirty- 
 one years ; unfortunately, I have left behind me a letter I 
 had from the late inspector of police on this subject. We 
 have had more cases during the last two years in con- 
 sequence of the increased facility of our people getting into 
 Ne\\T.y by new conveyances which have been recently 
 established, and, perhaps, from our not having been so 
 strict in choosing some new families. I may add that, 
 considering the population, we have had during our 
 time very few illegitimate births, and that the death-rate 
 has been from 12| to 14| per 1000, and that, for a factory 
 population, the committee will agree is a very small pro- 
 portion. We have about 1000 childi^en and young people 
 on the Protestant sabbath school rolls, and a large number 
 of our respectable young men and women teaching in 
 them." 
 
 There are several estates in England where for a long- 
 time no liquor-shops have been allowed ; in South Hamp- 
 shire, for instance, near Winchester, there is said to be 
 a manor of some two thousand acres, where, as far as is 
 known, there never was a public-house." 
 
 Referring to the village of White Coppice, near Chorley, statement of 
 Lancashire, before the House of Lords' Committee (1877- ^Jci^'cfn 
 1878), Mr. A. E. Eccles said — cemmgthe 
 
 " The first nine years I lived in the village we had no vuiage'of" 
 liquor-shops, and then for seventeen years we had liquor White Cop- 
 shops, and for the last fifteen years we have been entirely 
 without. Being young, I recollect very little about the 
 first period, but during the seventeen years we had beer- 
 shops in the village immorality was very common. I 
 should say we had illegitimate children in every other 
 house ; but during the last fifteen years we have had only 
 two cases of illegitimacy, and we have had only one ille- 
 gitimate child born in the village, and very little drunken- 
 ness. That is a very striking contrast to the time when 
 we had two beer-shops." 
 
 Another vast and most successful estate in England TheSaitaire 
 where no liquors are allowed is Saltaii-e, owned by Titus estate "^'"'^ 
 Salt, M.P.
 
 U2 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 The pro- 
 hibition real 
 estate com- 
 panies, of 
 Mr. John 
 Koberts in 
 Liverpool, 
 and the 
 Artisans and 
 Jxibourers 
 General 
 JJivelling 
 Company 
 ill London. 
 
 The Pall 
 Mall Gazette 
 on this point. 
 
 Mr. Hep- 
 worth 
 Dixon's 
 description 
 
 There are in all, it is .said, almost one thousand estates 
 and villages in England where proprietary prohibition is 
 enforced. 
 
 Some large real estate companies, in London and 
 Liverpool, wherever they extend their operations, exclude 
 the public-honse. In Liverpool, the firm of Mr. John 
 Roberts, M.P., for the Flintshire boroughs, hold vast 
 amounts of property in the city, so that in 1882 the land 
 laid out, or in course of being laid out by him, amounted 
 to between 300 and 400 acres, with tlie number of about 
 10,000 houses and a population of 60,000, and nowhere on 
 the property in Mr. Roberts' hands is a public-house 
 suffered to exist ; and Mr. Balfour, in his article in the 
 Contemporary (August, 1879), speaking of Mr. Roberts' 
 transactions, says that Mr. Roberts declares, " That he 
 never yet heard of a complaint being made of the want of 
 a public-house, either from the houseowners or the tenant. 
 And it is well known how prosperous is that vast real 
 estate company in London, the " Artisans and Labourers 
 General Dwelling Company." Only last August they 
 opened a new estate, the Noel Park Estate, the Earl of 
 Shaftesbury presiding, and when only this estate is com- 
 pleted, it will contain between 2000 and 3000 houses, with 
 a population from 16,000 to 18,000. 
 
 And they not only do not allow public-houses on their 
 estates, but they even exercise what influence they can on 
 neighbouring landowners to prevent the establishment of a 
 cordon of public-houses around them. 
 
 Commenting on the estates managed by the "Artisans' 
 Labourers and General Dwelling Company," the Pall Mall 
 Gazette says — 
 
 " The most remarkable fact of all, however, is that on 
 all these three large estates there is not a single public- 
 house, and that the inhabitants not only do not demur to 
 this regulation of the company, but actually congratulate 
 themselves on the existing condition of affairs, and strenu- 
 ously resist all attempts to open public-houses near the 
 estates." 
 
 Mr. David Lewis, in his Tlie Drinlc Problem and its 
 Solution (London, 1881), quotes the following graphic 
 description — by the late Mr. Hepworth Dixon — of the
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 443 
 
 practical application of proTiibition in the town of St. of the results 
 Johnsbury, Vermont: — ofproiiibi- 
 
 y ' tion in St. 
 
 JNo loafer nangs about the curbstone, not a beggar Joimsburj-, 
 can be seen, no drunkards reel along the streets, there ^'■™°°'^- 
 seem to be no poor. I have not seen in two days' wander- 
 ing up and down one child in rags, one woman like a slut ; 
 the men are all at work, the boys and girls at school. I 
 see no broken panes of glass, no shingles hanging from 
 the roof, no yard is left in an untidy state. What are the 
 secrets of this artisans' paradise ? Why is the place so 
 clean, the people so well housed and fed ? Why are little 
 folks so hale in face, so smart in person, and so neat in 
 dress ? All voices, I am bound to say, reply to me that 
 these unusual yet desirable conditions in a workman's 
 village spring from a strict enforcement of the law pro- 
 hibiting the sale of intoxicating drink." 
 
 And the subjoined list of questions, asked by Mr. F. B. Success of 
 Boyce, Hon. Secretary N"ew South Wales Local Option fnfbelown 
 League, and recently answered by the chief clerk of the cf Puiiman, 
 town of Pullman, U.S.A., is full of pertinent interest : — 
 
 " In what year was the city of Pullman founded ? 
 
 "Answer: 27th May, 1880. 
 
 " What is the population at present ? 
 
 " Answer : 7500. 
 
 " How many churches does it contain ? 
 
 "Answer : Five have organizations here. 
 
 " How many schools also, and teachers employed ? 
 
 " Answer : Two school buildings, and thirteen public 
 school teachers. 
 
 " How many lock-ups or gaols ? 
 
 " Answer : None. 
 
 " Number of magistrates, with amount of salaries ? 
 
 "Answer: None. 
 
 " Number of police, and their cost ? 
 
 " Answer : One, at £12 a month. 
 
 " What is the annual amount spent on relief of the 
 poor ? 
 
 " Answer : Nothing. 
 
 " Can you furnish us with your statistics of crime ? 
 
 " Answer : We have had no crime. 
 
 " Have you any asylums, such as those for lunatics, 
 orphans, benevolent, etc. ?
 
 444 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Temperance 
 measures 
 which might 
 be adopted 
 by the 
 wealthy rail- 
 way com- 
 panies of 
 Great Bri- 
 tain. 
 
 Dr. J. G. 
 
 Holland on 
 " Rum and 
 Railroads." 
 
 " Answer : None. 
 
 " Is the trade in strong drink prohibited ? 
 
 "Answer : Sale of malt, vinous, and spirituous liquors 
 forbidden. 
 
 " Do you attribute to the absence of facilities for 
 getting drink any imj)roved state of morals, as compared 
 with other cities in your state ? 
 
 "Answer: We certainly do, as one important aid in 
 this direction." 
 
 § 98. Great good could be accomplished if the wealthy 
 i"ailway companies of Great Britain would exclude liquors 
 from theii' refreshment-rooms, and furnish thirsty travellers 
 with plenty of fresh pure water and the various non- 
 intoxicating drinks. 
 
 In his paper on Rum and Railroads {Scribner's Monthly, 
 May, 1872), Dr. J. G. Holland says — " There is an influence 
 proceeding from the highest managing man in a railroad 
 corporation, which reaches further for good or evil than 
 that of almost any other man in any community. If the 
 president or superintendent of a railroad is a man of free 
 and easy habits, if he is in the habit of taking his stimti- 
 lating glass, his railroad becomes a canal through which 
 a stream of liquor flows from end to end. A drinking 
 head man on any railroad, reproduces himself at every 
 post on his line, as a rule. A thorough temperance man 
 at the head of a corporation is a great purifier, and his 
 road becomes the distributer of pure influences." 
 
 The famous engineer, George Stephenson, manager of 
 the Darlington and Stockton Railway Company — the 
 oldest in the world — allowed no liquors to be sold at the 
 stations of his line, and, after twenty-five years' connection 
 with the company, declared that he was satisfied " that if 
 all railway companies were to do away with the sale of 
 drink at their stations, they would be best consulting the 
 interests of the shareholders and the welfare of the 
 travelling public." 
 
 Since his day, until recently, temperance reform has 
 made but slow progress among railway men, but of late 
 years it is advancing both here and in other countries. In 
 m uTirdirec- the winter of 1883 an encouraging example in this direc- 
 tion, tion was set by the West Lancashire Railway Company, 
 whose general manager, Mr. T. Gilbert, wrote to the 
 British Women's Temperance Association : — 
 
 The lead 
 taken by 
 Engineer 
 George 
 Stephenson. 
 
 Action by 
 the West 
 Lancashire 
 Railway
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 445 
 
 " I have the pleasure to inform you. that this couipany 
 has no refreshment-rooms at any of its stations where 
 intoxicating liquors are sold. It may be also interesting to 
 you to know that the whole of the company's officials are 
 total abstainers, and that no man receives an appointment 
 under the company unless he has previously been an 
 abstainer of some standing." 
 
 At the Annual Meeting of the Midland Railway Growing 
 Temperance Society, held at the Derby Station in February, theTotai* 
 1884, the chairman, Mr. John Noble, gave a most en- abstinence 
 
 . I (• ji • piiiji movement 
 
 couraging account or the growing success oi the total on the 
 abstinence movement, not only all along the Midland line, MifHandime, 
 
 __ ' «/ o ' and in tu6 
 
 but the Railway Union at large, and stated that public Baiiway 
 sentiment along these great lines was daily becoming more we° ^^ 
 favourable to this reform. 
 
 A correspondent of On the Line states that the Great Oatmeal 
 Eastern Railway supplies the " men at the London depots piled by'tiie 
 with oatmeal drink, in large cans with a tap to them, ^^reat East- 
 with drinking-cup attached, available to the men as they company"^ 
 are at work, and that it is greatly appreciated by them." to their 
 
 In its annual report, May, 1884, the Church of England 
 Temperance Society states that " at least 10,000 out of 
 350,000 railway men -svork in the cause of temperance." 
 
 In a paper on Drinking and Positions of Trust, the The Toronto 
 Toronto Globe (Canada, February 6, 1884) says — ruaryM^ss-t) 
 
 "The authorities of the Winconsin Central Railway ?° " i^^ink- 
 issued in October last an order requiring the instant dis- of Positions 
 missal of any employe who might drink even beer whether Trust." 
 off or on duty. There was a good deal of opposition to 
 the order at first, as if it infringed upon private rights, 
 etc., but it has wrought so well that we are told several 
 other large railway corporations are thinking of following 
 the same course. This is in the right direction. The 
 travelling public have a right to the greatest possible pro- 
 tection, when on their necessary journeyings, and they will 
 be pleased to know that none who are in charge of trains 
 have even the chance of becoming drunkards. A man 
 does not need to be drunk in order to work irreparable 
 mischief. An extra glass, by giving him a certain amount 
 of unsteadiness of hand or brain, may do all ; and these 
 railway authorities in Wisconsin do well to say to all who 
 seek employment from them, ' You can't drink and work
 
 -tlG THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH, 
 
 for us. We don't ask you to give over drinking. That's 
 your look-out, and you have a right to do as you please. 
 But if you will drink you are not for us. We require men 
 who have all their wits about them, and that any one who 
 drinks never has.' What is wrong in that ? We can see 
 nothing. More than this, we can see nothing but what is 
 reasonable in employers of labour all round adopting the 
 same principle. It is not the man who is actually drunk 
 that causes the mischief by breaking machinery, com- 
 promising his employers, and causing confusion all round. 
 It is the man who thinks himself perfectly sober — the man 
 who has only taken ' a couple of glasses of beer,' or a 
 single ' horn ' of ' summat,' but who by these means has 
 had his pulse raised a few degrees, has been made 
 aggressive, daring, slightly reckless, yet sufficiently so to 
 make all the mischief. It is the man who thinks that 
 drink ' could not be known on him,' but whose tongue has 
 been slightly loosed, and who has been led to believe that 
 usually he had been but a slow-coach, and must show some 
 more 'go.' This is the sort of man that a shrewd employer 
 ought to fight shy of. . . . The clear brain and the steady 
 nerve are more and more in requisition, and these are not 
 compatible with even moderate tippling and occasional 
 ' bursts.' " 
 Mr. w. J. And the Temperance Itecorcl (February 28, 1884) quotes 
 
 Spicer's ^\^q followinc? circuUvr to the Grand Trunk Railway, issued 
 
 circulsr to , "^ * 
 
 the Grand by its superintendent, Mr. W. J. Spicer : — 
 RaiU^ay " ■'■ 'vs^ou^lcl ask you to Consider very seriously the 
 
 advisability of joining our temperance movement for the 
 year 1884. In my circular, December, 1880, I said 'there 
 were a good many reasons specially applicable to railway 
 employes for abstaining from the use of intoxicating 
 drinks.' 
 
 " You have the lives of the public and the safety of 
 persons and property entrusted to your care, requiring at 
 all times the utmost possible caution and vigilance in the 
 performance of your duty. Again, railway eviployes, from 
 their liability to night work, irregular hours, exposure to 
 all kinds of weather, and from the foolish and expensive 
 custom of ' treating,' are exposed to much danger and 
 many temptations. Even passengers have gone so far as 
 to offer, and in fact urge, conductors and brakesmen, when
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 44:7 
 
 on duty, to take drink, and have been the cause of train- 
 men's dismissal from the service. I am sorry to say that 
 I have had to deal summarily with such cases as have 
 come to my knowledge. I only wish I could deal as 
 severely with the perhaps good-natured but most thought- 
 less and inconsiderate passengers. 
 
 "Men subjected to such temptations, at any time, are 
 safe only as total abstainers. The ' one glass more ' often 
 has the effect of making a man careless, sleepy, and in- 
 ditt'erent to danger, if not worse, at a time when he most 
 needs to have all his senses clear and wide awake for his 
 own and other's safety. 
 
 " I have only to refer you to the Offence Circulars to 
 satisfy you that I am speaking in the best interest of 
 every employe of every grade, and in the interest of the 
 company and the public, in urging you to become total 
 abstainers for the year 1884." 
 
 The discontinuance of the custom of distributing drink 
 to crews now so largely the rule both on the inland lakes 
 of the United States, on river crafts, ocean steamers, sail- 
 ing vessels, and men-of-war, originated with Mr. Charles 
 Howard, one of the pioneer shipping merchants of the 
 United States. His son, the distinguished American 
 author and playwright, Mr. Bronson Howard, tells the 
 story so well that I prefer giving it in his own words from 
 a letter written to me March 31, 1884, as follows : — 
 
 " My father was personally associated with the shipping Mr. Bronson 
 of the lakes from his earliest: manhood, beine: half owner Howard's 
 
 ' o account of 
 
 and master of a vessel, the Neiv York, before he was twenty- the origin of 
 five years old ; and he was said to have been the original reform o'n^ 
 of Fennimore Cooper's young sailor Jasper in the Pathfinder, theiakesand 
 In 1830, when he was about twenty-six years old, and 
 while he was master or ' captain ' of this vessel — one of a 
 large fleet in Lakes Erie and Ontario — the incident of 
 which 1 spoke to you occurred, and which was, 1 think, the 
 beginning of the temperance system now almost universal 
 in the mercantile marine of the ocean and the lakes. 
 
 " In those days of general ' hard drinking ' it was the 
 custom on our lakes to have a keg of wlnsky in the com- 
 panion-way of every vessel, with its tap free to every 
 member of the crew. Any deviation from this rule would 
 have been considered mean and niggardly. The rule on
 
 4:48 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 tlae ocean was, I believe, to serve out ' grog ' to the men, 
 but this was done in such liberal quantities as to make the 
 custom diifer but little from that in vogue on the American 
 lakes. No owner or captain was free from the absolute 
 tyranny of this custom-law. 
 
 " During one of my father's voyages, late in December. 
 1830, the crew suffered frightfully from a violent storm, 
 with snow, sleet, and ice. All their physical energies 
 were needed to control the vessel. What makes such a 
 situation doubly fatiguing and perilous is the fact that it 
 is impossible to run before the storm as on the ocean, and 
 the men are obliged to handle the sails and rigging at 
 fi'equent intervals, though every rope and every inch of 
 canvas is coated with ice. About one half of my father's 
 crew drank nothing in the way of spirits while at work ; 
 the other half drew liberally on the keg to ' keep them 
 warm.' If ever whisky could do this service for mankind, 
 it could do it under such circumstances. The result was 
 that my father was obliged to depend entirely on the half 
 of his crew that did not drink, for nearly thirty-six hours. 
 At last they were forced to do the duty of both watches ; 
 and as the second in command, the ' mate,' was one of the 
 alcoholists, my father was compelled to remain in active 
 command during the whole time without rest, until the 
 vessel was safe. He has frequently told me with special 
 emphasis that the men who drank did not make themselves 
 drunk, and were not in that sense incapacitated on deck, 
 while the other men were able to do double work. 
 
 " This was only the last of many similar experiences, 
 which had been almost as bad, and after the storm had 
 subsided, my father, in a spirit of utter disgust, turned 
 open the tap of the whisky keg, on his way down to the 
 cabin, leaving the sacred fluid to its own unfettered fancy ! 
 Soon after the mate appeared, and father saw him looking 
 at the open faucet and shaking the empty keg with an 
 expression of wonderment and dismay. When my father 
 told him that the last drop of spirits had been drunk on 
 board that vessel in the way of ' grog,' the mate exclaimed 
 in astonishment and said that no owner nor captain could 
 carry out such a wild plan. He and his fellow-drinkers 
 left the crew at the end of the trip. Others, willing to go 
 without ' grog,' were engaged in their places.
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 449 
 
 " To meet the certain charge of niggardliness, the 
 ordinary rough sailors' fare was changed to the best food 
 the market of each port could supply, including the finest 
 coffee and other luxuries, such as oysters, etc., when within 
 reach. 
 
 " My father persisted in the plan he had thus marked 
 out, and the result was a very important one, far beyond 
 his anticipation, for an all-powerful commercial ally 
 suddenly ranged itself on the side of temperance — the 
 marine insurance companies began at once to allow dis- 
 criminating rates on his vessel and on goods carried in it. 
 All the other shipowners and masters on the lake were 
 compelled to adopt the temperance rule, by the exigencies 
 of business competition. Prom the lakes the custom 
 spread — undoubtedly through the powerful pressure of the 
 insurance companies — to the ocean ; and at the present 
 day the custom of sixpplying liquor freely to sailors is a 
 very rare exception, if it exists at all. Its latest strong- 
 hold was the navy, which the interests of insui-ance com- 
 panies cannot reach, of course. 
 
 " The great reform resulting from my father's action, 
 though not anticipated, was a matter of sincere pleasure 
 to him in after years, as he watched its general develop- 
 ment." 
 
 A most valuable suggestion to wealthy merchants was Suggestion 
 made about four years ago by the Honourable Samuel Hon'^SMnuei 
 Morley, M.P. " The City of London Total Abstainers Moriey.M.P., 
 Union had its origin in my warehouse," said he, " and I Abstainers 
 cannot hut think some such association should he attached to Union 
 
 . ■, , , should be 
 
 every commercial concern. attached to 
 
 S 99. The aristocracy, as a class, have been tardy in '^'^^^. *;°™' 
 
 *^ '' •' QDiTCidL con- 
 
 adding the weight of their example and influence to the cern. 
 success of the temperance movement. But on the 21st of Action in 
 April, 1883, a large number of the wealth and aristocracy BimTRibbon 
 of London, both ladies and gentlemen, met at Stafford movement 
 House, in response to an invitation from the Duchess of temperance 
 Sutherland, to ioin in the Blue Ribbon movement, for the measures 
 
 i- ^ n t)y the 
 
 promotion oi the cause of temperance. aristocracy 
 
 Lord Mount Temple presided, and said— of England. 
 
 " The object of the meeting was to bring under their 
 notice the overwhelming evils to the country resulting 
 from the misuse of intoxicating and stimulating drinks. 
 
 2 G
 
 450 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 That abuse filled our gaols, poor-law unions, and lunatic 
 asylums ; brouglit misery, strife, and ruin to many of the 
 homes of the working classes ; and overshadowed with 
 sorrow and sympathy even those who were free from any 
 personal experience of its evils, and who lived in comfort 
 and refinement in such houses as that in which they were 
 gathered. Another point to consider was the remedy for 
 this deplorable state of things. The remedy which had 
 been found by experience to be the most complete and 
 satisfactory was for persons to pledge themselves to resist 
 temptation. But that was beyond the reach of many. 
 There had now been established a new form of fellowship, 
 conviviality, and brotherhood, and that was the fellowship 
 of the Blue Ribbon. The Blue Ribbon established a public 
 opinion adverse to the di'ink influence.* It had created a 
 large amount of public opinion in favour of total abstinence. 
 It brought together the middle, lower, and upper classes, 
 and established a common feeling. The question then 
 arose, What was their duty to help on the new movement ? 
 Their example would be felt much more than any amount 
 of precept. He earnestly appealed to the aristocracy to 
 join the new movement, as a means of conferring great 
 and lasting benefits upon the poorer classes. It would 
 necessitate some self-sacrifice, and perhaps call down upon 
 them sneers and censui-e, but it was their duty ; and 
 not only that, but, as in his own case, they would find 
 many compensations for the sacrifice. The noble lady, 
 too, who had invited them had exercised disinterested- 
 ness, almost chivalrous courage, in adopting the blue 
 ribbon, an example which he trusted would be widely fol- 
 lowed, for it would help to caiTy light and joy into many 
 a home." 
 
 During the year 1883, several of the nobility have 
 identified themselves in a practical way with the temper- 
 ance cause. Thus, according to the annual report of the 
 
 * " The Eev. S. Stnrges, M.A., Vicar of Wargrave, in his stirring 
 speech in WiUis's Eooms, remarked, ' What a glorious thing it would 
 be if the Princess of Wales and her daughters would assume the blue 
 ribbon ! The Princess of Wales has endeared herself to the people of 
 this country by her many admirable qualities. Eecently she has 
 discountenanced the cruel sport of pigeon-shooting. But what is 
 that compared to the cruel sport of drinking ? ' " — Civurch of England 
 Temperance Chronicle, May 12, 1883.
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 451 
 
 Church of England Temperance Society, just published, 
 " during the year coffee-taverns have been opened in 
 Marylebone, at the sole cost of Viscountess Ossington ; in 
 Wells, chiefly owing to the activity of the Lord Bishop of 
 the Diocese ; and only in January last Lord Pembroke 
 announced his intention of providing similar institutions 
 upon his own estates. ... In May last, Lady de Rothschild 
 invited the leading agriculturists, farmers, and others to a 
 conference at Aston Clinton, when 62 out of 66 farmers 
 invited attended. A resolution approving the payment 
 of wages in money instead of beer was unanimously 
 passed." 
 
 At the laying of the corner-stone of the new wing of 
 the London Temperance Hospital on the 24th of April, 1884, 
 the Duke of Westminster, who officiated, said of alcohol 
 that it had a tendency to produce artificial craving, and 
 that many ignorant people had been led to suppose, because 
 doctors prescribed wine and spirits, they must be a 
 necessary means of cure for most maladies, and this mis- 
 taken notion had laid the groundwork for habits of 
 dangerous self-indulgence which might otherwise never 
 have been formed. The Duke of Westminster informs 
 me that since 1877 there have been " twenty-seven public- 
 houses abolished on his London property." 
 
 It is of great importance that temperance workers The signifi- 
 should know and value the blue ribbon. It has a deep Biue^Ribbon 
 symbolic meaning, and in a manifold sense : sympathy movement. 
 with the fallen, sorrow that such a badge is necessary ; . 
 hope, because of faith in God and man ; and help, by fellow- 
 ship and willingness, to do each his part in saving from 
 the evil of drink. The blue ribbon is a personal protest 
 against di-inking, a Christian Garthaginem prceterea 
 censeo against the public-house, a reminder and check 
 against personal temptation to drink, a protection against 
 solicitations to drink, an example and encouragement to 
 those who might falter and fall, and a bond of fellowship 
 between all those who wish to see man lifted out of the 
 degradation into which alcohol has plunged him. The 
 bit of blue ribbon which Mr. Samuel Morley, M.P., wears 
 in the House of Commons and in the streets of the city, or 
 when presiding over large temperance and other meetings 
 for reform, is greater in its silent influence than anything
 
 452 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 Mr. Glad- 
 stone's 
 utterance 
 as to the 
 significance 
 of the Blue 
 Ribbon 
 movement. 
 
 The plan and 
 organization 
 of the Tem- 
 perance 
 Federatiop 
 of Great 
 Britain, 1883. 
 
 he could say if that little sign were missing. Many ttink 
 that the wearing of the blue i-ibbon is a childish sign of 
 an enthusiasm that will vanish as quickly as it sprung up. 
 But they who wear it hope and pray that, like that tiny 
 portent in the sky, "no bigger than a man's hand," it will 
 spread and spread until among all peoples in all lands 
 the parching thirst, the destroying drought of alcohol, 
 may be quenched in healing streams of pui^e invigorating 
 water. 
 
 The Rev. A. C. Bevington, minister of the Methodist 
 New Connexion Chapel at Hawax-den, writing to the editor 
 of the British Temperance Advocate, says that the Right 
 Honourable W. E. Gladstone, in a recent conversation with 
 him at Hawarden, thus expressed himself relative to the 
 Blue Ribbon movement : — 
 
 " From the first, I have watched the temperance 
 question with gi^eat interest ; but I am bound to say that 
 no phase of it has ever yielded me so much satisfaction 
 as this has done. To witness the large number of ministers 
 of all denominations, and, of course, the still larger number 
 of members of perhaps all the Churches, wearing the 
 ribbon of blue, is an exceedingly gratifying circumstance, 
 and speaks well for the future ; * indeed, I firmly beUeve, 
 as far as this matter is concerned, that much brighter days 
 will soon, in God's good providence, dawn upon us." 
 
 § 100. The initiative in a measure of very gTeat import- 
 ance — if harmony can be maintained — to the temperance 
 movement has just been taken in the proposition of Alder- 
 man Clegg of Sheffield (chaii'man of the British Temperance 
 League), that all the temperance organizations of Great 
 Britain and Ireland should form a Temperance Federa- 
 tion. To this end a meeting was held at Manchester, on 
 the 17th of October, at which some seventeen temperance 
 societies were represented. After long discussion, it was 
 resolved — 
 
 " That in the opinion of this meeting it is desirable to 
 federate the various temperance organizations of the United 
 Kingdom in favour of measures upon which there is a 
 general agreement, and that a committee of delegates be 
 
 * It is an encouraging fact that so important a personage as Sir 
 W. F. Stawell, the Chief Justice of Victoria, has donned the blue 
 ribbon. (See Temperance Record, May 8, lS8-i.)
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 453 
 
 appointed by tliis meeting to confer with the British 
 Temperance League, and to draw the basis upon which 
 snch federation should be founded." 
 
 On the 8th of November, another large conference of 
 delegates from the United Kingdom Temperance organiza- 
 tions was convened at Exeter Hall, representing some two 
 million total abstainers, for the purpose of drawing up a 
 constitution of federation. The following rules were 
 adopted : — 
 
 " 1. That the Federation be styled ' The National Temperance 
 Federation.' 
 
 2. That the objecta of the Federation shall be the promotion of 
 temperance, both by moral suasion and legal enactment, by aid of 
 the joint action of temperance oi-ganizations. 
 
 3. That the Federation shall consist of temperance leagues, unions, 
 associations, and orders, and such other representative organizations 
 as may be approved by the Executive Committee. 
 
 4. That the General Council shall consist of not more than five 
 delegates from each federated society, and shall meet annually in 
 London in January or February ; and an autumnal meeting shall be 
 held in some provincial town. 
 
 5. The officers shall be elected by the General Council at the 
 annual meeting, and shall consist of a president (who shall be 
 elected annually), vice-presidents, treasurer, and secretaries. 
 
 6. The Executive Committee shall consist of one representative 
 president from each federated society, together with the treasurer 
 and secretaries ; and shall meet not less than once a quarter, at such 
 time and place as they shall from time to time determine. 
 
 7. That the Executive Committee shall appoint a Parliamentary 
 Committee, which, during the sitting of Parliament, shall meet once 
 a week, or as often as may be necessary. 
 
 8. That no expenses shall be incurred without the consent of the 
 Executive Committee, and such expenses shall be met by contribu- 
 tions from the federated societies. 
 
 9. That no alteration in the above rules (when once adopted by 
 the General Council) shall be made except at the annual meeting, 
 or at a meeting specially called; and that one month's notice of any 
 proposed alteration shall be given through the secretary, and shall 
 not take effect except there be a two-thirds majority in its favour. 
 
 Suggested Basis. 
 
 The basis of co-operation for the federated societies is 
 that they should work together in view of legislative and 
 other action on the points upon which they are agreed, 
 and bring their influence to bear on Parliament, and with
 
 454 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 her Majesty's Government, and through the countrj 
 generally, as a united body ; such common action to 
 extend, of course, only so far as there is common agree- 
 ment, and to be made subservient to the carrying of 
 measures of positive advance, as well as to the careful 
 guarding against any proposals of a retrograde nature. 
 
 Suggested Points on which Common Action Might be taken. 
 
 1. The Federation might at once, by a united memorial, signed 
 by the officers of each organization, urge on the Cabinet the duty 
 of extending and making perpetual the Irish Sunday Closing Act, 
 and of acceding to the nation's manifest desire for an English 
 Sunday Closing Bill ; and also the duty of their seeing that time is 
 made available during the coming session for such legislation ; and 
 at the proper time the Federation might be strongly represented in 
 the lobby of the House of Commons, in order to ensure the success of 
 these measures. 
 
 2. The federated organizations might urge upon her Majesty's 
 Government the further duty of fulfilling the pledges so often given 
 by them, to deal with the Licensing Laws in general, and to no longer 
 postpone action in this regard ; viewing the now thrice-expressed 
 opinion of the House of Commons in favour of an efficient measure 
 of Local Option. They might urge especially two points : — 
 
 (a) That the control of the issue of licences, whether for the first 
 
 time, or by way of renewal, transfer, or removal, should 
 be in the hands of the ratepayers, and that in present cir- 
 cumstances this may be done by the formation of Licens- 
 ing Control Boards, specially elected for the purpose by 
 the ratepayers, and with full power to withhold all or any 
 of the Licences ; but that in any well-defined area forming 
 part of a district for which a board has been elected, the 
 ratepayers shall have a direct veto for the withholding of 
 all licences. 
 
 (b) That by no parliamentary enactment should there be a 
 
 creating of vested intei'ests in licences, which interests 
 legal decisions have emphatically declared do not exist. 
 With reference to this question also a joint memorial to the 
 
 Cabinet might be of value at this time, as well as the careful watch. 
 
 ing of any Government, or other measure proposed, and prompt 
 
 action either in support of, or opposition, to, or for amendment of, 
 
 the same. 
 
 3. An emphatic joint expression of opinion in favour of the sup- 
 pression of grocers' and o£E licences might likewise be at once for- 
 warded to the Government ; as well as against the power of granting 
 occasional licences, or extension of hours, and in favour of closing 
 public-houses on the days of municipal and parliamentary elections. 
 
 It was also resolved — 1. That the Federation does not
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE ? 455 
 
 approve of, but will oppose to the full extent of its influ- 
 ence, the placing of the power of granting licences in the 
 hands of Town Councils or County Boards. 2. That each 
 organization represented be invited to contribute not less 
 than £5 each, to meet the incidental expenses of the 
 Federation duinng the first year." 
 
 On the 6th of February, 1884, a meeting was held at 
 Exeter Hall by delegates of this proposed federation, and 
 it was resolved to form a National Temperance Federation 
 on the following basis : — 
 
 " The basis of co-operation for the federated societies is 
 that they should work together in view of legislative and 
 other action on the points upon whicb tbey are agreed, 
 and bring their influence to bear on Parliament and with 
 her Majesty's Government, and through the country gene- 
 rally, as a united body ; such common action to extend, of 
 course, only so far as there is common agreement, and to 
 be made subservient to the carrying of measures of positive 
 advance, as well as to the careful guarding against any 
 proposals of a retrograde nature." — ]\Ir. W. T. Caine, M.P., 
 was elected president, and vice-presidents and other ofiicers 
 were appointed. 
 
 § 101. Yet all these noble and heroic efforts will Thefounda- 
 coUapse, as in the past, if they be not founded in individual temperance 
 character and worth. reform in 
 
 On the individual, be he rich or poor, eminent or character 
 obscure ; on his patience, unselfishness, wisdom, constancy, ^^^ worth. 
 and humility, all reform, all regeneration, comes at last to 
 depend ; without these, Church, State, and society, together 
 with their loftiest schemes, fall little by little into moral 
 decay. 
 
 The first thing is, for each man, woman, and child of 
 us, yes, each one, the gi'eatest and the least, to start with 
 the conviction and understanding that tempei'ance is not 
 limited to abstinence from alcoholic liquors, but that it 
 means, as Cicero expressed it, " the unyielding control of 
 reason over lust and over all -wrong tendencies of mind 
 . . . modesty and self-government . . . abstinence from 
 all things not good and entirely innocent in their character.^' 
 
 And to remember that while the work to be done is so
 
 456 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 The hope of 
 temperance 
 reform — like 
 the hope of 
 all other 
 reforms — 
 is vested 
 in love, 
 labour, and 
 humility. 
 
 great that bo one person could ever hope to do it, and the 
 evil to be uprooted so strong and full-grown that "sve may 
 not reasonably look for its subjugation in our own day, yet 
 that the work will be done, the evil overcome, if each one 
 does his part toivards it* 
 
 " The one secret of life and development is not to devise 
 and plan, but to fall in with the forces at work — to do 
 every moment's duty aright." f 
 
 Then, in whatsoever place, circumstance, or condition 
 we are placed, we are to find out, each of us, what our own 
 personal individual duty is, and we shall be sure to find 
 this out if we care supremely to know. 
 
 With the performance of duty will come wisdom, show- 
 ing us how to avoid giving offence, how to undermine 
 and subdue evil without wounding fi'iend or affronting 
 opponent. With wisdom also will come patience, because 
 we shall leam to understand that what is gained easily, 
 too often passes quickly because it is not gained thoroiighly, 
 and we shall learn not to be dismayed by much labour, 
 and much waiting", because we shall, by our persistence 
 and constancy, have learned unselfishness, and know that 
 what we are sowing shall be reaped by them that come 
 
 * A noble instance of just this individual fidelity, as related of 
 the late Mr. Joseph Sturge by the philanthropist Mr. T. B. Smithies, 
 is thus reported in The Christian (March 6, 1883) — 
 
 " One day Mr. Sturge met a drunken man, and questioned him as 
 to his condition. The man replied that he had got drunk at such 
 and such a public-house, and added, ' The beer was made from your 
 barley.' The statement startled him, but it at once influenced his 
 action. The following issue of the Mark Lane Exjiress contained a 
 notice from Messrs. Sturge that under no circumstance^ would they 
 in future supply barley for malting purposes. This decision struck 
 off £8000 a year from their income." 
 
 An equally admirable individual effort for temperance was that 
 made by the Eev. Carr Glynn, Vicar of Kensington, when appointed 
 at Doncaster. Having observed the temptation the public-house 
 offered to early outdoor labourers, he procured a cart, supplied it 
 with a first-class coffee-stand ; went himself with it to places where 
 early outdoor labour was going on, and induced the workmen to take 
 his coffee instead of going to the public-house to get whisky or beer. 
 I have this incident on the authority of Mr. Heaton, Commissioner of 
 Lunacy. 
 
 t See George MacDonald's noble story of Sir Gilhie (London, 
 1879).
 
 WHAT CAN BE DONE? 457 
 
 after us, when " bells in unbuilded spires, and voices of 
 unborn choirs " shall bless our names and the good work 
 we have done ; and we shall be happy in knowing that 
 the saplings we set out, though they grew too slowly to 
 give shade to us, will make the green and healthy ever- 
 lasting bowers where our children's children's homes 
 shall be.
 
 APPENDIX.
 
 THIRTY-SEVENTH EEPOET OF 
 
 TABLE XXII.— Showing the Assigned Causes of Insanity * 
 BoKOUGH Asylums, Eegistered Hospitals, Natal and Military 
 Wales, during the y'ear 1882. 
 
 [The total number of these admissions during 1882 was 
 
 
 Number of instances 
 
 Causes of insanity. 
 
 As 
 
 predisposing 
 cause.f 
 
 A 
 
 s exciti 
 cause.f 
 
 ig 
 
 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 T. 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 T. 
 
 
 Moral. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Domestic trouble (including loss of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 relatives and friends) 
 
 42 
 
 78 
 
 120 
 
 174 
 
 554 
 
 728 
 
 
 Adverse circumstances (including 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 business anxieties and pecuni- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ary difficulties) 
 
 88 
 
 43 
 
 131 
 
 431 
 
 207 
 
 638 
 
 
 Mental anxiety and "worry" (not 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 included iinder the above two 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 heads) ; and overwork 
 
 49 
 
 31 
 
 80 
 
 263 
 
 289 
 
 552 
 
 
 Religious excitement ... 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 20 
 
 155 
 
 188 
 
 343 
 
 
 Love affairs (including seduction) ... 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 19 
 
 39 
 
 129 
 
 168 
 
 
 Fright and nervous shock 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 36 
 
 96 
 
 132 
 
 
 Physical. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Intemperance, in drink 
 
 135 
 
 33 
 
 168 
 
 904 
 
 364 
 
 1,268 
 
 
 ,, sexual 
 
 13 
 
 7 
 
 20 
 
 54 
 
 32 
 
 86 
 
 
 Venereal disease 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 21 
 
 
 Self-abuse (sexual) 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 79 
 
 5 
 
 84 
 
 
 Over-exertion 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 27 
 
 29 
 
 56 
 
 
 Sunstroke 
 
 64 
 
 2 
 
 66 
 
 67 
 
 7 
 
 74 
 
 
 Accident or injury 
 
 104 
 
 20 
 
 124 
 
 160 
 
 35 
 
 195 
 
 
 Pregnancy 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 U 
 
 
 
 37 
 
 37 
 
 
 Parturition and the puerperal state 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 346 
 
 346 
 
 
 Lactation 
 
 — 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 123 
 
 123 
 
 
 Uterine and ovarian disorders 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 95 
 
 95 
 
 
 Puberty 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 30 
 
 33 
 
 
 Change of life 
 
 
 
 88 
 
 88 
 
 
 138 
 
 138 
 
 
 Fevers 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 19 
 
 26 
 
 20 
 
 46 
 
 
 Privation and starvation 
 
 9 
 
 35 
 
 44 
 
 55 
 
 114 
 
 169 
 
 
 Old age 
 
 98 
 
 114 
 
 212 
 
 65 
 
 78 
 
 143 
 
 
 Other bodily diseases or disorders ... 
 
 142 
 
 139 
 
 281 
 
 352 
 
 416 
 
 768 
 
 
 Previous attacks 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 _ 
 
 — 
 
 
 Hereditary influence ascertained ... 
 
 _ 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Congenital defect ascertained 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 Other ascertained causes 
 
 •2.1 
 
 25 
 
 52 
 
 127 
 
 32 
 
 159 
 
 
 Unknown 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * These " causes " are not taken from the " statements " in the papers of admission 
 the asylums. 
 
 t With reference to the above distinction between "predisposing" and "exciting" 
 any individual case. 
 
 X These totals represent the entire number of instances in which the several causes 
 mental disorder. The aggregate of these totals (including " unknown "), of course.
 
 THE COMMISSIONERS IN LUNACY. 
 
 IN THE CASES OP ALL PaTIEXTS ADMITTED INTO CotTNTT AND 
 
 Hospitals, State Asylums, and Licensed Houses in England and 
 
 13,581, being 6,663 of the male, and 6,918 of the female sex.] 
 
 
 in which each cause was assigned. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Proportion (per cent.) to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the total number of 
 
 
 As predisposing or 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 exciting cause (where 
 
 
 Total.+ 
 
 
 patients admitted during 
 
 
 these could not be 
 distinguished.) f 
 
 
 
 the year. 
 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 T. 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 T. 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 T. 
 
 
 66 
 
 82 
 
 148 
 
 282 
 
 714 
 
 996 
 
 4-2 
 
 10-3 
 
 7-3 
 
 
 96 
 
 32 
 
 128 
 
 615 
 
 282 
 
 897 
 
 9-2 
 
 4-0 
 
 6-6 
 
 
 84 
 
 54 
 
 138 
 
 396 
 
 374 
 
 770 
 
 5-9 
 
 5-4 
 
 5-6 
 
 
 35 
 
 33 
 
 68 
 
 196 
 
 235 
 
 431 
 
 2-9 
 
 34 
 
 31 
 
 
 6 
 
 27 
 
 33 
 
 49 
 
 171 
 
 220 
 
 •7 
 
 2-4 
 
 1-6 
 
 
 18 
 
 21 
 
 39 
 
 59 
 
 122 
 
 181 
 
 •9 
 
 1-7 
 
 1-3 
 
 
 269 
 
 74 
 
 343 
 
 1,308 
 
 471 
 
 1,779 
 
 19-6 
 
 6-8 
 
 131 
 
 
 18 
 
 9 
 
 27 
 
 85 
 
 48 
 
 133 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 •7 
 
 1-0 
 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 38 
 
 14 
 
 52 
 
 
 6 
 
 ■2 
 
 •4 
 
 
 25 
 
 1 
 
 26 
 
 120 
 
 8 
 
 128 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 •1 
 
 ■9 
 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 46 
 
 35 
 
 81 
 
 
 7 
 
 •5 
 
 •6 
 
 
 28 
 
 1 
 
 29 
 
 159 
 
 10 
 
 169 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 •1 
 
 1-3 
 
 
 101 
 
 13 
 
 114 
 
 365 
 
 68 
 
 433 
 
 5-5 
 
 10 
 
 3-2 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 — 
 
 55 
 
 55 
 
 — 
 
 •8 
 
 •4 
 
 
 
 
 79 
 
 79 
 
 
 
 456 
 
 456 
 
 — 
 
 6-6 
 
 3-3 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 — 
 
 157 
 
 157 
 
 — 
 
 2-3 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 — 
 
 132 
 
 132 
 
 — 
 
 1-9 
 
 10 
 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 17 
 
 15 
 
 56 
 
 71 
 
 •2 
 
 ■8 
 
 •5 
 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 
 
 274 
 
 274 
 
 — 
 
 3-9 
 
 20 
 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 42 
 
 38 
 
 80 
 
 ■6 
 
 ■5 
 
 •6 
 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 53 
 
 90 
 
 176 
 
 266 
 
 1-3 
 
 2-5 
 
 19 
 
 
 86 
 
 108 
 
 194 
 
 249 
 
 300 
 
 549 
 
 3-7 
 
 4-3 
 
 40 
 
 
 255 
 
 208 
 
 463 
 
 749 
 
 763 
 
 1,512 
 
 11-2 
 
 110 
 
 11-1 
 
 
 — 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 878 
 
 1,273 
 
 2,151 
 
 13-2 
 
 18-4 
 
 15-8 
 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,239 
 
 1,506 
 
 2,745 
 
 18-6 
 
 21-8 
 
 20-3 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 363 
 
 229 
 
 592 
 
 5-4 
 
 3-3 
 
 4-3 
 
 
 50 
 
 34 
 
 84 
 
 204 
 
 91 
 
 295 
 
 3-0 
 
 1-3 
 
 2-1 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 1,417 
 
 1,441 
 
 2,858 
 
 21-3 
 
 20-8 
 
 21-0 
 
 of the patients, but are those which have been verified by the Medical OflBcers of 
 
 causes, it must be understood that no single cause is enumerated more than once in 
 
 (either alone or in combination with other causes) were stated to have produced the 
 exceeds the whole number of patients admitted ; the excess is owing to the combinations.
 
 462 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 TABLE XXIII. — Showing the Assigned Causes of Insanity in 
 Registered Hospitals, Naval and Military Hospitals, State 
 
 THE YEAR 1882, ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THE ClASS OF THE 
 
 Causes of insanity. 
 
 Moral. 
 
 Domestic trouble (including loss of relatives and 
 friends) 
 
 Adverse circumstances (including business anxieties 
 and pecuniary difBculties) 
 
 Mental anxiety and "worry" (not included under 
 the above two heads); and overwork 
 
 Religious excitement ... 
 
 Love affairs (including seduction) 
 
 Fright and nervous shock 
 
 Physical. 
 
 Intemperance, in drink 
 
 „ sexual 
 
 Venereal disease 
 
 Self-abuse (sexual) 
 
 Over-exertion 
 
 Sunstroke 
 
 Accident or injury 
 
 Pregnancy 
 
 Parturition and the puerperal state 
 
 Lactation 
 
 Uterine and ovarian disorders 
 
 Puberty 
 
 Change of life 
 
 Fevers 
 
 Privation and starvation 
 
 Old age 
 
 Other bodily diseases or disorders 
 
 Previous attacks 
 
 Hereditary influence ascertained 
 
 Congenital defect ascertained 
 
 Other ascertained causes 
 
 Unknown 
 
 Number of instances in which 
 
 Prh-ate. 
 
 The total number admitted 
 
 was 2,212. 
 
 (1,134 males and 1,078 females.) 
 
 152 
 
 94 
 
 246 
 
 19 
 
 53 
 
 72 
 
 13 
 
 43 
 
 56 
 
 7 
 
 30 
 
 37 
 
 198 
 
 73 
 
 271 
 
 27 
 
 2 
 
 29 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 29 
 
 4 
 
 33 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 29 
 
 1 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 13 
 
 53 
 
 — 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 — 
 
 66 
 
 66 
 
 — 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 — 
 
 49 
 
 49 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 — 
 
 58 
 
 58 
 
 17 
 
 10 
 
 27 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 1 
 
 31 
 
 35 
 
 66 
 
 102 
 
 105 
 
 207 
 
 146 
 
 194 
 
 340 
 
 214 
 
 236 
 
 450 
 
 77 
 
 53 
 
 130 
 
 97 
 
 22 
 
 119 
 
 170 
 
 157 
 
 327 
 
 T.
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 463 
 
 THE Patients admitted into County and Borough Asylums, 
 Asylums, and Licensed Houses in England and Wales, duking 
 Patients. 
 
 
 each cause was assigned. 
 
 Proportion (per cent.) to the total number of 
 patients in each class admitted during 1882. 
 
 
 PAnPER. 
 
 
 
 
 The total number admitted 
 
 Private. 
 
 Pauper. 
 
 
 was 11,369. 
 
 
 
 
 (5,529 males and 6,840 
 
 
 
 
 females.) 
 
 
 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 T. 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 T. 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 T. 
 
 
 225 
 
 591 
 
 816 
 
 5-0 
 
 11-4 
 
 8-1 
 
 40 
 
 101 
 
 7-1 
 
 
 492 
 
 242 
 
 734 
 
 10-8 
 
 3-7 
 
 7-3 
 
 8-9 
 
 4-1 
 
 6-4 
 
 
 244 
 
 280 
 
 524 
 
 13-4 
 
 8-7 
 
 11-1 
 
 4-4 
 
 4-8 
 
 4-6 
 
 
 in 
 
 182 
 
 359 
 
 1-6 
 
 4-9 
 
 3-2 
 
 3-2- 
 
 31 
 
 31 
 
 
 36 
 
 128 
 
 164 
 
 1-1 
 
 3-9 
 
 2-5 
 
 •6 
 
 2-2 
 
 1-4 
 
 
 52 
 
 92 
 
 144 
 
 •6 
 
 2-8 
 
 1-6 
 
 •9 
 
 1-6 
 
 1-2 
 
 
 1,110 
 
 398 
 
 1,508 
 
 17-4 
 
 6-7 
 
 12-2 
 
 200 
 
 6-8 
 
 13-2 
 
 
 58 
 
 46 
 
 104 
 
 2-4 
 
 •2 
 
 1-3 
 
 1-0 
 
 •8 
 
 •9 
 
 
 23 
 
 13 
 
 36 
 
 1-3 
 
 •1 
 
 •7 
 
 •4 
 
 •2 
 
 ■3 
 
 
 91 
 
 4 
 
 95 
 
 2-5 
 
 •3 
 
 1-5 
 
 1-6 
 
 — 
 
 •8 
 
 
 35 
 
 31 
 
 66 
 
 •9 
 
 ■3 
 
 ■7 
 
 •6 
 
 •5 
 
 •6 
 
 
 130 
 
 9 
 
 139 
 
 2-5 
 
 •1 
 
 1-3 
 
 2-3 
 
 •1 
 
 1-2 
 
 
 325 
 
 55 
 
 380 
 
 3-5 
 
 1-2 
 
 2'4 
 
 5-8 
 
 •9 
 
 3-3 
 
 
 — 
 
 46 
 
 46 
 
 
 
 •8 
 
 •4 
 
 — 
 
 •8 
 
 •4 
 
 
 — 
 
 390 
 
 390 
 
 
 
 61 
 
 2-9 
 
 — 
 
 6-6 
 
 3-4 
 
 
 
 
 146 
 
 146 
 
 
 
 1-0 
 
 •5 
 
 — 
 
 2-5 
 
 1-3 
 
 
 
 
 83 
 
 83 
 
 
 
 4-5 
 
 2-2 
 
 — 
 
 1-4 
 
 •7 
 
 
 12 
 
 48 
 
 60 
 
 •2 
 
 •7 
 
 •5 
 
 •2 
 
 •8 
 
 ■5 
 
 
 — 
 
 216 
 
 216 
 
 
 
 5-3 
 
 2-6 
 
 — 
 
 3-7 
 
 1-9 
 
 
 25 
 
 28 
 
 53 
 
 1-5 
 
 ■9 
 
 1-2 
 
 •4 
 
 •4 
 
 •4 
 
 
 89 
 
 176 
 
 265 
 
 •1 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 1-6 
 
 30 
 
 2-3 
 
 
 218 
 
 265 
 
 483 
 
 2-7 
 
 3-2 
 
 2-9 
 
 3-9 
 
 4-5 
 
 4-2 
 
 
 647 
 
 658 
 
 1,305 
 
 8-9 
 
 9-7 
 
 9-3 
 
 11-7 
 
 11-2 
 
 11-4 
 
 
 732 
 
 1,079 
 
 1,811 
 
 12-8 
 
 17-9 
 
 15-3 
 
 13-2 
 
 18'4 
 
 15-9 
 
 
 1,025 
 
 1,270 
 
 2,295 
 
 18-9 
 
 21-8 
 
 20-3 
 
 18-5 
 
 21-7 
 
 20-2 
 
 
 286 
 
 176 
 
 462 
 
 6-8 
 
 4-9 
 
 5-9 
 
 5-2 
 
 3-0 
 
 40 
 
 
 107 
 
 69 
 
 176 
 
 8-5 
 
 20 
 
 5-4 
 
 1-9 
 
 1-1 
 
 1-5 
 
 
 1,247 
 
 1,284 
 
 2,531 
 
 14-9 
 
 14-5 
 
 14-8 
 
 22-5 
 
 22-0 
 
 22-2
 
 464< 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 TABLE XXIV. — Showing the Assigned Causes op Insanity in 
 
 THE CASES OF THE GENERAL PARALYTICS ADMITTED INTO COUNTY 
 AND BOROrGH ASYLUMS, REGISTERED HOSPITALS, NaVAL AND 
 
 Military Hospitals, State Asylums, and Licensed Houses in 
 England and Wales, during the year 1882.* 
 
 [The total number of these admissions was 1,151, being 923 of the 
 male, and 228 of the female sex.] 
 
 Causes of insanity. 
 
 Number of instances 
 
 in which each 
 cause was assigned. 
 
 Proportion (per cent.) 
 
 to the total number 
 
 of general paralytics 
 
 admitted. 
 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 T. 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 T. 
 
 MOEAL. 
 
 Domestic trouble (including loss of 
 relatives and friends) 
 
 Adverse circumstances (including 
 business anxieties and pecuni- 
 ary difficulties) 
 
 Mental anxiety and "worry" (not 
 included under the above two 
 heads) ; and overwork 
 
 Religious excitement 
 
 Love affairs (including seduction) ... 
 
 Fright and nervous shock 
 
 Phtsicai,. 
 
 Intemperance, in drink 
 
 sexual 
 
 Venereal disease 
 
 Self-abuse (sexual) 
 
 Over-exertion 
 
 Sunstroke 
 
 Accident or injury 
 
 Pregnancy 
 
 Parturition and the puerperal state 
 
 Lactation 
 
 Uterine and ovarian disorders 
 
 Puberty 
 
 Cliange of life 
 
 Fevers ... ... 
 
 Privation and starvation 
 
 Old age 
 
 Other bodily diseases or disorders ... 
 
 Previous attacks 
 
 Hereditary influence ascertained ... 
 Congenital defect ascertained 
 
 Other ascertained causes 
 
 Unknown 
 
 35 
 
 126 
 
 65 
 10 
 3 
 3 
 
 234 
 28 
 9 
 3 
 14 
 32 
 71 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 
 115 
 
 63 
 
 161 
 
 I 
 
 9 
 242 
 
 22 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 1 
 2 
 
 30 
 
 7 
 4 
 
 1 
 3 
 
 I^ 
 
 4 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 35 
 
 18 
 
 42 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 75 
 
 57 
 
 141 
 
 68 
 11 
 5 
 3 
 
 264 
 35 
 13 
 
 3 
 14 
 33 
 74 
 
 4 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 25 
 
 8 
 
 150 
 
 81 
 
 203 
 2 
 
 11 
 317 
 
 .3-8 
 
 13-6 
 
 7-0 
 1-1 
 •3 
 •3 
 
 25-3 
 30 
 1-0 
 •3 
 1-5 
 3-5 
 7-7 
 
 •2 
 
 1-9 
 
 •3 
 
 12-4 
 
 6-8 
 
 17-4 
 •1 
 
 i-o 
 
 26-2 
 
 9-6 
 6-5 
 
 1-3 
 
 •4 
 •9 
 
 13-1 
 30 
 1-7 
 
 •4 
 
 1-3 
 1-7 
 5-7 
 1-7 
 •9 
 
 2-6 
 
 30 
 2-2 
 15-3 
 
 7-8 
 
 18-4 
 •1 
 
 •9 
 32-9 
 
 4 
 12 
 5 
 
 22 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 2 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 13 
 
 7 
 17 
 
 27 
 
 •9 
 
 •2 
 
 •9 
 •9 
 •4 
 •2 
 
 9 
 
 
 1 
 2 
 2 
 8 
 4 
 3 
 1 
 3 
 2 
 
 5 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 5 
 
 * This table may be compared with Table XXII., which shows the Causes of In- 
 sanity in the cases of aH the patients admitted during 1882.
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 465 
 
 TABLE XXV. — Showing the Assigned Cacses of Insanity in the 
 CASES OF the Patients with Suicidal Propensity who were 
 admitted into County and Borough Asylums, Registered 
 Hospitals, Naval and Military Hospitals, State Asylums, 
 and Licensed Houses in England and Wales, during the 
 year 1882.* 
 
 [The total number of these admissions was .3,877, being 1,785 of the 
 male, and 2,092 of the female sex.] 
 
 
 
 
 
 Proportion (percent.) 
 
 
 Number of instances 
 
 to the total number 
 
 Causes of insanity. 
 
 in 
 
 which each 
 
 of patients admitted 
 
 
 cause was ass 
 
 igned. 
 
 with suicidal 
 
 
 
 
 
 propensity. 
 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 T. 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 T. 
 
 Moral. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Domestic trouble (including loss of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 relatives and friends) 
 
 110 
 
 269 
 
 379 
 
 61 
 
 12-8 
 
 9-7 
 
 Adverse circumstances (including 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 business anxieties and pecuni- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ary difficulties) 
 
 121 
 
 104 
 
 225 
 
 6-7 
 
 4-9 
 
 6 
 
 Mental anxiety and "worry" (not 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 included under the above two 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 heads') ; and overwork 
 
 13S 
 
 153 
 
 291 
 
 7-7 
 
 7-3 
 
 7-5 
 
 Religious excitement 
 
 63 
 
 79 
 
 142 
 
 3-5 
 
 3-8 
 
 3-6 
 
 Love affairs (including seduction) ... 
 
 16 
 
 60 
 
 76 
 
 •9 
 
 2-9 
 
 1-9 
 
 Fright and nervous shock 
 
 17 
 
 40 
 
 57 
 
 •9 
 
 1-9 
 
 1-4 
 
 Phtsical. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Intemperance, in drink 
 
 340 
 
 130 
 
 470 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 6-2 
 
 12-1 
 
 „ sexual 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 21 
 
 
 8 
 
 •3 
 
 •5 
 
 Venereal disease 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 
 5 
 
 •2 
 
 •3 
 
 Self-abuse (sexual) 
 
 37 
 
 3 
 
 40 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 •1 
 
 1-0 
 
 Over-exertion 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 
 6 
 
 •5 
 
 •5 
 
 Sunstroke 
 
 26 
 
 2 
 
 2S 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 •1 
 
 •7 
 
 Accident or injury 
 
 100 
 
 25 
 
 123 
 
 5-6 
 
 1-2 
 
 3-2 
 
 Pregnancy 
 
 — 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 — 
 
 •7 
 
 •4 
 
 Parturition and the puerperal state 
 
 — 
 
 147 
 
 147 
 
 — 
 
 70 
 
 3-8 
 
 Lactation 
 
 — 
 
 66 
 
 66 
 
 — 
 
 31 
 
 1-7 
 
 Uterine and ovarian disorders 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 54 
 
 
 
 2-6 
 
 1-4 
 
 Puberty 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 19 
 
 •4 
 
 •6 
 
 •5 
 
 Change of life ... 
 
 — 
 
 112 
 
 112 
 
 — 
 
 5-3 
 
 2-9 
 
 Fevers ' 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 17 
 
 ■6 
 
 •3 
 
 •4 
 
 Privation and starvation 
 
 29 
 
 54 
 
 83 
 
 1-6 
 
 2-6 
 
 2-1 
 
 Old age 
 
 61 
 
 60 
 
 121 
 
 3-4 
 
 2-9 
 
 31 
 
 Other bodily diseases or disorders ... 
 
 210 
 
 226 
 
 436 
 
 11-8 
 
 10-8 
 
 11-2 
 
 Previous attacks 
 
 248 
 
 368 
 
 616 
 
 13-9 
 
 17-6 
 
 15-8 
 
 Hereditary influence ascertained ... 
 
 385 
 
 502 
 
 887 
 
 21-6 
 
 24-0 
 
 22-8 
 
 Congenital defect ascertained 
 
 53 
 
 38 
 
 91 
 
 2-9 
 
 1-8 
 
 2-3 
 
 Otlier ascertained causes 
 
 39 
 
 22 
 
 61 
 
 2-2 
 
 10 
 
 1-6 
 
 Unknown 
 
 344 
 
 3S7 
 
 731 
 
 19-2 
 
 18-5 
 
 18-8 
 
 * This table may be compared with Table XXII., which shows the Causes of 
 Insanity in the cases of all the patients admitted during 1882. 
 
 2 H
 
 466 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
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 Local Option, Prohibition and Compensation. 
 
 The Alliance Neivs for June 28, 1879, had the following 
 leader on 
 
 " The Eights of Sober Men. 
 
 " We hear and read a good deal about the rights of drinkers. 
 We are told, indeed, by the Times that no man now defends 
 drunkenness. Perhaps not. Thousands, however, excuse it, and 
 millions practise it. Men affirm that they will not have Maine 
 Laws, Permissive Bills, Local Option, or anything of the sort. 
 They stand upon what they call their rights. Now, let it be under- 
 stood that no civilized people permit any man absolute freedom of 
 speech and action. We are all under law. Our freedom is not 
 without bounds. There are legal and moral barriers around us. 
 All true life has limitations. Unlimited liberty means fire, 
 slaughter, confusion, and misery. 
 
 " For any man, therefore, to argue about his riehts, and especially 
 about his ri<jht to make, sell, buy, give, and consume strong drink, 
 as though he was alone to be consulted, is the height of selfish 
 folly. Is he not a member of a community ? Do not his actions 
 affect others? Does not his drink introduce an element of danger 
 into society ? And if this is the case, may not his right become 
 obsolete ? May its exercise not become a great wrong ? This is 
 what we contend. 
 
 " Let us illustrate the position. We write this in a metropolitan 
 parish of vast extent, and we have to pay its rates. Let us look at 
 them. For the relief of the poor the rates amount to £51,500. 
 Now, the parish swarms with public-houses, and their victims fill 
 the workhouse. The more people drink, the more rates we have to 
 pay. Have we, then, no rights in this matter? If a public-house, 
 through the pauperism which it produces and perpetuates, takes 
 money out of our purse from year to year, are we not to have the 
 power of saying whether we will have the public-house there ? Are 
 the rights of the selfish drinker supreme ? And have we none ? 
 
 "Let us look at another item. The police costs the parish 
 £13,788. That is a heavy item. But what makes it so? Un- 
 doubtedly it is intemperance, and that boozing which makes men 
 quarrelsome and criminal. The sober man never takes three or 
 four policeman to carry him to a cell and arraign him before a 
 magistrate. It is the alleged right to drink that swells the police 
 rate. Must we, then, pay an army of blue-coated men to keep ia
 
 468 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 order those curious people who seem to think that their right to 
 drink must not be challenged? Must we pay £13,788 for police, 
 and see the force chiefly engaged with the victims of public-houses, 
 and go on paying world without end ? Have we no rights in this 
 matter? We hold that we have, and we shall take care to claim 
 them to the uttermost. 
 
 " Then there is the school board. It costs us £22,618. We do 
 not object to the education of the poor man's child, but has the poor 
 man a right to spend money upon beer, and then tax us to educate 
 his child? Have we no rights in that case as to his beer? Has he 
 and he alone rights in reference to beer, and we none as to the tax 
 which his beer imposes upon us in reference to his child ? 
 
 " This popular belief in the drinker's rights is a mistake. A 
 community has a right to suppress anything which makes men bad 
 citizens, and this is the case with the traffic in strong drink. Let 
 the sober men therefore look after their right in relation to it, and 
 put the traffic down." 
 
 From the Alliance Neios, February 9, 1884 : — 
 
 " The Law of the Traksfer of Licences. 
 
 " No Landlord's Property in the Licence. 
 
 " In the Queen's Bench Division, January 31 (Sittings in Banco 
 in the Lord Chief Justice's Court, before Baron Pollock and Mr. 
 Justice Lopes), an important case was tried — that of The Queen v. 
 The Justices of Derby. This was a public-house licence case, which 
 raised and decided the point that on an application for the transler 
 of a licence the magistrates have an absolute discretion to grant it 
 or refuse it, and may refuse it on the ground that in their opinion 
 there is no necessity for another public-house in the parish, 
 and that, even, although the house is an old one. The question 
 had arisen in the present case amidst these circumstances. The 
 house, which was in the Market-place, Derbj'', was an old one, and 
 it was stated that it had been occupied fur a hundred years by wine 
 merchants with a full public-house licence. In 1865 it was let to 
 two persons named Cox and Bowring on a fourteen years' lease ex- 
 joiring on the first of July, 1879. At the annual licensing meeting 
 in 1876 Cos and Bowring obtained a new licence for new premises 
 they had built in Irougate, and this was renewed at the annual 
 meeting in 1877, the justices then refusing to renew the licence to 
 the Market-place premises, from which in June, 1877, Cox and 
 Bowring bad removed their business. They did not give up posses- 
 sion to the owners until the expiration of the lease in July, 1879, 
 and the premises remained unlicensed after October 15, 1877, till 
 the present time. Miunitt, the applicant, took the premises from 
 the owners in 1879, and a^iplied at the aunual licensing meetings in
 
 APPENDIX. 469 
 
 1879, 1880, 1881, and 1882, for a new licence, which was always 
 refused. In consequence of the decision in The Queen v. The 
 Justices of Liverj^ool in the Court of Appeal in July last, application 
 was made at a special sessions for a transfer licence under section 14 
 of the Act of 1828. This was refused, and the Quarter Sessions on 
 appeal confirmed the refusal, assuming to do so as a matter of dis- 
 cretion. It was admitted that the applicant was a ' fit and proper 
 person,' and that there was no charge against him. 
 
 " Mr. Etherington Smith now moved, on behalf of the owner 
 and new tenant, for a mandamus to the magistrates. He urged 
 that in the case of a transfer of a licence, especially in the case of an 
 old house, there was a kind of 'vested interest' in the owner, and 
 til at there was not such an absolute discretion to grant or refuse a 
 licence as in the case of a new licence. A new licence meant, he 
 submitted, a licence to a house which had not been licensed before, 
 and where the new tenant was a ' fit and proper person,' and there 
 was no charge against him, the licence ought to be transferred, 
 otherwise an outgoing tenant, giving up possession for a year, might 
 lose the licence and seriously injure his landlord's property. 
 
 " Mr. Baron Pollock here asked on what ground did the magis- 
 trates refuse the transfer of the licence ? Mr. E. Smith replied : 
 ' It is believed that it was because they considered there were 
 public-houses enough in the parish without this ; that is, in the 
 exercise of a general and absolute discretion.' 
 
 • " Mr. Justice Lopes cited a text-book, in which it was said : ' In 
 all cases of transfers of licences the discretion of the justices is 
 absolute,' adding that he was disposed to agree in that view and 
 thought it to be right. There certainly was a decision to that 
 eii'ect before the Act of 1872, but that is not now in point, and 
 under the law as it stands tliere is not an absolute discretion to refuse 
 the transfer of a licence to an old house. 
 
 " Mr. Baron Pollock said he should be sorry to lay down any 
 rule which would limit the discretion of the justices furtlier than it 
 had been limited by the Legislature, but he should be still more 
 sorry to give any ground for the belief that a licence in such a case 
 was a kind of property in the landlord. It might be so virtually in 
 some cases, and reasonably so, but that view must not be carried too 
 far : and the notion that there was a property in the landlord in the 
 licence could not be considered as sound law. The only question 
 was whether the magistrates had a discretion, and the case referred 
 to seemed to be in point to show that they had. 
 
 " Mr. Justice Lopes concurred, and held that in cases of transfer 
 of licences the discretion of the magistrates is to be absolute. The 
 application was therefore refused. 
 
 " Commenting on the case the Manchester Examiner says : — 
 ' The contention was, in substance, that when " a fit and proper 
 person " was proffered as a tenant of an old licensed house, the
 
 470 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 magistrates were bound to accept him, and had no right to consider 
 whether there were enough or too many public-houses in the 
 district. It was on this question that the importance of the judg- 
 ment became most evident. Mr. Baron Pollock said he should be 
 sorry to give any ground for the belief that a licence in such a case 
 was a property in the landlord. The notion that there was a pro- 
 perty of the landlord in the licence, he said, could not be considered 
 as sound law. Both judues, in dismissing the appeal, affirmed the 
 absolute right of the magistrates to say yea or nay to applications 
 for transfers as they thought fit, and as the result of a reasonable 
 consideration of the wants of the neighbourhood.' " 
 
 From the Alliance News, November 24, 1883 : — 
 
 " Mr. William Fowler, M.P., and Mr. J. A. Partridge on the 
 Liquor Question. 
 
 " In the course of a capital lecture delivered at the Devonshire 
 Rooms, Cambridge, on Wednesday week, Mr. W. Fowler, M.P., 
 presiding, Mr. J. A. Partridge, of Oxford, said drunkenness hinders 
 the development of the manhood of the nation and mars its pro- 
 sperity. Drunkenness is the voluntary principle applied to taxation 
 by sots and fools. Why should the honest working man carry 
 a drink-made pauper on his back ? But he does if he pays taxes. 
 ' One touch of the tax-gatherer makes the whole world akin.' 
 It is said, and with truth, that the people can't get on the land; 
 but drunkenness keeps them off, as well as bad Land laws. 
 Suppose there are eighty millions of acres in the United Kingdom 
 and Ireland, and that we saved sixty millions sterling yearly 
 out of a hundred and thirty millions drink bill, and that good 
 land can be bought for £60 per acre. In ten years the people 
 might buy up ten millions of acres, or one-eighth part of all 
 our land. Of this, I understand, the thrift and energy of Cambridge 
 men has shown a good example. Take another instance as to trade. 
 With a hundred and thirty millions sterling you might start twenty- 
 six thousand trades — business enterprises — with £5000 capital tor 
 each, employing a hundred pair of bands, turning out £20,000 a 
 year in goods, and paying wages £100 a week each. That would, in 
 the whole country, emjiloy 2,600,000 men, and make £52,000,000 
 worth of goods. Mr. William Fowler, M.P., said he agreed that the 
 question of drunkenness wanted dealing with, and that the great 
 question of the drink ought to be grappled with. How it was to be 
 dealt with was a most important and very difficult question. He 
 knew that some members of Parliament voted for Local Option 
 who did not believe in it. He voted for it because he did believe 
 in it — though not, perhaps, altogether in its application as Sir 
 Wilfrid Lawson would ajDply it. He was for removing the
 
 APPENDIX. 471 
 
 licensing power from the hands of the great unpaid, of whom he 
 was one ; but, whether it was to be done by a special board or by 
 the town councils was a question to be decided. He was not very 
 much in favour of licensing systems of any kind. From what he 
 had observed in America and England, he had come to the conclu- 
 sion that the system was the cause of so much trouble and misery, 
 that it was almost, if not quite, impossible to mend it. There had 
 been a good deal of stir lately about the condition of dwellings in 
 London ; but he thought he had seen in the country cottage property 
 quite as bad as any that could be found in London. He did not 
 know any greater disgrace to the country than some of the cottage 
 property. They would never mend this state of things till the mind 
 of the people of England was moved on the subject. The remedy 
 laid very much in the hands of the people themselves. As soon as 
 they reformed their habits they would refuse to live in such 
 places." 
 
 From the Alliance News, July 31, 1880 : — 
 "Compensation to Publicans. 
 
 " One of the most striking features in connection with the dis- 
 cussion of matters relating to temperance legislation is the prominence 
 given to the question of compensation. It is rarely that any of our 
 public men refer to the question without distinctly acknowledging 
 the right of the publicans to compensation in the event of their 
 trade being disturbed by adverse legislation. It is rather matter 
 for congratulation than otherwise that this question of compensation 
 is being pushed so much to the front, because when one of two 
 belligerents commences negotiations as to the terms of peace, it is a 
 good sign that hostilities will soon cease. Hence prohibitionists 
 regard with some satisfaction this cry for compensation, taking it 
 as a 'sign of the times' that the 'beginning of the end' of the 
 struggle with the traffic is already present with us. 
 
 " It is observable, however, that we have never yet had any 
 specific statement of the claim to be put forward on behalf of the 
 liquor men. It is dealt with in vague generalities, such as that 
 ' there ought to be fair and just compensation paid to those who are 
 engaged in a legal business if it is suppressed ; " but we are never 
 told what would be ' fair and just compensation.' Without asking 
 our opponents to give us a fully worked out plan, we do think it 
 would materially assist the discussion if we had a distinct definition 
 of the principles. 
 
 "Mow, in the case before us there is no property taken — not a 
 single brick or stone is removed ; the barrels and bottles are left 
 where they are ; the furniture, the glasses, and the drink are left in 
 the man's possession. He can do what he chooses with them, they
 
 472 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 are liis to keep or sell — except the drink, which he may not sell ; 
 he is at liberty to put them to some other use, and to invest his 
 capital in some other undertaking. All that the prohibitory law 
 would do would be to prevent him from using his property for a 
 particular purpose. Few people will cave to contend that the State 
 has no right to determine the uses to which a man may apply his 
 property. That is a thing which the State does continually, to the 
 great benefit of the people at large. Clearly, then, as no property is 
 'confiscated,' but all is left with its real owners, the case does not 
 belong to that class to which the rule we have just laid down can 
 be ap]ilied. 
 
 " But other ground is taken up, another position is assumed, 
 which we will endeavour to state as clearly as possible. It is (1) 
 ' That the State having recognized the legality of the trade, by 
 giving it the sanction and protection of the law, cannot change its 
 policy in regard to it without providing against loss to those whom 
 such legislation has induced to enter into the trade.' (2) That 
 while licences are granted for one year only, there is amoral under- 
 standing, stren2:thened by universal practice, that the licence shall 
 be renewed if the licence-holder has not been convicted of an offence 
 against the law. These two propositions contain everything of 
 importance which has been urged in favour of compensation. The 
 first of them seems to imply that if a trade is legal those engaged 
 in it are entitled to compensation in the event of its being suppressed. 
 Now, all trades are legal which the law does not prohibit. It does 
 not require an Act of Parliament to saj^ that the trade in a certain 
 article is legal. The absence of legal restraint is all that is required 
 in order to establish its legality. The point to be kept in miud is 
 this, that special legislation does not make a trade legal, such legis- 
 lation being usually unrlertaken for the purpose of restriction rather 
 than that of giving or assuring liberty. If, for instance, slavery 
 were permitted in our country, and the buying and selling cf men 
 and women were not prohibited by law, if there were no laws what- 
 ever bearing upon such traffic, then it would be perfectly legal. 
 But supposing the Government, for pui-poses of revenue, or the 
 prevention of abuses, gave orders that no person should be allowed 
 to bu}' and sell slaves except those who first obtained a licence 
 from the State official, would the trade be any the more legal on 
 that accoimt ? Not in the least. So far as it was allowed it would 
 be legal, just as it was before, but no more and no less. We claim, 
 then, that so far as legality is concerned the position of the liquor 
 traffic is no better when conducted under licence than if it were 
 free. It may be dealt with in the same waj- and upon the same 
 terms as any of the ordinary trades with which Government sees 
 fit to interfere. This is a point of no little importance to our 
 argument, for we go on to point out that the State has the right 
 to restrict or suppress any trade in the interests of the public
 
 APPENDIX. 473 
 
 without having regard to the effect upon the pecuniary interests 
 of those concerned. Nor does the State lose any of its rights 
 by continuing a certain policy for any length of time. It is 
 always competent to change its policy in any direction v/hich the 
 public good demands, and at any time the public voice decides 
 through its constitutional organs. It is, however, alleged further 
 that this special legislation has induced men to invest their capital 
 in the belief that State policy would remain the same. In other 
 words, thej^ went in for the great gains which a valuable monopoly 
 ensured, and now they are met with the great risks which always 
 accompany great gains, they lay the blame upon other shoulders, 
 and ask that they shall be compensated because they may not con- 
 tinue to buy, sell, and get gain in that particular way. They are 
 simply speculators whose calculations have turned out wrong, and 
 who therefore may claim the nation's pity, but not the nation's 
 money. 
 
 " The history of liquor traffic legislation throws a light upon 
 this subject, which does not lend much colour to the publican's 
 claim, but rarher helps to show its hollowness. Let us look at 
 some of the facts which history reveals, taking those which have 
 the most direct bearing upon the subject under consideration. In 
 1487 an Act was passed empowering magistrates to suppress the 
 liquor traffic wherever they thought fit, thus giving the magistracy 
 a prohibitory power, but no provision was made for compensating 
 those who were suppressed. In 1552 all taverns were suppressed 
 by Act of Parliament, with the exception of forty in London, three 
 in Westminster, eight in York, six in Bristol, and in every other 
 town two. The first of these Acts was a permissive prohibitory 
 one, providing for prohibition by ' local option ; ' but the latter was 
 almost entire prohibition by imperial enactment, and the exercise 
 of the power was not trammelled by considerations as to compensa- 
 tion. At a time when precedents are so much sought after and so 
 highly valued (and the older they are the more valuable they seem 
 to be), it may not be out of place to point to these two instances of 
 legislative suppression without compensation. But to come to a 
 time nearer our own, we will notice the Beer Bill of 1830. The 
 Government of that day, impressed with the state of the country as 
 regarded intemperance, were moved to attempt something in the 
 shape of a remedy, and carried through Parliament the Beer Bill. 
 The effect of this measure was the establishment of a new branch 
 of the liquor traffic separate and distinct from that already in 
 existence. Licences were granted to all and sundry who chose to 
 fulfil the conditions for the sale of beer. We need not stay here to 
 consider the wisdom or folly of this measure ; we are more concerned 
 with the effect which it produced upon those who had previously 
 enjoyed a complete monopoly, and we are still more concerned with 
 the motives by which Parliament was actuated and the object it
 
 474 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 had in view. Parliament thought that by the establishment of a 
 set of houses for the sale and consumption of beer, people would be 
 weaned from spirits, would cease to jiatronize the licensed victualler, 
 and take their money to the beerhouse-keeper. Here, then, we 
 have this fact, that Parliament passed an Act which admitted 
 another class of men to a share in the liquor monopoly with the 
 distinct purpose of damaging the interests of the publicans. Parlia- 
 ment intended that it should be so, it hoped and expected that it 
 would be so, and it did that deliberately without providing for 
 compensating those who would sutler. The publicans felt that they 
 were not being fairly dealt with, and influenced their friends iu 
 Parliament (they have never wanted friends there) to oppose the 
 measure, which was done both in the Lords and Commons. The 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer (Sir H. Goulbourne) admitted that 
 " diminution of the present value of their capital would follow the 
 adoption of the Bill,' but the only alternative before him was this — 
 ' would he lean towards the supposed interests of the smaller class 
 or towards that of the community generally ? This being so, he 
 could not hesitate upon the decision he was bound to take under 
 such circumstances.' This was a clear and bold enunciation of the 
 principle we are endeavouring to lay down, that when the pecuniary 
 interests of a class come in contact with the welfare of the people 
 generally they must be sacrificed. In the end the publicans had to 
 submit to a new rivalry which might work upon them serious loss, 
 and in fact was intended so to do. 
 
 " A more dii-ect interference was that of the Forbes Mackenzie 
 Act for closing public-houses in Scotland during the whole of 
 tiunday. This Act took away about one-twelfth of the time during 
 which Scotch liquor-sellers had been in the habit of conducting 
 their business. This was a direct attempt to diminish their trade, 
 and consequently their profits, and there cannot be a doubt that 
 most publicans in Scotland suflered considerable loss by the operation 
 of that Act. 
 
 " Then, in 1860, we had Mr. Gladstone's Wine Licence Act, 
 which established yet another form of liquor-selling, by permitting 
 grocers and others to sell wine, and in some cases spirits, for con- 
 sumption off the premises. Again, the argument urged iu favour 
 of this Act was, ' that people would be induced to purchase light 
 wines at the grocers' and drink them under the restraining infiuence 
 of home, instead of going to the public-house, where temptation to 
 excess would be much stronger.' The House of Commons accepted 
 the argument, and passed the Bill in the full hope and assurance 
 that the publicans would be injured thereby ; and if such injury 
 has resulted, it has been done without even the mention of such a 
 thing as compensation. 
 
 " The next Act of importance was that of 1869, introduced by 
 Sir Selwyn Ibbetson, which placed beer licences under_ the control
 
 APPENDIX. 475 
 
 of the magistrates and brought beer-sellers under a new set of regu- 
 lations, by which the interests of many of that class were materially 
 affected. There was one provision of the Act which illustrated our 
 argument in a very siDecial manner. Under that Act the rental 
 qualification for beer-houses was very considerably raised, and all 
 houses which were not up to the required stanilard forfeited the 
 licence. It is true that the magistrates gave twelve months' time to 
 afford opportunity for increasing the value by the addition of extra 
 rooms ; but still the fact remains that there were large numbers of 
 beer-sellers who had to forfeit their liceuces throuo;h no fault of their 
 own, but simply through the operation of an Act of Parliament. 
 Here were a number of men who hekl licences for the sale of 
 beer on terms dictated by the State ; they liad done nothing in 
 violation of those terms ; but the State arbitrarily altered the con- 
 ditions and imposed terms they could not fulfil, with the result 
 that they had to relinquish their 'vested right' and sacrifice their 
 ' vested interest.' Jn Liverpool alone the number of beershops was 
 reduced by about 300. All these people were compelled by Act of 
 Parliament to retire from business without compensation. And 
 this cannot be set down as an unforeseen result ; the very purpose 
 and object of the measure was to get rid of the ' low beershops.' 
 
 "In 1872 Mr. Bruce's Bill was passed. Under this Act the 
 hours of sale were reduced by about twenty-four hours a week, some 
 time was taken oft* every day of the week at both ends of the day, 
 and the houses were exposed to stringent inspection and subjected 
 to irksome regulations, of which the keepers loudly complained. 
 Publicans cried out that their interests were being hardly dealt 
 with. It is extremely probable that every publican in the kingdom 
 was injured more or less by the working of this Act. But the cry 
 for compensation was not even raised in its feeblest form. Every- 
 body agreed that the public good, ought to be served even though 
 publicans should lose. 
 
 " The last instance of Parliamentary interference with this trade 
 is that of the Irish Sunday Closing Bill. It will be easily remem- 
 bered how hard the publicans fought against it — how they declared, 
 time after time, that it meant ruin for them, as Sunday was the 
 principal business day with them. But in spite of these declarations 
 the Bill became law. This Bill afforded an opportunity of raising 
 the question of compensation, which was done by Mr. P. J. Smythe, 
 who moved that the Bill be recommitted in order that a clause 
 might be inserted providing compensation to those who would be 
 injured by it. The House rejected the proposal and refused to 
 entertain the idea at all. 
 
 " We have cited these manifold instances of Parliamentary 
 interference in order to show that the conduct of Parliament in this 
 matter lends no support whatever to the theory set up by our 
 opponents. These facts establish one thing of importance in
 
 476 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 relation to this question — that the State has a perfect right to deal 
 as it will with this traffic without regard to the pecuniary losses of 
 individuals. The losjic of these facts seems to be this : — If the 
 iState has a right to damage the interests and depreciate the value 
 of the publicans' property to a small extent in order to serve the 
 common weal, it has the same right to damage them to any extent 
 for the same purpose. If it be granted that Parliament has the 
 right to take away one-twelfth of the publicans' sale without com- 
 pensation, it cannot be denied that it has the same right to take 
 away the remainder. If for a given reason the State can rightly 
 cause a man to lose a penny out of every shilling without com- 
 pensating him for his loss, it has the same right for the same reason 
 to cause him to lose the other elevenpence. There is no difference 
 in principle; it is simply one of degree. It is just as right or just 
 as wrong to rob a man of a penny as a pound. 
 
 " A Working Man." 
 
 From the Alliance Neivs, August 7, 1880 : — 
 " Compensation to Publicans. 
 
 " We now proceed to examine the second part of the case we 
 have sketched. It is based entirely upon the statement that the 
 licensing authority has no power to withdraw licences, except in 
 the case of those who have been convicted of offences against the 
 law; all others they are bound to renew. As a statement of the 
 law, we hold this to be incorrect ; but it undoubtedly is according 
 to the practice of the courts. This is the strongest point our 
 opponents urge, but we shall endeavour to show that it is far too 
 weak to bear the heavy claim they seek to rest upon it. The most 
 that it proves is that at present the magistrates do not exercise 
 power to refuse the renewal of a licence, except for certain 
 reasons. But that does not in the least debar Parliament from 
 expressly conferring the power on them. If Parliament did, any 
 licence renewed afterwards would be renewed clearly subject to 
 being revoked at the next licensing day. To say that the magistrates 
 do not possess a certain power of refusal, does not limit the right of 
 the State in conferring the power. And if the State may rightly 
 confer such a power upon magistrates, it would be equally right 
 for it to place the same power in the hands of the people or their 
 representatives. 
 
 " What is this licence for the loss of which so much money is 
 claimed from the State ? It is simply a legal instrument, giving 
 effect to an agreement between the State on the one hand and an 
 individual on the other, by which the former gives to the latter 
 permission to sell intoxicating liquor for a given period in con- 
 sideration of a specific sum of money. All licences are granted ' for
 
 APPENDIX. 477 
 
 one year, and no longer.' This is most distinctly stated on the 
 back of every licence, along with the other conditions as to per- 
 mitting drunkenness and disorderly conduct. What maj'^ be termed 
 as the contract, then, is neither more nor less than permission to sell 
 liquor at the times and in the manner prescribed by law, for the 
 period of twelve months. When the term for which the licence 
 was granted has expired, and the licensee has been allowed to carry 
 on his trade according to agreement, he has then got all he paid for. 
 He paid for permission to sell, he got it, made the most he could of 
 it for his own benefit ; and, we submit, it is quite competent for 
 Parliament to make a law instructing those who act in its behalf 
 not to renew the engagement. 
 
 " Another important point is the right of Parliament to alter 
 the terms and conditions of licences. These are not permanent, but 
 are, on the contrary, generally being changed. The State has 
 always asserted its right to alter, in any way it thinks fit, the 
 laws under which licences are held. It may cause licences to be 
 granted for six months, a year, or five years; it may decide the 
 days and hours during,which the business may be conducted ; and 
 at the expiration of one licence it can amend, alter, curtail, extend, 
 destroy, or continue any of these conditions as affecting the next 
 year's licence. JS'ow it is claimed on behalf of the publicans that 
 each individual holder of a licence has a vested interest in his 
 licence for a longer period than that for which it has been granted. 
 If that be so, then he must have a vested interest in the same kind 
 of licence for next year as the one he has tliis. For instance, a man 
 having a licence to sell on seven days of the week during 1880 has, 
 according to this theory, a vested interest in a seven days' licence 
 for 1881. If a licence, once granted, becomes the property of him 
 who gets it, and his privileges under it are curtailed by one-tenth, 
 his ' property ' is damaged to precisely that amount. But has the 
 State recognized a licence as property in that sense? We have 
 already seen how the State has terminated the seven days' licence 
 in Scotland and Ireland, and substituted for it a six days' licence, 
 thus diminishing the value of the propertj' without granting any 
 compensation whatever. Either the State has acted unjustly before, 
 or it has now the right to carry the same principle further, and 
 apply it to all the days of the week. The licence cannot be a 
 'property' one day of tne week, and something else another. The 
 Duke of Wellington was in the right when he said, in the discussion 
 on the Beer Bill, ' The fact is, those persons hold their licences from 
 year to year, and at the expiration of each year ali right ceases, and 
 it is onh^ the renewal of the licence which continnes the right.' 
 
 " This leads us to another ])oint, viz., that a licence is a privilege 
 and not a right. Being a privilege, it is not something a man can 
 claim as by right. JS'o man can go before the magistrate and 
 demand a publican's licence as a right ; the only right he has is to
 
 478 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 ask, and it is the ri<Tht of the magistrates to grant or refuse. All 
 the rights in the case belong to the State, and the privileges only 
 belong to the publicans, and these pvivileiies are conferred upon 
 them by the law, and can be modified or abolished at the will of 
 the law-makers. It is absurd to argue that because the State grants 
 a privilege once, it is bound to do so to the end of time. The very 
 power to grant or refuse includes the power to withdraw, otherwise 
 the State can only act in one direction. When this privilege has 
 been granted, the man who receives it usually makes money more 
 rapidly and more easily, perhaps, than he could in any other business. 
 He does so, not because of his business ability, but simply because 
 he is permitted to carry on a trade which those around him may not. 
 He is relieved from tlie pressure of open competition. He is engaged 
 in a protected business. If the privilege which allows him to do 
 this be withdrawn, what injustice is done to him ? He is allowed 
 to retain the money he has made, and the property he has accumu- 
 lated ; he is simply told he must not make any more in that way. 
 And then, forsooth, he is to be compensated, and for what ? For 
 the money he loould have made ! Not compensation for actual loss, 
 but compensation for loss in prospective I 
 
 "It will be readily conceded that the liquor traffic derives its 
 special value from the fact of its being a monopoly. It is this 
 which makes men so anxious to get into it, and to pay so much 
 more than the actual value for premises, goodwill, etc. This is not 
 a value which has been created either by the publican's industry or 
 capital ; it is altogether outside of and independent of any action of 
 his own ; it is a fictitious value created for him by the State. What 
 the State has created it can destroy. There is one method of doing 
 so which no one would dispute the right of the State to employ. It 
 might destroy the monopoly by making the trade free ; then this 
 special fictitious value would be entirely gone, and no one would 
 have the audacity or the impudence to ask for compensation in that 
 case. It is perfectly reasonable to say that if the State has a right 
 to destroy the monopoly by legislating in one direction, it has just 
 the same right to destroy it by legislating in another. 
 
 " There is just one other point which has a special bearing upon 
 the question of permissive prohibition. As everybody knows, 
 publicans are licensed to supply a supposed public want, and not that 
 they may make haste and get rich. If it could be shown that the 
 public ' want ' no longer existed, then the reason for granting licences 
 would be gone; and if the State made it a condition of licensing 
 that the ratepayers of each district should be in favour of it, it would 
 only be exercising its right to impose fresh conditions. 
 
 " We think we have now fully shown that tiiis demand for com- 
 pensation is unreasonable, and that the principles of ' justice and fair- 
 ness' would not be violated by its being disregarded. There maybe 
 cases of special hardship, where the instinct of generosity might
 
 APPENDIX. 479 
 
 prompt some sort of relief; but that would be far different from a 
 wholesale compensation to all the multifarious interests of business 
 and property connected with the traffic. We cannot help thinking 
 that the reason why the publicans and their advocates insist so 
 strongly upon this claim is not because of what they will get so 
 much as of the use they hope to make of it in delaying legislation. 
 They evidently regard it as a sort of ' red rag ' to frighten John Bull 
 with ; but they would better beware how far they press tlieir claim, 
 for there are not wanting indications tiiat if the extinguished part 
 of the traffic is to be compensated it must be at the expense of the 
 remnant. However, it is to be hoped that people and Parliament 
 will not be deterred by any oblique considerations upon this 
 point, but that they will give effect to a policy of justice and fairness 
 towards the people, and that they will not be dismayed by the 
 audacity of a great monopoly which has unfortunately been allowed 
 to grow up, and which has grown at the expense of everything truly 
 great, noble, and good. 
 
 "A Working Man." 
 
 From the Alliance News, April 9, 1881 : — 
 " On Compensation to Discarded Drink Traffickers. 
 
 " At a meeting at Stratford, Essex, on March 16th, the eminent 
 brewer, Mr. E. N. Buxton, avowed himself in favour of Local 
 Option, if interpreted as he and the Risht Honourable John Bright 
 interpret it. But he added that he claimed compensation, though 
 whether to publicans, to brewers, or to distillers — or to all of them 
 — the reports of his speech leave obscure. Moreover, by his tart 
 remark, that many people want to do good, provided that it be 
 not with their own money, he very distinctly implied that it is 
 dishonest to refuse compensation to traders in drink when their 
 licence is not renewed. But while he distinctly claims compensa- 
 tion, he leaves us wholly in the dark on what grounds he imagines 
 his right to rest. Nothing is easier than to say, ' It is our right,' 
 and give no proof; and such a procedure leaves us without any 
 argument to attack. It is, we suppose, a prudent method ; such 
 as a Lord Chancellor counselled to one who was about to become a 
 colonial governor. ' Announce your judgments simply, but never 
 give reasons for them.' Nor is it only those in the trade who so 
 deal with us. Mr. Herbert Gladstone recently seemed to announce 
 in his father's name that compensation to the trade would be an 
 absolute condition of any such reform as we seek; but he gave no 
 reason whatever for compensation ; hence there is nothing to refute. 
 The Riiiht Honourable John Bright certainly in one speech gave a 
 sort of reason ; and for want of something to grapple with, we shall 
 give more attention to his argument than it at all deserves. He
 
 480 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 said the precedent of compensation to slaveholders in 1833 was a 
 reason for compensation to drink-sellers. 
 
 " Xow, first, if precedent is to weigh anythinp:, we have an 
 overwhelming precedent on the opposite side. lu a multitude of 
 rural districts the squires, lords, and magistrates have totally 
 exterminated drink-shups. Above ten years ago a Committee of 
 the Convocation of Canterbury published the names of more than 
 fourteen hundred parishes and townships in that province alone, 
 where this process of extinction was complete, and was acquiesced 
 in. It was done by the mere will of the landlords, over the heads 
 both of the people and of the drink-sellers. No meeting of popular 
 indignation can be quoted to support Professor Fawcett and the 
 late Mr. Stuart Mill on the one side ; nor any appeal to a court of 
 justice on the part of publicans, brewers, or distillers, to demand 
 compensation from the high-handed landlords and magistrates. 
 They have everywhere submitted meekly, without complaint or 
 resistance, to a happy extinction which began probably forty years 
 ago. Such conduct of the drink traffickers is not merely a precedent 
 — that word is too feeble. Their conduct is what lloman laywers 
 would call a prcejudicium, a weighty previous decision, and one 
 pronounced by themselves. We say of them with Cicero, co7i- 
 fitentem hahemus reum ; i.e., we have an o^jponent, who, in a 
 like previous case, confessed he had no claim, and, very wealthy 
 though he is, wisely abstained from spending his money in an 
 utterly hopeless lawsuit. It cannot be pretended that if the people 
 vote down the drink traffic, a claim of compensation at once arises, 
 which did not exist against landlords and magistrates when they 
 extinguished the shops at their private will, and often for their 
 private gain as well as their family comfort. No one bearing the 
 name of Buxton will say that the pecuniary interest of a squire is 
 a more sacred cause than the moral and material welfare of a com- 
 munity ; nor do we believe that the lligiit Honoiu-able John Bright 
 will maintain that a landlord ought to have a greater right to 
 extinguish a local ti'ade at his private will than a local commimity 
 to do the same thing by public vote. The demand of compensation 
 from the public is simply monstrous from traders who never dared 
 to claim it from landlords and magistrates. 
 
 " Nor is this the only precedent whicli utterly confutes the 
 claim. In past centuries it was a received principle, acted upon 
 unanimously, suddenly, and without compensation to traders, to 
 forbid exportation of food, if food were scarce and inconveniently 
 dear. For the same reason the conversion of grain into malt was 
 occasionally stopped; and, however sudden the pri'hibition, no 
 compensation was given. But to assert a negative may be im- 
 prudent. Can, then, Mr. Buxton adduce any instance of compensa- 
 tion in such case ? 
 
 " We now turn to the Right Honourable John Bright's imagined
 
 APPENDIX, 481 
 
 precedent in the compensation to the slaveholders. First of all, we 
 deny that he has any right to call it compensation. ' Mr. Secretary 
 Stanley ' (afterwards Earl of Derby) did, no doubt, call it compensa- 
 tion, but protest against this word was instantly made by Daniel 
 O'Connell, and nothing in the previous speeches and arguments 
 justified the phrase. Parliament voted the twenty millions as a 
 liberal gift to prevent the islands from going out of cultivation 
 through the inability of planters to pay wages ; so great was the 
 waste and extravagance, so extensive were the mortgages. Trembling 
 lest insurrection should ravage and swallow up their whole property, 
 and conscious that the original kidnapping of Africans was illegal, 
 the i)lanters gladly accepted the ample gift ; but had no sooner got 
 it than they called it compensation, and before long declared it to 
 be inadequate. But suppose the Eight Honourable John Bright 
 to be correct in calling it compensation, still it is a gross fallacy to 
 represent it as a precedent applicable to the drink trafiSc; for the 
 slaveholders had one very plausible argument, which may be called 
 their stronghold, to which nothing at all akin can be alleged by 
 the drink traffickers — namely, though the primitive kidnapping 
 was forbidden by English statute, and the colonial law courts had 
 no right to enact an enslavement which English common law 
 ignored, yet as a fact they had winked at the illegality, and had 
 treated the negroes as rightful pro[ierty ; and, what is more, the 
 English courts had acquiesced in the same doctrine in cases which 
 could he quoted. Nay, old Lord Stowell, a most revered judge, 
 dishonoured himself by a decision in favour of slaves, as property, 
 a few years before the Act of Liberation. Can the Right Honourable 
 John Bright appeal to cases in which a publican has sold his 
 (imagined) right to a perpetuity of licence, and a court of law has 
 recognized the sale as a valid transaction? Until he can do so, we 
 have a right to see in his attempt to make the cases parallel, a 
 fallacy quite unworthy of a robust and honest mind. 
 
 " But that is not all. Though he is honoured by the title Privy 
 Councillor, this argument of his for compensation denotes that he 
 has not understood within what limits and for what good reasons 
 precedent may be adduced in argument. Where justice points to 
 a right and a wrong, appeal to precedent is wholly oui of place. 
 Only where there is no clear right and wrong can any weight be 
 given to precedent. If an iujusiice has become ever so customary, 
 that does not constitute a right ; else slavery of the worst type 
 would be justified by precedent. Precedent ought to be invoked 
 only when by reason of the ab^ence of adequate moral argument 
 for right and wrong, good men are liable to quarrel about things in 
 themselves indifferent. In such cases precedent is very valuable. 
 Thus, when a king dies, in one country the chief lawyer, in another 
 the chief ecclesiastic, in another the president of a senate or council, 
 may have the duty of summonuig the notables who are to pronounce 
 
 2 I
 
 482 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 and proclaim the new sovereign. One method may be nearly as 
 good as another ; but unless in each nation precedent decide on the 
 details, confusion and quarrel may arise. But where right and 
 wrong are clear, to flee to precedent or analogy is the part of the 
 sophist, not of the just man. Now in the case before us the right 
 is perfectly clear, and if the Right Honourable John Bright does not 
 see it, so much the worse for his intellect. No publican ever receives 
 a licence to sell intoxicating drink for any previous services which 
 he has done, nor for any personal virtue, but because it is presumed 
 that the public interest needs him. He never receives a licence to 
 last more than twelve months, and Mr. E. N. Buxton tells us that 
 the licence confers a great additional pecuniary value on the house. 
 This the publican, or the brewer behind him, receives gratuitously. 
 What epithet but impudent justly describes the conduct of a man 
 wlio declares that because a privilege is gratuitously granted him 
 for twelve months, therefore he has a right to it for a perpetuity ; 
 and that if it is not renewed he has a just claim to compensation ? 
 The difSculty of reasoning against such pretensions is precisely the 
 same as we encounter when an audacious man proclaims that man- 
 stealing and fornication are legitimate. One knows not from what 
 first principles to argue against men of this class." 
 
 From the Alliance News, December 10, 1881 : — 
 " The ' Pall IMall Gazette ' on Compensation. 
 
 " In a recent number, the Pall Mall Gazette remarked that * it 
 is already sometimes contended that if in the interests of public 
 peace and security the State deems it necessary to deprive any 
 section of its subjects of their lawful property, it is bound to com- 
 pensate the sufferers. A public benefit, it is urijed, should not be 
 sought by the injury of individuals, and if the State confiscates the 
 State should compensate. This principle, they say, was acted on 
 in the case of the abolition of purcliase in the army, in that of the 
 disestablishment of the Irish Church, and in what some take to be 
 the most crucial instance of all, that of the emancijiation of the 
 slaves in the British colonies. Even the holders of Scotch patronage 
 were compensated under the Act abolishing ])atronage; and the 
 admitted necessity for compensating the vested interests engaged in 
 the liquor trade has hitherto been the most formidable obstacle in 
 the path of temperance reformers. What are the answers to this 
 line of argument ? 
 
 " ' In the first place, the cases quoted by way of analogy are not 
 all of them real analogies. Comiiensation to publicans, for instance, 
 has only been proposed in case they should be totally expropriated. 
 In tlic same way the Irish landlords will be compensated whenever 
 the tenants buy up all their rights and interests. Restriction is not
 
 APPENDIX. 483 
 
 the same as expropriation. Where a Sunday Closing Act is put 
 into force the pubHcan is deprived by it of one-seventh of his means 
 of earning a Hvelihood. Yet never either in Ireland or in Wales 
 has compensation for this abrogation of a right of which the publican 
 was previously in full possession been either paid or suggested. 
 Take another case. Before the Licensing Acts were [lassed publicans 
 were entitled to sell drink to children and drunken persons. For 
 reasons of public morality this legal right, which, morally speaking, 
 ought never to have been exercised, was taken away, to the publican's 
 pecuniary detriment, but assuredly no one ever dreamed of offering 
 compensation.' 
 
 " In a letter to the editor of the Fall Mall Gazette, dated 
 Oxford, December 1, ' A. E. M.' writes : ' Sir, — In your article, in 
 which you clearly demonstrated the injustice of a claim for com- 
 pensation by landlords in Ireland who had secured compensation for 
 themselves by rack-renting iu the past, and who thereby had placed 
 themselves in the position rather of debtors to their tenants than of 
 just claimants for compensation, you alluded to the probability of 
 compensation being due to publicans in the event of the houses 
 which are occupied by them being deprived of the licences. These 
 houses are licensed for the benefit of the public. The magistrates 
 annually determine the continuation or withdrawal of the licence. 
 If it is found that a licensed house in a certain locality is hurtful, 
 and if, therefore, the licence is withdrawn, should compensation be 
 given to the publican? Say that in a certain street, consisting of 
 fifty houses of equal value, the proprietor of one of the houses shall 
 have had sufficient local influence to obtain a licence for his house, 
 the value of his house is at once doubled. The value of all the 
 other houses in the street is probably depreciated on account of the 
 nuisance created by the proximity of the public-house ; on the 
 extinction of the public-house, if compensation is to be given to any 
 of the houses in the street, should it be given to the one which has 
 derived great profits for many years on account of the fictitious 
 value given to it in preference to its neighbours ; or should it not 
 rather be given to the houses which have suffered depreciation by 
 reason of the disturbance created by an unpleasant neighbour? 
 The rack-renting landlords in Ireland and the licensed house-owners 
 in England have under the law long enjoyed the advantages of the 
 law. They have both enriched themselves at the expense of others. 
 They have both already received full compensation.' 
 
 " On the following day the editor of the Pall Mall Gazette said 
 — ' The precedent of the compensation paid to the West Indian 
 slave-owners for the emancipation of their slaves is being diligently 
 " worked " by others than Irish landlords. The chairman of the 
 London Licensed Vintners' Protective Association has this week 
 been over to Dublin to explain his views as to the necessity for 
 compensating Irish publicans for the saciifice of one-seventh of their
 
 484 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 business by the Sunday Closinsc Act. " If restrictive measures were 
 passed," said he, " wliy should not the licensed traders be com- 
 pensated for the loss of their business ? Surely they were as much 
 and more entitled to compensation than the West Indian slave- 
 owners were to compensation when the slaves were emancipated." 
 The analogy holds as good in one case as the other. That is to say, 
 it is equally worthless in both.' " 
 
 From the Alliance News, October 9, 1880 : — 
 " Papers on Local Option, read at the Church Congress. 
 " (JRev. Canon Hopkins's Paper.') 
 "what do you mean by local option? 
 
 " This question is sometimes asked, almost with an air of 
 triumph, by persons who think that a satisfactory answer is 
 impossible. The questioner is, of course, an Englishman. He will 
 perhaps say that he knows the English people well ; and that he 
 knows their habits too well. He, for his part, thinks it dangerous 
 to put power into the hands of the people, lest they should use it 
 badly, and make matters worse than they are. Perhaps he takes a 
 different line, and boasts that English people are free. He will 
 oppose anything which curtails their liberty by one jot or one 
 tittle. He hates the petty tyranny of self-righteous majorities. 
 He stands up for the rights of suffering minorities. He is resolved 
 at all costs to uphold the birthright of every Englishman (a right 
 now largely claimed by English women too) to get drunk at his 
 own expense, whenever and wherever he may choose ! 
 
 " Passing by such disputations as these, without further remark, 
 I will give an answer to the question : What do you mean by Local 
 Option ? 
 
 " By Local Option, then, I mean a branch of local self-government. 
 Within living memory the area of local self-government has been 
 progressively widened. Without at all ascribing perfection to this 
 kind of government, I venture to claim for it that in all cases it has 
 worked well. 
 
 " Modern sanitary legislation is an example in point. The 
 first Public Health Act was a measure the general scope of which 
 was to confer large powers upon specified local authorities, which 
 the inhabitants of the locality were at liberty to call into active 
 existence, or not, as they pleased. These powers enabled thtm to 
 remove nuisances, to construct drainage works, to compel house- 
 holders to connect their dwellings with the new drainage system, 
 to provide a supply of pure water, and other things essential to the 
 public-house. Ihere was an outcry then ahout the infringement of 
 private rights. But private rights which had been proved to be
 
 APPENDIX. 485 
 
 public wrongs were compelled to give way. An Englishman's 
 house ceased to he his castle, so far that he could no longer turn it 
 into a public nuisance, and set his neighbours' remonstrances at 
 defiance. Every one was compelled to submit to authority. The 
 best results quickly followed. Pig-styes disappeared from the back 
 streets of our towns, cesspools were filled up, dust-heaps and offal 
 were swept awaj'', poor people were enabled to breathe purer air, 
 and little childreu were not so frequently, as aforetime, stifled in 
 their infancy by sewer gas and foul stenches. Good people rejoiced, 
 and a few malcontents, who used to grow rich upon the rents of over- 
 crowded cellars and other fever dens, after making a snarling protest, 
 in very shame shrank away and vanished into silence and oblivion. 
 
 " Local self-government is no new thins in England. It is older 
 than the parish vestry, older than the Imperial Parliament, older 
 than the venerable convocations of the Church. The sphere of its 
 activities has widened itself into considerable breadth and variety. 
 The people have a potential voice in the management of most of 
 their local affairs, and in the expenditure of the rates they have to 
 pay. Over and above sanitary matters, local officers and local 
 boards or vestries have the control and management of hij?hvvays, 
 and public lighting, and fire-engines ; of constables, of poor relief, 
 and maintenance of lunatics, of elementary education ; as well as 
 limited powers to regulate village feasts, fairs, and statutes. In all 
 these cases there are Acts of Parliament which confer powers and 
 impose restrictions, and provide for official inspection and audit ; 
 but the executive is local, and the funds are raised and expended 
 by local authorities. 
 
 " Local Option, then, is a new branch of local self-government. 
 The advocates of Local Option desire to extend to the drink traffic 
 the control of local self-government. 
 
 " If it be asked why a claim is set up for local control over the 
 sale of strong drink, and not over tiie sale of bread, or meat, or 
 calico, the answer is plain. The law has always controlled the 
 sale of strong drink, and has required periodical certificates of 
 character from all who apply for a periodical renewal of the licence 
 which empowers them to sell strong drink. No new principle is 
 asked for. Restriction and control have always been imposed upon 
 dealers in intoxicating drinks, and never upon butchers, bakers, 
 or haberdashers ; or if ever, thej' are imposed no longer. 
 
 " The claim for local control over the granting, the renewal, the 
 suspension, or the suppression of licences, rests upon clear and well- 
 defined reasons. Why are licensing laws enacted ? Why are 
 licences granted ? They are granted avowedly in the interests of 
 the people at large, not of a class or section only. In fact, licences 
 are avuwedly granted — 
 
 " (1) For the benefit of the locality, i.e., to supply an alleged 
 want or need.
 
 486 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 " (2) For the protection of the locality, i.e., to take care that 
 no harm shall be doae to the lives, or the property, or the morals 
 of the inhabitants. 
 
 " This being so, who are the best and fittest juriges of these 
 things ? Is it better that the people most interested should judge 
 for themselves, or that some other authority should judge for them ? 
 Let us see how the matter really stands. 
 
 " 1. In the first place, the inhabitants of the locality are the 
 persons for whose benefit the licence is granted. It is to quench 
 their thirst that the drinks are sold. It is to supply their wants 
 that the licensed house or houses are to be opened. Who, then, 
 is likely to know what they really want so well as the inhabitants 
 themselves? Who are so likely as they to stand out and make a 
 determined resistance if an attempt should be made to issue 
 licences, not for the benefit of the inhabitants, but for the benefit of 
 some one else, who is to be made rich at their cost, and out of their 
 hard earnings ? 
 
 "2. Once more, the inhabitants of the locality are the persons 
 who must suffer if licences are improperly granted, or if licensed 
 houses are badly conducted. If a man or woman be turned into 
 the streets di'unk and disorderly, tlie inhabitants of the locality 
 have to listen to all the quarrelling and filthy abuse, and noises, 
 and blasphemous outcries which ordinarily go on until the drunkard 
 becomes sober again, or is forcibly removed and locked up. 
 
 "3. Again, tif a drunken man or a drunken woman commits a 
 breach of the peace, or some brutal crime, the inhabitants of the 
 localit}' often get a bad name and a foul reputation, besides having 
 to pay the police who apprehended, the judge who tries the offender, 
 as well as the prison officials, and the prison maintenance, if the 
 culprit be convicted. 
 
 "4. Further than all this, if drunken men and besotted women 
 neglect or refuse to send their children to school, the inhabitants 
 of the locality pay the attendance and visiting officer, whose duty 
 it is to look up neglected children, as well as the expenses of the 
 proceedings ; and they also suffer from the loss of time and labour 
 which necessarily supervenes. 
 
 "5. Once more, if a working man, or many working men, fre- 
 quent the licensed houses, and there squander away the wages 
 which would otherwise feed and clothe and educate their children, 
 some of the inhabitants of the locality have to go hungiy and cold 
 and naked and ignorant, while the sots are drinking themselves 
 drunk, and others have to pay increased poor and education rates 
 to enable the idle and the dissolute to prolong their wasteful 
 orgies ! 
 
 " On these grounds (and I must be content to state them 
 rapidly and briefiy) I assert that the inhabitants of the locality are 
 the natural and fitting judges of two things — (1) of their own wants;
 
 APPENDIX. 487 
 
 (2) of the best way to protect themselves from the manifold injuries 
 which accrue from excessive or improper sales of strong drink. 
 
 "I rest my case upon the naked principles of common sense and 
 common justice. If a gentleman who lives in a park and owns a 
 whole parish can say, 'Our people do not want a public-house, and 
 no one shall compel them to have one' (a kind of local o]ition, be 
 it observed, which prevails in more than eleven hundred parishes in 
 the southern counties of England alone) then I contend that, in 
 some way and to some extent which shall be real and effective, the 
 inhabitants of any and of every locality, be it a street, or a district, 
 or a town, or a village, ought to have the right and the power to 
 say, ' We know our own wants, and we know our own minds ; we 
 do not want more, or we do not want so many public-houses, and 
 we will not have them.' " 
 
 From the Alliance News, June 24, 1882 : — 
 
 " Has the Publican any Claim to Compensation for the 
 Loss OF his Licence under Local Option? 
 
 (By the Bev. S. Edyer, of New Zealand.) 
 
 " As I did not hear Dr. Wallis's address on this subject, I can 
 make no pretence of replying to it ; but I am led to think that it 
 failed, where all attempts to justify compensation do fail, so far as 
 I have been able to see — viz., in giving no answer to two questions : 
 For what specifically is compensation to be given? And who is to 
 give it ? It is no answer to the first to say, ' Compensation is to be 
 given for the loss of the licence,' unless you show some particular 
 injury or injustice that is done to the man from whom you take it ; 
 and that it was not in his power to avoid that injury or injustice. 
 Numbers of people have things taken from them, directly or in- 
 directly, for the loss of which they would never dream of asking 
 compensation. I take from a man the property I have lent or 
 hired out to him, and which he has turned to great profit to himself, 
 because I am not satisfied with his use of it. I take away the 
 liberty I have given him to shoot over my grounds, on which he has 
 reared a lucrative trade in game, because 1 find he is doing mischief. 
 Would any one presume to ask me to give lum compensation ? 
 Certainly not; unless I had explicitly guaranteed to him continued 
 possession, or had inflicted on him some injury that he could not 
 avoid, over and above the discontinuance of the privilege and its 
 fruits. 
 
 " It is no answer to the second question to say, ' He should be 
 compensated out of the public revenue.' Whose is the public 
 revenue? Have the owners of it been instrumental in any way in 
 injuring the publican ? Perhaps half of them have never consented 
 to there being any publican ; perhaps a great number of them have
 
 488 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 strongly protested against it. Why take their money? Many 
 ])eople have exceedingly loose notions about public revenue, as 
 though it belonged to no one, and might be used for any purpose ; 
 whence come many of the greatest calamities that befall nations. 
 The public revenue should be used with more rigid conscientiousness 
 than any private income. A gentleman said to me the other day, 
 ' I know the publicans have no real claim iu justice, but it would 
 be worth while, and it's the easiest and cheapest way, to buy them 
 aU out, and have done with it.' To this I most seriously demur. It 
 is never worth while to do wrong. Though it sometimes looks 
 easy to do a little wrong, and secure a little right, it rarely turns 
 out easy, and never cheap. To take public revenue for what it 
 was not given, and without the owner's consent, is misappropriation 
 —which is just a milder term for robbery ; and, in the end, is 
 neither easy nor cheap. 
 
 " I am wishing, therefore, to inquire into the grounds of com- 
 pensation ; and shall be truly glad if any one, whatever view he 
 may take, can help me to throw any light on so important a 
 question ; which, it may be assumed, we should all wish to see 
 settled in an indisputable manner. 
 
 " There are three kinds of right or jtistice ; and if compensation 
 is right, it must fall under one of three, for there is no other. There 
 is natural right, between man and man ; that is what any man as a 
 man owes to or may claim from any other man, as a man. There 
 is social or legal right, founded on the consent, expressed or tacit, 
 of the many, growing out of the social structure, which is con- 
 tinually being more completely evolved. And there is the higher, 
 moral, or Christian right ; founded on true benevolence, or the second 
 great command. These, I think, cover the whole ground ; or, if 
 not, I should be glad if any one would tell us of any other right, or 
 point out anything erroneous in thus defining the ground. If we 
 want to know whether a thing is right, it is of the first importance 
 to commence the inquiry with a clear conception of all that is 
 involved in the term ' right.' A man clearly has a right to his 
 just debts, to common esteem from his fellow-man, that he may be 
 treated as a man ; to such freedom as does not infringe on another's 
 freedom, so that he may act as a man — he has a right to all this, 
 on the simple ground of his humanity. He has a right to that 
 which the social condition justifies him in expecting, as a member 
 of society, or a citizen. And he has a right to share in that good- 
 will which the highest law of reciprocal love makes every man's 
 duty. If a publican who loses his licence has any claim to com- 
 pensation, such claim must come under one of these definitions of 
 right. This jwint should be here perfectly settled. 
 
 " I. What, then, is the natural right or justice of the case ? 
 
 "There are two species of property to which every man has a 
 natural right, and which you ought not to take from him without
 
 APPENDIX. 489 
 
 adequate compensation. (1) Accumulated property, including all 
 that a man has saved out of his industry, in any form whatever ; 
 and all that has been given to him by those having a right to give 
 it. He has no right to what he has stolen, or what some one else 
 has stolen and given to him. He has no natural right to that 
 subtle kind of property which has been termed the 'unearned 
 increment,' because that entirely depends on society, and, if any at 
 all, must be a social or legal right. The property he can naturally 
 claim must have come to him justly bj' industry or by gift. (2) 
 The other species of property — the term property may appear 
 singular, but is justifiable, as the only appropriate term — to which 
 he has a natural right, is the free use of all his powers, without 
 detriment to others, and the enjoyment of their fruits. It is wrong 
 to prevent any man from cultivating all his faculties, and turning 
 them to the very best advantage, supposing always that he injures 
 no one else. I wish I could know whether any one claims any 
 other risht on natural grounds, for I have not been able to discover 
 any not included in these. It needs great care all through to see 
 precisely on what ground we can stand. 
 
 " Any violation of these rights would form good ground for a 
 claim to compensation. 
 
 " Are they violated in the case we are considering ? 
 
 " When you take away the publican's licence, do you touch his 
 accumulated capital ? Do you touch any of the enormous profits 
 he has made? Do you touch any of his material in building, or in 
 anything else ? Not that I can see. What you do is to say that 
 he shall no longer use it in any particular way, because that way of 
 using it is found to be ruinous to public morality. Now, no man 
 can have a natural right to use any of his projierty in such a way 
 — being an injury to others. You would be wrong in depriving 
 him of his property, but not in forbidding that injurious use of it. 
 Just as a man has no right so to use his firearms as to endanger the 
 lives of his neighbours — and you very properly piohibit his doing 
 so. Suppose he were to say, ' By this prohibition you cut off one 
 source of my revenue — for it is thus I test their strength and 
 efficiency — and I claim compensation,' you would simply smile at 
 his claim. You would say to him, ' It is your business to find out 
 some other way of using them ; but whether you do or do not, 
 whether you can or not, you must not be allowed to endanger your 
 neighbours' lives.' What society or the law might say to such a 
 claim we shall consider by-and-by. To establish any such claim 
 on grounds of natural right is utterly impossible. Ail that he has 
 a natural right to is there untouched, and he can have no natural 
 right to any use of it that is fatal or pernicious to others. It cannot 
 be too often repeated, as lucidly evident, that before you can 
 establish a claim to compensation, you must show that some right 
 has been violated.
 
 490 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 " Though it is not essential to tlie argument, it strengthens it, 
 that even if any claim were allowed, it would be impossible justl}' 
 to estimate it. For you would have to find out all other uses to 
 which that ]iroperty could be put, and their values, and by com- 
 parison to strike the balance, before you could arrive at a fair result 
 — a manifestly impossible thing. 
 
 " Or do you interfere with the man's exercise of his powers and 
 energies? I should readily grant that any such infringement of 
 his natural rights would form an indisputable groimd for compensa- 
 tion, since there is no natural right so perfectly beyond question as 
 that of the use of all one's powers for the great ends of life — always 
 under the condition, without injury to others. Suppose, then, a 
 man has spent time, labour, and money in the cultivation of his 
 powers, in the attainment of special aptitude for any calling, being 
 both legitimate and not injurious to fthers ; and suppose that then, 
 on grounds of public (or private) ability, he is forbidden to exercise 
 that power or skill, the source whence that prohibition proceeds is 
 certainly bound to render compensation. No doubt this feeling is 
 in the minds of many, and is, I think, better founded than any 
 other. In some cases it may be well founded. I should be quite 
 prepared to admit it, exceptionally, so far as jDroviding some other 
 oj^euing. As, for instance, in the case of poor widows and worn-out 
 decrepits. But then this is jntrely exceptional, and must be so 
 treated; not in the very least degree touching the general question. 
 
 "On the general question it has to be considered that no special 
 training is required by the publican ; that in no calling is there less 
 exercise of any powers, either bodily or mental — which accounts for 
 the fact that those who fail in anything (or everything) else take 
 to this ; that any powers employed in this could be better employed 
 otherwise ; that in taking away the licence you leave untouched the 
 best part of his calling as hotel-keei^er ; that if he was ever tit for 
 anything else, he oui^ht to be just as fit for it now, and if not fit for 
 anything else, then his proper place is some refuge for the destitute. 
 
 " But, even bej^ond this — very much so — it may be said, with- 
 out fear of contradiction (it has repeatedly been said by many of 
 those who are best able to judge, publicans themselves), that any 
 other exercise of a man's powers would be preferable, better for the 
 man himself, but for the single circumstance, that no other offers 
 such facilities for making great and rapid gains with very little 
 labour. 
 
 " It is impossible to substantiate any natural right to the 
 • goodwill ' of the business ; for if any right exists, it must rest on 
 social or legal grounds, since the business depends entirely on 
 society and the monopoly granted by law, which can never con- 
 stitute natural right. 
 
 " Thus, I think, we have disposed of the question of natural 
 right, and any claim to compensation fouuded thereon. This is
 
 APPENDIX. 491 
 
 the largest and strongest part of the question, though perhaps 
 not the most difficult, since natural riglit is both universal and 
 perpetual, which, in the very nature of things, no other kind of 
 right can be. 
 
 " II. What is the social or legal right? There are two distinct 
 ways of putting this : 
 
 " (1) I hardly think any one will demur to this principle : 
 That it is not just that law should confer any special privilege on 
 any man, or continue him in the enjoyment of it, except on the 
 ground of some benefit rendered by him, as an equivalent for it. 
 This is, indeed, a fundamental principle of all impartial legislation, 
 as opposed to class legislation, which is always unjust. So perfectly 
 clear is it, that no man ever questions it, unless his self-in tercet 
 comes in and gives a bias. And, without exception, the man who 
 then questions it will be the first stoutly to affirm it against any 
 other claimant to be so exceptionally treated. I know there are 
 people who seem to think that if you only put a wrong thing into 
 a law, you make it right, and so never inquire whether the law 
 itself is right. I do not see much use in arguing with such 
 people : no argument ever touches them. Were they capable of 
 seeing an argument, they would not need showing that no law can 
 make a wrong thing right, and no wrong law can ever originate a 
 legal right. We are considering rights. This is of most essential 
 importance; because you can never establish a claim until you 
 have found a right. You must therefore show that the law is right 
 in granting to the publican the special privilege of the licence. 
 This can be done on no other ground than that of some benefit 
 rendered by him. Surely we have come to a deadlock in the way 
 of compensation here. Eemember the law has no right to confer 
 a privilege without benefit rendered. No right, no claim. Thf^re- 
 fore no claim without benefit rendered. No man who knows what 
 he is talking about can deny that logic. What benefit, then, has 
 the publican rendered for the privilege of his licence ? It is useless 
 to talk about accommodation, convenience, etc., for these now have 
 nothing to do with the licence, though they once had. With all 
 the thousands of houses of accommodation without licences ; with 
 the small accommodation — comparatively — for the extent of the 
 property, with licence, it would be waste time to argue on that 
 ground. The only question is, has the licensed sale of alcohol 
 rendered any benefit ? For an answer to that question I will appeal 
 to others. 
 
 " I would ask the thousands of judges, magistrates, gaolers, 
 keepers of hospitals and asylums, superintendents of police and 
 policemen, who have borne testimony thousands of times, that 
 the service rendered has consisted in the production of crime, 
 disease, insanity, and every form of human wickedness and miser}'. 
 I would ask the thousands of ministers and medical men, who
 
 492 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 would answer : — the first — that it is the great source of irreligion ; 
 the second — that it prodigiously and inevitably swells their pro- 
 fession. I would ask innumerable philanthropists and reformers, 
 who mournfully lament that it is the arch-enemy of all reform and 
 of all benevolent aims. I would ask the millions of injured women 
 and degraded children, whose bruised bodies and silent tears would 
 with eloquent pathos imi)lore that such services might be rendered 
 no longer. I would appeal to the myriads of the dead, dead through 
 drink, whose history is still vocal with the anguish and despair 
 that found no utterance from the living lips. And I know that 
 from this immense crowd of witnesses would come the deep, heart- 
 felt answer, No ! The only service rendered is recorded in blood 
 and tears. And what privilege can that justify ? 
 
 "I must keep the argument fast to this point. No service 
 rendered for it, the privilege of monopoly that the licence confers 
 on the publican is legally and morally unjust. Are you going to 
 compensate a man who has unjustly enjoyed a great commercial 
 privilege, because you say to him, ' We can no longer^continue this 
 injustice in your favour'? That is neither law nor social equity. 
 Both would say, ' The claim for compensation lies rather the other 
 way.' 
 
 " Mr. Chamberlain, M.P. for Birmingham, uses the following 
 language in reference to the Irish lamllords : — -^ I cannot conceive 
 that they have any right to claim compensation for restriction and 
 limitation of powers which they ought never to have been permitted 
 to enjoy. In our English legislation there are numberless precedents 
 in which legal rights have been found to be in conflict with public 
 morality and public interest, and have been restricted and limited ; 
 and I am not aware of any such cases in which compensation has 
 been given to those who have been thus treated.' This is from an 
 article in the Nineteenth Century, the writer of which is trying to 
 disprove Mr. Chamberlain's argument. But the only case he brings 
 forward is that of slavery; while I cannot discover in the article 
 one single intelligible position he takes, still less makes good, against 
 Mr. Chamberlain's clear statement. 
 
 " (2) The other way of looking at it is this : A privilege that 
 the law bestows the law can revoke, provided that no agreement 
 is broken, no promise violated, no understanding set at nought. 
 This can require no further proof. It is so obvious that attempts 
 are always made to bring in tacit promises or understandings; but 
 that cannot be done. No licence is perpetual. Why is it not made 
 so, if that is the intention? Every one knows that a proposition to 
 grant such licences would elicit as indignant a resistance as did 
 Mr. Gladstone's audacious and insane proposition to license railway 
 carriages. It is all very true that the withholding a licence pre- 
 viously granted is not the rule, but it is often done, as recently at 
 the Thames. There and then Mr. Ehrenfried claimed damages.
 
 A.PPENDIX. 493 
 
 Not a little instructive is it that a journal, famous for its advocacy 
 of compensation, told us on that occasion that if Mr. Ehrenfried did 
 not obtain damages, that would settle once for all the question of 
 compensation. We know he did not obtain damages. That, how- 
 ever, did not settle the question of compensation ; but this did : — 
 That he durst not take his case into any court, because he knew, 
 as every one knew, that neither law, nor equity, nor social propriety 
 could have awarded him one penny. It may be true that mea 
 presume upon the renewal of the licence, just as they presume that 
 a volcano will not burst out again because it is now silent ; though 
 it was silent before it buried in ruins or shook to pieces whole 
 cities, with their living multitudes. If men choose to presume, 
 they must in either case take the consequences. It is a miserably 
 poor ground for compensation, that when a man has met a pro- 
 bability with his eyes wide open, the probability has become a 
 reality. I can grant that, forty years aajo, a publican might plead 
 very fairly, ' We ought to have some notice of the withdrawal of 
 this privilege.' But I submit that forty years is a very liberal 
 notice. They had that notice then, such notice as all wise men 
 observe (in the signs of the times), and it has been repeated inces- 
 santly, ever since,"underlined, and in all sorts of conspicuous colours. 
 If they will not take it, that is their own look-out. With the 
 agitation that has gone on for forty years — with the actual adoption 
 of prohibition in almost innumerable places, and compensation never 
 thought of in a single instance — with the rapidly growing convic- 
 tion that come it must — with the admission of Governments that 
 something of the kind is absolutely essential ; if the trade will not 
 accept the notice, I see not how any rational man can wish to 
 compensate it for such enormous bhndness or stupidity. That is 
 one advantage of the gradual progress of the question — which is all 
 that its advocates desire — that every man has due warning. But if 
 he will not be warned, there is no help for him ; he must go down 
 in the storm that he has long seen coming — like all other such men 
 — losing through his wilfulness what, without any trouble, he could 
 in due time have saved from ruin. 
 
 " Thus have we disposed of the social or legal right, unless it 
 can be shown to rest on some ground that 1 have not been able to 
 discover. 
 
 "III. I should admit that there may be still higher grounds 
 on which this question should be considered — higher than either 
 that of natural right or that of legal or social right — that high 
 moral ground on which purest principles of Christian nobleness or 
 generosity should control our conduct. For there are occasions 
 when moral considerations may compel us to a course of action 
 which could not on any ground be claimed from us by others. As 
 I, an individual, may feel myself constrained to conduct which no 
 one could demand of me, so may it be with a community or a body
 
 494 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 of men. We can then imagine that the publicans may be placed 
 in a position such that we should feel it incumbent on us to make 
 the compensation wliich they would have no ground for claiming. 
 Tliis was the ground on which compensation was given in the only 
 case brought forward in this matter— that of slavery. It is the 
 ground on which it might be justified, not as a precedent, but as 
 something new and unexpected in the world's history. Since then 
 other new principles have come to liii;ht. 
 
 " Supposing a man, shut out from profitable employment by 
 a course of events involved in the public welfare, under these con- 
 ditions — that he has not had adequate opportunity to secure himself 
 against injury or loss, and that he is not interfered with as being 
 knowingly in antagonism to the public welfare — the highest 
 principles might compel us to proffer compensation. There are 
 many such cases in which, I think, a right state of society would 
 cheerfully afford lielp wliich the individual could not claim, and 
 any claim to which would certainly not be listened to. But clearly 
 no such moral principle could have any force where the individual 
 has had ample ojipoitunity to jjrotect himself, or where he is inter- 
 fered with in an illegitimate course, i.e., one opposed to the public 
 interests. And here it is important to notice that in reasoning 
 from this higher moral ground no occupation can ever be legitimate 
 that is opposed to the public good. No law can ever make it so ; 
 and all the talk about a legitimate calling or business is, on this 
 ground, quite beside the mark. When we are pretending to stand 
 on high moral grounds, to talk about an honourable calling, a 
 legitimate business, which is ruinous to public morality, is to talk 
 nonsense. If, then, the publican could show that he had not had 
 the opportunity of protecting himself from loss, and that the trade 
 carried on under the licence had not been a public injury, I should 
 admit that so far we might feel bound to give the compensation, 
 which, however, he could not claim. But how is it possible that 
 he should establish either of these conditions, since, as we have seen, 
 he had forty years' warning, and since overwhelming testimonies 
 declare his trade utterly pernicious, of which testimonials he is not 
 and cannot be ignorant ? Now it is not an advantage, and therefore 
 not commended by any moral principle, that private personal duty 
 (to take warning) should be interfered with through public charity; 
 and it is an immense wrong, by any action whatever, to put a 
 premium on conduct that is prejudicial to the welfare of the com- 
 munity. 
 
 " That is one view. But there is another, as we have seen from 
 the question. Who should compensate? The suggestion which has 
 been made, that the trade should compensate its exiled members, 
 has everything in its favour, and should, as it probably will, secure 
 consideration ; but that is hardly the compensation that is asked for. 
 
 " Or, again, if it were possible for those who consider that they
 
 APPENDIX. 495 
 
 have received benefit from the publican, and are therefore under 
 some obligation to him, it might be well enough that they^ in dis- 
 pensing with his services, should give some compensation. But it 
 is to be feared it would be but small. Bat certainly not that the 
 public should— more than half of whom repudiate his services, and 
 consider themselves grievously injured by it. To take their money 
 to compensate the publican is a for more immoral act than to with- 
 hold from the publican that to which he never really had any 
 right. Looking at things from the higher moral teachings, there is 
 nothing for which men may be so severely condemned as the reck- 
 less use of public money. But all use of it is such which leaves 
 out of consideration the object for which, and the true interests of 
 the parties from whom, it was raised. When, then, we bring 
 together the injury inflicted on adjacent property by granting the 
 licence, the injury inilicted on the public by the exercise of the 
 licence, and that all the gains made under the licence are made at 
 the expense of the public, there is not a single moral principle that 
 would not pronounce it an enormous crime against the public to 
 take public money to compensate the trade for being hindered from 
 continuing this prodigious depredation on public propert}'. Nor do 
 I think that any one dispassionately looking into these definite 
 points could well come to any other conclusion — a conclusion not 
 generally reached only because few people will take the trouble to 
 examine with care the ground on which they stand. 
 
 " IV. Here I might close the argument, but that some might 
 think I ought to take more notice of the two points, neither of 
 which, however, form an essential part of the argument, of policy 
 and precedent. To the question whether it might be politic, though 
 not just, to give the compensation in question, I should reply that 
 there may be cases in which a wise policy takes even higher ground 
 than that of exact or abstract justice ; but in no case, especially 
 where the public is concerned, cm it violate the principles of justice, 
 as it undoubtedly would in this case. 
 
 "As to precedents, I am not aware of any in favour of com- 
 pensation except that one often referred to, of slavery in the West 
 Indies. But the force of that, as an example for this, completely 
 fails, inasmuch as there compensation was given for property 
 actually taken away or destroyed as property — the slaves. There 
 is nothing of the kind here. Kor is it in the least likely that that 
 experiment of the £20,000 would be so much as suggested by any 
 one in this day ; an experiment signally reversed in the case of the 
 Southern States of America, The crime of slave-holding is better 
 understood to-day. But, on the other hand, the precedents against 
 compensation are simply innumerable and overwhelming. I have 
 already referred to the number of cases in which the trade is sup- 
 pressed, without any thought of compensation — Sunday closing. 
 Constant changes in trade destroy the livings of thousands upon
 
 496 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 thousands, who never get a penny of compensation. .Railways shut 
 up hosts of roadside houses, destroy the property of coach proprietors 
 and drivers. Nuisances of all sorts are suppressed with great loss 
 to those who profited by them. Personal inconveniences are con- 
 stantly inflicted on individuals where the public good requires it — 
 far too numerous even to name — compensation in no case being 
 allowed. That the principle is as well established as any known 
 law, an exceptional departure from it being asked only for this 
 beneficent trade. 
 
 " And now to sum up our case for the jury. They would be 
 asked for a verdict on these points : — 
 
 " Can the trade establish any valid right, on any ground, natural, 
 legal, or moral, for the enjoyment of a monopoly privilege, of great 
 commercial value, to the unlimited injury of the public ? 
 
 " Is any right violated or wrong done by revoking this privilege, 
 on the ground of this injury? 
 
 " Can any claim for compensation exist where no rigbt is violated 
 and no wrong done ? 
 
 " On each point the verdict would be given, without further 
 consideration, against the plaintiff. 
 
 " The whole history of this melancholy question of alcohol, 
 written not by me, but by others who could not falsify, in deepest 
 black or intensest scarlet, suggests a different solution of the problem. 
 If the trade generally — following the example of an extremely 
 minute fraction of it — listening to the reiterated condemnation of 
 the highest unimpeachable judges — looking on the horrible deeds 
 done — could rise slightly above that contemptible measure of things, 
 money value — contemptible when put in the scales agaiust physical 
 health, prolonged life, uncorrupted character, pure hearts, strong 
 minds, peaceful homes, honour in the Government, integrity in the 
 people — it might appear not so very great an act of self-sacrifice to 
 say : For the world's good we will voluntarily renounce the gains 
 that have never seemed to us perfectly clean. And whether or not 
 compensation came in the shape of money, it would have a ten 
 times better justification than it has now, while it would assuredly 
 come in the shape of respectful admiration of a deed well done, and 
 the still better form of a sense of living and working for the world's 
 progress, instead of its deterioration. i3ut if these have little or no 
 weight, there remains but the single alternative — that what is not 
 voluntarily surrendered will, sooner or later, cease at the stern 
 command of social, mental, moral necessity ; as some one, able to 
 form a judgment, has said to mankind — ' If you will not destroy 
 the liquor traflic, it will destroj'' you.' Every jirinciple of human 
 nature and of the right constitution of tilings must alter, or every 
 day that more reveals that startling but inevitable fact puts com- 
 pensation (to the destroyer of humanity) still lower down among 
 the things never to be thought of."
 
 APPENDIX. 497 
 
 [The foregoing paper was read at a Conference of Temperance 
 Workers, held in the Temperance Hall, Albert Street, Auckland, 
 Xew Zealand, on Friday, February 10, 1882, and is published by 
 the Auckland Total Abstinence Society, in compliance with resolu- 
 tion passed at Conference.] 
 
 2 K
 
 PKEFACE TO BIBLIOGEAPHY. 
 
 Ix researches for the foregoing work the want of a hihliography on 
 the drink question was very much felt, the only attempts at such 
 worth mentioning — so far as I could ascertain within the short 
 time at my command — being Dr. Joseph Frank's Praxeos Medicince, 
 Leipsise, 1818; Prof. Gustav Friedrich Klemm's Allegemeine 
 Culturwissenschaft (11 B.), Leipzig; 1855, Eaige-Delorme et 
 Dechambre's Dictionnaire Ency doped ique des Sciences Medicales 
 (tome ii.), Paris, 1865 ; and the Index-Catalogue of the library of 
 the Surgeon-general's office, U.S. Army (vol i.), Washington, 1880. 
 But these are very inadequate, and therefore I hope that the follow- 
 ing bibliography — consisting almost wholly of works which I have 
 examined in preparing my book — though neither exhaustive nor 
 critical, may do something to assist future researches on this great 
 question. 
 
 The great bulk of the writings are of a scientific character, 
 though many dealing with the historical, political, social, and 
 religious aspects of the question have been included. A few 
 allegories have been entered ; but works of fiction, as well as special 
 writings on the manufacture and adulteration of alcoholic drinks, 
 have been as a rule excluded. 
 
 For the convenience of the reader, the works have been arranged 
 according to countries, thus : — Great Britain and the Colonies, the 
 United States, Germany and France ; the smaller countries in 
 alphabetical order, except Mexico. The works under each country 
 have been placed chronologically, with the authors' names under 
 each year, alphabetically. This rule has been followed strictly 
 except in cases where more than one work of an author is included, 
 when all his works are grouped under the earliest one ; and, in order 
 to make it as easy to find any such work as if it were placed
 
 )00 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 chronologically, I have prefixed to the bibliography a list of the 
 names (occurring under the head of Great Britain, etc) of writers 
 having more than one work inserted, with the year of the first, 
 under which all the rest of the same author will be found. 
 
 As regards Great Britain and the Colonies, I have endeavoured 
 to give as complete a list as possible, in the time at my disposal, of 
 works appearing previous to 1870. Since then their number is 
 legion, and some selection was indispensable. For brevity's sake, 
 titles have been shortened, and writers have been distinguished 
 simply by Bev. if clerical, by Dr. if medical, and by Sir when 
 knighted. Now and then a Prof, has been used, and specially 
 characteristic or well-known titles, as in the case of Archdeacon 
 Jeffries. 
 
 Current temperance literature, i.e., newspapers and journals, have 
 been omitted, except when there have been some special reasons for 
 their insertion. A large number of works for which no date conld 
 be found have been excluded. Many are not in the British 
 Museum, but those which are there have been titled according to 
 its catalogue. In the preparation of the bibliography I have been 
 most kindly assisted by Mr. Garnett and Mr. Eccles, of the 
 British Museum ; and by Mr. T. H. Evans, at the National Temper- 
 ance League publication depot ; but for valuable and constant 
 services, much beyond what I could justly claim because of his 
 position, I am indebted to Mr. John P. Anderson, assistant librarian, 
 of the British Museum. 
 
 Authors of more tban one work. 
 Anstie, Dr. Francis 
 Armstrong, Dr. John 
 Baker, Rev. W. R. ... 
 Beddoes, Dr. Thomas 
 Biggs, Thomas 
 Biuz, Prof. Carl 
 Blacke, Dr. A. 
 Browne, Rev. Peter 
 Bnckingham, J. Silk 
 Burne, Peter ... 
 Burns, Rev. Dawson 
 Carpenter, Dr. Wilh'am 
 Cheyne, Dr. George 
 Conling, Samnel 
 Craikshank, William 
 Dearden, Joseph 
 Denman, James L. 
 
 Year of first work 
 
 ... 1862 
 
 
 1744 
 
 
 . 1838 
 
 
 1793 
 
 
 . 1849 
 
 
 1873 
 
 
 . 1823 
 
 
 1713 
 
 
 . 1834 
 
 
 1847 
 
 
 . 1840 
 
 
 1847 
 
 
 . 1725 
 
 
 1862 
 
 
 . 1847 
 
 
 1840 
 
 
 . 1865
 
 PREFACE TO BIBLIOGEAPHY. 
 
 501 
 
 I 
 
 of more than one work. 
 
 Year of first work 
 
 Dunlop, John 
 
 ... 1828 
 
 Edgar, Eev. John 
 
 1829 
 
 Edmunds, Dr. James 
 
 ... 1867 
 
 ElHson, Rev. H. J. 
 
 1869 
 
 Evans, T. H. 
 
 1882 
 
 Forbes, Sir John 
 
 1847 
 
 French, Rev. R. V. 
 
 1877 
 
 Garrod, Dr. Alfred Baring 
 
 1859 
 
 Gilmore, Eev. A. 
 
 ... 1841 
 
 Green, Samuel 
 
 1848 
 
 Gutlu'ie, Eev. Thomas 
 
 ... 1850 
 
 Hales, Eev. Stephen 
 
 1734 
 
 Hall, Dr. Newman ... 
 
 ... 1844 
 
 Henry, Eev. William 
 
 1761 
 
 Higginbottom, Dr. John 
 
 ... 1842 
 
 Hoyle, William 
 
 1864 
 
 Inwards, Jabez 
 
 ... 1849 
 
 Jeffries, Archdeacon 
 
 1840 
 
 J. H. 
 
 ... 1829 
 
 Kerr, Dr. Norman 
 
 1876 
 
 Kirk, Rev. John 
 
 ... 1862 
 
 Kirton, J. W. ... 
 
 1865 
 
 Lees, Dr. F. E. 
 
 ... 1841 
 
 Lewis, David ... 
 
 1859 
 
 Livesey, Joseph 
 
 ... 1832 
 
 Logan, William 
 
 1849 
 
 Lucas, Dr. Thomas P. 
 
 ... 1874 
 
 Lush, W. J. H. 
 
 1873 
 
 Marcet, Dr. William 
 
 ... 1860 
 
 Miller, Dr. James 
 
 1857 
 
 Montagu, Dr. Basil ... 
 
 ... 1814 
 
 Mudge, Dr. Henry 
 
 1848 
 
 Munroe, Dr. Henry 
 
 ... 1865 
 
 Ogston, Dr. F. 
 
 1883 
 
 Parkes, Dr. Edmund A. 
 
 ... 1870 
 
 Physician, By a 
 
 1829 
 
 Prichard, Dr. James Cowles ... 
 
 ... 1835 
 
 Eeade, Arthur A. 
 
 1883 
 
 Eeid, Rev. William 
 
 ... 1850 
 
 Richardson, Dr. B. W. ... 
 
 1875 
 
 Ridge, Dr. J. J. 
 
 1879 
 
 Eichie, Rev. William 
 
 1855 
 
 Russom, J. 
 
 1849 
 
 Sherlock, Frederick 
 
 1879 
 
 Short, Dr. Thomas ... 
 
 1750 
 
 Smith, Dr. Edward 
 
 1860 
 
 Taylor, John 
 
 ... 1635 
 
 Tryon, Thomas 
 
 1682 
 
 Wightman, Mrs. 
 
 ... 1860
 
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 2m
 
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 532 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
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 534 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
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 538 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
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 Gal, H., Recherches sur le passage des liqueurs alcooliques a travers 
 
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 Henry, L., Sur quelques derives phrenoliques. Comptes rendus des 
 
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 Jaillet, J., Modifications que subit I'alcool, introduit dans 
 
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 Menschutkine, N., Sur les deplacements mutuelles des bases dans 
 
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 rendus des seances de L'Academie des Sciences. Paris, 1883.
 
 558 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
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 1839. 
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 Prague, 1880. 
 
 BELGIUM. 
 
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 Eenseiinements deposes a la Cbambre des Pepresentants. 
 
 BruxeUes, 1868. 
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 BIBLIOGRAPHY. 559 
 
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 1880. 
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 1872. 
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 Belannois, Les MalaHes des buveurs. Bruxelles, 1880. 
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 BruxeUes, 1882 to 1884:'. 
 
 HOLLAND. 
 
 MalinJcrot, Dissertatio ebrietatis pathologia. Traj. ad. Rh. 1723. 
 Ueufel, Von, Dissertatio de Vindemia et torcularibus veterum 
 
 Hebrfeorum. Ultrajecti, 1755. 
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 1791. 
 Sinclair, J., Handbuch der Gesundheit, etc. Amsterdam, 1808. 
 Fuhri, A. D., De potuum S()irituosorum affectibus in corpus 
 
 humanum. Lugdimi Batavorum, 1849. 
 Schroeder vand der Kalk, J. L. C, Voorlezing over den inloed van 
 
 sterlven drank op bet ligchaam. Utrecht, 1850. 
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 Florent Van der Ven, Het misbruik van sterke dranken. Almanak
 
 560 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 van de Xederlandsche vereeniging tot afschaffing van sterken 
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 ITALY. 
 
 Baimundus, Lullius, De secretis Naturae seu quinta essentia. (Said 
 
 to have written some sixty treatises on chemical subjects.) 
 
 Venetiis, 1486. 
 Beroaldus, Philippus, Declamatis Ebriosi, Scortatoris, Aleatoris de 
 
 Vitiositate disceptantiura. Bononige, 1499. 
 Arnaldus, de Villa Nova, De Vinis. Venetiis, 1506. 
 Praefectuf^, Jacobus, Symposium de Vinis. Romas, 1536. 
 
 , De Diversorum vini generum natura liber. Venetiis, 1559. 
 
 Cornaro, Leivis, De Vitte Sobri^e Commodis. Padua, 1558. 
 Cagnatl, Marsilio, Variarum observationum libri quatuor. Eomse, 
 
 1587. 
 Bacci, Andrea, De natural! vinorum bistoria, de vinis Italias, et de 
 
 conviviis antiquorum, libri septem. Romaj, 1596. 
 Saldi, J. F., De natura aquse vitse. Genua3 (Genoa), 1620. 
 Caldera, Oasper De Heredia, Tribunal, medicum, magicum, et 
 
 politicum. Lugduni Batavorum, 1658. 
 Carlucci, L., Dissertazioni chymicofisiche sopra I'analise del vino. 
 
 Napoli (Naples), 1756. 
 Fontana, Fdice, Richerche fisicbe sopra il veleno della Vipera. 
 
 Lucca, 1767, 
 Bosellini, N. F. I. B., I Monumenti dell' Egitto e della Nubia. 
 
 Pisa. Part L, vols, i., iv., 1832-1841. Part II., vols, i., iii., 
 
 1832-1836. Part III., vol. i., 1844. 
 Tagliabue, Antonio, II Suicide. Milano, 1871. 
 Bonchi, J. et Salvioli O., Studio critico-sperimentale intorno ad 
 
 alcune particolaritse del-lazione fisiologica dell' alcool. Modena, 
 
 1875. 
 Gain, Vitaliano, Absintismo. Memoria. . . . Con Alcuni appunti 
 
 del Professore F. Coletti e risposta dell' autore. Padova, 1877. 
 Venuti, Filippo, Dissertazione de' coli vinarij degli anticbi. 
 Terzi, Ernesto, Della ubbriacbezza in Italia et dei mezzi per 
 
 rimediarvi. Milan, 1878.
 
 BIBLIOGKAPHY. 561 
 
 RUSSIA. 
 
 Pallas, Peter Simon, Reise durch verschiedene. Provinzen des 
 Ruszischen Reichs, Bd. i. p. 315, etc., Coumiss. St. Peters- 
 burg, 1771-1776. 
 
 Salvatori, Comment, pathol. et therap. de ebriositate. (Comment. 
 Soc. Phys.) Mosquensis, 1821. 
 
 Lipinski, C, De actionepotionum spirituosorum in corpus humanum. 
 Cracovife, 1839. 
 
 Strauch, E., Demonstratione spiritus vini in corpus ingesti. Dorpat, 
 1852. 
 
 Masing, E., De mutationibus spiritus vini in corpus ingesti. 
 Dorpat, 1854, 
 
 Hermann, Ueber den Missbrauch geistiger, Getranke in Russlaude 
 Vortrag im Verein Deutscher Aertze in St. Petersburg, Nov. 
 13, 1867. St. Petersburgher medicinische. Zeitsclirift, xiii., 
 B. s., 65. St. Petersburg, 1867. 
 
 Zimmerherg, H., Untersuchungen iiber den Einfluss des Allvohols 
 auf die Tbatiekeit des Herzens. Inaugural dissertation. 
 Dorpat, 1869. 
 
 Granfelt, A. A., Nvkyajan Raittiusliike. (The Temperance Move- 
 ment of Our Time.) Helsingfors, 1883. 
 
 SWEDEN. 
 
 Linne, Carl V., Anmarkningar om Briinvin. Stockholm, 1748. 
 Ball, Stephen, Formaning till Branvins-supare. Stockholm, 1754. 
 Wallerius, J. G., Dissertatio de prima vinorum origine causali. 
 
 Holmia3 (Stockholm), 1760. 
 Linnceus, Carl V., Dissertatio academica inebriantia. Respond. 0. 
 
 R. Alander Upsaliaj, 1762. 
 Bergius, Petrus, Dissertatio in qua spiritus frumenti proponitnr. 
 
 Dpsaliaj, 1764. 
 Westerdahl, Fr., Branvinets ode i S verge. 1765. 
 Neikter, J. F., De Vini usu foeminis iiomse interdicto. Upsalite, 
 
 1789. 
 Erikson, G., Om Branvinet och des missbruk. Norrkoping, 1831. 
 , Om Branvinets inflytande pa meniskokroppen. Stockholm, 
 
 1831. 
 , Om Branvinets Nytta och Skada. Mariestad, 1838. 
 
 o 
 
 Ekman, 0. Clir., Nagra Ord om Branvinets Bruk och Missbruk. 
 
 Calmar, 1839. 
 Husg, Magnus, Alcoholismus Chronicus. Stockholm, 1849, (Vol. ii. 
 
 1851.) .. 
 Smiih, L. 0., Oj^pet bref till Sverige's Arbetare. Stockholm, 1883. 
 
 2o
 
 o62 THE FOUNDATION OF DEATH. 
 
 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 Savonarola, M., De Arte conficiendi aquam vitse simplicem et com- 
 positam deque ejus vi admirabiliad conservandam sanitatem et 
 corporis humani ajgritudines curandas. Basiliaj, 1597. 
 
 Zimmermann, Johann G. von, Der Erl'ahrung iu der Arzneykunst. 
 Zurich, 1764. 
 
 Pictor, Sermon medico practicse (vol. ii. Haller Bibliotheca). Bernse, 
 1776. 
 
 Lehmann, Ueber die Folgen des Missbrauchs der geistigen Getranke. 
 Bern, 1837. 
 
 Hitzig, Eduard, Ziele und Zwecke der Psychiatrie. Ziirich, 1876. 
 
 Stierlin, R., Ueber Weinfalschung und Farbung. Bern, 1877. 
 
 , Das Bier, seine Verfiilschungen und die Mittel, solche nachzu- 
 
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 Sell, E., Ueber Bier und seine Vertalschungen. Bern, 1878. 
 
 MEXICO. 
 
 Moreno, J., E Apuntes sobre el empleo therepeutico del Alcohol. 
 Mexico, 1871.
 
 INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 
 
 A 
 
 Adamson, Eev. Dr., 346, 393 
 Albany, Dnke of, 331, 417, 432 
 Albncassis, 30 
 Alden, Henry M., 13 
 Allemand, Dr. L., 89, 93 
 Alliance News, 154 note, 239 note, 
 
 256, 341, 354 note, 355, 371, 
 
 Appendix 647 
 Amyot, 174 
 Andersen, 30 
 Anstie, Dr., 107, 120, 359 
 Aristotle, 31, 34 
 Armstrong, Sir William, 372 
 Arnot, Hon. David, 351 note 
 Asiatic Jourjial, 27 note 
 Athensens, 17 
 Avicenna, 30 
 Aodige, Dr., 96 
 
 B 
 
 Bacon, Lord, 174, 226 
 Baer, Dr., 28, 33, 55, 67, 82, 101, 
 123, 176, 280, 281, 321, 332, 333 
 Baker, W. M., 60 note 
 Balfonr, Mr., 442 
 
 , Eight Hon., 356 note 
 
 Balzac, Honore de, 226 
 Barry, Eev. Edward, 174 
 Bartley, Mr., 400 
 Basset, 38 
 
 Bauer, Professor J., 89 
 Baxter, Dr. J., 316 
 
 Bayly, Mary, 252, 380 
 
 , Captain, 380 
 
 , Mrs. George, 380 
 
 Beaumont, Dr. Thomas, 204 
 
 , Dr. W., 74, 93 
 
 Becamp, 43 
 Becquerel, Dr., 64 
 Beddoes, Dr., 123, 183 
 Beecher, Henry W., 230 
 Benson, Archbishop, 420 
 
 , Bishop, 310 
 
 Bergenroth, 308 
 Bergeron, Dr., 54 
 Bevan, Llewellyn D., 370 
 Bevington, Rev. A. C, 452 
 Billing, Dr. Archibald, 103, 204 
 Binz, Professor, 96 
 Blanqui, 408 
 Bock, Dr., 157 note 
 Boetius, Hector, 23 
 Baker, Dr., 83 
 Bolas, 42 
 
 Bouchardat, Dr., 90 
 Bourgeois, Dr., 172 
 Bourne, Stephen, 235 
 Boussinganlt, 41 
 Bowly, Samuel, 320 
 Bowman, Dr., 72, 201 
 Boyle, R., 35 
 Branthwaite, Dr. H., 225 
 Bridgett, Eev. Father, 25 note 
 Brinton, Dr., 53 
 
 British Medical Journal, 186, 207 
 Brockhaus' Conversationxicon, 
 38 note
 
 5G4 
 
 INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 
 
 Tlrooke, Rev. Stopford A., 122, 323 
 Browne, Dr. J. Crichton, 113 
 Brunton, Dr. T. Lauder, 79, 92, 
 
 103, 104 
 Bnfeon, 230 
 
 BuUein, Dr. William, 309 
 Burdett-Coutts, Baroness, 387 note 
 Burggraeve, Dr. A., 207 
 Burue, Peter, 425 
 Burns, Rev. Dr. Dawson, 234, 235, 
 
 240, 269 note, 311 
 
 , Mrs. Dawson, 360 
 
 B urton, Walter, 49, 52 
 Buxton, E. N., 399 
 
 C 
 
 Caesar, Julius, 23 
 Caine, W. T., M.P., 253, 455 
 Camden, William, 309 
 Camp, Maxime du, 280 
 Campbell, T., 295 
 Cantile, Dr. James, 99 
 Carlisle, Bishop of, 422 
 
 , Lord, 387 
 
 , Sir A., 70, 218 
 
 Carpenter, Dr. W. B., 63, 84 note, 
 
 318 
 Cash, Thomas, 268 
 Cayley, Dr. William, 205 
 Cetewayo, 354 
 Chamberlain, Right Hon. Joseph, 
 
 M.P., 278, 402 
 Channing, Rev. W. E., 166, 298, 
 
 395, 41 1., 428 
 Chapin, Rev. Dr., 437 
 Cheyne, Dr. George, 182, 328 note, 
 387 
 
 , Dr. John, 160, 183, 312 
 
 Christian, The, 368 note 
 
 Christison, Professor, 106, 129 
 
 Church of England Teiwperance 
 Chronicle, 375 
 
 Clark, Sir Andrew, 57, 121 
 
 Classical Journal, 17 note 
 
 Clegg, Alderman, 452 
 
 Clouston, Dr. T. S., 272 
 
 Cobden, Richard, 414 
 
 Cole, Mr., 54 
 
 Coleridge, L(ird Chief Justice, 232 
 
 Collins, Sir William, 238 
 
 Colquhoun, Mr., 3 i3 note 
 
 Connaught, Duke of, 432 note 
 
 Copland, Dr., 316 
 
 Corbet, W. J., M.P., 272 
 
 Cowen, Joseph, M.P., 414 
 
 Crane, Rev. Dr., 291 
 
 Crosby, Rev. Dr. Howard, 278, 326 
 
 D 
 
 Daily Chronicle, 381 
 
 Daily News, 52, 275, 355, 369, 405 
 
 Daily Telegraph, 51, 262, 296 note, 
 
 346 
 Darwin, Dr. Erasmus, 131, 174, 
 
 183 
 Davenport, W. Bromley, M.P., 132 
 Davies, Dr. 95 
 Davies, Dr. Pritchard, 270 
 De Foe, Daniel, 310 
 Delevan, E. C, 338 note, 425 
 Deacon, J. F., 341 
 Denman, James, 50 
 Denman, Mr. Justice, 232 
 Derby, Lord, 242 
 De Saussure, 41 
 Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 21 
 Disney, John, 229 note 
 Dixon, Hepworth, 442 
 Dogiel, Professor, 72, 82 
 Donnat, Leon, 393 
 Dowse, Baron, 232 
 Draco, 20 
 
 Drysdale, Dr. C. R., 88, 131, 269 
 Dudley, Col., 46 note 
 Du Halde, 28 note 
 Dujardin-Beaumetz, Dr., 96 
 Dumarquay, Dr., 95 
 Dumas, 37 
 Dumeril, Dr., 95 
 Dunlop, John, 185 
 Duroy, Dr., 89, 93 
 
 E 
 
 Eccles, A. E., 441 
 
 Echo, 42 note, 266, 339, 343 note, 
 
 383 note 
 Edinburgh Review, 50, 53 
 Edmunds, Dr. James, 77 note, 78,
 
 INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 
 
 86, 109, 128 note, 202, 216, 222, 
 
 225, 267 
 Edwards, H. E., 418 note 
 Ellison, Canon, 341, 368, 419 
 Evening Standard, Til, 412 
 Exeter, Bishop of, 393, 426 
 
 F 
 
 Fabius Pictor, 21 
 
 Fabroni, Adam, 8 note 
 
 Farrar, Canon, 254, 344 
 
 Farre, Dr. J. K., 58 
 
 Figg, Dr. E. G., 91, 92, 94, 107, 
 
 121, 173, 175, 219, 283 
 Finkelburg, Dr., 282 
 Fiske, Professor John, 111, 120 
 Fitzgerald, Mr. Justice, 231 
 Flint, Dr. Austin, 63, 68, 85, 88 
 Flourens, Professor P., 58 
 Fliigge, Professor, 40 
 Forbes, Sir John, 103 
 Fournier, Alfred, 47 
 Frere.Orban, H. J. W., 275, 393 
 Friend, Dr. J., 30 
 Friend, The, 352 7iote 
 Fuller, 338 
 
 G 
 
 Ganghofner, Dr. F., 269 
 Garnett, Dr., 317 
 Garrod, Dr. A. Baring, 53, 131 
 Geber, 29 
 
 Gendron, Dr. E., 176, 280 iiote 
 -George, Henry, 409 
 Gilbert, T., 444 
 Gilchrist, Dr., 271 
 Gladstone, Eight Hon. W. E., 231, 
 
 345, 400, 452 
 Globe, The, 370 
 Glynn, Rev. Carr, 456 
 Gordon, Dr., 317 
 Gould, Rev. Baring, 7, 9 
 Grimsby News, 412 
 Grindrod, Dr. Ralph Barnes, 23, 
 
 218, 316, 321, 433 
 Grove, Mr. Justice, 231 
 Gull, Sir William, 226, 266, 318 
 Guthrie, Rev. Dr. J., 32 note 
 Gutzeit, 43 
 
 Haggenmacher, Otto, 15 
 
 Hale, Sir Matthew, 232 
 
 Hales, Dr., 83 note 
 
 Hamburger, J., 10 
 
 Hamilton, Lord Claud. 438 
 
 Hammond, Dr. W. A., 79 
 
 Hancock, Rev. Dr., 204 
 
 Hare, Dr. Charles, 197, 374 
 
 Hargreaves, Dr., 275 
 
 Harnack, Dr., 199 7iote 
 
 Harrington, Sir John, 310 
 
 Hart, Ernest, 186 
 
 Hawkins, Mr. Justice, 233 
 
 Hawksley, Dr. Thomas, 375 
 
 Headland, Dr., 103 
 
 Heath, J. P., 350 note 
 
 Heaton, Mr., 271, 456 note 
 
 Hermann, Dr. L., 57 
 
 Hermes Trismegistus, 31 
 
 Herodotus, 17, 58 
 
 Hewitt, Rev. Dr., 321 
 
 Hibberd, Shirley, 303 
 
 Higginbottom, Dr., 183, 195 
 
 Hinton, Dr. James, 92 
 
 Hoefer, 30 
 
 Holinshed, R., 182 
 
 Holland, Dr. J. G., 437, 444 
 
 Howard, Bronson, 447 
 
 Howie, Dr., 115 
 
 Hoyle, William, 234-238, 246-252, 
 
 269, 271 
 Hnddleston, Baron, 232 
 Huf eland, Dr., 158 
 Humboldt, F. H. A. von, 27 
 Huss, Dr. Magnus, 29, 33, 128, 
 
 141 
 
 Jaccoud, Professor Sigismund, 176 
 Jackson, Dr. Robert, 204 
 James, Dr., 183 
 Jeffreys, Archdeacon, 426 
 
 , Dr. Julius, 184 
 
 Johnson, Dr. Edward, 32 
 
 , Dr. James, 317 
 
 Jones, Edward, 243 
 Juvenal, 13
 
 566 
 
 INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 
 
 K 
 
 Kerr, Dr. Norman, 130, 177, 182, 
 184, 185, 265, 267, 372, 375 
 
 Keshub Chnnder Sen, 35-i 
 
 King, Dr. T., 103 
 
 , Vice-Admiral Sir W., 297 
 
 note 
 
 Kirk, Rev. John, 245 
 
 Kirkegaard, Soren, 299 
 
 Klein, Dr. L. A., 67 
 
 Koch, Dr. Albin, 64 
 
 Kolliker, 40 
 
 Kopp, H., 32 
 
 Kotzebue, 7 
 
 Kraft-Ebing, Professor, 140, 144, 
 149, 178 
 
 Kuyper, Herr, 94 
 
 Lactantius, 13 
 Lamb, Charles, 159 
 Lanceraax, Dr. E., 175, 281 
 Lancet, 55, 76, 190, 266, 313, 361, 
 
 371, 390 
 Latour, Cagniard, 40 
 Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent, 35 
 Lawson, Sir Wilfrid, 241, 345 
 Le Clerc, M., 30 
 Lecoint, Dr., 95 
 Lees, Dr. F. R., 8 note, 73, 322 
 
 note, 344 
 Leigh, Canon, 362 
 Leo Africanns, 29 
 Lewis, David, 238, 267, 344, 394, 
 
 442 
 Libavius, 33 note 
 Licensed Victualler's Simple Guide, 
 
 27 note, 53 
 Liebig, Justus von, 40, 88, 97, 123 
 Lightfoot, Dr., 7 
 Livesey, Joseph, 331, 411 
 Livy, 21 
 
 Lockhart-Robinson, Dr., 269 
 Lorin, Dr. Marc, 172 
 Louisville Medical News, 42 note, 
 
 378 note 
 Lullas, Raimundus, 30 
 
 M 
 
 Macrorie, Dr., 317 
 
 Mann, Dr., 279 
 
 Manning, Cardinal, 258, 340, 396 
 
 Manu, 6 
 
 Marty, Dr. Germain, 231 
 
 Mason, Dr. Lewis D., 145-148, 149, 
 
 178, 279 
 Maudsley, Dr., 148, 176 
 Maury, Alfred, 12 
 M'Cabe, Cardinal, 168 note 
 McCulloch, Dr., 53 
 McGee, Walter, 48 
 McKay, Mr., 353 note 
 McMurtry, Dr. A. H. H., 187 
 Medical Temperance Journal, 24,186 
 Medical Times, 157, 207 
 Merriman, Rev. Mr., 112 
 Midrasch Rabboth, 10 
 Milton, John, 7 
 Mohl, Von, 36 
 Moister, Rev. W., 436 
 Morel, Dr. B. A., 174, 392 
 Morewood, Mr., 7, 8, 12, 19, 25 
 
 note, 27 note, 357 
 Morgenstern, Mrs. Lina, 384 
 Morley, Mr. S., M.P., 449, 451 
 Mossop, Dr., 112 
 Mount Temple, Lord, 419 
 Mulhall, Mr., 271 
 Miiller, Professor, 3, 36 
 Mundella, Right Hon. Mr., M.P., 
 
 399 
 Munroe, Dr. H. , 87 note, 192 
 Muntz, 41 
 
 Murchison, Dr., 129, 130 
 Myers, Dr. A. T., 206 
 
 N 
 
 Nageli, 40 
 
 Napier, Sir Charles, 340 
 
 Nasse, Dr., 95 
 
 National Standard, 339 
 
 National Temperance Advocate, 342, 
 
 397 
 Newcastle Chronicle, 417 
 New York Herald, 278 
 New York Medical Record, 389
 
 INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 
 
 567 
 
 Nicol, Dr., 112 
 NicoUs, Dr. S., 208 
 Noble, John, 445 
 
 
 
 Orfila, Dr., 54 
 
 O'Shaughnessy, M., Q.C., 231 
 Ossington, Viscountess, 451 
 Owen, Sir P. C, 349 note 
 
 Paget, Sir James, 87 
 
 Pall Mall Gazette, 152, 178 note, 
 
 190, 278, 306 note, 347 note, 384, 
 
 388, 394, 397, 442 
 Parkes, Dr., 47, 114, 124, 186, 197 
 
 note, 241, 379 note 
 Parsons, Piev. B., 184 note, 185, 
 
 265, 425, 433 
 Pasteur, 40 
 
 Paul, C. Kegan, 320, 325 
 " Pedro Yerdad," 48 
 Peek, Francis, 407 
 Peligot, 37 
 Percy, Dr. Jolin, 94 
 Perrin, Dr. 89, 93 
 Pettenkofer, 45 
 Phillips, Wendell, 326 
 Plohn, Dr., 392 
 Pitman, Judge, 344 
 Plancy, Colin de, 10 
 Play fair, Dr. Lyon, 78 
 Pliny, 21 
 Powell, Mr., 276 
 Prideaux, 23 
 Priestley, 35 
 Front, Dr., 95 
 Packler, Prince, 433 
 
 E 
 
 Rae, Robert, 189, 354, 429 
 Reade, A. A., 122 
 
 , Charles, 416 
 
 Redding, Cyrus, 48 
 Reid, Dr. J. C, 225 
 Rhazes, 30 
 Riant, Dr., 47 
 Richardson, Dr. B. W., 132 
 
 Richardson, J. G., 440 
 Ridge, Dr. J. J., 115, 120 
 Rig-Vedas, 3-5 
 Ritchie, Dr. J. J., ] 95 
 Robinson, W. B., R.N., 268 
 Rochester, Bishop of, 337 note 
 Rodier, Dr., 64 
 Roebuck, J. A., 416 note 
 Romanes, Professor, J. J., 303 
 Rosch, Dr. C, 174, 218 
 Roth, Professor von, 3 
 Rothschild, Lady de, 451 
 Rumford, Count, 383 
 Rassell, Lord John, 387 
 
 , T. W., 438 
 
 Rutherford, 35 
 
 S 
 
 St. Matthew, 8 
 
 Salisbury, Lord, 401 
 
 Samuelson, Mr., 25 note 
 
 Sanderson, Dr., 241 
 
 Sandras, Dr., 90 
 
 Sanger, 274 
 
 Saturday Review, 358 
 
 Saunders, Charles, 259 
 
 Savory, W. S., 101 yiote 
 
 Scheele, 35 
 
 Schlegel, 269 
 
 Scholtz, Dr., 397 
 
 Schrick, Dr. M., 182 
 
 Schulz, Dr. C. H., 81 
 
 Schwann, 36, 40 
 
 Scientific American, 140 
 
 Sebright, John, 802 
 
 Seneca, 16, 22 
 
 Sewall, Dr., 317 
 
 Shaftesbury, Earl, 270, 387, 404 
 
 Shaw, Mr., 49 
 
 Shepherd, Dr. Edgar, 269 
 
 Sherlock, Frederick, 309 
 
 Sims, George R., 253, 254,363-367 
 
 Smith, Dr. Edward, 96, 222 
 
 , Rev. James, 169, 324, 426 
 
 note, 434 
 — , L. O., 384, 385, 386, 405 note 
 
 , Dr. S. C, 203 
 
 Solon, 20 
 
 Son of Temperance, 378 note 
 
 Spectator, The, 359
 
 568 
 
 INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 
 
 Spencer, Herbert, 302 
 Spicer, W. J., 446 
 Spurgeon, Rev. C. H., 297 
 Startin, James, 130 
 Stawell, Sir W. F., 452 note 
 Stephenson, George, 444 
 Stewart, Rev. Moses, 425 
 Strabo, 13 
 Strutt, Joseph, 428 
 Sturge, Joseph, 456 note 
 Sturges, Rev. S., 450 note 
 
 T 
 
 Tabari, 11 
 
 Talmud, 7, 9 
 
 Taylor, 37 
 
 Temperance Record, 314 note, 362, 
 
 273 note, 381, 414, 423, 446 
 Temperance Review, 217 
 Temple, Sir William, 130 
 "Theoricns," 182 
 Thompson, Sir Hemy, 229, 317 
 
 , Dr. SjTnes, 201 
 
 Thomson, Dr., 31 
 
 , H. A., 275 
 
 Thudichum, Dr., 48 
 
 Times, The, 50, 190, 199, 231, 346 
 
 Todd, Dr., 72, 201 
 
 Toronto Glohe, 445 
 
 Trotter, Dr. Thomas, 106, 183, 217 
 
 Tryon, Thomas, 69 note, 295, 309, 
 
 386 
 Tapper, Sir Charles, 373 
 
 U 
 Unkey, Rev. A. J., 352 note 
 
 Victoria, Queen, 430 
 Villa-Novns, Arnoldus, 30, 31 
 Vizetelly, Mr., 49, 51, 55 
 
 W 
 
 Wakley, Coroner, 259 
 Wales, Prince of, 431 
 Walter, Mr., M.P., 399 note 
 Wells, Bishop of, 451 ; 
 
 , Sir Spencer, 373 
 
 Westminster, Dake of, 451 
 
 Wetherbee, 54 
 
 Wei/mouth and Portland Guardian, 
 
 413 
 Whitaker, Dr., 7 
 
 Wilberforce, Canon Basil, 423, 426 
 Wilkins, Dr. E. T., 279 
 Wilson, Dr. James, 390 
 Wine Guide, 54 
 Wollowicz, Dr., 124 
 Wolseley, Lord, 339 
 Wood, Major. General Sir Evelyn, 
 
 340 
 Wookey, A. J., 352 note 
 Wiinsche, Dr. Auguste, 11 
 Wiistenfeld, 30 
 
 York, Lord Mayor of, 429 
 Young, Dr. Edward, 275 
 
 Zsohokke, 337
 
 INDEX. 
 
 A 
 
 Absinthe, 45 
 
 Abstainers and drinkers, relative 
 longevity of, 268 
 
 Abstinence, importance of national 
 conviction on, 307 
 
 pledge, worth and effective- 
 ness of, 326 
 
 Acute alcoholism, 128 
 
 Adepts, the, 31 
 
 Adulterations, liquor, 46-56 ; aloes 
 in beer, 55 ; bitter almond in, 
 46; buckbean in beer, 55 ; 
 cocculus indicus in beer, 55 ; 
 cocculus indicus in, 47 ; col- 
 chicum used in, 47 ; colocynth 
 in, 47 ; Colonel Dudley on, 46 
 note ; concoctions of alum in 
 beer for frothings, 55 ; copper in, 
 47 ; copperas in beer for froth- 
 ings, 55 ; essentia bina in, 47 ; 
 ferrous sulphate in, 47; gentian 
 in beer, 55 ; molasses used in 
 beer for frothings, 55; oil of clove 
 in, 46 ; oil of vitriol to give age 
 to beer, 56 ; phosphoric acid the 
 hop aroma in beer, 55 ; picric 
 acid in beer, 55 ; port wine, 48 ; 
 quassia in beer, 55 ; Ehine wines, 
 48; salt in beer, 55; sherry, 49 ; 
 sherry. Times newspaper on, 50 ; 
 stramonium in, 46 ; strichnia in, 
 46; sugar of lead in, 46; sulphate 
 of iron used to give a bitter 
 taste, 56 ; sulphuric acid in, 46 ; 
 
 sweetwort used in beer for 
 frothings, 55 ; tobacco in, 47 ; 
 universality of, 46 ; water in 
 beer, 55 ; wine, proposed treaty 
 between England and Spain, 
 Daily A^eivs on, 52 
 
 Africa, drinking in, 353 note 
 
 Albncassis claimed to have dis- 
 covered spirit distillation, SO 
 
 Alchemists' belief in alcohol, 
 reasons for, 31 
 
 Alcohol, a chief agent in shorten- 
 ing life, 59; action of, on nerves, 
 102 ; a food, 66, 67 ; Dr. Ham- 
 mond on, as a food, 79 ; reasons 
 for belief that, is a food, 67 ; 
 amyl, discovery of, 37 ; a nar- 
 cotic poison, 106 ; as a cause of 
 crime, 152 ; as a cause of prosti- 
 
 ■ tution, 274 ; as a medicine, 181 ; 
 as a medicine, British Medical 
 Journal on, 186 ; as a medicine, 
 Dr. Hare on decline in use of, 
 197; as a medicine, effects of use 
 of, on mothers and offspring, 217 ; 
 as a medicine, former and present 
 opinions of, 198 ; as an anti- 
 septic and anti-pyretic, 202 ; as 
 an anti-spasmodic, 202 ; as a 
 narcotic, 201 ; as a stimulant, 
 200 ; a subject for chemical 
 investigation, 37 ; attitude of 
 physicians on the subject of the 
 use of, 65 ; believed to be a 
 great agent for producing happi-
 
 570 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 ness, 289 ; body and mind 
 poisoning, 306 ; Bright's dis- 
 easeand, 129; conditions qnalify- 
 ing length, extent, and character 
 of alcoholic paralysis, 120 ; Prcf . 
 Fiske on incipient alcoholic 
 paralysis, 111 ; demands made 
 by, upon the water of the system, 
 85 ; derivations of the word, 32 ; 
 diseases caused by, 127-151 ; 
 Dr. Farre's opinion on life being 
 shortened by, 58 ; Dr. P. E. 
 Lees on the effects of, on 
 digestion, 73 ; Dr. Richardson's 
 summary of diseases springing 
 from, 132 ; during the campaign 
 in 1812 in Russia, 96 ; effect on 
 nervous system, 98 ; effect on 
 temperature of the body, 95 ; 
 effect on the will, 160; effects 
 of, as a mental stimulant, 121 ; 
 effects on blood, 76 ; effects on 
 the eye, 112; effects on the 
 physical organs and functions, 
 57-126; effects on stomach, 73; 
 epilepsy from, 138 ; ethyl, dis- 
 covery of, 37 ; evils of, during 
 lactation, 218-224 ; during 
 pregnancy, 219 ; first action of, 
 made direct on the brain, 101 ; 
 from smoke, 42 note ; general 
 conclusions as to the narcotizing 
 effects of, 121 ; general summary 
 of the physiological results of, 
 125 ; heredity, or the curse on 
 descendants by, 171-180 ; in 
 bread, 42 ; influence of, on the 
 blood, 81 ; inimical to life, 70 ; 
 in living organisms, plants, and 
 animals, 43 ; in the drawing- 
 room, 358-367; in water, air, 
 and earth, 41 ; meaning of 
 alcoholic preservation of tissue, 
 80; mental phenomena due to, 
 141-151 ; methyl, discovery of, 
 37 ; mischief caused by, to 
 blood-vessels, 86 ; 
 Moderation in use of, 312 ; a 
 
 greater virtue than abstinence ? 
 
 324; among the French, 322; 
 
 definitions of, 313 ; effects 
 
 upon temper and judgment, 
 321 ; entirely optional in our 
 day, 312 ; no fixed standard 
 possible, 312; practical worth- 
 lessness of the plea of, 314 ; 
 preparatory stage of drunken- 
 ness, 316 ; publicans on, 313 ; 
 various opinions on, 316-321 ; 
 Natural sources of, 39 ; nerve 
 paralyzing effects of, 114; ner- 
 vous diseases from, 138; no right 
 to be called a stimulant, 119 ; 
 opinion of " Theoricus " on, 181 ; 
 opinions of the judges on, and 
 crime, 231 ; opinions on destruc- 
 tive effects of, on society, 230 ; 
 parallel effects of, on the nervous 
 and muscular tissues, 100 ; 
 paralysis from, 138 ; paralyzing 
 effect of, on nerves, 105 ; 
 physical effects of, in small 
 doses, 115-120 ; powerful agent 
 in restricting man to the life of 
 the senses, 290 ; power of, over 
 mankind, 293 ; presence of, in 
 brain, 91, 93, 94 ; presence of, 
 in breath, 91, 92 ; present in 
 skin - evaporations, 92, 93 ; 
 principal therapeutic uses of, 
 199 ; produces degeneration of 
 blood, 82 ; prolific source of 
 chronic indigestion, 73 ; reasons 
 for alchemists' belief in, 31 
 reduces the capacity for work 
 123 ; retards digestion, 71 
 sensory disturbance from, 133 
 social results caused by, 226-282 
 specious reasonings concerning 
 the use of, 305-330 ; spread of, 
 33 ; summary effects of, on 
 digestion, 75 ; tendency of, to 
 decompose into elements, 44 ; 
 theories as to what becomes of 
 it after entering blood, 88, 89 ; 
 theories regarding the effects of, 
 on the nerves producing the 
 drink-craving, 120; three medi- 
 cal declarations concerning, 
 184-186 ; origin of third medical 
 declaration, 189 ; traceable in 
 urine, 92, 93 ; tried by the tests
 
 INDEX. 
 
 571 
 
 of food, 68; twofold hurtful 
 influence on nutrition, 71 ; two- 
 fold narcotizing action of, on 
 brain and nerves, 109 ; use of, 
 during siege of Paris, 67; use 
 of, in early times, 281 ; various 
 names for, 32 ; women and, 358- 
 367. See also Alcoholism and 
 Drink 
 
 Alcoholic criminal activity, true 
 field of direct, 157 
 
 criminality, examples of un- 
 intentional, 156 
 
 drinking, physiological and 
 
 mental results of, general sum- 
 mary, 157 
 
 drinks, food elements in, 76 ; 
 
 various, 45 
 
 dyspepsia, 133 
 
 epileptiform mania,Dr. Mason 
 
 on, 149 
 
 fermentation, lethal nature 
 
 of, 41 ; real nature of, first dis- 
 covered, 40 
 
 hallucinations, crimes com- 
 mitted under. Prof. Elraft-Ebing 
 on, 149 
 
 infanticide, 266 
 
 insanity, 269, 279 ; Dr. Mason 
 
 on, 145, 178 ; in Prussia, 281 ; 
 in Russia, 282 
 
 mania, chronic, 149 ; its 
 
 symptoms, 150 
 
 melancholia, chronic, 150 ; its 
 
 painful delusions, 150 
 
 phthisis, 135 
 
 prescription, warning against, 
 
 225 
 
 prescriptions and their pre- 
 parations, 199 
 
 treatment of typhoid fever, 
 
 mortality from, 206 
 
 tremor, 140 
 
 Alcoholism, Dr. Huss the originator 
 of the term, 128 ; gradual 
 weakening and final destruction 
 of character by, 163 ; general 
 moral effects of, 168 ; one of the 
 greatest causes of the depopu- 
 lation and degeneration of 
 nations, 176 ; origin and causes 
 
 of, 283-304; transmitted to de- 
 scendants under various forms, 
 177 ; analogy of acute, with 
 insanity, Prof. Kraft-Ebing on, 
 144 ; divisions of acute, 145 ; 
 Dr. Huss on acute, 141 
 
 Alcohols, groups and varieties of, 
 37, 38 ; sources of, found in 
 drinks, 45 ; various uses for, 4i 
 
 Ale, child mortality from use of, 
 during lactation, 225 
 
 Al-Mokanna's death, 29 
 
 Almond, bitter, in liquor adultera- 
 tion, 46 
 
 Aloes in beer, 55 
 
 Alum, concoctions of, used in beer 
 for frothings, 55 
 
 American schools, temperance 
 education in, 397 
 
 Amru, barbarities of, 25 
 
 Amusements, a check on drink and 
 crime, 417 ; duty of the rich to 
 provide innocent, for the poor, 
 417 ; reforming power and need 
 of innocent, 414 
 
 Amylalcohol, discoveiy of, 37 
 
 Ancients, distillation unknown to 
 the (excepting possibly the 
 Chinese), 2; drinking among 
 the, 1-24 
 
 Ancient wine traditions, 6-12 
 
 Anglo-Saxon power conquered by 
 its intemperance, 337 
 
 Anne, Queen, free trade in liquors 
 during reign of, 310 
 
 Antiseptics, comparative worth- 
 lessness of, 203 
 
 Antwerp, water ordinance in, 387 
 
 Arabia, spirit distillation in, 29 
 
 Araca asa, a brandy distilled from 
 koumiss, 45 
 
 Armv, Belgian, drinking in the, 
 338 note 
 
 , English, importance of so- 
 briety in, 337 ; Lord Wolseley 
 on drink in, 339 ; Major-Gen. Sir 
 Evelyn Wood's experiences, 340 
 
 Arrack, a brandy obtained from 
 rice, 45 
 
 Artisans', Labourers', and General 
 Dwelling Company, 412
 
 572 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Association, the force of, 294 
 Assyria and drink, 15 
 Athens and drink, 20 
 Atmosphere always charged with 
 
 ferments, 40 
 Australian schools, temperance 
 
 education in, 397 
 
 B 
 
 Bacteria, or micro-organisms, 39 
 note 
 
 Bacchus, Noah thought to be 
 original, 11 ; worship, 11-15 ; 
 similarity between Greek and 
 Egyptian worship, 12 
 
 Banks, Lord Derby on savings, 
 242 ; savings, school system in 
 Sweden, 398; siiggestions for 
 establishment of sober working 
 men's, 405 
 
 Barley for malting purposes, re- 
 fusal to sell, 456 
 
 Barmaids a cause of intemperance, 
 368 
 
 Beaumont, J. J., the case of, 296 
 note 
 
 Bechuanas and drink, 352 note 
 
 Bedfordshire, drunkenness and 
 crime in, 153 
 
 Beer — Act, 357 ; adulteration, 55 ; 
 aloes in, 55 ; alum used for 
 frothings, 55; buckbean in, 55; 
 cocculus indicus in, 55 ; Dr. 
 Diysdale on, and gout, 131 ; 
 drinkers, fat in, 78 ; Drs. Beau- 
 mont and Brunton on fat in 
 drinkers of, 79 ; drinking, 77 
 drinking during lactation, 224 
 gentian in, 55 ; molasses in, 55 
 oil of vitriol used to give age, 
 56; phosphoric acid in, 55; picric 
 acid in, 55 ; quassia in, 55 ; 
 sweetwort used for frothing, 55 ; 
 salt in, 55, 77 note; Scientific 
 American on general diseases 
 resulting from, 140 ; sulphate 
 of iron used to give the bitter 
 taste in, 56 ; suljjhuric acids 
 used to give age, 56 ; water 
 in, 55 
 
 Belgian army, drinking in the, 
 338 note 
 
 Belgium, drink question in, 275 
 
 Berlin, steam kitchen in, 383 
 
 Bessbrook estate, 438 
 
 Birmingham, public-houses in, 278 
 
 Blood, alcoholic degeneration of, 
 82 ; constituent parts of, 62 ; 
 constitution of, 64 ; Drs. 
 Becquerel, Eodier, and Albin 
 Koch on constitution of, 64 ; 
 effects of alcohol on, 76 ; in- 
 fluence of alcohol on the, 81 ; 
 the nature and twofold mission 
 of, 62 ; theories as to what 
 becomes of alcohol after enter- 
 ing, 88, 89 
 
 Blood-vessels, disease of the, 135 ; 
 mischief caused by alcohol, 86 
 
 Blue Ribbon movement, 449 ; 
 Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone on, 
 452 ; significance of, 451 
 
 Botany originated by Aristotle, 34 
 
 Brain, first action of alcohol made 
 direct on, 101 ; presence of 
 alcohol in, 91, 93, 94; quahty 
 of, decides the quality of its 
 communicating power, 113 ; 
 twofold narcotizing action of 
 alcohol on, and nerves, 109 
 
 Bread, alcohol in, 42 
 
 Breath, presence of alcohol in, 91, 
 92 
 
 Bright's disease and alcohol, 129 
 
 British Medical Journal on alcohol 
 as a medicine, 186 
 
 Buckbean in beer, 55 
 
 Burglar must be wary and cool, 165 
 
 C 
 
 Calculus, 137 
 
 Cambyses and his cup-bearer, 17 
 
 Canadian schools, temperance 
 
 education in, 397 
 Canterbury Convocations on drink, 
 
 229 
 Carbon, definition of, 38 
 Carbonic acid gas, 41 note; in coal 
 
 mines, 42 
 Carthage and drink, 22 
 Cataract, 137
 
 INDEX. 
 
 573 
 
 Catholic Total Abstinence League, 
 39G 
 
 Cell theory established by 
 Schwann and Von Mohl, 36 
 
 Cetewayo and drink, 354 
 
 Character, gradual weakening and 
 final destruction of, by alcohol- 
 ism, 163 
 
 Chemical elements, demonstration 
 of, by Boyle, 35 ; of human body, 
 60 
 
 Children and drink, 297, 368-372 ; 
 legislation against drinking by, 
 369 ; legislation for temperance 
 education of, 393 
 
 Chinese supposed original dis- 
 coverers of distillation, 27 
 
 Chronic alcoholic mania, 149 ; its 
 symptoms, 150 
 
 Chronic alcoholic melancholia, 150; 
 its painful delusions, 150 
 
 Chronic alcoholism, 128 
 
 Chui'ch, responsibility of the, in 
 regard to drink, 417 
 
 Church of England Temperance 
 Society, Bishop of Carlisle on 
 its success, 422 ; origin and 
 growth, 419 ; its purpose and 
 mission, 421 ; versus grocers' 
 licences, 362 
 
 Church proprietorship in public- 
 houses denounced, 422 
 
 City of London Total Abstainers 
 Union, 449 
 
 Clergy, responsibility of, in regard 
 to drink, 417 
 
 Cocculus indicus in beer, 55 ; used 
 in liquor adulteration, 47 ; a 
 substitute for alcohol, 55 
 
 Cochineal used in colouring wine, 
 55 
 
 Coffee-tavern movement, 378 ; 
 Daily Chronicle on, 381 ; Duke 
 of Albany on, 432 ; History of, 
 379 
 
 Colchicum used in liquor adultera- 
 tion, 47 
 
 Cold-bath treatment, summary of, 
 207 ; in typhoid fever, 205 
 
 Colocynth used in liquor adultera- 
 tion, 47 
 
 Commune, results of drink under, 
 280 
 
 Compensation, in which all in- 
 terests are satisfied, 349; pub- 
 licans' side of the question, 348 ; 
 to publicans, 347. See also Local 
 option. Legislation, and Prohi- 
 bition 
 
 Confederacy of the Southern States, 
 downfall of, 338 note 
 
 Cooking, best system of, 385 
 
 Copper used in liquor adulteration, 
 47 
 
 Copperas used for frothing, 55 
 
 Crime, alcohol as a cause of, 152 ; 
 amusements a check on, 417 ; 
 opinions of the judges on alcohol 
 and, 231-234 
 
 Crimes committed under alcoholic 
 hallucinations. Prof. Kraft-Ebing 
 on, 149 
 
 Criminality, alcoholic examples of 
 unintentional, 156 
 
 Customs, drinking, 301, 428 ; origin 
 and age of, 428; Queen's oppo- 
 sition to, 429 
 
 Cyrus, visit of, to King Astyagea 
 of Media, 16 
 
 D 
 
 Dalrymple Home for the cure of 
 habitual drunkards, 372 
 
 Darlington and Stockton Railway 
 Company and temperance, 444 
 
 Declarations, medical, concerning 
 alcohol, 184-186 ; origin of third, 
 189 ; opinion of press on, 190 ; 
 wording of, 191 ; impression on 
 public mind, 192 ; medical 
 opinions on, 192 
 
 Delirium Tremens, 143, 147; Dr. 
 Maudsley's description of, 148; 
 its symptoms and general cha- 
 racteristics, 147 
 
 Deluge, punishment for drunken- 
 ness, 8 
 
 Diabetes, 137 
 
 Diet foL" nursing mothers, 222 
 
 Digestion, Dr. F. R. Lees on the 
 effects of alcohol on, 73 ; retarded
 
 674 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 by alcohol, 71 ; summary effects 
 of alcohol on, 75 
 
 Diocletian, barbarities of, 25 
 
 Dipsomania, or the craving for 
 drink, 177, 178 
 
 Disease, definition of the term, 
 127 
 
 Diseases caused by alcohol, 1 27-1 51 ; 
 due to the use of alcohol, Prof. 
 Christison on, 129; Dr. Eichard- 
 son on, 132 
 
 Distillation, Chinese supposed 
 original discoverers of, 27 ; defi- 
 nitions of, 26 ; history of the 
 discovery of, 25-33 ; unknown 
 to the ancients (excepting pos- 
 sibly the Chinese), 2 
 
 , spirit, 26, 27 ; Albucassis 
 
 said to have discovered, 30 ; 
 discovery attributed to the far 
 East, 27 ; in Arabia, 29 ; old 
 German legend attributes in- 
 vention to the devil, 27 note; 
 Ehazes, the Moorish physician, 
 30 
 
 Drawing-room and drink, 358-367 
 
 Drink, allegory of Mohammed, 23 
 note; among the ancients, 1-24; 
 among the ancient Scots, 23 ; 
 among the Vedic peoples, 3-6 ; 
 amusements a check on, 417 ; 
 a cause of insanitj' and suicide, 
 269; at the Adelphi, 415; black 
 list of crimes due to, 227 ; 
 Canterbury Convocations on, 
 229 ; children taught to, 297 
 
 customs, 301, 428 ; origin and 
 
 age of, 428 ; Queen's opposition 
 to, 429 
 
 , decrease of population in 
 
 France caused by, 281 ; dis- 
 tributing to crews, discontinu- 
 ance of, 447 ; history in England, 
 308; in Assyria, 15; in Athens, 
 20; inBelgium,275; in Carthage, 
 22 ; in Egypt, 18 ; in Greece, 20 ; 
 in Media, 16 ; in Normandy, 281 ; 
 in Persia, 16, 17 ; in Komc, 20 ; 
 in Sparta, 20 ; in Syracuse, 22 ; 
 instance of power of, to anni- 
 hilate the will, 160 
 
 Moderation in, 312 ; a greater 
 virtue than abstinence ? 324; 
 among the French, 322 ; defi- 
 nitions of, 313 ; effects upon 
 temper and Judgment, 321 ; 
 entirely optional in our day, 
 312; no fixed standard pos- 
 sible, 312 ; practical worth- 
 lessness of the plea of, 314; 
 preparatory stage of drunken- 
 ness, 316; publicans on, 313; 
 various opinions on, 316-321 
 Drink mortality, 265 
 
 and poverty, 245, 400 ; chief 
 
 cause of poverty, 399 ; main- 
 spring of poverty, 240 ; Dr. 
 Channing on poverty with or 
 without, 166 ; relations between, 
 and poverty, 239 ; report of 
 special sanitary commissioner 
 on poverty and, 2G0 ; responsi- 
 bility of rich in the question of, 
 and poverty, 407 ; responsibility 
 of magistrates, etc., in regard to, 
 417 ; results for England, 275 ; 
 specious arguments on account 
 of climate, 314; statistics, 234; 
 the deadly enemy of human 
 happiness, 167 ; traffic and its 
 evils, 236. See also Alcohol 
 Drinkers and abstainers, relative 
 
 longevity of, 268 
 Drinking, and positions of trust, 
 445 ; fountains in London, 387 
 note ; habits, social, 436 ; mode- 
 rate, 312 
 Drunkard, moral insolvency of, 
 
 161 
 Drunkards, cure of habitual, 375 
 Drunkards' children, condition of, 
 
 256 
 Drunkenness, analogy of, with in- 
 sanity, 144; habitual, universally 
 condemned, 312 ; qualified by 
 the kind of intoxicant, 156 ; 
 examples of, 157 
 Durham, di-unkenness and crime 
 
 in, 153 
 Dyspepsia, alcoholic, 133
 
 INDEX. 
 
 0/ o 
 
 E 
 
 Edgar, King, attempts to check 
 intemperance, 338 
 
 Education, Dr. Channing's defini- 
 tion of, 395 ; drink in its bearing 
 on, 399; of the wealthy, 399 
 note ; poverty the worst enemy 
 of popular, 399 ; temperance, in 
 American, Australian, Canadian, 
 and German schools, 397; public 
 schools, 396 ; public money de- 
 voted to, and war, 394 
 
 Egypt, drink and temperance 
 efforts in, 18 
 
 Egyptians earliest brewers, 18 
 
 Egyptian worship of Bacchus, 
 similarity between it and Greek, 
 12 
 
 Elderberries used in colouring 
 wines, 55 
 
 Eleusinian mysteries, 13 ; abolished 
 by the Emperor Herodosina the 
 Great, 15 
 
 England, commencement of wine- 
 drinking in, 309 ; drink history 
 of, 308 ; drink results for, 275 ; 
 hard drinking unknown in, until 
 seventeenth century, 310 ; im- 
 portance of sobriety in army 
 and navy, 337 ; obligations of 
 the Government in internal 
 reforms, 335 
 
 English army, importance of 
 sobriety in, 337 ; Lord Wolseley 
 on drink in, 339 ; Major-Gen. Sir 
 Evelyn Wood's experiences, 340 
 
 English nation, virility of, and 
 drink, 308 
 
 Epileptiform mania, alcoholic, Dr 
 Mason on, 149 
 
 Epilepsy from alcohol, 138 
 
 Erysipelas largely due to alcohol, 
 130 
 
 Esquimaux and alcohol, 96 
 
 Essentia bina used in liquor 
 adulteration, 47 
 
 Essex, drunkenness and crime in, 
 153 
 
 Ethyl-alcohol, discovery of, 37 
 
 Eye, narcotic effects on, 112 
 
 Eyes, alcohol and the, 137 
 
 F 
 
 Fermentation, discovery of, at- 
 tributed to Jemsheed, 16 note; 
 meaning and processes of, 39 
 
 Ferments, important role played 
 by, 65 ; nature, action, and 
 influence of, on life, 39 
 
 Ferrous sulphate used in liquor 
 adulteration, 47 
 
 Fever, cold-bath treatment in 
 typhoid, 205 ; mortality from 
 typhoid, under alcoholic treat- 
 ment, 20G ; Dr. Murchison on, 
 129 ; water-treatment in, 204 
 
 Food, alcohol as a, 66, 67 ; defini- 
 tion of, 61 ; Dr. Hammond on 
 alcohol as a, 79 ; elements in 
 alcoholic drinks, 76 ; in alcoholic 
 drink not in the alcohol, but in 
 the residuals, 78; paraffin as a 
 respiratory, 89 ; reasons for 
 belief that alcohol is a, 67 ; sugar 
 an important element of, 68 
 
 Foods, alcohol tried by the tests 
 of, 68 ; broadly divided into 
 three classes, 61 ; chemical 
 division of, 62 ; division of the 
 regular, 62 ; the process of 
 nutrition, 63 
 
 Forbidden fruit, vine the, 7 
 
 Forger must be sober, 165 
 
 France, decrease in population of, 
 caused by drink, 281 
 
 Freemasonry and temperance, 431 
 
 French, moderate drinking vrith 
 the, 322 
 
 army, deterioration of, caused 
 
 by drink, 280 
 
 Revolution, 408 
 
 G 
 
 Geber on distillation, 29 
 
 Gentian in beer, 55 
 
 German schools, temperance edu- 
 
 cation in, 397 
 Germany, a sixteenth-century 
 
 temperance society in, 312 ; 
 
 early moderation societies in, 
 
 332 ; reasons for their failui-e,333
 
 57G 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Ghazal, meaning of, 17 note 
 
 Gia-drinker's liver, 130 
 
 Gout, Drs. Darwin, Drysdale, and 
 Garrod on, 131 ; Sir William 
 Temple on, 130; wines to be 
 avoided in, 53 
 
 Grand Trauk Railway and temper- 
 ance, 446 
 
 Grape, purple, origin of, 11 
 
 Graspers who succeed and who 
 fail, 290 
 
 Greece and drink, 20 
 
 Greek worship of Bacchus, simi- 
 larity between it and Egyptian, 
 12 
 
 Greenlanders and alcohol, 96 
 
 Griquas and drink, 351 note 
 
 Grocers' Licence Acts, 357 ; G. R. 
 Sims on social eiiects of, 363 ; 
 protests in press against, 360 ; 
 reasons for repeal of, 367 
 
 H 
 
 Habit, force of, 295 ; because of 
 natural laws, 295 ; becomes 
 instinct, 300-303 ; difficult to 
 break, 300; of evil, 299; of 
 hereditary, 298 
 
 Habitual drunkenness universally 
 condemned, 312 
 
 Hallucinations, crimes committed 
 under alcoholic. Prof. Kraft- 
 Ebing on, 149 
 
 Hampshire, prohibition in, 441 
 
 Happiness, alcohol believed to be 
 a great agent for producing, 
 289 ; foundation of human, 167 ; 
 missed by man's self-deception, 
 291 ; searching after, 285; what 
 it is and how found, 293 
 
 Hastings, battle of, lost through 
 drink, 337 
 
 Health, definition of the term, 
 127 ; drinking, 434 ; example of 
 recuperative powers of body, 
 392 ; specious arguments on, 
 and strength, 328 
 
 Heart, disease of the, 134 
 
 Heredity, or the curse entailed on 
 descendants by alcohol, 171-180; 
 
 diseases of alcoholic, Prof. Kraft- 
 Ebing on, 178; Drs. Bourgeois 
 and Figg on, 172, 173; Dr. 
 Lorin on general laws of, 172 ; 
 Lacteal, 178 note; scope of 
 hereditary effects, 173 ; the laws 
 of, a protection to the race, 171 ; 
 various authorities on, 174 
 Home of the drunken wife and 
 
 mother, 161 
 Homes for drunkards, 372-376 
 Horns, symbol of Bacchus, 13 
 Human body, chemical elements 
 of, 60 ; quantity of water in, 63 
 Huss, Dr., the originator of the 
 
 term alcoholism, 128 
 Hydrogen, definition of, 38 
 
 India, increase of drinking in, 353 
 Indigestion, chronic, alcohol a 
 
 prolific source of, 73 
 Indra-worship, 4-5 
 Infanticide, alcoholic, 266 
 Infants, water for, 389 
 Insanity, analogy of drunkenness 
 
 with, 144; on the increase, 272 ; 
 
 tables showing the assigned 
 
 causes of (.see Appendix) 
 , alcoholic, 269, 279 ; Dr. Ma.son 
 
 on, 145, 178 ; in Prussia, 281 ; in 
 
 Russia, 282 
 Insomnia, 138 
 Instinct, 302 
 Intemperance, greater plague than 
 
 war, pestilence, or famine, 231 ; 
 
 juvenile, in Manchester and 
 
 Liverpool, 368 
 Intention, difference between will 
 
 and, 160 
 Intoxicant, qualifies kind of 
 
 drunkenness, 156 ; examples of, 
 
 157 
 Intoxication, acts of, 291 
 
 Jews and drink, 23
 
 INDEX. 
 
 577 
 
 K 
 
 Kepler exti'act of maU, 380 vote 
 Kidneys, alcohol and the, 137 
 Kirsch, a brandy from the black- 
 berry, 45 
 Kissing women on the mouth, 
 
 supposed origin of, 22 
 Knowledge, first graftings towai'ds, 
 
 by means of the senses, 288 
 Koumiss — fermented milk, 45 
 
 Lactation, beer-drinking during, 
 224 ; child mortality from beer- 
 drinking during, 225 ; evils of 
 alcohol during, 218-224 
 
 Lamb's, Charles, pathetic warning, 
 159 
 
 Land nationalization, a cure for 
 poverty, 409 ; examples of 
 reasonable effects, 412 ; results 
 of, without temperance reform, 
 411 
 
 Laplanders and alcohol, 96 
 
 Legislation, 367 ; dangers attend- 
 ing, 337 ; dangers attending 
 political agitation, 341 ; for 
 poverty, 407 ; futility of, as a 
 cure for poverty, 408 ; Habitual 
 Drunkard's Act, 375 ; inter- 
 national, on drink question re- 
 quired, 376 ; liquor, 357 ; need 
 of a national permanent drink 
 commission, 377 ; obligations of 
 British Government in internal 
 reforms, 335 ; parliament and 
 the drink question, 228 ; parlia- 
 mentary report on drink in 1834, 
 241; Queen's speech (1883), 
 344 ; suggestions for alleviation 
 of poverty, 401 ; temperance 
 education for children, 393 
 Licences, restriction of the power 
 
 of renewing, 367 
 Licensing, summary of history of, 
 
 357 
 Life, average limit of, 58 ; alcohol 
 inimical to, 70 ; alcohol a chief 
 agent in shoi'tcning, 59; Dr. 
 
 Herman's idea of limit of human, 
 57 ; ignorance chief cause of 
 brevity of, 59 ; nature, action, 
 and influence of ferments on, 
 39 ; water of paramount im- 
 portance to, 63; wisdom inherent 
 in organic, 60 
 Liquor adulterations. See Adultera- 
 tions, liquor 
 Liquor-dealers, mortality among, 
 
 266 
 Liver, alcohol and the, 137 ; cir- 
 rhosis or shrinkage of, 130 ; Dr. 
 Murchison on functional di- 
 seases of, 130 
 Liverpool, juvenile intemperance 
 in, 368 ; social condition of poor 
 in, 260 
 Local Option, 345; Sir Wilfrid 
 Lawson's scheme, 345 ; Sir 
 William Harcourt on, 346-347 
 Logwood used in colouring wine, 55 
 London, agitation for pure water 
 supply in, 387 ; drinkiug-fouu- 
 tains in, 387 note ; Bitter Cry 
 of Outcast, 264 ; homes of the 
 poor, 252-256 ; Horrible, 254 ; 
 " How the Poor Live," 253 ; 
 "Why should Loudon wait?" 
 262 
 
 Temperance Hospital, history 
 
 and progress of, 208; origin, 
 foundation, and work of, 209 ; 
 summary oi all cases of typhoid 
 fever treated in, 212 ; methods 
 of treatment in, 216 
 Longevity, relative, of drinkers 
 
 and abstainers, 268 
 Lord's Supper, intoxicating wine 
 in the, 301 ; use of wine in, 
 423-428 
 Lullus, Raimundus, and spirit dis- 
 tillation, 30 
 Lungs, disease of the, 135 
 Lupulit, a narcotic drink, 56 
 
 M 
 
 Maci'obians in the time of Cambyses, 
 
 58 
 Madagascar, liquor prohibition of 
 2p
 
 578 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Queeu of, 356 ; liquor treaty 
 
 with, 355 
 Magistrates, responsibility of, in 
 
 regard to drink, 417 
 Maliow-bloonr used in colouring 
 
 wine, 55 
 Malt not so nutritious as grain, V8 
 
 extract a promoter of easy 
 
 digestion, 379 note ; Kepler, 380 
 oiote 
 
 liquors, Drs. Beaumont and 
 
 Bruntou on the fat of drinkers 
 of, 79 ; specially considered, 77 
 
 Malting, 45 
 v*' Man no longer dies, he kills 
 ^ himself," 173 
 Manchester, drunkards' children 
 in, 256 ; juvenile intemperance 
 
 in, 368 
 Mania-a.potu, 143, 146 
 Mankind, divided into two great 
 
 factions, 290 ; power of alcohol 
 
 over, 293 
 Martha Washington Home, 374 
 
 note 
 Media and drink, 16 
 Medical declarations concerning 
 
 alcohol, 184-1S6 ; origin of 
 
 third, 189 ; opinion of press on, 
 
 190 
 Medical profession, Dr. McMur- 
 
 try's appeal to, 187 
 Medicine, alcohol as, 181-225 ; 
 
 Britiah Medical Jotirnal on alco- 
 , hoi as, 186 ; Dr. Hare on decline 
 
 in use of alcohol as, 197 ; former 
 
 and present opinions of alcohol 
 
 as, 198 
 Melancholia, chronic alcoholic, 150; 
 
 its painful delusions, 150 
 Mental phenomena due to alcohol, 
 
 141-151 
 results of alcohol, general 
 
 summary of, 157 
 Methyl-alcohol, discovery of, 37 
 Middle Ages, drink in the, 25 
 Midland Kailway and temperance, 
 
 445 
 Milk instead of alcohol in hospitals, 
 
 198 
 , hot, a healthful drink, 378 note \ 
 
 Moderation in drink, 312 ; no 
 fixed standard possible, 312 ; 
 entirely optional iu our day, 
 312 ; definitions of, 313 ; 
 publicans on, 313; practical 
 worthlessness of the plea of, 
 314; preparatory stage of 
 drunkenness, 316 ; various 
 opinions on, 316-321 ; effects 
 upon temper and judgment, 321 ; 
 among the French, 322 ; a greater 
 virtue than abstinence? 324 
 
 societies, early, 332 
 
 Mohammedans and drink, 23 
 Mohammed's drink allegory, 23 
 
 7wte 
 Molasses used iu beer for froth - 
 
 ings, 55 
 Moral insolvency of drunkard, 161 
 Mortality among liquor-dealers, 
 
 366 ; from drink, 265 
 Murderer and drink, 165 
 Music, humanizing power of, 415 
 
 N 
 
 Narcotic, alcohol as a, 201 
 
 Narcotics, 102 ; definition and 
 division of, 105 ; the most im- 
 portant, 104 ; various confiicting 
 definitions of, 103 
 
 Narcotizing effects of alcohol, 
 general conclusions as to, 121 
 
 National Tem])erauce Federation, 
 plan and organization of, 452 ; 
 
 National Tempei'auce League, 
 labours of, 396 
 
 Navy, English, importance of 
 sobriety in, 337 
 
 Nerves, action of alcohol on, 102 ; 
 paralyzing effect of alcohol on, 
 105, 114 ; twofold narcotizing 
 action of alcohol on brain and, 
 109 
 
 Nervous diseases from alcohol, 138 
 Nervous system. Dr. Cantilc on 
 character and functions of, 99 ; 
 effects of alcohol on, 98 ; physio- 
 logy of, 98 
 New York Christian Home for 
 Intemperate Men, 374 note
 
 INDEX. 
 
 579 
 
 New York city, rnm shops in, 278 
 Nitrogen and oxygen, discovery 
 
 of, 35 
 Noah, said to be Saturn, 12 ; 
 
 thought to be original Bacchus, 
 
 11 
 
 and Satan planting the vine, 9 
 
 Normandy, drink in, 281 
 Northumberland, drunkenness and 
 
 crime in, 153 
 Nutrition, the process of, 62 
 
 O 
 
 Oatmeal drink, 379 note 
 
 Oil of clove in liquor adulteration, 
 
 46 
 of turpentine first obtained 
 
 by Amoldus Villa-Novus, 31 
 of vitriol to give age to beer, 
 
 56 
 Organic diseases from alcohol, 134 
 Oxidation, discovery of the basis 
 
 of, by Lavoisier, 35 
 Oxygen, definition of, 38 
 and nitrogen, discovery of, 35 
 
 Paraffin as a respiratory food, 89 
 Paralysis, conditions qualifying 
 
 length, extent, and character of 
 
 alcoholic, 120 ; from alcohol, 
 
 138 ; incipient alcoholic. 111 
 Parentage, responsibility of, 171 
 Paris, siege of, drink during, 280 
 Parliament and the drink question, 
 
 228 
 Parliamentary report in 1834 on 
 
 temperance, 241 
 Pathological results of alcohol, 
 
 127-151 
 Patriotism, groundwork of all, 295 
 Pauperism, drink the mainspring 
 
 of, 240 
 Persia and drink, 16, 17 
 Phosphoric acid the hop aroma in 
 
 beer, 55 
 Plithisis, alcoholic, 135 
 Phj^sicians, responsibility of, in 
 
 regard to driuk, 417 
 
 Physiology, in temperance re- 
 form, 334 ; organic scientific, 
 established, 36 ; originated by 
 Aristotle, 34 
 Physiological effects of alcohol in 
 small closes, 115-120; results of 
 alcohol, 57-126 ; general sum. 
 mary of, 125 ; physiological and 
 mental results of alcohol, general 
 summary of, 157 
 Picric acid in beer, 55 
 Pig, fable of drunken man and 
 
 sober, 158 
 Poison, definition of, 64 ; division 
 
 into two groups, 64 ; 
 Poisons used in liquor adultera- 
 tion, 47 
 Political agitation, dangers attend- 
 ing, 337, 341 
 Port wine adulterations, 48 
 Poverty, caused by drink, 399, 
 400 ; drink the mainspring of, 
 240 ; futility of mere legislation 
 on, 408 ; land nationalization a 
 cure for, 409 ; Mr. Gladstone 
 on, 400 ; propagation of, 372 ; 
 State aid, 404 ; suggestions for 
 alleviation of, 4<01 ; with and 
 without drink. Dr. Chanuing 
 on, 166 ; worst enemy of popular 
 education, 399 
 
 and drink, 245-400 ; report 
 
 of special sanitary commissioner, 
 260 ; responsibility of the rich 
 in the question of, 407 ; relations 
 between, 239 
 Pregnancy, evils of alcohol during, 
 
 219 
 Progress, human foundation of, 
 
 167 
 Prohibition — Artisans', Labourers', 
 and General Dwelling Company, 
 442 ; Bessbrook estate, 438 ; 
 dangers attending political 
 agitation for, 341 ; estate in 
 Tyrone, 438 ; in Hampshire, 
 441 ; initiary measures for, 
 345 ; in St. Johnsbury, Ver- 
 mont, 443 ; in Saltaire, 441 ; in 
 the town of Pullman, U.S.A., 
 443 ; Queen of Madagascar's
 
 580 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 pioclamatiou, 356; real estate 
 compauies, 442 ; village of White 
 Coppice, 441 ; wlien practicable 
 and beneficent, 343. See also 
 Local Option and Legislation 
 
 Prostitution and alcohol, 274 
 
 Prussia, alcoholic insanity in, 281 
 
 Pseudo-stimulant, meaning of term, 
 105 
 
 Publicans, compensation to, 347; 
 mortality among, 266 
 
 Public-house, proiDosal for a mission 
 to start, 306 note 
 
 Public-houses, Church proprietor- 
 ship denounced, 422 ; low win- 
 dows compulsoiy for, 367 ; pay- 
 ment of wages at, 435 
 
 Public schools, temperance educa- 
 tion in, 396 
 
 I'ullman, town of, prohibition in, 
 443 
 
 Q 
 
 Quarterly Medical Temperance 
 Journal established, 186 
 
 Quassia in beer, 55 
 
 Quicklime sometimes used in 
 rectifying spirits, 47 
 
 E 
 
 Kailway comijanies and temper- 
 ance, 444 
 Eeal estate companies, prohibition 
 
 in, 442 
 Rectification, 27 
 Refreshment Houses and Wine 
 
 Licences Act, 357 
 Religion, man's self-deception in, 
 
 292 
 Ehazes, the Moorish physician, 
 
 and spirit distillation, 30 
 Rhine wines, adulterations of, 4S 
 Rich, duty of, to provide innocent 
 
 amusement for the poor, 417; 
 
 responsibility of, for the drink 
 
 evil, 437 ; in question of poverty 
 
 and drink, 407 
 Rig-Vcdas, the, 3 
 Robinson, Captain, the case of, 
 
 296 note 
 Rome, results of intemperuucc in 
 
 described by Seneca, 22; temper- 
 ance efforts in, 21 
 
 Rome and drink, 20 
 
 Rum, recipe by Dr. Riant for 
 making, 47 ; recipe for making 
 old Jamaica, 47; spmt from 
 sugar refuse, 45 
 
 Russia, alcohol during the cam- 
 paign of 1812 in, 96 ; alcoholic 
 insanity in, 282 
 
 S 
 St. Johtisbury, Vermont, prohibi- 
 tion in, 443 
 Salt in beer, 55, 77 note 
 Saltaire, prohibition in, 441 
 San Francisco, Inebriates' home 
 
 at, 373 note 
 Santschu, a drink in China and 
 
 Japan, 28 
 Sarcostemma acidum, 3 
 Sardanajjalus, motto of, 15 
 Satan and I^oah planting tlic 
 
 vine, 9 
 Satyavarman, 12 
 Science, man's self-deception in, 
 
 292 
 Scotland, temperance reform in, 
 
 356 note 
 Scots, ancient, drink among the, 
 
 23 
 Seneca, results of intemperance in 
 
 Rome described by, 22 
 Sensory disturbance from alcohol, 
 
 133 
 Serpent woi'ship, 12, 13 
 Sherry, adulteration of, 49 
 Siam, liquor treaty with, 355 
 Silver King, 415 
 
 Skin, alcohol present in evapora- 
 tions of, 92, 93; Mr. Startiu 
 on diseases of, 130 ; vascular 
 changes in the, 133 
 Sleeplessness and alcohol, 138 
 Smoke, alcohol from, 42 tiote 
 Sobriety, Mr. Joseph Cowen on 
 importance of, 414 ; relations 
 between it and crime, 156 
 Social drinking liabits, 436 
 Society, general cllects of alcohol 
 on, 226-282 ; opiuious ou dc-
 
 INDEX. 
 
 581 
 
 structive effects of alcohol on, 
 230 
 
 Soma, 3 ; real character of, 4 ; 
 uniqae properties of, 5, 6 
 
 Sparta and driuk, 20 
 
 Spirit, definition of, 26 
 
 Stage, power and province of the, 
 415 
 
 Statistics, drink, 234 ; general 
 value of, 226 
 
 Steam kitchen in Berlin, 383 ; in 
 Stockholm, 38 i 
 
 Stimulant, alcohol as a, 200 ; 
 alcohol no right to be called a, 
 119 ; effects of alcohol as a 
 mental, 121 
 
 Stimulants, 102 ; definition of, 
 105 ; divided into invigorators 
 and prostrators, 105 ; the most 
 important, 104 ; various con- 
 flicting definitions of, 103 
 
 Stockholm, steam kitchen in, 384, 
 385 
 
 Stomach, Dr. Beaumont's ex- 
 periments on the Canadian 
 hunter's, 74 ; effects of alcohol 
 on, 73 
 
 Stout, child mortality from use of, 
 during lactation, 225 
 
 Stramonium in liquor adulteration, 
 46 
 
 Strichnia in liquor adulteration, 46 
 
 Sueves and drink, 23 
 
 Suicide, drink as a cause of, 269 
 
 Sugar, alcohol dei-ived from, 39 ; 
 important element of food, 68 
 
 of lead in liqiior adulteration, 
 
 46 
 
 Sulphate of iron used in beer to 
 give a bitter taste, 56 
 
 Sulphuric acid, in liquor adultera- 
 tion, 46 ; used to give age to 
 beer, 56 
 
 Sura, 4 ; a national ciu'se, 6 
 
 drinkers, penalties imposed 
 
 upon, 6 
 
 Sweden, school savnngs-bank sys- 
 tem in, 398 
 
 Sweetwort used in beer for froth- 
 ings, 55 
 
 Syracuse and drink, 22 
 
 T 
 
 Tafia, a brandy from molasses, 45 
 
 Temperance, foundation of na- 
 tional regeneration, 411 ; Par- 
 liamentary i-eport in 1834 on, 
 241 ; relative healthfulness of, 
 and drink, 268 
 
 Temperance movement, abroad, 
 192 note 
 
 and the aristocracy, 449 ; 
 
 characteristics of modern, 333 ; 
 commencement of modem, 334 ; 
 medical history of, 182 ; the 
 three medical declarations con- 
 cerning alcohol, 184-186 
 
 Temperance reform, Ai-chbishop 
 Benson on, 420; foundation in 
 individual character and worth, 
 455 ; in Scotland, 356 note ; in- 
 terest of Duke of Albany in, 432 ; 
 interest of Prince of Wales in, 
 431 ; on railroads, 444 ; physi- 
 ology in, 334 ; Queen's sympathy 
 with, 429 ; vested in love, labotir, 
 and humility, 456 ; why past 
 efforts failed, 332 
 
 Temperature of body, effect of 
 alcohol on, 95 
 
 Therapeutic uses of alcohol, prin- 
 cipal, 199 
 
 Tissues, meaning of alcoholic pre- 
 servation of, 80 ; parallel effects 
 of alcohol on the nervous and 
 muscular, 100 
 
 Toasts and health-drinking, 434 
 
 Tobacco used in liquoradnlteratiou, 
 47 
 
 plant, the forbidden fruit, 7 
 
 note 
 
 Total abstinence a qualification for 
 Church membership, 425 
 
 Trade customs, 435 
 
 uses of alcohol, 44 
 
 Traditions, ancient wine, 6-12 
 
 Tremor, alcoholic. Prof. Kraft- 
 Ebing on, 140 
 
 Tyrone, prohibition estate in, 438 
 
 U 
 United States, annual drink bill of, 
 275 ;_ liquor consumption of, 277;
 
 582 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 liquoi- industry of, 27G ; liquor 
 revenue of, 277; statistics of 
 public-houses in, 278 
 Urine, alcohol traceable in, 92, 93 
 
 Veclic people, drinking among the, 
 3-6 
 
 Vice, propagation of, 372 
 
 Villa-Novus, Araoldus, and spirit 
 distillation, 31 
 
 Vine, legends of, 8 note; plant- 
 ing edict. Emperor Domitian's 
 famous, 22 ; the forbidden fruit, 
 7; planted by Noah, a sprig 
 from Paradise, 8 
 
 W 
 
 War and education, public money 
 devoted to, 394 
 
 Washington Home of Chicago, 373 
 note 
 
 Water, agitation for pure, in 
 London, 387 ; bibliography of, by 
 Dr. Plohn, 392 ; Drs. Becquerel, 
 Rodier, and Albin Koch, on pro- 
 portion of, in blood, 64 ; drinking, 
 390 ; drinking in 1498, 308 ; for 
 infants, 389; functions of, 63; 
 pure, greatest essential for life 
 and health, 38G ; in beer, 55 ; of 
 paramount importance to life, 
 63 ; ordinance in Antwerp, 387 ; 
 quantity of, in human body, 63 ; 
 scavenger of body, 84; thera- 
 peutic properties of, 390 ; treat- 
 ment in fevers, 204 
 
 Wealth, Dr. Channiug's true use 
 of, 395 
 
 Wealthy, education of, 399 note 
 
 West Lancashii-e Kaihvay Com- 
 pany and temperance, 444 
 
 Westminster, Duke of, on temper- 
 ance, 451 
 
 White Coppice, prohibition in, 441 
 
 Whortleberries used in colouring 
 wine, 55 
 
 Will, clever disguises assumed by 
 the alcoholized, 164; difference 
 between intention and, 160 ; 
 effect of alcohol on, ,160 ; in 
 general life, 165 ; in political 
 life, 164 ; in the relations be- 
 tween master and man, 164 ; 
 instance of power of drink to 
 annihilate, 160 ; negative loss 
 of, 165 ; positive loss of, 166 
 
 Wine, ancient traditions, 6-12; 
 commencement of drinking, in 
 England, 309 ; milk of Venus, 11 ; 
 use of, in Lord's Supper, 423 
 
 Wines, adulterations of, port, 48, 
 Rhine, 48, sherry, 49 ; fortified 
 for export, 51, 52 ; fortified by 
 potato spirit in London docks, 
 52 ; ills caused by drinking adul- 
 terated, 54; Lajicef on nuti'itious 
 elements in, 76 ; mallow. bloom, 
 whortleberries, elderberries, co- 
 chineal, and logwood used in 
 colouring, 55 ; reasons for adul- 
 teration of, 47 ; rectification with 
 prepared chalk, 53 ; Spanisli, 
 manufactured from raw German 
 spirits, 52; Daily Telegraph on, 
 52 
 
 Wisconsin Central', Railway and 
 temperance, 445 
 
 Women and alcohol, 358-367 
 
 Work, capacity for, reduced by 
 alcohol, 123 
 
 Worth, human, foundation of, 167 
 
 Yeast fungi, generation of, 40 
 
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