OK THK University of California. Received ^z) ^^^^ • ^^9%..- Accession No. y I/- 6' JZ ^ . Class No. ^iM"^ Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/essentialsoflatiOOblacrich THE ESSENTIALS LATIN GEAMMAK. BY F. A. BLACKBURN. Nobis prima sit virtus perspicuitas, propria verba, rectus ordo ; . . . nihil neque desit neque superfluat. — Quint. Inst. viii. 2, 22. BOSTON: PUBLISHED BY GINN, HEATH, & CO. 1883. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1883, by F. A. BLACKBURN, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. J. S. CusHiNG & Co., Printers, Boston. PEEFACE THIS book is the outgrowth of several years' experience in teach- ing Latin to beginners. Portions of it were ch-awn up some years ago for the use of my own classes ; the success that has followed the use of them has led to the completion of the lacking portions and the publication of the whole. The objects kept in view in compiling the book were two: without omitting essentials, to make a book small enough to be mastered by a beginner, and to arrange the principles of grammar contained in it as systematically as possible, thus making them easy to learn and easy to keep. The first object I have ift-ie^ ft) l^cure by studied conciseness of statement and by the omission of all that Latin has in common with English, e.g., definitions of the parts of speech, kinds of sen- tences, subject, object, etc. ; rules for the use of adverbs, conjunctions, and the like. The object of these omissions, however, was not brevity alone, but rather simplicity. I have assumed that the book will be put into the hands of pupils who have already studied English Gram- mar, and I believe that loss of time is only a part of the harm of requiring a pupil to relearn a grammatical definition or principle couched in new words. The book will not be found suitable, there- fore, for pupils who have not mastered the elements of grammar, unless the teacher shall supplement it with the needed definitions. The second point aimed at is partly a matter of grammatical sys- tem, partly of typography. Whether my classification of the facts and principles of the Latin tongue is any help to the pupil in learning them and keeping them, is a question for the teacher who may use the PREFACE. book. The avraugeinent of these facts and principles on the J^age, however, will commend itself, I hope, to all. The coarser print con- tains those portions of the grammar of the language, which, in my judgment, should be absolutely mastered; the smallest amount to which memorizing can be limited. The notes contain illustrations, explanations, and those limitations of grammatical principles which are the outgrowth of usage, and which should be gradually learned by daily reference in the course of reading a Latin author. ^Much that is in the notes should be memorized ; how much, is a question left to the judgment of the teacher, and the answer will depend on circum- stances : the amount of time at the disposal of the class, the age and character of the pupils, the requirements of the college they have in view, etc. The duplicate numbering serves to connect the notes to the statements they illustrate or explain, and is simple enough, I hope, to save the vexation and loss of time incurred in trying to find a reference in a book systematically sub-divided and classified. The numbering answers the same purpose as paging : convenience of refer- ence. A bracketed reference refers to a note ; such a reference, given orally, may be called simply " note,'" e.g. [142] may be read " note 142." It is not claimed, of course, that so small a book contains a com- plete exposition of the principles of the Latin tongue, or a complete history of the growth of the forms and usage of Latin speech, and the book is not intended for those who pursue the study of the language so far. Such should provide themselves with larger and fuller trea- tises. It is intended for that class of pupils who study Latin in school and college for the training it gives in clearness of thought and ex- actness of speech, but whose tastes or plans of life and work do not lead them to the higher and more attractive study of the life and growth of the language. I have, therefore, omitted discussions of the origin and growth of forms and idioms, or of the development of syntactical usages, as well as all illustrations drawn from comparative grammar. I have tried to include, however, all the grammatical in- formation needed for a high school or for the early years of a college ; PREFACE. to the point, in fact, where the better colleges now give the pupil the option of continuing classical studies, or substituting other branches more to his taste. I have tried, moreover, to so arrange the facts and usages of Latin speech, that the pupil who carries his studies beyond the limit of the book, shall not be obliged to nnlearn, but only to sup- plement, what he has already mastered. It is proper to add that I put forth no claim to original research, my object being to make a school-book. If the plan and arrangement do not justify its publication, there is nothing else in it to do so. I have not tried, moreover, in seeking for the best and clearest arrange- ment, to avoid what has been already used by others. I have freely taken from every source, whatever, in the way of expression or classi- fication, seemed good for my purpose. The teacher who is familiar with the various Latin grammars issued within the last twenty years, will find much taken directly from them ; more than I can acknowl- edge in detail. On questions of fact and usage, I have depended almost entirely on Roby's Latin Grammar, and have drawn freely on his citations from Latin authors, for illustrative examples. His full collections of illustrative words and sentences have saved a great amount of labor that would have been needed to find appropriate illustrations. I shall be grateful for criticism from any source, especially for cor- rections or suggestions from teachers who may have occasion to test the value of the book by actual use with classes. F. A. BLACKBURN. San Francisco, Cal., Feb. 17, 1883. OONTEITTS PART I. — SOUNDS. Alphabet and Pronunciation 1-13 Alphabet ^ Vowels, their sounds 2 Open and close vowels ^ Diphthongs ■* Sounds of diphthongs ^ Sounds of the consonants ^H Classification of consonants 1^ Double consonant x 1^ Quantity and Accent 14r-20 Long syllables 14, 15 Short syllables . 16,17 Common syllables ^° Accent ♦ 1^»2^ PART II. — FORMS. Inflection 21-26 Inflection 21,22 Inflection of nouns 23 Inflection of adjectives 24 Inflection of pronouns 25 Inflection of verbs 26 Stem and Suffixes; Theme and Endings . . • 27-29 Stem and sufl^es 27 Theme and endings 28, 29 CONTENTS. Gender 30-40 Three genders 30 Natural and grammatical gender ..... 31 Naturally masculine nouns 32, 33 Naturally feminine nouns 34-36 Naturally neuter nouns 37, 38 Naturally common nouns 39, 40 Person, Number and Case 41-49 Person and number 41 Cases 42 Nominative case 43 Genitive case 44 Dative case 45 Accusative case . . . , 46 Vocative case 47 Ablative and locative cases 48 Direct and oblique cases 49 The Declensions . . . 50-63 Six forms of declension 60 Two groups 51 Open-vowel declensions 61 Close-vowel and consonant declensions 51 The a-declension 62-56 Theme and stem 52 Endings 53,54 Locative of a-stems 65 Gender of a-stems 66 The e-declension 57-60 Theme and stem . ' 57 Endings 58 Gender of e-stems 59, 60 The o-deelension 61-69 Theme and stem • . 61 Endings 62,63 Vocative of o-stems 64 Locative of o-stems 65 Stems in -6ro 66 Stems in -io 67 deus, its irregularities 68 Gender of o-stems 69 CONTENTS. Adjective stems in -a and -o 70-72 Declension of ar and o-stem adjectives 70 Irregular adjectives 71 duo and ambo 72 The Consonant-declension 73-90 Theme and stem 73 Endings 74,75 Weakening of stem-vowel 76 Locative of consonant-stems 77 Loss of ending in semi-vowel stems 78 Loss of n in nominative singular 79 Stems in -6r . 80 L*regularitie8 81 Gender of consonant-stems 82-90 Adjectives with Stems in a Consonant .... 91-93 Declension of consonant-stem adjectives .... 91 Adjectives comprised 92, 93 The i-declension 94-105 Theme and stem 94 Classes of i-stems 95-98 Endings 99-101 Stems in -gri 102 Gender of i-stems 103-105 Adjectives with Stems in -* 106-108 Declension of i-stem adjectives 106 Adjectives comprised .....".. 107, 108 The ««-declension 109-113 Theme and stem 109 Endings 110,111 Monosyllabic u-stems 112 Gender of u-stems 113 Irregular Declension 114-117 Numeral Adjectives • • • US Comparison of Adjectives ..'.... 119-123 Suffixes of comparison 119, 120 Stems in -6r, -6ro, -6ri, -m 121 Compounds of -dicus, -ficus, -volus .... 122 Comparison by the use of magis, maxlme .... 123 CONTENTS. Forms of Pronouns 124-141 The personal pronouns . . . . . . . . 124 Declension of the personal pronouns .... 125 Possessive pronouns 126 Demonstrative pronouns 127, 128 Declension of is, ea, id 129 Declension of iste, ista, istud 130 Declension of ille, ilia, iUud 131 Declension of ipse, ipsa, ipsum 132 Declension of Mc, haec, hoc 133, 134 Strengthened forms of ille and iste 135 Declension of idem, eadem, idem .... 136, 137 Declension of the relative pronoun, qvi, qvae, qvod . 138 Declension of the interrogative pronoun, qvis, qvae, qvid . 139 Declension of the indefinite pronoun, qvi or qvis . . 140 Declension of the indefinite compounds of qvi or qvis 141 Forms of the Verb 142-154 Tenses and moods of the finite verb .... 142-147 Non-finite verb-forms 148-152 Passive verb-forms 153 Deponent verbs 154 Verb-stems 155-169 Forms of verb-stems 155 Simple stem ; present stem ; perfect stem .... 156 Formation of present stem 157-162 Formation of perfect stem 163-167 Principal parts of the verb 168, 169 Verbal Suffixes 170-190 Two elements of verb-suflixes 170 Mood-and-tense signs 171-177 Tense-base 178 Suffixes of finite verb-forms ; 179-182 Suffixes of non-finite verb-forms 183-187 Endings of perfect active indicative and infinitive . 188-190 The Conjugations 191-214 Five conjugations 191 Theme of the incomplete tenses 192 Inflection of the incomplete tenses 193 Endings of the incomplete tenses ; a-stems . . . 194, 195 Endings of the incomplete tenses ; e-stcms . . . 196, 197 CONTENTS. Endings of the incomplete tenses ; consonant and u-steras 198, 199 Two forms of inflection of i-stems 200 Endings of the incomplete tenses ; short i-stems . . 201, 202 Endings of the incomplete tenses ; long i-stems . . 203, 204 Theme of the complete tenses 205 Endings of the complete tenses 206 Formation of the complete tenses ; passive voice . . 207 Theme of simple stem forms 208 Endings of simple stem forms 200 Periphrastic forms made from the participles . . 210-214 Irregular Verb-forms . . 215-229 Loss of V in perfect stem . 215 Loss of imperative ending in die, due, fac . . . 216 Specially irregular verbs 217-220 sum, esse, f ui 221 Compounds of sum 222 edo, edere, edi, esum 223 fero, ferre, tuli, latum 224 volo, velle, volui ; nolo, nolle, nolui; malo, malle, malui 225 do, dare, dedi, datum 226 eo, ire, ivi, itum 227 Qveo, qvire, qvivi, qvitumj neqveo, neqvire, neqvivi, neqvitum 228 fio, fieri 229 Impersonal and Defective Verbs 230-235 PART III. — WORD-FORMATION. Roots and Stems 236-238 Boots 236 Stems 237,238 Formation of Nouns 239-241 Nouns from nouns 239 Nouns from adjectives 240 Nouns from verbs 241 Formation of Adjectives 242-244 Adjectives from nouns . 242 Adjectives from adjectives 243 Adjectives from verbs 244 xii CONTENTS. Formation of Verbs 24&-24:7 Verbs from nouns and adjectives ..... 245, 246 Verbs from verbs ........ 247 Formation of Adverbs 248, 249 Case forms used as adverbs 248 Adverbs from nouns, adjectives and verbs .... 249 Formation of Prepositions, Conjunctions and Interjections 250, 251 Composition 252 PART IV. — SYNTAX. Person, Number, Voice, Concord 253-257 Person, number and voice 253 Agreement of the appositive 254 Agreement of the adjective 255 Agreement of the pronoun 256 Agreement of the finite verb 257 Use of the Cases 258-308 Nominative 258-260 Vocative 261 Accusative 262-268 Dative 269-272 Locative . 273,274 Genitive 275-291 Ablative 292-308 Use of the Tenses 309-312 General use 309 Perfect definite and indefinite 310 Primary and secondary tenses 311 Sequence of tenses 312 Use of the Moods 313-333 Indicative of statement 313 Indicative of question 314 Imperative of command 316 Subjunctive of doubtful statement 316 Subjunctive of doubtful question 317 Subjunctive of doubtful command 318-321 CONTENTS. Subjunctive Subjunctive Subjunctive Subjunctive Subjunctive Subjunctive Subjunctive Subjunctive Subjunctive Subjunctive Subjunctive Subjunctive of dependent statement of dependent question . of dependent command in purpose clauses . in result clauses . in conditions impliedly false in causal clauses in concessive clauses in temporal clauses . in future conditions in general conditions . by attraction . Use of the Non-finite Verb-forms The infinitive Uses of the infinitive . . . . The participles Uses of the participles . . Peculiar force of the passive participles The gerund The gerundive The supine 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334-352 334 336-342 343 344-34G 347 348 349 350-352 PART v. — THE LA-WS OF LATIN VERSE. Quantity 353-397 Latin versification 353 General rules of quantity 354 Special rules of quantity 355 Tendencies affecting quantity . ' 356-363 Quantity of stem-vowels and suflSxes of nouns . . 364-373 , Quantity of stem-vowels and sufiixes of pronouns . . 374-379 Quantity of nominative singular of consonant-stems . 380-384 Quantity of verb-forms 385-394 Quantity of uninflected monosyllables 395 Quantity of uninflected polysyllables .... 396, 397 Versification 398-421 Long and short syllables 398 Feet 399 Fundamental feet 400-404 CONTENTS. Substitute feet 405 Dipodies 406 Verses and their names . 407, 408 Most common kinds of verse > 409 Dactylic hexameter ....... 410, 411 Dactylic pentameter 412, 413 Iambic and trochaic verse 414-416 Laws of the structure of Latin verse .... 417-421 Supplement to Syntax A. Negative particles 422-425 B. Interrogative particles 426-434 C. Use of the pronouns 435-445 D. Forms of conditional sentences 446-456 E. Reported speech 457-478 F. Order of words and clauses 479-486 G. Dates 487-497 Appendix. — List of Verbs 498 Index of Topics 499 Index of Words 500 ESSENTIALS OF LATIN GEAMMAE. UNIVERSITY PART L— SOUNDS. 1. Alphabet and Pronunciation. The Latin alphabet has no w ; otherwise it is like the English. The vowels are a, e, i, o, u. They are sounded, when long, like the same vowels in the English words, father^ they^ pique^ ore^ rude. When short, they have the same sound, but more shortly uttered ; nearly like the same vowels in half^ them, pick, obey, full. [1] K is found in Old Latin, but is rare in the later language, being replaced by c. Q is used for c before v. I was used for both i and j, and II for both u and v; but they are often distinguished in modern print, except that a is used for v after q, g, and s. (For the sake of exactness, they are distinguished in this book, j and v being always con- sonants, i and u vowels.) Y and z are, strictly speaking, not Latin letters, but were bt)rrowed from the Greek. They are found only in Greek words. [2] Long vowels are marked a, e, i, o, 5 ; short, S, 6, 1, d, ii. Some- times in manuscripts and inscriptions long vowels are indicated by writing them double. For long i, ei is written in such cases (not ii). EUPHONIC CFIANGES OF VOWELS. (a) Before final consonants, except s, long vowels are often shortened. {h) Before ns and nf short vowels are lengthened. (c) The short vowels are often "weakened," sometimes from a shifting of the accent, often without any apparent reason. The tendency in vowel- weakening is from " open " to " close." (See 8.) Thus a weakens to o and u, or to e and 1; o weakens to u, e to i. Less often o weakens to e, u to i. {d) The same weakening sometimes takes place in long vowels and diphthongs, but rarely. (e) This tendency is checked and modified by various causes, a common one being the character of the following sound. Thus the open vowels (see 3) are favorites before two consonants, the close ones before single mutes ; the open vowels before liquids and spirants, the close ones before nasals and s. PART L — SOUNDS. 7 8 9 10 11 A, e, o, are open vowels ; i, ii, close vowels. The diphthongs are made up of an open vowel- sound, followed by a close one. Each sound is uttered, but the two are run into one syllable in pronunciation. The diphthongs are ae, 6e, ei, au, eii. Ae is sounded like English «^ (= yes)\ oe like oi in toil; au like ou in loud; ei as in eight; eii as iw feud. The consonants are sounded as in English, except that C and g are always " hard," as in cave^ give, J sounds like y in young. T sounds like t in tongue. S sounds like s in sin. V sounds like w in tvin. [3] So named from the fact that tlie organs of speech are more open, or less open in uttering tliem. A is more open than e or o ; the latter are, therefore, sometimes called " medial " vowels. [4J In Old Latin is found the complete scliedule of diphthongs, ai, ei, ol, au, eu, ou. In the later language ai becomes ae; ei usually becomes C or i; oi becomes oe; on becomes u. In some cases this weakening ten- dency has gone still further, weakening ae and oe also to e and u. The simple vowels wliich thus replace tlie older diplithongs then become subject to the same weakening tendency as single vowels. [6] H is sounded as in English, but seems to have originally had a stronger sound, as it stands in place of an older guttural nmte. Before s and t it changes or reverts to c. M and s in Old Latin seem to have been but slightly sounded, and, when final, are often dropped. Y and z of Greek words are generally sounded as in English, but it is supposed that y had the sound of French u. The compounds eh, tli, ph, are also found in Greek words. It is customary to sound them as in English chasm, thin, phase, although it is believed that the Romans sounded tliem in such a way as to give each letter its own sound ; i.e., as c, t, and p, followed by an h-sound. ALPHABET AND PRONUNCIATION. The consonants are classified as follows : Mutes. Semi-vowels. Breathed. Voiced. Nasal, Liquid. Spirant. Sibilant. Guttural . . . h Linguo-palatal . c(k,q) s 11 i Linguo-dental . t d n 1, r S Labio-dental . . f Labial .... P b m V X (called a double consonant) is a short way of writing es. 12 13 [12] The name "voiced" is given to those sounds, the utterance of which is attended by a vibration of tlie vocal chords, thus making " voice " ; the others, consisting of mere expulsion of breath, are called " breathed." Of the semi-vowels, f and s are breathed ; the others are voice-letters, as are also all the vowels. The names " guttural," etc., refer to the organs used in uttering the sounds. Qv and gv are treated as single consonants by the Latins, like single c and g. In many words the spelling varies between qv and c. EUPHONIC CHANGES OF CONSONANTS. (a) The sounds of j and v are so much like those of i and u that they are not only represented by the same letters, but, in poetry, are sometimes interchanged. Thus abiete becomes abjete ; Gajus becomes Gains ; cui becomes cv^i ; silv^ae becomes siluae, etc. V regularly becomes u when brought before a consonant; sometimes qv becomes cu, but usually c. (6) Doubled consonants at the end of a word are not found in Latin, but one is dropped. Often, also, in the middle of a word, one consonant is written where the derivation or formation would require two. (e) Between two vowels s usually changes to r, and h and v are often dropped. J sometimes drops before i, and s sometimes changes to r in other positions than between vowels. Consonant sounds are often modified when brought together in inflec- tion or word-formation. Usually the preceding sound adapts itself more or less fully to the following. Thus : {d) Before s, t and d become s. [ss thus formed is often changed to s. See (6) above.] PAKT L — SOUNDS. 14 15 2. Quantity and Accent. A syllable is long («) When it contains a long vowel or a diphthong. (5) When its vowel, naturally short, is followed by two consonants. (e) Before a liquid, n is often changed to that liquid. {/) In tlie prepositions ab, ad, ob, sub, com, in, tliis tendency goes much further, and the final sound of these words is assimilated to various sounds. (Assimilation of a preceding to a following sound also occurs in many other cases, which cannot be enumerated or classified in an elemen- tary work.) In cases (d), (e), and (/), there is entire assimilation of the preceding sound to the following one. In the following, partial assimilation takes place. (g) Before a breath-consonant, the voice-mutes change to the corre- sponding breath-mutes. But assimilation often takes place, especially of the final mutes of prepositions, and dt and tt often change to st, ss, or s. G, h, gv, and qv change to c before a following s, and make x, i.e., cs. Bs is generally written, but is always pronounced as ps. {h) Before a mute the nasals become of the same character as the mute, m before labials, n before palatals and dentals. (N lias two sounds, as in English ; that of a palatal nasal (Eng. shic/) before palatal mutes, and that of a dental nasal (Eng. sin) elsewhere.) M before s is changed to n or assimilated, but in some cases a parasitical p is inserted between m and s ; e.fj., hicmps (for hlems), suinpsi (for sunisi), etc. (i) In combinations of consonants difficult to utter, one is often dropped. (The changes given here are not always made in writing, and it is not easy to decide how fully they were made in speaking. Perhaps it would be the wisest course for a beginner to pronounce the words as he finds them written.) [14J Whether any particular vcvel is long or short, must often be learned by consulting a lexicon, but vowels formed by contraction are long. [16] A mute or f foUowed by 1 or r does not make a long syllable, but a common one. See 18. X and Greek z are two consonants, and qv, gv are single consonants. See [12]. To make a long syllable, one of the consonants must be in the same word with the preceding short vowel ; a QUANTITY AND ACCENT. 5 A syllable is short (a) When it contains a short vowel. 16 (5) When its vowel, naturally long, is followed by 17 another vowel. A syllable is common p.e., long or short at the option of the writer] (a) When its vowel, naturally short, is followed 18 by a mute or f with 1 or r. final short rowel seldom makes a long syllable with two consonants of the following word. Ch, th, ph also are single consonants in Greek, and do not make a long syllable, though two consonants are used in Latin to represent them. [17] An interposed h has no effect, and the rule applies to diphthongs as Avell as to single vowels. But in a few cases a vowel remains long or com- mon, though followed by another vowel ; viz. : — (a) The genitive singular endings, ai, ei, lus, and the dative singular pronoun ei. {h) The syllable f i in the verb fio, except before -er. (c) Proper names in -aliis, -eius [poetical forms for -ajus, -ejtls. See fl2] (a)J. (rf) eheu, dius, DianS, ohe, Rhea. (e) Many Greek words, which usually keep their own quantity. [18] The following combinations occur : pr, br, cr, gr, tr, dr, fr ; pi, cl, f 1. But both consonants must be in the same word with the preceding vowel ; in different words (or in different parts of a compound) they make a long syllable. In Greek words, a mute followed by a nasal may make a sliort syllable with a preceding short vowel. (The vowels of 15, 17, and 18 are often called long, short, or common hy position. The expression, though convenient, is inexact as regards long and common syllables ; for the syllable, not the vowel, is long or common. Such vowels should have their short sound ; but a long vowel before two consonants {e.g., before ns or nf) should, of course, have its long sound. In many cases, however, tliere is little or no evidence to show the natural quantity of the vowel ; but the pupil is more likely to be right in sounding it short.) 6 PART L — SOUNDS. The accent in Latin is 19 (a) In words of two syllables, on tlie first syllable. 20 (^) In words of more than two syllables, on the penult^ if that syllable is long; otherwise, on the antepenult. [19] The rules for the accent of Latin words are given by the Latin grammarians, who add also the following statements : — (a) Prepositions, when standing directly before their nouns, or before an adjective or genitive limiting their nouns, have no accent, but are pro- nounced as one word with the following. In other positions they are accented, with the exception of cum when it is attached enclitically to the ablative of pronoun forms. (/;) The enclitic particles -ne, -ve, -ce, -met, -pte, -dum (also -qve when it means and, and cum, inde and qvando when attached to a pre- ceding word) have no accent, but cause the accent to fall on the last syllable of the word to which they are attached; e.(j.,it6iq\e, and thus; exinde, thenceforth ; ^cqvando, man^dum, etc. (c) The accent may stand on the last syllable, or on a short penult, if a syllable has been lost ; e.^., viden (for videsne), illic (for illice), nostrds (for nostrdtis), Vergili (for Vergilii), etc. It is customary also, in words of several syllables, to put a secondary accent on the second or third syllable before the accented syllable. [20j Penult, last syllable but one ; antepenult, last but two. PART IL — FORMS. Inflection. Inflection is a change in the form of a word to denote some modification of its meaning or to show its relation to other words. Nouns, adjectives, pro- nouns and verbs are inflected in Latin. Inflection in Latin, as in English, consists either in a change in the vowel of the word or in the addition of syllables; far more often the latter. Sometimes both methods are used. Nouns have inflections to denote number and case. Adjectives have inflections to denote gender^ num- ber and case. Pronouns, when used substantively, have the in- flections of nouns ; when used adjectively, those of adjectives. Verbs have inflections to denote tense, mood, person, number and voice. Stem and Suffixes; Theme and Endings. Inflection, in Latin, usually consists in adding certain syllables to the ground-form or basis of the inflected word. This ground-form or basis is called a stem, and the added syllables are called suffixes. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 1 21] £".(/., servus, slave; servi, slave's ; pastor, shepherd; pastores, sheplierds ; ama-s, love-st ; aina-t, love-s ; ama-vit, love-d ; etc. The inflection of nouns, adjectives and pronouns is often called declen- sion ; that of verbs, conjugation. PAKT IL — FORMS. When the stem ends in a vowel and the suffix begins with a yowel, the resulting contraction often obscures both stem-ending and suffix. For conven- ience of memorizing we therefore divide inflected words not onlj into stem and suffix but also into theme and ending. The theme is that part of the word which remains unchanged in inflection. The endings are the letters or syllables added to the theme to make the various forms of the word. Forms of Nouns and Adjectives. GENDER. There are three genders : masculine., feminine^ neuter. Gender, in Latin, is fixed either by the meaning or by the form. When fixed by the meaning, it is called natural gender ; by the form, grammatical. Rules of natural gender : — ^ . f Names of male beings ) («) i XT- t ' A , • f are masculine. [^ ^ames of rivers and mountains ) C Names oi female beings "^ (Jj) } Names of trees and plants |- are feminine. (^ Names of countries, toions and islands ) J Indeclinable nouns ") ^ ^ \ Phrases or clauses used as nouns j ' J Names that may be used of either sex ] \ Some names oi beasts, birds, Jishcs and insects J [29] The theme is always the same as the stem witli its final vowel removed, and the endings consequently contain tlie final vowel of the stem and the sutfixes, both often obscured by contraction. If the stem ends in a consonant, tlie stem and theme are the same, and the endings are the simple suffixes. [31] The rules of grammatical gender will be given with the various declensions. FORMS OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. PERSON, NUMBER, AND CASE. In person and number the Latin is like the English. There are five cases in common use ; viz. : nom- inative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative. Two other cases, a locative and a vocative, are found in a few w^ords. The nominative corresponds to the English nom- inative, being the case of the subject. The genitive corresponds to the English possessive. The dative corresponds to the English indirect objective. The accusative corresponds to the English direct objective. The vocative corresponds to the English nominative in direct address. The ablative and locative have no corresponding cases in English. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 [33] Hadria, the Adriatic, is masculine, like names of rivers. The gender of rivers, trees, countries, etc., is the result of the simplicity of primitive thought and conception, which gave life and feeling to inani- mate objec-ts. In many of these, however, the gender is fixed by the form, and they come under the rules of grammatical gender. In most words, also, there is no contradiction of form and meaning. [37] Strictly speaking, the neuters of 37 and 38 fix their gender neither by meaning nor by form, but they are put here for convenience. Words quoted only for their form, without regard to meaning, come under the head of indeclinable nouns; e.r/., pater dixi, 7 said "pater"; pater est dissyllabum, "pater" is dissi/llabic. [39] Common; i.e., sometimes masculine, sometimes /ewmme. [40] But in most of these sex is not thought of, and they are either masculine or take grammatical gender. Words borrowed from the Greek keep the gender they have in that language. 10 PART IL — FORMS. 49 50 51 The nominative and vocative are sometimes called direct cases, the others oblique. The oblique cases are often rendered into English by prepositions. The genitive is most often rendered by of; the dative, by to or for ; the locative, by at or in ; the ablative, by from^ hy^ in or with. The Declensions. Nouns and adjectives are inflected by adding to the stem the proper case-suffixes. As these suffixes differ in certain cases and are often obscured in form by contraction with the final vowel of the stem, we have six forms of declension, as the stem ends in a consonant or in one of the vowels, a, e, i, o, u. These six forms fall naturally into two groups ; viz. : A. Stems in an open vowel (a, e, o). B. Stems in a consonant or a close vowel (i, n). [49] The details of the use of the cases must be learned from the Syntax. Only enough is given here to enable the pupil to master elementary exercises. [51] These groups are distinguished by different case-suflixes in certain cases; most clearly in the genitive, where A has sg. -i, pi. -rdm; B, sg. -Is, pi. -ttni. Nouns and adjectives are usually classified into declensions according to the ending of the genitive singular; and lexicons give, therefore, not the stem, but the nominative and genitive singular. That the pupil may be able to refer each Avord to its proper declension, the usual method of classification is here added. First Declension, gen. sg. ending -ae = a-stems. Second " " " " -i = o-stems. Third " " " " -Is = consonant and 1-stems. Fourth " " " " -us = u-stems. Fifth " " " " -ei = e-stems. The ending of the genitive singular, therefore, distinguishes all vowel- stems except those in -1. Rules for distinguishing i-stems from consonant- THE DECLENSIONS. 11 THE yt-I>ECI.ENSION. STEMS ENDING IN -A. The theme of any a-stem may be found by dropping the ending of tlie genitive singular, -ae. The stem is found by adding a to the theme. The final a of the stem combines with the case- suffixes to make the following case-endings, by adding which to the theme any a-stem may be declined : — Sg.lii. -S P/. N. -ae E.g., mens ^ meiisae G. -ae G. -arttm mensae mensarttm D. -ae D. -Is mensae mens Is Ac. -Sm Ac. -as mens Sm mens Ss Ab. -a Ab. -Is mens a mens Is The locative singular of a-stems has the ending -ae. The gender of a-stems is feminine. 52 53 54 55 56 stems, by the forms of the nominative and genitive singular, will be found under the i-declension. [54] The uncontracted ending -ai is sometimes found in the genitive singular ; also -um for arum in the genitive plural. Familia, in combination with pater, mater, lilius, or filia, sometimes has the ending -as in the genitive singular. The same ending is found in a few other words in old Latin. Dea and filia usually form the dative and ablative plural with the end- ing -abtts ; a few others rarely. In poetry, words borrowed from the Greek often keep Greek endings in the singular. The following are found : nom. -e, -as, -es ; gen. -es ; ace. -an, -en; abl. -e. But the regular Latin endings are common. Various old endings are found in inscriptions and old Latin ; viz. : gen. sg. -aes ; dat. sg. -ai (diphthong'?) ; abl. sg. -ad (the original abl. ending) ; nom. pi. -as; dat. and abl. pi. -eis (another spelling of -is. See [2]). In a few instances stems in -ia contract -iis in the dat. and abl. pi. to -is. [56] The rules of grammatical gender given with the declensions apply only to such nouns as do not come under the rules of natural gender, 32-40. 12 PART IL — FORMS. THE JE7-DECI.ENSION. STEMS IN -E. The theme of any eastern may be found by dropping the genitive singular ending, -ei. The stem is found by adding e to the theme. The case-endings are : — %N. -gs P/. N. -es E.g., dies dies G. -ei G. -eriim diei dieriim D. -ei D. -ebiis die! diebiis Ac. -gm Ac. -es di gm di es Ab. -g Ab. -gbiis die diebiis Stems in -e are feminine, But dies is usually masc. ; meridies, always so. THE O-DECLENSION. STEMS IN -O. The theme of any o-stem may be found by dropping the genitive singular ending, -i. The stem is found by adding o to the theme. The case-endings are ; — FOR MASCULINES. %N. -tts PI N. -1 E.g. , hort tls horti G. -I G. -oriim horti liortorfim D. -6 D. -18 liort 6 hort IS Ac. -ttm Ac. -6a hort tlm hort OS Ab.-o Ab. -Is hort 6 liort Is [58] Tlie ending of the genitive and dative singidar is commonly -6i when tlie theme ends in a consonant ; viz. : in fides, plebes, res, spes. Old or unusual endings are found ; viz. : gen. sg. -es, -e, -i ; dat. sg. -e, -i. Stems in -c lack tlie plural except dies and res, and a few found in the nom. and ace. pi. ; viz. : acies, effigies, facics, scries, species, spes ; with eluvics (nom.) and glacies (ace). Other forms are cited by gram- marians, but not found in literature. A locative die is found in old Latin, and in certain (so-called) adverbs of time : postridie, pridie^ etc. THE DECLENSIONS. 13 FOR NEUTERS. Sg. N". -iim PI N. -a E.g. , don iim donS G. -I G. -ortim doni don oriim D. -6 D. -Is don 6 don is Ac. -um Ac. -a don iim donS Ab.-o Ab. -IS don 6 don Is Masculine o-stems have a vocative singular with the ending -e. The locative singular of o-stems has the ending -I. Most masculine stems in -ero drop the endings of the nominative and vocative singular, and many of them syncopate e in all the other cases. Stems in -io contract -ie of the vocative singular to i, often also -ii of the genitive singular to i. Dens has no vocative singular. In the plural, 63 64 65 66 67 68 [62] The older endings -6s, -6m, are sometimes found for -iis, -iim, especially after v ; also -um (or, after v, -cm) for -orum. Old endings, found in inscriptions, etc., are gen. sg. oe C ), -ei (see [2]) ; dat. sg. -oi; abl. sg. -od; nom. pi. -es, -e, -oe; also -ei (see [2]) ; dat. and abl. pi. -oes, -obus (in duo and ambo, see [72]). Nouns borrowed from the Greek sometimes keep Greek endings. The following are found : nom. sg. masc. -6s ; neut. -on ; gen. sg. -o ; ace. sg. -on, -6 ; nom. pi. masc. -oe ; gen. pi. -on. Many Greek words are confused in their forms, taking, in certain authors, or in certain cases, the endings of o-stems ; at other times, or in other cases, the endings of consonant-stems. [66] Thus (from the stem puero) puer, pueri, puero, etc.; (from the stem agero) ager, agri, agro, etc. Vir (stem viro) drops the nom. and voc. sg. endings. In old Latin, however, these endings are sometimes kept. [67] The voc. sg. of Tullius, for example, is TuUi. Tlie accent in these shortened forms remains unchanged; e.g., Domiti (gen. or voc); imperi (gen.). See [19], (c). Other cases of stems in -io sometimes con- tract ii to i. Stems in -ajo, -ejo, when j changes to i [see [12] (a)], suffer a similar contraction. [68] Some editors print dii and diis also. 14 PART IL — FORMS. 69 70 71 72 Jjesides the regular forms, it has also nominative cli, dative and ablative dis. Stems in -o with nominative singular ending -iim are neuter ; others are masculine. ADJECTIVE-STEMS IN -A AND -O. Adjective-stems in -a and -o are declined like noun-stems of like form. (The feminine is an a-stem; the masculine and neuter, o-stems.) A few adjectives have in all genders -liis for geni- tive singular ending, and -i for dative singular. Duo and ambo have special irregularities. [69] But carb&sus, humus, and vannus are feminine ; alvus and colus usually so. Domus (see [115]) is feminine. i For pel&gus, virus, vulgus, neuter, see [115]. [70] Adjective stems in -lo are regular, and are not shortened in tlie genitive and vocative singular. [71] Viz., alius, nullus, solus, totus, ullus, unus, alter, uter, neu- ter. In poetry -Ms is found, and, rarely, the regular endings. Alius has an ending -tid for -Om in the neut. sg. nom. and ace, and contracts -iius of the gen. sg. to -ifis. (An older stem all is found in com- pounds and derivatives, and in the rare forms of the nom. sg. alls, alid. See under the I-declension, 94 ff . ) Satur drops the nom. sg. raasc. ending (like stems in -€ro). EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE. alttts alta altflm totfls iota totOm altl altae alti totius totius totius alto altae alto toti toti toti altQm altam altam totam totam totttm etc. etc. etc. etc. etc. etc. ten6r tengra tengrflm alter altera altdrttm tenCri tenCrae ten6ri alteriQs alteritis alteritis tenfiro tenerae tenCro altCrl alteri alteri etc. etc. etc. etc. etc. etc. THE DECLENSIONS. 15 THE CONSONANT-DECLENSION. STEMS IN A CONSONANT. The theme of any consonant-stem may be found 73 by dropping the genitive singular endin g, -is. The stem is the same as the theme. The case-endings are ; — FOR MASCULINES AND FEMININES. Sg.^. -s PL N. -es E.g., dux (= dnc s) duces G. -is G. -tim due is ductim D. -1 D. -ibiis duel due ibiis 74 Ac. -gm Ac. -es due gm duces Ab.-g Ab. -ibiis due g FOR NEUTERS. due ibiis %K — PL K -a E.g., caput capit a G. -is G. -iim capit is caj)iti1m D. -I D. -ibiis capit i capit ibiis 75 Ac. — Ac. -S capiit capit a Ab.-g Ab. -ibiis capit g capit ibiis atSr atra atriira atri atrae atri atro atrae atro etc. etc. etc. [72] duo duae duo duo rum duarum duorum duobus duabtis duobtig duds, duo duas duo duobtis duabtis duobiis fit^r iitra utrtim utrius utrias utriiis utrl utri utri etc. etc. etc. ambo ambae ambo amborum ambarum amboriim etc. etc. etc. [74] EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE. [("i)> (/)> («)j and (c) show the gender.] princeps (c) constil (h?) hiems (/) [78] gQnus (n) m61 (n) [12] (6) principis consults hiCmis generis mellis principi consuli hiemi generi melli etc. etc. etc. etc. etc. milgs (m) actor (w<) leo(;n)79 corpfis (n) far (n) [12] (6) militis actdris leonis corporis f arris etc. etc. etc. etc. etc. 16 PART II. — FORMS. 76 77 78 79 The last vowel of the nominative singular is often weakened in other cases when a syllable is added. See [2] ((?). But in s-stems the stronger vowel is retained before r, though weakened before s in the nominative singular. The locative singular of consonant-stems ends in -i. Masculine and feminine semivowel-stems drop the ending of the nominative singular. Final n of a stem falls after o in the nominative singular. pecas {/) 6bttr {n) homo (c) 79 mos (m) peciidis eboris homlnis morls etc. etc. etc. etc. silex {c) aggCr (m) nomt^n («) tellus (/) silicis aggerls nomtnis telluris - etc. etc. etc. etc. rex (m) pat6r(«i)80 caro (/) [115] aequor (n) regis patris carnis aequorls etc. etc. etc. etc. In Greek words the Greek endings are sometimes kept. The following are found; viz.: gen. sg. -6s ; dat. sg. -I; ace. sg. -ft ; nom.pl. -gs; gen. pi. -on; dat. pi. -si; ace. pi. -fts ; nom. and ace. pi. neut. -e (contracted from -6ft). Greek stems in -ftt sometimes take a dat. and abl. pi. ending -is like o-stems, though this is not a Greek ending in consonant-stems. See (62]. Old case-endings of consonant-stems are gen. sg. -us, -es ; dat. sg. ^e ; abl. sg. -ed, -id, -i ; dat. and abl. pi. -ebus. [76] S-stems (except vas, see [115]) regularly become r-stcms when a case-suflBx is added. See [12] (c). Sometimes the final s of the nom. and ace. sg. becomes r, thus making them r-stems throughout. This change seems to have taken place in jecur and robur, which show the weaker vowel in the nominative, though the stronger 6 appears in the other cases ; and perhaps ebur and femur, which show the same peculiarity, may be explained in the same way. [78] Except hiein (the only stem in -m), nom. hiems [or hiemps. See [12] (/i)]. [79] Not always, however, in nouns borrowed from the Greek. THE DECLENSIONS. 17 A few stems in -er syncopate e, except in the nom- inative singular. (Compare stems in -ero, 66.) A few cases occur where consonant-stems take the endings of i-stems. Such forms are irregular, a result of the confusion caused by the close likeness of the two declensions. Most mute-stems are feminine, T^ , { stems in -ic with nom. in -ex ) , . But< ^ ,, ,, ^ [ are masculme. ( " -it " " -es ) Stems in -on are masculine. But abstracts in -ion are feminine. Stems in -in with nominative in -o are feminine. Stems in -in with nominative in -en are neuter. Stems in -1 are masculine. Stems in -r and -s are neuter, But stems in -or and -os are masculine. 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 [80] Viz. : pater, mater, frater, accipiter. [81] Viz. : an abl. sg ending -i, or gen. pi. -ium. The latter is not unusual in stems in -tat, which seem to have once heen i-stems» The following exceptions to the rules of gender are added for complete- ness, the more usual words being printed in larger type. Hiems (the only stem in -m) is feminine. [82] grex, paries, pes, calix, fornix, are masculine. lapis, adeps, forceps, larix, varix, are common. caput, cor, are neuter. [83] silex, cortex, forfex, imbrex, obex, rumex, are common. [86] ordo, cardo, turbo, are masculine. cupido, margo, are common. [87] pecten is masculine; (sangvis, see [115], is masculine). [88] fel and mel are neuter (also sal sometimes in singular). [89] agger, career, asser, later, vesper, vomer, are masculine. arbos, tellus, are feminine; cinis, pulvis, common; cuciimis, masculine. [90] OS is neuter. 18 PART IL— FORMS. 91 92 93 CONSOXANT-STEM ADJECTIVES. Adjectives with consonant-stems are declined like noun-stems of like form, but most of them take -i as well as -e for the ablative singular ending, — a result of their likeness to i-stems. They comprise : — (a) Adjectives in the comparative degree. (5) Imparisyllabic adjectives with themes ending in a short syllable. [92] Comparatives are thus declined : — . and r. N. PL M. and F. N. Sg. N. PI. M. and F. N. altiur altitts altiores altiora plus plures plura altioris altiorum (pluris) plurium altiori altioribus pluribus altiorcm altius altiores altiora plus plures plura altiore(I) altioribus (plure) pluribus Plus is defective in the sg., and the forms pluris and plure are rare. In the gen. pi. it takes the ending -ium of i-stems. Its compound com- plures (only plural) has in old Latin complur-ia as well as the regular coinplura. [93] Parisyllabic, having the same number of syllables in all cases of the singular. Those a- and o-stem adjectives which have become impari- syllabic by the loss of the nominative singular ending (i.e., stems in 6po and satur) are, of course, not included. The adjectives included in {h) are few, and their meanings usually cause them to be used only of persons. They have no separate form in the singular for the neuter gender, but when necessary use the raasc. and fern, form of the nom. as nom. and ace. neuter sg. They are declined as follows : — Sg. M. and f. n. PI. m. and p. N. divds divites [divita] divltis divitum diviti divitibus divitem dives divites [divita] divite divitibus As exceptions to (6), must be celer, which drop the nom. sg. Sg. M. and f. n. PI. M. and F. N. pauper pauperes paupera pauperis pauperum pauperi pauperibus pauperem pauper pauperes paupera paupere pauperibus set down a few i-stems ; viz. : par and ending (see [102]); also licbes, teres, THE DECLENSIONS. 19 THE T-DECLENSION. STEMS IN I. The theme of any i-stem may be found by dropping the genitive singular ending, -is. The stem is found by adding i to the theme. The following classes contain all the i-stems in common use ; viz. : — 94 95 praecox, and compounds of -plex (except supplex). See [108]. A few adjective compounds of noun-stems have themes ending in a long syllable, but are declined, of course, like the nouns from which they are made ; e.g., discolor, discoloris, etc. Only a few forms of such are found, and it has not seemed necessary to add a third class to contain them. [94] I-stems have become much confused with consonant-stems through their close likeness in declension, and have been changed into consonant- stems in certain cases by the loss of i. They cannot, therefore, be distin- guished by the ending of the gen. sg. as other vowel-stems can, since the i is always lost in that case. A comparison of i-stera nouns with more primitive forms in Latin or kindred languages, shows that the i has arisen in many cases from an older a, e, o, or u, by weakening. Some i-stems show the older e in certain cases. In other words, the i is not found in kindred words in other lan- guages, and seems to be added in Latin. The i is kept or lost as follows : — In Class I., kept in nom. sg. (sometimes as e) ; also in some words in ace. and abl. sg. ; lost in gen. sg., and usually in abl. sg. The form of the dat. sg. would be the same whether i be kept or lost, and the ace. sg. ending -em may be considered an older form for -Im (like -es for -Is in the nom. sg.), or a consonant-stem ending after i is lost. In Class II., kept in the abl. sg. ; also in a few words (as e) in the nom. and ace. sg. ; lost in gen. sg., usually in nom. and ace. sg. The dative may be either, as in Class I. In Class III., lost throughout the singular. In the plural of all three classes, i may be kept throughout ; but it is usually lost in the nom. and often in the ace. of masc. and fem. nouns. Occasionally, however, i is kept in cases where it is usually lost, or lost in cases where it is usually kept. Tliis occurs more often in poetry for metrical convenience. 20 PART IL — FORMS. 96 97 98 99 I. Parisyllabic nouns in -es and -is. II. Neuters in -e, and neuters with themes in -al or -ar. III. Nouns with themes ending in an impure mute. These, however, are i-stems only in the plural, having lost i in the singular. The case-endings of i-stems of Class I. (masculine and feminine) are : — E.i Sg. N. -es -is PL N. -gs (-is) G. -is -is G. -iiim D. -1 -i D. -ibtis Ac. -Sm -im, -gm Ac. -IS, -gs Ab. -g -1, -S Ab. -ibiia X. nub es nub gs turrls turrgs G. nub is nub iiim turris turriiim D. nubi nub ibiis turri turribtts Ac. nubgm nub IS (es) turrim (gm) turris (gs) Ab. nub S nubibiis turri (g) turribiis [96] Of Class I., canis and juvenis lose 1 and become consonant-stems in the plural ; socles and vates usually ; occasionally, also, a few others. [98] Impure mute ; i.e., a mute preceded by a consonant. Of course nouns of this kind are not included if the gen. sg. ending shows them to be a-, 0-, or u-stems. Cor, though an i-stem in compounds, loses i in the plural also, and becomes a consonant-stem throughout. Many other monosyllables, espe- cially those with a long stem-syllable, give evidence of having once been i-stems, and though the i is usually lost, it sometimes appears, especially in the abl. sg. or gen. pi. The Latin writers and grammarians were evi- dently uncertain as to the proper form in these words. All such words are put by the classification here given in the consonant declension, when- the preponderance of evidence places them ; but a list is subjoined, con- taining those words in which a pupil may occasionally meet with i-stem forms ; viz. : — cos, dos, faex, fraus, glis, lis, lux, mas, mus, pax. -^ as, nix, plebs, scrobs, trabs, liavc a greater claim to be classed as i-stems ; the older forms, assis, ningvls, plebcs, scrobis, trabes, show tluit they once belonged to Class I. THE DECLENSIONS. 21 The case-endings of i-stems of Class II. (neut.) are : B.< Sg. N. -g or — P/. K -ia G. -IS G. -ium D. -1 D. -ibtts Ac. -g or — Ac. -ia Ab -1(e) Ab. -ibus 1^. mar S juariS animtil animal ia G. maris maritim animal is animal ill m D. mari maribiis animal 1 aninuilibtis Ac. marS maria animal animal ia Ab marl maribtis animal! animal ibiis I-stems of Class III. have in the plural the same endings as those of Classes I. and II., but the endings of consonant-stems in the singular. (See 74 and 75.) 100 101 [99] As ace. sg. ending, -im is found in Arariin, Ligerim, puppim, sitim, TibCrim, vim. amussim, burim, cucumim, praesepim (?), ravim, tussim. As ace. sg. ending, both -im and -em are found in febrim, messim, navim, turrim (or febrem, etc.). cravim, cratim, lentim, pel vim, restim, sementim, securim (or cravem, etc.). As abl. sg. ending, -i is found in siti, vi. Aprili, cucumi, Qvintili, ravi, rumi, securi, Sextlli, tussi. As abl. sg. ending, both -i and -e are found in aedili; amni, angui, Arfiri, avi, civi, classi, colli, febri, fini, igni, imbri, Ligeri, navi, orbi, puppi, turri (or aidile, amne, etc.). axi, corbi, fusti, pelvi, posti, sodali, strigili, ungvi (or axe, etc.). The nom. pi. ending -is (or -eis, see [2]) is rare; in the ace. pi., modern editions usually give one ending in all words to the exclusion of the other. Which one is given is a matter of indifference as a question of grammar. [100] The abl. sg. ending -6 is rare, except in names of towns. [101] In Class III., only partim shows the i kept in the ace. sg., and parti, lacti, sorti, in the abl. sg. As an adverb, the form partim is 22 PART II. — FORMS. 102 103 104 105 106 A few stems in -eri drop the ending of the nomina- tive singular, and syncopate e in all other cases. (Compare stems in -ero, 66, and -er, 80.) I-stems of Class I. with themes in n or s are masculine ; other i-stems of Class I. are feminine. I-stems of Class II. are neuter. In Class III. polysyllables are masculine; mono- syllables are feminine. ADJECTIVES WITH STEMS IN I. Adjectives with i-stems are declined like noun- stems of like form, but those of Class I. have only -i, the regular ending, in the ablative singular ; those of Class III. have both -i and -e. common ; the other forms are very rare, the i being regularly lost in the singular of Class III. [102] Viz. : imber, linter, uter, venter, and a few adjectives in the masculine. Arar, Liger, and the adjective par drop the nom. sg. ending (also celer in tlie masculine), but do not syncopate. [103] The exceptions in Class I. are : — (Theme in a mute) orbis ; fascis, ungvis ; antes, fustis, postis, sentis, vectis ; masculine. corbis, scrobis, torqvis ; common. (Theme in a liquid) collis, imber; caulis, follis, buris, torris, uter, venter ; masculine. callis, linter ; common. (Theme in a nasal) finis, clunis ; common ; cucftmis, masculine. (Theme in -s) classis, messis, tussis ; feminine. [105] The exceptions in Class III. are : — dens, fons, nions, pons ; masculine; cohors, feminine ; lac, neuter. [106] Adjective-stems in -gri (except celer) generally syncopate € in all forms, except in the nom. sg. masc, and drop the ending of that case, thus gaining different forms for masc. and fem. nom. sg. This differen- THE DECLENSIONS. 23 To Classes I. and II. belong Parisyllabic adjectives in -is (m. and F.), -e (n.). 107 To Class III. belong Imparisyllabic adjectives, with themes ending in 108 a long syllable. tiation of form is not strictly observed, however ; acer, for example, is fern, as well as masc. in old Latin, ^nd acris masc. as well Sisfem. There is, in general, a stronger tendency toward i-stem forms in the adjective than in the noun. This is shown not only in i-stem adjectives, which retain the 1 more often than nouns, but also in consonant-stem adjectives, which often take i as the ending of the abl. sg. In spite of this tendency, however, the ace. sg. of adjectives has regularly the consonant- stem ending -6m. [108] To Class III. belong also the numeral multiplicatives in -plex [e.g., duplex, tioo-fold ; qvintQplex, ^ye^/b/c/ ; etc.), and the adjectives hebes, teres, par, praecox. See [93]. The comparative plus is peculiar. See [92]. Adjectives of Class III. have no separate form for the neuter singular, but use the nom. masc. as nom. and ace. sg. neut. To this class belong tribal names in -ates and -ites, and a few other words of like formation, generally found only in the plural, and used substantively [e.g., Arpi- nates, optiinates, etc.), and verbal derivatives in -trix (commonly used as feminine nouns of agency) when used as adjectives [e.g., victrlx). Adjectives with i-stems are declined as follows : — M. and F. N. M. F. N. M. and F. N. M. and F. N. levis 16ve ac6r acris acrS par amans levis acris acris acris pSris amantis lev! acri acri acri pari amanti Iev6m levS acrem acrem acre parem par amantem amans lev! etc. etc. etc. pari(e) amante(i) leves levia celer c616ris celere pares paria amantes amantia levitim celgris celeris celeris parium amantium levibus celeri celeri celeri paribus amantibus levis (es) levia celerem celerem celere paris(es) paria amantes(is) amantia levibus etc. etc. etc. paribus amantibus A few compounds of consonant noun-stems have themes ending in a long syllable, but are consonant-stems of course, and may be regarded as exceptions. See [93]. Adjectives in the comparative degree are also consonant-stems. See [92] and [93]. 24 PART IL— rOIlMS. THE tr-DECLENSION. STEMS IX -TT. 109 The theme of any u-stem may be found by dropping the genitive singular ending, -us. The stem is found by adding -u to the theme. The case-endings are : — FOR MASCULINES. % N. -tis PL X. -us E.g., cuiTiis currus G. -us G. -uilm ciirrus curr uum 110 D. -ui(u) D. -tibiis, ibiis cuirui cnrr ibtis Ac. -tlm Ac. -tls currtim curr us Ab. -u Ab. -tlbtis, ibtls curru ciirribtls FOR NEUTERS. Sg. N. -u PL N. -uX E.g., cornu cornuS G. -us G. -uiim corn us corn utlm HI D. -u D. -iibiis, -ibiis cornu corn ibiis Ac. -u Ac. -uS cornu corn uS. Ab. -u Ab. -tibiis, -ibtls cornu cornibtis [110] The gen. sg. sometimes has the uncontracted ending -uls, the gen. pi. (rarely) the contracted ending -um. The contracted ending -Q of the dat. sg. is regular in neuters ; rare in masculines. The fuller ending -tibfis of the dat. and abl. pi. is found in acus, areas, partus, trlbus ; usually in artus, lacas, spceus ; sometimes in portus, veru. An ending -i occiu's a few times in the gen. sg., apparently from con- fusion with o-stems from the same root. O-stem forms occur occasionally in other cases also, and many names of plants and trees are confused in their inflection, having both o-stem and u-stem forms. Old forms in inscriptions, etc., show tlie ending of gen. sg. -uos. For -u and -us, -uu and -uus are sometimes written to sliow the lengtli of the u. See [2]. A locative domui occurs rarely ; no other u-stems form a locative. IRREGULAR DECLENSION. 25 Monosyllabic stems in -u retain the suffixes un- contracted with the stem-vowel, and are therefore declined like consonant-stems. U-stems with nominative singular ending -us are masculine ; the others are neuter. Irregular Declension. Nouns and adjectives are irregular in declension — (jci) From the retention of old endings. (5) From variation of the stem. 112 113 114 115 [112] Viz. : grus, sus, and lues (when it drops i) ; with the irregular stems bu, Ju. But sus has snbus and stibus as well as suibus. The stems bu and Ju stand for the older diphthongal stems, bou-, Jou-. The diphthong changes u to v before a vowel (see [12] (a)), and passes into o or u before a consonant. The forms are : — bos boves Jiipiter (Juppiter) bovis bovum, boum (see [12] (c)) Jovis bovi bobus, bubus Jovi boveni boves Joveni bove bobus, biibus Jove The nom. Jupiter (old form Jupater) is a compound of pater. Some- times the second part is declined Jupit^ris, etc. [113] Domus, idus, manus, tribus, colus, qvinqvatrus, and porticus are feminine. Acus, arcus, penus, and specus are common. [114] The irregularities under («) have been already mentioned with the endings of the various declensions. [115] The following are irregular from variation of stem : — balneum (st. balneo-) ; pi. usually balneae, etc. (st. balnea-). caro (st. caron-) ; all other cases from a syncopated stem carn- (carnis, carni, etc.). domus (st. domu-) ; a stem domo- is found also in all cases except the nom., dat., and abl. pi., and is more common in the loc. and abl. sg., where the u-stem forms are old. eptilum (st. epulo-) ; pi. epulae, etc. (st. epula-). PART IL — FORMS. 116 117 (c) From variation of gender, (c?) From lack of certain cases. fames (st. fame-) ; but gen. sg. usuall}^ famis (st. fam-). femur (st. femor-) ; except in nom. and ace. sg., a stem femin- is equally common. iter (st. iter-) ; except in nom. and ace. sg., a stem itingr- is used. jugerum (st. jugero-) ; pi. jugera, etc. (st. juger-). jecur (st. jecor-) ; except in nom. and ace. sg., a stem jocingr- or jocinor- is equally common. pelagus (st. pelSgus-) ; only nom. and ace. sg. and nom. and ace. pi. in Greek form pelSge (contracted from pelage^) ; other cases from a stem pelSgo-. sangvis (st. sangvi-j ; only nom. sg. Other forms from a stem sangvln-. senex (st. senec-) ; only nom. sg. Other forms from a stem sen-, supellex (st. supellect-) ; only nom. sg. Other forms from a stem supel- lectm-. virus (st. virus-) ; only nom. and ace. sg. Other forms from a stem viro-. vas (st. vas-) ; pi. vasa, etc. (st. vaso-). In this noun s does not suffer the usual change to r. vesper (st. vespero-) ; but abl. sg. vespgre (st. vespgr-). vulgus (st. vulgus-) ; only nom. and ace. sg. All other forms from a raasc. stem vulgo-, which is found also in nom. and ace. sg. vis (st. vi-) ; pi. vires, etc. (st. viri-). The only adjectives irregular from variation of stem (except senex above, which is usually used as a noun) are the adjective compounds of capat, which form the nom. sg. from a syncopated stem ; e.g., praeceps (st. praecept-) ; but other cases from a stem praeciplt- ; praecipltis, etc. [116] Nouns in which variation of stem has caused variation of gender are included in [Ho]. Aside from such, variation of gender causes irreg- ularity of declension in the following : — caelum (st. caelo-), neut. ; pi. (foimd only once), caelos, raasc. carbSsus (st. carbaso-), fem. ; pi. neut. carbftsa, etc. frenum (st. freno-), neut.; pi. neut. frena, etc., or masc. freni, etc. jocus (st. joco-), masc. ; pi. neut. joca, etc., or masc. joci, etc. locus (st. loco-), masc. ; pi. neut. loca, etc., or masc. loci, etc. rastrum (st. rastro-), neut. ; pi. neut. rastra, etc., or masc. rastri, etc. [117] Nouns that lack some of their forms are called defective. There are many such in Latin, some of which lack the plural or tlie singular on account of their meaning ; in others, the lack of certain forms seems to be NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 27 Numeral Adjectives. The cardinal numerals, from one to ten, with ceiitiim and mille, are primitive words; the others are formed from these. Unvis, duo, tres, and the 118 purely accidental. A few neuters have only the nom. and ace. sg., and are called mdeclinable. It has not seemed necessary to add any list of defective nouns. Such a list would be of no practical value to the learner, and would be a very large one if it should contain all the nouns, except those all of whose forms are found in Latin writers. The lexicon must be consulted for such information. [118] For the declension of unus, see 71 ; of duo, [72]. Tres is a regular i-stem. 3Iille is a regular i-stem, but is indeclinable in the singular. The hundreds are regular a- and o-stems. All cardinals except unus, of course, lack the singular, as do all the distributives. See the list below. The combination of units, tens and hundreds to form the intermediate numbers is made as in English. A list of numeral adjectives is added for reference. The corresponding numeral adverbs are also given : — Cardikals. Ordinals. 1 unus, -a, -um, | one ; 2 duo, -ae, two ; 3 tres, tria 4 qvattuor 5 qvinqve 6 sex 7 septem 8 octo 9 novem 10 decem 11 undecim 12 duodScim 13 tredecira 14 qvattuordfieim 15 qvindgcim 16 scd&im 17 septemdeeim 18 octodgeim 19 novemd^cim primus, -a, -xmxyftrst -o, I alter, -a, -um ) secundus, -a, -um tertius, -a, -um qvartus, -a, -um qvintus, etc. sextus Septimus octavus nonus deeimus undecTmiis duodecimus tertius decimus qvartus decimus etc. Distributives. f singflli, -ae, -a, ) \ one hy one; ] ( bini, -ae, -a, i I two hy tioo ; ] terni or trini, etc. qvaterni qvini seni septeni octoni noveni deni undent duodeni terni deni qvaterni deni etc. Numeral Ad vs. semel, once. etc. bis, twice. ter, thrice. qvater,/o?erus superior supreinus, summiis citerior citiinus interior intlmus prior primus propior proximus ulterior viltimus vetus veterrimus Many adjectives lack the comparative or superlative. The lacking superlative of senex is supplied by the phrase maxlmus natu ; that of juvgnls by minimus natu. bonus melior opttmus malus pejor pesstmus magnus major maximus luultus plus (neut.) plvirimus parvus minor minimus senex senior juvSnis junior exterus exterior extremus, or extimus 30 PAET IL— FORMS. 124 125 126 Forms of Pronouns. The personal pronouns are eg-o, tu, sui. They are peculiar in declension, partly from variation of stem, partly from the retention of older endings lost in the ordinary noun-declension. They are thus declined : — EGO (St. egon-, me-, no). Sg. K gg6 PL iios G. (mei) (nostriim, nostri) D. mihl, mi nobis Ac. me nos Ab. me nobis TU (St. te-, VO-), SUI (St. se-). Sg. K tu PL vos Sff . — PL — G. (till) (vestrtim, vestri) (BUI) (sui) D. tibi vobis sib! sib! Ac. te vos se, sesS se. sese Ab. tS vobis 8S, bSsS se. sese The possessive pronouns metis, tutks, suiis, noster, vester, are derived from the personal pronouns. They are regular a- and o-stem adjectives, except that iiieus forms its vocative singular masculine, mi, from an older form inius. [125] Sui is often called the reflexive pronoun, because it refers to the subject of the sentence. For a personal pronoun not referring to the sub- ject, a demonstrative (is, ille, iste) is used. The gen. sg. of ego and tu was mis, tis. These forms were lost, and tlic gen. forms of all the personal pronouns in both numbers are borrowed from the possessives. The personal pronouns are sometimes emphasized by appending -met, -te, or -ptc. So also, at times, the possessives : egomet, nosniet, tute, suiptc, suopte, etc. Med, ted, scd, are old forms for nic, te, se (ace. and abl.). The doubled form sese is common ; tote for tc occurs in old Latin ; also vos- trum for vcstruin, and slbc or sibei for sibl. FORMS OF PRONOUNS. 31 The demonstrative pronouns have the declension of adjectives, but take the pronominal suffix -d in the nominative and accusative singular neuter, and the pronominal endings -ms, -i, in the genitive and dative singular of all genders. Certain cases of some of them are regularly emphasized by appending a demonstrative or intensive syllable (i, ce or c). The demonstratives are is, iste, ille, ipse, hie. Idem. Is (stem i-, usually lengthened to io-, eo-) is thus declined : — Sg. N. is eS id PL N. ei, ii eae eS G. ejiis ejiis ejtis G. eoriiin earttm eortim D. ei ei ei D. eis, iis eis, iis eis, iis Ac. eiim eSin id Ac. eos eas ea Ab. eo ea eo Ab. eis, iis eis, iis eis, iis 127 128 129 [127] A few instances are found of the regular adj. endings in the gen. and dat. sg. The forms strengthened by -i are those which end in -ft ; viz. : nom. sg. fern., and nom. and ace. pi. neut. ft + i contracts to ae. This strengthen- ing is found in hie ; sometimes in ille and iste. (It occurs also in the relative pronoun. See 138.) Ce is used to strengthen all the cases, but drops e except after s. It is used in hie ; sometimes in ille and iste. In the older language various forms occur with an appended -ce or -c. [128] A demonstrative stem, so-, sa-, is said to have been used by Ennius in the forms sum, sam, sas. For ille an older spelling, oUe, is found in poetry. [129] From the stem i- are formed is, id; also the old forms em (or im) = eum, and ibus = eis. The rest is formed from the longer stem. Ei and eis are sometimes contracted into monosyllables ; eae (dat. sg. fem.) and eabus (abl. pi. fem.) are found in Cato, and inscriptions show various forms with ei written for i (according to [2]), and the nom. pi. forms eis, eeis, ieis. 32 PART IL— FORMS. 130 131 132 133 134 Iste (stem isto-) is tlms .declined : — %N. istg G. istiiis D. isti Ac. istiim Ab. isto ista istiiis isti istSm ista istiid istiiis isti istiid isto PL isti istoriim istis istos istis istae istariim istis istas istis ista istoriim istis ista istis lUe is declined like iste. Ipse is declined like iste, but lias ipsum in the nominative and accusative neuter singular. Hic (stem hi- or ho-) is strengthened by both -1 and -ce, but the latter is not usual except in certain cases. The usual forms are : — Sg.^. hic haeo hoc G. hiijiis hiijiis hiijiis 1). huic huic huic Ac. huno banc hoc Ab. hoc h5c hoc PI. hi hae haec hortim hariim horiim his his his hos has haec his his his [130] A nom. sg. masc. istOs is found once. [132] For ipse, ipsfis is found. Ipse is compounded of is and -pse, and a few forms occur in which the first part is declined wliile tlio second remains unchanged ; viz. : e&pse, eumpse, eampse, eopse, eapsc. [133] The stem hi- is found in hic, and in tlie old forms hisce (= hi) and hibus (^ his). Huic is often monosyllabic (hvic). [134] Other forms of hic, chiefly old or poetical, are : — Sg. N. hice hoce PI . N. hisce haec halce a. ( hoiusce hoiusce hoiusce G. horunce horuiic harunce 1 hujusce hujusce hujusce ha rune r>. hoice lioice hoice D. ( hibus 1 hisce hibus hisce hibus hisce Ac. hance Ac. hosce hasce haice Ab. hSce Ab (hibus i hisce hibus hisce hibus hisce rOEMS OF PRONOUNS. lUe and iste are sometimes strengthened by -i and -ce in the same way as hie. Idem is formed by ap^Dending -clem to the various forms of is. The forms is and id drop -s and -d. Idem is thus declined : — Sg. N. idem eadem idem PI. eidem eaedem eadem G. ejusdem ejusdem ejusdem eorundem earundem eorundem D. eidem eidem eidem eisdem eisdem eisdem Ac. eundem eandem idem eosdem easdem eadem Ab.eodem eadem eodem eisdem eisdem eisdem The relative pronoun (stem qvi- or qvo-) has the strengthening -i. See [127]. It is thus declined: — aS^t.N. qvi qvae qvod PI .qvi qvae qvae G. ciijus CUJUS CUJUS qvoriim qvarum qvorum D. cui cui cui qvibus qvibus qvibus Ac. qvem qvam qvod qvos qvas qvae Ab. qvo qva qvo qvibus qvibus qvibus The same pronoun is also used as an interrogative pronoun, but when used substantively has qvis, qvid in the nominative singular for qvi, qvod. 135 136 137 138 139 [135] The forms thus produced are : — Sg.N. mic iUaec moc, illuc PZ.N. illic illaec illaec G. illiusce iUiusce iUiusce a. D. iUic niic illic D. illisce iUisce iUisce Ac. iUunc iUaiic iUoc, muc Ac. illosce illasce iUaec Ab. illoc iUac illoc Ab illisce illisce misce So also istic, istaec, istoc, etc. [138] From the stem qvi- is formed also an abl. sg. qvi, and the old nom. pi. qves. From the stem qvo- is formed also a dat. .and abl. pi. qvis. For cujus, cui, an older spelling, qvojus, qvoi (or qvojei), is found. Cui is often monosyllabic (cvi). [139] A few cases of qvi, qvod used substantively occur, and qvis, qvid, are not rarely used adjectivcly; qvis and qvem are sometimes 34 PART II. — FORMS. 140 141 142 143 144 The same pronoun is ' also used as an indefinite pronoun. When so used, it has the same forms as when used interrogatively, but usually does not take the strengthening -i. Various indefinite pronouns compounded of quis or qvi occur, all of which have the same declension ; but those in which qvis or qvi forms the second part usually do not take the strengthening -i. Forms of the Verb. The Latin verb has the following forms : — (a) Three tenses for incomplete action : present^ imperfect^ future. (6) Three tenses for completed action : perfect^ pluperfect^ future perfect. feminine. Qvlnain or qvlsnam is a more emphatic interrogative ; it has the same forms, with -nam appended. From the stem qvo- is formed a possessive interrogative, cujus, a, urn {= whose). It is antiquated, and only a few forms occur; viz.: cujft, cujum, cujam, eiija, cujae. [140] Qvi or qvis is indefinite after si, nisi, ne, num, rarely elsewhere. [141] A list is added for reference : — allqvi or allqvis aUqva aMqvod or alXqvid some, any-. ecqvi or ecqvis ecqva, ecqvae ecqvod or ecqvid any? qvidam qvaedam qvoddani a, a certain. qvicunqve qvaecunqve qvodciinqve whatever. qvilXbet qvaellbet qvodltbet which you like, any. qvivis qvaevis qvodvis which you wiU, any. ^, , . ( whichever you will, So qvivisciinque, etc. < qvisqvis (once qviqvi). Only a few forms are found. whosoever. qvisqvam qvidqvam, qvicqvani any at all. qvispiam qvaepiaui qvidpiam any. qvisqve qvaeqve qvodqve or qvidqve every. So unusqvisqve, etc. every single one. It should be noticed that ecqvis, being at the same time interrogative and indefinite, forms ccqvft and ecqvae, without the i and with it. FORMS OF THE VERB. 35 The present tense has three moods ; indleative^ sub- junctive^ imperative. The hnperfect, perfect, and pluperfect have two moods : indicative, subjunctive. The future and future perfect have one mood : indicative. These forms are often called, collectively, the ''^finite verb.'' Beside these, certain derivative noun- and adjective-forms are usually treated in connection with the verb ; viz. : — («) Three verbal nouns called infinitives. (5) A verbal noun called the gerund. ((?) A verbal noun called the supine. (c?) Four verbal adjectives called participles. Of the finite verb only the incomplete tenses form a passive voice. For the passive of the complete tenses the Latin, like the English, uses the verb "5e" with a passive participle. The passivie voice of the incomplete tenses was originally reflexive in its formation and meaning, and 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 [149] Viz, : a present active infinitive, a present passive infinitive, a perfect active infinitive. The infinitives are indeclinable nouns. [150] The gerund is a neuter o-stera used only in the oblique cases of the singular. [151] The supine is a u-stem used only in the ace. and abl. sg. [152] Viz. : a present active participle, a present passive participle, a future active participle, and a perfect passive participle. The first is an i-stem of Class III. ; the others are regular a- and o-stems. [154] The name "deponent" was given to these verbs by the old gram- marians, because they were supposed to have "laid off" their active form. In many of them the reflexive force can be seen; e.g., friior, I enjoy {myself) ; xescor, I eat {feed myself) ; cingor, / bind on {myself), etc. That 36 PART II. — FORMS. 155 156 157 the reflexive use still remains in some verbs ; e.g.^ vertor, I turn [my self \ Many verbs thus used have lost the active form entirely, and use only the pas- sive. They are usually translated into English by active forms, and are called " deponent " verbs. Verb-Stems. Verb-stems, like noun-stems, may end in a, e, i, o, u, or a consonant. Of stems in -o only a few forms are found. In most verbs two or three forms of the stem are found, — the verb-stem proper (simple stem'), a modi- fication of it used in the incomplete tenses (present stem), and another modification of it used in the complete tenses (perfect stem). In many verbs the present stem is the same as the they are not true passives, is shown by tlie fact that many of them are transitive and govern a direct object. In many of them' it is not easy to see tlie reflexive meaning, possibly because the original meaning is not known, and they are apparently equivalent to active forms. Deponent verbs form the gerund, supine, and participles of the active as well as the passive voice, and their passive participles are sometimes passive in meaning. In the tenses for completed action, though these are not reflexive in formation, the meaning follows that of the incomplete tenses, and these forms also are usually rendered into English by the active voice. [155] Open vowel-stems, as in nouns, differ in certain points from close vowel and consonant-stems, but the division is not suflficiently marked to make the grouping of any importance. The only o-stems are no-sc-o (and its compounds), f6-rem, etc. (imp. subj.) and f6-re (pres. inf.), and a few participles which have become adjectives in use. [157] The modifications mentioned here, especially twsalizin(j,'dre some- times by analogy carried also into the perfect-stem or simple-stem forms. VERB-STEMS 37 simple stem. When not so, it is formed from the simple stem, — (a) By reduplication. 158 (b) By lengthening the stem-vowel. 159 (c) By adding or inserting a nasal. 160 (c?) By adding -sc, -esc, or -isc. 161 (e) By adding -a, -e, or -i. 162 The perfect stem is rarely like the simple stem. 163 Usually it is formed from the simple stem, — [158] Reduplication consists in repeating before the stem its initial consonant-sound with the following voAvel, often with a weakening of the latter. Stems ending in a vowel lose the final vowel when reduplicated, and become consonant-stems. Reduplication is found in the present stem in four cases ; viz. : bib-o (ba-), gign-o (for gigffn-o, gSn-), ser-o (for ses-o, sa-), and sist-o (sta-). Sisto is peculiar in repeating only the initial s and the vowel (not st). [159] E.g., duc-o (diic-), dic-o (die-). [160] E.g., sin-o (si-), pung-o (pttg), find-o (fid-). [161] E.g., ac-esc-o (ac-), no-sc-o (no-), revlv-isc-o (reviv-). When sc is added after a consonant, there is usually some obscurity of formation from euphonic loss. Verbs which form the present stem in this way usually mean to become (so and so), to begin to be (so and so). They are often called, therefore, inceptive or inchoative verbs. [162] A few present stems end in 11, which seems to have arisen from li; viz.: cell-o, pell-o, toll-o, also sall-o or salio [to salt). But sali-o [to leap) and sepeli-o do not change. [163] Possibly all cases of likeness of form between the perfect stem and the simple stem are the result of loss. Stems in a close vowel often drop the v of the perfect stem ; those in -u show the v only in old Latin. Others have lost' a reduplication syllable, and possibly the stem-vowel is lengthened in others, where the syllable is long by position, and the real q^uantity of the vowel therefore not clear. 38 PART II. — FORMS. 168 169 (a) By reduplication. (5) By lengthening the stem-vowel. (c) By adding -s. (c?) By adding -u or -v. principal parts " of a verb are : — 'The pres. ind. act., 1st sg. ) The pres. inf. act. J ^'^^"^ '^^^' the;.r...n^ stem. CTiVE < rpj^g i^QTi. ind. act., 1st sg., which shows the perfect stem. . The supine, which shows the simple stem. iThepres. ind. pass., 1st sg.) The pres. inf. pass. j which show the j.m..n^ stem. The perf . pass, participle, which shows the simple stem. [164] In tlie perfect stem S is regularly weakened to e in the reduplica- tion syllable, and to 6 or I in the stem syllable. Bib-i (ba-) seems to owe its form to the present bib-o ; possibly stlt-i has been affected in the same way by sist-o. The stems which begin with two consonants (scid-, sta-, spond-) drop the initial s of the stem, after the reduplication syllable (making sci-cid-i, ste-t-i, spo-pond-i). For the loss of the final vowel of ba-, da-, and sta- in bib-i, ded-i, stet i or stit-i, see [158]. The reduplication of the perfect stem is usually dropped Mhen the verb is compounded with a preposition. A few stems only retain it. [165] E.rj. leg-i (l€g-) ; pav-i (pftv-) . The stem-vowel ft becomes e when lengtlioned to form the perfect stem, except when followed by v (viz. : in cav-i,fav-i, lav-i, pav-i) or b (in scab-i). Thus, eg-i (ftg-), peg-i (pftg-),etc. [167] U is added after consonants, v after vowels, and the preceding vowel is regularly made long before the added -v. [168] E.g., am-o, ama-re, amav-i, aina-tum, passive, am-or, ama-ri, ama-tus. These are the forms usually given in grammars and lexicons, and are based on a classification of verbs according to the ending of the pres. inf. as follows : — First conjugation ; inf. endings -ar6, -ari, = a-stems. Second " " " -erg, -eri, = e-stems. Third " " " -6r6, -i, = cons, ii- and short l-stems. Fourth " " " -ir6, -iri, = long i-stems. In most verbs the pres. inf. would be enough to identify the present stem, but short i-steras lose the i and become consonant-stems in this form. The pres. ind. is therefore added to identify such. VERBAL SUFFIXES. 39 Verbal Suffixes. The suffixes of the finite verb contain two ele- ments, one of which shows the mood and tense (mood-and-tense sign'), the other the person and number (^person-and-number suffix): The mood-and-tense signs are added to the stem as follows : — Pres. ind., none; pres. imp., none; pres subj., i in a-stems, §. elsewhere. Imp. ind., §ba or eba; imp. subj., 6rg. Fut. ind., Sb in open vowel-stems, a and e elsewhere. Perf. ind. (es or is? See 188) ; perf. subj., SrL Plup. ind., Sra; plup. subj., isse. Fut. perf. ind., Sr. 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 [170] The names " tense-and-mood sign," " person-and-number suflix," are used for convenience, without implying any theory of their origin, simply because they show to the eye or ear the tense and mood, person and number, and, incidentally, the voice of the verb. Grammarians are agreed that the suffixes of person and number are stunted forms of per- sonal pronouns ; and most of the signs of tense and mood are generally thought to be derived from the verbs "be" (stems -es, -fu) and "go" (stem -I). [171] Mood-and-tense signs are added, of course, to the present stem in the incomplete tenses, and to the perfect stem in the complete tenses. [172] In the pres. subj. i contracts with a preceding a to e. [173] The imp. ind. sign is -eba after a consonant or u, and almost ahvays after i. 6ba is used after open vowels, also in old Latin after i, but in both gba and eb the initial vowel is always absorbed. (See [178]). [174] The fut. ind, sign a is found in the first sg. ; e in the other forms. In old Latin, stems in i sometimes form the future with the sign 6b. [175] The perf. subj. sign is often -6rl, a result of confusion with the fut. perf. ind. which closely resembles it in form and use. 40 PART II.— FORMS 178 179 180 By adding the tense-and-mood signs to the stem, there is formed a stem or base for each tense. To this tense-base are added the suffixes of person and number, as follows : — Indicative and subjunctive. Act. 1. -dm 2. -is' 3. -rt 1. -rmtls 2. -itla 3. -wnt Pass. 1. -or 2. -eiris 3. -itiir 1. -tmHi 2. -tmini 3. -unttlr [178] The initial short vowel of the mood-and-tense signs is regularly absorbed by a preceding open vowel; e.g., aina-bam {= ama-eba-m), mone-re-m (= moue-ere-m), etc. A preceding i either absorbs it, e.g., audi-re-m (st. audi-), or drops before it, leavmg a consonant-stem, e.g., cap-^re-m (st. capi-). The signs 6ba, eb, gre-, therefore, appear in the forms ba, b, re after stems ending in a, e, or 1. In the complete tenses the stem ends in a, e, or i only when v is dropped. In such cases the initial vowel of the sign is regularly absorbed by a or e, very rarely by i. See [215]. The long vowels a, e, i are not absorbed, but i contracts with a preceding a to e, as stated in [172]. The loss of 6 of the imp. subj. sign is a characteristic of certain irregular verbs. (See [220]). The suffixes appear in the form given here after u or a consonant. After a, e, i, the initial vowel of the suffix is absorbed, making the preced- ing a, e, or 1 long. But o remains unabsorbed after stem-vowels, and itself absorbs the preceding a ; and u remains unabsorbed after the stem- vowel i. The initial vowel of the person-and-number suffixes, strictly speaking, is not a part of them. Its origin is a matter of dispute ; some regard it as a simple insertion to attach the suffixes to the tense base {connecting vowel) ; others as an addition to the stem to fit it for the reception of the suffixes [modal vowel or thematic vowel). Its omission is one peculiarity of certain irregular verbs. (See [220]). [179] m of -^m falls when is unabsorbed. -um for -dra is found in sum. -umus, an older form of -imus, is found in stinius, qvaestlnius, volfiuius. -int for -unt is found in the fut. perf., evidently by confusion with the perf. subj. -is, -imOs, -itis, due, no doubt, to the same cause, are not unusual in the fut. perf. for -?s, -fniQs, -itls. [180] -^r6 for ^rls is not unusual in poetry ; rare in prose. VERBAL SUFFIXES. 41 Imperative. Act. 2. -e, -ito 3. -ito 2. -itg, -itotg 3. -wnto Pass. 2. -erg, -itSr 3. -itSr 2. -imini 3. -wnt6r The suffixes of the non-finite forms are: — (a) From the present stem. Act. Pres. inf., -erg ; pres. part., -enti ; gerund, -endo. Pass. Pres. inf., -eri; pres. part., -endo. (^) From the perfect stem. Act. Perf. inf. (-sg ? see below, 190). (c) From the simple stem. Act. Put. part., -turo- (-suro-) ; supine, -tu- (-su-). Pass. Perf. part., -to- (-so-). The perfect indicative active and perfect infinitive active have peculiar endings not easily resolved into sign and suffix. They are : — Perf. act. ind., -i, -isti, -it ; -imtls, -istis, -erunt. Perf. act. inf., -issg. 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 [181] The imperative forms in -to, -tote, -iito ; -tor, -ntor are some- times called future imperative. They are antiquated forms, retained in poetry and legal phraseology, rare elsewhere. [183] For -endo, -undo is found ; also for -enti, -wnti in one verb (eo, -go"). [184] For -^ri, -i is found in consonant and u-stems. An older suffix -^rigr (in consonant and u-stems, -ier), is found in old Latin. [186] -ituro-, -itu-, -ito-, are found in some cases. This may have been the form after vowel-stems, the i disappearing by absorption, -suro, -su, -so, are euphonic changes of -turo, -tu, -to, used after certain letters. (See [209]). [188] The perf. act. ind. and inf. seem to have -is or -es as mood-and- tense sign, and to add the suffixes directly to the tense-base without the suffix-vowel. But some forms are quite irregular, and the second sg. ind. shows a suffix -ti, not found elsewhere in the Latin verb. [189] For -erunt, -ere is found, also rarely -grunt. 42 PART II. — FORMS. The Conjugations. 191 There are five forms of conjugation for the incom- plete tenses, according to the form of the stem. They are : — 1st. Stems in -a. 2d. Stems in -e. 3d. Stems in a consonant or in -u. 4th. Stems in short -i. 5th. Stems in long -i. In the complete tenses there is but one form for all verbs. 192 The theme of the incomplete tenses is found by- dropping the ending of the present infinitive. JL93 The incomplete tenses are inflected by adding to the theme the following endings : — [191] The final u of verb-stems does not contract with the vowel of the suffix, and there is therefore no difference between ii-stems and consonants stems in their inflection. Comp.are monosyllabic noun u-stems, 112. These different forms of inflection, like the different declensions, are simply variations resulting from contraction of stem-ending and suffix-vowel. The stems in short -I and long -i are so called for convenience of distinc- tion, since tlie 1 appears as short in one and long in the other. But it seems probable that the final vowel of all verb-stems is properly short, and that its length in the incomplete tenses is the result of absorbing the suffix-vowel. The usual arrangement of conjugations (see [108]) places short I-stems with consonant and u-stems. As in i-stem nouns, the i of these verb-stems is lost in certain forms, leaving a consonant-stem. Only one form of conjugation is found in the complete tenses, because the perfect stem always ends in u or a consonant, and consequently no variation of form from contraction takes place. The few cases in which the perfect stem is made to end in a, e, or i by the loss of v are too rare to make a difference of conjugation. THE CONJUGATIONS. 43 ^-STEMS. 1 . 2. 3 PL 1 2 3 Present Active. Present Passive. Indie, Subj. Imper. Non- finite. Indie. Subj. Imper. Non- finite. 5 as at amus atis ant em es et emiis etis ent a, ato at5 ate,at6te anto Inf. are Part, anti- Ger. ando- or aris atur Smur amini antur er eris etur emiir emini entiir are,at6r ator amini antor Inf. ari Part, ando- Imperf. Active. Imperf. Passive. Indie. Subj. Indie. Subj. 1 abam arem abar arer 2 abas ares abaris areris 3 abat aret abatur aretur PL 1 abamus aremus abamiir aremur 2 abatis aretis abamini aremini 3 abant arent abantiir arentur Fut. Act. Fut. Pas. Indie. Indie. abo abor abis aberis abit abitiir abimiis abimiir abitis abimini abunt abuntiir 194 195 EXAMPLE FOR PRACTICE. Stem, S.ina- ; theme, S^m-. [194] Active [195] Passive Passive amo am em am are amaB ames am a, am ato amans, -ntis, ete am at amet am ato am andi, etc. ete. ete. etc. amor am er am ari am arts am eris am ar6, am at6r am andfls, a, lim am atiir am ettir amatSr etc. etc. etc am abam am ar6m am abo am abas am ares am abIs am abat am argt am abIt ete. etc. etc. am abar am arer am abfir am abaris am areris am aberis am abatflr am arettir amabltnr etc. etc. etc. 44 PART II. — FORMS. 196 197 J?-STEMS. Sg. 1 2 3 PL 1 2 3 Present Active. Present Passive. Indie. Subj. Imper. Non- finite. Indie. Subj. Imper. Non- finite. ea es et emiis etis ent earn eas eat eamiis eatis eant e, eto eta ete,et6te ento Inf. ere Part, enti- Ger. endo- eor eris etur emur emini entur ear earis eatiir eamiir eamini eantur ere,et6r etor emini entor Inf. eri Part, endo- Imperf. Active. Imperf. Passive. Indie. Subj. Indie. Subj. Sg. 1 ebam erem ebar erer 2 ebas eres ebaris ereris 3 ebat eret ebatiir eretiir PL 1 ebamiis eremus ebamur eremur 2 ebatis eretis ebamini eremini 3 ebant erent ebantiir erentiir Fut.Act. Put. Pas. Indie. Indie. ebo ebor ebis eberis ebit ebitur ebimus ebimur ebitis ebimini ebunt ebuntur EXAMPLE FOR PRACTICE. Stem, xn5ne-; theme, inAn-. [196] Active ^ Passive -I [197] Active ■! Passive moneo mon eam mon er6 nion es mon eas mone mon Sto mon ens, -ntis etc. mon6t mon eat monettJ monendi, ete. etc. etc. etc. nion e5r mon ear mon eris mon earls mon erg, mon etOr monerl mon ettlr mon eattir mon etOr moncndQs, a, 11m ete. ete. ete. mon ebam mon er6m mon ebo mon ebas mon eres mon ebIs mon ebat mon er6t mon ebIt ete. etc. ete. mon ebar mon er6r mon gbOr mon ebaris mon ereris mon ebgrls mon ebatQr mon eretiir mon ebltilr etc. etc. etc. THE CONJUGATIONS. 45 CONSONANT-STEMS AND U-STEMS. Sg. 1 2 3 PL 1 2 3 Present Active. Present Passive. Indie. Subj. Imper. Non- finite. Indie. Subj. Imper. Non- finite. 6 is it imus itis unt am as at amiis atis ant e, ito it5 ite, itote unto Inf. ere Part, enti- Ger. endo- or eris itur imur imini untur ar aris atur amur amini antur ere, itor itor imini untor Inf. i Part. endo- Sg. 1 Imperf. Active. Imperf. Passive. Indie. Subj. Indie. Subj. ebam erem ebar erer 2 ebas eres ebaris ereris 3 ebat eret ebatiir eretiir PL 1 ebamiis eremus ebamur eremiir 2 ebatis eretis ebamini eremini ' 3 ebant erent ebantiir erentur Fut. Act. Fut. Pas. Indie. Indie. am es et emus etis ent ar eris etiir emur emini entur 198 199 EXAMPLE FOR PRACTICE. Stem, rSg- ; theme, rSg-. Active (r6g5 regia ( etc. reg am reg as etc. reg 6, reg Ito etc. reg grg reg ens, -ntis, etc reg endi, etc. Passive ( reg 5r ^reggrls ( etc. regar reg aris etc. reggrg, regttSr etc. regi regendtis, a, flm Active (reg ebam Uegebas ( etc. reg6r6m reg gres etc. reg am reg es etc. Passive ( reg ebar {reg ebaris ( etc. reg 6r6r reg greris etc. regar reg eris etc. [193] [199] Stems in -u have the same endings as consonant-stems, the vowel being unabsorbed. £-g-, from the stem tribu- wo have — Active, trlbuo, etc. tribu.ara, etc. tribue, etc. tribu 6r6, tribu ens, tribu end!. Passive. tribuSr, etc. tribuar, etc, tribu 6rg, etc. tribul, tribuendiis, a, tira. Active, tribu ebam, etc. tribu grera, etc. tribu am, etc. Passive, tribu ebar, etc. tribu grgr, etc. tribuar, etc. PART II.— FORMS. There are two forms of inflection of verb-stems in -i. In one, i is short and falls before a short syllable, leav- ing a consonant-stem; in the other, i absorbs the vowel of a following short syllable, and is long. In both, i stands before long syllables. SHORT JT-STEMS^ Sg. 1 2 3 PL 1 2 3 Present Active. Present Passive. Indie. Subj. Iraper. Non- finite. Indie. Bubj. Imper. Non. finite. 15 is it imus itis iunt lam ias iat iamiis iatis iant e, ito itg ite,it5te iunto Inf. ere Part, ienti- Ger. iendo- ior eris itiir imiir imini iuntiir iar iaris iatur iamur iamlni iantiir ere, itor itor imini iuntor Inf. i Part, iendo- Imperf. Active. Imperf. Passive. Fut.Act. Fut. Pas. Indie. Subj. Indie. Subj. Indie. Indie. 6g. 1 iebam erem iebar erer iam iar 2 iebas eres iebaris ereris ies ieris 3 PL 1 iebat iebamus eret eremus iebatiir iebamiir eretur eremur iet iemiis ietiir iemtir 2 iebatis eretis iebamini eremini ietis iemini 3 iebant erent iebantiir erentur ient ientiir [200] The 1 before the long vowel remains, though the vowel be short- ened before final m, t, r, see [12] (a), and falls in the pres. inf. pass, where tlie proper ending -€ri has been shortened to -i. EXAMPLE FOR PRACTICE. {cJlp io etc. {cap i5r etc. Stem, c&pY- or cSp- (by dropping i) ; tberae, c&p-. cap i^m cap ias capiat etc. cap 6, cap Ito capItS etc. cap6r6 cap iens, -ntis, etc cap iendl, etc. cap iar cap iaris cap iatiir etc. cap6r6, eapItSr cap It6r etc. cap I cap iendQs, ft, ttm THE CONJUGATIONS. 47 LONG J-STEMS. Sg. I 2 3 PL 1 2 3 Present Active. Present Passive. Indie. Subj. Imper. Non- finite. Indie. Subj. Imper. Non- finite. io is it imus itis iunt iam las iat iamus iatis iant i,ito its ite, it5te iunto Inf. ire Part, ienti- Ger. iendo- ior iris itiir imiir imini iuntiir iar iaris iatiir iamiir iamini iantiir ire, itor itor iminr iuntor Inf. iri Part, iendo- Imperf. Active. Imperf. Passive. Indie. Subj. Indie. Subj. 1 iebam irem iebar irer 2 iebas ires iebaris ireris 3 PL 1 iebat iebamiis iret iremus iebatur iebamiir iretur iremiii 2 iebatis iretis iebanuni iremini 3 iebant irent iebantiir irentur Fut.Act. Fut. Pas. Indie. Indie. lam ies iet iemiis ietis lent iar ieris ietiir iemur iemini ientiir 203 204 . cap iebam cap6r6m [/&02j Active ] cap iebas cap6res ete. etc. cap iebar cap 6rgr Passive \ cap iebaris capSrerls etc. etc. cap iam cap ies etc. cap iar cap ieris etc. EXAMPLE FOR PRACTICE. Stem, audi- ; theme, aud- [203] Active Passive [204] Active Passive audio audls audit etc. aud ior aud Ma aud Itiir ete. aud iebam aud iebas aud iebat etc. aud iebar aud iebaris aud iebattir etc. aud iam aud ias aud iat etc. aud iar aud iaris aud iattir etc. aud Ir6m aud Ires audlrgt ete. aud IrSr aud Ireris aud Iretur etc. audi, audlto aud Ito etc. aud Ire, audltSr audltSr ete. aud Ir6 aud iens, -ntis, etc. audiendl, etc. aud Irl aud iendtls, a, flm aud iam aud ies aud i6t etc. aud iar aud ieris audlettlr etc. 48 PART II. — FORMS. 205 206 207 The theme of the complete tenses is found by dropping the ending of the perfect indicative active, first person singular. The endings are the same for all verbs ; viz. : — Perfect Active. Pluperfect Active. Fut.Perf. Active. Indie. Subj. Non-finite. Indie. Subj. Indie. Sg. 1 2 3 PL 1 2 3 1 isti it imus istis erunt erim eris erit erimus eritis erint Inf. isse eram eras erat eramus eratis erant issem isses isset issemiis issetis issent er5 eris erit erimus eritis erint The lacking complete tenses of the passive voice are supplied, as in English, by the perfect passive participle and the verb " be." [206] The theme of the complete tenses ends in u or a consonant, and the vowel of the endings therefore remains unabsorbed, except when brought after a vowel by the loss of v. See [215]. EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE. Stem fimSv- amavl amavisti ainavgrlm amavfirls amaviseS amav6ram amavgras amavissSm araavisses amavgro amavSria ete. etc. etc. etc. etc. '• luSnu- mSnuT monu6rim monuissB raonu6r5m monuissgna monugro etc. etc. etc. etc. etc. " rex- rexl etc. rex6rlm etc. rexissS rex6r.1ra etc. rexissgm etc. rexgro etc. " trlbu- tribui etc. tribuSrlm etc. tribuissB tribugrara etc. trlbuiesgm etc. tribugrS etc. « c5p- c5pl etc. cepgrim etc. eepissS cep6r5m etc. cepisagm ete. cepgrS etc. " audlv- audlvl etc. audivBrlm ete. audivissS etc. audivSram etc. audiviasgm etc. audivSro etc. For the variation between i and I in the perf. subj. and fut. perf. ind. see [175] and [179]. THE CONJUGATIONS. 49 The theme of the verb-forms from the simple stem may be found by dropping the ending of the supine or of the perfect passive participle. The endings of the forms from the simple stem are : — Futiire Active Perf. Pass. Participle. Participle. A-stems . . . atu- aturo- ato- E-stems . . . etu- eturo- eto- I-stems .... itu- ituro- ito- 0-stems . . . otu- oturo- 5to- U-stems . . . utu- uturo- uto- tu- (su-), or itu- turo- (sure-), to- (so-), Consonant-stems or Ituro- or Ito- 208 209 [209] The endings -Itu-, -Itfiro-, -Ito-, though less common in consonant- stems, seem to be the usual form of the suffixes in vowel-stems, — the long vowel being due to the absorption of the I of the suffix. In a few cases, however, vowel-stems show a short vowel in these endings, which may be explained by assuming tliat the suffix is appended directly to the stem without the vowel, as in most consonant stems. These cases number in all twelve ; viz. ; dStus, rfttus, sStus, status ; cltus, Itus, lltus, qvitus, situs; -cliitus, ftiturus, rfltus. Su-, suro-, so-, are euplionic changes of tu-, turo-, to-. They are used after stems ending in a dental-mute (except tend-, which has forms with both t and s, apparently by confusion with its kindred stem tSn-) and after a few others, especially stems ending in two consonants with which an added t could not easily be pronounced. See [12]. The real form of the stem is often obscured before these suffixes by euphonic change. ILLUSTRATIONS. Stem Sma- amatfira, araatu amaturtts, 5, ttm araattlB, 5, flm '« dele- deletum, deletu deleturus, a, um deletus, a, um " audi- auditum, auditu audJturus, a, um audltUH, a, um " no- notum, notii noturus, a, um notus, a, um " trlbu- tributum, tribulu tribixturus, a, um tributus, a, um " cSp- captum, captu capturus, a, um captus, a, um " hSb- haWtum, haWtu habTturus, a, um habitus, a, um •• liid- lusum, lusu lusurus, a, um ItisuB, a, urn 50 PART IL — FORMS. 210 211 212 213 214 The participles with the verb "be" are often used as in English with the force of finite verb-forms. The present active participle is thus used only when it has become an adjective or noun in force and meaning. The future active participle with the verb "be" makes the "first" or "active" periphrastic conjuga- tion, and expresses an intended or destined action. The present passive participle with the verb " be " makes the "second" or "passive" periphrastic con- jugation, and expresses duty or necessity. The perfect passive participle with the verb " be " supplies the lacking complete tenses of the passive voice. [210] For the inflection of the verb "be," see [221]. [212] E.g., auditurus sfim, I am going to hear ; expect to hear ; intend to hear, etc. auditurUs erSm, Iivas going to hear ; expected to hear ; intended to hear, etc. This form supplies the lacking subjunctive and infinitive of the future tense, when such forms are needed for precision. [213] audiendtts sfim, / must he heard ; ought to he heard, etc. audiendfis SrSm, I had to he heard ; deserved to be heard, etc. [214] Perf. pass. ind. Smjlttis siiiu Perf. pass. subj. aiuatils sXm ?8 " 8l8 " est sit amatl siimiis amatl sTmiis " e8tX8 sTtls " sunt sint Plup. pass. ind. amatii8 gram Plup. pass. subj. amattls essSm eras esses erat essgt amatl eramiSs amatl essemiis eratls " essetls " erant " essent Fut. pf. pass, ind amatiis ero eris erit Perf. pass. inf. amatiis essS " erltis " erunt IRREGULAR VERB-FORMS. 51 Irregular Verb-Forms. The V used to form tlie perfect stem is sometimes dropped between vowels. See [12] () A few verbs expressing feeling or emotion, tlie object of which denotes the person who experiences the feeling. (c) Verbs which take a clause or an infinitive as subject. Many of these are also used personally. IMPEUFECT. Future flebSm nSrgm nam nebSs nSrSs flSs etc. etc. etc. [228] Qveo, qvire, qvivi, qvltuiu. So neqveo, iieqvire, etc. Only a few forms are in use. [229] Fio, fieri, [f actus]. Present. flo fifiiu fls fias n nt etc. Infinitive. • flmus flSrl ntis fitg fiunt Fio is passive in meaning, and is used as the passive of fScio, which supplies the lacking i)articiple and the complete tenses. In old Latin figrgm, etc., and fifiri occur. [231] E.g., plait, it rains ; ningit, it siioivs, etc. [232] E.g., pudet me, {it shames me, i.e.) I am ashamed, etc. [233] E.g., inihi ire licet, {to go is permitted to me) lam permitted to go, etc. IMPERSONAL AXD DEFECTIVE VERBS. 57 (fZ) Many intransitive verbs, which may be used impersonally in the passive. Some verbs are defective in Latin. Of these only ocli and iiiemini need special mention. They lack the incomplete tenses, and the complete tenses have the time of the incomplete. 234 235 [234] E.g., pugnatur, {it is fought) there is Jighting gotng on; invidetur mihi, {it is envied toirard me) I am envied ; itur, {it is gone) peoj)Ie go, etc. [235] The forms of the most usual defective verbs are added for reference : — 1. ajo, als, alt, ajunt. Imperf. ajebam or aibam, etc.; subj. ajas, aj^t; part, ajens. 2. Imperat. Sve, ftveto, Svete ; inf. Svere. 3. fatur. Imperat. fare ; f ut. fabor, fabltur ; inf. fari ; sup. fatu ; part, fans, fandus, fatus. 4. inqvam, inqvis, inqvit; inqvlmus, inqviunt. Imperat. inqve, inqvlto, inqvite; imperf. inqviebat; fut. inqvies, inqvigt; perf. inqvii, inqvisti, inqvit. 5. memlni ; tlie complete tenses, and an imperat. memento, nicmen- tote. In compounds the incomplete tenses are found ; e.g., re-min-isc-or, etc. 6. odi; only the complete tenses and part, osurus. 7. Subj. ovet, ovarct; part, ovans, ovatus; ger. ovandi. 8. Imperat. salve, salvete ; inf. salvere ; fut. salvebis. Many verbs lack the forms from the simple stem or those from the perfect stem, and some lack both. Impersonal verbs lack all forms except the third personal singular ; and intransitive verbs, except in the use men- tioned above (234), of course lack the passive voice altogether. Such are not usually called defective, however, but the name is limited to those given here. PART III— "VSTORD-FORMATION. 236 237 238 Roots and Stems. A root is a simple sound, or combination of sounds, used in language to convey an idea without modification. Roots are sometimes used in Latin as stems, and the suffixes of inflection joined to them directly. Usually, however, stems are formed from roots by vowel -change, or by the addition of a vowel, a, e, i, o, u ; sometimes by both. Stems formed from roots in either of these three [237] Many verbs with consonant-stems, and a few with stems in -a, -e or -i, use an unmodified root as a stem. Most verbs witli vowel-stems, however, use a primitive stem, or, far more often, a derivative stem as the verb-stem. The a, e or i added to form the present stem is, of course, no part of the verb-stem, but only a modification used in the incomplete tenses. The final a, e or 1 of the present stem belongs to the verb-stem only when it shows itself also in the perfect stem and in the simple stem. Very few nouns and no adjectives have roots as stems. [238] Final vowels of stems (except u sometimes) are dropped before sufl&xes beginning with a vowel, and are often weakened (and sometimes dropped) before those that begin with a consonant. Before some of the latter, however, the vowel is lengthened, perhaps by the absorption of an iititial vowel, which generally appears when they are appended to con- sonant-stems. Compare the usage in tlie case of the v^erb-suffixes, 170-100. Initial t of a sufl&x suffers the euphonic change to s after certain letters, as in the supine and participles of the verb. FORMATION OF NOUNS. 59 ways are called primitive stems. From these, deriva- tive stems are formed by adding suffixes of derivation. Both primitive and derivative stems, by the addition of suffixes of inflection, become words of the language, fitted for use in sentences. Formation of Nouns. Nouns are formed from other nouns with a variety of suffixes and meanings. Nouns formed from adjectives express the quality or condition denoted by the adjective. 239 240 [239] The most common suffixes are these : — -atu (= Eng. -ship), name of office or condition of the primitive. -eto, -ario, name of place where the primitive is found. -tut {= Eng. -hood), name of condition or quality of the primitive. -io, name of condition or quality of the primitive. -lo, -la (= Eng. -let), diminutive nomis. -ctilo, -ciila (= Eng. -let), diminutive nouns. Illustrations are : — consul-atus, consulship ; from consul, a consul. qverc-etum, oalc forest ; " qvercus, an oak. vlr-tus, manhood ; " vir, a man. minister-ium, service ; " minister, a servant. vicu-lus, hamlet ; " vicus, a village. casu-la, cottage ; " casa, a house. &os-culnSf Jloweret ; " flos, a flower. securi-cula, hatchet ; " securis, an axe. [240] The more usual suffixes are -tat, -tudin, -la, -tia (=: Eng. -ness). Illustrations are : — superb-ia, pride ; from superbus, proud. soli-tudo, loneliness; " solus, alone. boni-tas, goodness ; " bonus, good. justi-tia, justice ; " Justus, just. 60 PART III. — WORD-FOEMATIOX. 241 242 Nouns from verbs denote the doe7\ means, result^ place^ instrument^ etc., of the action, or the action itself. Formation of Adjectives. Adjectives formed from nouns are usually "posses- adjectives, expressing "possessed of," "full of," sive [241] The most usual suffixes are : — -tor (sor), -trtc (= Eng. -er, -ster), name of the doer. -tu (-su), -tiira (-sura), -tion (-sion), -io, -ion, -mento, -culo, name of the act, means, result. -bttlo, -tro, name of the i)lace, means, instrument. Illustrations are : — -or, -mill, audi-tor, hearer ; lii-sor, player ; al-trix, nourisher ; ic-tus, blow ; ara-tio, ploughing ; eif ug-iiiin, escape ; suspic-io, suspicion ; am-or, loce ; certa-iiien, fujh ; vesti-mentiiin, clothing ; specta-culimi, spectacle sta-biilum, stall; ara-truin, plough ; from andi-re, to hear. " lud-ere, to play. " al-ere, to nourish. , " ic-ere, to strike. " ara-re, to plough. " effiig-ere, to escape. " suspic-ere, to suspect. " aina-re, to love. " certa-rc, tofght. " vesti-re, to clothe. " specta-re, to view. " sta-re, to stand. " ara-re, to plough. [242] Adjectives thus formed correspond to English derivative adjec- tives in -ish, -y, -ed, -ful, -en, etc. The suffixes used to form them are very numerous ; the most common are -ato, -do, -no, -ano, -ino, -all, -ili, -ari, -ario, -ati, -eusi, -oso, -lento, -co, -io, -eo, -aceo. Illustrations are : — aur-atus, gilded; luctu-osus, sorroicful Roni-anus, Roman ; aur-eus, golden; ebur-nus, ivory ; mort-alls, mortal; etc. from aiirum, gold. " Iiictus, sorrow. " Roma, Rome. " aiirum, gold, " ebur, ivory. " mors, death. etc. FORMATION OF VERBS. 61 "furnished with," "made of," "characterized by," " belonging to," and the like. Adjectives from other adjectives are derivative numerals, comparatives and superlatives, and dim- inutives. Adjectives from verbs are the regular participles, adjectives with the force of participles (usually active), and adjectives denoting capability (usually passive). Formation of Verbs. A few verbs are formed from noun- or adjective- stems by using the theme of the noun as a verb-stem. 243 244 245 [243] For the ordinal and distributive numerals, with their suffixes, see [118] ; and for the comparative and superlative formations, see 119 ff. Dim- inutive adjectives have the suffixes -lo and -culo, like diminutive nouns. E.g., albulus, whitish, from albus, white. forticulus, holdish, somewhat hold, from fortis, bold. [244] For the regular participles and their endings see 183-187. Adjec- tives with the general force of participles, but expressing a habit rather than a single act, are formed with the suffixes -uo, -ivo, -tivo, -do, -bundo, -cundo, -aci, etc. Illustrations are : — contig-uus, touching, adjacent; from conting-ere, to touch. cad-ixus, falling, Jleeting ; " cad-eve, to fall. nomina-tivuSf nominative ; " nomina-re, ^o name. erra-bundus, wandering, vagrant ; " erra-re, to wander. Adjectives denoting capability are formed with the suffixes -li, -bili, -till (-slli). Illustrations are : — frag-IIis, breakable, frail ; from frang-ere, to break. cred-ibilis, credible; " cred-ere, to believe. fer-tiliSf fertile, capable of prodticing ; " fer-ref to produce. [245] Thus, from flor (theme of flos, a flower) we have flor-ere, to flower ; from arbor (theme of arbos, a tree), arbor-esc-ere, to become a tree; from dulc (theme of dulcis, sweet), dulc-esc-ere, to grow sweet, etc. That the e of the present stem does not belong to the verb-stem, but is a formative addition, is shown by the form of the perfect stem, when one exists {e.g., flor-ui). But most of these verbs have only the incomplete tenses. 62 PART III. — WORD-FORMATION. 246 247 In such verbs the present stem is formed by adding -e, or by adding -esc. In the former case the verb means "to be [so-and-so] "; in the latter, "to become [so-and-so]." More often verb-stems are formed from noun- or adjective-stems by adding -a or -i to the theme. Verbs thus formed usually mean "to make [so-and-so]"; less often, "to be [so-and-so]." Verbs formed from verbs are frequentatives, in- tensives, or desideratives. [246J Thus, from bellum, war, bellare, to war ; from aeqvus, level, aeqvare, to level; from miles, soldier, inllitare, to he a soldier; from tenuis, thin, tenuare, to make thin ; from Insanus, mad, Insanlre, to be mad ; from finis, end, finire, to end, etc. From stems in u, a-stem verbs are formed by adding a to the stem, not the theme; e.g., aestii-are from aestu-s. But 1 is added to the theme in u-stems, as in others. See [238]. [247] Frequentatives denote a frequent or emphatic action. Tliey are formed witli the suffix -ta. Many verbs formed in this way, however, have lost the frequentative force. Illustrations are : — adven-tare, to come ojlen ; from adven-ire, to come. rog-itare, to ask eagerly ; " rog-are, to ask. dic-tara, to say frequently ; " dic-ere, to say. dlct-ltare, to say frequently ; " diet-are, to say. Intensives denote an eager or earnest actimi. They are few in number, and are formed with the suffix -ess orrcssi, the latter being used in the complete tenses and simple stem forms. Illustrations are : — fac-ess-ere, to do eagerly ; from fac-ere, to do. cap-ess-ere, to take eagerly, to seize ; " cap-ere, to take. Desideratives denote the desire to do an action. They are few in num- ber, and are formed with the suffix -tttri (-siSri). Illustrations are : — cena-turire, to wish to dine ; from cena-re, to dine. emp-turire, to wish to buy ; " eiu-ere, to buy. Desideratives seem to be formed from tlie future active particix)le by the addition of 1, as stated in 246, the u being shortened, probably by the change of accent. FORMATION OF ADVERBS, ETC. 63 Formation of Adverbs. Many adverbs are case-forms of nouns and adjec- tives, often with obsolete endings. The locative, accusative and ablative are most frequent. Adverbs of manner are formed from adjectives and verbs ; adverbs of source from nouns ; numeral adverbs from numeral adjectives. Formation of Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections. The interjections proper. are primitive sounds, but various nouns are used interjectionallj in the nom- inative, accusative or vocative. So also are curt phrases. The prepositions and conjunctions are in some cases case-forms or phrases, but most of them are not easily subjected to grammatical analysis, and may conveniently be regarded as primitive words. 248 249 250 251 [249] The most usual suflixes for adverbs of manner from adjectives are -e and -ter; from verbs, -tim (-sim). Adverbs of source are formed from nouns with the suffix -tfls. Illustrations are : — cert-e, surely ; from certus, sure. ■ firmi-ter, firmlij ; " firmus, Jirm. cau-tim, cautiously ; " cav-ere, to he cautious. f undi-tus, from the bottom ; " fundus, bottom. Adverbs of source are formed from adjectives also, and even from pre- positions. For the numeral adverbs (ending -lens or -ies) see [118]. [251] The manner of formation of j)repositions and conjunctions is a subject for comparative grammar, and cannot be fully treated in an elementary book. 64 PART III. — WORD-FORMATION. 252 Composition. Words are also formed by composition, ix.^ by combining two or more stems into one. The suffixes of inflection or derivation are then added to the last stem. [252] The first stem usually modifies the second with the force of an adverb, an adjective, an oblique case, or a direct object ; e.g., — in-iqvus, unfair (in, aequus). centi-manus, hundred-handed (centum, manus). capri-corniis, goat-horned (caper, cornii). parti-ceps, partaker (pars, capere). sangui-suga, bloodsucker, leech (sanguis, sugo). etc. etc. A few words are often written as compounds, though not really such ; e.g., res publlca, commonwealth ; jus jurandum, oath ; legis lator, legislator, etc. The custom of writing them as single words has caused them to be looked on as compounds, and they are sometimes called "spurious compounds." Compare in Englisli instead (i.e. in stead), per- chance, perhaps, etc., where two words have grown into one. PART IV.— SYNTAX. Person, Number, Voice, Concord. The modifications of person, number and voice 253 have the same force in Latin as in English. Special rules are needed only for concord, for the use of the cases, tenses and moods, and for the non-finite verb-forms. The rules of concord are : — (a) The appositive or predicate noun agrees in case with the noun it limits. (6) The adjective agrees in gender^ number and case with the noun it limits. 254 255 [253J Except the reflexive use of the passive and the deponent verbs. See 154. [254] The appositive and predicate noun are usually required by the sense to agree in number, and they agree in gender also, when possible. Most nouns lack a separate form for the locative and vocative. Such nouns, when used as appositives to those cases, are put in other construc- tions to express the same idea; with the locative, in the ablative (or ablative with a preposition) ; with the vocative, in the nominative. [255] An adjective may limit two or more nouns. In this case the predicate adjective is generally plural and masculine if the nouns denote persons ; neuter, if they denote things. The attributive adjective, limiting two or more nouns, generally agrees with the nearest. Two or more ordinal numerals may stand in the singular with a plural noun; e.g., prima et qvarta legiones, the first and fourth legions. 66 PART IV. — SYNTAX. 256 257 (c) Pronouns agree with their antecedents in gen- der, number and person. (c?) The finite verb agrees with its subject in number and person. The participles used to make the " periphrastic " verb-forms sometimes agree with an- appositive or predicate noun rather than the subject, when it denotes the same thing. The locative case is limited by no adjectives but possessives (except die in old Latin). A nominative used in direct address is in a few cases limited by an adjective in the vocative form. Nominatives so used are usually called vocatives. See [261]. A predicate noun or adjective after an infinitive without an expressed subject often agrees not with the omitted subject but with the same word expressed in the sentence in some other case ; e.g., cupio esse bonus, / wish to he good ; ixiihi licet esse bono, / am permitted to he good. (In the former of these sentences bonus agrees with ego, expressed in the ending of the verb cupio; in the latter, bono agrees with niihi.) Vobis uecesse est fortibus virls esse, you must be hrave men. [256] The rule applies, of course, only to substantive pronouns, and even these can show person only when they are used as subjects of finite verbs, whicli show by their ending the person of the subject. All adjective pronouns agree as adjectives. A few cases occur in poetry of an agreement of the relative pronoun in case also (attraction) ; and in a few instances the antecedent takes the case of the relative. A pronoun sometimes agrees with an appositive or predicate-noun of its antecedent. With more than one antecedent, pronouns follow the usage of adjectives in gender and number; that of verbs in person. See [255] and [257]. [257] With two or more subjects taken conjointly, the verb is plural. If the subjects differ in person the verb takes the first person in prefer- ence to the second, the second in preference to the third. But in such cases the verb often agrees with the nearest subject, especially if it precedes the subjects. Occasional violations of the rules of agreement are found, the most common being an agreement according to sense rather than form. Thus, a feminine or neuter collective noun may take a plural adjective or verb referring to the implied individuals; two subjects, taken together, may take a singular verb if they express a single idea, etc. , USE OF THE CASES. 67 Use of the Cases. The Nominative is used — (a) As subject of a finite verb. 258 (b) In exclamations. 259 (c) To denote the person or thing spoken to. 260 The Vocative is used — (a) To denote the person or thing spoken to. 261 The Accusative is used — (a) As the direct object of an action. 262 [258] The use of the subject-nominative is the same as in English. [259] The exdamatonj nominative may be considered the subject of a verb implied in the connection. It is usually accompanied by the interjec- tion en or ecce. en Priamus! Zo, [here is) Priam! En ego, vester AscaniusI Lo, {it is) I, your Ascanius ! ecce tuae litterae I Now your letter (comes) ! [260] The nominative of direct address is the regular usage in the plural number, where no vocative is found, but is rare in the singular, when a separate vocative form exists. It is usual to call nominatives vocatives when used in this way, if no separate vocative form is found, audi tu, populus Albanus, hear, thou Alban nation, proice tela, sangvis mens, cast aivay thy weapons, my son. [261] faciam, Laeli, / will do so, LceUus. The vocative is the simple stem without a case-suffix. A vocative form is found in the singular in a-stems, masculine o-stems and semivowel-stems. In others the nominative is used as a vocative, and is usually called a vocative when so used. An adjective limiting such a nominative usually takes the vocative form, if it has a separate form for that case, but sometimes the nominative ; e.g., sangvis mens, above [260]. A form macte is called a vocative by some grammarians, an adverb by others. It is used as a simple exclamation, or with the imperative forms esto, este, as an exclamation of approval, macte I good ! macte vir- tute esto ! bravo ! [262] omueiii eqvitatuin iiiittit, he sends all the cavalry. A special kind of direct object is the cognate accusative, which repeats the meaning of the verb in the form of a noun; e.g., vitam tutam vivere. 68 PART IV. — SYNTAX. 263 264 (5) As subject of an infinitive. ((?) In exclamations. to Jive a safe life ; servitutem servire, to slave slavery (i.e., undergo). This form of direct object follows verbs which are otherwise intransitive. Many verbs are transitive in Latin, while English verbs of like meaning are intransitive. In such cases a preposition is inserted in English ; e.g., arma cano, / sing of arms ; petit hostem, he aims at the foe, etc. Other verbs, properly intransitive, sometimes take a direct object in poetical or figurative language ; e.g., ardebat Alexin, he was hot for (i.e., loved) Alexis; redolere antiqvitatem, to smell of antiquity ; saltare Cyclopa, to dance the Cyclops; resonant Amaryllida silvae, the groves echo {the name of) Amaryllis. Many verbs also are made transitive by being compounded with prepositions. In a few cases the action implied in a noun or adjective governs a direct object. The infinitives, participles and gerund, of course, retaining their verbal power, govern the same case as their verbs. Factitive verbs (i.e., verbs meaning make, appoint, choose, name, etc.) take two objects, as in English, denoting the same person or thing; e.g., popu- lus Romanus Ciceronem creavit consulem, the Roman nation chose Cicero consul. Doceo (and compounds), celo and a few verbs of demanding and ques- tioning, sometimes take two direct objects, — one denoting the person, the other the thing; e.g., non te celavi sermoneni, I have not concealed from you the remark; te hoc rogo, I ask you this; Caesar Haeduos fruinen- tum flagitare, Ccesar kept demanding corn from the Ilceduans. In the passive voice of these verbs the accusative of the person becomes the sub- ject, and that of the thing remains. In many cases the accusative of the thing seems to be an accusative of specification, or to approach that mean- ing, and may be a development from it. See [267]. [263] This use is a development of (a), the subject of the infinitive being originally the object of the leading verb. It has been extended, however, to all uses of the infinitive except the historical infinitive, which is a finite verb-form in meaning. See [342]. cum suos interfici viderent, when they saio that their men ivere being killed ; necesse est legem haberi, it is needful that the law be kept ; fama erat hostem advenire, there was a rumor that the foe was coming. [264] The exclamatory accusative is possibly the object of a verb implied in the connection, but in most cases none need be supplied in translation. An interjection often accompanies it. heu, me mlserum ! USE OF THE CASES. 69 (c?) To denote the place to which motion proceeds. (6j) To denote extent of time or space. (/) With verbs or adjectives to define their appli- cation. (^) With many prepositions. 265 266 267 268 Alas, tinhappy me! hanc audaciam, the impudence! In old Latin the accusatives eum, earn, ilium, illam, etc., are combined with the preceding en or ecce to eccum, eecam, eccillam, etc. [265] Accusative of limit. This use is limited, in prose, to names of towns and small islands, and domum, domes, foras, rus. Hennam profecti sunt, they went to Henna ; ego rus ibo, / shall go to the countri/. Other words require a preposition, except a few phrases with co, " to go," or do, " to give," in which the freer use of early Latin is retained ; e.g., pessum ire, to go to ruin; pessum dare, [to send to ruin, i.e.] to ruin; infitias ire, exseqvias ire, venum ire, venum dare. Here belongs also the use of the accusative case of the supine. See 351. [266] Accusative of extent, paucos dies moratus, having waited a few days; millia passuum tria ab eorum castris castra ponit, he pitches a camp three miles from their camp. Extent of time or space is some- times expressed by the ablative. See 302. [267] Accusative of specif cation. This use is rare in prose, the ablative being the usual construction. The accusative is found, however, in neuter pronouns, id, qvid, etc., in nihil ; in neuter adjectives, pauca, multum, etc. ; and in a few idiomatic phrases. It is usually best translated by an adverb or an adverbial phrase; e.g., quid? why? maximam partem, chief y ; id temporis, then ; istuc aetatis, at your age, etc. In the phrases id genus, of that sort ; virile secus, of the male sex, and the like, this accusative seems to qualify a noun, and is nearly equal in force to a geni- tive or ablative of description. Under this head come many so-called adverbs, multum, plus, minus, etc. With cingor, I bind on {myself), and other passive forms used reflexively, an accusative is found, which is usually referred to this head. It is better treated, however, as direct object, since the verb is not properly passive. In poetical language many passive participles retain a direct object which may be explained in the same way. [268] The accusative and ablative cases follow prepositions in Latin. A list of those that take the ablative is given in 308 ; all others take the accusa- tive. Prepositions compounded with verbs sometimes retain their power of 70 PART IV. — SYNTAX. The Dative is used — 269 (a) As indirect object of an action or feeling. governing an accusative. If the verb is transitive, it will then take two accusatives, — one a direct object, the other governed by the preposition. This use is rare, except with trans, populos adit, he goes to (i.e., visits) the tribes ; milites flunien transportabat, he was taking his troops over the river. Pridie, the day before ; postridie, the day after ; and the phrase ante diem, used in dates, are followed by an accusative, like prepositions. The construction seems to be elliptical. The adjectives propior, proxiinus, and the corresponding adverbs propius, proxime, are followed by an accusative like their positive prope, which is both adverb and preposition. (Compare the similar prepositional use of nearer, nearest, in English.) [269] The dative of indirect object denotes the person or thing to or for which, or for ichose advantage anything is done or exists. Various prepositions are used to express the idea in English, to and for most often. Sometimes the English indirect objective will render it. Himilconi respondit, he answered Ilimilco ; niihi licet adire, / am allowed to come near {it is allowed to me) ; hostibus terrorein augere, to increase the fright of the enemy {in- crease fright for) ; piignare hostibus, to fight with (or against) the foe. Sometimes, in poetry, the dative of the indirect object is found with verbs of motion, where a phrase expressing the place to which would be used in prose ; e.g., it clamor caelo, the outcry goes to the sky. This use arises from a poetical notion or conception, the rising of the shout being thought of not simply as going to the sky, but as affecting or having influence on the sky. So occasionally other- verbs, the action being conceived of as done to the person or thing, though another construction would be used in prose; e.g., laterl abdidit ensem, buried the sword in his side. So especially verbs meaning " take away." Many verbs are intransitive in Latin, though verbs of like meaning are transitive in English, and the indirect object with such becomes a direct object in translation. The most common are verbs meaning help, please, trust, serve, and the contrary ; also spare, pardon, envy, command, persuade, and the like. If pains is taken to translate them by intransitive expres- sions, the dative will be seen to have its proper force, non Herculi nocere voliiit, she did not wish to do harm to Hercules {= injure), mundiis deo paret, the world is subject to {obeys) a god. Transitive verbs with the meanings given above govern an accusative, but may take a dative also, if USE OF THE CASES. 71 (5) To denote the possessor or apparent agent. (c) With adjectives, to denote that to which the quality or feeling is directed, (c?) To denote purpose or end. 270 271 272 the meaning permits ; and most of these verbs may take an accusative of the thing, especially a neuter pronoun, along with the dative of the person. Hoc tibi impero, / give you this command (command this to you). In the case of some of these verbs, usage is unsettled, and they take either a direct or an indirect object, witli little or no difference of meaning. The same remarks apply also to many verbs compounded with the prepositions ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, post, prae, pro, sub, super, which take a dative, and if transitive an accusative also. [270] The dative of possessor is simply an indirect object, denoting the person for whom, or for whose advantage or disadvantage something exists. It needs mention only on account of peculiarity of translation. Gallis haec consuetudo est, the Gauls have this custom (lit., this custom exists for the Gauls). The same is true of the dative of apparent agent, so named because translated " by." It is found regularly with the present passive participle (rarely with the perfect passive participle or a verbal adjective in -bilis), and denotes the person who has the work to do. multa mihi facienda sunt, much must be done by me, I have much to do (lit., the doing-ofmuch exists for me). In poetry we sometimes find a dative of the real agent, or one which approaches that meaning. [271] The, dative with adjectives is also an indirect object, and denotes that toward which the implied feeling is exercised, or for which the implied quality exists. The adjectives most often limited by a dative are those kindred in meaning to the verbs that govern a dative, and those which mean like, ready, friendly, easy, ft, etc. paucis carior fides quam pecunia fuit, to a few, truth was dearer than money ; hoc luctuosum est parentibus, this is sad for parents, idem, same, sometimes takes a dative (like adjectives of likeness). In a few cases, a noun or adverb, derived from a verb or adjective which governs a dative, takes an indirect object like its primitive, conveni- enter naturae, in agreement ivith nature. Also, rarely, a dative is found with interjections, vae victis! woe to the vanquished ! vae mihi! ah me! [272] The dative of purpose is most frequent with the verb " be." It is translated as a predicate-noun or an appositive with "as," less often by "for." impedimento id fuit, this ivas a hindrance {served as a hindrance) ; 72 PART IV. — SYNTAX. 273 274 The Locative is used — {a) To denote the place of an action. (h) To denote price or value. virtas non datur dono, virtue is not given as a pi-esent ; eqvitatum Caesari auxilio miserant, they had sent cavalry as a help to Ccesar. A second dative of the person to whom the action is of interest is often added, as in the last example. This use of the dative to express purpose is not common, except in the case of a few words. A few have become equivalent to adjectives, — frugi bonae = honest, usui = useful, cordi = pleasing, etc. In operae est, it is worth ichile, it is not clear whether operae is dative or genitive, operae pretiuin est also occurs, and tlie shorter expression may be derived from tlie latter. On the border between the dative of indirect object and the dative of purpose stands its occurrence to denote the use to which a thing is put; e.g., domicilio locum delegerunt, they chose a place for a home; receptui signum, the "retreat-call," signal for retreat; esui olivac, eating-olives, etc. This use of the dative is most common with the gerundive, in giving the duties of an officer or committee, and similar expressions ; e.g., decemviri legibus scribendis, a committee of ten to compile the laws. In such cases it seems to limit a noun, but the construction is probably elliptical. [273] A separate form for the locative is found in Latin only in the singular of some names of towns and islands, and a few other words, domi, humi, ruri being the most frequent. (In other Avords, and in the plural, the ablative or a preposition is used to express "place where.") cogitan- dum tibi erat Romaene et domi tuae, an Mitylenis aut Rliodi malles vivere, you had to consider whether you preferred to live at Rome and at your oxen home, or at Mitylenoi or Rhodes. A locative animi occurs with verbs and adjectives of feeling ; e.g., aeger animi, sick at heart. In old Latin a locative die is found denoting the " time when " ; e.g., qvinti die, on the fifth day ; die crastini, to-morrow, etc. Several adverbs of place or time are locatives ; e.g., hie, here ; illic, there; postridie (= posteri die), on the following day ; pridie, on the day before ; qvdtidie, daily, etc. In the case of plural names of toAAms, it is a matter of indifference whether the case used to denote place be called ablative or locative. The form is the same, and the use of the singular shows that either case may be used in this sense. [274] A definite amount named as the price is expressed by the ablative. The locative is found in indefinite expressions of price or value; e.g.. USE OF THE CASES. 73 The genitive was originally the case of the source or (consequently) the cause. This idea can be seen in some of its uses ; in others the idea of possession, developed from that of source, is more prominent. The Genitive is used (as the case of source or cause) — (a) To denote the crime 1. With verbs of judicial action, 2. With adjectives of guilt or innocence. (5) To denote the person or thing that excites the feeling 1. With some verbs of reminding^ remembering^ forgetting^ pitying, 2. With miseret, paeiiitet, piget, pudet, taedet. 3. With adjectives of like meaning. 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 magni aestimare, to value highhj ; flocci non faciunt, they don't care a straw for ; est mihi tanti, it is worth m\j while; aeqvl boni facere, to take in good part, etc. In homo nihil!, a worthless fellow, and the like, the locative seems to limit a noun, but the expression is perhaps elliptical. The locative was not clear to the Komans themselves, and its similarity of form caused it to be confused, in the singular, with the genitive, and in a few cases genuine genitives were used with the force of locatives. Thus, pluris and miuoris occur a few times to express value ; a few other geni- tives occur once each, mentis, in mind, is found twice ; it seems to have been formed after the analogy of animi. [277] i.e., verbs of accusing, condemning, acquitting, etc. ambitus accusare, to accuse of bribery. [278] insons culpae, innocent of fault; reus avaritiae, charged with avarice. [280] admoncbat eum egestatis, he reminded him of his poverty ; veteris proverbii memini, / remember an old saw. [281] eum libidinis infiimiaeqve neqve pudet neqve taedet, he is neither ashamed of his licentiousness and ill-repute nor sick of them. With pudet the person toward whom the sense of shame is felt is occasionally treated as the exciting object. One or two other verbs of like meaning occasionally occur with a geni- tive, — vereor, to feel awe ; fastidio, to feel disgust. [282] gloriae memor, mindful of glory ; lassus militiae, sick of warfare. 74 PART IV. — SYNTAX. 283 ((?) To denote the whole, of which the word it Hmits denotes a part. 284 {d) To describe anything by denoting its qualities or its material. [283] Partitive genitive. It- may limit nomis, adjectives or adverbs, if they express a part, pars militum, part of the soldiers ; ubinaiii geni- tum suinus? xvhere in the world are we? [in what place among nations?) omnium fluminum maximum, the largest of all rivers ; genus eorum unum, 07ie class of them. Here belongs the genitive in various idiomatic phrases; e.g., id temporis, at that [point o/] time ; qvid novi? what news? id loci, that spot, etc. As partitive genitives the personal pronoun forms nostrum, vestrum are used, not nostri, vestri. ejus is a partitive geni- tive in the phrase qvod ejus, = "as yhr as" (lit. whatever of it), qvod ejus possis, as far as you can. In older Latin, and in colloquial style, we find phrases like scelus viri, a villain ; qvid homiais ? what sort of a fellow ? monstrum hominis, a monster, etc., which come under the head of partitives, as do also the phrases compendi facere, to save ; lucri facere, to gain, and the like. [284] Descriptive genitive, res magni laboris, a task of great tod {very toilsome) ; murus pedum sedeciin, a sixteen foot wall. This genitive, when denoting a quality of the Avord it limits, regularly has an adjective with it, as in the examples given, (bidui, tridui, etc., have an adjective com- pounded with them.) The descriptive genitive, when used to denote material, does not require a limiting adjective. This use is rare (an adjective is generally used to denote material), and in many cases seems to approach the idea of a partitive genitive. Examples are : acervus frumenti, a heap of grain ; talentum auri, a talent of gold. Other constructions occur instead of the genitive in all its uses to express source or cause. Thus, verbs of accusing, etc., verbs of reminding, etc., sometimes take a phrase with a preposition ; verbs of remembering, etc., a direct, object; miseret, etc., an infinitive; the various adjectives, also, arc used with prepositional phrases instead of the genitive. The poets and later writers use the genitive more freely with adjectives to express cause; sometimes also to express specification, where an ablative or locative might be expected. For a partitive genitive a phrase with a preposition is not unusual, oftenest with de or ex. USE OF THE CASES. 75 The Genitive is used (as a possessive case) — (a) To denote the possessor. (5) To define a noun more closely, (c) To denote the subject of the implied action or feeling. (tZ) To denote the object of the implied action or feeling. 285 286 287 288 The idea of source passes into that of separation, and in a few cases a genitive is found in poetry, where an ablative of separation would be the usual construction. Probably the habit of imitating Greek constructions (common in the Augustan poets) is the cause of this use. [285] Possessive genitive, membra hominis, a man's limbs; natura deorum, the nature of the gods. Used with any noun denoting a thing capable of possession in the widest sense ; also with adjectives used sub- stantively; e.g., aeqvalis ejus, his equal in age; similis Caesaris, like Ciesar {Ccesar's like), etc. This genitive is often put in the predicate, and marh, duty, or some such word supplied in translation ; e.g., est hominis. His a man's duty ; hominis est errare, it is characteristic of man to make mistakes. The genitive case of the personal pronouns is not used, in prose, as a possessive. The possessive pronouns are used instead. A possessive genitive is found with ergo, instar, teuus, pridle and postridie, which were originally nouns, but have sunk to prepositions or adverbs. [286] Appositive genitive. urbs Romae, {Rome's city, i.e.) Rome; urbs Buthroti, the city of Buthrotum. This is properly a possessive geni- tive. It is rarely found, an appositive being far more usual. [287] Subjective genitive, deorum factum, a deed of the gods. The word it limits must imply, of course, an action or feeling. In some cases it is hard to draw the line between the subjective and the possessive use of the genitive, and the possessive pronouns are used for it as for a posses- sive genitive. [288] Objective genitive. usus membrorum, the use of the limbs; cura rerum alienarum, the care of others' interests. The objective geni- tive limits nouns and adjectives that imply an action or feeling which may pass over to an object, amans sui, fond of himself ; capax urbis mag- 76 PART IV.— SYNTAX. 289 290 291 The genitive is used, further — (a) To denote price or penalty. (5) With a few verbs and adjectives of plenty and want. (/a«s for destroying the city ; Platouis studiosus audiendi, desirous of hearing Plato. So ejecti reges, the expulsion of the kings; natiis Augustus, ?//e birth of Augustus, etc. In notum furens quid femina possit, the knowl- edge of what a mad looman can do, the participle limits a clause. [348] The name " nominative of the gerund " is often given to a con- struction, which most grammarians regard as an impersonal use of the passive periplirastic conjugation; e.g., inihi dormiendum est, / must sleep. This construction resembles the passive periphrastic conjugation in conveying tlie notion of dut}' or propriety, hut is sometimes like the gerund in being active and taking an object ; e.g., via qvani nobis ingre- diendum est, the road we must go; moncndum te est inihi, / must team you. There seems to be no doubt that the gerund is a specialized use of the neuter of the present passive participle, at a period when the meaning and force of the form was not so definite as later. The gerund is often passive in force, — e.g., in res difflcilis ad cxplicandum, a matter hard to he explained, — and the passive participle is sometimes active, e.g., placenda dos est, the dower must please. The " nominative of the gerund " seems to lie between the two. The gerund in the genitive case, in a few instances, becomes so fully a noun that it takes an objective genitive instead of an object accusative, and takes the possessive pronoun adjective modifiers mel, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, instead of an object ; e.g., exeniplorum eligendi potestas, a chance to select examples ; vestri adhortandi causa, for the sake of your encouragement (i.e., of encouraging you). (In cases like this, however, the genitives mei, vestri, etc., may be considered objective genitives like exemplorum above.) The gerund is limited in its use as follows : — In the genitive it may be a possessive, an appositivc, or an objective genitive. In the dative it may be an indirect object, or may limit adjec- USE OF THE XON-FINITE VERB-FORMS. 97 The gerund of transitive verbs is rare, and its place is usually supplied by the gerundive. This consists of a noun and the present passive participle in agree- ment with it (the two words expressing the complex idea spoken of in 34T). The Supine is a verbal noun, found only in the accusative and ablative singular. The accusative of the supine is used with verbs of motion to express purpose. 349 350 351 tives. In the accusative it may follow a few prepositions (ad most often). In the ablative it may denote means or specification, rarely separation, manner or circumstance, and may also follow prepositions (in most often). [349] The name gerundive is often used of the participle only, and the noun and participle taken together are then called the " gerundive con- struction .'' The gerundive is less restricted in its use than the gerund. Besides the uses of the gerund it is used in the genitive (with causa omitted?) to express purpose ; in the dative to express purpose, see [272] ; in the accusa- tive as direct object ; in the ablative to express manner or the standard of comparison. A few illustrations of both gerund and gerundive are added : — Genitive, cupidus te videndi, desirous of seeing you ; finem facit dicendi, he makes an end of speaking ; siii muniendi non Galliae im- pugnandae causa, for the sake of defending himself, not of attacking Gaul. Dative, scribendo dat operam, he gives attention to writing ; rubeiis ferrum non est habile tundendo, not good for forging. So in the phrase non esse solvendo, to be unable to pag, and the like. Accusative, non vacuus sum ad narrandum, / have no leisure for story-telling ; ad eum oppugnandum, to attack him ; signum collocan- dum consules locaverunt, the consuls let out the {job of) setting up the statue ; aedem habuit tuendam, he had the care of the temple. Ablative, in dando munificus, free in giving ; alitur vitium te- gendo, a vice is nourished by hiding it; de contemnenda niorte, concerning contempt for death; de liberis educandis, of the training of children. So, often in the titles of philosophical treatises. [351] venit auxilium postulatum, he came to ask help. This is strictly an accusative of limit. (See 265.) With ire, "go" the accusative of the supine make a construction nearly the same in force as the future tense ; e.g., imusne sessum? {are we going PAET IV. — SYNTAX. 352 The ablative of the supine is used as an ablative of specification. (See 300.) to sit?) shall we take a seat? By putting the infinitive ire in the passive, a form is obtained to supply the lacking future infinitive passive; e.g., putat se visum iri, he thinks he will be seen. [352] horribile visu I fearful to see ! mirabile dictu ! strange to tell ! In some of its uses the ablative of the supine seems to approach the meaning of a dative, and may be so called if one prefers. The form may be in either pase. With opus the ablative of the supine seems to come under the head of means rather than specification. See [297]. PART V. THE LAWS OF VEESE IN LATIN. Quantity. Latin versification is based on a regular succession of long and short syllables. Quantity is therefore usually treated in connection with versification. General rules of quantity are such as apply to all syllables. (They have been given, 14-18.) Special rules of quantity are such as apply only to particular syllables. In Latin we have special rules of quantity for final vowels of stems and for suffix- vowels. The original quantity of final vowels of stems and of suffix-vowels has been changed in many instances by certain tendencies affecting final syllables; viz. : — 353 354 355 356 [353] The system of versification described here was borrowed with slight modifications from the Greek poets, and was in use during and after the classical period. An older system, called Saturnian, is found in frag- ments of the older Latin, in epitaphs, etc., but is not found in literature. [354] The rules for syllables, long or short by position, do not always apply in the comedies ; syllables are treated as short in many cases, though their vowels are followed by two consonants. This is especially the case before final -s, which had but a slight sound in old Latin. In older Latin also, many of the special rules of quantity whicli follow are not applicable, as the tendencies spoken of had not taken effect so fully as later. In most cases the difference consists in the use of a vowel as long which is shortened in the later language. In a few cases the later poets have followed the older quantity, in imitation of the older writers. [356] These are called tendencies, and not rules, because tlicy do not act systematically but affect certain words and leave others untouched. 100 PART v. — THE LAWS OF VERSE IX LATIN. 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 1. A tendency to shorten final open vowels. 2. A tendency to shorten vowels before final -m, -r and -t. 3. A tendency to lengthen final close vowels. 4. A tendency to lengthen open vowels before final -s. 5. A tendency to lengthen accented monosyllables. 6. A tendency to lengthen the vowel of a final syl- lable if an inflectional letter has been dropped. These tendencies seem to be allowed freer play, or to be restricted in their effect, when for metrical con- venience it is desirable to use a long syllable or a short one instead of the reverse. It is probable that some old law of accent is at the bottom of most of them. Their influence is more often negative than positive, i.e., they act as a restraint on certain syllables that would otherwise be more liable to change. [360] When an open vowel is brought before final -s by the loss of t or d, the tendency to lengthen seldom shows itself. [361] This tendency would explain das, da, vas, pes, grus, sfis, vis (from volo), vis (noun), various particles, and perhaps sal, sol, lar, par, mas, though these fall also under No. 0. But it is diflScult to see why the neuters, m61, fgl, Ss, etc., should be left short, or why certain unaccented prepositions and conjunctions should be made long; e.g., why the preposi- tion ftb should be short while the same preposition a should be long. It is clear that accent does not explain the difference ; and we may regard this tendency as doubtful, or greatly restricted. [362] The inflectional letters most often lost are the nominative singu- lar suflix -s of masculine and feminine semivowel-stems, and the suflix -ni of the first singular active of verbs. The loss of a stem-letter does not seem to affect the preceding vowel, vis (— vil-s) seems to come under No. 5. [363] Thus ftbles, ftrles, pftrles, perhaps to prevent the concurrence of so many short syllables, are brought under the influence of No. 4, though usually such words remain unaffected. See [300J. A final syl- QUANTITY. ^ 101 The special rules for quantity are the following: — I. In open vowel noun- and adjective-stems The vowel after the theme is short in the nom., ace. and voc. sg. ; long elsewhere, Except -es in the nom. sg. of e-stems. (4) Except -a in the nom. and ace. pi. of neuter o-stems. (1) II. In close vowel noun- and adjective-stems The vowel after the theme is short in the nom. and ace. sg., and in the dat. and abl. pi. ; long elsewhere, Except -es in the nom. sg. of i-stems. (4) Except -u in the nom. and ace. sg. of neuter u-stems. (3) III. The vowels of suffixes of nouns and adjectives, when not contracted with the stem-vowel, are short, Except -i final in the gen. and dat. sg. (3) Except -es in the nom. and ace. pi. (4) VI. The pronouns in general follow the rules of quantity for noun- and adjective-stems of like form. 364 365 366 367 368 369 370 371 372 373 374 lable may be subject to more than one tendency, acting in the same or in contrary directions ; in the latter case a common syllable is sometimes the result. For example, o, in the present indicative active first singular of the verb, comes under 6 and 1. [364] The numbers following the exceptions refer to the tendencies that explain them. [365] o is short in duo ; sometimes in ambo. These rules, I. and II., are rules for final stem- vowels, but the expression "vowel after the theme " is used, because the stem-vowel often disappears by contraction with the vowel of the suflix. [368] I-stems, when they lose i and become consonant-stems, of course come under rule III. For grus, sus and vis, see [361]. Bos is contracted. [374] O of ego is short; qvi (nom.) is long. (5)= 102 PART v. — THE LAWS OF VERSE IN LATIN. In the forms unlike those of nouns and adjectives, it should be noticed that we find the vowel after the theme long in The nom, neuter forms in -c, (6) The personal pronouns, except the dat. sg.; and common in The gen. sg. ending -lus. We find the suffix vowel Common in the dat. sg., -bi, -hi. (3) Long in the dat. and abl. pi., -bis. V. In the nominative singular of consonant-stems the quantity of the last syllable of the stem is re- tained, except in Nominatives in -o from stems in -on and -in. (1, 6) Nominatives in -or from stems in or. (2) arbos, Ceres, pubes ; abies, aries, paries, pes. (4) sal, lar, par ; mas. (5 or 6) VI. In the verb the final vowel of vowel-stems is long Except before final -m or -t. (2) VII. In the mood-and-tense signs the initial vowel before -r is short when unabsorbed ; the other vowels are long Except before final -m, -r and -t. (2) [378j The same suffix bi is found in ibi and ubi, old case-forms of is and qvi. [385] The length of the final vowel of verb-stems is due to tlie absorp- tion of the initial vowel of the sign or suffix. It is short, therefore, in those verb-forms that omit this vowel ; viz., the verb do, throughout [ex- cept das, da (o)J and in the subjunctive forem, etc., infinitive fdre, and the twelve non-finite stem-forms given in [209]. In the imperative active second singular, the stem-vowel e is occasion- ally shortened in a few forms that are often used interjectionallj ; e.g., vidS, see I tacS, hush ! cav6, beware ! VERSIFICATION. 103 VIII. The vowels of verb-suffixes are short Except final -i. (3) Except -o of the iiicL, when miabsorbed. (1, 5) Except -o in the imper. endings -ito, -itote, -iiiito. Except -u in the fut. act. part, ending -turo. IX. The rednplication-prefix is short. X. Uninflected monosyllables are long, if they end in a vowel ; short, if they end in a consonant. XI. In nninflected polysyllables the tendencies mentioned above have fuller effect, and become rules. Except final -a. Versification. Syllables, in Latin verse, are either long or short, a long syllable being in most cases the equivalent of two short ones. 389 390 391 392 393 394 395 396 397 398 [387] E is usually long in the perfect active ending -erunt (rarely -6runt) ; 1 is short in the perfect active ending -Iinus. The occasional shortening of i in the perfect subjunctive sign is due to confusion with the future perfect indicative. See [175]. [389] For i in the future perfect active suffixes, see [179]. [390] The final i of -Imlni is properly a nominative plural ending of an old participial form, and therefore long by rule III. [395] Cras and en are long; also non (contracted). Cur, hie, hue, qvin, sic, sin, contain old case-forms. Qve, ne, v6, e6, pt6, are always attached to other words, and are therefore not monosyllabic in their use. Rg- is usually short (standing for an older form red-). [396] Final e and o in adverbs from o-stems are only apparent excep- tions ; such adverbs are old case-forms. But a few of these are shortened (by 1), giving beng, mal6, inferng, supernS; cito, niodo, ilico, pro- fecto ; rarely other words, ohe should, perhaps, be two words. [397] Final a is shortened in ejS, ita, putS, quia (an old accusative plural). Note as an exception also penSs. 104 PART v. — THE LAWS OF VERSE IN LATIN. 399 400 401 402 403 404 405 A foot is a combination of two or more syllables, used as the element of a verse. The fundamental feet in Latin verse are the following : — The Dactyl (one long^ ttvo shorty, -i- w w The Anapest (two short, one long'), ^ w -^ The Trochee (one long, 07ie short), -l w The Iambus (one short, one long), w jl. By substituting a long syllable for the two short ones in the dactyl or anapest we get a spondee, ; and by resolving the long syllable of the trochee or iambus into two short ones, we get a tribrach, www. These are not used as the fundamental foot of a verse, but are often substituted for it, and may therefore be called "substitute" feet. [401] It will be noticed that the dactyl and anapest, being equivalent to four short syllables, correspond to quadruple time in music, while the trochee and iambus correspond in like manner to triple time. They may be represented in musical notation as follows : — Dactyl. Anapest. Spondee. ^ ^^ ^^ Trochee Iambus Tribrach. 0n^ ^^ ^ PP The accent given above shows the metrical stress. Substitute feet take the metrical accent of the feet they replace, and when a long syllable is resolved into two short ones, the metrical stress falls on the first of the two short. In lyric and dramatic writers are found other feet also ; viz. : the Pyrrhic, ^j w ; the Bacchius, w ; the Crctic, w • By combining the fundamental feet and their substitutes are formed various com- pound feet ; e.g., Diiambus, w w ', Bitrochee, w w ; Dispondee, ; Choriambus, w w __ ; Greater Ionic, Ionic, \^ \y ; etc. Lesser VERSIFICATION 105 The trochee and iambus are not used singly to form verses, but in pairs, called dipodies. A verse is a set of feet or dipodies, recurring regularly, and forming a "line" of poetry. Verses are named from their fundamental foot, and from the number of feet or dipodies they contain. The most common kinds of verse are the follow- ing : — (a) Dactjdic Hexameter, — six dactyls or equiva- lent spondees. Its scale is v^w \y \y Kj KJ WW WW )^ ( ) The spondee is regular in tlie sixth foot, but rare in the fifth. (5) Dactylic Pentameter, — two parts, each of two dactyls and a half. Its scale is WW WW I WW WW }i:^ The spondee is allowed in the first part, not in the second. 406 407 408 409 410 411 412 413 [408] Dactylic, trochaic, iambic, etc., from the kind of foot ; monometer, dimeter, trimeter, etc., from the number of feet or dipodies. [410] The caesura (see 420) usually falls in the third foot; less often in the fourth, or second. [411] A trochee often replaces the final spondee. See 419. [412] The dactylic pentameter is tlie same as the hexameter, with the loss of the second half of the third and sixth feet. This loss is analogous to a rest in music. The pentameter is not used alone, but alternately with the hexameter to form the " elegiac couplet." The following verses give illustrations of this use, and show the character of each kind of verse : — ille Sgo qvi fiiSrim, || tSn6rorum lusor amorum, qvem 16gis, ut noris, || accipe postfiritas. Sulmo mihi patria est, || gSlidis uberrimus imdis, milia qvi novies |] distat ab urbS dSc6m. 106 PART v. — THE LAWS OF VEESE IN LATIN. 414 415 416 417 418 419 Iambic and trochaic verses are composed of di- podies, and verses of various length occur, either complete or catalectic (z.e., lacking the last syllable). The first foot of any iambic dipody, and the second foot of any trochaic dipody may be replaced by a spondee, or, rarely, by the equivalent of an iambus, trochee or spondee. In comedy the spondee, and the equivalents of the spondee, the trochee, or the iambus may stand in any foot except the last. In order to understand the structure of Latin verse, the following facts of usage must be noted ; — (a) A final vowel, or final -in with the foregoing vowel, is regularly dropped when the next word begins with a vowel or h. (5) The last syllable of a verse may be either long or short at the option of the writer. edittis hinc Cgo sum, || nee non ut tempord, noris, cum ceeidit fato || consul titerqvC pari: 81 qv!d Id est, usqve a proavis || vdtfts ordlnts heres, non modo fortunae || mun6r6 factfis 6qu6s. (For the loss of a final vowel in verse before an initial vowel, see 418.) [414] The most common iambic verse is the trimeter, consisting of three dipodies; the most common trochaic verse is the tetrameter cata- lectic; four dipodies, but lacking the last syllable. The caesura of the former occurs in the second dipody, usually in the first foot ; the latter is divided uniformly by a diaeresis after the second dipody. [416] Various kinds of verses, besides those mentioned here, are found in the lyric poets, and the editions of their writings generally contain schedules of the metres used. It has not seemed necessary, therefore, to insert any description of them here. [418] Called elision. It occurs very rarely at the end of a verse. Rarely, also, a vowel remains unelided within a verse. Such cases are called hiatus. [419] I.e., a short syllable may be used though the meter calls for a long one, and vice versa. VERSIFICATION. 107 (c) Long verses are regularly divided into two nearly equal parts by a metrical pause, which usually coincides with a pause in the sense. This pause is called ccesura when it occurs within a foot, and diceresis when it falls between feet. (6?) Metrical irregularities occur at times, as in English poetry. A short syllable is found now and then where the metre calls for a long one, or a long one where the metre requires a short one. Two syllables are sometimes run into one. Such irregu- larities are very rare in good poets. 420 421 [420] A ccesura occurs whenever a foot is divided between two words, but the name is usually given only to the chief ccesura as here. The dactylic pentameter gives a good illustration of diaeresis. SUPPLEMENT TO SYNTAX. [A few peculiarities of usage, belonging rather to the lexicon, or to a manual of Latin composition, than to a grammar, are added here for convenience of reference.'] ^22 423 424 425 426 427 428 429 430 431 A. Negative Particles. The usual negative is non. An older negative is baud. It survives in a few phrases. Ne is used in commands and in final sentences, also in ne . . . quidem, not even. ngqvg (or nee) is equivalent to et non ; nev6 (or neu) to et ne. I B. Interrogative Particles. Questions answered by yes or no are not indicated, as in English, by the order of the words, but by the use of the inter- rogative particles -ng and num. -n6 appended to the prominent word of the sentence shows that it is a question, but gives no i ndication what answer is expected. The insertion of a negative word shows, as in English, that the answer yes is expected. In such cases -nS is appended to the negative as the prominent word. num shows that the answer no is expected. aderasne ? were you present ? dizitne ? did he speak f nonne aderas ? were you not present ? nunqvamne dicet ? will he never speak ? num aderas ? you were not present^ were you? The interrogative particle is sometimes omitted. Questions are usually answered by repeating some of the words of the question, but sometimes non is used for no, and etdam, vero, or some other adverb of emphasis, for yes. USE OF THE PRONOUNS. 109 Alternative or double questions generally take titrum or -ne in the first member, and an in the second. utrum aderas an aberas? were you present or absent f If the second member is simply a negative, " or not" it is ex- pressed by an non or necne. utrum aderas hecne ? icere you present or not ? The first member of an alternative question is sometimes omitted, and an seems to introduce a single question. In such cases the question expresses some surprise, and an is nearly equivalent to num. an aderas ? [am / mistakeji or] xoere you present ? C. Use of the Pronouns. The use of the pronouns is, in general, as follows : — Ego and tu are used as in English, but are regularly omitted in the nominative case, except when emphatic, as the personal endings of the verb express them. nos is sometimes used for a single person (= ego) ; vos is never so used for tu. sui is used for him, her, them, their, when these words refer to the subject of the clause in which they stand. In a dependent clause sui refers to the subject of the principal clause, if the subordinate clause expresses the purpose or thought of that subject. (For a pronoun of the third person not referring to the subject, a demonstrative is used. See below.) se and suus are sometimes used, however, referring to some other word than the subject, if no ambiguity is caused by doing so. The possessive pronouns are used as in English. Suus, like sui, is reflexive. (For a third person possessive, not reflexive, the genitive of a demonstrative, ejus, illius, etc., is used.) Hie means this, ille, that; iste, that (of yours}, and from its frequent use in addressing an opponent, often has a contemptu- ous meaning, is is a weaker this or that, and is the usual third personal pronoun not reflexive. As antecedent of a relative, is qvi means ♦' he who," " any one who "; ille qvi means " that (man yonder) who." 110 SUPPLEMENT TO SYNTAX. Ipse, when used as a substantive, is an emphatic " he" " lie himself.'' As an adjective, it emphasizes the word it limits; homo ipse, '■Hhe man himself '^the very man"; ego ipse, "/ myself" etc. The genitive is used to emphasize the possessive idea of the possessive pronouns ; mea ipsius sententia, my own opinion. When subject and object are the same, the Latin regularly emphasizes the former, me ipse diligo, / love myself (not me ipsum). The relative qvi has the same force as the English icho, lohich, or that, but is used more freely, often where the English uses a separate independent statement, so that qvi has the same force as et is, et ille, or is autem, ille vero, etc. The indefinite pronouns in general mean some, any, one, etc. qvidam means "a certain" ; qvis and qvispiam, '•'■ one," '■'■any one"; aliqvis, "some one." qvivis and qvilibet mean "any one you please "; qvisqvam and ullus, " any ichatever," and are usually used in negative sentences, so that with the negative they mean " none at all." Many other words are used to express the indefinite idea of som£, any, a few, etc. Their force and meaning must be learned from the lexicon and by practice in reading and writing the language. I>. Forms of Conditional Sentences. Conditional clauses are regularly introduced by si, if, or a compound of si, and the verb of such a clause usually takes the mood of the verb on which it depends. The dependent condi- tion is often called a protasis, the conclusion on which it depends an apodosis. There are three well-marked forms of conditional sentences, — (a) with the indicative ; (b) with a primary tense of the sub- junctive ; (c) with a secondary tense of the subjunctive : — (a) The indicative in conditions has its usual force and needs no special explanation. It regularly limits an indicative, but may depend on an imperative or a sul)junctive of connnand. It implies nothing as to the truth or falsehood of the supposed case. FORMS OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. Ill si deus es, tribuere mortalibus beneficia debes, if you are a god, you ought to give henejits to men. sin autem homo es, semper cogita . . . etc., hut if you are a man, aliuays consider . . . etc. inteream, si novi! may I perish if I knovj ! (&) The primary tenses of the sulDJuiictive denote the non- existence of the supposed state, but imply its possibility, and refer therefore to the future. They usually limit a present or perfect potential subjunctive, but are also used to limit verbs whose meaning is such as to express a potential or hypothetical idea; e.g., debeo, possum, volo, etc., or the periphrastic con- jugation forms. See 331. si negem, mentiar, if I should deny it, I should lie. defendat patrem, si arguatur, he would defend his father, if he should he accused. (The perfect tense is rare, and differs from the present only in laying stress on the completion of the action.) (c) The secondary tenses of the subjunctive express the non- reality of the supposed case, and refer therefore to the present or past, the imperfect being used for present time, the pluper- fect for past. They regularly limit an imperfect or pluperfect potential subjunctive. See 327. paoem non peterem nisi utilem crederem, I should not ask for peace, if I did not think it advantageous. te neoassem, nisi iratus essem, / should have killed you had I not heen angry. The second person singular of the present and imperfect subjunctive is used, moreover, in a general condition, to limit a present or imperfect indicative which states a general truth. See 332. mens et animus, nisi oleum instilles extingvuntur senec- tute, mind and soul are extinguished hy age, unless one pours in oil. si attenderes aorius, strepitus vinculorum reddebatur, if one listened more attentively, the rattling of chains was heard. 112 SUPPLEMENT TO SYNTAX. The conditional particle si is sometimes omitted. The verb is then usually put first, as in English. roges me, nihil respondeam, sJwuld you ask me, I should make no answer ; dedisses, had you given, etc. So absqve te esset, loere it not for you, and like expressions in the comic poets. The real conclusion is often omitted, or only implied in an epithet or exclamation. In such cases a conditfonal subjunc- tive often seems to limit an indicative, but the sense of the passage usually suggests the proper conclusion. Here belong expressions of wishing Mdth O si (see 320) ; clauses expressing a comparison after qvasi, etc. (see [327] ), subjunctives depend- ing on debeo, possum, etc. (see 449), and various cases where the writer prefers to put a direct statement in place of a doubtful one suggested by the form of the thought. Relative and temporal clauses sometimes imply a condition, and take the same construction as the implied condition Avould take, if formally expressed. E. Reported Speech. Reports of speeches or thoughts of others may be made by quoting the exact words uttered or thought, or ^^'ith the form changed by makmg the words or thoughts dependent on some verb of saymg or thinking, etc. In the latter case, the language is called "oratio obliqua,'" or "indirect discourse." E.g., "//e said that he had made a mistake," is indirect discourse corre- sponding to the du'ect form ("oratio recta"), "/ have made a mistake.''* AV^hen the words of a speaker or writer are quoted in the in- direct form, the following changes take place : — (a) The pronomis will change in person, as in English, according to the circumstances and requirements of the sense (ordinarily all becoming of the thu'd person). Qj) The tenses only change as requu*ed by the rule of se- quence, 312. But the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive in a condition impliedly false remains after jDrimary tenses, to prevent confusion of meaning with future or possible coiidi- REPORTED SPEECH. iia tions, and the primary tenses are often retained after a second- ary tense for vividness or exactness. (c) When indicatives of those tenses which have no sub- junctive (viz., future and future perfect') are changed to the subjunctive, or when indicatives of those tenses that have no infinitive (viz., imperfect, pluperfect, future, and future perfect) are changed to the infinitive, they take the tense nearest them in time. Thus the — Future ind. becomes pres. subj. (or imperfect by sequence). Fut. pf. ind. " perf. subj. (or phiperfect by sequence). Imperf. ind. " perfect infinitive. Plupf. ind. " perfect infinitive. Future ind. " present inf. of active periphrastic conj. Fut. pf. ind. " present inf. of active periphrastic conj. (d) The moods change as follows : — In principal sentences, in ind. (313) become infinitive. Statements ( in sub. (31G) 'in ind. (314) > 1st & 3d pers. ) in ind. (314) 7 2d person ) .in sub. (317) (in imp. (315) \ in sub. (318) In subordinate sentences, All verbs 5^^^^^^.) ( in sub. ) Questions Commands (inf. of active periph. conj. \ (usually perf., rarely pres.) infinitive. subjunctive. subjunctive, subjunctive, subjunctive. subjunctive. As the first periphrastic conjugation has only an active mean- ing, when a subj. of statement is passive, it is expressed in the oratio obliqua by futurum fuisse ut (less often futurum esse or fore), followed by a passive verb. (e) Relative clauses, though subordinate in form, are in many cases equivalent to principal clauses, and statements contained in such are sometimes treated as principal statements and are 114 SUPPLEMENT TO SYNTAX. put in the infinitive instead of the subjunctive. In a few cases other subordinate clauses are treated in the same way, if the meaning would not be changed by making them inde- pendent in the direct form. The same principle is the cause of the use of the infinitive in reported questions of the first or third person, these questions being usually equivalent to state- ments, and put in the form of questions only for rhetorical effect. (/) The indicative is used in explanatory clauses inserted by the narrator, and not belonging, therefore, to the reported speech. Rarely, also, the indicative is found in other subordi- nate clauses. F. Order of Words and Clauses. In a normal prose sentence the subject comes first and is followed by its modifiers; the verb stands last, proceeded by its modifiers. Modifiers of nouns may either follow or precede their nouns ; modifiers of other parts of speech more often precede. Demonstrative pronouns usually precede, and relative and interrogative pronouns regularly stand at the beginning of their clauses. Modifying clauses are subject to the same general rules of order as words and phrases ; those which limit nouns more often follow ; those which limit verbs more often precede. Few sentences of any length, however, show the normal order, as the usual position of words and clauses is constantly varied for the sake of rhythm or emphasis. No definite statement of the influence of rhythm on the order of words can be given, but a dislike of a monosyllable (other than est or sunt) at the end of a sentence or of a Ime of poetry is noticeable in good Latin writers. Any word may be emphasized b/ putting it out of its usual position. The beginning and end of a sentence are the specially emphatic positions. In poetry the order of words is fixed to a great extent by. the requirements of metre. DATES. 111. G. Dates. The year is expressed in Latin by giving the names of the consuls for that year in the ablative absolute, or by the number of years from the founding of the city; e.fj.: — L. Pisone, u4.. Gahinio consulihus 1 anno urbis conditae DCXCVI V = 58 B.C. anno ah urhe condita DCXCVI ] These expressions are seldom written in full. For consulihus we find coss.; for anno urbis conditae, a. u. c. The month is expressed by mense with the proper month- name added as an adjective; e.g., mense Junto, in June; exeunte mense Aprili, at the end of April, etc. The day of the month was reckoned backward from three fixed dates, the Kalends, Xones, and Ides {Kalendae, Nonae, Idus) ; the first being originally the day of the new moon, the last, that of the full moon. The Kalends was the first day of the month ; the Nones was usually the fifth, but in March, May, July, and October, the seventh ; the Ides was the eighth day after the Nones, and, therefore, the thirteenth or fifteenth. Dates falling on the Kalends, Nones or Ides were expressed by Kalendis, Nonis or Idibus, with the name of the month added as an adjective; e.g., Kalendis Juniis (June 1), Nonis Aprilibus (April 5), Idibus Decembrihus (Dec. 13), etc. Dates falling between the Kalends and Nones are reckoned backward from the Nones. The day before the Nones was called pridie Nonas (see [268] ) ; the second day before was expressed by tertio die ante Nonas, or ante diem tertium Nonas, as the Romans counted in the day reckoned from. In like manner the third day before was called fourth, etc. Dates falling between the Nones and Ides were expressed in the same way, pridie Idus Aprilis, ante diem sextum Idus Martias, etc. So, too, dates falling between the Ides and Kalends, the adjective added being, of course, the name of the following month. These expressions are seldom written in full, the usual con- traction being of the form prid. Kul. Mart., IV. Non. Apr., VI. Id. Sept., etc.; or a. d. iv Non. Apr., etc. In leap-year the 24th of February was counted twice, so that both the 24th and 25th of the month were called VI. Kal. Mart. 116 SUPPLEMENT TO SYNTAX. 496 I The days of the months are given in the following schedule : Day or Month. January (also August and December). February. March (also May, July, and October) . April (also June, Sept., and Xovember) . 1 Kal. Jan. Kal. Feb. Kal. Mart. Kal. Apr. 2 IT Non. Jan. IV IS!"on. Feb. VI Xon. :SIart. IV Nou. Apr. 3 Ill " " Ill " " V " " Ill " " 4 5 prid. " " Xon. Jan. prid. " " Xon. Feb. IV " " III " " prid. " " Xon. Apr. G VIII Id. Jan. VIII Id. Feb. prid. " " VIII Id. Apr. 7 VII " " VII " " Non. Mart. VII " " 8 VI " " VI " " VIII Id. Mart. VI •' " 9 V V «< " VII " " V " " 10 IV " " rv " " VI '• " IV " " 11 III " " III " " V " " III " " 12 13 14 prid. " Id. Jan. XIX Kal. Feb. prid. " " Id. Feb. XVI Kal. Mart. IV " " in " " prid. " " prid. '• " Id. Apr. XVIII Kal. Maias. 15 XVIII " " XV " " Id. Mart. XVII " " 16 XVII " " XIV " *' XVII Kal. Apr. XVI " " 17 XVI " XIII " " XVI " " XV " "• 18 XV '« " Xll " " XV " '« XIV " " 19 XIV " " XI " " XIV " " XIII " " 20 XIII " " X " " XIII " '« XII " " 21 22 23 XII " XI X " " IX " " XII " " XI «' '• X " " XI " " X " " IX " " via " " VII " " In leap year. 24 IX VI " '* VI Kal. M. IX " " VIII " " 25 vin " " V " " VI " " VIII *' '• VII " '♦ 26 Vll " " IV " " V '• " VII *' " VI " " 27 VI III «' " IV " " VI " •' V " " 28 29 30 31 V '« " IV " " III " " prid. " prid. '• " III " " prid." " V " " IV " •' III " " prid. " " rv " *• 111 " " prid. •• 497 The schedule here given was in use after Caesar's reform of the calendar, B.C. 45. Before that date the Roman year had only 355 days, and an extra montli was inserted every other year after Feb. 23. I APPENDIX. 498. List of Verbs [Compiled from llohifs Latin Grammar.'] [This list contains all the verbs of the Latin language, with the following exceptions, viz. : — 1. Stems in -a or -i, which use the simple stem as present stem and form the perfect stem by adding -v. Most of them are derived from nouns or adjectives, and form their principal parts after the models here given : — dono donare donavi donatum dona- finia finire finivi finitum flni- 2. Consonant-stems which form the present stem by adding -e, and the perfect stem by adding -u ; and lack the forms from the simple stem. Most of them are derived from nouns or adjectives, and form their principal parts after the model here given : — floreo florere florui flor- 3. Verbs which form the present stem by adding -sc, -esc or -isc, and have only the incomplete te^ises, or form the perfect stem, when one is found, by adding -u. Examples are : — gemmasco gemmascSre gemma- roresco roresc6re ror- inggmisco ingemiscgre ingemui in-gSm- 4. Compounds which do not diifer from the simple verb, or differ only in the usual weakening of the stem vowel, or in being defective. Weakening of diphthongs is mentioned, however. The supine form is given, though but few verbs have a supine in use, whenever a future active or perfect passive participle is found to decide what the form of the supine would be. Forms preceded by a hyphen {e.g.., -lictus) are found only in com- pounds.] 118 APPENDIX. Tres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. Sup. or Part. Accerso (another spelling of arcesso). Scuo acuSre acui aegreo aegrere adblesco (see -oleo) agnosco (see nosco) ago agere egi ajo (defective. See [235].) albeo albere algeo algere alsi ^o algre alui alitum also in later writers. ^micio amicire amici amictum amicui, amixi are mentioned as perf. ango angSre Spiscor apisci aptus ( arctus arceo arcere arcui 4 (. artus In compounds, ex-ercitus, co-ercitus. arcesso arcessSre arcessivi aroessitum ardeo ardere arsi arsum arguo argugre argui argutum arguiturus, once. audeo audere ausum For perf. ausus sum is used. See [210] ( Iggo). disco discere didici learn dlc- Compounds keep the reduplication. divido dividgre divisi divisum divide di-vid- do (see 226) dSre dgdi dStum give da- Compounds retain the reduplication (except abscon-di). LIST OF VERBS. 121 Pres. Ind. Tres. Inf. Perf. Ind. Sup. or Part. Stem. d6ceo docere docui doctum teach d6c- dSleo dolere dolui dolitum grieve d61- d6mo domare domui domitnm . tame d6m- duco ducere duxi ductum lead diic- Edo(seeJ 223) edgre §di esum eat 6d- essum and estum, rare. gmo emSre emi empttirio empturire eo (see 227) ire ivi Perfect -ii in compounds. excello (see cello) expergiscor expergisci expergitum, old. exuo exugre exui emptum take, huy Sm- wish to htnj emptiiri- ? itum go i- excel ex-cel- experrectum arouse ex-p6r-reg- exutum strip off exu- Facesso facessgre facessivi facessitum make f^cess-i- facio facgre feci factum make fSc- fallo fallgre fgfelli falsum deceive fall- farcio farcire farsi fartum stuff farc- fateor fateri fassus confess fat- fatisco fatiscgre -fessum gape f5t- Also deponent. • fSveo favgre favi fautum favor fav- -feiido -fendere -fendi -fensum strike fend- fgrio ferire strike fgri-? fgro ferre (tiili) (latum) carry fgr- ttili and latum are ! borrowed from tollo. tgtiili is . 3ld. . f erveo ( fervefe fervo 1 fervgre fervi, ferbui hail ■ ferv- fido fidgre fisum trust fld- fisus sum is used as perfect. See [216], {gy figo figgre fixi fixum fix flg- fiotus, rare. fio(see229) figri (factus) become fi- fiudo findgre fidi fissum cleave fid- 122 APPENDIX. Pres. Ind. Pbes. Inf. Perf. Ind. Sup. or Part. Stem. fingo finggre fmxi fiotum form rig- flaveo flavere be yellow flav-? fleo flere flevi fletum loeep fle- flecto flectere flexi flexum bend flect- -fligo -fligere -flixi -flictum strike flig- fluo fluSre fiuxi fluxum fiow fltigv- fSdio fodgre fodi fossum dig f6d- fodiri old. foeteo foetere be fetid foet-? [for] see [235] f ari fatum speak fa- f6veo fovere fovi fotum cherish f6v- frango frangere fregi fraotum break frSg- frSmo fremere fremui fremitum roar frgm- frendo frendgre fressum gnash frend- Also fresum. frico fricare fricui frictum rub fric- Also fricatum. frigeo frigere frixi be cold frlg- frigo friggre frictum roast frig- frondeo frondere leaf frond-? fruor frui fructuiu enjoy f ru-, frug-? fruitus once, fruiturus once. fttgio fuggre fugi fugitum flee ftig- fulcio fulcire * fulsi fultum prop fulc- ( fulgeo i fulgo ( fulgere ( f ulggre fulsi shine fulg- fundo fundgre fudi fusum pour ftld- fungor fungi functus discharge fung- [fuo] (see sum) fui fiiturus be fu- ftlro Jurgre rage ftlr- Gaudeo gaudere gavisum be glad gSvid- gavisus sum is used as perfect. See [210], (^). ggmo gemgre gemui gemitum groan ggm- ggro gergre gessi gestum carry ggs- gigno gigngre ggnui genitum beget ggn- giguo for giggno. ggno is old. LIST OF VERBS. 123 Pres. Tnd. Pres. Inf. glisco gliscere glocio glocire glubo glubere grSdior gradi In compounds -grediri is found -gruo -gruere -grui . Ind. Sup. or Part. Stem. swell gli- cluck gloci-? gluptum peel glub- gressus step grad- gni- HSbeo habere habui habitum have hSb- haereo haerere haesi haesum stick haes-' haurio haurire hausi haustum drain haus- hgbeo hebere • he blunt hgb-? hisco hiscere yaion hi- humeo humere be moist hum-? -icio (foi jacio in compounds). ico? ic6re ici ictum strike ic- imbuo imbugre imbui imbutum imbue imbu- incesso incessgre incessivi attack incess-i- indulge indulgere indulsi yield indulg- indultum, late. induo indugre indui indutum put on indu- ineptio ineptire trifle Inepti-? infit (no other form) begins 9 inqvam (see [235]) inqvii quoth inqvi-? intellSgo (see lego) understand intel-lgg- irascor irasci iratus be angry ira- JSceo jacere jacui jacitum lie jac- jScio jacgre jeoi j actum throiv jSc jtibeo jubere jussi jussum bid jtib- jungo junggre juuxi June turn yoke jung- jiivo juvare juvi jutum aid jtiv- Also juvaturus. Labor labi .lapsus slip lab- IScesso lacessgre lacessivi lacessitun] L provoke lacess-i- lacteo laotere suck lact-? laedo laedgre laesi laesum hurt laed- Compounds weaken ae to'i. 124 APPENDIX. Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. Sup. or Part Stem. lambo lambere Iambi lick lamb- langveo langvere langvi he faint langv- ClSvo (lavo ( lavere (. lavare lavi 1 lotnm wash ISv- ( lautum Also lavatum. ISgo leggre legi lee turn cJioose 16g- Perf. -lexi in di-lego, intel-lego, neg-lego. -leo (see deleo). libet libere libuit libitum it pleases lib- Also spelled liibet. liceo licere licui licitum he on sale lic- liceor liceri licitus hid for lic- licet licere licuit licitum it is allowed lic- -licio -licere -lexi, -licui -licitum entice lac- lingo lingSre linctum lick ling- lino lingre levi, livi litum smear li- linqvo linqvgre liqvi -lictum leave liqv- liqveo liqvere Ucui he clear liqv- liqvor liqvi melt liqv- liveo livere he livid liv-? ISqvor loqvi locutus speak 16qv- luceo lucere luxi heam luc- ludo ludgre lusi lusum sport lud- lugeo lugere luxi mourn lug- luo lu6re lui -lutum pay lu- MSceo macere he lean mSc-? maereo maerere grieve maer- ? malo malle malui (see 225) prefer ma-v61- mando mandgre mandi mansum chew mand- m^eo manere mansi mansum wait m^- e-minui also in perfect. mSdeor mederi cure mgd- mSmini (see [235]) remember mSn- nigreo nierere merui meritum earn mgr- mergo merggre mersi mersum sink merg- metior metiri mensus measure met-? mSto metSre messui messum mow mgt- LIST OF VERBS. 126 Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Pekf. Ind. Sup. or Part. Stem. mgtuo metugre metui metutus (once) fear metu- mico micare micui glitter mic- -micavi, -micatnm in compounds. -miniscor -minisci -mentus call to niih id m^- mingo minggre minxi mictum mig- Pres. also mejo (f( jr mgg-i-o) '. minuo minuSre minui minutum lessen mlnu- misceo miscere miiscui mixtum, mistum mix misc- misgreor misereri miseritus pity misgr- misertus, rare, also rarely an active form misereo. misgret miserere miseruit miseritum it pities misgr- mitto mittgre misi missum send mitt- m61o molgre molui molitum grind m61- mSiieo monere monui monitum icarn m5n- mordeo mordere m6mordi morsum bite mord- m6rior mori See [216] (A) (moriturus) die m6r- mortuus sum is used as perfect. m,oriri is old. m6veo movere movi m.otum move m6v- muceo mucere be moldy muc-? mulceo mulcere mulsi mulsum soothe mulc- Also per-mulctus. mulgeo mulgere mulsi milk mulg- -mungo -mungere -muiixi -munctum wipe mung- Nanciscor nancisci nactus, nanctus gam nSc- nascor nasci natus be born na-- The full stem gna - appears in some compounds. ngco necare j necavi ( ngcui j" necatum ( -nectum kill ngc- iiecto nectere nexi nexum join nect- neglggo (see lego). neo nere nevi netum spin ne- ngqveo (see qveo) can not ng-qvi- nexo nexgre nexui tie nex- ( ningit . w J . ^ mnggre ( ningvit ninxit it snoios 5 ning- ( ningv- nitor niti nixus, nisus lean nict- 126 APPENDIX. Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. -niveo -nivere uoceo nocere nolo nolle nosco uoscere Perf. Ind. Sup. or Part, -nivi, -nixi nocui nocitum nolui See 225 novi notum Stem. wink nigv- liarm n6c- he miwilling n6-v61- learn no- The full stem gno- appears in some compounds, -gnitum is found in a-gnitum, co-gnitum. nubo nubere nupsi nuptum marry nub- " -nuo -nuere -nui nod -nu- ab-nuiturus once. Obliviscor oblivisci oblitus forget ob-llv- ? occulo ocoulere occului occultum conceal oc-ciil- odi (see 235). j -61eo ( -olere ( -Slesco ( -olescgre 5 -olevi ( -oletum ( -olui ( -olitum groto 61-? die-? Sdolesco has ad-ultus. f 61eo ( olere \ 61o \ ol6re olui smell 61- Sportet oportere oportuit it is proper 6p6rt- ordior ordiri orsus commence ord- 6rior oriri See [216] (h) ortus rise 6r- Also oriturus. [6vo] defective. See [235]. PSciscor pacisci pgpigi pactum bargain pSc-, pSg- paenitet paenitere paenituit it repents paenit- paeniturum is mentioned by g-rammarians. pando pandgre pango panggre parco parcgre pareo parere pSrio parere Also pariturus. partiirio parturire pasco pascgre -pescui in compesco and dispesco. pandi pansum, passum open pand- pegi pactum, TpdiXiCtMiQ. fasten p5g- 5 pgperci ( parsi parsum spare parc- parui paritum appear par- pgpgri partum bring forth pSr- Compoundi s have -perire. be in labor partiiri- pavi pastum feed pSs- LIST OF VERBS. 127 Pbes. Ind. Pbes. Inf. Pbbf. Ind. Sup. or Pabt. Stem. patior pati passus heir pat- pSveo pavere pavi fear pSv- pecto pectgre pexi pexum comb pect- pedo pedere pgpedi ped- pello pellgre pgpflli pulsum drive pgl- pendeo pendere pgpendi pensum hang pend- pendo pendgre pgpendi pensum tceigh pend- pergo perggre perrexi perrectum continue pgr-rgg- -perio -perire -perui -pertum pgr- peritus as an adjective, and . in opperitus pgto petere petivi petitum seek pgt-i- piget pigere piguit pigitum it vexes piS- pingo pinggre pinxi pictum paint piS- ^ pinso ( pinsgre I pisgre 5 pinsui ( pinsi 5 pinsitum 1 pistum pound pis- Ipiso pisi once, pinsibant once. plSceo placere placui placitum please plSc- plango planggre planxi planctum heat plang- plaudo plaudere plausi plausum clap plaud- Most compounds 1 weaken an L to 6. plecto plectgre strike plect- -plector -plecti -plexus twine plect- -pleo -plere -plevi -pletum fill ple- plico plicare ( -plicui, 1 -plicavi ( -plicitum, ( plicatum fold plic- pluo plugre pluit rain plu- pluvit often in Livy. poUeo pollere he strong poll-? poUucec ) poUucere polluctum offer pglluc- poiio pongre p6sui positum place pQ-s- pono is for po-i sino ; see sino. posivi and posi arc ! found, and in poetry postus. posco poscgre pSposci pose- Compounds retain reduplication. possum posse p6tui See 222 can p6t-gs- p6tior potiri See [216] (Ji) potitum he master p6ti- poto potare potavi potum, potatum drink pota- p5tum seems to belong to a simpler stem, po-. 128 APPENDIX. Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. Sup. or Part. Stem. praebeo praebere praebui praebitum furnish praeb- prandeo prandere prandi pransnm dine prand- ( prehendo 1 prendo prehendere prehendi prehensum prendere prendi prensum seize ( prehend- ( prend- prgmo premere pressi pressum press prgm- pr6ficiscor profioisci profectus advance prS-fac- promo promgre prompsi promptum bring out prom- prurio prurire itch pruri- ? psallo psallere psalU play psall- piidet pudere puduit puditum it shames ptid- pungo pungere piipiigi puuctum prick Ptig- Compounds have -punxi. Qvaero qvaerSre qvaesivi qvaesitum seek qvaes-i- qvaeso and qvaesumus are old colloquial forms. Compounds weaken ae to i. qvStio qvatgre qvassum shake qvSt- Perfecl -J -cussi in compounds. See -cutio. qveo (228) qvire qvlvi qvitnm can qvi- qvSror qveri qvestus complain qvgs- qviesco qviescSre qvievi qvietum rest qvie- -qvinisco -qviniscSre -qvexi defile qvic- RSbo rabgre rave rSb- rado radgre rasi rSsum scrape rad- rSpio rapgre rapui raptum seize rSp- ravio (-rausi) (rausunis) he hoarse rSv- refert referre rettlUt it concertii ' re-fgr- rggo reggre rexi rectum rule rgg- rgnideo renidSre glitter rg-nid- reor reri rStus think ra- rgpgrio reperire reppgri repertum discover rg-pSr- repo repgre repsi reptum creep rep- rgsipisco see sSpio rg-sSp- rideo ridere risi risum laugh rid- ringor ringi grin rlg- rodo rodgre rosi rosum gnaw rod- LIST OF VERBS. 129 Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind, , Sup. or Part. Stem. rtido rudSre rudivi 4-- 'hif bray riid-i- rumpo rumpere rupi ruptum h^eak riip- ruo mere rui riitum dash ru- ruiturus, late. Saepio saepire saepsi saeptum hedge saep- salio ( (salire ?) ( sallgre I salitum (. salsnm salt sal- sallo salio salire salui ' sSl- Also salivi, rare. salve, see : [235]. sancio sancire sanxl sanctum halloiv sanc- sancitum, rare. s5pio sapgre sapivi be loise sap. Also perfect re-sipui-. sarcio sarcire sarsi sartum patch sarc- sario sarire sarui, sarivi saritum hoe sSr-, sari-? sarpo sarpgre sarptum trim sarp- satago (= r sat ago, see ago). scabo scabSre scabi scratch scab- scalpo scalpere scalps! scalptum scrape scalp- scando scandere scandi scansum climb scand- sc&teo scatere bubble scat-? scindo scindere soldi scissum cut scid- scicidi is old. scisco sciscgre scivi scitum enact sci- scribo scribgre scripsi scriptum 7iirite scrib- sculpo sciilpgre sculpsi sculptum carve sculp- sgco secare secui sectum cut sec- secaturus, once. sSdeo sedere sedi sessum sit sed- sentio sentire sensi sensum think sent- sepglio sepelire sepelivi sepultum bury sepel- seqvor seqvi secutus follow seqv- sero sergre sevi satum sow sa- sgro serere -serui -sertum put in rows ser- serpo serpgre serpsi serptum c7^atol serp- 130 APPENDIX. Pbes. Ind. Pres. Inf. Pebf. Tnd. Sup. or Part. Stem. sido sidSre sidi settle sid- sedi and sessum (borrowed from sedeo) are also found. solutum sonitum set he wont )• loose sound singulti-? si- Bta- s61- singultio singultire soh slno sinere slvi situm permit sisto sistSre stiti statum Compounds keep the reduplication. s51eo solere solitus solitus sum is used as perfect; see [216] ( alius decl. 71, w. abl. [296] alter decl. 71 alvus gend. [69] ambo decl. [72], quant. [365] amni abl. [99] amplius .constr. [296] amussim ace. [99] angvi abl. [99] animi loc. [273] ante in cmpds. w. dat. [269] ante diem w. ace. [268] antes gend. [103] Aprili abl. [99] Arar decl. [102] Arari abl. [99] Ararim ace. [99] arbos gend. [89], quant. 383 arcus decl. [110], gend. [113] aries quant. 383 artus decl. [110] 140 INDEX OF WORDS. decl. [98] decl. [98] asser gend. [89] audeo semi-dep. [216] ave def. vb. [235] avi abl. [99] axi abl. [99] balneum decl. [115] bene quant. [396] bibi redupl. [164] bibo redupl. [158] bidui constr. [284] bonus comp. [123] bos decl. [112], quant. [368] burim ace. [99] buris gend. [103] caelum decl. [116] calix gend. [82] callis gend. [103] canis decl. [96] caput gend. [82] carbasus gend. [69], decl. [116] career gend. [89] cardo gend. [86] caro decl. [115] caulis gend. [103] cave w. subj. [315] -c6 [19], quant. [395] celer decl. [93], [108] cello [162] celo vv. two ace. [262] Ceres quant. 383 cinis gend. [89] citerior comp. [123] citimus comp. [123] cito quant. [396] cttus quant. [209] civi abl. [99] clam w. abl. [308] classi abl. [99] classis gend. [103] clunis . . . ^ gend. [103] -clutus quant. [209] cohors gend. [105] colli abl. [99] collis gend. [103] colus gend. [69], [113] com assim. [12] complures decl. [92] con in cmpds. w. dat. [269] cor gend. [82], decl. [98] corbi abl. [99] corbis gend. [103] cortex gend. [83] cos decl. [98] eras quant. [395] cratim ace. [99] cravim ace. [99] cucumi abl. [99] cucumim ace, [99] cucumis gend. [89], [103] cujus decl. [139] -cum [19] cupido gend. [84] cur quant. [395] da quant. [361], [385] das quant. [361], [385] datus quant. [209] dea decl. [50] dens gend. [105] deus decl. 68 Diana quant. [17] die 216 die loc. [58], [273] dies gend. 60 difficilis comp. 121 dignor w. abl. [303] dignus w. abl. [300], [303] dissimilis comp. 121 dius quant. [17] do irreg. vb. 226, quant. [385] INDEX or WORDS. 141 doceo w. two ace. [262] domi...-. loc. [273] domo constr. [293] domos constr. [265] domui loc. [110] domum constr. [265] domus gend. [113], decl. [115] dos decl. [98] duam subj. [226] due 216 duim subj. [226] dum w. pros. [309] -dum [19] duo decl. [72], quant. [365] eampse [1^2] eapsc [132] eapse [132] ebur [76] ^^^^^ I decl. 141 ecqvis ) edim subj, [223] edo irreg. vb. 223 effigies decl. [58] ego decl. 12-5, quant. [374] eheu quant. [17] eja quant. [397] eluvies decl. [58] en quant. [395] eo irreg. vb. 227 eopse [132] epulum decl. [115] ergo w. gen. [285] escit [221] escunt [221] eumpse [132] exseqvias ire [265] exterus comp. [123] extimus comp. [123] extremus comp. [123] fac 216 f acies decl. [58] facilis comp. 121 f aex decl. [98] fames decl. [115] f amilia decl. [54] faseis gend. [103] febri abl. [99] f ebrim ace. [99] fel gend. [88] femur [76], decl. [115] f ero irreg. vb. 224 fides decl. [58] fido semi-dep. [216] filia decl. [54] fini abl. [99] finis gend. [103] fio quant. [17], irreg. vb. 229 follis gend. [103] f ons gend. [105] [for] def. vb. [235] f oras constr. [265] f5rem } ^^^^^' '^^^^^' ^"''"*- ^^^^^ forceps gend. [82] forfex gend. [83] fornix gend. [82] frater decl. [80] fraus decl. [98] frenum decl. [116] fruor w. abl. [297] fuam, etc subj. [221] fungor w. abl. [297] fusti abl. [99] fustis gend. [103] futurus [221], quant. [209] gaudeo semi-dep. [216] gigno redupl. [158] glacies decl. [58] glis decl. [98] gracilis comp. 121 grex gend. [82] 142 INDEX OF WORDS. grfis decl. [112], quant. [361] Hadria gend. [33] haud scio an w. indie. [323] hebes decl. [93], [108] hie decl. 134 hie quant. [395] liiems decl. [78], gend. [81] hue quant. [395] huniilis comp. 121 humi loc. [273] humo constr. [293] humus gend. [69] ibi quant. [378] id genus [267] id temporis [267] idem decl. 136, vv. dat. [271] idus gend. [113] igni abl. [99] ilico quant. [396] ille decl.131 illie decl. [135] imber decl. [102], gend. [103] imbrex gend. [83] imbri abl. [99] imus comp. [123] in assim. [12] in in cmpds. w. dat. [269] -inde [19] indignus w. abl. [300], [303] inferne quant. [396] inferus comp. [123] infimus comp. [123] infitias ire [263] inqvam def . vb. [235] instar w. gen. [285] inter in cmpds. w. dat. [269] interest w. gen. [291] interior comp. [123] intimus comp. [123] ipse ...decl. 132 ipsus [132] is decl. 129 iste decl. 130 istie decl. [135] istue aetatis [267] istus [130] ita quant. [397] iter decl. [115] itus quant. [209] jecur [70], decl. [115] jocus decl. [116] jugerum decl. [116] junior comp. [123] Jupiter decl. [112] juvenis . . . .decl. [96], comp. [123] lac gend. [105] lacti abl. [101] lacus decl. [110] lapis gend. [82] lar quant. 384 larix gend. [82] later gend. [89] lentim ace. [99] Liger decl. [102] Ligeri abl. [99] Ligerim ace. [99] linter decl. [102], gend. [103] lis decl. [98] litus quant. [209] locus decl. [116] longius constr. [296] lues decl. [112] lux decl. [98] macte [261] magis comp. with, 123 magnus comp. [123] major comp. [123] male quant. [396] malo .irreg. vb. 225 INDEX OF WORDS. 143 malus comp. [123] manus gend. [113] margo gend. [84] mas decl. [98], quant. 384 mater decl. [80] maturus comp. [121] maxime comp. with 123 maximus comp. [123] maximus natu [123] mel gend. [88] melior comp. [123] memini def . vb. [235] mentis [274] meridies gend, 60 messim ace. [99] messis gend. [103] -met [19] mens decl. 126 mUIe decl. [118] minimus comp. [123] minimus natu [123] minor comp. [123] minoris [274] minus. . .comp. [123], constr. [296] miseret w. gen. 281 modo quant. [396] mons gend. [105] morior inflect. [216] multus comp. [123] mus decl. [98] navi abl. [99] navim ace. [99] -n6 [19], [314], quant. [395] neqveo irreg. vb. 228 nescio an w. indie. [323] neuter decl. 71 ningvis decl. [98] nix .-.decl. [98] nolo irreg. vb. 225 non quant. [395] nosco an o-stem, [155] nullus decl. 71 num [314] ob assim. [12] ob in cmpds. w. dat. [269] obex gend. [83] odi def. vb. 235 ohe quant. [17], [396] olle [130] operae est [272] optimus comp. [123] opus w. abl. [297] orbi abl. [99] orbis gend. [103] ordo gend. [84] 'orior inflect. [216] OS •. gend. [89] [ovo] def. vb. [235] paenitet w. gen. 281 par quant. 384 par decl. [93], [102], [108] paries gend. [82], quant. 383 parti abl. [99] partini ace. [99] partus decl. [110] parvus, comp. [123] pater decl. [80] pax decl. [98] pecten gend. [87] pejor comp. [123] pelagus decl. [115] pello [162] pelvi abl. [99] pelvim ace. [99] pends quant. [397] penus gend. [112] pes . . .gend. [82], quant [361], 383 pessimus comp. [123] pessum dare [265] pessum ire [265] piget w. gen. 281 144 INDEX OF WORDS. plebes decl. [58] plebes decl. [98] plebs decl. [98] plurimus comp. [123] pluris [274] plus . .decl. [92], comp. [123], constr. [296] pons gend. [105] porticus gend. [113] portus decl. [IIOJ possiem, etc subj. [222] possum irreg. vb. 222 post in cmpds. w. dat. [269] posterns comp. [123] posti abl. [99] postis gend. [103] postremus • comp. [123] postridie. w. ace. [268], w. gen. [285] postumus comp. [123] potessem, etc [222] potior w. gen. [290] potior . .inflect. [216], w. abl. [298] prae in cmpds. w. dat. [269] praecox decl. [93], [108] praesens [221] praesepim ace. [99] pridie. . .w. ace. [268], w. gen. [285] primus comp. [123] prior comp. [123] pro in cmpds. w. dat. [269] procul w. abl. [308] pVofecto quant; [396] propior. .comp. [123], w. ace. [268] propius w. ace. [268] prosum irreg. vb. [222] proxime w. ace. [268] proximus. .comp. [123], w. ace. [268] -pt6 [19], quant. [395] pubes quant. 383 pudet w. gen. 281 pulvis . . ; gend. [89] puppi abl. [99] puppim ace. [99] puta quant. [397] qvaesumus [179] -qvando [19] qvanto . . . tanto [299] -qve [19], quant. [395] qveo irreg. vb. 228 qvi decl. 138, quant. [374] qvia quant. [397] qvid facias, etc w. abl. [297] qvid fies, etc w. abl. [297] qvin quant. [395] qvinam [1^9] qvinqvatrus gend. [113] Qvintili abl. [99] qvis decl. 139 qvisuam [139] qvitus quant. [209] qvo . . . eo [299] rastrum decl. [116] ratus quant. [209] ravi abl. [99] ravim ace. [99] rg- quant. [395] refert w. gen. 291 res decl. [58] restim ace. [99] Rhea quant. [17] robur [76] rumex gend. [83] rumi abl. [99] rure constr. [293] ruri loe. [273] rus constr. [265] rfttus quant. [209] sal .V . . . gend. [88], quant. 384 sallo [162] salve def. vb. [235] sam pron. [128] indp:x of words. 145 sangvis gend. [87], clecl. [115] sas pron. [128] satur decl. [71] satus quant. [209] scrobis decl. [98], gend. [103] scrobs decl. [98] securi abl. [99] securim ace. [99] scdes decl. [96] sementim ace. [99] senex decl. [115], comp. [123] sentis gend. [103] series decl. [58] sero redupl. [158] Sextili abl. [99] sic quant. [395] siem, etc subj. [221] silex gend. [83] similis comp. 121 simul w. abl. [308] sin quant. [395] sisto redupl. [158] siti abl. [99] sitim ace. [90] situs quant. [209] sodali abl. [99] soleo semi-dep. [21(3] solus decl. 71 sort! abl. [99] species decl. [58] specus decl. [110], gend. [112] spes decl. [58] status quant. [209] stiti redupl. [164] strigili abl. [99] sub assim. [12] sub in cmpds. w. dat. [269] sui decl. 125 sum irreg. vb. 221 sum pron. [128] summus comp. [123] sumus [179] sus decl. [112], quant. [361] supellex decl. [115] super in cmpds. w. dat. [269] superne-. quant. [396] superus comp. [123] supremus comp. [123] taedet w. gen. 281 tellus gend. [89] tenus .• w. gen. [285] teres decl. [93], [108] Tiberi abl. [99] Tiberim ace. [99] tollo [162] torqvis gend. [103] torris gend. [103] totus decl. 71 trabes decl. [98] trabs decl. [98] tres decl. [118] tribus decl. [110], gend. [113] tridui constr. [284] tu decl. 125 turbo gend. [86] turri abl. [99] turrim ace. [99] tussi.... abl. [99] tussini ace. [99] tussis gend. [103] • ubi quant. [378] ullus . , decl. 71 ulterior comp. [123] ultimus comp. [123] ungvi abl. [99] ungvis gend. [103] unus decl. 71 usus w. abl. [297] uter (pron.) decl. 71 uter decl. [102], gend. [103] utor w. abl. [298] 140 IN])EX OF WORDS. vannus gend. [69] varix gend, [82] vas decl. [115] vates decl. [96] -ve [19], quant. [395] vectis gend. [103] venuni dare [265] venuni ire [265] venter decl. [102], gend. [103] veru decl. [110] vescor vv. abl. [298] vesper -gend. [89], decl. [115] veterrimns comp. [123] vetus comp. [123] vi abl. [99] vim ace. [99] vir decl. [66] virile secus [267] virus decl. [115] vis decl. [115], quant. [361] volo irreg. vb. 225 volumus [179] vomer gend. [89] vulgus decl. [115] Latin Exercises IKTRODUCTOBT TO CESAR'S GALLIC WAE, TO ACCOMPANY THB 8TUDT OF BLACKBURN'S "ESSENTIALS OF LATIN GRAMMAR/ BOSTON : GINN, HEATH, AND COMPANY. 1883. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1883, By F. a. BLACKBURN, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. J. S. Gushing & Co., Pbiktbrs, Boston. PREFACE. rpHESE exercises have been prepared as a necessary supplement to my " Essentials of Latin Grammar " to furnish the needed illustration and drill for the beginner. They do not essentially differ from other collections of the same plan and aim, but in compiling them I have kept in view the following objects : — 1. To provide the means for studying the Grammar systematically from the beginning. Most exercise-books for beginners in Latin are so arranged as to use the Grammar as a reference-book only, giving the pupil detached principles to hold in memory until he begins the study of his first Latin author. In this, on the con- trary, the Grammar is taken in its own order, and the few verb-forms and principles of syntax necessary to make sentences are put in the vocabularies and notes ; nothing is anticipated, and the use of the Grammar as a book of reference is limited to portions already mas- tered, until the pupil reaches the exercises on syntax. 2. To make the earlier lessons very simple, so as to require as little labor as possible in translation and leave a broad margin of time for the thorough mastery of forms. If my experience is of any value, poor scholar- 4 PREFACE. ship in Latin is far more often the result of lack of training in the inflections than in the syntax. The latter is comparatively easy when the forms are perfectly familiar and the general force of flectional syllables understood and felt. The earlier sentences, therefore, are very easy ; exercise in translation will come later. 3. To make the pupil familiar, so far as it can be done in a book of this kind, with the vocabulary and style of Caesar's Commentaries, and thus render easier the hardest step in the study of Latin, — the transition from the exer- cise-book to a Latin author. To this end all the words are taken from the first book of the Gallic War, and the sentences are from the same source with the necessary changes, omissions, and variations. The Gallic War has been chosen because it is usually the first Latin author put into the pupil's hands, and these exercises are meant to be, as they are entitled, " introductory " to it. In the matter of orthography I have followed, though with reluctance, the usual custom of distinguishing y from i and u from v (except after q^ g, and s), believing that the slight inconsistency of usage between the Grammar and Exercise-book would be less trouble to a beginner than the difficulty of unlearning a system after once becoming familiar with it. Marks of quantity have been added in the vocabularies and indices, but in the exercises they have been used only as an aid to pronun- ciation and accent, and this aid is gradually withdrawn. PREFACE. 5 No consistent plan of noting quantity has been followed ; the marks have been added to those syllables which as experience shows, are most often mispronounced. In a few instances also the quantity mark has been used to give the pupil a hint of the case used ; e.g.^ the ablative singular of a-stems or accusative plural of 2-stems. References to the Grammar are added in both vocabu- laries and indices to all words in the form or syntax of which there is anything irregular or peculiar. The notes are intended to cover all cases where the pupil, if left without help, would be likely to go astray, and the hints and directions for the use of the book are meant for such teachers as from lack of experience in teaching elementary Latin may feel the need of them. Corrections and suggestions will be welcome. F. A. BLACKBURN. San Francisco, Gal., July 27, 1883. ABBREVIATIONS. abl ablative. ace accusative. act active. adv adverb. (c.) common [gender] conj conjunction. (f.) feminine. ind indicative. inf injinitive. (m.) masculine. (n.) neuter. pi plural. prep preposition. pres present. sing singular. w WlYA. Gr., Blackburn's "Essentials of Latin Grammar." A small figure added to a word refers to the notes which follow the exercises. 00]:^TE1^TS. EXERCISES ON FORMS. I. Preliminary .9 11. The a-declension ; present indicative of sum; subject nominative; agreement of tlie finite verb; agree- ment of the predicate-noun 9 III. The e-declension; imperfect indicative of sum . . 10 IV. The o-declension ; questions . . • . • 11 V. Adjectives of the a- and o-declensions ; agreement of the adjective; present indicative active and present in- finitive active of the a-stem verb ; direct object . 12 VI. Irregular a- and o-stem adjectives ; indirect object . 13 VII. Eeview of Group A. ; present indicative passive of the a-stem verb ; vocative ...... 14 VIII. The consonant-declension ; agreement of the appositive 15 IX. Adjectives of the consonant-declension; future indicative active of sum 16 X. The 1-declension ; extent of time and space . . .17 XI. Adjectives of the 1-declension ..... 18 XII. The u-declensioh 19 XIII. Keview of the declensions ; irregular nouns ... 21 XIV. Numeral adjectives 22 XV. Comparison of adjectives 23 XVI. Irregular comparison . 24 XVII. Personal and possessive pronouns ..... 25 XVIII. Demonstrative pronouns ; is, ille, istc, ipse . . .26 XIX. Demonstrative pronouns ; hie, idem .... 27 XX. Relative, interrogative and indefinite pronoun . . .28 XXI. Inflection of the verb 28 XXII. Incomplete tenses of a-stem verbs ; moods in indepen- dent sentences .29 XXIII. Incomplete tenses of e-stem verbs ..... 30 XXIV. Incomplete tenses of consonant-stem and u-stem verbs . 31 CONTENTS. XXV. Incomplete tenses of short i-stem verbs XXVI, Incomplete tenses of long i-stem verbs XXVII. Complete tenses, active voice XXVIII. Verb-forms from the simple stem XXIX. The periphrastic conjugations XXX. Review of verbs ; irregular verbs ; sum and pounds - XXXI. Irregular verbs ; edo, fero .... XXXII. Irregular verbs ; volo, nolo, malo . XXXIII. Irregular verbs ; do, eo, fio . XXXIV. Impersonal and defective verbs its com- 32 33 84 35 37 38 39 40 41 42 EXERCISES ON SYNTAX. XXXV. Nominative, vocative and accusative cases . . .43 XXXVI. Dative case . . 44 XXXVII. Locative case 45 XXXVIII. Genitive case ; source and cause .... 46 XXXIX. Genitive case ; possessive and special uses . . .47 XL. Ablative case proper 48 XLI. Instrumental ablative . 49 XLII. Locative ablative 50 XLIII. Comitative ablative 51 XLIV. Ablative absolute ; ablative with prepositions . . 52 XLV. Use of the tenses 53 XL VI. Subjunctive in dependent clauses .... 54 XLVII. Subjunctive in dependent clauses (continued) . . 55 XLVIII. Infinitive 56 XLIX. Participles 57 L. Gerund and gerundive 58 LI. Supine 59 LII. Forms of conditional sentences 60 LIII. Indirect discourse 61 LIV. Indirect discourse (continued) 62 LV. Indirect discourse (continued) 63 LVI. Relations of place 64 LVII. Relations of place (continued) 65 LVIII. Relations of time 66 LIX. Relations of time (continued) 67 LX. Caesar, B. G. I., cap. I.-IV, For miscellaneous review 68 LATIN EXERCISES. EXERCISES. >>Kc EXERCISES ON FORMS, Preliminary. Learn thoroughly Gr. 1-51, and practise to secure a good pronunciation and the habit of placing the accent rightly. II. The a-declension ; Gr. 52-56. Present indicative of the verb sum (to he). Subject nominative. Agreement of the finite verb. Agreement of the predicate noun. VOCABULARY. GalliS, -ae, Gaul (now France). e or ex (prep. w. abl.),i out of, from. linguS.,-ae, tongue, speech, language. Sd (prep. w. ace.), to, towards, for. Belgae, -arum (pi.), Belgians.. 6t (conj.), and, also. caus^, -ae, cause, reason. non (adv.),^ not. GarumnS, -ae, Garonne (river). stim, *(/) am. Aquitania, -ae, Aquitania (now es, {thou) art. S. W. France). est, {he, she, it) is. In (prep, with abl.), in, on, among. siiiniis, {loe) are. In (prep, with ace), into, to, to- estis, {you) are. wards, for. sunt, {they) are. * The personal pronoun-subject is expressed in Latin only when emphatic; in ordinary speech the verb-form shows the person and number of the subject. 10 EXERCISES ON FORMS. EXERCISES. 1. in Gallia sum. 2. lingua^ Belgarum. 3. in Garumuam. 4. ad Garumuam. 5. causa es.^ 6. exAquitania. 7. sumua in Gallia. 8. ad Belgas. 9. Belgae causa sunt. 10. lingua Galliae lingua Belgarum non est. 11. in Belgis. 12. in Gallia et in Aquitania. 13. ex Aquitania in Galliam. 1. We are the cause. 2. To the Belgians. 3. Out of Gaul. 4. In the language of the Belgians. 5. The Garonne is in Gaul and Aquitania. 6. The Garonne is not in [the land of]^ the Belgians. 7. He is not the cause. 8. There is no cause.^ 9. Out of Gaul into [the land of] the Belgians. 10. Toward the Garonne. III. The e-declension ; Gr. 57-60. Imperfect indicative of the verb sum (to he). VOCABULARY, res, r6i, thing, matter, circumstance. provInciJi, -ae, province. dies, diei (c.),* day. naturft, -ac, nature, character. fides, -^1, faith, belief , promise. Srftiii, (7) was. spes, -6i, hope. 6ras, {thou) wast. cXim{^veT^.yf.ai\A.),with, along with. grSt, {he, she, it) was. glorift, -ae, glory. Srainiis, {we) were. copiS, -ae, plenty, supply. eratis, {you) were. copiae (pi. ),/orces, troops. Srant, {they) were. EXERCISES. 1. cum fide. 2. erat spes gloriae. 3. fidei causa.^ 4. cum provinciae copils. 5. in provincia non est Garumna. 6. causarum erat copia. 7. rerum natura. 8. cum Belgis ♦Gender is denoted by (m.), (f.), (n.) or (c), but only when the noun is an exception to the rules given in the Grammar. EXERCISES ON FORMS. 11 eratis. 9. in copiTs proviiiciae Belgae erant. 10. Belgae non sumiis. 11. gloria diei. 12. copiae Belgarum in provincia sunt. 13. rerum causa. 1. The glory of the days. 2. You^ are the glory of the province. 3. The troops of the province are among the Belgians. 4. There are troops in Gaul. 5. By the na- ture of glory. 6. With faith and hope.^ 7. He was in Aquitania with the Belgians. 8. For the sake of the prov- ince. 9. You were in Gaul for the sake of glory. 10. Out of the province into Gaul. IV. The o-declension ; Gr. 61-69. Questions. VOCABULARY. Snimiis, -i, spirit, courage, mind. regnum, -i, kingdom, kingly power. belliim, -i, war. ftg6r, agri, land, farm-land, field. Rlienus, -i, Rhine (river). frumenttiin, -i, corn, grain (often proelilim, -i, battle. pL). Galli, -oriiin (pi.), Gauls (a filiQs, -i, son. people). populfis, -i, a people, a nation. Germani, -oriini (pi.), Germans. f ilia, -ae, daughter; (Gr. [54]). luitiuni, -i, beginning. impgrium, -i, power, sway. aorfib (prep. w. abl.),iaz^;a^ /row?, trans (prep. w. ace), across, be- from. yond. EXERCISES. 1. belli causa Galli erant. 2. ab initio belli. 3. in agro frumentum est. 4. in agris Gallorum frumenti est copia. 5. ab Rheno ad Garumnam. 6. cum filiis et filiabus. 7. nonne in Gallia initio belli eras? 8. non eram. 9. cum fide et animo. 10. trans Rhenura in Germanis eramus. 11. estne copia frumenti? 12 EXERCISES ON FORMS. 1. Was there plenty of corn? 2. There was. 3. In the beginning^ of the war the Germans were in Gaul. 4. B3' the sway of Gaul. 5. By the nature of the land. 6. The glory of the war. 7. The sph-it of the Belgians. 8. The peoples of Gaul. 9. From the Garonne to the Rhine. 10. Are 3'ou Gauls? 11. We are not. 12. Was the nature of the land the cause of the battle? [No.] y. Adjectives of the a- and o-declensions ; Gr. 70. Agreement of the adjective. Present indicative active and present infinitive active of the a-stem verb. Direct object. VOCABULARY, alttis, -a, -uni, high, deep. pugnO, {I) fight. amicus, -S, -uin,iyrienrf/y. pugnas, [thou) fightest. angustiis, -S, -um, narrow. pugnSt, [he, she, it) fights. ctipldus, -S, -liin, desirous. pugnainiis, (we) fight. latus, -ft, -iim, broad. pugnatis, (ijou) fight. meiis, -S, -Tun (Gr. 120), my, mine. pugnant, {thei/) fight. pugnarg, to fight. occiipo, {/) seize. occtiparg, to occupy, seize. occiipas, [thou) seizest. intiportarg, to import. etc. etc. RhodSnus, -i, Rhone (river). import o, (/) import. tufis, -a, -tim, thy, thine, your. etc. etc. EXERCISES. 1. trans Rhenum pugnat. 2. pugnare in Gallis. 3. regni cupidus est. 4. populi^ amici sunt. 5. trans Rhenum popiili amici non sunt. 6. Galli amici^ Germanis non sunt. 7. Gallorum amici Germani non sunt. 8. angustine sunt Rhodanus et Rhenus? 9. Rhodanus angustus est; Rhenus, latus. 10. agrum amicorum non occiipo. 11. importamus frumentum in Galliam. EXERCISES ON FORMS. 13 1. You are importing things into the province. 2. Were the nations desirous of war? 3. Is the Rhine deep? 4. The Rhine is deep and broad. 5. My son was friendly to your daughter. 6. Were you friendly to m}- daughter? 7. To fight with the Gauls across the Rhone. 8. My friends were desirous of war. 9. We are seizing the lands of the Belgians. 10. Are you seizing the lands of my friends? 11. My friends are importing corn into Gaul. 12, We are desirous of glory. VI. Irregular a- and o-stem adjectives ; Gr. 71, 72. Indirect object. VOCABULARY, ftliiis, -a, -iid,i another. do,^ (/) give. alter, -a, -ttm,i the other (of two). dare, to give. totiis, -a, -ttm, whole, all. nuuti o, (/) announce, tell. nniis, -fi, -um, one. nuntiare, to announce, to tell. inoltiis, -a, -tim, much, pi, many. rip^, -ae, hank (of a river). magniis, -S, -tlm, great, large. viS, -ae, way, road, path. EXERCISES. 1. totam provinciam occupat. 2. aliae viae sunt. 3. to- tlus belli causa eras. 4. Gallis fidem dat. 5. aliud regnum occupare. 6. multae viae in Gallia sunt. 7. Gallis causam nuntiat. 8. altera via angusta est. 9. ad ripam Rhodani. 10. Gallis nuntiamus belli magni initium. 11. alii pugnant, alii provinciam occupant. 12. erantne viae in provincia? 1. The Rhine is broad and large. 2. We give the prov- ince to the Belgians. 3. Are the Germans seizing the province? [No.] 4. Are yq^ not fighting in Gaul? 5. The troops are on the road. 6. Some are desirous of glory; others, of war. 7. The people give my son^ the king- 14 EXERCISES ON FORMS. dom. 8. In the whole province we are desirous of a battle. 9. There is one road in the province. 10. We give all Gaul to the Germans. 11. There is great hope of glor}'. 12. Courage gives the sway of Gaul to the Germans. 13.. Was there a great war in Aquitania? Review of Group A. Present indicative passive of a-stem verbs. Vocative. VOCABULARY. silvS, -ae, forest. 6b (prep. w. ace), on account of, posterus, -S, -Hm, following, next. because of for. Celtae, -arum (pi.), Celts. Victoria, -ae, victory. appello, -are,i call. viuQin, -i, wine. maturtis, -fi, -um, ripe. appellor, (7) am called. deiis, -i (Gr. G8), god. appellarls, (thou) art called. gratis, -a,Q, popularity , favor . appellatur, {he, she, it) is called. a or Sb (prep. w. abl.), by (to ex- appellanifir, {we) are -called. press the doer). appellamini, {you) are called. noster, -trft, -trtim, our, ours. appellantiir, {they) are called. EXERCISES. 1. lingua nostra Galli appellantur.- 2. alter Rhenus appel- latur ; alter, Rhodanus. 3. amici appellamini. 4. filiusne tuus imperii cupidus est? 5. nostrae filiae cupidae sunt gratiae. 6. Galli a Belgis Celtae appellantur. 7. Celtas Gallos appellamus. 8. frumenta in agris non erantmatura. 9. postero die^ proelium erat in silva Belgarura. 10. im- perium a dis datur. 11. multae res in Belgas non im- portantur. 12. proelium Gallis a filio tuo nuutiatur. 1. Your son is telling [the news of] the battle to the Gauls. 2. The one* people is called Belgians; the other, Gauls. 3. You call the Belgians Gauls. 4. The nations EXERCISES ON FORMS. 15 of Gaul are called Celts in the language^ of the Belgians. 5. Land is given to the Germans b}^ the Celts. G. You are desirous of war, Belgians.^ 7. They are fighting for^ many reasons, my son. 8. The gods are giving victory to our friends. 9. On the following day^ there was a battle in the forest. 10. Wine is not imported into [the country of] the Belgians. 11. We do not import our wine. 12. The grain ^ is not ripe. Till. The consonant-declension ; Gr. 73-90. Agreement of the appositive. VOCABULARY. adsiim,^ (Z) am present, am by. honor, -oris, honor. ddSs, {thou) art present, art by. ciipidltas, -atls, desire, greediness. etc. etc. constll, -fills, consul. absfim,! (7) am absent, am away. temptis, -oris, time. ftbes, (thou) art absent, art away. CaesSr, -Srls, Ccesar. etc. etc. mercator, -oris, trader, merchant. lex, legls, law. humanitas, -atls, culture, rejine- flamSn, -Inls, river. ment. virtus, -litis, manhood, courage, civitas, -atls, state, merit. sol, soils, sun. EXERCISES. 1. tempore belli non aderam. 2. nonne consul abest? 3. regni cupiditas causa erat belli. 4. Caesar ob cupi- ditatem gloriae pugnat. 5. mercatores in Germanos multas res important. 6. cum fide et virtute. 7. Csesar consul leges civitati dat. 8. leges naturae a dels dantur. 9. leges totius Galliae multae erant. 10. tempore proelii trans flumen in Germanis eram. 11. honoris causa consules pugnant. 16 EXERCISES ON FORMS. 1. With Caesar and the consuls. 2. With hope and courage. 3. Caesar fights on one^ bank of the river; the Germans on the other. 4. Corn is imported across the river by the traders. 5. Is Caesar, the consul, seiz- ing the land of the Belgians? 6. In the state of the Belgians are many rivers. 7. The courage of the tradera is not great. 8. The}' were away from the province at the beginning of the war. 9. They are called great on account of courage and glory. 10. The courage of the Belgians is great. 11. We were absent from Gaul in the time^ of the war. 12. The gods give victory to the consul on account of [his] courage. IX. Adjectives of the consonant-declension ; Gr. 91-93. Future indicative active of the verb sum (to 6e). VOCABULARY. v6tfis, -6rls, old, ancient. ero, (/) shall be. ulterior, -ifis, /ar^/ier. ^r is, (thou) wilt be. cltSrior, -itts, nearer. grit, {he, she, it) icill be. minor, -fis, less, smaller. Srlmiis, {we) shall be. major, -us, larger, greater. 6rltls, {yon) will be. quftm (conj.), than. erunt, {thet/) will be. EXERCISES. 1. in Gallia ulteriore pugnant Belgae. 2. in silva cum Celtis erimus. 3. Caesaris coj^iae in via erant. 4. hel- ium erit in Gallia. 5. non erat causa belli in provincia. 6. nonne amici Caesaris eritis? 7. Belgae minus frumenti quam Galli important. 8. num Caesar consul erit? 9. pro- vinciara occupant et belli cupidi sunt. 10. Gallia citerior Caesaris provincia erat. 11. veteris belli proelia multa et magna ^ erant. EXERCISES ON FORMS. 17 1. The Rhine is larger than the Rhone. 2. Across the Rhine are larger forests than in Gaul. 3. The forests will be smaller. 4. The Germans' courage is greater than the Gauls'. 5. Will there not be a battle in the forest? 6. My friends will be present. 7. The whole people was present. 8. Farther Gaul is larger than Hither^ Gaul. 9. The war will be greater than the old [war].'' 10. My desire of war is less [than it was]. 11. A great battle is announced. 12. The gods give victory and glory in war. 13. On the banks of the Rhine were many large ^ forests. 14. Some are friendly, others are desirous of war. The i-declension ; Gr. 94-105. Extent of time and space. VOCABULARY. pars, -rtls, part crSmo, -are, I hum. finis, -ms (c), end; pi. hounds, post (prep, with ace), q/?er. lands. multitudo, -Inls, multitude. mons, -ntis {si.), mountain. pStgr, -tris, father. mors, -rtis, death. annQs, -i, year. urbs, -bis, city. pax, pacis, peace. mensis, -is, month. enuntio, -are, / announce. ignis, -is, Jire. Smo, -are, / love, de {i^re-p.w. abl.), down from, from. Germania, -ae, Germany. EXERCISES. 1. rem enuntiat. 2. res enuntiatur. 3. filio meo r6s enuntiantur. 4. fines Bfelgarum magni erant. 5. pars magna igni crematur. 6. Caesar urbem cremat. 7. con- sulis causa pacem amo. 8. filius consulis amicus Caesari erat. 9. multos annos in finibus Belgarum eram. 10. de monte in fiumen. 11. a filio meo pax enuntiatur. 12. nam L 18 EXERCISES OX FORMS. montes Galliae majores sunt quam nostri? 13. pater tuus urbis Galliae igni cremat. 14. post annos multos pax enuntiatur. 15. mors consulis enuntiatur. 1. The death of Caesar is announced. 2. A multitude of traders. 3. The cities of Gaul are large. 4. He is burning a part of the cities with fire. 5. I am friendl}^ to the consul's son for Caesar's sake. 6. The greediness of the traders was the cause of the war. 7. I was in the land^ of the Belgians many months. 8. There was a fire in the mountains [for] many days. 9. In the mountains there are many rivers. 10. Some of the traders were among the Belgians, others were across the river. 11. The honors of Caesar are many. 12. I was among the mountains one month. 13. We announce peace. XI. Adjectives of the i-declension ; Gr. 106-108. VOCABULARY. omnls, -S, all; every. Impero, -ar6, I order, I levy tres, tria (pi.), three. (troops). 6i*iens, -ntls, rising. ISgio, ronls, legion. oriens sol, east. altitude, -Inls, height or depth fScIlIs, -6, easy. p6r (prep. w. ace), through. ilpttd (prep. w. ace), among, with. milSs, -Itis, soldier. EXERCISES. 1. tres viae sunt per Galliam. 2. via facilis est per Belgas.. 3. altitudo fluminis minor est. 4. tres partes sunt omnis Galliae. 5. tota via angusta erit. 6.* In Gallia legio erat una. 7. tres legiones provinciae^ im- perat. 8. Caesaris gratia apud milites magna erat. 9. militibus fidem damus. 10. postero die tres legiones EXERCISES ON FORMS. 19 aberant. 11. altitudo montium magna erat. 12. omnes viae angustae sunt et fluminum altitudo magna. 13. honor consiilis major erat quam virtus. 14. virtute et animo honor et victoria militibus dantur. 1. We shall be desirous of peace. 2. The old forest is burning.^ 3. I was in the city three days. 4. All the roads are narrow. 5. At the beginning of the war there were three legions in Gaul. 6. The popularity of Caesar was less among the Gauls than among the Germans. 7. The courage of the soldiers gives peace to the province. 8. One part of the road was narrow ; the other part was easy. 9. The hope of glory gives courage to the soldiers. 10. I levy three legions on the province (lit. order to the prov- ince). 11. I was in the province three months. 12. There is an easy road through Gaul. 13. All the legions were present. XII. The u-declension ; Gr. 109-113, VOCABULARY. Ciilttis, -us, civilization ; refinement. Dumnorix, -Igis, Dumnorix. Ificiis, -us (Gr. [110]), lake. Divitiaciis, -i, Divitiacus. m&iiiis, -us (p.), hand. Orgetorix, -igiis, Orgetorix. occasfis, -us, fall, setting (of the Piso, -onis, Piso. sun). Messala, -ae, Messala. occasus soils, sunset, west. matrimonium, -i, marriage. seuatiis, -us, senate. liSbito, -are, / dwell. principatus, -us, leadership. EXERCISES. 1.- Dumnorix et Divitiacus cum Caesare pugnant. 2. a senatu amicus appellor. 3. tres menses in Gallia eram ; annum unum in urbe. 4. post mortem Caesaris in Ger- mania tres annos eramus. 5. Mem inter se^ dant. 20 EXERCISES ON FORMS. 6. Dumnorix igni ^ crematur. 7. in iirbe Belgarum habita- mus. 8. habitasne trans Rhodanum? 9. principatus cupidus erat Messala. 10. cultus provinciae major quam Gallorum est. 11. Piso et Messala tres mensis aberaut in Gallia. 12. num in Gallia citeriore multos niensis eritis? 13. pacem amat multitudo. 14. populi causa pugnamus. 1. The Belgians are distant from the culture and refine- ment of the province. 2. The Belgians dwell in one part of Gaul ; the Gauls, in another. 3. Divitiacus is called friend by the senate. 4. After the death of Dumnorix, Piso was in the city [for] many months. 5. From the lake to the mountain. 6. Piso and Messala were consuls. 7. The depth of the river is less than [that] of the lake. 8. He gives his daughter in marriage^ to Dumnorix. 9. The consul, Messala, was on the mountain af* sunset. 10. The lands of the Gauls are broad, ours are narrow. 11. He tells [the news of] the battle to the senate. 12. The leadership of Gaul is given to Caesar by the people. EXERCISES ON FORMS. 21 XIII. Review of the declensions. Irregular nouns ; Gr. 114-117. VOCABULARY. lociis, -i (Gr. [116]), joZace. Iter, -itmeris (Gr. [116]), journei/, circtim (prep, w, ace), around. inarch, route. domiis, -us (r.), (Gr. [115]), house, Helvetii, -ortim, Helvetians. home. ■ voluntas, -atls, wish, consent. sanguis, -mis (m.), (Gr. [115]), livdmo, -SiV^, I am wintering. blood. EXERCISES. 1. iter Helvetidrum Caesari nuntiatiir. 2. tres legiones •circum urbem hiemant. 3. domus angusta erat. 4. locus magnus est. 5. iter non facile erit. 6. itinera facilia sunt. 7. voluntate Caesaris in Belgis habito. 8. regni cupiditate^ provinciam occupatis. 9. apud milites hiemo. 10. iter vetus facile erat. 11. altero in loco proelium erat magnum. 12. agri militibus a populis Galliae dantur. 13. initio belli spes erat victoriae magna. 14. trans flumen via angusta est. 15. pater mens in urbe non habitat. 1. We are wintering among the Belgians. 2. The places are large and broad. 3. The Helvetians are on the march. 4. I dwell in Caesar's house. 5. Around the places was much blood.^ 6. The Rhine and the Garonne are large xivers. 7. We were in the place three years. 8. The houses are small. 9. We were at home.^ 10. There is a road through the mountains. 11. Orgetorix was desirous of kingty power.. 12. The soldier was at home on the next da3\ 13. The legions winter among the Helvetians. 14. There was an easy route through Gaul. 15. Dumnorix and Divitiacus dwell among* the mountains. 22 EXERCISES ON FORMS. XIV. Numeral adjectives ; Gr. 118. VOCABULARY. passiis, -us, step, pace. confirm are, tojix, appoint, set. mille passuiini, mile ( 1000 paces ) . confirm o, I appoint. pes, pedis {M.),foot. etc. etc. profectio, -onis, departure, start. homo, -inis, man, person. vicus, -i, village. reditio, -onis, coming back, return. Alpes, -ium, Alps. ItSliS, -ae, Itali/. EXERCISES. 1. domum^ reditionis spes. 2. vici omnes cremantur. 3. profectionem in tertium annum lege confirmant. 4. de- cern annos in Gallia eram. 5. millia passuum viginti tria silva abest. 6. flumen pedes undeviginti altum erat. 7. in itinere copia frumenti legionibus datnr. 8. fratri tuo im- perium Galli dant. 9. duae Galliae sunt; citerior in Italia est, ulterior trans Alpis. 10. Gallia citerior minor est quam Gallia ulterior. 11. per Alpis in Galliam mercatores multas res important. 12. ob profectionem militum pater tuus omnis vicos cremat. 13. in vicis amicis copia erat frumenti. 14. vici amicorum tuorum cremantur. 1. The road is^ three miles from the river. 2. There is one legion in Farther Gaul. 3. Our departure is fixed by law for^ the third year. 4. The Alps are high mountains. 5. The Germans were in Gaul five months. 6. After the death of Orgetorix, the war was announced to my father by Piso. 7. Three months after the beginning of the war I was at home.^ 8. Two legions are wintering in Gaul ; the one among the Belgians, the other across the Garonne. 9. The city is ^ thirteen miles from the mountain. 10. On the seventh day ^ I shall be on the bank of the Rhine. EXERCISES ON FORMS. 23 XV. Comparison of adjectives ; Gr. 119-123. VOCABULARY. nobilis, -e, noble, of high birth. fortis, -e, brave. magis (adv.), more. longe (adv.),_/ar, by far. difficnis, -e, difficult, hard. miniis (adv.), less. maxime (adv.), most, very, espe- Romaniis, -S, -ilin, Roman. ciallij. f&cllis, -e, easy. spero, -are, / hope, I expect. EXERCISES. 1. una ex parte ^ mens altissimus^ est; altera ex parte, flumen Rhenus ; tertia, Rhodanus. 2. flumina latissima multa sunt. 3. Piso in Helvetiis hiemat. 4. tempore belli magnus est honor militum. 5. a senatu populi Ro- man! amicus appellatur. 6. apud Romanos in ripa fluminis aderamus. 7. difficillimura est^ res in Belgas importare. 8. itinera per AlpTs in Galliam erant. 9. altitudo mon- tium magna est. 10. via non est alia. 1. Among the Helvetians Orgetorix was far the noblest. 2. The Belgians are the bravest of all the Gauls. 3. To seize all Gaul is difficult. 4. The journey is very difficult. 5. There are many very high mountains in Gaul. 6. There are rivers in Gaul deeper than the Rhone. 7. The Rhine is broader than the Rhone. 8. The route through the Alps is harder. 9. We iBght with the Romans. 10. The Ger- mans are braver than the Gauls. 11. It is more difficult^ to fight with the Romans than with the Belgians. 24 EXERCISES ON FORMS. XYI. Irregular comparison ; Gr. [123]. VOCABULARY. boniis, -S, -ttm, good. interior ; intimiis, inner ; inmost. mglus, -a, -fim, had. prior; primus, former; first. parvus, -a, -fim, small. pro prior; proximus, nearer; Tzear- senex (Gr. [115]), oW. est, next. juvenis (Gr. [96]), yomi^r. ulterior; ultimiis, /wrfAer, / nant. 2. iidem, qui nobiscum in acie erant, in vicis Hel- vetiorum hiemant. 3. quis has res importat? 4. cui victoria hostium nuntiatur? 5. mihi erit hoc iter difficilius quam tibi, qui es junior. 6. Galliae totius factiones sunt duae. 7. omnis Galliae tres sunt partes, quarum una Aquitania appellatur. 8. mercatores ea important quae animos effeminant. 9. ad earn rem parati sumus. 10. do- mum reditionis spes non est. 11. populi qui trans Rhenum habitant fortiores sunt quam Galliae populi. 1. We, who are in camp, are ready for war. 2. There will be a battle in this village. 3. Those things which weaken the courage^ of the Belgians are not imported. 4. You arc seizing more land ^ than the enemy. 5. There is a large number of the enemy on that mountain. 6. Across the same river there is a multitude of our soldiers. 7. Be- fore his return from the war, there will be a battle. 8. Cae- sar calls his soldiers friends. 9. They give a promise to each other. 10. On the next day they burn the village which was on the bank of this river. 11. Who is not ready to fight with the enemy? 12. What troops are in the villages? 13. Is any one fighting in the forest? [No.] XXI. Inflection of the verb ; Gr. 142-190. EXERCISES ON FORMS. 29 XXII. Incomplete tenses of a-stem verbs; Gr. 191-195. Moods in independent sentences. VOCABULARY. commeo, -are, go and come ; with concllio, -ar6, gain, gain over, get. ad, visit, praesto, -arg, stand before, excel. specto, -arS, look, look at, see. vSgor, -ari (dep.),^ wander. bello, -are, make war, war. arbitror, -ari (dep.),i think, judge. comparo, -ar6, prepare, make conor, -ari (dep.),i tnj, attempt. readij. Inclto, -arg, rouse up, excite. EXERCISES. 1. mercatores saepe ad Gallos commeant. 2. Belgae proximi sunt Germanis qui trans Rhenum habitant. 3. ea comparare conabar, quae importantur. 4. conemur, mei amici, urbem occupare. 5. nuutiate victoriam, mi pater, tuls militibus. 6. spectant in orientem solem. 7. fides dabitur^ nobis. 8. conabantur Orgetorix et Helvetii omnis populos Galliae incitare. 9. hostes bellandi^ cupidi erant. 10. civitas ob earn rem incitabitur. 11. Helvetii minus vagabantur quam alii populi Galliae. 12. Belgae extremis in finibus Galliae habitabant. 13. regnum in civitate sua occupabit Orgetorix, cujus pater nobis amicus multos annos erat. 1. Rouse up the men of this city. 2. My sons were trying to rouse up the states of Gaul. 3. The enemy were wandering through the country and cities of the Sequanians. 4. After the death of Orgetorix the Helvetians tried to seize the lands of all Gaul. 5. Orgetorix will be burned with fire by his own state. 6. Call him, my son, the friend of the Roman people. 7. Let us prepare all things for our return home. 8. May you be called brave ! 9. May they be burned with fire ! 10. May the gods give you glory ! 11. In their own language they are called Celts; in ours, Gauls. 12. Traders visit "* them least often and import wine and other things. so EXERCISES OK FORMS. XXIII. Incomplete tenses of e-stem verbs ; Gr. 196-197. VOCABULARY. pertineo, -er6, pertain, belong, video, -erg, see. stretch. obtmeo, -erg, hold, possess. prohibeo, -ere, heep out, jjrohibit, contineo, -er6, hold in, hound. stop. pSteo, -erg, extend. hSbeo, -ere, have. JurS, -ae. Jura (a mountain). undiquS (adv.), on all sides. qu5d (conj.), because. moveo, -erg, move. EXERCISES. 1. Belgae pertinent ad inferiorem partem fluminis Rheni. 2. undique loci natura Helvetii continentur ; una ex parte ^ monte Jura altissimo, qui est inter Sequanos et Helvetios ; altera ex parte flumine Rheno, altissimo et latissimo. 3. pro- fectio nostra in annum tertium lege confirmabatur. 4. pos- ter© die castra ex eo loco movent. 5. Caesar ei legion! quam secum habebat copiam frumenti comparabat. 6. haec in Belgas per provinciam importamus quod aliud iter nullum habemus. 7. urbs extrema haec est et proxima Helvetio- rum finibus. 1. There are two routes by which ^ traders will visit ^ us. 2. The Belgians kept traders out of their territories. 3. I will gain the royal power ^ for 3'ou with my troops.^ 4. The territories* of the Helvetians were narrow. 5. The Helve- tians had narrow territories, which extended two hundred and forty miles in length,® one hundred and eighty in breadth.® 6. You will attempt the same thing as^ I. 7. Did he move camp on that day? [No.] 8. Let us keep the enemy ^ out of our territories. 9. Move camp often and report^ to me the battles 3^ou see.^" 10. The Gauls hold one part of the country; the Belgians, another. 11. Aquitania extended from the Garonne river to the mountains. EXEllCISES ON FORMS. 31 XXIY. Incomplete tenses of consonant-stem and u-stem verbs ; Gr. 198, 199. VOCABULARY. incolo, -6re, dwell. contendo, -6re, contend, fight, has- divido, -erg, divide, separate. ten, strive. g6ro, -6re, manage, carry on, wage. influo, -er6, flow into. praecedo, -ere, precede, surpass. tribuo, -erg, assign, attribute. oce^niis, -i, ocean. debeo, -ere, owe, ought. aut (conj.), or. f6re (adv.), almost. aut . . . aut, either . . . or. quotidiauiis, -h, -fim, daily. perduco, -ere, lead through, build, fossS, -ae, ditch, construct. mnrus, -i, wall. nemo, -Inis, no one. cum (conj.), when. fluo, flu6r6,^ow. EXERCISES. 1. flumen est quod per fines Sequanorum fluit. 2. Belgae proximi sunt Germanis, qui trans Rhenum incoluut, qua de causa^ alios virtute praecedunt. 3. hu jus regionis una pars, quam Galli obtinent, continetur Garumua flumme, Oceano, finibus Belgarum. 4. Helvetii reliquos Gallos virtute prae- cedunt, quod fere quotidianis proeliis cum Germanis conten- dunt, cum aut suis finibus eos prohibent aut ipsi in eorum finibus bellum gerunt. 5. a lacu, qui in Rhodanum influit, ad montem Juram, qui fines Sequanorum ab Helvetiis dividit, murum et fossam perducit. 1. I keep all men out from the province ; I allow^ no one a passage.^ 2. Caesar hastened into the province b3' forced^ marches. 3. He hastens through the Alps with these five legions b}' the shortest^ route. 4. We attribute the victory to 3'our courage. 5. He has a large number of soldiers about him.^ 6. A wall and a ditch were constructed from 32 EXERCISES ON FORMS. the lake to the river by that legion which Caesar had with him.* 7. There was a hard road^ between mount Jura and the river Rhone. 8. Ma}^ you dwell at home in peace. 9. For this reason I was waging war in the land of the Germans. 10. The banks of the river which flows through our city are high. XXT. Incomplete tenses of short i-stem verbs ; Gr. 200-202. VOCABULARY. cfipio, -erg, take, receive. conf Icio, -6rg, do, accomplish, suscipio, -6re, undertake. Jinish. eripio, -erg, rescue. perflcio, -6r6, do, perform. dolor, -oris, grief, sorrow. aflflcio, -6rg, move, affect. nomen, -Inis, name. septentrio, -onis, north (usually f rater, -tris, brother. pi.). fftcio, -6re, do, make. EXERCISES. 1. per eos omnes Orgetorix se eripiebat. 2. post ejus mortem, Ilelvetii iter facere conabuntur. 3. una para initium capit^ a flumine Rhodano. 4. homines bellandi cupidi magno dolore afficiebantur. 5. capiamus urbem. 6. hie locus e reditione exercitus nomen capiet. 7. quas- in partes hostes iter faciunt? 8. ab iisdem nostra consilia et quae in castris geruntur hostibus enuntiantur. 9. initium pugnae Dumnorix faciebat et milites ejus. 10. eripite meum patrem, amici mei ! 11. Belgae spectant in septen- trionem et orientem solem. 12. Aquitania spectat inter occasum solis et septentriones. 13. tune bellum cum Gallis geres? • 1. I am making a journey through the province. 2. These things will be accomplished by us. 3. On the following day he undertook the matter. 4. The place takes its name from^ EXERCISES ON FORMS. 33 the victory of the Roman legions. 5. Does the river take its name from^ the battle ? [No.] 6. In the time of Caesar many legions were rescued from^ the hands of the enemy. 7. Let us try to take the city which the enemy rescued from^ our hands. 8. It is hard to take a city that has a wall and ditch around it.^ 9. This matter was told to the Helvetians by us. 10. After his death the Helvetians tried to make the journey'. 11. Orgetorix will give his daughter in mar- riage to Dumnorix, the brother of Divitiacus. XXYI. Incomplete tenses of long I-stem verbs ; Gr. 203, 204. VOCABULARY, vgnio, -ir6, come. si (conj.), if. communio, -ire, icall,fortifij. perx^nio, -ire, cotne through, arrive. interficio, -ere, kill, slai/. vis, vis (Gr. [115]), violence, force ; conv^nlo, -ire, come together, pi. strength. assemble. tib! (conj.), when, where. EXERCISES. 1. ad eam partem, quae in ripa fluminis habitabat per- veniebat. 2. eodem die milites ad ripam conveniebant. 3. venite ad me, filiae meae ! 4. eodem proelio, quo Helvetii filium interficiebant, patrem interficiebant. 5. Caesar uno die id faciet quod nos viginti diebus facimus. 6. pacem cum Caesare faciamus ! 7. in dolorem veniatis, hostes ! 8. urbs ab hostibus magna vi communiebatur. 9. ea facie- mus quae nobis tribuuntur. 10. pacem cum proximis civi- tatibus confirmare Helvetii conabantur. 11. postero die conveniunt ad ripam Rhodani et castra in eo loco communi- unt. 12. murum et fossam a flumine ad lacum perducamus ! 1. Caesar is fortifying a camp on the top of the mountain. 2. Many soldiers come out of the city which you are fortify- 34 EXEKCISES ON FORMS. ing. 3. I shall arrive at the city within^ the next ten days. 4. The enem}' are slaying the traders themselves. 5. The enemy will burn with fire those who shall be taken in battle. 6. This^ [news] is told us b}^ the soldiers whom you rescued. 7. If you do^ violence, I shall stop [you]. 8. When that day comes, ^ I shall allow you a passage through the city. 9. There is one legion [only] in farther Gaul; if the enemy assemble,^ they will seize the whole region. 10. The Gauls are coming across the river and we shall all be slain. XXVII. Complete tenses, active voice ; Gr. 205-207. VOCABULARY. perv^nio, -ire,-xeni,co7ne, arrive. perflcio, -6r6, -feci, r/o, accom- constituo, -tuere, -tui, determine, plish. decide on. conv6nio,-v6nir6,-veni,assewt»/e. spero, sperarg, speravi, hope, cSpio, cSpgrg, cepi, take, etc. expect, hope for. habeo, hSberg, h^bui, have, etc. pono, ponere, posui, place, pitch. do, dSre, dedi, give, etc. fScio, fScgrg, feci, do, etc. mitto, mitterg, misi, send. pauciis, -a, -um (comm. Y)l.),few. gero, gerSre, gessi, ivaye, etc. iiiterflcio, -gr6, -feci, kill. hSbltOj -ar6, -avi, dwell. mtnlme (adv.), least. jfibeo, -er6, jussi, bid, order. EXERCISES. 1. post ejus mortem Helvetii id quod constituerat facere conabantur. 2. multa mihi dederas. 3. ad magnam par- tem legionis perveneram, quae tria millia passuum a flumine castra ponebat. 4. hi hostes 'consulem interfecerant, et milites ejus ceperant. 5. si vos vim feceritis, ego prohibebo. 6. Caesar bellum trans Rhenum gessit. 7. ubi id quod con- stituisti perfeceris, veni domum ad nos. 8. quae in castris nostris geruntur, ea hostibus ille nuntiabit. 9. hi sunt trans Rhodanum primi. EXERCISES ON FORMS. 35 1. I had ordered him to seize the city of the enemy. 2. The top of the mountain was occupied^ by the soldiers. 3. Caesar had arrived at the same time. 4. He has dwelt among the Sequanians many months. 5. Had you pitched your camp when I arrived? 6. If you assemble- at^ the bank of the river, I will give you a passage^ through the province. 7. There are few rivers in the Alps, which are very high mountains. 8. Of all these the Belgians are the bravest because traders visit them least often. 9. Aqui- tania extends from the Garonne river to the mountains and the ocean. 10. This circumstance was tokP to the Helvetians. XXYIII. Verb-forms from the simple stem ; Gr. 208, 209. VOCABULARY. pugno, -nare, -navi, -natiim. divido, -d6r6, -visi, -visiim. occupo, -pare, -pavi, -patum. gero, gerere, gessi, gestiini. importo, -tare, -tavi, -tatiiin cSpio, cSpCre, cepi, captttm. pertmeo, -nere, -iiui. fScio, fScgrS, feci, factfim. prohibeo, -bere, -biii, -bitflm. venio, venir6, veni, ventum. moveo, -vere, niovi, inotuni. fluo, flu6re, fluxi, Conor, -ari, -attts. tribuo, -uere, -iii, -utttm. vehementer (adv.), greatly, rogo, -are, -avi, -atiim, asA-, as^ strongly. fof. EXERCISES. 1. facile faetu^ est iter perficere. 2. ad consules patrem mittit rogatum^ pacem, 3. bellum gesserat in finibus lios- tium. 4. quae est causa belli quod gerimus ? 5. nobilissimi cum Germanis pugnant. 6. milites, ab hostibus capti, inter- ficientur. 7. multae res, in Belgas importatae, animos eorum eff'eminabant. 8. consul, magis cupiditate imperii niotus quam spe reditionis, urbem occupat. 9. multae res. 36 EXERCISES ON FORMS. in fines nostros importatae, a militibus capiebantur. 10. quis haec a finibus Gallorum prohibet? 11. nemo, dolore motus, vim facere conabitur. 12. multi milites, in proelio interfecti, domum mittebantnr ad amicos suos. 1. The city, having been seized bv the legions, was burned. 2. I had come to ask^ peace. 3. In many places the river flows through large forests. 4. The Belgians, effeminated by^ imported things, are tr3ing to wage war. 5. Maj^ the gods give you those things which you hope for! 6. This journey will be easy to make.^ 7. 1 am greatly moved by Caesar's death. 8. All kingdoms and cities are the gods'. 9. Let us wage war with the legions that have burned our homes. 10. With^ that legion which he had with him and with* the soldiers who had assembled from^ the province, Caesar builds a wall from' the lake to Mt. Jura, which divides the territories*^ of the Sequanians from the Helvetians. EXERCISES ON FORMS. 37 XXIX. The periphrastic conjugations ; Gr. 210-214. VOCABULARY. sttm, esse, fui, futnrfis. spero, -are, -avi, -attim. do, dSre, dedi, dStum. eflfemino, -are, -avi, -atum. nuntio, -are, -avi, -atum. hSbeo, habere, habui, hSbitum, appello, -are, -avi, -atum. obtlneo, -ere, -ui, obtenttim. cremo, -are, -avi, -atiim. pSteo, patere, patui. enuntio, -are, -avi, -atum. commeo, -are, -avi, -attim. impero, -are, -avi, -atiim. specto, -are, -avi, -atiim. habito, -are, -avi, -atum. concilio, -are, -avi, -attim. hiemo, -are, -avi, -atiim. vSgor, -ari, -atiis. confirmo, -are, -avi, -atum. incolo, -er6, -ui. praecedo, -dere, -di, -essiim. contendo, -derg, -di, -nttim. eripio, -ripgre, -ripui, -reptiim. communio, -nirg, -nivi, -nittim. EXERCISES. 1. iter mihi datum est ; idem tibi dabitnr. 2. coiiatus erat iter per Alpes faeere. 3. capturus sum illam urbem. 4. ea legione, quam mecum habeo, fines Gallorum occupare. conar. 5. pars hostium Orgetorigis victoria ad bellum mota erat. 6. per Alpes iter faciendum est. 7. Alpes minores altae sunt. 8. tres legiones in Gallia ulteriore hiemabant. 9. domi futurus sum. 10. num daturus es iter per provinciam hostibus ? 11. fuerasne in vetere urbe ? 1. All Gaul is divided^ into three parts. 2. This matter was announced to the Helvetians. 3. Orgetorix rescued himself through his friends. 4. The soldiers whom he had with him had come together out of the province. 5. Three legions which had wintered in Hither Gaul, hastened through the Alps into the province. 6. The Helvetians had killed Piso in the same battle. 7. If you make^ peace with us, we will winter in Gaul. 8. I intend to winter in Gaul. 9. The- soldiers have been rescued from^ the hands of the Belgians. 10. The city must be seized b}^ you. 11. A large part of the city had to be burned with fire. 38 EXERCISES ON FORMS. XXX. Review of verbs. Irregular verbs ; siim and compounds ; Gr. 215-222» VOCABULARY. adsum, Sdesse, adfui, adfiiturus. absttm, abesse, afui, affiturus. prostim, prodesse, profui, prof iiturfis, be advantageous, useful. possum, posse, potui, be able, caii, have power or infiuence. praesum, praeesse, praefui, praefuturiis, be present} be first, at the head. supersiim, superesse, superfui, sOperf uturtts, be left over, survive. duco, ducere, duxi, ductum, lead, (also, to marrij). debeo, debere, debui, debltfim, owe, ought. EXERCISES. 1. bellum gerere nou possiimus, quod a provincia longe absiimus. 2. omnia quae facere potestis, fecistis. 3. quis illud dicere possit^? 4. mihi non prodest^ saepe cum iis qui in ripis liuminis habitant contendere. 5. adesse non facile est. 6. Sequanos praeseutis et absentis incitare conabar. 7. per provinciam iter vobis dare non potero. 8. num potuerunt iter difficile facere? 9. si potero, apud vos adero. 1. Dumnorix had very much influence among the Helve- tians, because he had married the daughter of Orgetorix from that state. 2. It had been advantageous to him to be able to move camp. 3. Be good and brave, my friends ; our position* is advantageous to us. 4. The wliole multi- tude was present. 5. The whole state is divided^ into four parts. 6. Those who ought to be useful to us have moved camp and are not present. 7. He did in^ one day what the enemy did in*' twenty days. 8. The daughter of Orge- torix and one of his sons were taken.' 9. One hundred and twenty thousand men' survived. EXERCISES ON FORMS. 39 XXXI. Irregular verbs ; eclo, fero ; Gr. 223, 224. VOCABULARY, gdo, edere, edi, esum, eat, consume. f 6ro, ferre, tiili, latum, carry, bring, hear. infero, inferrg, intuli, illatiini, carry on, make (war). differo, diflferre, distiili, dilatum, differ. conf ero, conferre, contiili, coUatfim, collect, bring together', compare ; se conferre, to betake one's self, go. ref ero, referrg, rgtiili, rglatttm, carry back ; pedem referre, retreat. jiibeo, jubere, jussi, jussQm. impedimentum, -i, hindrance; pi. baggage. hostls, -Is (c), enemy. EXERCISES. 1. bellum inferre noii possunt. 2. Dumnorix, cujus frater Divitiaciis eo tempore principatum in civitate obtinebat, idem couari poterat. 3. erat uua per Sequauos via, qua ire non poterant. 4. frumentum non contulerant, quod dare debe- bant.^ 5. ager Germanorum conferri non potest cum agro Gallorum. 6. contendebant pedem referre. 7. jubebat partem militum impedimenta in unum locum conferre ; par- tem pedem referre. 8. hi omnes inter se^ lingua differunt. 9. trans flumen in agros hostium se contulerant. 1. The Helvetians brought their baggage together to one place. 2. He ordered the ships to be brought together into one place. 3. For this reason the}^ could not make war on^ their enemies. 4. I shall bring together many men, and make war on the nations beyond the Rhine.* 5. The seventh and tenth legions did not retreat. 6. Let us retreat, soldiers, if the enemy are^ many. 7. The baggage will be brought together. 8. . You ought to go to the camp of the Germans. 9. Who can make war on us? 10. A few can stop the soldiers from [their] march in those places. 11 . The soldiers that we had levied came together in a few days. 40 EXERCISES OK FOKMS. XXXII. Irregular verbs ; volo, nolo, malo ; Gr. 225. VOCABULARY. auxnitim, -i, help, aid. volo, vell6, volui, to wish, he in'I- unde (adv.), whence, from which. ling. vaco, -are, -avi, -atum, be empty, nolo, nolle, nolui, to he unwilling. he vacant. Hialo, malle, nialui, to prefer, ■dlscedo, -derS, -cessi, -cessfim, choose rather, in'sh more. depart, go out or away. fiigS, -a^, flight. EXERCISES. 1. nolebam pedem referre. 2. noli bellum Romanis, amicis nostris, iuferre. 3. in earn partem Helvetii se con- ferent, nbi eos esse volueris. 4. voluerat totam Galliam occiipare. 5. malo trans Rhenum bellum Germanis inferre quam in Gallia. 6. num vis illud suscipere? 7. pars militum pedem referre vult. 8. faciamus omnia quae facere volumus. 9. quid vultis, amici? 10. maluit ab liostibus interfici quam pedem referre. 11. ii qui ad ripas venerant, pedem referre quam bellum gerere malebant. 1. Dumnorix wished to have great influence^ with^ the Sequani. 2. We, who were across the river, were not able to bring help to our [friends]. 3. I did not wish to say this to man}' men. 4. He did not wish that place from ^hich the Helvetians had departed to be empt}'. 5. Many prisoners^ were brought into the city. 6. I had rather* be taken than save myself by flight. 7. Do 3'ou prefer to be slain [rather] than be taken [prisoner] ? 8. Many were taken and slain, who were unwilling to rescue themselves by flight. 9. The flight of the enemy had given us the victory. 10. The cit}' which we wished to take was given to us hy the ■consent of the inhabitants. 11. The journey will have to be performed. 12. I am unwilling to retreat ; I prefer to fight. EXERCISES ON FORMS. 41 XXXIII. Irregular verbs ; do, eo, fio ; Gr. 226-229. VOCABULARY. eo, ire, ivi, (ii), ttiim, go. rStls, -Is, raft. fio, fieri, (faetiis), be made, be- aufero, aiiferre, abstuli, abla- come, happen. turn, take away. transeo, transire, transii, Sdeo, adirg, adii, aditum, ^o leoding. dies, ei (c), day ; a while. differs, -ferre, -distuli, -dila- tum, to differ. difflcills, -e (Gr. 121), hard, diffi- cult. dimittd, -mittere, -misi, mis- sum, to dismiss. dis, ditis, rich. discedo, -cedere, -cessi, -ces- sum, to depart, go out or aivay. dispon6, -ponere, -posui, -posl- tum, to arrange, place, p)OSt. diu (adv.), long. diutius (adv.), longer. Divico, -onls, Divico. divido, -videre, -visi, -vistlm, to divide, separate. Divitiaciis, -i, Divitiacus. do, dare, dedi, datum (Gr. 226), to give, grant. d616r, -oris, grief, sorrou\ domiis, -us (f.) (Gr. [115]), house, home ; domi, at home ; d6miim, home, homewards. (Gr. [273] and [265].) ^ dubltatio, -onls, doubt. dubius, -a, -um, doubtful; non est dubium, there is no doubt. diicenti, -ae, -a, two hundred. duco, ducere, duxi, ductum, to lead, bring ; to think, regard; ducere In matrlmonium, or often ducere alone, to marry (said of the man). diim (conj.) (Gr. [330]), ivhile. Dumnorix, -Igls, Dumnorix. duo, -ae, -6 (Gr. [72]), two. dux, duels, guide, leader. e (prep. w. abl.), out of, from. §d6, edere, edi, esiim (Gr. 223), to eat, consume. educo, -ducere, -duxi, -ductiim, to lead out, lead forth, bring. effemino, -are, -avi, -atiim, to weaken, effeminate. effero, -ferre, extiili, elatum, to bring forth, bring. efflcid, -ficere, -feci, -fectum, to make, render. ego (Gr. 125),/, me. egredior, -g-redi, -gressiis, to go out, set forth. enuntio, -are, avI, -atiim, to an- nounce, tell, bring neics of. e6, ire, ivi or ii, Itum (Gr. 227), to go. eo (adv.), thither. eodem (adv.), to the same place. Sques, -Itis, horseman, horse-sol- dier. equltatus, -us, cavalry. eripid, -ripere, -ripui, -reptiim, to take avKiy ; to rescue. 6t (conj.), and; §t . . . 6t, both . . . and. 6tiS,m (adv.), also, even. ex (prep. w. abl.), out of, from. exe6, -ir§, -ii, -Itum, to go out, go forth, depart. exercltatio, -5nls, training, skill. exercltus, -us, army. existlmo, -are, -avi, -atum, to think, believe. expectd, -are, -avi, -atum, to wait for. explorator, -oris, spy, scout. exquird, -quirere, -quisivi, -qui- situm, to search out, inquire, in- quire into. exsequSr, -sSqui, -secutiis, to carry out, execute. exterus, -a, -um (Gr. [123]), out- side, outer. extimiis, -a, -lim (Gr. [123]), out- ermost, fai^thest. extremus, -a, -\im (Gr. [123]), oxit- ermost, farthest. 92 LATEST INDEX. P. fScIlS (adv.), easily. facllls, -e (Gr. 121), ecmj. facllius (adv.), more easily. faci6, facere, feci, factum, to make, do. factid, -onis, party, faction. facultas, -atls, supply. familia, -ae (Gr. [54]), hotise- hold. fere (adv.), almost, nearly. fer6, ferre, tuli, latum (Gr.224), to hear, hriwj, carry. ferus, -a, -um, loild, savage. fides, el, faith, belief, promise. filia, -ae (Gr. [54]), dauyhter. filius, -i (Gr. (57), son. finls.-Is (c.) (Gr. [99]), end; pi. fines, bounds, land, territories, country. finltlmus, -a, -iim, neiyhborinf/ ; as a noun, neiyhbor. fio, figri [factiis] (Gr. 229), to be made, become, happen. flrmus, -&, -um,./??'m, strony. flag-Itd, -are, -avi, -atumi, to de- mand, ask for. fled, flerS, fievi, flettim, to iveep. fletus, -us, weeping.- flum§n, -Inis, rwer. flu6, fluere, fluxi, tojloio. fortis, -§, bold, brave. fortitude, -Inis, courage, forti- tude. f ortuna, -ae, Inck, fortune. fossfi,, -ae, ditch, moat. frater, -tris (Gr. 80), brother. frumentariiis, -&, -dm, of corn ; res frumentaria, corn sup- ply. frumentiim, -i, corn, grain. fiigS,, -ae, fight. fug-Itivus, -§,, -um, fleeing ; as a noun, fugltivus, deserter, run- away. G. Gabinius, -i, Gabinius. Gallus, -i, a Gaid ; pi. Galli, the Gauls. Gallia, -ae, Gaid (now France). Galllcus, -a, -um, Gallic. Garumna, -ae (m.), the Garonne (river). Genua, -ae, Geneva. Germania, -ae, Germany. Germanus, -a, -um, German ; usually pi. Germani, the Ger- mans. g-grd, g-erer^, g-essi, gestiim, ta manage, carry on, wage (war), gloria, -ae, glory, honor. gratia, -ae, favor, popularity ; pi. gratiae, thanks; gratias. ag-ere, to give thanks, thank. gratulor, -ari, -attis (Gr. [2G9] ) , to congratulate. H. habe6, -er6, -m, -Itiim, to have^ hold; deliver (a speecli). habltd, -ar§,. -avi, -atiim, to dwell. Haeduus, -&, -lim, Hseduan; pL Haedui, the Ilseduans (a Gallie tribe). Harudes. -xim. Ilarudes. Helvetiiis, -&, -iim, Helvetian; pi. Helvetii, the Helvetians. hiberna, -oriim (neut. pi. of hi- bernus), winter quarters. hibernus, -&, -Ura, of winter, win- try. hie, haec, h6c (Gr. 134), this ; he, she, kc. hi6m6, -are, -avi, -atiim, to loin- tcr. Hispania, -ae, Spain. Ii6m6, -Inis, man, human being. hSnor, -oris, honor. hora, -ae, hour. hortSr, -ari, -atiis, to urge. LATIN INDEX. 93 hostls, -Is, enemy. humanltas, -atls, culture, refine- ment. I. Ibi (adv.), there, in that place. idem, eadem. Idem (Gr. 137), same. idoneus, -a, -Viiai,fit, suitable. Idus, -uum (F.), ides (Gr. 490). ignis, -is (Gr. [99]),. /ire. ille, ilia, illud (Gr. 131), that, he, she, &c. impedimentum, -i, hindrance ; pi. impedimenta, bac/f/ar/e. imperium, -i, j)oioer, sway, mili- tary authority. imperd, -are, -avi, -atiim, to or- der, command, levy (troops). impetrO, -are, -avi, -atum, to gain, r/ain a reqiiest. impetus, -us, attack. implorO, -are, -ftvi, -atiiin, to beg, pray. import 6, -ar§, -avi, -atum, to im- port, bring in. improbus, -a, -iim, bad, tvicked. impugno, -are, -avi, -atum, to attack. in (prep.) w. abl., in, on, among; w. ace, i7ito, to, toioardyfor. incendd, -cenderS, -cendi, -cen- sum, to set fire to, bui'n. incltd, -are, -avi, -atum, to rouse itp, excite. incola, -ae, inhabitant. incolO, -colere, -colui, to ^well. incommodura, -i, misfortune, de- feat. incredlbllls, -e, incredible. incusd, -ar§, -avi, -aturd, to blame. inde (adv.), thence, from there. indicium, -i, information. indued, -diicere, -duxi, -duc- tum, to lead on, induce ; lead. inferidr. -ius (Gr. [123]), lower. infero, -ferr§, -tuli, -latiim, to carry on, wage (war) ; to inflict (wounds) . inferus, -a, -um (Gr. [123] ) , loiver, inferior. influd, -fluere, -fluxi, iofloto into, empty (of a river). ingens, -ntis, huge, great. Inlmicus, -a, -um, unfriendly, hostile. Inltium, -i, beginning. injuria, -ae, wrong, injury. injussa, loithout orders. ins§qu6r, -sequi, -sgcutus, to pursue, attack. insig-nia, -ifim, equipments, in- signia. instltutiim, -i, custom. instruo, -struere, -struxi,-struc- tiim, to dra7o up, arrange. intellegd, -legere, -lexi, -lec- tum, to knoiu, understand. int^r (prep. w. ace), between, among ; int6r s§, mutually, with each other, ivith one another, &c. See XII, note 1. intercedd, -ced§re, -cessi, -ces- sum, to intervene. interea (adv.), meamvhile. interflcio, -fIcSre, -feci, -fectum, to slay, kill. interim (adv.), meanwhile. interior, -ius (Gr. [123]), i7iner, interior. Intermittd, -mittere, -misi, -mis- sum, to leave off. intervalliim, -i, interval, distance. intlmus, -a, -um (Gr. [123]), in- most. invenid, -venire, -veni, -ven- tum, to come %ipon,find. ipse, ipsa, ipsum (Gr. 132), selfy he himself, &c. ire, to go ; see eo. Is, ea. Id (Gr. 129), this or that, he, &c. 94 LATIN INDEX. iste, ista, istud (Gr. 130), thaU he. Ita (adv.), thus, in this way, so ; ita ut, so that. Itaque (conj.), therefore. Italia, -ae, Italy. Item (adv.), also, likewise. Iter, Itlnerls (Gr. [115]), journey, march, route. ItSrura (adv.), again, a second time. J. jacto, -are, -avi, -atiim, to dis- CUSS. jam (adv.), already, at length. jubeo, jubere, jussi, jussiim, to hid, order. judlciiim, -i, trial. judlcd, -are, -avi, -atum, to judge, decide. jug-um, -i, yoke, ridge (of a hill), hill. jumentum, -i, yoke animal, beast of burden. junidr (Gr. [123]), younger. JurS,, -ae, Jura (a mountain). jur6, -are, -avi, -atum, to sioear. jus, juris, right ; jus jurandum, oath. jiivSnIs, -l8(Gr. [96], [123]), young ; as a noun, a youth. Kal. = Kalendae, Calends (first day of the month, Gr. 490) . L. = Luciiis. L§,bienus, -i, Labienus. lS,cus, -us (Gr. [110]), lake. larg-It§r (adv.), largely ; largiter posse, to have great poicer or in- fluence. Iargiti6, -onis, free giving, liber- ality ; bribery. late (adv.), widely. latltudd, -Inis, breadth, loidth. latus, -a, -um, broad, wide. latus, -eris, side, flank. Ieg-ati6, -onis, embassy. leg-atus, -i, deputy ; lieutenant, en- voy, embassador. leg-id, -onis, legion. Lemannus, -i (Lake) Leman; Lake of Geneva. lenltas, -atls, gentleness, slowness. lex, legls, law. liberius (adv.), more freely. libertas, -bXIs, freedom. licet, llcere, llcult, llcltum, it is permitted, one may. Ling-ones, -"lim, Lingones. lingua, -ae, tongue, speech, lan- guage. linter, -tris (c.) (Gr. 102), boat, skifl: Liscus, -i, Liscus. 16ciis, -i (Gr. [116]), place, position, situatio7i. longe (adv.),/ar, by far. longisslme (adv.), farthest, very far. longitude, -Inis, length. 16qu6r, loqui, Idcutiis, to speak, talk. lux, lucls, light ; primfi, lux, day- break. . M. M. = Marcus. mfi,gls (adv.), more. magistratiis, -as, magistrate. mag-nltud6, -Inis, size. magnils, -&, -•Cim(Gr. [123]), great, large. maj6r, -■ds (Gr. [123]), larger, greater. maid, mall§, malui (Gr. 225), to prefer, choose, icish more. maliis, -S,, -lim (Gr. [123]), bad. mS,nus, -us (f.), Jrand. matrlmoniiim, -i, marriage; in matrimonium ducere, to mar- ry. LATIN INDEX. 96 MatrSnS, -ae (m.), Marne (river), maturius (adv.), earlier. maturo, -are, -avi, -atiim, to make haste, hasten, maturus, -a, -um (Gr. [121] ) , ripe. maxlme (adv.), most, very. maximus, -&, -lim (Gr. [123]), greatest, very great. melior, -ius (Gr. [123]), better. memoriS,, -ae, memory. mens, -ntis, mind, reason. mensis, -Is (Gr. [96] ), month, mercator, -oris, trader, merchant. meridies, -ei (m.), noon, midday, MessalS,, -ae, Messala. meus, -a, -xim (Gr. 126), my, mine. miles, -Itis, soldier, milltarls, -e, military; res mili- taris, military m,atters, loarfare, mill§ (Gr. \\\^), thou sand ; millS passuiim (a thousand paces), a mile. minlme (adv.), least. mlnlmtis, -&, -Um (Gr. [123]), least, smallest. mInSr, -lis (Gr. [123] ), less, smaller. minus (adv.), less. mittd, mitter6, misi, miss^m, to send. m6l6, -§re, -ui, -Itum, to grind, mons, -nt\s{m^.), mountain, mount. mSror, -ari, -atus, to loait, mors, -rtis, death, mortuiis, -a, -um, dead. mos, morls, custom, usage. moved, mSvere, movi, motiim, to move, miilier, -Sris, woman. multltudd, -Inis, multitude, great number. multiis, -a, -iim (Gr. [123] ) , much ; pi. many. munio, -ire, -ivi, -it'Gm, to fortify, defend. munitid, -onis, fortification. murus, -i, wall. N. naturS,, -ae, nature, character. navis, -Is (Gr. [99]), ship, ne (adv. and conj.), not; ne . . . quidem, not even: as conj. w. subj., in order that , , , not, lest, (SeeGr. [325], 424). ng (interrog. particle) (Gr. 427) . nee (couj.), ?io;\ See neque. negotium, -i, business, task. nem6, -Inis, no one. n6qu§ (conj.), and not, nor; ne- que . , . neque, neither . . , nor. nihil (indeclinable), nothing. nihlliim, -i (rare), nothing; abl. nihilo minus, nevertheless, nobnis, -e, noble, of good birth. nobnitas, -atls, nobility, nolo, noll§, nolui (Gr. 225), to be imioilling. nomSn, -Inis, name. non (adv.), not. nondiim (adv.), not yet. nonnuUiis, -&, -iim, some, a few, noster. -trft, -triim, our, ours. n6v§m, nine, noviis, -a, -iim, new; res novae, a revolution, change of govern- ment. nox, noctis, night. nuUiis, -a, -iim (Gr. 71), no, no one. niim (interrog. particle), (see Gr. 429). niimSriis, -i, number, nunc (adv.), nov). nuutid, -ar§, -avi, -atiim, to an- nounce, tell, report, niip6r (adv.), lately, recently. O. 6b (prep. w. ace), on account of, because of, for, obaeratiis, -&, -iim, indebted; as subst., a debtor. 96 LATIN INDEX. obliviscSr, oblivisci, oblitus (Gr. 2S0), to for get. obses, -Idls, hostcif/e. obsignO, -are, -avi, -atiXm, to seal, make (a will). obtlneo, -tinere, -tinui, -tentum, to hold, possess ; to get, obtain, occasus, -us, fall, setting (of the sun) ; occasus soils, sunset, ivest. occidd, -cidere, -cidi, -cisum, to slay, kill ; occisi, the slain, the dead. occfipd, -ar6, -avi, -atum, to seize, occtipy. 6ce§,nus, -i; ocean. oct6, eight. oct6d§cim, eighteen. oculus, -i, eye. odi, odissS, ostts (Gr. [235]), to hate. omnino (adv.), altogether, in all, only. omnls, -6, all, every. 6port6t, 6porter§, oportult, it is proper, it behooves, one ought. oppldum, -i, toion, ivalled toion. oppugnO, -ar6, -avi, -atHm, to attack. optlmiis, -a, -um (Gr. [123] ) , best. 6pus, -eris, loork. 6pus (iudecl.) (Gr. [297]), need. oratid, -onis, speech, talk. Orgetorix, -Igis, Orgetoriz. driens, -ntis, rising ; oriens sol, east. 6ri6r, -iri, orttis (Gr. [216] (h)), to rise ; to begin. 6r6, -ar6, -avi, -atiim, to beg, pray, ask. P. P. = Pubims. pagiis, -i, district, canton. pand6, pand§r6, pandi, passiim and panstim, to stretch out, ex- tend. paratus, -a, -ilm, prepared, ready. pars, -rtis, jyart ; In utr§,m par- tem, in which direction, which way. parvus, -a, -una, small. passus, -us, pace, step. pate6, patere, patui, to lie open, extend, stretch. pater, -tris (Gr. SO), father. paucus, -a, -um (usually pi.) , few. paul5 (adv.), a little. pax. pads, peace. pedes, -Itis, footman, foot-soldier. pejor, -us (Gr. [123]), icorse. pell6, pellere, pepuli, pulsum, to drive, repidse, defeat; drive out. per (prep. w. ace), through, by means of. perducd, -ducSre, -duxi, -duc- tum, to lead through, build, con- struct (e.g., a wall). perfacHIs, -§, very easy. perflcio, -fIcerS, -feci, -fectiim, to do, perform, accomplish. pSriculiim, -i, trial, test ; danger^ pentiis, -a, -lim, knowing {oi)^ skilled (in) . permoveO, -mdverl, -movi, -mo- tiim, to more strongly, move. perpauciis, -a, -\im, very feu\ pers6qu6r, -sequi, -sScatiis, to follow, pursue. pers6ver6, -ar6, -avi, -atiim, to persevere, continue. persuaded, -suader§, -suasi,. -suasum (Gr. [2G9]), to persuade. perterreO, -erS, -ui, -Ittlm, ta frighten. pertlned, -tlnerS, -tInui, to stretch, extend; to pertain, be- long. perturbd, -ar§, -avi, -atxim, to distiirb. frighten. perv6ni6, -v6nir§, -veni, -ven- tiim, to come through, arrive. LATIN INDEX. 97 pes, pedis, foot ; pedem referre, to retreat. pesslmus, -a, -um (Gr. [123]), ioorst9 petd, petere, petivi, pStitum, to asl', herj, seek. Piso, -onis, Piso. placed, -ere, -ui, -Itum (Gr. [2G9]), to please ; placuit ei, he resolved. plebs, plebis, common people, peo- 2)le. plurlmum (adv.), very much, f/reatlij. plurlmus, -a, -um (Gr. 123), most. plus (Gr. [92] and [123]), more, or often simply many. poena, -ae, penalty, punishment. poUIceor, -eri, -Itus, to promise. pond, ponere, posui, posltum, to place, pitch (a camp) . pons, -ntis (m.), bridf/e. populus, -i, a, people, a nation. possum, possS, potui (Gr. [222]), to be poioerful, have iiiflnence, be able, can. post (prep. w. ace), after. post (adv.), afterwards. postea (adv.), afterwards. posterus, -a, -um (Gr. [123]), fol- loiolnrj, next after. postquam or post quam (conj.), after. postremus, -S,, -um (Gr. [123]), last. postridie (adv.), on the next day, on the morrow. postiild, -are, -avi, -atum, to de- mand, ask; require. postumus, -a, -um(Gr. [123]), last. potens, -ntIs, %)Oioerfid. potentift, -ae, poioer, might. potestas, -atls, power ; opportu- nity. potior, potiri, potitus (Gr. [216] (/i)), to (jet control of, f/et, f/ain. praecedd, -cedere, -cessi, -ces- sum, to precede, surpass. praeflcio, -flc6r§, -feci, -fectum, to put over, put in charge of. praemittd, -mittere, -misi, -mis- siim, to send ahead. praepond, -ponere, -posui, -p6si- txim, to put in charge, place in command. praesens, -ntIs, present. praesldium, -i, garrison, defence. praesto, -stare, -stiti, -stitum or -statiim, to stand before, excel; to furnish. praesum, -esse, -fui, -futurus, to be ahead, be first, be present, be in command of. pridie (adv.), on the day before. primus, -a, -iim (Gr. [123]), ^>s^ princeps, -cipis, leading, chief; as a noun, princeps, a chief. princlpatus, -us, leadership ; highest office. prior, -ius (Gr. [123] ), /ormer. pristlnus, -a, -um, ancient. prius quam, or priusquam(conj.), sooner than, before. pro (prep. w. abl.), before, for, in behalf of , in proportion to. prdbo, -ar§, -avi, -atum, to prove. pr6ced6, -cedere, -cessi, -ces- sum, to go forward, advance, proceed. Procilliis, -i, Procillus. prodeo, -ire, -ii, -Itiim, to come out, go forth. producd, -ducere, -duxi, -duc- tum, to lead out, lead forth. proelium, -i, battle. profectid, -onIs, departure, start. proflciscor, -ficisci, -fectiis, to start, set out, advance. profug-id, -fugere, -fug-i, to/ee. prohlbed, -hibere, -hibui, -hlbl- tiim, to keep out, prohibit, stop. projicid, -jlcere, -jeci, -jectum, to throic. propior, -ius (Gr. [123]), nearer. 98 LATIN INDEX. propter (prep.), on account of. propterea (adv.), /or this reason; propterea quod, for the reason th(it, because. prosum, prodesse, profui, pro- futurus (Gr. [269)] , to be useful, be advantageous. provinciS., -ae, province. proximus, -§,, -una (Gr. [123]), nearest, next; proximum iter, shortest route. pug"n6, -are, -avi, -atum, to fight. Pyrenaei montes, the Pyrenees. Q. quaero, quaerere, quaesivi, quaesitum, to ask, inquire. quails, -e, such as; what kind of, what. qu&in (conj. and adv.), than ; with superlatives it emphasizes the meaning; quam maxlmiis, the very greatest, the greatest 2^osslble. quamdiu (conj.), as long as, while. quartiis, -5., -^m, fourth. quattuor, four. -que (conj.), and. quSrdr, qu6ri, questiis, to com- plain. qui, quae, qu6d (Gr. 138), who, which, that, ivhat. quid (adv.), ichy ? quIdSm (adv.), even ,• ne . . . qul- dem, not even. quin (conj.), that, but that. quindScIm, fifteen. quinqu§, /??7c. quint lis, -&, -urn, fifth. quis, quae, quid (Gr. 139), who? which? ichat? {Gv. 140) ; any one, any thing. quisqufi,m, quicquam, or quid- quS,na(Gr.l41), a7iy one,any thing. quisqu6, quaequ§, quidquS (Gr. 141), every, each. qudd (conj.), because. quoque (adv.), also. quotldianiis, -a, -lim, daily. quotidie (adv.), daily. R. ratis, -Is, raft. rgclpio, -cipere, -cepi, -ceptum, to take back, receive; se recl- pere, to betake one's self, retreat. rede6, -ir§, -ii, -Ittim, to go back, return. rSdlnad, -ImSre, -emi, -emptum, to buy, piirchase. r§dlti6, -onis, return. r6duc6, -duc§r§, -duxi, -duc- tiim, to bring back. refSrd, r6ferr§, rettuli, rela- tiim, to carry back ; ped6m rSferre, to retreat. regid, -onIs, region, country. regn^im, -i, kingdom, kingly power. [rest of. rlllquiis, -a, -iim, remaining ; the rSmlniscor, -sci (Gr. 280), to re- member, recall, call to mind. rSnuncid, -ar§, -avi, -atiirQ, to announce, tell, bring xoord. renuntio = renuncio. r§pell6, repell§r§, reppiili, re- pulsum, to drive back, drive off, repulse. r6p§ri6, r6p6rir6, reppSri, r6- pertiim, to find, gain ; to find out, learn. r6pugn6, -arS, -avi, -atiim, to oppose, be opposed to. res, rSi, thing, matter, circum- stance ; res militaris, warfare. rescindd, -scind6r6, -scldi, -scis- stlm, to break down, destroy. resciscO, -scisc§r6, -scivi, or -scii, -scitum, to learn, find out. responded, -sponderS, -spondi, -sponstim, to answer. restltud, -u6r§, -ui, -dtiim, to re- store, re-establish. LATIN INDEX. 99 rStlned, -tInerS, -tinui, -tentiim, to keep, retain. reverto, -verterS, -verti, -ver- sum, to return (also pass, re- verter, with the same meaning) . Rhenus, -i, the Rhine (river). Rhodaniis, -i, the Rhone (river) . ripa, -ae, hank (of a river). rdgd, -are, -avi, -atiim, to ask, ask for. Roma, -ae, Rome. Romanus, -S,, -lim, Roman; pi. Romani, the Romans. saepe (adv.), often. salus, -utis, safety. sanguis, -Inis (m.) (Gr. [115]), hlood. Santdnes, -um, the Santones. satis (adv. and indeclinable adj.), enourjh. sS,tisfacti6, -onis, excuse. scio, scire, scivi,scitum,to knoio. secundus, -a, -iim, second. sed (conj.), hut. sedeclm, sixteen. sedltiosiis, -§,, -um, seditious, quarrelsome. s6mel (adv.), once ; s§m§l atquS ItSrum, once and again, repeat- edly. sementis, -Is, soxcing (of grain) . senatus, -us, senate. senex, senis (Gr. [115]), old. senior (Gr. [123]), older. septentrio, -onIs, north (usually pl.). Septimus, -a, -um, seventh. sepultura, -ae, hurial. Sequana, -ae (f.), Seine (river). Sequanus, -a, -um, Sequanian ; pl. Sequani, the Sequanians. sequor, sequi, secutiis, to fol- loio ; to he inflicted (said of pun- ishment) , servills, -6, of slaves; servills tumultiis, slave insurrection. servltus, -utIs, slavery. sescenti, -ae, -a, six hundred. sex, six. si (conj.), if. sicut (conj.), as, just as. silva, -ae, icood, forest. sin (conj.), but if. socius, -i, friend, ally. sol, soils, SU71. solum (adv.), only; non solum . . . s6d 6tiS,m, not only . . . but also. solus, -a, -Um (Gr. 71), alone. spatium, -i, space, distance ; time. spectd, -are, -avi, -at\im,to look, look at, see. sperO, -ar§, -avi, -atiim, to hope, expect, hope for. spes, spei, hope ; In spem venirS, " comeintoho]pe," entertainahope. statuO, -u§r§, -ui, -utxim, to de- cide, determine. stipendiarius, -a, -iim, tributary. stiidium, -i, zeal, friendship. sub (prep, w, ace. and abl.), \inder. subdued, -ducere, -duxi, -duc- tiim, to loithdraiv, draw off. subsldium, -i, reinforcement, help. subsiim, -ess§, -fui, -fiituriis, to be near, he at hand. subvehd, -veh§re, -vexi, -vec- tiim, to bring up. Suevi, -orum, the Suevi, Sivabians. sui (Gr. 125), himself, herself, etc. ; themselves ; inter se ; see inter. SuUa, -ae, Sulla. Slim, esse, fui, futuriis (Gr. 221), to be. stimmiis, -a, -um (Gr. [123]), highest ; summiis mons, top of the mountain; so in similar ex- pressions. sum6, sumere, sumpsi, sump- I tum, to take. 100 LATIN INDEX. siip§ro, -arg, -avi, -atum, to over- come, conquer. supersum, -esse, -fui, -futurus, to he left over, survive. siiperus, -&, -urn (Gr. [123]), up- per. suppeto, -petere, -petivi, -peti- tura, to he on hand, he in store. susclpio, -cipere, -cepi, -cep- tum, to undertake; sibi susci- pere, to take on one's self. susplcid, -onis, suspicion. sustlneO, -tinere, -tinui, -ten- tum, to hold out against, with- stand. SUU3, -a, -um, his own, his, her, its, etc. T. = Titus. tace&, t§.cerg, tS,cui, t&cltiim, to keej) silent, hold oiic's peace. tand§m (adv.), at last, at length. telum, -i, missile, javelin. tempero, -are, -avi, -atiim, to refrain. tempiis, -oris, time. teneo, tenere, tenui, tentiim, to hold. tent6, -are, -avi, -atiim, to tnj, attempt, test. tergtim, -i, hack. tertius, -a, -lim, third. testamentum, -i, will. Teutoni, -6riim, the Teutoni. timor, -oris, fear, panic. Tolosates, -ium, the Tolosates. totldem (iudecliuahle adj.), as many, the same numher of. totiis, -a, --am (Gr. 71), loholc, all. tradd, -dSr6, -didl, -dlttlm, to fjive over, surrender. trand, -ar§, -avi^ -atiim, to swim across. trans (prep. w. ace), over, across, beyond. transduce, -ducer6, -duxi, -duc- tum (Gr. [268]), to lead over, transport. transeo, -ire, -ii, -Itum, to go over, cross. tres, trig, (Gr. 118), three. tribunus, -i, tribune. trlbu6, -uere, -ui, -utum, to as- sign, attribute. triduum, -i, three days. trig-inta, thirty. triplex, -Ids (Gr. [108]), triple. tu (Gr. 125), thou, thee ; often trans- lated by Eng. you. tuna (adv.), then. tumultus, -us, uproar, broil ; iiv- surrection. tuiis, -&, --am, thy, thine. U. tibi (conj.), whei'e, token. Ubii, -orum, the Uhii. ult§ri6r, -iiis (Gr. [12Z]), farther, later. ultlmiis, -a, -iim (Gr. [12.3]), farthest, last. ultra (prep.), beyond. und6 (conj.), ichence,from icJiich. undeviginti, eighteen. undlque (adv.), on all sides, from all sides. uniis, -a, -iim (Gr. 71), 07ie, only, alone. urbs, -bis, city. usquS ad, ^ip to, until. asus, -us, use, experience, advan- tage ; dat. Usui (Gr. [272]), ad- vantageous, vseful. at (conj.), as; "W. subj., in order that, that, so that. titer, -tra, -trtlm (Gr. 71), lohich (of two), iiti (conj.), as; that (the same as ut). at6r, ati, asiis (Gr. [297]), to use, employ, enjoy. LATIN INDEX. 101 utrimque (adv.). on both sides. uxor, -oris, spouse ; husband or wife. V. vaco, -are, -avi, -atiim, to be emjJti/, be vacant. vadum, -i, shoal, ford. vag-or, -ari, -atus, to ivander. valeo, valere, valui, valltiim, to be strong, be able, have influ- ence. Valerias, -i, Valerius. vehementSr (adv.), greatly, strongly. vel (conj.), or ; v§l . . . v§l, either . . . or. velox, -ocis, sicift. veni5, vSnirS, veni, ventiim, to come. verbtim, -i, word. vergb, verger§, to slope, extend. vertd, vert§r§, verti, versttm, to turn. verus, -a, -lim, ti-ue. vescor, vesci (Gr. [297]), feed on, eat. Vesontio, -onis, Veso7itio. vesper, -i (Gr. [115]), evening. vester, -tra, -trum, your, yours. vetus, -eris, old, ancient. via, -ae, v:ay, road, path, journey. victoria, -ae, victory. viciis, -i, village. video, videre, vidi, visiim, to see ; pass, videri, to seem. vlgllia, -ae, icatch. viginti, twenty. vincliirQ = vinculum, vinciiliini, -i, chain, fetter. vinum, -i, loine. virtas, -atfe, manhood, merit, courage. vis, vis (Gr. \1\S\), violence, force; pi. vires, strength. v6c6, -are, -avi, -atiim, to call. Vocontii, -oriim, the Vocontii. volo, vell§, vSlui (Gr. 225), to loisft, be willing. v61untas, -atls, loish, consent. vSluptas, -atls, pleasure. vox, vocis, voice, talk, words. vulniis, -Sris, wound. ENGLISH II^DEX. A. a (not expressed in Latin) . able ; to be able, possum, posse, potui; valeOy valere, valid. about (adv.), circiter; prep, cir- cum ; de (= concerning) . absent, to be absent, ahsurn, abesse, afui, afuturus. accomplish, conficio, -ficSre, -feci, -fectum. according to (expressed by abl. case) . account ; on account of, 06 ,• propter. accuse, accuso, -are, -dvi, -dtum. across, trans. admit, recipio, -cip^re, -cepi, -cep- tum. advantageous, to be adv., pro- sum, prodesse, profui. af8.rm, confirmo, -arc, -dvi, -dtum. after (conj.), postquam ; often ex- pressed by abl. abs. after (j)rep.),pos«. afterward, postea. again, rursus. against my will, me invito. aid (noun), auxilium, -i. aid (rerh) , sublcvo,-dre,-dvi,-dtum. all, totus, -a, -urn (Gr. 71) ; omms, -e. ally, soeius, -i. Allobroges, AUobrdcjes, -um. allow, do, dare, dedi, datum ; al- low to surrender = receive into surrender, accipSre in deditioiiem. almost, paene. alone, solus, -a, -um (Gr. 71). Alps, Alpes, -ium (f.). ambassador, legdtus, -i. among, in w. abl., apiid. an (not expressed in Latin) . and, et ; -que ; atque or ac. announce, nuntio, -dre, -dvi, -dtum ; enuntio, renuntio. another, alius, -a, -ud; one an- other ; see one. answer, responsum, -i. any, aliquis, -qua, -quid; after si, nisi, ne, num ; quis, qua, quid ; in neg. sentences, quisquam or ullus. anything, cdiquid; after ne, etc., quid (Gr. [140]). Aquitania, Aquitania, -ae. Arar, Arar, -dris. Ariovistus, Ariovistus, -i. arms, arma, -drum. army, exercUus, -us. around, circum. arrival, adventus, -us. arrive, venio, -Ire, veni, ventum; pervenio. artifice, insidiae, -drum. Arvemi, Arverni, -drum. as (rel. pr.), qui, quae, quod. as possible, quam, w. superl. ask for, rogo, -dre, -dvi, -dtum; postulo, -are, -dvi, -dtum. assemble, convenio, -ire, -vem, -ventum. assign, tribuo, -uere, -ui, -utum. assizes, conventus, -uum. at, expressed by abl. or loo. case ; at home, domi ; (= to) ad. 104 ENGLISH INDEX. attack, adgredior, -grMi, -gres- sum ; impetumfacio, facere, feci, factum, w. prep, in w. ace. attempt (verb), conor, -dri, -utus. attempt (noun) ; make any at- tempt = attempt anything, quic- qiiam condri. attribute, tribuo,-^(otui. canton, pagus, -i. care, cura, -ae. cause (noim), causa, -ae. cause (verb), committo, -mitti^re, -misi, -missum ; followed by a result-clause, ut w. subj. ENGLISH INDEX. 105 cavalry, equitdtus, -us. ce&se, desisto,-sistere,~stUi,-stitum. Celts, Celtae, -drum. centurion, centurio, -onis. chance, casus, -us. change, converto, -vertere, -verti, -versum. character, natura, -ae. charg-e, procurro, -curr^re, -curri, -cursum. cheer, confirmo, -are, -dvi, -dtuni. chief, princeps, -tpis ; chief men, principes. children, liberi, -drum. {turn. choose, delef/o, -legale, -legi, -lee- circumstance, res, rei. city, urhs, -bis. •come, venio, -Ire, veni, ventum; come together, convenio ; come up to, succedo, -cedere, -cessi, -cessum, w. prep, sub ; come nearer, 2^ropius accedo ; come to iiSisa,fio, fieri, /actus. coming, adventus, -us. command, be in command of, praesum, -esse, -fui, -futurus (Gr. [269]). compasses; see pair, compel, cogo, cogh'e, coegi, coac- tum. complain, queror, queri, questus. ■conference, colloquium, -i. conquer, vinco, vincere, vici, vic- tum. consent, voluntas, -dtis. Considius, Considivs, -i. conspiracy, conjuratio, -67iis. construct, perduco, -duc^re, -duxi, -ductum. consul, consul, -ulis. contend, contendo, -tend^re,-tendi, -tentum. corn, frumentum, -i; or pi. fru- menta. council, concilium, -i. country, jTtnes, -ium. courage, animus, -i ; virtus, -utis. course, iter, itineris (Gr. [115] ) . cross, transeo, -ire, -ii, -itum. crush, opprimo, -X)rimere, -prcssi, -pressum. culture, humanitas, -dtis. custom, institutum, -i. daily (adv.), quotidie; (adj.) quo- tididnus, -a, -um (or cotidianus). danger jyericiilum, -i. dangevovLS, periciilosus, -a, -um. dare, audeo, -ere, ausus (Gr. [210], Cv)). daughter, j^^za, -ae. day, dies, -ei (c); two days, biduum, -i. daybreak, pnma lux. death, mors, -rtis. decide on, statuo, -ii&re, -ui, -utum. deep, altus, -a, -um. defeat, calamitas, -dtis. deliver (a speech), habeo, -ere, -ui, -itum. demand, flagXto, -are, -dvi, -dtum. depart, discedo, -cedere, -cessi, -cessum. departure, profectio, -onis. depend, nitor, niti, nisus or nixus. depth, altitudo, -inis. deserter, perfuga, -ae. desire, cupiditas, -dtis. desirous, cupidus, -a, -um. differ, differo, -ferre, distuli, dild- tum. difficult, diffictlis, -e (Gr. 121). discuss, Jacio, -dre, -dvi, -dtum. dismiss, dimitto, -mittere, -mlsi, -missum. distant, to be distant, absum. district, pagus, -i. distiirb, perturbo, -dre, -dvi, -dtum. ditch, /o5sa, -ae. Divico, Divico, -onis. 106 ENGLISH INDEX. divide, divido, -vidh'e, -vlsi, -vi- sum. Divitiacus, JDivitiacus, -i. do, facio, facer e, feci, factum ; (as an auxiliary, not expressed in Latin). doubt (noun), there is no doubt, 7ion est dubium. doubt (verb), dubito, -are, -dvi, -dtxim. draw, circumduco, -ducire, -duxi, -ductum; draw up (troops), i7i- struo, -struSre, -struzi , -structum. drive back, rejicio, -jicere, -jeci, -jectum. Dubis, Duhis, -is. Dumnorix, Dumndri'X, -Xgis. dw^ell, hablto, -are, -dvi, -dtitm; incOlo, -colSre, -colui, -cultum. each, uterque, -ttaque, -trumqtie (Gr. 71); to each other, m^erse. eagerly, most eagerly, cupidis- stme. eagerness, cupidUas, -dtis. earlier than, prius . . . quam. early, early in the night, prima node. east, oriens sol. easy, facUis, -e. effeminate, effemlno, -are, -dvi, -dtum. eighty, octoc/inta. elated, subldtxis, -a, -um. empty, to be empty, vaco, -dre, -dci, -dtum. encourage, cohortor, -«r?, -dtus. end, finis, -is (c.)- endure, perf^ro.-ferre, -tuli, -Idtum. enemy, hostis, -is. envoy, lef/dtus, -i. equal, par, -is (Gr. [108]). even, etiam. exact, sumo, sumSre, sumpsi, sumptum. excellence, bonitas, -dtis. except, praeter. extend, pateo, -ere, -ui. P. fact, res, rei ; often expressed also by neut. adj., e.g., hiec, these facts, faith, fides, -^i. far (adv.), longe. farther, ulterior, -ius. father, pater, -tris. favor, indulf/eo, -Igere, -Isi (Gr. [269]). feelings, animus, -i. few, pi. oipaucus, -o, -um. fifteen, quindScim. fight, jjugna, -ae. fight, pugno, -dre, -dvi, -dtum; contendo, -tendSre, -tendi, -ten- tum. fill, compleo, -plere, -plevi, -pletum, find, find out, reperio, -ire, rep- p^ri, repertum. finish, perficio, -flc^re, -feci, -fee- tum. fire, ignis, -is. first, primus, -a, -um (Gr. [123]) ; at first, prima. five, quinque. fix, confirmo, -dre, -dvi, -dtum. flank, latus, -fris; right flank, latus apertum (open side). flee, fugio, fugSre,fugi,fugXtum ; profugio. flight, fuga, -ae. flow, /uo, -Mgre, -uxi. follow, sequor, sequi, secutus. following, postl'rus, -a, -um. for (on account of), ob ; for the sake, see sake ; in behalf of, jjro. forces, copiae, -drum. forced marches = great marches, forefathers, majores, -um. forest, silva, -ae. ENGLISH INDEX. 107 forget, ohliviscor, -livisci, -litus (Gr. 280). form, facia, fac^re, feci, factum. former, pi'ior, -ius (Gr. [123]). fort, arx, arcis. fortify, munio, -ire, -Ivi, -itum; communio. forty, quadraginta. four, quattuor. fourth, quartus, -a, -um. free from blame, purgdtus, -a, -um. friend, amicus, -i. friendly, amicus, -a, -um. friendship, amicitia, -ae. frighten, perterreo, -ere, -ui, -itum. from, de ; (away from), «, «& ,• (out from), e, ex ; from which, unde ; from one another, inter se. front, in front of, pro. tu.g\ti^re,fugiiivus, -i. furnish, facio, fac^re, feci, fac- tum. future, for the future, in reli- quum tempus. G. gain, concilio, -are, -dvi, -dtum ; gain a request, impetro, -are, -avi, -dtum. Garonne (river), Garumna, -ae. Gaul, Gallia, -ae. Gaul, a Gaul, Gallus ; the Gauls, Galh. ■ German, Germdnus, -a, -um ; the Germans, Ger'mani. get, get possession of, potior, -iri, -itus (Gr. [297]) ; get used, consuesco, -suescere, -suevi, -su- etum. give, do, dare, dedi, datum. glory, gloria, -ae. go, eo, ire, ivi, or ii, itum ; se con- f&ro, -ferre, -tUli, -Idtum ; profi- ciscor, -ficisci, -fectus ; go on = be carried on, pass, of gero, ge- rere, gessi, gestum. god, deus, -i (Gr. 68). good, bonus, -a, -um (Gr. [123]). grain, fru7nentum, -i; or pi., fru- menta. great, magnus, -a, -um (Gr. [123]). greatly, vehemcnter. greediness, cupiditas, -dtis. habit, be in the habit, complete tenses of consuesco, -suescSre, -suevi, -suetum. Hseduan, Ilaeduus, -a, -um. half, half way up the hill, in colle medio ; a mile and a half = * ' one thousand and five hun- dred paces." hand, manus, -us (f.). happen, accido, -cid^re, -cidi. hard, difficUis, -e (Gr. [123]). harm, maleficium, -i. Harudes, Harudes, -um. haste, make haste = hasten. hasten, contendo, -dire, -di, -turn ; maturo, -are, -dvi, -dtum. have, habeo, -ere, -ui, -itum; ex- pressed also by dat. of possessor ; have to (=must), expressed by pass, periphr. conj. ; I had rather, malo, malle, malui. he, is, ille, &c. ; in nom. usually ex- pressed by the verb-ending. height, altitudo, -inis. help, auxilium, -i. Helvetian, Helvetius, -a, -um; the Helvetians, Helvetii. high, altus, -a, -um. hill, collis, -is (m.). himself, ipse, &c. (ref.) siii, &c. hire, mercede arcesso, -essere, -essivi, -essitum; (lit. summon by pay) ; gen. of is, ille, &c. (ref.) suus, -a, -um. 108 ENGLISH INDEX, hither, Hither Gaul, Gallia ci- terior. hold, teneo, -ere, -id, -tain ; (hold assizes), ago, ar/erc,. cgi, ac- tum. home, domus, -us (Gr. [115]); at home, domi ; homeward, do- mum. honor, honor, -oris. hope, spes, spci. hope, hope for, spero, -are, -dvi, -dtUTll. horseman, eques, -itis. hostage, obses, -idis. hostile, inimlcus, -a, -um. house, domus, -us (Gr. [115]). huge, inf/cns, -ntis. hundred, centum. hurt, offendo, -fendere, -fendi, -fensum. I, ego (Gr. 124); often expressed by the verb-eudiug. import, impjorto, -are, -dvi, -dtum. important, most important, sumnius, -a, -um (highest). in, in w. abl.; often expressed by abl. or loc. case. incredible, incredihllis, -e. induce, adduco, -duc^re, -duxi, -ductuni. inflict, infcro, -ferre, -tiili, -latum ; inflict punishment on, suppli- cium sumcre de (exact punish- ment from) . influence, auctoritas, -dtis; to have influence, possum. inhabit, incolo, -(Ire, -ui. inhabitant, incdla, -ae. injury, injuria, -ae. intend = have in mind, esse alicui ■ in animo ; also expressed by act. periphr. conj. intercessor, deprecdtor, -oris. interests, res, rerum. interval, intervcdlum, -i. intervene, passive of intermitto,. -mittere, -misi, -missuin. into, in w. ace. it, sui ; is, ea, id; ille, &c. itself, ipse, ipsa, ipsum. • javelin, pilum, -i. join (battle), committo, -mittere, -misi, -missum. journey, iter, itincris (Gr. [115]).. Jura, Jura, -ae. keep, keep out, prohiheo, -ere, -ui, -Itum; keep in, contineo, -tinere, -tinui ,• (= stay), se teneo, -ere, -ui, -turn. kno'W, cognosco, -nosc^re, -novi, -nltum. known, to make known, mintio, -dre, -dvi, -dtum. kill, interjicio, -ficire, -feci, -fee- tum. kind, genus, -iris. kindness, beneficium, -i. king-, rer, regis. kingdom, re gnu m, -i. kingly power, regnum, -i. L. Labienus, Labienus, -i. lack, inopia, -ae. lake, lacus, -us (Gr. [110]). land, ager, -gri ; lands (= coun- try), ^nes, -ium. language, lingua, -ae. lapse, after a lapse of three days, triduo intermisso. large, magnus, -a, -um. larger, major, -us (Gr. [123] ) . largest, maxlmus, -a, -um (Gr.. [123]). last, then at last ; see then. ENGLISH INDEX. 109 lately, mtper. law, lex, legis. lay -waste, popwZor, -art, -citus. lead, duco, ducerc, dxixi, ductum ; lead forth or out, educo ; lead back, reduco ; lead (= induce) , induco. leadership, principdtus, -us. learn, comperio, -per'ire, -peri, -per- tum ; intellego, -Icfjere, -lexi, -lec- tum; cognosco, -noscere, -novi, -nitum. least, minimus, -a, -nm ; (adv.) minime. leave, relinquo, -linquerc^ -Uqui, -lictum; (= go away) decedo, -cedire, -cessi, -cessum, w. prep. de; discedo ; egredior, -gredi, -gressus, w. prep. c. left, reliquus, -a, -um. legion, legio, -onis. length, longitudo,-inis; inlength, in longitudinem. less (adj.), minor, -us. less (adv.), mirius. let, in hortatory sentences; ex- pressed in Latin by the subj. levy, impero, -are, -dvi, -dtum. line (of battle) , acies, -ei. Lingones, Lingdnes, -um. Liscus, Liscus, -i. lost, suhldtus, -a, -um (taken away). M. make, facio, fac^re, feci, factum ; make (war) , infero, gero ; make use of, utor, uti, usus; make (= render, cause to be), efficio, -ficere, -feci, -fectum; make a stand ; see stand. man, homo, -inis; vir, viri. " Men " is often expressed by using a masculine adjective. many, pi. of multus, -a, -um. march (noun), iter, itineris (Gr. [115]). march (verb) = make a march ; iter facio, facere, feci, factum. marriage, matrimonium; in marriage, in matrimonium. marry, in matrimonium duco, du- cere, duxi, ductum ; also duco alone, matter, res, rei. may, in wishes expressed by subj. ; may (= one is permitted) , licet,. licere, licuit, licitum. mean, designo, -dre, -dvi, -dtum. meanwhile, interim. Messala, Messdla, -ae. Mettius, Mettius, -i. mile, mille passuum. mind, mens, -ntis. missile, telum, -i. month, mensis, -is. more, plus (Gr. [92] and [123]). most, to be most powerful, plurimum possum. mountain, mons, -ntis. move, moveOy -ere, movi, motum; commoveo. much, multus, -a, -um ; much (= many things), mxdta. multitude, midtitudo, -inis. must, expressed by pass. peri. conj» my, meus, -a, -um. N. name, nomen, -Inis. narrow, angustus, -a, -um. naXiion, populus, -i. nature, natura, -ae. nearer, citerior, -iiis (Gr. [123] ) . nearer (adv.), propiws (Gr. [123]). nearest, proximus, -a, -um (Gr. [123] and [268]). necessity, from necessity, ne- cessario (adv.). neighbor, fijiitimus, -i. neighboring, proximus, -a, -um (Gr. [123]). no ENGLISH INDEX. neither, neque or nee. ne-w, novus, -a, -um. next (following) ,posferws, ~a, -um ; proximus, -a, -um ; on the next day, postridie or postridie ejus dm (Gr. [285]). no, nullus, -a, -um ; no one, nemo, -inis; nullus. nobility, nobilitas, -dtis. noble, nohilis, -e. nor, neque or nee; neither . . . nor, neque . . . neque or nee . . . nee. not, non ; not yet, nondum. nothing-, nihil (indecl.). notice, animum adverto, -vertire, -verti, -versum, or animadverto. number, numerus,-i; large num- ber, magna copia. numerous, multi, -ae, -a. O. oaithjusjurandum, juris juratidi ; take an oath, juro, -are, -avi, -atum. occupy, occiipo, -are, -dvi, -dtum. of, expressed by gen. case. off, shut off ; see shut, often, saepe. old, vetus, -iris ; senex, senis. on, in w. abl. ; often expressed by abl. or dat. case ; on the right ■wing, a dextro cornu. one, unus, -a, -um (Or. 71) ; the one . . , the other, alter . . . alter; one another, with, for, to, &c., one another, inter se. only, unus, -a, -um (Gr. 71). opportunity, facultas, -dtis. or, aut. order, jubeo, -ere, jussi, jussum. Orgetorix, Orgetdrix, -Xgis. other, alius, -a, -ud; the other (of two), alter, -a, -um. ought, debeo, -ere, -ui, -Uum ; also expressed by pass, periph. conj. our, noster, -tra, -trum. out, out of, out from, e or ex ; go out, exeo, exlre, exii, exUum. over, cross over = cross, overlook, neglego, -legSre, -lexi, -lectum. own, suus, -a, -um; also expressed by gen. case of ipse. P. pace, p>assus, -us. pair of compasses, circXnus, -i. panic, timor, -oris. pardon, ignosco, -noscPre, -novi, -notum (Gr. [269]). part, pars, -rtis. party, /actio, -onis. pass, come to i>&38, jio, JiPri, fac- tilS. passage, iter, iiiniris (Gr. [115]). peace, pax, pads. people (a nation), ^wpw^^/s, -i. perfectly, expressed by superla- tive. perform, facio, factre, feci, fac- tum ; conjicio, perficio. permit, it is permitted, licet, li- cere, licuit, licUum. persuade, persuadeo, -ere, -sudsi, -stidsum. phalanx, j^halanx, -ngis. Piso, Piso, -onis. pitch (a camp), pono, ponSre, po- sui, posUum. place, loctis, -i (Gr. [116]). plenty, cop/a, -ae. popularity, gratia, -ae. position, locus, -i (Gr. [116]). possession, get possession ; see get. possible, as possible, quam w. superl. post, constituo, -uSre, -ui, -utum. power, potestas, -dtis ; (= sway, upper hand), potentdtus, -us; kingly power, regnum. ENGLISH IISTDEX. Ill powerful, to be powerful, pos- sum, posse, potui. prefer, malo, malle, malui. prepare, compdro, -are, -dvi, -dtum. prepared (= ready), pardtus, -a, -um. present, praesens, -ntis; to be present, adsum. prevent, prohibeo, -ere, -m, -itum. prisoner, hostis captus; captivus, -L ■prrvilege,facuUas, -dtis. prolong-, cluco, ducSre, duxi, duc- tuin. promise, poUiceor, -eri, -Uus. proper, it is proper, oportet, oportere, oportuit. province, provincia, -ae. punishment, supplicium, -i. pursue, sequor, sequi, secutus ; in- sequor. put, put an end = make an end ; put around, circvmdo, -dare, -dedi, -datum (Gr. 226). raft, ratis, -is. rather ; see have. ready, pardtus, -a, -um. reason, causa, -ae. receive, capio, capere, cepi, cap- turn; accipio. record, tabula, -ae. reduce, redigo, -ig^re, -egi, -ac- tum. refinement, cultus, -us. refrain, temp^ro, -dre, -dvi, -dtum,. region, regio, -onis. remain, supersum, -esse, -fui, -fu- turus. remaining", reliquus, -a, -um. report, nuntio, -dre, -dvi, -dtum; enuntio, renuntio. repulse, propulso,-dre, -dvi,-dtum. request, gain a request, impS- tro, -dre, -dvi, -dtum. rescue, eripio, -ripSre, -ripui, -rep- tum. resist, suhsisto, -sistere, -stiti, -stl- tum. resolve, he resolved = it pleased him, pjlacuit ei. rest of, reliquus, -a, -um. retreat, petZem reflro, -ferre,-tuli, -latum. return, reditio, -onis. return, redeo, -Ire, -ii, -Hum; re- vertor, -certi, -versus; also act. reverto ; se recipio, -cipSre, -cepi, -ceptum. revolution, res novae. Rhine (river), Rhenus, -i. Rhone (river), Bhoddnus. right, right flank ; see flank, ripe, m.aturt(s, -a, -um. river, flumeri; -inis. road, via, -ae. Roman, Romdnus, -a, -um. Rome, Roma, -ae. room, spatium, -i. rouse up, incito, -dre, -dvi, -dtum. route, iter, itinPris (Gr. [115]). royal power, regnum. run up, accurro, -currSre, -curri, -cursum. S. sake, for the sake, causa. same, idem, eddem, idem. save, eripio, -ripSre, -ripui, -rep- tum. say, dico, dicSre, dixi, dictum. second, alter, -a, -\im. see, video, -ere, vidi, visum; con- spicor, -dri, -dtus. seek, appHo, -petere, -petlvi, -peti- tum. seize, occupo, -dre, -dvi, -dtum. senate, sendtus, -us. send, mitto, mittSre, misi, missum. 112 ENGLISH INDEX. Sequanian, Sequanvs, -a, -um. set, constituo, -were, -ui, -utum; set out, proJicAscor, -ficisci, -fec- tus. seventh, septimus, -a, -um. severe, gravis, -e; severest (= greatest), summus, -a, -urn. severely, firaviter, vehementer. ship, 7iavis, -is (Gr. [99]). shortest, proximus, -a, -um. shut off, intercludo, -cludere, -clusi, -clusum. signal, signum, -i. situation, locus, -i (Gr. [116]). six, sex. six hundred, sescenti, -ae, -a. sixteen, sedecim. size, magnitudo, -inis. slain, the slain, occisi, -drum. slaughter, interuecio, -onis. slay, interjicio, -ficere, -feci, -fec- tum ; concldo, -cidSre, -cidi. small, parvus, -a, -um. smaller, minor, -us (Gr. [123]). so, ita. soil, solum., -i. soldier, iniles, -Uis. ^ some, nonnullus, -a, -um; som© . . . others, alii , . . alii. son, filius, -i. sorrow, dolor, -oris. space, spatium. speak, loquor, loqui, locutus. speech, oratio, -onis. spirit, animus, -i. spring" up, innascor, -nasci, -ndtus. stand, make a stand, insto, -stare, -instUi ; take a stand, consisto, -sistere, -stUi, -stitum. Btaxt, proficiscor, -ficisci, -fectus. state, civitas, -atis. stone, lapis, -Idis (c). stop, lyrohiheo, -ere, -ui, -Uum; (= make au end) , finem facio, facere, feci, facUim. strongly, gravUer. successive, continuus, -a, -um.. sudden, subitus, -a, -um. suddenly, repente. Suevi, Suevi, -drum. suitable, idoneus, -a, -um,. summon, voco, -are, -avi, -dtum. sunset, solis occdsus, -us. supply (noun), cojna, -ae. supply (verb), supporto,-dre,-dvi, -dtum. surrender, deditio, -onis. surround, cingo, cingere, cinxi, cinctum. survive, supersum, -esse, -fui, -fu- iurus. suspect, suspxcor, -dri, -dtus. suspicion, saspicio, -o7iis. S"way, imperium, -i; dicio, -onis. swiftly, celeriter. sw^ord, gladius, -i. take, capio, capPre, cepi, captum ; take away, aufero, -ferre, ah- stuli, abldtum ; tollo, tollere, sus- tuli, subldtum; take an oath, juro, -are, -dvi, -dtum. teach, instituo, -uSre, -ui, -utum. tear, lacrima, -ae. tell, nuntio, -drc, -dvi, -dtum; p.nuntio, renuntio ; (= order) , ju- beo, jubere, Jussi, jussum. ten, decern. tenth, declmus, -a, -um. territories, _//7ies, -ium. than, quam ; also expressed by abl. ease. that (demon.), is, ea, id; ille, ilia, illud; iste, ista, istud ; (relat.), qui, q^iae, quod. that (couj.), ut, quin; that not, ne ; but that, quin. The Eng- lish conj. that in indirect quota- tions is omitted in Latin, where the infin. is used. the, omitted in Latin. ENGLISH INDEX. 113 their, siius, -a, -um ; when not re- flexive, expressed by the gen. case of a pronoun, eorum, illorum, &c. themselves, sui; ipse. then, turn ; then at last, turn de- mum. there (introductory) , not expressed in Latin, there (adv. = in that place), ibi. these ; see this. thing-, res, rei ; often expressed by a neuter adjective ; e.g. haec, these thing's; multa, many things, think, existimo, -are, -dvi, -dtum. third, tertius, -a, -um. thirteen, tredecim. this, hie, haec, hoc ; is, ea, id. those, ii, eae, ea, &c.; illi, illae, ilia, &c. thousand, mille (Gr. [118]). three, tres, tria; three days, tri- dumn. through, per. throw, jacio, jacSre, jeci,jactum ; conjicio, -jicSre, -jeci, -jectum. thus, ita. Tigurinus, Tigurinus, -i. time, tempus, -Oris. to, ad, in ; often expressed by dat. or ace. case, together, usually expressed by con-; e.g. convdco, call to- gether, &c. too, expressed by comparative. top, expressed by summus in agree- ment, torture, crucidtus, -us. toward, ad. town, oppidum, -i. trader, msrcdtor, -oris. train, exerceo, -ere, -ui, -Uum. treat, ago, ag^re,egi, actum; treat as enemies = hold in the num- ber of enemies. tribe, tribe by tribe, generdtim (adv. "tribewise"). trickery, dolus, -i. troops, copiae, -drum. trust, co7ifido, -fidere, -fisus, w. dat. (Gr. [269]) or abl. (Gr. 295). try, Conor, -dri, -dtus. turn, verto, vertere, verti, versum ; turn away, averto. twenty, viginti. two, duo, -ae, -o (Gr. 72); two • days, biduum, -i. two hundred, ducenti, -ae, -a. Ubii, Ubii, -orum. under, sub ; under the sway, in dicidne. undergo, subeo, -Ire, -ii, -Uum. undertake, suscipio, -clpSre, -cepi, -ceptum. unfavorable, alienus, -a, -um. unwilling, invitus, -a, -um ; to be unwilling, nolo, nolle, nolui. upbraid, incuso, -dre, -dvi; -dtum. use, vtor, uti, usus (Gr. [297]). used, get used ; see get. useful, to be useful, prosum, prodesse, profui, profuturus. V. Verbigenus, Verbigenus, -i. very, expressed by the superlative, victory, victoria, -ae. vigorously, acriter. village, vlcus, -i. violence, vis, vis (Gr. [115]). visit, commeo, -dre, -dvi, -dtum; w. prep. ad. W. wage, gero, gerere, gessi, gestum. wait, moror, -dri, -dtus. wall, murus, -i. 114 ENGLISH INDEX. wander, vagor, -dri, -dtus. war, helium, -i. warn, moneo, -ere, -ui, -itum. waste, lay waste ; see lay. watch, vigilia, -ae. way, via, -ae ; half way up ; see half. we, nos; often expressed in verb- ending. weaken, effemino,-dre,-dvi, -dtum. what, qualis, -e ; qui, quae, quod. which (relat.), qui, qtiae, quod; from which, unde. while, dum; often expressed by abl. abs. who (rel.), qui, quae, quod; (in- terrog.), quis? quae? quid? whole, totus, -a, -um (Gr. 71); omnis, -e. will (vb.), expressed by future tense). will, against my will, = I [be- ing] unwilling, abl. abs. wine, vinum, -i. wing, cornu, -us. winter, hi^mo, -are, -dvi, -dtum. wish, volo, velle, volui. with, cum, apud ; often expressed by abl. case, within, intra (time within which expressed by abl. case), without, sine. witness, testis, -is. word, verbiim, -i; bring word; see bring, work, ojjus, -iris. wound, vulnus, -eris. wrong, injuria, -ae. Y. year, annus, -i. yet, not yet, nondum. you, tu, te or vos ; often expressed by verb-ending. younger, jimior (Gr. [123]). your, tidis, -a, -um ; vester, -tra, -trum. yourselves, vos. Z. zeal, alacrltas, -dtis. J. S- Cubbing &; Co., Printers, 115 High Street, Boston. 1 [For Allen & Greenough's Caesar; four books with vocabulary.] PAEALLEL EEFERENOES TO BLACKBURN'S "ESSENTIALS OF L ATIN GRAMM AR." [Unbrackctcd references are to the head matter. The corresponding note should always be read also, and the illustrations studied. Bracketed references are to the notes. When a note contains more than one para- graph, a small figure at the right is used to show the paragrajjh referred to.] BOOK I. Chap. I. est divisa, [344]. — lingua, 300. — dividit, [257]^. — horum, 283. — effeminandos, 349, [349]"^. — Germanis, 271. — qua de causa, 443. — quam . . . dictum est, [322]2, 337. Chap. II. ]V[essala, etc., 487, 307. — civitati persuasit, [209]^. — ut exirent, [325]". — cum praestarent, [328]. — imperio, [297]^. — hoc, 298. — id, [269]3. _ fiebat, [309]3. — ut . . . possent, [326] 5. — bellandi, [288]. — adficiebantur, [12] (/). Chap. III. quae pertinerent, [322]^. — comparare, 338. — ut occuparet, [325]", [269] 3, [311] 2. — perfacile factu, 352. — non esse dubium quin, [326] 1. — regno occupato, 307, [346]. — Galliae, [290]. Chap. IV. ut crcmaretur, [326]^. — igni, [99]*. — die constituta, 60, 301. — causae, 288. — cum conaretur, [330] i. Chap. V. arbitrati sunt, [330] i. — domum, 265. — receptos, [346]. Chap. VI. possent, 316. — singuli, [118]. — locis, [299]. — a. d. v. Kal. Apr., [268]^, 496. Chap. VII. qui dicerent, 325. — sibi, 270. — ut liceat, [325]^. — Cas- sium . . . occisum, 338. — concedendum, [348]. — animo, 305. — itineris faciundi, 349. — dum convenirent, [330]*. — reverterentur, 324. Chap. VIII. quo . . . possit, 325, [325]3. — si . . . possent, 328. Chap. IX. novis rebus, [269]3. Chap. X. ut haberet, [326]*, [326]^. Chap. XI. depopulatis agris, [346]. Chap. XII. flumen, [268]. — Ararim, [99]i. — mandarunt,215. Chap. XIII. pontem faciendum, [349]-2. — intelligerent, [330]i. — diebus, 301. — incommodi, 280. Chap. XIV. eo . . . quo, [298]2. — quod si, [267]. — vexassent, 322. — cum, [329]. Chap. XVI. cotidie,[12]2.— Haeduos frumentum,[262]5. — flagitare,342. Chap. XVII. ne . . . conferat, [325] 2. — dubitare quin, [326]. — Haeduis, [269]^. Chap. XIX. conaretur, [330]^. Chap. XX. futurum uti, 476. — faciat, [325]^. — tanti, 274. Chap. XXI. qui cognoscerent, 325. Chap. XXII. milia, 266. Chap. XXIII. diei, [285] 3. Chap. XXIV. qui sustineret, 325. Chap. XXV. impedimento, 272. Chap. XXVI. coniciebant, [12] (c). — Lingonas, [74]2. Chap. XXXI. Caesari, [269]. — adamassent, 215. — quo minus essent, [325]3. — banc consuetudinem, 440. — vicerit, 322. — quin sumat, [326]i. — Ehenum, [268]. Chap. XXXII. Sequanis, 270. Chap. XXXIII. curae, 272. — ut fecissent, 333. — quibus rebus, [269]*. Chap. XXXVI. qui f aceret, [328] . Chap. XXXVII. qui . . . essent, 322. — resisti, 234, [235], end. Chap. XXXIX. quam diceret, [322]5. — ut . . . posset, [325]^. Chap. XL. cur . . . judicaret, 317, 472. — sibi persuaderi, 234, [235], end. potuerint, [312]. Chap. XLI. imperatoris, [285]. Chap. XLII. equitibus, [269]^. — si quid, [267]. — facto, [297]3. . Chap. XLIY. si remittatur, 331, 460. Chap. XL VI. omni Gallia, 294. Chap. XLVIL uti constitueret, [325] 7. — quin conicerent, [326]. — civitate, 297. Chap. L. utrum . . . necne, 432, 433. Chap. LII. phalangas, [74]^. ' BOOK II. Chap. I. vererentur, 322. — novis imperils, [269]^. Chap. III. opinione, [296] (d). — exBelgis, [284]*. — potuerint, [312]. Chap. V. rci publicae, 291. Chap. VII. subsidio, 272. — potiundi oppidi, 349, [297]^. — omnibus copiis, 304. — amplius, 266 or [296] (e). Chap. X. convenirent, [325p. Chap. XVII. ex . . . Gallis, [284]*. Chap. XIX. hostis, [99]^. Chap. XXI. posset, [326]2. — defuerit, [312]. Chap. XXVII. quo praefcrrent, [325]3. Chap. XXX. contomptui, 272. Chap. XXXIL ne quani, [140]. Chap. XXXIII. pellibus, 297. BOOK III. Chap. V. pugnaretur, [309] ■•^. Chap. VI. sui colligendi, [348J2. Chap. VII. mare, [208]='. Chap. VIII. quam acccperant, 478. Chap. IX. ut acciderent, [321]-2. Chap. X. retentorum equitum, 347. Chap. XI. adeat, [325]5. Chap. XXVI. prius . . . quam . . . posset, [330]^. BOOK IV. Chap. I. premebantur, [309]'-. Chap. II. desiderent, [322]^, compare [333]. Chap. IV. prius quam fieret, [330]^ Chap. V. cousuetudinis, [285]. Chap. XII. amplius octingentos, [296] (e). Chap. XIV. -ne . . . an . . . an, [314]*. Chap. XVII. deiciendi operis, [349]^. Chap. XIX. uti convenirent, [325]'. Chap. XXI. qui poUiceantur, 325. — dare, 335. — magni, [274]. — auderet, [311]2. Chap. XXIII. convenirent, [330]*. — ut quae haberet, [328]. Chap. XXIV. copiis, 304. — generis, [288], Chap. XXVII. ignoscere, [338]. Chap. XXX. hoc, 297. Chap. XXXII. geruntur, [309] i. — ventitaret, [247]^. Chap. XXXIV. quae continerent, [326]^. Chap. XXXV. tanto spatio, 302. [For Allen & Greenough's Cicero.] PAEALLEL KEPEEENOES TO BLACKBURN'S "ESSENTIALS OP LATIN GEAMMAE." [Unbracketecl references are to the head matter. The corresponding note should always be read also, and the illustrations studied. Bracketed i-eferenccs are to the notes. When a note contains more than one para- graph, a small figure at the right is used to show the paragraph referred to.] DEFENCE OF ROSCIUS. 1. Mirari . . . surrexerim, etc., 408-475 ; for the order, see 479-482. cum sedeant, [328]. sim, [333]. defendere, 335. ut adsint, [320] 5. _ 2. istius, 440. sim, 310. aliis, [209] 2. me, 485. Rosci, 07. reciperem, 325, [311] 1. fecisset, 327.-3. dixero, [331]. concedi, 234. ignosci, [209] 3. — 4. petitum sit, 310. ut dicerent, [325] \ ut arbitrarentur, 320, [311]. ei . . . qui, 440. debeam, [320] 2. causae, 209. utne, [325]^. — 5. ereptum, [340]. — 6. rectum [esse] se pugnare, 38, 337. proscribe- rentur, [330] 1. — 7. isti, 440. quod sciam, [207]. — 8. judicatote, [315] 3. — 9. Ameriam, 205. — 10. tris, [99] &. Tiberim, [99] ^. ne teneam, [325] ^. — 12. despexerit, 333. ut moliantur, 325. quamvis felix sit, [321]2. qui habeat, [320] 2. — 13. qui solvisset, [320] 2. eicit, [12] (c). qui fuisset, [320] 2. domum, 205. auferebat, [309] 3. urbe tota, [299]. — 15. nobilis, [99] 5. qui peterent, 325. vellem, 322. — 17. dome, [293]. — 18. ut pugnarent, [320] ^. de parricidio [284] ^. eum jugulandum, [349] 2. — 19. pater occisus, 347. ut optet, [320] 5. qui dicat, 325. — 21. si postularet, 331, 312. auditum sit, 450. — 22. major, [290] (e). de luxuria, [284] 3. _ 30. venisses, [320]. — 32. tibi, 209. veniat, [325] 5. — 33. poterat, 449. possis, 310. — 41. diem,e0. — 42. pernicii, [58]2. — 43. ut componeretur, [320] 5. retineretur, 310. — 45. verear, [328]. — 48. quod, quia, [328]. — 50. quasi nescias, [327] 3. — 54. condemna- retis, [311]. — 55. an vero, 434. — 57. hominibus, 209. IMPEACHMENT OF VERRES. 3. judicaveritis, [331]. — partim, [101], [248], [207]. devitaverim, 333. — 4. dictitat, [247] 1. — 5. cadit, [309] 2. — 10. constitueret, [320] 5. — 14. commemorare, 335. — 24. agere, 335. — 29. expediat, [320] 2, — 31. Nonae, 490. — 44. fuisse desideraturos, 409. — 56. fuisse, 405. PLUNDER OF SYRACUSE. 1. hanc, illo, 440. — 12. eat, 321. CRUCIFIXION OF A ROMAN CITIZEN. 1. dicam, [309] 2. quae sint, [326] 2. tenereni, [311]. — 2. nescio qua, [323]-. — 6. quemquam, 444. — 10. induatur, 154, [267] 2. — 12. quod velit, [326] 2. THE MANILIAN LAW. 3. laetandum, 234, [235], end. mihi, 270. — 13. coramendetis, [320] 3. — 19. memoria, 299. amiserant, [330]. — 22. dum conligunt, [309] 1. — 27. haberetis, 320. superarit, [320] 2. — 38. existimetis, 317. — 49. quin conferatis, [326] 1. — 50. erat diligendus, 455. — 53. an, 434. — 57. ne legaretur, 325. utrura . . . an, 432. — 59. cum quaereret, [330]. quo . . . hoc, [298] 2. — 64. parendum, 234, [235], end. — 66. idoneus, etc., [326] 3. quasi non videanius, [327] ^. — 70. putem, 322. — 71. videar, 326. CATILINE I. 2. oportebat, [309] 2. — 6. fateatur, [326] 2. — 6. recognoscas, [325] ^ — 7. in ante diem, [268] 2. sui conservandi, [348] 2. cum . dicebas, [330] 1. —8. quam te, 477. — 8. uUo, 444. —9. gentium, [283]. — 10. id temporis, [283]. desiderant, [309] 2. — H. videbani, [309] 3. _ 18. mihi, [269]2. — 22. duint, [226]. est tanti, [274].— 27. mactari, 338.— 31. nescio quo pacto, [323]*. — 33. arcebis, [315]^. CATILINE II. 3. accuset, [326] 2. — 4. rideretis, 333. eduxisset, 320. mihi, 209. — 5. mallem, 316. eduxisset, [325] ^. — 7. ejecerit, [331]. conceperit, [326] 2. tota Italia, [299]. — 9. possitis, 325. — 11. nescio quod, [323] *. — 13. ei, [270]. — 14. eiciebam, [309] 3. velint, [326] 2. _ 18. sis, 317. — 19. non vident, 430. CATILINE III. 7. deferrem, [322] s. _ 8. ut uteretur, [325] ". — 9. defuturas, 468. — 15. occideret, [326] 3. — 20. conlocandum, [349] 2. — 22. quo, [298] 2. si dicam, [331]. CATILINE IV. 6. jam pridem videbam, [309] 2. _ 9. mea, [291]. — 12. huic, [269]. — 17. futurum fuit, 449, 455. ARCHIAS. 4. urbe, [254] 2. _ 25. civitate, 297. — 31. quae comprobetur, [326] 2. [For Allen's Latin Composition.] PAEALLEL EEPEEENOES TO BLAOKBUEN'S "ESSENTIALS or LATIN QEAMMAE." [The unbracketed references are to the head matter in coarse print. They should be carefully memorized, and the notes and illustrations to them should be carefully studied and mastered. Bracketed references are to the notes. When only a part of the note is included in the reference, the paragraph is indicated by a small figure at the right. References in the foot-notes are Indicated as there by a, b, c, etc.] 1. 254,255,257. 2. 262. Notes : c, adjectives are often used substantively as in English ; f, "inter se"; y, " remaining Gauls " ; A, 300; i, [308]^. 3. 426-434. Comp. [314]. Notes : b, 431 ; c, 420; d, 432; a, 273, 299. 4. 435-445, 256, [257]2. Notes: a, "in which day"; c, [298]2; /, quod to agree with " head." 8. 262, [268]. Notes : a, [116] ; b, use prep, a; g, 254. 9. 269,234. 10. 277, 280, 281, 289, 290, 291, [297]^. Note : a, capitis, [289]. 11. [285], [288], [290]. Notes: c, [288]; e, [285]. 12. 271. For the dat. with adjs. a prep, is often used in the same sense. 13. 294, 296, 297, 298, [290], [300], [303]. Notes : a, [296] (c), the same is true of adverbs also; b, [296] (e). 14. 264, 267. Note : g, [267]2. 15. 269, 270, 272. Note; a, "to [you] entering." 16. 295, 297, 300, 303, 305, 306, [274]. Note: b, [300], [303]. 17. 265, 266, 273, 284, 293, 299, 301, 487, [268]. Notes: a, [309]i; b, [254]2; c, 490; i, [273] 1. 18. 213, 345, 348, 349. Note : a, 270. 19. 316, 317, 318-321, [315]. Note: a, [296], end. 20. 311, 312. 21. 327, 331, 448. Notes: a, 450; d, [332], 452. 22. 328, 330. Note : a, [309] K 23. 325, 326, 351, [346]. Note: e, [309]5. 24. 337, 338. The tenses of the infinitives and participles denote time, present, past, or future, relative to the time of the verb on which they depend. Note : i, [340] 2. 27. 323, 324, 469-472. 28. 323. Notes: c, 139; e, [311]2. 29. [325]', [326]5. 30. 281,291. 31. [255]5, [285]. 33. 315, 318-321. 34. 346. 35. 270, 351, 352. Note: a, make the relative agree with Argei, [256]. 37. [254]. 38. 283, 284, 286, 288, [285]. Notes: e, [288] ; h, [325]^. 39. 277,280,281,291. 40. [269]. Note : /, coepi takes the passive form when followed by a passive infinitive. 44. 274, 294, 296, 298, 303, [297]--2, [297]^, [300]. 45. 266,301,490-493. 46. 265, 266, 273, 284, 293, 299, [297]*. 47. [255], [257]2. Adjs. are often used substantively, the masc. denoting persons ; the neut., things. Certain adjs. designate a part ; e.g. : sumvms mons = top of the mountain ; media nox = midnight. An adj. limiting the subject often has the same force as an adv. limiting the verb. alius . . . alium — one another; alter . . . alterum = each other. 49. 441, 442. 62. Note: c, [274]. 54. 327, 449-452, [332]2. 65. 346, [316], [321]-'. 56. 329, [321]2, [327]^, [330]8. 57. [309], [330]. 58. [329], [330]. 60. 325. 61. [325]8, [325]*, [326]. 62. [326]2, [326]3, [328]. A clause of characteristic or of result is found after quani, than; e.g.: sollertior est qiiam qui (or ut) decipi possit, he is too shrewd to be tricked. ye 1 2420