HF •Tfe m Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from Microsoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/commercialcollegOOrichrich COMMERCIAL COLLEGES IN GERMANY BY DR. KURT E. RICHTER I' COLLEGE OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK NEW YORK 1913 PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON COMMERCIAL EDUCATION OF THE CHAMBER OF COMMERCE OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Mortimer L. Schiff, Chairman Sereno S. Pratt, Secretary Thomas W. Lamont Lewis Nixon Frank A. Vanderlip Alexander C. Humphreys Robert A. C. Smith William Hull Wickham Edward D. Adams Edward Holbrook Clark Williams J. Louis Schaefer James H. Post Lionel Sutro Copyright, 1913 By Kurt E. Richter PREFACE. The following paper owes its existence in a large measure firstly to President John H. Finley of the College of the City of New York, who by his kind interest greatly encouraged the writer in making an extended study of the commercial colleges in Germany, Switzerland and Paris during the summer of 1912; secondly to Professor Walter E. Clark, also of the same College, who by his valuable suggestions as to form and subject matter was instru- mental in changing this paper from a meagre report to its present form. The writer takes pleasure in expressing his sincere grati- tude to these two gentlemen. Grateful mention must furthermore be made of the extra- ordinary courtesies received at the hands of the directors of the several commercial colleges, notably of Director Christian Eckert, Dr. phil. et jur. of Cologne, Professor Dr. B. Freudenthal and Professor Dr. F. Panzer, both of Frankfort, and Privy Councillor Professor Dr. Georg Kerschensteiner, Royal Councillor of Studies, city school commissioner and president of the "Kuratorium" of the Commercial College in Munich. They have not only sup- plied the writer with all desired information and latest material, but also have permitted him to enjoy unexpected privileges which have been a source of great pleasure and benefit. K. E. R. College of the City of New York, January, 1913. Ill 311501 CONTENTS. Page 1. Founding of Commercial Colleges i 2. Commercial Colleges in Germany 4 3. Nature, Function and Aim 7 4. Financial Support 9 (a) Fees 9 (b) Subsidy from City and State 11 (c) Endowments and Contributions 12 5. Government and Control 15 6. Entrance Requirements 18 7. Curriculum 23 8. Courses, Experimentations and Diplomas 30 9. Educational Tours 33 10. Conclusion 36 I. FOUNDING OF COMMERCIAL COLLEGES. No intelligent, thinking man to-day will deny the desirability of special higher education and training for a business man, who wishes to rise from the rank and file of the " office force " to an executive position in " his line." The complexity of business re- lations and the variety of problems that confront the modern bus- iness man are such, that " office training " exclusively will in the near future no longer suffice. Just as the pursuits of law, medi- cine, teaching, engineering, all have become scientific professions, so is the successful pursuit of business inevitably becoming a scientific profession. And just as the other professions neces- sitate broad preliminary training, followed by thorough profes- sional courses, so does the profession of business demand a liberal and technical preparation. Our so-called business schools have given and are still giving more or less efficient preparation for office work, the " mechanics " of business. Public commercial high schools have likewise taken over some of that same work. Higher training has been offered by colleges and universities only. However, as the fees exacted by the latter for such courses are often rather high, many able and ambitious young men are debarred from availing themselves of the opportunity to improve their efficiency and chances for success. It is interesting to note that Europe, with its venerable institu- tions of learning and highly developed commercial life, felt the need for higher education for business men sooner than America did. Early in the fifties of the last century continental leaders in education were advocating the establishment of commercial col- leges. In a report to the Chamber of Commerce in Cologne, written in 1855 by Gustav von Mevissen, the subsequent finan- cial founder of the commercial college in that city, the writer expresses his conviction firstly, that it is the duty of the business world to devote part of its surplus to the advancement and dis- semination of knowledge ; secondly, that such surplus would most advantageously be devoted to the higher education of business men. However, such ideas received but little response, being too far in advance of the thought of that time, and these efforts were . ' / ' « * • » *• m • ' -, . 'o e •*' • e, .". \ • 'J "'t -*••*!; ; • A **'* 2 •'"•^^ V'-'-i^MMERClAi: COLLEGES IN GERMANY. defeated partly by the indifference of business men and partly by the classical traditions of the older institutions of learning. It was in the New World and in the last quarter of the nine- teenth century, that higher commercial education really began. The University of Pennsylvania was the pioneer, establishing in 1881 the " Wharton School of Finance and Commerce," which in its scope of work covers a large part of the field of a commercial college. A similar institution was founded in connection with the University of California in August, 1898, leading to the degree of B.S. One month later, in September, 1898, the University of Chicago also organized such a school, leading to the degree of B.Ph. These examples were followed by New York University in 1900, by Columbia University in 1901, and by the Northwest- ern University, the Universities of Illinois, of Indiana, and of Michigan, all of which established in 1902 advanced commercial courses, leading to the bachelor's degree. At present there are but few of the larger universities, that have not responded to the demand for higher business training and can not boast of such a school. A real " graduate school " is found in the Harvard Grad- uate School of Business Administration established in 1908, and in a measure also in the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance, established in 1900 and connected with Dartmouth College, which aim to train college graduates who desire to en- gage in business and public affairs. By a commercial college in the American sense we understand an institution which is similar to a college of arts and science in three respects: firstly, it has the same entrance requirements; secondly, it affords the same mental discipline and cultural train- ing; thirdly, it leads to a baccalaureate degree. The difference between the ordinary business school and the commercial college is as fundamental as that between an elementary school and a college of arts and science, since studying the rudiments and routine of business occupations is profoundly different from studying the sciences relating to industrial and commercial life, the social, political, economic, and physical phenomena, which have a direct bearing and influence upon the status of business. The mastery of such sciences is indeed as difficult as is the mas- tery of any subjects in the usual college or university curriculum of liberal arts. It is not surprising then that the German insti- tutions of higher commercial study at present generally take the rank of a " Hochschule," a college or university, and therefore FOUNDING OF COMMERCIAL COLLEGES. 3 require of the entering student the same previous training as re- quired for entrance to any other university courses. In fact, in Frankfort (as in Cologne), where there is no local university for post-graduate work at present, we find that the commercial college practically performs the service of a local university. For here we find that the cultural courses, such as philosophy, philology, psychology, literature, etc., are quite as much in demand as are the specifically commercial courses. The former are given in the form of public lectures, usually delivered in the evening, to which also " auditors " are admitted, namely persons who are not matriculated students but inhabitants of the city, who have ob- tained the right of hearing the lectures by having purchased an admission card which can be had for a very small fee. The large attendance of " auditors " at these cultural lectures in the com- mercial college of Frankfort will no doubt be diminished, when the present year will bring to that city a fully organized university, to which noble purpose ex-mayor Dr. F. Adickes has devoted many years of untiring and energetic efforts. 2. COMMERCIAL COLLEGES IN GERMANY. It is generally admitted that Germany is found in the front rank in the excellency and efficiency of vocational and commercial edu- cational institutions and in the high quality of work performed in these schools. The graduates of the commercial colleges have proved themselves to be so efficient in the business life of the nation, that it is usual to attribute the enormous progress that Germany has made in commerce and industry within the last de- cade to her splendidly organized system of commercial education. Every city of consequence has its commercial schools and high schools, whilst each of six different cities has its prosperous com- mercial college. Increasing prosperity shortly before the beginning of the twen- tieth century occasioned plans for the founding of commercial colleges in several European cities. The year 1898 (the birth year of the commercial colleges in California and Chicago) wit- nessed the organizing of three such institutions of higher rank, one in Vienna, another in Leipzic, and a third in Aix-la-Chapelle ( Aachen ).t Five other cities in Germany soon followed the example of Leipzic, viz. : Leipzig 1898 Berlin 1906 Cologne 1901 (May i ) Mannheim 1908 Frankfort o/M 1901 (Oct. 21) Munich 1910 That there existed an actual and growing demand for such schools can be seen by their slow but steady growth. As a typical example of all these schools the statistics of the Cologne college may be cited : Matriculated Students at Cologne Commercial College. 1. Semester. Summer Sem.* 1901 68 Mat. Students 2. Semester. Winter Sem.* 1901/02 119 3. Semester. Summer Sem.* 1902 146 4. Semester. Winter Sem.* 1902/03 198 5. Semester. Summer Sem.* 1903 221 6. Semester. Winter Sem.* 1903/04 232 t The institution in Aachen later was abandoned for reasons which were entirely local. 4 COMMERCIAL COLLEGES IN GERMANY. 5 7. Semester. Summer Sem* 1904 238 8. Semester. Winter Sem.* 1904/05 252 9. Semester. Summer Sem.* 1905 264 10. Semester. Winter Sem.* 1905/06 304 11. Semester. Summer Sem.* 1906 331 12. Semester. Winter Sem.* 1906/07 331 13. Semester. Summer Sem.* 1907 330 14. Semester. Winter Sem.* 1907/08 363 15. Semester. Summer Sem.* 1908 389 16. Semester. Winter Sem.* 1908/09 408 17. Semester. Summer Sem.* 1909 441 18. Semester. Winter Sem.* 1909/10 460 19. Semester. Summer Sem.* 1910 462 20. Semester. Winter Sem.* 1910/11 470 In addition to these matriculated students, working for the regular diploma, there were many more non-matriculated students or auditors, who registered for various courses, giving advanced instruction in specific branches of knowledge. A few figures may suffice to show how such courses are frequented : Total Number of Students at Cologne Commercial College. I. Sem., S. S., 1901 , 10. Sem., W. S., i905-'o6 17. Sem., S. S., 1909 , 18. Sem.,W. S., i909-'io. 19. Sem., S. S., 1910 , 20. Sem., W. S., i9io-'ii. Matr. Stud. Non-matr. Stud. 69 304 441 460 462 470 695 1,470 807 1,872 1,832 Total. 763 1,776 1,248 2,332 1,315 2,302 It is natural to expect a smaller number of non-matriculated students during the summer semesters, as above table clearly shows, but the number of regular or matriculated students has constantly been increasing. The attendance of matriculated students at the six commercial colleges during the winter semester 191 1 to 1912 may be tabulated as follows: Leipzic 663 matriculated students Cologne 500 matriculated students Frankfort o/M 376 matriculated students Berlin 475 matriculated students Mannheim 450 matriculated students Munich 103 matriculated students * The summer semester begins middle of April and extends to the end of July, the winter semester lasts from end of October to the end of March. 6 COMMERCIAL COLLEGES IN GERMANY. Besides these matriculated students each college has a very large number of non-matriculated students, as shown for Cologne in the detailed statistics given above. During the last winter semester Frankfort reported 1,407 such, making a total of 1,783 students in attendance, Berlin with 1,093 non-matriculated stu- dents recorded a total of 1,568, whereas Munich last winter (hence in its second season!) numbered a total of 511 students. An item of interest is the proportion of foreign students in these colleges. Leipzic and Berlin lead in this respect, non-Ger- man students constituting 54 per cent, of the matriculated stu- dents at Leipzic and 51 per cent, of those at Berlin. The other colleges register a relatively small number of foreign students. Cologne for instance has but 19 per cent, foreigners in its total of matriculated students. 3. NATURE, FUNCTION AND AIM. It is to be noted that these colleges are ranked with the " Hoch- schulen," or universities, of the country. Like these they adhere to the classical maxim of " Lehr- und Lemfreiheit," viz., the pro- fessors are at liberty to offer any course or courses which in their opinion may be helpful, or for which there is a demand. On the other hand the students may arrange their programs of lectures entirely at their own pleasure, provided that those who work for diplomas pursue certain fundamental courses required in the ex- aminations for such diplomas. These courses, examinations and diplomas will be discussed later. Here it may suffice to state that beyond these fundamental courses the student, in true university fashion, may lay out his plans to his own advantage and may hear any lectures which will bear upon his future work in bus- iness life. This university spirit furthermore asserts itself in the organ- izing of academic students' societies or fraternities, bearing Latin names. The members of these fraternities, like those in the older sister-institutions, wear the insignia of their particular societies in the form of colored caps and bandeliers. In Cologne, for example, we find the following fraternities: Hansea, Salia, Ubia, Arminia and Rheno-Frankonia. But it must be added that these younger fraternities in the commercial colleges are not recognized fully by the older organizations in the universities. The question may be asked, what is the aim of these colleges? This can not be answered by a general statement, fitting all six institutions, since each one is a child of its environment and conditions. The general task of these commercial colleges is to teach the social and economic sciences in their direct and indirect bearing upon all business pursuits, that is to say, upon all commercial activities that have hitherto been so sharply differentiated from the "professions." These institutions therefore are devoted both to investigation and teaching. " The teachers must be permeated with the desire to seek the truth and to impart it to the eager and ambitious youth." (Professor Doctor Christian Eckert, Cologne.) 7 8 COMMERCIAL COLLEGES IN GERMANY. Studying the curricula of these colleges later on, we shall see how this noble aim is reached, and how these institutions empha- size broad cultural training quite as much as professional, tech- nical training. The special tasks can be enumerated as follows : A. To give to young people, who desire to devote themselves to commercial or industrial pursuits, a more thorough train- ing and deeper, but not narrower education in commercial and economic subjects, than other colleges give; B. To train efficient teachers of theory and practice of commer- cial branches ; C. To offer an opportunity to merchants and men of industry, actively engaged in business, to deepen and widen their knowledge in special branches of commerce and industry ; D. To give municipal and government officials opportunity to per- fect themselves in their special work; E. To teach the language, customs, commercial history and methods of those foreign countries which play an im- portant role in the world's trade. This means no more nor less, that the doors of these colleges are open to anyone, old or young, either fully prepared to take the entire course, or only prepared to take certain courses for special purposes. This was clearly seen in above statistics, show- ing the number of matriculated and the much larger number of non-matriculated students. Matriculated students, with object A or B m view, must nec- essarily have the required previous academic training, since they expect to obtain the official diploma of the college. But students of group C are men active in business life, who do not work for credit, but whose desire is to increase their knowledge in their own branch of business. These are permitted to study certain sciences, or certain economic phases which are allied with their own business. In all groups we find municipal and state officials, employed in the departments of finance, statistics, parks, engi- neering, consular service, foreign relations, etc. Such public employees thus have an opportunity to perfect themselves, and to increase their efficiency, and thereby to improve their prospect of success. 4. FINANCIAL SUPPORT. A study of the origin of commercial colleges in Germany will show that the initiative for the founding of the six institutions came either from individuals, as in the case of Cologne col- lege, or from merchants' associations (as in BerHn and Munich), or from chambers of commerce (as in Leipzic), or from com- binations of these (as in Frankfort and Mannheim). And not only did the initiative come from these sources, but also the nec- essary funds, wherewith to found the desired institutions and to carry on their work. Hence we find the interesting and some- what unique situation (unique for Germany) that these colleges possess but a semi-official character, viz., they are partly private institutions, having been founded and being supported largely by private funds, and at the same time they are public institutions, receiving a subvention from the state, or city, or both. They have therefore three sources of income: (a) Fees from students; (b) A regular subsidy from city or state or both; (c) Endowments and annual contributions from private sources, such as individuals, merchants' associations, or chambers of commerce. (a) Fees from Students. Examining the first of these, we find that the fees charged for the various courses are but small. The matriculation fee in nearly all the commercial colleges, as will be seen from the subsequent table, is $5 for native German students, except in Frankfort, where no matriculation fee is charged. For foreign students however this fee varies in the different cities from $5 to $25. The same discrimination against foreigners is made in the tuition fee. Whereas the native German student pays approx- imately $30 per semester, the foreign student must pay from $45 to $60 — an increase of from 50 per cent, to 100 per cent. This discrimination, however, finds a justification in the fact that these institutions receive a large subsidy from the state, which subsidy is obtained from the general tax fund, collected from the German subjects. Hence the native student contributes to the mainte- 9 10 COMMERCIAL COLLEGES IN GERMANY. nance of the institution which he attends firstly indirectly, by pay- ing taxes, and again directly, by paying tuition fees. On the other hand the foreign student does not contribute in that indirect way, hence this discrepancy is expected to be removed by the increased fees for matriculation and tuition. A notable exception is made by the commercial college in Frankfort, where no discrimination is made between native and foreign students and where no annual tuition fee is charged. This institution has adopted the university method of charging a fee for each course. Hence for a two hour course (two hours per week) a fee of $2.50 per semester is paid. Every matricu- lated student however must enroll for at least eight hours per week, thus making the minimum tuition fee $10 per semester, or $20 annually, which compares rather favorably with the fees charged by American universities. It is interesting to note, that in addition to these matriculation and tuition fees, each regular student is required to contribute a small amount to a general *' Academic Sick Fund," and also to an "Accident Fund." Although the premiums are relatively small, the benefits derived from these funds are comparatively large. The "Academic Sick Fund" has the object of giving to all students, in case of sickness during their stay at the college, free medical treatment by some of the best physicians in the city, free nursing and medicine, and if necessary free admission and treatment in a municipal hospital extending over a period of 8 to 13 weeks, the 'time varying in the different cities. This " Sick Fund " is commonly managed under the supervision of the entire college " Senat " or " Kuratorium " by a committee consisting of members of the faculty and representatives of the students. The "Accident Fund" is to pay the premiums for a general or blanket policy held by a national insurance company. The latter holds itself liable for any injuries caused by accidents to students while performing their duties as students, or during legitimate recreation. This excludes duels, brawls, and similar affairs that may lead to injuries. Tabulating the fees, which are exacted from students who are candidates for a diploma, we obtain the following: FINANCIAL SUPPORT. II Fees Charged in Commercial Colleges in Germany. Matriculation. Ger- Non-Ger. Per Semester. Tuition. German. Non-Ger. Academic Sick Fund. Academic Accident Fund. Leipzic Cologne. .. Frankfort.. Berlin Mannheim Munich M. 20 M. 20 None M. 30 M. 20 M. 20 M. 100 M. 40 None M. 60 M. 30 M. 40 M. 100 to 120 M. 125 I M. 250 Minimum M. 80 M. 125 M. 120 M. 125 M. 250 M. 180 M. 250 Ger. M. 2 For. M. 5 M. 3.50 M. 3 M. 5 M. 3 M. 2 No special fund M. I M. .50 M. I M. I M. .50 In addition to the regular fees tabulated above which every student must pay, extra charges are made for specially extensive laboratory courses. For example, the Frankfort college offers in its curriculum (see page 28) several such courses in different sub- jects. For a "short" laboratory course, of 8 hours per week, a fee of M. 40 is exacted, whilst for a "half-day" laboratory course, lasting from 9 A.M. to i P.M. daily, M. 90 are charged. For a " full" course, lasting from 9 A.M. to 7 P.M. daily (with I hr. free for dinner) and on Saturday from 9 A.M. to i P.M., M. 120 must be paid. Finally, the last fee which a matriculated student must pay, and which he pays most cheerfully, is the fee for the final ex- aminations. As there are no examinations held in the different courses at the end of the semester or of the academic year, the final and only examinations, those for the diploma, are rather formal and elaborate affairs, as will be seen later. Since they demand a great deal of time on the part of the college faculty it is but natural that the charges for these examinations are rather high. Whilst a native German student pays M. 60, the foreign student pays M. 100 in Leipzic, and even M. 120 in the other com- mercial colleges. In case of failure this fee is forfeited and if the student desires to try again after one or two more semesters of continuous and close application to his studies, he must pay the entire examination fee again. (b) Subsidy from City or State or Both. The second source of financial support is the city and the state. It is customary that the former, namely the city, supplies 12 COMMERCIAL COLLEGES IN GERMANY. the buildings for the college, furnishes the necessary funds for maintaining them in good order, and gives securities for possible deficits, whereas the state makes an annual contribution. Since the founding of the commercial college in 1898, the city council of Leipzic has regularly increased the annual revenue of the college by voting it a large sum of money, which during the last fiscal year amounted to M. 10,000, whilst the state, the King- dom of Saxony, contributed M. 15,000. In Cologne we find, that, from the very beginning of the col- lege, the city assumed all financial responsibility, and augmented the original foundation fund of M. 740,000, given by Gustav von Mevissen, by the sum of M. 260,000, in order to increase this fund to M. 1,000,000. In addition to this fund, the city council voted the following sums to the running expenses of the college: 1901 M. 49,890 =: 38.96 per cent, of total income 1902 31,638 = 20.16 per cent, of total income 1903 25,841 = 15.01 per cent, of total income 1904 54,561=26.19 per cent, of total income 1905 61,689 = 27.57 per cent of total income 1906 53,630=^23.10 per cent, of total income 1907 86,090 = 31.88 per cent of total income 1908 88,445 = 29.53 per cent of total income 1909 89,426 = 27.90 per cent of total income It is unnecessary to heap the examples. It may suffice to state that what has been said above concerning the participation of the city in the financial support of the college in Cologne and Leipzic also holds true for the other colleges, each of which receives a subsidy from its respective home city. (c)' Endowments and Contributions. The third and indeed the most important source of income is comprised of endowments, bequests and contributions from individuals or merchants' associations. As stated above, not only did the initiative for founding the colleges come from these sources, but also the funds for establishing and maintaining them have been procured largely from them. It was due to the insistent demand for higher commercial edu- cation, made by the prosperous mercantile and industrial classes, whose opinions were crystallized in those of the members of the Chamber of Commerce in Leipzic, that the commercial college FINANCIAL SUPPORT. 1 3 in that city was founded in 1898. And it was that same body of men who, with a small subsidy from the Saxon government, assumed the financial responsibility of the newly founded institu- tion. As a body, the Chamber of Commerce has since then annu- ally voted a certain sum to increase the college revenue, but its main usefulness has been in inducing individuals to contribute large and small sums towards the maintenance of the college. How successful these efforts have been may be seen from the report of the last fiscal year, which shows that the last year brought to the institution from anonymous donors two endow- ments of M. 10,000 each. One of these gifts is to be devoted to scholarships, the other to be used to increase the capital of the college. Furthermore, the famous fur house of Theodor Thorer, on the occasion of its 50th anniversary, donated a capital of M. 100,000, the interest of which is to be spent in defraying the expenses of trips made by students under the guidance of pro- fessors for the purpose of visiting and studying commercial centers and industrial plants. The contributions of the Leipzic Chamber of Commerce to the current expense fund in the same year amounted to M. 6,000 in addition to M. 10,000 given for the purpose of establishing a commercial library. The institution in Cologne is a lasting monument to the munifi- cence of one man, Gustav von Mevissen, and his immediate family. In a report submitted to the Chamber of Commerce as early as 1855 he showed the necessity for higher education for business men. For decades he urged energetically and untiringly the founding of such an institution, in 1879 offering a large capital as a nucleus for a larger foundation fund. Although experiencing many disappointments he enjoyed the satisfaction before his death in 1899, of seeing actual work of organization begun. In his testament he bequeathed an additional sum of M. 300,000, so that his total endowment, with compound interest, amounted to M. 740,000 by 1901, when the official opening took place. Two years later, at the death of Mrs. Mevissen, M. 300,000 were added by bequest to the capital of the college, to which two daughters of the founders added M. 70,000, so that by 1903 this one family alone had supplied a capital, netting an income which formed one third of the total income of the college. By 1909 the interest of the Mevissen endowments amounted to M. 64,625. Also in later years members of this family have proven to be most liberal friends of the institution, encouraging and inducing other citizens to contribute to the worthy cause. 14 COMMERCIAL COLLEGES IN GERMANY. In like measure has the liberality of the citizens shown itself towards the Frankfort college. The last report, covering the fiscal years 1910 and 191 1, announces that after the death of Mrs. Franziska Speyer the college inherited M. 950,000 for gen- eral expenses and M. 575,000 to be added to the Georg Speyer Endowment Fund. The proceeds from these total funds (M. 61,- 000 annually), and an additional income of M. 15,000 per year from other funds, increase the total income from the Speyer endowments alone to M. 71,000 annually. In the same year Ex-mayor Dr. Adolf Varrentrapp donated M. 100,000 and Mr. Julius Wertheimer, a banker, M. 100,000 to the general fund. A lady gave M. 2,000 to defray the expenses of establishing a seminar for church history. An organization of citizens, called "Institute of Common Welfare," increased its annual contribu- tion to M. 8,000 towards the support of a lecture chair for " So- cial Welfare." Hence this last report announces a total of M. 1,757,000, donated during this one fiscal period of two years. When studying the history of the commercial college in Mann- heim we learn that the splendid work carried on there is made possible by the Otto Beck Memorial Fund of M. 151,600, the Heinrich Lanz Memorial Fund of M. 1,000,000, and a municipal reserve fund of M. 489,000. Besides this interest-bearing capital, many smaller donations fall to the college annually. The commercial college in Munich is almost entirely supported by the Chamber of Commerce and the Munich Merchants' Asso- ciation. The city on the other hand contributes but a relatively small amount and the state nothing at all towards the support of this institution. The identical situation with respect to financial support exists at the Berlin commercial college which was founded and is sup- ported mainly by the Berlin Merchants' Association. Thus we see that the liberality of public-spirited citizens is the largest source of income of all commercial colleges in Germany. 5. GOVERNMENT AND CONTROL. Having ascertained the three sources of income of these insti- tutions, we have at the same time learned the three controlling factors ; for in the " Senat " or " Kuratorium " or whatever the boards of government may be termed by the various colleges, we find representatives of all three of these sources of income. The students are represented by a committee of the faculty, headed by the director. The latter is a member of the faculty and is elected from its number to direct the affairs of the college and above all to be the guiding spirit of the students. The success of the entire institution depends in a large measure upon the charac- ter and personality of the director; and when one meets Dr. Eckert of Cologne, or Dr. Freudenthal and Dr. Panzer of Frank- fort, or Dr. Bonn and Dr. Kerschensteiner of Munich, or Dr. Adler of Leipzic, he can readily understand why their respective institutions have made such phenomenal progress. Custom of German universities has it that a new " Rector Magnificus " be elected each academic year. It is to be regretted that this custom has in a measure influenced the commercial col- leges. According to their respective charters each elects a new director every two or three years. Naturally the time is so short that even the strongest personality is unable to make a lasting impression or to shape the character of the institution. He can but temporarily direct its policy. However, his main and perhaps his most important duty lies in his relation to the students. Dur- ing the long and frequent office hours students come to consult him not only about professional but also about personal and in- timate affairs, seeking and obtaining advice in all matters directly and indirectly related to their study and career. In the success- ful discharge of this duty lies the Director's strength and use- fulness. Merchants' Associations and Chambers of Commerce, since they contribute so large a share towards the maintenance of the various colleges, are represented by one or more members in the " Kuratorium." Also individual patrons, as is the case in Cologne and Mannheim, have a share in the government. The remaining members of the " Kuratorium " are appointed to 15 i6 COMMERCIAL COLLEGES IN GERMANY. represent the city or the state. Their number is based approx- imately on the relative amounts which each contributes towards the financial support of the colleges. The representation in the government of the several institutions given to these respective sources of income may be thus tab- ulated : Boards of Government of the Commercial Colleges. Leipzic...., Cologne.... Frankfort. , Berlin Mannheim Munich...., Director and Faculty. Authorities. City. State, Local Univer- sity. Chamber of Com- merce. Mer- chants' As- sociation. 21 I 4 Indi- viduals. Total. II 12 20 21 22 21 This table shows that the college in Leipzic is closely affiliated with the university. A representative of the university is at the same time chairman of the " Senat " of the commercial college whilst university professors are not only members of the college faculty but also members of the examination commission. Hence students of the college may at the same time register for courses given at the university. The vice-chairman of the " Senat " however is chosen from the number of men representing the Chamber of Commerce in recognition of the large financial support given to the college by that body. Owing to their origin, and in the absence of a local university, the commercial college in Cologne and the one in Frankfort are essentially city institutions. Like all public educational institu- tions in Germany, they are under the general supervision of the state, which duly appoints a member to the "Kuratorium" of each college (except Munich), but the chairman of that body is ex officio the mayor of the respective city, whilst in his absence his substitute will serve as acting chairman. In appreciation of the services rendered by the financial founder of the college in Cologne, Gustav von Mevissen, his family has the privilege of appointing a member to the governing body of that college. Founded by the "Corporation of Merchants of Berlin" the commercial college in that city is governed entirely by a commit- tee of 21 " Elders " of that organization. This commission of government however has at its side a larger board, purely advisory GOVERNMENT AND CONTROL. 1 7 in its function, called the " Great Council," consisting of 22 addi- tional members representing the state, the city, and the faculty. In Mannheim practically the same conditions as in Leipzic prevail regarding the commercial college. The institution in Mannheim is closely affiliated with the university in Heidelberg, the two cities being but a short distance apart. As in Leipzic, professors of the university of Heidelberg lecture also at the com- mercial college in Mannheim, and students of the latter may take courses at the university of Heidelberg. Nevertheless the latter university does not exert anything like the same influence over the college as is the case with the Leipzic institution. This may be seen by the large number of city representatives in the college " Senat," compared with the small number representing Heidel- berg University. The mayor of Mannheim is by virtue of his office also chairman of the board of government of the commercial college, whilst one member of that body is appointed by the family or estate of Heinrich Lanz, one of the financial founders of the college. The institution in Munich is wholly a city enterprise and takes the exceptional position of being the only one of the six commercial colleges in Germany which has no representative of the state in its board of government, not even in an advisory capacity, as is the case in Berlin. Furthermore the college is wholly a city undertaking, having, however, the approval of the state and re- ceiving proper credit for its work. The mayor of the city is a member of the " Kuratorium " but not necessarily its chairman. That body elects its own officers and the position of chairman has been filled in an able manner, since the founding of the college in 1910, by Oberstudienrat Dr. Georg Kerschensteiner. 6. ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS. Owing to the close supervision which the state exercises over all educational institutions in Germany, and owing to the desire on the part of the six commercial colleges to maintain their high rank in the educational system of the country, the entrance requirements for all six are nearly identical. In order to matriculate as candidate for a diploma one must be : (a) A graduate of a collegiate institution having a nine years' course of study (Gymnasium, Realgymnasium, Oberreal- schule, or a school of equally high grade) ; (b) or a merchant, bank or insurance official, having obtained the privilege of but "one-year military service" (hence being a graduate of a higher school having a six-year course) and having besides at least two years (in Leipzic the minimum is three years) of commercial experience " in his branch " to his credit ; (c) or a normal school graduate, having passed his " second ex- amination" (after 4-5 years of teaching), who wishes to specialize that he may become a teacher of commercial subjects ; (d) or a graduate of a higher commercial school which ranks approximately as high as the schools enumerated under clause (a) ; (e) or a foreigner, whose previous education is equivalent to that required from native students. From this can be seen that the entrance requirements for the commercial colleges are nearly as stringent as for post-graduate study at the university. Some further explanation of the requirements in each of the first four of the above noted classes follows. (a) It will be remembered that these collegiate institutions are based upon 3 years of elementary school work. At the age of 9 years a boy, showing aptitude and inclination for advanced study, will leave the public school and enter the lowest grade (Sexta) of a gymnasium (classical school) or of any other school of equally high rank. Here he will spend 9 years (if he is exceptionally bright) or usually 10 years (if he belongs to the 18 ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS. 1 9 great class of average students) in hard work and intense appli- cation to his studies under closest supervision. His classroom work begins at 7 A.M. and ends at 12.30 P.M. during the summer semester; during the winter semester it lasts from 8 A.M. to 1.30 P.M. The afternoon is devoted to preparation for the work of the next day. This serious course is terminated by a rigorous examination, usually conducted by a specially appointed commission, of which the representative of the government acts as chairman. Grad- uating from such an institution with the " Maturitaetszeugnis " (sometimes called " Reifezeugnis "), a diploma which is often com- pared to the American bachelor degree (although the American college really does a part of the work of the German university) the young man enters upon his professional work at the age of 18 or 19 years by matriculating in one of the technical schools or in one of the universities, where he may obtain his doctoral degree in about 4 years. This shows that students matriculating in the commercial colleges under clause (a) or {d) or {e) are also eligible to pursue university study. It seems reasonable therefore to assume that students in the commercial college, hav- ing the same thorough previous education as those attending the university, will do scholarly work on par with that of the uni- versity students. {h) The "one-year military service" diploma represents six years of training in a higher school (based upon three years ele- mentary school) and may be obtained by two groups of men. The first group comprises those students in one of the schools described in (a), who for one reason or another are unable to complete the nine-years course for the "maturity diploma." These are eligible to take the examination for the " one-year military service" diploma at the end of the sixth year. The second group comprises the graduates of a Realschule or of one of the many preparatory schools, all having a six-years course and leading to the same diploma, which is usually obtained at the age of 16 or 17 years. In order to matriculate in one of the commercial colleges, the holder of that diploma must have in addition a minimum of two years (in Leipzic three years) of practical commercial experience, which must be satisfactorily cer- tified to the faculty committee on entrance. It is evidently as- sumed that the two or three years of practical training do approx- imately balance the three additional years which the students 20 COMMERCIAL COLLEGES IN GERMANY. under (a) devote to formal study in a higher school with a nine- years course. Statistics show that the greater majority of the matriculated students in the various commercial colleges belong to this group (b). (c) The most lenient entrance requirements are exacted from teachers who have practised their profession for a certain number of years. The preparatory training of an elementary school teacher is given in a *' preparatory school" having a three-years course followed by three years of professional study in a " teach- ers' seminary." This entire course of six years is based upon the eight year course of the elementary or public school and not upon any of the "higher schools." Hence the training of the German elementary school teacher corresponds closely to that of the American normal school graduate. The professional studies in a German " Seminary " are terminated by the " First Exam- ination" (the official title of this examination), after which the graduates receive temporary appointment as teachers, lasting approximately 4-5 years, during which they must seek to perfect themselves in their profession and must continue to study pri- vately in order to prepare for the " Second " or " State Examina- tion." Only after successfully passing this latter test is the license of the teacher made permanent or can he hope to obtain a permanent position. In general the education of an elementary school teacher in Germany is not rated as equal to that of a "higher school" graduate, hence most German universities will not permit such teachers to matriculate. Students matriculat- ing in the commercial colleges under clause (b) or (c) can therefore hardly be considered "post-graduate" students in the American nor German sense of the term. It is in part due to these two lenient clauses for matriculation, that the German edu- cational authorities still hesitate to recognize the work done in these commercial colleges as work of university grade. (d) There are quite a number of cities that boast of a so-called " higher commercial school," not to be confounded however with the " Handelsrealschulen." The latter are on par with the other Realschulen as to quality of work and length of course, with the one difference that during the last three years commercial sub- jects predominate in the curriculum. Like their sister institutions they also end with the "one-year military service" diploma. Graduates of these Handelsrealschulen are not eligible for en- trance to the commercial colleges unless they have had also two ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS. 21 or three years of commercial experience, like those enumerated under clause (b) ; or unless they have attended the two-years course in a "higher commercial school," which is equivalent to the last two years in a school described under (a). Attempting to present the entrance requirements graphically, we will receive the following sketch: D C 4-5 years teach- ing D C 3 years Teachers* seminary 3'years prepara- tory school 2-3 years com- mercial experi- J ence 2-3 years Higher commercial school 8 years elemen- tary school 9 years Gymna- sium, etc. 6 years Realschule 6 years Realschule 3 years elemen- tary school 3 years elemen- tary school 3 years elemen- tary school Requirements a) ^) ^) Note. — (i) Line A-A represents entrance to school at the age of 6 years. Line B-B represents entrance to a higher school. Line C-C represents eligibility to " one-year mil. ser." dipl. Line D-D represents eligibility to com. college. (2) It must be stated here again, that above number of years ex- press the minimum and that only exceptional students under favorable conditions can cover the course in that time. Above were stated the conditions under which students, men or women, may matriculate for full work, leading to the regular diploma. Persons however who can not matriculate under any one of the above conditions may register as "auditors." After paying the stipulated fee they may attend the lectures of certain courses without any credit towards a diploma. 22 COMMERCIAL COLLEGES IN GERMANY. It thus appears that the student body presents a rather hetero- geneous and interesting conglomeration of men and women of diverse professions and callings, and of ages varying between i8 and 35 years. It may be of interest to study the age of the ma- triculated students somewhat more closely. Available statistics give the following table: Age Distribution of German Commercial College Students. W. Sem. W. Sem. S. Sem. 1911 S. Sem. 1911 Age. Leipzic. 1910- II Cologne. Frankfort. Munich. 17-18 35 31 1 I 19 84 36 r 75 9 20 130 90 J 20 21 97 76 47 30 22 81 60 37 14 23 63 62 26 24 24 47 25 27 8 25 34 25 II 3 26-30 66 40 84 } « 31 + 26 25 78 Total 663 740 385 131 This table shows that a large number of the matriculated students in all these colleges are between the ages of 20 and 22 years, but that there are quite a number who are above 30 years of age. This last group is of course very materially increased by the many "auditors," who are regularly engaged in mercantile pursuits and can therefore register for partial work only. 7. CURRICULUM. A close study and comparison of the different curricula of the six commercial colleges will show that there are certain fun- damental subjects which are offered in all these colleges, to which other subjects have been added from time to time according to the demand made by the students and the special needs of each particular institution. To avoid duplicating, the complete cur- riculum of the college in Munich, the youngest organized com- mercial college, will be given in the following pages, with the assumption that, working out the curriculum of the new insti- tution, only the most important subjects were selected as a basal structure, from which other courses could branch out later. Curriculum of the Munich Commercial College. Winter Semester, ipi2 to 1913. I. Commercial Sciences. Money (Notes, Checks, Precious Metals), 3 hrs.* Commodities and their Trade, 2 hrs. Advanced Accounting, 2 hrs. Seminar for Mercantile Economics, 2 hrs. Discussions of Magazine Articles concerning Domestic Econom- ics, I hr. Discussions of Magazine Articles concerning Money Market and Stocks, I hr. Seminar for Commercial Private Economics, i hr. Technical Bookkeeping for Industrial Wholesale Trade, 2 hrs. General Technique of Commodity Commerce, 2 hrs. Organization of Textile Market, 2 hrs. Study of and Visits to Industrial Establishments, 2 hrs. Accounting, i hr. Banking, i hr. Selected Topics from Prices of Commodities, i hr. Introduction to Mercantile Arithmetic, 2 hrs. The Most Important Food Stuffs, i hr. * Three hours of classroom work per week. 23 24 COMMERCIAL COLLEGES IN GERMANY. Textile Industry (Bleaching, Dyeing, Printing), i hr. Applied Chemistry, i hr. Introduction to Dyeing, i hr. Elements of Mechanical Technology, 2 hrs. II. Political Economy. Elements of General Economics, 4 hrs. Organization of Capital and Money Markets in Leading Coun- tries, 2 hrs. Sociology, 2 hrs. Practice in Mercantile and Industrial Establishments, 2 hrs. Statistical Foundations of Political Economy, 2 hrs. Fundamentals of Unions, 2 hrs. Introduction to Insurance, i hr. Important Financial Topics in Commerce, 2 hrs. Law Relating to Accident- and Life Insurance, i hr. Banking, Bourse, Trade and Commerce, 4 hrs. Trade and Modern Industry, 2 hrs. History of Economic Theories, 2 hrs. Social and Labor Questions, 2 hrs. Agricultural Politics, 3 hrs. History of Socialism and Communism, from the Sixteenth Cen- tury to Present Day, 4 hrs. Introduction to Private Insurance, 2 hrs. Markets and Bourse (Organizations and Regulating of Prices in Wholesale Trade), 2 hrs. Finance, 4 hrs. Trade Questions, 2 hrs. Insurance, 2 hrs. Building Trade, 2 hrs. III. Law. Commercial Law, 4 hrs. Selected Topics from English Law, 2 hrs. Trade Laws, 2 hrs. Business Suspension and Bankruptcy, 2 hrs. Civil Law, 3 hrs. Elements of International Law, 2 hrs. Banking and Bourse Laws, 2 hrs. Insurance of Laborers and Employees, 2 hrs. Elements of General Law, 2 hrs. CURRICULUM. Z$ Colonial Law, 2 hrs. Real Estate Law, 3 hrs. IV. Geography. Geography of Brazil and Argentine Republic, 2 hrs. Geography of Ocean Routes, 2 hrs. Geography of America, 5 hrs. Mineralogy (with excursions), 2 hrs. Geography and Geology of German Colonies, i hr. Elements of Ethnology of British India, i hr. Prehistoric Man, i hr. Economic Geography, 2 hrs. V. Languages. English la, 2 hrs. English I&, 2 hrs. English Commercial Correspondence, i hr. English Debate i hr. English Geography, 2 hrs. French II, 2 hrs. French III, 2 hrs. French Repetition, 2 hrs. French Seminar, i hr. Italian I, 2 hrs. Italian II, 2 hrs. Italian III, Commercial Correspondence, i hr. Spanish I, 2 hrs. Spanish II, 2 hrs. Russian I, 2 hrs. VI. General Courses. Art in the Service of the Merchant, i hr. Missions in the German Colonies, 2 hrs. Commercial Hygiene, 2 hrs. First Aid to the Injured, i hr. General History of Modern Times, 4 hrs. German Constitutional History (to 1871), 4 hrs. History of the Roman Empire, 4 hrs. Introduction to Philosophy, 5 hrs. History of Development of Modern Art (to 1800), 4 hrs. History of German Literature (since 1848), 4 hrs. Goethe, 3 hrs. 26 COMMERCIAL COLLEGES IN GERMANY. Schiller's Storm and Stress Dramas and Lyrics, i hr. Schiller's Master Dramas, i hr. Schiller's Philosophical Essays and Poems, i hr. Present German Literature, i hr. Mediaeval Ideas concerning the World, 2 hrs. Civilization during the Renaissance in Italy, 3 hrs. Tabulating the above we get the following schema showing the Curriculum of Munich Commercial College. Subjects. Total Hours Weekly. I. Commercial sciences 22 36 11. Political economy 21 49 III. Law II 26 IV. Geography 8 16 V. Languages 15 26 VI. General cultural courses 17 43 94 196 Synopsis of the Curriculum of the Commercial College IN Leipzig. Subjects. Total Hours Weekly. I. Political economy 13 30 IL Law 14 36 III. Geography and history 7 18 IV. Technology 4 7 V. General cultural courses 28 65 • VI. Languages 21 47 VII. Commercial sciences 25 59 VIII. Insurance 3 5 IX. Commercial law 2 4 117 271 CURRICULUM. 27 Synopsis of the Curriculum of the Commercial College IN Mannheim. Subjects. Total Hours Weekly. I. Commercial sciences 21 37 II. Political economy 17 34 III. Law 12 24 IV. Natural sciences, tech'gy, com- modities, geography 8 45 V. Languages 13 28 71 168 Synopsis of the Curriculum of the Commercial College IN Cologne. Subjects. Total Hours Weekly. I. Political economy 2j 44 II. Law 17 30 III. Insurance and cooperative as- sociations 7 9 IV. Geo., tech'gy, nat. science* . . 23 35 V. Languagesf 48 97 VI. Commercial sciences 22 40 VII. Pedagogy 8 9 VIII. General culture courses 17 20 169 284 * Exclusive of the following courses : 1. Chemical laboratory, short course, 9 hrs. per week. 2. Chemical laboratory, long course, daily, 9-1 and 2r^ J Saturday, 9-1 only. 3. Physics and electro-technic lab. course, 9 hrs. weekly. t To show the remarkable extent of the department of foreign languages, the following may be appended: English II courses, 23 hrs. Scandinavian . 2 hrs. French 9 courses, 18 hrs. Italian 4 courses, 7 hrs. Spanish 5 courses, 8 hrs. Portuguese .. 2 courses, 4 hrs. Russian 5 courses, 14 hrs. Dutch 3 courses, 4 hrs. Chinese .3 hrs. Arabic .ihr. Persian . ihr. each I Turkish . ihr. course Mod. Greek . . 2 hrs. Bulgarian .. . 2 hrs. Indish . 2 hrs. •28 commercial colleges in germany. Synopsis of the Curriculum of the Commercial College IN Frankfort. Subjecu. Total Hours Weekly. I. Economics, ethnology and ge- ography 26 48 II. Law 10 16 III. Insurance statistics and soci- ology 5 8 IV. Commercial sciences 10 20 V. Philosophy, philology, peda- gogy and psychology 13 25 VI. History and art .. 8 10 VII. Foreign languages 41 79 VIII. Nat. sciences, mathematics and technology : (a) Lectures 21 32 m 238 (b) Laboratory 11 * 145 * The following is the list of laboratory courses : 1. Full laboratory course in physics, daily, 9-1 and 3-7 o'clock; Saturday, 9-1 only. 2. Short laboratory course in physics, daily, 8 hrs. per week. 3. Photographic laboratory course, 8 hrs. per week. 4. Full electro-chemical laboratory course, daily, 9-1 and 3-7; Saturday, 9-1 only. 5. (a) Short electro-chemical laboratory course (measure- ments), 4 hrs. per week. 6. (b) Short chemical laboratory course (machines and trans- formers), 4 hrs. per week. 7. Full chemical and electro-chemical laboratory course, daily, 9-1, 3-7 > Saturday, 9-1. 8. Short chemical and electro-chemical laboratory course, 8 hrs. per week. 9. Full chemistry laboratory course, daily, 9-6; Saturday, 9-1. ID. Short chemistry laboratory course, 8 hrs. per week. II. Short chemistry laboratory course (commodities), 5 hrs. per week. curriculum. 29 Synopsis of the Curriculum of the Commercial College IN Berlin Courses. Horn Weekly. I. Introduction to the studies 2 2 11. Commercial sciences 23 37 III. Economics 28 40 IV. Law 15 25 V. Commercial geography and com- mercial history II 14 VI. Pure and applied sciences and tech- nology : (a) Lectures 10 20 (b) Laboratory * VII. Languages 25 90 VIIL Pedagogy 3 5 IX. General culture courses 8 8 Total ."135 241 * Laboratory courses : 1. 3 hrs. daily. 2. 6 hrs. daily. 3. From 9 A.M. to 6 P.M. daily, except Saturday. 8. COURSES, EXAMINATIONS, DIPLOMAS. This enormously rich program is offered during the summer semester beginning at 7 A.M., during the winter semester at 8 A.M., and lasting until 10 P.M., with but one intermission, from 1-2 P.M. From this great variety of subjects the student may elect any course or courses of lectures that he considers of ad- vantage and importance to his life work. The only restriction is the stated maximum of hours per week, which in some colleges is 28, in others 30 hours of classroom work. In the selection of courses each student may be guided by the " plan of studies " which is issued by the college. This plan de- scribes the nature of each course of lectures and states for what particular branches in the commercial and industrial world it may be of special benefit. It gives the fundamental courses upon which the student may build his special courses. Furthermore the students are urgently advised, candidly and frequently to con- sult the director as well as the different professors who are re- quired to have regular, stated office hours, during which the time is at the disposal of the students — an arrangement worthy of imitation by all our American colleges. Another guide to the student for the proper selection of courses is a pamphlet, stating the "examination requirements." This enumerates the fundamental subjects, in which every candidate for a diploma is examined. Hence this class of students will naturally elect these basal courses (which we will discuss later), no matter in what work they may specialize later. The minimum length of the course leading to a diploma in all of these institutions is from 4 to 6 semesters (2-3 years) accord- ing to the preliminary training of the individual student and the particular diploma sought. But it is frankly admitted that stu- dents with only the minimum requirements as to time and courses rarely pass the severe final examinations, and all are urged to spend one or two semesters more in serious study. There are primarily two main courses offered by all commer- cial colleges, one being the general commercial science course leading to a diploma which is approximately equivalent to our *' bachelor degree in commercial science " and opens the way to remunerative executive positions in the business world ; the other 30 COURSES, EXAMINATIONS, DIPLOMAS. 3 1 the commercial teacher's course, which entitles the holder to a position as teacher in one of the higher commercial schools. In addition to these two courses, the college in Leipzic offers a spe- cial, concise course for accountants, and the school in Frankfort one for insurance experts, each extending over at least one semester. The apparent leniency shown to students in regard to the elec- tion of studies is entirely counter-balanced by the rigid examina- tions which follow the years of study and lead to the desired diplomas. These examinations are conducted by a commission consisting of a specially appointed representative of the state as chairman, the Director of the institution, and the professors of the courses in which the candidate is to be examined. In Leipzic, for instance, the candidate for the "diploma of general commercial science " must have studied at the commercial college at least five semesters and must prove that he has attended lectures in the following subjects: (a) Commercial Sciences. 1. General (theoretical) Economics. 2. Special (practical) Economics. 3. Finance. 4. At least one of the following : (a) Money, Credit, Banking. (&) Commercial Politics. (c) History of National Economics. (d) Insurance. (e) Colonial Politics. (/) Statistics. 5. Commercial and International Law. 6. Geography of the World's Commerce. 7. History of Commerce. (b) Technical Subjects. 8. Higher Mercantile Arithmetic. 9. Political Arithmetic. 10. Bookkeeping. 11. Commercial Correspondence (in native and at least one for- eign language). 12. Model Business Office. 32 COMMERCIAL COLLEGES IN GERMANY. The formal examination consists of three parts : a thesis, three written tests " unter Klausur " (viz., under supervision in class- room), and an oral examination. The thesis, which must be written within six weeks from the time the theme is given to the student by the examination commission, deals with a definite phase or problem taken from political economy, or from commercial law, or from history of commerce, or from commercial geog- raphy. In the written tests under supervision three themes, the- oretical and practical, again given by the examination commis- sion, must be discussed, allowing four hours for the discussion of each theme. Only after all papers have been accepted is the candidate ad- mitted to the oral examination. The subjects required for the written and for the oral examinations are : 1. Higher Mercantile Arithmetic. 2. Bookkeeping. 3. Commercial Correspondence in one or two foreign languages. 4. Political Economy and Finance. 5. Commercial and International Law. 6. Principles of Commercial Geography. 7. History of Commerce. Candidates failing in the written or oral examination may re- peat these after one or two semesters but are then required to pay the total examination fee again. The other diploma obtainable in the commercial colleges is the "diploma for teachers of commercial subjects." In Leipzic this diploma also demands 5 semesters as a minimum time of study. In addition to the requirements enumerated above for the " gen- eral diploma," candidates for the teacher's diploma must also pur- sue work in pedagogy. As a part of their final examination, cov- ering the same topics listed above, they are required to give a "model lesson" in the classroom, to show their pedagogical aptitude. These rules, quoted from the 14th annual report (1912) of the commercial college in Leipzic, practically apply also to the other commercial colleges in the country and show the nature of these final examinations. 9. EDUCATIONAL TOURS. There is however one feature of the course of studies worthy of special mention, namely the trips and excursions which groups of students under guidance of professors regularly undertake, in order to visit industrial and commercial centers and there study manufacturing plants and mercantile enterprises. This custom is prevalent in all the commercial colleges and it must be stated to the credit of the leading men in the commercial world that they have aided this undertaking in the most liberal manner. One of the important aims in a higher commercial education is to train the mind to appreciate commercial values, to see the "theories" translated into "work," to see the principles applied in real mercantile and industrial life. Lectures and exercises alone are not sufficient as preparation for so practical a profession as business is. They must be supplemented by exchange of, opinions as is done in seminar work, and also by " Anschauung," by inspection. This is accomplished by a systematic (not spo- radic!) inspection of commercial and industrial institutions and plants. It is unnecessary to point out to the thinking man the enormous benefit derived from such trips and tours. It may suffice here merely to state what has been done by these colleges in this respect. It is interesting to read Dr. Eckert's last (1912) report con- cerning the excursions of the commercial college in Cologne. In the beginning such trips were naturally limited to the immediate neighborhood of the city, which offered ample material for many tours. Eighty-eight different establishments were visited, includ- ing factories for glass and earthenware, cement, boilers, paper, iron, steel, furniture, railroad trains, chemicals; also foundries, mines, weaving mills, water works, ship yards, harbors, museums, sessions of chambers of commerce and other commercial and social organizations, institutions of charity, stock exchange, gov- ernment offices, etc. Everywhere these groups of students and professors found most cordial reception on the part of individuals and authorities. But this special field of study was not to be limited to home surroundings or inland industry and commerce alone. To in- 33 34 COMMERCIAL COLLEGES IN GERMANY. crease the intellectual viewpoint of the students by giving them an idea of international trade, its means and methods, these trips were extended to the great harbors of Germany and Holland. Also the exposition in Brussels was made the goal of a special tour. Such prolonged journeys could of course not be made during the limited time of the academic year, hence the vacation weeks were utilized for this purpose. However, the expenses connected with these trips threatened to make these exceedingly beneficial and instructive undertakings a prerogative of the wealthy. To avoid this danger and to make these tours possible also to the students in less fortunate circumstances, a fund was created to which wealthy and liberal patrons and friends contrib- uted large and small sums, and from which the greater part of the expenses were paid for such students. Nearly every report of the various colleges contains some announcement of new dona- tions to this " travel fund." In order to make such long and ex- pensive tours most profitable, lectures by the professors in charge of the expedition, and readings assigned to the students before the journey, serve the purpose of preparing the minds of the students to look for the salient and interesting features on the proposed trip. Explanatory lectures by the accompanying professors en route also aid materially to make the student understand what he sees. One of these extended trips, lasting four weeks, led the travelers to the most important continental harbors of western Europe, in order to study at first hand how historical and com- mercial development was favored by geographical position. Along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean, the main harbors of Italy, Greece and Turkey, along the German railroad in Asia Minor, was the route of that interesting expedition. Here the participants studied the great classic cultural districts in the light of modern economic points of view. Another similar trip led a group of students to the equatorial states of eastern Africa, to study colonial problems and to ob- serve how European training and industry had subjugated un- productive, unknown territory and changed it to valuable holdings. The greatest undertaking however was carried out in 1910, when 28 carefully selected students under the able guidance of three professors toured the most important manufacturing and commercial centers of the United States. Besides visiting the great financial and commercial centers, such as New York, Chi- EDUCATIONAL TOURS. 35 cage, St. Louis, etc., this expedition left the accustomed routes of the general traveler and sought special information in Duluth, Butte, Seattle, Pomona, etc. Thirteen railroad companies carried their Pullman sleeper through 26 states of the Union and a part of Canada, whilst shorter distances were traversed in automo- biles. Everywhere American hospitality and cordiality showed itself in their best light. Representatives of the mercantile and industrial world, chambers of commerce, individuals, all rivaled in aiding the, success of the great undertaking. The report on this enterprise, written by Dr. Eckert, is a classic of its kind, charac- terized by accurate statement, and testifies to sharp observation and fair-mindedness of the author. Thus these students have had an opportunity to study foreign customs and foreign commercial methods and have no doubt ex- perienced the truth of Goethe's words : " A clever man will find the best education in tr avel. " 10. CONCLUSION. The question may finally be asked : Have these commercial in- stitutions justified their existence? The facts that they are so well patronized, that the number of them is slowly but constantly increasing, that the special training given in these institutions is more and more in demand, give a sufficiently satisfactory answer. Professor Dr. M. J. Bonn, director of the Munich Commercial College, has pointedly stated the aim of these institutions, by declar- ing that the student should acquire " the commercial spirit," viz., he should be able to see the commercial situation in its true light, he should then possess the initiative to utilize this knowledge of the situation to his advantage, and finally he should have business sagacity enough to predict with fair accuracy the future trend of his own particular chosen business. This commercial spirit is the basis of all success. But it can not be emphasized jop strongly that this commercial spirit must be counter-balanced by a broad and liberal education to prevent the business man from running into a rut and being reduced to a calculating mechanism. He should be not only an efficient business man but also a thor- oughly educated gentleman, broad-minded, with liberal ideas, con- versant on all topics and thoroughly abreast and in sympathy with the times. He should be sufficiently conservative to appreciate the good in the old and sufficiently progressive to see and to adopt the advantages of the new. Above all, he should be able to think and to think rapidly, accurately and deeply. Such men will necessarily meet with success in life. The man who can prove that he possesses " capital-producing " abilities is sought by capital more than anything else. Carnegie once declared that every larger firm or organization is constantly searching for able and trained men; no article in the world's market is so much in de- mand, none is so high in price. In 1904 Professor Herrick, formerly of Philadelphia, stated that the entire system of German commercial education "may be charged with the defects of its virtues ; those trained in it are well disciplined, but they are mechanical, and sadly lacking in the indi- viduality and initiative so characteristic of those trained in the schools of England and America." This charge was based upon observations, made prior to the establishment of the last three 36 CONCLUSION.. ' *'\t.,' I • . " ' \ ? • ' ' -' '37 colleges named and when the first three were still in their in- fancy and could not have any appreciable effect upon contempo- rary business life. This criticism may in a measure be verified with reference to the commercial "middle schools" (similar to our "high schools") but it lacks all justification when made in regard to these colleges. Even the " middle schools " have been constantly improved since the above criticism was made, so that Dr. William Maxwell, one of the advanced educational thinkers of the present time, in an address made December, 191 2, in Cooper Union, New York City, could compliment the Leipzic commercial school by stating that New York City's High School of Com- merce was modeled closely after that excellent institution. In conclusion let us note some expressions of opinion upon higher commercial education in Germany by several leading American educators, who, through years of study and close obser- vation, have become authorities on such matters. In an address before the Chamber of Commerce of California, President Wheeler, who spent years of study in Germany and who, some time ago, was exchange professor in Berlin, stated, in part : " Germany led the way in applying what the university had to teach to commerce and commercial problems. It has pre- eminence in production of dye stuffs as it was the first to ex- periment with beet root culture. Men said of both that they were vagaries of university men. You go out to-day into the nearer East and find in Asia Minor, in Turkey, in Greece, — find every- where the German consul as a trade agent. He can speak the lan- guage of the country, read its newspapers, in short, is an integral part of the community. It is this ' practical ' diplomacy, as much as political diplomacy, that has made Germany what it is to-day. But never yet was a German consul appointed because he was 'some body's man,' but because he was 'the' man for the position." Showing the need for a higher training of our own business men, he continues : " American merchants have found out that we have become an exporting nation. Our politicians have exerted all efforts to devise means to keep other people's wares out of the market, but now we ought to exert all efforts to trade with the whole world." Dr. Edmund James, president of the State University of Illi- nois, recently said: "We Americans can learn more from Ger- many than from any other country. A land not as large as Texas \J ■> '• 38^"".^ > .'.■■' COMMERCIAL COLLEGES IN GERMANY. which nevertheless supports a population two thirds as large as that of the United States deserves to be studied more closely. As an industrial state, Germany to-day stands in the front rank ; Ger- man science occupies the first place and also German literature and art can favorably be compared with any other art and literature." Professor Richard T. Ely of the University of Wisconsin, just returning from a year of study spent in Germany, published the following interesting observations: "The progress which Ger- many has made during the past 20 years is eminent in every re- spect. Like a father the state cares for its people. Every Ger- man, who has not a definite income, as well as every official, must insure himself against accidents, sickness, etc. The state expends large sums annually, in order to establish continuation schools, in which young laborers receive free instruction." The commercial colleges of Germany however are not only train- ing the leaders in business life, but are also destined to be the real training schools for the men of public affairs, for city and state officials, for domestic and diplomatic service. In performing this function these commercial colleges will exert the greatest in- fluence upon both the commercial and the political development of the country and will thus become important factors in main- taining Germany in the present prominent place which it occupies in the council of the world's great commercial powers. y^^^ssssm UNIVEESITY OF CALIFOENIA LIBEARY BEEKELEY m^ THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW Books not returned on time are subject to a fine of 50c per volume after the third day overdue, increasing to $1.00 per volume after the sixth day. Books not in demand may be renewed if application is made before expiration of loan period. r v^vv/^/cX(^^ v^^O XC 9150 M 311501 UNIVERSITY OF CAUFORNIA LIBRARY