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PLANTS. 219
FIRST DIVISION.
VASCULAR PLANTS.
These plants are provided with vessels and cellular
tissue. The germ is enveloped in one or more layers.
CLASS I.
E X O G E IT M.
The vascular organs, sap-wood, or alburnum, are com-
posed of one or more concentric rings or layers, the
youngest of which is always next the external covering.
Envelopes of germ in a whorl.
A. Provided with double flower- envelopes, that is,
consisting of both calyx and corolla ; petals separate from
each other.
SUB-CLASS I.
Seed bearing. Flower polypetalous ; the petals in-
serted on the calyx.
FIRST DIVISION.
-
Many fruit ov 11 Contained in one flower, or with the
anth &; and'curea > ' d g e f the fl er '
*>*- '-T'-PAMILY. jiAXUXCUL^ have mostly weak and
flexible stems, often climbers or creepers, are warmly
aromatic plants, containhig"a juice which acts as an acrid
narcotic poison.
The Common Buttercup (Ranunculus acris) is found
abundantly in meadows ; leaves notched, flowers brilliant
220 NATURAL HISTORY.
gold color, giving the fields a gay appearance ; blooms in
May or June ; many call it buttercup. As it is very
acrid, it is bad food for cattle, and as a troublesome weed,
very detrimental to the meadows. By boiling, it loses
its acrid property. The garden ranunculus is considered
quite ornamental, but there are many wild plants belong-
ing to this species, which are very poisonous. 2. Class
13, Linn.
Tall Crow Foot (Ranunculus ficarius). Leaves heart-
shaped, lanciniate, somewhat fleshy ; roots tuberculated ;
flowers yellow, with from eight to ten petals. Found in
spring ; very common in woods. Leaves and tubers eat-
able ; the last, when washed out by the rain, has a sweet
taste, and obtained for itself the very popular name of
Rain Manna.
The Wood Anemone or Wind Flower (Anemone
nemorosa), Linn. Leaves tripartite with lancet-shaped,
acuminate tips ; flowers whitish. Found everywhere in
woods in March and April : is acrid and often injurious
to cattle grazing where it grows. It . A species consid-
ered ornamental is cultivated in gardens.
Virgin's Bower (Clematis vitalba), Linn. Leaves
tailed, feathered, and deeply notched; the stalk flexible
and climbing. Frequent in moist woodlands and thick-
ets, clinging to supports by its petiolate leaves ; the flow-
ers white and umbelliferous.
The Pcsony (Pseonia officinalis). CoreJJa full-leaved ;
petals leaf-shaped, numbering from five to tea: flat, red
mostly, but sometimes sprinkled with white, and from
two to five germ buds. Leaves feathered ; fruit-pods
felt-like. This handsome plant grows wild on the rocky
hills of southern Europe, but is cultivated in gardens for
sake of its beauty. Blooming in May or June, the
PLANTS. 221
root, although acrid and poisonous, is used in medi-
cine.* 2.
Devil in a Bush Love iti Mist (Nigella damascena)
has a smooth branching stem ; flowers covered with a
kind of veil ; seed enclosed in five separate capsules.
Grows wild in the south of France and Italy ; cultivated
farther north in gardens ; flowers are white, blue, and
greenish ; blooms in June and August. O Sometimes
called Ragged Lady.
The Lark Spur (Delphimim ajacis), calyx petaloid,f
corolla! undeveloped, upper sepal or leaflet produced into
a spur at base. Flower petals .four, the two upper with
a spur -shaped appendage at base, enclosed in the spur of
the calyx. Buds blue and grape-like ; stem grows to a
height of three feet ;. is found single, but the petals are
often multiplied into double flowers. O an d $ .
SECOND FAMILY. MAGNOLIACE^:, to which belongs
The Tulip Tree (Liriodendron tulipifera), a large
and beautiful tree, growing to a great thickness. Sepals^
three, caducous|| corolla campanulate ; petals mostly six,
yellow and green, at base red. Blooms in July, and is
the ornament of a garden as well as of the forest, i? .
Class 13, Linn.
The Stellated Anise (Illicium anisatum) grows in
China, Japan, and the Philippines ; somewhat like a
* The physician Paeon, according to mythology, first used this plant
in medicine, and cured Pluto with it. Tr.
f Petal-like.
^ Corolla, the delicate inner covering of the flower between calyx
and stamens.
Leaflets of calyx sepal distinct portion of calyx ; sepaloid
green and not petal-like.
| Caducous falling off readily. Corolla-flower campanulate
bell or tulip-shaped.
222 NATTJKAL HISTORY.
cherry tree ; the leaves resemble those of the rose bay.
but are softer. The blossoms or flowers are much like
those of the narcissus ; are composed of thirty yellow
petals, twenty short stamens, and eight pistils. The
fruit is the well known anise.'
THIRD FAMILY. MEXISPERMACE^E. The Common
Moonseed (Menispermum cocculus). Stem shrub-like,
climbing and fastening by tendrils ; branching out pro-
fusely ; leaves peltate, heart-shaped, emarginate, smooth,
dark green above, blue-green and downy below : length
from eight to twelve inches. The flowers hang in long
clusters like grapes, measuring from one to two feet in
length. The fruit is reddish-purple, with a soft, fleshy
envelope, and brown kidney-shaped seed. Found in the
Indian Archipelago, in the neighborhood of the sea-
coast. The species known as Cocculus Indicus, coming
to us in a dried state, has an oily and intensely bitter
kernel, which contains an acrid narcotic poison. These
kernels are used in India as bait for taking fish, but it is
a very improper method, as the eating of fish, thus
caught, has proved very injurious ; being productive of
stupor to the scaly tribe, they are more easily taken by
this bait than any other. Cocculus Indicus, it is said, is
used in England in the manufacture of porter. Some-
times called Fishing Berries.
FOURTH FAMILY. BARBERIDACE^E. Common Bar-
berry or Sour Thorn (Berberis vulgaris) is a shrub
growing to a height of nine feet ; leaves ovate and ser-
rate ; calyx consists of six sepals ; flowers yellow, with
six petals ; grow in drooping racemes ;* the stamens, if
* Raceme a mode of flowering by which the common peduncle
(foot-stalk or flower-stem) is elongated with the flowers on short, lat-
eral, simple pedicles. Tr.
PLANTS. 223
touched by a needle, instantly draw up or contract.
Blooms in May or June ; bears a scarlet berry in Sep-
tember, is juicy and acid, but very pleasant to the taste.
This juice pressed, strained, and boiled with sugar, makes
a refreshing syrup. The fine yellow wood is used for
inlaying ; the bark of the root furnishes a yellow dye.
It grows spontaneously in the hedges almost everywhere
in Europe. 2. Class 6, Linn.
SECOND DIVISION.
Fruit mostly of a one-celled pod or capsule ; stigmas
persistent or permanent.
FIFTH FAMILY. PAPAVERAC^E, Class 13, L. The
Common Poppy (Papaver somniferum). The calyx is
composed of two sepals and drooping ; corolla of four
petals, when cultivated has many more. The seed pod
is as large as a moderate-sized apple, and divided into
incomplete partitions, upon which is a sessile cicatrice,
radiating from the summit. Stalk upright ; leaves
smooth, fleshy, and blue-green. The Poppy is originally
from the East, and on account of the oily juice contained
in its fine white albuminous seed, is cultivated in Europe
and elsewhere. There are some species in which the
seed is black. If an incision is made into the unripe
capsule a milky juice is seen to flow, which, on being
dried, turns brown, is well known as opium, and acts as
a narcotic poison. Q.
The Corn Poppy (Papaver rhceas), Endl. German,
Klatschrose, is branching and bristly; leaves divided;*
flowers bright red, and most frequently found growing
among grain. The capsule is about as large as a hazel-
* Pinaately dissected. TV.
224 NATURAL HISTORY.
nut. The petals are used in infusion as a narcotic or
rather anodyne. O-
The Celandine (Chelidonium majus). Leaves are
pinnate, and divided into feathery lobes ; calyx has two
sepals ; carolla four petals ; flowers yellow and hang in
umbels ; blooms from May to September. Found every-
where by walls and hedgerows ; yields a deep yellow
juice, the course of which, if the plant be viewed with
a magnifying-glass, can be distinctly seen as it circulates
through stem and leaf. After flowering, it bears a pod
in which is the seed.
SIXTH FAMILY. FUMATORIA. Class 17, Linn.
The Common Fumatory (Fumaria officinalis) is a small
branching, climbing plant, with leaves dissected and
many cleft ; flowers beautiful flesh color, blooming in
clusters. It has a bitter flavor, but is considered good
fodder for sheep. O-
Cory dolls (Corydalis solida). Calyx has mostly two
sepals, sometimes altogether wanting. Only one of the
four petals the upper posterior one is spurred. The
middle anther of every fascicle, or little bundle, are
double, the others single ; fruit pod like that of the
poppy, but not separated into compartments, many seeded
and bivalved. Grows among hedgerows.
SEVENTH FAMILY. CRUCIFER^E. Class 15, Linn.
The Water Cress (Nasturtium officinale) has a diffuse,
hollow stem, spreading root-like along the ground. The
leaves are heart-shaped, flowers -white, and the pods
cylindrical. The leaves are very juicy, have a pungent
bitter taste, nevertheless they afford a palatable and
healthful article of food, and are used as salad. Grows
in ditches and brooks, and blooms in June and Au-
gust, h.
PLANTS. 225
The Common Meadow Cress or Cuckoo Flower
(Cardamine pratensis), L., has pinnate, feathery leaves,
and reddish-white flowers ; bears seed pods an inch long.
Found everywhere in meadows. O.
The Gillljlower (Cheiranthus annuus) has a shrub-
like or ligneous stem - r leaves lanceolate and indented ;
grows a foot high ; flowers red and white, sometimes
single, at others double ; often cultivated in gardens. 6 .
There is a species greatly resembling this, called the
Winter Gilliflower.
The Black Mustard (Sinapis nigra), Tournef. The
leaves are attached to the stem by foot- stalks four inches
long and two broad ; the flowers yellow. The pod meas-
ures about an inch, and contains from four to six brown
seeds. Grows in fields and waste places ; blooms in July
and August ; is frequently cultivated. The seed is valued
on account of its pungent aromatic taste, and mixed with
vinegar, etc., is used as a condiment with beef. It is
also valuable for its vesicating properties, and much used
for foot-baths and blisters ; is of as much importance to
the physician as the cook. Resembling this but weaker,
is the White Mustard ; the seeds of both, by being
pressed, may be made to yield a mild oil, used also for
vesication. O.
The Cabbage (Brassica oleracea), De Cand., has fleshy
leaves ; flowers of pale yellow ; the stalk from three to
four feet high ; branching ; pods from two to three inches
long ; the seed very dark brown. Cabbage was origin-
ally brought from Greece, where it still grows wild, and
has produced many valuable species, which are now cul-
tivated in gardens.
The White Cabbage, of which the leaves are mostly
white, but sometimes red or blue, and very broad, readily
10*
226 NATURAL HISTORY.
form themselves into a head. The white cabbage is one
of the most important vegetables in use among the Ger-
man population. As soon as the heads are properly
closed, which is early in the autumn, it is made, -with
the addition of salt, etc., into the well known Sauer-
kraut.* The species most preferred for this purpose is
the sugar-loaf cabbage, and is raised in great perfection
in the fields of Wurtemberg. $ .
Another species of cabbage, much esteemed, is the
White and Green Curled Savoy, the leaves of which
are yellow and curled. Another of the tribe is the
Winter Cabbage, with dark green, crisped leaves ; both
are excellent vegetables. The cauliflower, which was
originally brought from Italy, is much esteemed ; it dif-
fers from the other species in bearing, in strong tufts, a
number of whitish-yellow, well-tasted flowers or buds,
which, from their resemblance to a cheese curd, are often
called cheese cabbages. $ .
Broccoli has the same kind of a head as the cauliflower,
but smaller ; is of different colors, as white, blue, and
darkish. If the head is cut off, the stem puts forth a
shoot which tastes like asparagus ; sometimes called
asparagoides. $ .
Caula Rapa Bulb-stalked Cabbage. This species
is distinguished by sub-globose or apple-formed fleshy
enlargements on the stem at the origin of the leaves,
which, together with the latter, are used as table
diet. 0.
Turnip-rooted Cabbage (German, Boden Kohlrabe],
is distinguished from the former in having the fleshy
* Also what is commonly termed Cold-slaw, which is a corruption
of Kohl-salat (German), cabbage-salad.
PLANTS. 227
bulbs under the earth. These roots are in common use,
and known as the White Turnip. Q.
The Common Turnip (Brassica rapa) differs from
cabbage- by the bright green color of the rough radical
leaves, while those of the stem are blue-green, and
smooth. The principal specimens of this genus are the
common white turnip, and the Ruta Baga or Swedish
turnip, which are raised everywhere and used as a table
vegetable, as well as food for cattle. Planted or sowed
as grain on stubbles. A sub-species is the Teltowa
Turnip. Q .
The Rape (Brassica oleitera) has broad, heart-shaped
leaves and yellow flowers grows wild in Sicily and in
the neighborhood of Naples, but, brought to Middle
Europe, is cultivated for sake of the oil furnished by
the seed, which is useful to burn in lamps and for greas-
ing wool preparatory to carding. Q.
The Radish (Raphanus sativus) has long, lyrate, rough
leaves and cylindrical, pendulous seed pods. Came ori-
ginally from China, but has been cultivated since ancient
times in Europe. Root large and fusiform, white, red,
and frequently black. Has a pleasant taste, although
pungent, and, some say, assist digestion. O- There
are many different species.
The Garden Cress (Lepidium sativum). Pepper-
grass. Leaves variously incised and divided into linear
segments ; pods oval. Grows wild in the East, but in
Europe and the United States is cultivated in gardens ;
blooms in June and July ; has a pleasant, though pun-
gent taste, and is used by many as salad. O.
The Woad (Isatis tinctoria) has a smooth stalk ; stem-
leaves are arrow-shaped, radical or root-leaves wedge-
like. Blooms in a panicle or raceme, has small yellow
228 NATURAL HISTORY.
flowers, and, as it yields a blue dye, it is frequently cul-
tivated. $ .
The Shepherd's Purse (Thlaspi bursa pastoris), upper
or stem-leaves sagittate, radical or lower feathered seed
pods heart-shaped ; flowers white ; petals small. Grows
everywhere in fields or on road-sides as a weed ; never-
theless it is said to be good food for sheep.
The Jericho Rose (Anastatica hierochuntica). Leaves
ovate and notched ; white flowers without peduncles ;
seed-pods hairy. This plant is found growing in the
sand in Palestine, Arabia, and Egypt ; if dried for an
herbarium, etc., it rolls its branches together like a ball,
but many believe after being kept a year and a day, if it
is placed in water, it will spread forth as if to life again.
The superstitious regard it as a miracle, and from pecu-
liar signs accompanying this singular faculty, predict
whether the coming year will be fruitful or not.
The Scurvy Grass (Cochlearia officinalis). Radical
leaves petiolate and heart-shaped ; flowers white ; pods
bullet-like ; stem-leaves oblong. Grows abundantly on
the sea-coasts of northern Europe and in the neighbor-
hood of salt springs ; has a sharp, bitter taste, and is
eaten mixed with other vegetables as salad. Consid-
ered as a specific in all diseases of the mouth, and partic-
ularly the scurvy, to which sailors are subject from the
constant use of salted meat, it is much valued. It is oc-
casionally planted in gardens. $ .
The Horse Radish (Cochlearia armoracia). The root
is thick, long, fleshy, and branching ; the stem upright,
with lanceolate leaves ; the pods small and egg-shaped.
It is cultivated in gardens everywhere ; the root, which
is the part eaten, is exceedingly pungent, and is much
esteemed as a condiment for meats. Z[.
PLANTS. 229
EIGHTH FAMILY. CAPARIDACEJS are shrubs or trees
with four-leaved flowers and six or more stamens ; many
of them bear berries. (Class 13, L.) The most remark-
able is
The Caper Bush (Capparis spinosa), an ornamental
shrub, from the flexible branches of which hang tender,
pale-green, ovate leaves and light-red, or white, poppy-
like flowers. They grow in thickets under city walls or
on slopes in southern Europe ; the buds are plucked off,
laid for a few hours exposed to the air in the shade, and
pickled with salt and vinegar. As their use is said to
promote the digestion, they are highly valued as a
condiment. The bushes die down to the root every
year. h.
NINTH FAMILY. BIXINA. (Class 13, L.) To this
belongs
The Orleans Tree (Bixa orellana), and is rather a
shrub than a tree, being about the size of a hazel-nut
bush, which is cultivated in the damp grounds of the East
and West Indies. The handsome green leaves are heart-
shaped ; flowers flesh-color ; and the fruit, round and of
the size of a chestnut, contain about forty seeds, each as
large as a pea. They are surrounded by a red-colored
fluid, from which the color known as annotto or nankeen
color is made. h.
TENTH FAMILY. VIOLACEOUS PLANTS. (Class 5,
L.) The first is
The Violet (Viola odorata). Has broad, heart-shaped
leaves, with five unequal flower petals, of which the
lower is spurred. The flowers are blue, odoriferous,
and furnished with a footstalk. This well known and
favorite plant grows everywhere among the grass, by
hedges and under shade ; blooms in March and April,
230 NATURAL HISTORY.
and sometimes a second time, in Autumn. A pleasant
perfume is extracted from the flowers, and also an essence
which is said to relieve pain, h .
The Dog Violet is distinguished by its paler color and
the entire want of odor.
The Tri-colored Violet (Viola tricolor) has leaves
longist and dentated ; flowers tri-colored ; petals varied,
violet, blue, yellow, or white; the lower one yellow,
marked with seven dark purple stripes. This favorite
and ornamental flower grows everywhere, and, blooming
throughout the whole summer, may be called the pride
of the garden ; is known also by the names of Pansy
and Heart's Ease. The Germans prepare from it a
decoction said to be useful in purifying the blood. Q
and <*.
The Dyers Weed or Weld (Roseda luteola) grows
everywhere, on dust heaps or by waysides; the leaves
are lanceolate ; flowers arranged in a long spike, stand
upright, and have from twenty to twenty-four stamens ;
cattle avoid this plant on account of its bitterness, but as
it yields a fine yellow dye, it is cultivated. Found in
Europe and the United States.
The Mignionette (Reseda odorata) resembles the fore-
going ; the flowers are delightfully odoriferous, and the
plant itself, by no means acrid, is eagerly eaten by
Canary birds. Native of Egypt. Both belong to Class
11, L.
THIRD DIVISION*.
With single fruit pods, seed bearers upright in the
middle.
ELEVENTH FAMILY. Genus CARYOPHYLLACE.E. Ca-
PLANTS. 231
lyx tubular and serrated. (Class 10, L.) The species
most noted is
The Garden Pink (Dianthus caryophyllus), also
termed Clove Pink or Carnation. Calyx covered with
short scales ; five petals ; long claws, unequally notched ;
originally a native of Italy, but now cultivated every-
where, and valued by florists for its fragrance and beau-
ty. The leaves are pale green ; the color of the flower
was originally red, but, by careful culture, is now found
of every variety of hue. The odor of this beautiful child
of Flora is delightful, and florists engage in the cultiva-
tion of the Pink with an ardor amounting to passion.
The most conspicuous specimens of the whole race, of
which the Carnation is supposed the parent, are the
Dianthus Barbatus or Sweet William, the Armaria
or Wild Pink, Plumarius Pheasant's Eye, and Di-
anthus Superbus, etc. 2.
The Saponaria (Saponaria officinalis), vulgarly known
as Bouncing Bet or Soapwort, has lanceolate leaves in-
clining to elliptical ; flowers growing in tufts, handsome
and flesh-colored, with ten stamens and two styles.
Grows in fields, by roadsides, or in gardens ; stem
from one to two feet high ; the saponaceous juice found
in the root can be used as soap. It has a bitter taste,
and is often employed as medicine. 2 .
The Cuckoo Flower Ragged Robin (Lychnis flos
cuculi) ; stem rough and upright ; leaves lanceolate and
smooth ; calyx wedge-shaped and ten-ribbed ; petals
divided into segments formed like a hand; color red,
sometimes very pale, but seldom white. Very common
in meadows or gardens.
The Corn Cockle (Lychnis githago), cultivated Rose
Campion, is rough, with small, woolly leaves, reddish-
232 NATURAL HISTORY.
purple flowers ; ten stamens, five pistils ; seeds small,
black and angular. This handsome weed grows in
wheat fields often two or three feet high ; is a great
nuisance to farmers, as it makes the flour blue and the
bread bitter. 2.*
TWELFTH FAMILY. LINAGES. FLAXWORTS. Class
5, L.
Flax (Linum usitatissimum) has small, lanceolate leaves,
of a beautiful green color ; stem upright, flowers large
and blue ; flower petals oval shaped, somewhat twisted.
This useful plant grows wild or among grain in the south
of Europe, but was largely cultivated in the north, until
nearly superseded by cotton. The flowers close in the
evening ; the capsules are five-celled and globose ; seeds
mucilaginous and oily, are employed in medicine, and
yield the Unseed oil so extensively used in mixing paint,
printer's ink, varnishes, etc. The fibers of the bark,
very strong and fine, are manufactured into linen. O-
There are inferior species, such as Linum Riyidum,
Linum Virginianum, flowers yellow, and Linum Diffu-
sum, found on wet prairies.
THIRTEENTH FAMILY. MALVACEAE. (J., L., C. 16.)
This genus is composed of plants or shrubs. A some-
what important class of plants, forming about one fiftieth
of all the flowering plants of tropical valleys. In the
Northern States they are all herbs. The most important
product of the order is Cotton. The fruit is composed
of twelve carpels arranged circularly around the calyx ;
the children sportively call them cheeses, a name very
naturally suggested by their form. The Hibiscus and
* The Scarlet Lychnis, Ragged Robin, Chinese Lychnis, found
both in Europe auJ the Uuited States, belong to this family.
PLANTS. 233
Lavateria belong also to the Mallow tribe, and, although
foreigners, are now extensively naturalized.
The Low Mallow (Malva rotundifolia) is a small plant
with delicate, roundish, heart-shaped leaves, white flow-
ers, veined with purple ; grows spontaneously in fields,
or by roadsides, and found everywhere. The whole
plant is mucilaginous ; the seeds are brown and kidney-
shaped. K.
The Harsh Hallow (Altheae officinalis). The stem
is upright, growing to a height of three or four feet, cov-
ered with thick, woolly down ; leaves velvet-like, round,
and heart-shaped. This useful plant grows wild in the
damp grounds of southern Europe; in Germany it is
cultivated on account of its medicinal properties; the
flowers are of a pale flesh color, the root, about the size
of a finger in thickness, as well as the other parts of the
plant, abounds in mucilage, and is used not only as a
specific in obstinate coughs, but as an emollient to pro-
mote suppuration. 2.
Much resembling it is
The Rose Mallow, Harvest Rose or Hollyhock (Al-
thea rosea), L., which grows above a height of six
feet ; stem hairy ; flowers, springing out like ears of
corn from the stalk, are mostly dark red ; but there are
numerous varieties of color, as well as single, double, or
semi-double flowers. It is a native of the East. 6 .
The Cotton Plant (Gossypium album), plate 28, fig.
3, is a shrub with a cup-shaped calyx ; leaves pointed,
and from three to five-lobed ; stem from two to four feet
high, rough, and dark spotted ; the flowers are large, and
of a fine yellow hue ; seeds white, numerous, and envel-
oped in a long white wool, are hidden within a capsule
of parchment-like texture, which, when the plant has
234 NATURAL HISTORY.
arrived at maturity, bursts with a slight report. Al-
though cotton is a native of Persia and the East Indies,
it is now cultivated in the south of Europe, and forms a
most important object of American agriculture. It
requires a good soil, and to be kept clear of weeds. In
October, when the pods, fully ripe, have burst open,
they are pulled, and left to dry. The cotton is then
picked out, freed from seeds, packed in large bales, and
sent forth as a valuable article of commerce. There is
another family of the cotton plant, having black seeds,
and yellow wool, from which the genuine nankeen is
made. h.
FOURTEENTH FAMILY. NUCIFERA. (CLASS 18, L.)
We shall only mention one of this class.
The Cocoa-nut tree (Theobroma cacao). This tree,
which seldom reaches a height of twenty feet, is a native
of America ; the branches are slender ; the leaves, of
a light green color, are about a span in length, and have
a very long foot-stalk ; the flowers are small and white ;
fruit, at first dark yellow, but, when ripe, spotted with
brown : grows principally on the stem and larger branches ;
resembles a melon in form ; contains a sweet, succulent,
marrow-like substance, in wbich are found from thirty to
forty kernels, about tbe size of a large bean, and of a
pale violet color. Taken from the nuts, these seeds are
left lying in heaps for a few days, in order to foment.
Their color is now changed to a reddish-brown, in which
state they are ready for exportation, and being almost
entirely oleaginous, are called' Cocoa Butter. The Car-
accas cocoa is considered best, as it is more aromatic, and
less greasy. It is easily distinguished by its lighter
color. Moreover, if the cocoa-beans are mealy and bitter,
they are roasted over a fire, ground or beaten, and mixed
PLANTS. 235
with spices and sugar, form the article everywhere known
as Chocolate, h.
FIFTEENTH FAMILY. TILIAC.-EE (LINDEN BLOOMS).
(Class 13, L.)
The Common Lime tree (Tilia europaea), Torr., has
heart-shaped, sharp-pointed leaves. The flowers hang in
clusters, and have a long leaf covering, or cyme, which
is adherent to the flower pedicle. The fruit is globous,
and ripens in Octobor. Grows either in forests or free
spaces ; the roots spread very widely. Very hardy, the
trees of this family often attain the age of eight hundred
years, and measure more than twenty feet in circumfer-
ence. The young trees will bear transplantation until
they reach the thirtieth year. The wood, soft, light, and
tough, is much used in cabinet work and by turners.
The young branches are burnt, and form the crayons
used in drawing ; also, the blue-black necessary in the
preparation of gunpowder, and is considered the best
dentrifice known. The inner bark is very strong, and
from the fibres, first softened in water, ropes, mats, and
baskets are manufactured. The flowers of the European
lime tree have a pleasant odor, and are sometimes used
as tea. They are valued as food for bees, as they impart
a pleasant flavor to the honey. The seeds yield a much
prized oil, closely resembling that of almonds, h.
There are other varieties of Tilia, such as
The Linden (Tilia americana), Torr., also known as
Pumpkin tree or Basswood ; differing little from the
foregoing ; growing in forests, and reaching to eighty
feet in height. "Wood used in cabinet work and paneling
of carriages. Another variety, found on the banks of
the Mississippi and Ohio, is
The Various-Leaved Linden (Heterophylla), Pursh,
236 NATURAL HISTORY.
which never grows higher than from twenty to thirty
feet.
The White Lime (Tilia alba), Mich., is found in the
woods of the Middle and Western States. Trunk from
thirty to forty feet in height. Fibrous portion of inner
bark also used for fishing-lines, nets, and rice-bags, h.
SIXTEENTH FAMILY. CAMELLIA. (Class 13, L.)
Are small shrubs and trees, with simple leaves, alternat-
ing on the stalk. Flowers consisting of five or more
petals. The first of this family is
The Tea Plant (Thea chinensis), plate 28, fig. 4.
The leaves are evergreen, smooth, lanceolate, rather long,
and notched ; the flowers stand singly. This well-known
article of commerce is divided into two kinds, namely :
Green Tea, the leaves of which, being dried, are of a
bluish-green, and Black, because the leaves are brown
or black. This shrub, valuable for the sake of its leaves,
is a native of China and Japan, and being in general use
as forming a favorite beverage for all classes, many
efforts have been made to transplant the tea shrub to
Brazil, and other provinces of South America. Its size
is about the same as that of a currant bush ; very branch-
ing ; the bark is gray, the wood hard ; the leaves num-
erous, and of the size and shape of those of the small,
sour cherry, have very short foot-stalks. The smallest
leaves on the top, the larger below ; the first are consid-
ered the best ; the latter, on being gathered, are divided
into five portions, which bring different prices, according
to their quality. The flowers are white, without fra-
grance, and much resemble the wild rose. The fruit,
black, wood-like, is divided into three capsules, each of
which contains one bitter seed not unlike that of the sloe
thorn. The first time of gathering is in March, when
PLANTS. 237
the small leaves, of two or three days growth only, are
pulled. These, carefully dried, are the genuine imperial
tea, which never, or very rarely, is exported abroad.
The second gathering is had in April, and forms the dif-
ferent and best sorts of tea sent to other countries. The
third crop is the common and cheap article of commerce,
and known by various names. It is said that an infusion
of the fresh leaves of the tea plant affects the brain injur-
iously ; therefore, they are at once spread on tin plates,
and placed in kilns until they become so hot that they
can scarcely be handled. After this operation, they are
rolled about on mats made of fine rushes until they are
cold, during which process a green colored juice exudes
from them. Many believe that green tea receives its
color from being dried on plates of copper ; this is, how-
ever, not true. The later leaves, which, when dried,
form the varieties of black tea, are dipped in boiling
water before drying. The same process is had as with
the green, and, last of all, the precious article, now
ready for use, is carefully put up in boxes lined with tin
or pewter. These boxes, however, are kept a twelve-
month before being exported or brought into use, as the
tea, operating powerfully on the nerves, is considered
dangerous until a year old. Tea has been used as a re-
freshing beverage in China and Japan since the earliest
times, but was not known in England before the middle
of the seventeenth century. At the present time it is in
such general use that more than 100,000,000 of pounds
are exported. Latterly, however, it is much adulterated,
being mixed with leaves of the ash and sloe thorn. The
sea air is supposed to injure the flavor of tea brought in
ships ; therefore, that which is brought by the caravans,
238 NATURAL HISTORY.
through Russia or bj the overland route, is considered
the best. i>.
The Camellia (Camellia japonica) is a shrub not unlike
the tea plant, and grows wild in all the hedges in Japan.
The leaves, pointed, oval, and notched, are leathery but
smooth and shining, as if varnished ; the flowers, con-
sisting of five petals, are large and beautifully colored ;
the wood of the stem is hard ; the seeds are contained in
a broad three-knobbed capsule, about the size of a, hazel-
nut; is valuable as containing a considerable portion of
an essential oil, which is used for many purposes in the
East; sometimes called the Japan rose. The colors are
various flesh-colored, bright red, rose color, and white.
One of the most beautiful flowering plants, it is, with us,
of difficult cultivation, requiring much skill and patience,
as well as protection from the climate. There are two
hundred varieties. T?.
SEVENTEENTH FAMILY. AURANTIACE.E. (Class 13,
L.) A noble genus of shrubs and trees, with fragrant
fruit and odoriferous flowers. From the latter is obtained
the oil of heroli, which, used in. composition of cologne
water arid other perfumes, imparts its own delicious odor
to them.
The Lemon Tree (Citrus medica) is large and lofty ;
height twenty feet ; bark smooth ; small branches, armed
with thorns ; leaves long and acute ; smooth, glossy, and
parchment-like. The flowers are violet color outside;
within, white and very fragrant ; fruit egg-shaped, and
larger than an apple ; the yellow rind, thick and very
fragrant, contains an acid pulp, the agreeable juice fur-
nishing the most refreshing drinks, well known as punch
and lemonade. The seeds, whitish-yellow, are attached
to the inner angle of the carpel, and vai*y from two to
PLANTS. 239
six in number. A native of tropical Asia, it has been
transplanted to southern Europe, and even in the north
is successfully cultivated in conservatories. The fruit is
seldom fully ripe when exported, as it decays readily.
From the less perfect lemons, considered too small for
commercial use, is prepared red citric and malic acids,
which are sent abroad in the form of salts. } 2.
The Citron Tree bears a large fruit, filled with a
firm, sweet, and very palatable pulp, and often weighs
ten pounds ; the rind is preserved with sugar and known
as candied orange peel or citron, much used in confec-
tionery.
Limes, with their purple flowers and small, smooth,
and thin-skinned fruit, like large berries, and filled with
acid juice, are another variety. The rind of one species,
called the Berffamot, from its resemblance to the Berga-
mot pear, furnishes the essential oil, called Essence of
Bergamot. 17.
The Sweet Orange Tree (Citrus aurantium) is dis-
tinguished from the above described by the petiole or
footstalk of the leaves being winged ; the flowers are
white and extremely fragrant. The fruit is large, round,
golden-hued, very odorous, and filled with a rich, sweet
pulp. When not fully ripe they have a spicy bitter
taste, make an excellent preserve, and prepared Avith
sugar, may be used in various ways ; orange-water is
prepared from the flowers.
The China Orange, with its smooth skin of lighter
color, has a more spicy taste, and forms another variety.
The Curacoa Orange is considered the best ; it is of
medium size, the rind is thinner, greener, and more
fragrant : the pulp is of a dark red color, and filled with
juice, most refreshing to the taste. Natives of West
240 NATURAL HISTORY.
Indies and South America, h- According to Lindley,
there are t^yenty thousand varieties of Citrus Aurantium.
The Shaddock Tree (Citrus decumana). Petioles
winged ; leaves obtuse or stumpy ; the floAvers hang in
clusters, and smell like lilies. The oblong, knobbed
fruit, often as large as a child's head, is of a pale yellow-
ish-green color ; often groAvs to the diameter of seven
to eight inches, and Aveighs fourteen pounds. The rind
is spongy and bitter ; the pulp, purplish-red, has little
taste. The fruit can be kept a considerable time, but
only ripens perfectly in the East and West Indies. There
is a relative species, called the Gideons Apple, which is
three times as large as a lemon ; the pulp has an acid,
but very pleasant flavor. It is often planted in gar-
dens.* TZ.
EIGHTEENTH FAMILY. HYPERICACE^E. (Class 18,
L.) Are IOAV shrubs, with reddish-colored sap and yel-
low floAvers. The most common species is
The St. John's Wort (Hypericum perforatum), Willd.
Leaves obtuse or often rather acute, Avith numerous pel-
lucid punctures like perforations, and dotted Avith black.
The handsome gold-colored flowers are numerous and
arranged in terminal panicles ; if rubbed so as to extract
the juice, the fingers are colored red ; the taste is bitter
and balsam-like. Considered medicinal, the yelloAV flow-
ers rubbed into olive oil are used as a remedy for burns
and wounds. T?.
The species termed Hcbradcndron are found only in
the East Indies ; the juice of the sap, dried in the sun
* Iu a splendid French work, written iu 1818, there are 169 varie-
ties of the Aurantiaceae described. Sweet Orange, 42 ; Bitter, 32 ;
Bergamots, 5; Limes, 8; Shaddocks, G; Lumes, 12 ; Lemons, 48 ;
Citrons, 1 7. Cuttings best mode of cultivation.
PLANTS. 241
is the well known Gamboge, used by painters in Aqua-
relle, and is also of some importance in medicine as a
purgative.
NINETEENTH FAMILY. HIPPOCASTANACE^:. BUCK-
EYE. (Class 7. L.) Are trees or shrubs with knotty
branches ; leaves acute, dentate, sometimes digitate.
The Horse Chestnut (TEsculus hippocastanum) has
leaves compound digitate by sevens and fives flowers
arranged in tufts standing upright. This ornamental
tree, often from sixty to eighty feet in height, with its
dark leaves throwing a deep shadow and its white flow-
ers, spotted with red and tinged with yellow, presents in
spring a perfect specimen of rare and sylvan beauty. A
native of Thibet and Northern India, it was introduced
into Europe towards the close of the sixteenth century.
The seeds, of the same color as those of the common
chestnut, contain a farinaceous substance, but which can
not be used on account of its bitter taste. Horses refuse
to eat it, but sheep feed on it readily. The wood is used
by carpenters, and the bark by tanners, also occasionally
employed as medicine. ^ .
ACERACE.E. MAPLES. The Sycamore (Acer pseu-
do-platanus) is a handsome tree ; the leaves are heart-
shaped and five-lobed ; grows to a height of more than
forty or fifty feet ; flowers greenish-yellow, hang in clus-
ters, and belong to the 23rd class of Linnaeus, as they
possess both pistil and stamen. The bark is smooth and
exfoliates in thin plates. The wood is white, and not
much esteemed ; is occasionally sawed into joists and
other lumber. i>
Sugar or Rock Maple (Acer saccharinum), found
throughout the United States, is a tree of lofty propor-
tions, often seventy feet in height, with a trunk three
11
242 NATURAL HISTORY.
feet in diameter. Leaves palmately five-lobed and den-
tated ; flowers pendulous. Maple sugar, perhaps the
most delicious of all sweets, is the product of this spe-
cies ; an ordinary tree will yield from five to ten pounds
in a season. The wood is strong and compact, and makes
the best of fuel. It is sometimes grained or curled like
the red maple, but oftener presents that beautiful ar-
rangement of fibre called Bird's Eye Maple, so much
esteemed in cabinet work. The flowers are delicate and
beautiful. ^.
The Box Elder, Ash-Leaved Maple (Acer negundo
vel campestre), Linn., has heart-shaped, obtuse leaves,
three or five-lobed and dentated ; flowers stand in upright
clusters ; is a small tree or rather large shrub, with a
rough bark. The hard wood is used by turners for vari-
ous articles, and the roots furnish the well known Ulmer
pipe-heads, so much prized in Germany. T? .
TWENTIETH FAMILY. VITACE^A. Juss. Shrubby
plants, stems climbing by tendrils.
The Wine Grape (Vitis vinifera). (Class 5, L.)
Flowers small and green ; calyx minute and entire ;
five-toothed or petals four or five, inserted on the outside
of the disk ; hang in the form of grapes ; fruit a pulpy
berry containing from one to four hard seeds. The leaves
are heart-shaped, ragged, and digitate. The grapevine
was originally brought from the warmer regions of Asia,
and thrives well in the south temperate zone ; does not
flourish so well in the north. In countries situated within
fifty degrees north lat., vines are planted only on the
sunny slopes of hills ; but in the southern part of Europe,
as Italy, Spain, and the Canary Islands, where, even
along the roadsides, beautiful trees are planted so as to
form regular avenues, vine cuttings are placed between
PLANTS. 243
and suffered to climb in rank luxuriance upon the
branches, and arching overhead, make a delightful ar-
bor, completely screening from the rays of the sun.
The grape is distinguished from the other vitacesea by
its hard wood and many-fissured rind. There are said
to be fourteen thousand varieties belonging to the race.
That wine is made from grapes is generally known, but
the processes are as varied as the fruit. The following
description refers to the present mode : The ripest grapes
are separated from their clusters and shaken on a wire
sieve, so arranged that they are freed from stems, which,
if suffered to remain, would spoil the flavor of the wine.
They are next placed in a vat, the bottom of which is
bored full of holes ; beneath this is another large vessel,
where the juice of the fruit, crushed by machinery or
otherwise in the upper vat is received. The skins mostly
fall with the juice into the lower tub if not in sufficient
quantity, they are afterwards added. The whole mass
is commonly left to ferment a certain time being allowed
for the purpose as well as to give a deeper hue to the
wine, for as the coloring matter is contained in the skins,
it could not be sufficiently drawn out if the must was
pressed as soon as crushed. Therefore, those who desire
to make highly-colored wine are in the habit of fre-
quently stirring down the skins, which rise to the top
during fermentation. This mode of proceeding can only
be used to advantage when the fermenting tubs are
closely covered ; for the skins coming in contact with
the atmospheric air would become sour. After standing
a sufficient time, a part of the fluid is drawn off from
below; this, which is the pure juice, is clear, strong,
and requires no pressing. The other portion, thicker,
and mixed with seeds and hulls, is put into the press,
244 NATURAL HISTORY.
from which it comes forth clear, but as the juice first
drawn is considered stronger, the -whole is generally
mixed together.
In order to have good -wine, the first rule to he ob-
served is in the gathering. Great care must be taken in
selecting the grapes, allowing none that are unripe or
decayed to remain among them ; the second rule is, not
to mix different species of the grapes together ; and the
third, and altogether necessary to be remembered, is to
maintain the most perfect cleanliness. The wine being
pressed, and having come forth clean from the strainer, is
placed in barrels to undergo a second fermentation.
This new and yet sweet wine, called Must, contains
sugar, mucilage, tartaric acid, water, and an oily sub-
stance of a peculiar and pleasant odor, and coloring mat-
ter. The sweeter the new wine is, the more spirit will
it possess after fermentation ; after which the oily prin-
ciple loses its delightful odor, the coloring matter its hue,
and the sugar is changed into alcohol. The mucilaginous
portion and tartaric acid mingle together, and after a
greater or less effervescence, form carbonic acid. The
gas arising from this latter element diffuses itself
throughout the wine vault, and makes it dangerous for
any one to enter, as it produces suffocation. It is cus-
tomary to place pans of burning charcoal on the cellar
floor in order to absorb this poisonous gas. During the
fermenting process the wine becomes heated from fifteen
to twenty degrees.
The husks or skins that remain after being pressed,
are used partly by tanners or given as* food to swine ;
and, last of all, good oil is made from the seeds. The
fermentation having ceased, which is not before spring,
the wine is drawn from the lees and put into new barrels.
PLANTS. 245
Brandy and alcohol are made from the lees, and the tar-
trate of potash found on the sides of the fermenting ves-
sels is used for medical purposes. If the wine is left
exposed to the air, it undergoes a new fermentation, and
becomes vinegar. As the saccharine matter has much
to do in determining the strength of the wine, it is very
common to dry the grapes partially before pressing in
order to free them of the watery properties ; this is done
by spreading them out in the sun or in ovens slightly
warm. This prevents the sugar from changing the wine
into alcohol, and in the manufacture of sack and other
sweet wines, is generally observed. In Italy, Greece,
and Spain, grapes are dried and sent abroad as raisins ;
many are entirely without seeds. The wood of the stem
and small branches, burnt into charcoal, is much used
in the manufacture of printer's ink and black crayons.
Zante Currants or Corinthian Raisins are made from
a remarkably small grape called the Black Corinth.
There are incredible varieties of grapes, in France alone
are fourteen hundred ; the different kinds are used for
making different wines. Rhenish wine is made from the
Risling Champagne from the Clevner / the Burgundy,
Traminer, and Muscadine are much esteemed as the best
European wines. The American species are Vitis La-
brusca, Isabella, Catawba, Kaccoon, etc. The Labrusca
or Fox Grape is a native of the Northern States, has
been cultivated in Europe ; the fruit has the flavor of
the Muscatel, h.
The American Ivy or Woodbine (ampelopsis heder-
acea), Michx., is easily distinguished by its five-fingered
dentate leaves, and, as autumn approaches, its beautiful
red foliage. It has long been cultivated as a covering
for walls and arbors; its radiating tendrils fastening
246 NATURAL HISTORY.
everywhere, it climbs to the height of fifty feet. It
bears a dark blue berry, which is not eatable.
TWEXTY-FIRST FAMILY. GERAXIACE^E. (Class 10,
L.) Are hardy plants, with many-lobed leaves, flowers
opposite. Pelargoniums, or common geraniums, not so
hardy as to bear the winters in a northern climate, be-
long to this class, and, largely cultivated as garden and
house plants, are well known from their beautiful flowers
and sweet odor.
The Red Stork's Bill (Geranium sanguineum), L.,
Her., has an upright stem, diffusely branched, reddish
leaves, and dark, blood-red flowers; a foot and a half
high, grows in woods and dry, grassy places, but finds a
place in gardens on account of its beauty and sweet per-
fume. ] 7 .
The Crane's Bill (Pelargonium) belong to this fam-
ily. Are distinguished by the irregular, two-lobed
petals, and stamens partially sterile. Natives of the
Cape of Good Hope, where they are found in endless
variety. Many have been transplanted to the gardens
and hot-houses of the north, and not less prized as being
highly ornamental than for the delightful odor of the
leaves.
TWEXTY-SECOXD FAMILY. TROPACOLACEJS. TRO-
PIIYWORTS. (Class 8, L.) Are straggling or twining,
with orbicular leaves and large, showy flowers.
The first of this genus is
The Nasturtium Indian Cress (Tropseoleum ma-
jus), which has the calyx five-parted and spurred at the
base ; flowers composed of five unequal petals, three of
which are clawed, the two upper inserted on the calyx ;
of a bright orange color, brown spotted. The fruit a
seeded nut, divided into three globes. Both flowers,
PLANTS. 247
stems, and fruit have a pleasant, aromatic, and pungent
flavor, and, eaten as salad, and the unripe fruit prepared
as a condiment, is a tolerable substitute for capers. This
beautiful race, sometimes called Trophyworts, came
originally from Peru, but are now cultivated largely in
the United States. There are forty varieties. O. Re-
ceives its name tropaium, a trophy, from the resemblance
of the leaf to a shield, the flower to an empty helmet.
TWENTY-THIRD FAMILY. OXALIDACE^;. WOOD
SORREL. (Class 10, L.) Are low or herbaceous plants,
growing in all parts of the world.
The Common Sorrel (oxalis acetosella). Calyx and
flower composed of five petals ; seed contained in a cap-
sule, which bursts, scattering the contents elastically.
Leaves are heart-shaped, five-lobed ; the flower is white,
and without odor. The whole plant has an agreeable
acid taste, and the juice extracted and mechanically pre-
pared, forms oxalic acid or salt of sorrel, which, in
large doses, is highly poisonous. Found in woodlands
and fence rows. Blooms from May to July. K .
The Sensitive Plant (oxalis sensitiva) has small
feathered leaves, with leaflets from 6-16 pairs; lower
sides shining purple. The leaves retract or shrink at
the slightest touch or breath, folding themselves so closely
that the purple color can not be seen. The flowers
are small and yellow ; the seeds are contained in cap-
sules, which, when fully ripe, burst open and scatter the
seeds often to a distance of five or six feet. This species
is native of the East Indies, where the people regard it
with superstitious reverence, and attribute wonderful
properties to it. 2 . Found also in America.
248 NATURAL HISTORY.
SECOND SUB-CLASS.
Flowers with one or many petals adhering to or in-
serted on the calyx.
TWENTY-FOURTH FAMILY. RHAMXACE.E. (Class
o, L.) Are shrubs and trees well provided with thorns.
Natives of temperate countries; flowers small; calyx
tubular and campanulate. The first is
The Buckthorn (rhamnus cathartica). About six
feet high ; leaves growing in tufts, oval, and doubly ser-
rated, flowers small and of a greenish-white, blooms in
May. The pea-like berries are black, of a bitter taste,
and act both as a cathartic and emetic. Bark and un-
ripe fruit contain a yellow dye ; sap green is made from
the ripe berries, and, also, when over-ripe, a beautiful
purple, both much used by water color painters. ] ?.
The Alder- Leaved Buckthorn (Rhamnus frangula),
Michx. Rather low, leaves oval, entirely serrate;
flowers mostly with five stamens, and bi-sexed. Fruit-
berries at first red, afterwards black. Very common in
the woods of Europe ; the reddish-colored wood is much
prized by cabinet-makers and turners ; besides, burned
into charcoal, it is preferred before any other in the
manufacture of gunpowder, therefore it is often called
powder-wood, h.
The Jujube (zizyphus vulgaris) is a shrub found in
Italy and Spain, with few thorns ; short, oval leaves,
much toothed; fruit droops about an inch long, light
red, containing a gelatinous pulp in which a single seed
is enveloped. The dried fruit is much esteemed as a
specific in all pulmonary affections.
The Thorn of the Cross and Zizyphus Latus belong
PLANTS. 249
exclusively to southern climates ; the first is believed to
be the same genus as that from -which the cross on which
the Saviour suffered was made ; the latter, which grows
only in northern Africa, is known through the Odys-
sy. h.
Next in order is
The Holly (Ilex aquifolium). A large bush, with
smooth, green bark on the branches ; leaves evergreen,
oval, leathery, and spinous; flowers white, hanging in
pedicels, and very red berries. The wood is fine grained,
compact, useful in turnery, etc. Ilex is the ancient
name of the Holm Oak, Hollyicorts or Aquifoliacece
of the race in general. Genera 11, species 110. Na-
tives of America and Africa. Only one, the Holm oak
or Ilex being found in Europe. ] 2.
The Spindle Tree Burning Bush (euonymus eu-
ropseus) is a handsome shrub from four to twelve feet
high, with ragged, angular branches; leaves elliptical,
pointed, and notched. Flowers greenish-white, hanging
forkedly in clusters. The fruit is four-cornered rather
than globular ; capsules crimson and smooth ; seeds
white, inclosing a green kernel. Grows in gardens, or
wild in the Southern States ; the wood is valuable to
turners, and the small branches make good charcoal
crayons, h.
TWENTY-FIFTH FAMILY. TEREBINTHE.E. (Class
2, L.) This family belongs to the shores of the Medi-
terranean ; is well known and valuable as furnishing use-
ful gums and fruits resembling almonds.
The Pistachio Tree (Pistacia vera), of moderate
size, was brought originally from Persia, but is now
common in Italy ; the male flowers are in catkins ; the
female hung in simple clusters. It bears nut-like fruit,
11*
250 NATURAL HISTORY.
inclosed in a pericarp, about the size of a hazel-nut ; the
kernels, used as almonds, are pale green and oily ; the
envelops is reddish-colored, h.
The next relative is
The Mastic Tree (Pistacio lentiscus), and furnishes
the resinous substance called frankincense and gum mas-
tic, which exude in drops from its trunk. Closely related
to it also is
The Turpentine Tree, grows in the Island of Cyprus
and Italy, and is valuable for the excellence of its gum,
which is known as Venice Turpentine, h.
The Smoke Plant or Venitian Sumach (Rhus cot-
inus), Nuttall, is chiefly a native of tropical regions,
represented in the United States by the genus Rhus
only. It is a shrub with leaves rather oblong than oval,
veined like network (reticulated) and furnished with
footstalks ; the flowers small and of a greenish -yellow,
hang in panicles.* After blooming, the unfruitful foot-
stalks become long, diffuse, and feathery, showing in the
distance as if the plant were enveloped in a cloud of
smoke. Sometimes it grows wild, but is often planted
in gardens, its singular appearance rendering it quite
ornamental. In Italy the plant is used for tanning, h.
TWENTY-SIXTH FAMILY. PAPILIONACE^E. (PULSE
FAMILY)! are mostly plants or shrubs seldom trees
which furnish a vegetable diet for man or food for ani-
mals. The flowers are of rather singular structure,
* Found wild in Arkansas, where it grows to a height of six feet.
There are ninety-five species of the anacardiaceae. The Cashew Nut
is the product of a small tree of both ladies, and belongs to the Anacar-
diaceae. Tr.
J" Belonging to the Order Leguminosse, which is one of the most
extensive and important. It yields to medicine and the arts its full pro-
portion of the substances derived from the vegetable kingdom.
PLANTS. 251
having two lateral petals called wings and two lower ones
which, converging together, form a body named the Car-
ina, or Keel, from its resemblance to a boat, and serves
to enclose the stamens and pistil. If our young student
will examine the nearest bean blossom, he will find a
better explanation than can be conveyed by terms ; there
are nine coherent (diadelphous) stamens, and one free ;
therefore the Papilionacese rank in the 17th class, L.
The fruit, or rather seed, is contained in pods, and is
mostly eatable. To this division belongs, first,
The Tragacanth Tree (Astragalus tragacantha). It
is shrub-like, with numerous leaflets ten pairs small
and oblong ; the flowers are pale-red. A native of the
East, it furnishes a gum which exudes from its bark,
which is very useful in Materia Medica and the arts.
The gums Arabic, Cino, Senna, Catechu, also belong to
this tribe. Related to this family is
The A. Bactricus, valued and cultivated on account
of the .seeds, which are said to afford a tolerable substi-
tute for coffee. It is also known by the name of Swedish
coffee ; but it is hardly likely that this plant will ever
be of much account in this country, as coffee-drinkers
are not apt to admire substitutes for their favorite ber-
ry. T ?.
The Indifjo Plant (Indigofera tinctoria), plate 27,
fig. 5, is a low tree or rather a tall shrub, two to three
feet in height, with six or eight pairs of cleft leaflets ;
their shape is oblong, rather than oval, and the red flow-
ers are arranged in short clusters. The indigo plant is
a native of the East Indies and China, but has been
transplanted to the West Indies, where it is now culti-
vated in many places. The seed is sown in a rich, light
soil, requires much culture, and must be carefully nursed
252 NATURAL HISTORY.
and weeded In two months from the time of planting,
and before the flowers appear, the leaves are cut off and
dried in the sun ; after this, they are laid for a few days
in a kind of stone vat, from five to six feet deep, which
is then filled up with clean water in order to extract the
coloring matter, a process during which fermentation is
produced. The preparation of Indigo is considered a
most unhealthy occupation, therefore many of the pro-
vinces, for instance Surinam, where it used to be carried
on to some extent, have given it up, and the planters
have turned their attention to other, more agreeable and
healthful, if not more profitable employments. The
coloring matter which is about as thick as mud. settles
on the bottom of the vat, whence it is removed, put into
linen sacks, dried, and exported as an article of com-
merce, b. L.
Clover (Trifolium), Tourn. The clover family consists
of small, juicy plants, which grow everywhere, in mea-
dows, fields, or woods ; flowers situated on small pedicels,
are head-shaped ; considered as excellent food for cattle.
The best known of the clover genera are, first,
The Meadow or Red Clover (Trifolium pra tense), is
well known, being largely cultivated everywhere ; its red
flowers not only adorn the meadows, and with the leaves
furnish excellent fresh pasture for cattle, but, filled with
honey, attract the bees, which may be seen hovering over
them all day long. The odor of ripe clover is delight-
"ful, nor is its usefulness ended with the summer, for cut
down by the scythe of the mower, dried in the sun, and
made into hay, it is most valuable in the winter for feed-
ing cattle. $ .
Creeping White Clover (Trifolium repens). Stems
rather creeping and diffuse ; lying on the ground, and
PLANTS. 253
branching from roots ; inversely ovate ; flowers white,
or globose heads on erect naked stalks. Found by road-
sides and in meadows, where it is cultivated, being con-
sidered excellent fodder for cattle. 2.
Bb'd's Foot Trefoil (Lotus corniculatus) , has an up-
right stem ; is three-leafed ; leaflets strongly developed ;
flowers yellow, appearing on heads oval or conical ;
known also as Yellow or Hop Clover. Native of Eu-
rope. Hab. of sandy ground or road sides. 11.
Stone Clover (Mellilothus officinalis), Tourn., Endl. ;
has a branching stem ; leaves serrated or notched ; the
flowers are yellow, hang in beautiful racemes, and not
unlike the blossom of hops ; therefore it has received the
name of hop clover. Not particularly valuable as fodder
but sometimes used in medicine. 2 .
The White-Jlowered Mellilot (Mellilotus coeroleus).
This plant, M. Corulea of Lam., now the Frigonclla
ccerulea of D. Cand., of strong and enduring odor, is
employed in Switzerland to give the peculiar flavor to
the famous Schabzieger, or, as it is usually called in the
vernacular, Sap-sago cheese. It has a stout erect stem,
from two to three feet high ; flowers pale-blue ; leaves
three-lobed ; comes originally from Africa. Introduced
into the United States from Europe ; only partially cul-
tivated, n .
Lucerne (Medicago Sativa), Tourn., Endl., Snail
Clover or Blue Everlasting Clover, for in Europe it is
known by all those names. Stem erect and smooth ;
leaves oblong and untoothed ; flowers blue and standing
in clusters. It is in considerable demand in Europe, as
it makes excellent fodder, and yields a profitable crop
for ten years. It .
The Sain-fain Esparsette (Heclysarum onobrychis),
254 NATURAL HISTORY.
L. , or Red Everlasting Clover, has a stem from one to
two feet high, branched, smoothish. Leaflets feathered,
flowers beautiful red color, grow in clusters, cone-shaped,
and, like the foregoing, yields a profitable crop ; thrives
well even on poor lands, and does not require frequent
renewing, but lasts for many years. Is much cultivated
in Europe. All of the clover genera, when dried into
hay, are highly valuable as furnishing excellent fodder ;
there is, however, one great drawback in suffering cattle
to graze among fresh clover, as, when eaten to excess, it
swells in the stomach, and kills the animal. If.
Tremulous Shield Clover Sensitive Joint Vetch
(Hedysarum gyrans), grows in the East Indies ; the
stalk, three to four inches high, is smooth, and about as
thick as one's little finger ; large end leaves two to four
inches long ; side leaves smaller, half an inch long ;
flowers, violet, verging into reddish-purple; stand in
panicles; the seed is kidney-shaped and black. This
plant has the singular property of always being in
motion. Its movements, however, are not excited by
the contact of external bodies, but solely by the influence
of the sun's rays. When the sun shines the leaves move
briskly in every direction ; their general motion is, how-
ever, upward and downward, but they not unfrequently
turn almost round, and then their footstalks are evidently
twisted. These motions go on incessantly as long as the
heat of the sun continues ; but they cease during the
night or when the weather is cloudy or cold. It does
not live long. When brought to Europe, as it is occa-
sionally, it must be nursed carefully in a conserva-
tory. O-
Broom Grass (Spartium scoparium) grows into a
bush from five to six feet high ; branches green and
PLANTS. 255
angular : leaves simple and ternate ; flowers large and
yellow. Found in woods, hedges, or on hill-sides ; used
for making brooms and baskets. Hares eat it greed-
ily. 12.
Liquorice. Swectwood (Glycyrrhiza glabra), the pro-
duct of a bush which grows wild in Spain, France, and
Italy, is sometimes cultivated as far north as Germany.
The root, which is the part used, is about two inches in
circumference, woody, sometimes four feet long ; brown-
ish-yellow on the outside, bright yellow within ; tough,
and has a sweetish taste ; the leaves unequally pinnate
and somewhat gummy ; flowers pale blue, clustering,
hanging in racemes ; fruit, a pod containing many small
seeds. The liquorice plant is more generally cultivated
in the south than in the north ; requires but little care.
The juice of the root boiled down to a certain consist-
ence, furnishes the article sold as liquorice, and well
known to children. The manner of preparing it, is to
cut the root in small pieces, crush or grind them in a
mill, like the sugar cane, and then boil the juice until of
the requisite thickness. Afterwards it is next molded
into shapes, enveloped in the leaves of the bay berry,
wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera), and sent abroad as an
article of commerce. Some care is requisite to keep it
from burning, and it has been known to injure, when
mixed with the particles of copper supposed to be scraped
from the boiler, h.
The Broom (Genista tinctoria). Calyx two-lipped ;
branches upright, round, and striated ; leaves woolly and
lance-shaped ; fruit-pods smooth and straight. Grows
on hills or mountain-sides ; height of stalk about two
feet. Blooms from July to August ; contains a yellow
juice, from which is prepared the pigment known as
256 NATURAL HISTORY.
Dutch Pink, and used also in painting as yellow, and,
mixed with Prussian blue, green. Tastes very bitter. 2.
The Locust (Kobinia pseudacacia), also called the
Acacia, is a large tree, often measuring forty feet in
height, and of varied circumference, sometimes two or
three feet in diameter. The wood is yellowish, hard,
and brittle ; therefore it is seldom planted in places ex-
posed to gusts of wind, as the branches are easily broken.
The small branches are rod-like and furnished with
thorns. Leaves oval, flowers very fragrant, white, and
hang in clustering tassels. This beautiful tree deserves
more favor than it receives, as it is not only ornamental
but valuable ; its hard wood, enduring for years, is par-
ticularly useful for making posts, railroad ties or sleep-
ers, and its sweet-smelling flowers, containing much
honey, are great favorites with the bees. There are
several species, the most remarkable of which are the
Honey Locust or Threethorned Acacia (Gleditschia
trircanthos), the Clammy Locust, with branchlets and
leaf-stalks clammy ; flowers crowded in oblong clusters,
tinged with rose-color, nearly inodorous ; and the Crown
Locust, the branches of which are so arranged that the
top of the tree resembles a crown. ] i.
Lentils (Ervum lens), Tourne., are everywhere culti-
vated in kitchen gardens ; about one and a half feet
high ; stalks weak ; leaves oval and numerous ; hang on
climbing stems ; flowers pale blue ; pods short and two-
seeded. The whole plant is esteemed good food for
cattle; the seeds are used as a vegetable. O
Vetch or Tare (Vicia sativa), Tourn., Endl., has a
short flower stalk, with oval, oblong leaves; bears two
upright pods with round seeds ; grows among grain as a
troublesome weed, although it is sometimes cultivated as
PLANTS. 257
food for cattle. There are several varieties found in the
United States : Hairy Vetch (Vicia Hirsuta) ; Tufted
Vetch (Vicia Cracca), and Wild Vetch (Vicia Ameri-
cana), regarded as weeds.
The Common Field or Windsor Bean (Vicia faba),
Moench. Stalk rigid erect, with oval leaves ; flowers
white, spotted with black ; bears three legumes or pods,
which, on being ripe, turn black, and contain very large
seed, with the large hilum or scar at one end. Used
principally as food for cattle ; the unripe seeds are, how-
ever, often applied to table use. O-
The Common Garden Pea (Pisum vulgare) is culti-
vated everywhere ; roundish leaf-stalks ; leaves oval,
ternate ; tendrils long and branching ; flowers white and
numerous ; pods or legumes about two inches long, and
sometimes, when unripe, are eaten. The seeds, however,
are highly esteemed as a delicious vegetable. Some of
the family are dwarfs, others climbers, and require rods
for support. The plant is, however, too well known to
require any farther description. . There are several
varieties of flowering peas Painted Lady, Sweet Pea,
Everlasting Pea, etc.
The Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) grows higher
than the pea, requiring a pole for support, although some
species are low and dwarfish ; these are called Bunch
Beans, supposed to be natives of the East Indies, but cul-
tivated in Europe from the earliest times. The stem, five
to eight feet long, twining against the sun ; leaves pointed
and heart-shaped ; flowers white, blooming in clusters ;
pods flat, and while young, constitute the favorite dish
called string beans. The seeds contained in the mature
fruit are also much esteemed as an article of food. There
are many varieties, Bush or Kidney Bean (Phascolua
258 NATURAL HISTORY.
Nanus), Lima Bean (Phascolus Lunatus), etc. The
handsomest of the species is
The Fire Bean, Turkish Bean, which, found in the
warmer portions of America, blooms throughout the
whole summer, even until late in autumn. It is consid-
ered very ornamental, and cultivated on account of the
rare beauty of its deep-red flowers ; seeds white or purple
spotted, and very large. O .
The Tamarind Tree (Tamarindus Indicus) is a very
high tree, which, in the East and West Indies, Arabia,
and Middle Africa, is planted in front of houses, as the
linden is in Europe. The crown is very broad and
leafy ; the leaves oblong or oval. The flowers are white,
and hang in small clusters. To thes3 flowers follow dark
brown pods or legumes, about four inches long ; within
these shells, which are very brittle, is found a pulpy
mass of an acid taste, that is used either as medicine or
a refrigerant in fevers ; in the East, however, it is boiled
into a syrup with sugar, and used as a delicious pre-
serve.
St. John's Bread Tree (Ceratonia siliqua) is a bush
found very frequently in Southern Europe and the East ;
sometimes, but rarely, grows to the height of an ash;
leaves evergreen and feathered ; leaflets smooth and oval ;
flowers red, and hanging in racemes or clusters. The
fruit is a reddish-brown fleshy pod. about four inches
long, which contains a sweet, mucilaginous substance a
kind of vegetable marrow ; the seeds or kernels are dark
brown, and very hard. The fruit is used in Germany
either fresh or dried ; known as St. John's Bread. In
Spain it is used to feed horses, and in Egypt they pre-
pare a kind of honey from the juice. '?.
The Gum Acacia (Acacia gummifera). Leaves twice
PLANTS. 259
pinnate, leaflets numerous, small, oblong, five to seven
pairs ; it is a high tree, trunk one foot in diameter, bark
black, branches armed with numerous thorns. Flowers
bloom in small clusters ; pods six inches long, and filled
with brown seeds. The sap, which abounds in this tree,
and exudes from the bark as the gum from the common
cherry furnishes the well known Gum Arabic of the
shops. It is the type of all gums ; many species of
acacia, as well as the plum and cherry yield it. Used
in Europe and America partly for medicinal, and partly
for various other purposes. In Arabia, Egypt, and
Senegal, where the tree is native, the inhabitants use
it as food. h.
The Sensitive Plant (Mimosa pudica) has a stem
clothed with prickles and bristles ; leaves twice pinnate
and digitate ; leaflets small, linear, and of many pairs ;
seldom reaches above two or four feet in height; stalk
reddish colored, with crooked thorns. If the leaves are
even slightly touched they suddenly shrink, and, together
with the branch, bend downward to the earth. A native
of South America, but cultivated in the conservatories
of Europe, if.
TWENTY-SEVENTH FAMILY. ROSACEJE or ROSE GE-
NUS. (Class 13, L.) Are plants with regular flowers,
numerous distinct stamens inserted on the calyx, and
1. with many pistils, which are quite distinct, or (in
the Pear Tribe} united and combined with the calyx
tube. Seeds few, and without albumen. Leaves alter-
nate, and with stipules at the base of leaf.
The Almond Tree (Amygdalis communis) much re-
sembles a peach tree. The calyx is campanulate, five cleft,
and colored ; with five petals. The flowers solitary or
in pairs, mostly alone, and of a beautiful rose color.
260 NATURAL HISTORY.
The almond tree bears a stone fruit, with a very thin,
dry, uneatable pulp : the whole is enveloped in a green-
ish colored woolly skin. Within this green pod is the
fruit or kernel, the well known, rich, and well-flavored
Almond. Native of North Africa, Palestine, and
Greece. One species, the Bitter Almond, contains,
besides a richer oil, useful for many purposes, the more
formidable ingredient known as Prussia Acid; there-
fore the bitter almond is altogether poisonous to small
animals, and can not be eaten, except in small quantity,
by human beings, without fatal consequences. Some-
times cultivated as far north as the milder portions of
Germany, mostly as grafted on another tree of the same
family. One species has a very slight, fragile shell, and
called the Paper Shell, is preferred by many. y : .
The Single Floicering Almond (Amygdalis nana),
Willd., about three feet high, and branching; leaves
ovate and finely toothed; flowers numerous. Petals
oblong, obtuse, and rose-colored. Blooms in May or
June. 2.
The Dwarf Double Flowering Almond (Amygdalis
pumila) is a low shrub, highly ornamental, common in
cultivation. Stems two two three feet high, branching.
Leaves lanceolate, acute at each end, and smooth. Native
of China. Flowers very numerous, clothing the whole
shrub in their roseate hue, while the leaves are small.
Blooms in May or June. 2.
The Peach Tree (Amygdalus persica). Tourn. Named
from Persia, its native country. Leaves, lanceolate and
serrate; flowers solitary, appearing before the leaves;
drupe or seed, with the flesh or pulp white or yellow :
outer covering woolly. The kernel is very bitter, and
contains a considerable quantity of Prussic acid. Among
PLANTS. 261
all the stone fruits the peach occupies the first place, on
account of its delicious flavor and healthful influence
of its juicy pulp. About two hundred varieties of
this much esteemed fruit are now named and described
in the catalogues of American nurserymen. Trees rather
short-lived. The double flowering peach is a highly or-
namental variety, fy-
The Nectarine (Persica laevis), De Cand. This small
tree is scarcely to be distinguished from the preceding,
except by its smooth fruit, which presents the same vari-
ety of clingstone and freestone. It is more rare than
the peach, and generally smaller, h.
The Apricot (Prunus armeniaca) is a middle-sized tree,
with broad, smooth, ovate, serrate leaves; stout, spread-
ing branches ; flowers, solitary, or in pairs, petals pinkish-
Avhite, preceding the leaves. The yellow fruit is clothed
with a soft, velvety pubescence ; one side slightly reddish.
Came originally from Epiru's, and was known to the an-
cients as the Mains Epiroticus. The drupe of the common
apricot contains a bitter kernel, although there are some
kinds of which the kernel is sweet, like that of the
almond, and yields a rich oil. Cultivated in gardens as
rare fruit. T ?.
The Common Plum Tree, or Damascene (Prunus
domestica), originally from the East, was brought to
Italy in Cato's time. Has oval, lanceolate leaves ; white,
myrtle-like flowers; fruit oblong, pulpy, and juicy.
There are many varieties. The round or globe-shaped
plum is considered the true plum ; the oblong, the Dam-
ascene, or Plum of Damascus. Both are covered with a
beautiful purple bloom, which is easily removed. Gages,
green and yellow. The Red Plum (Prunus americana),
and Chickasaw Plum (Prunus chicasa), are among the
262 NATURAL HISTORY.
varieties. The fruit is used largely, either fresh, dried,
or preserved with sugar. In Europe a kind of brandy
is distilled from the juice, and the wood is employed in
fine cabinet work. h.
The Wild Bullace Tree (Prunus institia) is a shrub,
or small tree ; branches somewhat spiny ; leaves ovate-
lanceolate; pubescent- villous beneath; fruit black and
globular; drupe rounder and smaller than the above
mentioned species. Is the original of highly cultivated
species, known in Germany by the names of Renkloden,
Mirabel, and Cybart. Brought from Europe to the
United States ; naturalized on the banks of Charles
River, in Cambridge, road-sides at Cohasset, and other
places in the vicinity of Boston. 77.
The Black Thorn Sloe (Prunus spinosa), Pursch.
A thorny shrub, ranging in height from six to twelve
feet ; leaves, obovate, elliptical ; flowers, solitary, white ;
fruit scarcely as large as a hazel-nut ; drupe globous ;
pulp somewhat harsh to the taste ; not ripe until winter,
in which season only it can be eaten. In Europe, wine
is made from the fruit, which tastes like port wine, and
is of a beautiful red color. The flowers are used as tea ;
not only as a beverage, but are considered useful in puri-
fying the blood, h.
The Cherry (Prunus cerasus), Juss. The cherry tree
is often forty feet in height, with smooth, grayish-black
bark ; leaves, oval oblong, unequally notched, or serrate,
abruptly pointed ; branches spreading ; flowers white ;
fruit globular, hanging in small pedicels of from two to
three. Originally, the fruit of this tree was not larger
than peas, as is still the case with the Wild Cherry
(Prunus avium), De Cand., which many naturalists de-
scribe as a peculiar genus. Drupes globous and fleshy ;
PLANTS. 263
seed, stone-like and hard ; kernel very bitter. A consid-
erable portion of brown gum exudes from the back. The
fruit has been much improved by cultivation, both in size
and flavor. There are but two original species of cherry
trees, viz : the sweet English Cherry Ox Heart, and
the common Sour or Morello Cherry. The numerous
varieties produced by long culture the Mayduke, and
others may all be referred to one or the other of these
two; though Professor De Candolles distributes them
into four species. The Sour Cherry is the most common
and most valuable for culinary purposes, whether used
fresh from the tree or in a dried state. The Morella, a
fine variety, with a rich purple juice, was used, in former
days, for making brandy or cherry bounce. The latter
is distinguished from others of the race, by its smooth,
leathery leaves. Cherries were originally brought to
Rome from Cerasus, a city of Pontus, in Lesser Asia,
first by Crassus, or Lucullus, seventy years before the
Christian era, whence their name, Cerasus. Choke
Cherry (C. serotina), Hook, and Sand Cherry (C.
pumila), Michx., are natives of the United States.*
The Grape or Choke Cherry (Prunus padus), De
Cand., is a shrub or tree, with elliptical, doubly serrate
leaves ; white flowers ; the fruit, small berries, hangs in
clusters, black ; seed round and hard ; taste, astringent
and bitter. Found in damp woods, but often planted in
gardens as an ornament. *? .
The Cherry Bay or Cherry Laurel (Prunus lauro-
cerasus). Leaves oval, lanceolate, slightly notched, ever-
green ; flowers, white, upright, and arranged in clusters.
* It is stated that there are one hundred and twenty-five varieties
of the Cherry, of which fifty belong to the Red Morello.
264 NATURAL HISTORY.
The fruit, resembling black cherries, oblong, and pointed
at one end. Native of Trebizond, but frequently planted
in the countries bordering on the Mediterranean ; some-
times as far north as Germany, where, however, the fruit
never ripens. Fruit is thin, black, of a sweetish taste,
but not poisonous. Leaves, flowers, and kernels contain
a large quantity of prussic acid ; wherefore, if eaten in
large quantity, they are not only dangerous, but prove a
a deadly poison. The taste resembles that of bitter
almonds, h.
The Strawberry (Fragaria vesca), Alpine, Wood, or
English Strawberry. Calyx concave, deeply five-cleft;
receptacle oblong; becomes enlarged and conical, pulpy
and scarlet, forming the fruit, and bearing the minute,
dry achenia, or seeds, scattered over its surface. Leaves
oblong, notched, hairy, and ternate ; stems, or rather
runners, creep over the earth for several feet, occasion-
ally taking root, thus serving as a propagation of the
plant. Flowers in May or June. The flavor of the
wild strawberry is considered superior to that of the
cultivated, of which there are many varieties. Among
them is the Hautboy (F. elatior, Ehrh.) Chili straw-
berry and Hovey's Seedling a relative species, which
blooms perpetually. Is in Europe cultivated in gardens
by way of ornament, and trained to climb on a trellis.
The fruit, however, although beautiful, has no flavor. 2.
Cinque-Foil Five-Finger Goose- Grass (Poten-
tilla anserina). Stem creeping ; leaves irregular; vel-
vety above, silver-hued below ; feather-veined ; flowers,
yellow ; receptacle dry and persistent. Native of Lap-
land and Norway, but very common in North America.
Grows in pasture fields and by road-sides. Said to be a
PLANTS. 265
specific in curing the thrush or sore mouth of cattle. 2.
Many varieties.
The Raspberry (Rubus fruticosus), Tourne, Endl.
Leaves pinnate, unequally toothed, oblong, and palmate ;
stalk and branches armed with briars; flowers white,
composed of five petals. Found growing wild in woods or
waste fields, and creeping along the earth, and frequently
taking root, makes whole acres inaccessible, forming a
tangle of briars. Fruit broad, composed of minute glo-
bules or carpels, on a protuberant, spongy receptacle,
either deciduous or persistent. Flavor very pleasant ;
considered wholesome and refreshing. Wood, burnt into
charcoal, is used in Europe in the manufacture of gun-
powder, h.
The Antwerp Raspberry (Rubus idaeus), De Cand.
Lower leaves pinnately three or five foliate ; leaflets
broad-ovate, cottony on under surface. Stem and branches
erect or procumbent, and armed with prickles. Found in
Europe ; native of mountain forests or stone-covered hills.
Transplanted in the United States. Cultivated largely
in gardens, on account of its fragrant and well-flavored
fruit. The bright red berries are used in a fresh state
as fruit ; preserved with sugar, or prepared as jam or
raspberry vinegar, are every where much esteemed.
There are many varieties, as the White Raspberry (Tri-
florus), Three-Flowered, and Thimble-berry (Rubus
occidentalis), etc., found in Canada and the United
States, h.
The Blackberry (Rubus villosus), Ait. Calyx spread-
ing, five-cleft ; petals five, deciduous. Half shrubby
plants. Stems armed with prickles; fruit inseparable
from the juicy, deciduous receptacle ; consists of about
twenty roundish, shining, black, fleshy carpels, collected
23
266 NATURAL HISTORY.
into an ovate or oblong head; subacid, well-flavored ;
ripe in August and September. Several varieties, all
growing wild. Bristly Blackberry (R. hispidus), De
Cand., Dewberry (Rubus canadensis, or trivialis), Ph.,
which is a fine fruit, and generally preferred before the
others. Valuable medicinal qualities are attributed both
to the berries and the root. ] ?.
ROSE FAMILY. ROSACES. Juss. This tribe is re-
markable for the number and variety of its genera. The
rose-bush, naturally low and shrubby, can, by cultivation,
be made to attain to a considerable . height. Leaves five
to seven, feather-veined ; leaflets, elliptic-lanceolate.
Flowers, mostly solitary ; sometimes single, consisting of
but five petals (the latter greatly multiplied by culture) ;
large, beautifully colored and delightfully fragrant ; stalk
and branches armed with numerous recurved thorns and
prickles. The rose, distinguished by its beauty and
fragrance, has been most appropriately termed the queen
of the flowers. The fruit is the fleshy or berry-like red
calyx-tube, called a Hip, Avhich contains, within a rather
hard envelope, a sweetish pulp, enclosing numerous seeds,
surrounded with bristle-like hairs. The rose is, however,
seldom propagated by seeds, but rather by offsets or cut-
tings. The roses of Persia and Cashmere, celebrated for
their odor, furnish the delightful perfume known as
"Otto of Roses," which is so costly that but few can
afford to buy it. Nevertheless, one drop is sufficient, so
penetrating and enduring is its fragrance, to perfume a
wardrobe or chest of drawers for years. The flower petals
are used for a variety of purposes. The hips are, or
rather, used to be eaten as fruit, and the seeds were for-
merly employed as medicine for purifying the blood.
The Swamp Rose (R. Carolina), Michx., Prairie Rose
PLANTS. 267
(R. setigera), and Sweet Briar (Rosa rubigenous), all
bearing hips, grow wild in North America. R. Damas-
cene*, White, Provence (R. centifolia), Japan Rose
(R. multiflora), Ayrshire Rose (R. arvensis), etc. etc.,
are all cultivated in gardens, and brought to great per-
fection.* T 2.
The White Thorn, English Hawthorn (Cratsegus
oxyacantha) is a bush with rugged branches, armed with
sharp, tapering thorns half an inch in length. Leaves
incised, wide and variously lobed ; fruit, or pome, fleshy
or somewhat mealy, containing from one to five bony,
one-seeded carpels. Grows wild, but is often planted in
hedges to enclose fields. The wood is used in Europe
for making whip-handles. ^.
The Medlar (Mespilus germanica) is a thorny shrub,
or rather low tree, with oblong, lanceolate leaves ; downy
or pilous on under surface ; flowers single and solitary,
appearing in April or May; fruit globular, brown, with
one hard seed, is pleasant to the taste, but so astringent
that it can not be eaten when freshly gathered, but must
be left to mellow. Belongs to the Cratageii or thorn
family mentioned in Shakespeare. T ?.
The Mountain Ash or Bird Berry, Rowan Tree
(Sorbus aucuparia), De Cand., an ornamental tree, from
twenty to thirty feet in height ; leaves smooth, pointed,
and serrate or notched ; buds round and covered with
down. Cultivated for its ornamental clusters of scarlet
berries. Only valuable for its beauty, as the malic acid
contained in the berries renders them uneatable, although
in Europe they are distilled into a kind of brandy and
* This beautiful genus includes, according to late naturalist?, one
hundred and forty-six species, but the varieties produced by cultiva-
tion amount to near two thousand.
268 NATURAL HISTORY.
vinegar. Thrushes feed greedily upon the fruit. The
hard wood is esteemed in some departments of cabinet
work. h.
The Apple Tree (Pyrus malus) has oblong, abruptly-
acuminate leaves, mostly downy on under surface ; stem
fifteen to twenty-five feet high ; branches geniculate ;
fruit depressed, globous or oblong, umbilicate at base.
Branches and twigs spreading towards the top from a
broad, bushy crown. Brought originally from Middle
Asia, but now grows wild in Germany and other parts
of Europe so abundantly that it is reckoned as native.
The Romans, according to Pliny, cultivated twenty-two
varieties, but there are now, it is said, one thousand vari-
eties, if not more, raised in the United States. The
Wild or Common Crab Apple, native of the Middle
States, although rough, hard, and sour, so as to be alto-
gether uneatable the common ancestor of the present
race is now becoming scarce in the old settlements of
Pennsylvania. In former times the ripe fruit was much
sought after, as it was much used for preserves. Its
loss, however, is more than made up for by the excel-
lence of the present race. The apple, conducing in so
many various ways to the nutriment and comfort of man,
may be considered as being not among the least of the
many gifts bestowed so liberally by the Beneficent Cre-
ator, h.
The Common Pear (Pyrus communis), Linn., Endl.
Branches more erect than those of the apple tree ; leaves
smooth, notched, and oblong. In a wild state, found
armed with thorns, which are lost when the tree is culti-
vated. Found wild in the forests of Europe, but has
been known and planted in gardens from the earliest
times. The Romans had twenty-two varieties (Pliny).
PLANTS. 269
The French excel in the culture of the pear. The fruit
is sweeter than that of the apple ; it is esteemed equal
with the apple for usefulness, and in one respect superior.
Being more juicy and containing more sugar, it is used
for making the wine called Perry ; nevertheless, although
the flavor is superior to that of cider made from the
juice of the apple, the wine does not keep near so well.
The wood is used by cabinet makers and turners, h.
The Quince Tree (Pyrus cydonia), Tourne. Named
for Cydonia, a town in the island of Crete, whence
it was brought and transplanted in Europe. Leaves
oval ; under surface downy ; flowers white, tinged with
purple, stand singly at the end of the short twigs ; fruit
large, lengthened at base, clothed with a soft down or
wool, yellow when ripe ; resembles a pear more than an
apple. It is very rough to the taste, hard and astringent
when eaten raw ; the odor is extremely pleasant, and as
the fruit loses all its harshness when boiled, quinces are
much estesmed for jellies and preserves. The seeds are
enclosed in a mucilaginous envelope, which dissolves
readily in warm water. This mucilage is used in many
ways, and considered equal to Gum Arabic. T 2.
TWENTY-EIGHTH FAMILY. POMEGRANATE PDNICA,
so called from Carthage, where it was first transplanted.
Fruit many-celled ; leaves deciduous, without the mar-
ginal vein.
Pomegranate (P. Granatum), arborescent ; leaves
lanceolate, standing opposite, smooth, entire ; flowers on
short foot-stalks, are scarlet, large, and make a fine ap-
pearance ; the fruit, about the size and form of a large
apple, is highly ornamental and of a fine flavor. The
rind hard and leather-like, serves to protect numerous
seeds, which, of oblong shape, red and glossy, sometimes
270 NATURAL HISTORY.
number one hundred, are about the size of grains of
wheat, and lie embedded in a rich, juicy pulp, somewhat
acid, but of fine flavor. In a wild state the pomegranate
is only a shrub, but under culture becomes a tree, often
twenty feet in height. Originally native of the East
Indies, Persia, and Lesser Asia, transplanted thence to
south of Europe. The taste of the fruit is pleasant,
sub-acid, and cooling, like that of the currant. Both
the rind of the fruit and bark of the root are considered
as an excellent vermifuge.
Dwarf Pomegranate (P. Dana), shrubby ; leaves
lanceolate, acute. Native of West Indies, where it is
used as a hedge plant. Four to six feet high ; flowers
purple, smaller than the foregoing, often double.
TwEXTY-XixTH FAMILY. MYRTACE^. MYRTLE
BLOOMS. First of this race is
The Clove or Nail Tree (Caryophyllus aromaticus).
A beautiful, ornamental tree, about thirty feet high : in
shape resembles the bay tree ; the leaves, however, are
rather smaller. The branches are four-cornered, instead
of round ; flowers reddish-white : the fruit, divided into
two compartments, contains about forty seeds, each over
an inch in length ; color dark brown. Every part of
the plant is highly aromatic ; the buds taken off before
blooming and dried are the well known cloves of com-
merce ; they are pulled while green, and dried by smoke
or heat, which turns them brown.
The Clove (clou, Fr., a nail) is in common use, every-
where known as a favorite spice, and useful in medicine,
as it yields a pungent volatile oil.
The Melalcuca Cajiputi and Eucalyptus resin if era,
natives of India, belong also to the family of Myrtaceae.
Cajeput oil is obtained from the first, Gum Kino from
PLANTS. 271
the second. These valuable trees abound in the Molucca
Islands, but are found both in the East and West In-
dies, b.
The Common Myrtle (Mjrthis communis), Tourne.
Leaves oblong, ovate, shining, with a marginal vein ;
flowers white ; the whole shrub prized for its elegance of
form and evergreen fragrant leaves and blossoms. It
was sacred to Venus, and the brows of bloodless victors
were adorned with myrtle-wreaths. At Athens it was
an emblem of civic authority. It grows as a shrub to a
height of six feet, seldom higher ; bears a dark blue
berry, resembling that of the Juniper tree. There is a
species in Syria, cultivated for the sake of the. fruit,
which, about as large as a cherry, is red or white, and of
a pleasant flavor. A myrtle crown is an indispensable
ornament of a bride in the countries where the shrub is
native. Found everywhere in places bordered by the
Mediterranean, h.
The Pimento or Allspice (Myrthus pimenta), has
oblong, shining, leather-like leaves ; flowers small and
insignificant ; bears dark-hued berries, something larger
than those of the Juniper, of pungent, aromatic taste.
Grows in the East Indies, a large tree, thirty feet high.
The berries, known as allspice, are used everywhere.
Yield a pungent, aromatic oil, useful for many pur-
poses. \i-
Carolina Allspice or Sweet-scented Shrub belongs to
the Melastoma or myrtle-like plants. Fruit, like a rose
hip, but dry when ripe, and larger, enclosing the large
achenia.
The Guava (Psidium pyriferum) grows in the West
Indies, and cultivated in other tropical countries, is about
the size of a common apple tree ; bark hard and smooth ;
272 NATURAL HISTORY.
leaves elliptical and somewhat curled ; flowers inodorous
and resemble those of the apple ; fruit about the size of
a common pear ; rind, yellowish-green and leather-like,
encloses reddish-colored pulp of pleasant taste, not unlike
a mixture of raspberries, strawberries, and sugar ; con-
tains also a number of seeds. The celebrated Guava
jelly is made from it.
The Cajeput Tree (Melaleuca leucadendron). The
leaves of this tree are lanceolate, acute, and many- veined.
The flowers stand in spikes or ears like corn. Height of
tree often sixty feet ; bark white. The flowers are
white ; odor sourish, but pleasant ; fruit about as large
as peas, contain very minute seeds. The lower part of
the trunk being black while the upper is white, this tree
has therefore received the name of Melaleuca (Greek,
black-white). From the fruit and leaves an essential
oil, known as Cajeput oil, used in medicine, is obtained.
Fruit, flowers, leaves in short, the whole tree yields a
peculiarly pleasant odor, h .
THIRTIETH FAMILY. CUCURBITACE.E. SICYOS, the
ancient name of the Cucumber.
The Briony (Bryonia alba) has heart-shaped palmate,
five-lobed leaves, which are notched, rough, and callous ;
the flowers, white, and not longer than the calyx or cup,
are separated into different sexes ; grows everywhere on
hedges. Root thick, white, fleshy, and full of warty
excrescences, contains an acrid juice used as a purgative,
likewise a considerable amount of starch. The root,
although full of sap in the summer season, becomes hard
and woody in the winter. 2 .
The Gherkin or Garden Cucumber (Cucumis sati-
vus), L., leaves heart-shaped, five-cornered, and toothed ;
stem rough, hairy, soft, and trailing 5 flowers yellow
PLANTS. 273
fruit cylindrical, covered with bristle-pointed protuber-
ances ; when unripe, greenish-yellow ; ripe, gold color.
The cucumber came originally from the East Indies, but
now cultivated everywhere, and is prized as an article of
table diet, particularly in the form of pickles. The
seeds are said to be used in Europe for the preparation
of a cooling drink, but in the United States are never
employed in the same way. Vines creep to a great dis-
tance over the earth, fastening their tendrils to whatever
object is near, they will climb to a considerable height.
There are many varieties. O
The Cantelenpe or Musk Melon (Cucurnis melo), in
growth and appearance of vine, bears much resembance
to the common cucumber. The leaves are roundish or
orbicular, with two or three abrupt angles, and heart-
shaped ; fruit oval or round, arid often from four to six
inches in diameter ; has a pleasant aromatic odor ; rind
often longitudinally ridged ; the flesh, when mature, yel-
lowish, succulent, and of a saccharine spicy flavor, almost
melting on the tongue. Originally a native of Kalmuck,
Tartary, it is now largely cultivated in Southern Europe
and the United States. Varieties numerous.
The Water Melon (Citrullus vulgaris) resembles the
foregoing. Fruit ten to twenty inches long, with an
oblong, firm, fleshy rind, and when mature, has a sweet,
tender, watery, frosty-looking pulp of a red or flesh
color ; seeds black or purplish-brown. Much prized in
all warm countries for the refreshment it affords. The
juice, sweet and cooling, is recommended as being very
salutary, and particularly wholesome. Another plant,
nearly allied, often seen in gardens, which bears a differ-
ent fruit, known by the name of Citron Melon, has a
tough, firm rind, which is used for making preserves.
12*
274 NATURAL HISTORY.
The whole aspect of the plant and external appearance
of the fruit so closely resemble the above-mentioned,
that it is supposed to be nothing more than a variety
perhaps Var. Pastera of Seringe and De Cand.
Colocynth (Cucumis colocynthis) has a slender, hairy,
prostrate stem ; leaves heart-shaped, oblong, smooth ;
under side covered with coarse white down ; fruit globous,
yellow when ripe ; flowers also yellow. A native of
Japan. Flesh white, dry, and intolerably bitter. The
extract is the colocynth of the shops, poisonous, but
medicinal. O
Prickly Cucumber (C. Anguria) is about the size of
a hen's egg, covered with prickles. Native of Jamaica ;
cultivated for the green fruit, used only for pickles. Q.
Cucurbila, the Latinized Celtic name for a gourd.
The Pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo) has leaves rough,
heart-shaped, blunt, notched, and five-lobed ; fruit very
large, smooth, yellow ; flowers yellow. Native of the
East, but now cultivated everywhere as food for cattle.
The fruit, which is sometimes used as a kitchen vege-
table, contains a great number of white seeds. There
are many varieties, known as Bottle Gourd, Giant
Pumpkin, etc., the latter very large. O.
Flat Squash (C. Melopepo), leaves hairy ; stem pro-
cumbent ; fruit depressed or flat, sometimes smooth, at
others warty. Cultivated for its fruit, a well known
kitchen vegetable. O.
Crooked Necked or War ted Squash (Cucurbita ver-
rucasa), leaves, stem, flowers, resemble the above; long
neck curved, thick at base. Common in gardens, with
numerous well known varieties. Mentioned by Nuttale,
as cultivated by the Indians west of the Mississippi. O.
THIRTY-FIRST FAMILY. GROSSULACETE. CURRANTS.
PLANTS. 275
Shrubs either unarmed or spiny; bearing berries;
known as currants and gooseberries. Natives of North
temperate zone.
The Red Currant (Ribes rubrum). This shrub has
five-lobed, blunt leaves ; flower flat, hanging in clusters,
bearing round red berries of an acid, but pleasant taste.
The White Currant is a variety of the red ; larger
and sweeter. Grows and thrives well in shady places,
wherefore it is often planted in hedges. A handsome
shrub, common in southern latitudes in woods and
hedges. A very pleasant wine is made from the ex-
pressed juice, which latter, boiled with sugar into jelly,
is considered very suitable to be used in fevers. ^.
The Black Currant (Ribes nigrum). Leaves five-
lobed, sprinkled on both sides with yellowish, resinous
dots ; grows in shady woods, on the margin of brooks ;
often planted in gardens. The fruit and berries have a
peculiar odor that is not pleasant to some persons ; nev-
ertheless, the juice makes good wine. T?.
The Gooseberry (Ribes grossularia), De Cand., Var-
sativum. This well known bush has leaves obtusely
rounded, three and five-lobed; from two to four feet
high ; branches very thorny. Fruit a white or- red
berry as large as a hazel-nut, or even larger ; pulpy,
and filled with small seeds. Eaten as fruit, or prepared
in preserves or pastries for the table. Much cultivated
in England, where wine is made from the juice, h.
Cactacea. The Cactus family succeeds the Ribes,
according to the regular order, and are distinguished
particularly by having no stem on which the leaves are
sustained, but the latter, hard, fleshy and prickly, grow
out from each other; and thus, when the leaves are
strong enough, form an upright shrub; if the contrary.
276 NATURAL HISTORY.
is a procumbent and creeping plant. Most of this genus
have tufts of fine spines, which are easily broken. The
flowers of many are very beautiful ; a few, highly fra-
grant, grow out from the leaf-like stalks, or come forth
from the edge of the joints, and are succeeded by a
smooth, crimson, fig-like, eatable fruit.
The cactacea are natives of South America, where
they often form a thicket which none can penetrate
without receiving severe injury. Transplanted thence
to Europe, where they are much esteemed, as they thrive
without costing any trouble.
The principal specimen of the race is
The Indian Fig (Cactus opuntia), which has mostly
an upright stem; sometimes procumbent, and formed
of the thick, fleshy oval leaves, from which protrude
tufts of innumerable fine prickles. When old, the color
is brown. The flowers, rather insignificant, are yel-
low, and the red, fig-like fruit has an insipid, sweetish
taste. O.
Cereus. Great Flowering Cactus (Cactus grandi-
florus), De Cand., Linn. Stems cylindrical or pris-
matic, branching ; the angles not very prominent, on
which are placed clusters of five or six wool-like bris-
tles; flowers large, beautiful, and snow-white; calyx
gold color, and very long stamens. Expands in the
evening, endures throughout the night, and fades in the
morning. The expansion is so rapid that the soft trem-
bling of the petals (ninety in number) can be seen.
Fruit eatable, slightly acid, reddish-yellow, and about
the size of a goose egg. It .
The Snake Cactus (Cactus flagelliformis), Lin., con-
sists of a number of stalks, slender, cylindrical, about
the size of the little finger. Indistinctly articulated
PLANTS. 277
creeping, and full of fine thorns. Bears beautiful
bright pink flowers. Often cultivated, both in Europe
and America. Blooms readily. 2f.
THIRTY-SECOND FAMILY. UMBELLIFERJE. Plants
belonging to this large family generally grow high ;
found almost everywhere; spring up spontaneously in
meadows, fields, and woods. Flowers peculiar, consist-
ing of numerous flowerets, so arranged as to form clus-
ters resembling an umbrella; as, for instance, in the
Millefoil and Carrot. Stems for the most part hollow ;
leaves plumous or feather-like ; root of most of the um-
belliferae spindle-shaped, fleshy, often sweet and eatable,
as the carrot, celery, etc. Many, as the caraway, ani-
seed, and fennel, contain a volatile oil, which is extracted
from the seeds.
The Chervil (Scandix cerefolium). Stem jointed,
smooth, towards the top downy ; leaves feathery or bi-
pinnatifid (as in the carrot), leaflets or segments oval,
and many-cleft (multifid). Grows in fields and gardens
in the south ; the tender, pale green leaves have a pleas-
ant aromatic odor when rubbed between the fingers ;
therefore often used in soup. Considered very whole-
some. Seeds black. O-
The Carrot (Daucus carota), Tourn. Has a rough
pale green stem ; leaves two to three, pinnatifidly dis-
sected, feathery; segments many-cleft. Grows to a
height of three feet; root long, spindle-shaped, is about
two inches in circumference, yellow, and fleshy. Con-
tains much sugar ; used as a vegetable ; sometimes, cut
in small pieces, is dried, roasted, and used as a substi-
tute for coffee. Considered very wholesome, especially
for children, as it is an excellent vermifuge ; grows wild
in fields and pasture lands. O-
278 NATURAL HISTORY.
The Parsnep (Pastinaca saliva), Tourn. Stem fur-
rowed (sulcate) ; leaves, shining smooth above ; segments
many-cleft; under surface downy. About three feet
high; grows wild in fields and waste places; root long
and thin in the wild state ; cultivated, is fleshy, white,
sweet, and more than a foot long. Has a sweet, spicy
flavor; esteemed as an excellent vegetable; is often
used in soup. Seeds flat and oval. $ .
Dill (Anetum graveolens). Stalk naked and quill-
shaped ; leaves blue-green, feathery (plumous) and
many-cleft ; flowers bell-shaped, but rather flat. Seeds,
greenish-brown, two and a half lines long; taste and
odor highly aromatic, but not altogether agreeable ;
native of Egypt, but cultivated in Europe. Used in
pickles, or for flavoring various dishes. O
The Fennel (Feniculum vulgare). Stem naked, four
to six feet high, strongly fluted or grooved ; leaves,
three or more, plumous (filiform), many-cleft, blue-
green, and smooth ; flowers large umbels ; root yellow,
and fleshy, like the carrot. Fruit three lines long, is
grayish, with brownish stripes. The whole plant is
highly aromatic ; seeds sweet and spicy, are used as
medicine in dyspepsia; by some for flavoring many
preparations. The F. dulce or Sweet Fennel, native
of Italy, on account of its succulent root and lower
leaves, is used in cookery ; considered wholesome and
refreshing food. 2.
Asafc&tida (Ferula asafoetida) has a roundish, blue-
gray stem ; leaves trifoliate and compressed ; root large,
perennial, resembling a parsnep ; black outside, but
white within. Height about nine feet ; seeds smooth and
brown. Native of Persia, where it is cultivated in the
fields ; found also in Syria, Mesopotamia and China.
PLANTS. 279
The whole plant, but especially the root, contains a
penetrative, subtile juice or gum. which smells like
garlic, and is used, with us, as medicine, but in the
East for various purposes. To collect the roots being
considered an object of some importance, those whose
business it is proceed as follows. A party, provided
with hooks, go forth and remove the earth from the
roots, leaving them bare, break off the stem, and lay
it with the leaves, over the roots, and press all down
with a stone. In a fortnight they return, in order to
collect the sap, which, the roots having now no leaves
to nourish, exudes from the upper end where it was
broken. The upper part of the root is now cut off, the
rich, white, cream-like sap flowing freely, is carefully
gathered in an earthen vessel : when it ceases to flow
any longer, the remaining portion of the root is covered
as before, until a further quantity of sap shall arise.
The odor of the fresh juice is so powerful that one
drachm of it is stronger than a hundred weight of the
dry gum. As the sap dries away, it thickens, and be-
comes of a reddish-yellow color ; is considered a valuable
drug, and much used in medicine, especially in such
cases where garlic would be employed. The ancient
Eomans were well acquainted with it by the name of
Sylphium ; used it for seasoning various cookeries, in
preference to garlic. Known also in the early days as
medicine, and in the present considered a specific in
nervous diseases.
The Spotted Cowbane or Water Hemlock (Conium
maculatum), belongs in this place, but is described else-
where. See Poisonous Plants (Cryptogamiae), Class
24, L.
Parsley (Apium petroselium) has a smooth, angular,
280 NATURAL HISTORY.
branching stem ; leaves shining green ; the lower ones
much dissected ; flowers umbellate and greenish-yellow
or white. Grows wild in Sardinia ; cultivated in North-
ern Europe and the United States in gardens. The root
and leaves are used to season various soups and dishes
for table use. A decoction of the seeds is considered a
specific in some diseases, and is also used as a wash to
expel vermin. $ .
Celery (Apium graveolens). The whole plant is
nearly bare of leaves ; stem or branches erect, forked,
many springing from the root : leaves few and much
dissected ; occasionally found growing wild, beside
ditches, in marshy grounds, or salt licks. Flowers
greenish-white, small, and hanging in numerous umbels.
The root, when cultivated in gardens, is round, about
the thickness of a small wrist, fleshy ; the stem four feet
high. The peticles or stalks, when blanched become
succulent and tender, and are much valued as a favorite
salad. The taste is aromatic, and imparts a pleasant
flavor to soup, etc. Considered as a useful medicament
in some diseases. Another variety, Turnip Rooted
Celery (Rapaceum), De Cand., is cultivated by ama-
teurs. 5 .
The Common Caraway (Carum carvi) has an erect,
angular, deeply furrowed stem about two feet high, and
branding from the ground ; leaves large, pinnate, feath-
ered ; root small, fleshy, and as thick as a little finger.
Found frequently in meadows, pasture-fields, and fence-
rows. Planted in gardens, the root is larger, and the
aromatic flavor of the whole plant improved by culture.
The seed is the most valuable part, from its peculiar
spicy odor, and pungent, but pleasing bitter taste. Con-
tains a volatile oil, used in medicine as a carminative.
PLANTS. ' 281
Cultivated for its aromatic properties, and fruit so well
known in domestic economy. $ ,
Bibernell (Pimpinella saxifraga). Black, terete
(columnar), and fluted. Leaves multified (many-cleft).
Abounds in Europe ; grows on dry hills, and among
rocks in borders of shady woods. The odor of the root
is pungent, aromatic, and disagreeable, but tastes sweet
and spicy. Considered useful in relieving dyspepsia;
the leaves are used as salad. 1C.
The Anise (Pimpinella anisum). Stem resembles
that of the above described. The radical leaves round-
ish, heart-shaped; the others three-cleft. Found wild
in Egypt and the Isle of Chios ; cultivated in Europe
and America. Flower umbels shallow, nearly flat. The
seed a line and a half in length, has a sweet and highly
aromatic taste, and contains a volatile oil which is useful
in dyspepsia, and forms a prominent ingredient in all
carminatives. Also used in domestic economy. The oil
is said to be poisonous to pigeons. O .
C*briafto?er(Coriandrum sativum) has a columnar, smooth,
naked ' stem, branching only towards the top ; leaves
feathery and much dissected; flowers, umbels, flat, sus-
tained on long pedicels. Grows in Southern Europe as
a weed; nevertheless in the north and United States it
is often cultivated. The whole plant has the odor
of the Cimex or bedbug, whence the name given it
by the Greeks Koris, a bug. Nevertheless the ripe
seeds have a pleasant, aromatic taste, and are used as
spice and a nucleus for sugar plums. Notwithstanding
the offensive odor of the fresh herb, Professor De Can-
dolles states that the Tartars prepare a favorite pottage
from it. Considered to possess considerable medical
properties as a carminative. O.
282 NATURAL HISTORY.
THIRTY-THIRD FAMILY. CAPRIFOLEACEJE. Hox-
EYSUCKLES. Shrubs or rarely herbaceous, with round
branches, sometimes twining, sometimes slightly knobbed.
Flowers axillary; do not bloom in regularly arranged
umbels, but in terminal verticils or whorls. Fruit, a
berry. The first representative of this genus is
The Garden or Chinese Honeysuckle (Lonicera ca-
prifolium), a twining shrub; stem ten to fifteen feet
long ; branching, upper branches often hairy. Leaves
connate, or perfoliate, flowers verticillate, or arranged
around the stem at the axil of the leaf, with tubes taper-
ing at the base, resembling a Cornucopia. Berries, at
maturity, reddish-orange. Honeysuckles, with their
beautiful flowers, varied, white, yellow, and pink, to-
gether with the delightful odor they send forth, have
always been favorite plants for decorating arbors and
porticoes, and are much frequented by humming-birds on
account of the honey they contain. Several varieties
American Woodbine grows wild; Lon. Grata (Ever-
green Honeysuckle), Lon. Sempervirens (Trumpet Hon-
eysuckle), etc. *?.
The Elder Bush (Sambucus nigra). A high shrub,
with leaves downy and in pairs, usually three and an
odd one. Grows everywhere in shady places, along
hedge-rows and fences; rather troublesome. Branches
filled with soft white pith. The greener portion of this
shrub, rubbed between the fingers, has an unpleasant
odor, which, inhaled to any extent, produces dizziness ;
taste, pungent and bitter. Nevertheless it is a useful
plant ; the leaves are employed in poultices to disperse
swelling; a decoction of the flowers, fresh or dried,
proves a powerful sudorific, and wine is made from the
juice of the black berries. The berries themselves are
PLANTS. 283
also boiled with sugar into jam, which is used in sickness
to produce perspiration. $ .
The Dwarf Elder (Sambucus ebulus). More of a
plant than a shrub; has an erect warty stem; leaves
dissected, feathery; flowers reddish- white. The whole
plant has a most unpleasant odor, and on this account is
useful in driving away mice and other vermin equally
annoying. $ .
The Snow Ball Guelder Rose (Viburnum opulus),
is a large bush found wild in the woods, or by the sides
of brooks in Europe, although, being ornamental, often
cultivated in gardens. Leaves three or five lobed, pointed
and toothed ; flowers snow-white, and arranged in spheres
or orbicular clusters ; branches filled with pith ; berries
red, sharp, and bitter ; sought after by birds. T 2.
The High Cranberry (V. Oxycoccus Americana) also
belongs to this genus. Fruit red, acid ; ripens late, re-
maining on the bush after the leaves have fallen, resem-
bles the common cranberry; sometimes substituted for
it. h.
The Water Elder (Viburnum lantana), Hobble Bush,
American Wayfaring Tree. Leaves oval, unequally
notched, and, together with the stalks and branchlets,
covered with a ferruginous down. Berries oblong; in
summer, first yellow, then red ; in September black and
mealy : taste disagreeably sweet, and harsh ; considered
good in dysentery. The small twigs, hollowed out, are
made into stems for Turkish pipes.
THIRTY-FOURTH FAMILY. LORANTHACE^E. Are
shrubby plants with knotted or tubercled stems, rooting
firmly as parasites upon other trees, and living upon
their juices.
The Mistletoe (Viscum album). Stem forked and
284 NATURAL HISTORY.
branching ; leaves blunt, obtuse above, ovate ; flowers
yellowish-green, sit closely ; four or five on short, axillary
spikes upon the summit of the branch; berries white,
globular, and filled with a gum-like, viscid pulp. The
root of this parasite is so firmly inserted through the
bark into the wood of the tree, that when the trunk is
sawed through, the place of conjunction can not be dis-
tinguished. The berries are a favorite food with birds
particularly thrushes, and, on account of their viscous or
glue-like pulp, together with the whole plant, are used
for making bird-lime. T^-
THIRTY-FIFTH FAMILY. CORNACE^. CORNELS.
Cornus, Tourne., Endl. Chiefly small trees and shrubs.
The species best known in the United States is
The Dogwood Flowering Cornus (Cornus mas-
cula), a small tree, or large shrub, with numerous smooth
branches ; leaves oval and pointed. Blooms very early
in spring. Flowers, yellowish-white, hang in terminal
capitate clusters ; corolla, greenish or red. Fruit oblong ;
when ripe, red and glassy ; seed solitary, also oblong ;
pendulous ; has a subacid taste, and is eaten fresh or
preserved.
THIRTY-SIXTH FAMILY. RUBIACEVE. MADDER-
WORTS. Herbs, shrubs, or trees. Contains many varie-
ties of most valuable plants.
The Wood- Warden (Asperulaodorata), likely Sweet-
Scented Bed Straw (Gallium trifolium), of Michx., has
a smooth, erect stalk ; leaves oval-lanceolate ; blooms in
white tufts or tassels ; fruit covered with hooked prickles ;
native of Europe ; about one foot high ; grows in cleared
spots or on wooded hills ; odor very fragrant ; taste some-
what bitter; used in the preparation of medicated wine
(hippocras). ^4 .
PLANTS. 285
The Coffee plant, Peruvian bark, Cinchona, Caro-
lina Pink, Cape Jessamine, etc., all belong to this
family.
Madder (Rubia tinctorum). Stem herbaceous, or
plant-like, procumbent, lying on the ground, angular,
diffusely branching, and furnished with short prickles :
leaves lanceolate, arranged in verticils or horizontal rings
(whorls) ; flowers yellow. Brought originally from the
East, it is, at the present day, cultivated both in Europe
and America, for the sake of the large reddish-brown
roots, which are well known to yield a valuable red col-
oring matter, which is much used by dyers, and never
fades. This sap of the roots, or the plant itself, is so
penetrating, that if animals cows, for instance are fed
upon it, the milk, skin, and even bones, become tinged
with a red color. Has a musty odor ; taste, a kind of
bitterish sweet. Considered highly medicinal, it is used
in many diseases. If.
The Coffee Shrub (Coffea arabica), Willd., or rather
tree, has smooth, acuminate, lanceolate leaves; flowers
white, five-cleft ; general appearance like that of the
Dogwood. Berries two-celled, oval-globular ; when fully
ripe dark red ; each cell containing one seed, which is the
well-known coffee bean. Blooms nearly throughout the
year. Native of Arabia Felix and Ethiopia; trans-
planted thence to East and West Indies. Although
the Coffee tree, in the South, or in its native land, often
reaches to a height of twenty feet, in Europe, even where
carefully nursed in conservatories, it never attains to more
than five feet. There are various modes of gathering the
berries. On many plantations they cut off the branches,
and strip them of the fruit, thus rendering the harvesting
more expeditious. But as the berries are not all equally
286 NATURAL HISTORY.
ripe, the quality of the coffee obtained from the berries
thus collected is considered inferior to the other methods
involving more labor. Others, as in Arabia, never gather
the coffee-berries until they readily fall off on shaking the
tree ; this crop, being fully matured, is greatly preferable
to the other. The fruit, which, in color and shape,
resembles that of the cornel tree, contains two seeds en-
closed each in a cell containing a white, fleshy, sweetish,
somewhat gelatinous pulp. In order to clear the coffee-
berries from the outer skin and pulp, they are placed in
heaps and covered with leaves, in order to undergo a
slight fermentation, which, softening the hulls, renders
them easy of removal. This completed, the coffee is put
in the sun or air to dry, and afterwards, as a small por-
tion of the husk still remains, it is carried to the peeling
or winnowing mills ; or, as there are many planters who
have no mills, the coffee is beaten in large wooden mor-
tars or troughs, where it is totally divested of its coats
and impurities, the broken and bad grains picked
out, etc., after which, it is fit for market. The soil,
climate, and method of curing the coffee have a great
effect on its quality. The Mocha, Surinam, and Java
coffee are considered the best. The use of this luxury
has been common in the East for three centuries and a
half; known in Europe for two hundred years not,
however, generally. To prepare this much esteemed
beverage, the berries are first roasted, then ground in a
mill, and afterwards boiled. Coffee exerts a great influ-
ence on the nervous system. It enlivens the spirits,
assists digestion, and relieves headache ; but in delicate
habits, if taken too strong, it occasions watchfulness,
tremors, and aggravates many of those complaints which
are denominated nervous. Persons, therefore, of high
PLANTS. 287
nervous temperament should be careful not to use it to
excess, i? .
The Fever or Peruvian Bark (Cinchona officinalis)
is the product of an evergreen tree, eighteen feet in
height and two in circumference. Leaves lanceolate-oval,
smooth and shining ; flowers are pale red ; the fruit en-
closed in an oval capsule. The bark, rugged and of an
ash-gray color, contains a yellow, intensely bitter sap,
which is most efficacious in the cure of fevers, and much
esteemed in medicine. Quinine, the chemically prepared
extract of this bark, is considered a specific in intermit-
tents. There are many varieties and relative genera, b .
Evergreen herbs, smooth, creeping, with opposite leaves.
Button Weed, Partridge Berry (M. repens), etc.
THIRTY-SEVENTH FAMILY. VALERIANACE^:. (Class
3. Linn.)
Common Valerian (Valeriana officinalis). Stem erect,
furrowed, naked, and branching ; leaves pinnately divided ;
bloom's in panicles ; grows in woodlands, pasture-fields,
or beside ditches. The root is short and fibrous ; odor
aromatic, but unpleasant ; taste bitter. Cats are so fond
of this plant that, on meeting with it, they roll them-
selves over and over upon it in a kind of intoxication.
The root is used to relieve cramp. The extract of valer-
ian is recommended in nervous affections. 2.
Pawnee Lettuce Field Valerian (Valeriana oli-
toria). Stem forked ; leaves obtuse-lanceolate ; flowers
bluish. Grows in fields, alluvial grounds, or in vine-
yards. Radical leaves are used as food, dressed as salad,
or otherwise cooked. Sometimes called Lamb-lettuce.
Oregon Indians cook and eat it. O.
Nearly related to this race is
The Scabius or Mourning Bride (Scabiosa arvensis).
288 NATURAL HISTORY.
Stem bristly, leaves cleft and feathery, pinnatifid ; heads
of flowers dense, cylindrical, and of a beautiful dark
purple. Found wild in old fields, but, on account of its
beauty, cultivated in gardens.
Teaselworts Fuller's Thistle or Teasel (Dipsacus
fullonum). Stem erect, furrowed, prickly; leaves ob-
long, lanceolate, serrate, notched. Flowers whitish,
sometimes red, in large oval or ovoid heads ; grows wild,
but are also cultivated for the use of the clothiers -ful-
lonum who employ the heads, with their hard hooked
scales, to raise the nap upon woolen cloths. For this
purpose they are placed on a revolving drum. In rich
soils grows to a height of five feet, but is very brittle. $ .
THIRTY-EIGHTH FAMILY. COMPOSITE. ASTER-
WORTS.* The most extensive and most natural of all
the orders of the vegetable kingdom, is always distin-
guished at sight by its capitate flowers, and the united
anthers. Flowers collected into a dense head composed
of many florets, perfect or imperfect, on a common re-
ceptacle. The flowers, with a strap-shaped, ligulate
corolla, are called rays or ray flowers ; the head which
presents such flowers is radiate. Corolla either strap-
* Comprehends one thousand and five species at present known
(1846), and about nine thousand species, being nearly one-ninth of all
the species of flowering plants. This immense order is diffused all
over the globe, but in very different proportions. The Composite
furnish, comparatively, but few useful products. A bitter principle
pervades the whole, which, combined with mucilage and resin, becomes
tonic and febrifuge. Some are anthelmintics, from the prevalence of
the resinous principle ; a few, the Lettuce, Dandelion, Artichoke, and
some others, are used for food ; but the most numerous class of the
Composite are the ornamental plants. The order abounds with the
most beautiful specimens of the floral race, alike interesting to the
florist, and of easv culture. MAN. BOTANY. Tr.
PLANTS. 289
shaped or tubular, in the latter chiefly five-lobed, val-
vate in the hild; the veins bordering the margins of
the buds. The tubular flowers compose the disk, and a
head which has no ray flowers is said to be discoid.
The nineteenth Class, according to Linnaeus, Syngo-
nesiu belongs to this order. The first according to this
arrangement is
The Dandelion, corrupted from Dent de Lion, Lion's-
tooth (Leontodon taraxacum). Leaves all radical or
issuing from the root, clawed and toothed, recurving
backwards towards the base of the leaf, runcinate. Makes
its appearance in the early spring ; grows in every field
where there is grass ; the stem or scape is round, hollow,
bearing a single head of yellow (ligulate corolla) flowers.
After the flower is decayed, the scape rises higher, and
bears a head of perfected seed and seed-down, the airy,
globular form of which, conspicuous among the grass, is
well known to children, who call them witches, and take
great pleasure in blowing them about, and also in mak-
ing chains of the stems. The latter, smooth, round, and
hollow, contain a milky juice ; are very fragile. Root
spindle-shaped, like the rest of the plant, is very succu-
lent, and although bitter, is eaten either as greens or
salad. Said to possess medicinal properties ; is used in
disease of the liver. It .
Lettuce (Lactuca sativa), milky, Lat. Stem two to
four feet high ; branches horizontal, and clothed with nu-
merous small leaves, variable in form, but the lower ones
are mostly roundish ; upper, heart-shaped ; heads numer-
ous and paniculate ; flowerets yellow. This plant, called
Salad, is universally known, and has been cultivated
from the earliest times. Taste somewhat bitterish,
IS
290 NATURAL HISTORY.
but refreshing ; many varieties ; native place un-
known. O.
Salsify Oyster Plant (Tragopodon pratensis). Leaves
long and grass-like; flowers, in some varieties, yellow;
mostly violet-purple with a fuscous or greenish-brown
tinge. Stem about three feet high. Root fusiform,
fleshy, slightly bitter, contains a milky juice. Culti-
vated for the sake of the root, which, when properly
cooked, has something the flavor of fried oysters. 2 .
Black Salsify German Schwartz Wurtzel (Scor-
zonera hispanica). Stem branching ; leaves long, wavy,
toothed ; grows wild in the south of Europe ; cultivated
in Germany ; flowers pale yellow, and of pleasant odor.
Root cylindrical, about as thick as a finger, fleshy, black
without, white within ; used as a vegetable, makes a pal-
atable dish.
Chickory or Succory (Chicorium intybus). Stem
erect, branching horizontally; heads of flowers on the
sides of stem and branches, either solitary or in pairs ;
flowerets blue; leaves coarsely dentate. Found every-
where in Europe, in borders of fields or by road-sides.
The turnip-shaped root has a bitter taste ; considered to
possess medicinal qualities. Frequently cut in small
pieces, dried, and mixed and roasted with coffee ; it is
however, by no means an improvement on the latter. A
near relative is the Endiva Sativa, used as winter
salad.
The Common Groundsel (Senecio vulgaris), leaves
dark-green, irregular ; flower-heads yellow ; pappus
bearded or hairy. Grows everywhere as a weed, never-
theless is gathered as affording good food for parlor
birds. O.
Arnica, Leopards Bane (Arnica montana). Name
PLANTS. 291
supposed to be corrupted from Ptarmica. Leaves de-
cussate (in pairs crossing each other at right angles),
longish oval ; flowers large, radiate, and gold-colored ;
pappus clothed with rough bristles. Grows on hilly
plains in Europe ; found in some few localities in the
United States. Considered valuable in medicine for em-
brocations, etc. O.
The Colt's Foot (Tussilago fa,rfara). Shafts of flow-
ers notched; scape scaly, provided with oblong, obtuse
leaves, upper arising after the flowers are withered ; radi-
cal leaves are oval, heart-shaped, angularly dentate, dark
green above, covered with a cottony down below. Found
in moist grounds or beside ditches. Tastes bitter, and
contains a mucilaginous juice, which, when properly pre-
pared, is considered a good expectorant. It .
The Safflower, Bastard Saffron (Carthemus tincto-
rius). Stem rather woody and smooth ; leaves oval,
thorny, and deeply toothed ; flower yellowish-red ; native
of Egypt and East Indies ; cultivated in Europe, occa-
sionally in fields ; requires a Avarm climate. Useful
both for the coloring matter contained in its tubular fila-
mentous flowers and as a nursery medicine. The small
florets are pulled from the heads and carefully dried ;
impart a bright yellow color to water, but colors spirits
of wine red. It is mixed with the garden saffron, and
is used in the preparation of rouge. O-
The Dahlia or Georyine (Georgina variabilis). This
well known and beautiful flower is a native of Mexico ;
brought to Europe fifty years ago. First consisted of
only one set of large, single-rayed petals, surrounding a
yellow disk and red ; now, however, through culture the
whole plant is improved ; the flowers are large, very
double and beautiful, sporting into innumerable varieties
292 NATURAL HISTORY.
of every conceivable shade of crimson, purple, red,
rarely yellow, blooming from July until arrested by the
frost. Dahlias are cultivated by dividing the tuberous
roots, o
The Musk Thistle (Carduus nutans) has a branching
thorny stalk ; leaves much dentated, clothed with hairs.
and prickly ; heads roundish, ovoid, spiny ; florets mostly
reddish-purple. Grows in old waste fields or by road-
sides. The seeds form the favorite food of the Thistle
Finches. 2. Also called Canada Thistle. Native
of Europe.
The Burdock (Articum lappa). Stem branching,
roughish ; leaves heart-shaped, ovate, petiolate, cobwebby
tomentose ; radical ones one to two feet long and very
broad ; florets reddish-purple, with bluish anthers ; flower
heads short and spiny. The root about two feet long
and proportionably thick, fleshy, slimy, and of a sweet-
ish-bitter taste, is used in a decoction for purifying the
blood. Native of Europe. Grows in waste lands, by
fences, etc., and is a most troublesome weed. 2.
The Artichoke (Cinara scolymus). Leaves alternate,
thorny, and deeply serrate ; stalk two feet high, bearing
purple flowers ; root thick, fleshy, and somewhat bitter.
The receptacle, together with the fleshy bases of the
scales of the involucre, are boiled and eaten as asparagus,
the tubers at the roots, used instead of potatoes. Native
of all countries bordering on the Mediterranean ; culti-
vated farther north, but requires some care and a rich
soil. 2.
Sun Flower (Helianthus annuus). Leaves heart-
shaped, cordate, triple-veined, denticulate, or slightly
toothed ; stalk often six or seven feet high ; flowers single-
rayed, nodding, large, and expanding ; disk flowers
PLANTS. 293
brown at the summit. Native of Peru ; cultivated both
in Europe and America for sake of the seeds (akenes) ,
which yield a fine oil. Mice are very fond of the seeds,
and are sure to find them. Q.
Jerusalem Artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus), i., e.,
Giro-sole of the Italians ; Dwarf Sun Flower, and cor-
rupted into Jerusalem. Leaves oval and rough ; flowers
small ; roots tuberous, afford good food for cattle. Also
used as potatoes, but contain much less farina. Native
of Brazil, but cultivated both in Europe and the United
States. 2f.
The Cardoon (De Candolle) is a variety, also culti-
vated for the thick, fleshy petioles and ribs of leaves,
rendered white by blanching, after the manner practiced
with celery. If.
The Roman CJiamomile (Anthemis nobilis, C. Oflfici-
nalis). Stem diffuse, branching, shaggy, runs along the
ground; leaflets or divisions linear, lanceolate, much-
toothed, downy. Flower rays white ; disk yellow. Has
a pleasant, aromatic odor ; tastes very bitter. Used as a
specific in cramp. Grows in the south of Europe, but
is also cultivated in gardens.
Common or Field Chamomile (A. arvensis) much
resembles the foregoing. 2.
Yarrow (Millefolium Achillea), so named because its
virtues are said to have been discovered by Achilles.
Stem upright, either simple or branching towards the top.
Leaves finely dissected, feathered, from whence its name
Millefoil, feathery ; flowers white. Grows everywhere, in
pastures, fence rows, etc. The flowers have a pleasant
aromatic odor, but are harsh and bitter to the taste ;
somewhat astringent ; quite popular as a tonic. 1C .
Wormwood (Artemisia absinthium). Leaves gray-
294 NATURAL HISTORY.
ish-green, clothed with silky down ; flower-heads yellow,
and nodding. Grows about four feet high among rub-
bish, rocks, and by road-sides. Has an aromatic odor,
but the whole plant is proverbially bitter and of power-
ful medicinal qualities as a tonic, stomachic vermifuge,
etc. 2. Terragon (A. Dracunculus), used for salad,
pickles, seasoning soup, Southern Wood (A. abrotanum),
and Mugwort (A. vulgaris) belong to this family. De-
dicated to Diana (Artemis) of the Greeks.
Pot Marigold (Calendula officinalis). Stem upright,
rough-haired ; leaves spatulate ; flowers large, yellow.
Native of Europe. Found in vineyards, but, being a
handsome plant, is cultivated in gardens. Odor unplea-
sant ; taste bitter. O- Asters, Chrysanthemum-like
Bidens, Spanish Needles, Beggarticks, etc., belong to
this race.
The Daisy (Bellis perennis), Tourne. Stem naked,
and single flowering leaves numerous and spatulate,
spreading from the root. Blooms amid grass ; common
in Ireland, but cultivated as a garden flower in many
places. The Germans call it Goose Flower. 2.
THIRTY-NINTH FAMILY. VACCINIA. (Class 8, L.)
The Common or Dwarf Huckleberry (Vaccinum
myrtillis), Sugar Blueberry is a small shrubby plant,
branches green, more or less angular ; leaves oval yel-
lowish, mostly evergreen. Flowers pale red ; berries
dark blue. Found everywhere in the woods of Northern
Europe, Asia, and America. Resembles the box or
checkerberry. Berries much admired for their sub-acid,
agreeable taste, are used as fresh fruit, dried, or to color
wine. Considered wholesome and medicinal. 2.
Cranberry, Red Billberry (Vaccinum vitis idsea).
Also a small shrub, resembling the above described.
PLANTS. 295
Flowers bell-shaped campanulate. The yellow-green
leaves remain on the bush all winter. Berries larger
than the largest peas ; red, very sour, and although not
unpleasantly so, rough to the taste, are, when prepared
with sufficient sugar, much esteemed as an article of table
diet ; considered wholesome as possessing medicinal pro-
perties. 2 .
FOKTIETH FAMILY. ERIACE^:.* (Class 10, L.)
Heath (Erica vulgaris), a well known plant, that in
the northern countries of the Old World covers vast
tracts of wild land, and is remarkable for the beauty and
variety of its flowers. It is unknown to North America,
although there are many flowering plants embraced in
the order Eriaceae, to which it belongs. Its small, but
innumerable red flowers, are very attractive to bees for
the sake of the honey contained in their calices. It is
also used as straw, the trailing stems being very suitable,
and in Scotland and Ireland the plant enters largely into
the manufacture of a variety of rude domestic articles.
Sometimes it is made to serve for fuel. 2 . Many rela-
tive species of extreme beauty have been cultivated in
British gardens, and nurtured as exotics, and from the
elegance and delicacy of their tissue and colors, form the
ornament of our green houses. These varieties claim
New Holland and the Cape of Good Hope as their
native places. There are from three to four hundred
varieties.
Mountain Laurel, Rosebay (Rhododendron ferru-
gineum), L. Leaves smooth, oblong, green above,
brown or ferruginous bslow ; flowers funnel-form, stand
* But one or two of this family (Heathworts) are known in America.
The true Eriacece are chiefly natives of the Cape of Good Hope. None
in Asia or Xew Holland. WOOD. Tr.
296 NATURAL HISTORY.
in globous clusters ; very beautiful, pale rose color or
purplish, glandular, with white and yellow spots. The
whole plant is highly ornamental ; found in the United
States in great perfection, also on the Alps. 2 . The
Azalias also belong to this family.
Common Laurel, Calico Busk (Kalmia latifolio),
stem three or four feet high ; branches straggling and
crooked ; leaves dark-colored evergreen. Flowers large,
white, spotted with red ; found in the North of Europe
and all of the Atlantic States. Kalm, from whom it is
named, says the Swedes called this the Spoon Tree, be-
cause the Indians made spoons from its wood. Leaves
narcotic and poisonous to some animals. K .
Rosemary rvild, Thrift (Ledum palestre) is an ever-
green shrub about four feet high; leaves small and
brown on the under side. Grows everywhere in the
north on moors or turf lands ; leaves are bitter, harsh,
and, it is said, if eaten, produces deafness. Flowera
star-shaped, white or pink, are great favorites with
bees. Though many other plants might be named in
this sub-class, we will close our description of its mem-
bers with
The Benzoe (Styrax benzoin), which has oblong,
sharp-pointed leaves ; flowers white, hanging in panicu-
late clusters ; native of Sumatra and Java. A middle-
sized tree ; bears a woody nut-like fruit ; on an incision
being made in the bark, a gum exudes plentifully ; has
an agreeable balsamic odor, known as Benzoin, and
used as a cosmetic. 2f . A relative species, the Storax
Tree, yields the article known in the shops as Gum
Storax.
PLANTS. 297
THIRD SUB-CLASS. FLOWERING SHRUBS.
FORTY-FIRST FAMILY. OLEACE^:. (Class 2, L.)
Flower-petals single, inserted on the calyx. The olive
is the type of this family.
Tho Common Olive (Olea europaeae), leaves leathery,
dark above, whitish below, lanceolate and margined;
flowers white, come forth in small corymbs or tufts from
the wings of the leaves ; growing wild it is only a shrub,
cultivated it grows into a considerable sized tree. Native
of Asia, but transported into Italy at a very early day ;
farther north is cultivated in conservatories. The fruit,
half an inch in length and four lines thick, is of oblong
shape, like a small plum, at first green, afterwards black ;
pulp rather pithy, rough and bitter, therefore they are
never eaten raw. Olives are prepared for table use, by
soaking them in ley-water, in which ashes have been
boiled, then transferred to clear water, where they are
left for some time, changing the water frequently ; last
of all pickled with salt and spices, are fitted for exporta-
tion. They are, however, more valued on account of the
sweet oil which they yield abundantly, and which is not
only important in cookery, but used for numerous other
purposes. For making sweet oil it is necessary that the
fruit be perfectly ripe ; the oil pressed first from it cold,
is, with some further preparation, the well known Pro-
vence oil. The portion first obtained, very sweet and
pleasant, commands the highest price, and is called Vir-
gin Oil, the second White Sweet Oil. The common
olive oil, of a greenish-yellow color, is obtained from the
fruit after being heated, and has both an unpleasant taste
and odor. In those countries where the olive trees
13*
298 NATURAL HISTORY.
abound, the oil is in general use, as it is not expensive.
The wood makes handsome cabinet work. The olive, it
is said, will live for centuries, and it is supposed that
those aged trees, still found on Mount Olivet at Jerusa-
lem, are the same under whose shadow the Saviour rested.
Two of them measure twenty-five feet in circumference.
In the days of mythology the olive was considered sacred,
and even in the present time, the olive-branch is every-
where recognized as the emblem of friendship and
peace, h.
The Ask (Fraxinus excelsior), one of the highest
trees, is slender, branches marked with warts ; bears
handsome, light green leaves, very much indented ; flow-
ers small, in crowded panicles; buds large and dark-
colored. Wood, white and hard, is much valued by
coach-makers and wheel- wrights. ] 2.
The Manna Ash (Fraxinus ornus) ; leaves unequally
paired ; leaflets accuminate, oval, lanceolate ; under sur-
face downy. Flowers greenish-yellow and of agreeable
odor. Native of southern Europe, viz., Calabria. The
gum, called manna, which, in the warm season exudes
from the bark, is the sweet sap of the tree, dried hard
by exposure to the air. The odor of this honey-like
fluid is unpleasant, the taste slimy, sweet, and nauseat-
ing ; it, nevertheless, possesses some valuable medicinal
qualities, and is used as an aperient with children, h.
The Common Lilac or Spanish Privet (Syringa vul-
garis), a large bush twenty feet high ; leaves smooth,
heart-shaped, and acuminate ; flowers white or of various
shades of purple, stand in dense, terminal panicles ; odor
very sweet. It is one of the most beautiful shrubs found
in gardens; cultivated everywhere. Native of Persia.
Sometimes known as Persian Lilac.
PLANTS. 299
Privet or Prim (Ligustrum vulgare), a bush with
leaves lanceolate, smooth, and thick. Flowers white,
agreeably odorous, in clusters or terminal panicles ; ber-
ries black, filled with pulp of a purplish-red color ; native
of Europe, found in woods and hedges. The hard wood
is used by turners.
FORTY-SECOND FAMILY. DATURA. (Class 5, L.)
Nux Vomica (Strychnos nux vomica) is a tree of con-
siderable size, with a thick crown of oval-shaped, bald
awnless greenish-white leaves; flowers clustering and
umbellate. Native of the East Indies, where it is often
met with. Fruit contains three to four round, smooth,
nut-like seeds, surrounded with a mass of pulp, which is
not at all poisonous. These seeds, called Crow's Eyes,
are remarkably bitter and highly poisonous. The far-
famed Boa Upas Tree of Java, of which travelers have
given such exaggerated accounts, belongs also to this
family. They tell us of its growing in a valley, and
being so fearfully poisonous that everything, whether
animal or vegetable, found within a few leagues of it, is
aifected by its poisonous influence. As the tale goes, a
poisonous gum exudes from its bark ; criminals con-
demned to death, are sent to gather it ; any one who
returns from the tree unpoisoned, bringing the gum as
witness of his having been there, is pardoned ; this is
sometimes the case when the wind is favorable, for if the
poisonous breath of the tree reaches the unhappy culprit
he is lost. This account of the Upas Tree, which has
supplied Dr. Darwin with a highly poetical description,
although now confuted, has heretofore generally been
believed ; nevertheless, as in most similar accounts, there
is some truth present, although mixed up with much fic-
tion. It is highly dangerous to sleep under any tree of
300 NATURAL HISTORY.
the Strychnos family, and altogether certain that the
operative element of the Poison- tree, swallowed even in
an unconsiderable quantity or received into the system
through a wound or abrasion of the skin, however slight,
proves deadly. Another description of Java informs us
of a deep ravine found there, called the Valley of Death,
in which no living thing has ever been known to exist,
not, however, because of a poisonous tree, but that,
through a number of fissured rock found there, supposed
to communicate with some subterranean volcanoes, so
great a quantity of carbonic acid gas escapes, that any
one entering with the sphere of this mephitic vapor be-
comes asphyxiate, and is soon suffocated. Every one
knows that the same danger attends the entering of a
cellar where wine is fermenting. These two accounts,
mixed up together, have most probably formed the foun-
dation of the marvelous story of the Upas tree.
FORTY-THIRD FAMILY. ASCLEPIADACE^:. (Class
5, L.) Plants or shrubs with an acrid, milky, poison-
ous sap or juice.
Swallow Wort (Cynanchum vincetoxicum). Stem
large, stout, and branching ; leaves heart-shaped ; flow-
ers white, standing in clusters ; grows everywhere on
barren hills ; height two or three feet. The root has a
strong, nauseating odor ; tastes sweetish at first, after-
wards sharp and bitter ; creates vomiting and distressing
sickness. Branches whitish and warty. 2.
The Periwinkle (Vinca minor) is a perennial ever-
green plant, delighting to grow in the shade of woods,
etc. Leaves oblong, lanceolate, smooth; flowers blue,
single, and inodorous, have long footstalks. Also called
Running Box. 2.
The Oleander (Nerium oleander) is an erect ever-
PLANTS. 301
green shrub, with leathery, coreaceous. slender, lanceolate
leaves ; flowers, pale red, have a faint odor, like that of
bitter almonds. This beautiful plant has been brought
us from the East Indies ; delights in warmth, and re-
quires a great deal of water. In countries bordering on
the Mediterranean, it is planted on the banks of brooks.
Common in Palestine, growing by rivulets; known as
Rose Bay Tree ; is commonly supposed by travelers to
be the plant to which the Psalmist alludes, Ps. i. 3,
and xxxvii. 35. Branches soft, and contain a milky
juice, it.
Several other American plants, known as varieties of
the Silkweed, belong to the Asclepiadacese.
The Gum Elastic Tree (Tabernaemomontana elas-
tica) is a climbing shrub, with acuminate, oval leaves
and small, greenish flowers. It mounts to the top of
the highest trees. Native of Sumatra, where the inhab-
itants use it as gum elastic. They make incisions into
the trunk, and the milky sap which follows, is collected.
This fluid, dried in the sun, thickens, and forms a kind
of- gum elastic, much inferior, however, to the Caout-
chouc, but used as such by the natives. Seldom em-
ployed in Europe.
FORTY-FOURTH FAMILY. GENTIANACE^;. (Class 5,
L.) Pentandria, are mostly plants with five free stamens.
The Yellow Gentian (Gentiana lutea) has oval,
strongly ribbed leaves ; flowers yellow, rotate ; arranged
in verticils ; grows profusely on high hills, or dry wooded
places. Root thick and fleshy, has an unpleasant odor ;
tastes, at first, sweetish, afterwards intolerably bitter;
used as a tonic in medicine. Found in Europe and
America. 2 .
Buck Bean (Menyanthes trifoliata), Tourn. Leaves
302 NATURAL HISTORY.
on long, round foot-stalks, trifoliate or three-lobed ;
leaflets obovate. Grows in swamps and margins -of
ponds. Root about as thick as a finger, branching;
descending deep into the earth. Flowers pale red. very
ornamental, arranged in pyramidal clusters. Contains a
bitter principle, considered actively medicinal. It .
FORTY-FIFTH FAMILY. COXVOLVULACE^E. BIND-
WEEDS. These are plants which climb to a considerable
height by twining their elastic stems around those of
other plants. (Class 5, L.)
Small Bind Weed (Convolvulus arvensia). Stem
contains a milky juice ; leaves arrow-shaped ; found in
fields, vineyards, etc., as weeds. Flowers white, marked
with red ; the whole plant is filled with an acrid, milky
sap; not poisonous and readily eaten by cattle. O-
Convolvulus Batatas Sweet Potato (Batatas edu-
lis. Choisy). Stem creeping ; leaves heart-shaped,
lanceolate, five-lobed; acuminate. Native of both In-
dies ; planted everywhere in the south for the sake of
the tuberous roots, which furnish nutritive and palatable
food ; somewhat resemble the common potato ; do not
contain so much farina, but a great deal of sugar ; many
prefer it to the Irish Potato (Tuberus solanum). Eas-
ily cultivated in sandy soils (New Jersey), where they
yield a profitable crop.* They are planted in hills or
rows, like corn, or the common potato, by dividing the
tubers, leaving an eye or bud in each piece ; each of
these contain a germ of the plant, and send forth a root.
The leaves and tender shoots are also eaten. Cultivated
* Supposed to be the same species of roots as those which Colum-
bus's sailors were treated with by the inhabitants of Cuba. They
described them as being very sweet, and, when boiled, tasting like
chestnuts. Tr.
PLANTS. 303
in all countries lying within the south temperate zone,
Southern Europe, etc. The Jalap of the shops is the
product of the root of the Exogonum purga of Mexico,
Scammony of Convol. Scammonia, native of the Levant.
The drastic qualities of both depend upon the presence
of a peculiar resin. 2f .
FORTY-SIXTH FAMILY. BORRAGINACEJS. Plants
or shrubs, seldom trees with single flowers. (Class 5,
Linn.)
The Forget-me-not (Myosotis palustris), Germ., has
a simple, angular stem obtuse, lanceolate leaves- and
handsome blue flowers, arranged in hanging clusters.
This beautiful plant delights in damp grounds, or by
brook sides. Remains fresh a long time after being
pulled. Much prized in Europe, where it is sent to
friends as a token of remembrance. Scorpion Grass
(M. crepitosa), Schultz (a laxa), De Cand., is often mis-
taken for it. The latter grows in Canada and the United
States. 2.
Heliotrope (Heliotropium peruvianum). A herbaceous
rugous shrub. Is a native of Peru, but, on account of its
elegance, cultivated as a green-house plant. Leaves
rough, lanceolate, longer than wide. Flowers erect,
small, but numerous, very fragrant, white, or- tinged
with purple, b .
Borage (Borago officinalis). Stem branching and
hairy; leaves oblong-oval, rough, stalked, and deeply
incised ; flowers light-blue. Native of Palestine, but
now growing wild in Europe. Leaves and stalks very
succulent, and tasting like cucumbers, is eaten as sal-
ad. O.
Lungwort, Hounds-tongue. Wild Comfrey, eto..
United States, belong also to the Borinacese family.
304 NATURAL HISTORY.
FORTY-SEVENTH FAMILY. SOLANACE^:. (Class 5,
Linn.) Plants herbaceous or shrubby; many of them
poisonous.
Woody Night Shade Bitter Sweet (Solanum dul-
camara). Stem shrubby and climbing; leaves heart-
shaped, ovate ; flowers blue, in cymous clusters ; berries
oval and red. Found about hedges, low grounds, and
banks of rivulets in Europe, also from Arkansas to New
England. The root being chewed, gives at first a sensa-
tion of bitterness, then of sweetness. Leaves and twigs
have been used medicinally. *? .
Horse Nettle (Sol. Carolinense), Black Niyht Shade
(Sol. nigrum Virginicum), belong to this family.
The Jerusalem Cherry or Coral Tree (Solanum
pseudo capsicum) is shrub-like ; leaves lanceolate ; bears
white flowers. Kept in parlors or conservatories for its
beauty, as its cherry-like,, coral-red fruit is tasteless, and
although harmless, of no possible use. Native of Ma-
deira. ^ .
The Common Potato (Solanum tuberosuni). Stem
herbaceous, somewhat creeping; leaves interruptedly
pinnate; flowers white or bluish; fruit globular, small,
greenish-yellow ; base and roots producing fleshy tubers
containing farina. A native of Peru, the potato was
unknown before the middle of the sixteenth century,
when it was sent to England by Sir Francis Drake.
Although he wrote a full description of the valuable
qualities of this useful esculent, he forgot to remark that
the tuberous portions of the root only were to be eaten.
Potatoes were accordingly planted in the royal gardens,
and grew well ; the small, berry-like fruit ripened, and
the head cook of Queen Elizabeth anticipated what great
honor he should receive in the preparation of a dish of
PLANTS. 305
potatoes, when it should appear on- the royal table. But
no art availed to make Potato Apples palatable. Great
odium fell on Sir Francis Drake for the deception he had
practiced, and orders were given for the worthless plants
to be plucked up by the roots and thrown away. The
gardener thought best to burn them as rubbish, and did
so ; but as they were burning he was attracted by the
savory odor from the pile. Taking up one of the tubers
he found himself constrained to taste it. Eureka ! The
treasure was found, and from that time it gradually came
into use. Although at present the potato constitutes a
large portion of the food of civilized man, it was, for the
first two hundred years after Elizabeth's reign culti-
vated only for feeding swine ; for great prejudice ex-
isted against the plant being used as food for man. This,
however, was gradually removed ; the potato is now in
general use everywhere, and a favorite article of diet; is
prepared in various ways as farina, sago, etc. ; also dis-
tilled into brandy in Russia. O-
The Egg Plant (Solanum insanum), sometimes called
Mad Apple, is a prickly shrub ; leaves woolly and oval ;
flowers pendulous, bluish-red; fruit oval, egg-shaped,
purple or white ; sometimes very large. The white
never larger than a hen's egg, and cultivated for orna-
ment only. The purple egg-plant is used as an
esculent, and much esteemed. Native of Asia and Af-
rica. Q.
Red or Cayenne Pepper (Capsicum annuum), Tourne.
Stem herbaceous, angular, branching above ; leaves ovate,
acuminate, and on long petioles or foot-stalks. Flowers
stand single ; fruit or berries red, pendulous. Native of
India and South America ; cultivated in gardens both in
southern Europe and United States. There are at least
306 - NATURAL HISTORY.
twenty varieties, all differing in size, color, and taste.
Seeds small, yellow, and flat. The whole plant is per-
vaded by a heating, acrid principle considered Avhole-
some. The best known are the Long or Cayenne ; the
Squash Pepper, best for pickling : the Cherry Pepper,
used for pepper sauce and in seasoning meats, and the
Sweet Spanish Pepper, use as a salad. O. Others of
the Solonacese will be found under the head of poisonous
plants, Nightshades, etc.
FORTY-EIGHTH FAMILY. SCROPHULARIACE^E. FIG-
WORTS. Chiefly herbs with flowers, solitary, corymbif-
erous, often arranged pyramid-like.
Lion's Mouth, Great Snap Dragon (Antirrhinum
cymbalaria), stem creeping; leaves heart-shaped, five-
lobed ; flowers red or pink ; the lower lip white, mouth
yellow, with a prominence resembling a palate at base.
This pretty flower is found in Europe, climbing over old
walls, which it covers with its rank luxuriance. O- The
purple Lion's-mouth is cultivated everywhere as an orna-
ment to gardens.
The Common Mullein, Beard Plant (Verbascum
thapsus), stem three to six feet high, stout, simple ;
leaves lanceolate, pendulous, and very woolly ; flowers
grow on a cylindrical spike, something like ears of corn,
small and bright yellow. Grows in waste grounds, rub-
bish heaps, etc. Considered useful ; flowers prepared in
an infusion which is given for a cough. O. Toad Flax
(Linaria), also called Butter and Eggs, belongs to this
family. Very abundant in Pennsylvania.
SUB-FAMILY BIGXOXIACEJS. Woody vines or trees,
the first of which race is
The Calabash Tree (Crescentia cujete), in size and
general appearance resembles the quince tree ; leaves
PLANTS. 307
shining green ; flowers yellow, furrowed, and ventricous.
Fruit of various sizes, according to the different kinds of
tree ; in form resembling gourds, but in structure alto-
gether different. The rind or outer covering is tough
and woody, -clothed with a green skin, within this is a
fleshy pulp, enclosing many seeds, but being very bitter,
can not be eaten, although it is sometimes used in pul-
monary cases. The rind is the only part employed for
any purpose, but the natives of the West Indies and
South America consider it to be of infinite use, and make
a variety of domestic utensils from it. One large cala-
bash with the neck cut off serves to hold water, another
of a smaller size, cut in half, is used as a dish, in which
beans and hominy are served ; the fruit of another variety
or the necks of the larger, form drinking cups ; other
segments are employed as spoons, cupping-glasses, pow-
der-horns, etc. The Indians are careful to plant the
different species of the race, and very well understand
how to paint and ornament them. They manifest con-
siderable skill in cutting various figures on the rind
while it is still green, and some of these ornamented
calabashes are very beautiful. Others, adorned with
feathers, and each provided with a movable piece of
wood which turns like a handle, are partly filled with
pebbles and used in their religious ceremonies. Much
attention is paid to the noise of the rattling pebbles
within, being used as a species of divination to predict
the future. Vessels made from the cabalash will not
bear the action of heat. h.
The Sesamum or Oily Seed (Sesamum indicum) ;
stem erect, four feet in height ; leaves lanceolate, with
petioles ; thimble-shaped flowers ; seeds whitish-yellow,
in angular two-celled capsules. Native of East Indies.
308 NATURAL HISTORY.
Seeds yield an excellent oil, which will keep several
years without injury. Used in cookery for all the pur-
poses of sweet oil ; also for burning, and as ingredient in
salves, etc. Five pounds of seeds yield one of oil. An-
other species with black seeds is inferior. O.
The Trumpet Flower (Tecoma radicans), Juss., and
Catalpa (C. Cordifolia), Jaum., natives of United States,
and Tecoma C/rinensis, native of China and Japan, are
also found among the Bignoniaceae.
The Lianas, found abundantly in all tropical coun-
tries and everywhere met with in the primitive forests,
claim their place here. Flinging themselves in wonder-
ful and beautiful reaches from tree to tree, they unite
those forest monarchs with each other, their green bands
varying in size from a slender filament up to a cable
rope. Most of them are parasitic, and rooting themselves
on the top of the tree, travel downwards and unite it
with the earth, often, however, distorting their stems into
the most grotesque convolutions on the way, sometimes
assuming the shape of a gigantic cork-screw, at others
the form of steps, frequently called Monkey-stairs.
Many are prized for their beautiful flowers, others for
their medicinal properties or excellent wood ; a few,
when an incision is made in the bark, pour forth cool,
clear water, proving a real cordial to the wanderer in
those torrid regions. Others, too, have been described
as resembling the trees of the enchanted forest, sung by
Tasso in Jerusalem Delivered, which, on being cut,
yields a bloody sap ; this, sprinkled upon the clothes of
the intruder, leaves a stain which never can be washed
out; the Indians use it for painting themselves. The
lianas, twining thus from tree to tree form a perfect
tangle, and growing large and strong, become so tough
PLANTS. 309
that it requires some labor to hew them down. Never-
theless as nothing is without its use they are indis-
pensably necessary to the natives in building their huts,
as, having no nails, they serve in place of this article to
bind the beams and posts together, and prove as strong
as mortises or tenons.
FORTY-NINTH FAMILY. LABIATE. (Class 2 and
14, L.) This well known family of plants have mostly
labiate of two-lipped flowers, by which they are distin-
guished ; partly herbaceous, partly shrubby.
The Sage (Salvia officinalis) has an upright, branch-
ing stem, growing in bunches ; leaves oval, somewhat
wrinkled or petiolate ; the whole plant woolly and gray-
ish-green ; flowers bluish-purple, and arranged in whorls
forming a spike. Native in the south of Europe, but
planted in gardens, where it grows into a shrub. Has a
balsamic odor, somewhat like that of camphor ; taste bit-
ter, aromatic, and slightly acrid. Very useful in domes-
tic economy and medicine, h.
The Rosemary (Rosmarinus oflicinalis), an erect,
evergreen shrub, stem much branched, younger branches
angular and downy. Leaves opposite, obtuse ; under
surface whitish and downy ; flowers in compact, terminal
heads, axillary, of a bright blue color, having, like the
leaves, a strong aromatic fragrance like camphor ; yields
by distillation a large proportion of fragrant oil. Native
of southern Europe, where it grows wild among the rocks
along the sea-coast ; planted in gardens, is used as sea-
soning in cookery and also medicinally, h.
Peppermint (Mentha piperita) is herbaceous ; leaves
smooth, ovate, lanceolate, serrate, petiolate ; flowers
whitish, bordered with red. arranged in terminal spikes.
Grows wild in England, cultivated in gardens elsewhere,
310 NATURAL HISTORY.
from which, however, it often strays abroad. Thrives
best in wet places. Has a strong, pleasant, aromatic
odor, a penetrating taste, pungent to the tongue at first,
afterwards followed by a sensation of coldness. Essence
of peppermint is well known as a medicine ; acting as a
cordial in flatulency, nausea, etc. *? .
Spearmint (M. Viridis, M. tenuis Michx.), Water
Horehoimd (L. Sinuatus), Dittany (Cunila, L.), Wild
Basil (Clinopodium) are all nearly related to the genus
Mentha.
Summer Savory (Saturegahortensis). Stem erect,
much branched ; leaves numerous, small, and narrow ;
under surface spotted ; flowers, purplish-pink, stand in
axillary cymes. Grows wild in the south of Europe ;
further north and in the United States planted in gar-
dens as a culinary aromatic. In Germany eaten as a
seasoning to beans, h.
Hyssop (Hysopus officinalis). Stem erect, branching,
rough, and hairy ; leaves lanceolate, acute, punctate ;
flowers whitish or pale pink, arranged in terminal spikes.
A handsome plant, found growing wild on dry hills in
the south of Europe ; cultivated in gardens for its
reputed medicinal properties ; used as a popular febri-
fuge. The odor of the hyssop (Ezob of the Jews) is
strongly aromatic and agreeable ; taste bitter and cam-
phor-like. 2 .
Catnip or Catmint (Nepeta Cataria) has an erect,
woolly stalk ; leaves oval, heart-shaped, crenate, or
tooth-like ; grows everywhere on rubbish-heaps or about
old buildings and fences. Sometimes found in gardens,
as it is believed to be possessed of medicinal properties.
About three feet high ; taste aromatic-bitter. Cats are
very fond of the plant, and devour it with the greatest
PLANTS. 311
avidity, rolling over it in seeming intoxication, as they
do with Valerian. It .
Lavender (Lavandula spica), stem erect and branch-
ing : leaves small, tapering to the base without petioles,
crowding on the branches, which are slender and clothed
with whitish down; flowers, bluish-lilac, stand in spikes.
Grows wild in southern Europe, where it delights on
sunny hills ; cultivated as a garden plant in the north
and United States on account of its delightful aromatic
fragrance and herbaceous beauty ; taste a pleasant, spicy
bitter ; is used as a stimulant and tonic, and the oil, ex-
tracted by distillation, enters into many compositions in
medicine and perfumery. 2 .
Sweet Marjoram (Origanum majorana), stem upright,
branching from the ground ; leaves obovate, obtuse, peti-
olate, and, like the stem, downy ; flowers small and
whitish-pink, cluster in short spikes on the end of the
branches. Native of the south of Europe Portugal
and in the East ; often cultivated in gardens. It has a
pleasant aromatic flavor and is employed in various ways
as a seasoning. O-
Garden Thyme (Thymus serpyllum). Stem creep-
ing at base ; branches small and erect ; leaves petiolate,
oval, obtuse ; flowers purplish-pink, arranged in tufts on
terminal spikes. Stem and leaves downy. The wild
thyme grows on hills and uncultivated places in Europe,
and is highly attractive to bees. This well known herb
has a penetrating, aromatic odor, pleasantly acrid taste, is
found in every well-ordered kitchen-garden. Used for
culinary and medicinal purposes ; considered almost a
specific in rheumatism, contusions, etc. 2.
Balm (Melissa ofiicinalis). A plant with an erect,
branching stem, rough above ; leaves elliptical, ovate,
312 NATURAL HISTORY.
petiolate, tapering to a point with whitish down beneath.
Flowers ocheous white; calyx hairy, arranged in ter-
minal whorls or heads. Grows in south of Europe on
mountainous hills, hut is also cultivated in gardens every-
where in Europe and the United States ; known hy the
name of Citron Plant. Odor very fragant and citron-
like ; taste pleasantly aromatic, slightly pungent, and
hitter. Considered medicinal, and made into tea, is use-
ful as a stomachic and in nervous complaints. Also used
as seasoning in cookery. 2.
Ground Ivy Ale Hoof Gill over the Ground
(Glechoma hederacea), a creeping plant, leaves reni-
form, kidney-shaped, crenate ; flowers axillary, three to-
gether, bluish-purple. Grows everywhere by road-sides,
hedges, etc. Very troublesome in gardens. Odor
slightly aromatic; taste, acerb and bitter. Considered
medicinal, and formerly used in the preparation of Hip-
pocras or medicated wine. H .
The Dead Nettle Henbit (Lamium album). Leaves
roundish, petiolate, and toothed; flowers purplish or
white, campanulate; stand in axillary whorls. Has a
sweetish, slimy taste, and faint honey-like odor. Found
growing in fence-corners, hedges, etc., also in cultivated
grounds. Sometimes used medicinally. 2.
FIFTIETH FAMILY. PRIMULACE^E. (Class 5, L.)
Primrose (Primula veris). Leaves radical, oval,
rugate, serrate; flowers yellow, pendulous, hanging in
tufts or tassels ; have five bright, orange spots on the
throat. Found in grass plats, hedges, dry ridges, etc.
Flowers used in Europe as tea. Odor faint and un-
pleasant. 1C .
Scarlet Pimpurnel or Red duckweed (Anagallis
arvensis). Stem upright, acutely angled ; leaves ovate,
PLANTS. 313
pointed, black dotted beneath ; flowers standing singly,
orange-red or brick-dust color; grows in fallow fields
and uncultivated grounds ; is without odor ; taste at first
mawkish, afterwards bitter ; injurious to cattle if eaten
of largely. It has been remarked in Europe, that if
the flowers are expanded in the morning the day will be
fine, if shut, the contrary ; hence it has been named the
Shepherd's Weatherglass. Q.
Next to this family come the Plantacese, represented
only by the genus Plantago.
Common Plantain Rib Grass (Plantago major).
Leaves ovate, smooth, with from five to nine strong
ribs ; flowers in cylindrical spikes ; grows everywhere as
weeds. Seeds are useful for feeding birds. O-
English Plantain Rib or Ripple Grass (Plantago
lanceolata). Stalk grooved, angled, and slender ; leaves
lanceolate and toothed ; spike short, thick, almost egg-
shaped; flowers brownish-white. Leaves contain an
acrid sap, therefore considered good for dressing wounds,
blisters, etc., a fact which seems to have been known in
the da}-s of Shakspeara (Romeo and Juliet, Act i.,
scene 2). Also used as domestic medicine. O-
The Sow Bread (Cyclamen europseum). Radical
portion of stalk fleshy ; leaves heart-shaped on long foot-
stalks ; flowers rose-colored, dark- throated, and very fra-
grant. This beautiful plant grows wild in the shady
woods of the southern Alps, and constitutes their chief
ornament. The acrid, fleshy root is poisonous, unless
roasted, after which it can be eaten with safety.
14
314 NATURAL HISTORY.
FOURTH SUB-CLASS.
APETAL.EA. Flowerless plants. Flowers inclosed in a
sheath. Mostly coarse, weed-like herbs; leaves alter-
nate ; flowers inconspicuous ; corolla none, the floral en-
velopes being mostly in single series (calyx), or some-
times wanting altogether.
FIFTY-FIRST FAMILY. CHENOPODIA. (Linn.)
The Common Beet (Beta vulgaris) has a reddish,
angular stem ; lower leaves ovate, oblong, wavy ; upper
ones lanceolate. The Sugar Beet grows wild every-
where in the neighborhood of the Mediterranean Sea ;
farther north cultivated in gardens for the purpose of
making sugar, and also as an esculent. The Germans
prepare both root and leaves in various ways, as pickles,
salads, etc. ; they call it Red Root. The White Beet,
Scarcity, or Mangel Wurtzel (B. cicle) is cultivated as
food for cattle. The Burgundy Beet (Runkle rube) is
much valued as a table vegetable. Both are nearly
related to the Sugar Beet : the root of which is yellow-
ish. The beet is said to yield sugar equal to that of the
cane ; but as long as the Sugar Maple and the Sugar
Cane exists to supply us with that important article, it
is not probable that the Beet will be much relied on.
The beet sugar is said to rank next to that of the West
India. $ .
Spinnage (Spinacea oleracea). Leaves arrow-shaped ;
root resembles that of the white beet; flowers greenish.
Brought by the Arabs into Spain, it is now in general
use as a favorite vegetable. $ .
Samphire or Salt Wort (Salsola kali). Stalk about
one or two feet high, diffuse; leaves small, spiky; flow-
PLANTS. 315
ers, green, standing singly, close to the stem. Grows
on downs lying along the sea-coasts ; strays sometimes
a short distance inland, in good sandy soils. Found
from New England to Georgia. Used, with other vari-
eties of the species, in the preparation of Soda, and cul-
tivated largely in Spain, for this sole purpose. It is first
burned into ashes, from which the soda is extracted.
FIFTY-SECOND FAMILY. POLYGONE.E. Herhs, rare-
ly shrubs, with alternate leaves. (Class 6, L.)
Buckwheat (Polygonum fagopyrum). Stem erect
and smooth ; leaves heart-shaped, with distinct rounded
lobes. Native of Middle Asia, but naturalized in
Northern Europe and United States. Grows well in
poor and sandy soils, or rough, hilly districts. The
seed makes good grits or groats ; the farinaceous albu-
men affords a delicious article of food in Buckwheat
Cakes, which, when skillfully made, very few refuse.
The white, glandular flowers are a favorite resort of
the honey-bees, and afford a rich reward for their labors,
although the honey is of inferior quality. It is a pecu-
lar belief that white hogs can not eat buckwheat without
injury; said to create a species of madness, while the
black swine feed on it with impunity. O.
Sour or Curled Sorrel Dock (Rumex acetosa). Rad-
ical leaves, heart-shaped, on long petioles ; flowers in,
crowded verticillate fascicles ; color slightly red. Stem
two or three feet high ; grows in meadows or gardens.
The radical leaves of this plant are often used as a pot-
herb, early greens, or salad, both in Germany and our
own country. Root and seed disagreeable and acerb. O-
Rhubarb (Rheum australe). A shrubby plant about
five feet in height; leaves roundish and heart-shaped.
Native of China and Tartary. Flowers reddish ; root
316 NATURAL HISTORY.
fleshy, branching, and yellow, furnishes the well-known
medicine of the shops. Very medicinal as brought from
its native land, but, transplanted into Europe and else-
where, deteriorates so much as to lose all its officinal
qualities. It has a powerful, disagreeably aromatic
odor; taste, nauseating and bitter. As the Chinese
rhubarb is supposed to lose much of its medicinal qual-
ity by being transported by sea, that brought by the
overland route is greatly preferable. The Monk's
Rhubarb (Rheum rhaponticum) is the Pie Plant of
the garden, so commonly cultivated for its acid and es-
culent leaf-stalks. O-
.FIFTY-THIRD FAMILY. LAURACEJE. AROMATIC
TREES OR SHRUBS. The tropical plants of this order,
some of which contain the aromatic principle in their
leaves, others in the bark, are interesting.
The Bay Laurel (Laurus nobilis). Leaves oblong,
lanceolate, leathery, veined and evergreen. Flowers
hanging in umbelliferous tufts, yellowish-white ; fruit or
berries dark green, and egg-shaped. Found in all the
countries bordering on the Mediterranean, where it is
only a shrub ; farther south it grows into a tree thirty
feet in height. Leaves have an aromatic odor and spicy
taste; contains a bitter principle, which, extracted, is
considered a good stomachic. The berries yield a
species of camphorated oil, which is used in medicine.
The bay-laurel, famed from the earliest days of mythology,
was dedicated to Apollo ; conqueror and poets received a
crown made of the leaves, which was considered the high-
est mark of distinction that could be bestowed. $ .
The Cinnamon Tree (Laurus cinnamomum). Branch-
es and leaf-stalks are naked and angular ; leaves ovate,
oblong, gradually tapering to a point ; flowers yellowish-
PLANTS. * 31
white and silky, come forth in panicles Found in Cey-
lon, where the groves of cinnamon trees are said to be a
mile in length ; also in Martinique and Mauritius, whence
they have been transplanted into South America ; the
latter is said to produce the best variety of this popular
spice. Grows to a height of twenty feet ; bark is gray
on the outside, yellowish-red within ; fruit, berries of an
oblong shape. The odor of the cinnamon is uncommonly
strong, and highly aromatic ; taste, pleasantly spicy, but
not so pungent as that of the Chinese variety. The tree
which produces the latter is nearly related to the cinna-
mon tree of Ceylon, but more spreading, and the bark
coarser and more biting, is less esteemed, and conse-
quently much cheaper, h.
The Camphor Tree (Laurus camphora). A very
ornamental tree, resembling the linden ; grows in China,
Japan, and Cochin China. The leaves ovate-oblong, in-
terruptedly pinnate and B-ribbed, are green and reddish ;
flowers small and white, are arranged in panicles or
tufts, each composed of two dozen ; fruit, dark-red ber-
ries, about the size of peas. Every part of the tree,
especially the. root, smells and tastes of camphor. The
well known gum of the. shops is obtained, first, by boil-
ing the leaves, etc., afterwards by distillation, and lastly
evaporation. $ .*
The next in order is Myristacete.
The Nutmeg Tree (Myristica moschata), plate 27, fig.
* fever Bush, Spice Wood, Laurus Benzoin, Sassafras (S. officin
ale), belong to the Lauracese. All the species are, throughout, per-
vaded by a warm and stimulant aromatic oil. Cassia bark is obtained
from Cinnamonum Aromatica of China. Persea Gratissima, a tree
of West Indies, yields a delicious fruit called the Avocoda Pear
Wood.Tr
318 NATURAL HISTORY.
3. Leaves on short petioles, oblong, obtusely rounded ;
flowers small, pale yellow, resembling May-flowers, and
of both sexes. Fruit, a berry-like plum, yellow, and
about the size of an apricot. Ripens six months after
the time of budding ; the outer covering or hull opens
like that of our hickory nuts, and a dark-colored seed or
nut drops out ; it is enveloped in a thin, reddish -colored
skin, which is called Mace. The kernel contained in the
nut is the genuine and -well-known nutmeg. The nut-
meg abounds in a warm, stimulant, and volatile oil, and
is, together with mace, much used in cooking, h.
FIFTY-FOURTH FAMILY. THYMELACE^E. DAPH-
NIADS.
The Mezereum Spurge Laurel (Daphne mezereum),
a European plant, is a small shrub; leaves lanceolate,
entire, in terminal tufts ; flowers handsome rose-color ;
some varieties white ; of powerful, pleasant, but stupefy-
ing odor; fruit, berries about the size of peas, bright
red. Grows in damp, shady forests ; blooms about the
end of February. The whole plant, the bark especially,
is very acrid. The berries are poisonous, and even the
smell of the flowers creates a burning sensation in the
nostrils.
Dirca Leather Wood (D. palustris) is the only
American variety. Flowers small, yellow, and funnel-
shaped, appear befgre the leaves. The tough bark is
acrid, and even blistering; is used for ropes, cordage,
baskets, etc. The reticulated fibers may be separated
and made into a kind of lace, as in the Lagelfa or Lace
Bark of Jamaica. 2 .
FIFTY-FIFTH FAMILY. ARISTOLOCHIACE^;. (Class
10, Linn.)
The Common Birthwort (Aristolochus clematitis) 13
PLANTS. 319
an erect, smooth, climbing, herbaceous shrub ; found
everywhere in warm countries ; grows in hedges, vine-
yards, etc. ; leaves on very long foot-stalks, broad, ovate.
Flowers small, in sessile clusters. Native of Europe ;
odor unpleasant ; taste bitter. It.
The Dutchman's Pipe (Aristolochia sipho). Stem
woolly, twining, and shrubby ; leaves ample, heart-
shaped, and pointed ; flowers solitary ; the tube long and
bent at nearly a right angle in the form of a siphon or
tobacco-pipe, and of a dull brown color. An American
plant, and highly ornamental, much valued in cultivation
*for arbors. 2 .
The Wild Ginger (Asarum europseum) has a stem
which is hardly visible, the true stem being the root,
runs under ground. Leaves petiolate, reniform, in pairs ;
flower pale green ; root has a pungent aromatic smell ;
creates nausea and vomiting ; was formerly employed
being mixed in snuff! It .
Virginia Snake Root (Aristolachia serpentaria), a
well known and very valuable aromatic stimulant, belongs
here. To the Aristolachia succeeds
The PASSIFLORACE^;. Passionworts, which, like the
foregoing, are woody, climbing shrubs ; very beautiful ;
calyx colored, deeply five-parted ; the throat, with a com-
plex filamentous crown. Fruit of various sizes ; form a
pulpy berry, containing small seeds, not unlike a goose-
berry. Native of South America ; cultivated elsewhere
as an ornamental plant. The fruit seldom ripens except
in the South, where it is called Markusa ; is cooling and
pleasant-tasted. The usual way of eating it is with wine
and sugar.
FIFTY-SIXTH FAMILY. EUPHORBIACE^:. SPURGE-
WORTS (German, Wolf's milk) are trees or shrubs often
320 NATURAL HISTORY.
abounding in an acrid milk. Many of them are poison-
ous, and many furnish esculent roots and fruit.
The Box (Buxus sempervirens) has oval, evergreen
leaves. In the south grows into a tree twelve feet high.
In the north of Europe and United States it is only a
shrub. Leaves of latter small, numer-obovate ; flowers
yellowish, terminal. Many varieties. The wood of the
Tree Box is very hard and used for inlaying fine cabinet
work and wind instruments. ] ?.
The Common Euphorbia, Wolf's Milk (Euphorbia
officinarum), stalk woody below, upper part fleshy, many-
angled, and prickly; leaves wanting, so that it has the
appearance of a great cactus. The stalk contains a great
quantity of milk sap, which flows partly spontaneously,
but always very plentifully from an incision made through
the bark, and when exposed to the sun becomes hard and
resinous. This sap is very acrid ; at first almost taste-
less, it gradually becomes intolerably pungent ; is poison-
ous and intensely cathartic ; also used for producing vesi-
cation. According to the Koran, this tree grows in the
infernal regions, and the unhappy beings condemned to
perdition are obliged to eat it.* h.
The Common Spurge, Male Tree (Euphorbia esula)
is a small plant, found growing by road-sides : leaves
spiky, cuticular ; flowers yellow, standing in rayed tufts.
The stem is very succulent, and on being broken, pours
forth a milky juice, said to bo a specific for curing
warts. 2f .
The Gum Elastic Tree or Hcvea Guianensis (Si-
phonia elastica) of Persoon, is a tall tree, measuring
sixty feet in height ; leaves ovate, gray, petiolate, in-
* The violently drastic Croton Oil (Oil of Tiglium), the Indian spe-
cies, belong to this genus. Tr.
PLANTS. 321
verted ; flowers small and yellowish. Fruit as large as
an apple, contains seeds Avhich are eatable. Native of
Peru and Guiana. The milky juice which flows from
incisions being made in the bark of the tree, becomes
hard and brown on exposure to the air, and is the well
known Caoutchouc or India rubber, so useful at the pre-
sent time in the manufacture of overshoes, water-proof
coats, etc. h.
Palma Cltristi, Castor Oil Bean (Ricinus commu-
nis) is a shrub with an erect branching stem. Leaves
shield-shaped on long petioles. Flowers bloom in tufts ;
bears a prickly nut (caps) containing seed. Native of
East Indies, but cultivated in southern Europe and Amer-
ica; a rich oil is expressed from the seeds, which, at first
almost tasteless, but afterwards found disagreeable and
acrid, is the well known Castor Oil of the shops. One
of its popular names is the Wonder Tree, because it is
believed to be of the same species with that which, as
mentioned in the Scriptures, grew in one night into a
tree, under whose shade the Prophet Jonah sat when sent
to preach to the people of Nineveh. In the south 2, in
Germany and the north. G-
The Mandicc, (Jatropha or Janipha manihot), leaves
on under surface grayish- green, five to six-lobed, on long
petioles ; blooms in clustering racemes ; stem crooked,
about six feet in height, bears seed like the Palma
Christi. Native of South America, where it is culti-
vated largely. The starchy accumulations in the rhizoma
or underground portion of the stem, which is fleshy and
of the thickness of an arm, forms the articles used for food.
The starch thus obtained is the Cassava, which, when gra-
nulated, forms the Tapioca of commerce. Nevertheless,
although the root furnishes this nutritious farina, it also
14*
322 NATURAL HISTORY.
contains a milky sap, which, acrid and deleterious, is
deadly poison to men and animals. Yet, it also is made
useful, for, containing a mucilaginous sugar, which, by-
evaporation is made into syrup and perfectly innocuous,
it is used as an accompaniment with meat and rice. Cas-
sava is made by grating the root, pressing out the juice
and drying it in the same manner as pursued with starch.
By evaporation the poisonous portion is volatilized and the
root is eatable ; and the farinaceous portion is made into
Cassava bread, which is like meal or wheaten cakes, and
when fresh and slightly toasted, is well-tasted and nutri-
tive. The native Indians use it largely, and prepare, by
chewing the root and spitting it out into a vessel of water,
where it undergoes fermentation, an intoxicating liquor,
called Tapana, which they use largely at their festivals.
The plant is a profitable article of trade ; the root, after
the juice is expressed and exposed to a due degree of
heat, is eaten largely, and no danger feared from its
use. O .
The Manchineal Tree (Hippomane mancinella), leaves
ovate, acuminate, dentate ; height about forty feet ; trunk
strong, resembles a pear tree. Fruit, in color, form, and
odor is so much like small apples, that any one is liable
to be deceived by it ; when ripe falls from the tree, and,
instead of decaying on the ground, dries up. The whole
tree contains a milky juice, which is a virulent .poison
the fruit particularly so it is said to destroy persons
who sleep under its shade, and a drop of the juice falling
on the hand or any portion of the skin, produces an in-
stantaneous blister. Crabs are used as a remedy, and as
the manchineal grows on the sea-coast in the West Indies,
these Crustacea are easily procured. The wood, beauti-
PLANTS. 323
ful brown, marbled with white, is much used in ornamen-
tal cabinet work.
FIFTY-SEVENTH FAMILY. Ficus. Trees or shrubs
with milky juice ; fruit fleshy and eatable ; leaves large.
Natives of tropical regions ; none in North America.
(Class 23, L.)
The Common Fig (Ficus carica), leaves heart-shaped,
three to five-lobed, lobes obtuse, scabrous (rough) above,
pubescent (downy) beneath. Fruit is nothing more than
the fleshy calyx or receptacle, pear-shaped, containing
within its luscious pulp numerous small seeds of both
sexes. Known from the earliest ages, and growing wild
on the shores of the Mediterranean, is supposed to be a
native of Caria, Asia; although now cultivated in all
tropical climes, often growing into a tree twenty feet
high. Figs in their fresh state somewhat resemble large
pears ; color dull red or yellow ; those of the South are
the best, because, in their unripe state being punctured
by the gall- wasp, they mature earlier. ^Fhe best figs
come from Smyrna. This fruit, so delicious and well
known, is used fresh as an article of food ; dried, a favor-
ite desert, and also as medicine. } t.
The wide-spreading Banyan (Ficus religiosa) of India
claims a place here.
The Caoutchouc Fig (Ficus elastica) is one of a num-
erous genera yielding caoutchouc, contains a milky juice,
which, being dried, hardens into the article called Gum
Elastic. A native of Nepal. Leaves ovate, oblong,
petiolate, smooth, and glossy ; is a very handsome tree,
and is kept in conservatories as an ornament, f?.
The Black Mulberry (Morus nigra). Leaves heart-
shaped, ovate, or lobed, obtuse, unequally serrate ; flow-
ers fertile ; spikes oval ; fruit resembles that of the
324 NATURAL HISTORY.
blackberry, dark-red, and of an acrid aromatic flavor.
Native of Persia, but long since naturalized in Europe
and America. *?.
The White Mulberry (Morus alba) is distinguished
from the former by its leaves which are oblique, un-
equally serrate, either undivided or lobed ; fruit whitish
berry. Native of China; cultivated for sake of its leaves
as the food of silk-worms, h.
The Bread-fruit Tree (Artocarpus incisa). Leaves
oblong, much cleft, downy beneath ; the flowers aggre-
gated into fleshy heads ; the fleshy receptacle, like the
fig, forming a compound baccate fruit. The common
bread-fruit is distinguished from the Otaheite ; both, how-
ever, attain to the size of a child's head ; the first con-
tains a multitude of seeds or kernels, about as large as
chestnuts, which, boiled and roasted are eatable, but by
no means palatable, having a disagreeable earthy taste ;
the latter have a yellowish farinaceous pulp, which tastes
much like good potatoes. The first is propagated by
planting the seeds, the latter by scions. Both bear fruit
the whole year, but that they are so prolific that three
trees are sufficient to afford ample food for one man, as
travelers have related, is one of the exaggerations which
those who go abroad frequently indulge in. Compara-
tively, their product is small, and it would require thirty
trees, rather than three, to furnish an annual supply for
one person. The common bread-fruit tree is planted
every where in tropical countries; the Otaheite but rarely,
on account of its bearing less fruit. T ^. A relative race,
the celebrated Cow Tree (Palo de Vaco. Don., Galaclo-
dendron utile), found in South America, yields a copi-
ous supply of rich milk, which is pleasant to the taste,
and can be drank with safety. The tree which yields
PLANTS. 8^5
the resin called Gutta Pereba, the yellow dye-wood called
Fustic (Maclura tinctoria, Don.), and the reputed deadly
Upas (Antiaris toxicaria, Leschen), most likely deserve
to be ranked with this family.
FIFTY-EIGHTH FAMILY. URTICACEJE. (Class 22, L.)
Hemp (Canabis sativa) has a stiff, upright stalk,
rough and crenate ; leaves petiolate, palmately five to
seven foliate. Leaflets lanceolate, serrate. Male and
female flowers easily distinguished ; the first is termed
fimble hemp and the latter seed-bearing. Flowers small,
green, solitary, and axillary in the barren plants, spiked
in the fertile ones. Introduced from Persia and India,
is cultivated in many countries. Seeds inodorous, but
have a sweetish, oily, somewhat nauseating taste. The
green plant, however, has a strong smell, which produces
stupor, or has an intoxicating influence, wherefore it is
considered very unwholesome to sleep in a hemp field or
in any place where the odor is inhaled to any extent. It
is a well known fact that children have been killed by it.
The fibrous portion of the stalk, treated like that of flax,
is spun into yarn for coarse cloths, or made into cordage.
Hemp is treated as follows : after being pulled it is laid in
water and left to a partial decay, so that the fibers may
be separated from the resin which confines them ; then
transferred to clean water ; next spread out in a grass
field, and exposed to the influence of the sun and dew.
After this it is heated or dried in a kiln, until the fibers
begin to separate from the woody portion of the stem,
which has become decayed and brittle. A succeeding
operation is to break it, which is done with an instru-
ment made of wood, and adapted to the purpose ; the
tough fibers are now relieved from the greater portion
^f the wood, and the hemp subjected to the further pro-
326 NATURAL HISTORY.
cess of scutching, which is performed by hanging it over
an upright board called a scutching -block, and beat
it with a bat. Last of all it is drawn through a large
iron comb called a heck el. and afterwards spun into yarn.
The male plants pulled earlier than the female, which
are left standing that the seed may ripen yield the finest
quality of hemp. Seeds furnish good food for birds, and
are also used medicinally.*
The Hop (Humulus lupulus). Stem twisted, angu-
lar, and always twining with the sun ; leaves very rough,
three to six lobed, heart-shaped. Found wild in hedges,
etc., both in Europe and America, and, as is well known,
extensively cultivated for the sake of its fertile aments,
used in the manufacture of beer. Flowers of both sexes
found on the same vine. Flowers of the fertile plants in
aments with large scales, and covered with yellow farina,
called hop-meal. Odor peculiar, strongly balsamic, pro-
duces sleepiness; taste, bitter aromatic. Used largely
in all liquors prepared from malt ; also considered to
possess medicinal qualities, and recommended in dys-
pepsia and diseases of the kidneys. 2.
Common Nettle (Urtica urens). Leaves ovate, ellip-
tical, five-ribbed, deeply and acutely serrate, armed with
stinging hairs. Flowers in axillary, branching, hispid
spikes ; the stinging or burning sensation caused by con-
tact with the leaves of this plant, and dreaded by all
who approach it, is supposed to be produced by an acrid
sap which exudes through the capillary hairs, rather
than by the pricking of the hairs themselves. Spirits
of hartshorn is the best remedy ; where this is not at
hand, fresh earth can be used. O-
t
* Not so largely cultivated in the United States as formerly. Tr.
PLANTS. 327
Stinging Nettle (Urtica dioica). Leaves cordate,
acuminate, deeply serrate. Flowers pistillate or stami-
nate; grows, like the former, everywhere, in rubbish-
heaps, waste places, etc. ; a regular nuisance in United
States, although in some localities in Europe it is treated
as hemp, and manufactured into a fine fabric called Net-
tle doth. H.
The Eltn (Ulmus campestris) of Europe is a hand-
some tree, fifty to eighty feet high ; flowers bell-shaped,
greenish, dark red, appear in March, before the leaves;
grows everywhere in Middle Europe ; wood hard and
tough, is much used. by coach-makers.*
FIFTY-NINTH FAMILY. CUPULIFER^G. MASTWORTS.
Oaks which are the largest and handsomest trees found
in the European forests.
The Cojnmon Oak (Quercus ruber). Leaves on long
petioles, smooth, obtusely sinuate, lobes obtuse. Flow-
ers, sterile or fertile ; latter bloom in greenish catkins.
The acorns grow in groups of three and four together,
an inch long, in deep, warty cups. The oak attains to a
height of one hundred and twenty feet (in the forests of
Germany), and a diameter of six feet, standing firmly for
more than a century. Wood very valuable for ship-
building, or in plows or mill-work. The bark is em-
* The Wliite or Weeping Elm (Ulmus araericana) and Tawny Elm,
Slippery or Red Elm (Ulmus fulva) are peculiar to America. The
first, sixty to eighty feet high, branches long, spreading, often rather
drooping, is a noble shade tree used for that purpose in New Eng-
land. Grows in low grounds, along streams ; not very common. The
latter, more frequent, found in rich low grounds, fence-rows, etc. The
inner bark of this species is so charged with mucilage, that it has been
added to the Materia Medica of our Shops. Of smaller size, not so
proper for a shade tree as the foregoing. Classed in Flora Ceslrica,
DarL, as Ulmacese. Tr.
328 NATURAL HISTORY.
ployed in tanning, and the bitter, astringent principle it
contains is used for medicine in many diseases. Acorns,
roasted, are used by many of the peasantry of Europe as
a substitute for coffee. Also useful as mast for swine.
A relative species is found in Persia, Lesser Asia, etc.,
viz., the Gall Oak (Quercus infectoria), the leaf-stalks
of which, being pierced by the gallwasp, the sap, exud-
ing through the puncture, forms the ink or oak-galls,
well known in commerce; the Cork Oak (Quercus
suber), whose bark is well known as cork- wood, grows
in Spain and Italy, and the Holm or Stone Oak, with
its evergreen leaves and edible fruit, which tastes like
filberts, are all members of the Cupuliferas family. h.
The next is
The Walnut Tree (Juglans regia). Leaves alter-
nate, pinnate, nine-paired ; leaflets ovate-oblong ; fruit, a
dry drupe, with a wooden or bony nutshell, containing a
large, four-lobed, oily kernel. Originally a native of
Persia ; now grows everywhere in Europe and America
within the temperate zone. The wood of this noble tree.
Black Walnut, dense and fine-grained, rivals the cele-
brated mahogany in the manufacture of furniture. The
seeds, or ripe fruit, are eatable, and generally esteemed ;
they yield a considerable quantity of oil. The unripe
fruit of the English and White Walnut make an ex-
cellent pickle, and the large stem-root, beautifully veined,
serves for inlaying or fine carving. T>
The Hazel (Corylus avellana) is a large shrub or
small tree ; leaves roundisli-ovate ; stem six to ten feet
high, branching in erect twigs from base. Flowers stam-
inate, pistillate, separate ; the latter arranged in catkins.
Furnishes the pleasant fruit esteemed as hazel-nuts or fil-
PLANTS. 329
berts. Wood is good for burning, or made into walking-
canes.
Witch Hazel (C. hamamelis), the young, forked
twigs of which constitute the celebrated divining rod
used to discover the localities of precious metals and sub-
terranean fountains, the Dwarfed Filbert (C. rostrata),
and Wild Hazel Nut (C. americana) are relative genera.
The European filbert is more oblong, ripens earlier,
clothed in a red envelope and kernel of richer taste, is
perhaps the best of the species.
The Beech (Fagus sylvaticas). Leaves breadly ovate,
elliptic, glossy, slightly toothed. A very handsome
tree ; branches thick and spreading, form a leafy crown
at the top; trunk straight and round, often measures
one hundred feet in height. Flowers both staminate and
pistillate ; the latter, the female, bloom in catkins. Fruit
beechnuts furnish excellent mast for hogs ; also yield
excellent oil; wood hard and white, makes good five-
wood. The American Chestnut (Fagus castanea), nuts
smaller than the Spanish chestnut, but sweeter than the
European variety, and the Dwarf Chestnut (C. Purni-
la), Chinquapin, found in the Middle States, are rela-
tive genera. | 7.
SIXTIETH FAMILY. SALIACIACE^E. WILLOWORTS.
A large number of genera belong to this tribe, which are
trees or shrubs, mostly of slender form, sometimes with
thick trunks. We can, however, notice but a few.
The Bedford or Brittle Willow (Salix fragilis).
Leaves long, slightly toothed, acute at each end :
* Originally imported into Italy from Pontus, the fruit was kuowu
among the Romans as Nux Pontica, afterwards changed into NU.X
Avellana, from the Avella near Naples, where they had been most
successfully propagated. Tr.
330 NATURAL HISTORY.
branches with greenish-brown bark ; twigs remarkably
brittle. Grows into a tall tree beside water-courses ;
flowers pistillate or staminate, bloom in catkins. Bark
of the twigs bitter and astringent, and, with the leaves,
used in Europe instead of the Chinese herb as tea. h.
Weeping or Drooping Willow (Salix babylonica).
Leaves small, linear, lanceolate, usually sharply serrate,
dentate ; much cultivated as an ornamental shade-tree.
Branches long, slender, perpendicularly pendulous, as if
drooping from grief, very naturally indicate the English
name of weeping willow, and, regarded as an emblem of
mourning, is generally planted beside graves. Tournc-
fort terms it Salix orientalis Linnaeus, however, gave
it the name which it now bears, in' allusion to the 137th
Psalm, "By the rivers of Babylon, there we sat down;
we wept when we remembered Zion. We hanged our
harps upon the willows, in the midst thereof.'' Flowers
all pistillate. The Common Osier (Salix viminalis, L.)
is highly prized for basket-work. Swamp Willows,
etc., are varieties of the genera. All thrive best in damp
places. J? .
The Black Poplar (Populus nigra). Branches erect,
leaves triangular, acuminate, serrate ; is a tolerably largo
tree. Native of Europe, where it grows in damp woods ;
flowers all pistillate, blooming in catkins. Wood not
much esteemed, h.
The Lombardy Poplar (Populus pyramidata). Leaves
three-cornered, serrate ; stem sixty feet high ; branches
erect, forming a pyramid ; planted in streets of towns
and elsewhere, as ornamental. There are several rela-
tive species, among which are the Abele or Silver-leaf
Poplar (P. alba), with leaves dark green and smooth
above, very white, downy beneath ; the Quzkiny Aspen
PLANTS. 331
of Europe (P. tremula), and the western Cotton Tree
(P. angulata) (P. tremuloides) .
The White Poplar American aspen. Leaves dark
green on petioles, two or three inches long, and laterally
compressed, so that they can scarcely remain at rest in
any position, and are thrown into excessive agitation by
the slightest breeze. \i.
SIXTY-FIRST FAMILY. BETULACE.E. BIRCHWORTS.
The first of this race is
The White Birch (Betula alba). Leaves triangular,
deltoid, very taper-pointed and serrate ; distinguished by
their beautiful green color. A beautiful tree, with
chalky-white bark, easily separable into sheets or layers.
If the trunk is bored into in the spring-time, a very sweet
sap is obtained. Grows in America from Pennsylvania
to Maine, but not so abundantly as in Northern Europe
or Asia, where it forms great forests. Flowers unsight-
ly ; both sterile and fertile arranged in drooping catkins ;
the wood valuable for fuel. ^ .
The Erie or Alder (Alnus glutinosa). Leaves sub-
plicate, ovate, glutinous ; bark brownish-gray ; stem or
trunk about fifty feet high ; grows in swampy grounds
where no other tree will thrive. Flowers, male and
female, in pendulous catkins. Bark, very hard, is good
for firewood. The wood, often handsomely veined, is
excellent for wagon-making, mill-posts, and woodwork
of dams ; as, being harder even than that of the locust,
it does not decay in the water. Not good for burning,
and makes very poor charcoal. Bark of branches used
by tanners and dyers, h.
The Plane Tree Butlomvood Sycamore (Plata-
nus occidentalis), a native of North America, but often
planted, as an ornamental tree, in Europe. The largest,
332 NATURAL HISTORY.
but not loftiest tree of the American forest, the trunk
often measures from forty to fifty feet in circumference,
or more than thirteen feet in diameter. Leaves five-cor-
nered, very large ; flowers in globular aments or balls,
which hang upon the tree on long pedicels for the greater
part of the winter. The bark is detached yearly from
the trunk in great scales.
SIXTY-SECOND FAMILY. ABIETIXE^;. Pixus. This
genus is distinguished by their leaves which are acerose
(needle-shaped), in fascicles (little bunches or bundles)
of two or five, and evergreen. The tree itself contains
a great deal of turpentine ; flowers both staminate and
pistillate. Grows in all the northern countries through-
out the world; delights in dry soils, therefore mostly
found on barren hills, mountains, or sandy bottoms.
Staminate aments scattered or clustered near the ends of
of the branchlets. Fertile aments lateral or terminal
somewhat clustered or solitary. Most of them are tall
and slender trees, others low and scrubby.
The Pine or Scotch Fir (Pinus sylvestris) has pointed
oval, overhanging cones, with obtuse scales ; leaves stand
in pairs, are rigid, prickly, and bluish-green. Is a beau-
tiful tree, forming whole pine forests in the north and
middle of Europe. Bark reddish-brown, peals off in
large pieces from the trunk. The wood is used for
building and burning, in the last respect of little im-
portance ; the wood of the root, being very resinous, is
known and employed as torch-wood. On an incision
being made into the trunk, a thick, yellowish, gummy
substance flows from the opening, which is the Common
Turpentine ; this resin afterwards is distilled, and well
known as Spirits of Turpentine. The residuum of this
distillation is Rosin. Tar and pitch are both made by
PLANTS. 333
burning pine wood in pits properly arranged. That
which flows first from the melted turpentine is tar ; the
latter, darker and thicker, is pitch, and the portion left
from both is subjected to a severer burning, and made
into lamp-black, used in the preparation of printer's
ink, etc. h.
The Pine (Pinus pinea). One of the handsomest of
the Abictinese, reaches to a height of fifty feet, spreading
at the top so that its crown resembles an umbrella. Bears
a large, thick cone containing seeds which are eatable,
and taste like hazel-nuts. Native of Southern Europe,
and particularly of Italy, 'p .
The Siberian Stone Pine or Yew-leaved Fir (Pinus
cembra). Spikes or needles three-cornered, standing in
in fascicles, four or five, cones erect; young twigs or
branches rusty red and hairy. Seeds unwinged and nut-
shaped, called Pine-nuts, are eatable. Found in the
Eastern Alps and Carpathian Mountains; wood very
beautifully grained and sweet smelling, is used by the
Alpine peasants for carving into ornamental toys, etc. % .
Weymouth or White Pine (Pinus strobus). Leaves
long, fine, triangular, spiky ; strobiles (cones) cylindric-
oblong, nodding ; seeds long-winged. This beautiful and
useful tree, with its smooth, resinous bark, and regularly
transverse branches, is a native of North America, and
most valuable for the excellence of the lumber it affords
for building materials. Cultivated in Europe as an orna-
mental tree only. ^2.
The White Larch (Pinus larix). Leaves an inch in
length, limber and obtuse, arranged in beautiful, pencil-
like tufts, fall off in winter. Branches arching and
bending, have a most graceful appearance. Grows mostly
on the mountains of Europe, but now becoming quite
334 NATURAL HISTORY.
frequent as an ornament to grounds. Often transplanted
abroad on account of the excellence of its wood for build-
ing purposes ; very enduring, it is altogether suitable for
mill or other water works. It also affords the Venice
turpentine, and a substance called Manna of Briamon.
One native species (L. americana, M.) found on our
mountains, h.
The Cedar (Pinus cedrus) is very large ; grows to a
great height ; a remarkably handsome tree, with wide-
spreading branches, and spiky leaves, an inch long. The
cedar has been famed since the earliest times ; wood of a
reddish color, with a most pleasant odor. The beams in
Solomon's temple are described in the Bible as being
made of this wood. Native of Syria, it nevertheless
bears transplanting into Northern Europe ; for instance,
the large cedar, celebrated for its immense size, now
growing in the Botanical Garden at Paris, was a small
plant brought by Tournefort in 1734 from the East.
Of the cedars of Lebanon it is said that there are not
more than a dozen remaining. The wood, only used at
present for burning as incense, is very scarce and costly.
The tree known in South America as cedar, the wood
of which is used in making cigar boxes, lead pencils, etc.,
does not belong to this family, having rather leaves than
spikes.
The Red or Norway Pine (Pinus abies), leaves dark
evergreen, in pairs, channeled, four-cornered, stand col-
lected towards the ends of the branches ; cones ovoid
conic (rhombic four-sided), pendulous ; scales armed to-
wards the end ; seeds long- winged. Considered one of
the best forest trees in Europe and America. Its slender
trunk, in youth covered with a smooth reddish bark,
which, when the tree is old, bccomos rough and fissured,
PLANTS. 335
reaches, in the space of eighty or one hundred years, a
height of many feet. This pine affords a fine-grained
resinous timber of much durability and strength ; affords
turpentine equally with the fir, and on account of its
handsome pyramidal form is often cultivated as an orna-
ment.
The Noble Pine Balsam Fir (Pinus picea). Leaves
sub-secund (on each side like the teeth of a comb) emar-
ginate ; flat, obtuse, with two white stripes on the under
side. Cones erect, cylindrical; scales and bracts obo-
vate, tipped with an abrupt slender point ; scales and
seeds falling from the axis at maturity. The bark of the
trunk is whitish, scales off in thin flakes when the tree
is old. Called in America, Canada Balsam or Balm of
Gilead Fir, in Europe, Silver Fir. This beautiful tree,
which in Europe reaches to a height of one hundred and
twenty feet, abounds in Germany ; found mostly in the
mountain regions, where dark and extensive forests are
composed of it, as, for instance, the Black Forest. The
wood, tougher and more elastic than that of the common
pine, is preferable for building purposes not so good
for fuel. The resin it exudes is known in Germany as
Strasburg Turpentine, in United States, Canada Balsam.
The Yew Tree (Taxus baccata), Tourne. Leaves
evergreen, small, flat ; fruit red and berry-like, without
stalks. This handsome tree grows wild in southern Eu-
rope, but is often transplanted in the north. Grows forty
feet high in its native soil ; wood, hard and reddish, is
good for carved work ; was formerly employed for mak-
ing bows, hence its classical name from taxon, an arrow.*
* Arrows were formerly poisoned with the juice of the yew treo
Tr.
336 NATURAL HISTORY.
The leaves and sap of the bark are said to be narcotic
and injurious.
The American ~Yew Ground Hemlock (T. Cana-
densis) is a low and straggling bush, never forming an
ascending trunk. 17.
The Juniper (Juniperus commuais), leaves in threes,
sitting close, prickly, pointed, is an evergreen shrub,
found in northern Europe and Asia, on hills and pasture
lands ; grows also in America in dry, sterile hills, from
New Jersey to Maine, eastward, northward, and along
the great lakes. Berries hang on the bush two years ;
are at first green, next purplish, and, last of all, black.
Contain a volatile oil and a portion of sugar. Odor bal-
samic and agreeable ; taste sweetish bitter, is aromatic
and exciting, and used, in some countries, for seasoning
dishes ; employed in Holland as a principal ingredient in
the making of gin. h.
The Cypress (Cupressus sempervirens), Tourne., is a
large evergreen tree ; trunk slender, in form resembling
the Italian poplar ; leaves consist of short, minute scales
of a dull green color. On account of its somber appear-
ance it is, in the East, planted in burial places. Native
of the whole Levant, Italy, and Spain ; found also in the
United States in swamps, which it densely and exclus-
ively occupies. Wood agreeably odorous, hard, and red-
dish-yellow, is used in the manufacture of shingles, pails,
posts, etc. h.
Arbor Vitae (Thuja occidentalis) is a tree of about
fifty feet high ; branches spreading, diminishing in size
upwards ; leaves, evergreen, consist of branchlets more
flat and broad than those of the cedar ; cones oval and
terminal. Abound in the British provinces and Northern
States. Transplanted in Europe as an ornamental tree.
PLANTS. 337
CLASS II.
ENDOGENOUS OR MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS.
Stem not distinguishable into bark, pith, or wood.
Growth by irregular internal accretions, consisting of
bundles of vessels and woody fibers, not arranged in con-
centric rings, the last-formed lying close to the axis ;
germ, or embryo provided with a single seed-lobe (coty-
ledon), or if the second is present, it is alternate with it
and so much smaller, that neither germ nor spore are
apparent.
SUB-CLASS I. EXDOGEXS WITH SEED. THE Oncni-
or ORCHIS FAMILY.
The plants belonging to this class possess both germ
and seed vessel, plainly developed.
SIXTY-THIRD FAMILY. ORCHIS. This genus con-
sists chiefly of small plants, mostly perennials with tub-
erous or thickened roots. (Class 20, L.)
Ragwort (Orchis morio, Ambrosia, Tourne). The iti-
florescence of this plant resembles grains of small shot ;
leaves lanceolate and spotted ; flowers purplish, spicate,
or racemous. The small grains, containing much gluten
and starch, are used in the east as Salep or Saloop.
They are prepared by first having hot water poured over
them and then dried quickly in the sun. Used as
medicine, but principally as a seasoning to chocolate.
There are many varieties of orchis found in the United
States. 2 .
The Lady's Slipper (Cypripedum calceolus). Leaves
oblong, lanceolate ; root fibrous : flowers yellow, shaped
338 NATURAL HISTORY.
like a lady's shoe. Grows in meadows and woods from
Newfoundland to Carolina ; rare in Europe ; found only
on mountains. 2.
Vanilla Plant (Vanilla aromatica), plate 28, fig. 5,
has a climbing stalk, which twines or fastens itself on
trees, like ivy ; leaves fleshy, ovate, or lanceolate ; stem
succulent, round, and about as thick as a finger ; roots
itself by its joints in the bark ; flowers, white, stand in
terminal racemes ; fruit a kind of pod, about a span in
length, in thickness the size of a small finger, brown
and fleshy. The pulp, also brown, is full of small seeds ;
the odor delightfully fragrant ; taste sweet and aromatic.
Stimulating and of delicious flavor, it forms a favorite
seasoning for chocolate and various other confections.
Native of South America ; cultivated in Mexico. The
monkey race is excessively fond of this plant, and visit-
ing the vanilla plantations in troops, commit vast depre-
dations on the ripe fruit, therefore it is usual to keep a
strict guard against these destructives.
SIXTY-FOURTH FAMILY. ZINGIBERACE^:. The
plants of this genus resemble reeds. Flowers mostly
beautifully colored ; fruit or root contain a quantity of
stimulant or aromatic substance.
The Cucumber Root East India Cucumber (Cur-
cuma longa). Fruit or knob oblong, palmate, spread-
ing ; internally yellow ; leaves reed-like, lanceolate ;
flowers yellowish-white, arranged in ears or spikes ; cul-
tivated largely in China and East Indies. Root faintly
pungent and aromatic, is used as ginger ; chiefly valuable
for the beautiful gold color extracted from it (Turmeric),
which, however, of exceeding brilliancy at first, fades
very soon. 2f.
Ginger (Zingiber officinale). Leaves small, lanceo-
PLANTS. 341
' wn Imperial (Fritilaria jmperialis). flowers
^ srianth campanulate ; stem thick, high, lower
S P* s- *i with the long, narrow leaves, bearing at the
.e of several large red and yellow flowers,
pecu lar y p t^^ f orme d by the pairs of small, narrow
base of each pedicel. This well known
he gardens has an unpleasant odor, and
varieties of this '
. T narcotic poison.
and Cardamum. tne Bfeetc, . T, . , n. j
Boot or bulb is composed
and known by the name of Paratuo^ fc
J a common m^
Arrow Root (Maranta arundmaceje) ^ . ~;/-iike ;
branches forked ; leaves lanceolate ; flowers paniculate,
standing in sixes. Cultivated largely in South America.
Root about three inches long, white, and of the thickness
of a man's thumb, affords the well known arrow-root
starch, so often employed as pleasant and nutritive diet
for invalids and weak children. It is, however, fre-
quently adulterated with starch, which deception may
easily be detected in the boiling, the starch making it
paste-like, but when pure it is more fluid and transpar-
ent. Proportion of arrow-root flour to water or milk,
1-80.
SIXTY-FIFTH FAMILY. LILIACE^. LILYWORTS.
(Class 3, L.)
The Sword Lily (Iris florentina). Leaves sword, or
rather, sickle-shaped (falcate) ; flowers white, without
foot-stalks, bearded yellow ; flowers sometimes bluish ;
the root, hard, knobbed, and limbed, has a pleasant odor,
resembling that of violets, known as orris-root, and often
given to children in teething to bite on. Cultivated in
gardens in middle Europe, but found growing wild in
Italy. A relative species and neither so rare or valu-
able, which has violet flowers, is often met with farther
north. 2.
338 NATURAL HISTORY.
like a lady's shoe. Grows in meadows and t Root tuber-
Newfoundland to Carolina ; rare in Europe ; fine fibres ;
on mountains. 2. v ms springing
Vanilla Plant (Vanilla aromatica), platuite sessile, is
has a climbing stalk, which twines or fast* of a beautiful
trees, like ivy ; leaves fleshy, ovate, or lar-he plant, both
succulent, round, and about as thick as -n the stigmas,
itself by its joints in the bark ^-f^fiirGh. Native of the
terminal racemes ; fiir in South Germany, France, and
nortacJn tlvry 1 , also in America. The odor is penetrat-
ing and aromatic, and, if largely inhaled, narcotic ; taste
spicy, bitter. Used for coloring, in cookery, and medi-
cinally. As it commands a high price, it is often adul-
terated. 2 .
The Narcissus Poefs Narcissus (Narcissus poeticus).
Scape about a foot high, straight, one flowering, two
edged ; flowers mostly white, but having the crown sin-
gularly adorned with circles of crimson, yellow, and
white. Very fragrant, wherefore it is frequently planted
in gardens. Native of southern Europe ; found in mea-
dows. ^ .
Snowdrop (Galanthus nivalis) is snow-white, the out-
side slightly tinged with green. These beautiful flowers
come forth in early spring, peering above the snow.
Root a small brown bulb ; leaves which do not appear
until after the flower is faded, are long and of a bright
green color. ^.
The Amaryllis or Jacobea Lily (Amaryllis formosis-
sima) is also a bulbous root ; flower fine dark red, some-
what nodding, is very splendid ; perianth, or flower-
envelope, six-cleft, comes before the leaves. A native of
Mexico, often grown with us in large pots ; blooming in
spring, is a favorite parlor flower. O-
PLANTS. 341
The Crown Imperial (Fritilaria .jmperialis). flowers
nodding; perianth campanulate ; stem thick, high, lower
part invested with the long, narrow leaves, bearing at the
top a raceme of several large red and yellow flowers,
beneath a crown formed by the pairs of small, narrow
leaves at the base of each pedicel. This well known
ornament of the gardens has an unpleasant odor, and
contains a strong narcotic poison.
Garlic (Allium sativum). Root or bulb is composed
of many smaller ones, surrounded by a common mem-
brane ; stem leaved midway ; leaves flat ; flowers small,
white, and in a dense umbel. Originally from the East,
it is cultivated everywhere. Odor very penetrating and
unpleasant ; taste sweetish and spicy ; used medicinally
as a vermifuge and by many as seasoning in a variety of
dishes. O- Many varieties ; Meadow, Field, or Crow
Garlics, etc.
The Common Onion (Allium cepa), stem and radical
leaves tubular ; flowers white, bloom in dense umbels or
terminal heads ; root, a bulb depressed or turnip-shaped,
consists of a number of succulent layers ; the juice they
contain has a peculiarly strong, irritating odor ; taste is
sweetish, but, in most 'varieties, very unpleasantly pun-
gent. Nevertheless it is considered a good vegetable.
Gives (A. schsenoprasum) and the Shallot (A. asca-
lonicum) are nearly related ; both are natives of tropical
lands.
The Sea Onion Squill (Scilla maritima). Bulb
ovoid and very large ; leaves, long and linear, come after
the flowers ; shaft or stalk high, terminates in a pyra-
midal tuft of white flowers. Grows on the sandy flats of
the Mediterranean. Has a strong and pungent odor ;
342 NATURAL HISTORY.
taste acrid, sweetish, and bitter. Used medicinally in
pulmonary and other complaints. O-
The Hyacinth (Hyacinthus orientalis), flower (peri-
anth) funnel-form, half six-cleft; color blue or pink,
standing in dense thyrsoid racemes. Leaves rather long
and partly folded together. This splendid plant was
brought originally from the East ; at the present time
much cultivated everywhere, but particularly in Holland.
Propagated by bulbs. Q.
The Agave or Aloe (Aloe vulgaris), leaves lanceolate,
spiny, dendate, and fleshy, often curling at the point ;
the root cylindrical and ligneous (woody) ; flowers green-
ish-yellow, bloom in clusters ; the leaves afford a bitter
juice, which is obtained, partly by boiling them, and
partly by making incisions into their fleshy structures.
This sap exposed to the sun hardens into a resinous gum,
extremely bitter, which is used in medicine. Native of
the torrid region of Africa, but transplanted into West
Indies. The best sort of aloes is brought from Barba-
does. 12.
The Tulip (Tulipa gesneriana). Scape (flower-stem)
one-flowered ; flower large, erect, mostly red, but some-
times variegated ; leaves ovate, -lanceolate. Originally
from Lesser Asia, now cultivated everywhere in Europe
and America as an ornamental garden plant ; in some
places in Germany found growing wild. There are many
varieties. 2 .
The White Lily (Lilium candidum) has a thick stem
or stalk clothed with numerous short, alternate scattered
leaves ; radical leaves lanceolate, narrowed at base ; flow-
ers snow-white and very fragrant, have long been regarded
as the emblems of innocence and purity. Native of
PLANTS. 343
Palestine, but highly ornamental, now planted in gardens
everywhere. 2 . Next is
The Pine Apple (Bromelia ananas), root fibrous and
thick; leaves, rigid, dry, and spiny on the edges, are
three feet long and three inches broad ; the fine fruit
which is formed by a consolidation of the imperfect flow-
ers, bracts, and receptacle into a fleshy succulent mass,
rises on a stem about a foot in length from the middle of
the leaves. The stem, before the fruit is formed, has a
terminal tuft of leaves and purple flowers, and again an-
other crown of red or yellow leaves. Fruit, like the
artichoke, is overgrown with leaves, often one foot in
length and six inches in breadth, is yellow, pulpy, and
of delicious flavor. Seeds small and brown, and pear-
shaped. Grows almost everywhere in South America,
thrives best in sandy soils, and is as a refreshing cordial
to the wayfarer in those arid wastes. The wild pine
apple, however, is by no means so luscious as that nur-
tured by cultivation, but has a harsh taste. Propagated
by planting the tufted crown or lateral sprouts ; the first
produces better plants, but are longer in attaining to
maturity. It is a common practice to cut the pine apple
very thin, and pouring wine over the slices, let it remain
all night ; the wine pressed out in the morning, will be
found to have imbibed all the delicious aroma of the
fruit. A relative race is
The Sinyalassi (Bromelia sagenaria), which bears
fruit of an inferior kind ; nevertheless, is not less useful,
as the fibrous leaves, treated as hemp, is converted into a
similar, but more enduring fabric. When matured by
the same process as has been described, it is manufac-
tured into ropes, whips, nets, etc.
The Tree Aloe or Century Plant (Agave americana),
344 NATURAL HISTORY.
acaulescent, herbaceous ; scape covered at base with leaf-
like scales, above with broad, fleshy leaves, spinous on
the borders, five to six feet long, and eight inches wide.
Scape arises from the center of the mass of leaves to a
height of from fifteen to twenty feet, bearing a pyramidal
panicle; four thousand, it is said, of greenish-yellow
flowers, which, as soon as fully expanded, die. It is a
popular notion that it blooms but once in one hundred
years, but it is known to flower oftener. Much depends
on the culture it receives. In Mexico the peduncles or
knobs, from which the scape producing the fruit is to
spring, are cut off, the richly-flowing sap collected, and
made into the well-flavored wine called Pulque. The
fibrous portion of the leaves spun into thread, and manu-
factured into coarse fabrics, linen, sail-cloth, etc., and
said to be very enduring. Paper can also be made from
them ; the old Mexicans, in the days of their glory used
them for that purpose. The root contains a reddish-
colored bitter juice, easily extracted by spirits of wine,
which is used medicinally. Found growing wild on the
shores of the Mediterranean since the sixteenth century.
The Banana (Musa sapientum) is a tree-like shrub,
twelve to thirteen feet high ; stem consists of a sheath
composed of different layers like that of an onion ; crown
leaves eight to ten feet long and two feet broad. Distin-
guished by a simple perianth and five to six perfect
stamens. When the plant is five to six months old a
tuft of buds comes forth on the crown ; at the base are
from thirty to sixty androgynous flowers, six-staminate ;
at the terminal portion shoots forth a globular cone com-
posed of violet-colored flowers, pistillate, which secrete
a quantity of sweet juices. The staminate flowers hang
in cluster, forming each a single fruit, which gradually
PLANTS. 345
attains the size of a common cucumber. After ten or
eleven months, this fruit is what is called tree-ripe, con-
tains a mealy pulp, in the middle of which is a slender
column surrounded with very small seeds ; the rind is at
this time green. When fully matured, which is not until
ten or twenty days afterwards, the rind turns yellow,
and the pulp becomes sweet and glutinous. There are
now two kinds of fruit to be found on the same tuft ;
the larger fruit, of which there are fewer, viz., the stam-
inate or male fruit, and the pistillate, or that produced
by the female flower ; the former are the best. In the
tree-ripe state bananas are good and wholesome articles
of food, are used boiled or roasted, and taste like a mix-
ture of corn meal and potatoes ; when fully ripe, they
are eaten as fruit. In South America the banana forms
the chief article of food for the negroes. The tree after
producing such a crop of fruit, often forty to sixty
pounds, is altogether exhausted, therefore the usual prac-
tice is to cut the top off and turn the remaining portion
downwards, so that new scions may spring up from the
root to maintain the stock. The .acerb sap being pressed
from the leaves and seeds, the fibrous portion which re-
mains serves to be manufactured into cordage and a kind
of rough paper. This genus, known by the various
names of Pisang, Plaintain, and Paradise Fig, is native
of the East Indies, now, however, found throughout the
torrid zone ; was known to the ancients by the name of
Pala. Many believe the banana (paradise fig) to have
been the tree by whose fruit Eve was tempted ; others,
with more probability, suppose that the great clusters,
brought by the Jewish spies from the Valley of Eschol,
which were so heavy that it required two men to carry
15*
346 NATURAL HISTORY.
one, were not grapes, but the clustered fruit of the
banana. There are many varieties known at present.
The Bakuba (M. paradisica), bearing a small fruit of
about a finger's length and proportionate thickness, left
to ripen fully, is very pleasant-tasted, resembling a ber-
gamot pear, but is a much finer fruit. The superior
variety of Bakubas contain no seed. O.
SIXTY-SIXTH FAMILY. PALM^:. PALM. The most
majestic race of plants. Palrns are scarcely ever found
beyond the limits of the tropics, where they not only de-
light the eye with the beauty of their structure, but re-
fresh the weary wanderer with their fruit. The young
shoots are used as articles of every day diet, and the
pulpy pith of some eatable is appropriated to various
uses. Seldom found growing in numbers together so as
to form a grove ; when they do their majestic beauty is
lost, presenting nothing to the eye besides a dispropor-
tionately small crown of leaves, and a columnar mass of
gray trunks. They mostly grow singly in the neighbor-
hood of other trees, and are to the tropical forests what
the pine is to the northern. The reader must not sup-
pose that the palm tree casts a spreading shadow, under
which the traveler may repose, for its entire foliage con-
sists of about a dozen large, feathery, fan-like leaves,
forming a crown at the top, therefore the poet's dream-
ing " under the shade of the lofty palm" is sheer non-
sense. Neither ought it to be supposed that the palm
yields so abundantly, that its fruit, cabbage, and vin-
ous sap can supply a whole colony with food and drink.
The so-called cabbage, which is the terminal bud of the
trunk, does indeed furnish a delicious article of food, but
the procuring of it costs the life of one beautiful tree,
and if eaten for any length of time brings on dysentery.
PLANTS. 347
The fruit is either oleaginous or pulpy, like our summer
fruits, therefore not solid enough to furnish every day food.
The tapping of the trees for sake of the sap, also mostly
takes away their life ; procuring sago from the trunk of the
Palm sagus, E. India, found growing in .the Mauritius,
and said to contain a large quantity of that article, is
followed by the same consequences. The accounts of the
extreme fruitfulness of the palm, given by travelers, are
greatly exaggerated, as any one who travels in their
native region, unprovided with a supply of solid food,
will find out, the stomach refusing to be satisfied solely
with its produce. Nevertheless, the palm family, in its
numerous varieties, is eminently useful, affording food,
raiment, wine, oil, wax, flour, sugar, thread, weapons,
habitations, and utensils. Although there are many
genera of this race, we shall only mention two or three.
The Date Tree (Phoenix dactylifera), the leaves of
which are the palms of Scripture. A native of northern
Africa, endures the climate of the opposite shores of the
Mediterranean, and the Palmetto (Chamserops palmetto),
the only arborescent species of the United States. One
or two low palms with a creeping caudex (dwarf palmet-
toes) are found from Florida to North Carolina.*
The Sayo Palm (Sagus rumphii) is a large tree, al-
though it does not measure more than thirty feet ; leaves
pinnate with large segments ; leaf-stalks spiny. Of slow
growth, the sago palm remains a naked shrub for a long
* The Palmacese are perhaps not surpassed by any other order in
point of usefulness. The leaves are used for thatching, making hats,
mats, baskets, fences, for torches, and for writing upon ; the stalk and
midrib for oars ; their ashes yield an abundance of potash; the juice
of the flowers and stems, replete with sugar, is fermented into a kind
of wiue or distilled into Arrack; from its spathes, as from some othei
848 NATURAL HISTORY.
time ; at length a sheath from which sprouts a very large
panicle, appears in the middle of the plant, the whole
resembling an immense candelabra. Flowers hang in
catkins. The fruit is uneatable, and contains hard ker-
nels like small shot. The useful part of this tree is the
central pith, which is taken from the stem before the
terminal bud begins to shoot. This pithy portion re-
sembles fine meal, and known as the East Indian Sago,
is used largely as nutritive food. Native of India. '2.
The Cabbage Tree (Euterpe oleracese), seventy feet
in height. This palm is a handsome tree, growing per-
pendicularly straight ; stem two-thirds gray below, upper
third green ; the feathery- leaved crown, light and grace-
ful, is pleasing to the eye. Under this crown are the
sheaths, from which the flower-tufts or bulbs develope ;
fruit, a berry altogether uneatable. As long as these '
flower-bulbs remain soft they can be taken out and eaten
as are the terminal buds of the true palm ; so, also, the
young unopened leaves. If the tree is cut down and the
trunk left lying on the ground, the palm beetle deposits
its eggs within them, and the numerous larva? soon deve-
lope, adding, it is said, much to their excellence ; found
everywhere within the tropics. The Royal Palm is a
relative species. ] ?.
The Maritz Palm (Mauritia flcxusa) has a straight,
smooth stem and fan-like leaves ; height sixty feet ; flow-
pulms, -when -wounded, flows a grateful beverage, known in India as
Toddy ; the rind 13 used for culinary vessels, the outer portion into
very strong cordage (Coir rope) ; the kernels, expressed, make oil.
Canes and ratans are the slender, often prostrate, stems of species of
Calamus. The Phyttphelas of South America yields the larger sort
of nuts, the hard and white albumen of which is the vegetable ivory,
now so largely used by the turners. OKAY. Tr.
PLANTS. 349
ers bloom in catkins ; bears berries or fruit about the
size of a ben's egg, contain when perfectly ripe a brown-
ish-yellow pulp, which adheres closely to the seed ; used,
partly eaten as fruit, and mixed with water as a refresh-
ing drink. The natives prepare a kind of hemp from
the leaves, which, although very strong and tough if
kept dry, decays soon when wet. Its true home is
South America, where it is found in swampy places
only. TJ.
The Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera), plate 27, fig. 1.
Trunk knobbed and rough ; leaves pinnate ; leaflets small
and lanceolate ; fruit red or brownish, about the size of a
plum, egg-shaped, somewhat recurved. The trees are of
different sexes, being both male and female. Native of
southern Asia and northern Africa, the date palm has
thence been transplanted into Arabia and Persia. Great
care is expended on the culture of this tree, because the
livelihood of the cultivator depends as much upon their
annual harvest as does the European farmer upon the
measure of his crop of grain. Only a few of the male
trees are kept on the plantation ; the pollen-bearing
branches are, however, cut off and preserved for a whole
year without injury to their fructifying properties. The
date season or harvest is a regular festival time ; all flock
to ossist in gathering the ripe fruit ; the song, the dance
and merry sports lend an enlivening influence, and driv-
ing away care, all are merry. Some of the fruit is eaten
green (not dried) ; in this case it is carefully separated
from the riper, which, dried and sent abroad, is known
and welcome everywhere. In our country dates are con-
sidered a luxury, and recommended to invalids as both
nutritive and refreshing. In Arabia they are used as
common food both for man and beasts, h.
350 NATURAL HISTORY.
The Komu Palm (GEnocarpus bacaba) is a tall and
slender tree, measuring about fifty feet in height ; leaves
small and pinnatified ; fruit, pulpy drupes, amounting to
several hundreds, and about the same size as shot, and
resembling sloeberries, are borne on broom-like panicles,
from two to four feet in length. The stone is very hard,
but the pulp surrounding it is brown and tastes like cho-
colate. This fruit soaked in warm water until it is soft-
ened and grated makes a very refreshing beverage, and
tastes much like chocolate ; the panicels serve for mak-
ing brooms, and the wood for canes and umbrella stocks.
Found abundantly in South America, b .
The Avara (Elais guinensis) is slender and very
thorny, measures forty feet in height ; leaves two to
three feet long, pinnatified, and falcate. Flowers panicu-
late, producing a drupaceous fruit, four to six hundred,
plum-shaped and yellow. The hard black kernel of the
nut contains the oily principle from which the article,
called in Africa Palm Oil, is made. The avara has been
transplanted into South America ; the fruit serves there
only as food for swine.
The Maripa Palm, with its sweet pulp and handsome
brown seeds bears much likeness to the avara ; rings and
other ornaments of the same kind are made from the
seeds of the maripa, which are very handsome, but break
easily. I 2.
The Cocoa Palm (Cocos nucifera) has no thorns ;
leaves sword-shaped, is one of the most useful trees upon
the earth, very large, and grows in the sandy and most
unfruitful regions of the torrid zone. Even when too
young to bear fruit, the tender leaves afford palatable
food, and are used as cabbage. Flowers yellowish, stand
in paniculate clusters, followed by fruit, the well known
PLANTS. 351
cocoa-nut, about the size of an infant's head, the outside
rind of which consists of a fibrous covering, and a few
coarse leaves resembling the bark of undressed hemp.
Under this rough envelope the . nut is found, large and
obtusely triangular, brown and hard. A considerable
quantity of milk, sweet, and tasting like almonds, may
be obtained by boring into the shell, the inside of which
is lined with a hard but oily flesh, rich and nut-like ; the
shell must be broken or sawed asunder in order to get at
the pulp. Even the expanding sheaths are made sub-
servient to useful purposes, for when cut into or wounded
the sap flows freely, is very sweet, and after undergoing
a certain process of fermentation, converted into palm
wine, which is considered a ve.ry superior liquor. The
shell of the nut is used by turners for ornamental work.
The small branches of the cocoa nut palm, emblematic of
peace and friendship, are planted on festival days in front
of houses. The wood is very fibrous, and therefore not
fit for building purposes. Found everywhere within the
tropical regions, although its true home is in the East
Indies. '?. To this genus succeeds that of
The Yam (Dioscorea alata), which is a handsome,
herbaceous plant, cultivated everywhere within the tro-
pics; stems twining from large tuberous roots; leaves
alternate, ovate, arrow-shaped ; flowers small and yel-
lowish, form thick clusters a span long, the sterile in
drooping panicles, the fertile in drooping, simple racemes,
and the whole growth of the plant is so luxuriant, as of
itself to form an arbor. The most important part, how-
ever, are the tuberous roots, which, in one year are
larger than the largest-sized apple ; left in the earth for
a longer time, they still continue to grow ; contain a
great deal of starch, and very mealy, taste like the best
352 NATURAL HISTORY.
potatoes, and furnish the well known Maudioc meal. It
is necessary that the roots be well covered with earth,
as the exposed portion is very bitter. Yams are much
valued as a nutritive every day diet. 2.
Calamus Sweet Flag (Acorus calamus). Leaves
linear, two-edged, sword-like ; roots creeping, long,
branching out vertically. Grows in swampy places,
margins of rivulets, etc. ; found everywhere in Europe,
abundant in Pennsylvania ; about five feet high, and
from the structure of its leaves has much the appearance
of a large sword-lily. The root, reddish outside, white
within, is pungent, bitter and aromatic to the taste, but
of an agreeable balsamic odor; preserved fresh with
sugar, it makes a pleasant medicine, used as a stomachic
and tonic. Originally a native of Asia. 2.
The Pepper Bush (Piper nigrum), plate 27, fig. 2,
is shrub-like and climbing ; leaves ovoid, egg-shapod,
pointed, leathery, and naked ; flowers arranged in spicate
racemes. Fruit, composed of grains, about the size of
peas, which hang together in clusters of from twenty to
thirty, of a red color ; ripens in four months. Pepper is
taken from the bush before it is fully ripe, and left to
dry in the sun ; eight or ten days is sufficient for this
purpose : the red color is changed into black, the grains
hardened, and now become fitted for an article of com-
merce, it is exported and known as Black Pepper. White
pepper, which is considered superior to black, and com-
mands a higher price, is the fruit of the same plant and
the same berry, but divested of the red pulp ; used every-
where, and valued by all for its conservative properties,
no further description of this valuable spice is necessary,
since every one is familiar with its peculiar aromatic
odor and pungent taste.
PLANTS. 353
SIXTY-SEVENTH FAMILY. GRAMINE^B. GRASSES.
Steins usually hollow and jointed or with nodes,
from which the leaves, partly surrounded with a mem-
branous ligula or stipule (membranous appendage) at
the base of the leaf or summit of the sheath in the
grasses. Inflorescence very abundant, arranged in spikes,
panicles, or racemes. The seed or grain clothed first
with a fine thin skin, is also enveloped in another cover-
ing, which, of an oblong shape and dry, is known as
chaff, and many have the chaff furnished with awns, a
bristle-like process, called beards or barbs. The plants
belonging to this order, Gramineae, the largest of the
vegetable kingdom, and most universally diffused, are also
doubtless the most important ; the nutritious herbage,
whether used green as pasture or dry as hay, and seeds
constitute the chief support of herbivorous animals, and
the cereals, seeds or grains filled with floury albumen,
and cultivated carefully everywhere, furnish food for
man. Many of these farinaceous seeds also contain a
considerable portion of sugar. The most important mea-
dow and pasture grasses are
I. CYPERACE.E. SEDGES. HALF GRASSES.
The Sandseggp Sand Reed White Grass (Vignea
arenaria). Eoot creeping; leaves small, flat, striped;
stalk very tall ; palae (chaff, or immediate floral covering),
oblong; triangular ears; thick spikelets; blooms in
May ; grows in sandy bottoms, arid furnishes indiffer-
ently good fodder for cattle.
Reed Cut Grass Sedge (Vignea acuta), root creep-
ing ; leaves small, flat, sharply cutting ; chaff, or husk,
oblong, strongly bristled, slender ; spikelets (ears) brown.
354 NATURAL HISTORY.
Grows in pasture lands on the borders of stagnant
waters ; blooms in May or June ; as food for cattle
rather indifferent.
Low or Creeping Reed Grass Sedge Grass (Carex
supina). Root creeping ; glumes, (outer chaff, or stunted
leaf sheaths), small and sharply acute; stalk smooth, tall,
rigid ; ears or spikes small. Grows on hills and in dry
pasture lands. Blooms in May and makes indifferent
fodder.
Early Reed Bent Grass (Carex prsecox), creeping
root ; leaflets small, acute, boat-shaped ; chaff-glumes
smooth, poor ; ears wedge-shaped. Found in sunny
places, appearing verdant as soon as the snow is gone.
Flowers in March, April, and May. Sheep eat it with
great readiness.
IT. AGROSTIDE.E. TRUE GRASSES.
The Common Red Top Bent Grass (Agrostis vul-
garis) has a running root ; leaves linear, flat, rough ;
stalk or stem one foot high, erect ; panicle spreading,
with the branches finally divaricate. A common grass,
spread over hills, vales, and meadows, forming a soft,
dense turf. Blooms in June and August, and makes
valuable fodder for sheep.
The Dog's Bent Grass (Agrostis canina), root creep-
ing ; upper leaves linear, flat ; lower rather crowded at
base of the stem, rough ; spikes upright or bending,
smooth ; grain triangular, ovoid, dark brown. Blooms
in July and August, and in the latter part of summer
makes a fine turf, alike over dry and damp places, yards,
lanes, etc. Cattle, sheep, and hogs are fond of feeding
on it.
PLANTS. 355
German Penning Grass (Panicutn germanicum, L.)
has small leaves ; stem rather short and erect ; flowers
in panicles ; blooms in July and August ; makes good
fodder for cattle, and on that account is cultivated in
many places. Crop or Crab Grass.
The Canary Seed Grass (Phalaris canariensis), leaves
flat; stalk high, nearly smooth, rather bent; panicle
oval, spiked ; blooms in July and August ; sometimes,
but sparingly, cultivated for the sake of the seed, which
is used as food for parlor birds. Cattle eat it very
readily.
Timothy Cat's Tail or Herd's Grass (Phleum
prsetense). Root very fibrous ; leaves flat ; stem high,
smooth ; spike cylindrical, very dense and harsh ; flowers
in upright ear-like panicles of unequal lengths. Blooms
in June, July, and August ; grows in meadows, and al-
though a rough grass, is very valuable as hay.
Meadow Fox-tail Grass (Alopecuris praetensis), root
tufted and fibrous ; leaves long, smooth ; stem tall and
smooth ; inflorescence spike-form, cylindric, and of a
tawny-yellow ; flower-sheaths woolly or bristly ; blooms
in May or June ; abundant in meadows and pasture-
fields. Several species of Floating Fox-tail (Alope-
curii), found in moist meadows, Water Fox-tail, rather
rare, growing in water or wet grounds, all make excel-
lent food for cattle.
Sweet-scented Vernal Grass (Anthoxantum odora-
tum). Leaves flat ; stalk tall, erect ; spikelets yellow;
flowers in spiked panicles ; blooms from May to July ;
found in high-lying pasture-lands, sunny meadows,
etc. ; very sweet-scented in drying ; taste also very
sweet ; makes excellent fodder.
The Hair Grass (Aim flexuosa) has leaves resembling
356 NATURAL HISTORY.
bristles ; stem tall, smooth ; flowers not numerous, in
loose panicles ; an erect, elegant grass, growing in tufts.
Grows on hills or in shady woods, and with all others of
the Avenae tribe, makes rather poor provender for cattle.
Tall Oat Grass Golden (Avena flavescens), root
somewhat creeping ; leaves flat, and clothed with soft
white hairs ; stem one and a half to two feet high ; flow-
ers yellow ; spikelets in panicles ; blooms in June and
July in meadows and lots or by road-sides, and with all
other genera of the arrhenatherum, is eaten readily by
all species of cattle.
French Ray Grass or Honey Grass (Holcus avena-
ceus) resembles oats; root tuberous and knotty; leaves
flat and sharply pointed ; stem hollow and bare ; inflor-
escence-spikelets from two to five ; flowers in a large,
loose, somewhat nodding panicle ; bloom in June, July,
and August. Grows in fields, and meadows, etc. ; suc-
ceeds best in tolerably rich soils, endures for many years,
and can be cut for hay two or three times in one season ;
makes excellent fodder.
Common Ray Grass Brome Grass (Bromus gigan-
teus), leaves oblong, broad, naked ; stem three to four
feet high ; panicles small and loose ; flowers in June,
July, and August. Grows in moist fields and damp
woods, and, like all other grasses of the bromus tribe,
makes alike very poor pasture and hay.
Sheep's Fescue or Manna Grass (Festuca ovina).
Leaves very narrow and sharp-pointed ; stem one to two
feet high, almost four square; panicle few-flowered,
simple, and contracted ; blooms in May and June. A
valuable grass, grows in dry soils, is common, and affords
with all others of the fescue tribe, excellent pasturage for
sheep.
PLANTS. 357
Orchard or Cock's Foot Grass (Dactylis glomerata"),
leaves small, flat, and very sharp on the margins ; stem
erect, from nine to eighteen inches long, oblique, geni-
culate, often procumbent and radiating at base ; panicles
spicate, pyramidal ; blooms in June, July, and August ;
grows well in dry meadows, and makes very good
fodder.
The Common Rough Meadow Grass (Poa trivialis).
Root tufted; leaves small, naked; stem round, two to
three feet high ; panicles loose, expanding ; grows in
moist meadows, and, like all the other meadow grasses,
makes good hay.
Coutch or Quitch Grass (Triticum repens). Roots
creeping ; leaves sharp above ; sheaths smooth ; stalk
from one to three feet high ; spike solitary, ear-like ;
blooms from June until September; grows in all fields
as a common weed. Makes good fodder ; the root con-
tains a portion of mucilaginous sugar, which is used
medicinally. Native of Europe, but introduced into the
United States.
Rye Grass Darnel (Lolium perenne), root creep-
ing ; leaves small, sharply poihted ; stalk one to two
feet high ; spike compressed, slightly bearded ; blooms
from June until September ; grows wild in pasture fields,
but is also carefully cultivated on account of its excel-
lence as fodder.
The most important of all the grasses belongs to the
triticum race, namely :
Common Wheat (Triticum vulgare), which has a
fibrous root ; leaves rather rough on the upper surface,
and long; stem smooth, two to three feet tall, crowned
with an almost four-cornered terminal spike, on which
the grains arranged somewhat like tiles, form an ear.
358 NATURAL HISTORY.
These seeds are, in most of the varieties, naked, or with-
out any floral envelope, but strongly bearded ; in a few
of the species, however, the beards are altogether want-
ing. Native of Asia, wheat has been cultivated since
time immemorial in Europe, and as a breadstuff is entitled
to a preference above all the other cereals. The finest
bread, starch, etc., is made from it, and in some places
is used in making malt for beer. Cultivated as a spring
and winter crop. Q.
Spelt (Triticum spelta) has a fibrous root, with a
loose, compressed, terminal spike, on which the grains
are parallel, and arranged like tiles on a roof. Beards
or barbs very small and fall off easily. Stem about four
feet high, but not naked, like the above mentioned.
Used in Germany in the same manner as common wheat.
Emmer (Triticum amyleum), a species of wheat un-
known in the United States ; used in the North of Eu-
rope. Spikelets double-flowering ; flowers alternately
barren ; chaff, in which the oblong seed remains acotid
on a crooked shaft ; makes good flour. O .
Single Wheat or Peter's Corn (Triticum monococcum).
Spike compressed; spikelets triple-flowering; one bud
fruitful, two abortive ; chaff tri-dentate, external side-
bearded ; seed apparently triangular, remains in the
husk. Grows in poor ground, and makes good meal.
Native of Europe.
Rye (Secale cereale). One of the most useful of the
grain race, rye is easily distinguished by its long, four-
sided pendulous ear or spike, which is compressed ; grain
naked, arranged as tiles, imbricate, and strongly bearded.
Rye produces a darker meal than the two foregoing' cere-
als ; nevertheless the bread made from it is very nutri-
tive, and when newly baked, is sweeter than that of
PLANTS. 359
wheat ; it can not, however, be used for any kind of fine
pastry. The seed is subject, particularly in very wet
seasons, to become diseased and enlarged, producing
Ergot or Spurred Rye. This diseased grain is injurious
to health when made into bread, but has been found to
possess important medical qualities in certain cases re-
quires a careful administration. Some late observers
have considered it a fungous or mushroom growth. Q-
Barley (Hordeum vulgare) has a very long spike ;
florets arranged in six rows, two of which, when the
fruit or grain is ripe, are somewhat compressed, giving
the ear a four-sided appearance ; beards very strong ;
seed or grain covered with husks. Barley contains less
flour than the other cereals, therefore it is cultivated
more for the use of breweries, in making malt, than for
bread-stuff. Barley-bread is unknown in the United
States, nevertheless much barley is consumed in the
form of beer. It contains a large portion of mucilage,
which makes it very nutritive and wholesome ; therefore
often prepared in various ways for the use of invalids.
Malt is made by wetting the barley and suffering it to
germinate ; thus a considerable quantity of sugar being
developed, the whole undergoes a vinous fermentation,
and beer is produced. Decoctions of malt are considered
useful in pulmonary complaints.
Oats (A vena sativa). This cereal is distinguished by
its loose and smaller panicles not spikes somewhat
nodding, and without beards. Fruit, or grain, is enveloped
in a husk, and contains less nutritive matter even than
barley, therefore rarely used for making bread ; although
in Scotland many live on it, and oat-meal porridge, or
groats, is often, in this country, recommended to invalids.
It is cultivated in the United States, and elsewhere,
360 NATURAL HISTORY.
mainly as provender for horses, and in this quality is
superior to any other grain. Besides the meal contained
in its chaffy fruit, it possesses an aromatic property,
which an accomplished cook can turn into all the uses of
vanilla. Nevertheless, it makes bad bread. Q.
The Sugar Cane (Saccharum officinarum), plate 28, fig.
1, has a stalk containing a solid pith, which is filled with
a saccharine juice. Leaves linear-lanceolate, long, broad,
acuminate. Flowers white, bloom in panicles, loosely
branching ; florets invested at base with tufts of long
silky hairs. The true home of the sugar cane is Mes-
sopotamia ; man has therefore been acquainted with the
use of sugar since the earliest times. In the middle ages,
this plant was introduced by the Arabians into Crete,
Malta, and Spain, and, after the discovery of Amer-
ica, transplanted by the Spaniards into the West Indies.
The following slight description will give our readers an
idea of the process by which sugar is made. The sugar
cane is rarely permitted to flower, but after twelve or
eighteen months' growth at which time the stem is sup-
posed to contain more sap than at any other the stalks
'are cut off with a sickle, and put into a kind of press or
mill. This press, however, is very different from that
used in the making of wine, already described, and consists
of three iron rollers, placed vertically or horizontally,
between which the canes are passed and repassed, and
which, pressing out the sap, leaves them completely dry.
The machinery is propelled by steam or water power.
The sap or juice is at first brown, and contains, besides
the crystallized portion of saccharine matter known as
sugar, a quantity of sweet but watery syrup, containing
also a portion of essential oil and mucilaginous gum.
This syrup is separated from the granulated sugar,
PLANTS. 361
known to us as brown sugar, by various methods,
which serve to elaborate the finest portions into loaf
sugar, and separate the thickened syrup, also well known
as molasses. Sugar has become an indispensable article
in domestic economy not only in the preparation of
food, beverages, or cordials used in every day life, but
is also employed medicinally. Rum is a distillation of
the fermented juice of the sugar cane. Sugar candy is
produced by a more elaborate process of refining ; and
in all the various forms of confectionary, preserves, etc.,
sugar is the principal ingredient. The cultivation of the
sugar cane succeeds best in moist lands within the tropics,
and is, on this account, considered an unhealthy business
for Europeans ; it does not, however, seem to be attended
with the same deleterious effect to the natives or negroes.
This noble grass is propagated by sections or cuttings
from the root end, planted in hills or trenches, in spring
or autumn, something in the manner of hops. The cut-
tings take root from the joints underground, and from
those above send up shoots which grow so quickly, that in
from ten to fourteen months they are six to ten feet long,
and fit to send to the mill. Requires to be kept clear of
weeds, and, although of such luxuriant growth, exhausts
the earth so little that a good plantation will last from
ten to sixteen years, it.
Rice (Oryza sativa) also has its flowers arranged in a
compressed panicle ; spikelets are uniflorous, on pedicels,
mostly without beards. It is, according to some, origin-
ally from the East Indies, others say Africa, but is now
cultivated in all warm climates. Asia, Africa, and
America furnish most. As rice contains a great deal of
starch, it is never used for making bread, but prepared
in various other ways for table use, forms an important
16
S62 NATURAL HISTORY.
article in domestic economy. It must be cultivated in
low grounds, which can be irrigated or overflowed witb
water, and is of the greatest importance to the inhabi-
tants of the tropical regions generally, as its seeds enter
more largely into their nourishment than those of any
other plant. Likewise very profitable to the cultivator,
as, in suitable soils, it yields three crops annually. There
is a relative variety the Upland or Mountain Rice.
Grows in high and dry places, but is less cultivated.
The aquatic variety is one of the staple crops of South
Carolina. Arrack, an intoxicating beverage used largely
in the East Indies, is a liquor prepared by fermentation
and distillation, from rice, syrup of the sugar cane, and
sap of the palm. O-
Millet (Panicum miliaceum) is distinguished by its
loosely constructed panicle ; spikelets rough and spiny,
but without beards ; grain small and glossy. Originally
from the East Indies ; called by some Bengal-grass ;
cultivated largely in Europe, partly as an article of food
for man, but mostly employed for feeding swine. 0.
Maize or Indian Corn (Zea mais). Stalk four to
eight feet high ; leaves two feet long and three inches
broad. Believed to be a native of the warmer regions
of middle America, but, transplanted into Europe, is
frequently cultivated in South Germany, Hungary,
Italy, etc. The ears or spikes stand in the axils of the
leaves, are nearly a foot long, and msasure five to six
inches in circumference. Spikelets arranged in numer-
ous series or rows on the cob. When corn is ripe, the
grains are bright yellow ; there are, however, other va-
rieties, where they are white, bluish, and red. This
cereal contains a great quantity of meal, is one of the
most important of the Gramined, and serves largely.
PLANTS. 363
in the nourishment of man, animals, and poultry. The
upper part of the stem, the husks, and leaves, cut in a
green state, carefully collected, are valuable fodder for
milch cows, and are much used in the Middle States as
such. There are many varieties, all differing in size and
in the amount of crop they yield. O.
Reed Grass (Arundo phragmates). Panicle large
and loosely expanded, branching horizontally ; spikelets
lance-linear ; three to five-flowered ; stem six to eight
feet high ; grows on the edges of swamps. Leaves long,
very sharp, so that the hand, coming in contact with
them is easily wounded. Grows in the borders of swamps,
etc. In the south the leaves are used as tiles for cover-
ing roofs, or as boards for ceiling rooms. The stems
serve for making mouth-pieces of wind instruments. 2.
The Common Bamboo (Bambusa arundinacese). Pani-
cle branching, loose, expanding horizontally ; leaves
large, blue-green ; is the tallest of all the grasses. Na-
tive of East and West Indies, in the neighborhood of
pools. Stalks twenty to forty feet high, nodose (jointed),
and, like the common reed, is hollow. It is dangerous
to venture into a thicket of bamboo, as such places are a
favorite resort of snakes and other venomous reptiles.
The seed is used in the East Indies for feeding horses.
The bamboo reed used for walking canes is of a different
genus from the genuine bamboo, which is applied to a
great variety of purposes. In India it is used for mak-
ing boxes, baskets, tables, chairs, mats, boats, paper, fences,
etc. The thick stems are used for beams in building.
Wood very tough when sawed across, but splits or works
easily lengthwise. 2.
364 NATURAL HISTORY.
SECOND SUB-CLASS. CRTPTOGAMOUS PLANTS.
(Class 24, L.)
Cryptogamous plants are constituted chiefly of cells ;
are unprovided, destitute of proper flowers (stamens and
pistils) and seemingly without a germ, are propagated
by spores instead of seeds. " Acrogenous Plants.
SlXTY-EIG HTH FAMILY. HORSE-T AILS. E QUIS ATA-
CEM. The first of this family is
The Field Horse Tail (Equisetum. arvense). Stems
striped and grooved, branching ; sterile stem nine to
fifteen inches high, with a verticil of slender, articu-
lated branches from base of sheath ; fertile stems, ap-
pearing first, are simple. Grows everywhere in Europe,
in fields, ditches, or by brook-sides ; called Shave Grass.
The Scouring Rush (Equisetum hyemale), contain-
ing much silex, is used for scouring and polishing tin
ware ; is distinguished from E. arvense by its sharply
angulate stem and short sheaths, with small, blackish,
deciduous teeth at summit. Much used by cabinet-mak-
ers in polishing furniture.
SIXTY-NINTH FAMILY. LYCOPODIACE^E. CLUB-
MOSS FAMILY.
Club Moss (Lycopodium clavatum), stems creeping ;
branches short and ascending ; leaves long, linear, with
an extended hair-like point ; arranged in fives ; form a
tuft at the summit of the branches. Found in all the
mountain forests of the Vor-Alps in Europe and Asia,
also in woodlands and thickets in North America. The
fruit of this plant appears in the form of a yellow mealy
substance, which is called Witch or Vegetable Sulphur ;
of little use excapt for theaters or amusing children by
365
setting it on fire, and making mimic lightning, which can
be very successfully accomplished. The tree-like Lyco-
podhun Ground Pine, much used for trimming
churches at Christmas, is nearly related. V .
SEVENTIETH FAMILY. FILICES. FERXS.
Shield Fern or Male Wood Fern (Polipodium filix
mas). This plant, common alike in the woods of Ger-
many and our own country, has large, handsome leaves,
or fronds, doubly pinnate, with round fruit-dots borne on
the back or sometimes on the extremity of the veins,
consist of a fine powder, which is the true fruit of the
plant. The root, black and woody, is used medicinally,
as it contains an essential oil and a quantity of resinous
substance, which is considered a specific for destroying
the tape-worm.
The Maiden Hair (Adiantum capillus veneris), leaves
or fronds on long foot-stalks, smooth, doubly pinnate,
light green; pinnules, or leaflets, recurved, semi-oval,
eared, and alternate ; fruit-dots oblong, occupying the
edge or margin of the pinnae ; foot-stalk and peduncular
axis glossy and brownish-black. Grows in the south of
Europe, by rocks and damp walls ; is used medicinally.
Syrup of Maiden Hair, formerly much in vogue, is pre-
pared from this plant. K.
A great variety of ferns are found in the South, some
of them growing to an almost incredible size.*
* The tree ferns of the tropics, the stems of -which are often erect,
frequently attain a height of seventy or eighty feet. They are said
to be objects of incomparable beauty, their straight, unbranched trunks
often rising like those of palms, as high as forty or fifty feet without
a leaf. GRAY. Tr.
dbb NATURAL HISTORY.
SECOND DIVISION.
CELLULAR PLANTS. ACROGENS.
These plants (Acyotogamous acrogens) are composed
entirely of cellular tissue, and without vessels or ducts,
producing spore-cases or capsules, opening by a terminal
lid, and contain simple spores only, in this differing from
the foi'egoing.
FIRST SUB-CLASS. CELLULAR PLANTS WITH LEAVES
Possess leaf-like extensions and imperfectly developed
organs of fructification ; have no primary root ; the axis
growing from the apex only has no provision for increase
in diameter as they increase in age. Acrogens Acro-
genous Plants (Greek derivation) means that they grow
from the apex alone.
SEVENTY-FIRST FAMILY. HEPATIC^E. LIVERWORTS
Are small moss-like plants, the stem and leaves form-
ing or confluent into an expanded leaf-like mass.
The Marchanzie or Brook Liverwort (Marchantia
polymorpha.) has large, cellular lobes, resembling oak-
leaves ; common, and growing beside brooks, springs, or
by damp walls. Leaves are at first orbicular ; first year
only one inch long ; calyptra (hood) opening at apex.
Withers on the spot where it grew, rooting or ramifying
from the free end. 2 .
SEVENTY-SECOND FAMILY. Musci. HAIR CAP
Moss.
YeHoiv Maiden Hair (Polytrichum commune). This
beautiful moss is about one foot high, has small branches
PLANTS. 367
and slender, lanceolate leaves ; capsule yellow and purp-
lish red. Grows in moist grounds, mostly in damp
woods. Used for making brushes, and, when found
abundantly, for filling beds. 2.
SECOND SUB-CLASS. UNLEAVED CELLULAR PLANTS.
THALLOPHYTES.
These vegetables, called Thallophytes, from their pe-
culiar conformation, never exhibit any distinction of
root, stem or foliage, axis or leaves, and are without
any visible indication of the fructifying principle. The
first of this class is the
SEVENTY-THIRD FAMILY. LICHENS, which are, of
all vegetable structures, the most widely spread. Con-
sisting of flat expansions, rather crustaceous than foliace-
ous, they do not, like other plants, require earth on
which to root or draw subsistence, but merely a place
whereon to fasten by their lower surface, while by the
upper they draw their nourishment directly from the
air. They grow on every brick, stone, or naked rock,
upon trunks of trees in endless variety, and are ever
enduring. The most conspicuous of the race is
The Iceland Moss (Cetraria islandica), grayish-green
or brown, stands upright, spotted red on the lower part.
Leaves irregularly lobed and many -cleft ; fruit (or what
is supposed to be such) flat and of a chestnut brown.
Grows on the ground in dry, mountainous, open places,
also in pine forests ; found in very cold countries, as Ice-
land, Lapland, etc. Contains a great deal of mucilage,
starch, and a bitter principle probably tonic ; forms the
chief article of nourishment of rein-deer, and is recom-
db5 NATURAL HISTORY.
mended as a strengthening and nutritious diet for con-
sumptives.
The Archil Moss (Roccella tinctoria). Branches but
little, erect, cylindrical, gray-green. Grows abundantly
on the cliffs of southern Europe, Azores, arid Canary
Islands : contains a red coloring matter, which, on the
dry plant being powdered, discharges itself in a strong
alkali. Blue is also obtained, but through an entirely
different process.
SEVENTY-FOURTH FAMILY. ALG^;. SEA- WEEDS.
KELP. Consist of aquatic plants, found mostly in the
sea, but some grow in humid terrestrial situations. The
highest forms are the proper sea-weeds, Wrack, Tang,
Dulse, Tangle, etc., which, spreading their rank luxu-
riance through the water, represent extended meadows.
The Bladder Tang (Fucus vesiculosis), leaves often
a fathom in length, banded or ribbed an inch in breadth ;
on the stems are found globular cells, which are filled
with air, and when put into the fire, explode with a noise
like a pistol shot. Found abundantly in the Mediter-
ranean Sea, also in the eastern and northern oceans as far
as Greenland ; is often driven by heavy floods on land,
where it is gathered, dried, and used as bedding straw
for cattle ; boiled, it makes good food for hogs ; it is also
burned for the sake of its ashes, from which alkaline
salts (alkali), containing a large portion of iodine, are
made ; therefore the sea tang is very useful, although
seemingly a weed.
There are many relative species of Algoe. several of
which, when dried, resembling coarse hair, are used to
stuff mattresses, chairs, etc." It.
* The Le&sonia and Macrosystis, the two giants of the Ocean Flora,
are natives of the Antarctic seas. Many as are the beautiful varieties
PLANTS. 369
SEVENTY-FIFTH FAMILY. FUNGI. MUSHROOMS
Are pithy, cellular plants of various forms, which spring
forth from damp soils ; the rapidity of their growth
(accomplished in one night, for it is not uncommon to
find a crop of mushrooms in the morning where not one
was to be seen on the previous evening) is proverbial.
Many of the race have a hood or umbrella seated on a
slender stem, called by many Witch Caps. Some are
fashioned in round knobs, others consist of fine branches.
The smallest of all the race are composed of very fine,
gray filaments, and are termed Sohimmel or the White
Horse.
Bufflst Puff Ball (Lycoperdon bovista) consists
only of a leathery sack ; grows as large as an infant's
head, whitish yellow, ragged, in broad scales : when ripe
is full of a rust-colored powder ; when unripe, the pith
is white and soft ; at that time is fit to be eaten. Said
to be very palatable when roasted ; also used officinally.
The Common Truffle (Tuber cibarium). Truffles are
nearly globular, firm ; tubers about the size of a walnut,
and blackish. The pulp or pith consists of a series of
fine cells. This species of mushroom is hidden under the
earth, they are ripe in autumn, when they have a pleasant
which are dredged upon from the rocks, or Avashed ashore by the
tides, these two collossal specimens are all we can at present mention.
The Lessonia is an arborescent sea-weed, with a trunk of concentric
layers altogether timberlike, but, nevertheless, incombustible. The Ma-
crosystis (mooredkelp) instead of a trunk as thick as a common cherry
tree, is moored to the rock by a tough but slender cable, which, rising
to the surface, breaks into leaves and streams along a luxuriant tangle
for several hundred feet, is at once the buoy and breakwater of the
dangerous channels where it finds its home. The Moored Kelp not
only warns the mariner of a sunken rock, but is the pasture-field of
countless mollusks or crustaceans. Tr.
16*
370 NATURAL HISTORY.
garlic-like odor, and make a much-prized article of food.
They are not easily found, therefore dogs are trained to
seek them, which they do by smelling on the earth.
Hogs are very fond of them and on that account are suf-
fered to root at pleasure 'in the neighborhood where they
are supposed to be, as they are sure to find them. 2 .
The Common Moril or Edible Mushroom (Morchella
esculenta), plate 29, fig. 1, is two inches in length, dark
brown ; cap oval, pointed : grows in the woods here and
there, and is eaten. O.
Coral-shaped Moril (Clavaria coralloides), plate 29,
fig. 2, fashioned as a white or yellow tuft, which, branch-
ing very beautifully resembles coral. Comes up plenti-
fully after rain, and is eatable. O.
The following belong to the genuine Agariceae :
Stone Moril (Boletus edulis), Plate 29, fig. 3 ; stem
six inches long, fleshy, red, which is surmounted by the
cap or umbrella,, five inches in breadth, smooth and
brown, and consisting on the lower surface of a number
of roundish tubes, which are at first white, afterwards
yellowish, and, at last, turn green. Tastes like hazel-
nuts, and frequently used as a table dish. O-
The Chantrelle (Cantharellus cibareus"), plate 29,
fig. 4, 5, is about two inches high, yellow ; cap smooth,
fleshy, diffuse, and sloping. Grows in the pine woods of
Europe, and is generally used as food. O.
The Oronge (Agaricus campestris), plate 29, fig. 6, 7.
Stem white, surmounted by an umbrella-shaped cap of
fleshy consistence and silk-like interior ; the inferior sur-
face is lined with a brown, sporiferous membrane or kind
of lappets. Found in fields throughout the summer,
and is the most esteemed and best -flavored of the Agaric
race ; known in Europe as the Champignon. Q.
PLANTS. 371
The Imperial or Golden Agaric (Amanita caesarea),
plate 20. fig. 8, 9, one of the handsomest and best pro-
portioned of the mushroom family, has a hollow, yellow
stalk about six inches high, with a smooth, yellow ring,
and issuing from a white valva or "wrapper. Cap from
four to six inches in breadth, is glossy, gold-colored, and
umbrella-shaped ; sometimes covered with white warts ;
has one broad, sulphur-colored leaf, bordered with one
stripe. Found abundantly in the chestnut woods in the
south of France and Italy, mostly in autumn ; considered
very excellent. Fig. 9 is a representation of the young
plant, which, from its likeness to an egg, receives the
name of the Egg Mushroom.
Nearly all the Agarics, properly so-called, are in Eu-
rope esteemed as good and wholesome food, and growing,
especially in wet seasons, so abundantly in woods and
meadows, it seems almost to be regretted that they are so
little used. This proceeds from want of a proper know-
ledge of their true nature, and therefore, as there are
many of them poisonous and closely resemble the edible
species, persons are afraid of mistaking one for the
other. The difference, however, between the true and
the false is easy of acquisition. Those which change
color quickly after being gathered, or of a soft, watery
structure, have a peppery, bitter, astringent taste and
disagreeable odor, ought invariably to be rejected. The
edible mushrooms have a fresh, earth-like smell, and in
taste resemble hazel-nuts, and even these must be care-
fully selected, as some among them, although not actually
poisonous, contain an acrimonious juice, and when eaten,
are attended with unpleasant consequences. In order to
be secure from such effects, all mushrooms previously
selected and cleansed ought to be tied up in a thick cloth
372 NATURAL HISTORY.
and put into an earthen jar, placed on a moderately warm
hearth. After remaining thus for half an hour, the
cloth will be found to have absorbed much of the juice,
Avhich is largely exuded by this simple process ; the cloth
still containing the mushrooms must now be well wrung,
and the mushrooms, freed entirely from their juices, are
now ready for the different modes of preparation in which
they are used, either for an every day dish or as a condi-
ment for meats. They are often collected and kept for
winter use. The mode of preparing them is the same
as has just been described. After the juice or watery
portion has all been pressed out, they are strung on cords
and dried either in the sun or a bake-oven. Any one
who does not shun taking a little trouble, might, in his
common walk through the woods, learn to recognize the
nature of these despised plants, and having done so,
would find himself repaid, not only by the interesting
study, but also by the acquisition of a wholesome and
palatable dish.
INDIGENOUS POISONOUS PLANTS.
Poisonous plants are divided into two kinds, acrid and
narcotic, founded upon the difference of their operations,
although both are attended with the same deadly effect.
Some, however, possess the principles belonging to both,
therefore, in their effect, they are said to be sharp or
acrid narcotics. The most prominent specimens of the
simply acrid poisonous plants are the Arum, Savin, and
Spurge Laurel; gimply narcotic. Henbane, Deadly
PLANTS. 373
Nightshade, Aconite ; of the acrid narcotic, Monk's
Hood, Hemlock, Tobacco, Digitalis, and Stramonium
Apple.
The symptoms attending the operations of the simply
sharp or acrid poisons are commonly pain, inflammation,
and redness of the throat, difficulty of swallowing, great
nausea and thirst, in short there is a general disturbance
of the whole system. When the operation is at its full
height, the face is pale and the features sunken, and ex-
pressive of great anxiety ; the eyes are surrounded with
blue circles, the breath is short, the voice fails, cold
sweats and faintings ensue, and, with slight convulsions,
death ends the scene.
The operation of the narcotic poisons is different ;
heaviness of the head, dimness of sight, deafness, giddi-
ness, stupor, delirium, often very violent ; the face is
sometimes inflamed, at others very pale ; the eyes have a
fixed and vacant look, the pupils at intervals dilated or
sunken, and the pulses of the neck and brow are very
full and quick ; cramp of the muscles, spasms, tetanus ;
in short, a general paralysis ensues, which only ends
when death comes, which, in such cases, is mostly with
convulsions or apoplexy. As nausea is seldom present,
therefore emetics are not only useless, but hard to bring
into operation. The plan of treatment in either case
must be modified according to the nature of the poison
and symptoms of the case, as well as a proper under-
standing of the constitution to be operated upon. Many
remedies are resorted to for counteracting the effect of
the poison, but as it is best to resort to medical aid at
once, we shall only suggest a few domestic simples,
which can be used in cases where a physician can not be
had at once. In the first stage, warm water, plentifully
374 NATURAL HISTORY.
mixed with melted butter or salad oil, has a good effect,
and new milk is especially useful. Decoctions of muci-
laginous plants, slippery elm bark, ground ivy, barley
water, mingled with something astringent as oak bark,
tormentilla root, come next ; afterwards applications of
ice to the head, leeches to the pit of the stomach, and
sometimes general bleeding is sufficient for the removal
of the poison, but it is always safer in cases of poison-
ing from vegetables, to have recourse to medical treat-
ment than to trust to simples, however judiciously ad-
ministered.
Aaron's Root (Arum maculatum), known by the
common name of Indian Turnip, has an oblong, turnip-
shaped root ; leaves in pairs, arrow-shaped, and on long
petioles or foot-stalks ; stem shorter than the leaf-stalks ;
flowers separate, seated here and there on the dark
brown stem, like those of the well known calla, and have
the appearance of small fruit, wherefore children are
fond of gathering them to play with. Grows in damp,
shady places in woods and thickets ; occasionally found
in meadows. Blooms in April or May. The root called
Cormus, is very acrid, and, if not exactly poisonous, is
very severe in its operation and productive of serious
injury; however, that quality is dissipated in a gi*eat
measure by boiling or drying. When eaten in a fresh
state, the best remedy against its painful effect is, as it
is also in all cases of acrid poisons, milk in which raw
eggs have been mixed. 2.
The Mandrake May Apple (Atropa mandragora).
Root long, thick, forked, cylindrical, and yellowish-
brown ; stem one or two-leaved at summit ; leaves large,
round, seven or nine-lobed, lanceolate, peltate, and
slightly haired below ; flower situated in the fork of the
PLANTS. 875
petioles, large, yellowish-white, somewhat downy ; fruit,
a large, yellow, fleshy berry, ovoid, and filled with num-
erous kidney-shaped, dark brown seeds ; grows in woods ;
fruit ripens in July, slightly acid and maukish, eaten by
pigs and boys. The mandrake is found abundantly in
southern Europe, and in the days of early superstition,
the forked root, supposed to possess magical power, was
used in sorcery or divination. Belongs to the class of
acrid narcotic poisons the root and leaves only, for the
fruit is innocuous ; its effect and operation much resem-
ble that of Belladonna.
Black Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger), plate 30, fig. 5.
Stem erect, branching ; a clammy, pubescent plant, fetid
and narcotic ; leaves oblong, angled, lobate, and toothed.
Flowers (corolla) pale yellow, strongly veined with dark
purple, increasingly dark towards the bottom. Very poison-
ous, grows in rubbish heaps, in hedges, and by road-sides;
blooms in May and August. Every part of this plant
is pervaded with an acrid narcotic principle, which is
equally strong in leaf, flower, stem, etc. If eaten, its
operation is very severe, producing headache, stupor,
nausea, deafness, insensibility, and, at last, convulsions.
Simple emetics are given, often successfully, doses of
vinegar and lemon juice are common remedies used
against its poisonous influence, and acidulated drinks, it
is said, seldom fail to counteract it <3 .
Herb Christopher (Actaea spicata). called Cohos/i or
Baneberry in United States. Root annulate and many-
headed. But diametrically, the wood presents a star-
like circle with obtuse rays. Stem naked, smooth, about
two feet in height ; leaves one foot long, large, three-
lobed, compound, glossy green leaflets long, sharply
cleft, downy on under surface ; flowers white, hang five
376 NATURAL HISTORY.
to ten in terminal tufts. Fruit oblong and many-seeded.
Grows in rich damp woods and bushy hills, both in Eu-
rope and America ; is an acrid narcotic.
Wolfs Bane (Paris Quadrifolia), plate 31, fig. 6.
Grows in damp places, shady woods, and mountain re-
gions. Stem erect ; leaves oblong, acuminate, notched
at the apex. Flowers blue, helmet-shaped, spring from
the axils of the leaves ; fruit, a berry, resembles a small
cherry, and tastes like wine. Very poisonous, creates
cramp in the stomach, to which succeeds stupor and de-
lirium ; destroys life by producing gastric inflammation
Milk and mucilaginous articles, as slippery elm, barley-
water, sweet oil, etc., ought to be administered promptly
until medical aid can be procured. It.
Monkshood Aconite (Aconitum napellus), plate 80,
fig. 3. Leaves glossy, deeply three-cleft ; flowers purred,
blue, bloom in terminal spikes, and surmounted by the
vaulted upper leaflet ; bears much resemblance to a monk's
cowl. Grows mostly on wooded hills or deep valleys ;
blooms in June and August ; also cultivated on account of
its beauty as an ornament in gardens. Every part of the
Aconite is poisonous. Even the leaves, if rubbed between
the fingers, have a disgusting odor, and an acrid, nauseat-
ing taste. Sleeping in the neighborhood of these plants
is considered dangerous, especially if a number of them
are together. Taken inwardly, their poison, in the first
stage, creates vomiting, giddiness, delirium ; coldness of
the extremities and raging fever next ensue, and lastly
death comes and the scene closes with convulsions. Bees
cluster around the flowers, and suck honey from their
cells without injury to themselves ; nevertheless, the
honey, if gathered in any quantity from these plants, is
poisonous, and examples are not wanting of persons who
PLANTS. 377
have died from eating it. The remedies mentioned above,
namely, acids and mucilaginous drinks, are also proper
antidotes to the poison of Aconite, it
Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea), plate 31, fig. 5. Leaves
oblong, wrinkled, crenate, recurved ; the under side
downy ; flowers numerous, arranged around a long, simple
spike ; crimson, often white, with beautiful eye-like spots
within the throat, Native of Europe, where it grows on
high hills, and a well known, showy border flower of
easy culture, but much more beautiful in its wild state
than when cultivated in gardens. The fresh leaves, if
bruised in the fingers, have a most disagreeable odor, and
a mawkish, acrid, bitter taste. The whole plant is a
violent and dangerous poison ; when taken in considerable
quantities, producing delirium, convulsions, and death.
Its peculiar action on the heart is well known, and
although possessing such dangerous properties, in the
hands of the judicious physician it becomes a valuable
medicine, acting as a sedative, etc. Acids, such as
lemon juice and vinegar, mingled with mucilages, as
barley water, etc., may be used advantageously until
medical aid can be obtained. It .
The Toad-stool (Agaricus muscarius), plate 30, fig. 4.
Cap, or umbrella, bright red, covered with white worts,
which are the fragments of the ruptured envelopes of the
sporules. Its leaf or leaves are white, clustered near
the top of the stem, which is four inches high and one in
diameter. Grows everywhere in the woods, and is one
of the handsomest of the Agarics. Sometimes it is of a
light citron color, and therefore may easily be mistaken
for the much esteemed Golden Agaric: the stem and
leaves, however, form a distinctive mark, those of the
toad-stool being white, those of the imperial yellow.
378 NATURAL HISTORY.
Toad-stools have n.o particular odor or taste ; neverthe-
less they are very dangerous, and their poisonous effect is
immediately apparent. In an hour or two after being
eaten, the throat swells, breathing becomes difficult, cold
sweats, faintings, convulsions, spasms, sometimes dilirium ;
in short, there is a general disturbance of the whole sys-
tem, and in twelve to forty-eight hours, death ends the
suffering. A post-mortem examination shows inflamma-
tion of the stomach and an extravasation of blood on the
brain. In poisonings from this species of Agarics, an
emetic ought to be administered as promptly as possible ;
lukewarm water, in which melted butter, or sweet oil, is
mixed is also proper. If attended with much pain, mucil-
aginous drinks flaxseed tea, etc., and warm milk should
be given freely, and cataplasms applied to the stomach.
There are other symptoms, requiring other remedies,
which come immediately under the care of a physician,
by whom they can only be safely administered. The
treatment in all cases of poisoning from vegetables is
nearly the same. Some persons use this toad-stool,
boiled in milk, to kill flies ; it is, however, a dangerous
practice. Nevertheless, the Kamschatdales prepare an
exciting liquor from it, with which they intoxicate them-
selves to a certain degree. G.
Puff-ball (Phallus impudicus), plate 31, fig. 2. A
mushroom, about a span long, and as thick as a thumb ;
overgrown with a green, slimy substance. Grows in
shady forests, mostly hidden in thickets : its presence,
however, can be detected, even from a distance, by its
disgusting odor. The ball explodes with a noise resem-
bling a pistol shot. Many of the 3Iusca> tribe seek it.
and deposit their eggs upon its surface. It is altogether
PLANTS. 379
so disgusting, that, although highly poisonous, its bad
effects are rarely found necessary to bs combated. Q .
The Wild or Poison Lettuce Trumpet Milkweed
(Lactua virosa), much resembles the L. sativa or Gar-
den Lettuce ; lower leaves clasping the stem horizontally,
upper arrow-shaped ; flowers yellow, in spreading pani-
cles. Grows rankly beside stone walls, and in hedges ;
stalk hollow, stout, three to five feet high ; flowers open
only in the morning. Whole plant has a most unpleasant
odor ; if eaten, tastes acrid and bitter. Its poison pro-
duces stupor ; symptoms resembling those produced by
hemlock. The same remedies are proper Used medi-
cinally as a sedative. O.
Poison Oak, or Sumach (Rhus radicans). Leaves
oval, oblong, abruptly acuminate; blooms in racemous
axillary panicles ; flowers, androgynous, divided ; color
yellowish-green ; stem sometimes six feet high, according
to species, at others climbing thirty to forty feet, by means
of radicating tendrils, which fasten themselves on trees,
etc.* Every part of this plant contains an acrid resin
very poisonous to the taste or touch, even tainting the
air to some distance around with its pernicious effluvium,
so that in damp weather many persons become poisoned
by it merely from passing or by remaining a short time
in its neighborhood. In such cases the skin becomes
inflamed and covered with an eruption, mostly attended
with painful swellings. The best remedies are simple
sudorifics, such as decoctions of elderberry flowers and
acids, or local applications of dry heat. Cooling washes,
* The climbing variety, Poison Ivy, is the proper Rhus radicans
(the Poison Sumach, called in the United States Rhus vencrata) and
the Poison Oak (Rhus toxicodendron) are the erect variety. All are
more or less poisonous. Wood. Tr.
380 NATURAL HISTORY.
such as sour cream, etc.. are sometimes employed for the
inflamed parts.
Hedge Hysop (Gratiola officinalis). Root limbed and
creeping ; stem four to eight inches long, decumbent or
oblique ; leaves somewhat clasping, varying from lance-
oblong to spatula te, and toothed, are dark green above, paler
below ; flowers composed of four petals, pale rose color in
a yellow calyx ; seed small, oblong, contained in an ovoid
capsule : taste bitter, long enduring, nauseating ; plant
altogether poisonous, is capable of doing great injury,
but proves a valuable medicine if judiciously employed.
The Meadow Saffron (Colchicum autumnale), plate
30, fig. 2, is a weed found abundantly in moist meadows ;
the last ornament of autumn, its pale red, crocus-like
flowers may be seen raising their blooming heads above
the brown and faded grass. Stem a span in length ;
leaves broad, lanceolate, and erect ; plant a biennial,
bearing seed the second year ; seed-cell or capsule re-
sembles the udder of a cow, wherefore it is often called
the Cow's Udder plant. Often gathered by the country
people for dyeing Easter-eggs ; color a beautiful gray.
Every part of the plant is poisonous, producing severe
pain, gastric inflammation, and finally delirium and
death. Milk, raw eggs, barley water, sugar, or other
soothing demulcents are the remedies recommended to be
employed in this case. $ .
Doy's Parsley Doy's Bane (^Ethusa cynapium),
plate 31, fig. 4. Leaves tripinnate and much dissected,
resembling those of the common parsley ; distinguished,
however, by being glossy and of a darker green, but it i.s
more easy to be detected by the nauseating garlic-like
odor it sends forth on being rubbed. Root cylindrical,
white, and branching ; blooms in umbelliferous tufts.
PLANTS. 381
Its poison operates like that of hemlock, therefore the
same antidotes are proper.
Pasque Flower (Pulsatilla vulgaris) has a brown,
branching, and fibrous root, radiating everywhere ; leaves
lateral divisions two-parted, middle one stalked and three-
parted; segments deeply- cleft into narrow, linear, and
acute lobes ; dark green above, light green and pubescent
below. Stem hirsute, bears a violet-colored flower, com-
posed of six sepals, bell-shaped and rough on the out-
side, developed before the leaves. Akenes of fruit num-
erous, densely clothed with soft, silky hairs and provided
with long, feathery tails, forming a tassel. Found in
Europe on sunny slopes, also on the prairies of Wiscon-
sin, etc. Receives its name because it is in bloom at
Easter ; is an acrid poison.
The Agarick (Polyporus laricis) has a cork-like,
fleshy, smooth cap or hood with yellow and brown circles.
Smells like newly-ground flour, and has a bitter taste.
A drug used in physic and for dyeing. It is both male
and female ; the male grows on oaks, the female on
larches. Is poisonous, but not deadly, although its
operation is drastic and most distressing and alarming.
Remedies the same : mucilaginous and demulcent drinks.
The Deadly Nightshade (Solanum nigrum). Native
of Europe, where it grows abundantly ; a somewhat
shrubby and climbing plant ; leaves ovate, wavy-toothed ;
flowers very small, purple, in umbel-like lateral clusters ;
berries globular and black. Grows on moist banks, rub-
bish-heaps, and in gardens. Its poison creates severe
colics and deafness. Raw eggs, milk, etc., and, in some
cases, bloodletting, are the usual remedies. O.
Black Hellebore (Helleborus niger). Radical leaves
of this plant are lanceolate, from seven to nine-cleft,
382 NATURAL HISTORY.
and notched toward the points ; flowers expanding, white,
turns reddish when fading ; stem about nine inches high,
grows in southern Europe on the wooded mountains ;
sometimes, nay, frequently, planted in gardens. The
root about as large as a finger, is black outside but white
within ; has an acrid, bitter taste. Poison virulent,
very drastic, bringing on a general disturbance of the
system, which, at last, terminates in convulsions and
death. U . Leeches applied to the abdomen and muci-
lages with plenty of vinegar, are the usual remedies
against the poison of Hellebore. The Hellebore viridis
and Hellebore fcetidus are relatives. The following
plant, is, however, of a different family.
The White Hellebore or Sneezewort (Veratum al-
bum), popularly known as Indian Poke. Leaves ovate,
lanceolate, strongly veined and furrowed ; the lowest
nearly a foot long and about a hand's breadth wide ;
stem about three feet high, and pithy inside. Flowers
numerous, green, in many axillary racemes, which, to-
gether form a pyramidal, terminal panicle. Root white
and spotted, is said to possess active properties, and em-
ployed medicinally. Emetic and stimulant, but poison-
ous, it should be used with caution. When powdered, it
causes violent sneezing.* If.
Water Dropwort Coicbane (OEnanthe fistulosa),
also called Swamp Parsley. Root long, fibrous ; stem
one to three feet high, erect, stiff, striate, smooth ; radi-
cal leaves pinnately divided ; leaflets three to eleven ;
* Our readers must not confound this -with the common Poke Weed,
or Pigeon Berry (Phytolaeca decandria). The first belongs to the
MclancthacezE, which is generally pervaded by drastic, narcotic, and
poisonous qualities, which are most powerful in Yeratrum and Col-
chicum. WOOD. TV.
PLANTS. 383
stem leaves simply pinnate. Flowers numerous, yellow-
ish-red, umbelliferous, oblong. Fruit fleshy, globular,
and greenish. Swamp Parsley is found everywhere in
Europe as a marsh perennial ; grows in swamps or stag-
nant waters. A coarse plant and very poisonous, the
root particularly.
Wafer Hemlock or Spotted Cowbane (Cicuta macu-
lata), found in the swampa of the northern states, and
called Musquash Root or Beaver Poison, is a coarse
plant with white flowers ; very common. Root a deadly
poison.
The Ranunculus or Cursed Crow Foot (Ranunculus
scelerata) are coarse, creeping plants, with a knotty
stem and yellow flowers, often called Butter Cups.
Found either in wet places or neglected pasture fields,
which they injure by spreading over the ground, and,
like strawberry vines, rooting at the joints. It is there-
fore a diificult matter to eradicate them. All the ranun-
culus (a large family, mostly of acrid plants) contain a
poisonous juice, the operative element of which is fugi-
tive and thrown off in boiling ; therefore, as they are
seldom eaten without being cooked, cases of persons
being injured by them are extremely rare. They are
almost universally poisonous to sheep, and the species
we have just been describing, is particularly so. The
stem of the Ranunculus sselerata is one foot high, rigid
and many-leaved. Leaves three-lobed ; flowers small
and pale-yellow ; juice blistering ; is an acrid narcotic
poison. Found also in America in marshy grounds. ZC .
The Hog Mushroom (Boletus luridus). Stem fleshy,
rather swelled at the base ; hood or umbrella vaulted
and cushion-like, leathery, and of various colors, whitish
or pale-yellow, grayish -green, olive, brown or bright red.
384 NATURAL HISTORY.
The sporules produced at the free summit of the cells
are at their openings of different shades of color, varying
from vermilion to purplish-red. Found singly, mostly
in thickets or under hedges, in woods, etc. An acrid
narcotic poison, very drastic in its operations, creating
inflammation of the stomach and bowels.
The Hemlock (Conium maculatum), plate 31, fig. 3.
Stem smooth, branching, reddish-brown and spotted ;
leaflets lanceolate, pinnatifid ; root turnip-shaped, single,
branching, white ; height about six feet ; distinguished
partly by its brown spots, and partly by the peculiarly
dark green color of the leaves. Tastes exceedingly dis-
agreeable and smells worse ; its effects are stupefying.
At first excitement attended with headache, and soon
after followed with severer symptoms ; the fatal symptoms
of its operations become every moment more apparent.
Difficulty of swallowing, loss of sight and hearing, cold-
ness and paralysis of the extremities come next, and,
last of all, convulsions and death. This plant is the
more dangerous as its root is so like that of the parsnip
that it may readily be mistaken for it ; planted in a gar-
den, it loses its spots and then resembles parsley, never-
theless the seed can easily be distinguished from that of
the latter as it is furrowed transversely. The same
remedies used as recommended in poisoning by the aga-
rics, namely, mucilages plentifully mingled with lemon
juice or vinegar. $ .
Spurge Laurel (Daphne mezereum) is a small bush ;
leaves lanceolate, deciduous, arranged in terminal tufts ;
flowers beautiful pink color, sessile ; about three are pro-
duced from each lateral bud : very fragrant ; berries
bright red. A beautiful European shrub ; blooms in
February. Found in the mountain forests. The whole
PLANTS. 385
plant, but especially the bark, is an acrid poison, and so
penetrating, that smelling a flower will cause inflamma-
tion of the nostrils. The berries are very dangerous, if
eaten, very drastic and creating cramp of the stomach.
The same treatment recommended for other vegetable
poisons, milk, raw eggs, etc., is proper. 2J!.
The Savin Tree (Juniperus sabina), a slender, ever-
green shrub, arboreous, sending out numerous horizontal
branches, growing from eight to twelve feet high. Root
woody, consisting of one strong, radical spike ; wood of
trunk red, fine-graiiied, and very hard. Leaves spicate,
resembling sharp-pointed needles dark green above, blue-
green below, angular, channeled on the mid-vein above,
heeled below; arranged in whorls of three to five to
eight seconds on the ends of the twigs, they give the
tree a beautiful appearance. Flowers very small, seated
in terminal aments ; the fertile in oblong catkins. Fruit
small, round, bluish-black berries, ripening the second
year. Grows wild, but often planted in ornamental
grounds for sake of its beauty. The whole shrub, but
especially the leaves, has a disagreeable aromatic odor
and an acrid spicy taste ; any portion eaten is poisonous,
producing inflammation of the bowels and other distress-
ing effects. Horses eat it eagerly, but if for any length
of time in excess, it is said, it operates as a poison on
the skin, and causes the hair to fall off. It is useful,
and often employed to be packed among furs or woolens,
to keep away the moths, h.
The Thorn Apple Jamestown Weed (Datura stra-
monium), plate 30, fig. 6, branched, spreading ; leaves
large, smooth, with long, irregular teeth and sinuses ;
flowers bluish-white, solitary, campanulate ; fruit egg-
shaped, the size of a small apple, and covered with
17
386 NATURAL HISTORY.
spines : seeds black, rough, dotted, somewhat like flax-
seed. Stem two to four feet high : hoth herb and seeds
are powerfully narcotic poisons. Children are apt to be
attracted by the flowers and thorny apples, therefore,
the plant being common, it is highly important that
every one should be made acquainted with its dangerous
properties. Symptoms of its effects are, great anxiety,
tremor, difficulty of breathing, dizziness, palsy, delirium,
and death. Emetics and acidulated drinks are the popu-
lar remedies. Being powerfully nai-cotic, it is itself a
potent medicine ; used with certain restrictions, is useful
in asthma, etc. Said to be a native of America, but is,
most likely, of Asiatic origin. O .
Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), leaves lance-ovate, decur-
rent ; stem clammy, three to six feet high ; flowers green-
ish-yellow ; corolla bordered with rose color, standing in
terminal panicles. The whole plant has a disagreeable,
stupefying odor and nauseous, acrid taste. Native of
Central America, Tobago, and the Proviace of Tabasco
in Mexico, it was taken to England toward the end of
the sixteenth century by Sir Walter Raleigh, by whom
the practice of smoking this pernicious weed was first
introduced. As its first use, whether smoked or chewed,
produces a deadly sickness, it Avas only after repeated
and painful trials that it at last became tolerate-l. first as
smoked or chewed, and lastly in the form of snuff. The
habitual use of tobacco is always, more or less, injuri-
ous to the system, especially to the nervous system.
Smoked, it soothes or quiets the nerves of the stomach ;
consequently the appetite for food is lessened ; employed
as snuff, it excites or exhilirates another set of nerves,
but in each case equally deleterious. Sailors use it to
keep off scurvy. Taken into the stoma?h. it is a power-
PLANTS. 387
fully acrid narcotic poison, creating nausea, emesis, etc.,
spasmodic cramps and convulsions. Q-
The Taubling (Agaricus integer) is from one to two
inches high and a half or quarter of an inch thick ; stem
smooth, slightly bent, thicker below than above, whitish,
running into red ; cap or umbrella closing from above,
concave in the middle. Is of all colors, and one to five
inches in diameter. Leaf white or of a pale foul yellow.
The young boletii are tender, the old hard and inedible.
Found everywhere in Europe from August to September,
spring up after warm rains among moss and leaves in dry
places. Sometimes they can be eaten with impunity, at
others, however, they are very poisonous, and in their
effect resemble the hog mushroom.
Darnel, also called Tare, Cockle-weed (Lolium temu-
lentum), plate 31, fig. 7, and in the German Schwin-
delhaber, because it produces intoxication, belongs to the
Graminaea. Flowers numerous, seated on obtuse, com-
pressed spikes, fringed with beards ; grows among grain,
particularly oats ; leaves sharp on the edges. Creates
giddiness of the head and a species of sleepy drunken-
ness, Avherefore unprincipled brewers are in the habit of
putting the seeds in their beer in order to increase its so-
porific effect. Seeds rough and black, when abundant in
wheat are injurious to the quality and appearance of
bread made from the flour. Emetics and acids, as pre-
viously recommended, are antidotes to its poison. O-
Belladonna (Atropa belladonna), German Mad Apple,
plate 30, fig. 1, is an herbaceous plant, five to six feet
high ; leaves naked, ovate ; root turnip-like ; flowers
dull dark red, and the berries glossy black, are filled with
purplish-red juice and light brown seeds. Every portion
of this plant is poisonous in the highest degree. The
388 NATURAL HISTORY.
odor has a stupefying effect and the leaves a bitter taste.
The berries being sweet, are, on that account, particu-
larly dangerous to children. The consequences of poison-
ing by Belladonna are, anxiety, headache, distressing
thirst and fever. It has a peculiar effect on the eyes and
throat, the pupils become unnaturally dilated, the latter
swells so that swallowing becomes difficult and soon im-
possible. Stupor, palsy of the extremities, wandering of
mind next ensues, and lastly death. Emetics are proper ;
their operations assisted by the application of mustard
to the stomach. Cooling, astringent, and mucilaginous
drinks are also recommended. 2 .
The Water Hemlock (Cicuta virosa), plate 31, fig. 1.
Stem two to four feet high, smooth, finely channeled,
jointed and branching above, lower leaves triternate,
quinate ; leaflets or segments small and finely toothed ;
grows in margins of swampy rivulets. The mature fruit
has a strong, anisate odor, resembling that of celery ;
taste, however, is very different, being acrid and bitter.
Root turnip-like and very poisonous, and the lives of
children and others are often endangered and even de-
stroyed by eating it in mistake for that of the sweet
cicely. Effects much resemble those produced by Conium
maculatum, only the poison, more virulent and deadly,
consummates its work of death more rapidly. Remedies
the same as recommended in the treatment of poison from
Conium maculatum. O. The herbage is also said to be
destructive to cattle.
From the short sketch we have given of the vegetable
kingdom, our readers may see how many varied and im-
portant services are rendered to us by plants. A great
many of them afford to man wholesome and abundant
food ; others, as has been shown just above, are violent
PLANTS. 389
poisons to him, but even those are made subservient to
his uses, because, when judiciously administered, they
constitute powerful medicines. Much that is interesting
might be said on this subject, but we have not the time,
nor is this the place, as perhaps some of our readers may
be disposed to think we have been rather prolix in our de-
scriptions of poisonous plants. Let us, therefore, close
our sketch of the Vegetable Kingdom with a recommen-
dation of the study of Botany, which is an important one,
inasmuch as extended among the people, it will enable
them to understand and avoid and extirpate the evil, and
turn that which is most noxious to useful and benevolent
purposes.
MINERALOGY
THE science of Mineralogy is that which treats of the
inorganic substances existing in and composing the earth's
crust mountains, rocks, ores, and earths. The study
of these various substances, and the mineral masses they
contain, belongs particularly to mineralogy, but the study
of their mutual relations, and the nature of the materials
which constitute the structure of our globe at present, is
the province of geology. In the first respect it is min-
eralogy in particular ; in the last it is geology (from the
Greek, ge, the earth, and logos, a discourse), or that
branch of natural history which treats of the structure
of the earth's surface, and the forces by which it has
been modified to its present form. We will, therefore,
commence by sketching the principal features of geology,
and afterwards give a more detailed description of the
subjects lying within the particular province of min-
eralogy.
THE PRIMITIVE FORMATIONS OF THE EARTH.
All the inorganic substances which we find upon the
surface of the earth, present one common feature, namely,
that one and all have been produced by igneous action,
or in other words, by the influence of fire. All the rocks,
i? if J&2,
MINERALOGY. 391
earths, water, and air* have evidently been subjected to the
action of a severe process of ignition before they assumed
their present form. This brings us, therefore, to the con-
clusion that the earth, at some remote period, was a liquid
mass, melted by heat, which gradually became cooled,
and many appearances now met with seem to demonstrate
that the center of the earth is still in a state of constant
fusion. The only exceptions from the general igneous
process are the noble metals.
Accordingly, then, as by the action of this burning
process not only the earth, but also water, was formed,
we may reasonably be led to suppose that at that time
the earth appeared as a large ball or globe, whose surface,
unmarked by any undulations of hill or valley, was cov-
ered with thick mud, and from which was produced the
aquatic plants and animals whose fossil remains are found
entombed in the rocks and different strata which compose
the earth's crust. This physical condition of the surface
of the globe, which must have continued for many cen-
turies, has undergone great and numerous changes, as is
altogether evident from the order of the superposition of
the different strata of formations, supposed to be the
effect of fearful volcanic eruptions, which have raised up
the solid crust of the globe, and causing the dry land to
be lifted up above the waters, formed islands in different
places, as may sometimes be seen in the present day.
These islands formed the first firm land,f and most pro-
bably gave rise to a new flora and a new population of
animated creatures, Avhose fossil remains, found in the
different strata, as those of amphibia, mammals, birds,
* By the term mineral is meant any inorganic object, whether solid,
liquid, or gaseous.
j- Feste-land, Germ. (Continent).
392 NATURAL HISTORY.
etc., not only prove characteristic of the different periods
at which they have existed, but also prove the truth of
those great geological convulsions which have brought
the earth to its present form. Through the repetition of
these volcanic eruptions, at different epochs and in
unequal intervals of time, the firm land gradually sepa-
rated more and more from the water, although it does
not appear that genuine mountains as yet existed ; but
(as geologists say), that the earth's crust, remaining for a
long time, at first, in a soft or pasty condition, gradually
cooled and became hard, partly by the action of the air
and partly by the operations of its own internal agents,
as exhibited in volcanic disturbances ; it solidified into
masses, and formed what the German geologists term
Flotzgebirge, Germ, (stratified mountains), primary
rock formation.*
As each of these stratified formations present us with
the traces of the existence of living beings peculiar to
the different epochs at which they lived, we have come
to the conclusion that at each geological convulsion these
animals must have perished by some sudden catastrophe ;
and not only is this supposition educed from the posi-
tions in which they are found entombed as in the very
act of moving, but also that the hard portions of the
original structure, such as bones, shells, etc., altered in
* The word rock, as used by geologists, is applicable to all mineral
masses, and includes in its meaning sand, marble, clay, granite, etc.,
that cover the solid parts. Comparing the different materials com-
prising fce earth's crust, as found in examining the excavated side of
a mountain, the observer will very soon perceive that there are a
great many different formations, and that these layers or stories are
in layers or stories reposing one above another (plural of stratum
a Latin word, meaning a bed, couch, or layer). RUSCHEV. GEOLOGY.
Tr.
MINERALOGY. 393
their nature, and passed into the fossil state, and having
undergone an alteration into stony particles, preserve the
skeleton entire, showing no dislocations or other marks of
injury, -which would contradict the generally received
opinion that death had overtaken them in some sudden
revolution.
From a configuration of the sedimentary, and particu-
larly the primary or stratified rock formation,* in which
no fossil remains of organic bodies are found, it has been
inferred at this epoch the first geological no living
beings existed on the surface of the globe, and that until
the fourth epoch,f in which space man was created, the
earth was (as described in the Mosaic record) without
form and void, an extended plain, the dry land raised but
little above the surface of the sea, and consisted mostly,
it is supposed, of muddy ground. A thick crust of rocks,
minerals, and earths, melted into a liquid mass by the
action of its internal heat, and kept in a state of constant
* The Sedimentary Formations are those which are deposited by
the action of the water and stratified. The primary or stratified rocks
are those in which neither organic remains nor fragments of the most
ancient rocks are found. This group includes gniess, mica-schist,
quartz, transition schist, limestone, etc. Ruschenberger.
) The organic creation is divided into four successive and also ra-
tional epochs. The first established vegetative life, or life of nutrition,
which is manifested not only in plants, but also in the inferior animals,
iu which we find scarcely any other phenomena than that of nutrition,
growth, etc. Afterwards came the life of relation, or sensibility,
instinct, intelligence, and will, successively added, in different propor-
tions, to the phenomena of simple existence. This new life first takes
a certain development in fishes (including reptiles no doubt); then
birds, which, together, constitute the second epoch of creation. It
acquired a new extension in mammals, -which appeared at a third
epoch, and finally reached its highest degree in man, with whom ter-
minated the work of the Omnipotent, receiving a soul in the image of
God, to distinguish him from all other creatures. RUSCHEX. Tr.
17*
394 NATURAL HISTORY.
fusion, enveloped its interior portion ; but this condition
was not to continue. All at once and it is presumed
it was but the work of a moment at the command of the
Creative Power, the scene was changed. The mighty
elements began to operate, producing the great upheaval
of the internal igneous masses, pressed upwards upon the
sedimentary and stratified formations already existing,
forced them out of their original beds or from their ordi-
nary position, as may be plainly discovered by examining
the strata exposed by excavation. A very simple illus-
tration may give the reader an idea of such an upheaval,
if he will imagine the leaves of a book lying superposed
in a horizontal position, and pressed upwards with irre-
sistible force by some powerful agent below how each
separate leaf will be dislodged, twisted, and wrested from
its original position, and at last torn asunder by the pro-
truding force acting baneath them, in the successful effort
for freedom. The escaping mass forms the granite or
massive rocks seen in the primary rock formation, which
term includes all the loose materials soils, clays, gravels
substances which were previously in a state of fusion.
How those upheavals have originated is hard to tell.
Perhaps the most plausible explanation is the following :
The earth, which, as is well known to all, turns upon its
own axis, before the time of the first upheaval performed
its rotatory motion more rapidly than at the present ; that
suddenly the rate of its diurnal revolution was reduced
to its present measure, therefore, if this theory is true,
it may be supposed that those heavy masses of stone or
mineral materials, either wholly or partially in a state of
fusion, which we now call primitive rock (granite, which
seems to form the foundation stone of the great geological
edifice) might be able, by the indwelling centrifugal force
*
MINERALOGY. 395
to raise up the surrounding superposed strata, force its
way by a partial explosion, and now the vast quantity of
liquid matter overflowing and oscillating from side to
side, could emboss it with those igneous masses, which,
on cooling, became rocks. The following may also be
imagined : A body revolving swiftly on an axis, becomes
hotter and hotter, according to the rapidity with which
it is turned ; but let the velocity be checked suddenly a
cooling process at once begins. This was also the case
with our earth in the earliest antediluvian period ; the
incandescence or liquifaction gradually cooled down, and
continuing after the upheaval, which caused the primary
rock formation, the great ice period ensued, and is sup-
posed to have continued for many centuries, the remains
of which are still occasionally met with.
It may be imagined that at the time of the ice period
the greater portion of the earth's surface was covered
with ice. Gradually, however, the imprisoned waters
melted, and accomplished great and remarkable changes
on the face of the earth. In the large masses of water
which now covered the surface of the earth, many whirl-
pools and torrents of fearful power were produced, which,
tearing away and removing all parts fractured by the
upheaval, forced their passage through all obstructions,
and formed the valleys, ridges, and other configurations,
of which there is palpable evidence at the present day.
For instance, on the opposite slopes of great ravines,
which those fiercely running waters have excavated in their
headlong course, the same course of stratification is ob-
served to exist unaltered, except where some volcanic
eruption has come in the way, and disturbed the general
law. In the low-lying regions of the earth, where the
depression of the surface is greatest, as Middle Asia, the
396 ' NATURAL HISTORY.
Desert of Sahara, and in Europe, the Mark of Branden-
burg, are found immense masses of sand, supposed to
be the disintegrated portions of rocks carried there by
the transporting power o'f -water; and so great is its
power of moving heavy substances, that even at the pres-
ent time, in the low-lying plains of Brandenburg, East
Prussia, and Russia, very large blocks of granite, em-
bedded in ice, are found deposited there, transported in
this way far from the places of their origin or point of
departure. It is impossible that these masses of rock
could have been carried there or kept afloat in any other
way than on ice cakes, which, as the velocity of the cur-
rent lessened, on reaching the level ground, were depos-
ited there. Animals and plants, embedded in similar
icebergs, have been carried by the same transporting
power to portions of the earth most remote from their
original homes ; for instance, trees or branches of the
palm family, natives of the far East, have been met with
in the iceblocks of the German Alps, and animals of the
antediluvian genus of elephants have been found in the
ice-fields of Siberia; their fossil remains uninjured by
the friction or obstacles met with in removal.
The Glaciers, those beds of ice occupying the high
valleys of lofty mountain chains, as well as the ice-fields
of Siberia, and the so-called polar ice, are but the remains
of the great ice period, which has had much agency in
producing the present form of the earth. Granite and
some other unstratified rocks which were considered to
have formed the foundation stone of the great geological
edifice, it is now admitted, do not all date from an anti-
quity so remote, but are in reality younger than the
stratified or primary rock formations. Of still more
recent date are the unstratified or igneous rock forma-
MINERALOGY. 397
tions, which owe their origin entirely to volcanic agency,
and are found in heaped-up fragments everywhere on the
surface of the earth. Basaltes are evidently traceable
to craters of subterranean volcanoes, 'having arisen from
them in the epoch of their activity, and bursting through
all opposing matter, formed thick deposits, which, on
cooling, exhibited large heaps of lava-like substances,
forming isolated masses, as bosses, hillocks, or regular
columnar shapes, divided into prismatic pillars.* The
Palisades on the North River are examples of basaltic
columns.
From these statements, it is therefore plainly deduced
that the primitive formations of stratified and unstratified
rocks were originated either by upheaval or depression
of the earth's crust, by the action of fire, or formed by
sedimentary deposits left by the moving mass of waters,
which, as above stated, in their headlong course, exca-
vated valleys, formed hills of alluvial detritus, and, pro-
ducing great changes, finally left its effects on the sur-
face of the earth, as is everywhere apparent at the pres-
ent day. These are called primary (stratified) rocks.
Those which, in the earliest antediluvian period were
formed by upheaval or owe their origin to the exploding
force of volcanic action, escaped from the bosom of the
* De la Beche divides all rocks into two great classes, Stratified
and Unstratified. The latter he treats as a single family ; the former
he subdivides into ten groups. (See De la Beche's " Manual of Geo-
logy," p. 38. Lyell's first class embraces only alluvium, and is called
Recent ; the second contains, and is named the Tertiary, diluvium
being included in the upper part ; the third class he denominates
Secondary, which extends to the bottom of the old red sandstone ;
next succeeds his Primary Fossiliferous Class, which includes all the
remaining fossiliferous rocks. His Metamorphic Rocks embrace all
the stratified non-fossiliferous groups. The unstratified rocks are
898 NATURAL HISTORY.
earth in a state of fusion, resembling great masses of
melted porcelain, glass, or metals, became solid bj cool-
ing, but -without being stratified. These are called mas-
sive or unstratified rocks.* The several formations are
divided into the following classes and orders :
distributed through these several classes, and he has likewise made a
division of those unstratified rocks that exist below the stratified ones
into Primary Plutonic, Secondary Plutonic, Tertiary Plutonic, and
Recent Plutonic, reckoning in a descending order. Lyell's " Principles
of Geology," VoL 2, p. 504. Rozet, in 1835, divided all rocks into
two great series, viz., Stratified and Unstratified rocks. His first
scries he divides into six geognostic epochs, the first embracing allu-
vium, the second diluvium, the third the tertiary strata, the fourth
the subjacent rocks as deep as the coal measures, the fifth the remain-
ing fossiliferous rocks, and the sixth the non-fossiliferous stratified
rocks. " Traite Elementaire de Geologic," par H. ROZET. As our
book is from the German, and intended for the use of American read-
ers, we beg leave to make the following observation on the geology
of that country. The south-western and eastern borders of Ger-
many consist of lofty mountains of primitive rocks, which occur also
in several places more central, as in the Hartz Mountains. Second-
ary rocks occur in many places, though relatively less abundant than
in Great Britain. Yet nearly all the fossiliferous rocks of Great
Britain are found in Germany, and in the same relative position. A
part of the extensive plains of North Germany is composed of ter-
tiary rocks, covered with diluvial detritus from Scandinavia. As many
as four other tertiary basins occur in Germany. Indeed, nearly every
stratified rock that has been found in any part of the world exists in
Germany. It is also rich in ores and mineral substances of every
kind, and it is the most remarkable country in Europe for the extent
of its mining operations and for the scientific skill with which they
are conducted. HITCHCOCK'S GEOLOGY. Tr.
* As the various formations constituting the common portion of the
globe differ so widely in their nature, in their constitution and mode
of arrangement, some produced in the midst of the waters, " by the
deposit of solid materials held in suspension or in solution by this
liquid, and others by the action of heat on earthy materials suscep-
tible of bein^ melted and of being afterwards hardened by cooling,"
MINERALOGY. 399
FIRST CLASS. PRIMARY OR STRATIFIED ROCK FORM-
ATION.
FIRST ORDER : Transition Rock Formation. Sedimentary.
SECOND ORDER : Tertiaiy Rock Formation.
THIRD ORDER : Secondary or Unstratified (Floetzgebirg Flat Rock)
Rock Formation.
FOURTH ORDER : Diluvial and Alluvial Deposits.
geologists have divided them into two great classes, namely the
Sedimentary or Stratified Formations and the Massif or Igneous
Formations. On account of the presumed method of their pro-
duction they are also designated under the names of Aqueous
or Neptunian Formations, and Igneous or Plutonic Formations.
The first, which was the theory of the celebrated Werner, affected
to prove that the present appearances of the globe may be traced,
with the exception of volcanic products, entirely to the agency
of water, to aqueous solution, disintegration, and deposition, and are
termed stratified formations and most of them sedimentary forma-
tions. These deposits formed a variety of crystalline aggregates,
such as granite, primitive, slate, and limestone, and constitute the
primary rocks, supposed to have had their origin at the earliest geol-
ogical epoch. The second class of rocks is supposed to have been
formed during the transition of the earth from its chaotic .to its habit-
able state, and are called transition rocks. The third class of rocks
is supposed to have been formed by the action of the natural ele-
ments on these, and by which they have been broken down and
mechanically diffused by water. The action of frost, water, and.
attrition are supposed chiefly to have produced this effect, after
which the materials were deposited in horizontal strata. These are
the Floetz or flat rocks of Werner, and the tertiary or secondary rocks
of later authors. They abound in vegetable and animal remains.
The Plutonic rock formation is attributed to the agency of fire, not
entirely rejecting that of water. According to this theory the mate-
rials which compose the present surface of the globe, have been
derived from the ruin of ancient rocks which have been disintegrated
and pulverized by the continued action of water, and transported by
the same means to the bottom of the sea. Here they have been con-
solidated partly by time and partly by the pressure of the water, but
chiefly by the effects of subterranean heat. By the expansive power
400 NATURAL HISTORY.
SECOND CLASS. MASSIF OR IGXEOUS ROCKS.
FIRST ORDER : Primitive Mountains. Stratified.
SECOND ORDER : Basaltic or Volcanic Rock Formations.*
of volcanic heat, the strata thus formed have been elevated from the
bottom of the ocean to occupy the situations under which they now
appear. Thus the strata are thrown into different degrees of inclina-
tion to the horizon, or are broken and dislocated, or appear in nearly
a vertical position, depending on the degree of force or the power of
its application. Sometimes when the heat has been most intense, an
entire fusion of the materials has been effected. The rocks which
are not stratified, or not composed of layers, as granite, are supposed
to have undergone complete fusion, while those which consist of lay-
ers, as mica slate, are supposed to have been softened by the heat.
BRAXDE'S OUTLINES OF GEOLOGY. Tr.
* The most simple division of rocks is into Primitive or Primary,
and Secondary. The first consisting of those which are supposed to
have been originally formed, such as granite and its associates, and
the second such as were formed by the disintegration or destruction
of these. In the first kind no organic remains, as plants or shells,
are found, and hence they are supposed to have been formed before
the creation of organized beings. In the Secondary, these remains
often exist in great abundance. To this classification the celebrated
Werner added the Transition Class, wliich consists of the larger
fragments of the Primitive, and which is intermediate between this
and that usually called Secondary. The following classification is
perhaps the simplest, and being without minute subdivisions, will be
most easily understood :
. I. Primary.
II. Transition or Intermediate.
III. Comprising,
a. The Lower Secondary Series.
6. The Upper Secondary Series.
IV. Tertiary.
V. Basaltic and Volcanic Rocks.
VI Diluvial and Alluvial Deposits.
MINERALOGY. 401
FIRST CLASS.
PRIMARY STRATIFIED ROCK FORMATIONS.
FIRST ORDER.
TRANSITION FORMATIONS OF MODERN TIMES, COTEMPORANE-
OUS WITH THE EXISTENCE OF MAN ON THE EARTH AND
STILL FOUND.
By the term Primary Rock we understand all forma-
tions from drift, transport, alluvions, etc., which compose
the exterior strata of spongy or loose soil found on the
earth's surface, whether on the extended plain, deep val-
ley, or covering the bottom of lakes.
The stratified rocks bear evidence in every part in
their regular layers, their worn sand or pebbles, and
their fossils, that they are the results of gradual accumu-
lations beneath waters, marine or fresh, or on the shores
of seas, lakes, and rivers.
The organic remains of creatures belonging to species
yet existing, which, not exactly fossil, but half decayed
and partially burned, mingled with ernpyreumatic sub-
stances are often found deeply hidden within its structure,
and utensils of different kinds, and weapons of war, etc.,
the relics of remote early times are also met with in the
excavations attending the improvements pursued at the
present day. By the influence of the atmosphere or
weather on the primary stratified formations, causing
degradation of certain portions soluble in water, and
carried away by floods, torrents, volcanic ejections, etc.,
all contribute, by forming sedimentary deposits, to con-
tinually form, renew, or maintain the structure of this
formation. We shall first, in describing this class, name
402 NATURAL HISTORY.
Alluvium or Vegetable Earth, which is a combina-
tion of different earths or soils, varying according to cir-
cumstances or position. Mostly it is composed of
mixture of sand, clay, and marl, but is also very often
formed directly by the disintegration of other formations.
and their mixture with the products of decomposition of
other plants and animals, spread in a layer of more or
less thickness, over the surface of the earth is called
Humus. Wherever this deposit is found abundantly,
the soil is eminently fruitful.
Turf Moors or Peat Bogs are found in different ex-
cavations of the surfa'ce in valleys or low marshy situa-
tions, where stagnant waters constantly exist. All
aquatic plants, such as Duck-meat (Lemma), cresses,
etc., contribute to the formation of peat, as well as ter-
restrial plants brought to these bogs by brooks, and,
being submerged, gradually become decomposed, and
form a single accumulated mass of what seems black
earth. From this soil spring various other plants,
which, in their turn die and also become decomposed,
particularly as the water partially dries away. Fre-
quently trees or large plants which grow on the borders
are found buried in the mass, particularly in the lower
part, where they accumulate on sands and clays found
on the bottom, or, mingling Avith the humus, compose a
web of fibrous tissue, which forms the combustible sub-
stance known as peat or turf. These peat-bogs, when
exhausted, if left undisturbed for a few years, are sure
to renew themselves by a similar process to that already
described.
Coral Reefs. These formations of stony polyparia are
the framework formed by coral animalcule, and cemented
together by calcareous matter. The polyparia continue
MINERALOGY. 403
to build in many branchings until the ridge reaches to
the surface of the sea at low water, after which the sea
washes upon it fragments of coral, driftwood, sea grass,
portions of stranded ships, etc. These substances de-
compose and form soil, which gradually accumulates,
and, as the sea birds flock there in great numbers, the
seeds transported by them from other climes spring up,
and aid in forming islands which are at length occupied
by animals, with man at their head.*
Calcareous Tufa or Travertin is a deposit of car-
bonate of lime formed by depositions of water from
springs containing that substance in solution. The con-
cretionary deposits found depending from the roof of
caves are called Stalactites, the portion encrusting the
floor Stalagmite. The first is formed by the percola-
tion of water through limestone rocks, and the calcareous
particles which were dissolved and subsequently left on
the roof of the cavern by the evaporation of the water.
Stalactites assume many grotesque forms, but mostly
hang like icicles, and gradually increase by the further
deposition of stony particles, in concentric rings. Some-
times the stalactite and stalagmite meet, and, joining,
form pillars extending from the floor to the roof of the
cavern.
* A cluain of coral islets four hundred and eighty geographical
miles in length has long been known as the Maldives. Volcanic
agency, also, often lifts the reef far above the waters. Great masses
of Guano, often extending many fathoms deep, are found in these
homes of the sea birds. A well known fertilizer of soils, guano has
now become an article of commerce, and is brought from the coral
reefs of the South Sea, where sea birds have congregated unmolested
for centuries uncounted. See LTELL'S GEOLOGY, p. 172.
404 NATURAL HISTORY.
SECOND ORDER.
TERTIARY ROCK FORMATION.
The Tertiary or Third Formation was deposited
after the secondary, and may be considered as being
made up of the disintegration of the two foregoing
series, namely, by silicious limestone or fresh water
chalk, together with sand, clay, and marl. The tertiary
strata contain a great number of fossil remains analogous
to or identical with species still existing, and also gigan-
tic specimens of a race of quadrupeds long since extinct.
Fossil shells, fragments of wood, the remnants of primi-
tive forests overthrown by volcanic agency the latter
often found embedded in the Brown Coal Measures
bones of fishes, crocodiles and other reptiles, of birds and
even of quadrupeds, such as apes, hyenas, bears, etc.,
the latter being isolated and often entire. The mention
of these remains of animals belonging to genera still
existing but the species of which is now lost, induces, in
this place a consideration of
The Bone Caverns found partially in this formation
and partially in the earlier formations, remarkable for
the number and variety of bones they contain of ani-
mals mostly of races belonging to the earliest times ;
they appear to have been destroyed in the geological
revolution which upheaved the Alps and gave its present
form to Europe. These caverns seem to have afforded a
resting-place to many varieties of animals that frequented
them as suitable spots for devouring their prey, or finally
came to them to die. Deer, horses, oxen, hyenas, wolves,
dogs, etc., all seem to have congregated in those subter-
ranean abodes ; can it be assumed that they dwelt in
MINERALOGY. 405
peace together, and went forth in companies to hunt
their prey, or were they the prey of others who devoured
them there ? However this may be, their bones accu-
mulated through a great many generations, and the
fossil remains of their dejections prove that these cav-
erns were permanent rather than temporary resting-
places for them.
The most remarkable are those of the Hartz, Fran-
conia (in the latter is the bear cavern of Galenreuth),
Muggendorf, Hohlenstein, Erpfingen, Adelsberg, and
Kirkdale, in which last named the bones found were
proved to have belonged to twenty- three genera.*
THIRD ORDER.
SECONDARY ROCKS (Floetzgebirge).
This formation, which, with the exception of the prim-
itive rock formation, constitutes the great portion of the
so-called mineral earths of which our mountain ridges
are composed, consists of numerous and plainly devel-
oped strata of chalk and sandstone superposed in alter-
nate layers. It contains a great number of organic
remains in a perfected fossil state, which evidently
belong to an antediluvian period. Few of these "med-
als of Creation" present vestiges of mammals, but the
remains of numerous mollusks, from the gigantic Am-
mon's horn to the smallest gryphite. Amphibia are
* Professor Buckland supposes that this cave was a den of hyenas,
and that the multitude of bones found there were carried into the
cave by these animals, and therefore that the hyena, an animal now
inhabiting only the hottest climates, once lived in England. See
RELIQUE DILCVIAN^E, p. 37. Tr.
406 NATURAL HISTORY.
also found, although not frequently, but those that come
to light are of immense size ; and also in this formation
belong those singular Saurians whose skeletons remind
the observer at once of fish and lizard. The fossil
plants found in this formation, of simple structure but
immense size, belong mostly to the genera of Equlse-
tacea, or horse-tails, ferns, or sedges. The secondary
or rock formation is divided into three great portions,
namely, the Cretaceous or Chalk, the Jurassic and
Trias formation. We will proceed first to examine
that assemblage of rocks which were deposited or derived
from the interior of the earth at the particular geological
epoch in which chalk was deposited, and called
The Cretaceous or Chalk Formation. This struc-
ture, evidently formed by marine agency, is composed of
cretaceous matter, or chalk resting on a basis of sandstone.
Calcareous Tufa (Spar) or Carbonate of Lime, is a fria-
ble, chalk-like substance, of a yellow or grayish-white
color ; in some locations found so soft that it is reduced
to powder by merely atmospheric influence, but in others
it forms a solid limestone, of so firm a structure that it
is used for building purposes. Among several varieties
we will only, in this place, notice a few.
Chalk, or White Granular Limestone, is mostly
yellowish-white, but is often also found of a reddish hue,
and is then of a firmer structure than the commercial
article known as chalk. It contains a considerable
portion of flint, and forms the white chalk clifls on
the shores of England, whence that country receives
the name of Albion. Occasional strata of Gypsum
(Plaster of Paris) and Rock-salt occur in the cretaceous
formation ; the first is found at Segeberg, in Holstein,
and at Leineberg, in Hanover, and the last in Catalonia.
MINERALOGY. 407
It contains the fossil remains of mollusks in great num-
bers and variety.*
THE JURA FORMATION.
The assemblage of sedimentary rocks, to Avhich has
been given the name of the Jurassic Formation, com-
pose the foundations of the Swiss and Suabian Alps,
and form the most remarkable strata of the Jura. The
first of these layers which claims our observation is the
calcareous matter or structure called coral chalk, or coral
rag, which is a great porous net-work, composed of coral-
lifercB, which belonged to an antediluvian Avorld, and are
remarkable as forming numerous cavernous fissures or
structures, which often contain mineral treasures. We
shall mention a few of the most important.!
Bohn-ertz Bog Iron Ore Limonite, a loose, earthy
ore ; is found in veins, or arched beds, and often repre-
sents large globular masses, containing, although mixed
with much silicious earth, two-thirds its own weight of
pure iron. Occurs connected with rocks of all ages, but
is mostly found below the tertiary rocks ; however, in
many parts of the Suabian Alps it lies so closely beneath
the upper surface as scarcely to be concealed.
Oolite, also called Roestone, because it is composed
of small globules resembling the roe of fishes, is of a
light brown or whitish-ochery color, seldom gray, but
sometimes blue ; a variety of common limestone, usually
found in the conformable position of strong stratifications,
* The greatest deposit of Gypsum is that of Paris, and extends
twenty leagues. It is noticed as singular that, throughout the extent
of the two Americas, not a specimen of chalk has been found.
f See Macculloch on Coral Formations, vol. i. 33*7.
408 NATUKAL HISTORY.
in banks superincumbent on chalk beds, frequently mixed
with Kalkspath* and Hornstone. The globules compos-
ing it are sometimes very minute and fine, at others,
coarse and granular. Peastone or Pisolite differs only
from Oolite in the larger size of its particles, which are
composed of concentric laminae.
Iron Roestone, also one of the Oolitic group, com-
posed of chalk and marl, is rough, of a bluish-gray color,
and consists of sprinkles of lenticular globules, contain-
ing much iron ; it is also called Clay Ironstone ; very
hard. Found largely in Germany, Poland, and Russia.
Lias Gryphite Limestone (Magnesian Limestone
of England) , consists of dark-colored strata or layers, in
which an argillaceous character (nature of clay) pre-
dominates, but is also remarkable for a quantity of cal-
careous matter mingled with the clay, and particularly
distinguished by the fossil remains of numerous Gry-
phites.
Lias Sandstone, is a yellow and brown sandstone,
found in alternate layers with limestone and marl. Both
of these strata contain bitumen and naptha, which flows
through them ; pyrites, bisulphuret of iron, and sulphur
springs are also present in this formation. This bitu-
minous fluid, also called animal oil, found in the Lias
strata, is of great importance at the present time, and
useful in the manufacture of gas, being supposed to be
the product of millions of perished marine animals, whose
oily portions are now used in this form to light up our
chambers and our streets. Naptha affords both fuel
and light to the inhabitants of Badku, on the Caspian.
Jura Dolomite, or Bitter Spar, is remarkable as con-
* Calcareous Spar.
MINERALOGY. 409
taining a considerable quantity of bitter earth, and for its
wonderful conformations, which claim the admiration of
every beholder, as presented in the various shapes of
rocks, castles, walls, pillars, and ruins of old towers, and
mountain fortresses. Used for many purposes, on account
of its water-resisting nature, hardening when immersed.
It serves principally, however, for making mortars or
molds.
111. TRIAS FORMATION. ( Upper New Red Sand-
stone of the English Geologists.}
The Trias Formation, now about to be described, is dis-
tinguished by a deficiency or poverty of the lime or chalk
principle, with the single exception of Muschelkalk (Shell
Limestone). The Trias system of the French and Ger-
man geologists, so named because it is composed of three
kinds of rocks, is supposed to be constituted by new
deposits formed around the base of the hills after the
elevation of Vosges, Black Forest, etc., by geological
convulsions, which occurred after the previous formations
we have partially described. The stones of this system
are made up of clay and sand, and mostly of a red color.
The most important specimens are, first,
The Keuper Sandstone, with Marl. Resting directly
above this species of rock is found another strata of sand-
stone, which is white, coarse-grained, soft, and so easily
pulverized, that it is used for various domestic purposes.
To this succeeds marl (argillaceous carbonate lime), found
in successive layers between the sandstone, and is of blue
or red color ; next comes the genuine Keuper Sandstone,
which furnishes excellent building materials ; sometimes
it is red, at others greenish -white. Distinguished by
18
410 NATURAL HISTORY.
geologists as a group of sandy marl, and remarkable for
numerous fossil vegetable remains, mostly those of the
Equisetum (Horse-tail) and Reed families. A kind of
carboniferous clay or limestone is occasionally met with
in this formation, but is little valued.
Variegated Marl, with Gypsum frequently found in-
stratified -with the upper layers, is composed of indurated
clays of various colors. Gypsum is found in separate
strata ; is mostly red. but sometimes, although rarely,
white as alabaster.
Letlen-koklej Germ., Clay Slate Coal. Lying under
the lowest strata of the Keuper Sandstone, and easily
recognized by its light gray color, this species of coal is
found in company with marl, gypsum, and alum-slate.
It is impure, clayey, fissile, and, in coming in contact
with the air, splits off into laminae ; occurs only in schis-
tose strata, and can not be used for burning.
Muschelkalk Conchylian Limestone (shell-chalk)
lies under the Lettenkohle marls in strong layers, which
represent huge, compact masses of limestone ; is of a
dull gray or dark greenish-gray color, and commonly
contains, in great abundance, the remains of shells and
fragments of radiated animals and fishes. As it admits
of a fine polish, it is often used for table-slabs, etc.
Dolomite, or carbonate of magnesia, is often found super-
incumbent above muschelkalk ; and mineral springs
abound in this formation, as well as immense strata of
rock salt, which occur directly under the beds of shell
chalk.
Rock Salt is mostly associated with gypsum, anchy-
drytes, or sulphate of lime (clay, sandstone, and calcar-
eous spar) ; in Europe, however, it usually occurs in the
new red sandstone, or associated with red marl, but is not
MINERALOGY. 411
confined to these rocks. Most of our cooking salt is pre-
pared from this species of rock salt. There is a lower
series of tertiary formation, lying directly beneath, or
forming the lowest strata of Conchylian Limestone
(Germ. Wellenkalk) , distinguished by its beautifully
waved veins and irregularly distributed lines, alternate
with marl, etc.
The Bunter Sandstein New Red Sandstone of
English writers (Gres Bigarre of the French), which
forms the base of the Triassic system both in France and
Germany is a fine-grained, quartzose, sandy deposit, and
in some districts, where there is no representative of the
magnesian limestone, takes its place, and rests immedi-
ately on the Rot he todte-liegende. It is found in immense
rocky strata, mostly of a red color, but in many districts
exhibits a variegated mixture of red, blue, or greenish
tints, from which it derives its name. The grotesque
shapes assumed by the precipitous crags of this species
of rock is picturesque in the highest degree.
FOURTH ORDER.
TRANSITION FORMATION*
Between the primitive and stratified mountain are
found extensive deposits which consist of alternating strata,
and present us with the first traces of the existence of
living beings, whose organic remains have been discov-
ered in a fossil state, entombed in certain of these forma-
tions whose antiquity dates back to this remote epoch.
* Designated by modern geologists as the Primary Fossilifer-
ous Formation. Also called paleozoic, because they contain animal
remains. Tr.
412 NATURAL HISTORY.
The rocks of this order are of various degrees of solidity,
all equally showing strong evidences of their sedimentary
origin, yet some exhibit evidences of having been sub-
jected to a more powerful chemical action than others,
and consequently are more crystalline in their structure.
We will commence a description of this formation with
The (Kupfer-shiefer) Copper-slate and Zeckstem
(mine-stone) formations, which consist of calcareous mat-
ter, mingled with sandstone. It is usual to find a stra-
tum of bituminous Shale lying directly under the
Bunter Sandstone (new red), upon which is superposed
an argillaceous structure of gray or blue-black Anthra-
conite or fetid limestone, known as Graywacke. Higher
up in this series come the compact limestones, the (zech-
stein) mine stone, separated by many layers of black,
resinous schistose, friable marl, mingled with copper and
iron ores, amid which salt springs arise. Directly suc-
ceeding these calcareous strata, we find
The Rothe-liegende also called Todt-liegende (Germ.)
red, dead lier, so named because it is of a red color,
underlies the metalliferous strata, and is dead or worth-
less, as containing no metallic produce.* These deposits
* The Plutonic formations have received this name because they
appear to be the product of the action of fire, are generally of a
dense crystalline structure, and ordinarily form immense masses ; they
are not arranged in regularly superposed beds, nor do they contain
the remains of organized bodies. Some of them are formed by the
action of volcanoes, and others are very analogous to the latter ; they
contain not only minerals peculiar to volcanic ejections, but also mat-
ters produced by our laboratories and furnaces. They seem to have
formed the primitive crust of the globe, for \ve find them beneath
the Neptunian formations, but they are also sometimes spread over
the surface of the latter, or betwixt the different beds or strata, of
which they are composed. RCSCHEX. DAXA. Tr.
MINERALOGY. 413
which are indicative of great movements in the waters,
constitute the formation designated by geologists under
the names of Red Conglomerate, New Red Sandstone,
Rothe Todt-liegende, etc. They frequently form layers
six hundred feet in thickness, and- contain plants belong-
ing to the families of Algae or Coniferae, but scarcely
ever any remains of organized beings.
The Carboniferous Formation embraces the exten-
sive deposit of the Coal Measures, which, especially in
England, are found in different gradations and in im-
mense masses. They are mostly rendered impure by
the great quantity of sulphur they contain, and therefore
coal-mines are subject to take fire from spontaneous
combustion, as the sulphur becomes heated and as the
gases evolved from it are highly inflamable, they ignite
in coming in contact with air or vapor, and communicat-
ing their flame to the surrounding strata or beds of coal,
large fires are kindled among them. Stone-coal is evi-
dently nothing more or less than the remains of the
primitive forests reduced, in antediluvian times, to the
present form by the severe action of fire.
The Silurian Formation or System is subdivided
into three principal sections. The upper section consists
principally of Clay Slate or Shale, Gray wacke, and Sand-
stone, placed in strata, which alternate with one another.
Limestone is often found among the clay slate strata.
No organic remains exist in this formation, but perfectly
developed fossilified mollusks and zoophytes, Pectcn
grandcevus, Avicule lepida, and Goniatidce are frequent.
The middle section is occupied chiefly by a compact, cal-
careous rock of a dark color, made up of different shades
of gray, and used under the name marble, as the Black
Marble of Corsica. To this formation also belong the
414 NATURAL HISTORY.
rEiffel, Strigocephalus, and Cornita marbles. The lower
section, which is made up of Graywacke, Clay Slate,
Sandstone, and Limestone, also composes the principal
feature of the old carboniferous deposits found in the
Graywacke and Clay .Slate formations of the Rhenish
territory, so rich in the fossil remains of the oldest times,
and called the Paleozoic formation, are found in various
strata in the Eiffel, Ardennes, and Maas region. In
Sweden, where this formation also exists, are found lay-
ers of Alum Slate and Bituminous Shale, alternated with
banks of Swinestone, more generally termed fetid lime-
stone. In England this formation is particularly ex-
tensive. The lowest section of the Silurian system are
the rocks which form
The Cambrian or Schistose System, and are the
lowest sedimentary deposits known. The first stratum
consists of Graywackes, Schistose Clay, Conglomerates (a
rock composed of pebbles), and dark Limestone. The
Clay Slate rocks are hard, dark -colored, and split easily,
therefore are used in place of shingles for roofing ; coral-
lines and fucoides are occasionally present. The Gray-
wacke slate is firm but very coarse-grained, occasionally
laminate, enclosing fragments of clay slate. This system
of strata is developed on a grand scale, extending many
thousand feet in width and thickness. The second stra-
tum is composed of Balakalk, which is an argillaceous
rock formation made up of dark, thick limestone and
clay slate, is of inconsiderable extent or depth, and con-
tains but few fossil remains, which are those of the Tere-
* Receives its name from the Siluri, the ancient Britons, who in-
habited the region where these strata are most distinctly developed,
and is next above the Cambrian, -which is so called from Cambria, the
original name of Wales.
MINERALOGY. 415
bratula and coral genera ; the former supposed to be the
representatives of the very first inhabitants created in the
first-formed ocean. The third section of the Cambrian
group consists of various-colored clay slate earths, with
laminated rocks of pure and fine-grained slates, iriterstra-
tified with graywacke and silicious conglomerates is often
several thousand feet in extent and depth and also con-
tains a few corals and terebratulae.
SECOND CLASS.
UNSTRATIFIED ROCKS OR MASSIVE IGNEOUS ROCK
FORMATION.
FIRST ORDER.
PRIMITIVE MOUNTAINS OR ROCKS.
By the name of primitive mountains are meant those
massive elevations which are the consequences of those
great upheavals which, proceeding from the heart of the
earth, changed its first arrangement and aided materially
to give it its present form. Everywhere the strata of.
the primary rock formation, no longer occupying their
horizontal position, but broken through, distorted, frac-
tured or inclined, give striking evidence of the great
overthrow. In many places where they have not been
exactly ruptured by the upheaving force exerted from
below, their immense fragments are irregularly raised
up, and on the borders of those huge masses exposed to
view, exhibit undeniable proofs of their igneous origin
416 NATURAL HISTORY.
from the masses of half fused mineral matter spread
over them, and then suddenly cooled.
They consist principally of Feldspar, Quartz, Mica,
and occasionally Hornblende, are frequently so crystal-
line in structure as to plainly exhibit the beautiful min-
eral materials which compose them. The metallic veins
found in this formation appear originally to have been
fissures, often passing through different beds of rock,
and which were subsequently filled with metallic ores.
They exist in primitive, transition, and secondary rocks,
but are most common in the former ; metallic veins often
change their metals at different depths and also their
dimensions.*
The most ancient portion of this formation, the earliest
deposit on the first massive crust of the earth, is crys-
talline, namely, granite, which seems to form a basis for
the whole geological structure ; gniess syenite which
consists of feldspar, hornblende, and quartz : much re-
sembles granite; porphyry, serpentine, and greenstone,
the different varieties and properties of which shall be
described when we enter upon the field of special miner-
alogy.
* Many theories are had respecting their origin. The earlier and
some of the modern geologists (Dr. Hutton, etc.) supposed that the
metals were forced into their veins in a fused state, the expansive
force of the heat producing their fissures. This is called the igneous
theory of the mineral veins. The aqueous theory, which is that of the
celebrated Werner and his followers, is, that the fissures of dykes
and veins were produced by the shrinking of the rocks in wliich they
are contained, and that the metallic veins were afterwards filled with
the metals in a state of solution poured in from the surface of the
earth. Tr.
MINEKA-LOGY. 417
SECOND ORDER.
VOLCANIC ROCKS.
Whilst the primitive rocks were gradually thrown up
from the interior of the earth, partly through igneous
and partly through aqueous agency, which extended over
the whole surface of the globe, the- Volcanic or Trap
Rock Formation appears to have been produced, by a
single eruption of fused matter, thrown out from the
bowels of the earth by a strong subterranean power.
Before we proceed to describe the Trachytic or Igneous
Rock Formation, let us examine the volcanic agency
which produced them. Volcanic crests or hills are gen-
erally steep, rugged, conical elevations, sometimes isolated
or arranged several together on a line, with crateriform
cavities on the summit, and deep internal fissures, that
communicate with the internal portion of the earth,
which is still considered to be in an igneous state. A
continued melting process, like that of an active furnace,
is always going on, from which abundance of gaseous
matter is disengaged. The water penetrating these sub-
terranean cavities filled with fused metallic or mineral
matter is converted into steam, which, pressing upon the
lava, forces it upwards. It then breaks forth in eruptive
explosions, throwing out showers of stones, vapor, ashes,
and melted lava. The craters are of various but always
of considerable depths, reaching from one hundred to
three hundred fathoms.
As volcanic eruptions present various phenomena,
sometimes splendidly picturesque, at others terrific and
appalling, they are collectively classed, under three heads,
as appearing at three different periods.
18*
418 NATURAL HISTORY.
First Period. A short time before the catastrophe
or outbreak commences, a dull, rumbling noise is heard,
as occurring far down in the earth ; tremblings more or
less violent are sure to succeed ; these shakings continue
for a shorter or longer time, at irregular intervals. These
movements of the earth are of different kinds; sometimes in
horizontal oscillations, at others in successive rising and
falling of the soil, often jerking and twisting as if tortured
by some internal agony, and are not less dangerous than
open eruption. If in the neighborhood of the sea, the
waters, violently agitated, sometimes advance far inward,
making fearful irruptions on the coasts, at others retreat-
ing so far outward as to leave their foundations exposed.
At such times the air is hot, dry, and oppressive.
Second Period. Whilst the subterranean rumblings
continue, and the tremblings of the earth seems to threaten
a removal from its firm foundations, the melted lava is,
like boiling fluid in a caldron, rising to the top of the
crater, -whence or else by fissures in the side of the
mountain it pours forth in streams of liquid fire. Col-
umnar volumes of fire rise like gigantic pillars above the
crater, amid which are seen jets of large red hot stones,
ashes, and sand, hurled with Titanic force from two to
three thousand feet in the air. The stream of lava is
enveloped in a dark cloud of smoke : at the same time
immense volumes of steam, or aqueous vapor, are evolved.
Clouds of fiery volcanic dust, sand, and ashes, or pumice,
fall everywhere, even to a great distance, like rain, whilst
loud grumblings, like thunder, and fearful subterranean
explosions issuing from the mountain, shake the earth to
its very center. After the overflowing of the melted
lava, these commotions gradually cease, the volume and
force of the fiery stream gradually diminish, after hav-
MINERALOGY. 419
ing destroyed every thing in its way, and at length the
tumult ceases, and all is still.
Third Period. After the volcano has become quiet,
and the smoke and flame has abated, new thunderings. like
the firing of heavy cannon, new explosions and tremblings
commence, amid which a majestic pillar of smoke ascends
from the crater to a great height, and spreads an ex-
tended broad, dark canopy over the whole mountain.
Spectators have likened this singular and striking phe-
nomenon to a gigantic pine. A steady rain or shower of
stones, fine volcanic dust, and pumice, or gray particles
of lava, now fall from the black, overhanging cloud which
canopies the mountain, extending to a considerable dis-
tance and obscuring % the light of the sun. This shower
of ashes often continues for many days, after which, ac-
companied by crashing thunder and vivid electric flashes,
a dark cloud settles upon the crown of the mountain.
Torrents of rain, the effect of condensed vapors, now
begin to fall, and from the inundations of mud which
they cause are dreaded as being more disastrous in their
consequences than the streams of burning lava, and close
the scene. After such fearful eruptions, various hurtful
gases are generated, and issuing from the crater, pollute
the air for miles around. The principal volcanic forma-
tions are, first,
Lava, which, when cooled, exhibits no regular struc-
ture ; sometimes it is firm and compact above, at others
porous, cellular, or scoriaceous. There are also speci-
mens of lava which constitute regular rocklike masses ;
the colors are mostly brownish-yellow or greenish-gray
some, not seldom, contain mineral substances, as Obsidian
(volcanic glass), etc.
Pumice Stine Bimstein is a light, porous scoria,
420 NATURAL HISTORY.
or foatn-like stone, produced by volcanoes, and, from its
light, spongy structure, swims on the surface of 'water.
Pozzuolana is a kind of tufa (a sand rock, consisting
of volcanic material, either cinders or the comminuted
lava) found in the vicinity of Rome, and is much valued,
as, mixed with chalk or lima, it hardens in water. It is
of great importance in the manufacture of molds or plaster
images. Trass, used for the same purposes, is but. a
variety of the foregoing. Both form a hydraulic cement.
Trap Basalt Basalts which resemble Trappean of
peculiar formation, their columnar structure being a
remarkable characteristic. They usually stand nearly
perpendicular, their structure divided into regular prisms,
with sides varying from three to eight, but mostly five or
six. This irregularity appears to have been caused by
objects or other substances found in the path of the fluid
basalt, which is compact lava, as the basaltic pillars ex-
hibit more regularity at their bases. The texture of
basalt is fine-grained and compact, and often contains
fragments of other minerals imbedded in it, such as feld-
spar, quartz, mica leucite, and oxide of iron, which were
broken or scaled off from their original rocks by the vol-
canic eruption, and borne along in the stream of fluid or
semifluid lava. Wherever basalts are found in crevices
or fissures of other rock formations, they are observed to
retain their prismatic and pillar-like form, which is sup-
posed to be caused by some peculiar atmospheric influence
during their cooling. They also exhibit hollow cavities
or vesicles, apparently formed by bubbles of air during
their fusion. The Giant's Causeway, in the North of
Ireland, is composed of basaltic columns.
MINERALOGY. 421
SPECIAL MINERALOGY.
Whilst Geology considers minerals as dependent rela-
tions constituting soils, and treats of their various rocks
only as associated in the structure of the earth, it is the
object of Special Mineralogy to consider them as inde-
pendent bodies, and to describe the individual qualities
of the several mineral species, very few of which, al-
though daily met with, are to most only known by
name. Preliminary to a particular discussion of their
characteristic structure or uses, we will remark that
they all have in common three peculiar properties, vary-
ing, however, very considerably in the different species
to which they belong, as exhibited in each individual.
The terms by which these properties are distinguished
are Fracture, Degree of Hardness, and Specific
Gravity.
By Fracture, which is of several kinds, is meant the
appearance of the mineral when broken ; for instance,
Conchoidal, when the mineral breaks with a curved and
convex or concave surface of fracture, resembling the in-
side of a shell ; flint is a good example. Uneven, when
the surface of the fracture is rough, with numerous
small elevations and depressions. Brittle, when the
parts of the mineral separate into powder on attempting
to cut it. Even, when the surface of the fracture is
nearly or quite flat. Malleable, when slices may be
cut off or splintered, and Hackly, when the elevations
are sharp or jagged, as in broken iron.
In order to give a definite character to the results ob-
tained with respect to the hardness of minerals, a scale
422 NATURAL HISTORY.
of hardness has been introduced which serves as a stand-
ard of comparison. It is only necessary to draw the file
across the specimen, or scratch one with another, and the
comparative hardness is easily ascertained. The follow-
ing scale consists of ten minerals which gradually in-
crease in hardness as the ciphers advance, that is
1 to 10.
1. Talc. 6. Feldspar.
2. Rock Salt or Gypsum. 7. Quart/.
3. Calcareous Spar. 8. Topaz.
4. Fluor Spar. 9. Sapphire.
5. Apatite. 10. Diamond.
Rock Salt is usually in the scale of hardness for No.
2, and if, on drawing a file across a mineral, it is im-
pressed as easily as rock-salt, the hardness is said to be
two ; if as easily as Feldspar, the hardness is 6 ; rock-
salt, for instance, is written thus : H. = 2,0. - If the
file abrades the mineral with the same ease as No. 6,
Feldspar, and produces an equal depth of abrasion with
the same force, its hardness is said to be 6. If with
more facility than 6, but less than 7, that marks the
difference and is thus written, 6 = 7.
The specific gravity of a mineral is its weight, com-
pared with that of another substance of equal volume,
whose gravity is taken at unity. For solids and liquids,
distilled water at 60 Fahrenheit is the standard ordin-
arily used ; and if a mineral weighs twice as much as
water, its specific gravity is 2 : if three times, 3 ; and is
thus written : Quartz, G. = 2, 7, which means that
Quartz is 2, 7 , times heavier than a . corresponding
bulk of water. Minerals are divided into four classes :
1. Earthy Minerals ; 2. Salts : 3. Carboniferous Min-
erals ; 4. Metallic Ores or Metals.
MINERALOGY. 423
FIRST CLASS.
EARTHY MINERALS OR EARTHS.
This class of minerals comprehends those structures
which are insoluble in water, and remain unaltered by
any common igneous action or force.
FIRST ORDER.
I. Quartz. Mostly white or vitreous, crystalline,
transparent, sometimes only diaphanous ; fracture con-
choidal, emits light when rubbed in the dark, II. = 7.0.
G. 2.5 to 2.7. Quartz is a constituent of many rocks,
and is found almost everywhere in the form of pebbles
or gravel.
There are many varieties of which the most prominent
specimen is
The Rock Crystal or Pure Pellucid Quartz, which
is very transparent ; found in high mountain regions
among granite, gneiss, etc., in vaulted openings, resem-
bling small caves, which are filled with these beautiful
crystals. These vaults, called Crystal-cellars, hidden
away among rocks, are commonly discovered only by
accident ; many of them are found to contain crystals
valued at ten thousand florins. Pure pellucid crystals
are often found in rivers, which, when polished, present
a brilliant appearance, as, for instance, -the White Stones
of the Rhine. The species of crystal known as Marowyn
Stone is found in the rivers which divide French and
Dutch Guiana. Although seldom of weight reaching
424 NATURAL HISTORY.
to one hundred, the rock crystal is very valuable ; in
ancient times it was made into cups and vases. Nero,
on hearing of the revolt that caused his ruin is said to
have dashed to pieces two cups of this kind, one of which
cost him a sum equal to three thousand dollars. They
are of various colors ; the yellow is called Citrin or
False Topaz ; the brown or smoky quartz, Cairngorm
Stone; the black Morion. The pure specimens are cut,
set in gold, and used as jewelry ; the imperfect or lower
varieties are employed in glass making.
The Amethyst, a beautiful variety of rock crystal, is
transparent ; color purple or bluish-violet, sometimes
pearl-gray or greenish-white, is often, like the above-
mentioned, found in mountain regions ; the most valuable
of this family of gems, however, are native of Siberia,
Persia, India, and Ceylon. The amethyst received its
name on account of its supposed powers against intoxica-
tion. It is always set in gold and used for ornament, as
seal rings, etc., and very frequently counterfeited by a
substitution of colored glass.
Common Quartz, of foul color, less transparent and
vitreous, is found everywhere, and together with sand-
stone, is the principal element of the primary rock for-
mation. The most remarkable variety is the Oafs eye,
a translucent chalcedony of a light greenish-gray or yel-
lowish-brown color. It presents a peculiar opalescence
or glaring internal reflections when cut, which reminds
one of the eyes of a cat, which effect is owing to fila-
ments of asbestos. Found in Ceylon and Hindostan,
also in Treseburg in the Hartz Mountains and other
places in the elevated portion of Germany. Also used
for jewelry.
Chalcedony is of several varieties, and is found
MINERALOGY. 425
opaque, as well as sub-transparent or translucent. Frac-
ture flat conchoidal ; crystalline luster subdued and waxy,
is of different colors and forms. The gray, white, and
brown varieties are called Common Chalcedony ; often
found striated, clouded, or with moss-like linear mark-
ings. Agate is variegated chalcedony. Moss Agate or
Mocha Stone is the variety with dendritic or moss-like
delineations. When the colors white and gray alternate
with darker shades on flat horizontal planes, it is called
Onyx. Found mostly in basaltic formations in the
regions of Baden, Oppenau, Black Forest, and at Chem-
nitz in Saxony.
Cornelian is the most valuable variety ; of a clear
bright red color, or sometimes brownish passing into yel-
low through grayish-red. It loses its color, which, it
is supposed, is due to oxyd of iron, by heat. Both
chalcedony and cornelian are much used for ornament,
as seal rings, brooches, etc.
Flint is semi-opaque, solid, dense, slightly transpar-
ent. Fracture deeply conchoidal ; color gray or smoky
yellow, sometimes clouded. Occurs mostly in the chalk
formations, namely Champagne and England. From its
peculiar structure the working of flint requires great
dexterity with the hammer, nevertheless an expert flint
mason will commonly make from two to four hundred
flint stones per diem.
Hornstone Chert. Very dense and firm, more brit-
tle than flint ; its fracture is splintery ; color outside
greenish, red, or brown ; inside foul and dull. The
petrified remains of wood are easily recognized in Horn-
stone structures. Frequent in the Erzgebirge (Mineral
Mountains), Thuringia, and Black Forest. Used for
426 NATURAL HISTORY.
making various articles, as boxes, handles for doors or
locks, etc.
Jasper is a compact, nearly or quite opaque, silicious
rock of a dull red or yellow color, caused by its contain-
ing some clay and yellow or red oxyd of iron ; some
varieties are of green and other shades. It mostly
occurs in the form of globular stones which, on being
cut or sawed through, exhibit innumerable delineations
of color and shapes. There are many species of jasper,
all of which are useful, some being employed in paving,
others are made into grind-stones, and the black, also
called Lydian Stone,
Basanite or Touch Stone is used for trying the
purity of the precious metals. Found in clay strata in
the Black Forest, Hartz, Saxony, and Silesia. Admits
of a high polish, but is never used as a gem.
Agate is a composite stone made up of chalcedony,
jasper, hornstone, and amethyst. It is of spherical
form, and occurs mostly among clay-porphyry. Agate
stones are frequently hollow and contain crystals in the
cavities. Native in the elevated mountain formations,
and being of different colors, arranged with much deli-
cacy and beauty, it is made into seal-rings, boxes, etc.
The Opal belongs to the quartz family, is milky,
rather than crystalline, brittle, vitreous, and contains
water, H. = 5.5 to 6.5, O. = 2.0 to 2.2. Fracture
conchoidal, presents internal reflections ; color milk-
white, brown-green or gi'ay, nearly translucent, passing
into opaque. The first of this class is
The Precious or Noble Opal. External color usually
milky, but within there is a rich play of delicate tints
passing into wine color. Was known to the ancients and
highly valued by them, was called paideros or child
MINERALOGY. 427
beautiful as love. It presents opalescent internal reflec-
tions of the most beautiful and diversified colors. It
occurs in irregular veins or detached masses among por-
phyry, and is highly valued as a gem. The handsomest
opals are those found in Hungary.
Common Opal Semi-Opal has a greasy luster or
translucence ; structure firm, compact, and marbled ; is
slightly resinous, and although mostly white, is of vari-
ous colors, as gray, yellow, and green, seldom red ;
occurs in serpentine and basalt; is most frequent in
Hungary, Saxony, and Silesia. It receives its name of
Semi-Opal on account of its duller colors and being less
translucent.
II. Diamond. Diamonds are distinguished for their
perfect transparency, their vitreous electricity when rubbed
or placed in the sun, and their brilliant reflections of
light and adamantine luster. The composition is pure
carbon, but on account of its external resemblance to the
Silicia genus, it is here placed among the minerals which
compose that species. It burns and is consumed at a
high temperature, producing carbonic acid gas, II. = 10
as the hardest body, G. = 3.4 to 3.6. Diamonds occur
chiefly in alluvial deposits of gravel and sand, lying in
detached crystals, sometimes with plain but more fre-
quently with rounded surfaces. They were originally
discovered in Bengal, but they have since been found in
the East Indies, Brazil, and the Ural Mountains. The
perfectly pure diamond is as transparent as water, in
which state it is known as a " diamond of the first water,"
and commands a higher or lower price in proportion as it
falls short of this perfection. Those that are colored
blue, green, red, gray, or yellow, are less esteemed than
the transparent, which, being considered the most orna-
428 NATURAL HISTORY.
mental, always bring a higher price. Most exorbitant
sums are paid for diamonds, varying according to their
size, pure transparency, and lustrous sparkle. The
most remarkable diamonds are the following (the largest
one ever known was brought to the King of Portugal*
from Brazil, and uncut weighs 1680 grs., valued at
.5,644,800) :
The Regent, which belongs to the crown of France,
weighs 136 carats ; that of the Great Mogul, cut, weighs
275 carats, valued at 5,500,000 florins ; that of the
Raja of Matun in Borneo, for a long time considered the
largest known, weighs 300 carats.
Diamonds are regarded as the noblest and most bril-
liant of all gems, and jewellers cut and set them in many
shapes for ornamental purposes, as brilliants or rose dia-
monds. Diamond is the hardest known substance, and
can be cut or polished only by its own dust or powder ;
hence the common saying of " diamond cut diamond."
Fractured portions with good cutting edges are used for
various technical purposes, such as glaziers' cutting pen-
cils or pulverized for polishing other gems, beside being
employed in various ways in the arts.
False diamonds, the preparation of which is accom-
plished with infinite skill by newly invented processes,
are sometimes substituted in place of the true, but the
imposition is easily detected, as, being so much softer,
they can be operated upon by a file made of good Eng-
lish steel.
* Lately supposed to be a topaz.
MINERALOGY. 429
SECOND ORDER.
ALUMINA (CRYSTALLIZED).
I. Precious minerals belonging the the Clay Alu-
mina.
Corundum of which there are several varieties, is,
except the diamond, the hardest substance known ;
H. = 9.0, G. 3.9 to 4.0. Found in large crystals ;
luster translucent, compact, presents internal reflections
only in certain portions. Corundum or the Sapphire
species is pure alumina crystallized ; sometimes found
bright-colored, mostly grayish-brown, seldom colorless.
Fracture conchoidal, imperfect in the blue variety ; spe-
cies easily recognized by their several characteristics.
The dingy, blue-gray massive variety of coarse granular
structure, called Emery, is found in large boulders in
Saxony and the island of Naxos. From its extreme
hardness its powder is largely employed in the polishing
of glass and metals, and in the cutting of gems and
other minerals.
Demantspath Adamantine Spar, a rough, coarse,
crystalline stone of dingy hue, easily divisible from the
other varieties, is employed in cutting and polishing dia-
monds. The name Sapphire is sometimes used for the
whole coruncl genus, but the true Sapphire is of a beau-
tiful blue color and remarkable transparency. The yel-
low variety is known as Oriental Topaz ; the red is called
Ruby, and nearly rivals the diamond in value. The
more common kinds of sapphire and ruby are employed
in the manufacture of watches. These gems, although
beautiful, are less valued as toilet ornaments than dia-
430 NATURAL HISTORY.
monds, because they are so easily counterfeited by the
substitution of colored glass.
The Emerald is green, often passing into blue ; trans-
parent ; H. = 7.5, to 8.0 ; G. = 2.6, to 2.8 ; of
shining vitreous, luster ; found in Pinzgau and the Tyrol,
embedded in mica slate. The finest emeralds come from
Grenada ; others, of less beauty but gigantic size, occur
in Siberia, -and Mount Zalora, in Egypt, affords a distinct
variety. The Beryl, which Pliny speaks of as "green,
like the sea," and when perfectly transparent, and exhibit-
ing clear shades of sky blue or mountain green, is called
Aqua-marine, or Noble Beryl, occurs in the form of long
hexagonal prisms, imbedded in granite. The finest are
brought from Peru.
Topaz is a perfectly transparent crystal of a reddish-
yellow or wine color. H. = 8.0 ; G. = 3.6. Found
frequently in South America. The finest crystals are
brought from Minas Novas, in Brazil. Sometimes they
occur in the form of pebbles, and are found in the rivers
of the Southern Continent. This variety is very limpid,
and are called gouttes