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 THOUGHTS 
 
 ON EDUCATION 
 
 SPEECHES AND SERMONS 
 
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 MANDELL CREIGHTON, D.D., D.C.L., LL.D., ETC. 
 
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 " No subject so much repays our study as the development of the 
 young mind. We see in it the germs of the future, and the sight 
 strengthens us to look more trustfully, more hopefully on the 
 present." 
 
 " The two chief means of teaching are exaggeration and paradox. 
 One or other is necessary to attract attention and show reason for 
 independent thought." 
 
 " Do not try to alter the development of a young mind, try only 
 to direct it." 
 
 " The great function of the teacher is to be a kind of mustard 
 blister. He must apply himself to as many minds as possible. He 
 is only doing his work when he is producing a feeling of irritation 
 which may tend to awaken intelligence and stimulate the growth of 
 character." 
 
 " The surest sign of social progress is increasing interest in the 
 generation that is to come."
 
 PREFACE 
 
 IN preparing these addresses for the press I 
 have been constantly reminded of the following 
 passage in a letter of Dr. Creighton's : " Many 
 people suffer from reporters ; I do myself. I 
 never can speak in the reporters' style. They 
 only put down every other sentence, and so 
 make nonsense." The addresses and sermons 
 in this book, with the exception of the papers 
 on " The Study of Church History " and " A 
 Plea for Knowledge," exist only in newspaper 
 reports or in the annual reports of societies. 
 Dr. Creighton's notes for them have in no case 
 been preserved ; indeed for such speeches he 
 often had no notes at all, or at most a few pencil 
 headings on half a sheet of notepaper. He 
 spoke too quickly for most reporters, and in 
 reading the reports one is conscious again and 
 again of the omission not only of whole pass- 
 ages, but, of what is even more damaging to 
 the sense, of individual sentences and phrases. 
 It would have been an impossible task to
 
 viii PREFACE 
 
 attempt to replace what was omitted ; I have 
 confined myself to trying to make sure that 
 nothing is inserted which he would not have said, 
 and to correcting obvious mistakes. The form 
 of many of the addresses is inevitably scrappy 
 and unworthy of their author, but I trust that 
 much remains which is characteristic both of 
 his opinions, and of his method of expressing 
 them. Neither has it been possible to avoid 
 many repetitions in addresses dealing with 
 much similar subjects. 
 
 No consistent theory of education will be 
 found in this book. It was a subject of prac- 
 tical interest to him during the greater part of 
 his life, and one on which he always thought 
 and spoke much. He was a born educator, and 
 often said : "I am nothing if I am not edu- 
 cational ". At the same time he was always 
 more interested in the practice and principles 
 of education than in its systems. The relation 
 between the individual teacher and his pupil 
 seemed to him of more importance than any 
 system. It will be easy for any one to discover 
 what may appear to be contradictory statements 
 in the following pages ; but he never feared 
 apparent contradictions or inconsistencies. He 
 tried to find the truth everywhere, and caught 
 hold of it wherever he could see it. He did
 
 PREFACE ix 
 
 not lose time in attempting to harmonise those 
 fragments of the truth which he had caught 
 hold of, for he felt that with our imperfect 
 knowledge, any system which attempted to con- 
 tain and define the whole truth must become 
 narrow and therefore false. Harmony, he 
 believed, would come in time if only the desire 
 for the truth were genuine and unfaltering. 
 
 Many of the remarks in the following 
 speeches were ideas which occurred to him at 
 the moment as suggestive, which interested 
 him, and which seemed to him likely to make 
 his hearers think. Others, which recur again 
 and again, express views which he held all his 
 life, and which were only strengthened by in- 
 creased experience. If this book makes its 
 readers think for themselves, even when they 
 entirely differ from its conclusions, his words 
 will have the result which always sufficed to 
 satisfy him. 
 
 With regard to the position of Board and 
 Voluntary Schools, and the religious teaching 
 to be given in them, it may be well to make 
 his opinions more clear by a quotation from 
 a letter written on nth January, 1899, to 
 Mr. P. C. Horsfall, M.P. :- 
 
 " We have two slightly different types of 
 schools. It is well that both should continue
 
 x PREFACE 
 
 and that they should be equally efficient. That 
 is only possible, if both be equally recog- 
 nised as national, and have equal resources at 
 their command. The objection to this recog- 
 nition would be removed by the appointment 
 of Local Educational Authorities such as you 
 suggest. Many of the grievances which are 
 now stated are theoretical rather than practical. 
 They deal with situations which might occur, 
 rather than with situations which do occur. But 
 the possibility of their occurrence would be 
 removed by the existence of a Local Authority, 
 which would have power of interposing if 
 necessary. The dispute is not so much about 
 the contents of religious teaching suitable for 
 children, as about the necessity of a religious 
 temper in teaching religion. No one wishes 
 that children should be taught the formularies 
 of an ecclesiastical system to which their 
 parents do not belong. But this is no reason 
 why no children should be allowed to receive 
 such teaching, as will enable them to join in- 
 telligently in the services of that religious 
 body to which their parents do belong. It 
 would be quite easy to provide a scheme by 
 which in Denominational Schools distinctive 
 formularies were taught only at definite times, 
 and alternative instruction provided for those
 
 PREFACE xi 
 
 children to whom such instruction did not 
 apply. 
 
 " I am convinced that we need much more 
 general interest in our system of education alto- 
 gether. We need the co-operation of parents 
 and teachers, not only in carrying out the 
 system, but in determining what it shall be. I 
 think that at present the interest and sympathy 
 of the teachers is not sufficiently enlisted in this 
 matter. The representation of the teachers on 
 the Local Authority would be a valuable step 
 in this direction. I do not like to see the in- 
 terests of the teaching profession treated apart 
 from the interests of education. The two should 
 be brought together, and many hindrances in the 
 way of a teacher's career would be removed." 
 
 In another letter he writes: "Any proposal 
 which contains the principle that we have a 
 right to teach our children what we believe is 
 to me valuable". 
 
 It seemed to him that fairness and justice 
 demanded, that arrangements should be made 
 to teach such religious truths in the schools as 
 any body of Christians desired for their own 
 children. This, he felt, would be a recognition 
 of the principle of religious liberty which is so 
 dear to Englishmen. He hoped that in time 
 all those who cared for religion would unite in
 
 xii PREFACE 
 
 demanding that adequate opportunities for de- 
 finite religious teaching in accordance with the 
 wishes of the parents should be provided ; and 
 he was disappointed that nonconformists were 
 not more keen in the matter, but so often 
 seemed inclined to approach the whole question 
 from the point of view of party politics. The 
 education question, he said, was encumbered with 
 the refuse of past controversy, and his earnest 
 desire was that all this might be cleared away 
 and forgotten, and that no considerations should 
 be allowed to have any weight except such as 
 concerned the welfare of the child, which should 
 be to all the sole object of pursuit for all. 
 
 My thanks are due to the editor of the 
 Contemporary Review for permission to reprint 
 the paper entitled "A Plea for Knowledge". 
 
 LOUISE CREIGHTON.
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 I. THE VALUE OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION . . i 
 
 II. RELIGIOUS EDUCATION AND VOLUNTARY SCHOOLS 6 
 
 III. THE PLACE OF RELIGION IN EDUCATION . . n 
 
 IV. OUR EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 16 
 V. THE EDUCATION BILL OF 1896 . . .20 
 
 VI. THE CHILD AND THE EDUCATION QUESTION . 26 
 
 VII. READING BOOKS FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS . 33 
 
 VIII. EXAMINATIONS 36 
 
 IX. THE VALUE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION . . 38 
 
 X. THE PROVINCE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION . 46 
 
 XI. THE TRAINING OF THE SCHOOLBOY ... 52 
 
 XII. THE TEST OF EDUCATION 56 
 
 XIII. SUCCESS IN LIFE 61 
 
 XIV. THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY 
 
 SCHOOLS 64 
 
 XV. THE TEACHER AND THE CHILD 6g 
 
 XVI. THE ART OF TEACHING 76 
 
 XVII. THE VOCATION OF THE TEACHER ... 85
 
 aiv CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 XVIII. APOLLOS : A MODEL FOR SUNDAY-SCHOOL 
 
 TEACHERS 89 
 
 XIX. THE HOPE OF THE TEACHER .... 94 
 
 XX. THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF THE CO-OPERATIVE 
 
 MOVEMENT 107 
 
 XXI. THE USE OF BOOKS 120 
 
 XXII. THE ADVANTAGE OF CONSECUTIVE READING . 130 
 
 XXIII. THE LARGENESS OF KNOWLEDGE . . . 139 
 
 XXIV. THE VALUE OF DEFINITE KNOWLEDGE . . 151 
 XXV. THE NEED FOR GUIDANCE IN STUDY . . . 155 
 
 XXVI. THE STUDY OF CHURCH HISTORY . . . 162 
 
 XXVII. THE FIRST LOVE 168 
 
 XXVIII. THE WORK OF A LIBRARIAN . . . .179 
 
 XXIX. UNIVERSITIES 194 
 
 XXX. A PLEA FOR KNOWLEDGE 196
 
 I. 
 
 THE VALUE OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION. 
 
 SPEECH DELIVERED TO THE NORTHAMPTON EDUCA- 
 TION SOCIETY, 22ND JUNE, 1891. 
 
 I WISH to ask you to consider what is the position 
 which religious knowledge fills with regard to edu- 
 cation generally. I venture to think that it is a much 
 larger and more important position than is generally 
 imagined. If, in the first place, we consider religious 
 teaching simply and solely as a means of edu- 
 cation, it seems to me that it contains material of 
 greater educational value than anything that comes 
 into the curriculum of the ordinary school. If you 
 ask me, how I would recommend that a child's mind 
 should be trained, whether by teaching it the subjects 
 which come under the heading of religious knowledge, 
 or by teaching it any other subject, I have not the 
 least hesitation in saying that, simply with a view to 
 its education, I would teach it what is called religious 
 knowledge. The same opinion was once expressed 
 to me by one of Her Majesty's Inspectors, who said, 
 that he was grieved not to be allowed to examine in 
 the subject which was to him the most real test of 
 the intellect of the children. He complained that he 
 was allowed only to deal with the mangled remains
 
 2 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 which were left in the minds of the children, after the 
 more important work had been done. He lamented 
 the division between secular and religious knowledge, 
 which allowed him only to see a fragmentary part of 
 the mental training to which the child had been sub- 
 jected. This may seem exaggerated, but I would ask 
 you to consider, if you really want to train the mind, 
 the immense importance and usefulness for that pur- 
 pose of what is called religious knowledge, that is, 
 the knowledge of the Old and New Testament. 
 Consider how splendid these Books are simply for 
 educational purposes. They are both historical and 
 literary. They contain the whole of a nation's history 
 and literature. They contain that literature in all the 
 various forms in which it was developed ; and, more- 
 over, the nation in whose history they interest us is as 
 remote as possible from our own modern life. If the 
 object of education is to give mental versatility, width 
 of knowledge and largeness of outlook, if it is to 
 create intellectual curiosity and suggest subjects of 
 study, what can be more desirable for such purposes 
 than a study of the Old and New Testament? It 
 takes the child away from his ordinary surroundings, 
 and causes him to look into the life and manners and 
 customs of people who lived centuries ago under quite 
 different conditions from his own. An immediate 
 demand upon the child's imagination and intellect is 
 made. From one point of view, education may be 
 considered as mental gymnastics, which aim at training 
 the mind so as to bring into play all its activities. 
 For this purpose religious teaching far excels any 
 other mechanism which we are able to use ; and
 
 THE VALUE OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 3 
 
 therefore looking at the question merely as one of 
 educational utility, I maintain that religious education 
 is positively necessary for the proper training of the 
 child. 
 
 Again, apart from the great value of the Bible as 
 a means of literary and intellectual training, we must 
 consider also its great value as a basis for moral 
 training. I have heard of attempts made in Italy to 
 meet the difficulties which arise from a purely secular 
 education. A teacher finds himself without any basis 
 for reproving a child for doing wrong. He has 
 nothing to put before him as an encouragement for 
 doing good, or as an explanation of what he wishes 
 the child to consider bad. There is nothing to give 
 the child's mind the capacity for understanding the 
 difference between right and wrong. Punishment 
 may impress the teacher's point of view on the child's 
 mind, but the resort to brute force alone is naturally 
 repugnant to a good teacher. To meet this difficulty 
 a text-book of morals has been introduced and circu- 
 lated among the children in Italy, so that the teacher 
 when he reproves a child can point him to a special 
 section of the text-book to explain the reasons of his 
 reproof. I need not ask you to stop and consider how 
 futile such an appeal to a child's mind must be. It is 
 impossible that morality can be taught, among children 
 certainly, and even among the community at large, 
 without the appeal to religion. Religious teaching must 
 be the basis of moral teaching. Take away the religious 
 teaching, and the moral teaching will either disappea r 
 or become exceedingly attenuated and end by shrivel- 
 ling away. This is the reason why we advocate so
 
 4 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 strongly and so decidedly the maintenance of religious 
 teaching in our schools. It opens up a new sphere 
 to every one who comes under its influence. Any 
 one who has been introduced to religion has gained a 
 glimpse of a spiritual life which it is impossible for 
 him to neglect, but upon which it is possible for him 
 to enter, and those who have once entered upon it 
 know that they have gained the greatest possession 
 which life can give. 
 
 I should like to urge upon the pupil teachers who 
 are present, to remember the greatness and the im- 
 portance of religious knowledge in comparison with 
 secular knowledge, and also to remember that the one 
 does not interfere in any way with the other. The 
 more subjects people can study at the same time, the 
 better they will get on with every one of them. By 
 increasing your religious knowledge you gain a larger 
 background, and then your other work will surely go 
 on better. 
 
 The more you try to realise the greatness and im- 
 portance of the work you are undertaking, the more 
 the great truth will be borne in upon you, that it is 
 useless to teach religion unless you have a religious 
 mind. If I were to have to choose between two 
 systems of education, in one of which purely secular 
 teaching was to be given by a religious man, and in 
 the other religious teaching by a secular man, I have 
 no hesitation in saying which system I would choose 
 in the interest of religion as well as of education. I 
 would rather have the religious-minded teacher though 
 the subjects he taught were secular, because I know 
 that the devotion of his heart would penetrate what-
 
 THE VALUE OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 5 
 
 ever he did, and perchance the fire that was in him 
 might fall on those with whom he came in contact, 
 and kindle a corresponding flame in their hearts. 
 But remember, that you will not become teachers able 
 to teach religion either directly or indirectly, unless 
 you work with God and study His Word. Do not 
 take a low view of your calling, but devote yourselves 
 more and more to the highest aims of which your 
 nature is capable. 
 
 And lastly may I urge upon the children not to 
 look on the Bible as a book which must simply be 
 learnt like a geography book, but as a book that they 
 must learn to love for what it teaches them. Love 
 it because it has a message for you, and tells you of 
 the love of the Lord Jesus Christ. Study it always 
 more and more, and by studying it, you will gain a 
 vast amount of knowledge for yourselves, which all 
 through your life will be of the greatest possible value 
 to you. 1 
 
 1 In the fragments of this address which alone remain, religious 
 teaching is spoken of in a general way. Reference to Dr. Creighton's 
 " Primary Charge " (The Church and the Nation, p. 134) will show that 
 he believed that religious teaching to be really effective must be 
 denominational.
 
 II. 
 
 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION AND VOLUN- 
 TARY SCHOOLS. 
 
 ADDRESS GIVEN AT MARKET HARBOROUGH, 30 
 NOVEMBER, 1893, ON THE OCCASION OF LAYING 
 THE FOUNDATION-STONE OF A NEW VOLUNTARY 
 SCHOOL. 
 
 EVERY problem we have to face can be solved by a 
 body of men who are sufficiently resolute. All de- 
 pends on their resoluteness, and men are not usually 
 resolute unless they have a principle to fight for. A 
 principle gives them courage and strength. We hear 
 a great deal about the voluntary system in connexion 
 with elementary schools, and countless schemes are 
 suggested by which the maintenance of the voluntary 
 schools can be secured. It is difficult to keep pace 
 with them all. On one page of a newspaper we find a 
 new scheme floated, and on the next an impassioned 
 appeal to the Bishops to frame a policy. The general 
 notion seems to be that, in order to formulate a plan, 
 there must be something to criticise, and the managers 
 of voluntary schools seem to me to be exceedingly 
 good critics. But the great danger of criticism is 
 lest, while engaging in discussion, the critics should 
 forget to act. The best way is to do as has been done 
 here, to let wise men argue and legislators legislate,
 
 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 7 
 
 and to go on quietly and steadfastly to do our obvious 
 duty. I do not know whether that can be called a 
 policy, but it is the best policy I can supply. 
 
 It may be well for us to survey the reasons why we 
 are so keen about maintaining our voluntary schools. 
 One reason is, that we know that only by the con- 
 tinuance of voluntary schools can religious education 
 be secured. Some people think it possible to obtain 
 religious teaching without voluntary schools. I do 
 not know on what arguments they rely. If religion 
 is to be taught, there must be in the minds of the 
 managers a strong conviction of its supreme neces- 
 sity ; the master and mistress must take a real, 
 practical interest in religious teaching, and the value 
 of the teaching must be subjected to recognised tests. 
 These three things the voluntary system gives us. 
 Can we hope to get them by the School Board 
 system ? I think not, because it is perfectly obvious 
 that the managers of Board Schools are not by any 
 means selected primarily because they are religiously 
 minded persons. The members of School Boards are 
 bound not to allow the religious teaching of any 
 particular body. But the sort of undenominational 
 teaching which is allowed has really turned out to 
 be that of a new sect altogether. At first it was 
 supposed that it would be a simple sort of religion 
 which could be understood by every one. But, far 
 from being that, it has become exceedingly com- 
 plicated. I do not know whether any of you have 
 followed the somewhat unedifying proceedings of the 
 London School Board as they attempted to find out 
 what undenominational religious teaching really is.
 
 8 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 Its complexity would baffle the mind of the most 
 experienced theologian, and the result is one which 
 we cannot contemplate with very great equanimity. 
 
 One argument which is used by the plain man who 
 is always with us is, " Why perplex children's minds 
 by teaching them what is denominational?" That 
 seems a plausible argument. But is a child's mind 
 perplexed by being taught something that is definite, 
 rather than something that is vague ? Take the child 
 of religious parents who belong to some religious body. 
 That religious body has certain definite principles. 
 The father understands the connexion between his 
 soul and God. The child is not allowed to be taught 
 anything of the sort, hence he does not learn to under- 
 stand the religion of his parents. He is taught religion 
 in the abstract, as though it were astronomy or some 
 other science he were learning. Of what use is that ? 
 Undenominational religion cannot give that which a 
 child needs. A child is just the creature who ought 
 to be taught the most dogmatic religion possible. 
 Some people wish nothing to be taught that has ever 
 been contradicted. Could that be applied to the 
 teaching of history ? Is no historical subject to be 
 taught on which people have differences of opinion ? 
 From an educational point of view it is impossible to 
 teach religion in the abstract. This has been proved 
 in actual practice. 
 
 One great difficulty is to find out what is the actual 
 religious teaching given in Board Schools. With a 
 great deal of trouble we can, no doubt, discover what 
 are the regulations of the various School Boards. 
 But between the regulations and the actual practice
 
 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 9 
 
 there is a great gulf fixed. It is quite possible that 
 under School Board regulations good Christian men 
 may give as good instruction as any one could wish 
 for, but there is no guarantee that this will be the 
 case. Indeed, with School Boards, there is a distinct 
 absence of guarantee that a teacher shall be elected 
 with a view to his or her capacity for giving religious 
 instruction. Teachers are chosen for their efficiency 
 in secular matters and for nothing else. Again, how- 
 ever much members of a School Board may sympa- 
 thise with religious teaching, it is impossible for them 
 to put their sympathy to practical effect. Rules may 
 be made as to what is to be taught, but personal 
 supervision is wanting. Religious teaching, it must 
 be remembered, cannot be differentiated from all 
 other instruction and taught by itself at certain hours 
 of the day. Religion must influence all the teaching 
 given in the school. It has been said : " How is a 
 master to teach the Rule of Three with deep religious 
 emotion, and what religious feeling can he carry into 
 the teaching of Euclid ? " That is not the question. 
 Religion must be carried into everything which affects 
 the life and character of the child who is being taught, 
 and therefore it must be present in the life and char- 
 acter of the master who is teaching. His religious 
 instruction cannot be confined to the hour in which 
 he may be giving a Bible lesson. What makes a 
 child's character ? What really teaches a child reli- 
 gion ? I think it is the point of view from which the 
 master gives rebuke or encouragement, and his own 
 attitude of mind towards his work. It is all very well 
 to tell a boy that he ought to be good, so as to grow
 
 io THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 up a useful man, successful in trade, and knowing how 
 to vote for the right man at election time. That is 
 secular teaching, it is teaching morality on purely 
 utilitarian grounds. According to that system, the 
 master says to the child : " Now the State has taken 
 great care of you, it has given me a cane to whack 
 you with if you do wrong, and therefore you ought to 
 take care of yourself and grow up so as to do what 
 the State wants you to do ". Churchmen fail to see 
 how good men and women are to be made in that way, 
 and hence their desire to retain religious education. 
 
 Churchmen are prepared to make considerable 
 sacrifices in order to uphold their opinions, and we 
 believe that the common sense of the English people 
 will bring things right in the end. At the present 
 moment the chief anxiety in the mind of every one 
 seems to be to do nothing which can offend others. 
 There certainly is a vast mass of people in this country 
 who wish their children to be taught religion. I am 
 perfectly convinced of that. But by a number of 
 complicated schemes devised to try and avoid offend- 
 ing other people, we have got to this, that half the 
 children of England are either being taught no religion 
 at all, or are being taught it in a very unsatisfactory 
 way. No one wants that result, but, on the principle 
 of teaching abstract religion, that is what we have 
 arrived at. We must call people's attention to the 
 fact, and hope that some day a change may be effected. 
 I venture to hope that in time common sense, justice 
 and fairness can be relied on to prevail.
 
 II 
 
 in. 
 
 THE PLACE OF RELIGION IN EDUCATION. 
 
 EXTRACT FROM A SERMON PREACHED AT ST. PETER'S 
 CHURCH, LEICESTER, ISTH NOVEMBER, 1892. 
 
 ONE great effect of religion on character is that, by 
 keeping alive the thought of God present with us, it 
 provides the one possible means by which we can 
 maintain the unity of our lives. How important it 
 is to maintain that unity, and yet how difficult ! The 
 whole course of our daily existence tends to rob us of 
 that sense of unity. The advance of civilisation and 
 the march of progress more and more tend to separate 
 one man from another, and to split up the lives of 
 each of us into many different departments which 
 have very little connexion with one another. Life, as 
 it becomes more complicated, becomes more divided. 
 Our industrial progress is built on the subdivision 
 of labour, and our knowledge is increased by the 
 specialisation of study. Our lives are divided into 
 little pieces and our duties are all kept separate. We 
 have certain duties at home to our families, certain 
 duties outside to other people ; all our duties are 
 ticketed and labelled, and made up often in homoeo- 
 pathic doses, so that they may be administered with 
 very little trouble to ourselves. The tendency to cut 
 up life into small pieces, strong at all times, has never
 
 12 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 been stronger than in the present day. There is nothing 
 except the thought of God, there is no object of re- 
 collection, except God and His relation to our lives, 
 which can bring our lives together, which can make 
 us see the true meaning of our existence, and see 
 through the mass of details, of which assuredly our 
 lives must be made up, one great prevailing universal 
 purpose which continually raises us in the scale of 
 being. We can only succeed in our lives if we recog- 
 nise that essential 'unity, the bearing of one thing on 
 another, the real meaning of all the little acts of which 
 our lives are made up. We ought to get behind all 
 the things we do, to lay hold on some one animating 
 spirit, to see that we are striving to embody a principle 
 in our life, to have a definite end and aim before us. 
 This we can only find in God. Only in the thought 
 of God can we redress the balance of the world, only 
 by that thought can we get hold of the idea of the 
 unity of our lives, only in the thought of God can we 
 really find ourselves. He can restore the shattered 
 unity of our lives, and make us feel that there is one 
 purpose we can pursue through all the multiplicity of 
 details. 
 
 We see some men who say, " I go forward to face 
 society, and I take my stand boldly on the great 
 feeling of love : I proclaim as my social creed that ' I 
 love all men '." Very good ; but we feel, if we watch 
 such a man, that after starting from that magnificent 
 principle all else that he has to say tends to shade 
 off into tawdry sentimentalism. It leads to no result ; 
 his gospel has no contents. Why ? Because his love 
 does not abound in knowledge. Love itself will not
 
 THE PLACE OF RELIGION IN EDUCATION 13 
 
 suffice to answer our questions, to solve our problems. 
 Such a man's creed may give a pleasant and refreshing 
 sense of love, but love must abound in knowledge and 
 judgment before it meets its true, perfect and complete 
 reward. Love must abound in knowledge, must be 
 corrected by knowledge, each must supply the defects 
 of the other. May we not even go so far as to say 
 that these qualities of love and knowledge do not 
 really exist apart? I will only deal now with one 
 instance of love abounding in knowledge and judg- 
 ment. Is not that what we mean by education ? Can 
 we, as we look at our own children, define education 
 better? What do we hope that our child may be- 
 come? We hope that beginning with love, love of 
 parents, love of all things good, love may grow till it 
 abounds in knowledge, and knowledge may take a 
 definite practical shape in him, ending in a ripe judg- 
 ment, so that his love and knowledge combined, may 
 produce that spirit of wisdom which will enable him 
 to go through the world refusing that which is evil and 
 choosing that which is good. The object of education 
 after all is character. We wish our children to grow 
 in love that their love may abound in knowledge. 
 Characters can only be really loving in proportion as 
 they are wise and look at things as they are. Love 
 that is unwise, as we see in the case of parents who 
 spoil their children, does as much harm as hate. We 
 cannot do our child a greater act of unkindness than 
 to love him foolishly. 
 
 If love abounding in knowledge is the object of 
 education, does this not show us how large a place 
 religion must have in any system of education worthy
 
 14 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 the name ? What is the point in the child's mind from 
 which we are to begin our teaching ? Shall we say 
 to the child " Learn that you may earn wages and 
 get your daily bread, learn that you may compete 
 with your fellows ? " Can we hope to produce great 
 results in the world by such motives ? Will they tend 
 to produce great and noble men ? Shall we ever 
 have a hardy and sturdy stock, such as were the Eng- 
 lishmen of the past, if we bring up our children with 
 no higher appeals, no nobler motives than those of 
 self-interest, of success in this world ? Not so were 
 our forefathers trained, not so must our children be 
 trained. The life of the young must be harmonious, 
 and the beginning of the appeal to the youthful mind 
 must be noble. We must begin with love, love abound- 
 ing unto knowledge and judgment. The child by 
 nature loves his parent, and only through that love can 
 the parent begin to exercise an influence on his child. 
 The teacher of every kind must begin from that same 
 feeling. Love is the basis from which all worthy 
 energy in this world must spring. But how can we 
 appeal to love as the motive in the child's mind, unless 
 we set before him the love of Christ ? Can any one 
 say that religious education is something that may be 
 added on to other education ? Is it possible to assert 
 that we can go on with other education quite distinct 
 from religion, and at the last moment summon some 
 one to hang on religion as though it were an ornament, 
 an appendix that could be put on from outside? 
 Some people say so, but they say it because they 
 misunderstand human nature and the contents of the 
 gospels. Religion is not merely so much instruction
 
 THE PLACE OF RELIGION IN EDUCATION 15 
 
 or information that can be added on. It is the in- 
 spiration of all education, for education must be 
 founded on love. What we are engaged on in educa- 
 tion is the formation of character, not the cultivation 
 of certain aptitudes for reading, writing and doing 
 sums. These are not the things we would put before 
 the child as the be-all and end-all of life. This is not 
 the message which the nineteenth century must offer 
 to the child. What \ve want to pass on to the child is 
 the desire to be what we ourselves have striven to be, 
 only better, stronger, nobler and purer. We know 
 what religion has done for us, how it has saved us 
 from temptation, raised us when we fell, guided us to 
 greater heights, allured us to nobler endeavour. If 
 we have realised this, let us do our best to determine 
 that the same impulse, and the same power shall be 
 handed on to those who are to come after us, re- 
 garding religion not as an ornament that may be 
 dispensed with if desired, but as the very foundation 
 of life on which character must be moulded.
 
 i6 
 
 IV. 
 OUR EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM. 
 
 EXTRACTS FROM A SPEECH DELIVERED AT THE 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE PRIZES GIVEN BY THE 
 
 LIVERPOOL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION TO THE 
 ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, 2OTH JANUARY, 1892. 
 
 IT must be confessed that there have lately been 
 some signs of reaction against our existing system of 
 education. The cause of this must be sought in the 
 exaggerated hopes which were formed at its first 
 introduction. These hopes were exaggerated, because 
 the arguments urged in favour of an improved system 
 of education were too largely utilitarian. Moreover 
 the system was regarded at first as if it were something 
 entirely new. The system may be new, but education 
 is not new ; and from the extension of something old 
 we cannot expect to get quite new and original results. 
 We knew what education would be likely to do, be- 
 cause we already possessed samples of the result of 
 education. We had many educated people, but could 
 we say of them that they all had made the most of 
 their lives, or had succeeded in doing exactly what we 
 expected of them, or would have prescribed for them ? 
 Obviously not. Therefore I do not see that we have 
 any rational grounds for disappointment, because we 
 find that, when a national and universal system of
 
 OUR EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 17 
 
 education has been established all the results that we 
 hoped for are not apparent Why should they be ? 
 The system is not new. All that has been done was 
 first, to make the system universal, then to make it 
 compulsory, and lastly to make it free. 
 
 Many things have been said about education of 
 which the falsity was bound to become apparent. 
 Few phrases could be more misleading or contain less 
 than one which has been largely repeated, " we must 
 educate our masters ". The phrase assumes in the first 
 place that we are all agreed ; secondly, that the class 
 whom we call our masters do not agree with us, and 
 thirdly, that education is to be the means of making 
 us and our masters think the same thing. Each of 
 these propositions is disputable, and the last is de- 
 cidedly false. Education cannot be regarded as a 
 -.means of making men agree. I would rather suggest 
 that education is a means of making men disagree. 
 It cannot and must not be a method of grinding 
 everybody down to a dead level. It must be an 
 intelligent system for taking the individual as he is, 
 teaching him to make the best of himself, and bringing 
 out of him all the individual qualities which he pos- 
 sesses. All systems of education must be judged 
 according as they tend to form character or to leave 
 it out of account. 
 
 Your care in bestowing prizes for religious know- 
 ledge corresponds, I am perfectly convinced, with the 
 wishes of the great mass of the English people. I 
 believe that the people of England wish that religion 
 should take a large and principal place in elementary 
 education. If we are agreed upon that, the exact 
 
 2
 
 1 8 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 method in which it is to be done will be solved in 
 time, if we have patience. I do not want to under- 
 estimate the difficulty of coming to a solution to which 
 every one would assent, but I believe that the solution 
 will be arrived at, and I am sure that the artisan class 
 especially is sick and tired of all the squabbling on 
 the subject. 
 
 Your council has undertaken a work of supreme 
 national importance. On some points, if you are 
 allowed, you may do even more important work in 
 the future than you have done in the past. One great 
 point which has to be settled with regard to our 
 educational system is, first, how a child can best be 
 trained who is going to leave school at the age of 
 thirteen and take up a handicraft ; secondly, how a 
 boy or girl can best be trained who is to leave at the 
 age of sixteen to enter upon some commercial pursuit ; 
 thirdly, how best those can be trained who leave at 
 nineteen to enter upon a professional career, and 
 lastly, what can be done for those who are to go on 
 to the universities. The child who leaves at thirteen 
 should be trained first as a man and secondly as a 
 workman. Localities ought to have a voice in the 
 mode of training ; and I can imagine a state of things 
 in which it would be possible for a body like your 
 Council of Education to have a voice in saying what 
 subjects are best fitted to be taught in the schools of 
 Liverpool. It should be in a position to decide this, 
 because it could bring together those who would be 
 most likely to know what kind of life the children 
 will lead when they leave school and therefore what 
 subjects they had best be taught. Those engaged in
 
 OUR EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 19 
 
 industry in Liverpool should be consulted as to those 
 points in each class of work in which it is desirable 
 that a boy should be instructed before he goes to 
 work, as opposed to those which a week's apprentice- 
 ship will teach him. The danger of technical educa- 
 tion is, lest it should waste time in teaching just those 
 things which can be learnt in a week's apprenticeship 
 in the workshop. The object sought should be, not 
 primarily to enable a man to be a better workman, 
 but to lead him to understand his work better and to 
 enjoy the doing of it more.
 
 20 
 
 V. 
 THE EDUCATION BILL OF 1896. 
 
 SPEECH DELIVERED AT THE OPENING OF NEW 
 SCHOOLS IN ST. JOHN'S PARISH, PETERBOROUGH, 
 I3TH APRIL, 1896. 
 
 I FANCY that few legislative proposals that have been 
 put forward in modern times have created more sur- 
 prise and bewilderment than the Education Bill which 
 is now before Parliament. I do not profess to have 
 any great capacity for reading Acts of Parliament, 
 and I cannot claim to be able to calculate what may 
 be the probable results of this measure in its details. 
 That will be done by experts, and there is no reason 
 to fear that this Bill will become law without a full 
 consideration of all the small details of the compli- 
 cated system which it affects. We have already 
 heard a great deal of criticism, given before these 
 details have been properly explained by those re- 
 sponsible for carrying them out. What I wish now 
 to say will only apply to the Bill as a general measure, 
 regarded from the point of view of that common sense 
 which an Englishman is supposed to possess. 
 
 It strikes me that the Bill has met with very scant 
 approbation, for the simple reason that it is much 
 larger than anything that was expected, and its mere 
 size and importance seem to have taken people's
 
 THE EDUCATION BILL OF 1896 21 
 
 breath away, and they have proceeded to criticise 
 it in detail before they have grasped its general 
 principles. But in my opinion it is the general prin- 
 ciples that are of the chief importance. I think the 
 Bill is an honest, straightforward and sensible attempt 
 to bring back our interest in education into something 
 like actuality. Since 1870 we have talked about 
 educational progress. I fear that I am not able to 
 believe that we have made any real educational pro- 
 gress during that time ; I am not even sure whether 
 we have not gone back. We have been providing 
 educational mechanism, and we have lost sight of the 
 contents of education. All this time we have had 
 an education question. But a real education question 
 should be a question about education itself, and the 
 best form of education, and not be concerned with 
 squabbles about all kinds of other things bricks and 
 mortar, political matters and controversies which have 
 no direct bearing upon the question of education at 
 all. There is a sense in which it would be true to say 
 that the discussion of the religious question is the only 
 point in the whole discussion in which education in 
 itself has really been considered at all. Those who 
 insisted upon the maintenance of denominational 
 schools had a distinct educational object ; for their 
 view was that education was only valuable in so far as 
 it was a preparation for life. They maintained that if 
 there was to be real, genuine, religious education, it 
 must be denominational, because only when it took a 
 denominational form was religion attached to the 
 mind of the child in the shape in which it could 
 actually affect his life.
 
 22 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 In teaching religion as in teaching anything else 
 we must teach in such a way that a child may be able 
 to apply its knowledge to actual life, and be led to 
 link on what it has learnt to a definite, existing 
 religious system. In striving to maintain the cause 
 of religious education, we have not been engaged in 
 a struggle against any other religious body. We have 
 been concerned in maintaining a truth to which we 
 hold for educational reasons, the truth that when we 
 teach a subject we must teach it definitely from the 
 very beginning, and must teach it in a form in which 
 it can be practically applied. These are purely edu- 
 cational tenets, and the maintainers of denominational 
 teaching have, I think, been fighting for the cause of 
 real educational progress. Of course they have been 
 misrepresented, because they have not been sufficiently 
 interested in bricks and mortar, which apparently 
 many people regard as a chief part of educational 
 progress. 
 
 It seems to me that the proposed Education Bill 
 recognises sensibly the existing situation, and tries to 
 make the best of it, and to rescue education from the 
 small squabbles in which, for a long time, it has been 
 absorbed, and to put it again upon its proper footing. 
 It tries honestly, straightforwardly and fairly to put 
 the education question again in a proper position 
 and to make a new start. It does the only thing 
 that can be done under such circumstances, and puts 
 an end to controversies by taking things as they are. 
 There exist Board Schools and Voluntary Schools, 
 why should it be necessary for their supporters to go 
 on squabbling ? As sensible people let us agree that
 
 THE EDUCATION BILL OF 1896 23 
 
 both kinds of schools shall exist. I certainly hope 
 that Church Schools will exist for all time. The Bill 
 takes both kinds of schools as they are and tries to 
 put them on an equal basis. We have heard a great 
 deal about the need for popular control, but hitherto 
 our educational system has been practically controlled 
 by the Education Department, which goes rigidly and 
 exactly into every minute detail. The managers and 
 teachers are merely the servants of the Department ; 
 all that they have to do is to provide the schools and 
 the teaching in accordance with the regulations of the 
 Department. In this Bill, however, the parent has 
 not been forgotten. Hitherto, it has seemed as if the 
 parent existed simply and solely that he might be 
 prosecuted when his child did not go to school. But 
 it is now recognised that he may have some interest 
 in considering what his child is to be taught. The Bill 
 allows him to decide in what form of religious belief 
 his child shall be educated. This seems to me the 
 one sensible way of dealing with the religious difficulty, 
 the one way of settling it effectually. If this can be 
 done, we may have good reason for hoping that the 
 old controversies will, in a short time, pass into 
 oblivion, and that it will be recognised that it is 
 possible to give thorough religious instruction to those 
 who want it, without in the least degree doing any 
 violence to the feelings of those who wish for some- 
 thing else. 
 
 This brings me to the second point in which the 
 Bill makes a great advance, not only in educational 
 matters, but also in the development of our constitu- 
 tional system ; I mean the decentralisation of the
 
 24 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 educational authority, and the establishment of a new 
 local authority, which is to be the primary reference 
 in all matters concerning schools. There is to be a 
 local educational authority appointed by every County 
 Council, and that is to stand between the Department 
 and the managers of any individual school. This, I 
 think, will operate excellently. It is likely to create 
 a popular interest in the matter of education, and to 
 bring forward the subject in the discussions at the 
 election of County Councils. The Bill provides that 
 the local authority shall be a committee of the County 
 Council, which committee is to have power to add to 
 its numbers, so that experts from outside may be 
 brought in. I can conceive no better way in which 
 a strong governing committee could be secured for a 
 matter in which expert knowledge is required. Popu- 
 lar elections can only elect capable men. That, at 
 least, they ought to understand how to do. But we 
 cannot get experts elected by popular vote. As far 
 as I can see at present, the popular vote should elect 
 the members of the County Council, the members of 
 the County Council should then proceed to elect from 
 their number those whom they think best fitted to 
 deal with educational matters, and they in their turn 
 should have power to select outsiders, whom they 
 would call in to counsel them as experts, on account 
 of the special knowledge which they possessed. I 
 look forward to a revival of a real interest in the con- 
 tents of education through this Bill ; for it gives me 
 hopes that the education question will, in the future, 
 be no longer regarded as concerned with providing 
 cries for party politics, nor be confined to bricks and
 
 THE EDUCATION BILL OF 1896 25 
 
 mortar, or even to the weighty matters of hat-pegs 
 and drill, but will be directed to education as a pre- 
 paration for actual life. I entertain these hopes 
 because the Bill recognises the rights of parents ; 
 because it provides for local managers in every school, 
 whose interest and sympathy are of the greatest value 
 to the teachers ; because it gives us power of federation 
 which will lead to greater equality of advantages 
 among the different schools ; because it subjects all 
 schools to a local authority which is accessible, and 
 can take account of local circumstances and conditions, 
 whilst it reserves to the Education Department the 
 position of general director and final court of appeal. 
 Such a system seems to me to be in accordance with 
 the spirit of English institutions, and therefore to have 
 in it the elements of vitality.
 
 26 
 
 VI. 
 
 THE CHILD AND THE EDUCATION 
 QUESTION. 
 
 SPEECH AT THE OPENING OF THE WILLESDEN BOARD 
 SCHOOLS, BOTH APRIL, 1897. 
 
 THE education question has presented itself so far 
 to the public mind under different aspects, as it con- 
 cerns the interests of the rate-payers or the control of 
 parents, or the great question of the expenditure of 
 public money without representation. In discussions 
 about it many different points have been raised, edu- 
 cation itself has alone been left unconsidered. The 
 education question as it affects the children has never 
 yet been envisaged. Yet it is a matter that concerns 
 the children and the children only. The questions 
 which have been considered concern the rights of 
 everybody except the child, but the child must always 
 have the right to claim from the community the best 
 that the community can give it. If we look at edu- 
 cation from that point of view, we shall see that we 
 have not nearly so many differences of opinion as we are 
 rather inclined to rejoice in now. All of us who have 
 reached middle-age know that the one thing we live 
 for is the children, that we have discovered that we 
 ourselves are not likely to do much more good in the 
 world, but that to give our minds to make the future
 
 THE CHILD AND THE EDUCATION QUESTION 27 
 
 better for those who come after us, to take out of 
 their way some of the stumbling-blocks over which 
 we have fallen, to see that they are better equipped 
 for life than we were, is the greatest contribution that 
 we can make to the future, and the best way in which 
 we can make ourselves useful in the present. 
 
 The education discussions of the past have turned 
 so much on the provision of buildings and teachers, 
 on compulsory powers for sending children into the 
 schools, on the means by which the money needed to 
 provide teachers and buildings can be raised, that 
 there has been no time as yet to turn our minds 
 properly to the question of what is to be done with the 
 children when we have got them into the schools. 
 I am very much in favour of popular government and 
 of people managing their own business : no business 
 is well done unless those concerned manage it them- 
 selves. But public business is just like private business, 
 and a multitude is no wiser than half a dozen. If 
 people are going to manage a business they must 
 understand it, and, if they are to manage education, 
 they must take a little trouble to understand some- 
 thing about it. I have not noticed so far any particular 
 desire to really understand the contents of education. 
 People understand about building schools, and about 
 how much they should cost per head, and how the 
 rates should be levied, but that is not the education 
 question. The education question should be con- 
 cerned with knowing what we desire the children to 
 be taught, and how we desire that this should be 
 taught to them. Hitherto it has been the habit to 
 leave these things in the hands of experts, and we
 
 28 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 have been content to believe that supreme wisdom 
 abides in the Education Department ; but we shall 
 not get popular education properly carried out on 
 that basis. We can only get the blots and difficulties 
 in the present system cleared away and the system 
 amended, if we see, first of all, that that system is 
 founded on proper principles, and, secondly, that it is 
 adapted to popular requirements. If the latter is to 
 be done, people in general must be really interested 
 in what the children are taught, and must take the 
 trouble to understand what they should be taught, 
 and how that teaching shall be given. Then there 
 would be a more intelligent criticism on the methods 
 of popular education and on the way in which it is 
 conducted. I believe that the common sense of the 
 community ought to be applied to every question that 
 concerns the public welfare, and I believe also that 
 the common sense of the community will generally 
 stumble on the right principle, and on the whole apply 
 it judiciously and wisely. 
 
 In my opinion one necessity of primary education 
 is to follow carefully the order of the child's mind. 
 The mistake of all systems of education is that they 
 do not follow that order, but rather the order of the 
 mind of the grown-up person, between which and the 
 mind of the child there is a great difference. The 
 child begins by observing a number of things, the 
 adult by unpacking what is already in the mind. It 
 is partly the result of the bad education received in 
 the past that we possess our knowledge in a cut-and- 
 dried way, but the child works pictorially by going 
 straight to the results of its own observation and ex-
 
 THE CHILD AND THE EDUCATION QUESTION 29 
 
 perience. Education should leave the mind quick to 
 observe and ready to ask questions. These are the 
 two qualities which should be called out in every- 
 body's mind. If real intelligence is to remain through 
 life, this method must be resorted to, and I ask, Is the 
 present system of education likely to make children 
 alert and curious and eager to ask questions? Discip- 
 line forbids it, and a child who asks a question would 
 probably be promptly suppressed like the guinea-pig 
 in Alice in Wonderland. The more we have a system 
 which aims at producing certain results on a certain 
 day, the more we shall injure the capacity for per- 
 petual observation and perpetual curiosity. We must 
 get a mode of education which shall make children 
 mentally alert ; anything which stultifies that quality 
 helps to ruin the individual's chance of being of use in 
 the world. I have been told that the present system 
 turns out beautiful clerks, but my informant owned 
 that he did not find as much alertness of mind in 
 his clerks as he did when he began business. We 
 are led to ask ourselves whether quickness of grasp 
 is being created more and more, or is slowly dimin- 
 ishing. 
 
 We make a mistake if we think we can create it 
 simply by adding technical education to elementary 
 education. We shall not be enabled to compete with 
 the foreigner simply by devotion to technical educa- 
 tion, neither can we create by any artificial process 
 the peculiar practical capacity which has marked the 
 Englishman in the past, and has placed him in the 
 position which he occupies at the head of the industrial 
 world. Technical education will not produce it, but it
 
 30 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 is possible to destroy it unless our efforts are bestowed 
 to cultivate at the same time quick observation and 
 intelligent curiosity. The whole of progress consists 
 in asking questions, and if we will only once ask 
 ourselves a question we shall stumble on the answer 
 in a few days. When we have asked the question 
 three-quarters of the business has been done. The 
 one real object of education is to leave a man in the 
 condition of continually asking questions. 
 
 The education of the mind that asks questions 
 will never cease. It is absolute condemnation of any 
 system of education to say that education will be 
 complete when what the system prescribes has been 
 mastered. Education must not merely hang clothes 
 around us, it must invigorate our frame. Even if 
 children carry away but little of the contents of the 
 instruction given, the teaching will have been good if 
 they come away with minds alert to ask questions 
 and to demand answers to them. These are prin- 
 ciples of large application. May I suggest that if 
 you will follow these principles out, you will each 
 become intelligent critics of any systems of education 
 which you may come across. We shall not advance 
 as quickly as we should wish in educational matters 
 until we create a large body of educational critics. 
 I was perfectly downcast last year when the Govern- 
 ment brought in its Education Bill. It was a very 
 large measure, whether it was a wise one or not I 
 will not discuss to-night, but it was obvious that the 
 Bill proposed to vest in the local authorities a good 
 deal of power to control the contents of education. 
 What did the great majority of the local authorities
 
 THE CHILD AND THE EDUCATION QUESTION 31 
 
 at once do? They proceeded to pass resolutions 
 implying that they knew nothing and cared nothing 
 about education, that they were not going to get 
 up the subject, and did not wish to undertake the 
 functions which it was proposed to confide to them. 
 This is a proof that there is really an entirely in- 
 adequate attention given to the contents of education. 
 We need more local knowledge and insight into what 
 goes on in the schools. The system that comes to us 
 from the Education Department and is endorsed by 
 experts will be none the worse for being independ- 
 ently criticised. When we face the greatness and 
 importance of the problem, we must all feel how 
 small is the contribution we have each of us made 
 to its solution. I have said that the object of the 
 teacher is to follow the order of the child's mind, and 
 I have lived long enough to know that no one with 
 any conception of humility can claim to be able to 
 follow that order completely, for this simple reason 
 that the more we see of a child's mind the more 
 unfathomable becomes its mystery. The delicacy 
 of its machinery, its potency for good, its splendid 
 capacity for nobility and grandeur, make it a thing 
 to be looked on with the deepest reverence. As 
 we recognise the importance of the work before us, 
 we must wish to do all we can to hasten the time 
 which we hope will be happier than our own, the days 
 when 
 
 Sweeter shall the roses blow 
 In those far years, those happier years ; 
 
 And children weep when we lie low 
 Far fewer tears, far softer tears.
 
 32 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 This is our desire, that by our labour in our day 
 and generation the tears of the children when we are 
 in our graves will be fewer, because we have laboured 
 in their behalf and striven to give them of the best 
 we have.
 
 33 
 
 VII. 
 
 READING BOOKS FOR ELEMENTARY 
 SCHOOLS. 
 
 SPEECH AT THE DURHAM DIOCESAN CONFERENCE, 
 
 1880. 
 
 THE Education Department has made an important 
 change in the code, which is to come into effect next 
 year. The children are henceforth to be examined not 
 only in the mechanical exercise of reading, but also 
 in the contents of their reading books. The utility of 
 this change will evidently depend on the supply of 
 proper reading books for the purpose. What are the 
 principles on which such reading books should be 
 framed ? Are we likely to get them ? I answer we 
 shall not get them unless we take a little trouble. 
 Let us consider the principles on which they should 
 be framed. 
 
 The object of education is twofold, to make a man 
 master of himself and master of the world in which 
 he moves. We believe that only religious education 
 can make a man master of himself; it remains for 
 secular education to give him knowledge of the 
 material world. Any subject will afford the basis for 
 a sound training, provided it be taught thoroughly 
 as far as the teaching goes. Let us, however, re- 
 member that those subjects are best which develop 
 
 3
 
 34 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 a child's powers of observation as well as stimulate 
 his intelligence. The process of attending school is 
 by no means an unmixed good for a young child. 
 Learning from books prevents a child from learning 
 from nature ; confinement in school tends to check 
 that power of unconscious observation which is a 
 great part of the early education of all. It should be 
 our object to restore the balance by leading children, 
 as soon as they can read, to observe the actual sur- 
 roundings of their life. We must lead them on step 
 by step, explaining as we go. Hence the new reading 
 books ought to be carefully adapted to the actual 
 facts of the everyday life of the children of each 
 school. In all cases they should include explanations 
 of the great phenomena of nature which are every- 
 where visible. In towns they should deal with the 
 manufactures of the neighbourhood and explain the 
 processes which the children see before their eyes. 
 In the country the processes of agriculture and the 
 rudiments of natural history might similarly be taught. 
 Knowledge of the simple facts concerning the human 
 body and the application of the laws of health to the 
 facts of the locality would be another subject. Be- 
 ginning from the School Penny Bank a few simple 
 lessons of social economy might be drawn out. The 
 interests of the children should be extended by be- 
 ginning from obvious facts, and leading them on to 
 observe less obvious facts, which should be in their 
 turn explained. 
 
 Such a system of reading books would require a 
 great deal of trouble to make, but they would be 
 worth the trouble. They would need co-operation
 
 READING BOOKS FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 35 
 
 amongst those engaged in teaching and those in- 
 terested in it ; they could only be drawn up after a 
 careful consideration of the needs of each district. 
 Surely those who have ungrudgingly given their time 
 and money to erect proper schools and to drive the 
 children into them, will not now refuse to lend their 
 intelligence and their experience to help to make the 
 education given in those schools as thorough as it 
 can be.
 
 VIII. 
 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 EXTRACT FROM A SPEECH AT A PRIZE DISTRIBUTION 
 AT PETERBOROUGH, 26 NOVEMBER, 1894. 
 
 IN one sense examinations are good, in another bad. 
 Without examinations there would be a tendency to 
 idleness and laxity, teachers would not be kept up 
 to the mark. The evil side of examinations is that, 
 while they are simply meant to be tests, teachers 
 will insist upon regarding them as standards. To 
 get a class through an examination is too often re- 
 garded as the sole aim and object of teaching, but 
 the real object should be so to train and educate 
 the children as to develop their intellect generally. 
 Worse still, when the teachers take the examination 
 as a standard, they will also insist upon trying to 
 take short cuts towards the desired end. They cause 
 certain facts and certain answers to be committed to 
 memory, and in this way, instead of developing the 
 intelligence of the children, they strive to circumvent 
 the inspector, treating him as if he were a foe instead 
 of a friend. As the examination draws near, they 
 allot to themselves the time necessary to cram into 
 the heads of their scholars the knowledge required 
 in order to pass. But children should be taught 
 in such a way that a day or two's break before
 
 EXAMINATIONS 37 
 
 the examination will do no harm. If the teaching is 
 thorough, a three days' holiday before the examination 
 ought to do good. It might be usefully employed 
 in thinking over at leisure what has been learnt. 
 True education consists in developing the intellect, 
 not in committing to memory before an examination 
 pages of information often profoundly dry and gener- 
 ally inaccurate.
 
 IX. 
 THE VALUE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 SPEECH DELIVERED AT THE PRIZE GIVING OF THE 
 PETERBOROUGH SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND ART, 
 STH DECEMBER, 1891. 
 
 TECHNICAL education has in late years been very 
 much before the public mind. Greatly as I am in 
 favour of it, I must confess that I am in favour of it 
 not because it is technical, but because it is educa- 
 tion ; and I think that in urging its claims people 
 often fail to hit the mark because they aim too 
 low. Shortly after the passing of the Education 
 Act of 1875, a distinguished member of Parliament 
 told me that one of the most remarkable speeches 
 made in the House in connexion with the Bill was 
 that of Mr. Thomas Burt, member, for Morpeth, then 
 the only working-man representative in Parliament. 
 He said : " Education has been advocated from every 
 possible point of view. It has been said that educa- 
 tion will reduce the rates, that it will empty the 
 prisons, that it will enable our workmen to hold their 
 own in competition with other nations, but I don't 
 believe that the working men of England want educa- 
 tion on any one of these grounds, but they want it 
 because it will make them better, happier and wiser 
 men." This opinion of Mr. Burt's seems to me a
 
 THE VALUE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION 39 
 
 noble and right opinion, and puts the matter on a 
 proper basis. We do not now want technical educa- 
 tion because it will produce results which can be 
 measured by politicians and members of Boards of 
 Guardians, but because it will make each individual 
 who gets it better, wiser and happier, better deserving 
 of the name of man, better qualified to do his duty 
 in his day and generation. 
 
 The desire for technical education marks a very 
 decided advance in our educational views. All true 
 education must depend for its success upon the rapidity 
 with which it takes hold of the mind and attracts the 
 inquiry of those to whom it is offered. It is useless to 
 go to a man with the offer of education in the abstract. 
 He will ask how the education which is offered him 
 is to attach itself to his life. We must show men 
 cause why they should desire knowledge, and we shall 
 do that by bringing the knowledge we offer them into 
 immediate relations with the actual facts of their life, 
 and the circumstances under which their character 
 is being developed. Two great qualities lie at the 
 basis of knowledge curiosity and observation. A 
 man will pursue knowledge when his curiosity has 
 been stimulated, and when his power of observation 
 is supplied with some material upon which it can ex- 
 ercise itself. Curiosity can be awakened about things 
 which lie immediately about his doors. We must go 
 to a man and say : " You are engaged in such and such 
 work ; we want to explain to you fully the meaning 
 of what you are doing ; we want to make you under- 
 stand something about science and art through the 
 material with which you have to deal ; to reveal to
 
 40 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 you the laws under which your work has to be carried 
 on ; to put you in the way of understanding what at 
 present you are only doing mechanically ". 
 
 We must remember also that knowledge cannot be 
 taken in by cart-loads. The human mind is not like 
 a coal-cellar, into which, after opening a grating, you 
 shovel whatever contents you wish. The process of 
 education will be useful exactly 'in so far as its sub- 
 ject-matter is such as the mind can work upon. The 
 mind must digest the food which it receives. We must 
 exercise our faculties freely upon the subject-matter 
 with which we are supplied, and free exercise of the 
 faculties of the mind begins with observation and 
 experiment. Technical education, starting with the 
 objects and pursuits which lie at a man's door, gives 
 him the means of exercising these powers. Therefore 
 it is true education in the highest sense, and for that 
 reason it should be advocated and urged upon every 
 one, not because it will make a man a better workman 
 and so enable him to earn higher wages. Let us appeal 
 to men to get knowledge for its own sake, because it 
 will make their life more beautiful and more worth 
 living. Appeals to the higher part of human nature 
 are never thrown away, and indifference mainly arises 
 from the fact that sufficient cause is not shown to a 
 man why he should rouse himself from his lethargy and 
 do something. To appeal to men to gain education 
 simply because of the dangers of foreign competition 
 will not have much effect. 
 
 You may think it a very heretical thing to say, but 
 when I take a general survey, and consider the records 
 of English industry and adventure, and compare Eng-
 
 THE VALUE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION 41 
 
 land with other countries in the past and in the 
 present, I come to the conclusion that the Englishman 
 has never succeeded by virtue of his cleverness. I do 
 not think that the English are a very clever people. 
 I should like to illustrate my meaning by the experi- 
 ence of a friend of mine who studied at Zurich, the 
 greatest engineering school in Europe. People of 
 every nationality frequented it, and, when the pupils 
 were questioned by the lecturer in the classroom, 
 the answers of the English students showed so little 
 general knowledge that they were often received with 
 shouts of laughter by their companions. But when the 
 class proceeded to the workshops to solve the practical 
 problem which had been set, the German would pull 
 out his note-book and begin to make elaborate calcu- 
 lations ; the French and Italians would walk round 
 the problem, put their heads on one side, and make 
 many smart and excellent suggestions ; the English- 
 man would put his hands in his pockets, whistle for a 
 while, and then go and do the problem whilst the 
 others were still thinking about it. That is highly 
 characteristic of the English at all times. They have 
 somehow or other a practical capacity for doing the 
 things which have to be done. I wish to emphasise 
 this point, because I think that any new movement, 
 and technical education is a new movement, suffers 
 in the long run if it is advocated on wrong grounds. 
 The English workman will tend to hold his own, 
 I believe, by reason of his practical capacity, his 
 versatility, his power of insight into the thing that 
 has to be done, and his readiness to do it. He may 
 do it in a rough-and-ready way, but he will do it
 
 42 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 somehow. This practical capacity is independent of 
 education ; no amount of technical education will 
 create it, it is inborn in our race and it is a quality 
 to be cherished. When I lived in Northumberland, 
 and went into the elementary schools there, and saw 
 the mechanism of our modern system of education, I 
 used to wonder whether all the improvements would 
 enable us to produce more men like Robert Stephenson 
 and Thomas Bewick, the sons of peasants, who had 
 nothing of what we call education, but were men who 
 had seeing eyes and hearing ears, who cultivated their 
 powers of observation and kept an endless curiosity. 
 It is in seeing what has to be done, rather than in the 
 capacity shown in doing it, that the real power of a 
 great man consists. It comes from the keen cultiva- 
 tion of curiosity and observation, from learning how 
 to see for oneself, how to keep one's mind clear and 
 unfettered and one's eyes open, and from a resolute 
 determination to do one's best under all circumstances. 
 Technical education will not give you these qualities, 
 but it will make your lives more interesting and less 
 mechanical. In what after all does happiness consist ? 
 A wise man has said that happiness consists in the 
 consciousness of the free use of our capacities and 
 faculties in an excellent way. We cannot get farther 
 than this definition. Happiness should be the accom- 
 paniment of the everyday life of all who are doing 
 good, honest work with an intelligent mind. To 
 create something, to produce something, this is the 
 highest attainment of man's faculties, the supreme 
 reward of his labours. The working man has this 
 advantage over the brain worker, that he deals with
 
 THE VALUE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION 43 
 
 tangible results. If he is only intelligent and in- 
 terested in his work, if he understands the materials 
 he is dealing with, and desires to deal with them in 
 the best possible way, he has all the elements of 
 happiness in his reach. To work and take one's 
 share in the world's work life can give no more, 
 and it ought to give no less. 
 
 Let us turn for a moment to the consideration of 
 art, since science and art between them include the 
 sum total of human knowledge. At first sight they 
 seem very different, but we soon discern that they 
 are not really different either in their aims or in their 
 revelations. Science consists in the pursuit of truth, 
 which leads to the establishing of law, where at first 
 everything seemed to be merely capricious. Science 
 pursues law through the process of classification. The 
 pursuit of art is beauty. But no one can gaze on 
 nature and merely perceive its beauty. He is inevi- 
 tably led on to the recognition of law. It has been 
 truly said that beauty is only law under a veil. It is 
 a cover thrown over law to conceal it for a moment, 
 so as to incite men to pursue it more steadfastly in 
 the future. When at first we speak of a landscape 
 which attracts us and vaunt the beauties of nature, it 
 is in her apparent capriciousness that her charm seems 
 to lie. But as we look closer and try to reproduce 
 what we see, we discover that there is no capricious- 
 ness, that beauty consists of line answering to line, 
 and is regulated according to certain principles of 
 proportion, that all things fall under laws. Whether 
 we begin with the pursuit of truth or with the pursuit 
 of beauty, we are inevitably led to the same conclusion,
 
 44 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 law rules over all things, and our pursuit leads to the 
 perpetual revelation of law. The pursuit and the 
 recognition of law form the discipline of man's char- 
 acter. Brought face to face with law, we gain the 
 sense of discipline, and we come to recognise the 
 limits within which our capacities can work. Unless 
 some portion of our time is spent in that self-discipline 
 which the pursuit of real knowledge brings, we may 
 say in the words of the heathen of old that we have 
 lost a day. We need to be brought face to face with 
 the truth which nature has stamped upon the world, 
 and which art inevitably reveals, that all human things 
 are subject to limitations. Our own capacities will be 
 exercised firmly, wisely and well, and will produce 
 good results when we recognise the limitations within 
 which they can be fruitful, and it is the moral law 
 which must impose these limitations. 
 
 Science, art and morality merge the one into the 
 other ; they are not different things but one and the 
 same thing, and the more we look at the world and 
 the farther our knowledge goes, the more we see the 
 wonderful law and order which prevail, the manifesta- 
 tion of beauty which is the secret of life for every one of 
 us. The more we see the unity of design in all things 
 and realise how all is directed by one great purpose, 
 the more we shall see the mission of our own individual 
 life. The work, the ministries of every one of us, 
 whether he be thinker or craftsman, poet or designer, 
 statesman or priest, all tend to the same great end, 
 and all lead to the same result, the recognition of 
 beauty, of that supreme beauty which resides in nature, 
 in the moral character of man, in the pursuit of truth.
 
 THE VALUE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION 45 
 
 The same beauty shows itself everywhere, pervades 
 our lives, and, rousing us, leads to the recognition of 
 our due place in this world which God has made, and 
 on every part of which He has impressed the marks 
 of His handiwork.
 
 4 6 
 
 X. 
 
 THE PROVINCE OF TECHNICAL 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 SPEECH AT THE LUNCHEON GIVEN TO COMMEMORATE 
 THE OPENING OF THE NEW TECHNICAL AND ART 
 SCHOOLS, LEICESTER, STH OCTOBER, 1896. 
 
 THERE has hitherto been a great break in our system 
 of education. Those who are interested in watching 
 and directing the careers of the young have felt the 
 great difficulty and danger that beset them at the 
 time when they leave school and first of all take to 
 practical life. That is the time when their energies 
 seem to relax, when the discipline that they have had 
 instilled into them begins to grow feeble, when a sense, 
 it may be, immature, of independence and liberty 
 makes them neglectful of the higher parts of their 
 nature. This shows the need for a system of educa- 
 tion which shall secure for our citizens as a whole 
 a uniform and progressive development of their 
 character. Technical education, I am convinced, 
 provides one means of solving the problem. The 
 education given in our elementary schools must be 
 considered, I think, as a kind of mental gymnastic, 
 fitted to give a capacity of the mind which will enable 
 its possessor to turn his attention to anything that is 
 required of him. If this is so, then it is quite obvi-
 
 THE PROVINCE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION 47 
 
 ous that something must be done to enable a boy, 
 when he leaves school and goes to work, to carry on 
 his education on a proper basis. To go into a trade, 
 whatever it may be, will first of all take the form of 
 apprenticeship, and that apprenticeship must be of 
 a practical nature. That is to say, a boy goes to 
 a workshop and is told what he has to do, and some- 
 how or other he gets into the habit of doing it. But 
 it is perfectly obvious that the process he has to 
 perform is to him a purely mechanical process, unless 
 it is accompanied by knowledge in the background. 
 The object of technical education must always be to 
 carry on what has previously been done in the way 
 of equipping the mind, so as to enable the mind to 
 apply itself to the questions which are actually before 
 it. The boy rapidly acquires in the workshop the 
 mechanical dexterity for performing certain processes. 
 Yet that, of course, is not educational, it is merely the 
 development of a certain amount of mechanical alert- 
 ness, which concerns only his physical frame, it does not 
 carry any message to his mind. It is only if he is 
 educated in the principles of his trade, art or craft, 
 if he learns to understand the phenomena which 
 surround him, that he becomes a really intelligent 
 man. I need not emphasise the fact that only if 
 the man is intelligent, can the workman be really 
 adapted to do his part. Before you can have a good 
 workman, you must have a good man, before you 
 can have a capable mechanic, you must have a cap- 
 able lad. This therefore is technical education, to 
 train the boy in the real principles of his craft, to 
 explain to him what is their scientific basis ; this is
 
 48 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 the proper form of education, because it is after all the 
 education of life. 
 
 All that can be learnt at school is the desirability of 
 being curious. The mind can only be taught that 
 there are questions which may be asked with advan- 
 tage, and it can be supplied with a series of pigeon- 
 holes, into which it can put the answers when it gets 
 them. But it has first of all to ask the question, and 
 it secondly has to give the answer, and it is no par- 
 ticular use teaching people to read and write, fitting 
 them with their curiosity and their pigeon-holes, unless 
 you go on to show them some reason why they should 
 ask questions, and unless you make it possible for 
 them not only to ask, but to get the answers. The 
 advantage of technical education is, that it can take 
 hold of the natural curiosity of the boy at the 
 moment when he goes to work. If he has got 
 anything in him at all, he must wish to have the 
 processes explained which he sees going on around 
 him, he must wish to pursue them beyond their mere 
 mechanical exhibition, and to discover the principles 
 on which they are founded. He must naturally wish 
 to learn something about the machines which he has 
 to work, and to enable him to do this is to give him 
 the best education he is capable of. Because after 
 all what we want is the explanation of our life, of the 
 things which concern us, of that which we see and 
 that which we do. 
 
 The object of elementary education is to excite a 
 curiosity which will not allow the mind to rest satis- 
 fied without grasping the causes of the phenomena 
 which it sees around it, and discovering what it most
 
 THE PROVINCE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION 49 
 
 needs for itself. It is because technical education will 
 help both to satisfy and to stimulate this curiosity 
 that I regard it as of the greatest possible value, and 
 not necessarily because it will make better workmen, or 
 because it will enable us to compete better in foreign 
 markets. Our success in this direction must depend 
 on a greater readiness on our part to follow markets, 
 and to look out for openings. The opening of the 
 market of England on a greater scale is not a thing, 
 I think, that is within the power of the mechanic, it 
 is in the power of the employers, and it is for them to 
 consider how the markets can be kept open to English 
 goods, and how the intrinsic merits of these goods can 
 be maintained. I will not therefore advocate techni- 
 cal education on the ground that the better education 
 of the workmen will enable them to do better work. 
 I believe that English practical capacity has always 
 been great in the past, and remains unimpaired in the 
 present. I believe that the average English workman 
 can do a better piece of work than anybody else, simply 
 because he is an Englishman, and not because he is 
 a well-educated man. I cannot feel sure that more and 
 improved education will enable him to do a very much 
 better piece of work. I do not press technical educa- 
 tion on that ground, but I am sure of this that it will 
 make him a happier and more contented man, and 
 against that advantage purely utilitarian gains cannot 
 be weighed. To have men working and knowing 
 what they are doing, to have them intelligently 
 understanding and co-operating with their employers, 
 to have them really interested in the processes in 
 which they are concerned, that, I think, will give to 
 
 4
 
 50 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 the mechanics the prospect of a happy and a con- 
 tented life, and that is what above all we wish them 
 to enjoy. 
 
 The industrial civilisation in which we live has its 
 advantages, we are conscious of them. It has also its 
 disadvantages, and sometimes, perhaps, we are unduly 
 conscious of them. One of these disadvantages cer- 
 tainly is, that an industry does not in itself immediately 
 add to the beauty or the grace of the neighbourhood in 
 which it is domiciled. We see the face of nature being 
 gradually changed, and the works of man on every side 
 shutting out the works of nature. We see in all the 
 surroundings of our life the distinct loss of the element 
 of beauty; that which, to people more happily situated, 
 is an instinct pervading their life, has amongst those 
 of us, who live in the midst of industrial civilisation, to 
 be replaced by reflection and to be slowly reintroduced. 
 The object of art teaching, the desirability of which 
 every one must recognise, is not simply that we may 
 have better designs for our wallpapers and linoleums, 
 but that we may have a greater sense of beauty 
 influencing the life of every one. A foreigner once 
 criticised English life by saying, " Yes, you are pros- 
 perous and industrious, but then you are hopelessly 
 vulgar". Of course we should not agree with him, 
 but I can just see what he means. It must be admitted 
 that the lives of men in large multitudes, in the midst 
 of industrial surroundings, are cut off from many forms 
 of innocent, healthful and spontaneous enjoyment, 
 which are at the command of those who are not so 
 closely packed together. To bring back a sense of 
 beauty, to maintain a conception of the grace and
 
 THE PROVINCE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION 51 
 
 dignity attaching to life, these are objects which he 
 who wishes well to his country will ever have before 
 him. These are the objects which are dear to you, 
 and which have led to the erection of the beautiful 
 building which we have opened to-day, where the best 
 knowledge you possess and the finest feelings of which 
 you are masters are placed at the disposal of every 
 member of this community.
 
 XI. 
 THE TRAINING OF THE SCHOOLBOY. 
 
 SPEECH AT THE WYGGESTON BOYS' SCHOOL, 
 LEICESTER, 27 JULY, 1892. 
 
 LEICESTER is to be congratulated on possessing an 
 institution which I hope you already feel to be, and 
 in time will feel still more to be, the key to the real 
 prosperity of your town. I trust that Leicester will 
 always be proud of its school, and will regard it as the 
 exponent and seed plot of that spirit of local patriot- 
 ism on which the life of the community must be 
 founded. 
 
 For my part I much prefer a day-school properly 
 supplied with educational machinery, with a good 
 play-ground and a good tone amongst its boys to one 
 of our great public schools, where, at a critical period 
 of their lives, boys are herded together in squadrons 
 in huge barracks. Wherever it is possible it seems 
 to me that that is the best method of education which 
 allows boys to remain at home with their parents, 
 under the care of their mothers, and, even in the busy 
 life of a town, objects of interest and attention to their 
 fathers, living in constant intercourse with their sisters, 
 feeling the claims of home life, realising that they 
 form part of the great civic community, and that they 
 are called upon in some degree to take an interest in 
 its efforts and to sympathise with its experiences.
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE SCHOOLBOY 53 
 
 Such a method of education is, in my opinion, prefer- 
 able to one in which boys are taken away from their 
 home and its associations, and simply left "to find 
 their own level," as it is called. I would much rather 
 that boys did not find their own level too soon. Life 
 will make them do that soon enough. I do not want 
 them to be made men of too soon, I would rather they 
 remained boys as long as possible, full of the simplicity 
 and straightforwardness which are their characteristics. 
 Let them retain these as long as they can, the stress 
 of life will do its best to rob them of them. 
 
 On turning to the subject of education, I feel in- 
 clined to say that I believe that only now are we 
 getting to the beginning of a really wise and sagacious 
 system of education, that is, such a system as can 
 be applied to the needs and requirements of the great 
 population of the present day. The current remark 
 made about education, that it should contain some- 
 thing about everything and everything about some- 
 thing, is one of those prescriptions which one would 
 expect a physician to give gratis, because he knew it 
 would be impracticable to get it made up. The 
 question really resolves itself into this : Which is the 
 alternative with which we are to begin? It seems 
 to me that the soundest principle of education is to 
 begin as far as possible with everything about some- 
 thing. If that is done there is then a chance of a boy 
 learning something about everything ; while if we begin 
 at the other end there is no chance at all. The results 
 of teaching only remain if they are logical and intelli- 
 gible. The mind will only learn when cause is shown 
 why it should learn ; and a child can only be carried
 
 54 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 through a process when its necessity has been made 
 clear. It is impossible that anybody can be taught 
 by being merely primed with information, when the 
 use of the information is not obvious. But if one 
 subject is taught thoroughly it is possible for the 
 pupil to grow into the understanding of method. 1 The 
 advantage of this will be seen at once. We want a 
 child to be trained so as to be not in one way only, 
 but in every possible way, a useful member of society. 
 The quality most useful and most valuable to society 
 is the faculty of forming a right judgment ; and this 
 faculty can only be developed by the discipline which 
 comes from methodical study. 
 
 I do not think that any one subject is better 
 adapted for education in itself than the study of 
 Latin and Greek. For a few pounds a boy can set 
 himself up with a classical library sufficient to enable 
 him to learn these languages and to last him for his 
 life. It is not the same with any other subject of 
 study. The study of a science, for instance, requires 
 a laboratory and many expensive instruments. This 
 is one decided point in favour of classical studies. 
 They are entirely at any one's command, and they 
 lead at once into those fields where the human mind 
 can be best trained. Yet I know that, particularly in 
 such a town as Leicester, there is sure to be a demand 
 
 1 An interesting illustration of this view is found in the life of Sir 
 James Paget which has lately appeared. He writes : " As I look back 
 I am amused in thinking that of the mere knowledge gained in the 
 study (the knowledge of the appearances and names and botanical 
 arrangement of plants) none had in my after life any measure of what 
 is called practical utility. The knowledge was useless : the discipline 
 of acquiring it was beyond all price." (L. C., 1902.)
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE SCHOOLBOY 55 
 
 for a kind of training which will be more immediately 
 useful. But the utility of education can never be 
 immediately apparent. Into whatever line of life a 
 man goes, he must begin with apprenticeship. No 
 educational training can be adapted to fit a boy im- 
 mediately for any particular business or calling. We 
 must first try to make him a man, and then we can 
 make him into a man of business. The great test of 
 education, after all, the only time when we can really 
 take account of the results of a boy's education is 
 when we consider what he is at the age of twenty-five. 
 The results of examinations will not tell us the real 
 value of his education. No other examination can 
 be trusted than the practical examination of life, and 
 the practical verdict which at the age of twenty-five, 
 but not before, life pronounces upon every one.
 
 XII. 
 THE TEST OF EDUCATION. 
 
 SPEECH AT THE PRIZE GIVING OF MAGDALEN SCHOOL, 
 BRACKLEY, 1895. 
 
 I WISH to-day more particularly to speak to the boys, 
 believing that they after all are the most important 
 element in this gathering. It is impossible on such 
 an occasion as the present not to divide the boys into 
 two classes. These classes, indeed, are suggested by 
 the occasion itself. There are those who have got 
 prizes and those who have not ; and, if we are inclined 
 to moralise, we shall find that this difference runs 
 through the whole of life. There are some men who 
 get prizes and some who do not, and as we look on, I 
 daresay we feel that those who get prizes are not much 
 better than those who do not. Success after all we 
 feel is a thing by itself, not to be measured by other 
 things, and not always corresponding with the facts 
 of the inner life. I mean to say that we may respect 
 examinations and highly appreciate their results we 
 do so but examinations are not infallible, and their 
 results do not always agree with the actual facts of 
 life. It is not after all always the man who gets the 
 most first classes, who does in the long run the best 
 work in the world. Besides the training at school 
 and at the university, there is behind both the far
 
 THE TEST OF EDUCATION 57 
 
 greater schoolmaster, life itself. The school of life 
 is the school for which you have to be fitted, and 
 your chief teacher will be the actual experience which 
 you undergo. That education then will be the best 
 which aims at preparing a boy not for examinations, 
 but for life. Examinations do not always test the 
 qualities which will tell in life itself ; for examinations 
 after all only test what a certain number of boys know 
 on a certain day after a certain preparation, and we 
 must therefore take their results for what they are 
 worth. I would like to tell those of you who have 
 not got prizes, that besides the report of the examiner 
 there is another report, and that is the report upon 
 yourselves which can be only given by yourselves, 
 and I think it is worth while to make up your minds 
 when you go home that you will consult that little 
 monitor within, and try and examine yourselves about 
 the use you have made of the opportunities afforded 
 you at school for fitting yourselves for the great life 
 that lies before you. It is not the position in which 
 you stand with reference to one another which is im- 
 portant, but it is the progress which you feel you 
 have made in the past, and the genuine desire you 
 have to make more in the future. If a boy will only 
 acquire a capacity for progressing, something will 
 come out of him in the long run. 
 
 Your head master has said that boys hate knowledge, 
 but I do not suppose that when he says that about boys 
 he means that in this respect they differ from men. 
 It is the great characteristic of the Englishman, that 
 he loathes ideas, and detests knowledge for its own 
 sake, and only values it for its practical usefulness.
 
 58 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 The Englishman is much more given to doing than 
 he is to knowing, and if he knew more I do not think 
 he would do as much. Therefore I shall not sing a 
 paean in favour of education because I believe it will 
 make you more outwardly successful, for I do not 
 think it will. I do not think that if we take technical 
 education to every cottage, we shall increase English 
 trade in the least. English trade depends upon the 
 capacity of the men at the bottom. Many will not 
 agree with me. I do not wish them to agree. I only 
 tell you my opinions because I think they are just 
 worth considering. Between knowing and doing there 
 is not so great a connexion as is supposed. But for 
 that very reason, I am always anxious that we should 
 not either underestimate or overestimate what is done 
 by education. Really education will not make a boy 
 succeed much better in the world. Most of the men 
 who have succeeded in the past have been men who 
 were not educated, but the men who taught them- 
 selves. What education will do for you is to put you 
 in the way of learning for yourselves such things as 
 you want to know. I want to impress upon you that 
 the motive power for everything must come from 
 within. A master is apt to be mainly interested in 
 turning out boys who shall be able to pass the right 
 examination at the right moment. This is the danger 
 which has almost swamped elementary education and 
 which threatens all education. The remarks in your 
 report which impressed me most were those final words 
 of the examiner, when he said that he had pleasure in 
 being able to testify that the school was full of life, 
 promise and work. It is the life in the school work
 
 THE TEST OF EDUCATION 59 
 
 which is after all the great test of its goodness. It is 
 essential that the boys should be on the alert, that 
 they should be ready to be interested, that they should 
 have mental freshness. I regard these qualities in 
 the minds of the boys as really the most important 
 qualities which any education can produce. If boys 
 could learn at school all about everything, that would 
 only leave them dull persons. The object of their 
 education at school is to give boys mental alert- 
 ness and an eternal curiosity, and its real test is 
 whether it leaves them always saying to themselves, 
 Why ? I do not know whether you have ever thought 
 about it, but all the great discoveries of the world 
 have come because some one has asked that question. 
 The records of industry show nothing more clearly 
 than that all real mental skill depends on asking 
 questions. The answer is sure to follow. The real 
 mental capacity is not displayed by the man who 
 answers the question, but by the man who asks it. 
 Discontent arises when men want to get something 
 which they have not, and discontent is only after all 
 the power of asking questions, of being intellectually on 
 the alert, of going about the world with our eyes open. 
 If your education, though it may go but a little way, 
 has that result upon your minds it will assuredly be 
 most productive. The real success in life is the 
 success that makes for happiness, because that is 
 what all men desire, and the power to spend our 
 leisure time to advantage will do much to make our 
 lives happy. The real joy of life is to feel that we 
 are learning to take a broader view of things, that we 
 are growing into a bigger world, that we are not a
 
 60 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 mere echo of the people about us. We must think for 
 ourselves, ask ourselves questions, and set ourselves 
 to discover the answers. Thus we shall gain such joy 
 and pleasure as is supplied in scarcely any other way. 
 
 If England is to continue to exist and to go forward, 
 it must be because its individual citizens develop more 
 and more the power of forming a right judgment ; and 
 that power depends on the capacity for seeing into 
 what is essential with regard to any question that 
 comes before us. It helps us to come not only to a 
 plausible conclusion but to a true one, and the develop- 
 ment of this great quality comes in proportion as we 
 acquire the mental habit of looking at things as they 
 really are and laying hold of their essential points. 
 
 To-day is St. James's Day, and we must all have 
 thought of the appropriateness of the lesson in the 
 Church's service to the occasion which brings us to- 
 gether. It speaks of the mother of Zebedee's children, 
 and tells us of her ambitions and aspirations for her 
 sons. I expect there are many persons present saying 
 of the boys in whom they are interested, " May he 
 succeed," " May he prosper," " May his life be fruitful ". 
 Our thoughts must run in those directions as we look 
 at our boys, standing in all their youthful resolute- 
 ness, with unclouded eyes looking to the future, but I 
 would remind you that it is not success that makes 
 the man, but his power of enduring for righteousness' 
 sake. I can desire nothing better for you boys than 
 that you should try to cultivate within yourselves that 
 clearness of vision, which can penetrate through the 
 difficulties of life, and carry the soul into that region 
 where discontent is unknown. May this be the result 
 of your training at Magdalen College School.
 
 6i 
 
 XIII. 
 SUCCESS IN LIFE. 
 
 FROM A SPEECH AT THE PRIZE GIVING OF THE PHILO- 
 LOGICAL SCHOOL, MARYLEBONE ROAD, STH MAY, 
 1898. 
 
 THE qualities that make for success stand entirely by 
 themselves. I cannot say what is necessary to success 
 in life. Sometimes things are required which are re- 
 pugnant to one's better nature ; and I, for one, do not 
 feel interested in how people get on. I cannot tell you 
 how to get on nor even advise you to do so. I do not 
 even think that education helps people to get on. I am 
 sure that you will not get on without a certain amount 
 of industry ; but I cannot tell you what kind of educa- 
 tion will ensure success. The education you get at 
 school will not qualify you for it. You come to school 
 to learn, not how to get on in life afterwards, but how 
 to spend the leisure moments when you are not 
 occupied in trying to get on. When you leave school 
 and go into some business or trade you are set to your 
 work and have to do it ; you pick up the way of doing 
 it by your own powers of observation. You cannot be 
 taught at school any patent method of doing whatever 
 your work may be after you leave school. Your train- 
 ing at school if it is of any good should be a training of 
 your qualities. There can be no more useless notion
 
 62 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 of education than that a boy should be taught at school 
 what will be useful for him when he leaves. All know- 
 ledge is useful, and every proper system of training 
 adapted to the mind of the boy will certainly have for 
 its object the development of his qualities. Remember 
 there is room for something else in life besides "getting 
 on ". When a boy or man is not engaged in " getting 
 on " what is he doing ? The answer may be " getting 
 into mischief" if he has nothing that interests him to 
 occupy his thoughts and energies. Worse than idle 
 hands are idle heads which have no ideas in them. 
 There are many business men who make much money 
 during the day and waste it at night, and this is the 
 class of men that society does not wish to encourage. 
 The great object you should set before yourselves is 
 to acquire some interest that may go with you through 
 life, to get some hobby of your own, something that 
 will enable you to go on reading books about some 
 definite subject. It is a great thing for boys to leave 
 school with an interest which will enable them to 
 spend their leisure time well and usefully. There is 
 no worse bondage than that of not knowing what to 
 do with your spare moments, and no worse bondage 
 than "the book on the table". On the table in the 
 drawing-room there are books to be found, perhaps 
 from a circulating library, without any adequate reason 
 for their being there ; and when it is asked why they 
 are read, the answer is that every one is reading them. 
 People ought never to read a book without having a 
 motive for reading it, a reason for reading that par- 
 ticular book rather than any other book. Spend your 
 time at school in getting some interest of your own,
 
 SUCCESS IN LIFE 63 
 
 a real interest in some branch of knowledge so that you 
 can pursue that subject for yourselves and by your- 
 selves. The object of your education is not that you 
 should have so much stock-in-trade on your counter 
 for ever, but that you should learn how to teach your- 
 selves. You should leave school, not with a resolution 
 that now you have passed your last examination you 
 will never read another serious book, but with a desire 
 to pursue and extend your studies and increase your 
 interests, and thus make your lives nobler, better and 
 happier.
 
 6 4 
 
 XIV. 
 
 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR 
 SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 
 
 ADDRESS GIVEN AT LONDON HOUSE, IITH JULY, 1898, 
 TO THOSE INTERESTED IN THE PROMOTION OF 
 ST. MARY'S COLLEGE, PADDINGTON. 
 
 WE have no doubt about the very great need that 
 exists for improving secondary education. I only 
 wish that this necessity was felt more widely amongst 
 the public at large. Every one talks respectfully 
 about education just as they talk respectfully about 
 virtue ; but virtue is not habitually practised, and 
 education is not by any means generally beloved, 
 and although the necessity of talking about educa- 
 tion is universally recognised yet the number of 
 people who really are interested in it for its own sake 
 is extremely small. It is specially melancholy too 
 that, when we discuss our educational problems, the 
 voice that is most habitually silent about them is 
 the voice of the parents. We are told by superior 
 persons and of course we are all superior persons 
 upon this point what children ought to be taught 
 and how they ought to be taught, but those who are 
 most keenly interested in the children themselves 
 pronounce no strong opinion upon the matter. It is 
 enough for them to know that there are experts, and
 
 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 65 
 
 to accept the work and opinion of those experts, but 
 the possibility that they themselves might initiate 
 educational reforms, and display an active interest in 
 what their children are taught and how they are 
 taught it, does not seem to have entered sufficiently 
 into the minds of English parents. I am not speak- 
 ing only of the poorer classes, I am speaking of all 
 classes. We send our boys to public schools and 
 we wash our hands of them, and what they are taught 
 when they get there we do not know and do not care. 
 It is the same with regard to children at secondary 
 schools and at elementary schools. As a nation and 
 as a public we know nothing about education and we 
 care nothing. We do not leave it so thoroughly and 
 completely in the hands of Governmental experts 
 that they are able to organise it as they like ; that 
 would not be in accordance with our traditions. But 
 we do not on the other hand form an effective public 
 opinion on the matter which would make progress 
 possible. The consequence is that education is left 
 in England in the hands of a class of people who are 
 not very popular I think because they are called by 
 such an offensive name I mean the "educationalists". 
 It is popularly supposed that when a man can be 
 nothing else, he becomes an educationalist. I for 
 one am far from wishing to speak disrespectfully of 
 those who are called educationalists in these days. As 
 a matter of fact all our educational progress in Eng- 
 land has been brought about by the steady pressure 
 and labour of a few persons genuinely interested in 
 the matter from the point of view of the public welfare. 
 For instance, nobody has worked harder, nobody has 
 
 5
 
 66 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 done more for education than Mr. Matthew Arnold. 
 But for a long time he was a voice crying in the 
 wilderness, and even now it cannot be said that his 
 conclusions have profoundly affected the public mind 
 or that his efforts have by any means produced the 
 results at which he aimed. Still we have to face the 
 pressing need for educational progress, still we are 
 constantly discussing it, and it must be confessed that 
 to a popular audience it is not an interesting subject, 
 and that the mass of people talk about it with an 
 appearance of profundity, but with lukewarmness in 
 their hearts. 
 
 The general idea is that of course education is a 
 good thing, and that of course it must be supplied ; 
 but it is looked upon, shall I say, very much as the 
 same sort of thing as gas or water. It is somebody's 
 business to lay it on in a proper way, and at the right 
 time an attachment of the pipe to the mind of the 
 individual child should be made as easily and ex- 
 peditiously as possible ; after that the sooner the 
 pipe can be detached, and the child left to go about 
 its real business in the world, the better for it. I do 
 not think I am exaggerating when I put this before 
 you as the general attitude of the mind of the English 
 people towards the question of education. Well you 
 know it is not popular to say this kind of thing ; yet 
 we have to confess the fact that educational progress 
 must be made by the efforts of a few, very little re- 
 cognised, very slightly acknowledged and very scantily 
 backed up. There is no other possible way. All 
 educational progress in the past has been made in the. 
 first instance in this [way.
 
 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 67 
 
 Now what is the body which has to do these tasks 
 which are not immediately popular, which do not 
 receive recognition, which are not much talked of 
 in the newspapers, and which on the whole people 
 think ought to be done by somebody, but consider 
 no concern of their own ? There can be no doubt 
 about it that the body which has to do this kind of work 
 for the community is the Church. It is the highest 
 glory of the Church of Christ that she does the neces- 
 sary drudgery for the world, asking for no reward, not 
 even for any recognition, but does it because she has 
 a prevailing motive which weighs with her in all her 
 activities. She does it unostentatiously, she does it 
 quietly, she does it little by little, here and there as 
 she finds means for doing it. There is no movement 
 in educational matters which is more popular and 
 more conspicuous than the movement for women's 
 education. Yet in the various things that have been 
 said about it, I have never seen it stated that, as a 
 matter of fact, it was the Church which first of all 
 took in hand the improvement of women's education, 
 in her training colleges for elementary-school teachers. 
 The first real stimulus to the improvement of women's 
 education was undoubtedly wrought by these training 
 colleges and by the impulse which they created. 
 
 If education is to be improved, it must be improved 
 by the greater capacity of the teachers. I have said 
 that the public is as a rule indifferent in the matter ; 
 with regard to secondary schools they are markedly 
 indifferent. The reasons which weigh with parents 
 for sending their children, particularly their girls, to 
 one school more than to another, are so obscure that
 
 68 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 I think no statistics could possibly elucidate them. 
 Why a girl is sent to one school more than to 
 another; what the parent knows about the educa- 
 tional methods in the school which he has chosen ; with 
 what object he has sent his girl to school at all ; these 
 are points upon which I am absolutely in the dark. 
 My observations have not enabled me to form any 
 definite theory upon the subject. It is quite clear 
 then that secondary education will not be improved 
 in the way in which most things are improved in this 
 world, by the pressure of competition intelligently 
 applied. I mean to say that a parent as a rule does 
 not know really enough about a school, and does not 
 care to inform himself sufficiently about the goodness 
 of a school in all its details, to know why he sends his 
 child to one school more than to another. The im- 
 provement of the schools therefore can only come 
 through the increasing improvement of the teachers. 
 The duty is thrown upon the teachers to raise the 
 level of education ; it is thrown upon them to train 
 a new generation, who shall really be more interested 
 in this matter, and shall understand more about it 
 and its bearings than other generations that have 
 gone before them. If this is true, all that we can do 
 is to go on steadily improving the teachers, giving 
 them a higher ideal of what they are doing, and 
 remembering that the ideal which inspires their own 
 work will sink into the minds of those whom they 
 teach, and become, we hope, an animating force in 
 the generation which is to come after us.
 
 XV. 
 THE TEACHER AND THE CHILD. 
 
 ADDRESS GIVEN TO THE COLLEGE OF PRECEPTORS, 
 26TH OCTOBER, 1899. 
 
 THERE are some people who say that education is 
 the dullest of all subjects, and that everything has 
 been said about it that can be said. I do not think it 
 is at all a dull subject except, perhaps, to those who 
 are the objects of it. I believe that they at the be- 
 ginning almost universally vote it to be dull. Perhaps 
 I may take that observed fact as the starting-point of 
 my remarks. What is it that you as teachers have to 
 do ? I believe teachers very often think they can do 
 more than they really can ; in this, perhaps, they are 
 not unlike any other class of the community, but they 
 do tend to have that impression. No doubt it is forced 
 upon them, not so much from their own conviction as 
 from outside opinion, for I believe they are quite as 
 modest as other people. I mean to say that a parent 
 frequently is willing to hand over his child to a teacher 
 to do whatever he likes with him ; and he is certainly 
 very ready to put down any defects, either physical 
 or mental that the child afterwards shows, at the 
 teacher's door and say : " My child might have turned 
 out very different if you had dealt with him in some 
 other way ". Thus, teachers have impressed upon them
 
 70 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 from the outside the importance of what they are 
 doing, and the result is that they are naturally inclined 
 to think that they can do very much more than is 
 really possible. 
 
 If I venture to talk about teaching, it is because 
 I have spent a great part of my life in teaching. 
 I know from my own experience that we only begin 
 to be of use as teachers when we discover how very 
 little it is that we can do. What is it that a teacher 
 can do ? He cannot by any means get knowledge into 
 a pupil's head unless the pupil is willing to take it in 
 himself; that is to say, all that the teacher can do is 
 to show cause why the pupil should learn. The sole 
 secret of the art of teaching is to manage somehow or 
 other, by all the means in your power, to persuade and 
 exhort those with whom you are dealing, to learn. 
 But the learning must be their part and not yours, 
 and you cannot make it easier to them by any 
 methods, mechanical or other. 
 
 Things which are learnt are valuable just in pro- 
 portion to the amount of trouble which it has cost 
 to learn them, and if you suppose you can make 
 learning easy to any one, you make a mistake. Learn- 
 ing must always be a difficult process, and one that is 
 utterly repugnant to the natural man. You therefore, 
 as teachers, have to grapple with the natural man by 
 showing, kindly and gently, good cause why he should 
 cease to be so very natural, and should become some- 
 times just a little spiritual. You have to take a child 
 kindly by the hand, and say : " Let me introduce you 
 to Dame Knowledge : she is an old lady of grim 
 appearance, but, when you come to know her, you
 
 THE TEACHER AND THE CHILD 71 
 
 will find she is not such a bad sort ". On the mode 
 by which you effect that introduction depends really 
 all the subsequent development of the child. What 
 you can do seems but little, yet it means very much, 
 and, because it is so little, it is so exceedingly important 
 that it should be done rightly. 
 
 These remarks are suggested to me because I was 
 reading the other day a very old-fashioned book called 
 St. Augustine's Confessions, and I was struck by the 
 account which he there gives of his own childhood, in 
 which he uses these very striking words : " We loved 
 play," he says, " and for this we were punished by 
 those who were doing the same thing ; but the follies 
 of our elders are called business, whereas the business 
 of children is punished by grown-up men ". There is 
 no doubt that the follies of elders are called business, 
 that is quite obvious. We see people looking most 
 absorbed, and if we ask them what they are doing 
 they say " business " ; yet we know that half at least 
 of what they are doing must be folly. Do not suppose 
 that a child's eyes are not just as clear as yours ; a 
 child looks at you, who are engaged in teaching him, 
 and tests you, not by what you say, but by what you 
 are ; and a child is quite ready to think that grown- 
 up people call their own follies business, whilst they 
 take upon themselves to chastise children for attend- 
 ing to their business, the business of play. It cannot 
 be otherwise. The first thing that a young child has 
 to do is to grow ; that is his chief occupation, and the 
 way in which a child physically develops is by means 
 of play. We call play all that is concerned with 
 physical development. That must always be the
 
 72 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 main occupation of a child, and all your modes of 
 teaching must be subordinate to that fact which must 
 ever be kept before your mind. Then you have to 
 watch your time, and consider how best you can arouse 
 interest in the child, because you will never succeed 
 in teaching him unless you show good cause why he 
 should learn, that is to say unless you attract and 
 kindle his interest. 
 
 Of course in teaching there are many degrees, and 
 let me tell you that the highest degree of teaching is 
 very much the easiest. It is easy for a college tutor 
 to give a lecture to a picked lot of men who desire to 
 learn ; they are there because they want to learn ; 
 they want to adapt themselves to him ; he is master 
 of the situation. But the lower we go in teaching, 
 the greater are the demands made upon the teacher ; 
 that is to say, the younger the children are, who are 
 being taught, the harder is the work of the teacher. 
 It is not knowledge that goes to make the teacher, 
 though I need not say that knowledge must not be 
 neglected, but sympathy with the nature and the life 
 of those whom he is engaged in teaching. Unless you 
 preserve that sympathy keen and living, and unless 
 you keep your mind fresh, you cannot teach properly. 
 Although of course as life goes on with you, the 
 number of generations of those of the same age who 
 pass through your hands tends to become appalling, 
 yet still remember this, that to each pupil who comes 
 to your class the whole thing is new and fresh, and, 
 if you are to cope with that pupil, your mind must 
 be fresh and vigorous also. 
 
 No knowledge of method, no stereotyped modes of
 
 THE TEACHER AND THE CHILD 73 
 
 education will enable you to go on doing your busi- 
 ness as it ought to be done, if you simply apply 
 moulds of the same shape and size to the minds of 
 those young children who come under your care. 
 Every child is really different from every other child ; 
 you are constantly dealing with a human life, which 
 has its own thoughts and its own interests, which is 
 ready to welcome you if you can speak a language 
 that it can understand, but will not listen to you, 
 however wise you are, if you speak in a far-off and 
 remote manner, which does not carry conviction to its 
 mind. 
 
 Each child must be interested afresh, and made to 
 see that knowledge is desirable and valuable. You 
 must be constantly ready to use any means by which 
 you can awaken your pupils' curiosity, always ready 
 to observe the set of their minds and the tendency 
 of their thoughts, constantly looking out for some 
 new way of putting things so that they may be more 
 readily acceptable. A good deal of knowledge is 
 necessarily required for the simplest and most rudi- 
 mentary teaching. For unless you know a good deal 
 about things, you cannot put them into various 
 shapes. A stupid person learns one formula and 
 goes on repeating it. But it is death and destruction 
 to a teacher if he can only say what he has to say in 
 one way. The very essence of a good teacher is that 
 he should know so much, and know it so readily and 
 clearly that he can answer any fair and honest ques- 
 tion that is asked about the matter he is teaching, and 
 answer it in the language, and according to the way 
 of thinking of the person who is asking him. You
 
 74 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 must be ready to say the same thing in an endless 
 variety of ways, and remember, when you start with 
 a class of twenty, for instance, what the material is 
 with which you have to start ; twenty idle and inat- 
 tentive children, who do not want to learn and who 
 regard you as their natural enemy. That is the 
 normal condition of childhood. We do not want it 
 to be otherwise. Do not say it comes from human 
 perversity, for it does not. It is natural, and so far 
 as it is natural it is also right, for after all, the younger 
 the child is, the more need to show cause why he 
 should not be kicking his heels in the field instead of 
 listening to you. It is an outrage on the child that 
 he should be deprived of his liberty, and you have to 
 make good that outrage, you have to show that there 
 is a reason and a good and sufficient reason for it, 
 and that the time spent with you can be just as agree- 
 able (if only the child will submit to a few regulations) 
 as the time spent in kicking his heels in the field. 
 Until you have got that notion into the child's head, 
 until you have settled that problem, you have not 
 begun your real educational career. 
 
 The importance of a great deal of your teaching 
 must lie beyond the power of any human recognition 
 at all ; an inspector cannot find it out, nobody can ; it 
 must remain a secret between the children and you. 
 You got an idea into that child's head ; he understood 
 what you meant when you were talking to him, but 
 he cannot produce it to anybody else in the form of 
 an answer to anybody's question. He will tell you 
 what he is thinking about, but he cannot tell anybody 
 else, and it is not desirable that he should, because
 
 THE TEACHER AND THE CHILD 75 
 
 the idea that you have given him will have to take 
 root for some time before it can be expressed in any 
 very definite terms at all. You know how desirable 
 it is that we should express our thoughts. It is, 
 perhaps, even more valuable that we should first of all 
 form our thoughts, and it is possible that in teaching 
 we may come to give so much attention to the pro- 
 cess of expressing our thoughts that we may forget 
 entirely what is more important, the mode by which 
 thoughts are formed. If you can teach a child to 
 think, you have done for him the greatest thing you 
 can do ; if you have induced him to think for himself, 
 then you have begun an education which will go on 
 through the whole of that child's life. It is a power 
 that will not count for much in examinations, and 
 no record will be made of it by the inspector ; but it 
 will be a lifelong consolation that will grow with his 
 growth, it will form the most important part of his 
 life, and it will dominate his character and make him 
 what he ultimately becomes.
 
 XVI. 
 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 ADDRESS TO THE GUILD OF ST. EDMUND'S, SIGN 
 COLLEGE, I3TH OCTOBER, 1898. 
 
 THE choice of a subject on an occasion like this is 
 exceedingly difficult, but it has occurred to me that I 
 might address you to-night speaking as a teacher 
 myself on the subject of teaching. I was engaged in 
 teaching for many years, and am, therefore, person- 
 ally interested in the methods and problems of the 
 teacher's craft. Much has been said on this subject, 
 but I think there remains much to say, and I should 
 like to make a few remarks on some points of the 
 teacher's work, founded not on reading, for I never 
 read an educational treatise in my life, but on my 
 own observation. 
 
 I began absolutely and entirely ignorant of the art 
 of teaching ; all I learnt about it was at the expense 
 of those whom I taught. Fortunately you have not 
 had that experience. As regards teaching itself, 
 however, I believe it to be an incommunicable art, 
 a gift which may best be defined as the power of 
 showing others some reason why they should learn. 
 I think that this definition is most necessary, because 
 it is supposed by some persons that methods can be 
 devised by which everybody can be inevitably taught
 
 THE ART OF TEACHING 77 
 
 something. I grant you that certain processes can be 
 gone through, and then certain results will be arrived 
 at, showing that people have been taught, but the 
 results will be mechanical. The best teacher should 
 be satisfied with being able to say : " I do not think 
 I have taught anybody anything, but I have given 
 my pupils reasons why they should teach themselves". 
 It is the mental process within, which makes any one 
 learn, and it must be an individual process. We can 
 only get others to learn by an appeal to their highest 
 part, their reason, and by showing them good cause 
 why they should betake themselves to learning. 
 
 Let me illustrate what I mean. Teaching is really 
 a process of introduction ; each individual child has 
 to be introduced to knowledge. Now if a hostess 
 introduce two complete strangers to one another by 
 merely saying : " Miss Smith, let me introduce Mr. 
 Blank," the result will probably be complete silence. 
 But a good hostess will tell each guest something of 
 the other, and so bring them en rapport, that she 
 leaves them with a possibility of their entering into 
 a conversation which will be of advantage to both. 
 That is just what the good teacher does ; he brings 
 knowledge and his pupil into a vital relationship ; and 
 the object of teaching is to establish that relationship 
 on an intelligible basis. This can only be done, in 
 the case of the pupil, by appealing to two qualities 
 which are at the bottom of all knowledge, curiosity 
 and observation. They are born with us, every child 
 naturally develops them, and it is the duty of the 
 teacher to direct them to proper ends. The child, 
 as soon as it can crawl, fingers every object in the
 
 7 8 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 room, and tests it by the rudimentary process of 
 putting it to its mouth. The same child later on, 
 gazes about, and wants to ascertain the relationship 
 to itself of everything it sees. Teaching answers 
 these questions, keeps the curiosity alive, and brings 
 the child into vital relationship with the real world 
 in which its lot is cast. Much teaching fails because 
 it does not appreciate this end, because it supposes 
 that one child is just the same as another, because 
 it does not try to establish a definite relationship 
 between the child's mind and the world by which 
 it is surrounded. 
 
 The first thing a teacher has to learn is how to 
 secure discipline. What is discipline? It consists 
 in establishing conditions which will secure attention. 
 Discipline may have other advantages for the child, 
 but this one is the most important from the teacher's 
 point of view. Then comes method, which is the 
 result of past experience in attracting and developing 
 the child's attention. It will appeal to the child's 
 curiosity and arouse his own power of observation. 
 The acceptance of knowledge is an internal process, 
 which no external process can achieve. All that we 
 can do is to bring knowledge as near as may be, and 
 direct the child's attention to the object which we wish 
 it to assimilate. 
 
 My second point is that you must show the child 
 cause why it should learn. The simile of taking 
 medicine is a very old one ; wrapping up pills which 
 are nasty in something which is pleasant to the taste. 
 It is not a very good metaphor, because knowledge 
 ought not to be thought nasty in itself, or put before
 
 THE ART OF TEACHING 79 
 
 the child as a necessary evil. Even the mechanical 
 process of learning reading and writing may be made 
 interesting to a child, because of the hopes inspired as 
 to what he will gain by mastering these processes. 
 Only on this basis can the appeal be made, if mechani- 
 cal work is to be performed in any reasonable manner. 
 Next I come to the subjects which are to be taught. 
 Subjects should be chosen so that their direct practical 
 utility is obvious to the mind of any one who is re- 
 quired to learn them ; they ought to be put before 
 the child as an explanation of the life that surrounds 
 him. You cannot get a child to learn merely from 
 prudential considerations ; a child is much more ideal- 
 istic than a grown-up person and readily responds to 
 an ideal impulse. You cannot attract him by the 
 hope of making money in the future. He wants 
 to learn what the world really is, to make his sur- 
 roundings intelligible. Upon your capacity for putting 
 to the child the appeal to learn on a basis which 
 attracts his attention, his response will inevitably 
 depend. Past experience shows you, that those who 
 wish to teach and arouse attention, must say some- 
 thing unexpected. We can only teach by bringing 
 home ideas, and they must never take the form of 
 the commonplace. As to the possible contents of 
 teaching I have somewhat revolutionary ideas. After 
 reading, writing and arithmetic, I would have no 
 definite subjects taught at all, but instead, things in 
 general. I can conceive a method of education in 
 which reading books should be drawn up suited to the 
 surroundings of the child to whom they were to be 
 given. We might have a large collection approved by
 
 8o THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 the School Board, and then the local managers could 
 choose those most adapted to their particular schools. 
 They ought to explain the processes of industry carried 
 on in the neighbourhood. I would not teach history 
 by beginning with the Witenagemot and going on to 
 the Norman Conquest, but I would draw a child's 
 attention to the consideration of constitutional history 
 by some such question as this : " If a man gets drunk 
 and disorderly what happens ? " " He is taken up." 
 " By whom ? " " The policeman," and so on ; and 
 from this I would proceed to explain the functions of 
 the police. 
 
 It is not, I think, true that you can teach children 
 pictorially. They like to have things explained ; 
 and it is not mere outside facts, such as stories about 
 a king of England who died from eating too many 
 eels, that interest them most. It is constitutional 
 history rather which appeals to them if only you 
 begin at the right end. The child wants to know 
 about policemen and the things he notices in his 
 everyday life. In all teaching you must begin by 
 showing cause why the child should attend to that 
 particular subject ; if not, you will not get him to 
 attend. Nor will you succeed in this by teaching 
 definite subjects, such as geography, the most abstract 
 and barren of all, useful only on the supposition that 
 everybody is going to be a clerk in an office, and 
 must know where Hong Kong is and how to spell it. 
 That is not a vital truth which influences the lives of 
 many of us ; but a knowledge, for instance, of why the 
 sun rises, of what London is, how it came to be and 
 so on, is really useful.
 
 THE ART OF TEACHING 81 
 
 The intelligent man is the man who is continu- 
 ally asking himself questions, and the discoverer is 
 not the man who finds out the answers. Most 
 of us if asked a question can find out the answer in 
 three days ; the greatness of a discoverer depends 
 not on finding the answer, which is obvious, but on 
 asking the question in the first place. We need to 
 keep alive the capacity for asking questions, putting 
 conundrums, and then setting the intelligence to find 
 the answer. Of course knowledge must be split up 
 into definite fields. At public schools classics and 
 mathematics only used to be taught, and then a boy 
 was launched into things in general in Oxford. Now 
 we have changed all that ; the public school teaches 
 him as many things as possible, and he specialises at 
 the university. That must be so. It is the process 
 by which knowledge is created ; but we cannot do 
 that with a child. He ought not to know that there 
 are subjects at all. The world to him should be 
 one thing. " Why should I read a whole primer on 
 history' or geography before I can get an answer to a 
 simple question ? " asks the child. I could never see 
 an answer to that question. Why not take the child 
 as he is, answer his questions and invent a new sub- 
 ject of things in general, remembering that the three 
 things you have to do are to maintain curiosity, to 
 stimulate attention and to develop powers of observa- 
 tion ? 
 
 The obvious danger for every teacher is to appeal 
 to the memory instead of to the intelligence. Re- 
 member that memory is a power which does not need 
 
 to be specially developed. It is the most worthless of 
 
 6
 
 8i THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 our mental powers, and a true teacher should always 
 try and prevent his pupils from relying on it. There 
 are two ways of educating the human mind ; one may 
 be called the commercial way ; it consists in treating 
 the mind as a well-regulated office, full of drawers 
 and pigeon-holes, which may be crammed full of 
 facts, arranged so that any fact can be produced when 
 wanted, a process by which any question can be 
 answered in twenty minutes. The other conception 
 regards the mind as a sensitised film, constantly taking 
 photographs, which it possesses the power of con- 
 stantly reproducing when called upon to do so. Now 
 we ought to regard each lesson as creating a photo- 
 graph, not as sticking a piece of paper into a pigeon- 
 hole. But the latter is a way into which the teacher 
 readily drops. He thinks because he has imprinted 
 facts upon the child's mind that they will stay there 
 for ever ; but this is not so. About a fortnight after 
 the visit of Her Majesty's Inspector, they will all have 
 gone because they were not vital. Moreover room 
 must be made for next year's documents in the mental 
 pigeon-holes, so that the mechanical process of teach- 
 ing is always disappointing in itself. 
 
 There is much difficulty, I know, in dealing with 
 children at the immature age at which they are 
 entrusted to your care. There is a popular illusion 
 about a ladder from the elementary schools to the 
 universities. I wish such a ladder might be possible. 
 But you cannot cover three rungs at one school, seven 
 at the next, and so on without a break ; and that for 
 this simple reason that an education, which has to 
 be stopped at twelve, must be begun at the very be-
 
 THE ART OF TEACHING 83 
 
 ginning on quite other lines from an education which 
 is to be continued longer. I used to be annoyed to 
 find that my own children could not do what others 
 at their age could at elementary schools. But the 
 reason was that their education was arranged so as 
 to go on for a long time, and that they were not called 
 upon to produce results at any particular moment. 
 They would not be asked for results till the age of 
 twenty-three or twenty-four. You cannot wait for 
 your results in this way, because of the periodical 
 inspections, and because your pupils only remain with 
 you for a short period. Every result must be im- 
 mediately available. You cannot allow for reserve 
 force or for anything being wasted. In some ways 
 this is an advantage, in others a danger and tempta- 
 tion. It handicaps you and prevents you from using 
 your own originality as you otherwise would, and 
 from having trust and confidence in the results which 
 will come some day. 
 
 Again, there is the great difficulty which comes 
 from the enormous strain imposed upon anybody to 
 whom is entrusted the care of the most complicated 
 and delicate thing possible, the human soul. To 
 dim its brightness in any way, not to see its inherent 
 beauties, not to appreciate its capacities, means failure. 
 It is difficult for you to keep all this before you in the 
 course of your daily work, and yet on it your success as 
 teachers depends. Unless the bond of sympathy be- 
 tween teacher and pupil be established, there is failure 
 to get at any but mechanical results. You know and 
 have no doubt felt the charm of the bond which lasts 
 long after school-days, and makes you the friend and
 
 84 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 adviser of many of the children who have been under 
 your care. To maintain this relation is difficult, 
 especially at the age when children are, I will not say 
 uninteresting, but not most responsive. But it is a 
 difficulty which must not be put aside, but must be 
 faced and conquered by those who aim at the best 
 possible results for their teaching. 
 
 The test of a teacher is that each child shall leave 
 him with a desire to learn for himself. It is here 
 that our educational system breaks down. We have 
 many societies for looking after those who have gone 
 astray. A criminal is always an object of intense 
 interest to numbers of people. But for one who is 
 merely a stray child of twelve, people will do nothing 
 but give good advice. I dislike the multiplication of 
 societies, but if there were any means by which the 
 teachers could give information about any child who 
 was leaving school to persons interested in helping the 
 young ; if there were some one to say to the child : 
 " Now what are you going to do ? Would it not be 
 better to learn this, that, or the other ? " I think more 
 would be done to garner the fruits of our educational 
 system than in any other way.
 
 XVII. 
 THE VOCATION OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 FROM AN ADDRESS TO THE ASSOCIATION OF PRINCI- 
 PALS AND LECTURERS IN TRAINING COLLEGES, I2TH 
 JANUARY, 1900. 
 
 ONE great question with which those before me, the 
 teachers of elementary teachers, must be concerned, 
 is how to get a fuller and wider recognition of the 
 dignity of the teaching profession, and of the im- 
 portance of the work which the elementary-school 
 teachers are doing, and to discover how they can 
 really enlist the practical sympathy of the public on 
 behalf of the teachers, to whom the country owes so 
 much. Their position always seems to me to be a 
 singularly isolated one, and, except in a few cases, 
 they are not appreciated as they ought to be 
 by the community at large. The public ought to 
 recognise to a greater extent the enormous debt 
 of gratitude which they owe to the teachers in the 
 elementary schools, and also the importance of the 
 work which these teachers are doing. 
 
 The teachers in the training colleges must feel, 
 as large numbers of young men and women pass 
 through their hands, the greatest possible sense of 
 responsibility as to the future development of the 
 intelligence of this country. It must be confessed
 
 86 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 that this intelligence would very decidedly bear 
 improvement. Perhaps a year ago we might have 
 denied that statement. In the present day we are 
 learning a little humility, and it is to be hoped that 
 this humility will not be allowed to effervesce too 
 soon. I hope the nation will see that we must try 
 to increase our intelligence from top to bottom. We 
 had settled down to a sense of satisfaction in our 
 assured achievements ; we had not tried adequately 
 to increase them. We had got into idle ways. We 
 were like spoilt children, and we ventured to assume 
 that the Englishman's position in the world, so long 
 as the world lasted, was secure. We are now obliged 
 to reconsider some points in this estimate of ourselves, 
 and I hope this consideration will lead us to think 
 that our intelligence might be developed and our 
 knowledge increased, and that all our faculties would 
 be better exercised if they were directed by wisdom. 
 Therefore I am strongly of opinion that we ought 
 to give more, and not less, attention to education ; 
 that we require more wisdom and not less ; that we 
 need a stricter training of the mind in future. I sin- 
 cerely hope that this truth in some shape or another 
 may penetrate into every class of society, and that 
 teachers especially will feel their responsibility in 
 regard to it. 
 
 The position of elementary teachers during the 
 period of training is an extremely difficult one. 
 They are so overwhelmed with the formal and 
 mechanical side of their work that it is exceedingly 
 difficult for their teachers to keep the minds of the 
 students vivid and their tempers alert. A lady, who
 
 THE VOCATION OF THE TEACHER 87 
 
 once went through a training-college course, told me 
 that three-quarters of the girls at that time in her 
 college told her, that they sincerely hoped that they 
 might never again open another book. The system 
 that produces that kind of result cannot be all that 
 could be desired. It belonged to a year which was 
 difficult, owing to changes in the Code, and probably 
 did not represent any permanent state of feeling, still 
 the remark was made, and the feeling actually existed 
 in the minds of the girls. It is sad that a system of 
 education should produce such an effect upon the 
 mind of anybody. 
 
 The difficulty of any system of education or teach- 
 ing is the old difficulty which always arises when we 
 try to do, by outside means, something for the student, 
 which he can really only do for himself by develop- 
 ment from within. There is no body of people who 
 require so much as teachers do a sense of vocation 
 to carry them through. Without a sense of vocation, 
 without carrying every day to the work he has to 
 do a sense of its importance, the teacher will never 
 succeed in doing his work well. The teacher must 
 sympathise with his pupil ; he must be able to present 
 ideas in a variety of forms so as to make them intel- 
 ligible to the capacity of each individual pupil. The 
 teacher's business is to do something which it is 
 beyond the power of the inspector to ascertain, and 
 the elementary teacher will never be happy until he 
 can say : " I know how much I am teaching these 
 children which no inspector can put his finger upon, 
 and in that knowledge I am quite contented and 
 by that knowledge I am ready to stand or fall ". If
 
 88 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 that spirit can be got into the minds of the teachers, 
 the training colleges will have done their share in 
 equipping them for the great responsibilities and 
 difficulties of the honourable but onerous profession 
 to which they have been called.
 
 8 9 
 
 XVIII. 
 
 APOLLOS: A MODEL FOR SUNDAY- 
 SCHOOL TEACHERS. 
 
 A SERMON PREACHED TO THE NORTHAMPTON RURI- 
 DECANAL SUNDAY-SCHOOL TEACHERS' ASSOCIA- 
 TION, 25TH JUNE, 1891. 
 
 " Being fervent in spirit he spake and taught carefully the things 
 concerning Jesus " (Acts xviii. 25). 
 
 THE characteristics of Apollos suggest themselves 
 as a model for Sunday-school teachers ; for Apollos 
 is the first volunteer who is put before us in the New 
 Testament as an object for imitation. He "had been 
 instructed in the way of the Lord," imperfectly, it is 
 true, but sufficiently to give him a new view of life 
 and its possibilities. Though he had received no 
 definite call or commission, he felt it to be his duty 
 to make known to others the truths which had done 
 so much for himself, and to carry to other souls the 
 consolation which his own soul had received. So he 
 spoke what he felt simply and forcibly. This is an 
 easy thing to say, but, I daresay, you have not found 
 it an easy thing to do. All teaching is difficult, the 
 simplest teaching the most difficult of all. For all 
 teaching consists in laying one's own soul by the side 
 of another's soul, and the souls of children can only 
 be reached by those whose own souls have something
 
 90 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 of the simplicity of childhood. Let us consider the 
 qualities and the method which characterised the 
 volunteer teaching of Apollos. 
 
 (i) He was "fervent in spirit"; that is, his soul 
 was fermenting through the presence of the little 
 leaven of Divine truth. There was life within his 
 soul, the life of the spirit, which showed itself in 
 quickness, in motion and in force. There was a new 
 power within him changing the old, creating the new, 
 restoring, remaking, rendering his being responsive 
 to a higher law; so making him responsive to the 
 voice of God and to the needs of his fellow-men ; 
 responsive, because he was living, quick, alert, ready. 
 "Fervent in spirit"; that is what a Sunday-school 
 teacher ought to be above all things. You must go 
 to teach others with the cry, " Come and see what the 
 Lord has done for my soul ". You cannot say more 
 than that, and you ought not to say less. You can 
 only move others if you show them the movement 
 that is going on in yourselves. Words and exhorta- 
 tions are worthless unless they come from the heart. 
 Behind what is said, the child seeks for the man or 
 the woman. Children's eyes are clear and penetrat- 
 ing; they look for what is sincere and real. Fervour 
 of spirit, showing itself in quickness of sympathy, 
 alone begets an insight into another soul ; and on 
 this all true teaching depends. Do not think that you 
 will teach any one by the simple truth of the abstract 
 propositions which you put before them. You must 
 win their confidence and move their hearts, before your 
 words will reach their souls. If you recognise this, 
 your teaching will become a valuable lesson to your-
 
 A MODEL FOR SUNDAY-SCHOOL TEACHERS 91 
 
 selves. Go to your class expecting that you will 
 learn as much as, nay, far more than, you will teach. 
 Your own hearts will be moved and quickened by the 
 electric current which sympathy creates. You will 
 receive a new grasp of ideas, that power of comprehen- 
 sion and readiness in expressing your thoughts which 
 form the true pleasure of all intercourse, even the most 
 familiar and intimate which human life permits. So 
 your scholars will become your friends, and you ought 
 to regard them as such. It is not enough for you to 
 go from comfortable homes to children who come from 
 poor cottages, and expect that they will treat you with 
 respect because you are their social superior. That 
 is not the temper in which one human being, least of 
 all a Christian, should approach another. Consider 
 your work as a privilege, not as an act of conde- 
 scension. Christ, by coming on earth and wearing 
 our nature, by submitting to live amongst men from 
 whose coarse and low way of looking at things His 
 pure nature must have shrunk, Christ, by His human 
 love, abolished all sense of condescension. You must 
 go to your class humbly and gladly, as an equal to 
 equals, expecting always to learn as much as you teach. 
 (2) Apollos "taught carefully". He did not allow 
 fervour of spirit to make up for carefulness. You 
 must beware of thinking that zeal or good intentions 
 are enough, and that, if you possess these qualities, 
 you can dispense with careful preparation of the 
 lessons which you undertake to teach. No work 
 requires more care than that of a Sunday-school 
 teacher. It is an entire mistake to think, " There is 
 only a handful of children, and it is easy to speak
 
 92 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 simply to them ". To speak simply is more difficult 
 than to speak learnedly. Simple things are the 
 foundation of a building which must be strongly laid ; 
 abstruse things are often only the ornaments of the 
 top. If we have not prepared what we are going to 
 teach, we are confused ; it always requires previous 
 thought to speak clearly. Moreover, besides the 
 thing to be said, the person to whom you are going 
 to say it must be considered. You ought to go to 
 your class not to utter some excellent general truths, 
 but to carry a message to children whose individual 
 names you know, whose characters you have studied, 
 whose growth and progress you are interested in, and 
 whose future development is your care. You should 
 ask the Lord to give you directness and simplicity 
 that you may carry His message, not your own, home 
 to their souls. Do not think that you have done your 
 duty simply by becoming a teacher. It is not worth 
 while to be a bad teacher. Recognise the greatness 
 of your calling and rise to its responsibilities. Be- 
 cause the service is voluntary, it ought to be performed 
 with all the greater care. Self-sacrifice is not to be 
 measured out by inches. I know that it is a great 
 sacrifice to many to give their time, Sunday by 
 Sunday, after working hard during the week. I 
 know that children are sometimes troublesome ; that 
 there is a temptation to find the work tedious, and to 
 think that Sundays come round with great rapidity. 
 This is sometimes, nay often, the case with everything 
 we do in life. But one thing is certain, that all work 
 is good and fruitful, just in proportion to the trouble 
 which it costs.
 
 A MODEL FOR SUNDAY-SCHOOL TEACHERS 93 
 
 (3) Apollos taught the things "concerning Jesus". 
 Sometimes Sunday-school teachers rest content with 
 teaching Scripture history and do not teach religion. 
 You must not only tell the children how Jesus lived 
 and died, but you must try to lead them to see how 
 vital and important Jesus is to them ; how the things 
 which He said and did may pass into their young lives, 
 and become the heritage of their nature. You must 
 try and get the children to feel the absolute reality of 
 the spiritual life, and show them their need for the 
 waters of life to flow freely over the barren spots of 
 their souls. You must teach the young the real 
 difference between those who are Christians and those 
 who are not. You must show them that it is possible 
 for there to be a difference in the relations in which 
 professing Christians stand to Christ. You must try 
 and make them feel that Christ is knocking at the 
 door of each of their little hearts, and you must realise 
 with reverend awe that it is your work to help the 
 little trembling fingers to undo the bolt and lift the 
 latch to admit that gracious and majestic Visitant.
 
 94 
 
 XIX. 
 THE HOPE OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 A SERMON PREACHED AT ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL ON 
 QTH MAY, 1892, AT THE FESTIVAL SERVICE OF THE 
 CHURCH OF ENGLAND SUNDAY-SCHOOL INSTITUTE. 
 
 " That our sons may be as plants grown up in their youth ; that 
 our daughters may be as corner-stones, polished after the similitude of 
 a palace" (Ps. cxliv. 12). 
 
 No one can fail to be struck with the rapidity and 
 abruptness of the transitions of thought and feeling 
 which often characterise the poetry of the Hebrews. 
 Lyric poetry is, of course, concerned with expressing 
 the results of reflection, and we generally expect that 
 one thought should develop from another in orderly 
 sequence, and that the poet's mood should remain 
 unchanged. But, in the lyrics of the Hebrews, we are 
 frequently startled to find that one tone of feeling is 
 unexpectedly succeeded by another of a quite different 
 kind ; and we are perplexed to account for the sud- 
 denness of the change. Joy and sorrow, hope and 
 despondency, seem to lie close together in the poet's 
 breast, and their alternate utterances seem sometimes 
 to be wayward and capricious. 
 
 So it is with the Psalm before us. It begins as 
 a song of triumph for some signal deliverance, and 
 hymns the greatness of Jehovah as a God of battles.
 
 THE HOPE OF THE TEACHER 95 
 
 But the strain of exultation dies quickly away. The 
 victory has been won ; the joy has burst forth ; the 
 paean has been sung. Reflection begins its work, 
 and obstinate questionings arise. How and why was 
 the result obtained? There rises to the mind the 
 greatness of the peril, the imminence of defeat, the 
 uncertainty of the crisis, the suspense of the decisive 
 shock. How is this to be accounted for? The foe 
 lie stark upon the field ; the victors return in triumph. 
 It has been so now, will it be so again ? Already the 
 shouts of unbridled revelry sound a note of warning 
 in the attentive ear. The struggle was terrible ; but 
 are there no terrors in success ? Fear was degrading ; 
 but is there no degradation in thoughtless prosperity ? 
 Baffled and bewildered by these and such-like ques- 
 tionings, the Psalmist's mind is suddenly flooded by 
 an intolerable sense of man's littleness. There is no 
 security, no reasonable hope of permanence to be 
 obtained from the contemplation even of notable 
 achievements. " Lord, what is man ? Man is like to 
 vanity." 
 
 So for a time he broods in sadness, till his despon- 
 dency finds expression in a vain prayer for greater 
 certainty. Oh that life were clearer and its issues 
 more distinct ! Oh that God would vouchsafe another 
 revelation as he did from Sinai, and would awe men 
 into obedience ! " Bow Thy heavens, O Lord, and 
 come down : touch the mountains, and they shall 
 smoke." So would come an end to the Psalmist's 
 troubles, which press upon him with fresh poignancy 
 after his outburst of joy. He had exulted over what 
 had been done, he had not reckoned the vast undone.
 
 96 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 Powerful and faithless foes still beset him. Neither 
 for himself- nor for the people was there any sure pros- 
 pect of lasting peace. 
 
 He sits in gloomy meditation till there steals over 
 him the vision of a brighter future, and he again is 
 strong. He can raise his voice once more in thanks- 
 giving ; but this thanksgiving is couched in a different 
 strain from the first. " I will sing a new song unto 
 thee, O God." He had rejoiced at first over the im- 
 mediate victory ; he rejoices now in the consciousness 
 of an ultimate tendency. He had praised God at 
 first for what He had done for him personally, teaching 
 his hands to war and his fingers to fight ; now he 
 turns to praise Him as the righteous judge of all the 
 earth, who alone gives victory to kings, as a foretaste 
 of greater victories that may be achieved by greater 
 faith bloodless victories, that are to be wrought out 
 by effort, victories that are to be won by obedience to 
 the law of righteousness. God is no longer to him a 
 national God, but a righteous God, and in the con- 
 sciousness of the abiding power of righteousness, there 
 rises the picture of a blessed and certain future for 
 those who will pursue the way of holiness. " Happy 
 is that people," be it where it may, "happy is that 
 people whose God is the Lord." And the signs of 
 their happiness are within themselves ; the objects of 
 their endeavour are well defined, and may be com- 
 passed by care and diligence : " That our sons may be 
 as plants grown up in their youth ; that our daughters 
 may be as corner-stones, polished after the similitude 
 of a palace ". War and all its horrors have passed 
 away ; outward triumphs are no more longed for. A
 
 THE HOPE OF THE TEACHER 97 
 
 steady national growth the gradual progress of the 
 race this is the lasting ideal of the reflecting mind, 
 this is the object of hope and of endeavour. 
 
 The process through which the Psalmist's mind 
 passed, chronicles a large and often-repeated experi- 
 ence. Let us paraphrase it in terms of our own day. 
 Young people start in life with accents of triumph on 
 their lips. How vast have been man's achievements, 
 how great his dexterity, his power over natural forces, 
 his capacity for combined action. How impressive 
 are the successes of civilisation, how marvellous the 
 signs of progress. God has taught men's hands to 
 war, and his fingers to fight ; let us rejoice in the 
 results which have been won. So does the youth begin 
 his career ; but his contentment is short-lived. As 
 he looks around him, as he hears the tumult of dis- 
 cordant din, as he sees the persistent presence of sin 
 and misery, his confidence quickly dies away. He 
 ceases to be impressed with man's successes ; he sees, 
 perhaps too clearly, the traces of man's failures, and 
 repines under a sense of impotence. He longs for 
 new principles, for a fresh beginning, for another reve- 
 lation, for a rapid removal of obstacles which are at 
 once so trivial and so inevitable. How and this is 
 the most important question how is he to recover his 
 balance ? How is he to find his way back to his first 
 joyfulness ? He, too, must learn to sing a new song, 
 and by reflection enter upon a larger sphere. The 
 escape from present perplexities must come from a 
 wider outlook upon the future. He must rest his 
 faith upon the eternal power of righteousness, upon 
 the abiding force of principles which stand above all 
 
 7
 
 98 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 outward organisations and are superior to any forms 
 of manifestation ; upon God, the Supreme Lawgiver 
 of all the world, God the loving Father of those who 
 will consent to become His children, God who gives 
 His Spirit whereby the individual life may be incor- 
 porated in the spiritual order of things, which alone is 
 real because it alone is everlasting. 
 
 These, you will say, are abstract considerations, 
 remote from practical life. It was not so in the 
 case of the Psalmist. He won his way towards a 
 high ideal, and found peace for his soul in the con- 
 templation of a glorious future. But the ideal was 
 not apart from the realities of life, nor was the future 
 aloof from the present. The vision of the future was 
 not lost in the splendour of a golden haze, nor obscured 
 by mists which robbed it of definite form. It was 
 not something entirely different from what had been, 
 nor was it the result of a process which was to 
 work automatically. No, the seer only saw existing 
 energies operating with greater purity, existing pro- 
 cesses carried on with nobler intention. There was 
 no sudden change, only gradual amendment; and this 
 was wrought not from without, but from within. It 
 was the fruit of gradual and increasing care for the 
 young, and a recognition of the fact that the national 
 life means neither more nor less than the sum total 
 of all the lives of the members of the nation ; " That 
 our sons may be as plants grown up in their youth, 
 and our daughters as corner-stones polished after the 
 similitude of a palace ". The ideal had become very 
 practical indeed. Happiness was the lot of a people 
 who loved the God of righteousness ; and that love
 
 THE HOPE OF THE TEACHER 
 
 99 
 
 must be grafted in the hearts of the young till it 
 become the mainspring of national life. With this 
 belief firmly fixed in his bosom, the Psalmist became 
 master of himself, could interpret the meaning of con- 
 temporary history, and could look steadfastly and 
 bravely upon the time that was to come. 
 
 So it is always. The deepest and farthest-reaching 
 speculations are transformed into the simplest acts. 
 He has failed to reach the goal of thought who finds 
 in words the most congenial expression of his energies. 
 He has failed equally who demands a great stage and 
 a mighty object for his efforts. The test of success 
 in all things is simplicity, and simplicity demands 
 definiteness of purpose and compassable aims. I have 
 put these considerations before you because I have 
 frequently asked Sunday-school teachers, before ad- 
 dressing a meeting of their body, what topics they 
 considered most useful. The answers which I have 
 received always took this shape "Tell us to go on 
 and not despond ; tell us to persevere and not look 
 for immediate results from our work". I do not 
 think that I misinterpret the wishes of you who are 
 here to-night, if I address myself mainly to the task 
 of encouragement. Hope and faith are indeed needed 
 in the labour which you have undertaken, labour which 
 seems at first sight irksome, unattractive, carried on 
 under cramping conditions. The trouble is consider- 
 able ; one who has been occupied all the week has 
 to undertake a wearying work which makes great 
 demands on qualities which are not ordinarily called 
 into play. The result seems disproportionately small 
 an hour, two hours of instruction given to a class
 
 ioo THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 of irregular attendants what can this produce when 
 compared with the regular organisation and the care- 
 ful methods of the trained teacher in the day-school ? 
 
 Drudgery is inseparable from any effort. No work 
 is in itself always congenial. We dream of capacities 
 for rapid, concentrated, conscious energy ; but it is 
 only a dream. We conceive the delight of seeing 
 dull matter take sudden shape under the impulse of 
 the creative hand. We sigh for the gifts of the poet, 
 the artist, the student, or the prophet We admire their 
 products as though they cost them nothing ; we forget 
 that in every case they are the crystallised life-blood 
 of a noble spirit, slowly distilled by constant thought 
 and toil. There is nothing inevitable in the supreme 
 works of genius ; they were wrought out in pain and dis- 
 couragement, through long years of regular drudgery, 
 spent in grappling with innumerable details. We may 
 admire, but assuredly the maker was dissatisfied with 
 his result, and was keenly conscious of its imperfec- 
 tion. It fell far short of what he designed ; he saw 
 and felt far more than he could express ; all that he 
 left was but a fragment of his design, a faint and 
 colourless reproduction of what he vainly attempted 
 to grasp in its fulness of beauty or force. Still he 
 laboured on, because he was devoted to the pursuit of 
 a definite though ideal object, which he still followed 
 although it constantly eluded his clutch. 
 
 So must it be with you. The ideals of science, art 
 and literature are reserved for a few. The ideal of 
 human progress floats in some shape or other before 
 many minds. It should be definite and distinct before 
 your minds if your work is to be done in the spirit
 
 THE HOPE OF THE TEACHER 101 
 
 of high resolve. Every teacher is engaged in a great 
 process of creation ; he is liberating human character 
 from the inertness which surrounds it, and is striving 
 to call it to a consciousness of true life. You, as 
 Christian teachers, know the truth about human nature 
 when left to itself; you know its value in God's eyes ; 
 you know the secret of its restoration in Christ Jesus ; 
 you know the means of its regeneration ; you know 
 the power wherewith it may be clothed from on high ; 
 you know the meaning of its probation here on earth ; 
 you know its eternal destiny. Each child who stands 
 before you is endowed with boundless possibilities. 
 Your work as teachers must rest on the steadfast 
 recognition of these facts. Your genius depends upon 
 your capacity to realise the ideal end of life in every 
 one whose character is committed to your care. 
 
 If only you will keep this before you all else will 
 fall into its place. Drudgery becomes divine when 
 its end is clearly realised. Nay, conscious work for 
 a high purpose becomes a necessary form of self- 
 expression, a liberation of elements within yourself, 
 for which your ordinary occupations do not afford an 
 adequate outlet. You will rejoice that you have the 
 privilege of companionship with young and unformed 
 minds, in which the issues of life have not yet been 
 complicated. In attempting to speak simply to them, 
 you will discover new and unexpected meanings in 
 old and familiar truths. You will find your Sunday- 
 school work a refreshment and recreation after the 
 perplexities and difficulties of your week-day business. 
 It will call you away from common and conventional 
 modes of thought, it will put you on your metal, and
 
 102 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 will call forth in you a fresher and unjaded self. We 
 renew our youth when we strive to lay our mind 
 alongside of the mind of a child ; when we try to 
 see with youthful eyes and hear with youthful ears. 
 Forgotten feelings and grateful memories arise, before 
 which strength is renewed. We put forth insensibly 
 the power of human sympathy which creates an in- 
 dissoluble bond between teacher and taught. 
 
 So I would exhort you to approach your work with 
 an eye fixed rather upon the end than upon the means. 
 If the end be clear, the means will not be wanting. 
 You will soon see that Sunday-school teaching is not 
 a poor imitation by amateurs of the more competent 
 teaching given by trained teachers during the week. 
 Sunday-schools will not succeed by becoming like 
 day-schools. Their strength lies in the fact that they 
 are different. They must be a refreshment to the 
 scholars as much as to the teachers. You must not 
 aim in the first place at giving systematic instruction, 
 but at imparting an ideal impulse. You must not 
 rely on the reproduction of ordinary drill and discipline 
 to maintain order, but you must try to attract atten- 
 tion and awaken interest. The heart, and not the 
 head, is your especial province. It is the character, 
 not the understanding, which you are trying to reach. 
 That you are comparatively inexperienced in educa- 
 tional methods, that attendance is voluntary, and that 
 the time is short all these are really in your favour, and 
 not against you, are helps, not hindrances. You are 
 not bound by external fetters ; you have no external 
 tests which you are compelled to satisfy ; you can 
 follow at will the method which seems to you most
 
 THE HOPE OF THE TEACHER 103 
 
 fruitful ; you are not the slave of any system, however 
 excellent. Do not despair if the result seems small, 
 if lessons which you think you have brought home to 
 your class cannot be repeated by them in intelligible 
 form. Remember that you are dealing with truths 
 which concern the individual life. By the simple 
 mind such truths are absorbed through sentiment ; 
 and the more they are felt the less readily can they 
 be expressed in words. "Jesus loves me." How 
 great a thing it is to feel and know ; how little result 
 it would produce in an examination. You, just be- 
 cause you are a volunteer and unversed in the skilled 
 ways of teaching, can carry home that truth with a 
 force and cogency which no professional teacher can 
 command. 
 
 For this very reason I would say, let the great 
 object of your teaching be to show the bearing of 
 Christian truth upon the moral life. God has given 
 us life ; His law is His instruction how to use that 
 gift aright ; His revelation is His explanation of His 
 relation to ourselves. No lesson should be given that 
 does not illustrate one or other of these truths. And 
 remember that you yourself stand before the child as 
 the embodied illustration of the truths you speak. If 
 sympathy is the method of teaching, sincerity is its 
 contents. Children's ears are keen to detect a false 
 note, their eyes are sharp to espy an exaggeration. 
 Behind the teacher they seek, unconsciously but 
 surely, the woman or the man. We cannot teach 
 what we have not learned. It is a universal law 
 that life begets life, and heart only speaks to heart. 
 Prepare your lessons with all care before you begin
 
 104 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 to teach, but prepare your heart also, and gather all 
 your earnestness, and purge away all your dross 
 before you approach Christ's little ones through the 
 gate of whose simplicity each of us must enter the 
 kingdom of heaven. 
 
 I come back to where I began. Sunday-school 
 teaching must rest on a clear grasp of first principles. 
 It satisfies, expresses and sustains the highest aspira- 
 tions of the individual soul. It blesses him who gives 
 and him who takes. It affords an opportunity for rest 
 and confidence because it opens out an outlook into 
 God's purpose in the world, and enlists man's energies 
 as God's fellow-worker. Do troubles press and clouds 
 gather ? Are we beset by problems which we cannot 
 solve? Let us take courage. One generation sets 
 the problem ; it is for the next generation to find the 
 answer. Thus much at least we all can do labour 
 that those who come after us shall be better equipped 
 than we, that they may be able to start where we leave 
 off. " The portion of the first-born " is at least their 
 due ; and what they need to inherit is not our 
 knowledge, but our spirit. Mere knowledge may be 
 garnered in material things, commodities, comforts, 
 institutions, social mechanism. The spirit only can 
 give strength to use these things aright. Nations 
 have always fallen when their material civilisation 
 was at its height, when men trusted that the machinery 
 of civilisation would work by its own force, and forgot 
 that all depended upon the consciousness of a national 
 mission deep seated in the heart of individual citizens. 
 It is for you to cherish England's central fire, patiently, 
 unweariedly, asking for no recognition, deterred by no
 
 THE HOPE OF THE TEACHER 105 
 
 hindrances, feeling your obligation only the more 
 strongly in proportion as it is left to your hands 
 alone. Whatever the future may have in store, it 
 is the duty of the volunteer workers of the Church 
 of England to say boldly yet humbly, " We are able ". 
 
 Again, I say, recognise the greatness of the end 
 which you pursue, and recognise also its beauty. 
 " That our sons may be as plants grown up in their 
 youth." The growth of the seed comes from within, 
 but it matters much whether the plant is left to draw 
 its niggard nurture from the bare hill-side, or is care- 
 fully tended in a well-watered garden. We cannot 
 produce growth, but we can foster it and determine 
 its conditions. We can supply shelter from the storm 
 and protection against the frost ; we can remove the 
 canker-worm and defend from blight ; we can do much 
 to make the growth harmonious and uniform, till the 
 time comes when the nursling, "grown up in its 
 youth," is to be planted out, not in a wild wood, 
 but in some forest or copse where its place has been 
 prepared. " That our daughters may be as corner- 
 stones, polished after the similitude of a palace." 
 With what deep meaning does the poet change his 
 metaphor to enforce the dependence of the stability 
 of social life upon the strength, the purity and the 
 beauty of womanhood. There is no picture here of 
 useless grace ; quiet solidity of character receives its 
 due adornment, and, while it supports the fabric, 
 gladdens the passer-by. 
 
 Such was the ideal of a thoughtful mind, brought 
 to us across the gulf of ages. It is not realised yet, 
 God knows, but it has survived all changes of human
 
 io6 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 organisations and institutions. It still rises with un- 
 diminished attractiveness before any one who asks 
 the question, " What is man ? " The answer comes, 
 " See what he may be ". And in striving that each 
 may be all that he has the power to become, Christ's 
 followers find the secret of their mission, and the 
 assurance that their labour is not in vain in the 
 Lord.
 
 107 
 
 XX. 
 
 THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF THE 
 CO-OPERATIVE MOVEMENT. 
 
 ADDRESS TO THE CO-OPERATIVE CONGRESS HELD AT 
 PETERBOROUGH ON WHIT-MONDAY, 1898. 
 
 I WISH to try and put before you some considerations 
 about the educational value of co-operation to those 
 who are engaged in it. You all know the proverb, 
 " Knowledge is power". Perhaps the converse is more 
 expressive, " Ignorance is impotence ". If we consider 
 knowledge in relation to the individual character, we 
 see that its value lies in giving him a constant ex- 
 planation of the world which surrounds him. What 
 a man does not know lies beyond the sphere of his 
 thought and therefore of his interest. He can only 
 regard it with indifference and pass it by without 
 attention ; or if it forces itself upon his notice, as a 
 power which affects his life, he views it with horror or 
 hatred as something hostile to himself. The curse of 
 ignorance has always been that it engenders a supersti- 
 tious dread of the unknown. The aim of education is 
 to bring man's life within the reach of his own energies, 
 and so to free him from the domination of a blind fate. 
 Success in the case of every man consists in feeling 
 that he is living an intelligent life, according to prin- 
 ciples which he understands and has accepted as his
 
 io8 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 own principles which explain his position, which ani- 
 mate his efforts, which impose a sense of responsibility 
 and so give a conscious dignity to his life. The life 
 of every one of us is lived amongst our fellows, and in 
 its ordinary aspects cannot be detached from the life 
 of others. We are born into a family, we live amongst 
 neighbours, we work amongst comrades. The ideas, 
 the teaching, the examples which surround us go far to 
 make us what we are. Indeed, they mould us entirely, 
 unless we are conscious of a hidden source of strength, 
 unless we have laid hold of some great moral and 
 spiritual ideas which enable us to test our sur- 
 roundings. He who possesses such, can refuse the 
 evil and choose the good, can create an inner life for 
 himself to which he ever strives to be true among 
 temporary incidents or the pressure of passing cir- 
 cumstances. Such a one is the real philosopher, 
 leader, reformer, however humble may be the condi- 
 tions under which he lives and works. 
 
 Man to be really man must understand the different 
 parts of his life, must feel that they are not inevitably 
 imposed upon him from outside, but that they are in 
 some degree within his own power to modify. Further, 
 he must recognise the limitations of his power to 
 change them, but at the same time he must frequently 
 examine those limitations, lest he fall into unintelligent 
 bondage. This is the process by which all knowledge 
 is gained and maintained. You will see that I am 
 speaking of knowledge not as the possession of the 
 expert, but as the stock-in-trade of every one. For 
 knowledge is not a thing which we keep to be used 
 occasionally for a particular purpose ; it should be
 
 THE CO-OPERATIVE MOVEMENT 109 
 
 the director of all we do. We cannot hope on great 
 occasions to call wisdom to our aid unless it goes 
 with us in our daily concerns. The principles which 
 direct the fortunes of an empire are the same as those 
 which guide the most ordinary life. Complicated 
 affairs are only affairs in which it is difficult to find 
 out the best point from which to begin to simplify 
 them. It remains a fact that a man, if he is to call 
 himself intelligent, must ever strive to understand the 
 details of his own life, and to feel that he can to some 
 extent control them. But, it must be admitted, that 
 in some ways the world's progress is constantly 
 making that effort more difficult. There is a sense 
 in which the growth of human knowledge, of human 
 skill, of human inventiveness, whilst it proclaims the 
 increased power of man over nature, still tends to 
 dwarf the individual and make knowledge more 
 difficult for him to obtain. Rapid changes in the 
 conditions of life are bewildering and leave every 
 man with the unanswered question, " Where, and 
 what, am I ? " 
 
 Now it was evidently the desire in some way to 
 answer that question which called co-operation into 
 existence. We still scarcely appreciate the enormous 
 magnitude of the problem which the industrial re- 
 volution of the early part of this century created. 
 We scarcely make allowance enough for the extra- 
 ordinary rapidity of the change which it produced in 
 the conditions of life. To speak more accurately, it 
 is not so much the change in the conditions, as in the 
 relationships of life, which are perplexing; for relation- 
 ships count for more than conditions. The manu-
 
 no THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 facturer of old times was not sharply separated off 
 from those in his employ. They lived and laboured 
 together, they were connected in a definite manner, 
 the products of their labour were for a definite market, 
 the needs of which could easily be foreseen. Above 
 all, every workman understood and took part in all 
 the processes of production, which were carried on 
 under the same roof. We may smile as we look 
 back upon this old-fashioned system of industrialism, 
 but it was under it that the English character was 
 formed, and that England became what she is. It 
 had this advantage if life was simpler, every one 
 understood it. If there were fewer openings for 
 enterprise, there were openings for everybody. The 
 introduction of machinery necessitated the factory 
 system, and the conduct of business on a large scale. 
 The invention of the steam-engine and the electric 
 telegraph made the world one market, and so gave a 
 new value to shrewd forecast, while it made employ- 
 ment uncertain. The workman's position was entirely 
 changed in this most important respect, that he could 
 no longer understand the conditions of his life or 
 what affected them. He might be better educated, 
 he might seem to be more independent when he had 
 no relation to his employer save that of a money 
 payment ; but he had sunk from being an intelligent 
 to being an unintelligent man. He could not know, 
 he could not affect the conditions of his employment. 
 The control of his life seemed to have passed out of 
 his own hands. He could no longer give to himself 
 an account of himself. That was the great source, 
 the abiding source of his discontent.
 
 THE CO-OPERATIVE MOVEMENT in 
 
 There are many ways of regarding co-operation 
 and explaining its fundamental idea. I have chosen 
 one aspect to put before you chiefly to-day. It does 
 not necessarily conflict with my view that co-opera- 
 tion was, as a matter of fact, the product of far- 
 reaching economic theories. The form which any 
 movement takes is ultimately fixed by outward possi- 
 bilities. The advantages which it works are gener- 
 ally smaller than its founders contemplated, but 
 are generally for that very reason more beneficent. 
 Any measure which is intended to effect the future 
 of society, must of necessity make its way slowly at 
 first. The existing arrangements under which we 
 live have come into being gradually, and are the 
 results of men's endeavours to adapt themselves to 
 circumstances as they arose. The adaptation of old 
 conditions to the needs of the great industrial system 
 was hastily wrought, under stress of pressure which 
 did not allow of a complete survey of all necessary 
 facts. The man was hastily converted into the hand, 
 and the conditions of his humanity, which had never 
 been absent from consideration before, were suddenly 
 left out of calculation. It was supposed that they 
 would take care of themselves. The process of 
 readjustment was so rapid and so large that only 
 the immediate elements of industrial relations were 
 taken into account. What we now have to face is the 
 necessity of bringing into view the consideration 
 of man's life as a whole. The impossibility of main- 
 taining the old relationship between employer and 
 employed on a simple and personal basis should not 
 abolish all sense of relationship. The hand must be
 
 ii2 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 again converted into the man on the broader basis 
 which the development of common life demands. 
 Now co-operation has been a powerful element in 
 making this issue clear. It provided a central idea 
 round which the working classes could gather, and 
 from which they could again enter into an under- 
 standing of the nature of industrial life and the extent 
 of industrial problems. I have pointed out that the 
 greatest of their grievances against the new system 
 was their own exclusion from it. They were turned 
 into appendages to the machines which they worked. 
 They no longer understood the entire process of the 
 industry at which they laboured. The nature of the 
 markets, the causes which determined the value of 
 their labour, the methods and the utility of the methods 
 of production, all these were beyond their ken. They 
 suffered from that worst form of discontent which 
 springs from helplessness. Co-operation restored their 
 hopefulness, and gave them a conscious object of 
 endeavour. It restored the old spirit of association. 
 The solid good sense which is shown in following a 
 definite object and bringing it within the limits of 
 possibility has made co-operation. The history of 
 co-operation is a record of this attempt, and gives a 
 measure of its success up to this moment. Of course 
 mistakes were made. Of course some experiments 
 were failures. This is inevitable in all enterprises. 
 But amid all discouragements the central idea was 
 never abandoned. It was patiently and resolutely 
 pursued. 
 
 It is impossible for any Englishman to read the 
 annals of industrial efforts such as trade-unionism
 
 THE CO-OPERATIVE MOVEMENT 113 
 
 and co-operation, and not to feel proud of his fellow- 
 countrymen. I will quote the words of a foreign 
 observer of English ways, M. Desmoulins, who says 
 of English working men : " They are strong because 
 their strength is in themselves, and they apply their 
 resistance quietly and practically to the obstacle which 
 they have to overcome. They oppose to precise and 
 particular grievances, precise, particular and practical 
 objections, not, as is done in other countries, declama- 
 tions of principle, revolutionary speeches, newspaper 
 articles and chimerical projects for the regeneration 
 of society, while meanwhile the workmen are dying 
 of hunger." It is exactly this solid good sense which 
 has made co-operation successful, and has commended 
 it to every one. Co-operators are recognised not only 
 as a power, but as a beneficent power. They have 
 done much to educate others besides themselves in 
 economic principles. They have achieved this result 
 by practical efforts to help themselves, and in so 
 doing they have discovered something of the condi- 
 tions within which economic experiments are possible. 
 Co-operative distribution has been successful be- 
 cause it was soon possible to discover what was 
 requisite for success. My point is, that co-operative 
 distribution is valuable as a means of intellectual and 
 moral education. Its success depends on grasping 
 the source of the profit made by the distribution, and, 
 consequently, on persuading the consumer to do away 
 with the reason for it, and so be in a position to 
 take that profit for himself. This, first of all, de- 
 pends upon an intelligent understanding of economic 
 principles ; and, secondly, and chiefly, upon a power 
 
 8
 
 ii4 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 of moral restraint. Paying ready money involves 
 forethought, self-control and thrift. Co-operation 
 teaches that no economic advantages are to be 
 obtained, except by a corresponding responsibility 
 being undertaken by him who hopes to obtain them. 
 It shows that greater freedom is only to be won 
 by subordination to a higher law, which takes into 
 consideration larger elements of social welfare. Social 
 order demands above all things stability for its true 
 well-being. It is the unaccountable element of ca- 
 price in the demand of the consumer which introduces 
 uncertainty, and uncertainty is costly and ruinous. 
 Co-operation brings home to all, who are interested 
 in it, truths of this kind. It can never be maintained 
 by an appeal to self-interest on a limited scale ; it 
 must continually educate its public to an appreciation 
 of the economic conditions which affect the industries 
 whose products it distributes. There must always be 
 a doubt how far this educational process can be carried 
 with advantage. There is a temptation with regard 
 to any movement which has succeeded, to rest satisfied 
 within the region of assured success. How far it is 
 wise to advance, what experiments it is wise to try, 
 must always be a question for practical wisdom to 
 determine. But, though one society should decide to 
 limit its own operations, it should at the same time 
 look with a friendly eye on all attempts by others to 
 carry forward into new realms the principles from 
 which all alike started. 
 
 Co-operative distribution has succeeded. It is a 
 great question whether co-operative production can be 
 equally successful. But it can only hope to succeed
 
 THE CO-OPERATIVE MOVEMENT 115 
 
 by making experiments, and surely in our industrial 
 world every form of promising experiment should be 
 welcomed. All novel experiments must be on a small 
 scale, must be tentative, and must meet with some 
 failure at first. Success depends upon a proper know- 
 ledge of all the conditions involved in the experiment, 
 and on a willingness on the part of those engaged to 
 make some sacrifices, if need be, for the cause which 
 they have at heart. It is easy to divide profits before 
 you have made them. It is easy to devise theories 
 of society on the assumption that profits are always 
 the same. It is more difficult to discover the sources 
 from which profits come, and to distinguish what are 
 variable and what are invariable. We always tend to 
 suppose that everything is within human control ; but 
 unfortunately there is always an incalculable element 
 which escapes our ken and ruins our best-made plans. 
 It is only by repeated trials that we can hope to reduce 
 this unknown quantity into such dimensions, that it 
 does not seriously disturb our calculations. The source 
 of profits on distribution was comparatively easy 
 to discover ; means could be taken to secure it for 
 the consumer by co-operation, on condition that the 
 consumer conformed to the conditions on which alone 
 it could be secured to him. It is more difficult to 
 ascertain certainly the sources of profit on production 
 in a varying market, which is affected by remote 
 causes, frequently beyond our power to measure or 
 forecast. But it is certainly an experiment worth 
 trying, to secure for the workers by co-operation their 
 share in the profits of production. The educational 
 value of such experiments is enormous. They train
 
 n6 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 up a body of men who must be equipped to grapple 
 with all the facts of industrial effort. These men must 
 discover industries which are tolerably stable ; and 
 their attempts to do so must have the effect of im- 
 pressing on all whom they can influence, the duty of 
 endeavouring to promote by their own example that 
 stability which is so necessary to the sound organisa- 
 tion of industry. In fact, the spread of a real know- 
 ledge of industrial conditions is the chief object which 
 you have before you. Your success has depended on 
 the degree in which you have understood them. In- 
 creased knowledge is the necessary condition of further 
 advance. 
 
 The great object of an annual congress is, that 
 those who are working for a common principle, should 
 bring together the detailed experience which they have 
 gathered ; that they should welcome every hopeful 
 experiment ; that they should have no theory of 
 finality to prevent them from being ready to think, 
 and if need be to learn. After all, the highest thing 
 in which we can co-operate is in ideas. They luckily 
 cost nothing, and do not even add to the weight of 
 our luggage when we go away. Ideas are useful 
 in proportion to the amount of our experience. It 
 is the possession of practical experience, gained on 
 however small a scale, which enables us to distinguish 
 between flighty notions and fruitful suggestions, be- 
 tween ideas which we entertain and ideas which 
 entertain us. There is one truth which your annual 
 gatherings must, I imagine, bring forcibly home to 
 you ; the truth that progress of all kinds, economic, 
 social, political, rests upon a moral basis. Freedom
 
 THE CO-OPERATIVE MOVEMENT 117 
 
 means that men wish to do things for themselves 
 instead of having things done for them. But their 
 enjoyment of freedom must depend on their capacity 
 for doing things, and capacity does not come un- 
 sought. It is the result of training, and training 
 needs obedience, self-restraint and consideration for 
 others more than for self. We cannot improve the 
 world faster than we improve ourselves. 
 
 I have been trying to put before you the educational 
 value of the co-operative movement, and the service 
 which it has rendered as a liberating and enlightening 
 influence. It cannot cease to be missionary, or its 
 career is ended. It cannot measure its results simply 
 by the material benefits received by those concerned j 
 it must be in living connexion with the whole field 
 of industrial effort. It must not only sell the goods 
 which the consumer wants, but must gradually edu- 
 cate him, or rather especially her, as to what goods 
 it is desirable she should want. It should create a 
 higher view of the proper conditions of industry, and 
 should inculcate a preference for goods which are pro- 
 duced under these conditions. It should never cease 
 to pursue and emphasise the great moral considerations 
 on which all our dealings with one another ought to 
 be based. Co-operation, after all, is the basis on which 
 all society rests. " Mankind," said a philosopher, " is 
 like Saul, the son of Kish, who went out to find his 
 father's asses and found a kingdom. So men met 
 together to do a common work or eat a common 
 meal, and behold society with all its duties and its 
 opportunities." Material interests do not prosper un- 
 less they bring with them that increased sense of duty
 
 ii8 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 which must ever accompany a larger sense of comrade- 
 ship. In proportion as we know ourselves to be one 
 of many, we lose our own selfish individuality in a 
 common life animated by a common purpose. Pro- 
 gress is only possible if we trust one another, and 
 know that trust to be justified. It can only be justified 
 by a confidence in the integrity, the justice, in the 
 unselfishness of our fellows. The co-operative move- 
 ment was founded on the unselfishness and integrity 
 of those who laboured for it in its early days. Many 
 noble men devoted to it their time, their energy, their 
 substance, in days when it was unpopular and was re- 
 garded as visionary. Their names remain as examples 
 to their successors. The hindrance to human progress, 
 in small things and in great alike, is selfishness in 
 some form or another. Mutual trust amongst all, the 
 spirit of discipline and ready subordination amongst 
 the mass, strict integrity and absence of self-seeking 
 amongst the leaders, these are high qualities to de- 
 mand. But you know that you cannot get on without 
 them. Your congress will have missed its full value 
 if it does not make these simple truths more real to 
 you. It is easy to improve society on paper, it is 
 more difficult to improve ourselves in practice. Yet 
 you will not succeed in the former process till you 
 have made considerable progress in the latter. There- 
 fore I say to you cherish your ideal, keep before you 
 your original principle, remember what your efforts 
 have taught you, use what you have learnt for the 
 good of others, do not try short cuts to prosperity, 
 but win it by your own struggle and your own 
 perseverance, let all your work be done with a view
 
 THE CO-OPERATIVE MOVEMENT 119 
 
 to lift others together with yourselves ; show, in all 
 you say during your debates, genuine large-heartedness, 
 and an appreciation of all that rests on good intentions 
 even when you do not agree with it. The prayer of 
 the Church this week is that by the help of the Spirit 
 of God we may have a right judgment in all things 
 in all things for your work needs God's help as much 
 as mine. What we do proceeds from our judgment, 
 and for our judgment we are specially responsible, 
 though, in forming it, we may hope to be specially 
 helped.
 
 120 
 
 XXI. 
 
 THE USE OF BOOKS. 
 
 ADDRESS AT THE CENTENARY CELEBRATION OF THE 
 LIVERPOOL ATHEN^UM, IQTH DECEMBER, 1898. 
 
 IT was because I was told that this institution was 
 in its early days intimately associated with William 
 Roscoe that I felt it my duty to try and be present 
 to-day. I entertain towards Roscoe that feeling of 
 gratitude which is felt by one student to another 
 in the same line as himself. I entertain even a 
 stronger feeling towards him, the feeling which a 
 student has towards a man after whom he has 
 worked. It is an extraordinary feeling, and one that 
 can be got in no other way. We can make a friend of a 
 man by working after him, by reading the same books 
 as he read, by comparing the conclusions we arrive 
 at with his, by comparing what we have learnt with 
 what he learnt. In this way we can get at the char- 
 acter and mind of a man, and are able to see the 
 process by which they have been formed. We get 
 to know the man, and that is, after all, the most 
 interesting thing which we can do. In making ac- 
 quaintance in this way with William Roscoe, the 
 impression left upon my mind was one of wonder at 
 the vast amount of intelligence displayed by a man 
 under untoward circumstances, at the way in which
 
 THE USE OF BOOKS in 
 
 he did not devote himself only to things which were 
 obvious, but took trouble to get up early in the 
 morning that he might learn Latin, to take walks 
 with an Italian that he might learn Italian. He 
 steeped himself in the literature of Italy, and pursued 
 literary occupations entirely outside his ordinary 
 business, his studies rarely having any connexion 
 with the busy life he was leading. These remarkable 
 qualities characterised the ideas which led to the 
 foundation of the Liverpool Athenaeum. To be 
 able to pursue learning and knowledge for their own 
 sakes was the primary motive which inspired your 
 Liverpool forefathers with the idea of founding this 
 institution. They wanted sound knowledge to be 
 not only at their own disposal, but, so far as possible, 
 at the disposal of everybody. The reasons given 
 for the formation of the Athenaeum Library are 
 certainly very remarkable : that everybody should 
 be able to consult the best authors in both classical 
 and modern languages, as well as in their own, in any 
 investigations they were making. This presupposes 
 that it is the function of the civic library in Liverpool 
 to supplement the private library which every right- 
 minded person is trying to acquire for himself. It 
 is natural that we should try and appreciate the 
 enormous advances we have made in the last century, 
 but I would ask you to weigh carefully this language 
 of your predecessors, and, comparing it with present, 
 actual facts, lay it to your own conscience to consider 
 how far you are correct when you speak of the enor- 
 mous advance in learning. 
 
 Nowadays we tend to make many mistakes about
 
 izz THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 education. We talk a great deal about it, but we 
 think very little about its real meaning, and we are 
 bringing up a generation on the supposition that all 
 they have to do is to sit like little pitchers under a 
 pump, until the proper amount of knowledge has 
 been poured into them. Such a conception of educa- 
 tion is of course absolutely misleading. The only 
 education that anybody really gets is that which he 
 gives himself. The idea which seemed to prevail at 
 the beginning of the century, that it was a good plan 
 to start with a good book and read it carefully on the 
 lines suggested by the programme of the Liverpool 
 Athenaeum, is the right one. No system surely could 
 be better. It is independent, it exercises the mind, it 
 does not require a very great panoply. It necessitates 
 no mighty arrangements, only a good book, and the 
 existence of a library to which the reader can go to 
 find for himself answers to the questions which the 
 book suggests. This is a robust education of the 
 intelligence, and produces a well-cultivated mind and 
 a far-seeing grasp, which I fear we do not always 
 succeed in producing by our present systems. Surely 
 this is the most valuable process which can be 
 adopted for the development of the popular intelli- 
 gence. It is one which no mechanical means ought 
 to be allowed to supersede, and which no talk of our 
 progress should ever be allowed to hide from our 
 eyes. Yet, I am afraid, that it is a process which is 
 not very often pursued nowadays. We do not find 
 in the present day that there are a large number of 
 people who, for the cultivation of their own minds, 
 are pursuing branches of inquiry, and reading books
 
 THE USE OF BOOKS 123 
 
 which are not on the lines of their professional 
 advancement We may have improved technical 
 education, and done much to improve the condition 
 of the people, but I wonder whether we keep our 
 minds open to the necessity of creating a robust 
 temper of mind, of the kind I have indicated. 
 
 This institution was founded to promote the method 
 pursued by such men as Roscoe, of reading good 
 books, mastering their contents, obtaining a number 
 of genuine points of interest, pursuing them for years, 
 and thinking out the various questions which they 
 raised. What have we substituted for that? We 
 have substituted, I think, a desire to acquire general 
 information, and to have that information given in 
 little bits. The well-informed man nowadays is the 
 man who can give us a number of more or less inac- 
 curate statistics about most subjects. If that is our 
 ideal, it follows that the way to gain information is to 
 read largely and diffusely, and to read as many " snip- 
 pets" as possible. I ask, Is not that the tendency of 
 our habits of reading in the present day ? A friend 
 of mine has taken statistics of the reading of 150 
 London clerks during their dinner hour, and has found 
 that it is confined to three popular weekly publica- 
 tions. I find no fault with these valuable periodicals, 
 they contain a vast amount of information about 
 everything under the sun. But the point I wish to 
 make is the difference in the frame of mind which 
 the two systems must produce, the difference between 
 the outlook of the man who read Roscoe's Leo X. 
 and talked to his friends about it, and that of the 
 man who stores his mind with facts like the number
 
 124 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 of millions of miles the sun is from the earth, and the 
 number of the inhabitants of Australia. Which is 
 the better way of training the mind and producing a 
 man who shall really take pleasure in life ? Which is 
 more likely to give a man genuine happiness : the sense 
 of possessing a mind of his own as an instrument at 
 his command, which he can use for any purpose he 
 likes, or the possession of an agglomeration of undi- 
 gested pieces of information, which he can display for 
 the delectation of his friends ? These are two different 
 views. I ask you to consider which is preferable, the 
 old or the new. 
 
 In the history of your institution there is something 
 that bears on this question. I find there a very 
 interesting statistical table, which shows that the 
 number of London daily newspapers taken in now 
 and 100 years ago was pretty much the same 
 viz., thirteen in 1798 and fifteen in 1898 a piece of 
 information which should take down the arrogance 
 of the great metropolis. But the weekly papers have 
 increased from five to forty-four, the provincial papers 
 from sixteen to twenty-one, and the magazines from 
 seven to thirty-eight. We see in these figures a 
 record of the tendency of which I am speaking. The 
 institution began with a newsroom, which is a neces- 
 sity. It is desirable that every one should know what 
 is going on, but from the point of view of your founders 
 it is also desirable that men should talk over the news 
 and come to their own conclusions. Nowadays we 
 are too lazy to do that. We read the news daily, but 
 the weekly papers seem to be necessary to tell us 
 what it means. Each monthly magazine contains at
 
 THE USE OF BOOKS 125 
 
 least one brand new view of the universe. We are 
 responsible for considering what we are to do with all 
 these views. But, while the fertility of the human 
 intelligence never ceases to produce theories, comments 
 and suggestions innumerable, what are we doing to 
 develop the capacity to use and judge these theories? 
 Ideas have to fight one another, and we can only trust 
 to the survival of the fittest ; but if we do not take 
 care to prepare our own minds to use these things and 
 to know their value, we shall be hopelessly driven here 
 and there, washed up and down in a perpetual surge 
 of divergent ideas and opinions. There will also be 
 a tendency to the development of fads, irrespective of 
 their real value, and this will tend to upset the balance 
 of the man himself, and will not help in the readiest 
 and simplest way towards the welfare of the com- 
 munity at large. The history of this institution also 
 tells us something about the consideration in which 
 newspapers used to be held. In its early days it 
 was evidently thought that they required serious 
 study. It is different now. A wise man once said to 
 me in his later years, that the thing which had done 
 him the most intellectual harm was the habit of reading 
 newspapers, because it had destroyed his capacity for 
 close attention. This remark is well worth weighing. 
 The enormous increase in the amount of matter which 
 we allow to pass under our eyes in the course of the 
 day has a decided tendency to encourage inattention 
 and want of power of mental concentration. We must 
 struggle to preserve a capacity for attention. 
 
 Again, in these days we find it increasingly difficult 
 to obtain funds to maintain a permanent library, whilst
 
 126 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 a large number of subscriptions are easily forthcoming 
 to support circulating libraries. As I have said the 
 conception on which your Athenaeum was founded 
 was that everybody possessed a library of his own, 
 which he might supplement by using the Athenaeum 
 Library. My investigations have shown me that, up 
 to 1830, private individuals were in the habit of main- 
 taining good libraries, but that after that date this 
 habit tended to decrease. People used to buy books 
 on some principle. A man bought the best books in 
 various languages and added them to his collection, 
 and the particular fancies of the purchaser were 
 shown in his selection. But now, owing to the great 
 increase of circulating libraries, there are many circles 
 where to buy books is considered an act of iniquitous 
 extravagance. This change is very destructive of that 
 pursuit of sound knowledge which this institution was 
 founded to encourage ; it has even produced a change 
 in the nature of books themselves. Nobody who writes 
 a good book nowadays expects any one to read it, 
 except a few experts and reviewers. The public 
 which cares about a real contribution to knowledge 
 is no larger now than it was at the beginning of the 
 century, in spite of the apparently greater devotion to 
 knowledge and the increased number of learned centres. 
 There is now no one definite public ; there are six or 
 seven publics, and the authors who have a great 
 vogue in one public are unknown in another. 
 
 What has caused this state of things ? First of all 
 the spread of education does much to account for it. 
 Enough education is given to remove the impression 
 of ignorance, but not enough to give any real know-
 
 THE USE OF BOOKS 127 
 
 ledge. This is a stage in human progress that is 
 inevitable. We are in the region of half-knowledge, 
 and we shall probably remain there for some time. 
 I was struck by a remark put by a certain writer into 
 the mouth of an American engineer concerning the 
 Russians : " They are very good folk," he said, " they 
 are terribly ignorant, but their ignorance is downright, 
 natural ignorance, not the ignorance we cultivate by 
 reading the newspapers ". We have got rid of natural 
 ignorance, which has the advantage that when a man 
 knows nothing about a subject, he says nothing about 
 it, and we cultivate instead an ignorance which has 
 this disadvantage, that it makes a man speak about a 
 subject in proportion to his ignorance of it. The nature 
 of the political development of our institutions has 
 also had a great influence on intellectual matters. 
 Democracy is founded on the notion that one man's 
 opinion is as good as another's ; this is so with regard 
 to questions upon which men have equal experience, 
 but it is another matter when a man extends his 
 habit of pronouncing his judgment to spheres where 
 he has neither experience nor knowledge. In many 
 cases the best thing which knowledge can do for us 
 is to enable us to say, " I do not know," and to 
 prevent us from romancing outside the limits of what 
 we do know. 
 
 Again, too much importance is given in our day 
 to speaking. The Englishman is ceasing to be the 
 awkward and inarticulate individual he used to be, and 
 consequently there is a great growth of public dis- 
 cussion. Utterance is doubtless a valuable thing, but 
 it is valuable for what is said, and not for the mode
 
 iz8 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 of saying it Another, and more creditable feature, 
 of the present day, is a devouring desire to bring all 
 knowledge to a practical issue for the good of the 
 community at large. And this brings us to an im- 
 portant question. Has such an institution as the 
 Athenaeum, if it remain true to its fundamental ideas, 
 any future in a place like Liverpool ? I have intended 
 my remarks to lead you to the conclusion that it has 
 a greater future than ever. Learning is not only to 
 be kept alive in your city by other institutions such 
 as University College, but also by your Athenaeum. 
 It still remains for you to make a practical exhibition 
 of your power in your ordinary and municipal life, 
 and to carry learning as a dominant influence into 
 the houses and homes not only of your chief citizens, 
 but of all citizens who are capable of lofty aspirations. 
 It is quite true that when this institution was founded, 
 it gathered round it a select number who represented 
 what was known as " the town," a cultivated class well 
 known to one another, men of distinction and mark, 
 whose opinion carried great weight throughout the 
 whole of Liverpool as it then was. No longer, of course, 
 is it possible that there should be a class which can 
 claim to be a dictator or arbiter, yet nevertheless the 
 educated, cultivated, thinking class 'must always have 
 a great influence. Good books and their readers 
 uphold the difference between what is true and 
 what is merely plausible, one of the great lessons 
 which must always be taught. They point out the 
 right principles of judgment ; they spread on all sides 
 the reasonable temper which reduces the dreams of 
 enthusiasts to possibilities. This temper and attitude
 
 THE USE OF BOOKS 129 
 
 does not make itself known through noisy utterance ; 
 it is not blatant ; it does not make itself felt in any 
 definite way, but it is quickly operative where it is 
 most needed. We need for the good of Britain strong 
 local patriotism. We need centres, like the Athenaeum, 
 of independent life and opinion, but these cannot exist 
 without knowledge, without the active influence of 
 minds developed and trained by learning. They 
 must be without pedantry, without aggressiveness, 
 without self-assertion, they must cultivate that flexi- 
 bility of mind which comes only from a grasp of 
 principles, and which w r orks on to a definite end. 
 These are the traditions which you have inherited 
 from your forefathers. I would ask you to resolve 
 that the record of the future of this institution shall 
 be no less distinguished than the record of its past.
 
 130 
 
 XXII. 
 
 THE ADVANTAGE OF CONSECUTIVE 
 READING. 
 
 ADDRESS DELIVERED AT THE ANNUAL MEETING OF 
 THE LONDON DIOCESAN CHURCH READING UNION, 
 28TH MAY, 1897. 
 
 I WISH to try and put before you some very general 
 considerations as to the nature of the work on which 
 you are engaged. First of all, I would ask you to 
 consider, whether any habit can be more valuable for 
 a human being to acquire, than the habit of consecutive 
 reading. In the present day a great many people read, 
 but for the most part they read extremely badly. You 
 must remember that just as there is an art in reading 
 aloud, so there is an art in reading by yourself, and 
 that if you do not get into good habits of reading, 
 you are sure to get into bad ones. 
 
 The first thing to ask ourselves is what is our object 
 in reading. Our existing political system is founded 
 upon the conception that one man's opinion is as 
 good as another's ; and, in consequence, for practical 
 purposes, most people read in order to talk, and to 
 gain opinions which they can express and upon which 
 they can act. But it is different when we come to 
 speculative and scientific questions. As a general rule, 
 those who undertake to solve all practical questions
 
 ADVANTAGE OF CONSECUTIVE READING 131 
 
 by the application of their native common sense, arrive 
 at conclusions that are comparatively clear. But, if 
 we wish really to get at the truth, this is not sufficient, 
 and I am prepared to state what you will consider 
 a paradox, that scientific truth is almost diametrically 
 opposed to what would seem at first sight to be the 
 truth. For instance, common sense would tell us that 
 the sun rises and sets, but science tells us exactly the 
 opposite, that it is we who rise and set. I need not 
 multiply instances, what I mean is that one of the 
 first things that every one ought to learn is that the 
 views which occur to him at the first blush are almost 
 certain to be wrong. If this is so, we must not read 
 to gain views and opinions, but we must try to form 
 habits of consecutive reading to enable us to gain 
 knowledge, which may in time help us to form sound 
 opinions. The habits of reading which prevail at 
 present do not tend in this direction. In the first 
 place everybody reads newspapers. I do not say 
 that they should not be read ; I think they ought to 
 be read, but they are a great temptation. They get 
 us into the habit of turning over pages and passing 
 our eyes over a mass of printed matter, which we do 
 not read thoroughly. Bad habits, too, are specially 
 fostered by those newspapers which depend for their 
 popularity on the provision of out-of-the-way bits of 
 knowledge in the form of " snippets ". They foster 
 conceit, because they lead a man to affect the posses- 
 sion of universal information. Any one who atten- 
 tively studies one or two of their pages, can go about 
 for some days at least, as a very learned man, stating a 
 number of astonishing facts, which give the impression
 
 132 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 that he is a considerable observer in a very wide field 
 of knowledge. 
 
 Another characteristic of the present day is the 
 great demand for short books ; but the true student 
 will always find his joy in studying the largest possible 
 books. The real pleasure of reading comes when 
 we have a folio open on the table before us. It is 
 impossible to get a proper idea of any subject by 
 studying it in a condensed book. A condensed book 
 is a quintessence, every dose of which has to be taken. 
 I, for one, do not feel inclined to take my knowledge 
 in that form. Small books on a big subject are a 
 disadvantage rather than an advantage. In order 
 to know a subject you must take trouble with it. 
 You must get the best books about it and read them 
 carefully. You must read the books which have 
 been written not for the benefit of the publisher, but 
 for the delight of the author. A man can only write 
 a good book when he does it to please himself, because 
 he is really interested and steeped in his subject. All 
 subjects cannot be made amusing, it is of the nature 
 of some subjects to be dry, but no subject is dry if you 
 are interested in it, and you will become interested in 
 a subject just in proportion as you see its import- 
 ance. 
 
 Let me give you an example of the way in which a 
 man can come to take an interest in serious reading. 
 An old friend of mine, a member of the Society of 
 Friends, requested me some time ago to tell him the 
 best books on the life of Archbishop Laud. I asked 
 him what had led him to take an interest in Laud. He 
 told me that to find a certain piece of information he
 
 ADVANTAGE OF CONSECUTIVE READING 133 
 
 had been led to take up Heylin's Life of Laud, and 
 had grown so interested that he wished to devote a 
 time of convalescence to a full study of Laud. He 
 had learnt enough to discover that he could not get a 
 true knowledge of Laud's position and opinions, with- 
 out going to the original authorities, and he had by this 
 means acquired a source of permanent interest. That 
 is the way by which we are led to profitable reading. 
 Something suggests an interest in a particular subject. 
 We open a good book to find an answer to the question 
 which has been suggested. At once a hundred new 
 questions are started, about which we wish to satisfy 
 our curiosity. The subject becomes of importance to 
 us. If we pursue it intelligently, we find that it always 
 leaves us with more questions than it has answered. 
 We have gained much information, but a desire for 
 much more has been awakened in our mind. As we 
 turn over the pages, we say: " Very well, he did so and 
 so, but why did he do it ? Why is this true ? Why 
 ought I to think about it?" You will never satisfy 
 your mind till you ask yourself that question " Why ? " 
 All human knowledge has come from the pigheaded- 
 ness of the small number of people who continually 
 asked themselves that question. Some people are 
 continually asking questions of others and getting cut- 
 and-dried answers which they do not really care to 
 hear. But each must pursue the truth for himself, 
 and in this lies the real interest of study. In order to 
 pursue the truth to the best of your power, you must 
 first of all have a trained mind to show you how the 
 truth is to be found. The habit of consecutive read- 
 ing will not only enable you to acquire knowledge,
 
 134 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 but it will train and discipline your mind. We talk 
 a great deal about discipline, but we take very little 
 trouble to secure it for ourselves. We admire and 
 respect it in others, but we do not appreciate it for 
 ourselves. To speak to an Englishman about his need 
 of discipline would be considered an outrage on what 
 he calls his common sense. But a man's opinion is not 
 likely to be of real value unless he has taken years of 
 trouble to form it. We realise the value of moral 
 discipline and we talk about the discipline of life, but 
 we do not think enough about the need of discipline 
 for our mind. It is your intelligence, your mind, 
 which constitutes the strongest part of your being. 
 It is through disciplining your mind that you will 
 alone be able to form opinions which are worth having. 
 But if you are content to form rash judgments, to 
 take up odds and ends of opinions and scatter them 
 round you, as you go about the world, as though they 
 were truths, you will find that you are committing a 
 series of the most miserable errors. The important 
 thing is to know what you know, and to know what 
 you do not know. 
 
 Ignorance is an extremely wholesome quality, but 
 it is one which we none of us like for a moment to 
 confess belongs to ourselves. Yet it is desirable to 
 know and own the ignorance we possess, and to real- 
 ise that there is no need to be ashamed of it. There 
 are various forms of ignorance. There is the ignor- 
 ance which sinks very deep because it does not know 
 itself to be ignorance. This is a very different thing 
 from the ignorance which confesses its ignorance. To 
 know when you do not know a thing and to say you
 
 ADVANTAGE OF CONSECUTIVE READING 135 
 
 do not know is a proof of wisdom ; to know when 
 you do really know something is of the greatest 
 possible importance. 
 
 If you have agreed at all with the principles which 
 I have laid down, you will see what is the particular 
 bearing they have on the special subject of your 
 studies, and on the present condition of theological 
 learning in England. Opinions are expressed in 
 magazine articles on theological and religious ques- 
 tions of every kind. When I read them, I am often 
 struck both by the dogmatism of the assertions made, 
 and by the extreme ignorance of the man who makes 
 them. Without professing to be well up in every 
 subject myself, I have sufficient knowledge of history 
 and theology to know whether the line followed can 
 be right or not. The use of knowledge is to enable 
 us to distinguish between what is true and what is 
 merely plausible, to know the method by which know- 
 ledge can be arrived at, in contradistinction to the 
 methods which are only extremely specious and can 
 be expressed in popular epigrammatic forms. Now 
 it is most important that every Christian man and 
 woman should regard the careful study of theology as 
 part of their duty, because the way in which theology 
 is represented in public speeches, in magazine articles, 
 in many references that are made to it on all sides, is 
 seen at once to be absolutely misleading by any one 
 who has paid even the smallest attention to the sub- 
 ject. And the reason why it is so misleading, the real 
 cause of one of the greatest religious difficulties of the 
 present day, the most striking testimony to the hope- 
 less want of discipline to which we have reduced our
 
 136 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 minds is simply this, that even those who have views 
 about religion have no conception of theology and 
 always put it on one side. They say : " We do not 
 care about theology ; but we do care about religion ". 
 Press them farther, and you will find that on the 
 whole they cherish a belief that it is better to be good 
 than to be bad. To express that belief they consider 
 to be to say something religious. They stop at that 
 point. If you tell them that the cultivation of noble 
 sentiments is a very noble thing, that the desire to 
 put our services at the command of the community is 
 excellent, but that everything that is done or said 
 should rest upon a basis of truth, and that theology 
 is concerned with the study of truth, they will draw 
 back and repeat : " Religion is all the truth we want, 
 we do not care about theology ". 
 
 Go on a little farther and you will find that they 
 will turn and say : " We do not care about theological 
 dogmas ". They forget that theology is a science and 
 has to deal with the definite statement of truths just 
 as any other science. Theology is just as true, just 
 as good, just as dignified as any other form of science. 
 Dogma is only the precise and accurate statement of 
 ascertained truth. When people begin to denounce 
 dogma, they always seem to assume, that no sooner 
 did the Church come into being, than it began to 
 support a series of unwarranted dogmas. Very little 
 thought will show that this was not the case, but that 
 what is called dogma arose, because the Church had to 
 try and prevent people from making entirely untrue 
 statements concerning the Church's history and teach- 
 ing. Every possible argument was used to break the
 
 ADVANTAGE OF CONSECUTIVE READING 137 
 
 historic record of the historic Christ ; and the Church 
 was bound to set forth the truth concerning the historic 
 Christ. All theology came into existence for that 
 reason. It was not because there was a body of 
 people denying its doctrines, but because there was 
 a body of people denying the very truths which it 
 existed to maintain, that the Church was forced to 
 formulate its dogmas. The Church had to deny the 
 rash statements of the heretic. The heretic was a 
 person who made statements which in the long run 
 he could not substantiate. Thus the whole body of 
 theology in the early Church, and all the arguments 
 based upon it grew up in consequence of the assaults 
 of those who wished to read the Gospel history into 
 their own conception of the system of the world. 
 This will show you the extreme importance of early 
 Church history. By it we learn how the Church was 
 protected against attempts to represent Christ as a 
 myth or a phantom, or in terms not set forth in the 
 Gospel. By it we learn how the Scriptures were pre- 
 served for us. I could urge similar advantages in the 
 case of all the other branches of study which are put 
 before you. You must remember that there is a differ- 
 ence between real knowledge and imperfect apprecia- 
 tion ; between judgment based on imperfect knowledge 
 and the judgment which comes from the superiority 
 of the trained mind which has submitted itself to 
 discipline, which has learned to distinguish between 
 what is true and what is only half true, which does not 
 wish to jump to conclusions, but to weigh and balance 
 arguments on both sides of the question. It is only 
 by considerable reading that you can gain that frame
 
 138 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 of mind ; in studying the truths of the Christian 
 faith you will find it of great and permanent advan- 
 tage and use. We of the Church have suffered much 
 because we have adopted an attitude of reserve in- 
 stead of being ready frankly to admit what we know 
 to be true. We must regard ourselves as missionaries. 
 We must not regard the Gospel as a fragile thing, 
 even though we are bound to guard it as carefully as 
 we would our own life. The Gospel is the truth, to 
 which nothing can be added, and from which nothing 
 can be taken away. The more we consider it, the more 
 we shall see that the Gospel is the greatest and most 
 practical message of the eternal truth of all times both 
 ancient and modern, of that truth which alone enables 
 a man to steer his way through the world. It is be- 
 cause it is the truth and only because it is the truth 
 that we embrace it with all our hearts. Do we 
 say that we know it experimentally ? That is true, 
 because it has formed our own lives and our own 
 character and made us what we are ; therefore every 
 Christian knows from his own experience how the 
 truth has made him free. Knowing this, he can 
 approach it in the true spirit of the student, eager to 
 study it because he knows it to be true, and with the 
 reverence with which a free being should regard every- 
 thing true, knowing that, if his intention is true, the 
 Holy Spirit will guide his understanding and will 
 perfect it wherever it is needed.
 
 139 
 
 XXIII. 
 THE LARGENESS OF KNOWLEDGE. 
 
 ADDRESS TO THE LONDON DIOCESAN CHURCH READ- 
 ING UNION, 6TH JUNE, 1898. 
 
 I VERY much hope that this Diocesan Church Reading 
 Union will spread into every parish in the diocese. 
 It is a most important part of the Church's work. It 
 cannot possibly be said, it must not be said, that the 
 Church exists upon ignorance. That is not the case. 
 The Church exists upon knowledge and it courts the 
 fullest possible knowledge, and it requires from all its 
 true sons and daughters as much knowledge as they 
 can possibly gain. We have been reminded that we 
 English are sometimes said to indulge in so much 
 dissension because we exult in the right of private 
 judgment. But we cannot get rid of private judg- 
 ment ; even if we put our judgment in commission, 
 we have to exercise our judgment in order to do so ; 
 that is to say, we have to say deliberately : " I feel 
 myself such a poor creature that I am not capable of 
 thinking, but I am going to ask somebody else to 
 think for me". That is a position which English 
 people are not likely to take up. They intend to 
 do their thinking for themselves, and even if their 
 thinking is a very poor concern and I know you 
 will excuse me for saying that I think it mostly is
 
 140 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 none the less they insist upon doing it, and they 
 are unnecessarily proud, it seems to me, of the result 
 of that thinking. You have often seen the elation 
 of a hen after it has laid an egg. Well, that is a 
 trumpery proceeding perhaps ; if the hen is any good 
 at all, it will lay a great number of eggs in its life. 
 But the average Englishman, if he only forms two 
 opinions in his life, makes as much clucking as a hen 
 does, and exults in the produce, or the results of the 
 produce, to a degree which seems to a bystander to 
 be quite disproportionate to its real value. But that 
 is a peculiarity with which we have to put up. 
 
 It is better for any society to have too many opinions 
 than too few ; after all, we can always exercise our 
 judgment with regard to what we do with opinions 
 when we have got them. In the present day when 
 there is a penny post, and a vast number of opinions 
 can therefore not only be formed, but can be im- 
 mediately circulated at a very small cost, one some- 
 times feels inclined to say that there is a plethora of 
 opinions going loose in the world. But the human 
 ingenuity which discovered the penny post also dis- 
 covered that very useful article the waste-paper 
 basket, and the waste-paper basket is the ultimate 
 repository for a great many opinions. This process 
 of the constant formation of opinions, of which we are 
 so proud, requires that there should go on side by side 
 with it, a corresponding process of trying to acquire 
 that knowledge of any subject which enables us, if 
 not to form opinions of our own, at least to judge of 
 the value of other people's opinions. On the whole 
 it is the more comfortable plan not to attempt to add
 
 THE LARGENESS OF KNOWLEDGE 141 
 
 largely to the number of existing opinions, but to 
 devote one's time and mind to the examination of 
 those opinions, to their arrangement, and to discovering 
 how much there really is in them. I am sorry to say 
 that just as one may spend one's time in picking up 
 and opening a number of nuts which have fallen from 
 a tree, only to discover that there is nothing in them, 
 so will it be with the vast mass of opinions which 
 continually float around us. The object of the Church 
 Reading Union is to give that steady mental discipline 
 from which comes the power to judge amongst opinions. 
 Remember this, that after all the great object of 
 education is not knowledge, but the formation of that 
 capacity for judgment for which we have been praying 
 through the past week as the special gift of the Holy 
 Spirit of God, that capacity for judgment which, like 
 all other gifts of God, will not come to us unless we 
 take the trouble to fit ourselves for it. It certainly 
 is one of the duties which God has fastened upon 
 His children, that they should learn to exercise 
 their judgment, that they should do it with a due 
 sense of responsibility and with a due dependence 
 upon His help. The Home Reading Union was 
 founded to teach you precisely this truth, to teach 
 you the value of knowledge, the inherent and neces- 
 sary value of knowledge, the fact that a life which is 
 left simply at the mercy of the crude opinions which 
 are floating around is no true life at all, but that we 
 only become really in any degree what we are capable 
 of becoming when we have gained some capacity for 
 judgment, when we can feel that we have gathered at 
 all events some principles, by reference to which we
 
 HZ THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 can test the great shifting mass of opinions among 
 which we are compelled to live. 
 
 Now let me ask you to consider how that stands 
 as regards the very highest subject with which our 
 minds ought to be concerned. It is, if you will think 
 of it for a moment, absolutely true that the fact of 
 the existence of religion at all, necessarily provokes 
 scepticism, for this very simple reason, that if there was 
 a God who could be entirely known, He would then 
 cease to be the God who helps us. A God who could 
 be entirely known, would be the object almost of our 
 patronage, would certainly become our equal, would 
 not be that superior that God necessarily must be. 
 Therefore you will see what I mean when I say that 
 the mere conception of religion necessarily suggests 
 the idea of scepticism. How true was the utterance 
 of the old prophet : " Verily Thou art a God that 
 hidest Thyself, Thou God of Israel our Saviour". 
 This is absolutely true, God must be pursued. 
 
 Faith consists in giving that impulse to our whole 
 being, to our emotions as well as to our reason, which 
 shall stimulate us in the pursuit of God, in the en- 
 deavour to discover Him as He stands in relation to 
 ourselves. As we discover Him, we rise to the sense 
 of a new relationship towards the whole world which 
 He has created, and which He rules. Now the dis- 
 covery of the truth in some way or other, and the 
 taking it to be a part of our life is absolutely and 
 entirely the one object of our Christian training ; for, 
 remember, that the Christian life is not the life of one 
 part of our being only, but it is the life of every part 
 of our being. All our capacities and all our qualities
 
 THE LARGENESS OF KNOWLEDGE 143 
 
 alike come from God, and all alike stimulate us to 
 seek after Him. Our practical capacities tell us to 
 work for Him, and for the realisation of His laws in 
 the world, but our speculative capacities, our powers 
 of thought and our knowledge alike were given us 
 that we might grow into the largeness of the world in 
 which God has placed us. I have spoken to you of 
 judgment, of the power which even a little knowledge 
 may give you to discern between different opinions. 
 It always seems to me that, intellectually speaking, it 
 is impossible for me to discover the rights and wrongs 
 of almost any opinions that are put before me ; but I 
 can at least see what are the elements which have 
 been taken into account, and I can discover which 
 opinions are large and which opinions are small, which 
 opinions are at least attempting to grapple with the 
 actual facts of the world, and which opinions are trying 
 to narrow down the facts of the world so that they 
 can be grappled with. We are put by God into this 
 world, the world as it is, the actual world that God 
 has made, and we are constantly being led astray 
 because we will set to work to get outside that world, 
 to remake it for ourselves, to turn God's world into 
 our own world, to rearrange it according to our own 
 convenience. " I can understand so much," we seem 
 to say, " therefore the world, as God meant it to be, 
 should be regulated according to my capacity of 
 understanding." This attempt to deal with the world, 
 not as it actually is, but to recreate the world, to 
 narrow it and to limit it according to our own capa- 
 cities for dealing with it, will be found to be at the 
 bottom of almost all partial systems and theories.
 
 H4 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 The same desire lies at the bottom of many of the 
 operations of the human mind. It has a great 
 appearance of plausibility. So many systems are 
 floating about, which would be excellent if human 
 nature were just a little different from what it is. 
 You and I, any of us, could so easily take away 
 from human nature just those elements which make 
 it so exceedingly difficult to deal with. But the 
 charm of human nature is that it is just what it is. 
 Sometimes we labour to get people to agree with us, 
 or to do something which we want them to do, and 
 we are horrified and disgusted at their perversity, and 
 we go away thinking ill of human nature altogether. 
 Let me recommend you at such times of depression 
 to consider after all that, if human nature was made 
 of putty instead of being made of marble, it might be 
 quite easy for you to make a statue with infinitely 
 less trouble than it is, but the first rain which fell 
 upon the putty would reduce it to shapelessness, and 
 the next passer-by who touched it would give it a 
 new form. You cannot suppose that you will always 
 be the supreme architect of the world or even of your 
 own surroundings. You are not meant to have your 
 own way. We all make a very moderate demand of 
 the world ; it is simply that we should have our own 
 way and that no one should interfere with us. It 
 seems quite reasonable ; and yet a little reflection 
 shows us that we can hardly hope to have so much. 
 This, I daresay, is very homely wisdom ; it is very 
 simple when stated in so many propositions ; but if 
 you examine yourselves and the principles on which 
 your judgment is based, and many of the principles
 
 THE LARGENESS OF KNOWLEDGE 145 
 
 on which you act, you will find that somehow or 
 other this very immoderate demand does, as a matter 
 of fact, occupy a considerable place in your views of 
 life. It is so very easy to try and make our own 
 world ; it is so very difficult to rise to the dignity 
 and grandeur of the world as it really is ; yes, I mean 
 the real dignity and grandeur of the world, in spite of 
 all our complaints of human nature, of the perversity 
 of human ideas, of our annoyance that people do not 
 see eye to eye with us, of our grief over apparent 
 diversities. We may grieve over these things as we 
 like, but we have got to face them, we have got to 
 make the best of them ; the world is too large a thing 
 for any one of us to run it into his own mould or his 
 own shape ; we had better therefore face the world as 
 it really is and try and there comes in the call to 
 gain knowledge, a very painful process and try to 
 expand and grow big enough to understand, in some 
 degree, the world around us. 
 
 As you know, the great feature of modern times is 
 the enormous and unprecedented growth of the world. 
 Each of us has a world, and every one of our worlds 
 is different. That is the absurdity. We talk to one 
 another as though we lived in the same world ; but 
 some people live in a very small world indeed, and 
 some in a larger one. And however much we may 
 try to extend our world, we every one of us live in a 
 world which is quite atomic in proportion to the actual 
 world in which God has placed us. If we spend all 
 our days trying to expand our minds, yet we shall 
 not succeed in covering anything like the actual world 
 which is before us, that is, the world which we might 
 
 10
 
 146 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 know, the world in which we might dwell. We shall 
 continue only to live in a pitiably small bit of it. 
 Still, the true pleasure of knowledge consists in feeling 
 continually that we have taken another step forward 
 into the large world, that our horizon has grown 
 wider ; and just in proportion as our horizon grows 
 wider, I think we shall begin somehow to understand 
 how God looks upon the world. Remember this, the 
 only source of happiness, the only source of content- 
 ment that can be given to any one of us comes when 
 we acquire by some means or other, the sense that 
 we are looking at the world in some dim way as God 
 looks upon it. It is a very hard thing to say that we 
 have achieved that, that we have even got to the 
 possibility of looking at it so. And yet, without that, 
 there can be no contentment, no satisfaction for us. 
 
 I said that in the present day the world has grown 
 very large. This truth is borne in upon us from all 
 sides. First of all, in the present day for the first 
 time, we know the whole surface of the world. We 
 know pretty much all that the world, that is the out- 
 side world, has to tell us and to show us. In the next 
 place, the rapidity of the means of communication has 
 flooded us, not only with the ideas and opinions that 
 are made at home, but also with all the ideas and 
 opinions that are made everywhere else. In the third 
 place, the complication of the world's business has 
 materially increased. We talk about the difficulties 
 of England's position at the present day. What does 
 that mean? It means that England stands in con- 
 scious relationships with almost every country and 
 every government in the world, that the knowledge of
 
 THE LARGENESS OF KNOWLEDGE 147 
 
 slight changes and modifications in those relationships 
 is brought to us immediately by the electric telegraph, 
 and that those at the head of affairs have always to be 
 considering any particular event that takes place in 
 the light of that whole circle of relationships. Now 
 observe what an enormous tax that is upon any one's 
 intelligence, upon his temper, upon his power of look- 
 ing at things. 
 
 It has been said, and I think said with truth, that 
 one great characteristic of the present day is, that the 
 volume of business to be done has increased quite out 
 of proportion to the development and growth of the 
 human brain ; so that consequently we live in a time 
 of conscious strain, such as the world has never known 
 before, because at no previous period has the business 
 of the world increased with such rapidity. Well, I 
 suppose the human brain has to grow, human faculties 
 have to be developed like other things ; still everybody 
 must feel nowadays a considerable difficulty in making 
 their mind large enough to take in the sum total of 
 the ideas, the speculations, the points of view which 
 are floating round them in the world. We live amidst 
 opinions often impalpable, often assumed. We find 
 them in society, we find them when we talk with our 
 friends ; after a little conversation with almost any- 
 body we find that, though we may both be saying the 
 same things, we are not saying them in the same sense ; 
 that different ideas underlie our words, that our minds 
 are not entirely in accord. Of course we cannot even 
 understand what our friend is saying, unless we dis- 
 cover what is the dominant point of view from which 
 he starts. The process of finding out the truth about
 
 1 48 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 all these opinions is very difficult, and often very pain- 
 ful. It is painful, because knowledge, just because it 
 is the most precious of all things, takes the most 
 trouble to acquire, and is not got without a very con- 
 scious strain and a very conscious effort. There is all 
 the difference in the world between gaining sound 
 knowledge upon any subject, and simply collecting 
 opinions. A man who collects opinions, and a great 
 many people nowadays are satisfied with doing that, 
 is as though he collected butterflies or anything else, 
 and simply sought his whole pleasure in catching them 
 and putting them into a cabinet, but had no interest 
 in their scientific arrangement, no interest in knowing 
 the relation of one species to another, no interest in 
 knowing the habits of the creatures he collects. With- 
 out this, the mere collecting of course becomes an 
 entirely unintelligent pursuit. So it may be with you. 
 You may, if you will, be considered to be sharp, to be 
 clever ; you may repeat with audacity and exaggera- 
 tion in the evening, an opinion that you have picked 
 up from a newspaper or from a magazine article in the 
 morning, and you may, if you go on producing a new 
 opinion every day, have a reputation in a very limited 
 circle, for being an exceedingly clever person. If you 
 like that line of life pursue it, but do not imagine that it 
 has anything whatever to do with knowledge ; to under- 
 stand what is the true nature of knowledge, what is the 
 way in which alone knowledge can be acquired, this 
 can only be done by setting ourselves to the consistent 
 and persistent study of some particular subject. 
 
 Now it is quite clear that there are no subjects 
 which can be of more importance to you as English
 
 THE LARGENESS OF KNOWLEDGE 149 
 
 men and women, as citizens of this country, as 
 members of this branch of Christ's Church, no sub- 
 jects of which it is more necessary that you should 
 acquire a knowledge than those which this Home 
 Reading Union puts before you. The Union supplies 
 you with a continuous method of study in subjects 
 which it is of the most vital importance for you to 
 understand ; it supplies you with the means of testing 
 your knowledge at the end of your studies. To have 
 such an occupation going on side by side with your 
 other occupations is surely most valuable to you. I 
 apprehend that all who have tried it know what a 
 real source of refreshment it is, because it is only by 
 having a continuous object of study in our life, that 
 we ever can attain to the proper discipline of character. 
 I daresay that many of you, when you have been tired 
 or worried or annoyed or perplexed, have felt the 
 relief of sitting down in a not too comfortable chair 
 with a book, which, though not necessarily very stiff, 
 yet requires all your attention to take in and under- 
 stand. You know what a relief comes at once to 
 your mind from that process ; you know that you are 
 taken away from your little worries and troubles and 
 brought face to face with the great issues of life, and 
 that you are learning to put yourself into a larger 
 circle of relationships, and so to gain relief from the 
 actual trials and anxieties of your own little life. We 
 do not directly overcome any difficulties, it is only 
 by continually struggling to rise into a higher, purer 
 atmosphere, that we grow into a larger knowledge 
 which, so to speak, absorbs our small difficulties. We 
 are only really happy, when we feel that we have
 
 150 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 that in us which is continually raising us higher and 
 higher. And we must remember that our intelligence 
 requires raising as much as any other part of our nature. 
 The growth of our intelligence ought to be part of life's 
 discipline and life's training. It is after all our intelli- 
 gence which has to garner and explain and make 
 valuable to others all the results that we have reached. 
 There is sometimes a disposition to speak slightingly 
 of reason, but reason is the highest quality of man. 
 It is by reference to reason that opinions have 
 ultimately to be judged. We speak of God as love, 
 of God as having mercy, but we ought to remember 
 that God is also perfect wisdom, and that it is in the 
 development of our intellectual qualities as much as 
 in the development of ,our other qualities that the 
 discipline and training of life consists. 
 
 To those who have begun to follow a definite course 
 of study, I would only say in conclusion : " Go on in 
 your pursuit, lend yourselves to this consecutive course 
 of study which is here put before you, do your best to 
 commend to others the results of what you have been 
 doing by the increased brightness of your intelligence, 
 by the greater contentment of your life, by your 
 growing cheerfulness and by your growing serenity. 
 Show them that after all knowledge is the chief good 
 that man can pursue, and that the knowledge of the 
 highest things is the highest knowledge of all."
 
 XXIV. 
 THE VALUE OF DEFINITE KNOWLEDGE. 
 
 SPEECH AT THE ANNUAL MEETING OF THE LONDON 
 DIOCESAN READING UNION, STH JUNE, 1899. 
 
 IT is not at all unnatural that the study of the Prayer- 
 book should prove to be the subject which is found 
 most difficult by the younger members of this Union. 
 It is by no means easy to get up the Prayer-book 
 either as a whole or in part, for the reason that it 
 opens up so many different lines of investigation. 
 
 First, its sources have to be considered, and this is 
 a dull subject for many people who fail to see why 
 it makes any difference where the different prayers in 
 the Prayer-book come from. In the second place, it 
 is necessary to consider how the Prayer-book came 
 into its present shape, the changes that were made 
 in it at different times, what caused these changes 
 to be made and what was their nature. This to some 
 people's minds seems a tedious and uninteresting in- 
 quiry. Thirdly, there is the study of the exact language 
 of the Prayer-book, which reminds some of what they 
 always found the least profitable of their lessons, the 
 lesson in grammar. But the chief reason for the diffi- 
 culty experienced in the study of the Prayer-book is 
 that the Prayer-book deals with theological ideas as 
 such, in their abiding form amongst us.
 
 152 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 It is exceedingly difficult to marshal ideas in a con- 
 secutive order and to express in exact terms either 
 our own ideas or what we have gathered from the 
 ideas of others. It requires in the first place a con- 
 siderable mastery of language before you can lay hold 
 of the exact words which will fit an idea that is passing 
 through your mind, and enable you to express it in 
 some definite form. But if you really desire to know 
 something, you will find that knowledge most attractive 
 which enables you to find suitable words to express 
 thought accurately and precisely, so that it can be 
 readily recalled when necessary. 
 
 Now some people make the mistake of supposing, 
 that to state a thing clearly is to state it narrowly, 
 and that to make a clear statement of a principle is 
 necessarily to make a narrow statement. But the 
 great laws of nature can be clearly stated after they 
 have been discovered ; they are universal in their 
 application and in no sense narrow ; their clearness 
 of statement only corresponds to their truth. 
 
 Christian doctrine sets forth, first of all, the truth in 
 itself in definitely expressed terms, and then the truth 
 as it appeals to the mind of man when he is engaged 
 in prayer to God, the truth, that is to say, as a man's 
 mind lays hold of it in order to use it for his own 
 purposes. It is at times of prayer, that we come to 
 feel most clearly what is the purpose of our life, and 
 that it is most necessary for us to see that purpose 
 clearly. To do this our beliefs must be definite, they 
 must be capable of definite expression. Hence we 
 must strive to acquire dogmatic knowledge, and to do 
 this instruction is absolutely necessary. Our minds
 
 THE VALUE OF DEFINITE KNOWLEDGE 153 
 
 should be clear on dogmatic points, and fortified with 
 definite knowledge. And the great practical value of 
 the Prayer-book is, that in the ideas which it expresses 
 and applies, it is such an admirable example and 
 pattern of the way in which the highest qualities of 
 the mind of man may be applied to the highest pur- 
 pose for which man can exist, namely, the worship of 
 Almighty God. 
 
 Your work during the past year has no doubt been 
 full of interest to all of you. You have learnt how 
 desirable it is to have some definite object in your 
 reading. Those amongst you who have just left 
 school have enjoyed having their time at their own 
 disposal at home for their studies. But the older 
 ones amongst you also have time at your disposal. 
 Perhaps you will answer that it is easy enough to say 
 so, but that in reality your time is constantly broken 
 into by all kinds of troublesome interruptions. It is 
 true that every one's time is always being broken in 
 upon, but the people whom I have known who are able 
 to get through most work are those who can make use, 
 not only of six hours at a time, any one can do that, 
 but of six minutes at a time. It is by gaining the 
 power of using odd minutes that the most valuable 
 work in life can be done. 
 
 Learn, I beg you, all you can in the days of your 
 youth, because the time will come when you will not 
 have the energy to add to your stock of ideas. To 
 cultivate abiding interests in those subjects which are 
 the highest that can be put before thfe human mind, 
 to cultivate interests which are concerned with life in 
 its highest aspects, this surely is one of the best things
 
 154 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 that you can do. To cultivate that kind of interest 
 in things which will lead you to be always learning, to 
 be always adding to your store of knowledge, that is 
 the way to make your life both happy for yourself 
 and profitable to others.
 
 XXV. 
 THE NEED FOR GUIDANCE IN STUDY. 
 
 ADDRESS AT THE ANNUAL MEETING OF THE LONDON 
 DIOCESAN CHURCH READING UNION, igoo. 
 
 I SUPPOSE that most of you were led to join this 
 society because you felt that having obtained a certain 
 amount of education, which had equipped you to a cer- 
 tain extent, you wished to make use of that equipment. 
 There is one great thing to learn about our education, 
 which I am glad to say this society has succeeded in 
 teaching to some people at least, and that is that it is 
 never completed. It is a lifelong process, and it must be 
 continued in much the same way as that in which it 
 was begun. I am glad to see that there are various 
 persons who have received certificates this afternoon 
 who cannot be called, I wish to speak of them with the 
 greatest respect, in their first youth. This shows that 
 they have learnt the lesson that education is a thing 
 to be pursued all the days of their life, and that they 
 are not ashamed to pursue it publicly and to let people 
 see that they pursue it. Really the true beginning of 
 education is when we decide to continue it voluntarily 
 after we are able to order our life for ourselves. The 
 basis of any scholastic system must be compulsion. 
 The pupil has to lend himself to a process of training 
 the advantages of which he only imperfectly under-
 
 156 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 stands. He knows that he is doing mental gymnastics, 
 but no schoolmaster can make entirely clear to him, 
 what will be the advantage to him of those mental 
 gymnastics after he has done them ; that he must 
 discover for himself. The greatest use that any system 
 of education can be to you is not to teach you any- 
 thing, but to inspire you with a desire to learn. 
 
 The great misfortune of education at the present 
 day is that we all tend too much to talk about it as 
 if it were the means of teaching people something. 
 It is not a means of teaching anything, it can only 
 be a means of teaching people to learn. In that 
 sense real education begins for you after you leave 
 school ; after you leave those who are in the ordinary 
 sense your tutors and teachers ; when you become free 
 beings, and when being free you say : " Now I am to 
 begin life for myself ; I have learnt that I have got a 
 mind which it is desirable that I should use, therefore 
 I am going to use it in a regular and systematic 
 manner ". That is the idea which is at the basis of 
 the Church Reading Union. Its object is that its 
 members should be led to use the minds which 
 their former teaching at school or elsewhere has 
 revealed to them with all their possibilities, to discern 
 some of the manifold interests in the world around 
 them, and to realise both what there is to know and 
 the means by which knowledge may be acquired. 
 Most people leave off their regular education, having 
 gained at least two things, a certain amount of in- 
 formation and a certain amount of mental training. 
 The first use you should desire to make of the in- 
 formation you have got is to gain through its help
 
 THE NEED FOR GUIDANCE IN STUDY 157 
 
 some more information. And for this purpose what 
 is of most importance is not information in itself, but 
 information which will tell you where to get informa- 
 tion when you want it. It is not so desirable for 
 instance that every one should read a great number of 
 books, as that they should know about a great number 
 of books, know how to use them, how to refer to them, 
 know what books are good books and worth reading 
 carefully, and of what books it is only worth while to 
 turn over the pages. There is a great deal to learn 
 about books, and it is not easy for you to learn it by 
 yourselves. 
 
 These are matters about which only experts can 
 judge ; and one of the great advantages of the Church 
 Reading Union is that it tells you what are the best 
 books to read about a subject, and gives you leaflets 
 which draw attention to the most important points in 
 the subject, and shows you to what you should specially 
 direct your attention when reading the books. Many 
 people begin to read because they think it a good 
 thing, and they get hold of the book which they 
 are told is the best book on the subject they mean 
 to study. *They begin to read it most sedulously, and 
 set themselves a fixed number of pages an hour, and 
 they conscientiously sit and read so many hours in the 
 day or the week, and get through a fixed number of 
 pages, and feel satisfied that a process is going on. 
 But reading a book in itself is no good. You do not 
 want merely to read a book, you want to get ideas, 
 and a book is only useful in so far as it gives you 
 ideas. There is a certain period in your education 
 when you have to be the slave of books, but you must
 
 158 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 speedily turn the corner and become the master of 
 books, books must become your servants. However 
 interesting the book may be, however great a man 
 its author, it is no use for you to read it unless 
 you see the advantage of reading it, unless you are 
 interested in its subject, and you cannot be interested 
 in its subject unless you understand what the subject 
 is about. A great many people who leave school with 
 good intentions of continuing their reading, really 
 stultify their good intentions by still continuing to 
 be the slave of books. They set themselves the 
 task of reading a particular book through. They 
 seem to expect and demand that the mechanical 
 process of turning over so many pages in a fixed time 
 will leave a deposit of ideas. But this does not neces- 
 sarily follow. We are not all the same kind of 
 persons, and on the whole we had better start with 
 ourselves. If a book does not teach me anything, no 
 matter though it teach thousands of other people, it 
 is no particular good to me, and I had better go on 
 till I find a book that does teach me something, till 
 I get hold of something which will make things clear 
 to me, which is in sympathy with my mind. Again 
 I say that this process of discovering what you can 
 best read, what will help you most, is one that you 
 can seldom do absolutely by yourselves. It is difficult 
 to know how to go on reading by yourselves after 
 what is technically called your education is finished, 
 and when you try to do so you are often disappointed 
 with the results. Perhaps you have got hold of the 
 wrong book, or you may have chosen a subject which 
 does not appeal to you. Therefore the whole sub-
 
 THE NEED FOR GUIDANCE IN STUDY 159 
 
 ject of your study remains external to you and does 
 nothing for you. You need help and guidance to get 
 into the right way, to find the right book and the 
 right subject for you. 
 
 Again, it is desirable that you should know how 
 any particular subject is to be studied. The Union 
 with its leaflets, its varied subjects, its graduated 
 arrangement of books will help you in all these dif- 
 ferent ways. It puts you on a course of reading ; it 
 gives you just the amount of help you need and no 
 more ; not so much help as to lead you to suppose 
 that you are being taught, but just enough to enable 
 you to learn, to begin to use books, to understand 
 how a subject must be studied. Your early education 
 has left you the slave of books, and has only very 
 inadequately introduced you to subjects of study. 
 But when we begin to read for ourselves, we only do 
 so to any purpose when we read a subject which 
 interests us. We must wish to get up some subject, 
 to get ideas for ourselves. Somehow we must bridge 
 over the gulf between the period when we take our 
 ideas for granted, and read books because we are 
 ordered to read them, and the period when we select 
 our own books, choose our own subjects, form our 
 own ideas and follow the directions of our own mind. 
 Our minds may be limited, but it is no good trying 
 to swell ourselves by reading serious books with seri- 
 ous titles, for the sake of saying that we have read 
 them. The important thing is, that we should under- 
 stand the books we read, and that their ideas should 
 become part of our mental growth. Above all things 
 try to get hold of ideas. Try to gather the ideas that
 
 160 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 He behind the subject which you are studying. As 
 you read you must try and get at ideas, large, formu- 
 lative ideas, which will enable you to rearrange your 
 former knowledge, and give you reasons for going on 
 to acquire new knowledge. The systematic course put 
 before you by this Church Reading Union will surely 
 be the greatest possible help to you in carrying on 
 this process. If the younger members of the Union 
 will only lend themselves to its guidance for a time, 
 they will rapidly discover the great advantage that it 
 will be to them. Do not give it up because you think 
 it rather bores you. We must always be a little bored 
 at first in anything. There is no pure pleasure which 
 comes to us with all its pleasurable force at once. 
 We have to learn to appreciate the best things. A 
 little trouble is necessary before we can ever lay hold 
 of anything which is really worth having. Therefore 
 take the trouble. Remember that you need a certain 
 amount of guidance before you can really enter upon 
 the dominion in which you hope one day to find your- 
 self free. Remember, too, that the Church Reading 
 Union directs your minds to what must always be 
 the most important subjects of human knowledge. 
 It is the boast of Christianity that it is always in close 
 contact with the whole of human life, with the whole 
 of man's capacity, with the whole of his powers of 
 thought. Religion must not be studied in different 
 ways from other knowledge. It is not a separate and 
 remote part of human knowledge, into which those 
 who go need not carry the rest of the knowledge 
 which they possess. But it is that part of knowledge 
 which is the most intimate, because it is concerned
 
 THE NEED FOR GUIDANCE IN STUDY 161 
 
 with the science of life, the greatest of all sciences. 
 We may say of other sciences : " I need not study 
 this ; life is short and knowledge is great, and it is 
 only a few things that I .can learn". But there is 
 one subject that every one must be concerned with, 
 one science which every one has to face, and that is 
 the science of life ; and it is just the science of life 
 with which religion is concerned. Life the actual life 
 that you have to lead from day to day the actual 
 problems from which no human being can escape, 
 these are the concerns of which religion treats ; and 
 the more you learn other things, the more your 
 knowledge increases on every side, the more you 
 have which you can bring to the study of those great 
 truths upon which the whole of our life has to be 
 founded. Therefore go on with your studies, re- 
 membering that the object of all religion is to build 
 you up to a fuller and completer sense of all that life 
 contains for you, of all that it opens out to you as a 
 sphere for your activities, and that the more you know 
 assuredly the better you are likely to become. 
 
 ii
 
 162 
 
 XXVI. 
 THE STUDY OF CHURCH HISTORY. 
 
 WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE TIMES OF HENRY 
 VIII. AND EDWARD VI. 
 
 To the study of any subject it is necessary that the 
 student should bring two qualities : (i) an intelligent 
 curiosity ; (2) a power of attentive observation. The 
 main duty of a teacher is to stimulate the curiosity 
 and develop the observing power of the student. 
 
 Now in applying these principles to the time-hon- 
 oured subjects of study, languages and mathematics, 
 we see that the lines of the student's curiosity, and the 
 points which he must be taught to observe, are defined 
 by the nature of the studies themselves. The laws of 
 grammar and of mathematics are known certainly, and 
 all that the teacher can do is to make them intelli- 
 gible and interesting to the learner. 
 
 But when we advance from things which are abstract 
 to things which concern human life and society, we 
 get into a region which is necessarily indefinite, and 
 does not admit of uniform treatment. To make up 
 for this difficulty, a subject which is more closely con- 
 nected with human life has a greater interest of its 
 own, and the learner's curiosity about it is more easily 
 roused. It is easier to learn, but it is harder to teach. 
 
 The increased difficulty of teaching would not be
 
 THE STUDY OF CHURCH HISTORY 163 
 
 a matter of any consequence if there were not an 
 examination to be found at the end of it all. This 
 uncomfortable prospect prevents the learner from 
 following the dictates of his curiosity unchecked, and 
 picking up for himself such knowledge as interests 
 him ; it prevents the teacher from directing the obser- 
 vation of the pupil solely towards such points as seem 
 to him most important. Pupil and teacher alike have 
 to consider what is likely to be the prevailing view of 
 the general aspect of the period on which they are 
 engaged, and what are likely to be the subjects on 
 which knowledge will be expected. 
 
 As regards Church History in particular, there is a 
 very large field open for inquiry. The field has not 
 yet been sufficiently explored for us to map it out with 
 any great certainty. Opinions differ about what was 
 good in the past, as they differ about what is good in 
 the present ; and the perspective of events in the past 
 changes according to the point of view at present 
 adopted. It is therefore most important that any 
 examination in Church History should cover as wide 
 a field as possible ; that it should require knowledge 
 rather than opinion ; and that it should not omit points 
 on which opinions differ, but should set questions in 
 such a form that every difference of opinion may freely 
 express itself without being trammelled by the nature 
 of the question. I think that all students, teachers and 
 examiners should alike recognise that examination is 
 an evil a necessary evil, it may be and that all should 
 strive together to minimise its bad results. The student 
 should not allow the pressure of an examination to 
 lead him to get up a text-book, instead of gratifying
 
 164 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 his intelligent curiosity about details. The teacher 
 should not aim at enforcing general views unsupported 
 by sufficient illustrations. The examiner should not 
 try to reduce the scope of the examination to the 
 limits within which it is easy for him to find a common 
 standard. Curiosity and observation should be shown 
 by the pupil, encouraged by the teacher, and recog- 
 nised and valued by the examiner. 
 
 The period of the history of the English Church 
 covered by the reigns of Henry VIII. and Edward VI. 
 is difficult, because many things were done, and we 
 know a great deal about them, so much so that we 
 have not yet sorted all our knowledge and come to an 
 agreement about it. The student has to follow in the 
 main a text-book, but he need not follow it blindly. 
 After reading it, he should think over the picture 
 which it presents to his mind, and consider if the pic- 
 ture as a whole seems to him to be probable. The 
 object of reading history is, after all, to get a notion 
 how things happened in the past, and we have not 
 learnt anything worth learning if we are content to 
 know the fact that they happened, without finding out 
 to some degree why and how they happened. It is 
 not enough to say, "Henry VIII. did this or that". 
 We ought to have some opinion why he did it ; what 
 he hoped to gain by doing it ; whether his motive was 
 bad or good, selfish or unselfish ; who helped him to 
 do it, and why they did so. 
 
 Of course it is impossible, even for the man who 
 knows most, to answer all these questions beyond the 
 possibility of dispute. But the politics of the past 
 must be judged in the same sort of way as present
 
 THE STUDY OF CHURCH HISTORY 165 
 
 politics are judged, though with greater calmness 
 and with greater knowledge. A student of history 
 should be exhorted to use his independent judgment 
 on the facts presented by the past, that he may learn 
 greater sobriety and broader views about the ques- 
 tions of the present. It is an education in itself 
 to realise how much is to be said on both sides in 
 politics, whether those of our own day or of a former 
 time. 
 
 When the student finds that he has raised questions 
 for himself which his text-book does not give him the 
 materials to answer, he should ask his teacher either 
 to give him the information which he needs, or to tell 
 him where it may be found. Of course the clergy and 
 others who are engaged in teaching Church History 
 to classes cannot have all knowledge at their fingers' 
 ends ; but they ought not for that reason to discourage 
 curiosity, and certainly ought not to be ashamed, but 
 rather to rejoice, at having occasion to say, " I never 
 thought of that point, and I know nothing about it ". 
 They have, however, a command of more books, and 
 might either say, " I will look it up for you," or might 
 lend the inquirer some books, and tell him to make it 
 out for himself and bring the results of his inquiries to 
 the next meeting of the class. No teaching could be 
 more fruitful than that which had for its results to re- 
 solve a class into a co-operative society, of which the 
 members were each engaged in looking out some point 
 which had struck them. If they could be induced to 
 do this, and bring their results together, there would 
 be an immediate quickening of their interest. Their 
 teacher would become the president of a conference,
 
 1 66 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 would suggest new questions, and correct narrowness 
 and prejudice when they arose. 
 
 I make this suggestion because I am sure that 
 nothing is so destructive to any real study of history 
 as the conversion of it into getting up a text-book. It 
 is useless to read about a period of human activity, two 
 pages at a time, learning dates and names of Acts of 
 Parliament so as to answer detailed questions on these 
 pages only. The text-book ought to be read straight 
 through at once, as if it were a story book. The first 
 lesson should be spent in seeing what the period as a 
 whole is concerned with. Then it is possible to go 
 back and take it bit by bit. If the teacher has not 
 much time to spend in getting up details, at least he 
 can now and then read aloud some passages from the 
 contemporary writers in which the period is so rich. 
 Hall's Chronicle may not be in his reach ; but Caven- 
 dish's Life of Wolsey, More's Utopia, Latimer's Sermon 
 on the Plough, can each of them be bought for a shilling. 
 Some book may be within reach which contains the 
 actual text of the Statute of Appeals, or the Submission 
 of the Clergy. More would be learnt about the actual 
 meaning of the Reformation under Henry VIII. by 
 reading through these documents than by reading any 
 amount of modern opinion on the subject. Again, 
 most parts of England are within reach of some 
 monastic ruins, and there is generally a local antiquary 
 who knows their history. I believe that a teacher 
 would find no difficulty in organising a visit to some 
 monastic site, and in finding some one who would give 
 a short account of the history of the monastery and 
 the actual facts about its dissolution. There are many
 
 THE STUDY OF CHURCH HISTORY 167 
 
 clergymen in any neighbourhood, who could make the 
 actual fabric of their churches explain the change 
 which the sixteenth century wrought in the habits of 
 the religious life of the English people. 
 
 I have confined myself to a few practical suggestions 
 for the teaching of Church History. They will resolve 
 themselves into the principles with which I began. 
 The pupil must be curious and observant History 
 is not a mass of dry facts arranged in a certain order. 
 It is a picture of the life of the past and must exist in 
 the mind as a picture, not as a mathematical formula. 
 The teacher must try not so much to instil principles 
 as to stimulate the imagination. One caution is neces- 
 sary. We like in reading Church History to seek for 
 moral and religious edification, and to find men whom 
 we can admire. It is good to admire when we can ; 
 but it is bad to turn a man out of his actual shape 
 that we may be better able to admire him. It is one 
 of the greatest lessons that history can teach that there 
 are few men, marvellously few, who retained purity of 
 intention throughout their public career. We have to 
 go aside from the beaten paths of affairs to find heroes, 
 and the conflicts of the sixteenth century did not tend 
 to develop those qualities which are most attractive to 
 the Christian soul.
 
 1 68 
 
 XXVII. 
 THE FIRST LOVE. 
 
 SERMON PREACHED BEFORE THE OXFORD UNIVERSITY 
 EXTENSION STUDENTS AT ST. MARY'S CHURCH, 
 OXFORD, 7TH AUGUST, 1892. 
 
 " Nevertheless I have somewhat against thee, because thou hast 
 left thy first love " (Revelations ii. 4). 
 
 THESE words, which form part of St. John's message 
 to the church at Ephesus, fall strangely on the ear 
 in the particular context in which they occur. The 
 Apostle praises the Ephesians for their works, their 
 labour, their patience, their right judgment, their per- 
 severance under untoward conditions, their ceaseless 
 activity all the qualities, in fact, upon which we set 
 the greatest store ; but then follows the warning, " I 
 have somewhat against thee, because thou hast left 
 thy first love ". The eye of the Apostle saw that 
 though there were all the signs of spiritual and moral 
 earnestness, still there was a weakening of the central 
 motive. The machine was moving as powerfully 
 as ever, but the fire which moved it did not burn 
 so brightly, and was not so carefully tended as of 
 old. There were tokens, slight and imperceptible to 
 the ordinary eye, which told of the beginning of 
 decay.
 
 THE FIRST LOVE 169 
 
 It is the little rent within the lute, 
 
 That by-and-by will make the music mute, 
 
 And, ever widening, slowly silence all. 
 The little rift within the lover's lute, 
 Or little pitted speck in garnered fruit, 
 
 Which rotting inward slowly moulders all. 
 
 Do we not know that the beginnings of destruction 
 are small, and that the process is gradual ? Corrup- 
 tion spreads unrecognised at first ; only when its work 
 has been accomplished is its potency perceived. How 
 often have you seen a man fall suddenly into grievous 
 sin, and disappear amid the ruins which he has caused ? 
 You cry out on his hypocrisy. He was so excellent, 
 so respectable, so philanthropic ; and all that was a 
 cloak to villany ! Not so ; hypocrisy is less common 
 than is supposed, and self-deceit more common. That 
 man was deceived, deceiving himself all through his 
 career. He did not know that the central motive of 
 his early life was gone, and to no one did the discovery 
 come with a greater shock than to himself. Through 
 the force of habit, through a false respectability, he had 
 gone on performing acts which once had a meaning, 
 though that meaning had disappeared. The hollow 
 shell of his character crumbled at last in a moment, 
 and displayed an emptiness which had been wrought 
 by gradual decay. 
 
 So the warning of the Apostle is true and full of 
 meaning. We need to apply it to every part of our 
 life, to take note of it, and weigh it well, and see what 
 its meaning is to ourselves. For it is clear that every 
 motive which forms our character and moulds our con- 
 duct, tends to lose its original force, unless that force be 
 constantly renewed. The power of habit, so useful in
 
 170 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 saving time and effort, makes our energies mechanical. 
 The sense of limitation checks the generous impulse 
 of our first enthusiasm. The numbing consciousness 
 of the complexity of life throws us back upon the 
 axioms of the experience of others, and bids us accept 
 the saws of worldly wisdom, rather than search for 
 ourselves to the bottom of any problem. These 
 influences, and many others, gathered round the 
 Ephesians and weakened them little by little, till 
 the Apostle saw the need of summoning them to a 
 vigorous effort towards the recovery of an ideal which 
 was tending to vanish. 
 
 He bade them return to their " first love," that love 
 to God and man, which was such a natural and abound- 
 ing feeling in their hearts, when first their minds had 
 grasped the meaning of the revelation of " God made 
 manifest in the flesh". They had felt an unknown 
 force throb within them, because the issue of life became 
 clear, straightforward, simple. Their original power 
 lay in the swiftness with which they applied that new 
 force to everything which lay before them. But their 
 activities had multiplied, and had grown poorer because 
 they tended to rest upon secondary motives. 
 
 Again I say, we have need to apply this warning to 
 any kind of motive which we value as operative in 
 our character. I would ask you this morning to con- 
 sider it in relation to the pursuit of knowledge. Few 
 occupations rest upon so noble a motive ; indeed, the 
 activities of the intellectual life are second only to 
 those of the spiritual life, with which in many points 
 they suggest comparison. In nothing is this more 
 conspicuous than in the fact that both tend to have
 
 THE FIRST LOVE 171 
 
 a conscious beginning, " There was a time, I know it, 
 when I began to see the beauty of holiness," a man 
 may say ; and in the same breath he may add, " There 
 was a time when I began to see the dignity of know- 
 ledge ". The processes in both cases have common 
 elements. Both demand a reaching beyond the things 
 of sense into another region from that which is close 
 around. The man who pursues knowledge cuts across 
 the impulses of the natural man ; he does violence to 
 his natural self; he rises above the immediate present ; 
 he says no to the temptations which do most easily 
 beset him idleness, ease, thoughtlessness, and care- 
 lessness. He looks beyond himself and his immediate 
 surroundings ; he tries to stride forth boldly into a 
 larger world than that which is immediately around 
 him. This motive of the conscious desire to grow into 
 a larger world will have been experienced by any one 
 who, at some time or another, pursues knowledge to 
 however small a degree. Only after some deliberate 
 act of self-sacrifice, done for the sake of pursuing know- 
 ledge further, does any man gain an assured sense of 
 the meaning of what knowledge is, and what it may 
 do for him. And at such times, when the veil of 
 sense is lifted, the vision before the student, however 
 humble he may be, is always the same. It is the 
 possibility spread out before him of striding forth into 
 a larger and ever larger world, whose outline, however 
 vague, is full of the allurement of promise. 
 
 And does not the pursuit of knowledge mean some- 
 thing of that kind to all of you to whom I speak to-day ? 
 Does it not mean the struggle to live into a world 
 whose horizon is continually extending, the conscious-
 
 172 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 ness of stepping forward with the powers wherewith 
 God has endowed you, into a higher sphere ? Do you 
 not feel something of a call that goes beyond man's 
 natural faculties, that is not merely a call to the head, 
 but a call to the heart, and not to the heart only, but to 
 the spirit of the man that is within him ? The pursuit 
 of knowledge, if it is to be real, if it is to be genuine, 
 must be undertaken with a certain sense of spiritual 
 responsibility. The man who gives himself to it, must 
 know that knowledge summons him to go beyond 
 his natural being, outside the limits of his natural self. 
 It calls on him to find within himself that which is 
 assuredly there, if he will only realise it and make it 
 his own. It calls on him to discover his soul, to live 
 in a spiritual region, and to organise his spiritual being. 
 However little you have pursued knowledge, do you 
 not feel this appeal to your spiritual being, this call 
 on you to become something which at present you are 
 not, this opening before you of a mighty field, concern- 
 ing which you have the assurance that it may indeed 
 be yours ? Is not the pursuit of knowledge a help to 
 the further discovery of God ? Were not some such 
 thoughts as these at one time present with every one 
 of you, as a strong impulse, "a first love" ? If they 
 were, I daresay you will admit that they have in part 
 passed away. My object is to bid you recall them. 
 
 Let me consider some of the causes which tend to 
 lead us away from our " first love," and to make us set 
 knowledge on a lower level than the highest. 
 
 (i) The pursuit of knowledge is inspired by enthusi- 
 asm, and is immediately productive. There comes to 
 the student, from some unexpected side it may be, a
 
 THE FIRST LOVE 173 
 
 sense of beauty, of truth, or of nobility. So much he 
 gains, and then pauses pauses from the practical con- 
 sideration that he has done enough for the present, that 
 he has secured for himself a house, a mere shed it may 
 be, but still something in which he may hide his head. 
 He has won enough to rest on : let him rest. So he 
 settles down contented to enjoy what he counts a 
 never-ending banquet, but which is none the less con- 
 sumed by use. Knowledge, I need not remind you, 
 must be a life-long pursuit. There is no rest, no 
 repose, no cessation of activity to one who even for a 
 moment has gazed upon the face of knowledge. 
 Energy, constant endeavour, perpetual effort, these 
 are the recognised conditions of the intellectual life. 
 To remain satisfied with some small achievement is 
 a fatal temptation. The true student learns, at every 
 step he takes, how much there is to know and how little 
 he has succeeded in attaining to. Self-satisfaction is the 
 death of the mind as truly as it is the death of the soul. 
 (2) Then there is the temptation of practical life. A 
 man pursues knowledge ; he takes his earnings at 
 once to the market, and makes use of them. His 
 temptation is to regard knowledge as a commodity, 
 and he treats it as such. Is that not a constant tempta- 
 tion that besets a teacher? No life requires such 
 careful watching of its central motive as does the 
 teacher's life. There is a constant temptation to reduce 
 knowledge within the limits in which it can be most 
 conveniently taught, to consider how it can most easily 
 be foisted by mechanical means into an unreceptive 
 mind. The tendency of our educational system at 
 the present day is to increase tenfold the power of
 
 1/4 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 this temptation. The teacher is judged by his ca- 
 pacity to produce definite results, at definite times, in 
 a definite shape. Before such a task how difficult it is 
 to maintain a noble ideal, to keep a real interest in the 
 spread of knowledge as such. It is very hard for the 
 teacher to be true to his " first love " ; but unless he is, 
 assuredly his career, however outwardly prosperous and 
 marked by the conventional testimonies of efficiency, 
 will be fruitless of abiding results. 
 
 (3) There is the temptation which comes from a 
 growing sense of our own limitations. It is a feeling 
 which is borne in upon us in any pursuit in life. We 
 begin with a belief that we can do so much ; we dis- 
 cover that we can do so little. This discovery tends 
 to beget cynicism, arising from a deliberate withdrawal 
 of ourselves from life as a whole into some small 
 interest of our own selection. Within a narrow sphere 
 we can think and work with pleasure ; we shrink from 
 going beyond it less we be reminded of our own in- 
 competence. The pursuit of knowledge, which began 
 at one time to lead us into a larger world, may land 
 us in a small world of our own making. Instead of 
 growing broader-minded we may subside into aloof- 
 ness from the general current of life around us. If 
 the specialist lose faith in God, it is because he has 
 first lost faith in man. We cannot afford to lead a 
 life of intellectual isolation. Knowledge must keep 
 us in contact with that which is. It must prevent us 
 from falling under the domination of ideas merely be- 
 cause they are current ; and we must not try to shake 
 off the obligation of missionary duty. Knowledge 
 must always produce its harvest for the public welfare.
 
 THE FIRST LOVE 175 
 
 (4) This feeling is necessary to save us from the 
 supreme temptation which marks the entire corruption 
 of knowledge, I mean intellectual contempt. The 
 utterance " As for this people that know not the law, 
 they are accursed," is constantly being reproduced in 
 altered forms. Remember that the uttermost penalty 
 was reserved for him who could say to his brother 
 " Thou fool," because contempt was the most un-God- 
 like quality which man could display. Beware, above 
 all things, lest a little knowledge only re-enforce conceit, 
 and lead you into a false world where self is enthroned, 
 far away from the true world which is illuminated by 
 the love of God, manifested in the Person of the In- 
 carnate Word. 
 
 I have spoken of dangers ; let me give you some 
 practical tests by which you may try your sincerity, 
 your adherence to your " first love " : 
 
 (i) Do you find in your studies a discipline for your 
 character ? Do you feel your conduct being moulded 
 by the results of your intellectual energy and applica- 
 tion ? That discipline of character ought to be the 
 fruit of study ; there is no discipline so admirable as 
 that of learning to weigh and balance evidence. To 
 see how easy it is to be deceived, to strive conscien- 
 tiously in our own case to distinguish between what 
 is plausible and what is true, to choose the evil 
 and refuse the good these should be the results 
 of methodical study. Was there ever a time when 
 the Whitsunday Collect ought more assuredly to 
 form part of the daily devotion of every man and 
 woman, the prayer to God for " a right judgment in 
 all things " ? In the complexity of life opinions may
 
 176 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 differ ; but differences can be felt and expressed with- 
 out asperity. There is a passage in Carlyle's Life of 
 Sterling, where he speaks of a walk they took together, 
 and says, " And so we walked on discussing many 
 things, and, except in opinion, not disagreeing". There 
 is an agreement between honest men, both of whom 
 are endeavouring to discover the truth, an agreement 
 about the method to be pursued, although they may 
 differ in the first step to be taken. Practice is concerned 
 only with that. Men do not often differ fundamentally, 
 though about practical matters one would give his 
 vote, it may be, on one side, and the other on the 
 other. There need be no great difference after all 
 between them, only that one thinks that out of a par- 
 ticular and definite course of action to be taken certain 
 results would probably ensue, while the other is not 
 convinced that such would be the case. 
 
 (2) If this great truth be recognised, you can see 
 how the discipline of character leads on to a broaden- 
 ing of sympathies. Every fresh thing you know, every 
 fresh subject you touch ought to bring you into a 
 larger world, and, therefore, into closer connexion with 
 different kinds of characters, as well as give you a 
 capacity for understanding them. 
 
 (3) As you are more conscious of sympathy, you will 
 feel a greater desire for service. The best intentions 
 to serve your fellowmen will fail, if they are not 
 founded upon a real understanding of their lives and 
 thoughts. 
 
 (4) By following this process you are brought back 
 to your " first love ". The pursuit of knowledge leads 
 you to a constantly heightening ideal, to the conscious-
 
 THE FIRST LOVE 177 
 
 ness of a distinct and definite mission to the world. 
 We have need to have our ideals heightened. We 
 have need to have a conscious feeling of growing 
 definiteness in our aims, of greater clearness of vision 
 in seeing what is the course that lies before us. 
 Knowledge pursued in this spirit will assuredly bring 
 you to the ideal which is to be found in God. The 
 object of the most educated life can only be fully 
 realised in the contemplation of the person of the 
 Lord Jesus. Do you feel that your pursuit of know- 
 ledge leads you to see more clearly that Face looking 
 out over the world which He has made, looking down 
 with eyes of infinite compassion upon all the various 
 bands of pilgrims who are pursuing their course 
 through its sands? Do you feel increasingly the 
 force of His appeal to your hearts, your consciences, 
 your minds? Can you see through your pursuit of 
 knowledge ever before you that one Face which sums 
 up all that men can know, and tells them all that they 
 can be, that one power which can send into the heart 
 of man the spirit which makes him know and realise 
 his true calling, the power of going behind the things 
 that are and seeing the things that will be, the power 
 of continually reaching upwards and onwards into the 
 higher and purer air? Believe me, we need to keep 
 that motive clear and distinct before us. 
 
 I have ventured to lay these considerations before 
 you this morning because I should like to leave with 
 you just this one thought, that it may be possible that 
 this yearly gathering in Oxford may be recognised by 
 all of you consciously as a means of going back to 
 your first love, a means of recalling your first zeal, 
 
 12
 
 1 78 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 your early enthusiasm, the first overpowering motive 
 that led you to pursue knowledge for its own sake, 
 and its own sake alone. 
 
 Let knowledge grow from more to more, 
 But more of reverence with it dwell, 
 That heart and mind according well 
 
 May make one music as before, 
 
 But vaster. 
 
 Do you feel the world growing gradually before 
 you, and yourselves being lifted into a higher sphere? 
 God grant it may be so ; and God grant that you may 
 go away from your week spent here with hearts up- 
 lifted and with eyes looking steadfastly higher, because 
 you have gone back to your first love, because you 
 have freed yourselves from some of the encumbrances 
 which daily life heaps about your path, because you 
 have laid hold again of your early motive, in all 
 the inevitableness of its power, because you have 
 strengthened yourselves that you may hold fast to it 
 in all trials and temptations.
 
 179 
 
 XXVIII. 
 THE WORK OF A LIBRARIAN. 
 
 ADDRESS TO A MEETING OF THE LIBRARY ASSOCIATION 
 TO INAUGURATE CLASSES FOR THE TECHNICAL 
 TRAINING OF LIBRARIANS, 25 FEBRUARY, 1898. 
 
 IT can only be on the supposition that I am generally 
 interested in education of all sorts, that your committee 
 can have been induced to invite me to speak to a 
 body of experts such as you. 
 
 I cannot hope to say anything to you that is new, 
 but I will try, as a perfect outsider, to say a few things 
 that have struck me at various times in my life about 
 the position, opportunities and difficulties of a librarian. 
 
 In the first place, you are met as an educational 
 society, and what you are interested in is the education 
 of the librarian. Of course any series of lectures can 
 only put before you the heads of the subjects on which 
 the aspiring librarian ought to try to gain knowledge. 
 Let me try to make a few remarks about the temper 
 of mind which he must take with him in his attempt 
 to acquire that knowledge. 
 
 Education presents one great difficulty, that it is 
 always pursued upon theoretical lines which have to 
 be largely abandoned the moment we turn to practice. 
 There is no good thing in this world that does not 
 bring corresponding evils, and there is no process to
 
 180 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 which we subject ourselves, which does not do for us 
 much that we have to spend time in getting rid of 
 afterwards. That is very strongly the case with educa- 
 tion. Education I mean the education of our youth, 
 of course is a form of mental gymnastics. It aims at 
 improving our mind, and it is to be hoped that it does 
 improve, exercise, and discipline our mind ; but then 
 it leaves our mind at the end of that process with a 
 great number of ideas which have to be got rid of the 
 moment we turn to actual practice. 
 
 Well now, let us apply that to the librarian ; in his 
 case we see what an immense rebound there must be, 
 if he is to become a good librarian, from the system 
 on which he has been taught previously, and from all 
 the maxims and rules which have been instilled into 
 his mind. For, of course, for the purposes of ordinary 
 education we are taught that it is desirable to study a 
 subject thoroughly, and to read a book systematically 
 and in an orderly and regular way. But a librarian, 
 if he is to succeed in his career, must at once change 
 all these views. He cannot afford to read a book 
 steadily and thoroughly, and as for studying system- 
 atically though of course he has to do his cata- 
 loguing systematically I am afraid he has to content 
 himself with picking up such knowledge at such times 
 as he can. Altogether it becomes more his object 
 to know where knowledge is to be found, than to 
 possess knowledge in itself. It is his duty, not so 
 much to have any knowledge of his own, as to make 
 himself a sort of channel or conduit for conveying to 
 others information about where knowledge is to be 
 discovered. That is a great blow to all the principles
 
 upon which his early education has been carried on. 
 Then he was told to read carefully, to read accurately 
 and systematically, to lend his mind, in fact, to his 
 study, that it might form his mind ; whereas, the 
 moment he becomes a practical librarian, he has to 
 develop his memory almost at the expense of his 
 mind, and try to gain all the information he possibly 
 can about every kind of subject. No one has such a 
 need of encyclopaedic knowledge as a librarian. I 
 remember hearing it said that a man who had dis- 
 tinguished himself very highly at a university when 
 asked to what he attributed his success, and which 
 book he thought had helped him most, said, after 
 meditating a little while, Bradskaw's Railway Guide. 
 The habit he had acquired of taking imaginary journeys 
 by the help of Bradshaufs Guide, had, on the whole, 
 done more to train his mind than all the lectures 
 which he had attended. That is to say, in his spare 
 moments he picked up a work which is certainly not 
 devoid of interest, if it is read with a little imagination 
 on the part of the reader, and constructed for himself 
 imaginary tours ; and in that way he gained a more 
 complete knowledge of geography than he could have 
 secured in any other way. He knew the distances 
 by rail from one place to another, knew their rela- 
 tive position and gained an enormous amount also 
 of accurate and useful knowledge. A librarian has 
 to do something of the same kind with knowledge 
 of all sorts. He cannot even say that Bradshavrfs 
 Railway Guide is not a useful book for him to know, 
 I remember once receiving from a great librarian 
 a severe reproof. I was standing looking at the new
 
 1 82 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 books which had come into the library, and I picked 
 up one which contained a series of interesting but 
 perfectly useless documents of modern date, repro- 
 duced by photography. It was an enormously big 
 book, and I turned to him and said, " What is the good 
 of a book like that ? " He put his hand on my shoulder 
 and said, " My good man, do not ask me a question 
 like that ; if I ever stopped and asked myself such a 
 question, I should be totally unfit to be a librarian ". 
 It is a librarian's business to accept everything, and 
 put it into its proper place, and see that it can be got 
 at by anybody. Of course, you will recognise that 
 this is a very painful position to be in and requires an 
 extension of your mind which is very tedious. 
 
 To be called upon to be perfectly tolerant to all 
 subjects is a very severe demand to have made upon 
 oneself. It is hard not to interest oneself more in one 
 subject than another ; but it is the business of a libra- 
 rian to get a certain amount of information about all 
 possible subjects, so that he can be useful to anybody 
 who comes to him for assistance, no matter what his 
 subject may be. 
 
 That, you will observe, is a not only very large de- 
 mand upon your general tolerance, upon your charity, 
 upon your kindliness and upon your moral virtues, but 
 also upon your intellectual qualities. It is almost 
 equivalent to a demand that you should leave off 
 the systematic training of your mind in the subjects 
 in which you are interested, and instead of pursuing 
 knowledge in some definite sphere thoroughly and 
 exhaustively, you should consider yourself condemned 
 by the mere fact of the line of life that you have chosen
 
 THE WORK OF A LIBRARIAN 183 
 
 to be an omniscient smatterer. If condemned to 
 that, you must of course make the best of it. You 
 must consider that perhaps after all you are not 
 so very learned or very clever ; that if you were to 
 give yourself to original research, probably after five 
 years' pursuit of it, you would not astonish the world 
 by the vastness of your discoveries ; but if you are 
 a good librarian, and help on many other people to 
 gain knowledge that they otherwise would not have 
 gained, you will not inadequately have done your duty 
 in life. Therefore, if you have abandoned the hope 
 of writing works of European importance and being 
 either a man of science or a man of letters famous 
 throughout the world, there is no knowing how many 
 geniuses you may not inform, and how many people 
 you may not help, who will be much greater than you 
 could ever have been if you had applied yourself 
 diligently to some particular study. 
 
 The object then of a librarian is not to acquire 
 knowledge for himself. In fact, it has been remarked 
 that the librarian who reads his books is ruined for his 
 real work. It is his business to put them on shelves, 
 and to know what they are about. He must sternly 
 prohibit himself from reading any one of them through. 
 He must be a purveyor of knowledge to others and 
 not seek to gain knowledge for himself. One great 
 object he has before him is to be a keeper, a zealous 
 custodian, of the books committed to his charge. In 
 that way, I am bound to say that a librarian is 
 called upon to make the most tremendous sacrifice 
 that any one can be called upon to make, because, 
 of course, the more he loves books, the more he
 
 184 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 dislikes seeing people read them, since everybody who 
 reads a book does it so much mischief. The actual 
 fabric of the book suffers from being read ; and I am 
 sure that the proper-minded librarian cannot but wish 
 that the habit of having every form of excellent book 
 sold for a penny would spread, so that nobody need 
 molest the more valuable books unless he is a genuine 
 student. The librarian's feeling for an old book, for a 
 beautiful book, for a precious book, is such that I am 
 sure that he must thoroughly detest seeing anybody 
 else taking such in his hand. A librarian's duty to 
 make knowledge accessible comes into sharp contrast 
 and collision with his own desires and his own aspira- 
 tions. To keep his books safe and unharmed is his 
 great desire, and every reader of them he must regard 
 as more or less a wrongdoer to their integrity. 
 
 If a librarian is to be a keeper of books, of course 
 he must know about books in themselves, and all of 
 you doubtless know what a charming pursuit that of 
 the love of books is. Perhaps no one pursuit is really 
 more attractive than another. That primitive instinct 
 in man to go out to hunt every morning is, I suppose, 
 deeply rooted in us all, and therefore we each have a 
 desire to hunt for something which we may appro- 
 priate for ourselves. If books be the object of pursuit, 
 the hunter will feel a sense of pride when he has dis- 
 covered something which the ordinary person does 
 not know. To know how to appreciate the beauty of 
 books, to know the differences of types and to under- 
 stand the history of printing, to know in what par- 
 ticular class a book stands, these are very delightful 
 objects of pursuit, few, I think, are more so. There is
 
 THE WORK OF A LIBRARIAN 185 
 
 no hobby, no taste, which really is more refining and 
 more ennobling than this, because when you think 
 of what a book contains, when you think of human 
 knowledge and how it is spread, when you think of 
 the wonders of writing and of the use of words as the 
 means of transmitting ideas from one mind to another, 
 and when you think how that process is accomplished, 
 surely the instruments in that process cease to be in 
 any sense mechanical. They have a grace and beauty 
 and charm that nothing else can have ; they are in- 
 struments of the highest pleasures and of the greatest 
 possibilities of usefulness that man can ever enjoy. 
 The absolute charm of books in themselves is very 
 great, and is a charm which I hope all of you will 
 enjoy. 
 
 I daresay some of those to whom I am speaking 
 are beginners in some public library which only pos- 
 sesses the inferior printed books, which are the great 
 product of our own day, and are not called upon to 
 be custodians of any books that are of very great 
 intrinsic value. Still, I hope that the day will come 
 when you may feel that it is your object to try and 
 get, even for the smallest library, some books that 
 are really valuable and interesting as books. A public 
 library which only contains the cheap editions of 
 modern books, such as are needed for ordinary use by 
 the ordinary man, surely falls below its proper purpose. 
 It ought to have something that is precious and worth 
 enjoying for itself. Bibliography is a taste that ought 
 to be very widely spread. There is nothing in the 
 present day that needs enforcing so much as a sense 
 of reverence towards the past, and I think that 'a
 
 1 86 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 beautifully printed book can well be used to draw out 
 reverence from the ordinary man. 
 
 To show him such a book and tell him the process 
 by which it came into being, to point out to him the 
 exquisite care with which the early printers did their 
 work is to do much to educate him. Then, if his mind 
 is very modern, you may teach him a little lesson in 
 political economy by pointing out to him that books 
 were beautiful like that just so long as they were in 
 competition with manuscripts, and that the moment 
 manuscripts disappeared, printing sank to a worse 
 condition than even that in which it is now. It was 
 only competition that made the early printers do their 
 work so well. They knew that they had to justify 
 their existence. 
 
 It is not necessary that the books should be very 
 rare, but I think every librarian ought to try and have 
 at all events some good books in his library. 
 
 I need not speak to you, of course, about the de- 
 sirability of learning all that can be learnt about 
 books, the stages in their development, the history of 
 typography, and the history also of bindings, every- 
 thing that goes to make up a book as we know it, the 
 development of every part of the manufacture of that 
 book. It is one of a librarian's joys and pleasures 
 to learn all that can be learnt about a subject which 
 must be to him of paramount importance, because he 
 will never be a good librarian unless he is an artist 
 and has an artistic admiration for the works of art 
 which the past has left to us. 
 
 But about these matters I need not speak, as I observe 
 you have lectures provided for you on all those subjects
 
 THE WORK OF A LIBRARIAN 187 
 
 which will enable you to learn what is necessary about 
 books to begin with. Yet, all that can be learnt 
 about books in lectures is as nothing compared to 
 what can be learnt in actual practice in life itself. 
 All that lectures can do for you is simply to prepare 
 your minds, to give you certain interests, to lead you 
 to ask yourself certain questions, with the certainty 
 that in the practice of your ordinary life you will 
 discover how to find an answer. 
 
 For the purpose of making the contents of books 
 useful to others, cataloguing is a most important part 
 of the librarian's work. I will not venture to en- 
 large upon it since it is now becoming a real science 
 a science to which anybody may be proud of 
 devoting his best energies. But about the matter of 
 bibliography, perhaps I may venture to say one or two 
 words. I am using bibliography to mean the knowledge 
 of the literature connected with particular subjects. 
 Now, for that purpose, as I have already said, you re- 
 quire a general knowledge of some kind or other. If the 
 librarian is to make his library valuable, the back- 
 bone of knowledge which he requires is, roughly speak- 
 ing, history. I do not forget that scientific books are, 
 perhaps, the most widely read. But science is con- 
 tinually making new discoveries and rearranging old 
 ones ; and to make a scientific library valuable you may 
 start from one pretty clear axiom, which is, that the 
 last book about any particular science is presumably 
 the best, or at least is one to which in the first in- 
 stance you may refer your inquirers. That is and 
 must be true about science in itself, but, of course, 
 the history of science, i.e., the relations of scientific
 
 1 88 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 writers one to another must be considered as part of 
 history. 
 
 The librarian should have a general knowledge of 
 the progress of human affairs and of the advance of 
 the human mind in various regions. I admit that 
 there is nothing which it is more difficult to learn in 
 outlines than history ; but I think I can give you some 
 advice on this point which may help you. I never was 
 able myself to read a short book on history ; a compen- 
 dium or handbook is an abomination to me. If I want 
 to know anything at all about a period of which I am 
 absolutely ignorant, I find that if I take down the 
 biggest volumes I can discover I learn in an hour very 
 much more from them than I could possibly learn by 
 reading a condensed account. Somehow or other, just 
 as when one goes to a new country, one finds that one 
 acquires knowledge through the pores of one's skin, so 
 I think that librarians can gain knowledge by looking 
 at their books, but still more by looking at the headings 
 of chapters and seeing what the books are about. You 
 can learn very readily an outline of a great many sub- 
 jects by adopting this method. You can get a skeleton 
 arrangement around which your knowledge may grow, 
 by gaining some hold upon an historical view both of 
 events and also, of course, of literature and of the de- 
 velopments of the human mind. It must be historical 
 and must be chronological in the first instance, of course. 
 Then it is desirable that every librarian should be ac- 
 quainted with foreign languages ; he need not know 
 them thoroughly, but he should have a smattering of 
 as many as possible. Certainly he needs enough Latin 
 to be able to read the title-pages of books in that
 
 THE WORK OF A LIBRARIAN 189 
 
 language. An extensive knowledge of Latin is not 
 necessary, as the title-pages follow certain common 
 forms. You can acquire that amount of knowledge 
 of Latin, and also of French and German, without 
 studying their grammar. It is not at all necessary 
 that you should learn grammar to be able to read a 
 language. For practical purposes, it always seems 
 to me that we begin with languages at the wrong end. 
 The only way of learning a language is by reading a 
 book in it. I know that this is very unscientific ; but 
 as I grow older, I feel an intolerable aversion to turn- 
 ing to a dictionary and looking out a word. So when 
 I read a book in a foreign language, if I do not know 
 the words, I go on until I do ; and there comes a 
 time when the meaning of a continually recurring 
 word becomes clear. I have discovered that one 
 can read with little trouble in a foreign language of 
 which one knows nothing, by using a little common 
 sense and starting first of all with a Bible, or a book 
 which is familiar to one. In this way it is possible, 
 without any very great expenditure of time, to gain 
 a workable knowledge of foreign languages, enough 
 at all events for the purposes of a librarian. 
 
 Then, of course, it is important that you should know 
 what are the best books on any particular subject. By 
 best I mean those which are most complete, which deal 
 most thoroughly with the subject. 
 
 Now, I am afraid that if in science the latest book is 
 very often the most thorough, that is not the case in 
 any other branch of literature. If you want thorough 
 knowledge about any other subject than science, you 
 must often go back one or two centuries to find it ;
 
 1 9 o THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 you are not likely to find it in many of the books 
 that have been produced in this century. That is a 
 misfortune, of course, but it is a sober fact. I do not 
 mean to say that you will not find very lucid ideas, 
 and very admirable criticism ; but generally a student 
 does not go in search of ideas ; he can supply them 
 himself ; he wants facts. Of course, in modern times 
 we have ruled out facts ; books are dull that deal in 
 facts, and a history that has too many facts is not read. 
 Readers want brilliant statements, an interpretation of 
 all the motives that weighed with the people repre- 
 sented ; they want a lively and dramatic representation 
 of the past. But the student wishes to know what 
 actually did occur. It becomes exceedingly difficult 
 to discover this from modern books. I am afraid that 
 for this you generally have to go to a book that was 
 written about the middle of last century. Therefore, 
 in the chief branches of knowledge, it is desirable to 
 know where the most accurate records of actual facts 
 are to be obtained. Even nowadays there are men 
 who want to know for the sake of knowing, not for the 
 sake of an examination. When a man who really 
 wants to know comes and asks your help, of course he 
 is the person to whom your sympathies ought to go 
 out at once, and you ought to be exceedingly sorry if 
 you cannot put him on the right way. A real desire 
 to know is by no means necessarily accompanied by 
 an acquaintance with the sources of knowledge, and it 
 is just here that the help of the librarian is needed. 
 It may be that a man who wants knowledge for some 
 real purpose may only come before you once in every 
 two years, but when he comes it is good if you are
 
 THE WORK OF A LIBRARIAN 191 
 
 able to put him in the way of discovering what he 
 requires to know. You can then feel that you have 
 done an action infinitely more useful than all the other 
 actions you have performed for a long time. 
 
 It is well to deal carefully and tenderly with all 
 inquirers ; though I am afraid that sometimes when 
 inquirers come, and you inquire why they ask very 
 out-of-the-way questions, or want to know about an 
 out-of-the-way book, you will very often find a very 
 superficial purpose behind. They may simply require 
 the information that they may defeat some one in 
 a Debating Society on the following evening. The 
 questions submitted are very often those that cannot 
 possibly be answered by " Yes " or " No," but would 
 require a trained mind and a good deal of research 
 to give an exact answer ; but, of course, people are 
 not likely to understand that. Two pupils were once 
 discussing the merits of an eminent tutor, and one 
 said to the other : " Well, if you go to the ordinary 
 fellow he tells you what one man says and what 
 another man says, and what opinions are held upon 
 the subject, but if you go to So and So he tells you 
 what the thing is". You will observe that that 
 conception of knowledge is a very common one at 
 the present day, and that people continually will come 
 to you, neither knowing what the nature of evidence 
 is, nor how such a point as they desire to know can 
 be determined. Still, however humble may be the 
 motive from which the desire for knowledge comes, 
 I would implore you always to foster the desire. Re- 
 member that a librarian has a greater and a higher 
 educational opportunity than almost anybody else,
 
 192 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 that he can continually lead people on. There is 
 nothing so delightful as to see growing up in any- 
 body's mind a real conception of what knowledge is. 
 Comparatively few people know what it is to know, 
 and it is a privilege to be able to give to anybody 
 even the faintest conception of what it is to know so 
 that they may not merely repeat the remarks made 
 in the morning newspapers as if they were their own 
 thoughts, but may for once really think for themselves 
 and exercise an independent judgment upon some 
 point, for the object simply of getting to the truth 
 and not for the object of contradicting some one else. 
 
 To foster in any way any capacity for knowledge 
 or even the conception of what knowledge is, is a 
 very high privilege. Therefore I would say, feel very 
 much ashamed if you cannot answer any question, 
 however foolish, that is asked you about books, and 
 be so much ashamed that you set to work at once to 
 discover the answer and determine not to be caught 
 tripping on that point again. I have used libraries 
 at various times in my life. There was a time, strange 
 as it may seem, when I was able to read a book ; 
 that has faded into the dim past ; but I look back 
 with pleasure and delight upon that time. There are 
 no people who stand forward in my reminiscences 
 and evoke such feelings of gratitude as the librarians 
 who helped me in my endeavours to discover things 
 very often in a hurry, and who placed their knowledge 
 at my disposal. I would-assure you that you are in a 
 position to gain an amount of gratitude of which you 
 ought to be proud. 
 
 I very much hope that some day or other you
 
 THE WORK OF A LIBRARIAN 
 
 '93 
 
 will have the privilege of being addressed on that 
 subject by the librarian who has done so much to 
 spread knowledge in England, and who has earned 
 the gratitude of so many people ; I mean Dr. Richard 
 Garnett. If you want to know the attitude and temper 
 of mind that a librarian ought to have towards his 
 books, towards the subjects they treat of, and towards 
 the people who come to use the library over which he 
 presides, ask Dr. Garnett to give you, as he can do 
 with simplicity and force, the results of his own ex- 
 perience, and to tell you the motives which have 
 actuated him through his long and honourable career.
 
 i 9 4 
 
 XXIX. 
 UNIVERSITIES. 
 
 FROM AN ADDRESS ON THE HISTORY OF UNIVERSITIES 
 GIVEN AT THE BIRMINGHAM MIDLAND INSTITUTE, 
 i6TH JANUARY, 1899. 
 
 THERE is in my opinion an absolute need that the 
 number of universities should be increased ; that each 
 locality that is of importance should have its own uni- 
 versity adapted in many ways to suit local needs. 
 But it is also important that a university should be 
 independent ; that it should be self-governing, in the 
 hands mainly of its own teachers. A locality can 
 create a university, but once created it must commit 
 its guidance to experts, for it cannot possibly hope 
 to control it from outside, and it must not make it 
 absolutely subservient to mere local demands. A 
 university, however local it may be, must be in some 
 degree the home of research, and not merely a training 
 place for particular employments. It must be a place 
 where the highest knowledge is pursued for the sake 
 of knowledge. The object of a university is that it 
 should be the testing place of all ideas as they are 
 framed, and that it should appraise them and put its 
 stamp upon them, before they filter through to the 
 public mind. The advantage of a university depends 
 upon its establishment on a threefold relationship :
 
 UNIVERSITIES 195 
 
 first of all, the relationship between teacher and teacher, 
 by means of which one student appreciates the methods 
 pursued by another student ; secondly, the relationship 
 between teacher and taught, by means of which the 
 mind of the teacher speaks to and inspires the mind 
 of the student ; and finally the relationship between 
 student and student which gives opportunities of com- 
 panionship and mutual assistance. The great object 
 of a university should be to remember that it is not 
 knowledge only which must be pursued, but that even 
 higher than knowledge itself must be esteemed the 
 method by which knowledge is gained, by which 
 knowledge is ascertained and tested. The influence 
 of ideas, the value of ideas depend on the power of 
 accurate thinking possessed by those men who submit 
 ideas to others.
 
 196 
 
 XXX. 
 
 A PLEA FOR KNOWLEDGE. 
 
 AN ADDRESS PREPARED FOR DELIVERY TO THE BIR- 
 MINGHAM AND MIDLAND INSTITUTE ON TUESDAY, 
 i6TH OCTOBER, 1900. 
 
 I AM very sensible of the honour which the members 
 of the Midland Institute have conferred upon me by 
 choosing me to be their President ; and I am equally 
 sensible of the responsibility which I have undertaken. 
 I trust that I am not presuming too much if I suppose 
 that in inviting me to be your President you had some 
 thought that I was not exactly a stranger ; that for a 
 few years I was privileged, as Canon of Worcester 
 Cathedral, to stand in some relation to the vigorous 
 life of this city, and was not entirely unfamiliar with 
 its aims and aspirations. I would not allude to this 
 fact if it were not in a manner connected with what 
 I wish to say to you. I can say it most clearly by 
 frankly confessing that I am following the bent of my 
 own mind in saying it. Now I have always thought 
 that the best way of understanding what things are is 
 to try and discover how they came to assume their 
 existing form. I am interested in observing differences 
 between various countries. The points of difference 
 seem more instructive than the points of agreement ; 
 and even when things look the same at first sight, they
 
 A PLEA FOR KNOWLEDGE 197 
 
 are found on further investigation to present notable 
 differences. I feel that this is equally true of various 
 parts of the same country. No amount of govern- 
 mental consolidation can extinguish the vigour of local 
 life. Common institutions may be accepted, but they 
 are worked in a spirit which makes them productive of 
 very different results. It is hard to secure monotony, 
 however conscientiously we may pursue it. There 
 is something in the collective life of communities 
 which is distinctly their own, and cannot be taken 
 away from them. These distinctive features we do 
 well to cherish. They are our special contributions 
 to the common welfare. If they are not necessary 
 they will rapidly perish. It is our business to under- 
 stand them and estimate them aright. Each com- 
 munity in its own sphere, with reference to its own 
 experience and its own traditions, can work out some 
 problem from which all may profit 
 
 Now I am not so presumptuous as to attempt to 
 put before you the special characteristics of your own 
 community ; you are better acquainted with them than 
 I can be. Nor will I compliment you on them ; you 
 are generally supposed to be adequately conscious of 
 your own merits. I would only point out that Bir- 
 mingham owes much of its present greatness to its past 
 insignificance. It was not an old town with a mayor 
 and corporation, and an industry regulated by guilds. 
 It led an obscure existence under the mild sway of a 
 bailiff who presided over a manor-court. When in- 
 dustrial life sprang rapidly into existence, Birmingham 
 was free to adapt itself to new requirements. Those 
 who could find no peace in towns which were subject
 
 198 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 to ancient regulations and restrictions flocked hither. 
 Birmingham grew owing to its freedom and its capacity 
 to adjust itself to circumstances. This is the key to 
 your municipal history. It is a characteristic which 
 I trust you will always value and strive to preserve. 
 Traditions are very good things ; but when you are 
 without them, they are not worth importing artificially. 
 There is always something which is accidental in the 
 form assumed by the experience of the past. It is 
 well to take the spirit of that experience and give it the 
 form which is most suitable to the needs of the present. 
 You stand to-day at a very important point in the 
 development of your civic life more important, per- 
 haps, than you imagine. The foundation of a new 
 university is a matter of very great significance. It 
 is an attempt to co-ordinate and to improve those 
 qualities of our common life which are at once the 
 highest and the most easily neglected. We do not at 
 the present day express our views of things with the 
 same clearness and force as did our forefathers. We 
 are more chary of ideal conceptions, and prefer to live 
 from hand to mouth. But men of old regarded the 
 life of man as moulded by three great powers the 
 State, the Church, and the University. It is true that 
 they regarded each of them as forming a universal 
 system. There was one Empire, one Church, one 
 method of study. We have abandoned the idea of a 
 necessary uniformity of external structure. Europe 
 is not united under one Holy Roman Empire, but 
 by fundamental identity of objects of pursuit. The 
 common power of Christianity to fashion character is 
 recognised as existing apart from particular ecclesias-
 
 A PLEA FOR KNOWLEDGE 199 
 
 tical institutions. In the same way universities can 
 promote the spread of learning without observing the 
 same types of organisation. But it still remains an 
 absolute truth that human life rests on three great 
 primary requirements order, conduct, knowledge ; 
 and these three requisites are still expressed in the 
 forms of the State, the Church, and the University. 
 Without a due recognition of all three, every particular 
 form of local life is so far incomplete. The foundation 
 of a university will make Birmingham a complete and 
 independent centre of life in all its fulness. 
 
 You will say that this is a sentimental consideration 
 which does not greatly affect you in a practical sense. 
 My object is to plead with you that it should so affect 
 you, and that the gain, if it did, would be very practical 
 indeed. 
 
 I said that we differed from the men of the Middle 
 Ages in that we were chary of ideals or rather, I 
 should have said, in the formulated expression of them. 
 I admit that the ideals of the Middle Ages wore thin 
 because they were so large that men contented them- 
 selves with recognising them in the abstract, and were 
 unable to apply them in detail. We have discarded 
 them in favour of practical effort in a limited sphere. 
 But I feel that nowadays we have done our work in 
 the way of limiting our sphere of action. We have 
 arranged the lines of our practical energies so that they 
 do not interfere with one another. We have escaped 
 from the thraldom of old doctrinaire systems. We 
 have liberated our activities and given them full scope. 
 I think that we need to restore ideal conceptions, no 
 longer as impediments, but as expressions and regula-
 
 200 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 tors of our aims. Order, conduct, knowledge they 
 still remain the foundations of common life. Why 
 should we hesitate to recognise them as such and 
 admit the sentimental appeal made to each of us by 
 the institutions which represent openly these three great 
 requisites ? As individuals or at particular times, we 
 may be more interested in one of them than in the 
 others : we may be engaged in reforming or improving 
 one or all of them : we may be dissatisfied with their 
 present position. But we shall not really improve any 
 of them by belittling the rest. 
 
 Let me apply this consideration to the matter of 
 universities. A university in old times was an insti- 
 tution which belonged to the whole of Europe. It 
 owed its origin to that great principle of voluntary 
 association which has ever been the source of progress. 
 It was a corporation of scholars, bound together for a 
 common object. Its place was dictated by convenience 
 of access, and it was this which gave Paris the chief 
 importance. The difficulties of maintaining scholastic 
 independence in a great centre of political activity led 
 to the selection of more peaceful spots in England ; 
 and Oxford and Cambridge were chosen as outside the 
 bustle of national life. But in France and England 
 alike universities existed apart from, nay even opposed 
 to, local or national life. They represented necessary 
 truth, which was pursued as an object in itself, which 
 was the same everywhere, and had an independent 
 existence of its own. Masters and doctors of univer- 
 sities were related to one another throughout Europe ; 
 they stood in no special relation to the needs of their 
 own country.
 
 A PLEA FOR KNOWLEDGE 201 
 
 Now the system of the Middle Ages broke down 
 because this claim of abstract universality ceased to 
 correspond with the actual facts of life. Nations came 
 into conscious existence, and the conception of one 
 Empire of the West was powerless against national 
 aspirations. One ecclesiastical organisation, unwieldy 
 through the weight of accumulated traditions of the 
 past, could not find room for independent thought. 
 The system of the universities was involved in the 
 general downfall, retaining, however, greatest vitality 
 in England, where it became a portion of the national 
 life, inspired by it rather than inspiring it We have 
 seen a slow revival of that system. New universities 
 suited to the needs of a new epoch have come gradually 
 and tentatively into existence. You have much ex- 
 perience to guide you in establishing your university. 
 So far as regulation and organisation can help it, I 
 have no doubt that it will leave nothing to be desired. 
 Will it also succeed in setting forth the claim of know- 
 ledge upon man's attention ? Will it set learning in 
 its due place in the public mind ? 
 
 This was the work of the old universities, and its 
 supreme importance should not be overlooked. When 
 we talk about education, we generally mean by that 
 word some method which shall give every one the 
 largest possible amount of necessary information 
 which the time at the teacher's disposal permits. I am 
 not finding fault with that endeavour. But more im- 
 portant for every man than the possession of a quantum 
 of rudimentary information is a conception that such 
 a thing as knowledge exists : that others have it, if he 
 has it not : that its results are accessible to him if he
 
 202 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 should choose to apply for them. This is the truth 
 that a university especially expresses. Teachers and 
 students alike are bound together by a common bond. 
 They teach or study a special branch of knowledge : 
 they are aware of the existence of many other branches 
 of knowledge into which they are unable to penetrate 
 far, if at all. But they know that they are there, and 
 can glean something about them from academic inter- 
 course. They are in relationship to much that they do 
 not pretend themselves to know. A new theory has 
 been started ; it interests them enough to induce them to 
 ask an expert. He points out the nature of the evidence, 
 puts his finger on the flaws in its present conclusiveness, 
 shows what are the dominant considerations, previously 
 overlooked by the non-expert, on which the final deci- 
 sion will depend. It is this which constitutes the real 
 value of a university and gives it an organic life. It 
 generates a respect for knowledge as a whole, and 
 keeps its separate parts in harmony. 
 
 I have heard the House of Commons described 
 and I do not think that any description could do it 
 fuller justice as a mixture of a public school and a 
 university. So far as the relations of the members 
 to one another are regarded, it is like a public school. 
 The new boys are welcomed by the old boys in the 
 same sort of way with a friendly greeting, an admoni- 
 tion to look after themselves, a kindly interest in seeing 
 what they are fit for, readiness to advise such as seek 
 advice ; and then follows a silent process by which 
 every one drops gradually into his place and is classed 
 according to his merits, whatever they are. In its 
 actual work the House of Commons is like a university.
 
 A PLEA FOR KNOWLEDGE 203 
 
 A Bill consists of various propositions affecting the life 
 of the community. Private conversation determines 
 its fate as much as, if not more than, public debate. 
 It is the expert opinion which is decisive. One after 
 another of those who know the exact conditions which 
 will be affected, gives his opinion, and illustrates it 
 from his experience. Small defects are remedied ; 
 points that have been overlooked are brought forward ; 
 unforeseen possibilities are considered. When all that 
 can be done has been done, the questions remain if the 
 object of the Bill is good, and if it will succeed in 
 attaining it. The value of the whole process depends 
 upon the amount of sound knowledge which from vari- 
 ous sides is brought to bear. I have given this instance 
 of the necessity of what I would call the truly academic 
 spirit, because it is not at first sight obvious. Yet the 
 working of parliamentary institutions does not only 
 depend on the representation of the popular will, or 
 on the integrity of the deputies in giving it effect ; it 
 also depends upon the possession by them of adequate 
 knowledge and patience requisite for the purpose. If 
 you pursue this line of thought you will see how it 
 applies to every branch of human effort. It is precisely 
 this truth which it is the function of a university to 
 make so clear as to be universally recognised. 
 
 In the days when universities came into being, the 
 great mass of mankind were ignorant and were content 
 to remain in ignorance ; in a sense they were what we 
 should call uneducated. But we must not be misled 
 by words and phrases. Men might not be able to 
 read or write, but they were not for that reason unin- 
 telligent, or incapable of forming a judgment about
 
 204 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 what affected their own life. They could understand 
 their own interest and transact their necessary business 
 with as much keenness as we can. They knew on 
 what points their opinion was of importance, and on 
 what points it was of little value. The universities 
 maintained before their eyes in a concrete form the 
 conception of knowledge and of its importance. They 
 saw lads selected from amongst themselves from time 
 to time to become students. They followed their 
 careers with interest, and they respected their pursuits 
 all the more because they did not themselves engage 
 in them. This is worth noticing because it is by no 
 means necessary that a general spread of education 
 should bring with it a corresponding respect for know- 
 ledge or a sense of its importance. I remember talking 
 once with an old man who told me that he had been a 
 Chartist in his youth, " But," he said, " I left them, and 
 I remember why I did. I was at a meeting where we 
 were discussing the Charter. I said that I agreed with 
 it all except yearly Parliaments ; I was not sure that 
 a year was long enough for a man to learn his business. 
 One of the delegates rose in anger and said, ' Do you 
 mean to say that there is any question which I cannot 
 get to the bottom of in one night ? ' The meeting ap- 
 plauded him, but I was not convinced somehow ; and 
 the more I thought of it in that way, the less I liked 
 it." I give this as an instance of the ease with which 
 an acquired facility of expression and a few second- 
 hand ideas may destroy any conception of knowledge 
 and its methods. You will all of you recognise the 
 temper which it displays, and the dangers of that 
 temper.
 
 A PLEA FOR KNOWLEDGE 205 
 
 Now the great use of universities is that they are 
 a visible protest against such a temper as this, and 
 an organised corrective of it. Formerly they were the 
 homes of the ideas which dominated the life of Europe, 
 and were venerated as such. Since the sixteenth 
 century the old Universities of England have been 
 regarded as the guardians of the best traditions of 
 national life, which they passed on to succeeding 
 generations of the nation's most favoured sons. In 
 our days the extension of universities has been pro- 
 moted by the need of bringing knowledge into closer 
 connexion with our national occupations in the great 
 centres of commercial and industrial life. We are now 
 able to regard this process as consciously recognised. 
 We may consider local universities as a necessary part 
 of our educational system, adapted to actual require- 
 ments, existing on a utilitarian basis, appealing directly 
 to self-interest, but not, I think, on that account less 
 effective for setting forth that ideal conception of the 
 nature and value of knowledge in human affairs, which 
 it was the original mission of universities to assert. 
 In fact, I think that our efforts to improve national 
 education at the bottom have failed to produce their 
 full effect, because we have had no adequate expression 
 of what they were striving to promote at the top. 
 
 So far, I trust that I may have carried you with me 
 in what I have said. But I have reached a point at 
 which I must confess my doubts whether I shall entirely 
 satisfy you in what I am going to say. Yet I think it 
 right to express my full convictions, and leave you 
 to deal with them as you are well capable of doing. 
 I will not even try to put them persuasively, for I wish
 
 206 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 you to feel the responsibility of rejecting them from 
 your own experience. To put it briefly, my opinion 
 is that the great defect of England at present is an 
 inadequate conception of the value of knowledge in 
 itself, and of its importance for the national life. I 
 wish to see this remedied ; and it cannot be remedied 
 till it is recognised. It will not be remedied by im- 
 provements in our educational system ; for systems 
 are only so much mechanism and depend on the force 
 which works them. If there is a desire for knowledge, 
 it is not difficult to find out proper means for impart- 
 ing it. If there is little effective desire for knowledge, 
 the invention of easy means for imparting a beggarly 
 minimum will check, rather than promote, the desire. 
 When I say that in England there is an inadequate 
 conception of the value of knowledge, I do not mean 
 that England has ceased to produce eminent men in 
 the various branches of learning, or that it does not 
 recognise them. Knowledge will always have its 
 votaries among a vigorous people, and its claims will 
 never be forgotten. What I mean is that the average 
 Englishman thinks very little of the importance of 
 gaining for himself as much knowledge as he can for 
 the purpose of leading his own life efficiently. If you 
 are inclined to demur to that statement I would ask 
 you to consider what are the qualities on which English- 
 men pride themselves. You know the familiar list, 
 vigour, energy, practical capacity, dogged perseverance, 
 determination not to be beaten, integrity, a love of 
 justice, outspokenness, straightforwardness, and the 
 rest. These are all excellent qualities, but you will 
 observe that they are all practical and not intellectual.
 
 A PLEA FOR KNOWLEDGE 207 
 
 They omit all reference to thought and its processes, 
 to knowledge and its reward. The point of view to- 
 wards life which they indicate is briefly this. That 
 must be done which shows itself to need doing ; the 
 choice of means to do it is of secondary importance ; 
 the great thing is to set to work to do it and to do it 
 hard with the determination to succeed. 
 
 It is of course presumptuous to venture to epitomise 
 general tendencies in brief formulae. It is still more 
 presumptuous to deal in this way with other countries 
 than one's own. But, simply to introduce an element 
 of perspective, I will dare to apply the same method to 
 our rivals abroad. I take it that the average German 
 would put knowledge and assiduous application in the 
 forefront of the national qualities of which he was 
 proud. His attitude towards life would be that know- 
 ledge was first necessary to show you what you could 
 best do : then, that the constant application of that 
 knowledge and its assiduous increase would lead you 
 to such success as you deserved. The Frenchman 
 would put foremost a clear perception of the end 
 which you wished to pursue, formed from its corre- 
 spondence with your own feelings and desires ; it 
 would then be carried out with accuracy and would 
 give you satisfaction. To the American the world is 
 still large, and the selection of an object is not of 
 primary importance. Any object will do, but it must 
 be pursued with smartness that is, with a clear recog- 
 nition of all the resources necessary for success, and 
 persistent versatility in using each of them to the full 
 at the right moment. 
 
 I am not concerned with contrasting these concep-
 
 208 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 tions, or with noticing their obvious shortcomings. It 
 is enough for my purpose to point out that the English 
 view makes the least appeal to the intellectual faculties. 
 If this be so, I think you will agree with me that it is 
 undesirable ; and that we must bestir ourselves to put 
 knowledge back into its due place among objects of 
 pursuit. Our present position is, I think, easily under- 
 stood, if we are prepared to recognise the facts. Eng- 
 land was the home of that industrial movement which 
 has now revolutionised the world. It made so many 
 discoveries and inventions that it was unable to under- 
 stand them all. The practical qualities, which had 
 been long generated through centuries by the system 
 of local self-government which distinguished England, 
 rose to dominant importance. Inventions multiplied 
 through this sheer practical capacity ; and England 
 acted for a century as the pioneer of the world in a 
 new course of civilisation. There has been a tendency 
 for England to remain contented with its first achieve- 
 ments and its original methods. But there is unfor- 
 tunately in all undertakings an economic law of 
 diminishing returns. What can be done simply by 
 the insight which comes from practical capacity has 
 nearly been done. Other nations, which had no 
 traditions of such capacity inherited from previous 
 experience, have learnt something of its methods. 
 Moreover, the methods of common sense ought to lead 
 on to the methods of science. For common sense 
 means doing what is immediately obvious : science 
 rests on the cultivation of the powers of observation 
 beyond what is immediately obvious. They are not 
 opposed ; one is the supplement of the other. The
 
 A PLEA FOR KNOWLEDGE 209 
 
 transition between them is a most natural one. It 
 involves no loss of the vigour of natural qualities that 
 we should seek to add to them what is no less natural 
 but only less apparent. 
 
 I said that our educational system suffered through 
 our lack of interest in knowledge itself. We are assured 
 as a nation that we have a well-established position. 
 Such as we are, the world has found the need of us in 
 the past ; and it will find the need of us in the future. 
 We do not dread competition ; we are willing to leave 
 small gains for less-favoured peoples. We are con- 
 vinced that large affairs will always remain in our 
 hands, and that our products will be the best, and will 
 always command a market by their intrinsic merit. 
 I would not shake our self-confidence ; but we must 
 be prepared to add to our store of capacity, and I see 
 no way to add to it except by increasing our know- 
 ledge. Let us do all that we have done ; let us keep 
 our existing qualities ; but let us add to them that 
 which increasing knowledge can bring. 
 
 This knowledge cannot be stored at the top only ; 
 it must be diffused through every part of our common 
 life. We need not only the scientific inventor ; but 
 the employer who is quick to perceive and apply what 
 has been discovered, and the workman who can so far 
 understand its utility as to wish it to have the best 
 possible chance. For this purpose we need a due 
 appreciation of the use of knowledge, of the means 
 by which it is acquired and by which it is applied. At 
 present all questions concerning this important matter 
 awaken only slight interest among the community as 
 a whole. Take for instance elementary education.
 
 210 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 In spite of all the efforts of a few, it cannot be said 
 that the matter has awakened much enthusiasm in 
 those for whom it was intended. There have been 
 many education questions ; there still are ; but they 
 have been concerned with mechanism, with adminis- 
 tration, with sectarian rivalries, not with the only 
 question with which education is concerned, the best 
 mode of fitting a child for the duties of life. I have 
 asked many teachers if their experience showed that 
 parents felt any real concern in what their children 
 were taught at school. I may have been unfortunate, 
 but I have only been furnished with one case in which 
 a father came to the schoolmaster to ask why he had 
 given his son a sum to work out to which there was 
 no answer. The master had made a mistake, and the 
 parent's remonstrance was quite just. It may be that 
 many parents are quietly interested in what their 
 children are doing at school, but do not announce the 
 fact in any definite way. But I have failed to find 
 many instances of parents who are making sacrifices 
 to enable their children to pursue their education. I 
 have had many testimonies of a prevailing absence of 
 ambition in this direction. Yet it is common in France. 
 I remember finding myself in a French village during 
 a walk and wishing for lunch. Though it was a large 
 village I could find no inn. I consulted a passer-by 
 who told me that there were two cafes. I asked for 
 the nearest, and he pointed to a miserable cottage. 1 
 found that it consisted of two rooms, with earthen 
 floors, containing the minimum of furniture. It was 
 kept by an old man and an old woman, both over 
 seventy. They provided me with some bread and
 
 A PLEA FOR KNOWLEDGE 211 
 
 some eggs, and as I ate my meal the old man's curi- 
 osity prevailed over the reticence and reserve which 
 characterise the French in private matters. I talked 
 to him about my life, and he gradually told me about 
 his. I found that he and his wife were living in pen- 
 ury that they might spend their money on a nephew 
 they had no children of their own who was in Paris 
 pursuing his studies as a civil engineer almost entirely 
 at their expense. I wondered at the time if I could 
 produce many parallel cases in England, and I have 
 not yet succeeded in finding one. 
 
 I am far from saying that I wish such ambition to 
 become universal. I think that it is best as a general 
 rule for every one to strive to adorn the sphere in which 
 his parents move, and, if he rises, to rise through it, 
 instead of aspiring to leap beyond it from the first. 
 But I should like to see some traces of a conscious 
 desire on the part of parents that their children should 
 have the best intellectual training possible, better and 
 fuller than that which fell to their own lot. Nor would 
 I have you suppose that I confine my remarks to 
 primary education only. I do not know that parents 
 of any class impress on their children the absolute need 
 of gaining knowledge for the life which lies before 
 them. They regard other qualities as more important. 
 They are prouder of success in athletics than of place 
 in the form. Without depreciating intellectual attain- 
 ment, if it comes, they rarely put it in the first place, 
 unless a boy's career is to be determined by success in 
 a definite examination. Masters of public schools will 
 tell you that, generally speaking, only the sons of poor 
 professional men, who purpose to follow in their father's
 
 212 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 steps and who know that they must of necessity make 
 their own way in the world only these boys work 
 hard, because they know that their education involves 
 great sacrifice on the part of their parents and cannot 
 be carried on unless they win scholarships. 
 
 The pursuit of knowledge, like every other pursuit, 
 is regulated by supply and demand. If we felt greater - 
 need of it, we should seek it more diligently. At 
 present we do not seek it with burning zeal, because we 
 are not convinced of its necessity. A man's market 
 value does not depend upon his knowledge as of first 
 importance. I have heard it urged as an objection to 
 continuation classes that "a little knowledge is a 
 dangerous thing " ; that a workman who possesses 
 none, still learns what he has to do, and does it, while 
 one who knows a little is often timid and doubtful 
 just because he knows something and does not know 
 enough. The argument struck me as more specious 
 than real ; but if there is anything in it, it only proves 
 that there is need to replace the temerity which comes 
 from ignorance by the certainty which comes from 
 knowledge ; and that there is a middle period in which 
 we must have a little patience. 
 
 It is further said that the immediate reward of 
 knowledge in industrial life is small. The point at 
 which knowledge really makes the skilled artisan more 
 efficient is soon reached. I admit it, but I am not 
 commending the pursuit of knowledge for its imme- 
 diate gain. The point at which knowledge will cease 
 to make a man a better wage-earner may be soon 
 reached ; but the point at which it will cease to make 
 him a better and a happier man will never be reached.
 
 A PLEA FOR KNOWLEDGE 213 
 
 And to find perpetual sources of new interest in one's 
 daily work, to feel a constantly increasing demand on 
 one's intelligence and a growing development of one's 
 powers of observation this is of incalculable advan- 
 tage to the progress of industrial life. 
 
 It is this progress which is the great object set before 
 us. Let nothing hide this fact from our eyes. Modern 
 nations depend for their greatness on their power of 
 producing wealth. Do not say that this is a sordid 
 and unworthy view. It is nobler than the view, which 
 it has superseded, of military ascendency and increase 
 of territory. No nation can live on its assured capa- 
 city for governing other peoples. It must live on its 
 power of supplying human needs, of improving the 
 conditions of life, of liberating the energies of a con- 
 stantly increasing number of intelligent men to work 
 for the common good. Wealth is the outward measure 
 of success in this process. The country that is most 
 productive of commodities which all may enjoy is 
 conferring the greatest benefit upon the world. I 
 sometimes think that we are in danger of growing 
 afraid of admitting this as the great foundation of 
 our national life. We are almost too ready to dis- 
 regard the basis of industrialism on which that life 
 assuredly rests. We have grown ashamed of being 
 called "a nation of shopkeepers" just in proportion 
 as other nations have become the same, or are frankly 
 desirous of becoming so. We have a certain tendency 
 to repose on our laurels, to adopt the attitude that 
 we are no longer professionals but high-minded and 
 eclectic amateurs. We do these things, it is true, but 
 we have a pretty knack of doing them without much
 
 214 THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION 
 
 trouble. Others may regard them as their main line 
 in life ; we do them in a certain spirit of condescension. 
 We have our dignity to maintain, and are not going 
 to sacrifice it by seeming to take undue care about 
 trifles. I would quote some words from a letter which 
 I received from a schoolmaster, who has had an excep- 
 tionally large experience in teaching different classes. 
 He wrote to me : " Originality of thought and action 
 is what John Bull hates, not so much for its own sake, 
 as from the remarkable dread he has of making a fool 
 of himself. John Bull junior I know well. I know 
 him in the son of the pauper and the criminal, and 
 also in the son of the middle class and the rich man. 
 He will not read or recite with any attempt at feeling 
 or expression simply because of this dread of making 
 a fool of himself. He will not learn to speak French 
 or German for the same reason." You will see from 
 this extract the truth of which you will recognise 
 what I mean by saying that a national ideal of being 
 high-minded amateurs has penetrated far. 
 
 Now it is the function of a university to correct 
 this tendency by showing how knowledge can give 
 unity to life and effort. Whatever a man has to do 
 will supply an intelligible starting-point. Let him 
 try to understand all about it, and round a definite 
 centre knowledge will steadily grow. Let him pursue 
 it as far as he can. Varied interests may carry him 
 into other fields, but all that he gleans will be brought 
 back. His interest in his own work will increase as he 
 sees all that flows from it, its manifold relationships, 
 its points of contact with things that at first seemed 
 remote. There is nothing more dangerous to our
 
 A PLEA FOR KNOWLEDGE 215 
 
 industrial system than that the individual worker should 
 conceive of his work as the means of earning money 
 which he spends on what he really enjoys should 
 feel that his true life only begins when he quits his 
 office or his workshop. Surely we must all recognise 
 that our life is mainly our work, and that what we are 
 must be shown in what we do. 
 
 I have been speaking of one aspect only of a great 
 question, and that most imperfectly. Knowledge is of 
 many kinds, and men may dispute which kind is best. 
 I have been content to assume that all kinds are good, 
 and that kind most likely to attract which stands in 
 closest relation to the actual facts of life. There are 
 two great benefits which knowledge will confer on one 
 who genuinely seeks it. In matters where judgment 
 is concerned, it will enable him to see the thing as it is. 
 In points of practice, it will inspire him with a desire 
 to do the thing as well as it can be done, if possible 
 better than it was ever done before. We all admit 
 the need of these capacities and motives. If we try 
 to acquire them and induce others to acquire them, 
 we are displaying the highest and most far-sighted 
 patriotism. 
 
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