-<...- 
 
 ' 
 
 1 1 i-liy 
 
 OF THE 

 
 LIBRARY 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 SANTA BARBARA 
 
 PRESENTED BY 
 
 ERIC GUGLES
 
 THE 
 
 ARCHITECTURE OF THE RENAISSANCE 
 
 IN ITALY
 
 In Preparation. By the same Author. 
 UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME. 
 
 THE ARCHITECTURE 
 
 OF 
 
 GREECE AND ROME 
 
 A SKETCH OF ITS HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 With numerous collotype plates and other illustrations. 
 
 SYNOPSIS OF PROBABLE CONTENTS. (i) The Mycenean Age in Greece. 
 (2) The Archaic Period in Asiatic Hellas. (3) The Archaic Period in 
 European Hellas. (4) The Coalescence and Culmination of Hellenic 
 Art in Attica. (5) The Alexandrian Period in Ionia, etc. (6) The 
 Decline in Greece. (7) Etruscan Rome and the Augustan Age. 
 (8) Culminating Period of Trajan and Hadrian. (9) Decline and Fall 
 of Roman Imperial Architecture.
 
 'X 
 
 
 i 
 
 i, ***>**, 
 
 
 
 SOUTH AISLE WALL AND APSIDAL TRANSEPT OF THE 
 CATHEDKAL, COMO. 
 
 TOMMASO RODARI, Archt.
 
 THE 
 
 ARCH ITECTURE 
 
 OF THE 
 
 IN 
 
 ITALY 
 
 A GENERAL VIEW 
 FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS AND OTHERS 
 
 BY WILLIAM J. ANDERSON 
 H 
 
 ARCHITECT 
 
 ASSOCIATE OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS 
 
 DIRECTOR OF ARCHITECTURE AND LECTURER AT 
 
 THE GLASGOW SCHOOL OF ART 
 
 SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED 
 
 WITH SIXTY-FOUR COLLOTYPE AND OTHER PLATES 
 And Ninety-eight Smaller Illustrations in the Text 
 
 LONDON 
 
 B. T. BATSFORD 94 HIGH HOLBORN 
 NEW YORK : CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 
 
 MDCCCXCVIII
 
 ,
 
 NOTE TO SECOND EDITION 
 
 IT may be desirable to state in a few words how I have made 
 use of the opportunity of revision, afforded by the practical 
 approval of this work which students of architecture have 
 signified. In the interval that has elapsed since I first wrote 
 on the subject, not only has my point of view changed, but 
 light from the study of kindred subjects has been shed upon it, 
 so changing its aspect to myself that I felt inclined to rewrite 
 the whole book, or at all events large parts of it. To this 
 temptation I might have yielded, had there been good reason 
 to suppose that I would so make it more useful or interesting. 
 It seemed to me, however, that it might then lose what value 
 it possesses as an impression of the works of the period, written 
 soon after I had studied and measured some of them ten years 
 ago, having at the time small acquaintance with the large 
 Continental literature of the subject. In this belief I have 
 thought it better not to reconstruct the book, but rather to 
 confine the changes to rendering my meaning clearer than in 
 the original, to the rectification of errors into which I had fallen, 
 and to additions which tend to the more complete statement 
 of my view of the matter. The second chapter has undergone 
 most alteration, as the account of Brunelleschi's work is 
 rewritten and extended, while notes are added on the Badia 
 Fiesolana, and the Church of the Carceri at Prato. A table 
 of the principal Renaissance buildings in Italy is appended ; 
 and it is hoped that this will render the book more useful to 
 the student, especially perhaps the traveller, who may wish 
 to examine the various works in a locality in something like 
 their order of erection, and so learn infinitely more than can 
 here be imparted regarding them. From any such student 
 I should be glad to receive corrections or additions to the list, 
 which cannot claim to be complete. Among the illustrations 
 are several plans of churches, which with the exception of the 
 largest (St. Peter's) and the smallest Florentine examples 
 (pages 17 and 40), are drawn to a uniform scale; and all of 
 them (except St. Peter's) are approximately " oriented," if the 
 top of the page be taken to represent a direction somewhat 
 East of North. I have pleasure in acknowledging Mr. Bradley 
 Batsford's valuable co-operation, and my appreciation of the 
 enterprise of the publisher in enabling me to extend so largely 
 the number of the illustrations, as well as in reproducing many 
 of the originals a second time in order to obtain the best results 
 possible on the necessarily small scale. 
 
 W. J. A. 
 
 CATHCART, GLASGOW, 
 June i, 1898.
 
 PREFACE 
 
 THE full title perhaps sufficiently sets forth the subject 
 of this book, and what I conceive to be its proper des- 
 tination. But it may be well to explain that it owes its 
 existence to the Governors of the School of Art in this city, 
 who some years ago requested me to prepare a series of lectures 
 on the subject, which were duly delivered in the Corporation 
 Galleries. Of these lectures, seven in number, the present 
 volume comprises five, the introductory discourses on Ancient 
 Rome and Mediaeval Italy being relinquished, and their place 
 supplied by a short introductory chapter. In delivery, while 
 primarily intended for students of the school, they were not 
 confined to this class, and a rudimentary and semi-popular 
 character may still linger in the work, which has undergone 
 only the changes that seemed essential to its new form. That 
 it may be acceptable to the wider circle is my hope, believing 
 that a public which is interested in Italy, its painting, its litera- 
 ture, its history, cannot be, and is not wholly indifferent to 
 those works which, apart from their attraction of beauty, give 
 of all others the most impressive view of the genius of a people ; 
 and, when understood, clothe with the most realisable character 
 the daily life and work and thought of a bygone race. Much 
 has been urged against the teaching of architectural history 
 to students, but only by those who have failed to grasp the 
 true inwardness of the development. For where the work 
 of modern architects takes a high place among that of other 
 art workers, it is largely because they are more thoroughly 
 and effectively steeped in the traditions of an art which is 
 greater than man's little span of life and achievement. Hence, 
 while deeply conscious of the feebleness of my slight sketch, 
 I feel convinced that no reasonable objection can be taken to
 
 PREFACE. Vll 
 
 its purpose as a contribution to the teaching of the traditions 
 of the Western arts of design, as these took form in Italy. 
 In this traditional sense, we are all Romans, as our language, 
 religion, and law, as well as our arts, remind us ; and have besides 
 a large community of interest with the country which has been 
 the leader and teacher of civilization to modern Europe. 
 
 Students whose researches have led them into the study of 
 particular buildings, particular architects, or particular periods, 
 will find the treatment of their special subject inadequate, but 
 will recognise that more thorough analysis had to be subordi- 
 nate to the principal aim of giving a view of the whole, suited 
 to the needs of the average English-speaking young architect. 
 I have often been asked to recommend such a book, and felt 
 the need of it myself not so many years ago, when endeavouring 
 to form some conception of what was meant by Renaissance 
 architecture, and to distinguish its different phases. Should 
 my studies be the means of smoothing the path or saving 
 the time of any student it will be a source of gratification to 
 me ; believing that since the study of the historical styles of 
 architecture, or of its accumulated experience, has assumed a 
 rightful place as an essential branch of an architect's elementary 
 education, it is important that inexpensive books dealing with 
 each department concisely, yet in sufficient detail, should be 
 accessible to him. The extent and variety of his whole train- 
 ing is so great that a special or complete study of a style 
 by travel or by consultation of numerous authorities, is im- 
 possible in most cases. In Mr. Batsford I was fortunate in 
 finding a publisher in agreement with my viev/s, especially as 
 to the necessity for a full illustration of the subject ; and the 
 liberality with which this most important part of the scheme 
 has been carried out gives me a measure of confidence in 
 the work, and a satisfaction that I do not possess in the 
 other part of it. Many of the plates and blocks are reduc- 
 tions of my own drawings, some from measurements taken in 
 Italy, which have already appeared in a small folio volume. 
 The drawings of the entrance loggia of the Palazzo Massimi,
 
 Vlll PREFACE. 
 
 measured by myself in Rome, have been specially prepared 
 for this book. Others have been borrowed from various large 
 folio works, the source being duly acknowledged, while the 
 majority are photographs from the buildings themselves, the 
 most satisfactory presentments of architecture. Readers whose 
 tastes or circumstances incline them to a more extended study 
 of the numberless works of the age, or of any period of it, will 
 find ample material in the second division of the appended 
 list of selected books, should even a few of these be within 
 reach. 
 
 English writers who treat of the Italian Renaissance archi- 
 tecture, by a curious process of unnatural selection, concern 
 themselves chiefly with the later periods. Fergusson, for 
 instance, in his notable History of the Modern Styles of Archi- 
 tecture, devotes the greater part of his criticism and about 
 half of the illustrations to the works of the time of Vignola 
 and thereafter, while the history in Gwilt's Encyclopedia of 
 Architecture contains not a single word which would lead one 
 to believe in the existence of one of the buildings described 
 in Chapter III. of this book. In view of this, I have been 
 led in another direction, and, while relegating Vignola and 
 Palladio and the barocco school to the last chapter, have 
 devoted four-fifths of the space at my disposal to the early 
 and culminating periods : a division that appeared to me to 
 be most advantageous for purposes which are more descriptive 
 and historical than critical. 
 
 W. J. A. 
 
 GLASGOW, 
 
 September i2th, 1896.
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Ethnographic significance of the Renaissance The architec- 
 tural type which characterises the Latino-Teutonic race The 
 tide of revival fullest and clearest in the home country of the 
 Roman Empire The influence of mediaeval practice The art 
 of the epoch in the aspect of a petrifaction of history The con- 
 tinuity and identity of European art The Renaissance not a 
 phenomenon unparalleled nor out of the course of nature Its 
 art an essentially truthful picture of the tendency of the time 
 Roman principles adopted, but great originality shown in their 
 application The artist and his relation to surrounding con- 
 ditions The environment The personality .... i 7 
 
 EARLY PERIOD 14201525. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY IN FLORENCE (14011500). 
 
 Origin of Renaissance art discovered by some in, the naturalistic 
 sculpture of the fourteenth century Brunelleschi's first work 
 the natural line of demarcation The intellectual eminence of 
 Florence Incidents of its history during fifteenth century 
 How it came to dominate Rome The famous competition for 
 the Baptistery doors Brunelleschi studies in Rome with Dona- 
 tello The dome of S. Maria del Fiore The deeper foundations 
 of the revival The earliest neo-classical building The methods 
 of Brunelleschi, illustrated by Pazzi Chapel and Sacristy of 
 S. Lorenzo The churches of S. Lorenzo, Badia di Fiesole and 
 S. Spirito Loggia of SS. Annunziata and Foundling Hospital, 
 examples of Florentine columnar arcade The Palazzi Pitti, 
 Antinori, Medici, and Strozzi The bottega of the Italian artists 
 Nature of the training afforded Influence of jewel forms and 
 goldsmith work Goldsmith sculptors Jacopo della Quercia
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Ghiberti and his gates Luca della Robbia's vitrified earthen- 
 ware Donatello's sculpture Succeeding school of sculptor- 
 architects and their works Pulpit at S. Croce Lorenzo de' 
 Medici's academy of the antique and its distinguished pupils 
 Leon Battista Alberti His Latin proclivities The Pal. Rucellai 
 and other works Greek cross model of S. Maria delle Carceri 
 at Prato Sacristy of S. Spirito and its vestibule Vasari's 
 criticism thereof Andrea Sansovino S. Salvator del Monte 
 Its rusticity The Florentine work as a .whole Affected by 
 Byzantine, Romanesque and Gothic An arcuated style More 
 an Etruscan revival than a Roman one Grecian sense of 
 refinement Rejection of colour effects Sgraffito decoration 
 Florentine influence at Rome and Siena . . . . 8 45 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE OUT OF FLORENCE (14571525). 
 
 Reasons for classification of centres and division of subject 
 Divisions of the country Relations of the states at the middle 
 of fifteenth century Milan the first great centre out of Florence 
 Bramante da Urbino The advent of painter-architects 
 Fa9ade of Certosa di Pavia and Como Cathedral, examples 
 of a transitional style S. Maria delle Grazie S. Satiro The 
 chancel The sacristy Decoration of the pilaster The 
 peculiar position of Venice A new Rome Assimilates the art 
 of the Milanese Lateness of appearance of Renaissance Some 
 reasons for this reluctant adoption Gradual grafting of classic 
 details upon essentially mediaeval work Doges' Palace Porta 
 della Carta and Quadrangle S. Maria dei Miracoli Suggested 
 by Byzantine buildings, but with classic technic Scuola 
 di San Marco Perspective reliefs Ruskin's classification 
 Interior of S. Maria dei Miracoli Venetian character in orna- 
 ment The domestic architecture of Venice Pal. Cornaro 
 Spinelli, its blending of Florentine methods with Venetian 
 Gothic Pal. Vendramini, a step towards classicism The 
 grouping of the central windows Confraternita di S. Rocco 
 Pal. Contarini delle Figure Verona Ornament in S. Anas- 
 tasia and S. Maria in Organo Pal. Consiglio Brescia La 
 Loggia and S. Maria dei Miracoli Bologna Pal. Bevilacqua 
 and Fava The general character of Bolognese Renaissance 
 and of the early North Italian work Sumptuous detail and 
 fantastic composition Tentative, but fruitful of results in time 
 succeeding 4678
 
 CONTENTS. Xi 
 
 CENTRAL PERIOD 15061550. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 THE CULMINATION IN ROME (15061540). 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Causes tending to the culmination of the Renaissance in Rome 
 Contemporary events The Transitional buildings Bramante's 
 influence and methods The attempted fusion of Greek and 
 Roman construction The shaking off of lingering mediaeval 
 traditions Renaissance contrasted with latter-day revivals 
 Bramante's Tempietto The success of the revival Its con- 
 summation in Rome both appropriate and natural An European 
 influence Masters of the period Antonio Sangallo, Peruzzi, 
 Raffaello, Michelangelo Pal. Farnese The astylar character 
 of its exterior Cortile an example of combined construction 
 characteristic of Central Period Pal. Massimi Its Grecian 
 flavour House in Via Giulia Church at Montepulciano 
 St. Peter's, Rome Early progress and interruptions Schemes 
 of Bramante, Raffaello, Peruzzi, Sangallo Michelangelo's work 
 Historic significance of St. Peter's Effect of the interior 
 Actual dimensions Character of culminating period as a whole 
 Attention to proportion and tout ensemble Detail subordinate 
 Revival of Greek methods Preference for rectangular out- 
 lines Passion for figure design and decoration High ideals of 
 Renaissance art .......... 79 113 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE ROMAN INFLUENCE IN THE NORTH OF ITALY 
 
 (15291550). 
 
 Comparison and distinction of work of Peruzzi, Sanmicheli, and 
 Sansovino Peruzzi and Sanmicheli the leaders Sansovino the 
 follower Peruzzi Birth and training His first patron The 
 Villa Chigi or Farnesina Other commissions Appointment 
 as architect of St. Peter's Organ and houses in Siena Pal. 
 Albergati at Bologna Doorways of Pal. Prosperi, Ferrara 
 Death of Peruzzi Character of his work Sanmicheli Fortifi- 
 cation building Pal. Pompei Bevilacqua Porta del Palio and 
 Nuova Pal. Grimani at Venice Schools of Venetian Renais- 
 sance Sansovino His early Roman career Pal. Cornaro della 
 Ca' Grande The Zecca, its relation to Sanmicheli's work The 
 Loggetta Sansovino's sculpture The Libreria Vecchia High 
 attainment of the work of this period 114 137
 
 Xli CONTENTS. 
 
 LATE PERIOD 1550 TO i8TH CENTURY. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 PALLADIO AND THE DECLINE. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 A characteristic tendency of revivals towards literal reproduction 
 and earlier phases of the prototype Some of the causes of the 
 decadence The literal worship of the text of Vitruvius Serlio 
 on his " infallible directions " The decisive cause of decay 
 Michelangelo's architectural works Paliadio His popularity 
 in this country His real merits in making best of small oppor- 
 tunities and inferior material The Basilica, Vicenza His own 
 opinion of it His judgment in its design Pal. Prefettizio, 
 Valmarana, Barbarano Teatro Olimpico Casa del Diavolo 
 II Redentore, Venice, a stately interior Vignola, a follower of 
 Peruzzi Some of his works Michelangelo again St. Peter's 
 at his death Dome completed Carlo Maderna extends the 
 nave The ill-fated eastern campanili Bernini's peristyle 
 and baldachino Borromini and his productions A Lombard 
 resurrection of the grotesque The time of obelisks, pillars, 
 and fountains The Lateran portico S. Maria Maggiore 
 Genoa Alessi's works Interior of SS. Annunziata Scamozzi 
 Venice Procuratie Nuove S. Maria della Salute A third 
 stage in octagon interior treatment The Barocco style expres- 
 sive of ostentation Tomb of Doge Valier Pal. Pesaro The 
 last word of Italian art Tendencies of the decadent period 
 Conclusion 138 164 
 
 LIST OF PLATES xiii xv 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT xvi xyiii 
 
 CHART OF THE CHIEF BUILDINGS OF THE ITALIAN RENAIS- 
 SANCE 165 177 
 
 LIST OF SELECTED BOOKS RELATING TO THE ITALIAN 
 
 RENAISSANCE 178 180 
 
 INDEX, &c 181185
 
 LIST OF PLATES 
 
 SOUTH AISLE WALL AND APSIDAL TRANSEPT OF THE 
 
 CATHEDRAL, COMO Frontispiece 
 
 FACING 
 PLATES PAGE 
 
 I. PART OF THE PULPIT IN SIENA CATHEDRAL, WITH 
 
 RENAISSANCE STAIR 10 
 
 II. BRONZE NORTH DOOR OF THE BAPTISTERY \ 
 
 OF ST. JOHN, FLORENCE ... , 
 
 J v between 12 and 13 
 
 III. BRONZE EAST DOOR OF THE BAPTISTERY [ 
 OF ST. JOHN, FLORENCE / 
 
 IV. SANTA MARIA DEL FIORE (THE CATHEDRAL), FLORENCE 14 
 
 V. THE PAZZI CHAPEL, SANTA CROCE, FLORENCE . . 16 
 
 VI. INTERIOR OF SAN LORENZO, FLORENCE. ... 19 
 
 VII. CHURCH OF THE BADIA DI FIESOLE, NEAR 
 
 FLORENCE 
 
 f. between 20 and 21 
 VIII. DOOR AND WINDOWS IN CLOISTER OF THE 
 
 BADIA DI FIESOLE, NEAR FLORENCE 
 
 IX. INTERIOR OF SANTO SPIRITO, FLORENCE ... 23 
 
 PORTICO OF SANTISSIMA ANNUNZIATA, FLORENCE 
 
 SPEDALE DEGLI INNOCENTI, FLORENCE . . . .] 
 
 ( PALAZZO STROZZI, FLORENCE ] 
 
 ' [ PALAZZO MEDICI (RICCARDI), FLORENCE . . .j 
 I SYMBOL OF MARK THE EVANGELIST, SANT' ANTQNIO,] 
 
 XII. -j PADUA 29 
 
 ( SYMBOL OF JOHN THE EVANGELIST, SANT' ANTONIO, PADUA) 
 XIII. LOWER PART OF PULPIT IN SANTA CROCE, FLORENCE 33 
 
 XIV. SANT' ANDREA, MANTUA 35 
 
 XV. INTERIOR OF SANTA MARIA DELLE CARCERI, PRATO . 37 
 
 XVI. VESTIBULE TO SACRISTY, SANTO SPIRITO, FLORENCE . 38
 
 XIV LIST OF PLATES. 
 
 FACING 
 
 PLATES PAGE 
 
 XVII. SANTO SALVATOR, FLORENCE, DETAIL OF A BAY 
 
 OF THE NAVE 40 
 
 XVIII. ORNAMENT IN PILASTERS, SANT' AGOSTINO, ROME 44 
 
 XIX. TOMB OF BISHOP TOMMASO PICCOLOMINI, SIENA . 44 
 
 XX. FACADE OF CERTOSA DI PAVIA . . . . 51 
 
 XXI. SOUTH DOOR OF THE CATHEDRAL, COMO . . 53 
 
 XXII. SANTA MARIA DELLE GRAZIE, MILAN ... 55 
 
 XXIII. SACRISTY OF SANTA MARIA NEAR SAN SATIRO, MILAN 56 
 
 XXIV. SCUOLA DI SAN MARCO, VENICE .... 64 
 
 XXV. MARBLE PILASTER, CAPELLA GESU, SANT' ANAS- 
 
 TASIA, VERONA 67 
 
 XXVI. PALAZZO VENDRAMINI, VENICE 69 
 
 XXVII. CONFRATERNITA DI SAN ROCCO, VENICE . . 70 
 
 XXVIII. THE LOGGIA, BRESCIA 72 
 
 XXIX. LA MADONNA DEI MIRACOLI, BRESCIA ... 72 
 XXX. CORTILE OF THE PALAZZO BEVILACQUA-VlNCENZI, 
 
 BOLOGNA 74 
 
 XXXI. THE CANCELLERIA PALACE, ROME .... 83 
 XXXII. WINDOW AND BALCONY FROM THE CANCELLERIA 
 
 PALACE, ROME 84 
 
 XXXIII. SIBYL AND THE EMPEROR AUGUSTUS ... gi 
 XXXIV. PLAN OF THE GROUND FLOOR OF THE \ 
 
 FARNESE PALACE, ROME . 
 
 r between 92 and 93 
 XXXV. PLAN OF THE FIRST FLOOR OF THE ' 
 
 FARNESE PALACE, ROME . 
 
 XXXVI. THE FARNESE PALACE, ROME 94 
 
 XXXVII. CORTILE OF THE FARNESE PALACE, ROME . . 94 
 XXXVIII. PLAN OF THE ENTRANCE LOGGIA OF THE PALAZZO 
 
 MASSIMI ALLE COLONNE, ROME ... 96 
 
 XXXIX. EXTERIOR ELEVATION OF THE ENTRANCE LOGGIA 
 OF THE PALAZZO MASSIMI ALLE COLONNE, 
 
 ROME g6 
 
 XL. INTERIOR ELEVATION OF THE ENTRANCE LOGGIA 
 
 OF THE PALAZZO MASSIMI ALLE COLONNE, ROME 96 
 XLI. CORTILE OF THE PALAZZO MASSIMI ALLE COLONNE, 
 
 ROME 98 
 
 XLII. DETAIL OF THE CORTILE OF THE PALAZZO MASSIMI 
 
 ALLE COLONNE, ROME ..... 98 
 XLIII. PRINCIPAL APARTMENT OF THE PALAZZO MASSIMI 
 
 ALLE COLONNE, ROME 100 
 
 XLIV. SECTION OF ST. PETER'S, ROME .... 106 
 XLV. INTERIOR OF ST. PETER'S, ROME . . . 108
 
 LIST OF PLATES. XV 
 
 FACING 
 PAGE 
 
 XLVI. ELEVATION OF THE VILLA CHIGI 
 
 (FARNESINA), ROME . . . , 
 
 VT } between 116 and 117 
 
 XLVII. ELEVATION OF THE PALAZZO AL- ' 
 
 J 
 
 BERGATI, BOLOGNA 
 XLVI 1 1. ORGAN IN CHIESA DEL' OSPEDALE, SIENA . . 118 
 XLIX. DETAIL ELEVATION OF THE PALAZZO 
 
 ALBERGATI, BOLOGNA 
 L. MOULDINGS OF THE PALAZZO AL- 
 BERGATI, BOLOGNA 
 
 [DOORWAY OF SAN MICHELE IN Bosco, BOLOGNA 
 LI. -I DOORWAY OF THE PALAZZO SACRATI (PROSPERI), j- 122 
 
 FERRARA 
 
 LII. THE GRIMANI PALACE, VENICE .... 128 
 LIII. PLAN OF FIRST FLOOR OF THE PALAZZO CORNARO 
 
 DELLA CA' GRANDE, VENICE .... 131 
 LIV, SECTION OF THE PALAZZO CORNARO DELLA CA' 
 
 GRANDE, VENICE 132 
 
 LV. THE LIBRERIA VECCHIA AND LOGGETTA, VENICE . 134 
 LVI. PART ELEVATION OF THE LIBRERIA VECCHIA, 
 
 VENICE 136 
 
 LVII. TOMB OF LORENZO DE' MEDICI, FLORENCE . . 142 
 
 LVI 1 1. THE BASILICA PALLADIANA, VICENZA . . . 145 
 
 ( CASA DEL DIAVOLO, VICENZA ) 
 
 \ PALAZZO DEL CONSIGLIO (PREFETTIZIO), VICENZA j 
 
 ( PALAZZO PORTO BARBARANO, VICENZA . . ) 
 LX. -! t- 148 
 
 ( PALAZZO VALMARANA, VICENZA J 
 
 LXI. THE TEATRO OLIMPICO, VICENZA .... 152 
 
 LXII. INTERIOR OF SANTISSIMA ANNUNZIATA, GENOA . 156 
 
 LXI II. THE PALAZZO PESARO, VENICE .... 162
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT 
 
 PAGE 
 
 View of Central Part of Florence 10 
 
 Pazzi Chapel, Florence; Loggia . . 16 
 
 >t Plan 17 
 
 ,, ,, Section 17 
 
 ,, ,, Capital and Medallion . . . . 18 
 
 Old Sacristy, San Lorenzo, Florence 19 
 
 San Lorenzo, Florence ; Plan ........ 20 
 
 Badia di Fiesole ; Pulpit in Refectory 21 
 
 Santa Croce, Florence ; Door in Cloister 22 
 
 Church of Santo Spirito, Florence ; Plan 23 
 
 ,, ,, ,, ,, Campanile .... 24 
 
 San Lorenzo, Florence ; Window in Cloister ..... 25 
 
 Palazzo Pitti, Florence 26 
 
 Palazzo Antinori, Florence 27 
 
 Palazzo Strozzi, Florence ; Plan 28 
 
 Sant' Antonio, Padua ; Bronze Panel 30 
 
 5? * ) ...... 3^ 
 
 Spedale degli Innocenti, Florence; Lunette 32 
 
 Santa Croce, Florence ; Bracket of the Pulpit .... 33 
 
 Ospedale del Ceppo, Pistoja 34 
 
 Palazzo Rucellai, Florence ; Window 35 
 
 ,, ,, Exterior 36 
 
 Sant' Andrea at Mantua ; Plan . 37 
 
 Santa Maria Novella, Florence 38 
 
 Sacristy of Church of Santo Spirito, Florence . . . . 39 
 
 Church of Santo Salvator del Monte, Florence ; Plan ... 40 
 
 View ... 41 
 
 Palazzo Ducale, Urbino; Cortile 43 
 
 Palazzo Venezia, Rome ; Door 45 
 
 Certosa di Pavia ; Central Spire 52 
 
 ,, ,, Door of Old Sacristy 53 
 
 Como Cathedral ; View of East End 54 
 
 The Porta della Carta, Doges' Palace, Venice ; Detail . . . 60 
 
 Doges' Palace, Venice ; The Giants' Staircase . 61 
 
 Cortile of the Doges' Palace, Venice ; Window .... 62
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT. Xvii 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Santa Maria del Miracoli, Venice ; Exterior of Chancel . . 63 
 
 ,, ,, ,, ,, Fa9ade 64 
 
 ,, ,, ,, ,, Interior 65 
 
 ,, ,, ,, ,, Capital and Entablature . . 66 
 
 Doges' Palace, Venice ; Entablature over Door .... 67 
 
 ,, ,, ,, Details of Marble Chimney-piece . . 68 
 
 Palazzo Cornaro-Spinelli, Venice 69 
 
 Palazzo Contarini delle Figure, Venice . . . . . . 71 
 
 Santa Maria in Organo, Verona ; Church Furniture ... 72 
 
 Palazzo Consiglio, Verona ........ 73 
 
 Santa Maria Maggiore, Bergamo ; Apse of the Church, with 
 
 Renaissance Chapel ......... 74 
 
 Palazzo Fava, Bologna ; Cortile 75 
 
 ,, ,, ,, Arcade on Brackets in Cortile ... 76 
 
 Casa Tacconi, Bologna 77 
 
 Church of Santo Salvatore, Venice ; Plan ..... 78 
 
 Triumphal Arch of Alphonso, Naples 78 
 
 Santa Maria della Pace, Rome ; Cloister 84 
 
 Palazzo Giraud (Torlonia), Rome ....... 85 
 
 Motifs leading up to the Central Period 85 
 
 San Pietro in Montorio, Rome ; Chapel in Cloisters ... 87 
 
 Rome from Sant' Onofrio 88 
 
 Farnese Palace, Rome ; Garden Front 93 
 
 Palazzo Massimi, Rome ......... 97 
 
 ,, ,, ,, Cross Section of the Entrance Loggia . 98 
 
 ,, ,, Moulding Profiles 99 
 
 House in the Via Giulia, Rome . . . . . . . 100 
 
 ,, ,, ,, ,, View of Cortile from Vestibule . 101 
 
 Church at Montepulciano ......... 102 
 
 Bramante's Design for Dome of St. Peter's ..... 103 
 
 St. Peter's, Rome ; Raffaello's Plan 104 
 
 ,, ,, Peruzzi's Plan 105 
 
 ,, ,, with the Piazza ; Plan as now standing . . 106 
 
 ,, ,, East Elevation no 
 
 Palazzo Spada alia Regola, Rome ; Cortile in 
 
 Sibyl from the Vault of the Sistine Chapel, Rome . . . . 112 
 
 Casa Pollini, Siena 118 
 
 ,, ,, ,, Cornice 119 
 
 House in the Via Baldassare Peruzzi, Siena ; Doorway, etc. . 120 
 
 Palazzo Albergati, Bologna 121 
 
 ,, ,, ,, Ground Floor Window . . . 122 
 
 Palazzo Pompei, Verona 124 
 
 A. b
 
 XV111 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Palazzo Bevilacqua, Verona 125 
 
 Porta del Palio, Verona ; Interior 126 
 
 ,, ,, ,, Exterior 126 
 
 Porta Nuova, Verona 127 
 
 Pal. Cornaro della Ca' Grande, Venice 131 
 
 ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, Lower Windows . . 132 
 
 La Zecca, Venice 133 
 
 View of Central Part of Venice 134 
 
 Figure of Mercury from Loggetta, Venice 135 
 
 New Sacristy, San Lorenzo, Florence 142 
 
 Mediceo-Laurentian Library, Florence ; Vestibule . . . 143 
 
 The Basilica Palladiana, Vicenza 145 
 
 Chiesa del Redentore, Venice ; Plan 150 
 
 ,, ,, ,, ,, Interior View .... 151 
 
 Chapel of Sant' Andrea, Rome ; Fa9ade 152 
 
 San Sebastiano, Via Appia, Rome 155 
 
 SS. Annunziata, Genoa ; Pulpit 156 
 
 Santa Maria della Salute, Venice ; Interior 158 
 
 ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, North-West Chapel . . . 159 
 
 Plan 160 
 
 Monument to Doge Valier, San Giovanni e Paolo, Venice . . 161
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 THE ETHNOGRAPHIC SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RENAISSANCE THE 
 ARCHITECTURAL TYPE WHICH CHARACTERISES THE LATINO-TEUTONIC 
 RACE THE TIDE OF REVIVAL FULLEST AND CLEAREST IN THE HOME 
 COUNTRY OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE THE INFLUENCE OF MEDIAEVAL PRAC- 
 TICETHE ART OF THE EPOCH IN THE ASPECT OF A PETRIFACTION OF 
 HISTORY THE CONTINUITY AND IDENTITY OF EUROPEAN ART THE 
 RENAISSANCE NOT A PHENOMENON UNPARALLELED NOR OUT OF THE 
 COURSE OF NATURE ITS ART AN ESSENTIALLY TRUTHFUL PICTURE OF 
 THE TENDENCY OF THE TIME ROMAN PRINCIPLES ADOPTED, BUT GREAT 
 ORIGINALITY SHOWN IN THEIR APPLICATION THE ARTIST AND HIS 
 RELATION TO SURROUNDING CONDITIONS THE ENVIRONMENT THE 
 PERSONALITY.
 
 THE DOME OF ST. MARY OF THE FLOWER. 15 
 
 as if it had been intended "to make a cupola for the whole 
 terraqueous globe. " J The greatest difficulty seemed to be 
 entertained with regard to the scaffolding and centreing that 
 was considered indispensable by every one save Brunelleschi, 
 and the whimsical suggestion was actually made that the 
 dome might be formed over a huge mound of earth raised 
 from the floor of the cathedral, into which coins were to be 
 put at intervals, that its ultimate removal might be effected 
 by those who would seek for the money it contained. It was 
 Brunelleschi's offer to construct the dome without centreing 
 that weighed most with the authorities in appointing him, but 
 so little trust did they put in him that Ghiberti, his successful 
 rival of the gates, who had no architectural experience, and 
 Battista d' Antonio were assigned him as colleagues. This 
 arrangement was ill-adapted to Brunelleschi's temperament, 
 and did not last very long, Ghiberti retiring to work at his 
 second pair of gates (Plate 3). The cupola was not entirely 
 constructed till 1434, the difficulties being enormous and so many 
 delays and annoyances ensuing that the fanciful Florentines 
 produced the conceit that "the heavens were jealous of their 
 dome, which bade fair to rival the beauty of the blue ethereal 
 vault itself." Domes had been constructed not so long before 
 at Pisa, Siena, and at St. Mark's, Venice, but none of them on 
 such a grand scale, the diameter being one hundred and thirty 
 eight and a half feet, and the altitude of the dome itself one 
 hundred and thirty-three feet, measured from the cornice of the 
 drum to the eye of the dome. The difficulties of so large a 
 construction were much increased by the adoption of the drum 
 on which the dome is raised, and through which it is lighted, 
 while an important step is thus made in the progress of dome- 
 design. There is a separation between the inner and outer 
 shell of the dome, but they are concentric, or nearly so. As the 
 altitude of the dome in itself is too great for good proportion 
 internally or for decorative effects, the result might have been 
 finer had the inner dome parted company from the outer with a 
 lower centre, but that would have increased the thrust at the 
 top of the drum, which it was Brunelleschi's aim to reduce to 
 a minimum; hence the acutely pointed form of both domes 
 Though begun after 1436 under Brunelleschi's superintendence 
 
 * Milizia's Lives of Celebrated Architects.
 
 i6 
 
 THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY IN FLORENCE. 
 
 the lantern was only completed in 1461, after his death, and the 
 gallery round the drum on the outside only on one of the eight 
 sides at a later date ; for the lantern, however, he left a model 
 with instructions that it should be formed of large masses of 
 marble to prevent the cupola from opening, believing that its 
 pointed form was rendered more stable by loading it heavily. 
 The construction of the dome is Gothic in principle to this 
 extent, that the work is done by the eight main ribs and by 
 
 the sixteen lighter inter- 
 mediate ribs between which 
 the vaults are stretched. 
 
 The dome (Plate 4) was 
 the largest work of Bru- 
 nelleschi's life, and for that 
 reason merits attention in 
 this connection, although it 
 can claim little share in the 
 creation of the revival save 
 in these respects : that it 
 demonstrated the benefits 
 derivable from a study 
 of Roman examples and 
 processes ; and that by Bru- 
 nelleschi's genius and un- 
 tiring industry, the building 
 arts and trades were brought 
 to a condition of efficiency 
 which rendered subsequent 
 achievements possible. Yet Bruneiieschi laid the foundation 
 of the Renaissance broader and deeper in smaller works, which 
 he managed to execute while the dome was building. 
 
 One of his earliest works, about the year 1420, when he had 
 been commissioned with the great dome, was the sepulchral 
 Chapel of the Pazzi, which takes the place of a chapter-house 
 in the cloister of Santa Croce, and was probably the very first 
 ecclesiastic building in a Renaissance style.* The appearance 
 of this structure is very remarkable (Plate 5). It is unmatched 
 
 * The erection of this chapel has been attributed to the year 1400, when 
 Bruneiieschi was but twenty-three years of age ; but though it may be earlier than 
 1420, it is impossible that he could have produced it before his journey to Rome. 
 A recent investigator places its date after 1430. 
 
 3F PAZZI CHAPEL, FLORENCE. 
 
 Archt.
 
 THE 
 
 ARCHITECTURE OF THE RENAISSANCE 
 
 IN ITALY 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 IN the art history of the different countries emerging from the 
 ancient Roman Empire of the West, the Renaissance of the 
 fifteenth and sixteenth centuries was a general phenomenon. 
 Its nature, largely consisting in a recovery of Roman principles 
 and methods, and its limitation to the Latino-Teutonic nations, 
 demonstrate its racial character and significance. For great 
 races have always expressed themselves in their architecture in 
 distinctive ways, and may often be better identified and classified 
 by their arts than by their language. The ancient Egyptians 
 and the Chinese through many thousands of years scarcely 
 maintained with more obstinacy the character of their arts than 
 have the nations who came under the sway of Imperial Rome, 
 and especially in conforming to the type of its architecture. 
 It is true that the higher mental activity, adventurousness and 
 adaptability of the Aryan race, joined to the disturbance caused 
 by Northern Teutonic elements alien to the Roman, have brought 
 about a more frequent and further divergence from the estab- 
 lished type than anything in the history of Egyptian and Oriental 
 art. The brilliant mediaeval or Gothic period in Europe, inspired 
 partly by the Crusades and by social contact with Arabian ideals, 
 is the most notable example of such divergence, ending with 
 the rejuvenescence of the Roman element in race, literature, 
 A. B
 
 2 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 and tradition, which, welling up first in Tuscany, involved the 
 four corners of Europe in its rising flood. The Renaissance 
 was, in effect, a reversion to type, if a biological expression may 
 be applied in this connection without confusion; and it is this 
 cyclic recurrence rather than permanence of type which appears 
 to be characteristic of European civilisation, so far as we have had 
 experience of it in some three thousand years. From its begin- 
 nings in the Mycene of Pelops, the records it has left behind in 
 the architecture of the Athens of Pericles, the Rome of Augustus, 
 the Ravenna of Theodoric, the Florence of the Medici, and the 
 Paris and London of the seventeenth century, exhibit, through 
 all their variations, the marks of a definite type. In this view 
 of it the historical architecture of Europe is an undivided whole 
 to this day : its main characteristic features the combination 
 of Greek column and lintel with Etruscan arch, pediment, and 
 dome. Though a stone character has been gradually impressed 
 upon them, its mouldings still show to trained eyes their far- 
 off wooden origins beyond the palaces of the Homeric kings. 
 European architecture is a variety as distinct as the Egyptian 
 or the Arabian, and in a corresponding degree a racial expres- 
 sion, pointing, if not to the identity of the origin of Romano- 
 Germanic peoples, at least to their now essential unity. As 
 the scope of this book is limited to the Renaissance of archi- 
 tecture in Italy, a corner of the field, at a particular period 
 of time, it must have an incompleteness of character and a 
 littleness of design in relation to the whole. But in the Italy 
 of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries we find the clearest 
 and most emphatic expression of this European type ; for the 
 classical Renaissance has coloured the countries which formed 
 part of the Roman Empire just in proportion as they were 
 first Romanised. 
 
 It is supposed that the student who takes up the study of the 
 Renaissance will be to some degree familiar with the ancient 
 Roman architecture, otherwise it will be difficult for him to realise 
 its meaning or enter into the spirit which animates it. Almost 
 equally essential to a proper understanding of the revival is an 
 acquaintance with the Romanesque and Italian Gothic styles, 
 in the variations of which there is a vivid picture of the 
 struggle of the races which peopled Italy in the mediaeval period. 
 St. Mark's, Venice ; Sant' Ambrogio, Milan ; Pisa Cathedral, and 
 San Miniato, Florence, are, for example, contemporary churches,
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 3 
 
 Byzantine, Lombard, Romanesque : with but slight cohesion 
 of style, and only in so far as they represent the modifications 
 exercised by different peoples upon the Latin element which 
 lay underneath, and which in the fifteenth century found, in 
 the revivification of purely Roman principles, the one outlet 
 which was congenial to it. The necessity for the study of the 
 interval separating the Roman era from the Italian revival may 
 not be so apparent, seeing that it is generally believed that the 
 Italians of the fifteenth century took up architecture at the 
 point where the ancients laid it down in the fourth. This 
 they did eventually, but any such view of the beginning of the 
 Renaissance art is not only incomplete, but wrong. Though 
 the suddenness of the change and the sharpness of the cleavage 
 may have been unparalleled in. history, it was impossible that 
 hand and eye and mind should not have been unconsciously, even 
 unwillingly, tenacious of what had been their habit through 
 generations. And so Renaissance architecture had a long experi- 
 mental career before any re-approach was made to such types 
 as the Colosseum, and was modified throughout materially by 
 all the work of the mediaeval period preceding. The Italians 
 of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries may have been a super- 
 session of the mediaeval population presenting distinct physical 
 and mental characteristics, but they were at the same time 
 the natural product of that stock, and in a corresponding sense 
 was their architecture related to what had preceded it. It was 
 the child of mediaevalism, inheriting only in fuller measure the 
 ancient classic strain. While it reveals, in painting and sculp- 
 ture, a desire to reconcile the ancient faiths and the Christian, 
 its paganism is little more than a superficial gloss of learning, 
 which scarcely veils the essentially Christian destination and 
 expression of the great mass of the work of the early and 
 formative period. 
 
 For the ethnographic standpoint, though possibly the highest 
 vantage ground, giving the broadest outlook on the world's archi- 
 tecture or any large part of it, is, after all, only one of many 
 scientific aspects in which architecture may be viewed retrospec- 
 tively. Regarded as the history of the period and the people, 
 written in stone for present and future ages, the architecture 
 of the Italian Renaissance in its varying moods is one of the 
 most luminous of all historic records. By the operation of 
 the universal law of natural selection, it has registered the 
 
 B 2
 
 4 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 awakened enthusiasm of the time for what was glorious and 
 beautiful in the ancient world, the enlarged consciousness of 
 its free-will, and the possibilities of human life and effort ; 
 while it records on the very face of it, so that he who runs 
 may read, the social and religious habits of the people, the 
 condition and nature of trades, commerce and arts, and the 
 character and varying power of the governments of the Penin- 
 sula. And yet we are asked to believe, on high authority, 
 that while the course of true architecture ran smoothly from 
 prehistoric times to the end of the Gothic period, one style 
 supplanting another in natural order, it there ended, and copyism 
 or resuscitation of dead and unmeaning forms began and has 
 since continued.* In other words, that the harmony which 
 ever subsists between the conditions of man and his intellec- 
 tual productions was suspended by human volition about the 
 fifteenth century, and that architecture has from that time failed 
 to be a natural issue of a people's civilisation and a record of a 
 nation's history. In the face of much that is written, not only 
 of Renaissance but of modern work, it is necessary to contest 
 this widespread view, fostered by great teachers like Ruskin and 
 Fergusson, and to emphasise the continuity and the veracity of 
 architectural history through changing circumstances. We err 
 even if we regard the Renaissance epoch as the first time that 
 men looked back to emulate and imitate. A little study would 
 probably show that the Ptolemaic era in Egypt was a renaissance 
 of the Theban age, in architecture as in other respects, while 
 the golden period of Augustus in Rome, and in fuller measure 
 that of Hadrian, were largely Greek revivals. Perhaps it would 
 even be discovered that all ages of healthy human prosperity 
 are more or less revivals, and have been marked by a retro- 
 spective tendency. Such periods in history appear, by a natural 
 law, to demand the best in every department which tradition 
 has achieved, and failing to find satisfaction in the present, 
 will take delight in what is past, to the extent of reviving it. 
 This has characterised all flourishing epochs, and in the process 
 written history and historical poetry have had their influence, but 
 scarcely in greater degree at the Renaissance than in the time 
 
 * In opening his History of the Modem Styles of Architecture, which comprises 
 an account of the Italian Renaissance, Fergusson says that they "may be 
 designated the Copying or Imitative Styles of Architectural Art," that in them 
 "the element of truthfulness is altogether wanting;" that "the art has, also, in 
 modern times, lost all ethnographic signification."
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 5 
 
 of Thucydides. The Italian Renaissance in art has been claimed 
 as a result of the influence of literature and the study of the 
 ancient manuscripts ; but literature, while bolstering its decline 
 and fall, had scarcely more influence on its origin than the 
 writings of Virgil, Horace, Livy, and Ovid had on the archi- 
 tecture of the Augustan age they adorned. There is thus little 
 justification for the separate classification of the Renaissance as 
 an imitative style in harsh contradistinction to the "true styles" 
 of classic or mediaeval times. It was unquestionably an embodi- 
 ment of the temper of the time, and it was precisely on that 
 ground that it had life and became so important a part of 
 the world's architectural history. It is true with regard to the 
 details or materials of its composition that in the Roman Forum, 
 on the Palatine Hill, or among the ruins of the Baths of 
 Caracalla, one may find not merely the prototypes, but the 
 approximate forms, nearly every feature which goes to compose 
 the church or palace built fourteen or fifteen centuries after- 
 wards. With as much truth, however, may it be said that 
 originality has never been displayed to greater degree than by 
 the architects of the Early Italian Renaissance, and that con- 
 sidered in relation to the previous direction of all architectural 
 effort for centuries, the interiors of San Lorenzo, the Badia di 
 Fiesole, and Santo Spirito all churches of Brunelleschi are 
 real works of genius. The component parts of each certainly are 
 borrowed, but by successive architects and workmen the features 
 and details of Romanesque and Gothic architecture were also 
 transcribed : they were, so to speak, in stock ; and Brunelleschi, 
 seeing the confusion and incoherency of the work of his time, 
 went farther afield for his architectural technic to find it in the 
 ancient principles of building, laying the foundation of a great 
 revival by his masterly use of them, while fully satisfying 
 immediate requirements. Brunelleschi's originality would have 
 been valueless, his forms harsh and forbidding, and his work 
 futile in influence, but for the close association of his design 
 with the soil on which it was set, its interpretation of the spirit 
 of the time in which it was generated, and its fulfilment of its 
 purposes. And so in every way it becomes clear that those 
 who consider the architecture of the Renaissance as merely 
 an imitative style or a scenic affectation, and place it in a 
 different category from all that precedes it, do so with a little 
 truth and more error. If the Italians of the fifteenth century
 
 6 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 took the Roman forms and details as a basis they built up a new 
 style more distinct from the Roman than the Roman from the 
 Greek. There is, for example, a far wider and more significant 
 gap between the Renaissance church and the Roman temple 
 than between the Roman and the Grecian temples ; and such 
 buildings as the Palazzi Strozzi or Grimani have no relation of 
 an imitative kind to anything of classic times. Although the 
 Renaissance degenerated into something like formal copyism, 
 and died in affectation, that does not affect the argument. 
 Rather it confirms it, because it is an indication that a style 
 which ceases to conform to the spirit and requirements of the 
 age is foredoomed, and suppressed by a natural law. The earlier 
 works bear no trace of this insincerity, and it is by them and 
 those of the culminating period that the style must be judged. 
 
 When it is once realised that a certain phase of architecture 
 is the outcome of complex social, historic, and geographic 
 conditions, there is less readiness in assigning a simple reason 
 for its existence. On the one hand, we have the personality of 
 the artist moving apparently in some measure of freedom and 
 choice, and on the other, the environment which largely dis- 
 poses the forms of his expression as well as the nature of his 
 opportunity. Now the environment, or combination of causes, 
 which, about the beginning of the fifteenth century, served 
 to produce the revival in architecture, included among many 
 others the following causes, apart from the factors of race qualifi- 
 cations and sympathies : the predominance of the Christian 
 religion, itself a dissemination from Rome, in the forms of the 
 Roman Catholic Church ; the worldly position attained by the 
 pontiff and the cardinals, that of a virtual Roman Emperor 
 and his satellites ; a tendency on the part of litterateurs to 
 the study of the ancient authors, efforts being made for the 
 preservation and interpretation of ancient manuscripts ; the 
 existence in many parts of Italy, in a tolerably preserved state, 
 of the principal monuments of the great empire with which 
 this literature was associated ; a highly organised municipal 
 life, the chief cities of Italy being practically independent 
 nations ; a prosperous condition of commerce and trade, and of 
 all the sciences and minor arts ; the practice of a style of archi- 
 tecture introduced from a foreign country, never rationalized, 
 and hastening to its fall. These conditions given, the con- 
 sequence appears clear enough to us, who know what did
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 7 
 
 actually happen. Nevertheless it required a great personality 
 like Brunelleschi, who, of the time and circumstances, yet rose 
 superior to them, to lay the foundation of the revival of the 
 arts. In the greater intensity, and therefore importance, of the 
 individuality of the artist, lies one of the chief distinctions of 
 Renaissance architecture when contrasted with that of classic 
 or mediaeval periods, but this should be regarded as essentially 
 the outcome of the temper of the times. Men were striving on 
 all hands to w r rest the secrets from nature, and the new scientific 
 discoveries were enlarging the sphere of each man's vision and 
 imagination. There were giants in those days, and rarely have 
 great men shown more intellectual daring, more determination, 
 and more devotion. We must not dwell solely on the art of the 
 epoch if we want to have adequate ideas of the time. Petrarch, 
 Boccaccio, John of Ravenna, in literature ; Galileo and Coper- 
 nicus in astronomy and natural science ; in law, the revival of 
 Roman jurisprudence ; the invention of printing : are all parts 
 of this great movement, some of the most important and 
 abiding results of which were the disclosing by Copernicus of 
 the secrets of the solar system in 1507, and the discovery of 
 America by Columbus in 1492. The Reformation in religion, 
 moreover, was another result of this awakening, and an out- 
 come of the same earnest spirit. And so, in Brunelleschi's 
 resolution to acquire the Roman principles and to build upon 
 them, we have just a distinctive circumstance, unprecedented 
 in the world's history, it may be, but in its audacity quite 
 characteristic of the deeds of the time. In its own way it 
 involved as much uncertainty as the voyage of Columbus, and 
 was indicative of the same inquiring and unsatisfied tendency. 
 But Brunelleschi, too, disclosed a hidden world, and in the most 
 brilliant way. His discovery was not fraught with the material 
 consequences of that of the mariner, nor the scientific results of 
 that of the astronomer, yet it has had an incalculable influence 
 upon all forms of art production to this day. First in time, 
 he was not second in intellect, in pertinacity, in achievement; 
 and wherever the arts of form are understood and beloved, the 
 genius of Brunelleschi will not fail of honour and renown.
 
 EARLY PERIOD 14201525. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY IN FLORENCE (14011500). 
 
 ORIGIN OF RENAISSANCE ART DISCOVERED BY SOME IN THE 
 NATURALISTIC SCULPTURE OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY BRUNEL- 
 LESCHI'S FIRST WORK THE NATURAL LINE OF DEMARCATION THE 
 INTELLECTUAL EMINENCE OF FLORENCE INCIDENTS OF ITS HISTORY 
 DURING FIFTEENTH CENTURY HOW IT CAME TO DOMINATE ROME 
 THE FAMOUS COMPETITION FOR THE BAPTISTERY DOORS BRUNELLESCHI 
 STUDIES IN ROME WITH DONATELLO THE DOME OF S. MARIA DEL 
 FIORE THE DEEPER FOUNDATIONS OF THE REVIVAL THE EARLIEST 
 NEO-CLASSICAL BUILDING THE METHODS OF BRUNELLESCHI, ILLUS- 
 TRATED BY PAZZI CHAPEL AND SACRISTY OF S. LORENZO THE CHURCHES 
 OF S. LORENZO, BADIA DI FIESOLE, AND S. SPIRITO LOGGIA OF SS. ANNUN- 
 ZIATA AND FOUNDLING HOSPITAL, EXAMPLES OF FLORENTINE COLUMNAR 
 ARCADE THE PALAZZI PITT!, ANTINORI, MEDICI, AND STROZZI THE BOT- 
 TEGA OF THE ITALIAN ARTIST NATURE OF THE TRAINING AFFORDED 
 INFLUENCE OF JEWEL FORMS AND GOLDSMITH WORK GOLDSMITH SCULP- 
 TORS JACOPO DELLA QUERCIA GHIBERTI AND HIS GATES LUCA DELLA 
 ROBBIA'S VITRIFIED EARTHENWARE DONATELLO'S SCULPTURE SUC- 
 CEEDING SCHOOL OF SCULPTOR-ARCHITECTS AND THEIR WORKS PULPIT 
 AT S. CROCE LORENZO DE' MEDICI'S ACADEMY OF THE ANTIQUE AND ITS 
 DISTINGUISHED PUPILS LEON BATTISTA ALBERTI HIS LATIN PROCLIVITIES 
 
 THE PAL. RUCELLAI AND OTHER WORKS GREEK CROSS MODEL OF 
 S. MARIA DELLE CARCERI AT PRATO SACRISTY OF S. SPIRITO AND ITS 
 VESTIBULE VASARI'S CRITICISM THEREOF ANDREA SANSOVINO S. SALVA- 
 TOR DEL MONTE ITS RUSTICITY THE FLORENTINE WORK AS A WHOLE 
 
 AFFECTED BY BYZANTINE, ROMANESQUE AND GOTHIC AN ARCUATED 
 STYLE MORE AN ETRUSCAN REVIVAL THAN A ROMAN ONE GRECIAN 
 SENSE OF REFINEMENT REJECTION OF COLOUR EFFECTS SGRAFFITO 
 DECORATION FLORENTINE INFLUENCE AT ROME AND SIENA.
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY IN FLORENCE. 
 
 IN speaking of the origin of the Renaissance in Italy, 
 architects generally think of the early years of the fifteenth 
 century, when, through the powerful individuality of Filippo 
 Brunelleschi (13771446), the ancient Greek and Roman forms 
 were successfully resuscitated in architecture. To sculptors 
 and painters and other artists, the term has often a wider 
 meaning, and carries them back to the days of Giotto, 
 Orgagna, and Niccola da Pisa. Certainly there was much in 
 the spirit of the work of such men which distinguishes them 
 from the contemporary thirteenth and fourteenth century 
 Gothic artists of the North, just as there was much in the 
 social and political condition of mediaeval disunited Italy, 
 which separated it from the feudalism of the Northern peoples. 
 With the monks and the mediaeval architects of France and 
 England, the artists of the Italian free cities had little in 
 common. Their work all through the middle ages was more 
 independent and varied, less logically consecutive or traditional, 
 and not without evidence of appreciative study of the ancient 
 arts, from the influence of which, in Italy, they could scarcely 
 escape, had they even desired to do so. Especially is this 
 tendency to be noticed in the sculptural works of Niccola 
 and Andrea Pisani, and with greater development in the first 
 Ghiberti gate of the Baptistery of Florence, a few years before 
 Brunelleschi's architectural career opened. But there was no 
 classic revival in this, and when sculptors and ornamentists 
 talk of Trecento, or fourteenth century, Renaissance ornament, 
 they set up a claim, on behalf of their branch of art, to the 
 origin of the movement, for which there is little justification. 
 It is true that a tendency towards imitation or copyism of 
 nature makes itself evident in the sculpture of that period. 
 This may be regarded as a necessary preparation for the 
 development which ensued, but the line between the Italianised 
 naturalistic Gothic and the classical revival may be drawn
 
 10 THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY IN FLORENCE. 
 
 between the two gates of Ghiberti ; and Donatello, Brunel- 
 leschi's friend and follower, was the first to show true sculptural 
 feeling. Of course it depends upon what is understood by the 
 term Renaissance. If merely a re-birth of interest, a clearer 
 insight into nature is understood, then we may cheerfully yield 
 to the sculptors the credit of the origin of the movement ; but 
 if besides this we understand it to include (as architects always 
 have done) the tendency to the revival of classic forms and 
 principles, then the architectural demarcation is correct which 
 dates the Renaissance from the beginning of Brunelleschi's 
 
 VIEW OF CENTRAL PART OF FLORENCE. 
 
 A Pal. Vecchio. B La Badia. C Campanile of Giotto. D San Lorenzo (behind). 
 
 E Santa Maria del Fiore. F Dome of Brunelleschi. G Capella Pazzi. H Santa Croce. 
 
 remarkable life and labours. To him the architecture of the 
 time may even be said to owe its birth and the whole bent of 
 its early development, while his influence on the allied arts w r as 
 greater and more entirely effective than any protest in favour of 
 the antique which had been made before. The art traditions of 
 the middle ages, such as they were in Italy, may have been 
 broken by the departure of Niccola Pisano (who simply adapted 
 ancient sarcophagi), but with the erection of such buildings 
 as the church of San Lorenzo and the Palazzo Rucellai they 
 died, and Gothic sculpture and painting became impossible. 
 It was in accordance with the fitness of things that this
 
 SUMMARY OF HISTORICAL EVENTS. ir 
 
 rejuvenation should emanate from Florence, which at the time 
 was intellectually the most influential state in Italy, though 
 by no means the greatest or most powerful in a political sense. 
 Fortunate in its central situation, it attained an authority in the 
 councils of Italy out of proportion to its military strength, and 
 carried on, at the period that concerns us, an important foreign 
 trade with Alexandria and the East. Its civic and political 
 history during the fifteenth century, in so far as it can be 
 detached from that which constituted its glory and subsequent 
 eminence, its production in painting, sculpture, and architecture, 
 is that of a prosperous, free, and progressive community, possess- 
 ing a sphere of influence not limited to the city nor its immediate 
 surroundings, and governed by a Council of representatives of 
 companies of the trades or arts. Its domestic security was only 
 disturbed by internal feuds, the most serious of which took the 
 form of conspiracies against the influence of the Medici, who, 
 from Giovanni de' Medici to his great-grandson Lorenzo il 
 Magnifico, may almost be said to have piloted the ship of State. 
 Incidents which have direct and indirect bearing on our subject 
 may be briefly recounted. 
 
 The century opened tranquilly, but a long and costly war 
 (1422 28) with the Duke of Milan depleted the treasury 
 and produced disunion, and resulted, moreover, in the exten- 
 sion of the territory of the Venetians, who had come to the 
 assistance of Florence. Passing over an insurrection at 
 Volterra^and a war with Lucca (1431), in which Brunelleschi 
 played the part of military strategist, flooding the country, 
 but without success,* there occurred in 1433 the conspiracy 
 of the Albizzi, directed against Cosmo de' Medici, the son 
 of Giovanni. This was so far successful that Cosmo was 
 banished to Padua, afterwards being permitted to reside in 
 Venice, where he was accompanied in exile by Michelozzo, 
 the architect, who on his behalf made drawings of the more 
 important buildings there, and assisted in founding a library. 
 The see-saw of party favour brought the fuorusciii back to 
 Florence in twelve months, and in 1438 the Ferrara Council 
 of Eugenius IV., convened to unite the Greek and Roman 
 Churches, was transferred to Florence, and Cosmo was able 
 to receive the Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, thus 
 opening up a correspondence with Constantinople, which was 
 * Machiavelli's History of Florence.
 
 12 THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY IN FLORENCE. 
 
 not broken off even with its conquest by the Turks. The 
 decline of the Eastern Empire, at that time crumbling to pieces 
 as plainly as the power which succeeded it is now surely decaying, 
 afforded opportunities for the acquirement of Greek manuscripts 
 and relics of which Cosmo was not slow to take advantage. To 
 Cosmo Florence owes the establishment of the library, which, 
 after certain vicissitudes, became known as the Bibliotheca 
 Mediceo-Laurcntiana, and his librarian at another library in 
 San Marco became Pope Nicholas V., to whom Rome owed 
 what of the new life it acquired towards the middle of the 
 century. Besides Michelozzo, Cosmo employed Brunelleschi 
 and Donatello, warmly recognising their genius, and was patron 
 of the eminent Masaccio and the too amorous Era Filippo 
 Lippi.* Lorenzo, the grandson of Cosmo, at an early age takes 
 even a larger place in the Florentine councils, and from the time 
 of the death of his father, Piero, in 1469, becomes identical in 
 interest with the Republic, though remaining nominally a citizen. 
 Some trouble arose out of the suppressed Pitti plot against his 
 father, for the exiled party, having retired to Venice, succeeded in 
 turning the arms of that government against him. Under the 
 General Bartolomeo Colleoni, an undecisive battle was fought 
 near Bologna, the Duke of Milan and King of Naples assisting 
 Florence. The outstanding events of the remainder of the 
 century consist of an alliance concluded in 1474 between the 
 Duchy of Milan and the Republics of Venice and Florence 
 (ostensibly for mutual defence against foreign powers, but in 
 reality directed against the Pope and the King of Naples), and 
 the disgraceful conspiracy of the Pazzi, in which the Pope 
 (Sixtus IV.) was implicated. This matter immediately led to 
 another war between Florence and the Pope, supported by the 
 King of Naples, in which the Florentines were ultimately worsted, 
 the diplomacy of Lorenzo effecting an honourable peace with 
 the King (1479). The next year, the Turks having descended 
 on Italy at Otranto, a league was formed by all the powers save 
 Venice for defence, and the invaders capitulated. The league 
 was then turned against Venice, which had attacked the dominion 
 of the Duke of Ferrara, and after some righting a peace suc- 
 ceeded (1484), concerning which Sixtus IV. is believed to have 
 died in vexation. t The new Pope, Innocent VIII., and Lorenzo 
 
 * Koscoe's Life of Lorenzo de' Medici. 
 f Machiavelii's History of Florence.
 
 PLATE II 
 
 BRONZE NORTH DOOR OF THE BAPTISTERY OF 
 ST. JOHN, FLORENCE. 
 
 LORENZO GH1BERTI, Sculpt.
 
 PLATE III. 
 
 BRONZE EAST DOOR OF THE BAPTISTERY OF 
 ST. JOHN, FLORENCE. 
 
 LORENZO GHIBIiRTI, Sculpt.
 
 THE BAPTISTERY DOORS. 13 
 
 met on a more friendly footing, and the way was opened to 
 the Medici to the highest offices of the church, with the most 
 important ultimate results to the arts and fortunes of Rome, and, 
 humanly speaking, to the destinies of European Christianity. 
 Lorenzo died in 1492, and with him the great period of Floren- 
 tine history ends. His son, Giovanni de' Medici, had been 
 elected a Cardinal in 1488 ; but sharing the ill-fortune which his 
 brother Piero, by his weakness in dealing with Charles VIII., 
 had brought upon their family and country, was obliged fre- 
 quently to absent himself from Rome and Florence. After a 
 tour through Europe he returned to Rome about 1500, and was 
 elected Pope in 1513, assuming the title of Leo X. In this way 
 the influence of Florence became again ascendant at Rome, and 
 brought in its train whatever culture and delight the pursuit of 
 art and letters could confer ; and this pontificate marks the cul- 
 mination of European art. In Florence the period succeeding 
 the death of Lorenzo, the closing years of the century, is notable 
 for the commotions due to the entry of Charles VIII. of France, 
 the wars about Pisa, and for the rising of Savonarola, who 
 suffered death in 1498. The popular freedom was maintained 
 till 1512, when the Medici were installed, and in 1530, after 
 a long siege, Charles V. of Spain, " Emperor Elect of the 
 Romans," created Alessandro de' Medici the First Duke of 
 Florence. On his assassination in 1537, an allied family of the 
 Medici established a dynasty.* 
 
 The well-known competition for the Baptistery doors in the first 
 year of the fifteenth century may be a convenient point from 
 which to trace the germination of Renaissance architecture. The 
 goldsmiths and sculptors of Tuscany who took part in it were 
 Jacopo della Quercia, Niccolo d' Arezzo, Francesco Val d' Om- 
 brino, Simone da Colle, Niccolo Lamberti, Filippo Brunelleschi, 
 and Lorenzo Ghiberti. The requirements were that each com- 
 petitor should model a relief, in bronze, of a single panel, repre- 
 senting the offering up of Isaac ; and a year was allowed for its 
 completion. The general conception of the treatment of the 
 doors appears to have been assumed, the lines of Andrea Pisano 
 in an earlier gate (1330 36) of the Baptistery being closely 
 followed, and the Gothic shape of the panel resembling that in 
 the pilaster of the Bigallo loggia opposite. Possibly Brunelleschi 
 
 * Memoirs of Benvenuto Cellini.
 
 i 4 THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY IN FLORENCE. 
 
 would have arrived at a nobler design for the gate had the com- 
 petition been on a different basis, but in the test panel Ghiberti 
 was adjudged successful, and was ultimately entrusted with the 
 work. Brunelleschi's group was in many respects a finer com- 
 position, but was of less excellence as a bronze casting, and 
 received the second place. Though so capable in sculpture, the 
 decision in this competition seems to have led Brunelleschi to 
 try another path in which he might perhaps attain the undis- 
 puted supremacy his ambitious and somewhat exclusive nature 
 craved. The story has often been told how he set out for Rome 
 about the year 1403 with an admiring friend, Donate di Niccolo 
 di Betti Bardi, afterwards known to fame as Donatello, a lad then 
 just sixteen years old, and how, supporting himself as a gold- 
 smith, he gave the most ardent attention for about four years to 
 the buildings of the Roman Empire, with the view of gaining a 
 grasp of the principles of the classical styles ; and he can 
 scarcely have too much honour for his courage and his foresight 
 in taking a course so original indeed, unheard of at that period. 
 Returning to Florence he occupied his mind with the completion 
 of the cathedral, a subject he had doubtless pondered at Rome, 
 if it were not in some measure the cause of taking him thither. 
 For 'the 'cathedral, begun by Arnolfo del Cambio about one 
 hundred and twelve years before, and continued by Giotto and 
 Francesco Talenti, was still in slow and desultory progress of 
 erection. A council of architects had met in 1366 and fixed the 
 shape of the choir and dome, but considerable indecision pre- 
 vailed as to the best manner of covering the great octagonal 
 opening and the three apses. The solution of the problem pre- 
 sented the congenial opportunity to Brunelleschi, who by all the 
 influence he could command endeavoured to persuade the Council 
 to carry out his ideas. It is said that nothing is denied to well 
 directed effort, and everything comes to him who waits, so in 
 1420, and only then, when forty-three years old, Brunelleschi 
 was appointed to carry out the work, after another assembly of 
 master-builders from different parts of Europe appears to have 
 been held at the suggestion of Brunelleschi himself.* At this 
 historic meeting various wonderful schemes were propounded, 
 
 * Vasari's Life of Filippo Brunelleschi. J. P. Richter in his notes points out 
 that the registers of the Duomo mention many Florentine artists, but make no 
 reference to foreign masters, and concludes that Vasari had been misled by 
 popular tradition.
 
 PLATE IV 
 
 - 
 
 THE CATHEDRAL OF SANTA MARIA DEL FIORE, FLORENCE.
 
 CONSTRUCTIVE ELEMENTS OF THE PAZZI CHAPEL. 
 
 PLAN OF PAZZI CHAPEL, FLORENCE 
 
 Bninelleschi, Archt. 
 
 by any previous building that we know of, and none can contend 
 
 that in this 
 
 instance Bru- 
 
 nelleschi was 
 
 merely copying 
 
 Roman work. 
 
 Although the 
 
 proportions of 
 
 the plan are not 
 
 far removed 
 
 from several 
 
 Roman temples, 
 
 such as those 
 
 of Concord, 
 
 Divus Ju lius 
 
 and Vespasian, 
 
 the conditions 
 
 of the site have 
 
 determined the 
 
 arrangement, by which the portico is at the same time the 
 
 cloister passage. The 
 width of this loggia 
 suggests that of the 
 central arch, and over 
 the square thus formed 
 the Byzantine dome is 
 raised on pendentives, 
 while coffered wagon 
 vaults extend to the 
 extremities of the 
 loggia. The slightness 
 of the angle supports 
 is a serious structural 
 weakness, overloaded 
 as they are by the blank 
 upper storey which 
 screens the vaults; but 
 the quaint and deli- 
 cate stucco treatment 
 goes far to convey 
 The details of the mouldings 
 
 c 
 
 SECTION OF PAZZI CHAPEL, FLORENCE. 
 
 Bninelleschi, Archt. 
 
 the impression of lightness. 
 A.
 
 i8 
 
 THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY IN FLORENCE. 
 
 generally, and their mode of application, are late Roman, charac- 
 terised, however, by a freshness which no doubt did much to 
 reinstate them in full favour. The wavy fluting of the upper 
 frieze, the row of paterae in the lower, filled with cherub 
 heads by Donatello and Desiderio da Settignano, and the 
 
 narrow double panel 
 with various running 
 ornaments in the soffits 
 both of arches and archi- 
 traves, are among the 
 details which became 
 distinctive of this period. 
 From the detail of the 
 column capitals one sees 
 that while the bell form 
 and constructive arrange- 
 ment of the Roman 
 Corinthian capital are 
 restored, the leaves are 
 stiff and ill-modelled, 
 retaining in the incised 
 treatment of their sur- 
 faces deep marks of 
 the Byzantine tradition. 
 The domed and wagon- 
 vaulted construction of 
 the portico is repeated in the interior of the chapel on a larger 
 scale, the dome having a corona of lights, with strengthening 
 ribs like many Byzantine examples. The outer surface of the 
 portico dome reveals itself in its belvedere under the roof pro- 
 jection, while the chief dome is simply covered by a truncated 
 cone, on the platform made by which stands a small lantern. 
 Brunelleschi on this matter seems to have declined to show his 
 hand, having another and much greater opportunity, from the 
 effect of which he was not willing to detract. It may be worth 
 noticing that in the treatment of the surface of the portico 
 dome by contiguous circles, and by the shells in its pendentives, 
 also in the belvedere under the roof, this chapel anticipates 
 Spanish work of nearly one hundred years later. 
 
 The old Sacristy of San Lorenzo (page 19), another early work 
 of Brunelleschi, is a good example of the qualities of his handling. 
 
 CAPITAL AND MEDALLION, PAZZI CHAPEL, FLORENCE. 
 Brunelleschi, Archt.
 
 SAN LORENZO. 
 
 Square on plan, the domed ceiling again gives unity and dignity 
 to the design. The bevelled archivolt which encircles the arch- 
 ways may be regarded as the survival of the Italian Gothic round 
 arch with its mouldings in a bevelled plane or recessed ordering, 
 for there is no Roman precedent for such a treatment. Very 
 often Brunelleschi thus adopts the Gothic form or traditional 
 usage, and works it out in classical detail. And so with the 
 church (Plate 6) to which the sacristy belongs. The tale of 
 this, as told by Vasari in his deeply interesting life of Bru- 
 nelleschi, has 
 been subjected 
 to much criti- 
 cism, but its 
 main features 
 do not appear 
 to be disproved. 
 These are, that 
 the sacristy and 
 the church were 
 projected by 
 theinhabitants, 
 who made the 
 learned prior 
 the director of 
 the undertak- 
 ing. Giovanni 
 
 de' Medici, having promised to defray the cost of the sacristy and 
 two chapels, requested the opinion of Brunelleschi on the work 
 as it had been begun. So freely did Brunelleschi deliver him- 
 self of an adverse view, and so well was he ever able to support 
 his opinion, that the work passed from clerical hands into those 
 of the modern architect, who completed the sacristy with 
 the chapels before 1428, when Giovanni died. From Vasari's 
 description it may be gathered that the original conception of the 
 church was that of the gibbet plan, like Santa Croce, but on 
 Brunelleschi's advice., Cosmo de' Medici, who now took charge 
 of the building, increased the principal chapel so that the 
 sanctuary could take its usual place. The complete plan, there- 
 fore (page 20), though recalling the early basilica more than 
 the other churches for whose plans Brunelleschi was respon- 
 sible, does not far remove from the mediaeval type ; and 
 
 c 2 
 
 OLD SACRISTY, SAN LORENZO, FLORENCE. 
 
 Brunelleschi, Archt.
 
 20 
 
 THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY IN FLORENCE. 
 
 generally it may be said that Brunelleschi's designs are Gothic 
 in plan, and Byzantine in construction, clothed upon with 
 Roman detail. The interior effect of San Lorenzo is less 
 impressive than the other churches attributed to Brunelleschi ; 
 its chief faults being slightness of the supports, comparative 
 lowness of proportion, and a heaviness in the entablature which 
 carries the arches, if indeed the very existence of such a 
 feature is not in itself a greater defect. By the fourth century 
 the Romans had abolished it, as at Diocletian's Palace at 
 
 Agincourt. 
 
 PLAN OF SAN LORENZO, FLORENCE. 
 
 Spalato, and to the arched architecture of mediaeval Europe it 
 was unknown, save in Italy, where, in the Byzantine form of 
 the dosseret, it persisted. It may thus be regarded as another 
 Byzantine element, and due as much to its survival in works 
 like the Loggia dei Lanzi (1376) as to a particular Roman 
 model. On the exterior there remains to this day merely the 
 grim skeleton of crude brick which it was designed to clothe 
 with marble in late Roman and Byzantine fashion. 
 
 It is difficult to judge as to how far the retention of mediaeval 
 usage was in the mind of Brunelleschi, and how far he was 
 under the influence of the pressure of surrounding circumstances. 
 With a perfectly free hand he might have gone farther in the
 
 AN EXPRESSIVE ABBEY CHURCH. 
 
 restoration of Roman methods. But one of the most beautiful 
 examples of his adaptability is presented in the monastery of 
 the Badia di Fiesole, the model for which he prepared, though 
 it was not completed till about 1462. The church (Plate 7), is 
 of the usual Latin cross type of plan : the nave, transepts, and 
 chancel in one span of unvarying width, wagon vaulted ; the 
 crossing and the side 
 chapels in the nave 
 domed in the sim- 
 plest way. As this 
 scheme has been 
 carried out, nothing 
 could have been 
 more striking, more 
 refined, and more 
 significant of its 
 purpose as an abbey 
 church. Unlike the 
 Gothic church, it 
 does not enshrine a 
 system, nor is it an 
 open book of symbol 
 like the Byzantine 
 fabric, but it is more 
 distinctively the 
 embodiment, "the 
 intimate impress " 
 of a human soul, 
 such as one of those 
 who created and 
 dwelt in it might be conceived to be. The touch of its 
 designer is sure : having before him an ideal of simplicity and 
 austerity, he rejects everything that can be spared. A tall 
 proportion prevails : to obviate anything like heaviness in the 
 angle view of them, his pilasters at the crossing are thirteen 
 diameters high. And when from the church we turn into the 
 beautiful cloister (Plate 8), to view the chapter-house door 
 and windows, we find another delightful variation of the usual 
 mediaeval arrangement. For here the deep reveals, bounded 
 on their outer edge by a plain architrave, are panelled, and 
 a thin arabesque decoration is carried right up into the heads 
 
 PULPIT IN REFKCTORV, BADIA DI FIESOLE.
 
 22 
 
 THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY IN FLORENCE. 
 
 of the arches, contrasting finely with the noble simplicity of 
 the general design. This delicate ornament, which does not 
 repeat precisely, but is varied within certain narrow limits, 
 
 is the only part of the 
 composition directly 
 derived from Roman 
 models. Yet it may 
 have been suggested as 
 much by the border of 
 a mediaeval illumination, 
 as by painted arabesques 
 in the palaces of the 
 Caesars, or the richly 
 carved panels of the 
 triumphal arches. And 
 it will be noticed that at 
 first it is not applied to 
 pilasters (as is universal 
 a little later), but simply 
 to the reveal, or to the 
 panelled architrave, as in 
 the door from the cloister 
 of Santa Croce. The 
 pulpit in the refectory 
 of the Badia (page 21), does not display the same exquisite 
 taste, but is interesting as an instance of the garment of classical 
 'details, such as the palmette, wreath, shell, egg and dart, 
 wrapped around the mediaeval conception and purpose. 
 
 On the occasion of a visit to Florence of Galeazzo, the Duke 
 of Milan, in 1471, several "amusements" were provided for him 
 and his party. Among them, in " the temple of Santo Spirito," 
 as Machiavelli puts it, a representation was afforded of the descent 
 of the Holy Spirit upon the apostles, when in consequence of the 
 amount of fire required for the desired effect, the building was 
 reduced to ashes. This disaster appears to have led to the more 
 speedy construction of the new church which had been rising 
 alongside since about 1433, when it was designed by Brunelleschi 
 (Plate 9). The scale of this building is considerable, equalling 
 some of our smaller cathedrals in length, viz.: 315 feet; while in 
 width it equals the largest, being 191 feet across the transepts 
 and 107 feet wide over nave and aisles. The plan is in the 
 
 DOOR IN CLOISTER OF SANTA CROCE, FLORENCE. 
 Brunelleschi, Archt.
 
 THE TEMPLE OF SANTO SPIRITO. 
 
 form of a Latin cross, and the side aisles are led round the 
 transepts and choir. The ceiling of the central aisle is flat, 
 but the square compartments of the aisles are separated from 
 each other by trans- 
 verse arches, and are 
 domed in the simplest 
 Byzantine fashion. 
 The dome, which is 
 suspended over the 
 crossing, is not quite 
 revealed in the view, 
 and it may be 
 explained that it is 
 on pendentive prin- 
 ciples, having a very 
 low drum, forming 
 an entablature in the 
 interior, and lighted 
 by circular openings 
 in the lower part of 
 the dome proper, 
 which is of low alti- 
 tude, and has little 
 external appearance. 
 In respect, therefore, 
 of its pendentive or 
 Byzantine principle, 
 the suspension over 
 pillars set four- 1 
 
 Square, it is of higher PLAN OF SANTO SPIRITO, FLORENCE. 
 
 rank than the great A - incourt - a// c , Archt. 
 
 dome of the Duomo, but in having practically no drum, and 
 being lighted through the dome, it falls behind it, and 
 shows no constructive advance upon the Byzantine type. 
 This interior is worthy of any age, most elegant in all its 
 proportions, and of solemn and majestic effect. Like San 
 Lorenzo the exterior consists merely of the shell of rough 
 brick work, but it composes in the pyramidal form charac- 
 teristic of the Byzantine structures ; while the graceful tower 
 added at a later date by Baccio d' Agnolo (page 24) is 
 but the mediaeval campanile, striking a new note in harmony 
 
 Scale cj Feet
 
 THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY IN FLORENCE. 
 
 with the richer music which the maestro has made in the 
 interior. 
 
 Before leaving the ecclesiastic work of this earliest period, 
 
 we may turn to the portico in front 
 of the Church of Santissima Annun- 
 ziata (on Plate 10), which, in addition 
 to the churches of Brunelleschi, will 
 serve to illustrate types of the early 
 columnar arcade arrangement. Only 
 the central arch by Antonio da San 
 Gallo the elder belongs to this period. 
 The view N includes, however, part of 
 the fine loggia of the Spedale degli 
 Innocenti, or Foundling Hospital 
 (1419 45), from the designs of 
 Brunelleschi. The appropriate and 
 charming decoration of medallions of 
 infants in swaddling clothes is by 
 Andrea della Robbia. The loggia of 
 the church as a whole is nearly two 
 hundred years later than that of the 
 hospital, but it has been carried out 
 in the manner of the fifteenth century, 
 in continuation of Antonio's central 
 arch, which was erected in 1454. Had 
 it been carried out in the style of 
 the seventeenth century, we should 
 almost certainly have had either 
 coupled columns, or a round pillar 
 applied to a square pier ; and these 
 ~ applied columns would have been 
 required not only at the ends but 
 at every point of support, for it is 
 obvious that the round pillar could 
 not have been constructed at the ends without supports at 
 intervals to carry the overhanging entablature. Admire then 
 the freedom of this earlier basilican arrangement, illustrated 
 both by the church and the hospital, which admits of a 
 pilaster wherever it is convenient,. and suffers nothing from 
 its absence. 
 
 Had Brunelleschi's design for the Palazzo Pitti been carried 
 
 CAMPANILE OF SANTO SPIRITO, 
 FLORENCE. 
 
 Raccio d' Agnolo, A
 
 PLATE X, 
 
 SPEDALE DEGLI INNOCENTI, FLORENCE. 
 
 FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI, Arcllt. 
 
 PORTICO OF SS. ANNUNZIATA, FLORENCE. 
 
 ANTONIO DA SANGALLO AND CACCINI, ArclltS.
 
 THE PITTI PALACE. 
 
 out there might have been good reason for regarding it as his 
 greatest work. But only the central part up to the windows of 
 the second storey was constructed in his time, and his models for 
 the rest of it were not 
 found when Ammanati 
 came to extend it about 
 the year 1568. What 
 it has of Cyclopsean 
 largeness and dignity, 
 is, however, due to 
 Brunelleschi, whose 
 design has not been 
 altogether lost sight of 
 in the Piazza fa9ade. 
 It was begun in 1435, 
 eleven years before 
 Brunelleschi's death, 
 for Luca Pitti, chief 
 magistrate of the 
 Republic, and, except- 
 ing works like the 
 Golden Houseof Nero, 
 and the Vatican, came 
 to be perhaps the 
 largest residence ever 
 reared in Italy. This 
 rapacious citizen, who, 
 according to Machia- 
 
 WINDOW IN CLOISTER, SAN LORENZO, FLORENCE. 
 
 Brunelleschi, Archt. 
 
 velli, gathered to him- 
 self a great fortune by 
 knavery and maladministration of justice, built this as his little 
 town house literally out of the spoils of the people of Florence, 
 whom he induced to make presents towards its completion and 
 decoration, erecting at the same time as a suburban dwelling 
 another great building about a mile away. The length of the 
 whole front to the Piazza is 475 feet, the height 114 feet, and 
 the window bays are twenty-four feet from centre to centre, 
 although it is difficult to conceive this from a photograph, or 
 indeed at the building itself. But even Ruskin pays tribute 
 to the grandeur of the rusticated work, " brother heart to the 
 mountain from which it is rent," when he says in the Lamp of
 
 26 THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY IN FLORENCE. 
 
 Power: "His eye must be delicate indeed, who would desire 
 to see the Pitti palace polished." The rustication is even applied 
 to the pilasters in the superimposed orders of the fa9ade to the 
 Boboli Garden, which was only completed in the eighteenth 
 century. The cortile was the work of Bartolomeo Ammanati, 
 about 1568, at which time also the windows in the round arched 
 openings of the front were inserted, perhaps in imitation of 
 Michelangelo's work at the Palazzo Riccardi. Probably the 
 
 THE PITTI PALACE, FLORENCE. 
 
 BruntUtschi, Archt. 
 
 ambitious design of the front was never finished ; indeed, 
 Machiavelli records that it was stopped in 1466, on the collapse 
 of his conspiracy against the Medici ; and there is evidence both 
 in the proportions and in the very poor string course and 
 balustrade of the Piazza, front, almost a repetition of those 
 below, that a further storey had been intended, which of course 
 would have been crowned by the great cornice, so typical of 
 the Florentine palazzi. 
 
 The Palazzo Antinori is a building by itself. Of still greater 
 simplicity, it would almost conceal by its reticence the class and 
 period to which it belongs. But it would be impossible any- 
 where save in or near Florence, for it indicates a revival of the

 
 THE ETRURIAN INFLUENCE. 
 
 27 
 
 ancient Etrurian manner rather than the Roman. And yet only 
 in the importance given to the jointing of the stones is there any 
 great departure from the Gothic palazzo. In this there was a 
 renaissance of the Etrus- 
 can manner of building, 
 though it is tolerably 
 certain that the Floren- 
 tines would not have 
 attempted imitation of 
 the methods of their 
 ancestors, did not Tus- 
 cany at this time, just 
 as twenty centuries pre- 
 viously, yield great 
 blocks of stone which 
 were readily quarried. 
 It is this fact more than 
 the commonly supposed 
 necessity of defence that 
 accounts for the severe 
 and substantial charac- 
 ter of the Florentine 
 habitation. The few 
 
 mouldings on the Palazzo Antinori partake more of a Romanesque 
 than a purely classical manner, but might also have been imitated 
 from Etruscan buildings. This masterpiece of honest simplicity 
 is ascribed alternatively to Baccio d' Agnolo and Giuliano da 
 San Gallo. . . For it was not long before there gathered round 
 "Brunelleschi an able group of architects imbued with his spirit, 
 as well as a number who were mere imitators of his manner, 
 as in the case of all great men. Of the former class must 
 have been Michelozzo Michelozzi (1396 (?) 1472), the architect" 
 of the Medici palace. Cosmo de' Medici, for whom it was built, 
 had at the time become the greatest citizen of Florence, pos- 
 sessing more riches than any king in Europe. His munificence 
 was commensurate with his wealth, and in works of charity, 
 patronage of art or literature, he was constantly engaged ; so 
 that the impulse he gave to the Renaissance can hardly be over- 
 estimated. In connection with his proposed dwelling in the 
 Piazza. San Lorenzo, Brunelleschi had prepared a grand design, 
 which Cosmo, with greater sense than his rival of the Pitti,
 
 28 
 
 THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY IN FLORENCE. 
 
 Half First Floor. 
 
 considered too sumptuous, and such as to excite the jealousy of 
 his fellow-citizens. " Envy is a plant one should never water," 
 he is reported to have said, being addicted to pithy and striking 
 phrases, and Brunelleschi in a moment of irritation smashed the 
 model he had carefully prepared. Michelozzo's less costly design. 
 
 was thereafter car- 
 ried out, the strik- 
 ing, massive, and 
 strong work now 
 known as the 
 Palazzo Riccardi 
 (Plate n). Atten- 
 tion should be 
 directed to the far- 
 reaching projection 
 of the chief cornice 
 which is so mag- 
 nificent a feature 
 of the Florentine 
 palazzi ; also to the 
 bold and irregular 
 protrusion of the 
 rusticated blocks 
 on the ground floor 
 stage, the modified 
 relief of the first 
 floor, and the plain 
 surface of the top 
 storey. The build- 
 ing was erected 
 about 1430, and 
 was the first of its kind, while it remains the type of Florentine 
 domestic work. Certainly the Palazzo Strozzi, by Majano and 
 Cronaca, generally looked upon as the most complete example 
 of Florentine palazzi, is chiefly derived from the Riccardi, which 
 it does not surpass. It was begun by Benedetto da Majano, 
 about 1489, for Filippo Strozzi, another rival of the Medici family 
 in later times, and was not entirely completed till 1553 ; so that 
 it belongs to a much later period of the revival, while it does 
 not show more than the slightest tendency to the adoption of 
 ancient Roman traditions or the contemporary Roman practice. 
 
 Half Ground Floor. 
 PLAN OF PAL. STROZZI, FLORENCE. 
 
 Benedetto da Majano, Archt.
 
 THE BOTTEGA TUITION. 29 
 
 We see that the Renaissance drew its first great architect 
 from a Florentine goldsmith's shop, and as we have reason to 
 believe that many of the great architects of the quattro-cento 
 were trained in these botteghe, it may be well to consider what 
 kind of work and experience was to be had within them. Some 
 of these botteghe appear to have served the purpose alike of 
 painters' studios, gold and silversmiths' shops, and sculptors' 
 and decorators' work-rooms. In special cases this extent of 
 practice would be more restricted, as for example in the case 
 of the bottcga conducted by the Robbia family for the manu- 
 facture of glazed terra cotta, but in nearly all they would 
 have appeared to our ideas to be remarkable for the variety of 
 the work undertaken in them. These early Florentine masters 
 knew but the " one art ; " and however one artist might excel 
 in a particular department, their whole education and mental 
 bias was opposed to modern ideas of division of labour, and 
 of a unique sphere for the individual in that sense. The tasks 
 to which the pupil might be set must have been somewhat 
 diversified : perhaps the casting of a bronze statuette, or the 
 painting of a merchant's signboard ; the enlargement of the 
 master's sketch -for a fresco figure decoration, or the carving of 
 a bride's cassone.* Of course it is clear that these tasks in them- 
 selves would go only a little way in architectural training, and, 
 as a matter of fact, Brunelleschi, Bramante, and Peruzzi, not 
 to speak of many others, gained their architectural knowledge 
 far more by personal study of the ancient Roman buildings 
 than by their apprenticeship in the bottega. There, however, 
 they learned to exercise the power of design and to discriminate 
 between good and inferior work ; while in the variety of the 
 training such a place afforded lies part of the explanation of 
 their quite remarkable versatility. The early Renaissance, in 
 the form it took in Spain some seventy years later, was called 
 by the Spaniards the plateresco or silversmith style, and the 
 name is equally applicable to much of the early Italian work. 
 The details of the ornament are very frequently suggested by 
 jewel forms, while there is no doubt that the ranks of its archi- 
 tects and sculptors were mainly recruited from specially gifted 
 artists in gold and silver. Besides Brunelleschi, there may be 
 instanced as some of the goldsmith sculptors who enriched the 
 
 * See Prof. G. Baldwin Brown's The Fine Arts for an interesting and realistic 
 picture of the daily life and work of the Florentine craftsmen.
 
 THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY IN FLORENCE. 
 
 architecture of the time and aided materially in the establish- 
 ment of the style, (i) Jacopo 
 della Quercia, the son of 
 a goldsmith, who, while 
 he learned his father's art, 
 distinguished himself as a 
 sculptor in marble by a 
 more truthful rendering of 
 nature than had been before 
 approached ; and thereby 
 made it possible for others, 
 building on the foundation 
 he had laid, to excel him 
 in the higher plastic quali- 
 ties ; (2) Lorenzo Ghiberti, 
 to whose bronze doors 
 reference has been made ; 
 he, too, was trained in the 
 workshop of his father, 
 also agoldsmith,and nearly 
 all the works which can be 
 traced to him are in metal. 
 Only in his second gate 
 (1425 52) (Plate 3) do the 
 figure studies and back- 
 grounds indicate a decided 
 tendency to classicism, 
 though it may be that in 
 the conception of bronze 
 pictures or stories, however 
 consummate their execu- 
 tion, he travelled beyond the 
 proper bounds of the art of 
 sculpture. (3) Luca della 
 Robbia, also, began life in 
 this department, soon, how- 
 ever, deviating into the 
 wider path of sculpture. His 
 
 BKONZE PANEL, SANT' ANTON.O, PADUA. magnificent frieZC of sing- 
 
 Donateiio, Sculpt. ing boys and girls, intended 
 for the organ loft in the Cathedral of Florence, speaks to his
 
 GOLDSMITH CULPTORS. 
 
 truthful rendering of child nature and fin 
 effect. Famous as this 
 work most justly is, it was 
 not in marble that Luca 
 and his family attained 
 their greatest renown ; but 
 for the successful handling 
 on a large scale of enamelled 
 vitrified earthenware in 
 sculptural form. The 
 works in this material which 
 can be attributed to Luca 
 are very rare, but Andrea 
 della Robbia, his nephew, 
 and others of the family, 
 carried on the manufacture 
 of these statues and reliefs 
 for nearly a hundred years. 
 In their treatment at first 
 nothing more seems to have 
 been attempted than an imi- 
 tation of smoothed white 
 marble, the figures being 
 produced in white, some- 
 times relieved with gold 
 or a blue background ; but 
 before long many different 
 colours were employed, as 
 in the well-known friezes 
 at the Ospedale del 
 Ceppo at Pistoja(page34), 
 the work (152535) of 
 a succeeding generation of 
 the same family. This 
 group of distinguished 
 originators of Florentine 
 sculpture is not complete 
 without (4) Donatello, 
 Brunelleschi's companion, 
 who may not have been 
 
 nse of decorative 
 
 BRONZE PANEL, SANT' ANTONIO, PADUA. 
 
 Donatello, Sculpt. 
 
 a goldsmith, but seems to have assisted Ghiberti with the
 
 32 THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY IN FLORENCE. 
 
 gates, on his return from Rome. With him the sculpture of the 
 age culminates, for in his work that which is good in mediaeval 
 tradition meets, and is ennobled by classic ideals ; and it would 
 not be too much to claim that his church decorations are the 
 purest and sweetest and most human of all the ages (pages 30 
 and 31). Lowness of relief and delicacy of gradation are technical 
 qualities of his sculpture, and he specially excelled in a kind of 
 flattened relief (stacciato), which is little more than a drawing 
 on the marble surface. It may be useful to bear in mind that 
 Masaccio and Fra Angelico are, among painters, the greatest 
 
 
 LUNETTE OF THE ANNUNCIATION, SPEDALE DEGLI INNOCENTI, FLORENCE. 
 
 Andrea delta Robbia, Sculpt. 
 
 contemporaries of the sculptors named, while Filippino Lippi, 
 Ghirlandajo, and the still more famous Botticelli occur a little 
 later in the century. For although the central part of the 
 quattro-cento may in more senses than one be called a golden age 
 of sculpture, it was not till after the end of the century fhat 
 painting in Italy reached its highest excellence, almost coeval 
 with the meridian of its architecture. 
 
 The school of sculptors who succeeded the Quercia and 
 Robbia group, some of them also architects, and whose works 
 belong to the latter half of the fifteenth century, do not merit 
 quite the same attention. The most outstanding names of this

 
 SECOND SCHOOL OF SCULPTOR-ARCHITECTS. 
 
 33 
 
 generation are, in order of seniority, Antonio Rosselino, Desi- 
 derio da Settignano, Mino da Fiesole, Giuliano da Majano, 
 Andrea del Verrochio, Matteo Civitali (of Lucca), and Benedetto 
 da Majano. Their work, which consists largely of gorgeous 
 monuments, tabernacles, lavabos, pulpits (as, for example, that 
 in Lucca Cathedral, of date 1489), is both excessively rich 
 and extremely delicate in scale and finish, generally possessing 
 withal a sobriety which distinguishes it from work without 
 Tuscany. The exquisite pulpit in Santa Croce, Florence, of 
 which Plate 13 shows merely the corbels that serve to project 
 
 BRACKET OF THE PULPIT OF SANTA CROCE, FLORENCE. 
 
 Benedetto da Majano, Archt. 
 
 it from the nave pillar, after the manner of a cornice, may be 
 singled out as one of the most renowned works of Benedetto 
 da Majano. The work is mainly of white marble, but the 
 field of the ornament on the sides of the trusses has been 
 laid in with gold, and the background of the figures, as well 
 as the soffit of the cornice over them, is of marble of a dark 
 brown colour. In various brackets, most daintily designed and 
 tenderly executed, are such patterns as the chain, the plait, the 
 bundle of reeds, and foliage of natural oak. 
 
 In all these examples no very close approach to antique 
 models is to be discovered, but for the succeeding generation 
 Lorenzo de' Medici was preparing, in his great collection of 
 A. D
 
 34 
 
 THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY IN FLORENCE. 
 
 antiques, an influence which was to mould the future course of 
 the arts in Italy in a remarkable way. Dissatisfied with the taste 
 of the sculptors of the period, he set apart the Casino Mediceo in 
 his gardens, near San Marco, for the purpose of an academy, 
 having specially in view the study of antique subjects, with 
 which he very liberally furnished it, besides supporting the 
 poorer students by bursaries, and premiums for proficiency 
 in their work. The bottega system of training was in this way 
 superseded, or in any case supplemented, and the facilities 
 
 OSPEDALE DEL CEPPO, PlSTOJA. 
 
 for an art education in Florence rendered very similar to those 
 in our own day, at any great centre, the gardens serving 
 as a school of art, and in a very notable manner, when it is 
 recollected that Leonardo da Vinci, Andrea Sansovino, and 
 Michelangelo were among the products of the institution. 
 
 In connection with what may be called this Florentine 
 reversion to Latinism, no name is better known, either in art 
 or literature, than that of Leon Battista Alberti (1404 72). Of 
 noble family, he had a special education, and conspicuous literary 
 gifts well fitted him for what was perhaps the greatest work of 
 his life, his book, or ten books, De Re jEdificatoria, which in the
 
 PLATE XIV. 
 
 THE CHURCH OF SANTANDREA, MANTUA. 
 
 LEON BATTISTA ALBERT!, ArcM.
 
 THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THE ANTIQUE. 
 
 35 
 
 last generation was looked upon as the foundation of all that had 
 been written about architecture or building. The fact of a 
 man of his attainments and position choosing and pursuing an 
 architectural career 
 is an indication of 
 the great popular 
 importance of the 
 art in those days, 
 and the mental 
 equipment not con- 
 sidered too good 
 for an architect. 
 Alberti was the first 
 who seems to have 
 devoted himself to 
 the subject from the 
 scholar's point of 
 view, and is in this 
 and other respects 
 more akin to the 
 typical modern 
 architect than any 
 who preceded him. 
 He was also the 
 rirst who seriously 
 attempted the 
 recreation of Roman architecture as distinct from Roman 
 principles. Brunelleschi and his immediate successors, while 
 thinking that they had found the better way, were content to 
 carry out the requirements of their time, making use of the mere 
 technic they had borrowed from Rome or the relics of Etruscan 
 greatness. Alberti, however, had a trace of pedantry in his 
 composition, as is evinced by his adoption of the Latin language 
 and the publication of his book in Latin, although Dante had, 
 one hundred and fifty years before, fixed the written form of the 
 vulgar tongue in his immortal poems. And there is evidence, 
 as much in his buildings as in his books, of his desire to be 
 Latin. Take, for example, the Palazzo Rucellai (1451 55), an 
 important architectural design of his (though said to have been 
 carried out by Bernardo Rosselino), and the first house front 
 on which pilasters appear throughout. The refined taste of 
 
 D 2 
 
 A WINDOW IN THE PAL. RUCELLAI, FLORENCE.
 
 THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY IN FLORENCE. 
 
 the man is apparent in almost every stone of it, and for this 
 we can almost forgive him robbing us of the wall space and the 
 great cornice, for here the cornicione, which in the Riccardi was 
 one-tenth of the height, is reduced to one-sixteenth. A serious 
 defect in many of the Italian palazzi, and markedly in this one, 
 is the uniform height of the piled-up storeys. They are not in 
 this example exactly equal, diminishing to the top, but the 
 difference is so slight as to give the effect of equality. The in- 
 termediate entab- 
 latures, although 
 their reappearance 
 is to be regretted, 
 are introduced with 
 great taste, being 
 less in depth than 
 would be required 
 if they were stand- 
 
 * , ing free or com- 
 
 I If*'" pleting the design. 
 
 m\**r* The inequality of 
 
 the bays, those at 
 the doors being 
 wider, gives some 
 relief to what is 
 decidedly a mono- 
 tonous arrange- 
 ment. The total 
 height is under 
 seventy feet, so 
 that it is a com- 
 paratively small 
 building, about twenty feet less in height than the Palazzo 
 Riccardi. Other important works of his are the Churches of 
 San Francesco at Rimini (the Tempio del Malatesta, 1446 54), 
 and Sant' Andrea at Mantua, planned in 1470, and built 1472 
 1512. The plan of the latter shows a considerable departure 
 from the arrangement of Santo Spirito, in its recessed chapels 
 and solid piers with coupled pilasters instead of slender columns. 
 It is, moreover, vaulted by a coffered barrel vault, and has 
 a dome on pendentives lighted by a drum (though this is 
 of later date), and altogether marks a great step in progress, 
 
 Albert i, Archt.
 
 THE GREEK CROSS IDEAL. 
 
 37 
 
 being in fact the type of nearly all subsequent church work. 
 The exterior is a mere skeleton adorned by a magnificent 
 porch (Plate 14), which is designed on the principle of a 
 Roman triumphal 
 arch, and in its 
 main features anti- 
 cipates Palladio's 
 church fronts. In 
 the fa9ade of the 
 fine Church of 
 Santa Maria No- 
 vella (page 38) com 
 pleted by Alberti 
 in 1470, we may 
 conceive how that 
 master might 
 have treated that 
 of Sant' Andrea. 
 This is the first in- 
 stance of the use of 
 volutes in connect- 
 ing nave and aisles, 
 a feature of tire- 
 some iteration in 
 the later Roman 
 churches. 
 
 In the church of 
 Santa Maria delle 
 Carceri(i485 91), 
 at Prato, a most 
 promising model is 
 shaped, and all 
 but carried to per- 
 fection (Plate 15). 
 The unfinished 
 
 ooft. 
 
 PLAN OF SANT' ANDREA AT MANTUA. 
 Agincourt. Alberti, Archt. 
 
 exterior in two storeys, with coupled pilasters at the angles, 
 is a most appropriate treatment, and its severity is relieved by 
 the veneering of the wall surface in marble stiles and panels. 
 The plan is a Greek cross, wagon vaulted and coffered, on 
 a single order within ; the ribbed dome resembles that of 
 the Capella Pazzi, and like it is carried on pendentives, but
 
 3 8 THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY IN FLORENCE. 
 
 with the interposition of a low drum. In its whole design this 
 structure is the prototype of the church at Montepulciano 
 (page 102), by Antonio, the brother of the architect of this work. 
 The octagonal Sacristy of the Church of Santo Spirito is another 
 stately and reserved work, erected between the years 1489 96 
 by Giuliano da San Gallo, associated with Simone del Pollaiuolo, 
 called also Cronaca. It will be useful to compare it with the 
 sacristy, in many ways similar, which Bramante was erecting 
 in Milan about the same period (Plate 23). A production 
 
 SANTA MARIA NOVELLA, FLORENCE. 
 
 more advanced than either is the ante-room to the Florentine 
 sacristy (Plate 16), a corridor forty-two feet long and nineteen 
 feet wide, with a beautiful wagon-vaulted ceiling, all of blue stone 
 (pietra serena), divided into compartments enriched with carving, 
 and springing from an entablature carried by six Corinthian 
 columns on each side detached from the wall. This treatment, 
 purely antique in character, trespasses on the margin of the 
 second period of Florentine work, and the beautiful capital, 
 with long finger-shaped leaves, makes a closer approach to the 
 perfection of the Greek and Roman prototypes than had been 
 formerly reached. It is from the design of Andrea da Monte 
 Sansovino, who was employed in his youth to carve some of
 
 
 K ) 
 
 2 z 
 
 w 
 
 2

 
 VASARI ON ANDREA SANSOVINO. 
 
 39 
 
 the capitals of the adjoining sacristy, and who was entrusted 
 with this work about 1490, if we can accept the order in which 
 Vasari recounts the events of his life. The criticism of this 
 writer upon the vestibule reveals his point of view, while the 
 side light thrown upon Michelangelo's views of the archaeology 
 of the Pantheon is interesting at a time when that puzzling 
 question seems to be in a fair way of solution : " . . . The 
 work would have been brought much nearer to perfection, if 
 those compartments of the ceiling and the divisions of the 
 cornice, by which the squares and niches forming k the decora- 
 tion of the compartments are separated, had been made with 
 a more care- 
 ful relation to 
 the lines of 
 the columns ; 
 and this might 
 have been very 
 easily effected. 
 But accord- 
 ing to what I 
 have heard from 
 old friends of 
 Andrea, he de- 
 fended himself 
 by reference to 
 the Rotundo at 
 Rome, which 
 had served as his 
 
 model. Here, as he observed, the ribs that descend from the 
 circular opening in the centre, which gives light to the building, 
 form the compartments, which are divided transversely into 
 those deepened recesses that secure the rosettes, and which 
 diminish by regular degrees from the base to the summit, as do 
 the ribs also, wherefore the latter do not fall precisely on the 
 centres of the columns. He added, that if he who had erected 
 that Temple of the Rotundo, which is the most admirable and 
 most carefully considered edifice known, and is constructed with 
 the most exact proportions, paid no regard to that circumstance 
 in a vaulting of so much greater size and so superior in import- 
 ance, still less was he required to consider it, in the compart- 
 ments of a space so much smaller. Be this as it may, many 
 
 SACRISTY OF CHI/RCH OF SANTO SPIRITO, FLORENCE. 
 
 Giiiliano da San Gallo and Cronaca, Archts.
 
 40 THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY IN FLORENCE. 
 
 artists, among whom is Michelagnolo, are of opinion, that the 
 Rotundo was erected by three different architects, the first of 
 whom raised the building to the completion of the cornice 
 which is above the columns; the second they consider to 
 have carried it from the cornice upwards, that part namely, 
 wherein are windows of a more delicate manner; and this 
 portion is certainly very different from that beneath, the vault- 
 ing having been then continued without any regard what- 
 ever to the relation required between its compartments and 
 the divisions of the lower part. The third master is believed 
 to have executed that portico which is held to be so exquisite 
 
 Ground FloarPUn. 
 W. J. A.: MENS. ET DEL. 
 
 Scale 3/i6ths of an inch to ten feet. 
 
 a work. He, therefore, who should now permit himself to fall 
 into the error of Andrea, could scarcely offer the same excuse." 
 
 This great sculptor-architect, whose proper designation was 
 Andrea di Domenico Contucci, is not to be confused with Jacopo 
 Sansovino, who was a disciple of Andrea, and took his place- 
 name, but whose chief works are of a later period and mostly 
 at Venice. Andrea's work leads up to the culminating period 
 and was rather in advance of his time (1460 1529). Chrono- 
 logically he stands between Giuliano da San Gallo and 
 Baldassare Peruzzi, and there was no artist of his own 
 generation who was his superior in architecture. 
 
 There are not many buildings of the Italian revival which 
 can be said to possess a naive simplicity, unaffected grace, and
 
 PLATE XVII. 
 
 FLORENCE: 
 
 The Church of 
 San Salvator 
 del .Monte: 
 II Cronaca, 
 
 Architect- 1.504 
 
 F. M. M., del. 
 
 \v. j. A., mens
 
 THE EARLY FLORENTINE MANNER. 41 
 
 beauty unadorned. More commonly, as their enemies delight 
 to affirm, they smack of the pride of learning and conscious 
 striving after effect. But if this be a rule, the monastery church 
 of Santo Salvator (or San Francesco) del Monte is one exception ; 
 and some idea of this kind was doubtless in Michelangelo's 
 mind when he styled it his "fair country-maiden." It stands 
 close by and contrasts sharply with the richer and more famous 
 Latin Romanesque San Miniato, as the peasant with the king's 
 daughter, sharing the delightful prospect of Florence and the 
 Arno. Its face can hardly be said to be its fortune, nor is it, 
 like San Miniato, " all glorious within ; " its most favourable 
 
 W. J. A.: DEL. 
 
 CHURCH OF SANTO SALVATOR DEL MONTE, FLORENCE. 
 
 Cronaca, Archt. 
 
 aspect is that from which it is sketched, and there is much 
 that is pleasing in the proportions of the whole and the broad 
 surfaces of its cemented walls. The arrangement of the plan 
 (page 40) is one not uncommon in the Italian churches, and 
 goes to produce a stately and impressive interior. The details 
 are in perfect keeping with the rusticity of the whole, piquant, 
 and not remarkable for refinement (Plate 17). 
 
 Passing from individual works and reviewing the early 
 Florentine manner as a whole, we cannot fail to see that first 
 it is affected by the preceding Romanesque and Gothic work. 
 Despising, as the Florentine architects doubtless did, the style 
 of their immediate forerunners, they could not, at a bound,
 
 42 THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY IN FLORENCE. 
 
 effect the transformation they desired ; the environment of 
 social and intellectual influences, the milieu, was too powerful 
 for them. Mediaeval church arrangements, for example, were 
 generally preserved, and the plan of Santo Spirito, while semi- 
 Byzantine and semi-basilican in construction, resembles more 
 the Gothic church of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries 
 than either the pagan temple or the Roman basilica. The 
 Greek cross to which at an early period many of the architects 
 directed their attention, and which controlled the development 
 of transepts and chancel, even in Latin cross types of plan, 
 is a Byzantine ideal rather than a Roman one. Even the 
 horizontalism which characterises exteriors was not due to the 
 ancients more than to the mediaeval structures of the period 
 immediately preceding ; the heavy projecting cornice which 
 crowned the palazzi was as much the legacy of the Italian 
 Gothic as a revival of the antique. In the fagades of the palaces 
 there survives that peculiar compound form of arch peculiar to 
 the Italian Gothic (a round arch with the extrados of the voissours 
 taking a pointed form), and also the late Romanesque and 
 Gothic innovation of an arch over a lintel, instead of the Roman 
 composite method of lintel over arch. For this distinctively 
 Roman fashion does not appear in the Florentine work of the 
 Early Period which is under consideration. The composite 
 arcade of these Florentine architects, where it does exist, is 
 made up of a main pilaster and subsidiary columns to carry the 
 arches, instead of a main column merely to carry a decorative 
 entablature, backed by an arcade formed in a wall which does 
 the constructive work, as at the Colosseum, and Roman work 
 generally (Plates 37 and 56). Thus a Romanesque or basilican 
 system is followed rather than a Roman one, and although the 
 entablature frequently surmounts a row of arches, it does not pro- 
 trude, or if so, not more than the projection of a flat pilaster, and 
 much less than would be required properly to load a half or three- 
 quarter column (Plate 10, Spedale degli Innocenti, also the Pal. 
 Ducale, of Urbino, page 43). It is, therefore, not in the least 
 obtrusive, and a much more logical treatment. Of course the 
 arcade fails in stability, except at the points where the pilaster 
 is employed, and this cannot well be done at each division. 
 Further, in the Palazzi Antinori, Pitti, Riccardi, and Strozzi, 
 an attempt is made to work out an arcuated style, without 
 dependence upon the classic orders, which merits every praise.
 
 EARLY RENAISSANCE CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 43 
 
 In this, as in other respects, the palatial style of Florence may 
 be said to be more truly an Etruscan than a Roman revival. 
 Large stones, the use of the arch and great simplicity and 
 solidity of construction were the characteristics of Etruscan 
 buildings, and they are no less typical of the Florentine town- 
 houses. In constructive principle, the Early Renaissance is 
 
 CORTILE OF THE PALAZZO DUCALE, URBINO. 
 
 Baccio Pontelli, Archt. 
 
 eclectic, employing the wagon vault, pendentive dome, cross 
 vault, open wood roof, and beamed ceiling indifferently. Not- 
 withstanding the cultivation of the Grecian language and 
 literature, and the introduction of a Greek element into 
 the population of Florence, purely Hellenic architecture had 
 not begun to influence Florentine work up to the end of the 
 fifteenth century, but an almost Grecian sense of refinement 
 saved Florence from the somewhat fantastic character which
 
 44 THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY IN FLORENCE. 
 
 the style it had originated assumed in the hands of the 
 Lombards and Venetians. Perhaps enough has been said to 
 indicate that the merits of this earliest phase of the Renaissance 
 are of the highest order, that its originality is beyond cavil, and 
 that there are few periods which deserve more careful study. 
 
 One failing for which it is difficult to account is the rejection 
 of variety of hue in the material employed. Except for the 
 glazes of the Robbian terra cotta, inharmonious always though 
 a poetic imagination likens them to " fragments of the milky sky 
 itself, fallen into the cool streets and breaking into the darkened 
 churches"* the buildings mainly rely upon their masses of 
 brown stone for any colour effect ; and it is this want in a 
 land of colour, and among the Byzantine and Gothic buildings 
 and their often splendid polychromatic decoration, which causes 
 them to be overlooked by the ordinary tourist or half-educated 
 architect. Possibly the most plausible explanation of this 
 restraint on the part of the designers is that they' were too 
 intent upon the forms and proportions to give much heed to 
 their enhancement by colour. The sgraffito decoration applied 
 in some cases as, for example, the Palazzo Guadagni is just 
 the kind of exception that proves the rule. For in this only 
 two neutral tints are employed the black plaster, or first coat, 
 and the white grey second coat, which is cut away to show the 
 design, or to form it on the black background. A blue stone, 
 macigno or pietra serena, is frequently used in interiors, where 
 it contrasts finely with the tan-coloured morta or pietra forte, 
 both being quarried in the immediate neighbourhood of Florence, 
 at Fiesole and Settignano. 
 
 Rome, as far as this first period is concerned, may be joined 
 with Florence, for although afterwards the seat of the culmi- 
 nating period at the time of Raffaello and Peruzzi, there is 
 little that one who .has studied Florentine work need know 
 about the early Renaissance in Rome. Florence at the time 
 was the real capital of the peninsula, Rome having fallen on 
 evil days through the Papal schism and various misfortunes, 
 and such artists as were attracted to Rome by Nicholas V., the 
 Protege of Cosmo de' Medici, were of the Florentine school. 
 There are a few unimportant houses of the time, mostly by 
 Baccio Pontelli and Bernardo Rosselino of Florence, who were 
 employed by .the Popes Nicholas V. and Pius II.; while the 
 
 * Pater's The Renaissance.
 
 PLATE XVIII. 
 
 ORNAMENT IN PILASTERS, SANT 1 AGOSTINO, ROME-. 
 Letarouilly. BACCIO PONTELLI, Archt.


 
 CHARACTERISTICS OF VENETO LOMBARDIC WORK. 75 
 
 that of Florence, and by coarseness of execution failing to catch 
 the refined grace and sumptuous elegance characteristic both 
 of Venetian and Lombardic design. 
 
 Taking the Early North Italian work as a whole, we note in 
 its favour that 
 it is marked by 
 great delicacy 
 and refinement 
 of ornamental 
 details, far ex- 
 celling in this 
 respect anything 
 of the kind exe- 
 cuted during the 
 Roman Empire, 
 and only to be 
 matched by the 
 work of the best 
 periods of Greek 
 art. Much of 
 it, however, 'is 
 frittered and 
 frivolous, and 
 even in the best 
 examples it fre- 
 quently errs on 
 the side of 
 minuteness and 
 excess. In the 
 nature of the 
 North Italian 
 ornament there 
 survives some of w. j. A.: DEL. 
 
 CORTILE OF PAL. FAVA, BOLOGNA. 
 
 the old Lombard 
 
 fire and energy, as well as its love of the grotesque, the same 
 spirit which decorated the front of San Michele at Lucca and 
 the doorway of San Zeno ; but the legendary character of 
 Lombard ornament, and also the symbolism of Byzantine art, 
 gradually dies out under the new principle of simple devotion to 
 the beautiful for its own sake. The very concentration of care 
 and .thought on the details seems to have hindered proper atten- 
 tion to design in mass, so that, but for one or two exceptions,
 
 76 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE OUT OF FLORENCE. 
 
 it was exceedingly defective, confused, or fantastic in com- 
 position. During all its course it remained experimental, for 
 if exception be made in favour of one or two of the dwelling- 
 houses, there is no building which is complete within and 
 without, and is quite satisfactory. Its importance, therefore, 
 does not rest entirely on what was achieved at the time, but in 
 the power of composition and command over detail, which its 
 
 ARCADE ON BRACKETS IN CORTILE OF PAL. FAVA, BOLOGNA. 
 
 gradual unfolding placed in the hands of the masters of the 
 culminating period which succeeded. 
 
 The argument that the Renaissance, being purely imitative, 
 is unworthy of study, or of being placed in the same category as 
 the preceding styles, against which contention it was possible 
 to make a case even in Florence, becomes more unfair and even 
 ridiculous in the face of such buildings and such ornament as 
 the North Italian districts present. But instead of taking the 
 view already noticed, that the early Renaissance consists in the 
 first corruptions of the Gothic School, we might, with more 
 truth, take the very opposite view, that it consisted in a 
 purification of the corrupt Italian Gothic and Romanesque. 
 The architects of the time, 'their eyes opened to the beauty
 
 IMMANENCE OF MEDIAEVAL TRADITION. 
 
 77 
 
 of the antique forms, and a working knowledge of ancient 
 principles attained to, looked on the illogical Italian Gothic 
 forms and treatments from a new standpoint, and saw in them 
 merely corruptions of the old Roman methods. Such buildings 
 as the Cornaro-Spinelli and the Vendramini cannot with any 
 show of reason 
 be described as 
 corrupt Gothic 
 buildings. They 
 are certainly de- 
 velopments of 
 the Gothic 
 palaces, whose 
 chief features 
 they present ; but 
 treated with the 
 Roman technic, 
 which all along 
 had been most 
 applicable to the 
 classical forms 
 the Italians chose 
 to retain during 
 the mediaeval 
 period, and to 
 which in the 
 degradation and 
 exhaustion of 
 their Gothic style 
 they very naturally and properly turned. The construction and 
 general effect of the church of Santa Maria dei Miracoli is on 
 the face of it derivable from the Cathedral of San Marco, and 
 by that building, too, is the plan of Santo Salvatore inspired. 
 Thus the Early Renaissance, particularly in North Italy, if not 
 deemed worthy of the status of a distinct style, might be better 
 described as a complex combination of styles rather than a revival 
 of any one in particular. Much of what was good and useful in 
 the Byzantine and mediaeval tradition and local characteristics 
 was preserved in every new work, while to these were added, 
 or restored, the classical forms and treatment of orders, orna- 
 ment, and moulding, which seemed to the designers the purest 
 and best. With one or two exceptions, such as the Arch of 
 
 CASA TACCONI, BOLOGNA. 
 Scale i/i6th of an inch to one foot.
 
 7 8 
 
 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE OUT OF FLORENCE. 
 
 Alphonso of Arragon, at Naples, and the Basilica or Loggia of 
 Brescia, whose very purpose in each case is essentially a Roman 
 survival, no one building bears the slightest resemblance to any 
 
 PLAN OF SANTO SALVATORE, VENICE. 
 
 T. Lombardo, Archt. 
 
 the Romans or Greeks erected, nor is there reason to believe 
 that imitation was intended ; while there is abundant evidence 
 that the architects, of Venice at least, were inspired by a natural 
 and patriotic admiration of the great monuments of early 
 Venetian history. 
 
 TRIUMPHAL ARCH OF ALPHONSO, NAPLES. 
 
 Pietro di Martina and G. da Majano, Archts.
 
 CENTRAL PERIOD 15061550. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 THE CULMINATION IN ROME (15061540). 
 
 CAUSES TENDING TO THE CULMINATION OF THE RENAISSANCE 
 IN ROME CONTEMPORARY EVENTS THE TRANSITIONAL BUILDINGS 
 BRAMANTE'S INFLUENCE AND METHODS THE ATTEMPTED FUSION OF 
 GREEK AND ROMAN CONSTRUCTION THE SHAKING OFF OF LINGERING 
 MEDIEVAL TRADITIONS RENAISSANCE CONTRASTED WITH LATTER-DAY 
 REVIVALS BRAMANTE'S TEMPIETTO THE SUCCESS OF THE REVIVAL- 
 ITS CONSUMMATION IN ROME BOTH APPROPRIATE AND NATURAL AN 
 EUROPEAN INFLUENCE MASTERS OF THE PERIOD ANTONIO SANGALLO, 
 PERUZZI, RAFFAELLO, MICHELANGELO PAL. FARNESE THE ASTYLAR 
 CHARACTER OF ITS EXTERIOR CORTILE AN EXAMPLE OF COMBINED 
 CONSTRUCTION CHARACTERISTIC OF CENTRAL PERIOD PAL. MASSIMI 
 ITS GRECIAN FLAVOUR HOUSE IN VIA GIULIA CHURCH AT MONTE- 
 PULCIANO ST. PETER'S, ROME EARLY PROGRESS AND INTERRUPTIONS 
 SCHEMES OF BRAMANTE, RAFFAELLO, PERUZZI, SANGALLO MICHEL- 
 ANGELO'S WORK HISTORIC SIGNIFICANCE OF ST. PETER'S EFFECT OF THE 
 INTERIOR ACTUAL DIMENSIONS CHARACTER OF CULMINATING PERIOD AS 
 A WHOLE ATTENTION TO PROPORTION AND TOUT ENSEMBLE DETAIL 
 SUBORDINATE REVIVAL OF GREEK METHODS PREFERENCE FOR RECT- 
 ANGULAR OUTLINES PASSION FOR FIGURE DESIGN AND DECORATION- 
 HIGH IDEALS OF RENAISSANCE ART.
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE CULMINATION IN ROME. 
 
 To attempt to weigh the various agencies which gave being 
 and form to the period of artistic activity known as the 
 culmination of the Renaissance, giving to each cause its proper 
 effect, would be an utterly impossible task. But some of them 
 may be clearly apprehended : on the one hand, the growth of 
 the wealth and power of the Church, not as a church merely ; 
 the forcible, ambitious and statesmanlike character of Pope 
 Julius II.; the gravitation of aristocratic families to Rome; 
 the social rivalry these gave the opportunity and rough-hewed 
 the schemes. Prepared at every point to shape them were the 
 striking artistic personalities of the day, the cumulative results 
 of a long line and unbroken tradition of fifteenth century artists 
 who shared common ideals and worked together in friendly 
 rivalry. When to " Mars" in the shape of Julius II. succeeded 
 " Pallas "* in Leo X., a Medici of the Florentine house, in full 
 sympathy with the beautiful arts, the happy moment was 
 prolonged, and thus even a clerical despotism became for a 
 brief season the home of art and culture. Minor influences 
 on the part of the artists were the diversity of their training in 
 different parts of Italy, and the sensible modification wrought 
 in each case by actual contact with the monuments of ancient 
 Rome, which seems to have blended dissimilitude of individual 
 taste and training in a perfect harmony. 
 
 The whole period is comprised between the years 1506 50, 
 and the briefest possible summary of contemporary events will 
 be an advantage. We have seen that 1492, the memorable 
 year which hailed the discovery of a new world, and the 
 expulsion of the Moors from Spain, and with these events the 
 
 * The reference is to the Latin couplet of Agostino Chigi, which he displayed 
 at the accession of Leo X., and which, if it fails to characterise him, hits off with 
 more than ordinary force and freedom the character of his predecessors in the 
 papal chair : 
 
 " Once Venus ruled ; then Mars usurped the throne ; 
 Now Pallas calls those favoured seats her own 
 
 Roscoe's Life of Leo X: 
 
 A. G
 
 82 THE CULMINATION IN ROME. 
 
 rise of that country, witnessed in the death of Lorenzo il 
 Magnifico, the end of the good fortune of the Republic of 
 Florence. Two years later the entry of Charles VIII. of 
 France, at the call of Ludovico Sforza of Milan, in a campaign 
 against Naples, inaugurated a most distressful period for the 
 whole of Italy, during which it was ravaged by Germans, 
 French and Spaniards ; and this but the beginning of three 
 and a half centuries of humiliation and oppression, ending only 
 in our own day and generation. In 1508 came about the 
 concert of the powers of France and Spain, the Pope and the 
 German Emperor, against Venice, known as the League of 
 Cambrai. Matters soon took another complexion, and from 
 this period till about 1529 a condition of things approaching 
 anarchy prevailed over the greater part of the peninsula, due 
 to the wars between France and Spain. Rome and Venice 
 seem to have been least affected ; Rome by its alliance with the 
 enemies of Italy, and Venice by its own strength and inde- 
 pendence. As a result of Pope Clement's duplicity, however, 
 Rome itself, in 1527, suffered siege and pillage at the hands 
 of Charles of Bourbon, acting for the Emperor Charles V. of 
 Spain. From this blow it seems quickly to have recovered, 
 and although on first thought it might appear surprising that 
 the peaceful arts should have preserved a course almost uninter- 
 rupted, it must be remembered that the wars of the period were 
 comparatively harmless affairs, and seldom did much damage 
 to property, although gunpowder had long been in use, and 
 battles had assumed a more serious aspect for life during the 
 sixteenth century. These wars certainly retarded the progress 
 of art in North Italy, while tending to its centralization in 
 Rome ; and not till peace was declared in 1529 did Venice and 
 Verona find leisure and security enough to build their greatest 
 palaces. Much of the available talent of the country was for a 
 time devoted to fortification building, but this was not wholly 
 an unmixed evil, for remote as may seem its connection with 
 art, it was in this kind of work that Sanmicheli developed 
 that vigorous simplicity of style which distinguished him as an 
 artist, and made his engineering work the pattern and example 
 for all work of a similar class. 
 
 There is a vigour of handling, a facility of composition, 
 a richness of modelling, and an artistic reserve which easily 
 distinguish any genuine example of what may be called the
 
 PLATE XXXI. 
 
 THE FACADE. 
 
 THE CORTILE. 
 
 THE CANCELLERIA PALACE, ROME 
 
 DONATO BRAMANTE, Ardlt.
 
 BRAMANTE'S RELATION TO THE CENTRAL PERIOD. 83 
 
 Central Period from one of the early or later Renaissance. 
 Naturally, however, there is transition on both sides, and there 
 are some famous buildings which stand across the boundary 
 we have now reached on debatable ground, as, for example, 
 certain works of the last decade of Bramante's career, and 
 others of Andrea da Monte Sansovino. To Bramante is gene- 
 rally ascribed the origin of the new tendency, which has been 
 in negative fashion described as a refusal of all elements of 
 design foreign to classical taste. Writers of the period imme- 
 diately succeeding Bramante, not to speak of those of modern 
 days, give to that artist the undivided glory of " raising up good 
 architecture again, which from ancient time till then had been 
 hidden and kept secret."* With very much more truth this 
 saying might be applied to Brunelleschi, or even to Alberti 
 and Michelozzo. Bramante showed all through his work 
 considerable originality in the variations of his treatment of 
 the classical forms, and much ingenuity in their adaptation 
 to modern requirements, but he was in a position to benefit 
 greatly by the far more remarkable originality of those who had 
 preceded him. As an assimilator Bramante excelled, and his 
 work is characterised by a quite remarkable variety and flexi- 
 bility of treatment of the elements placed at his disposal. To 
 Bramante nothing was common nor unclean, and the same 
 power of assimilation which enabled him to sum up Lombardy 
 traditions in such w r ork as Santa Maria delle Grazie, enables 
 him now to produce in Rome a work so completely in harmony 
 with its surroundings as the Cancelleria Palace (1495 155)- 
 The revolt from the Lombardy style which its general design 
 evinces is in itself a mark of Bramante's capacity, and an 
 indication of the nature of it. Yet there is little in this quiet 
 and monotonous facade (Plate 31), with its dry and ineffective 
 decoration, or in the light and over- weighted arcades of the 
 cortile, to justify the theory that Bramante initiated a new era 
 in architecture. t The window with its balcony from the south- 
 east corner of this palace (Plate 32) conveys an idea of the early 
 character of the detail and ornament, showing that these at 
 least have no claim to be regarded as of the culminating period 
 
 * Serlio's Five Books of Architecture. 
 
 t See Baron H. von Geymiiller in The Transactions of the Royal Institute of British 
 Architects (Vol. VII., New Series) for a eulogy of Bramante, and a very thorough 
 analysis of his systems of working and the proportions he is supposed to have 
 adopted. To that article I am indebted for the outline diagrams. 
 
 G 2
 
 THE CULMINATION IN ROME. 
 
 /UNNQ 5ALVTL3 CHJ3TIANT KTTmr 
 
 or even of leading up to it. The treatment is simply that 
 which Bramante brought with him from the terra-cotta district 
 of Lombardy ; unsuited to Roman travertine or tufa, it has 
 demanded the employment of marble as an inset, for in 
 this the window and balcony are constructed. In general 
 arrangement the pilasters, arch, and spandrils, with their en- 
 closing moulding, are a revival of the very late and debased 
 Roman window of about the fourth century, examples of which 
 were to be seen in many of the northern provinces. But the 
 broad facade in its general character must have revealed to 
 the Roman architects of the day the interest that could be 
 
 obtained in the simple distribution 
 of features, and the effect that good 
 proportion and reticent modelling 
 of surface could give apart from 
 ornament. It also illustrates a 
 system of setting out which con- 
 stantly recurs in Bramante's work, 
 the greater and lesser interspace, 
 
 \ s- ^\ /- "x anc ^ *^ s P^ av f rhythmical divi- 
 \ f \ f \ sion of pilasters is really what it 
 
 contributes to the progress of archi- 
 tecture. On the other hand it 
 indicates the inroad of a tendency 
 to copyism, the top storey being 
 a close imitation of that of the 
 Colosseum, especially in the in- 
 terior. Comparing the Palazzo 
 Rucellai at Florence, on page 36, with the Cancelleria, one 
 can appreciate the, advantage of the use of the broader and 
 narrower interval alternately, which runs through so much of 
 the work of the architects of this period. 
 
 The annexed diagrams enable one to realise more fully the 
 variety which such a treatment affords, and give an idea of certain 
 dispositions which at this period w r ere being introduced, or for 
 the first time really grasped. In the first, which represents the 
 Cloister of Santa Maria della Pace at Rome, a very favourite 
 motif of Bramante's early work is shown, the simple arrange- 
 ment of two spaces over one, the central pillar of the upper 
 tier loading the crown of the arch below. The Sacristy of 
 San Satiro (Plate 23) is designed on the same principle. In 
 
 CLOISTER OF SANTA MARIA DELLA 
 PACE, ROME. 
 
 Bramante, Archt.
 
 PLATE XXXII. 
 
 WINDOW AND BALCONY FROM THE PALAZZO DKLLA CANCELLERIA, ROME. 
 
 DONATO BRAMANTE, Archt.
 
 MOTIFS LEADING UP TO THE CENTRAL PERIOD. 85 
 
 the next diagram (below) the superimposed orders as at the 
 
 Palazzo Giraud 
 or Torlonia are 
 given, but the 
 spacing is less 
 happy than at 
 the Cancelleria ; 
 and A repre- 
 sents the same 
 arrangement 
 carried out at 
 the great Belve- 
 dere gallery in 
 the Vatican, but 
 with the wider 
 space arched 
 and the nar- 
 rower spaces 
 decorated with 
 niches. This 
 system is evi- 
 dently suggested by the Roman triumphal arches, and it is only 
 in its continuous application to an exterior that any novelty 
 consists. B represents 
 the front of an earlier 
 church by Bramante, 
 at Abbiate-grasso, near 
 Milan, and in this case 
 the pillars are closely 
 coupled and superim- 
 posed, the archway 
 being turned from the 
 top of the upper tier. 
 This is a most excep- 
 tional treatment, and 
 resembles nothing so 
 much as the doorways 
 of the Church of St. 
 Mark at Venice. The 
 next diagram (C) repre- 
 sents the system known by the French as the "motif Palladio," 
 
 PAL. GIRAUD (TORLONIA), ROME. 
 
 Bramante, Archt.
 
 86 THE CULMINATION IN ROME. 
 
 loosely so named, as it was used by the ancients, reintroduced 
 before Palladio's time, and not specially characteristic of his 
 work, although a feature of his Basilica at Vicenza (Plate 58). 
 In this case, the arch in the central space springs from 
 the entablature, which serves to span the lesser side spaces. 
 The concentric archivolts in D are another favourite device 
 of Bramante, less used by his followers. The germ of this 
 arrangement appears in the interior of the Pazzi Chapel, by 
 Brunelleschi (page 17). In the transept of Santa Maria delle 
 Grazie, Milan (D), they are connected by medallions, and on the 
 doorway from Como Cathedral they are in more sedate fashion 
 united by four-sided panels (Plate 21). It will be observed that 
 nearly all of these variations result from the attempted combina- 
 tion of the lintel and the arch, or, in other words, of the Greek and 
 Etruscan principles. This impossible fusion is at once the logical 
 weakness and the actual vitality of the style. Neither in Latin 
 nor Italian times having been fully worked out, and possibly 
 incapable of solution, it affords scope for originality and great 
 variety of treatment. In one view of it, part of the course of 
 the architecture of ancient Rome was a transition from Greek 
 trabeation to Romanesque vaulted construction. The tendency 
 of the Renaissance was in this matter just in the opposite 
 direction ; it did not serve to unite more closely these uncon- 
 genial elements, and some of its best examples are those in 
 which the arch is almost if not entirely eliminated. In those 
 instances it is probable that their designers were consciously 
 adopting Greek methods and principles, that they had come 
 to distinguish between Roman and Greek, and in many cases 
 aimed at attaining the spirit of the latter, the superiority 
 of which they appreciated, however imperfectly they were 
 acquainted with the letter. The words of one of the Italian 
 chroniclers of the sixteenth century,* give a very good idea 
 of their mental attitude to Greek work: "The Romanes, 
 although they learned the upright manner of building of the 
 Grecians, neverthelesse, 1 afterward, when they became rulers 
 over the Grecians, it may be that some of them thereby became 
 licencious : but certaynely if a man might see the wonder- 
 full works which the Grecians then did make (which are 
 now almost all spoyled and cast downe in time of warre), hee 
 
 * Serlio in his Five Books of Architecture. The quotation is from the quaint 
 translation of 1611.
 
 A NEO-ROMAN TEMPLE. 
 
 would assuredly judge the Grecians worke to surpasse that of 
 the Latines farre." 
 
 It has been part of the purpose of this book to point out 
 how many of the Byzantine, Romanesque, and Gothic elements 
 were intermingled with the early Renaissance of Florence, 
 Milan, and Venice ; how little tendency to direct imitation 
 of classic models was manifested : and how slight a bondage 
 even to classical principles. But from the first years of the 
 sixteenth century these lingering elements of the Romanesqus 
 very quickly disappear, and 
 the following of the classic 
 styles is much closer, 
 although there is still no 
 direct reproduction, and 
 the forms and features 
 developed in the Gothic 
 and early Renaissance 
 periods (the church plan 
 and the dome, for example), 
 undergo continuous pro- 
 gress and improvement. 
 Between the motives of 
 the art of the Renaissance 
 and our fleeting revivals 
 of styles in modern days, 
 there is a great gulf fixed. 
 Had the Italian church- 
 builders of the sixteenth 
 century pursued the archi- 
 tectural methods of the 
 English Gothic revivalists 
 of the last generation, they would have attempted to reproduce 
 the temples, or at least the law court or Basilica, or the form of the 
 Roman houses where the earliest Christian churches assembled. 
 This was not their method, and where their arrangements were 
 not virtually original, designed to meet the wants of the time, 
 they were developments of mediaeval or Gothic practice, that is, 
 of the period immediately preceding. There is perhaps one excep- 
 tion to this, Bramante's Tempietto in the Cloisters of San Pietro in 
 Montorio (1502) the exception that proves the rule, because it 
 was erected as a shrine and memorial of a classic period, rather 
 
 CHAPEL IN CLOISTERS OF SAN PIETRO IN 
 MONTORIO, ROME. 
 
 Bramante, Archt.
 
 88 THE CULMINATION IN ROME. 
 
 than a place of worship, occupying the spot where the cross of 
 Peter the apostle is believed to have stood. And although the 
 form of the building and the columnar arrangement indicate that 
 it had been inspired by the Roman circular temples, there are 
 features which could scarcely have been supposed by their 
 author to be antique in style. Among these are the balustrade, 
 and the bold type of dome, which is certainly far removed from 
 that of antiquity. Judged on its own merits the whole design 
 is a beautiful exafaiple of simplicity and artistic restraint. 
 
 But when all is said it must be freely admitted that the 
 Renaissance from Bramante's day, partakes more essentially 
 of the nature of a classical revival than in its earlier stages, 
 
 From the painting by David Roberts, R.A. 
 
 ROME FROM SANT' ONOFRIO. 
 
 and that the arguments hitherto used as to its original, unique, 
 and (in the best sense) time-serving character lose much of 
 their force. We may base our estimate of its value on another 
 ground, that, namely, of its success. For there can be little 
 question that much of what was produced in this first half of 
 the sixteenth century was superior in many ways to anything 
 that had been done before. Never were the arts more perfectly 
 united in a common purpose, nor ever had they abler exponents. 
 In the painting of Botticelli, Raffaello, Sodoma, and Titian, 
 the sculpture of Michelangelo, and the architecture of Peruzzi 
 and Sanmicheli, all art, subsequent to that of Greece, culmi- 
 nated ; and the short interval embraced between the years 1506 
 and 1550, may almost be regarded as the most brilliant and 
 productive half century in the arts of form which the world has
 
 A CENTRE OF EUROPEAN INFLUENCE. 89 
 
 yet seen. And yet there is no Parthenon of the Renaissance, 
 no magnum opus in which is enshrined all that is greatest and 
 most perfect in the art of the epoch. Those works which 
 in a measure attain the perfection of the Parthenon, are of 
 small scale and importance, the great projects being rarely 
 if ever completed by their architects during lifetime, and 
 subjected at a later and decadent date to the most lamentable 
 alterations and deviations from the original intention. When 
 along with this the shortness of the period is remembered, 
 a mere flicker compared even with the evanescent flame of 
 Greek art, wonder will not be expressed at the want of complete 
 and representative works, but rather at the profusion and 
 brilliancy of the results. Why it should have been found 
 impossible to maintain it for a longer period is another question, 
 into which we may enter later : meantime, let us enjoy what 
 the genius of the time produced, however short its duration. 
 
 In so far as it was a revival of antique art the Renaissance 
 was appropriately consummated in the eternal city, heart 
 of the ancient world : and naturally, for Rome at the end of 
 the fifteenth century had recovered some shadow of its former 
 prosperity, and under the Pope Julius II. became once more 
 at least the art centre of the peninsula. It had drawn 
 Bramante from the service of Ludovico Sforza, Michelangelo 
 from the Medici, and Raffaello from Perugia. Once again it 
 was, in a limited sense, the capital of Italy, although Italy 
 might only exist as "a geographical expression;" and if it did 
 not wield its empire over Europe as in ancient times, it was 
 at least the centre of an influence, which to this day has 
 swayed the following course of the art and architecture of the 
 civilized world more than any other. It has been said that 
 in Brunelleschi's hands the architecture of the Renaissance 
 had a Tuscan or provincial character, while in the hands of 
 Alberti it became more Roman ;* and it may fairly be claimed 
 that if Bramante went farther and rendered it national or 
 peninsular, Peruzzi, Sanmicheli, and ultimately Palladio made 
 it European. The works rather than the lives of individual 
 architects concern us, and except for two names that naturally 
 stand out, Brunelleschi and Bramante, there is little necessity 
 for narrating the personal histories of those of the earlier 
 
 * Baron H. von Geymiiller.
 
 go THE CULMINATION IN ROME. 
 
 periods. The names now mentioned, however, Antonio San- 
 gallo, Raffaello, Peruzzi, Michelangelo, are so important and 
 recur so frequently that one cannot so easily pass them over 
 without at least a brief word of introduction. 
 
 Antonio Sangallo the younger (1485 1546) does not appear 
 to have been, like so many of his contemporaries, something 
 more than an architect, nor did he enter that profession or art 
 through the painter's or sculptor's workshop. He seems to have 
 become an architect much in the same way as men do nowadays, 
 by assisting others, notably his uncle Giuliano da San Gallo, 
 of Florence, and Antonio the brother of Giuliano, whose 
 beautiful church at Montepulciano (page 102), is one of the 
 most complete examples of the adaptation of the style to 
 church uses. Along with Peruzzi, Antonio the younger was 
 assistant and draughtsman to Bramante, when the last named 
 was architect at St. Peter's. Many years before his death 
 Bramante suffered from an affection of the limbs which pre- 
 vented him from drawing and otherwise incapacitated him,* 
 and there can be little doubt that the assistance of these 
 two architects went farther than is usual. In fact it would 
 not be unreasonable to attribute what is sometimes called 
 Bramante's ultima maniera, his second change of style, more to 
 his assistants than himself. This view makes Bramante^ com- 
 prehensible, as an artistic personality, not to say a social one, 
 while it is in accordance with what we know of the character 
 of the work of his pupils. The Palazzo Farnese was largely 
 built by Antonio, as also the smaller houses Sacchetti (his own 
 dwelling) and Palma, in Rome, all of which are admired for their 
 solidity and sobriety. 
 
 Baldassare Peruzzi (1481 1536) has been described as from 
 his birth the child of misfortune, but his lack of worldly success 
 need not blind our eyes to his very remarkable gifts and attain- 
 ments. His life is so interesting and such work as he accom- 
 plished so valuable, that it will become necessary to deal with 
 him in more detail ; meantime, to give some idea of his position 
 we may say that, by common consent (to quote a French writer) 
 he was raised to equal eminence with such men as Ariosto, 
 Tasso, Michelangelo, Raffaello and Bramante, " by his genius 
 and talents, and like them he contributed to the glory of the 
 
 * Vasari's Life of Antonio da Sangallo.
 
 PLATE XXXIII. 
 
 SIBYL AND THE EMPEROR AUGUSTUS. 
 
 FRESCO IX THE CHURCH OF FOXTEGIUSTA, SIENA. 
 
 BALDASSARK PERUZZI, Painter.
 
 FLORENTINE INFLUENCE AT ROME AND SIENA. 45 
 
 greatest work is probably the Palazzo di Venezia, built in 1455 
 by Francesco del Borgo di Santo Sepolcro for the Venetian 
 Cardinal who became Pope Paul II. The view of the door- 
 way from this building 
 bears out better than 
 any words what has 
 been said as to the 
 modification of archi- 
 tectural forms by 
 jewellery design and 
 goldsmith work. The 
 architrave is studded 
 with the semblance of 
 jewels, relieved with 
 delicate carving, while 
 the light and graceful 
 scrolls connecting the 
 little window with the 
 door cornice suggest 
 bands of beaten metal. 
 The arabesque type 
 of ornament, though 
 seldom employed at 
 Florence, flourished to 
 a greater degree at 
 Rome. The examples given in Plate 18 are the designs of 
 Baccio Pontelli for the doorway of the church of Sant' Agostino 
 at Rome, which has a faade in form very like Santa Maria 
 Novella at Florence, with volutes in the same position. The 
 ornaments, eight inches wide, are contained in two very long and 
 narrow pilasters under the trusses which carry the pediment, 
 the three to the left being parts of the left hand pilaster and vice 
 versa. In this early example floral and leaf forms are chiefly 
 employed, and the grotesque character afterwards developed 
 has not yet appeared. Of the same year (1483) is the delightful 
 example from Siena (Plate 19), the tomb of Bishop Tommaso 
 Piccolomini, of the family which gave Popes Pius II. and III. 
 to Rome. The effigy is a most beautiful example of careful 
 study and refined rendering of the human figure, and the whole 
 monument, equally with many another from Florence and Lucca, 
 shows the Tuscan sense of propriety, the qualities of grace and 
 scholarship, enhanced by skilful and tender manipulation. 
 
 DOOR OF PAL. VENEZIA, ROME.
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE OUT OF FLORENCE (14571525). 
 
 REASONS FOR CLASSIFICATION OF CENTRES AND DIVISION OF 
 SUBJECT DIVISIONS OF THE COUNTRY RELATIONS OF THE STATES AT 
 THE MIDDLE OF FIFTEENTH CENTURY MILAN THE FIRST GREAT 
 CENTRE OUT OF FLORENCE BRAMANTE DA URBINO THE ADVENT OF 
 PAINTER-ARCHITECTSFACADE OF CERTOSA DI PAVIA AND COMO CATHE- 
 DRAL, EXAMPLES OF A TRANSITIONAL STYLE S. MARIA DELLE GRAZIE 
 S. SATIRO THE CHANCEL THE SACRISTY DECORATION OF THE PILASTER 
 THE PECULIAR POSITION OF VENICE A NEW ROME ASSIMILATES THE 
 ART OF THE MILANESE LATENESS OF APPEARANCE OF RENAISSANCE- 
 SOME REASONS FOR THIS RELUCTANT ADOPTION GRADUAL GRAFTING 
 OF CLASSIC DETAILS UPON ESSENTIALLY MEDIAEVAL WORK DOGES' 
 PALACE PORTA DELLA CARTA AND QUADRANGLE S. MARIA DEI 
 MIRACOLI SUGGESTED BY BYZANTINE BUILDINGS, BUT WITH 
 CLASSIC TECHNIC SCUOLA DI SAN MARCO PERSPECTIVE RELIEFS 
 RUSKIN'S CLASSIFICATION INTERIOR OF S. MARIA DEI MIRACOLI 
 VENETIAN CHARACTER IN ORNAMENT THE DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 
 OF VENICE PAL. CORNARO SPINELLI, ITS BLENDING OF FLORENTINE 
 METHODS WITH VENETIAN GOTHIC PAL. VENDRAMINI, A STEP TOWARDS 
 CLASSICISM THE GROUPING OF THE CENTRAL WINDOWS CONFRATER- 
 NITA DI S. ROCCO PAL. CONTARINI DELLE FIGURE VERONA ORNA- 
 MENT IN S. ANASTASIA AND S. MARIA IN ORGANO PAL. CONSIGLIO 
 BRESCIA LA LOGGIA AND S. MARIA DEI MIRACOLI BOLOGNA PAL. 
 BEVILACQUA AND FAVA THE GENERAL CHARACTER OF BOLOGNESE RENAIS- 
 SANCE AND OF THE EARLY NORTH ITALIAN WORK SUMPTUOUS DETAIL 
 AND ' FANTASTIC COMPOSITION TENTATIVE, BUT FRUITFUL OF RESULTS 
 IN TIME SUCCEEDING.
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE OUT OF FLORENCE. 
 
 IN any treatment of the subject of Italian Renaissance Art 
 it seems natural and proper to break up the whole time into 
 three divisions the Early, the Culminating, and the Declining 
 Periods. But in order to deal with these, or any one of them, 
 in strictly chronological sequence, it would be necessary to pass 
 from one district to another in a manner somewhat distressing 
 to a moderate sense of locality ; while such a treatment would 
 be unscientific, in that the continuity of local progress would be 
 interrupted, and the local colour broken. For these reasons it 
 may be better, in dealing with each period, that its course in any 
 district w 7 here it appeared should be considered separately. This 
 procedure will cause us again to touch upon Florence and to 
 take up Rome at the point where we left off in the last chapter ; 
 and if, having fixed the source of what has been called "the 
 foul torrent of the Renaissance,"* we were anxious merely to 
 follow the current of the main stream, we should simply continue 
 the subject from that point. But having decided to stop there 
 meantime, we now explore a kind of backwater, which has its 
 own character and interest, and which after various modifica- 
 tions may be said to have ultimately found its way into the main 
 stream at Venice. The centres of Early Renaissance architec- 
 ture are not the usual elementary district divisions of Florence, 
 Rome, and Venice, but rather those of (i) Florence, (2) Milan, 
 and (3) Venice. Rome, as already mentioned, is almost wholly 
 dependent upon Florentine artists of indifferent skill, for any 
 work of this period done within its walls, most of it unimportant, 
 and not such as to entitle it to separate classification. Rome's 
 time of prosperity followed later, and in the culminating period 
 it was the chief centre ; Verona for the first time, and Venice 
 for the second time, becoming the centres of other schools. 
 The varying prosperity of towns, together with, in one or two 
 cases, the advent of some outstanding artist, gave some of the 
 
 * Ruskin's Seven Lamps of Architecture : The Lamp of Truth.
 
 48 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE OUT OF FLORENCE. 
 
 cities a different importance in different times, so that in the 
 Late Period, when we come to it, we shall find it necessary to 
 deal with the new centres of Vicenza and Genoa, along with 
 Rome again, and Venice for the third time. Venice is thus the 
 only centre which presents important examples of all three 
 periods. Every town in Italy bears the impress of the work of 
 these times, but nearly all can be referred to the influence of the 
 centres named at the particular periods. Adopting this treat- 
 ment, a difficulty presents itself in regard to the dates. For 
 example, the early Renaissance in Florence ends about 1500, 
 while in Venice it extends till 1525, overlapping the beginnings 
 of a new development in Florence and Rome. Disorder of 
 some sort is inevitable in any division of so complicated a matter 
 as the Italian Renaissance, though its treatment need not be 
 immethodical, and such a division as is here marked out will 
 conduce to the clearest and best idea of the subject. 
 
 It is necessary to have some comprehension of the partition 
 of the country at the time under review. Speaking broadly, the 
 divisions of Italy retained the same configuration as that into 
 which they had crystallized by the end of the eleventh cen- 
 tury: those most important to remember being the Dukedom 
 of Milan; the Republic of Venice; the Duchy of Ferrara; the 
 district of Romagna round Bologna, with the Duchies of Parma 
 and Modena, forming part of the Papal territory, and the Republic 
 of Florence. Besides these, there were the smaller Republics of 
 Genoa and Siena, and the Kingdom of Naples, that part of Italy 
 south of the Papal States. Without a clear conception of these ele- 
 ments of political geography the study of the history of the times 
 is impossible, and the variations of its architecture inexplicable. 
 
 At the middle of the fifteenth century we find Francesco 
 Sforza, Duke of Milan, administering the affairs of his seigniory 
 with conspicuous ability, and in 1466 see him succeeded by his 
 son, Galeazzo Maria, a ruler who has been described as another 
 Nero ; like him, at least in this, that with his open vices he mingled 
 some taste for science and the arts. A close and friendly relation 
 subsisted between the Sforza family and the Medici of Florence, 
 and the States of Milan and Florence were more than once allied 
 in warfare. The ambition of Venice, in the eyes of the govern- 
 ments of Italy, was at this time the chief danger to the balance 
 of power and the peace of the Peninsula. Receiving its first 
 rebuff in the East by the irruption of the Turks in 1453, its
 
 RELATIONS OF ITALIAN POWERS. 49 
 
 spread of empire on Italian soil was repeatedly checked by the 
 leagued armies of th'e country, and the interposition of other 
 European powers. The governments, both of Venice and 
 Florence, were nominally Republican, but present some striking 
 contrasts. Above the riotous disposition of the Florentines and 
 the undue influence of merchant princes there rested the fixed 
 ideals of personal freedom and popular government, in great 
 measure attained : the Republic of Venice, on the other hand, 
 is proverbial as an expression for a tyrant oligarchy ; and the 
 lesser degree of individual liberty is written unmistakably in 
 the Venetian art of the period. In Nicholas V. (1447 55) the 
 Chair of St. Peter had an occupant who evinced some desire for 
 the revival of arts and letters, but the rest of the Popes of the 
 fifteenth century showed more interest in the aggrandizement 
 and extension of their kingdom in earth. Alphonso of Arragon 
 was sovereign of Naples, or the Sicilies, at the middle of the 
 fifteenth century. At his death, in 1458, the island kingdom 
 and Naples were separated, and Ferdinand I. succeeded. This 
 ruler brought about some amelioration of the backward and 
 abject condition of the once Magna Grascia of a higher Hellenic 
 civilization, fifteen hundred years buried. In North Italy, 
 among the lesser powers, the Marquis of Ferrara appears to 
 have encouraged in his territory the love of the arts, and the 
 d' Este family, to which he belonged, were in this respect not 
 unworthy rivals of the other reigning families in Italy. Pisa 
 was a subject city of Florence, and Siena and Lucca, though 
 free communities, and capable of producing a school of artists 
 of great talents and originality, were upheld in their state of 
 independence rather by motives of jealousy among the con- 
 tiguous powers than by their own resources, much as Turkey is 
 able to hold its own to-day, or as Belgium and Holland have 
 remained inviolate amid the struggles of great empires. Such, 
 in broken outline, were the relations of the peninsular repub- 
 lics, duchies and kingdoms of the period at which this chapter 
 opens. In many respects which will readily suggest themselves, 
 Italy, then the foremost province of civilization, presents an 
 epitome of the history of the Europe of a later date. On the 
 little stage of Italian soil, with its changing background of the 
 arts, the larger drama of European evolution is rehearsed. 
 
 Beyond the limits of the territorial influence of Florence, 
 Milan was the first to transplant the new growth which had 
 A. E
 
 50 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE OUT OF FLORENCE. 
 
 blossomed in " the flower of cities." For about the middle 
 of the fifteenth century Florentine artists were employed in 
 various buildings in Milan; Antonio Filarete first, in 1457, at 
 the Great Hospital, a large building of terra cotta, semi-Gothic 
 in style, and Michelozzo at the Capella Portinari (1462) at San 
 Eustorgio. But the first outstanding architect with whom we 
 meet, and strangely enough, almost the only great artistic per- 
 sonality connected, at the period, with the places we are to con- 
 sider, was Donate Bramante da Urbino ; and since in the first 
 part of this chapter, not to speak of the next chapter on Rome, 
 we shall always be coming into contact with his work, the very 
 few facts known of his earlier life may be worth retailing. 
 
 Urbino, the capital of the duchy of that name, and the birth- 
 place of the still more famous Raffaello, is a small town, lying 
 some fifty miles south of Ravenna, and eighteen miles landward 
 from the Adriatic. It was in a house just outside Fermignano, a 
 village near Urbino, that Bramante was born (1444). The name 
 he bears signifies, in the Italian, " always longing," and his 
 career proved it to be an appropriate appellation. Of his youth, 
 little is known but that he had instruction in painting from 
 Andrea Mantegna at Mantua, where he may also have come 
 under the influence of Alberti, whose church of Sant' Andrea 
 was building in 1472. We have it too, from the writings 
 of almost an immediate successor (Serlio), that he was "first 
 a painter and had great skill in perspective art before he 
 applied himself to architecture." Architectural power seems 
 from his days to have passed into the hands of the painters, 
 who soon out-numbered the sculptor-architects of the Florentine 
 school. This was not without its effect upon the art, and 
 arose in part from the fictitious importance given at the time 
 to the science of perspective, in which the painters were 
 naturally more proficient. Not that it signified much in itself 
 whether the way to the practice of architecture lay past the 
 painter's easel or through the sculptor's bottega, so long as 
 the man qualified himself as an architect. It would be a 
 mistake to suppose, that because a few of the greatest architects 
 the world has seen found their way through the painters' and 
 sculptors' studios, that therefore such a training must, at any 
 period, best fit one for the work. These particular cases 
 only show that special capacity under favouring circumstances 
 will assert itself and find its true outlet. Many painters and
 
 THE CAREER OF BRAMANTE. 51 
 
 sculptors of the era made poor architects, and hundreds of them 
 never indicated any architectural skill whatever. The best of the 
 architects were those who laid everything aside for their art, 
 and became no longer painters and sculptors, but architects. 
 It was so with Brunelleschi, and Bramante, too, seems to have 
 laid aside his palette to give all his energies to the building art. 
 From Milan, where he appears to have been employed from 1476 
 to the end of the century, Bramante went to Rome, where his 
 first important works were the choir and cloister of the convent 
 church of Santa Maria della Pace. These were executed under 
 the direction of the Cardinal Oliviero Caraffa, and appear to 
 have recommended him to the Pope of the day, Alexander VI., 
 who, in 1500, gave him the commission to paint the pontifical 
 arms over the Porta Santa of the church of St. John Lateran, 
 a door which is opened only in the year of jubilee. This Pope 
 afterwards appointed Bramante as an assistant architect, but it 
 was only with the accession of Julian della Rovere (Julius II.) 
 that his opportunity arrived. Of that potentate's ambitious 
 schemes for a new Vatican and a new St. Peter's, Bramante 
 had full control till the death of the Pope in 1513. It would 
 not be fair implicitly to accept the view of Michelangelo's 
 latest biographer* that Bramante was "a manreuvring and 
 managing individual, entirely unscrupulous in his choice of 
 means, condescending to flattery and lies," because the interests 
 of Michelangelo and Bramante were constantly in -opposition, 
 partly on account of Raffaello da Urbino, who is believed to 
 have been Bramante's nephew. Whatever may have been the 
 weak points in his character, Bramante was an accomplished 
 architect, and filled a very large space in the minds of his con- 
 temporaries. The works of his later life and his connection 
 with St. Peter's may be left to the following chapter. 
 
 Taking leave of Bramante meantime, in order to consider 
 some of the chief buildings in progress at the time of his 
 early manhood in this district of Milan, we may first view the 
 fagade of the Certosa di Pavia (Plate 20). This part of "the 
 most magnificent monastery in the world" was begun in 1491, 
 and the names of Ambrogio Borgognone, Giovanni Antonio 
 Amadeo, and Agostino Busti have all been connected with the 
 design of the lower portion of the front. As an example of 
 
 * Symonds' Life of Michelangelo Buonarroti. 
 
 E 2
 
 52 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE OUT OF FLORENCE. 
 
 painter's architecture (for Borgognone, at least, was a painter 
 more than an architect) nothing could be finer, and it is im- 
 possible too greatly to praise the delicate perfection of the 
 details of the lower part. A change occurs at the level of the 
 triforium, or frieze of windows, and above that level the design 
 is simpler and more architectonic, while the detail and work- 
 manship degenerates. The architects here were Dolcebuono 
 and Cristoforo Solari. Broadly, the features worthy of notice 
 are the deep buttresses, and Gothic basement mouldings, and 
 
 the niches ; and passing 
 to the more classical 
 elements, the rectan- 
 gular window openings, 
 fwith broad architraves, 
 divided by an inner 
 $JS$, order of baluster, or more 
 
 correctly, candelabrum 
 shafts of magnificent 
 workmanship, in their 
 form suggested probably 
 by the work of Libero 
 Fontana, a silversmith 
 w r ho had caught the 
 inspiration of the Re- 
 naissance sooner. The 
 candelabra are con- 
 nected with insignificant 
 arches, and the whole 
 window covered with a 
 bold cornice surmounted 
 by a pediment (if we may call it so), bearing some resemblance 
 to the crowning ornament of the Greek hyperthyrion. In one 
 respect, at least, the fagade resembles much modern work 
 in that there is not " the indecency of a single bare square 
 foot of wall," every available spot being filled up with figures, 
 medallions with busts, or squares with circles of coloured 
 marble. The body of the church was begun nearly a century 
 before the facade, and is thus in the Italian Gothic style, so 
 that it lies outside our province. For although the prevalence 
 of the round arch in the work of the nave and cloisters 
 might lead us to assume an earlier or Romanesque period 
 
 CENTRAL SPIRE, CERTOSA DI PAVIA.
 
 PLATE XXI. 
 
 SOUTH DOORWAY OF THE CATHEDRAL, COMO. 
 
 DONATO BRAMANTK, AfcM.
 
 THE CERTOSA AND COMO CATHEDRAL. 
 
 53 
 
 for the date of the nave, the conjecture would be erroneous, 
 as the work was commenced in 1396. The exterior treat- 
 ment of the dome is a classical version of that of Chiaravalle 
 hard by, and is characteristic of the district. Although the 
 construction of the interior is Gothic, it is profusely decorated 
 with work almost entirely in the early Renaissance style. 
 Of such is the doorway illustrated, by Amadeo, a Lombard 
 sculptor-architect of the period. Like the Certosa itself, the 
 door is only beautiful 
 up to a certain level, 
 and falls away after 
 that is reached. The 
 splayed ingoing with 
 its continuous cap, 
 most char m i ngly 
 sculptured, is a pleas- 
 ing variation of the 
 Florentine treatment. 
 The workmanship on 
 the lower part of this 
 doorway, like that of 
 the fa9ade, is magnifi- 
 cent, and the delicacy 
 of the carving un- 
 rivalled. The cresting 
 over the door pediment 
 is suggestive of gold- 
 smith influence, and if 
 it be considered along 
 with the crowning 
 ornament of the win- 
 dows of the fa9ade 
 and their candelabra shafts, some idea will be formed of the 
 closeness with which these Lombard craftsmen were following 
 the motifs of metal. 
 
 A building of a similar type and of this period, scarcely further 
 removed from Milan on the other side, is the Cathedral of 
 Como. In this beautiful building, constructed of white marble, 
 the transitional style is really seen to better advantage than 
 in the grandiose Certosa. Here again are the deep buttresses, 
 the corbelled-out figures, the fanciful pinnacles, but the restraint 
 
 DOOR OF OLD SACRISTY, CERTOSA DI PAVIA. 
 
 A madeo, Archt. 
 Scale i/8th of an inch to one foot.
 
 54 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE OUT OF FLORENCE. 
 
 of the true architect makes itself felt for the better. It is not 
 likely to have been from lack of resources, else the pinnacles 
 would scarcely have blossomed out in the way they do : and 
 one of the strong points of the design is the massive solidity 
 and simplicity of the lower part of the building as opposed to 
 the delicate richness of the sky-line (see Frontispiece). Spanish 
 
 EAST ESI 
 
 THE CATHEDRAL, COMO. 
 
 Rodari and Solari, Archts. 
 
 influence has been suggested, but so far as work of a similar type 
 is concerned, Spain was at least twenty-five years later, and there 
 is no doubt that this originated in Italy. The south doorway 
 (Plate 21) is attributed to Bramante (1491), and it may be that 
 to him also we owe the elevation of the south aisle wall. There 
 is no doubt he worked in Lombardy, and we shall have occasion 
 to stud}- some work of his immediately in Milan ; besides, the
 
 PLATE XXII. 
 
 SANTA MARIA DELLE GRAZIE, MILAN.
 
 MILANESE CHURCHES. 55 
 
 composition of the door is of a type in which Bramante delighted, 
 consisting of two concentric arches on pilasters joined by a 
 series of seven four-sided panels, the reveal being left severely 
 square. The lunette is occupied by a sculpture-picture of a 
 favourite subject, the " Flight into Egypt." The church is 
 cruciform in plan, resembling the Cathedral of Florence, on a 
 much smaller scale, and the tri-apsidal arrangement is common 
 to both. The greater part of this building, including the tran- 
 septs and choir, was the joint work of Tommaso Rodari and 
 Cristoforo Solari, Lombard architects of the latter part of the 
 fifteenth century. 
 
 Part of the better known abbey church of Santa Maria delle 
 Grazie at Milan (Plate 22), has been ascribed to Bramante (1492), 
 and with some reason, at least of the sort that may be dis- 
 tinguished as internal evidence. Over a basement of rich 
 mouldings and a band of great medallions, there rises a series 
 of rectangular recesses in close juxtaposition, some of which 
 are made use of as windows, the others having been evidently 
 destined for some kind of decoration. On the mullions dividing 
 these openings are placed pilasters on pedestals, with an inter- 
 mediate baluster' shaft over the centre of the space below, an 
 arrangement which seems to have been a favourite one with 
 Bramante. In place of the semidomes of Como, the apsidal 
 chapels are covered by a simple, boldly projecting tile roof. That 
 the upper parts of the church were erected by Bramante is not so 
 probable ; they are, however, thoroughly typical of the district, 
 and in harmony with the rest of the work. The solution of the 
 great dome problem is much less heroic than that of Brunel- 
 leschi, at Florence (completed in its essential part half a century 
 previous), but it has many merits, and is scarcely less beautiful. 
 Its family likeness to that at the Certosa di Pavia (page 52) 
 scarcely needs to be remarked. Whether or not the design as it 
 is now realised is the work of Bramante, the Early Renaissance 
 does not furnish a composition more happily inspired. 
 
 The Church of Santa Maria near San Satiro (which hence- 
 forward we shall call San Satiro for brevity) in the same city, 
 has also been attributed to Bramante, and with regard to the 
 sacristy, there can be little possible doubt that he was the 
 author of its existence. The remarkable point about the church 
 (begun about 1474) is that, owing to some re-arrangement of 
 adjoining streets, the architect having built his nave was left
 
 56 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE OUT OF FLORENCE. 
 
 without room for a chancel. The manner in which this little 
 difficulty was overcome is so remarkable, that it will not so 
 much as be guessed at, by those who have had no information 
 on the point. It was, in fact, to construct in low relief a chancel 
 with its ornament and decoration in perspective. The effect of 
 this, seen from the middle of the nave, may be tolerable, but 
 when viewed from other parts, its effect may be as well imagined 
 as described. Bramante had doubtless seen or heard of the 
 earlier octagonal sacristy at Santo Spirito in Florence, and 
 in the case of the Sacristy of San Satire (1498) he adopted 
 the octagonal form with semicircular niches on a small scale 
 (Plate 23). The proportions differ, the Milanese example being 
 higher in relation to its diameter, consequently the side of the 
 octagon is much attenuated. Probably for this reason Bramante 
 employed a single pilaster bent to the angle, instead of pilasters 
 coupled near the corners, leaving the angles free, as in the 
 Florentine example (page 39) ; and by this he secured a much 
 greater appearance of rigidity and unity of design. At first blush 
 of it the arrangement startles, but on closer acquaintance its 
 reasonableness is forced in upon one, and it is impossible not to 
 admire the resource by which the difficulty is overcome, even if 
 the expedient itself be not approved. The breaking back of the 
 entablature over the pilaster, in this case, is a masterly touch. 
 At first sight it would seem as if the awkwardness would half 
 disappear if the entablature had been carried round without 
 a break, supported on the angle pilasters ; but consideration 
 will show that it was necessary to carry up these lines, so 
 bringing the pilaster in harmony with the entablature, con- 
 necting it with the upper tier, and giving force and strength 
 to the angles. From the clever way in which this difficulty 
 is surmounted alone, one would be inclined to accept the 
 view that the architect of the sacristy and the constructor of 
 the perspective chancel were one and the same. The shell 
 ornament does not seem to have occurred to the Florentine 
 architects as a very suitable ceiling for a semicircular niche, 
 but it is here very skilfully employed, carried as it is upon 
 a recessed order, and surrounded by a relieved archivolt. A 
 departure from the sacristy of Cronaca is the rich triforium 
 treatment of the first-floor storey; and a striking peculiarity 
 are the large leaf consoles taking the place of the pillar or can- 
 delabrum pillar, which in early work of Bramante we might
 
 PLATE XXIII. 
 
 SACRISTY OF SANTA MARIA, NEAR SAN SATIRO, MILAN. 
 
 DONATO BKAMANTE, A
 
 BRAMANTE'S OCTAGON AT MILAN. 57 
 
 naturally expect to see. The light in this case is derived wholly 
 from elliptical openings in the sides of the cupola. Ambrogio 
 Foppa (nicknamed Cara d' Osso bear's face), a native of 
 Milan,* modelled the splendid frieze of child figures and great 
 heads in terra cotta, overlaid with bronze. Recollecting what 
 has been said about the characteristics of Florentine work, 
 it will be seen that the decoration of the main pilaster with 
 arabesque ornament indicates a change. The Florentines seem 
 to have felt the arabesque out of place in a pilaster, where 
 strength, or the appearance of it, was required, as, for example, 
 in the Florentine example referred to, the Sacristy of Santo 
 Spirito, where the pilasters are fluted. But Bramante seems 
 to have overcome such scruples, if he ever had them himself, 
 and from this time for half a century, the ornamental pilaster, 
 perhaps unfortunately, became an indispensable feature of North 
 Italian work. 
 
 Leaving the immediate surroundings of Milan we might 
 travel through Lombardy by way of Bergamo, Brescia, and 
 Verona, and by gradual change of feature and treatment, 
 scarcely be conscious, on arrival at Venice, of any distinctive 
 character separating the Milanese and Venetian schools. Their 
 individuality will appear more clearly if we transport ourselves 
 at once to Venice. A few sentences are, however, necessary 
 to explain the peculiar position of this capital. 
 
 The Republic of Venice reached the pinnacle of her greatness 
 about the end of the fifteenth century, having extended her 
 dominion seawards to Dalmatia and Crete, and landwards to 
 Padua, Vicenza, Verona, Brescia, and as far as Bergamo, almost 
 at the gates of Milan. These Italian cities were all acquired 
 during the fifteenth century, and in the market place of each 
 of them was set up the Lion of Saint Mark in token of their 
 subjugation. We naturally, therefore, look for, and find in 
 these towns signs of Venetian influence during that period, and 
 for some time afterwards. But there is another side to the 
 shield. Conquerors have always been willing to learn art from 
 those they have been able to subjugate, and the successful feuds 
 with the Milanese were the indirect means of introducing 
 much Lombardic influence into Venetian territory. The archi- 
 tect of the Porta della Carta, for example, was a native of 
 
 * Memoirs of Benvenuto Cellini.
 
 58 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE OUT OF FLORENCE. 
 
 Bergamo, and the Lombardi family, who so enriched Venice 
 with their works, belonged probably, as the name suggests, 
 to some part of Lombardy. In this, as in other tendencies, 
 Venice very much resembled Rome, which gathered to itself, in 
 the time of its greatness, the styles of the known world. For 
 Venice was another meeting place of East and West, in its 
 early years assimilating Byzantine and Arabic, and now in the 
 sixteenth century, turning to amalgamate with its own hetero- 
 geneous styles, the rising renaissant art of the Milanese : not 
 that of Florence, be it observed. 
 
 Among the first things that strikes one in studying this 
 matter, is the fact that the first appearance of a truly Renais- 
 sance building in Venice is so late as about 1470. When it is 
 remembered that Brunelleschi had opened his career by build- 
 ing the Capella Pazzi at Florence in 1420, that the Palazzo 
 Riccardi dated from 1430, and that eager hands all over 
 Italy were carrying on the style Brunelleschi had initiated, 
 it is remarkable that fifty years should elapse before its adop- 
 tion at Venice, and that it should reflect so little Florentine 
 character. Various circumstances unite to account for this, 
 and a very brief outline of its history will serve to make it 
 comprehensible. 
 
 The original stock, from whom Venice takes its name, were 
 the Veneti, who peopled the district round Padua, on the 
 mainland, in very early times. In the second century before 
 Christ they concluded an alliance with Rome, and in the time of 
 the emperors the district prospered greatly. On the irruption 
 of the Northern hordes, Padua, the capital, and after Rome the 
 wealthiest town in Italy, was destroyed, a remnant of the inhabi- 
 tants taking refuge in the islands of the Lagune, where they 
 came under the protection of the Eastern Emperor, who was 
 represented by an Exarch at Ravenna. Rudely separated from 
 their native soil, they began life anew on the desolate mud- 
 banks of Torcello and Rivoalto, and out of hardness and toil 
 and obscurity proceeded the greatest of the mediaeval republics. 
 By the time of the fifteenth century Venice was the emporium 
 of the commerce of Europe, and had great power and influence 
 both by land and sea. Its history was therefore of a unique 
 character, and in relation to such ancient cities as Florence and 
 Rome, it stood much as America stands to the older powers 
 of Europe. The enthusiasm begotten of a newly discovered
 
 RELATIONS OF VENICE AND FLORENCE. 59 
 
 antiquity of renown was lost upon the Venetians. They had 
 no part in a great Etrurian civilization, from which even 
 Florence felt proud to claim descent; nor could they ardently 
 join in the contemplation of the past glories of a world-wide 
 empire. Instead of the shadow they had the substance, and 
 if in the fifteenth century they had not surpassed the conquests 
 and greatness of ancient Rome, they may have fondly imagined 
 that they had. Thus the element of sympathy was wanting, 
 and it was possible that they had a touch of contempt for the 
 Florentines, in so far as they lived in the past among the ancient 
 manuscripts, rather than in the present. But a more potent 
 cause of contempt presents itself in the events of the period. 
 In 1438 the Florentines most generously came to the assist- 
 ance of the Venetians in endeavouring to preserve Bergamo 
 and Brescia, threatened by the Duke of Milan, and for 
 several years they fought side by side against the Milanese. 
 Various circumstances led the Florentines to take another 
 view of things, and promptly to go over to the enemy. In 
 retaliation the Venetians, about 1440, published a decree 
 expelling every Florentine, and forbidding them the exercise 
 of any commerce within the town. The war between Venice 
 and Florence, in 1467, was a farther result of this bitter- 
 ness, though directly instigated by the exiles from Florence. 
 No territorial changes resulted from this "war," which, "in 
 accordance with the custom of the times,"* did not occasion 
 a single death, and consisted of "some slight skirmishes," and 
 the wounding of a few horses, each side behaving with quite 
 remarkable cowardice ; but it had its effect in still farther 
 alienating the two powerful neighbours. Altogether it is not 
 surprising that Venice should have' drawn her architects and 
 the forms of her architecture, not from Florence directly, but 
 rather from the districts of Lombardy which she had conquered 
 and naturalized, although, as we shall find, she put her own 
 stamp upon them. 
 
 It has been shown that there was no transition in Florence. 
 Although Brunelleschi frequently retained Gothic ideas and 
 systems, his personal study of the antique forms at Rome had 
 led him to attempt nothing less than their restoration in purity ; 
 and some of his pupils and successors in Florence went even 
 
 * Machiavelli's History of Florence.
 
 60 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE OUT OF FLORENCE. 
 
 farther, and attempted not only the revival of the technic, but of 
 the Roman architecture. But one can readily understand that 
 in the more remote parts of the country the new or resuscitated 
 forms would graft themselves upon those in use, not, perhaps, 
 so much because their architects loved them, as that they 
 could not resist the tendency towards their reproduction. The 
 first indication of this in Venice is to be found in the western 
 or Piazzetta fa9ade of the Doges' Palace, though at first sight 
 or in general form there appears nothing classical about it. 
 
 Part of this was built in 
 the years 1424 to 1442 in 
 continuation of the Gothic 
 palace, thus beginning a 
 little later but almost co- 
 incident with the building 
 of Brunelleschi's dome, 
 and his palaces and 
 classical churches. And 
 even at this date there is 
 nothing in the elevation to 
 justify its being classified 
 as transitional work, 
 although in the details 
 of the capitals of the 
 eleven bays next to the 
 entrance, there is an 
 absence of the symbolism 
 which characterises the 
 series on the sea front, 
 and the introduction of 
 classical subjects.* But in the Porta della Carta (so called from 
 the cards or placards announcing theedicts of the Republic) omens 
 more unmistakable of the new art influence present themselves. 
 The composition is wholly Gothic, but signs of classical influ- 
 ence are observable in the treatment of the mouldings and in 
 the shell, though this form might at any time be looked for in a 
 city whose boundaries were the salt sea waves. And a stronger 
 indication of classical feeling is the admixture of cupids among 
 the leaves, for in the words of a recent writer, "it was already 
 
 DETAIL OF THE PORTA DELLA CARTA, 
 DOGES' PALACE, VENICE. 
 
 * Ruskin's Stones of Venice, in the second volume of which there is a remarkable 
 account of these sculptures.
 
 ROMAN FEATURES GRAFTED ON VENETIAN DESIGN. 6r 
 
 the time of the Renaissance, and all the uncleanly gods of the 
 heathen, with all their fables, were coming back, for the 
 diversion and delight of the licentious and learned." (!)* This 
 was the work (1439 43) of Bartolomeo Buon, the Bergamo 
 architect already mentioned. The name is inscribed on the 
 lintel of the door below, simply " Opus Bartolomei." In the 
 interior of the court there are clearer signs of Renaissance 
 influence, but this is some fifty or sixty years later in date, 
 and after buildings on purely classical lines had been erected 
 
 GIANTS STAIRCASE, DOGES' PALACE VENICE. 
 
 in Venice. Even then, however, the pointed arch has been 
 constructed, so firm were the roots of the Venetian Gothic. 
 The little fagade beyond the Giants' Stair is worthy of notice, 
 being the work (in 1520) of another Bergamo architect, known 
 as Guglielmo Bergamasco, and the detail of the window (page 62) 
 gives a good idea of the character of his work. The staircase 
 itself belongs to the end of the fifteenth century, and was 
 executed by Antonio Bregni (Rizzi) ; but Sansovino's statues 
 of Mars and Neptune, from which it derives its name, belong 
 to the middle of the sixteenth century. 
 
 * Mrs. Oliphant in Makers of Venice.
 
 62 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE OUT OF FLORENCE. 
 
 Almost fresh from the Church of Santa Maria delle Grazie at- 
 Milan, and Bramante's Sacristy of San Satiro, let us visit a 
 church at Venice, one of the earliest and best examples, Santa 
 Maria dei Miracoli, begun six or seven years after those Milanese 
 buildings. The first thing that will strike one is the shape of 
 the cupola, which suggests the domes of St. Mark. Like the 
 dome of St. Mark, too, it is over a square plan, although even 
 from the exterior we can see that it is not carried upon arches ; 
 
 in fact the position 
 is unusual, being 
 above the chancel. 
 The composition 
 from this point of 
 view is extremely 
 pleasing. The 
 simple and artless 
 way in which the 
 coloured marbles 
 are inlaid is 
 delightful. In 
 examples only a 
 few years later we 
 rind them framed 
 and suspended 
 with ribbons in a 
 somewhat ridicu- 
 lous fashion. But 
 what can be said 
 of the composition 
 of the principal 
 
 WINDOW IN THE CORTILE OF THE DOGES' PALACE, VENICE. elevation (pagC 
 
 64) ? The smug- 
 ness and woodenness so painfully apparent are in part due 
 to modern restoration, but under no circumstances could it 
 have ranked as a successful composition. The fact is, that 
 the church exterior was to the early Renaissance architect his 
 most difficult problem, and to the end of his time he never 
 succeeded in solving it. There is scarcely so much as an 
 attempt in Florence the Church of the Annunziata is smothered 
 in a long and deep portico mainly of the seventeenth century, 
 and the Santo Salvator del Monte is severely plain and almost
 
 BYZANTINE DESIGN RATIONALIZED. 
 
 barn-like, despite some merit. To the exterior of these this one 
 bears no resemblance, and scarcely more to the Certosa or 
 Santa Maria delle Grazie. Whence then had Lombardo his 
 prototype or suggestion for this exterior ? A reasonable theory 
 is that these scattered pilasters are really the classicising of 
 the Romanesque pilaster strips, which the architect might see 
 any day at San Zeno, Verona, the Romanesque buildings at 
 Venice, or at the earlier buildings of Ravenna, where they 
 are simple brick projections, joined by round arches at the 
 top. As for the 
 round roof and pedi- 
 ment, we do not meet 
 with them in other 
 districts in early 
 Renaissance work, 
 and it is quite ap- 
 parent that the form 
 is suggested by the 
 Byzantine roofs of 
 St. Mark's. Here, 
 however, the form is 
 openly confessed, 
 and is not hidden 
 behind an ogee frilling 
 of crockets, as on the 
 Cathedral. The facts 
 seem to be either that 
 Pietro Lombardo had 
 a somewhat hazy idea 
 of what classical 
 architecture was, 
 although he had acquired (most probably in Lombardy) a 
 Roman technic, or that he was even less desirous than Bru- 
 nelleschi of constructing a Graeco- Roman edifice. It appears 
 that he sought, with what knowledge he possessed, to purify 
 the current architecture of Venice, and tried to get to the roots 
 of things. In so doing he traced the strips to the pilaster, 
 and in the ogee sky-line of St. Mark's he found a corruption 
 of the true late Roman form of roof, which he restored in 
 comparative purity. For it need hardly be explained that the 
 roofs of St. Mark's, like genuine Byzantine roofs, and, to go 
 
 EXTERIOR OF CHANCEL, S. MARIA DEI MIRACOLI, VENICE. 
 P. Lombardo, Archt.
 
 64 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE OUT OF FLORENCE. 
 
 further back, like the roofs of the Basilica of Constantine and 
 the Roman baths, were round wagon vaults, showing both 
 internally and externally. 
 
 If further proof were wanting that the type of the early 
 Venetian Renaissance was not something outside Venice, not 
 Greek nor Roman buildings, surely the Scuola di San Marco 
 (1485) (Plate 24) would be sufficient to carry conviction. 
 The likeness to the fa9ade of the Cathedral of St. Mark is 
 
 strikingly close, 
 and there can be 
 no doubt that to 
 a certain extent it 
 formed the model 
 on which this 
 curious structure 
 was designed. We 
 cannot say that it 
 shows an advance 
 upon its prototype, 
 but its designer 
 (Martino Lom- 
 bardo) was honest 
 in his aim of 
 refining the pro- 
 portions, and puri- 
 fying Byzantine 
 detail, having 
 traced it back to 
 its classic source. 
 There certainly 
 never was a build- 
 
 ing quite ] j k fi J t 
 
 in Rome, or Roman Italy, and it is on the whole the most 
 fantastic work of the early Renaissance. One remarkable 
 feature about the front is the attempt to picture a colonnade 
 in perspective relief. Even in this the recessed doorways of 
 St. Mark's are suggested. The building is about ten or eleven 
 years later than San Satiro at Milan, and it is possible that 
 the monstrous idea originated there, though in this case with- 
 out the excuse it had in Milan, that it was forced upon the 
 architect, and was merely an expedient to overcome a serious 
 
 FACADE OF SANTA MARIA DEI MIRACOLI, VENICE. 
 
 P. Lombardo, Archt.
 
 THE DISCOVERY AND ABUSE OF PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 difficulty. But such caprices were not .uncommon among the 
 architects of the time, and in many similar ways did they 
 exhibit their delight at the discovery of their ability to represent 
 on a limited plane surface the effects of distance and fore- 
 shortening. " How charming a thing is this perspective ; oh, 
 if I could only get you to understand the delights of it I " the 
 painter, Paolo Uccelli, who was the first to apply it to advan- 
 tage, was wont to say to his wife when she nightly called him 
 from his arduous labours to repose. So entirely did he give 
 himself up to the fascinating pursuit that he failed to rise 
 above mediocrity in his art, notwithstanding great inventive 
 abilities. And so it might be said that these architects, in 
 their huge de- 
 light in the 
 new science, 
 had by its abuse 
 imperilled their 
 own reputation 
 and that of 
 their works for 
 anything else 
 but oddity. 
 There is often 
 more than one 
 way of classi- 
 fying an object 
 or a series, and 
 one need not 
 
 then be surprised to learn that Ruskin classifies this and the 
 other buildings of our subject along with the "Gothic School," 
 and as " consisting of its first corruptions." No architect will 
 hold this view for a moment, for he knows that between the 
 Doges' Palace fagade and such a one as this there is nothing 
 less than an architectural revolution ; but the terms may be 
 transferred to a bit of building adjoining the fagade, which is 
 strictly transitional, and may be so classified the doorway, 
 namely, of the Church of Santi Giovanni e Paolo, on the right 
 hand of Plate 24, with its pointed arch springing from an 
 entablature of classic form. 
 
 In the interior of the Church of Santa Maria dei Miracoli, 
 the architect shows much more skill than in his treatment 
 
 INTERIOR OF SANTA MARIA DEI MIRACOLI, VENICE. 
 
 P. Lombardo, Archt.
 
 66 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE OUT OF FLORENCE. 
 
 of its exterior. The work is of a very high order indeed, 
 and one of the finest examples of its kind. The whole walls 
 are lined with marble slabs, separated by stiles of slight pro- 
 jection, and of a stronger colour, in most severely simple 
 rectangles. All the carving on the white marbje pilasters 
 and doorways is of the most refined and delicate description. 
 The roof is barrel vaulted, being also round outside, and at 
 the springing internally rises from an arcade formed of small 
 
 transverse coves. 
 The arrangement of 
 the chancel and the 
 two ambone with 
 the doors right 
 under is unique, but 
 the high and steep 
 stairway recalls 
 the rude flight of 
 steps which inter- 
 sects "the stern 
 ledges that sweep 
 round the altar of 
 Torcello." Changed, 
 however, is the dis- 
 position of the 
 arrangements from 
 the mother church 
 in the ninth century, 
 where the bishop 
 sat in the east end 
 of the apse facing 
 the people, the altar 
 being in front of 
 him. Here the priest perforce turns his back to the people, 
 and all the change from the Communion to the Mass is mani- 
 fested ; in such ways does architecture chronicle history. At 
 the other end square marble pillars support a gallery, which 
 is screened off from the rest of the church, forming a separate 
 room. The illustration is of the exquisite frieze and capital 
 at the chancel arch, among the most beautiful of the period 
 anywhere. The style is usually called by ornamentists the 
 cinque cento, but the finest examples belong to the last quarter 
 
 CAPITAL AND ENTABLATURE, CHURCH OF SANTA MARIA 
 DEI MIRACOLI, VENICE. 
 
 P. Lombardo, Archt. 
 
 Scale 3/8ths of an inch to one foot.
 
 w. j. A. del. 
 MARBLE PILASTER. CAI'ELLA GESU, SANT'ANASTASIA, VERONA.
 
 SEA-BORN ORNAMENT. 
 
 67 
 
 of the quattro cento, or the /owrteen hundreds (or, as we call it, 
 fifteenth century) ; and there is possibly more of the arabesque 
 ornament in Italy belonging to the quattro cento than the 
 cinque cento. This delightful example is distinguished by a 
 simple naturalism, as in the treatment of the leaves and birds, 
 and in the amphibious element appropriate to the Venetians. 
 The distinctive Roman enriched mouldings of the architrave 
 and cornice are tenderly sculptured as they never were in Rome, 
 whilst the frieze is undercut like most Venetian work, but in a 
 most reserved and delicate manner. 
 
 A richer but scarcely finer example of Venetian carving is the 
 frieze from a 
 doorway in the 
 Doges' Palace. 
 Here, instead 
 of the low re- 
 lief of the last 
 example, or 
 the still lower 
 relief of Flo- 
 rentine work, 
 there is very 
 bold under- 
 cutting, the 
 forms of the 
 foliage and the 
 whole feeling 
 
 suggesting seaweed as much as anything, and quite likely it 
 may have been inspired by that form of vegetation, th most 
 familiar to the Venetians, as the acanthus to the Greeks, or 
 as the oak leaf to the English. The bracket is a very daintily 
 executed piece of work, with considerable natural freedom, and 
 the panelled architrave, which in Florence would probably 
 be the part most enriched, is left severely plain. Highly 
 characteristic, too, of Venetian ornament, are the details from 
 the beautiful marble chimney-piece in an audience-chamber 
 of the Palace (page 68). 
 
 The Grand Canal, the finest curved street in the world, is 
 lined, almost from end to end, with the palazzi of the great 
 Venetian families. These are of all periods, from the Byzantine 
 to the eighteenth century, but there are few indeed, which in 
 
 F 2 
 
 anranr-jnr JIT nt TIT "m ire jre j 
 
 UJUULJUOUULLLLUJJ 1 1 J 1 1 m: i 
 
 ENTABLATURE OVER DOOR, DOGES' PALACE, VENICE.
 
 68 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE OUT OF FLORENCE. 
 
 simple grace and beauty can vie with the Palazzo Cornaro-Spinelli, 
 presumably a work of the Lombardi. The designer, whoever he 
 may have been, had in this case some notion of the work 
 at Florence initiated fifty years before ; at least, one would be 
 
 W. J. A.: DEL. 
 
 DETAILS OF MARBLE CHIMNEY-PIECE, DOGES' PALACE, VENICE. 
 
 inclined so to infer from the rusticated basement, of which this is 
 the first example in Venice. The free distribution of the windows 
 in the basement is interesting, and shows the advantage of being 
 sometimes relieved of the orders. These are employed only in 
 the form of pilasters, strengthening and stiffening the angles.
 
 1
 
 DOMESTIC BUILDINGS OF VENICE. 
 
 69 
 
 The plain wall space between the windows gives relief, and 
 sufficient contrast is afforded to the two similar upper storeys 
 by the varying shapes and projections of the balconies, together 
 with the simple entablature of small projection which crowns 
 the fagade. The trefoil balcony is a beautiful feature, but what 
 should be specially noticed is the Gothic roundness of the sections 
 of the window tracery bars, and the delightfully natural leaf form 
 of the eye, which in other examples becomes a circle. In pro- 
 portion the fagade makes a perfect square of just sixty-one feet. 
 
 The Palazzo 
 Vendramini (Plate 
 26), by*Pietro Lom- 
 bardo (1481), is 
 another of more 
 advanced charac- 
 ter, but still within 
 our limits. The 
 tracery has assumed 
 a more classical 
 character, in so far 
 as the tracery bars 
 are flatter in the 
 face, partaking 
 more of the nature 
 of archivolts, and 
 the eye is depraved 
 to a circular form. 
 The orders are 
 applied throughout, 
 and the monotony 
 of an equal division 
 of height to some extent avoided by the introduction of a 
 balcony at the principal floor, and the irregular and massive 
 treatment of the basement, while in horizontal spacing it is 
 counteracted by the grouping of the central windows in the 
 manner characteristic of all Venetian building of every age. 
 This irregularity, which has given to Venetian domestic archi- 
 tecture much of its charm, arises in a very simple way. These 
 Venetian palazzi were nearly always detached blocks, and 
 light was to be obtained from the sides as well as the front 
 and back. Instead, therefore, of two suites of rooms, one 
 
 PAL. CORNARO-SPINELLI, VENICE.
 
 70 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE OUT OF FLORENCE. 
 
 behind another, lighted, one from the front and one from the 
 back, the habit was formed of having three parallel suites, 
 extending from front to back, the central one being the grand 
 hall, occupying sometimes the full depth of the building, and 
 lighted from front and back. It was thus necessary to secure 
 as much light as possible for the hall at each end, and so the 
 windows were massed together in the centre of the fa9ade. The 
 plan and section of the larger Palazzo Cornaro (Plates 53, 54) 
 will give some idea of the prevalent arrangement. 
 
 With the exception of these palaces there is no more repre- 
 sentative work of the early Renaissance in Venice than the 
 Confraternita di San Rocco (begun 1517), and nowhere is the 
 exuberant imagination of the artists displayed to better advan- 
 tage. Especially is this the case in the fagade to the little court, 
 with the broken entablature and detached columns, which in 
 Plate 27 is shown much foreshortened. The most singular 
 feature is the wreath round the fluted pillars, one being of 
 interlaced vine, another of laurel, and another of oak. The 
 abacus of the capitals is supported by figures at the angles, 
 and at the corners of the plinth, where in mediaeval work one 
 sometimes finds the spur, are carved animals, elephants, lions, 
 bears, four inches high. Less interesting, but showing excellent 
 treatments of windows, are the other fagades. The sections of 
 the jambs are particularly good, and the lower window a capital 
 example of the Renaissance tracery. The upper window and 
 the classicised niche are also worthy of study, but are not so 
 happy as the lower window, which is almost certainly inspired 
 by the Palazzo Cornaro-Spinelli. 
 
 The Palazzo Contarini delle Figure (page 71), is also of this 
 period, though possibly a little later than any of the other 
 domestic examples mentioned. The traceried windows have 
 been given up, and single windows of very high proportion sub- 
 stituted. The central windows are grouped as usual, but the 
 pediment uniting them is in this connection an innovation, and 
 not a very happy one. Between the windows of the mezzanine 
 over the water storey, and between the arched windows of the 
 top floor, are the pateras and oblongs of coloured marbles, 
 already referred to in connection with the Miracoli church, 
 but in this case framed with mouldings and tied up with 
 ribbons. Striking features in the principal storey are the 
 trophies suspended from the tops of trees, off which the
 
 VERONESE ORNAMENT. ?I 
 
 branches have been lopped, with just a stray leaf delicately 
 carved, here and there, almost upon the wall surface. Ruskin 
 has suggested that it is as if the workman had intended to 
 leave us an image of the expiring naturalism of his so-styled 
 " Gothic School." 
 
 In the towns lying between Venice and Milan, as has been 
 already indicated, the character of the work suggests influence 
 from both sides. Verona, almost the first town we come to 
 travelling westward, has in the little Capella Gesu, in the 
 
 PAL. CONTARINI DELLE FIGURE, VENICE. 
 
 Church of Sant' Anastasia, some of the richest ornament of 
 the style. The drawing forming Plate 25 shows a part of it, 
 but conveys no adequate impression of the minute delicacy of 
 the pencillings of its leaves and flowers. The finish is prob- 
 ably carried too far; it is advanced work, and almost out of 
 our limits. The lectern, choir stalls and other intarsia and 
 carved woodwork of date 1499, in Santa Maria in Organo, are 
 interesting, and the block (page 72) will serve to show the delicate 
 curvature of its brackets, and the rich open cresting of the desk, 
 recalling the crowning ornaments of the Certosa near Milan. 
 In Verona there is also the Palazzo del Consiglio, or Town-
 
 72 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE OUT OF FLORENCE. 
 
 house (1476), a work of Fra Giocondo, one of the many versatile 
 geniuses which the time produced, and a native of the town. 
 The arcade will suggest that of Brunelleschi at Florence in 
 its treatment ; but Brunelleschi would have avoided the divi- 
 sion which places the pilaster in the middle. of the front. It 
 also differs from the Florentine loggie in the free use of the 
 arabesque pilaster. The fagade is crowned with the statues 
 
 of eminent natives 
 of Verona, in one of 
 which we recognise 
 our old friend Vitru- 
 vius Pollio, of classic 
 memory. 
 
 Travelling farther 
 in the direction of 
 Milan, our half-way 
 house is Brescia, 
 where two buildings 
 might well detain us. 
 The Palazzo Muni- 
 cipio or La Loggia 
 (Plate 28) is one of 
 the largest and most 
 splendid works in the 
 North Italian cities. 
 Begun about 1489 
 by Formentone of 
 Vicenza, some of its 
 later decoration was 
 
 CHURC 
 
 IN SANTA MARIA IN ORGANO, 
 VERONA. 
 
 contributed by Jacopo 
 Sansovino and 
 Palladio. It inclines in its design more nearly to Roman 
 models than any of so early a period in the north. More 
 characteristic if less dignified is the Church of La Madonna 
 dei Miracoli (Plate 29) with a facade perhaps the most orna- 
 mental of its class. Lying in the dominion of Venice at the 
 time, and yet near enough to Milan to be influenced by the 
 earlier school there, it is just what we would naturally expect. 
 Sharing some of the faults of the early Renaissance exteriors, it 
 marks an advance in composition on the church at Venice 
 dedicated to the same name. Its ornamental details are equal
 
 PLATE XXIX. 
 
 PORCH AND PART FACADE OF LA MADONNA DEI 
 MIKACOLI, BRESCIA.
 
 BUILDINGS OF BRESCIA. 
 
 73 
 
 in delicacy and refinement to those in the interior of that 
 building, but their appropriateness to an exterior treatment 
 is at least open to question. The candelabra (which do not 
 appear in Venice) in the panels, are fanciful to the extreme 
 in design, and of superb workmanship, entering into details of 
 inconceivable minuteness. On the frieze on the left side of 
 the porch may be observed a miniature sculpture-picture 
 of the Nativity, while the corresponding space on the other 
 side is occupied by the Baptism of our Saviour. The most 
 
 PAL. CONSIGLIO, VERONA. 
 
 Giocondo, Archt. 
 
 remarkable feature of the church is the porch, with its richly 
 treated order, suffering much from the larger scale of the 
 main pilasters. 
 
 The little Renaissance chapel at the Church of Santa Maria 
 Maggiore, Bergamo (page 74), is, as far as it goes, an example 
 of almost Florentine grace and simplicity, and seems at first 
 sight to upset geographical theories. Here are the corbels, 
 which Brunelleschi uses under the architrave in the Sacristy 
 and Church of San Lorenzo, and the simple panelled pilaster. 
 But the Gothic basement is a more northern touch, as is also 
 the double architrave, a very literal translation of the Gothic
 
 74 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE OUT OF FLORENCE. 
 
 recessed orders, and we cannot conceive of a Florentine architect 
 making use of either. 
 
 Apart from the capitals of Florence, Venice, and Milan, 
 no city seems to have prospered at this period more than 
 Bologna, which is crowded with early palazzi of a some- 
 what distinct character. Their workmanship, unfortunately, is 
 crude, and never rises to a very high level, except in the Palazzo 
 Bevilacqua-Vincenzi; and it is only in the court of this building 
 
 that great excellence 
 is attained (Plate 30). 
 Notwithstanding a 
 slight tameness of 
 design, especially in 
 the repetition of the 
 architrave and cor- 
 nice over the upper 
 and lower tiers of 
 arches, it captivates 
 by its fine proportions 
 and its charming 
 detail, and there is 
 scarcely a finer cortile 
 in all Italy. Another 
 well-known example in 
 the same town is that 
 of the Fava (page 75), 
 but this, though in- 
 teresting for its huge 
 corbels, as well as its 
 moulded brick fa9ade, 
 is of much less merit than the Bevilacqua cortile. The 
 Bevilacqua exterior differs from most of those in Bologna in 
 that it is without the continuous arched loggia, which, forming 
 the footpath of the street, runs below the principal floor of the 
 houses ; but in poverty of exterior design and detail they are 
 all much alike. Of the smaller dwellings, the Casa Tacconi 
 (page 77) is the most interesting. Here, as at Milan, brick and 
 terra cotta are the materials most readily to hand, and affect the 
 character of the buildings. But there was no school of archi- 
 tecture in Bologna, and such quality as is expressed by the 
 work may be said to be eclectic, borrowing from all sides, but 
 losing entirely the simplicity and breadth which distinguishes 
 
 APSE OF THE CHURCH OF SANTA MARIA MAGGIORE, 
 BERGAMO, WITH RENAISSANCE CHAPEL.
 
 MASTERS ATTRACTED TO THE CAPITAL. 91 
 
 century ; but the modesty of his character, lacking in ambition, 
 has robbed him of the honour, and his merit, while appreciated 
 by artists, remains almost unnoted." It is to Peruzzi that the 
 Grecian tendency of the time is due, in fact it is his work 
 chiefly which gives character to the culminating period. Most 
 of it was accomplished at Rome, where the Villa Farnesina 
 (Plate 46), Palazzi Pietro Massimi (Plates 38 to 43) and Angelo 
 Massimi, Lante, Costa, Ossoli, Via Giulia (pages 100, 101), 
 and Linotta serve to attest his skill in simple domestic work. 
 Plate 33 is a reproduction of one of the frescoes with which he 
 adorned his native city, and represents with considerable power 
 the legend of a Sibyl announcing to the Emperor Augustus the 
 coming of the Lord Jesus Christ. 
 
 Raffaello da Urbino (1483 1520), " whom " (says Serlio in 
 simple eloquence) " I will always name Divine, for that he 
 never had his fellow ; I say no more " was a contemporary 
 artist, but died at thirty-seven years of age, having executed 
 in that brief lifetime an incredible amount of solid and un- 
 rivalled work as a painter. He took a very deep interest in 
 the archaeology of Rome, and prepared for Pope Leo X. an 
 elaborate repo'ft on the condition of the monuments in the city 
 and its surroundings. There is, besides, no doubt that he made 
 studies for buildings, and many important works of this kind 
 are associated with his name. It is tolerably certain, however, 
 that his connection with the work did not go farther than the 
 study or sketch, and that he was not an architect in the 
 sense that Peruzzi and Antonio were. The Palazzo Pandolfini 
 of Florence, probably from a sketch design of his, but not 
 begun till after his death, is a gem of the purest water, and 
 one of the most typical examples of the period we are now 
 considering. It resembles the Albergati (page 121) in its first 
 floor windows, and the cornice with its astragal inscription 
 frieze probably affected the treatment of that at the Roman 
 Farnese Palace. The Palazzo Stoppani, Caffarelli, or Vidoni, 
 in Rome, is another great work attributed to this master. 
 
 Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475 1564) who has attained a 
 fame surpassing all his famous contemporaries, was not their 
 equal as an architect, although one of the greatest personalities 
 who ever adorned the world of art. His largest architectural 
 task, that of the completion of St. Peter's, was forced upon him 
 late in life, in spite of his protest that it was not the work for
 
 92 THE CULMINATION IN ROME. 
 
 which he was trained and adapted. Yet when he had once laid 
 his hand to it, he could not be induced to leave it even to return 
 to Florence. That Michelangelo combined in his work the arts 
 of painting, sculpture and architecture, was of itself nothing 
 remarkable in those days. Raffaello and Peruzzi, not to speak of 
 Giotto and Brunelleschi, united with their architecture another 
 art of which they were masters, but probably no man was great 
 in all three forms of expression of the arts of form, and none 
 certainly so great. Lanzi, in his Storia Pittorica, says, justly, 
 that he " left behind him specimens that might have immor- 
 talised three different artists, had his pictures, his statues, and 
 his architectural works, been the production of as many different 
 authors." But through all his works we cannot fail to distinguish 
 the same idiocrasy, and trace in each of them his love for large- 
 ness of scale, for anatomical display, for effects which will tell 
 powerfully, whether in the Sistine chapel decorations, the David, 
 or the cornice of the Farnese Palace. Michelangelo is the central 
 figure of the Italian Renaissance, and touches both its earlier 
 and its later phases. He was a brilliant sculptor before Bra- 
 mante came to Rome and while the Lombardi worked at Venice. 
 In the maturity of his powers he glorified by his painting and 
 sculpture the zenith of the revival in architecture, and he lived 
 long enough to witness the degradation into which it fell. His 
 own hand initiated the decline. 
 
 Of Sanmicheli and Jacopo Sansovino, worthy rivals of these 
 more famous names, whose principal work lay outside Rome, 
 the following chapter on " The Roman Influence in North 
 Italy " will afford some information. 
 
 The large number of great palaces built during this period, both 
 before and after the sack of Rome, and the still larger number 
 of magnificent dwellings, which yet could scarcely be designated 
 as palaces, afford a vivid illustration of the social prosperity of 
 the time and the ruling motives of the clerical and aristocratic 
 circles which dominated Rome. The Cardinals particularly 
 appear to have been ambitious to build : among them, to begin 
 as far back as 1495, Raffaello Riario, who in that year caused 
 the immense structure now known as the Cancelleria Palace 
 to be begun ; Adriano da Corneto, who erected the Palazzo 
 Giraud or Torlonia (1503 6) ; Niccolo Fieschi, who built for a 
 habitation the Palazzo Sora in 1505 ; Alessandro Farnese, who 
 in 1517 commenced the palace called by his name: Ricci da
 
 PLATE. XXXIV. 
 
 PLAN OF THE GROUND FLOOR. FARNESE PALACE, ROME. 
 
 Scale : 2 Indies to 100 Feet.
 
 PLATE XXXV. 
 
 ^^ ^^ * * W ,._^^^^p.. *^^* 
 
 PLAN OF THE FIRST FLOOR, FARNESE PALACE, ROME. 
 
 Scale : 2 Inches to 100 F^.
 
 CLERICAL AND PATRICIAN RESIDENCES. 
 
 93 
 
 Montepulciano, who in 1540 began the Villa Medici ; Capo di 
 Ferro, who about the end of the limits fixed, built the Palazzo 
 Spada alia Regola. These were but a few of the houses of the 
 clergy, erected, no doubt, largely out of rivalry and for the glory 
 of their house, upon whose influence and power the chances of 
 election as Pope, not to speak of other desirable offices and 
 emoluments, most largely depended. And besides these, nume- 
 rous patrician families like the Massimi, or wealthy traders like 
 the Chigi, erected sumptuous and imposing residences. In all 
 
 GARDEN FRONT OF THE FARNESE PALACE, ROME. 
 
 there are magnificent suites of apartments, halls and galleries, 
 suited to purposes of entertainment, on the piano-nobile (the first 
 floor) (Plates 35 and 43), which Italian custom makes the principal 
 floor, even in country dwellings. Out of this eventually pro- 
 ceeded the evolution of the open staircase, which in the earlier 
 and many middle period examples is confined between walls in 
 primitive and unworthy fashion. The interiors of the chief 
 apartments have vaulted, coved, or coffered ceilings, the walls 
 being often lavishly adorned with painted decoration, and in 
 the later dwellings with rich plaster work. In the plan of such 
 an example as the Palazzo Massimi (Plate 38), the ancient
 
 94 THE CULMINATION IN ROME. 
 
 Roman domestic arrangement is revived ; while in the greater 
 palaces the mediaeval courtyard is preserved. In most cases 
 the cortile answers to the peristyle of the ancients, rather than 
 the atrium, and combines the advantages of both. 
 
 One of the examples which best illustrates the peculiarities 
 of the central period of the Roman Renaissance is the great 
 palace built for the Cardinal who became Pope Paul III. 
 (Plate 36). The fa9ade presents a precipice of wall nearly 100 
 feet high, in proportion about two squares, its splendid mono- 
 tony broken only by the insignificant central doorway and the 
 adornment by shields of the space over the first floor window. 
 Sangallo the younger was the first architect of this edifice, 
 while Michelangelo completed it by the addition of the top 
 storey and the magnificent cornice. The window columns 
 standing on brackets, and the arch let up into the frieze below 
 the pediments, are features distinctively Michelangelesque, and 
 appear to have been first introduced by that master. The small 
 block view (page 93) is of the garden front, the unity and majesty 
 of which is marred to great degree by the loggia forming the 
 central feature, which was added in 1580 by an imitator of 
 Michelangelo, Giacomo della Porta. By reason of its date it 
 falls outside the limits of our present subject, although not 
 departing greatly from the principles of the Central Period. 
 But it will be observed that in the original parts of the build- 
 ing the orders are only used as a window decoration, and a 
 partial return made to the earliest Florentine practice. It may 
 be that this can be accounted for by the fact of the origin 
 of the architects, who, as Florentines, were more likely to 
 have sympathy with the domestic work in that city than with 
 the manner which Bramante had been developing in Rome. 
 Reference to the Palazzo Riccardi (Plate u) will serve to 
 remind one of the models they had in Florence, and at the 
 same time direct attention to the details of the windows which 
 Michelangelo had inserted in the work of Michelozzo. On this 
 account he had a special interest in that building, and it was 
 probably his recollection of it which made him disapprove of 
 Antonio's proposal for an order on the top storey of the 
 Farnese,* and which led him to design for it a cornice not less 
 virile than that of the Riccardi. The architectural traditions 
 
 * Vasari's Lives of the Artists.
 
 THE TOWN HOUSE OF PIETRO MASSIMI. 95 
 
 of Florence would appear to have had much influence upon 
 Michelangelo, who both in this matter and in the greater 
 problem of the dome of St. Peter, found stimulus in the study 
 of the school of Brunelleschi. Going round the long flank of 
 the building, and entering by the commonplace doorway, we pass 
 through a particularly fine vestibule (Plate 34), probably inspired 
 by the promenade galleries of the Theatre of Marcellus ; and 
 that it was literally built out of the material of that notable 
 building, or of the Colosseum, is a circumstance not only 
 appropriate but characteristic of the time. The loggia of Andrea 
 Sansovino at Santo Spirito, Florence (Plate 16), is vaulted in 
 a similar manner, though on a smaller scale and without the 
 lintelled aisles of this example ; and in purity of design and 
 beauty of proportion quite holds its own. Passing into the 
 loggia which runs round the cortile, we observe first the Roman 
 cross vaulted ceiling, the panelled soffit of the archivolt ; and 
 stepping out into the grand cortile, find in its lower storeys a 
 close reproduction of the rich ordinance of the under half of 
 the Colosseum. The topmost floor was part of the addition of 
 Michelangelo, and shows symptoms of the decline. 
 
 The most perfect examples of an architectural style are 
 frequently not those of greatest importance on account of size 
 and extent, and there are many reasons why this should be so. 
 Carried into execution at some fortunate moment, before fashion 
 has had time to change, they are besides within the compass of 
 a single architect's capacity, and admit of the most solicitous 
 study and the most perfect performance of every detail. Hence 
 one of the finest examples of the culminating period in Rome 
 is a house of modest dimensions, the Palazzo Pietro Massimi 
 alle Colonne. This by itself is a library of the architecture of 
 the period, a perfect mine of wealth, while, under a simple 
 and severe aspect, it buries its treasures from eyes that do 
 not bring with them the power of seeing. The whole scheme, 
 which embodies two separate houses for brothers on a fixed 
 and very irregular site, is a beautiful example of acute judgment 
 under unwonted conditions, and ingenious adaptation to deter- 
 minate ends. An earlier habitation of the family of Massimi 
 del Portico had occupied the site, but like many another was 
 destroyed in the sack of Rome (1527). The motto of the family 
 is "Cunctando restituit," but soon after this the services of Bal- 
 dassare Peruzziwere called into requisition, and a plan prepared
 
 96 THE CULMINATION IN ROME. 
 
 which in the most economical way upheld, as far as possible, 
 the older building. This plan, still preserved,* while decidedly 
 ingenious, failed in symmetry and elegance, and the design 
 which superseded it, likewise from the hand of Peruzzi, was in 
 all respects an improvement (Plate 38). In its general arrange- 
 ment the completed structure bears a closer resemblance to the 
 characteristic plan of the ancient -dwelling, as we -now know it 
 at Pompeii, than any of the palazzi anterior to Peruzzi, and it 
 is highly probable that it was an instruction of this assertively 
 Roman patrician that the scheme should approximate to the 
 Roman model. For the Massimi claimed descent from the 
 illustrious Fabius Maximus, who led the armies of Rome against 
 Hannibal. It would also appear to have been a condition of the 
 programme that the full surname of the family (del Portico, or, 
 as it was afterwards called, delle Colonne) should be expressed in 
 the building by some such feature. Owing to the very limited 
 nature of the site, this had to be obtained by recessing the 
 ground floor in the manner which the plans and exterior view 
 indicate. As Letarouilly remarks, the coupling of the columns, 
 which, in the fashion generally practised, he appears to regard 
 as a vicious innovation, is in this case amply justified ; placed 
 as they are where strength is required, their close setting also 
 serves to give the necessary architectonic sense of solidity and 
 cohesion to the whole elevation. The curve of the fa9ade, 
 following the lines of the frontage of the narrow street, had a 
 remarkably fine effect before it was widened within recent years, 
 and made part of the Via Nazionale. The beauty gained by this 
 curvature is only now to be appreciated by the internal perspec- 
 tive of the loggia itself, viewing it for its full length. The extreme 
 projection of the shallow abaci of the Doric columns has been 
 considered a fault, but affords a piquancy which is far from 
 unpleasing, and an effect of vigour which seems to be required. 
 It has been already said that the architects of this time 
 were beginning to distinguish between Greek and Roman. 
 They had not sufficient accuracy of information in regard to 
 Greek work to attempt its literal reproduction, and for that 
 we may be thankful. But there are many proofs, especially in 
 the work of Peruzzi, of a Greek manner being assumed apart 
 from the prevalent Roman treatment. The Palazzo Massimi 
 
 * Letarouilly's Edifices de Rome Moderne (Text).
 
 jnununun 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 T.
 
 THE UNION OF GREEK AND ROMAN METHODS. 97 
 
 is a case in point. It is true that the arch and the tunnel 
 vault appear more than once in the design, but they are kept 
 subordinate, and the columns and doorway of the portico, the 
 elevations of the cortile, and the interior of the apartments 
 suggest Greek models rather than Roman. Judged by these 
 standards, this portico or entrance loggia presents some curious 
 anachronisms. There are the Roman Doric columns with the 
 Attic base and a Grecian profile and projection of echinus ; 
 the fine Greek Doric doorway (Plate 40) cheek by jowl with 
 an inclined pilaster 
 and windows of the 
 time of the Republic; 
 a flat-coffered ceiling 
 to the whole, while the 
 niches have delicately 
 coffered stucco semi- 
 domes of the second 
 century. In all this 
 it seems as if Peruzzi 
 were attempting to 
 infuse into the R^bman 
 methods some of the 
 Grecian refinement 
 which was his partly 
 by instinct, and as the 
 fruit of his study of 
 Hellenic art ; and the 
 freedom of his use 
 of motifs or features 
 developed in widely 
 separated periods is a lesson to the painful archaeology of much 
 of the architecture of the present day. Some of this juxtaposi- 
 tion of the Greek and Roman features is most happy, as in the 
 case of the diminished pilaster a most objectionable form in 
 most instances, but here used with good results in sympathy 
 with the inclined lines of the door architrave. The cortile, 
 which Plate 41 illustrates, more consistently preserves the 
 prevailing Grecian character. The openings above the first 
 cornice, apparently formed for the purpose of lighting up the 
 loggia at each end of the cortile, are introduced in a most 
 infelicitous manner, whether by Peruzzi, as Letarouilly believes, 
 A. H 
 
 PAL. MASSIMI, ROME. 
 
 Peruzzi, Archt.
 
 9 8 THE CULMINATION IN ROME. 
 
 or by subsequent hands. The entablature is in this way bereft 
 of its proper frieze, while guttae are left to lament the absence 
 of their hitherto inseparable triglyph. The walls of the house 
 enclose the cortile only on three sides for its full height, and 
 on the east side the buildings are merely of one storey and an 
 attic. In this wall the remarkably severe doorway of travertine 
 
 Cross Section . 
 
 ENTRANCE LOGGIA OF THE PAL. MASSIMI ALLE COLONXE, ROME. 
 
 Perussi, Archt. 
 
 stone, with its sculpture of alto-relievo mythological subjects 
 (Plate 42) should be noticed. The rich mouldings which frame 
 the sculpture are of stucco, and, like the ceilings and semi- 
 domes of the niches in the portico, also of this perishable 
 material, are in fair preservation. The collection of the firm 
 and delicate moulding profiles serves to show how faithfully the 
 predominant Greek tendency is stamped even upon details of

 
 PLATE XLII. 
 
 Cototr/ie fiat- 
 dassaneflmt 
 zzi Architect 
 
 w. j. A., mens. et del..
 
 THE ATRIUM OF THE MASSIMI DWELLING. 
 
 99 
 
 small consequence, while they indicate no want of originality on 
 the part of the master. 
 
 The loggia on the first floor, approached by the unpretend- 
 ing staircase, is in its union of painting and architecture one of 
 the most perfect features of a singularly perfect building. The 
 Ionic columns are purely Greek, of the most refined proportions 
 and drawing. White marble is used not only in the columns 
 and square pillars, but in the jambs and cornice of the doorway, 
 and in the archway at the head of the staircase. The ceiling is 
 boldly coffered on hexagonal lines, and beautifully enriched and 
 
 decorated. It will be observed that in this cortile, Peruzzi, as 
 in every other case but one (the faade of the Pal. Costa), resists 
 the temptation to place his main cornice at the level of the column 
 entablature, and superimpose an attic, terminated by a lesser 
 moulding. This treatment, a common one, is exemplified in the 
 Palazzo Stoppani (designed by Raffaello, and probably carried 
 out by Giulio Romano), and there as elsewhere is unfortunate, 
 being a species of anti-climax. Such an arrangement is most 
 effective in interior work, and the Hall of the Massimi (Plate 
 43) furnishes an example of the application of this principle. 
 Here it appears very successful, although Letarouilly, whose 
 
 H 2
 
 IOO 
 
 THE CULMINATION IN ROME. 
 
 opinion is entitled to the greatest weight, is pleased to stigmatize 
 the architecture of this room as " heavy," while highly com- 
 mending the decoration. The large panels in the frieze, which 
 is the happiest part of the decoration, represent scenes in the 
 life of the founder of the family in republican Roman times, 
 while the intermediate panels and the sculptures are mytho- 
 logical. The baldachino is an indication of the high rank of 
 the noble owner. The marble chimney-piece, surmounted by a 
 
 Letaroiiilly. 
 
 HOUSE IN THE VIA GIULIA, ROME. 
 Scale i/:6th of an inch to one foot. 
 
 Pcni:;i, Archt. 
 
 bust of Raffaello, has consoles closely resembling the supports 
 of the seats in the loggia. It will be observed that in this 
 building, as in all contemporary work, the corbel or bracket 
 shape (page 33) is suppressed, and its place supplied, in every 
 feature of this nature, by the weaker and softer console form 
 of the trusses flanking the first floor windows, and the door 
 of the entrance loggia, as well as that on the piano-nobilc. 
 
 The house in the Via Giulia, Rome, is as distinctively Roman 
 as the Massimi is Greek. The exterior depends chiefly upon its 
 figure decorations, and mouldings have been wisely suppressed.
 
 A CHURCH OF THE CENTRAL RENAISSANCE. 101 
 
 In the accidental union of the central arch at the further 
 end of the cortile with the square window openings there is 
 a foreshadowing of the " motif Palladio," which from this 
 time constantly recurs, especially in the works of the later 
 Northern artists. 
 
 For an indication, on a similar moderate scale, of what 
 was being achieved in ecclesiastic work at this time, a more 
 characteristic example could not be chosen than the Church of 
 
 HOUSE IN THE VIA GIL-LIA, ROME. VIEW OF CORTILE FROM VESTIBULE. 
 
 Letarouilly. 
 
 Pentzzi, Archt. 
 
 the Madonna di Santo Biagio (begun 1518) at Montepulciano, 
 a town lying between Siena and Perugia. This is the work of 
 Antonio da San Gallo, the elder, and marks him out no less 
 than his younger namesake and connection as an able exponent 
 of the new type of work. It is the fruit of the Florentine 
 development represented by the Church of Santa Maria delle 
 Carceri, which was erected by his elder brother. Like the 
 Palazzo Massimi it presents a design which has been carried 
 practically to completion, and is as perfect as the talents of its 
 architect could make it, under certain stipulated conditions.
 
 102 
 
 THE CULMINATION IN ROME. 
 
 The plan is a Greek cross, wagon vaulted and without aisles ; 
 and the central dome, well raised above the roof, has almost 
 attained its full development, while the finished campanile at 
 the corner of the fa9ade is one of the finest of its kind, an 
 enriched and improved version of Baccio d' Agnolo's campanile 
 of Santo Spirito at Florence, and in some ways approaching 
 the Venetian type. 
 
 It would be tedious and unprofitable to recount the early 
 
 history of the various 
 projects for the less 
 fortunate Church of 
 St. Peter, the largest 
 work of the Renais- 
 sance. Suffice it to 
 say that after other 
 schemes had been 
 commenced and aban- 
 doned, Bramante, 
 some time before 1506, 
 when the foundation- 
 stone was laid, was 
 appointed architect, 
 and that Giuliano da 
 San Gallo, Raffaello 
 the painter, and Fra 
 Giocondo of Verona, 
 were afterwards asso- 
 ciated with him in the 
 work. All four dying by 
 1520, before the work 
 had advanced very far, 
 Peruzzi was soon after appointed to the control of the works, 
 although Antonio Sangallo the younger had been previously 
 (in 1518) made assistant to Raffaello. Each architect on his 
 appointment seems to have set himself to re-study the whole 
 matter and produce his own plan, hence it is easy to account 
 for the delays which occurred at this time ; and with the succes- 
 sive removals of three Popes, the difficulty of procuring funds, 
 and the sack of Rome, it is difficult to understand how the 
 work proceeded at all. Bramante prepared many designs,, 
 but his definitive scheme was a cross, of four arms of equal 
 
 CHURCH AT MONTEFULCIANO. 
 Antonio da San Gallo (the elder), Archt.
 
 VARIOUS DESIGNS FOR ST. PETER'S. 
 
 103 
 
 length,* the central feature of which was a low dome not far 
 removed in form from that of the Pantheon, but raised on a com- 
 plete peristyle without and the semblance of one within. The 
 illustration is a copy of Serlio's drawing of this dome, and when 
 architects and critics regret, as they so often do, that Bramante's 
 design was departed from, they should not forget that they 
 have gained something greater than the dome with which he 
 would have crowned the pile. It is possible, however, that this 
 design, pulled out, so to speak, and with solid masses at intervals 
 in the colonnade, gave Sir 
 Christopher Wren a sug- 
 gestion for his most beauti- 
 ful dome at St. Paul's, in 
 which case Bramante's 
 dome design had its uses. 
 After his death his whole 
 scheme seems to have been 
 departed from, and Raf- 
 faello, possibly influenced 
 by clerical conservatism, 
 made an exceedingly 
 beautiful and simple plan, 
 in a more conventional 
 form, a design which, says 
 Serlio, "in my opinion, is 
 one of the fairest draughts 
 that are to be found, out 
 of the which the ingenious 
 workman may help himself 
 in many things." This 
 plan, without any doubt, would have produced a finer building 
 than that which now exists. It is often spoken of as Bramante's 
 plan, but this is an error, although it may have been based 
 upon the previous studies of Bramante and his assistants. At 
 Raffaello's death, Peruzzi, appointed to the chief control, found 
 that the piers of Bramante needed greatly strengthening, having 
 almost collapsed under their own weight; anxious, too, to 
 restrict the scope of the work, and desiring to let the dome be 
 
 * For the history of these early projects, with the sketches of the architects in 
 facsimile and many restorations, consult the great work of Baron Geymuller, Les 
 Projets Primitifs four la Basilique de Sainte Pierre de Rome, par Bramante, Raphael, &c. 
 
 HALF SECTION AND HALF ELEVATION OF DESIGN 
 
 FOR DOME OF ST. PETER'S. 
 Serlio. Bramante, Archt.
 
 io 4 
 
 THE CULMINATION IN ROME. 
 
 seen from all points of view, he reverted to the Greek cross plan. 
 The plan he adopted (page 105) was really a skilful combination 
 of the good points of Bramante's and Raffaello's plans : and 
 it seems a plausible theory that Raffaello's eastern termination 
 and Peruzzi's plan were based upon a study (perhaps by Bra- 
 
 mante) of the an- 
 cient Church of 
 San Lorenzo at 
 Milan. Peruzzi's 
 annotator ex- 
 plains that the 
 temple was to 
 have four doors, 
 the high altar 
 to occupy the 
 middle. At the 
 corners were to 
 be four sacris- 
 ties, upon which 
 clock towers 
 might be reared. 
 Had the author 
 been suffered to 
 carry out his 
 model, there can 
 be little doubt 
 that it would 
 have been not 
 only the most 
 magnificent 
 temple the world 
 had seen, but 
 one of the 
 purest in taste. 
 Peruzzi, how- 
 ever, was cut off in 1536, not without suspicion of having 
 been poisoned by one who hoped to succeed him in his office 
 at St. Peter's, and Antonio Sangallo, who then took charge of 
 affairs, restudied the whole matter. His design is illustrated, 
 both in plan and elevation, in Fergusson's History of Modern 
 Architecture. The exterior has much merit, but the plan little 
 
 Serlio. 
 
 PLAN FOR ST. PETER'S, ROME. 
 
 Raffaello da Urbino, Archt. 
 
 Scale one inch to 200 feet.
 
 ANTONIO'S PROPOSAL FOR ST. PETER'S. 
 
 105 
 
 or none, compared with those which had already been made. 
 Though retaining the Greek cross principle of Peruzzi, he pro- 
 posed to add a great and well-nigh useless hall or vestibule 
 flanked by two great campanili, giving to the exterior the 
 form of the Latin cross. It is probable, however, that he had 
 little opportunity of making headway with the scheme, his 
 time being occupied in building up the niches of the great 
 piers of the dome, and possibly by the inner wall of the 
 southern apse, which, after it had been thickened by Michel- 
 angelo, became 
 the outer wall of 
 his restricted plan. 
 The merits of San- 
 gallo's design were 
 freely criticised and 
 generally con- 
 demned by his 
 contemporaries, 
 who rarely appear 
 to have done 
 Antonio justice. 
 Michelangelo was 
 especially critical, 
 and is said to have 
 banned the design, 
 because, broken 
 up "with its in- 
 numerable pro- 
 jections, pinnacles, PLAN FOR ST. 
 
 and divisions of 
 members, it was more like a work of the Teutons than of 
 the good antique manner, or of the cheerful and beautiful 
 modern style." Thus did the greatest critic of the age set 
 magnitude against multiplicity, and encourage by precept as 
 well as example the worship of mere bigness. Many architec- 
 tural critics of to-day, having the benefit of such mistakes as 
 St. Peter's before them, would much prefer Antonio's eleva- 
 tion, which involved three orders in height, to that of one 
 order, which supplanted it. As for Antonio's capacity to carry 
 out such a work, Vasari says : "It is true that he effected 
 much, in accomplishing what we possess ; but he would, never- 
 
 PETER'S, ROME. 
 
 Peruzzi, Archt.
 
 io6 
 
 THE CULMINATION IN ROME. 
 
 theless, as is believed, have seen his way more clearly through 
 certain of the difficulties incidental to that work, had he 
 
 performed his labours in 
 company with Baldassare." 
 Antonio died in 1546, at 
 sixty-one years of age, and 
 Michelangelo, ten years his 
 senior, succeeded. He 
 reduced the scheme greatly, 
 and by suppressing many of 
 the features of the designs 
 both of Peruzzi and 
 Antonio, gave the plan a 
 simplicity which, on so 
 great a scale, is now seen 
 to be a blunder. He was, 
 however, strong enough to 
 overcome prejudice and 
 restore the plan of the 
 equal arms. The cliff-like 
 walls of the apses and the 
 towering pilasters, as we 
 know them, are his work, 
 as is also the dome, for 
 which he left a 
 complete model 
 and drawings. 
 These parts of the 
 church, however, 
 properly belong to 
 the succeeding or 
 Late Period, which 
 M ichelangelo 
 really initiated, and 
 the extension of the 
 nave, which ended 
 the battle between 
 the two forms of 
 cross, belongs to the seventeenth century. The fa9ade (page 1 10) 
 exhibits Carlo Maderna's work, with a base caricature of the 
 portico which Michelangelo had designed to stand free of the 
 
 iir\ 
 
 PLAN OF ST. PETER'S, ROME, WITH THE PIAZZA. 
 
 Scale one inch to 300 feet.
 
 2 ^ 
 
 H H 
 
 O ..
 
 THE HISTORIC SIGNIFICANCE OF ST. PETER'S. 107 
 
 main building as an appendage to the Greek cross scheme, but 
 which the seventeenth century architect made to stick close 
 to the wall. 
 
 It is the interior (Plate 45) which chiefly concerns us in 
 considering the work of this period. The internal ordinance, 
 with its gigantic pilasters and protruding impost mouldings, 
 is probably due to Bramante, and his assistants Peruzzi and 
 Antonio Sangallo ; for although the long arm of the cross, and 
 its colossal wagon vault, is partly the addition of Maderna, the 
 original idea is fairly well preserved, but with late and debased 
 details and ornaments. The form of the four supporting piers 
 of the dome, which are among the earliest parts of the work, 
 makes the projection of the pendentives comparatively slight, 
 and necessitates some distortion of the pendentives carrying the 
 circular drum. Had these been curved on plan, concentric 
 with the dome, or had they been rectangular, there would be 
 no irregularity ; but, indeed, none is apparent as the work is 
 executed, the huge circular panels of the Evangelists, in mosaic, 
 tilling up the spaces perfectly. 
 
 St. Peter's and the Vatican make up the one group of 
 Renaissance buildings which in scale and monumental character 
 more than holds its own with the old Roman work. In this 
 there is significant testimony to the truthfulness of architecture 
 as the stone book of history, for in St. Peter's are writ large 
 the importance of the Church in the world of the sixteenth 
 century, the character and surroundings of its rulers, as well 
 as the spirit and aims of the constructors of the material fabric. 
 If ancient Rome was built out of the spoils of the conquered 
 world, renaissant Rome, too, spoiled Christendom. The Popes 
 of the Renaissance are but the sixteenth century types of the 
 ancient Emperors : they reoccupy the house that the Romans 
 prepared. The palaces of the Vatican and of the Cardinals 
 stand in the place of those of the Palatine Hill. Out of the 
 tepidarium of the Baths of Diocletian, Michelangelo finds them 
 a fitting temple ; the Pantheon of the Olympic deities becomes 
 that of Santa Maria and the Galilean fishermen. And so it 
 has been said that in St. Peter's the Catholic world adopted 
 for the type of its great church the central hall of a Roman 
 bath (Plate 44). The architect, however, will dwell more on 
 the distinctions than on the type character common to both. 
 Particularly he will not fail to observe that it is the addition of
 
 io8 THE CULMINATION IN ROME. 
 
 Maderna, which in its design, its vaulting and lighting, as well 
 as its dimensions, presents so close an analogy with the Roman 
 vaulted chamber of the Baths of Caracalla or Diocletian. Round 
 about the dome, the part which belongs to the culminating 
 period, there is little which need recall the old Roman models. 
 The Greek cross plan which successive architects schemed, is 
 founded on the early churches, while Michelangelo's dome design 
 is at the end of a chain in which the links are the dome of 
 S. Sophia and Santa Maria del Fiore. But for the principle 
 illustrated by the Italian Byzantine domes, it would have been 
 impossible to have " hung the Pantheon in heaven," and but for 
 Brunelleschi's intrepid construction at Florence, even the hand 
 of Michelangelo must have faltered before the boldness of its 
 drum design with the poor abutment of the sixteen twin column 
 props. The triumph of " the hand that rounded Peter's dome" 
 consists largely in this, that on a scale which increases every 
 difficulty out of all proportion, the union of both systems was 
 successfully effected ; so successfully that with the Pantheon 
 and S. Sophia the dome of St. Peter's is one of the most nobly 
 beautiful of architectural creations. 
 
 The internal effect of St. Peter's is a subject about which 
 much has been said. All are agreed that the impression it 
 makes on a first visit is not so overwhelming as might be 
 expected from its prodigious dimensions. Byron, in notable 
 verse, has expressed the idea and given a poetic cause for the 
 absence of this effect, and Nathaniel Hawthorne, in his delightful 
 picture of modern Rome, treats of the subject at some length. 
 The explanation may be, as he suggests, that when first one 
 enters, the ghostly image which almost unconsciously had been 
 cherished is shattered by the shock of the reality presented. 
 There had been built up in the mind's eye a vague outline, " dim, 
 and gray, and huge, stretching into an interminable perspective, 
 and overarched by a dome like the cloudy firmament," such an 
 edifice in which one might keenly realise the insignificance of his 
 own personality. Some of this effect is produced by the dome 
 of St. Paul's in London, and it might naturally be looked for in 
 a building greater by far. But when for the first time you 
 push aside the heavy mattress at the door, or later stand below 
 the dome, there is little or none of this feeling, and the first 
 impression is of cheerfulness and colour, should you chance to 
 see it with the sunlierht streaming through the clear windows
 
 IMPRESSIONS OF ST. PETER'S. 109 
 
 on the mosaics and coloured marbles, fresh and bright through 
 three centuries. Then, with the very limited view which can 
 be obtained from most points, it is felt to be a poor substitute 
 for the preconceived edifice with its boundless vistas, and the 
 next impression is decidedly that it is not so vast a building as 
 had been expected. The violation of what may be called the 
 human scale, which is perpetrated no less in the enormous size 
 of the order than in the colossal cupids, is another reason for 
 this. Never before were classical orders used of this size, save 
 in such monumental columns as those of Trajan and Marcus 
 Aurelius, and it is not wonderful that the mind and eye, accus- 
 tomed to their use on a much smaller scale, should for some 
 time fail to grasp their actual dimensions. But every moment 
 of time spent within the building and every fresh visit increases 
 the sense of its immensity, until, to quote Hawthorne again, 
 " after looking many times, with long intervals between, you 
 discover that the Cathedral has gradually extended itself over 
 the whole compass of your idea; it covers all the site of your 
 visionary temple, and has room for its cloudy pinnacles beneath 
 the dome." 
 
 There is the same difficulty in realising the immense scale of 
 the exterior, but there never comes the same ultimate satisfaction. 
 The order of the outer wall is still higher, about ninety-four 
 feet, and nine feet broad, the capitals being ten feet deep. The 
 height of the wall surrounding the structure is 165 feet, while 
 the figures on the balustrade of the east front are nineteen feet 
 high. While on this matter, it may be said that the total height 
 at the dome is 435 feet, twice the height of the central towers 
 of York or Durham Cathedrals ; and although less remarkable 
 for length than for width and height, it is longer than Rochester 
 and Glasgow Cathedrals placed end to end. The ultimate 
 victory of the Latin cross has deprived all spectators within a 
 quarter of a mile to the east of their view of the dome. To see it 
 close at hand we must go round the flank of the building to the 
 Vatican Gardens, from whence the effect is splendid, as it is also 
 from any distant point of view. It may be surpassed in grace 
 of exterior aspect by St. Paul's, in London, with its unbroken 
 entablature, relatively higher colonnade, and attic ; but without 
 St. Peter there had been no St. Paul. The brackets designed by 
 Michelangelo to unite the coupled columns and entablature with 
 the attic were never carried out, and do not seem to be required.
 
 no 
 
 THE CULMINATION IN ROME. 
 
 Viewing the culminating period in Rome as a whole, we 
 observe that, like all art of the highest attainment, it is charac- 
 terised by the attention given to proportion and design in the 
 mass, the details being made strictly subordinate to the tout 
 
 EAST ELEVATION OF ST. PETER'S, ROME. 
 
 Scale one inch to 100 feet. 
 
 ensemble kept pre-eminently in view. A feeling for what may 
 be called rhythm in spacing, and a sense of satisfaction in 
 simple arrangements and grouping is evident. The power 
 thus gained in composition enabled the architects of this 
 period to dispense with the elements which had lingered in 
 the Renaissance from Gothic or Romanesque influence. The 
 traceried window, the carved arabesque (at least in exterior
 
 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CENTRAL PERIOD. in 
 
 work), the splayed reveals of doorways and windows, were made 
 to disappear, and the freedom and variety of capitals and 
 other purely ornamental carving greatly curtailed. Even such 
 elements as the round roof and pediment, directly inspired by 
 the Byzantine work, were given up, although actually the old 
 Roman form of roof and ceiling, as in Constantine's Basilica 
 and the Baths of Caracalla. Closely connected with the 
 tendency to classic imitation may be considered the revival of 
 Greek methods and the preference for rectangular compositions, 
 continuity of lines, absence of breaks or projections, and mono- 
 tonous repetition of forms. Great use is made of the columnar 
 form, and where it is not preferred as a substitute for the 
 panelled pilaster of the early period, the pilaster is made to 
 assume the severe form of the Greek anta, fluted pilasters being 
 relegated to interior decoration. The reintroduction and use of 
 the engaged column, backed by a square pier carrying arches 
 (Plate 37), of which the portico of the Roman San Marco is 
 perhaps the earliest instance, is very typical of this period, 
 replacing the detached 
 columns of the earlier 
 practice (Plate 31), or 
 the lesser half columns 
 applied to the main 
 pilaster, as on Plate 
 10. The mouldings, 
 though less highly en- 
 riched as a general rule, 
 are of the most refined 
 types and purest pro- 
 files, delicate, and yet 
 vigorous (p. 99, Plate 
 50). Instead of being 
 cut out of a bevelled 
 surface like most of the 
 early Renaissance cor- 
 nices and mouldings, 
 they approach the 
 bolder sections of the 
 Romans, but in refine- 
 ment of line and shading they are more often Greek in feeling 
 than Roman. Projection is much increased, and all the effect of 
 
 COKTILK 
 
 ROME.
 
 112 
 
 THE CULMINATION IN ROME. 
 
 timidity produced by such low relief as Alberti's and Bramante's 
 early work disappears. 
 
 A passion for the human figure is a decided characteristic 
 of the Roman architects, and led them to impress its semblance 
 upon almost every detail of the architecture and every trifling 
 accessory they designed. Their plastic power was in this way 
 pushed to the verge of weakness, and is not better or worse 
 
 SlBVI. FROM THE VAULT OF THE SlSTINE CHAPEL, ROME. 
 
 Michelangelo, Painter. 
 
 illustrated than by the doorway of Peruzzi (Plate 51), where 
 busts flank the door, cupids bear up the balustrade, and heads, 
 children, and animal figures line the top of the balustrade. 
 Even on the simpler Greek door, miniature figures, with foliated 
 tails, are to be seen on the antefixae. This tendency they cer- 
 tainly carried further than the ancients, Greek or Roman, in 
 not a few cases, as, for example, in the Palazzo Spada alia 
 Regola (page in), or the House in the Via Giulia (page 100).
 
 DEMANDS OF RENAISSANCE DECORATION. 113 
 
 In interior decoration little else seems to have been dreamt of 
 but figure painting. The most extreme example is of course the 
 Sistine Chapel, the work of various artists, including Botticelli 
 and Perugino, but remarkable chiefly for the ceiling by Michel- 
 angelo, and the vast composition on the altar wall representing 
 the Last Judgment, painted thirty years later by the same master 
 hand. The illustration is of one of the Sibyls from the base of 
 the vaulting, representing Erithraea, a name which the Italians 
 have again revived in bestowing it, appropriately enough, upon 
 their strip of Red Sea territory. The architectural accessories to 
 the figure are, of course, in this case entirely produced by colour 
 on the concave surface of the vault, with amazing technical skill. 
 The Sistine Chapel is justified by its success and by the un- 
 rivalled excellence of the work, but the golden mean of a union 
 of truthful architecture and appropriate decoration is attained 
 with happier results in the interior of the Villa Farnesina and 
 the Palazzo Massimi alle Colonne. One thing appears beyond 
 dispute, that Renaissance decoration has a high ideal, and 
 demands for its successful accomplishment a full knowledge 
 and perfect command of the principles of Nature's design, 
 whether in the -vegetable or the animal world, as well as of 
 the arts of Greece and Rome. 
 
 A.
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE ROMAN INFLUENCE IN THE NORTH OF ITALY 
 
 (15291550). 
 
 COMPARISON AND DISTINCTION OF WORK OF PERUZZI, SANMICHELI, 
 AND SANSOVINO PERUZZI AND SANMICHELI THE LEADERS SANSOVINO 
 THE FOLLOWER PERUZZI BIRTH AND TRAINING HIS FIRST PATRON 
 THE VILLA CHIGI OR FARNESINA OTHER COMMISSIONS APPOINTMENT 
 AS ARCHITECT OF ST. PETER'S ORGAN AND HOUSES IN SIENA PAL. 
 ALBERGATI AT BOLOGNA DOORWAYS OF PAL. PROSPERI, FERRARA DEATH 
 OF PERUZZI CHARACTER OF HIS WORK SANMICHELI FORTIFICATION 
 BUILDING PAL. POMPEI BEVILACQUA PORTA DEL PALIO AND NUOVA 
 PAL. GRIMANI AT VENICE SCHOOLS OF VENETIAN RENAISSANCE SANSO- 
 VINO HIS EARLY ROMAN CAREER PAL. CORNARO DELLA CA' GRANDE 
 THE ZECCA, ITS RELATION TO SANMICHELI'S WORK THE LOGGETTA 
 SANSOVINO'S SCULPTURE THE LIBRERIA VECCHIA HIGH ATTAINMENT OF 
 THE WORK OF THIS PERIOD.
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE ROMAN INFLUENCE IN THE NORTH OF ITALY. 
 
 IN the last chapter an attempt was made to ascertain the 
 general drift of the architecture of the time, and to determine 
 the points in which it differed from the work of earlier periods, 
 rather than to differentiate the works of individual architects. 
 Having in this way attained some idea of the nature and 
 distinctive qualities of the culminating period as a whole, it 
 is fitting that the nicer question should be entered on of 
 distinguishing the work of its leading exponents. Architects 
 who may be selected for illustration and comparison in this 
 connection are Peruzzi, Sanmicheli, and Jacopo Sansovino. 
 Each of the trio was at one time connected with Rome, but the 
 later and principal practice of Sanmicheli and Sansovino was 
 wholly in the dominions of the Venetian Republic. Of the 
 three Peruzzi and Sanmicheli were the originating geniuses, and 
 Sansovino the faithful follower. So much was he their imitator 
 in architecture that he had on occasions his Peruzzi manner of 
 expression, and at other times a manner which is unmistakably 
 founded on Sanmicheli's example. This will be clear from the 
 illustrations ; meantime it may be noticed as answer to those 
 who affirm that great architects have always been painters, 
 amateurs, or at least have not been trained in the regular way, 
 that Raffaello, Michelangelo and Sansovino, unrivalled painters 
 and sculptors, though designing great architectural works, never 
 displayed either the originality or power of Brunelleschi or 
 Bramante, who at an early period forsook the craft of the 
 sculptor and the painter for architecture, or Sangallo and San- 
 micheli, who were architects from their boyhood, and nothing 
 more. Bramante and Sanmicheli in particular are distinguished 
 by a grip of the elements of composition and a command over 
 possible combinations in architecture, to which their brethren of 
 the brush and chisel never attained. Peruzzi was an excep- 
 tion, in that he was an excellent decorative painter as well as 
 an architect of the highest capacity. At the same time, were 
 
 I 2
 
 n6 THE ROMAN INFLUENCE IN THE NORTH OF ITALY. 
 
 it necessary to make three figures representative of the Central 
 Period of the Renaissance architecture, no more brilliant triad 
 could be found than the painter, the builder, and the sculp- 
 tor, whose work makes up the subject-matter of this chapter. 
 Naturally we begin with the eldest of the three artists chosen, as 
 well as the most influential. 
 
 Baldassare Peruzzi was born at Siena in the year 1481. The 
 register of his birth having been discovered in Siennese docu- 
 ments the debated question of his birthplace has been set at 
 rest. For " as seven cities contended for Homer, each desiring 
 to claim him for her citizen, so have three most notable cities of 
 Tuscany, Florence, Volterra, and Siena, namely, all maintained, 
 each for herself, that Baldassare was of the number of her 
 sons." So Vasari puts it, and he goes on to show how each 
 might be said to have had a share in him. Like some of the 
 earlier architects of the Renaissance, Baldassare's early self- 
 education was obtained by frequenting the shops of the gold- 
 smiths, and in a very short time he had made extraordinary 
 progress in drawing, painting, and modelling. The inevitable 
 and fateful drawing is made which captivates an astonished 
 beholder, in this case Piero, a painter of Volterra, who takes 
 the young artist with him to Rome. Here, like all the archi- 
 tects of the time who came to anything, Baldassare explored for 
 himself the Roman antiquities. But one of his most fortunate 
 discoveries was the compatriot who proved his first patron, 
 Agostino Chigi (otherwise Chisi, or Ghisi), of Siena, the rich 
 banker, the same who, while the Pope visited him in his villa, 
 in order to create a striking impression of his wealth, threw 
 the gold dinner plate after dining into the Tiber in sight of his 
 holiness, and had it fished up secretly early the next morning. 
 This story is scarcely characteristic of Chigi, who made a 
 most noble use of his vast fortune, in his patronage, particularly, 
 of Raffaello as a painter ; and his taste and discrimination 
 were shown no less in his selection of Peruzzi as his architect 
 at the early age of twenty-five. The Villa Chigi, now known 
 as the Farnesina (Plate 46) in the Transtiberine quarter of 
 Rome, is thus Peruzzi's first work of importance. It is con- 
 temporary with, or but a year or two later than Bramante's 
 Cancelleria and Giraud palaces, and shows a great advance 
 thereupon. Instead of the timid relief of a foot or so, the end 
 wings are boldly projected, the arched loggia gives still greater
 
 DETAILS OF THE CHIGI VILLA. 117 
 
 relief, and the rich frieze crowning the whole is a vast improve- 
 ment upon the trifling entablatures of the palaces of Bramante. 
 The frieze is worthy of special notice, as it will be seen how 
 Sansovino, thirty years later, profited by it in his library at 
 Venice (Plate 56). The motif is in each case exactly the same : 
 cupids holding festoons in each hand between the oblong 
 openings in the frieze. This treatment of the frieze remained 
 characteristic of Peruzzi throughout his practice, not so much 
 in its decoration, as in the system of placing the window 
 between the architrave and the cornice. Another feature which 
 probably makes its first appearance or rather reappearance here, 
 is the reclining figure in the spandril of the arches. Such 
 figures were largely adopted by Sanmicheli and Sansovino, but 
 anticipated by Peruzzi, as this building attests. The villa is 
 perhaps most remarkable for its wonderful frescoes, executed 
 both by Raffaello and its architect, who next to Raffaello and 
 Michelangelo, was esteemed the greatest decorative painter of 
 his age, and was much employed in that capacity (Plate 33). 
 Indeed Serlio, who ought to have known, affirms that it was his 
 pleasure in the proportions and masses of the columns, when 
 seeking to place mem in a perspective background, that led him 
 into architecture, in which he says, "he so excelled that his like 
 was not almost to be found." 
 
 An important commission (which unfortunately came to 
 nothing) was now given him to prepare designs for a fagade to 
 the immense Church of San Petronio in Bologna. He proceeded 
 to that city and designed two plans with elevations, section, and 
 perspective, still preserved in the fabbrica of that Church. One 
 of the designs, it is interesting to know, was " in the style of the 
 Teutonic nations" (as his chronicler calls it), meaning thereby 
 the Italian Gothic, the prevailing style of the rest of the building. 
 Here also he designed the doorway at San Michele in Bosco 
 (Plate 51), which is so purely Grecian in its style; but he was at 
 this time "almost compelled" to return to Siena, there to design 
 the fortifications of that city, and to superintend their erection. 
 Part of this is without doubt what is known as the Wall of 
 Peruzzi, which is treated in a distinctively architectural manner, 
 with a battered base, dentil and bracket cornice, and heavy 
 astragal moulding. Again he repaired to Rome, where perhaps 
 the greatest distinction he had yet attained to, empty honour 
 though it proved, came to him on his appointment as architect of
 
 n8 THE ROMAN INFLUENCE IN THE NORTH OF ITALY. 
 
 St. Peter's (page 103). About this time he had an opportunity of 
 displaying his ability in another direction, for when one of the 
 first plays written in Italian was performed before Pope Leo he 
 prepared all the scenic decorations, and arranged the lights and 
 other properties in a clever manner, specially deserving of praise 
 in that theatrical performances had been long out of vogue. He 
 is considered to have been the inventor of the now universal 
 movable scenes, which were first used on this occasion. At the 
 
 time of the sack of Rome and subsequently, Peruzzi passed 
 through several remarkable adventures, fully described by Vasari, 
 ultimately returning to Siena, where he was employed in the 
 service of that Republic, as well as by other public bodies. At 
 this time he appears to have furnished the design for the organ 
 of the Church of the Ospedale (Plate 48). The design is one 
 which deserves most minute and careful study. It is more 
 imaginative and capricious than anything else he produced, and 
 suggestions of previous and future architectural work appear in 
 many of its parts. The pediment, with pillars, arch, and pateras
 
 PLATE XLVIII. 
 
 ORGAN IN CHIESA DEL 'OSPEDALE, SIENA. 
 
 BALDASSARE PERUZZI, A rcht.
 
 HOUSES BY PERUZZI. 
 
 119 
 
 in the spandrils, is practically the same motif as the first 
 floor windows of the Albergati palazzo at Bologna, one of 
 his latest works. The antefixse suggest those of the door at 
 San Michele in Bosco, also in that city. The key block 
 is the same in every detail as the trusses under the ground 
 floor windows of the Palazzo Albergati, and the mouldings 
 and enrichments in many parts resemble those which recur 
 in such buildings as the Massimi and Albergati. It is not to 
 be supposed that he was specially addicted to repeating him- 
 self: such resemblances are only to be looked for in any man's 
 work, and serve to establish firmly the authenticity of nearly 
 all the works 
 ascribed to Pe- 
 ruzzi. Various 
 charming 
 houses in Siena 
 are by such 
 internal evi- 
 dence easily 
 identified as 
 his work. 
 Among them 
 the Casa Pol- 
 lini, in the Via 
 Baldassare 
 Peruzzi, for 
 they honoured CORNICE or CASA POLLINI SIENA 
 
 this architect Peruzzi, Archt. 
 
 by naming a street after him. It is not an uncommon type of 
 the Italian town house, distinguished from ordinary work only 
 by the delicacy and richness of its chief cornice, its inclined 
 base, the breadth of treatment, and the harmony of its propor- 
 tions. A lane at this point meets the street at an acute angle, 
 which is simply truncated, with excellent effect. The block 
 shows the detail of the rich cornice in terra cotta, which is 
 buried beneath an eave of greatly projecting rafters. It may 
 have been about this time that he furnished the designs for the 
 Palazzo Albergati of Bologna (Plates 47, 49, 50), although the 
 building does not appear to have been completed, so far as it 
 now stands, till some years after his death. Before examining 
 the details of this house we remark that it is only little
 
 120 THE ROMAN INFLUENCE IN THE NORTH OF ITALY. 
 
 more than one-half its intended length, the farther doorway (the 
 only one originally purposed) being the centre of the design. 
 The whole effect of this building, unfinished as it is, is one 
 of simplicity, attained by mass of undisturbed wall surface 
 and length of horizontal line, unbroken by projections. Equal 
 simplicity is attained by Sanmicheli, as will afterwards be seen, 
 but it is got in a different way, and no methods could be more 
 
 dissimilar than 
 those of the two 
 men, though their 
 results are in this 
 particular the 
 same. To men- 
 tion meantime one 
 circumstance, 
 Peruzzi, since his 
 first work, the Far- 
 nesina, seems to 
 have had a decided 
 aversion to the use 
 of the order on the 
 exterior of a dwell- 
 ing - house, never 
 save on that occa- 
 sion employing it 
 throughout, while 
 Sanmicheli never 
 built one without 
 reverting to the 
 orders. Generally 
 
 DOORWAY, ETC., OF A HOUSE IN THE VIA BALDASSARE PerUZzi's ITlOuld- 
 
 PERUZZI, SIENA. 
 
 Peruzzi, Archt. mgs and decora- 
 
 tive sculpture indicate a knowledge of the antique superior to 
 that evinced in the work of his contemporaries ; the use of cer- 
 tain enrichments or profiles is confined to him, or takes a new 
 form in his hands. This first floor cornice is typical, with its 
 Grecian bed moulding over the Doric triglyphon, and the series 
 of lions' and human heads. The cope moulding of the sloping 
 base plinth, too, if not Greek in character, is Egyptian. A 
 flat band or fillet below cornices and mouldings is a refine- 
 ment peculiar to his work. This will be better understood by
 
 PLATE XLIX. 
 
 BOLOGNA. 
 
 The/tatew 
 Albergati: 
 
 Part lilcvaUoti of Facade.
 
 PLATE L. 
 
 Chief Cornice 
 
 BOLOGNA:
 
 THE TECHNIC OF PERUZZI. 
 
 reference to the Palazzo Massimi, afterwards built by Peruzzi 
 at Rome (page 99), where the mouldings incline surprisingly 
 to the Greek sections, as for example in the door cornice and 
 architrave, or the string course below the upper columns of 
 the inner loggia. The ogee is, however, Peruzzi's favourite 
 moulding, employed 
 in every position, often 
 as an architrave and 
 quirked slightly, as in 
 the Albergati. In the 
 bed of the cornice it is 
 very frequently em- 
 ployed as a cyma-recta 
 (page 120), an unusual 
 position for this profile, 
 and one condemned by 
 Chambers as not afford- 
 ing sufficient idea of 
 support. From the 
 delicacy of their outlines 
 as well as their individu- 
 ality of character, there 
 can be little doubt that 
 the profiles were drawn 
 by the master's own 
 hand. 
 
 By way of contrast to those Grecian or Graeco- Roman 
 designs the doorway of the Palazzo Prosperi at Ferrara, on 
 Plate 51, may be referred to, a florid Roman composition attri- 
 buted to the same master:* powerful, daring, and effective; detail 
 and execution being faultless and beyond criticism. Of white 
 marble, thirty feet high, it stands in every way unrivalled among 
 the palace doorways of Italy. The little palazzo in Rome, in the 
 Via Giulia, also exhibits some of this florid tendency (page 100). 
 This, and the Massimi, were probably among the last works of 
 Peruzzi, and he did not live to complete the last named. We 
 
 * It is fair to say that this ascription has been called in question; and Mr. J. C. 
 Watt, among other useful criticisms, has been good enough to draw my attention 
 to its affinity with the work of Formentone at Brescia. This, however, it far excels 
 in finish, while the advanced character of the upper parts of the design points to 
 the second quarter of the sixteenth century ; moreover, in spite of their contrast of 
 type, there is much that is common to the two doors on Plate 51. 
 
 PAL. ALBERGATI, BOLOGNA. 
 
 Peruzzi, Archt.
 
 122 THE ROMAN INFLUENCE IN THE NORTH OF ITALY. 
 
 have illustrated and described only a very few works of this 
 industrious master, whose great talents after all appear to have 
 availed little to his profit, so that in old age he found him- 
 self very poor, and died under the most sorrowful circum- 
 stances. He was laid in the burial-place of Italy's great 
 ones, the Pantheon at Rome, alongside his great compeer, 
 
 Raffaello. We 
 are told that 
 "all the Ro- 
 man painters, 
 sculptors, and 
 architects ac- 
 companied him 
 with tears to 
 the grave, "and 
 "that his fame 
 was greater 
 after his death 
 than during 
 his life ; more 
 particularly 
 were his judg- 
 m en t and 
 knowledge 
 vainly desired, 
 when Pope 
 Paul 1 1 1. deter- 
 mined to cause 
 the Church of 
 San Pietro to 
 be completed, 
 seeing that 
 all then dis- 
 
 GROUND FLOOR WINDOW OF THE PAL. ALBERGATI, BOLOGNA. 
 
 covered how useful his assistance would have been to Antonio 
 da Sangallo."* 
 
 Peruzzi's works generally are characterised by their simplicity, 
 breadth, beauty of proportion (though inclining to lowness), the 
 delicacy and purity of the moulding profiles, and the ingenuity 
 displayed in every detail, nothing being executed at hazard. 
 His hand is easily to be traced throughout, and there is thus. 
 
 * Vasari's Life of Baldassare Peruzzi.
 
 SANMICHELI'S MILITARY ARCHITECTURE. 123 
 
 less difficulty in identifying his work than there is with that of 
 his contemporaries. In general design he combines severity with 
 elegance, never startling by crudities or eccentricities. It is much 
 to be regretted that we have so little of his work on a grand scale 
 that worthily embodies his powers of composition, but in the 
 erection of the simple dwelling he has displayed the same talents 
 and care, and his artistic capacity is proved by this quite as much 
 as if his own St. Peter's had been carried to a successful issue. 
 
 We turn now to his almost equally able contemporary, the 
 Veronese. Although Sanmicheli lived to a good old age, and 
 probably executed in his lifetime more architectural work than 
 any contemporary, his personal history, as told by Vasari, has 
 singularly few incidents of what might be called human interest. 
 He was born in 1484 at Verona, and derived from his father 
 and uncle, who were architects, his first impulses in the direc- 
 tion of architecture. At sixteen he was sent to Rome, and by 
 nothing more than the zeal of his study of the antiquities soon 
 became well known in the city and beyond it. As his biographer 
 puts it : " Moved by the fame thus early acquired, the people 
 of Orvieto invited our young architect to their city, where they 
 made him superintendent of works to their so frequently 
 cited cathedral." An altar in the cathedral, the crypt of San 
 Domenico, and one or two houses, are the record of his work 
 there ; but at the same time he erected, so far as complete, 
 the Cathedral of Montefiascone, a little town some fifteen 
 miles distant. On account of the unsettled state of Italy 
 at this time, Pope Clement VII. made choice of Antonio 
 Sangallo and Sanmicheli, and associated them in charge of 
 the fortifications of the Papal States, which formed a belt 
 across the peninsula ; especially they were required to protect 
 Parma and Piacenza on the Northern boundary. This was 
 probably Sanmicheli's introduction to the principal occupation of 
 his life. Visiting his native town and district, he was imprisoned 
 as a spy at Padua, but soon liberated, and invited to enter the 
 service of the Signoria of that city. This flattering offer he 
 did not accept, but his services were soon afterwards secured 
 by the State of Venice, after he had fulfilled all the wishes 
 of the Pope, and had been relieved from his employment. 
 This circumstance marks the beginning of his success. In the 
 service of the Venetian Republic he constructed fortifications 
 at Verona, and at Lido and Murano (islands of the Lagune),
 
 124 THE ROMAN INFLUENCE IN THE NORTH OF ITALY. 
 
 and restored the fortifications of Dalmatia, Corfu, Cyprus, and 
 Crete. The obliging Republic lent him for three years to the 
 Duchy of Milan, and his services were so much in request 
 t"hat the enemies of Italy, the Emperors Charles V. of Spain 
 and Francis of France, put themselves in the position of 
 declined patrons. The value set on Sanmicheli was in these 
 troublous times purely utilitarian, but later his merits as 
 an artist were thoroughly appreciated, and in more modern 
 days the Veronese have erected a statue to his memory, 
 inscribed " Michele Sanmicheli, great in civil and religious, 
 supreme in military architecture," and no juster epitaph 
 
 could be 
 given him. 
 His powers 
 of invention 
 and initia- 
 tive were 
 unequalled. 
 In fortifica- 
 tion work he 
 was the first 
 to use the 
 triangular or 
 pentagonal 
 bastion, in 
 place of the 
 round or 
 square form, 
 and in civil 
 architecture 
 
 the original character of his work nearly effected a revolution 
 in the style, and left its mark on -Venetian architecture down 
 to the latest period. 
 
 It was almost certainly Sanmicheli's familiarity with the 
 military engineering work which fed his excessive love for 
 bigness, and of extreme simplicity. In his suppression of 
 mouldings, wherever possible, he anticipated by some three and 
 a half centuries, an artistic tendency of the present day in not 
 unwholesome reaction from the opposite extreme. The effect of 
 this in its application to domestic work may be well illustrated 
 by the example of the Palazzo Pompei (1530). The simple 
 
 PAL. POMPEI, VERONA. 
 
 Sanmicheli, Archt.
 
 SIMPLICITY OF SANMICHELI'S STYLE. 
 
 125 
 
 rusticated lower storey is an almost invariable treatment, 
 although rusticated pillars or pilasters are sometimes employed 
 by him. Mouldings or carving are denied to the window sills and 
 brackets, and a plain plinth both below and on top of the first 
 floor balustrade takes the place of the usual cornice and string 
 course. The piling up of the column bases on a double plinth 
 is a characteristic touch. Rich as the colonnaded top storey 
 is, simplicity is maintained in the treatment of the archivolt 
 of the upper windows, a double fillet and plain fascia being 
 
 PAL. BEVILACQUA, VERONA. 
 
 Sanmicheli, Archt. 
 
 considered enough emphasis and decoration. The great heads 
 on the keystones of the upper window arches, serving to support 
 the overhanging entablature (actually, as well as in effect, for the 
 architrave is jointed over them), emphasize also the simplicity 
 of the whole composition. The doorway is high and narrow, 
 but the low proportion of the Doric columns should be noticed, 
 being just about seven diameters high and the pilasters only six 
 and a half. Both are fluted, and the effect is very much that 
 of purely Greek Doric columns. In this example can be traced 
 a combination of the early Florentine arid the later Roman 
 usages. The lower storey we might find in many of the palaces in
 
 i 2 6 THE ROMAN INFLUENCE IN THE NORTH OF ITALY. 
 
 PORTA DEL PALIO, VERONA. 
 
 Sanmicheli, Archt. 
 
 Florence, while the upper is distinctively Roman, an application 
 of the Theatre of Marcellus type. The two are welded together 
 
 with consider- 
 able skill, and 
 it may be that 
 the absence of 
 a cornice at 
 the first floor 
 assists this. 
 
 Less severe 
 is the Palazzo 
 Bevilacqua 
 (page 125) in 
 the same city, 
 where a rhyth- 
 mical group- 
 ing of the pil- 
 1 a r s, af t e r 
 B r am ant e's 
 
 method, has been employed. By such a division the maximum of 
 light is gained without too great sacrifice of stability, the group- 
 ing of the two supports satisfying the eye, and permitting of a 
 window being 
 cut through 
 between them. 
 The effect, 
 however, would 
 be happier if 
 this perfora- 
 tion had been 
 avoided. Here 
 the lower rus- 
 ticated storey 
 is boldly pilas- 
 tered, and the 
 upper columns 
 fluted spirally, 
 like the pillars 
 
 * PORTA DEL PALIO, VERONA. 
 
 Of the Church at Sanmicheli, Archt. 
 
 Brescia, or the columns of late Roman times. Again we observe 
 the raising of the columns high above the balustrade, on pedestals.
 
 CITY GATES OF VERONA. 
 
 127 
 
 The Porta Stuppa, or del Palio (1524 57), is one of the 
 most admired productions of this scarcely rivalled master, and 
 deservedly so, as in its interior he has shown what may be 
 done by pure proportion and the simplest materials. Almost 
 every decoration that could be suppressed base, astragal, archi- 
 vo lt is given up, and yet the result is nobly beautiful. Those 
 who scoff at the idea of proportion producing architecture may 
 well be set to study this exquisitely designed gateway. Sanmicheli 
 here gives a taller proportion to his Doric columns than usual with 
 him, probably to counteract the lines of horizontal coursing and 
 the extra thickness in which the rustication involves the column. 
 It should be noticed that the stone courses are irregular in their 
 depth, and not 
 set off with 
 the exactitude 
 supposed to 
 be character- 
 istic of Renais- 
 sance work. 
 The unusual 
 character of 
 the impost is to 
 be remarked. 
 On the exterior 
 the composi- 
 tion is less 
 simple but 
 even more 
 i nterestin g. 
 
 The impost is raised to a higher level so as to support a perfectly 
 flat arch with another flat arch beyond and underneath, on 
 simple jambs. The columns (eight and a half diameters) are 
 embedded, .and instead of being built in courses with the rest 
 of the work, as on the other side, are in large upright stones. 
 The only jar in the composition is produced by the ungainly 
 straddling side door pediments. The fine Doric frieze and archi- 
 trave are in large blocks of stone, jointed, as in most of his work, 
 through the centre of the triglyphs over each column and each 
 bust or key-block. 
 
 This other gateway, the Porta Nuova, by the same master 
 hand, attains a still greater simplicity and severity, and is an 
 
 Sammduii, Archt.
 
 ia8 THE ROMAN INFLUENCE IN THE NORTH OF ITALY. 
 
 equally fine composition. But the immense keystones in which 
 Sanmicheli delighted have the effect of lowering the impost in 
 relation to the architrave, and so have cut the wall into two 
 equal parts with less happy effect. So far in this case does 
 simplicity go that the archivolt is formed, in the centre opening, 
 by simply recessing the arch stones, and instead of a cornice a 
 plain plinth and capping are employed over the side triglyphs, 
 if they can be called so, when the two complete glyphs or 
 channels are wanting. Here again the courses are pleasingly 
 varied in depth. 
 
 Sanmicheli's most famous work is perhaps his Capella 
 Pellegrini in San Bernardino in Verona (a highly decorated 
 circular Corinthian interior), but his greatest is the Palazzo 
 Grimani at Venice (Plate 52), which, however, was carried 
 out by others after his death. This is a pile of much dignity 
 and majesty, and has been universally admired. Even Ruskin, 
 little as he likes Renaissance, and especially this phase of 
 it, says that "there is not an erring line, not a mistaken 
 proportion throughout its noble front." But the reader will 
 agree that its faults are more apparent than in our architect's 
 more perfect work at Verona. The lowest storey is magnificent, 
 but the comparative lowness of proportion of the two upper 
 storeys, and the sameness of them, offend. The squatness of 
 the first floor is contributed to by the balustrade, which cuts 
 off the actual height of the arch orders. A curious circum- 
 stance is the varying proportion of the same order, which is 
 used throughout, save in the arch orders of the top storey, which 
 are Ionic. The main pilasters are fluted as usual in Sanmicheli's 
 work. The actual height of the building is ninety-seven feet, 
 and it is ninety feet wide. In the setting out, Sanmicheli 
 has retained the irregular horizontal distribution of the earlier 
 Venetian work, grouping his windows in the middle, and in this 
 respect it is exactly the same as the Vendramini (Plate 26). The 
 vertical disposition is also similar even to the balcony on the 
 first floor, but with differing proportions. But the traceried 
 window had to be given up as being non-classical, in obedience 
 to the law of rejection of such elements. The result is that 
 although losing the almost feminine grace of the Vendramini, it 
 has gained a certain masculine vigour and power, a character 
 quite as good in its own way. The Grimani presents a com- 
 position only to be looked for in Venice, but it is a development
 
 THE PALAZZO GRIMANI, VENICE. 
 
 MICHKI.E SANMICHELI, Archt.
 
 SCHOOLS OF VENETIAN ARCHITECTURE. 129 
 
 of the Venetian type complicated by its architect's Roman 
 education and leanings. 
 
 It is therefore a mistake to speak of a Venetian school of 
 Renaissance architecture. The steps of architectural progress 
 cannot be traced in Venice alone, and there were in fact several 
 schools. First, that of the Lombardi, which produced the 
 beautiful early work in Venice, introduced probably, and certainly 
 influenced from Lombardy, of which the Vendramini and the 
 Miracoli church are good examples. Second, that of Sanmicheli 
 and Sansovino, perfectly distinct, and influenced directly from 
 Rome, which will become more clear as we review the work of 
 the later master. In the title of this chapter there is a double 
 signification in the word Roman ; this, however, will not obscure 
 the meaning. Primarily it is intended to signify Roman in the 
 modern or sixteenth century sense, the influence exerted by 
 the artists in Rome of that date ; but it may also be correctly 
 taken to represent the influence of such antique Roman buildings 
 as the Theatre of Marcellus, and the triumphal arches, by which 
 at this culminating period the architects of the renaissant Rome 
 were guided. Closely following on these two distinct Venetian 
 schools was that of Palladio and Scamozzi, to whose work the 
 next chapter will apply itself, while a fourth school is that of 
 the seventeenth century architects, who did excellent work in 
 Venice on quite different lines. This seaborn city is remark- 
 able as containing work of all periods from its early Christian 
 foundation to the eighteenth century, and perhaps the best of 
 each period, and for these reasons is architecturally the most 
 interesting city in Europe. 
 
 Jacopo or Giacomo Sansovino has many points in common 
 with the great Michelangelo. Like him, he was born into 
 the early phase of the Renaissance in Tuscany, by his sculpture 
 and architecture did good work for the culminating period, and 
 unfortunately, too, assisted its decline in his own declining 
 years. Apart from Michelangelo, he was the last survivor of the 
 group of talented architect-sculptors associated with Florence, 
 and the only rival that versatile genius had to fear in the field 
 of sculpture. Once, at least, they were brought into compe- 
 tition, in the case of the proposed fa9ade-of San Lorenzo at 
 Florence, the honours resting with Michelangelo, who should 
 have refrained from the architectural competition, it being the 
 desire of Pope Leo X. that he should execute the sculpture and 
 A. K
 
 i 3 o THE ROMAN INFLUENCE IN THE NORTH OF ITALY. 
 
 generally supervise the work. In the event it proved the most 
 barren victory he achieved, resulting in nothing but misspent 
 years in marble quarries. Jacopo was born in Florence, prob- 
 ably in 1486, Vasari's date of 1477 being now disputed. His 
 family name was Tatti, but he was called Sansovino from his 
 first master (Andrea da Monte Sansovino), the great sculptor 
 and architect of the later Early Period, to whom he became 
 as a son. The fame of the pupil has eclipsed that of the master, 
 but Andrea was really the greater artist, and one who by his 
 inventive powers materially aided in bringing about the changes 
 of the sixteenth century. Going as a young man to Rome, 
 Jacopo found employment as a sculptor under Bramante and 
 others, and, like Brunelleschi, devoted himself so assiduously to 
 the study of the Roman antiquities that he fell ill and had to return 
 to breathe his native air. Remaining for a time in Florence a 
 brilliant career opened for him as a sculptor. It was at this 
 time he competed for the fa9ade of San Lorenzo, and with his 
 plan and model journeyed once more to Rome to interview the 
 Pope. The whole work being, however, entrusted to Michel- 
 angelo, he seems to have decided not to return to Florence, and 
 so at Rome he entered upon what may be called the second 
 period of his artistic career, and became more specially an archi- 
 tect. Here he designed two churches, one the national church 
 of the Florentines, which was preferred by Pope Leo X. to 
 the plans prepared by Raffaello, Antonio Sangallo and Peruzzi, 
 and several palaces, among them the Niccolini, illustrated in 
 Letarouilly. He was also, it is believed, associated with Peruzzi 
 in at least one undertaking, the casino of the Pope Julius III. In 
 the confusion caused by the sack of Rome in 1527, Sansovino 
 took refuge in Venice, where a degree of tranquillity and secu- 
 rity was at that time to be expected. Here he seems to have 
 been cordially welcomed and much appreciated. At the age 
 of forty-one he entered on the happiest and most prosperous 
 period of his career, during which he executed the series of 
 remarkable buildings on which his fame rests. The glimpse 
 which Benvenuto Cellini gives of his personal character is not 
 pleasant. After insulting a sculptor, Tribolo (a former pupil, 
 whom he had asked to Venice, and who had been accompanied 
 there by Cellini), by dismissing him, and by asking Cellini to 
 dinner, " he never once ceased," in Cellini's words, " to boast 
 at table of his own performances, whilst he made very free with
 
 PLATE LIII. 
 
 PLAN OF FIRST FLOOR OF THE PAL. CORNARO DELLA 
 CA' GRANDE, VENICE. 
 
 JACOPO SANSOVINO, Arc/it. 
 Scale : ^t/is of an Inch (j 10 Feet. 
 
 Cicognara.
 
 CELLINI ON JACOPO SANSOVINO. 131 
 
 Michelangelo, and all other artists, however eminent. I was so 
 disgusted at this behaviour, that I did not eat one morsel with 
 appetite. I only took the liberty to express my sentiments 
 thus : ' O Signor Giacopo, men of worth act as such ; and men 
 of genius, who distinguish themselves by their works, are much 
 better known by the commendations of others, than by vainly 
 sounding their own praises.' Upon my uttering these words, 
 we all rose from table murmuring our discontent." However 
 
 PAL. CORNARO DELLA CA' GRANDE, VENICE. 
 
 /. Sansovino, Archt 
 
 this may be, Sansovino was very much esteemed in Venice for 
 his work's sake at least. He and Titian were close friends, 
 and when it became necessary to raise a large sum by special 
 taxation on the citizens, the two artists were exempted. 
 
 The Palazzo of the Cornaro della Ca' Grande (1532) has been 
 described by Vasari as " surpassing all the others in majesty, 
 grandeur, and convenience, and perhaps the most splendid 
 residence in Italy," while to Ruskin it is "one of the coldest 
 and worst buildings of the central Renaissance." Perhaps the 
 truth lies between the two extremes. Comparing it with the 
 Grimani, we note that the proportions are different, this being 
 about fifteen feet wider, while the height remains about the 
 
 K 2
 
 132 THE ROMAN INFLUENCE IN THE NORTH OF ITALY. 
 
 same (ninety-eight feet). The rusticated lower stones are very 
 finely treated, but above the level of their massive cornice 
 the design is monotonous in the extreme. Equal divisions 
 throughout, both longitudinally and vertically, without any of 
 the irregular distribution of the Grimani, and Venetian work 
 generally ; and the sameness of the two upper storeys, even to 
 
 their balconies, 
 render it a 
 failure. Instead 
 of one order 
 throughout, as 
 at the Grimani, 
 all the orders 
 are employed. 
 The spandrils 
 are filled with 
 trophies and 
 torsos and the 
 oval shell form 
 of the windows 
 in the frieze 
 gives a sign of 
 the decline. 
 Sansovino was 
 always unfortu- 
 nate in his 
 treatment of 
 angles, and in 
 this case the 
 upper cornices 
 are broken over 
 a paltry ridge 
 of pilaster 
 which shows 
 
 itself between the engaged columns. It is a relief to turn 
 from the tiresome and overladen upper storeys to the quiet 
 simplicity and dignity of the lowest, which looks like the work 
 of another hand. The cleverest thing about the design is the 
 way in which these two windows are joined. The general 
 arrangement of the palace, as well as other Venetian palaces, 
 may be learned from the plan of the first floor (Plate 53). Above 
 
 W. J. A.: DEL. 
 
 LOWER WINDOWS OF PAL. CORNARO DELLA CA' GRANDE, 
 VENICE. 
 
 /. Sansovino, Archt.
 
 THE ARCHITECTURE OF JACOPO SANSOVINO. 133 
 
 the entrance hall is the great room of the house, which suggests 
 the closer grouping of the central windows of the front, so 
 unfortunately not adopted here. An ante-room behind it is 
 lighted from the inner court, the section (Plate 54) explaining 
 the arrangement, and showing the grand entrance from the canal, 
 the staircase, and the elevation of the cortile. 
 
 In the Zecca, or Mint of the Venetian Republic, a fire- 
 proof stone and iron construction, Sansovino exhibits his 
 
 LA ZECCA, VENICE. 
 
 /. Sansovino, Archt. 
 
 Sanmicheli-manner already alluded to : a very poor imitation it 
 is. The rustication of the pillars is done in a much less happy 
 way than by Sanmicheli, who only recessed the joints of the 
 courses. The canopies over the first floor windows are con- 
 fusing in their too great projection, and weak in their modillion 
 supports. Sansovino never seems to have discovered the import- 
 ance of a dominating cornice, or thought he could do without 
 it. In the Cornaro no one cornice is more important than 
 another, while* in this case the chief one is at the second floor, 
 and a full order and entablature over. It is only by lapses 
 like these that one can be led to believe that the architect
 
 134 THE ROMAN INFLUENCE IN THE NORTH OF ITALY. 
 
 of the Zecca was architect of the Library, for their general 
 character is totally different ; and it is still more difficult to 
 believe that they were begun in the same year. The end of 
 the Library is seen beyond the Mint, and the relative position 
 of the chief buildings of Venice will be readily apprehended 
 by reference to the view from the campanile of San Giorgio 
 Maggiore. Plate 55 shows in the foreground the Loggetta at 
 the base of the campanile of St. Mark, erected by Sansovino 
 in 1540, with reliefs finely displayed in an upper storey treated 
 after the manner of an attic. The figures in the niches of the 
 ground floor represent Peace, Apollo, Mercury, and Pallas, and 
 
 VIEW OF CENTRAL PART OF VENICE. 
 
 A The Zecca. B The Library (Procuratie Nuove behind). C Campanile of St. Mark's, 
 and Loggetta. D Procuratie Vecchie and Piazza. E The Doges' Palace (St. Mark's 
 Church behind). F The Prison. 
 
 are the work of the master himself, as the inscription round 
 their bases records " Opus Sansovini Florentini." The figure 
 selected for illustration, Mercury (page 135), is a characteristic 
 example, and in this connection may be quoted Vasari's judg- 
 ment upon his sculptural work : " Although yielding on the 
 whole to Michelagnolo, yet Sansovino was the superior of that 
 artist in certain points. In his draperies, his children, and the 
 expression which he gave to his women, for example, Jacopo 
 never had an equal. The ^draperies by his hand are, indeed, 
 most delicately beautiful ; finely folded, they preserve to per- 
 fection the distinction between the nude and draped portions 
 of the form. His children are soft flexible figures with none of
 
 THE SCULPTURE OF JACOPO SANSOVINO. 
 
 135 
 
 the muscular development proper only to adults; the little round 
 legs and arms are truly of flesh and in nowise different to those 
 of Nature herself. The faces of his women are sweet and lovely ; 
 so graceful withal that none can be more so, as may be seen in 
 certain figures of the Madonna, in those of Venus, and in others 
 by his hand." The colossal figures of Mars and Neptune at the 
 head of the Giants' Staircase are also by this master (page 61). 
 
 Returning to the 
 Loggetta as it is 
 shown on Plate 55, 
 we observe that 
 the pillars stand 
 out, supporting a 
 projecting en- 
 tablature, similar 
 to the doorway of 
 Peruzzi, some forty 
 miles away at 
 Ferrara (Plate 51), 
 and flank three 
 similar arched 
 doorways. There 
 can be little doubt 
 that they were 
 suggested by that 
 work. But the 
 Library beyond 
 may now concern 
 us ; the view is of 
 the fagade to the 
 Piazzetta, which 
 faces the Gothic arcades of the Ducal Palace, as if challenging 
 comparison. The high proportions of its entablatures, and the 
 double row of pedestals, as well as the extreme projection of its 
 middle cornice, diminish the value of its columns as elements of 
 rigidity, and the whole has somewhat of the effect of being 
 carved, like the tombs of Petra, out of the living rock. It is 
 sculptor's architecture pure and simple, and if we are to look 
 upon Peruzzi's as painter's, and Sanmicheli's as engineer's 
 architecture, then let us rather choose the work of the painter 
 and engineer. In plan, which shows some ingenuity, the 
 
 FIGURE OF MKRCURY FROM LOGGETTA, VEXICK. 
 
 J. Sansovino, Sculpt.
 
 136 THE ROMAN INFLUENCE IN THE NORTH OF ITALY. 
 
 building is a narrow strip, having its chief entrance flanked by 
 fine carved telamones, in the centre, under the loggia, but with 
 no feature marking its position on the exterior. The interior of 
 the library reveals an elliptical ceiling, whereby hangs a tale. 
 Ordinary coved ceilings came into use in Venice about the 
 end of the fifteenth century, but Sansovino, perhaps disliking 
 plaster ceilings, made an attempt to obtain a more truthful 
 construction by turning in masonry a flat elliptical vault. 
 Unfortunately it collapsed, and poor Sansovino was thrown 
 into prison, and fined a thousand scudi for his failure, " a fate," 
 says Smirke, " which must have powerfully operated on the 
 minds of his brother artists in overcoming their scruples about 
 plaster coves." 
 
 The large scale photograph (Plate 56) gives a capital idea of 
 this building in detail. The lower and open arcade is almost 
 perfect in its proportion and treatment, and is in Sansovino's 
 best Peruzzi manner. We could wish he had carried it through- 
 out. It is true that the heads are the heads of Sanmicheli, but 
 the figures in the spandrils, the treatment of the Doric, and 
 every moulding of it rather recalls Peruzzi. One peculiarity it 
 has, and defect may be, in the great depth of the entablature 
 (one-third of the column), and an inordinate enlargement of the 
 metope. This seems peculiarly unnecessary in an intermediate 
 entablature. One might also criticise the pillar of the same 
 Ionic order in varying heights, but on the same level, as also 
 the crowding of the pedestals on the first floor cornice. The 
 upper entablature is exceedingly high, being one half of the 
 column supporting it, and is evidently proportioned to the 
 height of the whole fagade. As mentioned before, it derives from 
 the Chigi Villa (Plate 46) its sculptural detai land arrangement 
 of windows. The stylobate is too shallow for due effect, while 
 the steps should have been double the height. It were easy to 
 point out faults, for the work cannot be commended as archi- 
 tecture of the very highest class, but it has many charms, and 
 few buildings have been more admired and imitated. 
 
 If they are regarded as a whole, it is not too much to 
 claim that the series of remarkable buildings described in this 
 chapter, joined to those referred to in the last, prove that this 
 culminating period of the Renaissance was a great fact in 
 architectural history, quite worthy of comparison with the 
 Periclean age in Greece, the Augustan era of Imperial Rome,
 
 PLATE LVI. 
 
 
 i 
 
 ; r 
 
 1 
 
 PART ELEVATION OF THE LIBRERIA VECCHIA, VENICE. 
 
 Scale i inch to 10 feet. 
 
 JACOPO SANSOVINO, Archt.
 
 ARTISTIC ATTAINMENT OF THE PERIOD. 137 
 
 or the climax of mediaeval art in France and England. It 
 would be altogether unreasonable to claim that it was superior 
 to Greek or Gothic, except in certain particulars, but in its com- 
 parative amenability to modern requirements it touches us more 
 nearly to-day than either. It has its own artistic value apart 
 from Greece or ancient Rome, and within its own limits rose 
 in the first half of the sixteenth century to a high degree of 
 excellence. The approach to anything like perfection in art is 
 proverbially perilous, and was in this case soon succeeded by 
 decline ; but it is not to be supposed that all the work of the 
 Late Period is of a depraved and worthless sort: on the con- 
 trary, much of it is extremely beautiful and suggestive, while 
 some of the most important and extensive works in Italy were 
 carried on to completion during that time. Its most profitable 
 lesson, however, may lie in the errors and excesses which 
 characterise degeneracy, and which it is possible to shun.
 
 LATE PERIOD 1550 TO 18 CENTURY. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 PALLADIO AND THE DECLINE. 
 
 A CHARACTERISTIC TENDENCY OF REVIVALS TOWARDS LITERAL 
 REPRODUCTION AND EARLIER PHASES OF THE PROTOTYPE SOME OF THE 
 CAUSES OF THE DECADENCE THE LITERAL WORSHIP OF THE TEXT OF 
 VITRUVIUS SERLIO ON HIS "INFALLIBLE DIRECTIONS" THE DECISIVE 
 CAUSE OF DECAY MICHELANGELO'S ARCHITECTURAL WORKS PALLADIO 
 HIS POPULARITY IN THIS COUNTRY HIS REAL MERITS IN MAKING BEST 
 OF SMALL OPPORTUNITIES AND INFERIOR MATERIAL THE BASILICA, 
 VICENZA HIS OWN OPINION OF IT HIS JUDGMENT IN ITS DESIGN- 
 PAL. PREFETTIZIO, VALMARANA, BARBARANO TEATRO OLIMPICO CASA 
 DEL DIAVOLO IL REDENTORE, VENICE, A STATELY INTERIOR VIGNOLA, A 
 FOLLOWER OF PERUZZI SOME OF HIS WORKS MICHELANGELO AGAIN- 
 ST. PETER'S AT HIS DEATH DOME COMPLETED CARLO MADERNA EXTENDS 
 THE NAVE THE ILL-FATED EASTERN CAMPANILI BERNINI'S PERISTYLE 
 AND BALDACHINO BORROMINI AND HIS PRODUCTIONS A LOMBARD 
 RESURRECTION OF THE GROTESQUE THE TIME OF OBELISKS, PILLARS, 
 AND FOUNTAINS THE LATERAN PORTICO S. MARIA MAGGIORE 
 GENOA ALESSI'S WORKS INTERIOR OF SS. ANNUNZIATA SCAMOZZI 
 VENICE PROCURATIE NUOVE S. MARIA DELLA SALUTE A THIRD 
 STAGE IN OCTAGON INTERIOR TREATMENT THE BAROCCO STYLE 
 EXPRESSIVE OF OSTENTATION TOMB OF DOGE VALIER PAL. PESARO 
 THE LAST WORD OF ITALIAN ART TENDENCIES OF THE DECADENT 
 PERIOD CONCLUSION.
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 PALLADIO AND THE DECLINE. 
 
 So far as we have had experience of revivals in art and 
 architecture, it would seem to be their common fate, that, 
 taking rise in bold and original work inspired by the prototype, 
 but mixed with a good deal of what was currently accepted, 
 they should tend more and more to approximate to that 
 prototype till something like literal reproduction is reached, 
 and the revival finally robbed of its vitality. And so the 
 Renaissance, beginning with the original work of Brunelleschi, 
 followed in the main this tendency when relieved from the 
 authority of his immediate school. Nothing in the earlier phases 
 of the Renaissance movement approached so nearly to antique 
 Roman ideas as Sansovino's Library, Palladio's Basilica, or 
 Vignola's numerous works; and the early work of the Lom- 
 bardi or other Northern masters, despite its delicate refinement, 
 does not show so close an approximation to Grecian art, either 
 in the spirit or the letter, as Sanmicheli displays in his Porta 
 del Palio, Peruzzi in his Massimi, and Palladio in his latest 
 Vicenza palaces. 
 
 Closely connected with this tendency is another which may 
 or may not be characteristic of revivals, but can be clearly 
 discerned in the course of the Italian Renaissance, namely, that 
 the later developments are first seized on by the revivalists, who 
 thereafter gradually incline to adopt earlier treatments. If it 
 were worth while the same inclination could be traced in the 
 English Gothic revival of the last generation. And the Italian 
 Renaissance in Brunelleschi's time (except in the case of the 
 Etruscan palazzi, which were on a different footing and may 
 be left out) was inspired by somewhat late Roman work, as was 
 also Bramante's first and second manner. More distinctly is 
 this observable in Milan and Venice, where, beginning with a 
 combination of features which derived their origin from the 
 Roman buildings of the type of the Baths of Caracalla, or third 
 century, it culminated in a reproduction of Augustan Roman, 
 and expired in Palladio's almost Grecian later work.
 
 i 4 o PALLADIO AND THE DECLINE. 
 
 It is not necessary to conclude from such backward tendencies, 
 as many have done, that the whole basis of the Renaissance 
 architecture was false and wrong. All phases of art have had 
 their decline and fall, and in the nature of things the Italian 
 revival could not maintain its brilliancy for ever. Nor did it 
 deteriorate for lack of vitality in the elements of the style, for 
 these were turned to good account subsequently in France and 
 England. What we have to face is the fact, that, after a cen- 
 tury of experiment and preparation, the revival, reaching its 
 highest point in the works of Peruzzi and Sanmicheli, collapsed 
 almost as suddenly as it arose. 
 
 Some of the disturbing causes which brought about this 
 unfortunate result are not far to seek. Chief among them those 
 which are comprehended in the final decline of real prosperity 
 and liberty within the country, which in the early years of the 
 sixteenth century had reached its zenith ; next in importance, 
 the ascendancy of Michelangelo and his vitiated style ; and also 
 the intensified classicism which prevailed, and the reduction 
 of classic architecture to a system of rules and regulations. 
 Taking the least important first, it should be borne in mind 
 that the apotheosis of Vitruvius, "that worst of architects," 
 had reached its full height, and the most absurd homage was 
 paid to the man who happened to be the only architectural 
 writer whose works were preserved from antiquity. Some idea 
 of the mischievous nonsense which permeated the minds of the 
 best architects of the time, may be derived from the philosophy 
 of Serlio, a pupil of a greater than Vitruvius, writing about the 
 middle of the sixteenth century. In speaking of the ruins of 
 the Theatre of Marcellus, one of the most admired works of the 
 Augustan period, he says: "... It standeth within Rome; 
 you may at this day see part of it standing upright, that is part 
 of the galleries without. It is only of two orders, namely Doric 
 and Ionic, a work, in fact, that is much commended, although 
 the Doric columns have no base, nor any cincture or projection 
 under them, but stand plainly without anything under upon the 
 flat ground of the gallery. Regarding the plan of this theatre 
 men could not well conceive it ; but not long ago the great 
 patrician of Rome going to make a house, the situation whereof 
 was to be upon part of the theatre (this house was made by 
 one Balthazar of Siena, an excellent workman), as he caused the 
 foundation to be digged there was found many remains of divers
 
 SERLIO ON THE DOCTRINE OF VITRUVIUS. 141 
 
 cornices of this theatre ; and a great part of the same theatre 
 was discovered, whereby Balthazar conceived the whole form 
 of it, and measured it with great care, placing it in this form. 
 I, myself, being at the time in Rome, saw many of the cornices 
 and found friends to measure them ; and there, in truth, I 
 found as excellent forms as ever I saw in any old ruins, and 
 mostly in the capitals of the Doric, and also on the imposts of 
 the arches, which I think agree well with the doctrine of 
 Vitruvius. Likewise the frieze, triglyph, and metope, agree 
 well enough ; but the Doric cornice, though it be very full of 
 members, and well wrought, yet I found it to differ much from 
 Vitruvius' instructions ; for being rather prodigal of members, 
 it was of such a height that two-thirds of it should have been 
 enough for the architrave and the frieze. I am of opinion, 
 therefore (by the licence of these or other antiquities), that a 
 workman in these days should not make a mistake (and by 
 mistake I mean to do contrary to the precepts of Vitruvius), nor 
 to be fully determined that he will make a cornice, or other 
 thing just of the same proportion as he hath seen and measured, 
 and then set it in the work ; because it is not sufficient for him 
 to say ' I may do it, for ancient workmen have done it without 
 consideration whether it be proportioned according to the rest 
 of the building.' Besides, although an old workman was so 
 bold, yet we must not therefore be so, except as reason teaches 
 us, and should observe Vitruvius' rule as our guide, and most 
 certain and infallible directions; for that from that time of great 
 antiquity till now there is no man found to have written better, 
 nor more learnedly of architecture than he. And as in every 
 art there is one more learned than another to whom such 
 authority is given that his words are fully accepted and without 
 doubt believed, who then will deny (if he be not ignorant) that 
 Vitruvius in architecture is worthy of the highest eminence, and 
 that his writings, where no other notable reason or cause is 
 to move us, ought for their own worthiness to be inviolably 
 observed, and to be better credited than any work of the 
 Romans ? . . . Therefore all those workmen that shall con- 
 demn Vitruvius' writings, especially in such cases as are clearly 
 understood, as in the Doric order of which I spoke, should err 
 greatly in the art of architecture to gainsay such an author, 
 who for so many years has been, and yet is, approved by 
 learned and wise men."
 
 142 
 
 PALLADIO AND THE DECLINE. 
 
 Thus the writings of Vitruvius, nebulous as they were on 
 many points, and perhaps partly because of their obscurity, 
 were set up as the only and infallible standard of excellence, not 
 alone by Serlio, who is only giving expression to the attitude 
 of a very large proportion of the architects of his generation. 
 And yet it was not the ridiculous idolatry of Vitruvius, still less 
 a slavish following of antique models, that wrecked beyond hope 
 of deliverance the revival of art. These it might have outlived; 
 indeed, it is possible to conceive that upon this foundation a 
 
 NEW SACRISTY, SAN LORENZO, FLORENCE. 
 
 Michelangelo, Archt. 
 
 superstructure nobler and finer might one day have been reared. 
 But what should we expect of a generation of architects who 
 were careful about the proportions of a column and careless as 
 to its use : who discussed its proper proportions and entasis, 
 the depth of its base and capital, and yet were indifferent 
 whether it did its constructive work, or merely carried a bust, 
 or filled a recess ? The loss of conformity to constructive 
 principle was the decisive cause of the decay of Renaissance 
 architecture, and if the responsibility can be attached to 
 one man, that man was Michelangelo, the greatest genius 
 of all.
 
 PLATE LVII. 
 
 TOMB OF LORENZO DE' MEDICI. 
 
 NEW SACRISTY, SAN LORENZO, FLORENCE. 
 
 MICHELANGELO, Sculpt, and Archt.
 
 INSINCERITY OF MICHELANGELO'S ARCHITECTURE. 143 
 
 His earliest important architectural works, not to speak of 
 unrealised designs, such as that for the facade of the Church of 
 San Lorenzo, Florence, were the Medici Mausoleum, better 
 known as the New Sacristy, and the Mediceo-Laurentian 
 Library, adjoining the same church. The Sacristy, which was 
 begun on the accession of Pope Clement VII., another Medici, 
 and roofed in about a year's time (1524), was of the same shape 
 and dimensions as the old sacristy of Brunelleschi (page -19). 
 In the architec- 
 tural manipula- 
 tion of the interior 
 so far as then ac- 
 complished there 
 are no signs of 
 the approaching 
 decadence ; but 
 before 1534, when 
 he left his magni- 
 ficent tombs in- 
 complete, he had 
 constructed the 
 architectural back- 
 ground shown in 
 Plate 57, in which 
 the germ of the 
 barocco corrup- 
 tion may be dis- 
 cerned. He had 
 besides furnished 
 some vague in- 
 structions for the 
 vestibule and 
 staircase - of the Library, which the ever-faithful Vasari 
 attempted to carry out according to his ideas, finishing it in 
 1571, with what result the illustration suffices to show. 
 
 The qualities in Michelangelo's work which appear to have 
 led architecture into the dark and devious ways of the barocco 
 decadence, were : first and chiefly, its insincerity, in which 
 may be included not only an absence of truthful construction or 
 logical articulation, but the tendency to employ architectural 
 features as mere scenery, and to introduce false or unnecessary 
 
 VESTIBULE OF MEDICEO-LAURENTIAN LIBRARY, FLORENCE. 
 Michelangelo and Vasari, Archts.
 
 144 PALLADIO AND THE DECLINE. 
 
 windows, niches, panels, consoles and balustrades, arising out 
 of an unwholesome dread of unbroken wall surface ; second, 
 a quality which from its nature had less disastrous conse- 
 quences, that of exaggerated scale, well exemplified by the 
 vulgar Corinthian pilaster treatment of the Palazzo dei 
 Conservatori on the Capitoline, erected after his design, as 
 well as in the gigantic pilaster and attic of the exterior of 
 St. Peter's. It is not difficult now to see that Michelangelo 
 had not learned so much as the grammar of the art of 
 architecture ; but his enormous reputation as a painter and 
 sculptor, at a time when men were less disposed to restrict 
 genius to a narrow field, led to his architecture becoming 
 the mode, and under the conviction that so great a personality 
 could do nothing wrong, every solecism, vice, vulgarity, was 
 painfully copied by those who came under the influence of his 
 work. But there was at least one district of Italy where his 
 ascendancy was disputed. 
 
 The cleverest architect of the late Renaissance was unques- 
 tionably Andrea Palladio of Vicenza (1518 80). Of his life 
 we know very little, but his remaining works show him to 
 have been a man of fine perceptions and no little origi- 
 nality. The time at which he arrived was unfortunate, and his 
 opportunities of an inferior sort to those which fell to the lot 
 of less competent men, but he made the most of them, and 
 Vicenza, his native town, where he lived, and worked, and 
 died, is of great consequence in the study of the Late Period. 
 From the time of Inigo Jones downwards Palladio has been 
 particularly admired in this country, and his name has here 
 attained quite a fictitious importance. Why he should be 
 better known and more honoured than Brunelleschi, Bramante, 
 Peruzzi, or Sanmicheli, it is difficult to understand, unless it be 
 that he showed what could be done on a small scale and with 
 simple and cheap materials. It has been said that he knew 
 how to make a building " grand without great dimensions and 
 rich without much expense." In his works one does not find 
 marble or precious stones, for his genius was stifled in an 
 inferior kind of cement, and he seems to have rejected all idea 
 of colour effect. It is this which makes Vicenza one of the 
 dullest and most depressing towns in Italy, and has led to the 
 remark that there " the cold hand of that friend of virtuous 
 poverty in architecture lies heavy in many places." But to do

 
 THE BASILICA OF VICENZA. 
 
 145 
 
 him justice the faults of his work were the faults of the age 
 rather than of the man ; and in no place was the tide of the 
 corruption and barbarism of the barocco or rococo fashion 
 more firmly stemmed than in Vicenza. Indeed, to his influence 
 is due the great superiority of the whole of the late Venetian 
 work over that of Rome and Genoa, other active centres at the 
 time. It is probable, however, that his great fame out of Italy 
 is mainly due to the popularity (if we might apply the term to 
 any architectural 
 work) of his book, 
 which has passed 
 through a great 
 number of editions, 
 and has been trans- 
 lated into many 
 of the European 
 tongues. 
 
 At the age of thirty- 
 one, in the year 1549, 
 Palladio constructed 
 these arcades around 
 the Gothic Consiglio 
 or Town Hall of 
 Vicenza, and thereby 
 achieved a success 
 he never surpassed. 
 He describes it as 
 a modern Basilica, 
 and doubtless it must 
 have closely re- 
 sembled such a 
 building as the Basilica Julia in the Forum Romanum. He 
 was not diffident about it himself, and in his book (published 
 at Venice in 1570), he says with almost pardonable pride: 
 "I do not question but that this fabric may be compared to the 
 ancient edifices, and be looked upon as one of the most noble 
 and beautiful buildings erected since the time of the ancients, as 
 well on account of its largeness and decoration as of its matter, 
 which is all hewn stone, hard to the last degree, and joined 
 and bound together with the utmost care." This reference to 
 its truthful construction is interesting in view of the fact that 
 A. L 
 
 THK BASILICA PALLADIANA, VICENZA. 
 
 . Palladio, Archt.
 
 146 PALLADIO AND THE DECLINE. 
 
 Palladio in his later practice found that architectural effects 
 could be got out of less worthy materials, such as common 
 brick, wood, and stucco, of which indeed nearly all the palazzi 
 in Vicenza are constructed. In considering this building of 
 precious hewn stone in detail, we notice that its setting out 
 or width of bay is determined by that of the original Gothic 
 hall to which it is an adjunct. It is this probably that 
 has suggested the whole treatment, a repetition in each bay 
 of what has been called the " motif Palladio." The feature 
 might with better reason be known as the motif of Peruzzi, 
 having been revealed a full development by that master in th'e 
 Palazzo Linotta, Rome ; the large central arch springing from 
 the entablature of the columns with lesser lintelled spaces, and 
 the spandrils rilled by moulded square panels. In this case the 
 spandrils have a simply pierced circular opening, and the rich- 
 ness of the whole is much increased by the great thickness of 
 the wall and the consequent double range of columns carrying 
 the arches of both tiers. The whole composition and details 
 do not depart in any important point from the practice of the 
 architects of the Central Period, and the work properly belongs, 
 both in time and character, to that epoch. Sanmicheli, it is 
 true, would have made the cornices continuous, and supported 
 the entablatures with his gigantic heads at the keystones, but 
 Palladio in breaking the entablature round the columns in this 
 case has shown discernment, for the bays otherwise would 
 certainly have looked much too low and squat. The returning 
 of the cornice and mouldings round the columns assists in 
 carrying up the eye to the figure which completes it, and 
 prevents any sense of clumsiness in the proportion, which was 
 forced upon the architect. In the angles where he was free 
 from this restriction, he has boldly taken advantage of his 
 liberty and reduced the width of the bay, strengthening the 
 corners of the building immensely, and giving further proof 
 of judgment. The detail photograph (Plate 58) will give some 
 conception of the excellent, restrained, and pure character 
 of the work. 
 
 The Palazzi Chiericati and Tiene are, after the Basilica, the 
 most important of Palladio's designs in Vicenza, and among 
 work less frequently illustrated the Palazzo del Consiglio, Muni- 
 cipio, or Prefettizio, a comparatively small building standing 
 opposite his earliest and greatest production. This (Plate 59),
 
 PALLADIO'S USE OF THE ORDERS. 147 
 
 like the others we have to show, belongs to a period in 
 Palladio's life about twenty years later, and being more dis- 
 tinctively Palladian, is so much the poorer art. Yet it is still 
 a beautiful and interesting work, and by no means lacking 
 in originality. The arrangement of the elevation is that of 
 Composite pillars on block pedestals, reaching through two 
 storeys, and carrying a main cornice broken round them, 
 with attic over, set well back from the wall line, which is an 
 advantage. The first floor being only marked by the balcony 
 on the front, and without secondary pilasters and entabla- 
 ture, the two storeys merge into one another in a somewhat 
 happy manner. Observe, however, the different treatment of 
 the side ; the secondary columns carrying a balcony over the 
 middle space and figures at the ends, with other figures 
 on pedestals between the columns. The main architrave is 
 stupidly broken to admit of the formation of an arch at the 
 central window opening. This end elevation certainly shows 
 a decadent tendency. The wall spaces between the windows 
 and pillars are covered with stucco ornament, and the misuse 
 of the triglyph as a bracket is a further sign of decline. 
 
 Palladio, however, is perhaps on the whole more to be blamed 
 for the use of shoddy material than for departure from truthful 
 design and appropriate use of parts. Two other buildings in 
 Vicenza are very near of kin to the Municipio, and of them this- 
 Valmarana Palace (1556) is one (Plate 60). Here the order is 
 only in pilaster form, and for that reason much less rich, though 
 possibly better suited to the stucco material out of which the 
 front is formed above the pedestals in imitation of stone. A 
 good deal of criticism has been bestowed upon this building for 
 the treatment of its angles, it being generally assumed from 
 line drawings that the building stood free of others. This photo- 
 graph, however, shows clearly -that, as it stands, there is no 
 return, and only a slight break in the continuity of the line of 
 the street, forming a gentle internal angle ; and a glance at 
 Palladio's own drawing shows that the angular treatment was 
 never attempted. The figures terminate the fa9ade, and not 
 altogether unhappily, relieving the monotony which would result 
 from the repetition of the pilasters. 
 
 Palladian architecture is often taken to mean the combina- 
 tion of two storeys in one order, but this is, to say the least, 
 .a misleading view. In the first place, Palladio was not the 
 
 L 2
 
 148 PALLADIO AND THE DECLINE. 
 
 first Italian architect to treat two storeys under one order. 
 It had been done after a fashion both by Bramante and 
 Peruzzi, and most successfully and completely by Sanmicheli 
 in the lower part of the Grimani Palace ; and, in the second 
 place, Palladio, almost as often as not, superimposed his orders, 
 or restricted them to the height of a single storey. Indeed he 
 gives in his book elaborate directions for their disposition, " so 
 that the most solid be placed undermost, as being the most 
 proper to sustain the weight, and give the whole edifice a more 
 firm foundation," therefore, he says, " the Doric must always 
 be placed under the Ionic, the Ionic under the Corinthian, and 
 the Corinthian under the Composite," although the Doric, he 
 adds, may be put under the Corinthian so long as the more 
 solid is underneath. That he practised what he preached may 
 be seen both in the Basilica and in this Porto Barbarano 
 dwelling (1570), also in Vicenza, where the Corinthian is super- 
 imposed on the Ionic (Plate 60). The relation of these orders 
 is excellent, the lines of the upper tier being practically the 
 continuation of the lower, and the upper range therefore of 
 less height. In this case, too, the entablatures are unbroken, 
 to the great advantage of the composition, and are restricted 
 in depth, the lower much under its normal proportion, in 
 which great judgment is shown, considering its position as an 
 intermediate entablature. From the time of Michelangelo's 
 tombs of the Medici every architect in Italy seems to have 
 endeavoured to find room for reclining figures on his pedi- 
 ments, not always in the same attitude of sublime repose. 
 In this instance they are employed in suspending stucco 
 wreaths from their elevated couch. Palladio in the Palazzo 
 Barbarano presents us with an interesting attempt at solution 
 of the angle question, which to the Venetian architect 
 seems to have been so much of a puzzle. It is most 
 successful as solving the difficulty of the return of the Grecian 
 Ionic columns, which has perplexed architects in all genera- 
 tions. The studied correctness of this Ionic shaft should also 
 be noticed, its slight diminution, scarcely appreciable entasis, 
 and want of neck moulding ; all indicate the influence of the 
 antique type upon its designer, and ho\v carefully he sought 
 to preserve the character of an order. It should be noticed, 
 too, that the columns are not set on pedestals, as usual with 
 Sanmicheli and Sansovino, and the upper tier rises between

 
 REVIVAL OF THE GREEK THEATRE. 149 
 
 the balconies from a simple block on the cornice. Indeed, when 
 compared with Sansovino's Library, which Palladio himself 
 regarded as " perhaps the most sumptuous and most beautiful 
 edifice erected since the time of the ancients," this is in many 
 respects superior, and well deserved to be carried out in marble 
 instead of the brick and stucco to which it was never adapted. 
 
 Andrea Palladio, like Brunelleschi and Sanmicheli before him, 
 was engineer as well as architect ; perhaps he never thought of 
 drawing any distinction between what are now generally under- 
 stood as different professions. The third of his four books deals 
 alike with roads, bridges, public squares, and basilicas. And, 
 like Peruzzi, with whom he had much in common, his attention 
 was at one time directed to stage accessories and to theatre 
 construction. Instead, however, of any attempted use of the 
 movable scenes already used by Peruzzi, we have here in this 
 Teatro Olimpico at Vicenza (Plate 61), a permanent scenic 
 background of stone, and an arrangement conforming in nearly 
 every respect to the ancient Greek theatre model. Not to 
 speak of the triumphal arch, the elliptical form of the auditorium, 
 and other matters of detail, the principal point of departure 
 from the Greek ^precedent is the most interesting feature of 
 the whole theatre. For only in Renaissance times could such 
 an idea have suggested itself of a perspective construction 
 of three streets, with palaces and dwellings on either side built 
 in perspective, so as to seem from certain points of view of 
 interminable length. They had this advantage over painted 
 representations, that actors could enter and approach by 
 means of the street or part of it, however much they might 
 mar the illusion by the different scale of heights. This theatre 
 was not completed until after Palladio's death, and inaugurated 
 in 1584 by a performance of " (Edipus the King," the master- 
 piece of the Greek Sophocles. 
 
 The traveller before leaving this quiet and colourless town 
 cannot fail to remark a high and incomplete building on his 
 left when nearing the railway station (Plate 59). It is called, 
 for some mysterious reason, the " Casa del Diavolo" (House 
 of the Devil) but it is more generally known in Vicenza as 
 the Antica Posta. Had this fa9ade been completed, it might 
 have ranked as one of the finest of Palladio's palaces; and from 
 this full size model of two bays we can appreciate its good 
 points. Of enormous scale, as the human figures testify, it is
 
 150 
 
 PALLADIO AND THE DECLINE. 
 
 beautifully proportioned and delicately modelled. The doorway 
 to the left was probably intended as the centre of the whole, 
 and the middle bay, for this reason, widened, as in the Valmarana 
 and Barbarano houses. Above the pedestal bases it is, like the 
 others, constructed of brick faced with stucco, but this need 
 not blind our eyes to its excellence of composition and detail, 
 as in the Composite capitals, linked together by the festoons not 
 ungracefully, and in the prettily designed balconies. Palladio 
 
 again makes characteristic use of the 
 flat arch of Sanmicheli ; pediments are 
 alternately segments and triangles, and 
 low windows like Peruzzi are obtained 
 in the frieze. It is only, however, the 
 immense scale of this Composite order 
 which enables Palladio to secure his 
 window here, for he was never capable 
 of enlarging the frieze beyond its regu- 
 lation limit, and in all other cases 
 superimposed the attic on the main 
 cornice. 
 
 Besides the buildings which have 
 been mentioned, not to speak of 
 numerous country residences, such as 
 the famous Villa Capra, Palladio's 
 principal works are the facade of San 
 Francesco della Vigna (1568), and the 
 Redentore (1576), both at Venice. 
 There is scarcely a church interior in 
 Italy which, with so little expenditure 
 of ornament and with such simple 
 materials, has a richer and statelier 
 effect than this Chiesa del Redentore. 
 The clustering of the pillars under the dome and the heavy 
 pillar screen behind the altar are dignified in effect, and the 
 whole interior has a remarkably religious expression, akin to 
 that which might be produced by slow music of rich, full chords. 
 The nave is only fifty-two feet wide, so that this dignity is not 
 attained by a great scale. Coming down to matters of technic, 
 it may be noted that the use here made of the Corinthian 
 order as a secondary pilaster, part, one might say, of Sansovino's 
 system, is objectionable for two reasons : firstly, that it involves 
 
 PLAN OF CHIF.SA DEL 
 
 REDENTORE, VENICF. 
 Cicognara. 
 
 Palladio, Archt. 
 Scale i/8th of an inch to 
 ten feet.
 
 THE CHURCH OF THE REDEEMER. 151 
 
 the raising of two pillars of the same order of different heights on 
 the same base, and secondly, that it limits the depth of the reveal 
 of this arch in a manner which an impost moulding would not 
 do. It may also be observed that the pilasters both under the 
 chapel arches and beneath the dome are diminished, and have 
 entasis just as if they were columns, a most objectionable 
 practice of the later Venetians. On the exterior the defect of 
 unequal pillars on a level base is more painfully apparent, and 
 one can admire all the more the expedient Palladio ultimately 
 
 CHIESA DEL REDENTORE, VENICE. 
 
 Palladio, Archt. 
 
 adopted in his design for the church on the islet of San 
 Giorgio. For while the columns and pilasters of II Redentore 
 rise from a level plane, the principal pillars here are raised on 
 pedestals, and the subordinate pilasters dropped to the lower 
 level, thus preventing too close a comparison. 
 
 While Palladio was engaged in building houses for the people 
 of Vicenza, a kindred spirit, Vignola to give his family name, 
 Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola (1507 73) lived and worked at 
 Rome. A man of books and rules, and having good taste, he 
 represents almost equally with Palladio the academic side of the
 
 152 
 
 PALLADIO AND THE DECLINE. 
 
 retrograde movement. Speaking of Vignola, Milizia says, inno- 
 cently, " Architecture is eternally obliged to him ; he formed a 
 system and prescribed rules." Influenced but little by Michel- 
 angelo he was frequently a close copyist of Peruzzi, as his 
 domestic work in Rome attests. The work by which he is best 
 remembered, apart from his book, is the pentagonal Castle 
 of Caprarola, about forty miles north of Rome, which has been 
 frequently illustrated. It was erected about 1550 for a second 
 Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, nephew of the builder of the 
 
 Farnese Palace. This 
 chapel of Sant' Andrea, 
 just outside the Porta 
 del Popolo, is one of 
 his earlier works, and is 
 on the whole a pleasing 
 and beautiful design. 
 A simple oblong in plan, 
 it is surmounted by an 
 elliptical dome on pen- 
 dentives. Not far off is 
 the villa of Pope Julius 
 III., which he also con- 
 structed, with its grand 
 cortile of semi-circular 
 form, the inner wall 
 of which was decorated 
 in a Pompeian manner. 
 Author of a pentagonal 
 castle, an elliptically 
 domed chapel, and a 
 semi-circular court, it 
 will be obvious that Vignola strove after originality, which he 
 attained in ways certainly more legitimate than those of the 
 succeeding century. 
 
 At the first impression it may seem going a long way back 
 to introduce at this point the name and work of Michelangelo, 
 but he, like a Gladstone, was of those exceptional figures, 
 whose life and powers have been prolonged far beyond the 
 allotted span, and are privileged to witness and influence the 
 most complete changes of the progressive periods of human 
 history. An eminent sculptor before the end of the fifteenth 
 
 FACADE OF CHAPEL OF SANT' ANDREA, ROME. 
 
 Vignola, Archt.
 
 LATER HISTORY OF ST. PETER'S. 153 
 
 -s 
 
 century (the David was executed in 1502), it was not till the 
 middle of the sixteenth that, at seventy-one years of age, he 
 gave himself up entirely to the practice of architecture proper in 
 the rebuilding of St. Peter's, after repeatedly refusing the task. 
 It was just at this time that Palladio commenced his career, 
 and although Vignola outlived Michelangelo nine years, and 
 from that period succeeded him in the control of St. Peter's, the 
 architectural practice of the three may be regarded as coeval. 
 
 It was with a Titanic energy to which the Vatican Hill 
 had hitherto been a stranger that Michelangelo prosecuted his 
 tremendous undertaking, and at his death left only the dome 
 covering and the Eastern fa?ade unfinished. St. Peter's has 
 already engaged our attention in considering the culminating 
 period, during which it was commenced, but a few facts relat- 
 ing to its later history will not be out of place. In the period 
 during which Vignola took charge after Michelangelo's death 
 in 1564, little of importance seems to have been done beyond 
 the cupolas on either side of the great dome ; and it was only 
 in the pontificate of Sixtus V., a most flourishing period for 
 Rome (1585 90), that the dome was erected from Michel- 
 angelo's wooden model by Giacomo della Porta and Domenico 
 Fontana, two Lombard architects of great renown at that 
 time. Michelangelo had left a design for the dome which 
 involved three separate shells, the inmost and lowest having the 
 hemispherical form of the dome of the Pantheon ; but this was 
 omitted in execution, and Symonds is of opinion that it had 
 been abandoned by Michelangelo himself.* Like the dome of 
 Brunelleschi, the chief constructive elements are the ribs, which 
 in the case of St. Peter's are of stone, sixteen in number, 
 decreasing in width of face to the top, while they increase 
 in depth, and projecting from the surface of the vault with 
 moulded ridges (Plate 44). The lantern, which was suggested 
 by that of the Cathedral at Florence, underwent some changes, 
 based on drawings by Vignola, and its weight probably brought 
 about the subsequent spreading of the vault, which was 
 stopped by the insertion of additional ties. Again the great 
 work suffered suspension for about fifteen years, until the reign 
 of Pope Paul V., which commenced in 1605 ; and Carlo 
 Maderna, his architect, possibly on account of ecclesiastical 
 
 * Life of Michelangelo Buonarroti.
 
 154 PALLADIO AND THE DECLINE. 
 
 prejudice in favour of use and wont, changed the plan of 
 Michelangelo to a Latin cross, and with the existing fa9ade 
 completed the work in 1612, in its exterior aspect at least. 
 Maderna had designed for the angles of the facade, two 
 hexagonal bell towers, in execrable taste ; and Bernini, who 
 succeeded, made new designs, and constructed one of them 
 at the south end to a height of about 130 feet. But the sub- 
 structure cracked and yielded slightly, and while the prudence 
 of proceeding with the work was being considered, the Pope 
 died, and his successor employed his friend Rainaldi as archi- 
 tect, and left the question with him. He from examination 
 of the whole matter, and having no love for Bernini, ordered 
 the work to be taken down ; and this was done, although it had 
 cost 23,250 sterling, and nearly 3,000 more was expended to 
 remove it. He then out-Heroded Herod in the barbarity of his 
 designs for this ill-fated campanile, but the death of his Pope and 
 the accession of Alexander VII. deprived him of his influence 
 and office. Bernini was then re-employed, and directed to build 
 the grand colonnade which encircles the great piazza., and the 
 matter of the bell towers fell into abeyance. In this peristyle 
 Bernini suppressed himself and his extravagances in a most 
 commendable way, and has given to St. Peter's a nobler 
 approach than any building in Europe possesses. In the view 
 of the interior of St. Peter's (Plate 45) may be observed at the 
 crossing under the dome the brazen baldachino of Bernini. The 
 twisted pillars have not the merit of originality, for they seem 
 to be taken out of Raffaello's picture of Peter and John at the 
 Gate Beautiful, while the portico of the Pantheon had to be 
 fobbed of its gilded girders to supply the needful metal. 
 
 The aspect of the Rome of to-day (if we can think away 
 the mass of speculative building erected since 1870) is not 
 greatly different from that of the end of the sixteenth and 
 beginning of the seventeenth centuries, a time of much activity, 
 although the arts were in decadence. To Sixtus V. and Paul V. 
 (1605 21) it owes very many of its characteristic features. 
 It will be quite unnecessary to burden our tale with the long 
 list of architects of that period who have somehow become 
 famous, though executing execrable work ; but besides those 
 mentioned in connection with St. Peter's one name stands out 
 prominently, not for the excellence, but for the audacity of 
 his performances. This was Francesco Borromini, a Milanese,.
 
 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BAROCCO. 
 
 155 
 
 and one in whom the uncontrollable energy and fire of the 
 Lombard spirit seems to have burst forth afresh. It is a 
 curious fact that the architects who seem to have been most 
 affected by the oddities of Michelangelo, and who developed 
 this corrupt style, were Lombards, of whom quite a colony 
 worked at Rome, among them the Fontana and Lunghi families, 
 Maderna, Ponzio, and this Borromini ; and there can be little 
 doubt that racial tendencies greatly aided in this resurrection of 
 the grotesque in architecture, for so it was. About this period 
 the term pittoresco was invented, presumably to describe this 
 
 SAN SKBASTIANO, VIA API'IA, ROME. 
 
 depraved style, and picturesque without doubt a good deal of 
 it is. Cornices always broken or interrupted, angles or curves 
 invariably preferred to a horizontal or vertical line, screw- 
 twisted columns and even inverted capitals mark this kind of 
 work. It is said of Borromini that "he seems to have gone 
 by contraries ; and to give truth the appearance of fiction, 
 and the converse, seems to have been his greatest delight. 
 Thus, for example, to a part or ornament naturally weak he 
 would assign the office of supporting some great weight, while to 
 one actually capable of receiving a great load, he would assign 
 no office whatever." No better description could be given of
 
 156 
 
 PALLADIO AND THE DECLINE. 
 
 the characteristics of the work of this man, who of all the bad 
 architects which the times produced was the most illogical, con- 
 temptuous of tradition, and impudent. The Church of San Carlo 
 alle Quattro Fontane, and the reconstruction of the interior of 
 San Giovanni in Laterano, are among his productions. 
 
 The period between the reigns of the two Popes just mentioned 
 was further distinguished by the erection of numerous obelisks 
 
 W. J. A.: DEL. 
 
 PULPIT IN SS. ANNUNZIATA, GENOA. 
 
 Developed Elevation of 
 end of Stair Balustrade 
 
 and pillars, as well as the fountain of St. Paul (1611), decorated 
 with columns (to supply which the ancient temple of Minerva had 
 to be destroyed), and carried out by Maderna and Fontana, with 
 vulgar inscriptions on the glorified parapet and in the lunette of 
 the arch. The reconstruction of the ancient Basilica of San 
 Sebastiano (1612), on the Appian Way, is a much more pleasing 
 work (page 155), the brick front being carried on six antique 
 granite columns, coupled together, and carrying a fragment of
 
 PLATK LXII. 
 
 INTERIOR OF SANTISSIMA ANNUNZIATA, GENOA. 
 
 GIACOMO DEI. I. A POKTA, Afcllt.
 
 CHURCHES OF THE DECADENCE. 157 
 
 entablature to form the impost for an arcade. This arrange- 
 ment is typical of the period, and superseded in palace cortiles, 
 as at the Borghese, the Roman Colosseum type of the sixteenth 
 century. The second quarter of the eighteenth century saw 
 another brief period of activity in the building art ; and at the 
 hands of Alessandro Galilei and Ferdinando Fuga a few great 
 and imposing works were completed. To Galilei Rome owes 
 the great fa$ade of the Church of San Giovanni in Laterano 
 (1734), simply treated and finely proportioned, and much superior 
 to the work of the previous century. Similar in many respects 
 is the portico to the Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore, by Fuga, 
 about nine years later. 
 
 The palaces of Genoa have been much praised, and are said 
 to have earned for that city, as much as its situation, the title 
 of La Superba ; but there is scarcely one of them which for 
 good or evil requires illustration here. For most of them 
 Galeazzo Alessi, a pupil of Michelangelo, is responsible. Their 
 best features are the halls and staircases : otherwise they are cold 
 and uninteresting, and do not rank with the work in Venice, or 
 even in Rome of the same period ; while no greater misuse of a 
 great opportunity was made than in the case of Alessi's large 
 and finely placed Church of Santa Maria in Carignano. But in 
 all Italy there is no finer interior of the Late Period than the 
 Church of SS. Annunziata (Plate 62) in this city, built at the 
 close of the sixteenth century by Giacomo della Porta. In this 
 building single marble Composite columns of large scale, inlaid 
 on the flutings with another marble, and standing on block 
 pedestals, receive the pier arches without the intervention of 
 entablature ; pilasters reach from the capital to the architrave. 
 The roof of the nave is wagon vaulted with smaller transverse 
 vaults in each compartment, and is divided in the decoration into 
 three longitudinal divisions, so that much of the awkwardness of 
 the lesser cross vaults is obviated. In general design this is late 
 Roman, of the third or fourth century, which we have already 
 seen to be the character belonging to early Renaissance work. 
 And but for the profiles of some of the mouldings and the nature 
 of the ornament one might be led to classify this as fifteenth 
 century work. It is, however, an entirely exceptional work, an 
 exhibition of individual talent rather than the result of any school 
 or consecutive development, and in this way mora allied to the 
 almost unclassifiable work of modern, or at least recent, times.
 
 '58 
 
 PALLADIO AND THE DECLINE. 
 
 Preserving, as far as possible, the chronological order, we 
 return to Venice at the beginning of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury. Here we find that Palladio's successor, Scamozzi, after 
 completing [ the church of San Giorgio Maggiore and the 
 theatre at Vicenza, had extended Sansovino's Library building 
 
 Longhena, Archt. 
 
 (Plates 55, 56) into the Square of St. Mark. On the whole 
 he followed closely Sansovino's lead, and beyond a slight 
 coarsening of the details and sculpture, the two lower storeys 
 of the building (known as the Procuratie Nuove) are the same 
 up to the frieze. This, in Scamozzi's building, has a scroll 
 ornament, its depth being materially reduced, and an upper 
 storey was added, of the Corinthian order, which possesses
 
 THE CHURCH OF OUR LADY OF SAFETY. 
 
 159 
 
 neither great merits nor great defects. It is open to the 
 same criticism as the first floor in having columns of the 
 same order and of different heights, standing on the same 
 level ; and had Scamozzi been the genius some authorities 
 make him, he 
 would not so 
 tamely have 
 repeated San- 
 sovino's motif, 
 more especi- 
 ally with the 
 lesson set al- 
 ready by his 
 master Pal- 
 ladio in the 
 design for the 
 Church of 
 San Giorgio 
 Maggiore. 
 
 The ablest 
 work of the 
 Late Period 
 in Venice is 
 probably that 
 of Santa Maria 
 della Salute, 
 by Baldassare 
 Lo n ghe n a. 
 This was 
 erected so late 
 as 1631 82, 
 in token of 
 the cessation 
 of the plague. 
 Its exterior 
 effect is the 
 
 delight of painters, and a familiar object in most presentations 
 of the scenery of the glorious sea-gate to the presence-chamber 
 of the Queen of the Adriatic. Architecturally few churches of 
 similar extent in any age can rival it. The composition is mainly 
 pyramidal, buttressed by the dome over the choir, and the twin 
 
 W. J. A. : DEL. 
 
 NORTH-WEST CHAPEI. OK SANTA MARIA DEI. LA SALUTE, VENICE. 
 
 Long/tend, Archt.
 
 i6o 
 
 PALLADIO AND THE DECLINE. 
 
 campanili ; and the way in which the eye is led up from the 
 irregular shape of the plan to the octagonal drum by the 
 boldly shaped brackets, and from the octagon to the circular 
 dome, evinces great ability and close study on the part of 
 its designer. In the interior handling of the octagon, in 
 place of Giuliano's coupled pilasters or Bramante's angular 
 one, Longhena boldly places a column at each angle with 
 good effect, and raises it on a pedestal to give height for 
 his arches and disconnect the two orders. But the use of 
 
 the Corinthian pilaster beneath 
 the impost is objectionable, for 
 reasons already stated in con- 
 nection with the Redentore. 
 In this case the constructive 
 importance of the wall de- 
 mands the employment of two 
 pilasters, which seem to cut 
 the wall into slices. A trifling- 
 absurdity is the use of the con- 
 cave abacus of the Corinthian 
 capital over the keystones. 
 
 The barocco style, despite 
 its untruthful and unprincipled 
 character, seems to have its uses 
 in expressing ostentation and 
 bombastic pomp, and this we 
 see in the monument of the 
 Doge Valier in San Giovanni e 
 Paolo (1700). The treatment of 
 the pedestals is peculiar, and 
 perhaps in part suggested by 
 the side of Palladio's Prefettizio (Plate 59), where figures stand 
 between the columns in a similar way. The cornice of the 
 pedestals also forms the impost of an arch, as at the Casa del 
 Diavolo in Vicenza. This mausoleum facade is an instance of 
 the decadent fashion of using marble in imitation of silk or 
 cloth wherever such material can by any possibility be sup- 
 posed to be displayed, as in the great curtain behind the three 
 worthies, suspended by cherubs in mid-air, and also the smaller 
 coverings of the pedestals on which the chief figures stand. 
 The Palazzo Pesaro, on the Grand Canal (Plate 63), presents 
 
 PLAN OF SANTA MARIA DELLA SALUTE, VENICE. 
 
 Cicognara. Longhena, Archt. 
 
 Scale i/8th of an inch to ten feet.
 
 THE PALAZZO PESARO. 
 
 161 
 
 the richest and grossest development of the Venetian domestic 
 Renaissance, the last word of Italian art. Founded on the 
 Cornaro della Ca' Grande of Sansovino and carried out by 
 
 MONUMENT TO DOGE VALIER, SAN GIOVANNI E PAOLO, VENICE. 
 
 Longhena, it is immeasurably inferior technically, although in 
 general distribution and proportion rather more pleasing. The 
 restlessness which characterises the whole, in spite of its 
 sober proportions, is due mainly to the figures, which appear 
 A. M
 
 i62 PALLADIO AND THE DECLINE. 
 
 in spasmodic action, but is also contributed to by the broken 
 cornices over each column, and perhaps in some degree by the 
 too boldly projecting, diamond-like, rustication. The treatment 
 of the angles of the building is an exaggeration of Sansovino's 
 oddity in this matter of detail. For, instead of striving after 
 simplicity in things such as these, the architects of the period, 
 devoid of true artistic principles, seized upon the weaknesses 
 and excrescences of the great masters, and endeavoured to 
 develop them into points of interest, or even to raise them to 
 the dignity of features of design. 
 
 Speaking generally, it may be said that, although the causes 
 of the decadence were manifold, two tendencies are clearly dis- 
 tinguishable. First, that of the purists, represented chiefly by 
 Vignola and Palladio, bound a little too firmly in ancient usages 
 and regulated by precedent, the result being the coldness and 
 formality that was in a measure common to both. Contem- 
 porary with this, but outlasting it, and of wider and more 
 disastrous influence, was the tendency, due in the first instance 
 to Michelangelo's example, of freedom to the verge of licence. 
 Whether out of revolt at the studious correctness of the 
 purists, or want of knowledge or guidance in the laws of 
 taste, there was a failure to appreciate traditional methods 
 and systems of design, especially in regard to their relation 
 to construction. The very purpose and use of features is 
 misunderstood, as in much of Borromini's work; an uncon- 
 trolled freedom is indulged in with regard to their application ; 
 ornament is constructed for its own sake, instead of being 
 bound up with the architectural lines; and by such freaks and 
 caprices almost every building of the era, though, like certain of 
 the Venetian works, not ignoble in composition, is more or less 
 disfigured.
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 It would be unreasonable as well as futile to attempt any 
 estimate of the value of the Italian architecture in connection 
 with our retrospective view of it. Particular works or methods 
 we have not scrupled to criticise, just as one might the perform- 
 ances of the actors who strut across the stage of history, but 
 the whole movement is as far beyond appraisement or critical 
 judgment as is the larger history of the country itself. It is 
 time to be rational, and to leave off such characterization of 
 Renaissance architecture as a plague or a pestilence, a sham 
 art or a scenic affectation ; while, on the other hand, it would be 
 scarcely more conformable to common sense to exult and delight 
 in it after the extravagant fashion of its originators, and the 
 chief performers in the movement, still less to attempt its servile 
 imitation in our time. The most reasonable attitude towards it, 
 as a whole, is the purely historical one, which accepts the fact 
 that the nations of Western Europe were appointed to pass 
 through this phase of intellectual re-birth or awakening, this 
 revival of a pseudo-paganism with all its interwoven good and 
 ill, in order that our present civilization and future forms of 
 culture might be reared upon it, and for purposes not now 
 comprehensible ; and which sees in the architecture the most 
 definite expression of the genius of the nation, the most faithful 
 embodiment of the passing phase of history. If we cannot 
 appraise the history of the era at its full value, perfectly under- 
 stand its drift, nor see the end from the beginning, neither 
 can we yet realise the ultimate influence of the new direction, 
 the broader view, the grander freedom, which were opened up 
 for art by the Italian revival. For, if things do not happen 
 fortuitously, the larger architectural design is not yet complete. 
 
 In thus briefly reviewing the course of Renaissance architecture 
 in Italy, we have seen a style of art arise, grow, flourish, decline, 
 and decay, obeying the immutable law controlling all created 
 things, whether in what we call the natural world, or in the 
 domain of man's intellectual production. But the nature of 
 things that has made of the art manifestations of Greece and 
 Rome and the middle ages, which at their moment of inception 
 
 M 2
 
 164 CONCLUSION. 
 
 were apparently matters of caprice, accident, or at the most 
 skilled human judgment, permanent facts, moulding the whole 
 course of the art expression of the Western world, continues to 
 operate with cumulative purpose, so that, do what we may, we 
 cannot shake off altogether the abiding influence of the Renais- 
 sant arts of Italy. These, however, should be regarded as but 
 the upper portions of the substrata, for ever fixed, on which 
 we or our successors may raise the fabric of the arts of form 
 and design, that shall as truthfully and as beautifully represent 
 the time and circumstances, as the Renaissance architecture 
 portrays the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries in Italy. If there 
 be confidence in human progress, advancement in the quality 
 of the intellectual productions is implied, and whatever be the 
 chaos and ruin in which we yet grope, the arts must one day 
 give evidence of that progression. It appears a plain lesson of 
 history that even though at wide intervals, and in favouring 
 circumstances only, man's work may reach the sublime, and 
 may never long retain so much as a touch of perfection, still, 
 once and again, where life is most intense, some luminous 
 path will show itself, which all art shall follow, and architecture 
 be made to serve every high and useful purpose, and invest 
 herself for a delightful season in yet fairer forms.
 
 A CHART OF THE CHIEF BUILDINGS 
 
 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE 
 
 ARRANGED IN LOCALITIES AND IN CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER
 
 1 66 
 
 A CHART OF THE CHIEF BUILDINGS 
 
 ARRANGED IN LOCALITIES AND 
 
 NOTE. In this Table the numbers preceding the name of the building refer generally to the 
 Works separated by a semicolon are by the same master. For the 
 
 DATE. 
 
 TUSCANY, WITH UMBRIA. 
 (Florence, unless otherwise 
 stated.) 
 
 LOMBARDY. 
 
 (Milan, unless otherwise 
 stated.) 
 
 ROME. 
 
 
 -19. SPEDALE DEGLI INNOCENTI 
 
 
 
 
 451 
 
 
 
 1420 
 
 CAPELLA PAZZI; DOME OF 
 
 
 
 
 DUOMO (BRUNELLESCHI) 
 
 
 
 
 61. 
 
 
 
 
 -24. OLD SACRISTY, S. LORENZO; 
 
 
 
 
 -25. S. LORENZO (BRUNELLESCHI). 
 
 
 
 1430 
 
 PAL. RICCARDI (MICHELOZZI). 
 
 
 
 
 -33. SANTO SPIRITO (BRUNEL- 
 
 
 
 
 LESCHI) 87. 
 
 
 
 
 -34. CONSTRUCTION OF CORTILE 
 
 
 
 
 AND ALTERATIONS IN PAL. 
 
 
 
 
 VECCHIO (MICHELOZZI) 54. 
 
 
 
 
 -35. PAL. PITTI (BRUNELLESCHI) 
 
 
 
 
 i8TH CENTURY. 
 
 
 
 
 SECOND CLOISTERS, SANTA 
 
 
 
 
 CROCE (BRUNELLESCHI). 
 
 
 
 
 -37. MONASTERY OF S. MARCO 
 
 
 
 
 (MICHELOZZI) 43. 
 
 
 
 1440 
 
 
 
 
 
 -42. PAL. QUARATESI (BRUNEL- 
 
 
 
 
 LESCHI) 46. 
 
 
 
 1450 
 
 
 
 
 
 -51. PAL. RUCELLAI (ALBERTI). 
 
 
 
 
 LOGGIA DI S. PAOLO. 
 
 
 -55. PAL. VENEZIA SAN MARCO 
 
 
 -56. FACADE OF S. M. NOVELLA 
 
 
 ~ 7 
 
 
 (ALBERTI) 70. 
 
 -57. OSPEDALE MAGGIORE (FiL 
 
 
 
 
 RETE). 
 
 
 
 -59. ORATORIO DI S. BERNARDINO, 
 
 
 
 
 PERUGIA (AGOSTINO n' AN- 
 
 
 
 
 TONIO) 61. 
 
 
 
 1460 
 
 LOGGIA DEL PAPA, SIENA (FEDE- 
 
 
 
 
 RIGHI). 
 
 
 
 
 PAL. PICCOLOMINI, PIENZA; 
 
 
 
 
 PAL. PICCOLOMINI, SIENA 
 
 
 
 
 (ROSSELINO). 
 
 
 
 
 -62. BADIA FIESOLANA (BRUNEL- 
 
 -62. CAPELLA PORTINARI, S. 
 
 
 
 LESCHI). 
 
 EUSTORGIO.(MlCHELOZZI(?)) 
 
 
 
 -67. CAPELLA DE' RUCELLAI 
 
 
 
 
 (ALBERTI). 
 
 
 
 
 -69. PAL. DEL GOVF.RSO, SIENA 
 
 
 
 
 (ROSSELINO). 

 
 OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE 
 
 IN CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER. 
 
 date of its commencement or design; those succeeding the architect's name to its completion, 
 date of birth and death of the more outstanding artists see Index. 
 
 167 
 
 ROMAGNA, 
 
 THE MARCHES, &c. 
 (Bologna, unless other- 
 wise stated.) 
 
 VENETIA. 
 
 (Venice, unless other- 
 wise stated.) 
 
 GENOA. 
 
 NAPLES. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -39. PORTA DELLA CARTA 
 (BUON). 
 
 
 
 -46. S. FRANCESCO, RIMINI 
 (ALBERTI) 1782. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -51. CHAPEL OF S. GIO- 
 VANNI BATTISTA 
 IN CATHEDRAL 
 
 
 
 
 1532- 
 
 
 
 -66. S. MlCHELE (MORO LOM- 
 BARDO). 
 
 
 
 -68. PAL. DUCALE, URBINO 
 (LUCIANO DA LAU- 
 
 RANA AND PoNTELLl). 
 
 -69. PAL. SCHIFANOJA, 
 FERRARA. 
 
 

 
 1 68 
 
 A CHART OF THE CHIEF BUILDINGS 
 
 DATE. 
 
 TUSCANY, WITH UMBRIA. 
 (Florence, unless otherwise 
 stated.) 
 
 LOMBARDY. 
 
 (Milan, unless otherwise 
 stated.) 
 
 ROME. 
 
 1470 
 
 PAL. SPANNOCHI, SIENA. 
 PAL. DEI DIAVOLO, SIENA. 
 
 
 -73. SISTINE CHAPEL, VATICAN; 
 
 
 ROTUNDA OF SS. ANNUNZIATA 
 (ALBERTI) 76. 
 -71. SS. CONCEZIONE, SIENA 
 1533- 
 
 -74. CHURCH OF S. M. PRESSO 
 S. SATIRO (BRAMANTE). 
 -75. CAPELLA COLLEONI, BER- 
 GAMO. 
 
 OSPEDALE DI S. SPIRITO 
 
 (PONTELLI, &C.) 1742. 
 
 
 
 -77. CHURCH AT ABBIATEGRASSO 
 
 -77. S. M. DEL POPOLO (PON- 
 
 
 -79. CLOISTER OF S. M. MAD- 
 
 (BRAMANTE). 
 
 TELLI). 
 
 
 DALENA DE 1 PAZZI (G. DA 
 
 
 
 
 SAN GALLO). 
 
 
 -80. S. GIACOMO DEI SPAGNUOLI; 
 
 1480 
 
 PAL. ANTINORI. 
 
 
 
 T 
 
 VILLA POGGIO A CAJANO (G. DA 
 
 
 
 
 SAN GALLO) 1485. 
 
 
 -83. S. AGOSTINO (PONTELLI). 
 
 
 -85. S. M. DELLE CARCERI, PRATO 
 
 
 
 
 (G. DA SAN GALLO) 91. 
 
 -86. EXTERIOR OF COMO CATHE- 
 
 
 
 
 DRAL(RODARI AND SoLARI). 
 
 
 
 
 CATHEDRAL, PAVIA (RoccHi). 
 
 
 
 -89. SACRISTY OF S. SPIRITO 
 
 -88. INCORONATA, Loot (BAT- 
 
 TAGIO AND DOLCEBUONO). 
 
 -87. S. M. BELLE PACE (PONTELL: 
 
 AND PlETRO DA CORTONA) 
 1657. 
 
 
 (CRONACA) 96. 
 
 
 
 
 PAL. STROZZI (B. DA MAJANO 
 
 
 
 
 AND CRONACA) 1553. 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 ( PAL. GONDI (G. DA SAN GALLO). 
 
 -90. S. M. DELLA CROCE, CREMA 
 
 
 1490 
 
 ( PAL. GUADAGNI (CRONACA). 
 
 (BATTAGIO). 
 
 
 
 VESTIBULE TO SACRISTY, S. 
 
 S. M. NEAR S. CELSO 
 
 
 
 SPIRITO (A. SANSOVINO). 
 
 (DOLCEBUONO, BRAMANTE, 
 
 
 
 
 AND ALESSI). 
 
 
 
 
 -91. SOUTH WEST DOOR, COMO 
 
 
 
 -93. LA SAPIENZA, PISA 1543. 
 
 CATHEDRAL. 
 FACADE OF CERTOSA DI 
 
 -94. CLOISTER OF S; M. DELLE 
 PACE (BRAMANTE) 1504. 
 
 
 -95. LIBRARY IN SIENA CATHE- 
 DRAL. 
 
 PAVIA. 
 -92. S.M. DELLE GRAZIE ; 
 
 -95. PAL. CANCELLERIA; 
 S. LORENZO IN DAMASO 
 
 
 
 ,, CLOISTER OF S. AMBROGIO 
 
 (BRAMANTE (?)). 
 
 
 
 (BRAMANTE). 
 
 S. M. DE'CANEPANOVA, PAVIA 
 
 1500. S. M. DEL' ANIMA 22. 
 
 ,, S. PlETRO IN MONTORIO 
 
 
 
 (BRAMANTE). 
 
 (PONTELLI) 05. 
 
 
 
 BRESCIA. 
 -98. SACRISTY OF S. M. PRESSO 
 
 MONTORIO (BRAMANTE) 10. 
 -03. PAL. GIRAUD ; 
 
 
 
 S. SATIRO (BRAMANTE). 
 
 CORTII.E OF S. DAMASO, AND 
 
 
 
 
 BELVEDERE, VATICAN ; 
 
 I5OO 
 
 
 -03. S. MAUKIZIO (DOLCEBUONO). 
 
 -05. PAL. SORA (BRAMANTE). 
 
 -06. PAL. PALMA (A. SANGALLO). 
 
 
 -04. S. SALVATORE DEL MONTE 
 
 
 ,, VILLA FARNESINA (PERUZZI) 
 
 
 (CRONACA). 
 
 
 1511. 
 
 
 
 
 ,, ST. PETER'S (BRAMANTE, 
 
 
 
 
 &c.) 1626. 
 
 
 -08. PAL. DEL MAGNIFICO, SIENA. 
 
 -08. LA LOGGIA, BRESCIA (FoR- 
 
 -07. S. M. DI LORETO (A. SAN- 
 GALLO). 
 
 
 -09. S. M. DEL' UMILTA, PISTOIA 
 
 MENTONE, &C.). 
 
 PAL. DORIA, PANFILI ; 
 
 
 (VlTONl). 
 
 
 -09. S. GIOVANNI IN OLEO 
 
 
 
 
 (BKAMANTE). 
 
 1510 
 
 J PAL. DELI, FOLIGNO; 
 (PAL. SERRISTORI (BACCIO 
 D' AGNOLO). 
 
 
 S. ELIGIO DEGLI OREFICI 
 (RAFFAELLO). 
 ,, PAL. ORSINI (PERuzzi). 
 -13. LA MAGI.IANA (BRAMANTE). 
 
 
 -18. S. M. DI S. BIAGIO, MONTE- 
 
 
 -16. VILLA MADAMA (RAFFAELLO 
 
 
 PULCIANO (A. DA SAN 
 GALLO) 37. 
 MADONNA D ELLA LUCE, 
 PERUGIA. 
 
 
 AND G. ROMANO). 
 -17. PAL. FARNESE (A. SANGALLO 
 AND M. ANGELO) 1580. 
 -19. S. MARCELLO (J. SANSOVINO 
 
 
 
 
 AND C. FONTANA).
 
 OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE. 
 
 i6g 
 
 ROMAGNA, 
 
 THE MARCHES, &c. 
 (Bologna, unless other 
 wise stated.) 
 
 VENETIA. 
 (Venice, unless other- 
 wise stated.) 
 
 GENOA. 
 
 NAPLES. 
 
 -70. S. M. DI GALLIERA 
 CHAPEL OF THE FRAT 
 DI S. SPIRITO. 
 -72. S. ANDREA, MANTUA 
 
 -70. ARCADE AT HEAD OF GIANT 
 STAIR, DOGES' PALACE. 
 
 ,, S. GlOBBE (P. LOMBARDO). 
 
 GIANTS' STAIR, DOGES 
 
 
 -70. ARCH OF ALPH- 
 ONSO (MARTINO 
 ANDG.DAMAJANO). 
 
 (ALBERTI) 1512. 
 
 PALACE. 
 
 
 
 
 -76. PAL. DEL CONSIGLIO 
 
 
 
 
 VERONA (GiocoNoo). 
 
 
 
 
 -80. PAL. CORNARO SPINELLI ; 
 
 
 
 
 S. M. DEI MIRACOLI (P 
 
 
 
 
 LOMBARUO) 89. 
 
 
 
 
 -81. S. M. IN ORGANO, VERONA 
 
 
 
 -84. PAL. BEVILACQUA- 
 
 VlNCENZl (NARDI) 
 92. 
 
 PAL. FAVA. 
 
 <FRA GIOCONDO, SAN 
 MICHELI, &C.) 1592. 
 ,, PAL. VENDRAMINI (P. LOM- 
 BARDO). 
 
 
 -84. PORT A CAPUANA 
 (G. DA MAJANO). 
 GESU Nuovo. 
 
 
 PORTAL OF SS. EVANGE- 
 
 
 
 
 LISTA. 
 
 
 
 
 ,, S. GIOVANNI CRISOSTOMO 
 
 
 
 
 (MoRo. LOMBARDO). 
 
 
 
 
 -85. SCUOLA DI SAN MARCO 
 
 
 
 
 (MARTINO LOMBARDO). 
 
 
 
 
 CORTILE OF DOGES' 
 
 
 
 
 PALACE (Rizzi). 
 
 
 
 
 PAL. TREVISANO. 
 
 
 -90. SS. SEVERING E 
 
 
 
 
 Sosio. 
 
 
 94. VESCOVADA, VICENZA 
 
 
 
 
 1543- 
 
 
 
 
 96. CLOCK TOWER AND PRO- 
 
 
 
 
 CURATIE VECCHIA 1520. 
 
 
 
 -98. S. CRISTOFORO, FER- 
 
 
 
 
 RARA 1553. 
 
 
 
 
 -99- S. SlSTO, PlACENZA. 
 
 99. PAL. DEL CONSIGLIO. 
 
 
 
 
 oo. CAPELLA DEL SANTO IN 
 
 
 
 -08. PAL. ROVERELLA, 
 FEKRARA. 
 
 S. ANTONIO, PADUA 1553. 
 S. FANTINO 33. 
 
 
 
 S. M. DELLA CONSOLA- 
 ZIONE, TODI (COLA 
 DA CAPRAROLA) 
 1604. 
 
 04. PAL. CONTARINI DELLE 
 FIGURE 64. 
 
 
 PAL. GRAVINA 
 
 (GABR1ELE D' 
 
 AGNOLO). 
 
 -09. CASA SANTA, LORETO 
 
 
 
 
 (BRAMANTE, A. SAN- 
 
 
 
 
 SOVINO, &C.). 
 
 
 
 
 STAIRCASE OF PAL. 
 
 
 
 
 COMMUNALE. 
 
 
 
 
 -10. S. GIOVANNI EVANGE- 
 
 
 
 
 LISTA, PARMA (ZAc- 
 CAGNI, &c.) 1614. 
 PAL. APOSTOLICO, 
 LORETO (BRAMANTE). 
 
 14. CARPI CATHEDRAL 
 (PERUZZIJ. 
 FACADE OF S. ZACCARIA. 
 6. S. GIUSTINA, PADUA 
 
 
 
 
 (Riccio, &c.) 32. 
 
 
 
 
 7. SCUOLA DI S. Rocco 
 
 
 
 
 LOMBARDO) 47. 
 

 
 170 
 
 A CHART OF THE CHIEF BUILDINGS 
 
 DATE. 
 
 TUSCANY, WITH UMBRIA. 
 (Florence, unless otherwise 
 stated.) 
 
 LOMBARDY. 
 
 (Milan, unless otherwise 
 stated.) 
 
 ROME. 
 
 1520 
 
 PAL. BARTOLINI (BACCIO 
 D' AGNOLO). 
 
 
 -20. PAL. LANTE (PERUZZI). 
 PAL. NICCOLINI (J. SAN- 
 
 
 SS. ANNUNZIATA, ARKZZO 
 
 
 SOVINO). 
 
 
 (A. SANGALLO). 
 
 
 PAL. OSSOLI (PERUZZI). 
 
 
 PAL. PANDOLFINI (RAFFAELLO, 
 
 
 
 
 GIOVANNI FRANCESCO AND 
 
 
 
 
 ARISTOTILE DA SAN GALLO). 
 
 
 
 
 -23. NEW SACRISTY, S. LORENZO 
 
 
 
 
 (M. ANGELO) 29. 
 
 
 
 
 -24. BIBLIOTECA LAURENTIANA 
 
 
 
 
 (M. ANGELO) 71. 
 
 
 
 
 -25. OSPEDALE DEL CEPPO, 
 
 
 
 
 PlSTOIA (G. DELLA ROBBIA, 
 
 
 
 
 &c.) 35. 
 
 
 
 
 -27. WALL OF PERUZZI, SIENA. 
 
 
 
 
 PAL. POLLINI ; PAL. Mo- 
 
 
 
 
 CENNI ; CORTILE OF S. 
 
 
 
 
 CATERINA ; VILLAS OF 
 
 
 -29. PAL. MASSIMI ALLECOLONNE; 
 
 
 BF.LCARO, CELSA, S. Co- 
 
 
 PAL. ANGELO MASSIMI 
 
 
 LOMBA, SIENA (PERUZZI). 
 
 
 (PERUZZI). 
 
 1530 
 
 
 
 -30. PAL. COSTA ; 
 PAL. ALTEMPS; 
 
 
 
 
 ,, PAL. LINOTTA ; 
 
 
 
 
 ,, PAL. IN VIA GIULIA 
 
 
 
 
 (PERUZZI). 
 
 
 -34. CASTLE OF CAPRAROLA (ViG- 
 
 
 PAL. SACCHETTI (A. SAN- 
 
 
 NOLA). 
 
 
 GALLO). 
 
 1540 
 
 FACADE OF PAL. VECCHIO TO 
 VIA DEL LEONE (VASARI). 
 
 
 -40. VILLA MEDICI (Lippi). 
 ,, PAL. SPADA. 
 
 
 
 
 -46. EXTERIOR OF ST. PETER'S 
 
 
 -47. MERCATO Nuovo (TASSO). 
 
 
 (M. ANGELO). 
 PAL. SENATORI (M. ANGELO) 
 
 
 
 
 1568. 
 
 
 
 
 -49. VILLA D' ESTE, TIVOLI 
 
 
 
 
 (LlGORIO). 
 
 *55<> 
 
 PAL. UGUCCIONI (FOLFI). 
 
 
 -50. S. M. IN VALLICELLA 1650. 
 
 
 
 
 VILLA PAPA GIULIO; 
 
 
 
 
 ,, S. ANDREA (VIGNOLA). 
 
 
 
 
 CASINO DEL PAPA GIULIO. 
 
 
 -58. PAL. LARDAREL (Dosio). 
 
 -58. PAL. MARINO (ALESSI). 
 
 -59. INTERIOR OF S. M. DEGLI 
 
 
 
 
 ANGELI (M. ANGELO AND 
 
 1560 
 
 ( PAL. GUIGNI (AMMANATI). 
 I PAL. DEL UFFIZI (VASARI) 74. 
 
 
 VANVITELLI) 1749. 
 -60. CASINO DEL PAPA, VATICAN 
 
 (P. LlGORIO). 
 
 
 -65. DECORATION OF CORTILE OF 
 
 -65. ARCIVESCOVADO; 
 
 -6l. PORTA DEL POPOLO (VlGNOLA 
 
 
 PAL. VECCHIO. 
 
 
 AND BERNINI) 1655. 
 
 
 PAL. RICCARDI - MANNELLI 
 
 
 
 
 (BUONTALENTI). 
 -68. GARDEN FACADE AND COURT 
 
 
 -68. lLGESU(VlGNOLA,&C.) 1623. 
 
 
 OF PITTI PALACE 
 
 
 
 
 (AMMANATI). 
 
 
 
 
 -69. S. M. DEGLI ANGELI, Assist 
 
 -69. S. FlDELE (TlBALDI). 
 
 
 
 (VlGNOLA, &C.) 
 

 
 OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE. 
 
 171 
 
 ROMAGNA, 
 
 THE MARCHES, &c. 
 (Bologna, unless other- 
 wise stated.) 
 
 VENETIA. 
 (Venice, unless other- 
 wise stated). 
 
 GENOA. 
 
 NAPLES. 
 
 -20. PAL. DUCALE, MANTUA 
 
 
 
 
 40. 
 
 
 
 
 -21. MADONNA DELLA 
 
 
 
 
 STECCATA, PARMA 
 
 
 
 
 (ZACCAGNI) 39. 
 
 
 
 
 DOORWAY OK PAL. 
 
 
 
 
 PROSPERI, FERRARA 
 
 
 
 
 (PERUZZI). 
 
 -23. S. GIOVANNI ELEMOSINARIO 
 
 
 
 PAL. AL BE RGATI 
 
 (SCARPAGNINO). 
 
 
 
 (PERUZZI) 40. 
 
 -24. PAL. GIVJSTINIANI, PADUA 
 
 
 
 
 (FALCONETTO). 
 
 
 
 
 ,, PORTA STUPPA, VERONA 
 
 
 
 
 (SANMICHELI) 57. 
 
 
 
 
 -25. PAL. CAMERLENGHI (G. 
 
 
 
 
 BERGAMASCO). 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 -27. PAL. CANOSSA, VERONA ; 
 
 
 
 
 PAL. BEVILACQUA, VERONA 
 
 
 
 
 (SANMICHELI). 
 
 -29. PAL. ANDREA DORIA 
 
 
 
 
 (MONTORSOLI). 
 
 
 
 -30. CAP. EMILIANA, S. MICHELE 
 
 
 
 
 (BERGAMASCO). 
 
 
 
 
 PAL. POMPEI, VERONA 
 
 
 
 
 (SANMICHELI). 
 
 
 
 
 -32. PAL. CORNARO DELLA CA' 
 
 
 
 
 GRANDE (]. SANSOVINO). 
 
 
 
 
 -33. S. SALVATORE (T. LOM- 
 
 
 
 PAL. DEL TE, MANTUA 
 
 BARDO) 1663. 
 
 
 
 (GlULio ROMANO). 
 
 . PORTA NUOVA, VERONA 
 (SANMICHELI). 
 
 
 
 
 -34. S. FRANCESCO DELLA 
 
 
 
 
 VIGNA (J. SANSOVINO). 
 
 
 
 
 -36. LIBRERIA VECCHIA; 
 
 
 
 
 LA ZECCA (J. SANSOVINO). 
 
 
 
 
 -38. SCALA D'ORO, DOGES' 
 
 
 
 
 PALACE 77. 
 
 
 
 
 S. GIORGIO DEI GRECI. 
 
 
 
 
 -40. LOGGETTA OF CAMPANILE ; 
 
 
 
 
 ,, S. MARTINO (J. SANSOVINO). 
 
 
 
 
 -48. PAL. MOCENIGO; 
 
 
 
 
 -49. PAL. GRIMANI (SANMICHELI). 
 
 
 
 
 ,, BASILICA VICENZA (PALLA- 
 
 
 
 
 DIO). 
 
 
 
 
 -50. CATHEDRAL. PADUA. 
 -51. S. GIORGIO DEGLI SCHIA- 
 
 -50. PORTA DI MOLO 
 (ALESSI). 
 
 
 
 VONI (J. SANSOVINO). 
 -52. PAL. PORTO, VICENZA; 
 
 ,, PAL. DUCALE (PEN- 
 NONE). 
 
 
 
 -56. PAL. VALMARANA, VICENZA 
 (PALLADIO). 
 
 -52. S. M. IN CARIGNANO 
 
 (ALESSI) 1603. 
 
 PAL. SPINOLA ; 
 
 
 
 -57. CAP. PELLEGRINI, VERONA 
 
 -55. PAL. SAULI; 
 
 
 
 (SANMICHELI). 
 
 -56. PAL. MARCELLO 
 
 
 -58. PAL. FARNESE, PIA- 
 
 
 DURAZZO; 
 
 
 CENZA (VlGNOLA). 
 
 
 PAL. Rosso 
 
 
 
 
 (ALESSI). 
 
 
 
 -60. S. GIORGIO MAGGIORE 
 
 
 
 -62. PORTICO DI BANCHI 
 
 (PALLADIO AND SCAMOZZI) 
 75- 
 
 -64. PAL. MUNICIPIO 
 
 
 (VlGNOLA). 
 
 PAL. CHIERICATI, VICENZA ; 
 -65. FACADE OF PAL. TIENE, 
 
 (LURAGO). 
 
 -65. PAL. BIANCO 69. 
 
 
 
 VICENZA (PALLADIO). 
 
 -67. CUPOLA OF CATHE- 
 
 
 
 -68. FACADE OF S. FRANCESCO 
 
 DRAL. 
 
 
 
 DELLA VIGNA (PALLADIO). 
 
 PAL. LERCARI 
 
 (ALESSI) 8l. 

 
 1 7 2 
 
 A CHART OF THE CHIEF BUILDINGS 
 
 DATE. 
 
 TUSCANY. 
 (Florence, unless otherwise 
 stated.) 
 
 LOMBARDY. 
 
 (Milan, unless otherwise 
 stated.) 
 
 ROME. 
 
 157 
 
 
 
 
 
 -71. STAIRCASE OF BIBLIOTECA 
 
 
 
 
 LAURENZIANA (VASARI). 
 
 
 
 
 -73. PAL.ARCIVESCOVILE(DOSIO). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -76. UNIVERSITA.DELLA SAPIENZA 
 
 
 -78. DUCAL PALACE, LUCCA 
 
 (AMMANATI). 
 
 INTERIOR OK. S. LORENZO 
 (PELLEGRINI AND BASSI). 
 
 (G. DELLA PORTA). 
 
 1580 
 
 
 -80. PAL. DATI, CREMONA. 
 
 -80. PAL. GlUSTINIANI (FONTANA). 
 PAL. ALTEMPS (LUNGHI). 
 
 
 
 
 -82. COLLEGIO ROMANO (AMMA- 
 
 
 
 
 NATI). 
 
 
 
 
 -86. PAL. DEL LATERANO (FON- 
 
 
 
 
 TANA). 
 
 
 
 
 PAL. RUSPOLI (AMMANATI). 
 
 
 
 
 PAL. LANCELOTTI (VoL- 
 
 
 
 
 TERRA). 
 
 
 
 
 -88. EXECUTION OF DOME OF ST. 
 
 
 
 
 PETER'S (G. DELLA PORTA 
 
 
 
 
 AND D. FONTANA). 
 
 
 
 
 S. GIOVANNI DEI FIORENTINI 
 
 
 
 
 (J. SANSOVINO, G. DELLA 
 
 
 
 
 PORTA, AND GALILEI) 1725. 
 
 
 
 
 LIBRARY OF VATICAN (D. 
 
 
 
 
 FONTANA). 
 
 
 
 
 -89. S. LUIGI DE' FEANCESI. 
 
 1590 
 
 PAL. LANFREDUCCI, PISA (PAG- 
 
 LIANO). 
 
 
 -90. PAL. BORGHESE (LUNGHI). 
 -91. S. ANDREA DELLA VALLE 
 OLIVIKKI, MADEKNA, AND 
 
 
 -92. PAL. NONFINITO (BUONTA- 
 
 
 RAINALDI) 1607. 
 
 
 LENTI AND ClGOLl). 
 
 
 
 1600 
 
 
 
 
 
 -01. PORTICO OF SS.ANNUNZIATA 
 
 
 
 
 (CACCINI). 
 
 
 
 
 
 -02. S. ALESSANDRO. 
 
 PAL. SCIARRA COLONNA; 
 
 
 -04. CAPELLA DEI PRINCIPI, S. 
 
 -04. DUOMO NUOVA, BRESCIA 
 
 -03. PAL. ROSPIGLIOSI (PONZIO). 
 
 
 LORENZO (NIGETTI). 
 
 (GAMBARA) 1825. 
 
 
 
 
 
 -05. S. ANDREA DELLE FRATE 
 
 
 
 
 1650. 
 
 
 
 
 -06. NAVE OF ST. PETER'S 
 
 
 
 
 (MADERNA) 1612. 
 
 1610 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -ii. AQUA PAOLO (D. FONTANA 
 
 
 
 
 AND MADERNA). 
 
 
 
 
 -12. ALTERATION OF S. SEBAS- 
 
 
 
 
 TIANO (PONZIO AND 
 
 *' 
 
 
 
 VASANZIO). 
 
 
 
 
 -14. S. CARLO, CORSO. 
 
 
 
 
 S. TRINITA PELLEGRINI. 
 
 
 
 
 -15. PAL. MATTEI (MADERNA). 
 
 
 
 
 -16. VILLA BORGHESE (\'ASAN-
 
 173 
 
 OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE. 
 
 ROMAGNA, 
 
 THE MARCHES, &c. 
 (Bologna, unless other- 
 wise stated.) 
 
 VENETIA. 
 (Venice, unless other- 
 wise stated.) 
 
 'GENOA. 
 
 NAPLES. 
 
 
 -70. PAL. BARBARANO, VICENZA ; 
 
 
 
 
 CASA DEL DIAVOLO, VICENZA; 
 
 
 
 
 -71. PAL. CONSIGLIO, VICENZA 
 
 
 
 
 (PALLADIO). 
 
 
 
 
 PAL. BRANZO LOSCHI, 
 
 
 
 
 VICENZA. 
 
 
 
 
 -76. IL REDENTORE (PALLADIO). 
 
 
 
 
 -80. TEATRO OLIMPICO, VICENZA 
 
 
 
 
 (PALLADIO). 
 
 
 
 
 -84. PROCURATIE NUOVE 
 
 
 -84. S. TRINITA MAG- 
 
 
 (SCAMOZZI). 
 
 
 GIORE. 
 
 -86. MUSEO NAZION- 
 
 
 
 
 ALE. 
 
 
 
 -87. SS. ANNUNZIATA 
 
 
 
 
 (G. DELLA PORTA). 
 
 
 
 -88. PAL. TRISSINO, VICENZA 
 
 
 
 
 (SCAMOZZI). 
 
 
 
 
 ,, PONTE RlALTO ANTONIO 
 
 
 
 
 DA PONTE) 91. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -89. PRISON FACADE, GRANDE 
 
 
 
 
 CANAL 97. 
 
 
 -90. CAPELLA SAN- 
 
 
 
 
 SEVERO 1709. 
 
 
 
 
 -92. S. FILIPPO NERI 
 
 
 
 
 1619. 
 
 -97. MADONNA DELLA 
 
 
 
 
 GHIARA, REGGIO 
 (BALBI). 
 
 
 
 1600. PAL. REALE (D. 
 FONT AN A) 1641. 
 
 -05. S.PIETRO (MAGENTA). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 PAL. BALBI SENE- 
 
 
 
 
 RAGA. 

 
 J74 
 
 A CHART OF THE CHIEF BUILDINGS 
 
 DATE. 
 
 TUSCANY. 
 (Florence, unless otherwise 
 stated.) 
 
 LOMBARDY. 
 
 (Milan, unless otherwise 
 stated.) 
 
 ROME. 
 
 1620 
 
 WINGS OF PITTI PALACE. 
 
 -2i. THREE SIDES OF COURT, 
 OSPEDALE MAGGIORE. 
 
 -26. ST. PETER'S DEDICATED. 
 
 
 -25. LA BADIA CHURCH (SEGO- 
 
 LANI). 
 
 
 
 S. IGNAZIO (ZAMPIERI AND 
 GRASSI) 75. 
 
 PAL. BARBERINI (MADERNA, 
 BORROMINI, AND BERNINI). 
 
 1630 
 
 
 
 -29. PERISTYLE OF ST. PETER'S 
 PIAZZA (BERNINI) 67. 
 
 
 
 PAL. BRERA. 
 
 
 
 1640 
 
 
 
 -40. S. CARLO ALLE QU ATTRO FON- 
 
 TASO (BORROMINI). 
 
 
 
 
 -44. VILLA PANFILI (ALGARDI). 
 
 
 
 
 -49. CAPITOLINE MUSEUM (M. 
 ANGELO AND RAINALDI) 
 54- 
 
 1650 
 
 
 
 -50. PAL. PANFILI (RAINALDI). 
 
 
 
 
 S. AGNESE (RAINALDI AND 
 BORROMINI). 
 
 
 -56. PAL. CORSINI (SILVANI AND 
 FERRI). 
 
 
 
 1660 
 
 
 
 
 1670 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 PAL. ALTIERI (G. A DE 
 Rossi). 
 
 1680 
 
 
 
 
 1690 
 
 

 
 ROMAGNA. 
 
 -34. PAL. DUCALE, MODENA 
 (AVANZINI). 
 
 VENETIA. 
 
 (Venice, unless other- 
 wise stated.) 
 
 -31. S. M. DEL LA SALUTE 
 
 (LONGHENA) 82. 
 
 -4Q. GLI SCALZI. 
 
 .-50. PAL. REZZONICO (LONG- 
 HENA). 
 
 PAL. PESARO (LONGHENA). 
 
 -68. S. MOISE. 
 
 PAL. MAFFEI, VERONA. 
 
 -73. FACADE OF S. LAZZARO 
 (SARDI). 
 
 -80. S. M. ZOBENIGO. 
 
 -82. DOGANA DI MARE (BENONI). 
 
 GENOA. 
 
 -23. PAL. DELL' UNIVER- 
 SITA (BIANCO). 
 
 NAPLES.
 
 1 76 
 
 A CHART OF THE CHIEF BUILDINGS 
 
 DATE. 
 
 TUSCANY. 
 
 LOMBARDY. 
 
 ROME. 
 
 1700 
 
 
 
 PAL. BOLOGNETTI (C. FONTANA). 
 
 1702. SS. APOSTOLI (F. FON- 
 TANA) 24. 
 
 1710 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 1720 
 
 
 
 
 1730 
 
 
 
 -34. F'ACADE OF S. GIOVANNI 
 LATERANO (GALILEI). 
 -35. FOUNTAIN OF TREVI (SALVI). 
 -36. PAL. DELLA CONSULTA ; 
 PAL. CORSINI (FuGA). 
 
 1740 
 
 
 
 
 I75 o 
 
 
 
 -43. EXTERIOR OF S. M. MAG- 
 
 GIORE (FfGA). 
 
 1760 
 
 
 
 -60. VILLA ALBANI (MARCHIONNI). 
 
 1770 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -75. SACRISTY OF ST. PETER'S 
 (MARCHIONNI). 
 
 1780 
 
 
 
 MUSEO Pio CLEMENTINO.
 
 i 7 y 
 
 OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE. 
 
 
 VENETIA. 
 
 
 
 ROMAGNA. 
 
 (Venice, unless other- 
 
 GENOA. 
 
 NAPLES. 
 
 
 wise stated.) 
 
 
 
 
 -15. GESUITI 30. 
 
 
 
 
 -l8. S. SlMEONF. MlNORE (SCAL- 
 
 
 
 
 FOROTTO) 38. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -52. ROYAL PALACE AT 
 
 
 
 
 CASERTA (VAN- 
 
 
 -53. S GEREMIA. 
 
 
 VITELLI). 
 
 
 
 
 -57. SS. ANNUNZIATA 
 
 
 
 
 (VANVITELLI) 
 
 
 
 
 82. 
 
 A.
 
 A LIST OF SELECTED BOOKS 
 
 RELATING TO THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE 
 
 a, HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL WORKS CON- 
 
 SULTED IN THE PREPARATION OF THIS 
 VOLUME. 
 
 CELLINI (BENVENUTO). Memoirs of Benvenuto Cellini, a Florentine 
 
 artist, written by himself; containing a variety of information 
 
 respecting the arts and the history of the sixteenth century. 
 
 Translations by T. Roscoe, J. A. Symonds, &c. 
 MACHIAVELLI (NICCOLO). The History of Florence, and of the 
 
 affairs of Italy from the earliest times till the death of Lorenzo 
 
 the Magnificent. 
 MILIZIA (FRANCESCO). The Lives of Celebrated Architects, Ancient 
 
 and Modern. Book III. Translation by Mrs. Edward Cresy. 
 
 1826. 
 ROSCOE (WILLIAM). The Life of Lorenzo de' Medici, called the 
 
 Magnificent. 2 vols. 4to. 1795, &c. 
 ROSCOE (WILLIAM). The Life and Pontificate of Leo the Tenth. 
 
 4 vols. 4:0. 1805. 
 SISMONDI. Histoire des Republiques Italiennes du Moyen Age. 
 
 1 6 vols. 8vo. 1826. 
 SYMONDS QOHN ADDINGTON). History of the Renaissance in Italy. 
 
 7 vols. 8vo. 1875 86. 
 SYMONDS QOHN ADDINGTON). The Life of Michelangelo Buonarroti. 
 
 1893. 
 VASARI (GIORGIO). Lives of the most Eminent Painters, Sculptors, 
 
 and Architects. 1550, 1568, &c. Translation by Mrs. Jonathan 
 
 Foster. 6 vols. 8vo. 
 VASARI (GIORGIO). Lives of Seventy of the most Eminent Painters, 
 
 Sculptors, and Architects. Edited and annotated in the light 
 
 of recent discoveries by E. H. and E. W. Blashfield and 
 
 A. A. Hopkins. 4 vols. 8vo. 1897. 
 
 b. ILLUSTRATED WORKS ON RENAISSANCE ARCHI- 
 
 TECTURE IN ITALY. 
 
 1. GENERAL 
 
 OR NOT CHIEFLY CONCERNED WITH THE ILLUSTRATION OF A 
 PARTICULAR PERIOD. 
 
 ALBERTI (LEON BATTISTA). Re Edificatoria, or, I dieci Libri de' 
 1' architettura. English Translation by James Leoni, entitled 
 Architecture in Ten Books. 3 vols. Folio. 1726.
 
 A LIST OF SELECTED BOOKS. i?9 
 
 CICOGNARA (L. CONTE). Le Fabbriche e i monumenti cospicui di 
 Venezia. 2 vols. Folio. 1858. 
 
 FONTANA (G.). Raccolta delle migliori Chiese di Roma e Suburbane. 
 4 vols. Folio. 1855. 
 
 GAUTHIER (P.). Les plus beaux Edifices de la ville de Genes. 
 2 vols. Folio. 1874. 
 
 GEYMULLER (H. VON) und WIDMANN (A.). Die Architektur der 
 Renaissance in Toscana, nach den Meistern geordnet. Folio. N.D. 
 
 GNAUTH (A.) und FORSTER (E. R. VON). Die Bauwerke der Renais- 
 sance in Toscana. Folio. 1867, &c. 
 
 GRANDJEAN DE MONTIGNY (A.) et FAMIN (A.) Architecture Toscane, 
 ou Palais, Maisons et autre Edifices. Folio. 1837. 
 
 LETAROUILLY (P.). Edifices de Rome Moderne, ou Recueil des 
 Palais, Maisons, Eglises, Couvents, &c. 3 vols. Folio, with text 
 in 4to. 1840 57. 
 
 LETAROUILLY (P.). Le Vatican et la Basilique de Saint Pierre 
 de Rome. 2 vols. Folio. 1882. 
 
 RASCHDORFF (J. C.). Palast - Architektur von Ober-Italien und 
 Toscana. Toscana. Folio. 1888. 
 
 REINHARDT (R.). Palast - Architektur von Ober-Italien und 
 Toscana. Genua. Folio. 1886. 
 
 Rossi (D. DE). Studio d' Architettura civile. 3 vols. Folio. 
 1720 21. 
 
 RUGGIERI (F.). Scelta di Architettura antiche e moderne della 
 citta di Firenze. 4 vols. 1755. 
 
 SCHUTZ (A.). Die Renaissance in Italien. 4 vols. Folio. 1892 5. 
 
 SERLIO (SEBASTIANO). I cinque libri d' Architettura. Folio. English 
 Translation by R. Peake, entitled, The Five Books of Archi- 
 tecture made by Sebastian Serlio. Folio. 1611. 
 
 STRACK (H.). Baudenkmaeler Roms des XV. XIX. Jahrhunderts. 
 Folio. 1891. This extra illustrates Letarouilly's Edifices de 
 Rome Moderne. 
 
 VIGNOLA (GIACOMO BAROzzi DA). Regola delle Cinque Ordini 
 d' Architettura. Folio. Various English and French Trans- 
 lations. 
 
 II. EARLY PERIOD. 
 
 DURELLI (G. and F.). La Certosa di Pavia. Folio. 1853. 
 KINROSS (JOHN). Details from Italian Buildings, chiefly Renaissance. 
 
 Folio. 1882. 
 NICOLAI (H.). Das Ornament der Italienischen Kunst des XV. 
 
 Jahrhunderts. Folio. 1882. 
 OAKESHOTT (G. J.). Detail and Ornament of the Italian Renaissance. 
 
 Folio. 1888. 
 PARAVICINI (T. V.). Die Renaissance-Architektur der Lombardei. 
 
 Folio. 1877. 
 
 N 2
 
 l8o A LIST OF SELECTED BOOKS. 
 
 ROBINSON (J. C.). Italian Sculpture of the Middle Ages and Period 
 of the Revival of Art ; an illustrated catalogue of the South 
 Kensington Collection. 
 
 STRACK (H.). Zeigelbauwerke des mittelalters und der Renaissance 
 in Italien. Folio. 1889. 
 
 III. CENTRAL PERIOD. 
 
 ANDERSON (WM. J.). Architectural Studies in Italy. Folio. 1890. 
 GEYMULLER (H. VON). Les Projets primitifs pour le Basilique de 
 
 Saint Pierre de Rome. Folio, and text in 4to. 1875 80. 
 GRUNER (L.). Fresco Decorations and Stuccoes of the Churches 
 
 and Palaces in Italy. Folio, and text in 4to. 1854. 
 SANMICHELI (M.). Le Fabbriche civili, ecclesiastiche e militari. 
 
 Folio. 1832. 
 SANMICHELI (M.). Cappella della Famiglia Pellegrini, Verona. 
 
 Folio. 1816. 
 STRACK (H.). Central-und Kuppelkirchen der Renaissance in 
 
 Italien. 2 vols. Folio. 1882. 
 SUYS (F. T.) and HAUDEBOURT (L. P.). Palais Massimi k Rome. 
 
 IV. LATE PERIOD. 
 
 BOROMINI (F.). Opera della Chiesa, e Fabbrica della Sapienza di 
 
 Roma, &c. 1720. 
 
 MACCARI (E.). II Palazzo di Caprarola. 
 PALLADIO (ANDREA). I Quattro Libri dell' architettura di Andrea 
 
 Palladio. Various editions. The Second and Third Books treat 
 
 of Palladio's own designs. The best English editions are those 
 
 by Leoni and Ware. 
 SCAMOZZI (O. B.). Le Fabbriche e i Desegni di Andrea Palladio, 
 
 raccolti ed illustrati da Ottavio Bertotti Scamozzi. The most 
 
 complete collection published of Palladio's executed works and 
 
 designs. 4 vols. Folio. 1776.
 
 INDEX 
 
 [The figures enclosed within brackets give the date of the birth and 
 death of the master.] 
 
 AGNOLO.Baccio d' (1463-1543) 23, 27, 102 
 
 Agostino, Sant' ; Rome 45 
 
 Albergati, Pal.; Bologna 91, 119-121 
 ALBERTI, Leon Battista (1404 
 
 72) .. .. 34-37, 50, 83, 89, 112 
 ALESSI, Galeazzo (1500 72) . . 157 
 Alphonso of Arragon (King of 
 
 Naples 1442 1458) . . 49, 78 
 AMADEO (or OMODEO), Giovanni A. 
 
 (cir. 14471522) .. .. 51,53 
 AMMANATI, Bartolomeo (1511 92) 
 
 25, 26 
 Anastasia, Sant' ; Verona . . . . 71 
 
 Andrea, Sant' ; Rome 152 
 
 ,, Mantua.. 36,37,50 
 AndreadellaRoBBiA(i435 1525) 24, 31 
 Andrea PISANO (cir. 1270 1348) 9, 13 
 Annunziata, SS. ; Florence . . 24, 62 
 ,, Genoa . . . . 157 
 Antinori, Pal. ; Florence . . 26, 27 
 Antonio da SAN GALLO, the elder 
 
 (14551534) .. 24,38,90,101 
 Antonio SANGALLO, the younger 
 
 (1485 1546) .. 90,91,94,102, 
 
 104-107, 115, 123, 130 
 
 Arnolfo del CAMBIO (cir. 1232 1310) 14 
 
 Baccio d' AGNOLO (1463 1543) . . 23, 
 
 27, 102 
 
 Badia Fiesolana 5,21,22 
 
 Baldachino, St. Peter's . . . . 154 
 Barbarano, Pal. Porto; Vicenza 148 
 
 Basilica Julia ; Rome 145 
 
 Basilica ; Vicenza . . . . 86, 145, 146 
 Benedetto da MAJANO (1442 97) 28, 33 
 BERGAMO, Chapel in Santa Maria 
 
 Maggiore 73 
 
 PAGE 
 
 BERGAMASCO, Guglielmo . . . . 61 
 BERNINI, Giovanni L. (1589 1680) 154 
 Bevilacqua-Vincenzi, Pal.; Bologna 74 
 ,, Pal.; Verona .. .. 126 
 BORGOGNONE, Ambrogio da Fos- 
 
 SANO.or (14551524 (?)) .. 51, 52 
 BORROMINI, Francesco (1599 1667) 154, 
 
 155. J 62 
 
 BOLOGNA, Pal. Albergati, 119-121; 
 Pal. Bevilacqua-Vincenzi, 74 ; 
 Casa Tacconi, 74 ; character of 
 Early work, 74 ; doorway at 
 San Michele in Bosco 112, 117, 119 
 BOTTICELLI, Sandro (1447 1510) 32, 
 
 88, 113 
 
 BRAMANTE, Donate (1444 1514) 29, 38, 
 
 5. 5 1 . 54-57- 83-90, 94, 102-104, 107, 
 
 112, 115, 117 
 
 BRESCIA, Santa Maria dei Miracoli 72 
 La Loggia . . . . 72, 78 
 BRUNELLESCHI, Filippo (1377 
 
 J 44 6 )5.7.9. 10, ii, 12, 13-25, 27-29, 
 51, 83, 95, 108, 139 
 BUONARROTI, Michelangelo (1475 
 
 1564) 34, 41, 51, 89, 90, 94, 95, 
 
 105-108,113, 115,129, 131, 134,140, 
 
 142-144, 148, 152-155, 162 
 
 BUON, Bartolomeo 57, 61 
 
 Cancelleria, Pal. della; Rome 83-85,92 
 
 Capra, Villa ; Vicenza 150 
 
 Caprarola, Castle of 152 
 
 Caracalla, Baths of; Rome .. 5, 108, 
 
 in. 139 
 
 Carceri, Santa Maria delle; Prato 37, 
 
 38, 101 
 Carta, Porta della ; Venice 57, 60, 61
 
 1 82 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 CELLINI, Benvenuto (1500 71) . . 130 
 Certosa di Pavia .. .. 51-53.55 
 
 Chiaravalle, Abbey of 53 
 
 Chiericati, Pal. ; Vicenza . . . . 146 
 Chigi, Agostino .. .. 81,93,116 
 Chigi or Farnesina, Villa 91, 113, 116, 
 
 117, 136 
 
 CIVITALI, Matteo (1435 1501) . . 33 
 Clement VII. (Pope from 1523 
 
 34) ' 82 ' I2 3- !43 
 
 Colosseum ; Rome . . . . 3, 84, 95 
 
 COMO Cathedral 53-55. 86 
 
 Conservator!, Pal. del ; Rome . . 144 
 Consiglio, Pal. del; Verona ..71, 72 
 Contarini delle Figure, Pal. ; 
 
 Venice 70, 71 
 
 CONTUCCI, Andrea, da Monte Sanso- 
 
 vino (1460 1529) . . . . 34. 38-40, 
 
 83. 95. !3 
 
 Cornaro-Spinelli, Pal. ; Venice 68, 70, 77 
 Cornaro, Giorgio, or Cornaro della 
 
 Ca' Grande, Pal. ; Venice 131-133, 
 
 161 
 
 Costa, Pal. ; Rome 91, 99 
 
 Croce, Santa ; Florence . . 16, 19, 22 
 CRONACA, Simone POLLAIUOLO, 
 
 or (14541509) . . . . 28, 38 
 
 Desiderio da SETTIGNANO (1428 
 
 64) 18,33 
 
 Diavolo, Casa del ; Vicenza.. .. 149 
 Diocletian, Baths of . . . . 107, 108 
 Doges' Palace; Venice .. 60, 61, 135 
 
 DONATELLO^I386 1466) 12, 14, l8, 3! 
 
 Erythraea, Sibyl in Sistine Chapel 113 
 Eustorgio, San ; Milan 50 
 
 Farnese, Alessandro (Pope Paul 
 
 III.) 92,94, 122, 152 
 
 Farnese, Pal 92, 94, 95 
 
 Farnesina, Villa . . 113, 116, 117, 136 
 
 FERMIGNANO 50 
 
 FERRARA, Doorway of Pal. Pros- 
 peri at 112, 121 
 
 FIESOLE, Mino da (1431 84) . . 33 
 
 ,, Badia di 5, 21, 22 
 
 FILARETE, Antonio (d. 1465 (?) ) .. 50 
 
 FLORENCE, Pal. Antinori, 26 ; SS. 
 
 Annunziata, 24 ; Baptistery 
 
 gates, 13, 15, 30; Cathedral 
 
 dome, 14-16; character of 
 
 Early work, 41-44; Santa 
 Croce, 1 6, 19, 22 ; Foundling 
 Hospital, 24 ; San Lorenzo, 
 18-20, 129, 143; Santa Maria 
 Novella, 37; Pal. Pandolfini, 
 91 ; Pazzi Chapel, 16-18, 86 ; 
 Pal. Pitti, 25, 26; Pal. Riccardi 
 (Medici), 27,28 ; Pal. Rucellai, 
 35, 36 ; Santo Spirito, 22-24, 38, 
 39, 42, 56, 102; Pal. Strozzi .. 28 
 FONTANA, Domenico (1543 1607) 153 
 
 FORMENTONE of VlCENZA (l5th 
 
 century) 72,121 
 
 FUGA, Ferdinando (1699 1780) . . 157 
 
 GALILEI, Alessandro (1691 1737) 157 
 GENOA, SS. Annunziata ; S. Maria 
 
 in Carignano 157 
 
 GHIBERTI, Lorenzo (1378 1455).. 13, 
 
 15. 30 
 Giacomo della PORTA (1541 1604) 94, 
 
 153. 157 
 GIOCONDO, Fra (cir. 1433 1515) 
 
 72, 102 
 
 Giorgio Maggiore, San ; Venice . . 134, 
 151, 158, 159 
 
 GIOTTO (1266 1336) .. .. 9, 14 
 Giraud or Torlonia, Pal. ; Rome 85 
 Giuliano da SAN GALLO (1445 
 
 1516) 27, 38, 90, 102 
 
 Giuliano da MAJANO (1432 90) . . 33 
 Giulio ROMANO (1492 1546) . . 99 
 Grimani, Pal. ; Venice . . 6, 128, 148 
 Guadagni, Pal. ; Florence . . . . 44 
 
 Innocenti (Spedale degli) ; Florence 
 
 24, 42 
 
 Julius II. (Pope from 1503 13)51, 81, 89 
 ,. HI. ( 155055) 152 
 
 Lanzi, Loggia dei 20 
 
 Laterano, San Giovanni in ; Rome 
 
 156. 157 
 
 Leo X. (Pope from 1513 21) .. 13, 
 81, 91, 118, 129, 130 
 Leonardo da VINCI (1452 1519) 34 
 Library, Mediceo-Laurentian ; Flo- 
 rence 143 
 
 Libreria Vecchia ; Venice . . 134-136 
 Linotta, Pal. ; Rome . . . . 91, 146
 
 INDEX. 
 
 183 
 
 Loggetta, La ; Venice . . . . 134, 135 
 Loggia, La ; Brescia . . . . 72, 78 
 LOMBARDI, Pietro (d. 1515) . . 63, 69 
 
 LOMBARDI, Martino 64 
 
 LONGHENA, Baldassare (1604 75) 159, 
 
 160, 161 
 
 Lorenzo de' Medici . . . .12, 13, ,33, 82 
 Lorenzo, San ; Florence.. .. 18-20, 
 
 129, 143 
 
 Lorenzo, San ; Milan 104 
 
 Luea della ROBBIA (1400 1482) . . 29, 
 
 3i- 44 
 LUCCA 33> 45 
 
 Machiavelli, Niccolo . . n, 22, 25, 26 
 MADERNA, Carlo (1556 1629) . . 106, 
 107, 108, 153, 154 
 MAJANO, Benedetto da (1442 97) 
 
 28,33 
 ,, Giuliano da (1432 90) . . 33 
 
 MANTUA 36, 50 
 
 Marcellus, Theatre of ; Rome .. 95, 
 126, 140, 141 
 
 Marco, San ; Rome in 
 
 Marco, Scuola di San ; Venice 64, 65 
 
 Maria deiMiracoli, Santa; Brescia 72, 73 
 
 ii ii ,, Venice.. 62, 
 
 63, 65-67 
 
 Maria del Fiore, Santa; Florence 
 
 14-16, 108 
 ,, della Salute, Santa; Venice 
 
 159, 160 
 
 ,, delle Carceri ; Prato 37, 38, 101 
 delle Grazie, Santa ; Milan 
 
 55,86 
 
 ,, di Carignano, Santa; Genoa 157 
 ,, di Santo Biagio, Santa; Mon- 
 
 tepulciano . . 38, 90, 101, 102 
 in Organo, Santa ; Verona 
 
 (Intarsia) 71 
 
 ,, Maggiore, Santa ; Rome . . 157 
 
 ,, Novella, Santa; Florence .. 37 
 
 Mark, School of St. ; Venice . . 64, 65 
 
 Mark's, St. ; Venice . . 2, 63, 64, 85, 134 
 
 Massimi alle Colonne, Pal.; Rome 91, 
 
 93, 95-100, 113, 121 
 
 Massimi, Pietro 95, 140 
 
 Medici, Cosmo de' n, 12, 19, 27, 28,44 
 
 ,, Giovanni de' 19 
 
 ,, Lorenzo de' (il Magnifico) 12, 
 13. 33, 82 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Medici, Lorenzo de', Tomb of . . 143 
 Pal. ; Florence 27, 28, 36, 58, 94 
 
 Michelangelo BUONARROTI (1475 
 
 ^64) 34- 4 1 - 5i, 89, 90, 94, 95, 
 
 105-108, 113, 115, 129-131, 134, 
 
 140, 142-144, 148, 152-155, 162 
 
 Michele in Bosco, San; Bologna 112, 
 
 117, 119 
 
 MICHELOZZI, Michelozzo (cir. 1396 
 
 147 2 ) 11.27,50,83,94 
 
 MILAN, Great Hospital, 50 ; San 
 Lorenzo, 104 ; Santa Maria 
 delle Grazie, 55, 86 ; Capella 
 Portinari in San Eustorgio, 50 ; 
 Santa Maria presso San Satiro 55-57 
 
 Mino da FIESOLE (1431 84).. .. 33 
 
 MONTEPULCIANO, Church at . . 38, 90, 
 
 101, 102 
 
 Municipio, Pal. ; Brescia . . . . 72 
 
 Municipio, Pal. (Prefettizio) ; 
 
 Vicenza 146, 147, 160 
 
 Niccola da PISA (cir. 1205 1278) 9, 10 
 Nicholas V. (Pope from 1447 55) 44, 49 
 Novella, Santa Maria ; Florence 
 
 37- 45 
 Nuova, Porta ; Verona .. .. 127, 128 
 
 Olimpico, Teatro ; Vicenza . . . . 149 
 ORGAGNA (cir. 1308 1368) . . . . 9 
 
 PALLADIO, Andrea (1518 80) . . 72, 
 89, 139, 144-151 
 
 Palio or Stuppa, Porta del ; Verona 127 
 
 Pandolfini, Pal. ; Florence . . . . 91 
 
 Pantheon ; Rome . . . . 39, 40, 103, 
 
 107, 108, 122 
 
 Paul III. (Pope from 1534 50) . . 92, 
 94, 122, 152 
 
 PAVIA, Certosa di . . . . 51-53, 55 
 Pazzi, Capella ; Florence 16-18, 58, 86 
 Pellegrini, Capella ; Verona (1557) 128 
 PERUZZI, Baldassare (1481 1536) 29, 
 
 89,90, 91, 95-101, 103-106, 115-123, 
 
 135, 136, 139, 141, 144, 146, 148, 
 149, 150 
 
 Pesaro, Pal. ; Venice .. 160-162 
 Peter's, St. ; Rome .. .. 51, 90, 91, 
 
 102-109, 118, 122, 123, 144, 153, 154 
 Petronio, San ; Bologna .. ..117 
 Piccolomini, Tomb of Bishop ; 
 
 Siena 45
 
 1 84 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Pietro in Montorio, San ; Rome 87, 88 
 PONTELLI, Baccio (14501500 ?) 44, 45 
 
 PISTOJA 3 1 
 
 Pitti, Pal. ; Florence . . . . 24-26 
 POLLAIUOLO Simone (CRONACA) 
 
 (14571508) 28, 38 
 
 Pollini, Casa ; Siena 119 
 
 Pompei, Pal. ; Verona . . . . 124-126 
 Portinari, Capella, in San Eustor- 
 
 gio Milan 50 
 
 Posta, Antica; Vicenza .. 149, 150 
 PRATO, Santa Maria delle Carceri 37, 
 
 38, 101 
 
 Prefettizio, Pal. ; Vicenza . . . . 146, 
 
 147, 160 
 
 Procuratie Nuove ; Venice . . 158, 159 
 Prosperi, Pal.; Ferrara .. .. 121 
 
 QUERCIA, Jacopo della (1371 
 
 1438) 13. 30 
 
 Raffaello SANTI da URBINO (1483 
 
 1520) . . 51, 89, 92, 99, ioo, 103, 
 
 104, 115-117 
 
 RAINALDI, Girolamo, (1570 1655) 154 
 
 RAVENNA 58, 63 
 
 Redentore, II; Venice .. 150, 151, 160 
 ROBBIA family . . 24, 29, 30, 31, 32, 44 
 Rocco, Confraternita di San ; 
 
 Venice (1517 1550) .. .. 70 
 RODARI, Tommaso (cir. 1500) . . 55 
 ROMANO, Giulio (1492 1546) . . 99 
 ROME, Sant' Agostino, 45 ; Pal. Can- 
 celleria, 83-85,92 ; Pal. Costa, 
 91,99 ; Pal. Farnese.92,94,95; 
 Villa Farnesina, 113, 116, 117, 
 136; Pal. Giraud, 85; San 
 Giovanni in Laterano, 156, 157; 
 Pal. Linotta, 91, 146; Santa 
 Maria Maggiore, 157 ; Pal. 
 Massimi, 91, 93, 95-100, 113, 
 121 ; San Pietro in Montorio, 
 87, 88 ; St. Peter's, 51, 90, 91, 
 102-109, 118, 122, 123, 144, 153, 
 154; Sistine Chapel, 113; Pal. 
 Spada, 112; San Sebastiano, 
 156 ; Pal. Stoppani, 91 ; Tem- 
 pietto, 87, 88; Pal. Torlonia, 
 85; Vatican, 25, 51, 85, 107; 
 Pal. Venezia 45 
 
 PAGE 
 
 ROSSELINO, Antonio (142779) .. 33 
 
 Bernardo (1409 61) 35, 44 
 
 Riccardi, Pal. ; Florence 27, 28, 36, 
 
 58.94 
 
 RIZZI, Antonio BREGNI or . . . . 61 
 Rucellai, Pal. ; Florence . . 35, 36 
 
 Sacrati or Prosperi, Pal. ; Ferrara 121 
 Salvator del Monte, Santo; Flo- 
 rence 41. 62 
 
 Salvatore, Santo, Venice . . . . 77 
 SAN GALLO, Antonio da, the elder 
 
 (14551534) . . 24, 38, 90, 101 
 SANGALLO, Antonio, the younger 
 
 (14851546) .. 90,91,94,102. 
 104-106, 115, 123, 130 
 SAN GALLO, Giuliano d 3^1^45 
 
 1516) XzrTsS, 90, 102 
 
 SANMICHELI, Michele '"(1484 1559) 88, 
 89, 92, 115, 117, 120, 123-129, 133, 
 135, 136, 139, 140, 148, 149 
 SANSOVINO, Andrea Contucci da 
 
 Monte (1460 1529) . . 34, 38-40, 
 83. 95. J 3o 
 SANSOVINO, Jacopo TATTI or (1486 
 
 1570) 61, 72, 92, 115, 117, 129-136, 
 139, 158, 159, 161 
 Satiro, S. Maria presso San; Milan 
 
 55-57 
 SCAMOZZI, Vincenzio (1552 1616) 129, 
 
 158- 159 
 
 Sebastiano, San ; Rome (1612) .. 156 
 SERLIO, Sebastiano (1475 1552) . . 83, 
 86, 91, 103, 104, 117, 140-142 
 SETTIGNANO, Desiderio da (1428 
 
 6 4 ) 18. 33 
 
 SIENA 45,91,116-119 
 
 Sistine Chapel ; Rome 113 
 
 Sixtus IV. (Pope from 1471 84). . 12 
 Sixtus V. (Pope from 1585 90) 153, 154 
 SOLARI, Cristoforo (d. 1540) . . 52, 55 
 
 Spada, Pal. ; Rome 112 
 
 Spirito, Santo ; Florence . . 22-24, 
 38, 39, 42, 56, 95, 102 
 
 Stoppani, Pal. ; Rome 91 
 
 Strozzi, Pal. ; Florence . . . . 6, 28 
 Stuppa, Porta ; Verona 127 
 
 Tacconi, Casa ; Bologna . . . . 74 
 Teatro Olimpico ; Vicenza . . . . 149 
 Tempietto in San Pietro in Mon- 
 torio ; Rome 87, 88
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Tiene, Pal. ; Vicenza 146 
 
 Torlonia or Giraud, Pal. ; Rome. . 85 
 
 UCCELLI, Paolo (1397 1475) .. 65 
 
 URBINO 42, 50 
 
 Pal. Ducale 42 
 
 Valier. Tomb of Doge ; Venice . . 160 
 Valmarana, Pal. ; Vicenza . . . . 147 
 VASARI, Giorgio (1511 74) .. -.14. 
 19, 39, 105, 116, 122, 130, 134, 143 
 Vatican, Rome .. 25,51,85,107,153 
 Vendramini, Pal. ; Venice 69, 77, 128 
 
 Venezia, Pal. ; Rome 45 
 
 VENICE, Porta della Carta, 57, 60, 
 61 ; Pal. Cornaro della Ca' 
 Grande, 131-133; Pal. Cornaro 
 Spinelli, 68, 70; Pal. Contarini 
 delle Figure, 70, 71 ; Doges' or 
 Ducal Palace, 60, 61, 135; 
 Grand Canal, 67 ; San Giorgio 
 Maggiore, 134, 151, 158, 159; 
 Pal. Grimani, 128 ; Libreria 
 Vecchia, 134-136; II Redentore, 
 150, 151 ; San Rocco, 70 ; Santa 
 Maria dei Miracoli, 62, 63, 65- 
 67 ; Santa Maria della Salute, 
 159, 160; School of St. Mark, 
 
 64, 65 ; St. Mark's, 63, 64, 85, 
 134; Procuratie Nuove, 158; 
 Tomb of Doge Valier, 160; 
 Pal. Vendramini, 69, 128; 
 La Zecca 133 
 
 VERONA, Sant' Anastasia, 71 ; Pal. 
 Bevilacqua, 126 ; Pal. del Con- 
 siglio, 71, 72 ; Capella Gesu, 71 ; 
 Porta Nuova, 127, 128; Porta 
 Palio, 127 ; Capella Pellegrini, 
 128 ; Pal. Pompei, 124, 125 ; 
 San Zeno 63 
 
 VERROCHIO, Andrea del (1435 88) 33 
 
 Via Baldassare Peruzzi ; Siena .. 119 
 
 Via Giulia, Small palazzo in ; 
 
 Rome .. .. ioo, 101, 112, 121 
 
 VICENZA, Pal. Barbarano, 148 ; 
 Basilica, 145, 146; Villa Capra. 
 150 ; Pal. Chiericati, 146 ; Casa 
 del Diavolo, 149; Teatro Olim- 
 pico, 149 ; Pal. Prefettizio, 146, 
 147, 160; Pal. Tiene, 146; 
 Pal. Valmarana 147 
 
 VIGNOLA, Giacomo Barozzi da 
 
 (150773) .. .. 139. I5I-I53 
 
 ViTRUViusPollio(b. B.C. 90) 72, 140-142 
 
 Zecca, La ; Venice.. 
 Zeno, San ; Verona 
 
 133 
 63 
 
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 IV 
 
 PARTS I. TO IV., NOW READY. 
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 LATER RENAISSANCE 
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