STOC LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK BOSTON CHICAGO DALLAS ATLANTA SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED LONDON BOMBAY CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD. TORONTO LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS BY JOHN H. GEHRS, B.S., M.S., HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE SOUTHEAST MISSOURI STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, CAPE GIRARDEAU, MISSOURI, JOINT AUTHOR OF LABORATORY MANUAL ENTITLED " ONE HUNDRED EXERCISES IN AGRICULTURE" AND AUTHOR OF THE COMPANION BOOK, " THE PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE FOR HIGH SCHOOLS," AND AU- THOR OF " PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE " Nefo gotfc THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1922 All rights reserved PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 4- COPYRIGHT, 1917, 1922, BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotypcd. Published May, 1922. Xortoooti J. S. Gushing Co. Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. PREFACE NEW subject matter is constantly being added to Agriculture. Since so many boys and girls go no farther than the grades, and since Agriculture should function in the lives of these boys and girls, it has been the pleasure of the author to bring much of this new material to them in this book. Important subject matter relating to the use of concrete, to road construction, rope tying, farm buildings, farm home con- veniences, farm machinery, boys' and girls' clubs, efficient marketing and factors essential to success in farming, and the new material relating to live stock and the live stock situation of the world have been treated in this book. The laboratory exercises and home projects, suggested at the close of each chapter, constitute a very important part of the course. These laboratory exercises should be performed and written up in a regularly kept notebook. Each exercise should be written out under the following headings : 1. Object 2. Materials used . 3. Procedure 4. Conclusion Some exercises may be followed with application questions. The chapter dealing with boys' and girls' clubs should be read early in the course, so that club work may be begun at the proper time. Throughout the entire study of Agriculture there are some things which should be made. Among these are the follow- 492044 vi PREFACE ing: self-feeders, miniature barns for various farm animals, egg nests, doors, gates, and various things made of concrete. Whole literary programs may occasionally be given on topics relating to Agriculture. The members of the class studying Agriculture should debate some question relating to this sub- ject at least once a month. At the close of this text there are twenty suggested topics for debate. It is surprising how chil- dren will improve in debating through three or four months' practice. Credit is due Miss Lillian Brucher, head of the Home Economics Department of the Southeast Missouri State Teachers College, Cape Girardeau, Missouri, for writing the chapter on farm home conveniences; Prof. R. H. Ember son, in charge of boys' and girls' clubs, University of Missouri, for writing the chapter on boys' and girls' club work ; Prof. Jeptha Riggs, Professor of English of the Southeast Missouri State Teachers College, Cape Girardeau, Missouri, for reading the entire manuscript; and to President Joseph A. Serena of the Southeast Missouri State Teachers College for many valuable suggestions given. Further acknowledgments are due to the Portland Cement Company for permission to use Figures 90, 91, and 93 ; to the South Dakota Station for Figure 142 ; to the Iowa Experiment Station for Figures 149 and 150; and to the United States De- partment of Agriculture for Figures i, 6, 92, 96, and 98; and to McGraw-Hill Publishing Company for illustrations in Chap- ter XV. JOHN H. GEHRS. SOUTHEAST MISSOURI STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, CAPE GIRARDEAU, MISSOURI, February 2, 1922. CONTENTS PART I LIVE STOCK CHAPTER PAGE I. ADVANTAGES OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY ... . ;> , 3 II. IMPROVEMENT OF FARM ANIMALS ... . . 14 III. FEEDING FARM ANIMALS .26 IV. THE HORSE . . . . . . ... 38 V. BEEF CATTLE .' 68 VI. DAIRY CATTLE . . ," r . . . . .87 VII. SWINE PRODUCTION * / 126 VIII. SHEEP PRODUCTION . . . .-.'' . . . 145 IX. POULTRY . . . . . . .' . . .158 X. MARKETING LIVE STOCK . . . . . . 197 PART II FARM MECHANICS AND FARM MANAGEMENT XI. USE OF CONCRETE 213 XII. CONCRETE STRUCTURES .225 XIII. ROAD CONSTRUCTION ........ 236 XIV. ROPE WORK . . . . . . . . .247 XV. FARM HOME CONVENIENCES 259 XVI. FARM MACHINERY . .276 XVII. SOME ESSENTIAL MACHINES 284 XVIII. FARM BUILDINGS ........ 299 XIX. BOYS' AND GIRLS' CLUB WORK 313 vii Vlll CONTENTS CHAPTER XX. CHOOSING A FARM > ' . PAGE 331 XXI. PLANNING THE FARM ! . . . . ' . 340 XXII. FARM BOOKKEEPING . . 348 XXIII. FARM LABOR . . 355 XXIV. EFFICIENT MARKETING OF FARM PRODUCTS . .366 XXV. CARDINAL POINTS IN MAKING THE FARM PAY . 375 TWENTY QUESTIONS FOR DEBATE ... . . v . 384 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . 387 INDEX . .180 PART ONE LIVE STOCK LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS CHAPTER I ADVANTAGES OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY THE virgin soils of our land have been exploited and robbed of their plant nutrients to such an extent that Conservation of Soil Fertility Congresses, our Agricultural Colleges and Experi- ment Stations, the United States Government itself, and all informed farmers have turned their thoughts and efforts to farm practices that will prevent the further exhaustion of our soils. One purpose of this chapter is to convey the notion that animal husbandry is a way of maintaining soil fertility. There are also many other farm practices which help to conserve our soils, increase our crop yields, and tend to make our people happy and prosperous, and are conducive to permanent agriculture. The main purpose of this chapter is to indicate how animals tend to make American agriculture more permanent. Some of the benefits which may accrue from animal husbandry farming and which make our agriculture more permanent, are the following : 1. Animals aid in maintaining the fertility of the soil. 2. Stock farming tends to a better system of crop rotation. 3. Feeds that otherwise would be partially wasted are utilized. 4. Animals manufacture raw materials into a marketable product. 5. Stock farming gives more constant employment. 6. Stock farming often increases the profits. 7. The leading nations in their periods of greatest prosperity have been producers of animals. 3 4 . .... ...LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS 8. Animal husbandry tends toward a progressive agriculture and more intelligent farming. These topics will be discussed in the order named. Animals aid in maintaining the fertility of the soil. Every schoolboy or schoolgirl or farmer who reads this knows that constant cropping and selling the crops tend to make the soil less productive from year to year. Grain and hay crops, if sold from the farm, remove plant foods as follows : FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS IN ONE TON FERTILITY MANURIAL CROP VALUE VALUE PER Nitrogen, Phosphoric Potash, PER TON TON Pounds Acid, Pounds Pounds Dent corn (grain) 32.4 13-8 8.0 $ 6.85 $ 5.48 Wheat .... 39-6 17.2 10.6 8.83 6-74 Oats 3Q.6 16.2 II. 2 8.42 6.74. Timothy hay . . o v w 19.9 6.2 27.2 5-20 v / *T 4.16 Red clover hay . 41.0 7.8 32-6 9-36 749 Oat straw . . . n.6 4.2 30.0 3.78 3.02 Corn silage . . 6.8 3-2 8.8 1.81 1-45 Cottonseed meal, choice . . . 141.2 53-4 36-2 29.63 23.70 From this table it will be observed that if two thousand pounds of dent corn be taken from a farm, 32.4 pounds of nitrogen, 13.8 pounds of phosphoric acid, and 8.0 pounds of potash are taken from the soil. These ingredients sell at an average of 18.0, 4.5, and 5.0 cents per pound, respectively, when purchased in com- mercial fertilizers. At this rate a ton of corn removes $6.85 worth of soil fertility. It has been found by experimentation that, when feed is fed the average animal, 80 per cent of the food nutrients in the feed are voided in the manurial product. The manurial value given in the last column of the above table is in each case 80 per cent of the fertility value of the food named. ADVANTAGES OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY The manurial value of feed stuffs varies, as the table indicates, with the composition of feeding stuffs. The table deserves close study. When animals or animal products are taken from the farm, much less fertility is removed ; and especially is this true when the fertility value of the feed out .of which the finished product is made is compared to the animal product sold. This par- ticular point is too difficult to present here. However, the fertilizing constituents of a few animal products are as follows : FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS PER TON FERTILITY MANURIAL VALUE PER VALUE PER Nitrogen, Phosphoric Potash, TON TON Pounds Acid, Pounds Pounds Fat pig . , . 354 13.0 2.8 $7.10 Fat ox . . . . 46.6 31.0 2.6 9.96 Milk .... n.6 4.0 3-4 2-43 $1-94 Butter .... 2.4 0.8 0.8 51 Compare this table with the preceding one. A ton of pigs remove $7.10 worth of fertility and dent corn $6.85 of fertility. When the fact is known that it requires from five to six tons of corn to make one ton of pork, and that 80 per cent of its ferti- lizing value is returned to the soil, we may conclude that animal husbandry tends to maintain soil fertility. It has been summed up thus : " A farmer selling hay sells in the form of fertilizer value, one-half as much as he receives ; if he sells pork, he re- ceives twenty times as much for it as the value of the fertilizers contained in it ; if milk, forty times ; and if butter, one thou- sand times." x See the following chapters, and especially the chapters on dairy cattle, swine production, and sheep production, on the relation of animal husbandry to the maintenance of soil fertility. 1 Burkett; " Feeding Farm Animals." 6 LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS Stock farming tends to a better system of crop rotation. Where grain farming is practiced, only one or two crops are usually produced. Such a practice caused our soils to become less productive. The United States Yearbooks clearly indicate that the acreage yields of the leading American farm crops be- came less and less up to about 1900, and from then on our acre- age yields have been gradually increasing. The increase in crop yields the last fifteen years has been due to better methods of seed selection, seed testing, better methods of cultivation, rotation of crops, and other modern farm practices. The de- crease in acreage yields previous to 1900 was due to a system of grain farming in which only one or two kinds of crops were pro- duced, sold off the farm, and nothing returned. In any kind of stock production a liberal use of pasture crops makes for cheap gains. The liberal use of the leguminous crops in pork, mutton, beef, and milk production, taking one year with another, cheapens production. Many farmers are begin- ning to realize that it is expensive to import feeds. It is for this reason that farmers are studying and planning how they may grow crops, so that they will have a well-balanced feed, and at the same time not deplete the soil. The solution of this prob- lem is a proper balance of grain crops to furnish the carbo- hydrate material, and the growing of clovers, alfalfa, soybeans, and cowpeas, which furnish the protein of the feed. The latter crops tend to balance the grain ration, and at the same time restore nitrogen to the soil. Feeds that otherwise would be partially wasted are uti- lized. The grass that grows along streams, fences, and roadways would be lost if not consumed by grazing animals. Much land that cannot be tilled profitably is used as grazing land. Corn fields, where the ears have been gathered, furnish a great deal of roughness for a month or more to cattle, sheep, and horses. ADVANTAGES OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY Straw stacks and the grasses and weeds in stubble fields will pro- duce a fine product. The screenings at threshing time furnish excellent feed for poultry. A small flock of sheep is kept on many farms simply as plant scavengers. The large quantity of weeds they consume is transformed into wool and mutton. Goats, in many sections, help greatly in ridding pastures of sprouts and weeds. There are very few sprouts goats will not eat. Their services in renovating pastures may often be worth from 50 cents to $i per acre. Turkeys roam over pastures and fields, eating grasshoppers and other insects. The dairy, the garden, the orchard, the field, and the roadside provide feeds which, if utilized, may bring a fair income and change the farm operation from a losing one to a profitable one. The small odds and ends utilized by animals may mean the difference between success and failure, for to a considerable extent the profits thus secured are almost pure profits. Animals manufacture raw materials into a marketable product. The animal is a manufacturer. Not only are the cheap feed stuffs thus utilized, but the corn, silage, hays, bran, cottonseed meal, and various other crops and their by-products are used by animals, and converted into salable products. The following facts in a general way indicate the manufacturing capacity of various farm animals : ANIMAL FEED AMOUNT OF PRODUCT PRODUCED APPROXIMATE VALUE Dairy cow . . Corn silage 30 lb., 25 lb. milk, test 4.0% alfalfa 10 lb., corn or one pound but- 35 cents 6 lb., bran 2 lb., terfat water 75 lb. Swine .... 5-6 lb. corn One pound pork 7-^ cents Sheep .... 8-9 lb. corn One pound mutton 7-J cents Steer .... lo-n lb. corn One pound beef 7-J- cents 8 LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS It should not be concluded from this table that one kind of animal produces meat more economically than others. The table is not recorded for that purpose. The table simply in- dicates that animals are manufacturers. When the fact is re- called that sheep consume feeds that hogs will not use, the con- clusion may be drawn that sheep are the most profitable of all the animals, under certain conditions. The raw products cannot always be shipped to market profit- ably. For illustration, the dairy cow utilizes about 48 pounds of feed stuffs to manufacture one pound of butter. The raw materials have a low selling value per pound, but a pound of butter may sell for 35 cents per pound. The freight charges in transporting the raw materials would be extremely costly in proportion to the value of the product sent ; while the finished product can be shipped at a comparatively low cost. Animals hold an important relation to permanent agriculture because they are manufacturers. Stock farming gives more constant employment. It tends to distribute labor. In grain farming all the labor is demanded in a short period. Stock farming causes a diversity of crops to be grown, and this of itself causes a more even distribution of labor, and stock always need attention. All the labor in connec- tion with timothy hay comes in about one month, or one twelfth of the entire year. Generally speaking, men get paid according to the time they work; one twelfth time, one twelfth pay. Read the chapter on farm labor. Our agriculture will not be nearly so permanent until the labor on the farm becomes more constant. Stock farming tends to give constant employment. Stock farming often increases the profits. This is espe- cially true where young stock, stock of the proper conformation, quality, and disposition, are used, and where the farmer knows how to secure economic gains from them. Bankers seldom turn ADVANTAGES OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 9 down a loan on young growing stock, especially if it is of the right kind. The leading nations in their periods of greatest prosperity have been producers of animals. The nations which are the leading and most progressive have been and are consumers of large quantities of meat and animal products. They likewise FIG. i. The striking contrast here shown is the best argument for investing feed and care where they will pay best. are consumers of vegetable products. Those nations which have a low state of civilization consume either meats alone or vegetable products alone. The barbarian uses either an entire meat diet or an entire grain diet. The nations that consume either exclusively are usually in a low state of civilization. We need to refer only to China and Russia to illustrate this point. The Romans, Greeks, and Hebrews consumed meat to a con- siderable extent. From the first two races we received much io LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS in the way of laws and literature; from the Hebrews we re- ceived the Old and the New Testament, and Christianity. The Teutonic race, comprising the peoples of England, Germany, and America, contributed the democratic system of govern- ment, all are and were liberal meat eaters. Even the states of the United States that are the most pro- gressive, as shown by their roads, schools, farm implements, and stock, are greater producers of animals than are those states more backward along these lines. On this point in con- nection with dairying, Professor Eckles states in " Dairy Cattle and Milk Production" : " If a list were prepared of our own states, selecting those where the average soil fertility is best conserved, the most intelligence found among the people, it would be a list of the leading dairy states." The American people are consumers of greater quantities of animal products per capita than are the people of any other nation. And where may a superior people, both physically and mentally, be found ? Well- developed men and women, physically and mentally, are neces- sary for a permanent agriculture. Animal husbandry tends toward a more progressive agri- culture and more intelligent farming. One of the simplest forms of agriculture was that practiced by the wandering shep- herds described in the Bible. The shepherds drove their flocks to new pastures. Scarcely any skill was required. The cow- boys of the West in pioneer days needed little intelligence and, in a way, exemplify simple agriculture. Tilling a one-kind crop from year to year requires greater intelligence, because the use of tools and implements makes it a little more complex. Grow- ing two kinds of crops adds complexity to the operation, because the methods of soil preparation, seeding, cultivating, harvesting, and kinds of tools used vary somewhat with the two crops grown. Many farmers in the " corn belt " know how to grow corn but do n 12 LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS not understand how to grow alfalfa. A third kind of farming that requires still more skill and intelligence is a system of grain farming, where a rotation of crops is practiced and five or six different crops are raised. Rotating crops, so that the soil fertility will be maintained, so that insects of various crops are combated, so that labor is well distributed, and selling each crop at such a season that the most is realized, is a difficult system of farming indeed. But a fourth system of farming that is still more complex is one in which all the good points of the third system prevail, and in addition several different kinds of animals are produced. In animal husbandry farming, hous- ing, feeding, care, and management, combating disease and enemies, selecting the types and kinds of animals that will prove profitable, all of these points in connection with every kind of animal handled add greatly to the complexity of the farm operations. Animal production requires additional skill for its successful operation. Animal husbandry causes men to become more sympathetic. The man who hammers steel from day to day deals with an inanimate thing. The producer of plants notices the response of the soil and the plant to his kind treatment. But the man who handles sheep, horses, cattle, the shepherd, the horse- man, the cattleman, notes the instinctive reaction of the animal kindly treated, until the mental attitude of both animal and man are greatly improved. The dairyman has long since learned that kind treatment brings economic returns. The shepherd well knows that his voice is known by every sheep. The horseman fully realizes that if he commands his horse intelligently, the horse will respond in like manner. This intelligent, harmonious, responsive spirit between man and animal are prerequisites to permanent successful agricul- ture. ADVANTAGES OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 13 Summary. Animal husbandry farming helps in maintaining the fertility of the soil, tends to a better system of crop rotation, utilizes feeds that otherwise would be partially wasted, manu- factures raw materials into a marketable product, gives more constant employment, and often increases profits. The leading nations have been and are producers and consumers of meat and meat products, and animal husbandry promotes a pro- gressive and intelligent agriculture. Animal husbandry farming sustains important relations to the permanency of our American agriculture. Therefore, it behooves the schools, the farmers, and the consumers to study the close relation of animal husbandry to permanent agriculture, in order that here as elsewhere the old saying that " education is the safeguard of our nation " may be fully realized. LABORATORY EXERCISES AND HOME PROJECTS 1. Are there any farms in your locality that do not readily respond to the husbandman ? If there are, write in three paragraphs three reasons why the soil does not respond readily. Make three recommendations you would suggest to make the soil more responsive. These three recom- mendations should be written in choice English and in three well- formed paragraphs. 2. Name ten products that would be waste products which may be utilized either by swine, beef cattle, sheep, or poultry. 3. Do you know of any field, garden, orchard, or pasture in which insects, grass, weeds, sprouts, or other plants are found which may be well utilized by some farm animal? What suggestions have you to offer regarding their utilization ? CHAPTER II IMPROVEMENT OF FARM ANIMALS Why improve farm animals ? Horses, beef and dairy cattle, hogs, sheep, and poultry have already been greatly improved. And the average person would hardly know what to suggest to improve further the best specimens of these various animals ; but the expert breeder can see how further improvement can be made. Of course we all know that the animals found on the average farm can be much improved. Why improve farm animals? First, because animals with a good conformation produce more cheaply than do those without. Some may say that the razorback will produce meat as cheaply as do the most improved breeds, but such is not the case. Some may still think that the Texas Longhorn will produce meat more cheaply than does the best Shorthorn steer. Again there are those who say that the native scrub cow will produce as much milk as the best Jersey; but no scrub ever has done so. No one has ever heard of a scrub making a really good record. The records of scrubs are not known and never printed. Some think that the assassins of our martyred presidents should never be honored by being named in history. Likewise the names of scrub animals are ordinarily never mentioned, because their records are not worthy of mention. Grading up live stock. The easiest and cheapest way to improve ordinary live stock is to grade them up. This is done by the use of a pure bred sire. In grading up, if the first offspring has 50 per cent purity of blood, the second will have 75 per cent, 14 IMPROVEMENT OF FARM ANIMALS 15 the third 87.5 per cent, and so on. A high-grade animal has 75 per cent or more of the blood of a definite breed in its veins. A crossbred animal is the progeny of two different breeds of animals. Thus we may have a Hols tein- Jersey cross. Pure breds. Pure bred animals have 100 per cent of the blood of a definite breed. They have no blood or other charac- teristics from any other source. Not all pure bred animals are perfect, in fact probably none are perfect, but many of them are 85 to 95 per cent perfect ; while low-grade animals are much lower in the scale of perfection. The best qualities that 1 farm animals now possess come from the blood of pure breds. Registered animals are pure bred animals whose pedigrees are recorded in the herd book of that breed of farm animals. A pedi- gree gives a brief biography of the ancestors of a given animal for several generations. On page 17 is a pedigree of Hamble- tonian 10. Many pedigrees give more data than this pedigree. There are two terms, indicative of breeding or breeding and performance in horses, that should be explained here because the student constantly meets them in reading and study. They are the expressions, " thoroughbred " and " standardbred." Pure breeding in horses is indicated as thoroughbred. This term denotes the purest breed of horses, except the Oriental from which they are derived. They have been bred for two and one half centuries with running speed as the only considera- tion. They were the first for which pedigree records were kept and a stud book established. The term standardbred is applied to horses bred from a composite foundation in which the thorough- bred top cross figured most conspicuously, the base consisting of commonbred mares with well-developed trotting ability. The American road driver is largely responsible for the develop- ment of the standardbred. Performance rather than breeding has been the standard. 1 6 LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS What are the advantages of good high-grade or good pure bred animals? i. They will transmit their qualities or charac- teristics without great chance of variation. In other words, " like begets like." The new generation is like the preceding one, and the one before, and the one before that. The daddy was like his daddy, and his daddy was like his daddy, etc., - for many generations back. The mammy was like her mammy, and her mammy was like her mammy, etc., for many generations back. The daddies and the mammies belonged to the same breed for hundreds of years. If all the daddies and mammies were alike, why should not the offspring also possess the same characteristics and qualities? 2. Pure bred animals are adapted to a specific purpose. The bird dog is good for hunting birds ; but the rat terrier hunts and digs for rats all day long. It is fine that there are horses for pulling loads, horses to ride, and horses for the race. It is fine that there are cows that will give milk for many persons, and others that will produce a lot of meat with a few pounds of feed. This study of pure bred animals being adapted to a specific pur- pose can be continued indefinitely. 3. Pure bred animals produce more with a given amount of feed than do scrubs. Pure bred hogs not only will gain more than scrubs with a given amount of feed but also will dress out more meat. No one has ever heard of a scrub pig, a scrub cow, or a scrub chicken making a noteworthy record; but many noteworthy records have been made by pure breds. 4. Pure bred animals are more attractive, and more pride is taken in them. The greater the care and attention given them, the better the results. 5. Pure bred animals sell for more money than do scrubs or grades. It is well known that animals which are uniform in size and color sell for more than do those which are not uniform. IMPROVEMENT OF FARM ANIMALS PEDIGREE OF HAMBLETONIAN 10 Abdallah i (trotter) Mambrino (trotter) Amazonia (trotter) Messenger (Thorough- bred) Mare by Son of Messenger Unknown Mambrino, by Engineer, by Sampson Dam bv Turf f Sour Crout (Imp.) f Messenger Charles Kent mare Jery's Bellfounder (trotter) One Eye Bellfounder (trotter) Unknown Bishop's Hambletonian (trotter) Silvertail Messenger (Imp.) Pheasant, by Shark Messenger (Imp.) Black Jin (untraced) IMPROVEMENT OF FARM ANIMALS 19 This is true in the ordinary market ; and when animals are sold for breeding purposes, registered animals with good pedigrees sell much more easily and at better prices than others. For all of the reasons stated, farmers can well afford, if they do not possess pure breds, to use at least pure bred sires. For in so doing they will ordinarily reduce the cost of production. FIG. 4. Note the attractiveness of this flock of White Plymouth Rocks. They are quite uniform in shape and color. The lines of live stock improvement. Animals are im- proved along various lines. A few of these will be studied : i. Chickens are constantly being improved so that they will produce more eggs. The jungle fowl produced in a year 10 or 12 small eggs, which weighed in the aggregate from 4 to 8 ounces ; but the average hen now produces about 5 dozen eggs, which weigh about 1 20 ounces ; and there are many hens that produce over 200 eggs, which have a total weight of over 300 ounces. The chapter on poultry explains how the high producers may be 20 LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS detected. It is important that we know how to tell the good producer from the poor producer. A poor layer eats much feed, but returns little or nothing for the work, shelter, and feed man so kindly provides for her. 2. The dairy cow is improved so that she will yield more milk with a given amount of feed. There are many cows that do not pay for their keep. A cow producing 200 pounds of butterfat will probably pay her board bill. Of course, she will help to keep some one alive. But the farmer must have more than Courtesy Ginn and Co. FIG. 5. A good producing cow produces enough milk to nourish a dozen to fifteen calves. The native cattle gave about enough milk to nourish one small calf. just a bare living. He must produce a surplus and lay it up for a rainy day. The use of good sires helps to increase the milking qualities of the next generation. For illustration, at the Uni- versity of Missouri they had a bull named Missouri Rioter 3d. Several cows bred to him had 14 lactation periods and produced on the average 4715 pounds of milk. The daughters of these cows had 15 lactation periods and produced an average of 8005 pounds of milk in each lactation period. This was moving upward. Why should not the dairyman select bulls which come from cows and sires that have real producing ability? To improve IMPROVEMENT OF FARM ANIMALS 21 the dairy herd with a good sire is the easiest, cheapest, and quick- est way to build up the herd. 3. Wool production can also be increased. Sometimes wool is so cheap that it is not desirable to increase the output. But if it is desirable to increase the production of wool, it can be done by the use of a ram having wool-transmitting qualities. Laramie, a Rambouillet ram, owned by the Agricultural College of Still- FIG. 6. A litter of ten husky pigs. Large litters lower the cost of production. water, Oklahoma, was sheared at the end of 15 months and his fleece weighed 46 pounds. A good wool is kinky, and its hairs are fine and of medium length. These qualities can be secured by breeding and selection. 4. The meat-producing ability of animals can often be im- proved, and thereby the cost of production may be reduced. Accordingly, at the University of Missouri they found in an ex- periment the following: "Seventeen lambs from a pure bred sire and Western ewes weighed on an average 63 pounds when 22 LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS three months old and sold for $7.35 per hundredweight ; while 17 lambs sired by a scrub ram weighed 56 pounds when four months old and sold for $4.50 per hundredweight. Besides this the good lambs required less feed to produce one hundred pounds of gain. " There are a great many hogs, sheep, fowls, and beef cattle that can be improved in their meat-producing ability by the use of a well-conformed, good, pure bred sire. Here is one of the most fertile fields for making money. Good breeding pays. Poor breeding must be overcome by an additional expenditure for feed." 5. Speed is the all important thing in the horses used on the race course. Their form and function go hand in hand. They must have such a form that they can excel in speed. Of course, they must have endurance and such a spirit and disposition that they will win in the race. 6. In draft horses, weight, conformation, symmetry, quality, capacity, temperament, style, and walking ability are emphasized. To secure all of these qualities will require the best thought and judgment of the most capable horsemen of the entire country. 7. Often animals are not prolific ; that is, they do not produce sufficient offspring. Large litters of pigs reduce the cost of pork production. Small litters increase the cost of pork pro- duction. Breeds of hogs that will persistently produce litters of only two or three pigs must soon give way to a breed that is prolific. The Poland China breed of hogs several years ago almost became extinct because it lacked prolificacy. The breed was changed and to-day it ranks very high in popularity. Within reasonable limits man can by selection increase prolifi- cacy in animals. This is an important line of animal improve- ment. Sheep and poultry, as well as all other farm animals, can be and must be improved along this line. IMPROVEMENT OF FARM ANIMALS 23 A SUMMARY OF THE TEN YEARS' RECORDS MADE BY SOPHIE IQTH POUNDS MILK ONE YEAR POUNDS FAT ONE YEAR AGE 12,185.0 683.20 15 8 10,360.9 566.56 14 6 8,688.2 507.26 13 o 15,958.2 847.87 ii 9 11,915.4 680.49 9 7 17,557-8 999.10 7 ii 15,099.4 931.90 6 7 14,373-2 854.90 4 ii 9,924.8 570.80 3 8 7,050.2 395-90 2 2 123,113.1 7,037.98 8. Constitution, vitality, endurance, and long years of service are important items to remember in improving live stock. It costs money to raise a colt or a calf. To raise a colt or a calf which lacks vitality to live a reasonable number of years is very expensive. The highest record of achievement for an animal is to live long and produce much. Sophie igth of the Hood Farm has the foregoing record to her credit. It shows constitu- tion and longevity, and is indeed a long-distance record. Simi- lar illustrations could be given for other breeds of cows. Thus Sophie igth produced 123,113 pounds of milk and 7038 pounds of butterfat. The butterfat test of the milk is secured by dividing the butterfat by the milk produced ; that is, in this case 7038 divided by 123,113, or 5.72 per cent. This rule holds for determining the test of milk under all condi- tions. 9. Form in animals attracts the eye of the most disinterested person. The most beautiful lines and figures in nature are found in animal life. It is wonderful that man has so perfected animal 24 LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS form, yet there is much to be done in the average herd before perfection is attained. The breeder must have the picture of the perfect form in his mind. Then he begins to combine, mold, and form animal life so that the ideal is more nearly approached. This often requires a lifetime, for it is difficult to secure the per- fect type. 10. Color and color markings and how to secure and maintain these markings engender more interest than almost anything else in animal improvement. Every breed of farm animal has a most desirable color, and to secure and maintain that color is very difficult and costs much energy, time, money, and anxiety. Uniformity of color in a herd almost guarantees that other qualities are uniform and similar. When the color cannot be controlled, the other qualities cannot be controlled either. It is interesting to study the color and color markings as set forth by the different breed associations. The study of the 132 varie- ties of fowls described and discussed in " The Standard of Per- fection" is both interesting and informational. Community cooperation in the improvement of live stock. - Often an entire neighborhood gets together on an important movement ; and if a real spirit of cooperation exists, success is likely to be the result. Community cooperation may show it- self in boys' pig clubs, girls' poultry clubs, and cow clubs. These very organizations become the basis for organizations which later mean so much in community development. A good sire will improve a breed of live stock, whereas a poor sire may cause deterioration in the live stock in an entire com- munity. Some counties are noted throughout the United States for a specific breed of animals ; and for the fine stock they have. These communities usually have a good sale for their surplus breeding stock. This results in good money returns and in better homes, schools, and churches. IMPROVEMENT OF FARM ANIMALS 25 Summary. The lines of live stock improvement are greater egg production, greater milk production, greater wool production, greater prolificacy, greater meat production, greater endurance and vitality, greater speed, greater weight, a better form and more action in draft horses, better color, and general improve- ment so that the animals are more efficient for the particular purposes for which they are produced. Pure bred animals are more efficient than are scrubs and grades. Pure bred animals have some very definite advantages. These advantages are : they transmit their qualities with greater certainty ; they are adapted to a specific purpose ; they produce more with a given amount of feed; they are more attractive; and they sell for more money. Often entire localities become noted for the fine live stock they have, and the best results are frequently secured through community cooperation. LABORATORY EXERCISES AND HOME PROJECTS 1. Make a survey of the pure bred live stock in your school district, tabulate, and keep the tabulation with your laboratory notes. 2. From the 1920 U. S. Yearbook of Agriculture, page 731, secure the percentage of the different breeds of pure bred cattle in the United States. Secure and keep similar data for sheep, page 747 of the same book; and similar data for hogs, page 755. 3. Go to some farm having registered animals or pure bred poultry and let the proprietor explain to the class the characteristics of the breed and the advantages of his pure breds over scrubs. 4. If there is no boys' or girls' club in your school, organize one or both. Let this club raise some pure bred animals, keep an accurate rec- ord of them, and then exhibit them at the school fair and at that time let each boy and girl explain how the animals were fed, and the cost of raising them. CHAPTER III FEEDING FARM ANIMALS THE matter of feeding well and economically is of the greatest importance to every farmer. Economic feeding means the most nourishing food at the lowest cost. It is often hard to discover the most satisfactory feeds for beef steers, sheep, swine, or poultry. We shall study the subject briefly here. For a fuller treatment of the matter refer to bulletins and textbooks. Composition of feeds. Feeds are chemically composed of water, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and ash. Water in plants is an important part of the feed stuff. Green grasses contain more than three fourths water and all dry feeds contain about one tenth water. Blue grass is about three fourths water. Blue grass and milk are very similar in composition. Compare their composition as given in the following table. Carbohydrates comprise the starches and sugars in plants. The elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen make up the carbo- hydrates. If we cut a wheat or corn kernel in two parts, we shall see a white substance that is starch. The flour of wheat is nearly all starch. Dry ear corn and wheat kernels contain about three fifths starch. Plants are largely composed of carbo- hydrates, and the cells of plants are on a carbohydrate basis. Fats are found in many grains. Wheat is 2.1 per cent fat; cowpeas and soybeans contain 2.6 and 2.8 per cent of fat re- spectively. Fats are composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Fats are often spoken of as being concentrated carbohydrates. 26 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 27 DIGESTIBLE COMPOSITION OF SOME FEED STUFFS (All analyses are given) TOTAL DRY MATTER POUNDS OF DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN too LB. Crude Protein Carbo- hydrates Fat Total Nutritive Ratio is as i is to Corn products Dent corn 89.5 91.2 92.2 89.8 89.9 89.6 90.8 88. 5 88.4 91.4 8 7 .I 90.3 91.4 31.6 21.8 39-3 92-5 94.0 13-6 9.6 94 26.3 92.1 7-5 I5-I 10.0 9.2 12.5 13-4 9-7 I.O 3-o 10.6 7.6 13-1 11.7 2-3 3-i 1.9 48.1 37-o 3-3 3-i 3-4 i.i 31-6 67.8 57-8 50-3 67-5 41.6 46.2 52.1 42.6 42.8 39-o 39-3 33-7 39-2 14.8 9.6 20.0 0.0 0.0 4-9 4.6 4.9 15.0 25.6 4.6 4.8 IO.O i-5 3-o 4-3 3-8 0.9 1.2 0.9 1.8 I.O 1.2 0.6 0.5 0.6 i3-7 I I.O 4.3 0.9 O.I 0.7 7.8 85.7 83.7 82.8 80. 1 60.9 69.3 70.4 45-6 48.5 Si.6 50-9 49.0 53-6 18.5 13-8 23-3 78.9 61.8 17.9 9-7 8.4 17.7 74.8 IO.4 4-5 7-3 7-7 3-9 4.2 6-3 44.6 15.2 3-9 5-7 2-7 3-6 7.0 3-5 n-3 0.6 0.7 4.4 2.1 i-5 15-1 1.4 Gluten feed Germ oil meal Wheat products Wheat . . .'."''", . TjS I Bran Middlings .... Oats Oats Oat straw Hays Timothy Alfalfa . ... Red clover Cowpea Soybean Grasses Blue grass White clover Red top .... Meat products Tankage . .... Meat scraps Cow's milk Skim milk, gravity . . . Buttermilk Corn silage Cottonseed meal, good . . 1 Henry and Morrison; " Feeds and Feeding." 28 LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS Proteins are also found in plant tissue. Dent corn has 10 per cent protein ; wheat, 12.5 per cent ; and oats, 12.5 per cent. Pro- tein substances contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, of which nitrogen is the most important. Nitrog- enous feeds are called so because of their protein or nitrogenous content. The protein substances in grain crops are called gluten ; in legumes, legumen ; in eggs, albumen ; in meat, myosin ; and in milk, casein. The cell of animal tissue is on a protein basis. The ash substances of feeding stuffs comprise the elements sulphur, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, sodium, silicon, and chlorine, which remain after a substance has been burned. Dent corn contains 1.5 per cent ash material ; wheat, 1.9 per cent; and oats, 3.5 per cent. The general facts of the above table have an important bearing upon feeding, and the study of the composition of feed stuffs has practical value. COMPOSITION OF ANIMAL BODIES AND THEIR PRODUCTS 1 WATER DRY MATTER PROTEIN FATS ASH SUGAR (Approximately) Beef steer .... 53-o 47.0 13-5 34-0 3-60 0.0 Fat nic 40 O ri o 12. 40.0 2.2* Fat lamb 11.26 1.66 12.81 0.52 Milk 2.00 1.70 1.70 0.20 Wool O.yO 56.20 i. 80 6.40 This table indicates that corn contains 0.2 pound of lime in a thousand pounds and 6.9 pounds of phosphorus. Alfalfa has 19.5 pounds of lime and 5.4 pounds of phosphorus. This shows that the ash ingredients are found in different feeds in different proportions. This is also an important factor in the feeding value, for in milk production and in growing animals both must be provided. Therefore, since alfalfa and bran are quite similar in all other respects, the mineral composition may become the determining factor in the purchase of these feeds, for two thou- sand pounds of each feed will bring better returns than four thousand pounds of either. Some people say feed a variety; that depends upon the composition of the ingredient that makes up the feeds. 36 LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS 7. The cost of a feed affects its economical value. The feed- ing value of a feed remains the same regardless of its price. Bran dropped fifty cents a hundred yesterday. Its feeding value was not changed a particle. The price of every ration should be figured, and it may be quickly done as follows, by taking the current prices. COST OF THE DAILY RATION OF A DAIRY Cow PRICE PER TON PRICE PER IOOO POUNDS PRICE PER too POUNDS PRICE PER POUND TOTAL COST OF RATION 40 pounds silage $A OO $ 2 OO $O 2O $O OO2 $ 08 10 pounds oat straw .... 5 pounds bran . . . IO.OO 3O OO 5.00 I S-OO 0.50 I. SO 0.005 O OI S 05 .07 S 5 pounds alfalfa 16 oo 8 oo o 80 o 008 O4. 2 pounds cottonseed meal . . 40.00 20.00 2.00 0.02 .04 Total cost $0.285 The cost of this ration is 28.5 cents, and the bran cost 7.5 cents of the amount, or more than one fourth of the entire ration. Would it not be better to reduce the bran in the above ration on account of cost? The question naturally arises: What is corn silage worth when timothy hay is selling for $16 per ton? What is the relative feeding value of bran and alfalfa? Wheat and corn? etc. The composition and N.R. of the feeds, and the feeds already on hand will determine this to some extent. Cost and feeding value are the two big factors measuring the usefulness of a feed. Summary. The question of properly and economically feed- ing farm animals is one of the most difficult and important farm problems. A careful study of the result desired will be a help in providing the best feeds. The feed requirements of animals FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 37 vary with work and conditions. Thus a horse at heavy work requires more protein than one that is doing light work. The feeds should be properly balanced so that the correct nutritive ratio is provided. LABORATORY EXERCISES AND HOME PROJECTS 1. Find the cost per ton, and per one hundred pounds, of each of the feeds fed to at least three kinds of animals. Also find the number of pounds of each of the feeds fed to some farm animal, and find the cost of the ration for one day. 2. Compare closely the composition of alfalfa and bran; silage and alfalfa ; corn and wheat ; milk and skim milk ; tankage and cottonseed meal. Compare the feeding value of each pair of feeds suggested. CHAPTER IV THE HORSE Importance of horses. Horses are appreciated more to-day than ever before. The tractor and improved machinery have not displaced the horse to any great extent. The number and value of the different farm animals follow : l NUMBER IN U. S. AVERAGE VALUE TOTAL VALUE Horses 21 J.OI sJ-J. $OO I 3 $1 783 3O7 380 Mules S 828 873 142.88 778 768 OQ2 Beef cattle if AOA ACS c;o CO I 74.8 IJ.6 l8j. Dairy cattle Swine 31,386,378 62 006 ^6 61.00 16 66 1,886,188,430 988 807 681 Sheep J A 'I f 266 II 3O 3Q t T C2 231 From this table it may be seen that horses and mules stand first in total value, dairy cattle second, and beef cattle third. Horses have not decreased in the last ten years in the United States. According to the census reports there were 24,000,000 horses and mules in the United States in 1910, and over 27,000,000 in 1920. Contrary to the belief of some people, the horse and mule remain popular in spite of the wide use of the tractor and the truck. Note to the Teacher: The materials needed to do the Laboratory Ex- ercises and Home Projects suggested at the close of this chapter are : Two draft and two light horses to judge ; a saddle horse ; and a five-foot measuring tape. 1 1920 Census Report. 38 THE HORSE 39 Essentials in judging horses. A good judge of horses must be a close observer, quick to see deviations from a correct con- formation. He must know the different breed characteristics and be able to tell the age of a horse, capable of detecting blemishes and unsoundnesses of horses and of passing judgment upon these points. Discussions of the things which will enable the pupil and farmer to improve themselves in putting a proper estimate on horses follow. UNITED STATES TEXAS ILLINOIS IOWA KANSAS NEBRASKA MISSOURI OKLAHOMA MINNESOTA INDIANA OHIO REST OF STATES GRAPH i. The leading states in horse and mule production. (1922 est.) Parts of a horse. The skeleton of a horse is the framework upon which the conformation, action, and other important features of a horse largely depend. Each type has features that are distinctive ; for instance, the draft horse has a larger frame and the bones are heavier. The pasterns are generally shorter and thicker than are the pasterns of the light horse. The form of the skeleton affects the action. There are three or four important points considered in action ; namely, length of stride, elasticity, trueness, and energy of action. Length of 40 LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS stride is to some extent dependent upon the length and oblique- ness of shoulder and pastern. Straight shoulders and pasterns give the horse a short stride, with heavy concussion, conducive 26" FIG. 7. The parts of a horse. i. Muzzle; 2. nostrils; 3. face; 4. eye; 5. forehead; 6. ear; 7. neck; 8. crest; 9. withers; 10. back; n. loin; 12. hip; 13. croup; 14. tail; 15. thigh; 16. quarter; 17. gaskin or lower thigh; 18. hock; 19. stifle; 20. flank; 21. ribs; 22. tendons; 23. fetlocks; 24. pastern; 25. foot; 26. heel of foot; 27. cannon; 28. knee; 29. fore- arm; 30. chest; 31. arm; 32. shoulder; 33. throat latch; A. thoroughpin; B. curb; C. bog and blood spavin ; D. bone spavin ; E. splint ; F. windgall ; G. capped elbow ; H. poll evil. to blemishes. Elasticity and springiness are impossible with a straight shoulder and pastern. Trueness of action is dependent, to a large degree, upon the attitude of the legs. If the legs are straight, the action will be straight and true. THE HORSE 41 If from the front the knees are in or out, or if the front feet turn in or out, the action cannot be straight and true. Also if the hocks are in, as they often are, and the rear feet are out, the action will be untrue. The action of a horse is largely dependent upon the conformation of the skeleton. Age of a horse. Horses have two sets of teeth, a temporary and a permanent set. The temporary teeth make their appear- ance during the first and second months of the colt's life. They FIG. 8. The upper four pictures show correct conformation that gives strength and trueness of action ; the lower pictures illustrate incorrect conformation, which is conducive to poor action. are small, very white, and soft. They change as follows : The middle incisors come out when the colt is two and one half or three years old, and permanent ones take their place. The intermediate incisors above and below disappear when the horse is three and one half or four years old, and permanent ones take their place. At four and one half or five years the corner incisors disappear, and the permanent ones take their place. At five, the per- manent teeth are all present and the horse is said to have a full mouth. The permanent teeth are larger, darker in color, and of a harder texture than the milk teeth. To tell the age of a LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS Lower front teeth at three years of age. Two center permanent teeth up. Lower front teeth at four years of age. Four center permanent teeth up. Lower front teeth at five years of age. All permanent teeth up. Lower front teeth at six years of age. Cups out in center pair. Lower front teeth at seven years of age. Cups out of intermediate pair of incisors. Lower front teeth at eight years of age. Cups all out. Upper front teeth at nine years of age. Cups out of center pair. FIG. 9. Upper front teeth at ten years of age. Cups out of intermediate pair. THE HORSE 43 colt under five years notice which temporary incisors are gone, and which ones are still present. To tell the age of a horse after he is five, observe the disappear- ance of the cups in the teeth. The cups in the teeth of the lower jaw disappear first. The cups in the middle two lower incisors are gone when the horse is six years old ; the cups in the intermediate lower incisors are gone at seven ; and the cups of the lower corner incisors are gone at eight. Upper front teeth at eleven years of age. Cups all out. Upper front teeth at twenty- one years of age. Note the Side view at five years triangular form of the teeth. of age. FIG. 10. The cups in the upper jaw disappear from the middle, inter- mediate, and corner incisors at the ages of nine, ten, and eleven years respectively. The exact time at which the cups of horses' teeth disappear depends upon the texture of the teeth, the kind of feed, and the disposition of the horse. At twelve the horse has a smooth mouth. After twelve the age of a horse cannot be accurately told. Harper says, 1 " After a horse has passed the twelfth year, a year or two matters little. Much depends on the individuality of the animal, as some animals are worth more at fifteen than others at twelve. The value of a horse should then be determined from general appearances and activity rather than upon age." 1 Harper; " Animal Husbandry for Schools." 44 LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS Blemishes, unsoundnesses, and diseases of horses. Blem- ishes are defects which do not interfere with the functioning of the part affected. Unsoundnesses do interfere with the function- ing of the part affected. A wire cut may be a blemish only, because it may not interfere with the action of the horse. But a ring bone, side bone, curb, and similar defects do interfere with the proper functioning of the parts affected, and are therefore called unsoundnesses. A disease irritates parts of the body, so that the horse is sick. Distemper, bots, heaves, and colic are diseases. We shall study the most important blemishes and unsoundnesses. Defective vision. Horses are often totally blind. This defect may be easily observed by looking at the horse's eye and watch- ing the horse walk, for a blind horse will lift its feet higher than is natural. Defective hearing. Some horses are hard of hearing. Such a horse does not respond when spoken to, and will use its eyes unduly, and the ears are usually held rigidly. Poll evil appears between the ears over the poll. It is due to bruises of the poll, often caused by standing in a stable that has a low ceiling. The poll is bruised and becomes sensitive. The horse suffering from poll evil does not like to be bridled, because any touch on the poll is painful. This defect can usually be remedied by preventing irritation to the poll. Sore shoulders are usually caused by an ill-fitting collar. A horse having shoulders that are 20 inches long and a bearing sur- face of 2 inches width, has a total of 80 square inches of bearing surface. If a collar fits well, and the horse pulls 2000 pounds, there is a weight of 25 pounds on each square inch. But if the collar is too long, all the weight of the load is borne on the shoulder point, or about 8 square inches. Then the weight and pressure on each square inch is 250 pounds and causes sore shoulders. THE HORSE 45 Sweeny is also a defect on the shoulder. The muscles over the shoulder blade shrink, and the remaining muscles apparently grow fast to the bone. It is difficult to lift the skin over the region affected. Fistula are collections of pus, as indicated in Figure n. This defect, like poll evil, is caused by a bruise. Often horses in rolling bruise the withers on a stone or hard soil and fistulas result. They should be opened at the lowest point possible, and washed out with a three per cent carbolic acid solution or some other good disinfectant. Capped elbow, occasionally called shoe boils, may be caused FIG. 11. Fistula. by the horse's hitting the elbow with the shoe of the rear foot upon lying down. Capped elbow does not interfere with the action of the horse. Splints, bony deposits at the end of the splint bones, generally occur on the inner front cannon and sometimes near the tendon. Near the tendon a splint interferes with the horse's action much more than a splint on the inner front cannon. Scratches appear on the rear of the pastern. Scratches are a chapped condition of the skin and are caused by the horse's standing in unclean, muddy, wet stables. Give the horse a clean stable, wash the parts affected, first with soap, and then with clean, well-boiled, salt water. Ring bones and side bones are due to a bony deposit and occur just above the top of the hoof, generally on the front feet. There are two forms of side bones, high and low. Ring bones grow nearly all the way around the hoof, and side bones grow on the sides only. 46 LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS Quarter cracks and sand cracks. Quarter cracks appear at the rear quarter of the foot, and sand cracks appear on the front part of the hoof. Corns and thrush are other blemishes of the feet. Blemishes and unsoundnesses of the hock are the most com- mon defects in horses. A capped hock is an enlargement and thickening of the skin of the hock. A curb is a bony deposit that appears about three or four inches below the hock and is more serious than a capped hock. Thoroughpins appear between the tendon and the bone, just above the hock. Thoroughpins are knot-like in shape and movable. Bone spavins appear on the inner lower point of the hock and may be seen from the front of the horse. Bog spavins are soft swellings made by the de- posit of oil of the joint and appear in the natural depres- sion on the inner and front FIG. 12. A capped hock and a curb. part of the hock. Wind puffs occur just above either the front or rear fetlocks. Distemper is a bad cold of a horse. It is very contagious; horses suffering from it should be isolated and not permitted to drink or eat with the other horses. Distemper may usually be cured by keeping the horse in clean, dry, warm, sunshiny quar- ters and feeding it carefully. Heaves is a disease of the lungs in which the air sacs become dis- tended and the muscles around the sacs lose their power to control exhalation. Air escapes from the lungs suddenly and loudly. THE HORSE 47 Bots are due to the hot fly which deposits its eggs on the front cannon of the horse, where they hatch. They cause an itching sensation and the horse bites them off and swallows them. The larvae remain in the stomach of the horse for about nine or ten months, securing their food from the inner lining of the stomach. The best way to combat bots is to de- stroy the eggs while on the cannon by wetting well with kerosene or some disinfectant. Every effort should be made to keep the horse free from blemishes, unsoundnesses, and diseases of all kinds. Draft horse type. Draft horses . right young bots attached to stomach are large, compact, and heavy. When wall. a. female hot fly; b. the hot; fat, they weigh from 1600 to 2300 c ' magnifk pounds. The weight of draft horses affects the price. Heavy draft horses bring more per pound than light draft horses. In 1893 a Chicago firm found the average prices for the weights as follows : 1 13. Courtesy of Orange Judd Co. Bots in stomach. At AVERAGE WEIGHT AVERAGE PRICE CENTS PER POUND 1400 $155.87 $0.111 1450 159.15 0.109 1500 169.15 O.II2 1550 176.56 O.II4 1600 176.62 O.IIO 1650 208.64 0.126 1700 212.89 O.I25 1750 236.14 O.I26 1800 258.33 0.135 Craig ; " Judging Live Stock.' FIG. 14. A Percheron type, showing the conformation, intelligence, temperament, and countenance desirable in a Percheron horse. Courtesy of Hale Pub. Co. FIG. 15. A Percheron mare, showing the breed characteristics, form, and color that are most typically Percheron. 49 50 LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS It will be seen from this table that horses weighing 1800 pounds brought more than $100 more than horses weighing 1400 pounds. Weight is an important factor in draft horse values. The importance of quality of bone, skin, and hair of a draft horse can hardly be overemphasized. Roughness of bone, show- ing blemishes and unsoundnesses, is a bad condition. The leg should be flat and wide, with well-defined tendons. The skele- ton of a draft horse is better covered than that of a light horse, and therefore blemishes are often difficult to detect. Sound texture of bone and foot are desirable points. A good foot is essential to any horse. The old saying, " no foot, no horse," is correct. A sound, tough-textured, good-sized, concave, solid foot is essential in a draft horse. The legs and feet should be straight from the front and the back. A well-sloping shoulder and well-sloping pastern are essential. A long, regular, true, elastic walk is the essential gait of this type of horse. Draft horse breeds. The Percheron horse originated in La Perche, France. All horses used in France for breeding purposes are examined by government veterinarians and are classified as follows : 1. Approved horses are the best, and the owners are given a bonus yearly of $60 to $100 as a subsidy by the national gov- ernment. 2. Subsidized horses are the next best, and owners of this class of horses are given a bonus of about $60 yearly. 3. Authorized horses belong to the poorest class and are per- mitted to be used as breeding stock but are considered mediocre horses, and their kind is discouraged. Such government sup- port as the above helps in building up a definite type of animal. Percheron horses have been imported in large numbers into the United States and are found chiefly in Illinois, Iowa, Ohio, THE HORSE 51 Indiana, Michigan, Wisconsin, New York, Pennsylvania, and Minnesota. Percheron horses have definite breed characteristics. They are usually black or gray in color, 15^- to 17 hands high, weighing from 1600 to 2100 pounds. They have a strong conformation and are FIG. 1 6. Baron's Pride. Said to be the greatest Clydesdale sire in the world. Shows the conformation, sloping shoulders and pasterns, short back, and a distribution of white points that stamp this breed. noted for their constitution and endurance. They generally have excellent feet, excellent heads and necks, and in every respect are fine horses. For a combination of constitution, endurance, feet, speed, and strength, they have few equals and no superiors. 52 LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS The Clydesdale horse has been developed by Scotch breeders along the Clyde River in Scotland. Though they are of mixed origin, since about 1850 they have been kept pure. Clydesdale horses are now found chiefly in Germany, Russia, Sweden, Argen- tine Republic, and the United States. FIG. 17. A Shire stallion, showing the most approved type combining size, weight, conformation, draft, and color typical of this breed. The Clydesdales are typical draft horses, being about 16 to i6i hands tall and weighing from 1600 to 2100 pounds. They are usually bay and brown in color, with often one or more white feet, and sometimes a white-blazed face. Their shoulders and pasterns are oblique and help to give them good action. The feet, bone, and action are emphasized by the Scotch breeders. THE HORSE 53 The ribs of the Clydesdale horses are often comparatively short.. This makes for a body that lacks depth. The action of the Clydesdale is unsurpassed by other breeds of draft horses. Some people object to their lack of length of rib and to their hairy fetlocks. FIG. 1 8. Belgian draft horse. The English Shire horse is the draft horse of England. It is a large horse equaled only by the Belgian horse in weight. These horses weigh, when fat, from 1800 to 2400 pounds. They are generally black, bay, or gray in color, with white markings on the forehead and on the legs below the knee. The Shire is a strong, massive draft horse. They are found mainly in English-speak- ing countries. There are some Shires in the United States. 54 LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS The Belgian is the largest of all the draft breeds. Figure 18 is a fair representation of the Belgian type. The Suffolk (punch) horse originated in England. It is chest- nut in color and the smallest of the draft breeds. FIG. 19. A Hackney coach horse. Coach horses. Coach horses range from 15 to i6| hands high and weigh from 1000 to 1500 pounds. The German Coach, the Hackney, and Cleveland Bay of England, and the French Coach represent the coach breeds. The German Coach is the THE HORSE 55 largest and the Hackney the smallest of this type. The Hackney is known for its high knee and hock action. The principal gait of the coach horse is the trot. Light horses. Light horses comprise the English Thorough- bred, American Saddle horse, the Standard-bred horse, the Courtesy of the Agricultural Extension Department, Purdue University. FIG. 20. Strength and speed. Note width of breast, and short straight pasterns of the one in contrast to light and long oblique pasterns of the other one. Arabian, and Orloff Trotter. The Thoroughbred is the English running horse. The American Saddle horse is either a three- or five-gaited horse. The Standard-bred horse is bred for speed. These horses trot or pace. The Standard-bred horse and the American Saddle horse furnish much entertainment at state fairs. Courtesy of the Show Horse Chronicle, Lexington, Kentucky. FIG. 21. Rex McDonald 833, an American saddle horse, showing the beautiful form, the stylish carriage of head and tail, and the intelligence of this breed. 56 THE HORSE 57 Market classes of mules. There are five market classes of mules, (i) The plantation mules are of two kinds, the sugar plantation mule and the cotton mule. Sugar plantation mules are 15 to 17 hands tall and weigh noo to 1500 pounds. They are better than other mules in quality, style, and action, and bring the highest prices. The cotton mules range from 14^ to 15.5- hands and weigh from 850 to 1 100 pounds. They have medium-sized bones, are compact, and of good style. (2) The lumber mules range from 15! to i6| hands, weigh from 1250 to 1600 pounds and possess more ruggedness and bone than do the sugar mules. (3) Railroad mules are the same height as lumber mules but weigh a little less. Quality and action are essential points of this mule. (4) Levee mules are about the same as railroad mules but possess a little more substance and can do harder work. They are used as FIG. 22. A matched mule team. draft animals. Soundness and Note the fine, gentle, docile counte- i . -i .1., i j nances of these mules. They are superior working ability are emphasized. and safe workers . (5) The mining mules are from \i\ to 14^ hands, and weigh about 700 to 900 pounds. They must possess rather heavy bones and be rugged in order to do the work in the mines. Prices vary, but the mining mules and cotton mules are gen- erally the lowest-priced mules; mules belonging to the other classes have a ready sale and bring good prices and are, therefore, profitable for production. 58 LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS Factors influencing the work of the horse. There are several things which influence the work of the horse. High wheels are more easily pulled than low ones; a 12 -inch plow pulls proportionately easier than a 1 6-inch plow ; a sloping mold- board pulls easier than a straight one ; eight 2-inch shovels pull easier than four 4-inch shovels ; roller and ball bearings reduce the draft and a rolling and cutting coulter does the same. Since horse power is so generally used on the farm, it behooves the farmer to do everything possible to reduce the draft and thus aid the horse. Care and management of horses. Occasionally horses' teeth do not wear down evenly, and a little filing will take away the uneven sharp edges left on the upper corner incisors. Horses should not be exposed to a cold brisk wind or left out in the cold when they have been driven hard. Blanketing the horse will prevent disease and protect it somewhat against extreme cold temperatures. The feet of a horse need constant attention if it is being worked. Dry hoofs should be oiled, and shoes should be carefully put on and renewed frequently. oThe entire length of the horse's foot grows out in from 3 to 14 months. At the rear, where the foot is short, it grows out in 4 months. At the front the entire length is repaired by new tissues in about 12 to 14 months. Since the foot is larger near the bottom than at the top of the hoof, and since the hoof grows quite rapidly, shoes should be taken off and refitted to the foot. Poor action and blemishes are often due to poor shoeing. It is better to fit the shoe to the foot than the foot to the shoe. Horses should be groomed in the morning and at the close of the day. Grooming has other values than merely improving the appearance of the horse. Brushing off the perspiration at the close of the day improves the condition of skin and hair and reduces the chances of the horse's becoming chilled. THE HORSE 59 Training horses. Colts should be handled very early in life and may be made gentle. They may be taught to stand over, back, or move forward. A few simple things taught the colt saves a lot of energy later and secures better results. When a young horse is being trained to work, it should be hitched beside a well-trained, easily controlled, sensible horse. The early training of a colt is important, for then it forms habits a. a, a. End of esophagus. b. Forestomach. c. True digestive part. c\. Pyloric orifice. d. Duodenum. e. Orifices of bile and pancreatic ducts. FIG. 23. A simple and a compound stomach. which stick to it afterward. For illustration, if a colt is allowed to start as soon as or before the driver gets into the wagon, the habit will be hard to overcome. But, on the other hand, if it is trained to stand until the driver says go, this habit will remain with it always. It is for this reason that a few simple things should be taught a horse when it is being trained. Horses will do what you ask them to do, but first they must be taught what is wanted. 6o LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS Feeding horses. The digestive organs of different farm ani- mals vary in capacity. Horses and swine have one stomach, while the ruminants, cows, sheep, and goats, have several stom- achs. The picture on the preceding page will give an idea of the difference. The capacities of the digestive organs of the different animals as given by Harper are as follows : l LENGTH OF INTESTINES AND CAPACITY OF STOMACH OF FARM ANIMALS CAPACITY, QUARTS TOTAL QUARTS LENGTH, FEET, OF INTESTINES Stomach Intestines Horse . . . . 19.0 204.8 223.8 98.1 Cow . . . . 266.9 109.8 376.7 187.2 Sheep . . . . 31-3 15-4 46.7 107-3 Hog . . . . 8-5 20.5 29.0 77.1 It will be observed from the table that the horse and hog have smaller digestive organs, and for this reason their food must not be so bulky as the feed of cows and sheep. A few rations for work horses weighing 1250 pounds will be in order here : Oats .... 12.0 lb. Oats 10.0 lb. Timothy hay . . 13 o lb. Corn .... 5.0 lb. Hay 15.0 lb. Corn .... . . 10.8 lb. Corn 5.0 lb. Oats . . . 8olb Oats 5.0 lb. Timothy hay 10 o lb Bran 5.0 lb. Oat straw . <.o lb. Timothy hay 10.0 lb. The nutritive ratio of one or two of these rations should be figured according to data given in the preceding chapter on feeding farm animals. 1 Harper ; " Animal Husbandry for Schools." THE HORSE 61 Summary. In judging a horse it is important to know the age and to be able to detect any unsoundnesses. The forma- tion of the skeleton determines largely the action, shape, con- stitution, and endurance of the horse. The draft horse must be able to walk well; the coach horse must trot well; and light horses must be able to perform at different gaits. The early training of a colt is important, for the habits horses learn in their youth remain with them. Proper feed and care increase the usefulness of a horse. A horse can hardly be expected to do its best unless it has a good driver and well-fitting harness. LABORATORY EXERCISES AND HOME PROJECTS 1. (a) In the draft horse, note the large frame; size and strength of the bones ; and the short, thick pastern. Note the lightness of frame and the length of the pastern of the coach horse. Study the action, not- ing the length of stride, elasticity, trueness, and energy. How does the light horse differ from the coach horse, and the draft horse? (b) With a plumb line, made by tying a little rock or a piece of lead to a string, study the skeleton of a horse, as to straightness from the shoulder point and buttock and also from the sides. 2. Examine several horses and tell their ages. From what teeth can you tell the age of horses under nine years? Over nine years? What points are observed on the lower front teeth of a horse three years old? Four years old? How can one tell the age of a horse under five years? How can one tell the age of a horse after he is five years old ? After he is nine years old ? After what age is it impossible to tell accurately the age of a horse ? 3. With a horse before you, tell where blemishes are located and the character of each. 4. Take measurements with a tape of the following points of a draft horse and a light horse and record in the following table. To make these measurements accurately you will need to study the parts of the horse shown on the following page. On Figure 24 indicate the dis- tances in the table that are to be measured, and practice until you can J2 FIG. 24. Parts of a horse. 1. Mouth. 2. Nostril. 3. Chin. 4. Nose. 5. Face. 6. Forehead. 7- Eye. 8. Ear. 9. Lower jaw. 10. Throat latch. 1 1 . Windpipe. 12. Crest. 13- Withers. 14. Shoulder. 15. Breast. 16. Arm. 17. Elbow. 1 8. Forearm. 19. Knee. 20. Cannon. 21. Fetlock. 22. Pastern. 23. Foot. 24. Fore flank. 25. Heart girth. 26. Coupling. 27. Back. 28. Loin. 29. Rear flank. 30. Belly. 31- Hip. 32. Croup. 33- Tail. 34. Buttock. 35. Quarters. 37. Stifle.' 38. Lower thigh. 39. Hock. [62 THE HORSE 63 locate the points at once. How many of the parts mentioned on Figure 24 can you locate correctly without the aid of the figure numbers ? DRAFT LIGHT 1 . Length of head from lips to poll 2. Length of neck from poll to withers 3. Height at withers 4. Height from withers to elbow . . 5. Distance from elbow to ground . 6. Length of shoulder 7. Length of arm 8. Length of forearm 9. Length of cannon 10. Distance around cannon . . . . 1 1 . Distance from fetlock to ground 12. Angle of front pastern 13. Girth measure 14. Length of back from withers to hip 15. Length from shoulder to buttock . 1 6. Length of croup 17. Length of gaskin 1 8. Distance from hock to ground . . 19. Height at croup '. 20. Angle of hind pastern 21. Width through breast 22. Width over hips 23. Weight 6 4 LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS 5. Use the following score card in judging several draft horses : SCORE CARD FOR HORSES DRAFT SCALE OF POINTS 1. General appearance 35 points Age, estimated years actual . , . Height, in hands Weight, estimated Ib. actual . . Form, low, massive, drafty, symmetrical Quality : bone, flat ; tendons, denned ; skin and hair, fine Color, according to breed Action : step, elastic, long with energy ; trot, regular Attitude : members, vertical .... Temperament, good disposition, docile . 2. Head and neck 5 points Head, proportionate size, broad fore- head, straight profile, clear-cut fea- tures . . . Muzzle, fine ; nostrils, large ; lips, thin and even Eyes, full, clear, bright, and intelligent . Ears, short, clean, fine, and directed for- ward Neck, well muscled, arched; throat, clean, with long, even collar line, and well carried 3. Fore quarters 20 points Shoulders, long, extending into back; collar line, smooth and having a large bearing surface Arm, relatively short, well set back, muscled Forearm, vertical, wide, heavily muscled Knees, clean cut, strongly supported Cannons, vertical ; tendons,well-defined, 9-10 inches long, free from blemishes Fetlocks, wide, thick, clean, free from wind puffs THE HORSE SCORE CARD FOR HORSES DRAFT (Continued) SCALE OF POINTS Pasterns, angle 45 degrees, not too long, showing strength ....... Feet, even sized, large ; horn, dark col- ored; sole, concave; bars, strong; heels, wide apart ; frog, large . . . 4. Body 10 points Chest, ribs well sprung, deep, showing constitution, half the height of horse . Breast, broad, deep, and muscular . . Ribs, long, round curvature, well sprung Back, short, straight, muscular, broad . Loin, wide, short, closely coupled . . Underline, long, and flanks, low . . . 5. Hind quarters 30 points Hips, level, wide, and smooth .... Croup, wide, long, fairly level .... Tail, set high and well carried . . . Thighs, well muscled Quarter, heavily muscled and well de- scended Gaskin, medium, straight, wide, well muscled Hocks, clean cut, large, straight, free from blemishes Cannons, 11-12 inches long, clean . . Fetlocks, wide, clean, strong .... Pasterns, angle of 60 degrees, free from puffiness Feet, well set; concave soles; heels, high, well apart, and of a good texture Total J roo 6. If there is a saddle horse in the community, have the owner bring it to school and let him demonstrate the gaits of a saddle horse. A three-gaited horse must go the walk, trot, and canter. A five-gaited horse 66 LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS goes the following gaits in addition : racks and paces, or foxtrots, a run- ning walk or a slow pace. 7. Score a light horse according to the following score card : SCALE OF POINT 1 . General appearance 43 points Age, estimated Height, estimated ... . ; | * . . Weight, estimated ... . . . . Form, symmetrical, high, light, indica- tive of good action Quality : bone, fine ; tendons, defined ; skin and hair, fine Action, quick ; step, long, true, and reg- ular ; trot, rapid and even .... Attitude : members, vertical .... Temperament, lively, energetic, intelli- gent, docile 2. Head and neck 5 points Head, lean, clean cut, well-defined fea- tures, carried high ; profile, straight . Muzzle, fine; nostrils, large; lips, thin and even Eyes, full, bright, and intelligent . . Ears, short, alert, well carried . . . Neck, well fitted to head, slightly arched, clean, large windpipe 3. Fore quarters 19 points Shoulders, oblique and well set back Anns, short, well set back Forearms, long, 12-13 inches, well muscled, and clearly defined . . . Knees, clean cut, wide, deep, well sup- ported Camions, 10-11 inches long; tendons, well attached and defined .... Fetlocks, free from puffiness .... Pasterns, long, sloping THE HORSE 67 SCALE OF POINTS Feet, fair size; horn, dense; concave sole; frog, large and elastic; heels, wide apart 4. Body 8 points Chest, higher than for draft horses, showing constitution Withers, clearly denned in driving horses, less in coach horses Breast, high and projecting .... Ribs, long and well sprung .... Back, fair length, well muscled . . . Loin, strongly joined to hips .... Underline, long, fairly straight . . . 5. Hind quarters 25 points Hips, rather prominent Croup, wide, long, muscular, and hori- zontal Tail, set high, well carried, long, full, and fine Thighs, 15-16 inches long; stifle, de- viated outward Buttock, heavily muscled Gaskin, 14-15 inches long, well muscled, wide Hocks, clean, 3 inches deep, straight Cannons, 11-12 inches long; tendons, well defined Fetlocks, clean, no wind puffs . . . Pastern, long, sloping Feet, even sized ; concave sole ; heels far apart, tough textured Total CHAPTER V BEEF CATTLE Importance of beef cattle. The total number of cattle in the United States in 1920 according to the last census was 68,922,764. Of this number 31,386,378 were dairy cows, leaving 37,536,386 other cattle used for beef production. The value of all cattle exclusive of the dairy cows was $1,748,146,184. The value of beef cattle per head was $50. Beef cattle are distributed throughout the United States, but about 48 per cent are found in the North Central States and Texas. Reasons for beef production. Beef cattle are produced primarily for four classes of people, the breeders, the feeders, the retail butchers, and the consumers; and the real purpose of beef production is to furnish food for man. In judging cattle, the purpose for which they are to be used should be considered. The butcher considers small bones important, because a small- boned animal gives a higher per cent of dressed carcass. The feeder wants a steer that will put on a maximum amount of beef with the minimum of feed. In judging breeding stock, breed characteristics, conformation, quality, and temperament can hardly be overemphasized. The points of excellence held by the breeder, feeder, butcher, and consumer should be kept in mind when judging. Note to the Teacher: The materials needed to do the Laboratory Ex- ercises and Home Projects suggested at the close of this chapter are : A beef cow to show the beef cuts ; and a Shorthorn, Hereford, and Angus cow to judge. 68 BEEF CATTLE 69 Leading cattle-producing nations. The number of cattle given in the following table comprises all cattle. Any nation having less than one million cattle is not included. The reason for giving such data is that the price level on beef cattle and beef products is largely controlled by the supply of cattle in the lead- ing cattle-producing nations. The first ten or twelve nations given below, generally speaking, control the beef markets of the world. The leading beef -producing nations and the number of cattle in each follows : THE LEADING BEEF-PRODUCING NATIONS NUMBER OF NUMBER or CATTLE CATTLE British India .... 129,876,000 Italy 6,240,000 United States . . . 68,922,764 Hungary 6,045,000 European Russia . . 38,373,000 Paraguay 5,550,000 Brazil 37,500,000 Mexico 5,142,000 Argentina .... 27,392,000 Cuba 3,962,000 Germany 16,904,000 Spain 3,712,000 Asiatic Russia . . . 14,772,000 New Zealand .... 3,059,000 France 12,374,000 Denmark 2,286,000 Great Britain . . . 11,770,000 Sweden 2,250,000 Australia 11,040,000 Chili 2,225,000 Canada 9,477,000 Poland 2,014,000 Uruguay . . . . . 7,803,000 The Netherlands . . . 1,969,000 Madagascar .... 6,676,000 Japan 1,307,000 The United States has about one seventh of the cattle of the world. The cattle of the United States are generally better than the cattle of some of the other countries. Characteristics of beef cattle. Beef cattle are low, compact, rectangular, and heavy. They are " bricklike " in form. The top line and under line are almost straight and parallel. The back is broad, and the body is deep. The quarters are fleshy and well descended. The body is blocky. Roughness is to be avoided. 70 LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS The head is a good index to the body characteristics. A steer with a wide head, large box-shaped muzzle, and large nostrils is usually a good feeder. Large nostrils show breathing capacity. The ears should be medium in size, should not be coarse, and should show quality. If horns are present, they should be of Courtesy of the Agricultural Extension Department, Purdue University. FIG. 25. A typical beef type; bricklike in conformation from side, front, and top view. fine texture and rather small. A steer with these head charac- teristics is usually compact, blocky, a good feeder, and will dress out, when well finished, a high per cent of edible dressed meats. On the other hand, a steer with a thin long face, a thin narrow forehead, a small muzzle, small nostrils, large, coarse ears, and long, rough, oversized horns, is generally unprofitable. The fea- tures of the head are correlated with similar features in the rest of the body. (See Figs. 25 and 26.) BEEF CATTLE 71 Most valuable cuts. The picture (Fig. 27) shows the way a steer is cut for the retail beef trade. It is taken from Farmers' Bulletin, No. 711, and shows the Chicago retail dealer's method of cutting beef. It should be studied because it shows where beef cattle ready for slaughtering should be well formed and finished. The region from which the porterhouse steak, prime Courtesy of the Agricultural Extension Department, Purdue University. FIG. 26. An inferior feeder. of rib, and sirloin cuts are taken is important. A broad, well- finished back is a sign of a great amount of meat in the region of these valuable cuts. There are some cuts which are actually worth less after the steer is slaughtered than they were when the steer was alive. A steer of good quality, that is of fine bone, skin, and hair, well finished, and evenly, firmly, and smoothly fleshed, weighing LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS FIG. 27. Picture of a i2oo-pound beef steer, showing cuts and their relative value, according to a large packing concern. 1 200 pounds, will dress out about 800 pounds (about 66f per cent) , and of this about 700 pounds of meat can be eaten. Careful judging of beef cattle and a close study of the score card will aid a great deal in placing proper estimates upon the dif- ferent sections of a beef type. Beef cattle breeds. All the typical beef breeds have the characteristics pointed out in the above paragraphs. They vary slightly in different sec- tions of the country, in temperament, in color, in milk produc- tion, and in other minor points. For a more extended discus- sion refer to other texts and especially to " Types and Breeds of Farm Animals," by C. S. Plumb. The most important breeds of beef cattle are Shorthorn, Hereford, Aberdeen Angus, and Galloway. i. Shorthorn cattle, a. History. The origin of the Shorthorn cattle is as mixed as are the people of England. The native Celts, the Romans, Anglo-Saxons and Jutes, and the Normans, all brought cattle that served to lay the foundation of the Shorthorn breed. However, not until about 1775 to 1875 were the Short- horns developed into a well-defined breed. The following men developed slightly different types of Shorthorns as follows : BORN DIED TYPE Thomas Bates Chas. Collings Robt. Collings John Booth 1775 1749 1750 1780 1849 l8 3 6 1820 18^:7 Dairy-beef type Beef type Beef type Beef type Richard Booth Amos Cruickshank .... 1788 1808 1864 1895 Beef type Beef type BEEF CATTLE 73 These were the men who started the real history of the Short- horn cattle. All of these men did their work in England except Amos Cruickshank, who was in Scotland. Although Shorthorn cattle were imported into the United States as early as 1783, the Ohio Importing Company, organized in 1833, was the most important agent in introducing Shorthorn cattle into the United States. The first importation included nineteen head. In 1836, forty-three animals, including those that were imported and their offspring, were sold at pub- lic auction for $34,540, an average of $803.25 per head. The Shorthorn characteristics were so excellent that they were soon distributed throughout the country. No other breed has been used as much as the Shorthorn in crossing and grading up native cattle. The entire West and the South American countries have been materially benefited by mating native stock with Shorthorns. The pure bred sire pro- duced an animal that dressed out a higher per cent of carcass, had shorter horns, had a better disposition than the native cattle, and was more easily handled. The rapid elevation of good characteristics as a result of crossing was a splendid financial investment. Such opportunities in breeding up herds, though not so numerous as formerly, are still present. Ordinary farm herds may be improved a great deal by mating with animals of the same breed, that are pure bred and of the proper conforma- tion. b. Characteristics. In England three types of Shorthorns were developed ; namely, the beef type, the dairy type, and the dairy-beef type (dual purpose). Each type has a different conformation, in accordance with its purpose. In the United States, the beef type is more commonly found, because our agricultural conditions are somewhat different from those of England. In England the dairy type is common, and the English 74 LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS people depend largely upon the Shorthorn cow for their milk supply. " At the London Dairy Show, from 1894 to 1904 inclu- sive, the first place in both milk production and fat production was won in every case by a Shorthorn, competing against Jerseys, Guernseys, Ayrshires, Red Polled, and crosses." 1 FIG. 28. A Shorthorn type, showing conformation and head characteristics which stamp this breed. Shorthorns are red, white, and roan. A mixture of red and white is roan. Some breeders have placed more emphasis upon color than upon other points. This is a mistake, for color is a matter -of secondary importance. Beef-producing qualities should be placed first. The Shorthorns rank first among the beef breeds in udder development and in milk-producing ability. They may occasionally be criticized in being slightly rangy and in having prominent shoulders. They may be regarded as the 1 C. H. Eckles; " Dairy Cattle and Milk Production." BEEF CATTLE 75 largest of the beef breeds. The males weigh from 1800 to 2400 pounds, and mature cows from 1400 to 1800 pounds. 2. Hereford cattle, a. History. This breed originated in the county of Hereford, England. Their origin is somewhat obscure, and according to the opinions of some authors the Hereford is the oldest of the beef breeds. But, like the Short- horn breed, it was not until about 1723 that the Hereford breed was developed with definite breed characteristics. FIG. 29. A Hereford cow, showing the conformation, color, markings, and head charac- teristics desirable in the breed. Henry Clay, in 1817, became the first importer of Hereford cattle into the United States. From 1840 to 1860, a great many were brought to America. Because the Hereford cattle are superior rustlers, they have been used much in crossing with native Western cattle. Although Herefords have not been used as much in crossing on native cattle of North and South America as have the Shorthorns, it may be said that in the last decade their popularity has steadily increased, and that their good qualities are becoming realized more and more by ranchmen. 76 LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS b. Characteristics. The Herefords are typical beef-produc- ing cattle. They are not quite as large as the Shorthorn breed. The color is red, with a white head and the white extending over neck and along the underline. Six white tips may often be seen in the individuals of this breed. They have a quiet, docile dis- position. In milk production they rank low and are often criti- cized on this point. The distinguishing characteristics of the Herefords are, (i) pre- potency, or power of transmitting definite breed characteristics, (2) early maturing qualities, and (3) grazing attributes. Where Hereford cattle have been crossed with other breeds, Hereford markings usually crop out in the offspring. Their vigorous constitution is often transmitted when crossed with other cattle. This is partly due to the fact that in spring of rib they are un- equaled. Hereford cattle mature early and are, therefore, su- perior in economical meat production. They are good grazers, and as rustlers in stalk fields, pastures, and on the range where feed is scarce, they are unexcelled. 3. Aberdeen Angus cattle . a. History. The Aberdeen Angus originated in the counties of Aberdeen, Kincardine, and Forfar, Scotland. The first printed reference to this breed was made in 1797. The Angus cattle were first introduced into the United States in 1873, when George Grant of Victoria, Kansas, imported three bulls. From 1875 to I ^^5 small numbers of Angus cattle were imported into different sections of the United States and Canada. Large numbers are found in the " corn belt " states, and they are widely distributed throughout Europe. b. Characteristics. The Angus cattle are black, polled, and are of a typical beef conformation. They are not quite as large as the Shorthorn breed. Their bodies are more cylindrical than are the bodies of either the Shorthorn or Hereford breeds. Com- BEEF CATTLE 77 pactness is a strong feature of the breed. In quality, which refers to desirable features of bone, skin, and hair, they are un- excelled. It is for this reason, along with their splendid conforma- tion, that they dress out as high a percentage of carcass as any breed. The Angus cattle are good grazers and feeders and are FIG. 30. The Aberdeen Angus steer. An example of a fine beef type. unsurpassed in quality of flesh produced. For beef production, meeting the market demands of the commission houses, and in show ring competition, the Angus breed ranks high. 4. Galloways, a. History. The Galloways came from Scot- land. Their origin is more or less obscure ; the name is from the province of Galloway in the southwestern part of Scotland. At 78 LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS first the cattle of Galloway were horned, and not until about 1789 did " polled " cattle appear. In 1862 the Galloway Herd- book Society was organized. In America an organization to improve the Galloways was perfected under the title of " The American Galloway Cattle Breeders' Association," in 1882. The Galloways are now mainly distributed in Scotland and America. b. Characteristics. The Galloways are black, hornless, and covered with a heavy, curly coat of hair. Hardiness and strength of constitution are characteristics of the breed. They are well adapted to a cold, rigorous climate. Because of their hardiness and rustling qualities, they are popular on the Western and Northwestern ranges. The breed has been criticized for lack of spring of rib, late maturity, and for slow response to feeding. These points are being overcome to a large extent by selective breeding. Management of beef cattle. The number of beef cattle per one thousand people in the United States decreased from 660 to 450 between 1900 and 1910. The reasons for this decrease are: 1. The ranges of the West are being plowed up. 2. Farmers can often get ore cash out of the sale of crops. 3. Tenant farmers are often unable to stock the rented farms. 4. Growing cities have increased the demand for milk and its products. Economic production of beef. In producing beef more eco- nomically three points must be considered : 1. Relation of age to economic gains 2. Relation of age to cost of fattening 3. Influence of degree of finish upon gains i. Relation of age of cattle to economic gains. The tabula- tion of the findings of the Ontario Agricultural College shows .53 79 8o LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS the amount of gain in weight at different ages and the amount of food required. RELATION OF AGE TO ECONOMIC BEEF PRODUCTION FIRST YEAR SECOND YEAR THIRD YEAR Daily gain .... Pounds "? 2 Pounds I 2 Pounds j i Total train . 78S AS6 7 CQ Feed per one hundred pound gain milk calf us&d /"j AQ2 *y OJ^ Concentrates I SO 480 689 Hay . 184 776 Succulent feed Digestible nutrients per one hun- dred pound gain Water drunk dailv .... 3H 315 27 1928 875 4.2 2637 Il83 4.7 This table shows that the first year the calf made a gain of 2.2 pounds a day ; the second year, 1.2; and the third year, i.i pounds a day. If the feed per one hundred pound gain is studied, some interesting points are brought out. The total digestible nutrients required to produce a one hundred pound gain was 315 pounds during the first year, 875 pounds the second year, and 1183 pounds the third year. The steer weighed 1588 pounds when slaughtered. We should not conclude from this table that it is more econom- ical to sell the steer when he is a year old ; but it should cause us to study the relation of age to economic gains. The time to sell is dependent frequently upon local or other conditions and calls for judgment. 2. Relation of age to cost of fattening. With 153 head of cattle, the Ottawa Experiment Farms found the results shown in the following table : BEEF CATTLE 81 RATE AND COST OF GAINS FOR FATTENING STEERS OF VARIOUS AGES AVERAGE WEIGHT AT BEGINNING AVERAGE DAILY GAIN AVERAGE COST OF ONE HUNDRED POUND GAIN Calves . . Pounds ?O7 Pounds I 8 Dollars Yearlings . . . . Two-year-olds . . Three-year-olds . . oV/ 833 IOII 1226 1.6 1.8 i-7 5-31 5-62 6.36 This table indicates that calves weighing 397 pounds put on a one hundred pound gain at a cost of $4.22, and that it required $6.36 worth of feed to put an equal weight on three-year-old steers, weighing 1226 pounds. 3. Influence of the degree of finish upon gains. The Kansas Station found the following regarding the amount of gain re- quired to produce one hundred pounds of gain : 1 GRAIN FOR ONE HUNDRED POUND GAIN INCREASE OF FEED REQUIRED Up to 56 days the steers required 730 lb. of grain Up to 84 days the steers required 807 lb. of grain 10% Up to 1 1 2 days the steers required 840 lb. of grain 15% Up to 140 days the steers required 901 lb. of grain 23% Up to 1 68 days the steers required 927 lb. of grain 27% Up to 182 days the steers required 1000 lb. of grain 37% From these data we learn that feeders find that, as they ap- proach the finishing period of fattening cattle for market, it is more difficult to secure gains in weight. The results of these experiments indicate that it costs heavily to fatten the steer thoroughly. The importance of selling at the earliest possible date is plain from the table. 1 Kansas Bulletin, No. 34. FIG. 32. Points of the beef cow. Muzzle. Eye. Face. Forehead. Ear. Neck. Shoulder vein. 8. Shoulder. 9. Brisket. 10. Jaw. n. Breast. 12. Dewlap. 13. Arm. 14. Shin. 15. Fore leg. 16. Chest. 17. Fore flank. 1 8. Crop. 19. Ribs. 20. Back. 21. Loin. 22. Hip. Hind flank. Rump. Tail-head. Pin bone. Thigh. Twist. 30. Hock. 31. Shank. 32. Tail. 23. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 82 BEEF CATTLE 83 Summary. For producing beef economically, the typical beef breeds are superior. They dress out a higher per cent of dressed carcass and make gains with less feed than do scrubs or dairy types. The important beef breeds are the Shorthorn, Hereford, Angus, and Galloway. In judging beef cattle, the region of the valuable cuts should be given preference, though all other points are important. Grass lands, corn silage, and some grains aid in raising calves economically. Getting cattle to market at an early age reduces the cost of production. Secur- ing cattle of better conformation and economical feeding and marketing are important topics for the beef cattle raiser, because such measures decrease the costs of production and increase the profits. LABORATORY EXERCISES AND HOME PROJECTS i. Have pupils take a census of all cattle not dairy cattle of the dis- trict. Record as follows : NAME OF FARMER KIND OF CATTLE NUMBER 2. Locate on a live animal the beef cuts. Number them in the order of their value. 3. Score all beef breeds, if possible, according to the following score card. LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS BEEF CATTLE SCORE CARD SCALE OF POINTS 1. General appearance 26 points Age, estimated years, actual years Weight, estimated lb., actual lb., score according to age . Form, straight topline and under- line, deep, broad, low, medium length, symmetrical, compact, standing squarely on legs . . Quality, bone of fine texture, fine skin, silky hair, clearly defined features and joints, mellow touch Condition, thick even covering of firm flesh especially in regions of valuable cuts, indicating finish, light in offal 2. Head and neck 8 points Muzzle, good size ; lips, thin ; nostrils, large and well apart ; jaws, wide . Face, short, broad ; profile, straight Forehead, broad Eyes, large, full, clear, bright Ears, well carried, fine, medium size Neck, thin, short ; throat, clean ; dewlap, slight 3. Fore quarters 12 points Shoulder vein, full, smooth . . Shoulders, smoothly covered with firm flesh, compact .... BEEF CATTLE BEEF CATTLE SCORE CARD (Continued) SCALE OF POINTS Brisket, broad, full ; breast, wide Legs, straight, short, strong, wide apart ; forearm, full ; shank, fine ; feet, sound ..... 4. Body 32 points Chest, deep, broad ; girth, large ; fore flank, full Crops, full, thick, even with shoul- ders Back, broad, straight, medium length ; thickly, evenly, and firmly fleshed Ribs, deep, well sprung, closely set, thickly, evenly, and firmly fleshed '. Loin, broad, straight ; thickly, evenly, and firmly fleshed . . Flanks, full, low 5. Hind quarters 22 points Hips, smoothly covered, propor- tionate width Rump, long, level, width well car- ried back ; thickly, evenly, and firmly fleshed Pin bones, wide apart, not promi- nent Tail, fine, tapering, medium length Thighs, deep, wide, well de- scended, and fleshed .... Twist, deep, broad, well filled Legs, straight, short, strong ; shank, smooth ; feet, sound Total . 5 i i 4 6 2 100 86 LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS 4. Describe in a two hundred fifty word paper the outstanding char- acteristics and contrasting features of the different beef breeds. 5. Study your cattle barn, and report on the same as to the follow- ing things: (i) room, (2) dryness, (3) light, (4) ventilation, (5) clean- liness, and (6) convenience. CHAPTER VI DAIRY CATTLE Importance of dairying. According to the United States Census for 1920, there were 31,386,378 dairy cows in the United States, which produced 7,805,238,000 gallons of milk. The total value from dairy products in 1919 was $1,481,462,000. This does not include the milk and cream used on the farms, which would approximate closely, or probably exceed, the above figure. Wing states that, in 1900, the average production per cow was 3600 pounds of milk, equivalent to about 150 pounds of butterfat. In 1920, the average milk production of the average dairy cow was about 3900 Ib. according to the Census Report. This milk at $2 per hundredweight, or 25 cents per pound butterfat, would yield $78 or $40 per cow respectively. COMPARATIVE VALUE OF LIVE STOCK PRODUCTS FOR 19-19 Live stock products $2,667,738,000 Dairy products 1,481,462,000 Chickens and eggs 1,048,000,000 Wool and mohair 124,007,000 Honey and wax 14,280,000 Note to the Teacher : The materials needed to do the Laboratory Ex- ercises and Home Projects at the close of this chapter are : Dairy cows at different times; an eight-bottle closed Babcock Tester (open testers are inaccurate and dangerous) ; the necessary glassware and chemicals needed to make the Babcock test ; samples of whole milk and skimmed milk. 87 88 LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS The importance of milk as a food for man can hardly be esti- mated, both because of its extensive use and also because it contains the food nutrients in a better proportion than any other one food. Milk is a well balanced food. More attention will be given to dairying as the population becomes denser. The cities consume large quantities of milk and milk products. Consequently the farmers of the territory surrounding the city devote much of their time to dairying, and, where shipping facilities are good, the demand for milk is so great that it is often shipped two hundred miles or more to market. Leading dairy states. The beef industry has developed almost entirely upon cheap lands, where grass is abundant, and From The Geography of the World's Agriculture. FIG. 33- in the corn belt, where the steer can be finished for market. The dairy industry, also, depends to a considerable extent upon the DAIRY CATTLE 89 growth of grass and roughages and some concentrates. But an additional factor determining the location of the dairy in- dustry is the market and centers of population. This is especially true where whole milk is sold. The distribution of dairy cattle is shown in the preceding map. The ten leading dairy states in the order of the number of dairy cattle as given by the U. S. Yearbook of Agriculture (1921) are: MILCH COWS 0% 2% 4% 6% 8% UNITED STATES WISCONSIN NEW YORK MINNESOTA IOWA TEXAS PENNSYLVANIA KANSAS MISSOURI MICHIGAN JNDIANA REST OF STATES 23,321,000 1,828,000 1,448,000 1,395,000 1,252,000 1,184,000 951,000 898,000 873,000 856,000 727,000 11,909,000 GRAPH 2. The ten leading states in dairy cattle production. The ten leading dairy states have about half of the dairy cows of the United States, and doubtless these states have the best cows on the average, and produce over one half of the milk and milk products of the United States. According to 40,000 yearly records of cows tested in the United States in cow-testing associations, the average yield of milk is 59-80 pounds and 246 pounds of butterfat in a year ; while the 90 LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS average cow in the United States produces almost 4000 pounds of milk and 160 pounds of butterfat. According to the U. S. Year- book of Agriculture (1920) the United States holds sixth place among 14 prominent nations in the average yield of milk per dairy cow, being excelled by The Netherlands, Switzerland, Denmark, Germany, and Canada. The milk production per cow in these countries does not exceed the production in the United States on account of superior feeding, but because the cows there are carefully tested and carefully selected. Advantages of dairying. In thickly populated countries and near cities where land is high priced, nearly all farmers give up their land to dairying, truck gardening, and poultry raising. On the islands of Jersey and Guernsey, land is said to fent for $60 to $70 per acre, and in Holland, where land cannot be bought for less than $1500 to $2000 per acre, dairying is the main occu- pation. Land near our American cities valued at from $400 to $1000 per acre is used largely for dairying. Dairying is advantageous because it aids in maintaining soil fertility. The average amount of solid and liquid manure voided in a year by a thousand-pound dairy cow is about 1 2 tons. It is stated that such manure contains fertilizing materials (plant food) the value of which is $2.74 per ton. Upon this basis the value of the fertilizer materials voided by a cow in a year is $32.88. However, the amount of manure voided is almost in direct proportion to the amount of milk produced ; a good cow consumes more feed and hence voids more manure. It is a well-known fact that dairy farms become more productive as this type of farming is continued. When butterfat is sold from the farm, very little soil fertility is removed. The table on the following page will give a comparison of the fertilizing constituents in feeding stuffs and animal products. DAIRY CATTLE 91 FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS IN FEEDING STUFFS AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS 1 FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS IN 2000 POUNDS FERTILIZING VALUE PER TON Nitrogen Phosphoric Acid Potash Dent corn v ' . 32.4 lb. 13.8 lb. 8.0 lb. $6.85 Wheat . . . 39-6 17.2 10.6 8.43 Timothy hay 19.8 6.2 27.2 5-20 Red clover hay . 41.0 7 .8 32.6 9-36 Animal products Fat ox . 46.6 31.0 3-6 9.96 Fat pig . . 35-4 13.0 2.8 7.10 Milk . . . n.6 3-8 3-4 2-43 Butter . . . 2.4 0.8 0.8 o.S7 From this table it may be observed that if a ton of butterfat is sold, only 57 cents' worth of soil fertility is removed from the farm ; while if an equal amount of dent corn is sold, $6.85 worth of soil fertility is removed. The dairy cow, of all farm animals, is the most economical producer of human food ; that is, a dairy cow produces more human food in proportion to the feed fed than any other animal. HUMAN FOOD PRODUCED BY FARM ANIMALS FROM ONE HUNDRED POUNDS OF DIGESTIBLE MATTER CONSUMED 2 MARKET- EDIBLE MARKET- EDIBLE ANIMAL PRODUCT, POUNDS PRODUCT, POUNDS ANIMAL ABLE PRODUCT, POUNDS PRODUCT, POUNDS Cow (milk) 139.0 18.0 Poultry (eggs) 19.6 5-i Pig (dressed) . 25-0 15-6 Poultry (dressed) lS-6 4.2 Cow (cheese) . 14.8 9.4 Lamb (dressed) 9 .6 3-2 Calf (dressed) . 36.5 8.1 Steer (dressed) 8.3 2.8 Cow (butter) . 6-4 5-4 Sheep (dressed) 7.0 2.6 1 Henry and Morrison ; " Feeds and Feeding." 2 Jordan; " The Feeding of Animals." LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS This table shows that with 100 pounds of feed the dairy cow produced 18 pounds of edible food for man ; more than that produced by any other farm animal. The table deserves close study. Eckles and Trowbridge, of the Missouri Station, have furnished the following data on the point that the cow is a very economic human food producer as compared to a beef steer. AVERAGES OF Cows PRODUCING 6000 POUNDS MILK 18,405 POUNDS MILK STEER, WEIGHT 1250 POUNDS Proteids ... I8 7 552 172 Fat .... 200 618 333 Sugar .... 300 920 Ash .... 43 128 43 Total . . . 730 2218 548 It took the dairy cow one year to produce 2218 pounds of human food, while the beef steer produced only 548 pounds in about two years. The cow producing 6000 pounds milk produces 730 pounds of edible dry matter in a year. The sugar in milk is worth as much per pound for human food as ordinary sugar. Five essential points of a good dairy cow. In order that the value of a dairy cow may be rightly judged, the amount of her feed should be known, her milk should be weighed and tested for butterfat. It is not always possible to decide upon these points, so we must know what characteristics to look for in a cow which show milk-producing capacity. There are five points that are essential to a good dairy cow. These are : 1. Good constitution 2. Capacity for food 3. Proper temperament 4. Good blood circulation 5. Milk-producing ability DAIRY CATTLE 93 i. Constitution is indicated by a strong, large girth, broad head, box-shaped muzzle, and large, well-distended nostrils. A thin-chested, narrow, long-headed animal has not a good con- stitution; an animal that has very small nostrils cannot take in large volumes of air, which is essential to a long life. The average economic productive period of a dairy cow is 6 to 7 years. Courtesy of the Agricultural Extension Department, Purdue University. FIG. 34. Wedge shape as seen from the side. An extraordinary milk yield for one or two years is not sufficient. A cow with a good constitution will be valuable from 2 to 5 years longer than a cow with a poor constitution. 2. If a cow is to be profitable, she must have a large capacity for food. Capacity for food is indicated by a large barrel and a long body. A cow with a short body and a small stomach girth meas- ure cannot consume large quantities of food or produce much milk. A cow measuring 34 inches from withers to hips, 74 inches around 94 LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS the heart girth, and 88 inches around the barrel has one and one half times the capacity that a cow has that measures 30, 65, and 75 inches, respectively, in the same points. Short-ribbed, slab-sided, short-bodied cows can consume only small amounts of feed and therefore can produce only small amounts of milk. 3. Dairy temperament is essential to a good dairy cow. A cow with such a temperament is angular, triple wedge-shaped, and lacks flesh. A dairy cow that is well fleshed is not trans- forming enough food into milk, but is converting a lot of it into meat. This kind of cow is a beef-producing cow. The most economical milk producers are angular and skinny. They have prominent hip bones, poorly covered ribs, and well-defined vertebrae. The best milk-producing cow is triple wedge-shaped; that is, from a side view she shows less depth of body at the front than she does at the rear. Secondly, viewed from front, she shows more width at hips than she does through the breast and chest. Thirdly, as we look downward and backward over the withers, the third wedge-shaped conformation may be seen. This type of cow is the best milk producer. This type has arisen because certain organs of the dairy cow perform more work than others. Courtesy of the Agricultural Extension Department, Purdue University. FIG. 35. Wedge shape as seen from above and behind. DAIRY CATTLE 95 The digestive, milk-secreting, nervous, and circulatory systems are extremely active, and are therefore greatly developed. In selecting cows for milk production, the type of cow here described is very important. It must be remembered, how- ever, that not all cows of this type are good milk producers. Every cow is an individual when we come to consider the amount of milk that she can be made to give. A cow of good type may be a poor milk producer, but, in general, the best milk producers are cows from the best type. Profitable dairying requires, first, that cows of the right type be se- lected, and second, that every cow be tested to find out her milk-producing capacity. If, then, the cows that produce little are disposed of, a good producing herd can be secured. To show the relation of dairy temperament and dairy form to economy of milk produc- tion, Haecker of the University of Minnesota divided cows into four groups according to type. The returns of different types are given in the table on page 96. This table will afford a very profitable study, and its lesson should be applied in the development of the dairy herd. Economy in production is the surest way of increasing dividends, and such savings often make the difference between success and failure. Courtesy of the Agricultural Departmtnt, Pttrduc University. FIG. 36. Wedge shape as seen from the front. 96 LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS ECONOMY OF MILK PRODUCTION OF DAIRY AND BEEF TYPES DRY MATTER CONSUMED NUMBER AVERAGE FEED COST TYPES OF LIVE OF POUND ANIMALS WEIGHT Daily Daily per 1000 Pounds Per Pound Fat FAT Live Wt. Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Cents Beef type . . . 3 1240 20.8 I6. 7 31-3 17-5 Less beef type . 4 945 2O.4 21.0 26.4 I5-I Spare, but lack- ing depth of body . . . 3 875 2O.O 23.0 25-5 14.6 Dairy type . . 12 951 2I.Q 23.6 21.2 12. 1 It will be observed that the cows of a beef type and beef tem- perament produced butterfat at a cost of 17.5 cents per pound, FIG. 37. Beef and dairy type in outline. Compare their conformation and function. and that the dairy type produced an equal amount of butterfat at a cost of 12.1 cents per pound. All similar tests add their DAIRY CATTLE 97 testimony to the often emphasized fact that type and temper- ament play a large part in production. 4. Circulation. Just how the cow digests food and converts it into milk is a topic too complicated to present here. Food must be transformed and conveyed by the digestive and circula- tory systems before milk can be produced. " Good blood cir- FIG. 38. Examples of well-developed milk veins. culation is shown by a network of veins on the udder ; and by the size and number of the milk wells or holes in the abdomen through which these blood vessels pass, carrying the blood on its return to the lungs to be purified and to be pumped back again. Large milk wells also indicate good blood circulation. 9 8 LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS FIG. 39. Example of well-formed udders. Note network of veins. " Cows with small, short, straight milk veins, and only two small wells, show either that the blood circulation is small and sluggish, or that the nutrients are being conveyed to some other part of the body to be converted into some product other than milk and butterfat." DAIRY CATTLE 99 5. Two factors which are essential to milk-producing ability are the proper form and texture of the udder. The udder should be large, wide, long, and fairly deep, but well held up, extend- ing well up between the thighs and well to the front. An udder that lacks width and length but is deep is not well formed. It should be evenly quartered and symmetrical ; the teats should be of proper size, and evenly and well placed. re AT FIG. 40. A cross section of a cow's udder, showing the milk cistern and milk cells. The size and number of openings in the udder determine its texture. The udder is supposed to manufacture all the constituents in milk except water. Butterfat, casein, and sugar are all formed in the udder. It must have, therefore, a great deal of interior milk-producing surface. There must be large milk cisterns, and a large number of milk cells, as indicated in the above figure. When these milk cisterns and milk cells are large and numerous, thousands in number, the empty udder is soft, pliable, elastic, and collapsed. It has great capacity for work and expansion during the production of the milk. Hard, beefy udders have small milk cisterns, few and small milk cells, and their shape after milking is nearly the same as before. 100 LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS Constitution, capacity, temperament, circulation, and abil- ity these are, first of all, essential to milk production. Other points of equal importance, such as feeding, care and manage- ment, cost to produce milk, housing, and aids to the highest milk production are discussed in later paragraphs. Major dairy breeds. The major dairy breeds are the Jer- seys, Guernseys, Holstein-Friesians, and Ayrshires. i. Jerseys, a. Origin and history. The Jersey cattle are native to the Channel Islands, which are in the English Channel between England and France. Although the Jersey breed traces back many years, their real history dates back from about 1763 to 1789. Since then their purity as a breed has been protected by law. In 1789, an act was passed that no cattle could be imported into the island of Jersey unless they were to be slaugh- tered within 24 hours after their arrival. The island of Jersey is about n miles long and averages 4 miles wide, and contains about 28,717 acres. From ten to twelve thousand cattle are kept upon it, however, or about one cow to every 2.4 acres of land. In 1850, some Jersey cows were brought to Hartford, Connecti- cut. Since then many Jerseys have been imported into the United States, and now they are the most popular of all the dairy breeds because of their efficiency in producing rich milk, and because the American Jersey Cattle Club has advertised the good points of the breed. Large dairies of Jersey cattle are found in the United States, France, Canada, England, and Australia. b. Characteristics. The Jersey is the smallest of the main dairy breeds, weighing from 850 to 1000 pounds. They are fawn- like in color, with occasional white spots. The muzzle, tongue, and switch are generally black. They are usually considered the best dairy type, being angular and wedge-shaped. Their dairy temperament is, with few exceptions, typical of a perfect 101 102 LIVE STQCK AND FARM MECHANICS dairy .cow..< -This 'is- shown by the fact that the Jersey seldom becomes -fleshy when producing milk, for all of the food consumed is transformed into milk. The Jerseys, as a breed, are more sensitive and nervous than other breeds. When properly handled they become gentle, but when any unusual thing happens they are easily frightened. If Jerseys are not accustomed to them, children may endanger their lives by going into a lot where there are Jersey cattle. The Jersey is a poor producer of beef. Their ability to make gains is comparatively low, and their ability to dress out a high per cent of carcass is still less. c. Dairy characteristics. The Jersey breed is not the most economical producer of quantity of milk. But they will produce more butterfat with the same amount of feed than any other breed. From a large number of butterfat tests, the following averages have been found for the breeds named : 1 SOLIDS BUTTERFAT TEST i. Jersey 2. Guernsey ... . 14.70 14 71 5-6 5-2 3 Devon TA CO 4 6 4. Shorthorn 11 ^8 4.4 5 Ayrshire 12 6l 3 6 6. Holstein-Friesian 11.85 3-4 Jersey milk is rich, of a deep yellow color, with large butterfat globules. Milk with large butterfat globules creams easily. The Jersey is a persistent milker and as a family cow it has scarcely an equal. A few yearly records of the leading Jerseys follow : 1 Cornell Experiment Station. DAIRY CATTLE 103 NAME OF Cow POUNDS MILK POUNDS BUTTERFAT Sophie igth of Hood Farm . . . Spermfield Owl's Eva Eminent's Bess 17,557 16,457 18 782 999 993 062 Jacoba Irene 17,253 952 2. Guernseys, a. Origin and history. The Guernsey cattle were developed on the island of Guernsey, another of the Channel Islands group just off the coast of France in the English Channel. The island of Guernsey is about nine and one half miles long and averages in width nearly 3 miles, and contains about 15,750 acres. Upon this island are kept 5000 to 8000 cattle. It is stated upon good authority that one hundred years ago the Guernseys and the Jerseys were almost the same in color and size. The purity of the Guernsey, like that of the Jersey breed is now protected by law. Guernsey cattle were not introduced into the United States in large numbers until 1880. To-day the Guernseys are found extensively in New York, Massachusetts, Wisconsin, Pennsyl- vania, and some of the other leading dairy states. Although the Guernseys have been widely distributed, they are found only in small numbers in the United States, England, and Canada. Plumb says in his book, " Types and Breeds of Farm Animals," that it has never been clear to him why the Guernseys have not attracted more attention in the United States. " It is a dairy breed of the highest merit, as repeated tests have shown ; yet it is quite limited in development and does not seem to get much foothold in some of our greatest dairy states, especially in the Mississippi Valley." b. Characteristics. In general appearance the cattle of this breed are about 100 pounds larger than the Jerseys, have coarser 104 DAIRY CATTLE 105 bones and features, and are nearly perfect in dairy type. Their color ranges from an orange to a lemon fawn, with white markings. The udder of the Guernsey is somewhat larger than that of the Jersey, is well held up, and extends further to the front. The skin secretions are very yellow. The cattle of this breed are slower and not so nervous, excit- able, and irritable in temperament as the Jerseys. c. Dairy characteristics. The Guernsey cattle are persistent milkers, and in quality of milk produced they rank a close second to the Jerseys. Their milk is very yellow and has large fat globules. The butter made from Guernsey milk is very yellow. The records of a few leading Guernsey cows follow : NAME OF Cow POUNDS OF MILK POUNDS BUTTERFAT Murne Cowan May Rilma ... ... 24,008.0 10 6?3 O 1098.18 IO73 4.1 Spotswood Daisy Pearl . . . 18,602.0 957-38 3. Holstein-Friesians. a. Origin and history. The native home of the Holstein cattle, as they are usually called in the United States, is Holland, in the province of Friesland. For over 2000 years they have been bred there, and are therefore the oldest breed of cattle. From the ninth century to the present day, Holland has been a great producer and exporter of milk, butter, and cheese. A few Holstein cattle were imported into New York as early as 1795. They were not imported in large numbers until 1861. In 1873 the first Holstein Association was formed, known as the Holstein Herd Book Association, and in 1879 the Dutch Friesian Association was formed. These two were fused in 1885 under the name Holstein-Friesian. Although the Jersey breed was intro- io6 DAIRY CATTLE 107 duced into the United States first and enthusiastically advertised, the Holstein cattle are at present largely used in the leading dairy states ; namely, Wisconsin, New York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Illinois, Missouri, and Ohio. b. Characteristics. In general appearance the Holstein cattle are not so typically a dairy form as are the Jerseys, but approach slightly the beef type. They are the largest dairy breed, males weighing from 1800 to 2000 pounds and females from 1200 to 1600. There has been and is a tendency toward the development of Holstein cattle resembling the dairy type. This has been due largely to the opinions of judges passed on Holstein cattle at fairs. The color is black and white, varying in different localities. American breeders generally prefer cows with more than one half white. The udder of the Holsteins is large, U-shaped, and usually very deep but not extended. The Holstein cattle are docile, gentle, and easily handled. c. Dairy characteristics. The Holstein cattle, as a breed, produce quantity of milk more economically than do the cows of any other breed ; that is, with a given amount of feed they will produce more milk than any other cattle. The milk of the Holstein cattle is lighter in color, and contains less fat than the milk of other breeds of cattle. The small butterfat globules in Holstein milk do not rise to the top as easily nor as rapidly as the large butterfat particles in Jersey and Guernsey milk. It is for this reason that milk from Holstein cows sustains a greater loss of butterfat in the skim milk than the milk from other breeds, especially where the gravity system of separating is used. Ma- chine separation is usually efficient even if the fat globules are small. Since the butterfat from the Holstein is lighter in color than that of the Jerseys and Guernseys, the cream and butterfat from this breed is also lighter. Some people think that a light-colored io8 LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS butter is not rich and will not pay so high a price for it as for darker butters. Holstein cattle, because of the large quantity of milk produced and also because the fats and the solids not fat are well balanced, are well adapted to A A large Butter! at Globule Holstein Fat Globules the condition in which milk is retailed to the consumer. Holstein milk is easily FIG. 44. Showing the com- .. . , . , .. . parative sizes of small and digested because the butterfat globules large fat globules. Fat globules are small and expose more surface to the Wh l digestive fluids. Holstein milk is better suited for children's use than the milk produced by other cattle, for the reasons that the butterfat par- ticles are smaller on the whole, and the total solids in the milk are usually less, making the milk easily digestible. The popu- larity of Holstein milk is increasing, especially where whole milk is wanted for family use. d. Methods of handling dairy cattle in Holland. Much of the country of Holland is below the level of the sea, which is held back by extensive dikes and embankments. The land is well drained and very fertile ; although it is seldom sold, it is valued at from $1200 to $2000 per acre. The fertile soil of Holland produces a luxuriant growth of grass and hay, on which the cattle graze from May to October. The people of Holland very rarely feed grain to their cattle. This diet of grass and little grain is probably the reason why Holstein cattle give such a large quantity of milk, and why the cream is not so rich in butterfat. From October to May the cows are kept in a stable adjoining the house, from which doors lead into the stalls. This is the reason that Holstein cattle are so gentle. The stables are kept very clean and sanitary. In summer the cows are not driven home to be milked, but are milked in the pasture, so that the cow will not grow tired. The people of Holland were the first to DAIRY CATTLE 109 form associations to test the producing power of cows and to set a standard. e. Advanced Registry Official (A. R. O.). The Babcock test was invented about 1890 in Wisconsin. New York was the first to make practical use of it. The people of New York began to organize cow- testing associations in 1894 and set up the follow- ing minimum requirements for advanced registry for Holstein cows: 2 -year-old cow must produce 7.2 pounds fat in 7 days 3 -year-old cow must produce 8.8 pounds fat in 7 days 4-year-old cow must produce 10.4 pounds fat in 7 days 5-year-old cow must produce 12.0 pounds fat in 7 days The above tests were made by qualified men sent out from the experiment stations. Although the test extended only over seven days, it paved the way for the formation of the best types of cow-testing associations in which the tests are made over the entire lactation period. 1 To sum up, Holstein cows have a vigorous constitution, quiet 1 The butterfat requirements for the major dairy breeds for A. R. O. are as follows : JERSEY, GUERNSEY, AND HOLSTEIN AYRSHIRE BROWN Swiss Age Fat Per cent Fat Per cent Fat Per cent Two . Three . . Four . . Five . . . Six ... 250.5 70 214-3 66 222.0 66 287.0 80 236.0 73 238.4 70 323.5 90 27Q.O 87 271.4 80 360.0 100 322.0 100 304.1 QO 337-0 IOO The per cent indicates what amount of fat may be expected from a cow during any year of the milking period. no LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS temperament, produce an abundance of milk, are free from disease, and have a good family history. The records of a few leading Holstein cows follow : NAME OF Cow POUNDS MILK POUNDS BUTTERFAT Duchess Skylark Ormsby .... 27,761 1205 Finderne Pride Johanna Rue . . 28,403 1176 Pontiac Clothilde De Kol ... 25,318 1017 Colantha 4th's Johanna .... 27,432 998 4. Ayr shires, a. Origin and history. This breed of Scotch dairy cattle was developed in the county of Ayrshire, Scotland. Although the Ayr- shire cattle were mentioned in Scot- tish literature as early as 1750, not until about 1825 to 1850 did the breed assume definite characteris- tics. Holsteins, Dur- hams, and Jerseys were used as the foundation sources of this breed. Ayr- shires were imported into the United States as early as 1822, but on account of small teats their popularity decreased, and the breed was soon lost. Within recent years a considerable number have been imported, but because of the fact that they were not advertised they have not been exten- sively used. FIG. 45 . An Ayrshire cow, showing the conformation, red and white color, upturning horns, and well-formed udder that stamp this breed. DAIRY CATTLE in The Ayrshires are mainly distributed in Scotland, Canada, Australia, the United States, Russia, Norway, and Sweden. They are better adapted than other breeds to severe climates, scant feed, and rough land, and are, therefore, generally found in such places. In the United States they are found in New England and the Ozark Plateau. b. Characteristics. Ayrshire cattle are red, brown, and white in color. They are much larger than the Jerseys but smaller than the Holsteins. They are good milkers, but do not produce as much milk as the Holsteins, nor as rich milk as the Jerseys. It is largely because of their failure to excel in one of these two points that the popularity of the Ayrshires has not been greater. The horns of this breed turn outward and upward and are white with black tips. Their udders are uniform and almost perfect. They are well held up, are wide, and extend well forward on the body. Plumb states that the udder development of the modern Ayrshires presents a higher average perfection of form than does that of any other breed. Their temperament is good. The milk of Ayrshire cattle contains a great deal of casein. In their native home in Ayrshire the milk is used almost entirely in the manufacture of cheese. The leading records of the Ayrshires up to the present are as follows : NAME POUNDS MILK POUNDS BUTTERFAT Auchenbrain Brown Kate 4th . . Garclaugh May Mischief .... Lily of Willowmoor 23,022 25,328 22 Io6 918 897 889 Auchenbrain Yellow Kate 3d . . 12,123 888 The cost of milk production. It is impossible to handle this large topic exhaustively in this small treatment. The discussion 112 LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS here is merely suggestive. Some further points may be worked out by teacher, pupil, and farmer. Large production lowers the cost. A cow that yields 3900 pounds of milk per year does not produce milk as cheaply as a cow that produces 10,000 pounds per year. The first figure given is approximately the average production of the dairy cows of the United States. COST OF MILK FROM Cows PRODUCING DIFFERENT AMOUNTS POUNDS MILK PER YEAR COST TO PRODUCE too POUNDS OF MILK COST OF PRODUCIVG A QUART OF MILK 3,000 $1.70 3.3 cts. 4,000 1.25 2-5 5,000 6,000 I.OO S3 2.0 i-7 7,000 8,000 71 .62 i-3 1.2 9,000 55 I.I 10,000 50 I.O The assumption that it costs $50 to keep a dairy cow for one year is the basis of the foregoing table. We have learned that the dairy type of cow produces milk at less cost than the beef type. The dairy cow is angular, showing that she transforms nearly all the food she eats into milk ; the beef cow is fat, show- ing that she transforms all her food into fat. The cost of milk production is from 25 to 30 per cent less from dairy types than from beef types. Cows freshening in the fall produce milk more cheaply. It is a well-known fact that cows freshening in the fall produce from 25 to 35 pounds of butterfat more per year than cows fresh- ening in the springtime. This is because the cow has two periods, DAIRY CATTLE 113 one in the fall and another in the spring, when the milk flow is large. The increase in butterfat is equal to an increase of from 600 to 800 pounds of milk. This is approximately from one sixth to one fifth of the total production. Therefore, if it costs $50 to keep a cow for one year, the cost of milk production will be decreased from about 16 to 20 per cent by cows calving in the fall. Production covering a long number of years lessens the cost of milk production. The cost of producing calves and heifers until they are 24 months old has been found, by Bennett and Cooper of Wisconsin, with 117 calves, to be as follows : COST OF REARING DAIRY HEIFERS IN WISCONSIN l COST TO ONE YEAR COST TO Two YEARS i. Initial value of calf . . 2 Feed $ 7-04 2A. 67 $ 7-04 AO 82 3. Labor 4 Other costs 4-45 6 36 4 u -o 7.81 T -7 7-2 X O'/O Gross cost .... Credit for manure . . $42.52 3.00 $69.41 8.00 Net cost $3O ^2 $61 AT A cow giving milk only from the time she is 24 to 36 months old would have to 'produce an extremely large quantity of milk to pay for the cost of raising the heifer, and the cost of keeping the cow during the first years of milk production. But the pro- duction of milk over a long number of years reduces the cost of milk production per year. The following table shows twelve years of profitable milk production : Henry and Morrison; " Feeds and Feeding." H4 LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS RECORD OF CYLENE JEWEL (UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA Cow) YEAR MILK BUTTERFAT TEST BUTTERFAT LACTATION PERIOD Pounds Pounds Weeks 1902-03 .... 6,413.6 3.28 210.24 55 1904-05 .... 6,231.3 3.16 197.20 52 1905-06 .... 8,061.9 3-21 258.86 42 1906-07 .... 7,373-9 3-31 244-33 44 1907-08 . . . . 11,067.8 3-24 358.59 52 1908-09 .... 7,487-3 2.99 224.25 42 1909-10 .... 11,853-8 2.93 346.99 51 1910-11 .... 11,436.0 3.28 375-39 55 1911-12 .... 12,704.7 3.16 402.05 46 1912-13 .... 10,713.1 3-02 323.06 46 1913-14 .... 12,697.9 3-93 499.63 44 1914-15 .... 12,811.1 2.89 370-09 55 Total .... 118,852.4 38.40 3810.68 584 Average . . . 9,904.364 3-20 317.556 48.66 Keeping accurate records such as the above does more to put dairying on a sound basis than any other one thing. Treating with kindness, being regular in feeding a balanced ration, providing good, clean, sanitary quarters, supplying plenty of clean, pure, medium-warm water, and allowing the cow a rea- sonable amount of exercise, raising the calves on skim milk, - all aid in the economical production of milk. Composition of milk and its products. As we have said be- fore, milk is of such a composition that it can nourish all tissues of the body more nearly than any other food. For this reason it is the only food for many young animals for about the first eight months. The tissues of the body are made up of water, mineral matter, fatty tissue, and protein tissue. These are all Courtesy of University of Minnesota. DAIRY CATTLE 115 found in milk in such proportion that every tissue of the entire body may be well nourished. There is no other single food that will sustain life longer. The composition of other foods may well be compared with that of milk, for milk gives a good basis on which the value of other foods may be estimated. THE AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF MILK 1. Water 87.4 per cent 2. Fat 3.7 per cent 3. Casein and albumen 3.2 per cent 4. Milk sugar 5.0 per cent 5. Ash 0.7 per cent Total . . . 100.0 per cent According to a Federal law, milk must contain 8.5 per cent of solids not fat, and 3.25 per cent or more fat. In order that milk may be of the best quality it must be pro- duced by healthy cows under sanitary conditions. The cow, the surroundings, the utensils, and the milker must all be free from dirt and disease. Bacterial life in milk may be destroyed by pasteurization. The germs of tuberculosis, diphtheria, and scarlet fever may be destroyed in this way, also, but it is much better to produce pure milk. In the modern creamery, milk is skimmed with separators. The skim milk remaining contains all the constituents given in the table excepting the butterfat. Under farm methods of skimming about 0.3 to 0.6 per cent butterfat remains in the skim milk. What is the value of skim milk? W. D. Hoard, editor of Hoard's Dairyman, says : . " It is well established that one hun- dred pounds of skim milk will make 5 pounds of growth when fed to pigs weighing from 75 to 150 pounds. Multiply this growth by the price of pork and you have the minimum value of the n6 LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS skim milk. Feed it in conjunction with corn and you add 20 per cent to its value or cash return, all as a result of the com- bination." 1 Cream is the part of whole milk which contains a larger pro- portion of butterfat than the whole milk. According to Federal law, cream must contain not less than 18 per cent of butterfat. Butterfat rises to the top because it is lighter than whole milk. The specific gravity of whole milk is 1.029 to I -33; water, i.oo; and butterfat, about 0.93. The amount of cream lost depends upon the system used in skimming. In the shallow pan system, about 20 per cent of the cream is lost. The skimmed milk retains about 0.5 of one per cent of the fat in the whole milk. In the deep-setting sys- tem where deep cans are used, only about 0.2 to 0.3 of one per cent of the fat is lost. By the use of centrifugal separators, almost all of the butterfat is taken out of the milk. However, when the skim milk is tested for butterfat, from 0.02 to 0.5 per cent of butterfat is usually found ; sometimes more. Butter has about the following composition : Butterfat 80 to 88 per cent Salt i to 4 per cent Water 10 to 16 per cent Federal law provides that the maximum quantity of moisture in butter cannot exceed 16 per cent. Ordinarily butter has about 82! per cent butterfat, 14^ per cent moisture, and about 2 to 3 per cent salt. By an act of Congress, May 9, 1902, butter may contain added coloring matter. The best churning temperature ranges from 50 to 60 Fahr. The extreme temperatures for churning are from 46 to 80 Fahr. A hundred pounds of butterfat will yield about no to 120 1 Wisconsin Buttermakers' Association Report of 1912. DAIRY CATTLE 117 pounds of butter, because of the addition of salt and water. The number of pounds of butter yielded above the number of pounds of butterfat is known as the overrun. It is upon the overrun that the creamery man depends mainly for his profits. The composition of cheese varies a great deal, but the average for full milk is about as follows : water, 34 per cent ; fat, 35 per cent ; casein, 28 per cent ; and salt, 3 per cent. Cheese is an exceedingly nutritious food. Butter excels cheese in flavor, but cheese is a better balanced, food. The product remaining after the fat and the casein have been taken out of milk is whey. It, also, has some food value for animals. Feeding for milk production. One of the great problems for the dairyman to solve is the question of converting vegetable feeds into milk. To do this best, he must know the composition of the dairy cow's body, the milk she is to produce, and the digestible composition of feeding stuffs. The price of feeds is an important factor in the economical aspect of milk production. These points can be discussed only in a brief way. Composition of the dairy cow's body, and of the milk pro- duced. The author was unable to find any statement as to the chemical composition of the dairy cow's body. The composition of a half-fat steer will provide, however, a fair estimate of the approximate composition of the dairy cow's body. COMPOSITION or HALF-FAT STEER AND MILK WATER FAT CARBOHY- DRATES PROTEIN N. R. Fat steer . . 54-0 22.6 0.0 I 7 .8 i : 1.2 Milk . . . 87.4 3-7 8. 7 3-2 i:5-3 Ii8 LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS In the production of milk, the body of the dairy cow must be first supported ; then, in addition, food must be provided to produce the milk given. The food, if it is to produce the best results, must contain in proper proportions the same constituents that are found in the dairy cow's body and in her milk. It is for this reason that an abundance of water, some carbohydrates, and protein must be fed in order to get the best results from a dairy cow. A gallon of milk weighs 8.54 pounds. It contains the follow- ing nutrients, which make it such a fine well-balanced food : water, 7.5 Ib. ; butterfat, i Ib. ; sugar, f Ib. ; casein, J Ib. ; albumen, i oz. ; and ash ingredients in the following amounts : lime, \ oz. ; phosphorus, i oz. ; potassium, J oz. ; sodium, i oz. ; iron, ^ oz. ; chlorine, oz. ; sulphur, a trace ; and vitamines. Milk contains everything the body needs. In feeding dairy cows, or the human body, such ingredients must be provided in the feed as are to be found in the product produced. Thus everything which appears in milk must first be found in the feed. If it is not found in the feed, it is certain never to appear in the product. In fact production is at once reduced when certain ingredients found in milk are not fed. Spring conditions make most milk. Why? Every farmer welcomes spring. The temperature, the abundance of succulent grass, the moderate exercise, the comfortable surroundings, and the balanced ration, and the drinking of a lot of clean, pure water, all are conducive to the highest efficiency in milk pro- duction. There is nothing superior to blue grass, mixed with white clover, for milk production, because the cattle eat an abundance of this feed; it is palatable and contains the food elements which make it a well-balanced ration. Compare the composition of blue grass and white clover with the dairy cow's body and her milk. DAIRY CATTLE COMPOSITION OF BLUE GRASS AND WHITE CLOVER 119 WATER FAT CARBO- HYDRATES PROTEIN N. R. Blue grass . . 68.4 0.6 14.8 2-3 1:7.0 White clover 7 8.2 0-5 9.6 3-1 i:3.5 It is quite probable that a small amount of concentrates fed along with the blue grass and white clover would increase the milk flow, but not the economical production of milk, except in case of short pastures. In addition to the pasture grass, an abundance of pure, clean, moderately warm water should be provided. These summer conditions are conducive to the high- est milk production. Winter feeding for milk production. To produce the best milk in winter, summer conditions should be maintained as nearly as possible. The cows should be given an abundance of green, or nearly green, feed, a well-balanced ration, an abundance of water, and comfortable surroundings. Well-kept silage, sugar beets, and mangel-wurzels furnish a feed that corresponds as nearly as possible to green feed. Silage is one of the principal feeds used by dairymen. Silage gives bulk to the feed, is palatable, causes the cow to eat and drink more, and is probably the cheapest substitute for green feed. Silage, however, is not a balanced feed, because it contains too large an amount of carbohydrates and too small an amount of protein. COMPOSITION OF CORN SILAGE (FROM WELL-MATURED CORN) DRY MATTER WATER FAT CARBOHY- DRATES PROTEIN N. R. Silage . . 26.3 73-7 0.7 15.0 I.I i: 15-1 120 LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS The nutritive ratio of corn silage is as i : 15.1. This shows that it contains too much carbohydrate material in proportion to the protein content. The nutritive ratio of blue grass is i : 7.0. An equal amount of white clover and blue grass makes an excellent ration for a dairy cow. Its nutritive ratio is right, but the nutri- tive ratio of corn silage, i : 15.1, is too wide. Bran, red clover, alfalfa, soybean hay, cowpea hay, or cotton- seed meal may be used to supply the deficiency of protein in the corn silage. DIGESTIBLE COMPOSITION OF CORN SILAGE AND OTHER FEEDS RICHER IN PROTEIN DRY MATTER WATER FAT CARBOHY- DRATES PROTEIN N. R. Silage . . . 26.3 73-7 0.7 15.0 I.I i: 15.1 Wheat bran . 89.9 IO.I 3-0 4 1.6 12.5 i '3-9 Alfalfa . . . 91.4 8.6 0.9 39-o 10.6 i-'3-9 Cowpea hay . 00.3 9-7 I.O 33-7 13-1 1:2.7 Prime cotton- seed meal . 92.2 7.8 7-9 24-3 334 1:1.3 It will be seen that the above feeds contain a large amount of protein material. It is this which helps in balancing corn silage as a ration. The suggestions of a few practical rations will be in order here. For a cow weighing 1000 pounds, producing 25 pounds of milk, testing 4 per cent butterfat, the following rations may be used. If the farmer has not all the feeds suggested, other feeds may be supplied that will furnish the same food constituents. But in the interests of economy the farmer should always utilize feed stuffs that he has raised rather than buy in the market, and at the same time he should seek a proper combination of them. DAIRY CATTLE DIGESTIBLE COMPOSITION OF A RATION 1 121 PARTS OF 100 POUNDS OF EACH DRY MATTER FAT CARBOHY- DRATES PROTEIN N. R. Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Corn silage 25 Ib. . . i of ioo Ib. 6.6 .02 3-75 .27 Clover hay 10 Ib. . . T J o- of ioo Ib. 8-7 .18 3-93 .76 Corn 4 Ib. 2*5 Of IOO Ib. 3-98 .18 2.68 30 Bran 4 Ib. 2^5 of ioo Ib. 3-99 .12 1.68 50 Totals . 23.27 50 12.04 1.8 3 i:7.3 Requirements 30.00 .65 13.00 2.80 i:5.3 From the above it may be concluded that the ration suggested is too low in all of its constituents and that dry matter and protein are especially lacking. The nutritive ratio of the ration is too wide, indicating that a larger amount of protein should be fed. A few other good dairy rations are given : | Corn silage 30 Ib. Corn silage 30 Ib. Bran 10 Ib. Alfalfa n Ib. I Cottonseed meal ... 2 Ib. Cottonseed meal ... 2 Ib Corn silage . . . . ' . . . 30 Ib. Soybean hay 10 Ib. N. R. i : 5.7 Bran 10 Ib. When production of milk is considered, regardless of cost, the composition of the ration fed should be right. But when the production is considered from an economical viewpoint, and this is the practical viewpoint, the cost of the feeds making the ration should be carefully figured. The following method of figuring the price (not the feeding value) of feeds may be suggestive. Current prices should be used in figuring the cost of rations. 1 Henry and Morrison; " Feeds and Feeding." 122 LIVE STOCK AND FARM MECHANICS PRICES OF A FEW FEEDS FEED ESTIMATED COST COST PER 1000 COST PER 100 COST PER p. R TON POUNDS POUNDS POUND Corn silage . . . $ 3-50 $ 1-75 $0.175 $0.00175 Clover hay . . . I3-50 6-75 0.675 0.00675 Cottonseed meal 30.00 15.00 1.50 0.015 Bran 22.00 II. OO 1. 10 O.OII Summary. Dairying is one of our most important farm operations. It is adaptable to high-priced land, enriches the soil, and brings a steady income. The dairy cow is the most economical producer of human food. The Jerseys, Guernseys, Holsteins, and Ayrshires are the major dairy breeds. Every cow must have a good constitution, a good temperament, a good circulation, and milk-producing capacity if she is to be a profit- able cow. A balanced ration at the lowest cost is essential to economic milk production. Conditions similar to those in summer, such as an abundance of palatable, green, well-balanced feed, an agreeable temperature, a moderate amount of exercise, and much water, are conducive to the highest milk production. LABORATORY EXERCISES AND HOME PROJECTS i. Make a survey of the dairy cattle of the school district. Fill out a table somewhat as follows. Leave a permanent record in the school. Assign three or four days before the results are to be reported. NAME OF OWNER BREED NUMBER OF Cows DAILY GAL- LONS MILK POUNDS OF MILK (MUL- TIPLY GAL. BY 8.54) l A gallon of milk weighs 8.54 pounds. b sji: tC.00 Ov O M N . i s,ssss o D ^ rS 1 | . a 1 ! .3 Q CS