liiilil 
 
 itjjiijj:;!! 
 

 \ 
 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 UNIvn5<TT or 
 
 SCIFNJCF5 
 
•■■^.?%; ^i-' ":■, 
 
 :--^ 
 
 
 EARTH SCr-NCF^S LIBRARY 
 
THE HUNTINGTON GEOGRAPHY SERIES 
 
 COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Hy 10i.i.!*\v()HTH II I ntim;ii>-V hikI Si mni.u W. Cushino. 
 Wfirld Hook Company t Voiikt'rs-oii-llu<lsoii, New York. 
 A t.'xtbook for grade seven, eicl't, or nine, in either a junior 
 h'mh sohool or a Kruniniar and high school orRanization. Gcok- 
 raphy is presented in its relation to prodiiction, transportation, 
 nianufactiirinp, and cotisnniption, with the regional Reopraphy 
 of the lower grades reviewed on an entirely different line of 
 approaeh and with new objectives. The book is provided with 
 a large number of exercises and problems, in the solution of which 
 till' student has a genuine ])art. 
 
 BUSINESS GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Ky Ellswohth Hintington and Frank E. Williams. 
 
 With the cooperation of Robert M. Brown and Miss 
 
 I.KNOX K. Chase. 4j?2 pages, OjXSJ, 97 figures. Cloth. 
 
 .lulin Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York. 
 A textl)ook for Schools of Conimeree, commercial departments 
 in colleges, and the upper high school grades. This book is 
 designed for students who have previously studied such a text 
 as Huntington and Cushing's Commercial and Industrial 
 Geography. It presents the kind of geography that the busi- 
 ness man needs. Principles and the effect of specific geographic 
 factors are first treated, then types of business communities, 
 the business of the continents, and the business of the Uniteil 
 States. Thought provoking problems are presented for solution. 
 Many can be solved by means of a unique series of tables which 
 in themselves make the book an unusually good work of reference. 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Ky lOi.i.sw (jui II II I .sri.N(;r().\ and Simner W. Cushinc. 
 
 ■1:50 pages, 0X9, 118 figures. Cloth. John Wiley & Sons, 
 
 Inc , New Y'ork. 
 
 A textbook for normal schools and colleges where an advanced 
 
 tteatment of the general principles i^f, geography is desired. 
 
 This book is especially adapted id give teaVhers a thorough 
 
 understanding of geography and t'o enable them to classify anil 
 
 use the specific geographical facts which they teach to their 
 
 classes. 
 
PRINCIPLES 
 
 OF 
 
 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY 
 
 BY 
 
 ELLS^YORTH HUNTINGTON 
 
 ) - 
 
 RESEARCH ASSOCIATE IN GEOGRAPHY, YALE UNIVERSITY 
 
 SUMNER W. GUSHING 
 
 lATE HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE 
 STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, SALEM, MASS. 
 
 SECOND EDITION, REVISED 
 TOTAL ISSUE, TWENTY-EIGHT THOUSAND 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF GEOC.RAPHY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CAi IFORNIA 
 BERKEiXY. CALIFORNIA 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc. 
 
 London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited 
 1922 
 
 fWTZ W^^ 
 
SQENCF.s 
 
 Copyright, 1920, 1<>22, 
 
 By 
 
 ELLSWORTH HUNTINGTON 
 
 AND 
 
 FRANCES D. CUSHING 
 
 6/23 
 
 •>Rcsa or 
 
 RRAUNOOHTM ft CO. 
 
 ■OOK MANU'ACTuntNl 
 
 • NOOKLVN. N. y. 
 
r3/ 
 
 H 
 
 EARTH 
 
 PREFACE SCIENCES 
 
 LIBRAIW 
 
 The purpose of this book is, first, to set forth the great principles 
 of geography in its human aspects; second, to provide a compre- 
 hensive, but easily taught text book for students who have reached 
 an age when they begin to tliink for themselves; and, third, to furnish 
 to normal school students and to teachers in elementary schools a 
 book which will give them a solid grounding in the human relation- 
 ships which they are eager to teach. INIany books have been written 
 on " anthropogeogi'aph}'," but there seems to be great need of a book 
 which simis up the present status of that subject and at the same 
 time translates it into the simpler terminology of " human geography." 
 
 The method of the book is to take up first the phj^sical back- 
 ground, not dwelling on it technically, but merely sketching the 
 main outhnes, and providing an adequate basis if the teacher wishes 
 to go farther. In case of such relatively simple matters as water 
 bodies, little or no physiographic treatment is deemed necessary, for 
 such details as the difference between a meandering and braided liver 
 have httle effect on man's activities. The fundamental principles of 
 climate, on the other hand, have been quite fully treated because of 
 their supreme importance in determining nian's mode of life. Never- 
 theless, pure meteorology receives less attention than in most of the 
 physiographic text books which are now the main reliance in teaching 
 advanced geography. 
 
 After the physical background has been sketched each chapter or 
 part of the l)Ook plunges directly into the main theme, that is, the 
 relation of the physiographic environment to man's activities. This 
 is the part of geography which is most interesting, most practical, 
 and most calculated to call forth geiniiiic Uiought and concen- 
 trated effort on the part of the student. It is also the part which in 
 most books is more or less incidental oi* seconfiaiy, whereas it is here 
 the primary object. 
 
 The chief points in which this book dillVrs from other books of 
 geography are, first, its concentration on human relationships; sec- 
 ond, its emphasis on the cjfcds of climate ratluM'than ujion the phys- 
 ical and meteorological sides of the subject; third, its inclusion of 
 chapters on Vegetation ami Did, two subjects wliose geographical 
 
 iii 
 
 283 
 
IV PREFACE 
 
 siffiiificanco lias Ix'cn laijicly overlooked; and fomili, its int('ri)ro- 
 tation of political pioography. This last part of tlie subject does 
 not mean the study of j)olitical divisions, hut of the i)olitical relation- 
 ships, both domestic and foreif^n, which arise out of geographic con- 
 ditions. 
 
 Finally the present volume departs from its predecessors by adfling 
 genuine probl(>ms to the mere qiiestions which are ordinarily found 
 at the end of chaptei-s. In adual jiractice it has Ijeen found that 
 studentL take liold of the pioMcins with gn>at eagerness and energ}-. 
 
 So many Icachcrs and others Ikia-c gi\('n suggestions of great 
 value in regard to various chapters that it is impossible for the 
 authoi*s to do more than express their dee)") gratitude to all who haA-e 
 assisted. Special mention should l)e made, however, of Miss Mary 
 E. Sanders, formerly of Cheltenham College, England, mIio has 
 assisted in prei)ariDg the exercises. 
 
 NOTE TO SECOND EDITION 
 
 In tlic icviscd edition of this Ijook large parts of ('hai)ter II have 
 been icuiittcn as have certain sections of Chapters IV, \'II, X, and 
 XI II. Minor alterations have been made in many other chapters 
 and new prol)lems have in some cases been added. The following 
 persons have helped materially in the revision l)y critical reading of 
 the entire book or of parts of it dealing with their si)ecialties. Their 
 kindness is gratefully acknowledged: G. G. Chishohn, Professor of 
 Geography, University of Edinburgh; William Morris Davis, Pro- 
 fessor of Geography, Harvard I'liiversity; Roland M. Harper, 
 Alal)ama Geological Sui^vty; \\". .1. Hunii)hreys, Professor of Meteor- 
 ological Physics, United States Weatiier Bureau; Atlolj)!! Kimpf, 
 Associate Profes.sor of Petrolog>', Yale UnivcMsily; D. H. Markhani, 
 Professor of Geography, University of Arkansas; H. A. Manner, 
 U. S. Coast and CJeotletic Survey; Stephen S. Msher, Assistant 
 Professor of Geography, Indiana University, and A. E. Waller, 
 Professor of liotany, Ohio State I'niver.sity. 
 
 The revision has also been facilitated through reviews by Dr. 
 C. E. P. Brooks, Royal Meteorological Soci(>ty; Professor R. D. 
 Calkins, State Normal School, Mt. Pleasant, Michigan; tne Bulletin 
 of the Imperial Institute of the United Kingdom, the ( "olonies, and 
 India; and espeei.-dly Professor Il;iil;in II. P,aii()ws ui the Univ(>rsity 
 of Chicago. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Preface iii 
 
 Table of Contents v 
 
 List of Illustrations vii 
 
 Note to the Teacher xi 
 
 PART I. MAN'S RELATION TO PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 HuMAJsr Geography ■■ 1 
 
 PART IL MAN'S RELATION TO LOCATION 
 
 CHAPTER n 
 The Effect of the Earth's Form and Motions 23 
 
 PART III. MAN'S RELATION TO LAND FORMS 
 
 CHAPTER in 
 
 The Continents and Man 51 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 Hitman Activities in Mountains and Plains 78 
 
 PART IV. .V.l.V'.V RELATION TO BODIES OF WATER 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 The Inflitence of the Oceans 103 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 The Use of Inland A\atkks 128 
 
 /'.IA'7' 1. .l/.l.V.s- h'KLATION TO SOIL AXL) MINERALS 
 
 CHAPTER Vn 
 
 Soil and the Farmer 153 
 
 V 
 
viii LIST (W lI.I.rsTHATinx;^ 
 
 FIC. rA^E 
 
 'A'} The Winding C';in;i<li;in I'aciric H;»ilni;i(l near I'idd, liritish ( 'oluiiiliia. . N!» 
 
 .'iC. r., rests in the United States ',M 
 
 '.i7. \\'(irld Map ShnwiuK Distribution of Pdjjulation '.)9 
 
 ;iS. World Mai) Showiiip Density of Population 100 
 
 3;». Tlie Italian Town of Porto Fino 118 
 
 4(1. Hush T.Tininal, New York City 119 
 
 11. Map of iMiropean \\'aterways 137 
 
 I'J. Dam and Watcr-Power Site at Manchester, X. H 145 
 
 43. lU'rd lioats on the Indus River 146 
 
 44. Cotton Mills in the United States loO 
 
 4.'). .\ Phenomenal Corn Crop Raised by Boys Kil 
 
 40. Wheat ThreshinK in Oklahoma Ki'i 
 
 47. ElTect of Currents on Texture of Soil KIC) 
 
 48. Cold Production in Yukon 170 
 
 49. A Dro|)-Ilannner Forpiufj; a Steel Axle for a Railroad Car 172 
 
 50. Silver Mine at Rroken Hill, New South Wales, Australia 173 
 
 51. Protluclion of (!old for Four Centuries. Annual Averages for Periods 
 
 of 5 to 20 Years 174 
 
 52. World Production of Cold and Silver since 1860 175 
 
 53. Distribution of Iron Ore 17S 
 
 54. Production of Iron 180 
 
 55. Distribution of the Copper Ores 182 
 
 56. Production of Copper 182 
 
 57. Distribution of the World's Lead Supply 184 
 
 58. Distribution of flic World's Zinc Supply 184 
 
 59. Map of Coal in the United States 190 
 
 60. Distribution of Coal Deposits 191 
 
 61. Distribution of Coal Production 191 
 
 62. Shoving Cars in a Coal Mine 193 
 
 63. Spinning in Palestine 194 
 
 64. Distribution of Petroleum Su])])lies 198 
 
 65. Production of Petroleum 199 
 
 66. Snow.stonn on Mount Wilson, Calif 207 
 
 f)7. ( )n the Coast of Cochin-Cliina 208 
 
 68. I're.ssure Belts on a Simjjlificd ( iloix- 212 
 
 69. Diagnim of Rising and Cooling .\ir 215 
 
 70. Di.'igrammatic Plan of Seasonal Rainfall and of W-gctation on an 
 
 Ideal ( ;iobe 219 
 
 71. .Mean 'I'emperature of .January 225 
 
 72. Mean Temperature of .July 226 
 
 73. Pressure and Winds in January 228 
 
 71. I 're,s.surc and Winds in July 229 
 
 75. ( )eean Currents 231 
 
 76. North .Atlantic Sailing Chart for August. Fog 233 
 
 77. North Atlantic Sailing Chart for August, dales 234 
 
 78. Summer i^ainfall 236 
 
 7'.t. Winter Rainfall 237 
 
 50, I'.lTeet of Altitude <in Rainfall 241 
 
 51 . Aimiial liainfall 242 
 
 82. Modes of Life 244 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ix 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 S3. Average Monthly Temperature and I'vainfall of Typical Plaees in 
 
 North America 245 
 
 84. Average Monthly Temperature and Hainl'all of Typical Places in the 
 
 Old World 246 
 
 85. Map of Climatic Energy 255 
 
 86. Map of Civilization 256 
 
 87. An Adirondack Forest 266 
 
 88. Desert Vegetation in Southern Arizona 267 
 
 89. I\Lap of Distribution of Vegetation 269 
 
 90. Ideal Distribution of Vegetation 270 
 
 91. Distribution of Cattle 282 
 
 92. "Paddy" Fields on Terraces in Ceyl;)n 285 
 
 93. A Mopea House in Malabar 286 
 
 94. Subtropical versus Monsoon Rainfall 297 
 
 95. Distribution of Rice 299 
 
 96. Distribution of Sheep 300 
 
 97. Service at a Mohammedan Mosque in Northern India 301 
 
 98. Distribution of Cotton 304 
 
 99. Cotton Acreage in the United States 305 
 
 100. Migration of the Boll Weevil 306 
 
 101. Irrigation Projects in the Western United States 321 
 
 102. An Irrigation Dam in Northern India 323 
 
 103. An Irrigated Orange Grove in Arizona 324 
 
 104. Distribution of Wheat . 334 
 
 105. Distribution of Potatoes 335 
 
 106. Distribution of Corn 336 
 
 107. Distribution of Swine 337 
 
 108. Distribution of Oats 338 
 
 109. Distribution of Horses 339 
 
 110. Percentage of Population Engaged in Maiuifacturing 345 
 
 111. Purchases of the United States Abroad 346 
 
 112. Sales of the United States Abroad 347 
 
 113. An Elephant Cart full of Cocoanuts in Burma 352 
 
 114. A Modern Railroad Yard 353 
 
 115. Summer Rainfall in Kansas 364 
 
 116. Changes of Climate in California During the Christian Era 370 
 
 117. An .American Butter Factory 372 
 
 118. A Ruined Tower in Eastern Persia 373 
 
NOTE TO THE TEACHER 
 
 Questions, Exercises and Problems 
 
 In order that the Principles of Human Geography may be 
 effectively taught, full use should be made of the questions, 
 exercises and problems that follow each chapter. These vary 
 considerably in difficulty and in subject matter, some being phys- 
 iographic, some economic, or historical, and many purely anthro- 
 pogeographic. Thus they are adapted to students of different 
 grades of ability and of different interests. For younger classes, 
 such as those of the high school, only the simplest problems need 
 be used, while th(» more complex problems will tax the powers of 
 the most brilliant college student. INIany of the prol)lems, however, 
 are elastic. They may ho solved briefly and in a g(>n(M-al way by 
 young and relatively ])a('kward students, but need much time and 
 thought in the hands of capable and. advanced students. Again, a 
 large numl)er of the problems are suited to many regions in atldition 
 to the ones mentioned in the text. In all cases, however, stress 
 should be laid on the students' own homes. The principles discussed 
 in the text, as well as in the problems, should be ai)plied first of all 
 to the local region, which should serve as a starting point for an 
 understanding of the remoter parts of the world. 
 
 Often it will be wise to assign the same problem to the whole 
 class, but let each student tak(> a diffcM-ent region. The more coin- 
 pl(>x problems can sometimes be best solved by letting each student 
 make an exhaustive study of one special phase and then uniting the 
 results in a classroom exercise. Thi-oughout \hc ))ro])l('ms great 
 stress should be laid on (1) accurate statistics as opposed to loose 
 generalizations; and (2) map-making in contrast to mere state- 
 ments in woifls. Wherever possible^ written statements should l)e 
 supplemented by accurate diagrams and ma])s. In using the prol)- 
 lems and exercises do not be in too nmch haste to give your studiMits 
 your own matured conclusions. ,s7/(;^/" trJicre to find the facts mid how 
 to use them, and let the students reason for themsth'es. 
 
 xi 
 
xii xott: to tiii: 'i'i:.\f'TiER 
 
 Tk)()KS FOR rii:M;K.\L IvKKKHEXCE 
 
 'I'lic Principles (if Ilmii.iii ( Icduinpliy can lie cfTcct i\cly fauuht 
 with a small ('(luipiiicnt . 'I'lic liooks listed helow should he available 
 so tliat oveiy ineinlxT of the class may l)e able to consult them 
 
 freely. 
 
 1. A {food atlas containing physical as well as political maps. 
 Longmans, CJreen, tt Co., J. (J. Bartholomew, (ieo. Philip ct Son, 
 and several other publishers, all jmblish inexpensive atlases that 
 meet the requirements. Every student should own an atlas. 
 
 2. A larjre connnercial atlas. liai'tholomew's Atlas of Econoiiiic 
 Geography is excellent, but sevtTal otiiers are almost etjually good 
 and less expensive. 
 
 'A. A good encyclopedia, preferably Britannica or the Inter- 
 national. 
 
 4. The World Almanac, Current Edition. Press Publishing Co., 
 Pulitz(>r Bldg., New York. 
 
 5. The Statesman's Yearl)ook. Cm-rent Edition. The Macmillan 
 Co., New York. 
 
 6. *Geograpli>- of the ^^'o^ld■s Agricultuio. Department of 
 Agriculture, Washington. 
 
 7. *Foreign Conmierce and Navigation of the United States. 
 Latest Edition. Department of Conunerce, Washington. 
 
 8. *StatisticaI Abstract of the United States. Current l\(liti.)n. 
 Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Washington. 
 
 9. *Year Books of the United States Department of Agriculture, 
 Washingtfm. 
 
 10. *Al)stract of the United States C(Misns. Census Bui-(\iu 
 Washington. 
 
 11. *Atlas of the United States Census. Census P)ureau, 
 A\'a>liington. 
 
 12. Two or thre(> elementary school geogi'ai)liies by different 
 authors. 
 
 VS. J. Brunhes: Human (Jeography; translated and edited by 
 Dfxlge, Bowman and Lecomte. l^and-McNally Co., Chicago. 
 
 II. Ci. (1. ("liisholm: llamlliook of Connneicial (leomaphy; 
 LoiiLrmans, (Ireen, tV: ("o.. New ^drk. 
 
 I.'), l^llswortli Huntington: Civilization and Climate; Yale Uni- 
 versity Press, New Haven, Conn. 
 
 * Can be piircha-socl at cost from tho Suporintondont of Public Doriimcnts, 
 Washinntoii, I). C, or ran bci procured through Congrt's.smcn or by direct 
 applicatinii to llic jjropcr Bureau or Department, 
 
NOTE TO THE TEACHER xiii 
 
 16. Mark Jefferson: Commercial Values; Ginn & Co., Boston. 
 
 17. H. II. Mill: International Geography; D. Appleton & Co., 
 New York. 
 
 18. Salisbury, Barrows and Tower: The Elements of Geography; 
 Henry Holt & Co., New York. 
 
 19. E. C. Semple: Influences of Geogniphic Environment; 
 Henry Holt & Co., New York. 
 
 20. J. Russell Smith: Industrial and Commercial Geography; 
 Henry Holt & Co., New York. 
 
 21. R. DeC. Ward: CHmate: G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York. 
 
 Special Reference Books 
 
 Every class in the principles of geography should have access 
 to a well-selected and not too voluminous assortment of (1) the 
 best and most thoughtful books of travel and description, not 
 more than two or three on any one country; (2) statistical books; 
 (3) standard text books; (4) a few standard geographical sets, 
 such as Stanford's Compendium of Geography, Appleton's Regions 
 of the World, the Oxford British Empire Series, and Reclus' The 
 Earth and Its Inhal)itants, which though old is still unp;vralleled in 
 interest and in the power of stinmlating thought ; (o) books on 
 special topics such as soil, agriculture, irrigation, mining, forestry, 
 manufacturing, transportation, and commerce; and (6) books 
 giving statistics, descriptions, and historical accounts of the local 
 city, county, and state. 
 
 Any r('as()nal)ly good library contains a good deal of valuable 
 matci-ial along the lines here suggested, and a year's experience will 
 show the gaps that need to be filled. In clioosing hooks of the six 
 types here recommended, it nuist Ix^ rememberc'd that a total library 
 of only one or two hundred well-seUvtcHl books, each of which is 
 worth i-(';uiing, is fai' better tlian sevcM'al thousand books among 
 which the student finds larg(» (iu;uitities of chaff. Kcvp your n^fer- 
 ence books relatively few in number and liigh in quality, and make 
 the students use them. 
 
 Wall Maps 
 
 Effect iv(> Icachinti' ref|uii('s as full a s('i-i(>s of wall maps as possible. 
 These should include (I) relief; (2) jiolilical divisions; (3) summer 
 and winter temperature; (4) summer and winter rainfall; (5) 
 vegetation; ((>) resources; (7) density of pojiulation; (S) trans- 
 portation; (9) conimeice and industry; (10) othei- conditions, such 
 
xiv NOTE TO Till': 'ii:.\(in:R 
 
 as occupations, raoo. religion, lanpuago. lu-alth, ci-o])s, maimfac- 
 turcs. niiiu'ral products, and so forth. A .scries of world inap.s 
 .should first l)o {jrocurcd. and then — as nianj' continental maps as 
 possible, lioginninii; with North America, or the United States, 
 and Europe. The I'hilips Series (American Agents, Denoyer- 
 (k'pi)ert Comjiany, Chicago) is excellent. The preparation of 
 wall majis sho\\'ing conditions not included in the jjublished series 
 is one of the best exercises for students of unusual ability. Large 
 outline maps for this pur])ose can be procured through almost any 
 dealer in guogrupliical supplies. 
 
PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN GEOGRAPHY 
 
 PART I 
 MAN'S RELATION TO PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Nature of Human Geography. — All over the world the people of 
 different places vary in appearance, dress, manners, and ideas. 
 They eat different kinds of food, and enjoy different pleasures. They 
 differ in the way they work and get a living, and in their government, 
 education, and religion. Above all they vary in their capacity for 
 work. Some, Hke the Scotch, are active in body and mind, and are 
 able to make inventions or improvements. Others, like the Papuans 
 of New Guinea, are slow in movement and so inactive in mind that 
 they rarely think of doing anything, except as their ancestors did it. 
 
 These differences are the subject matter of Human Geography. 
 They arise largely from differences in geographical surroimdings, or 
 physical environment, to use a more technical term. Hence, Human ., 
 Geography may be defined as the study of the relation of geographical |/ 
 enviroiunent to human activiti(>s. 
 
 How Human Geography Should be Studied. — The science of 
 himian geogi-aphy ma}" be studied in many waj's. One of the best 
 is to think of it as a series of problems, or questions for which answers 
 nmst be found. Some of these problems are large and complex like 
 the problem of how far the progress of a given people is due to the 
 geographical conditions imder which they live. For example, why 
 are the people of the forests of Central Africa primitive hunters and 
 those of the steppes of Central Asia ignorant cattle raisers, while 
 those of New Jersey are a iiighly civilized manufacturing and com- 
 mercial people. So great a proljlem can be solvetl only through tiic 
 solution of many smaller ones, such as the effect of rainfall, vegetation. 
 
2 MAX'S HKLATIOX 'l< > I•I1^SI(•\I, lA \ I i;().\.Mi;XT 
 
 and distance from tho ocean, upon food, clothing, shelter, and tools, 
 and es]ieci:vlly upon man's occupations, heahh, and energy-. ICven such 
 scconiiarv prohlcms. however, ave too comphcated to be easily solved. 
 The way to solve tlicni is first to study many minor problems. For 
 example, even a child can see that since good grass does not jvrow in 
 the forests of New (luinea, cattle cannot thrive there. It is ecjually 
 easy to solve the jii-oblem of why the people of Central Asia, where 
 the thermometer often drops below' zero, wear sheepskin coats, while 
 those of Central Africa, wliere a temperature of 70° is considered 
 cold, wear almost no clothing. Thus Human Ceograi^hj- n^ay be 
 thought of as a vast sei'ies of simple problems leading to others that 
 are more comjilex. To both student and teacher the solution of 
 such problems becomes intensely interesting as soon as the spirit of 
 the wni-k is well understood. 
 
 Ill this Noluiiie we shall study some of ii'.an's chief iclatioiis to 
 his environment and find whj' these relations vary from one part of 
 the world to another. While all the main phases of human geograjihj'' 
 will be considered, most of our attention will be devoted to the most 
 practical parts, which are also the most interesting. The practical 
 parts are tlie piT)])l(>iiis that are useable in our daily lives, those, for 
 instance, lliat help us understand what we read in liooks, n'agazines, 
 and newspaiKM'S, that enable us to discuss current events iulellimiitly, 
 and that guide us in plans foi- ])usiness or travel. 
 
 The Elements of Human Geography. — In spite of the vast num- 
 ber and great complexity of tlie problems of human geogra])hy, they 
 can be classified into a lew main types, the relation of which can be 
 understood from Fig. 1. 
 
 I. Location. — On 1li(> left of I'ig. 1 are the five chief features 
 of man's geogiai)hic;d surroundings. The first is location. The 
 location of a man's home is the most important of all the geograph- 
 ical facts that infiuence him. It detcMinines whether he shall five 
 in the torrid zone, the desert, or the frozen Noi'th. If his home is 
 located in the interior of a continent, say in Colorado, he can scarcely 
 be ;i sailor or a deep-sea fisherman. Again, location determines 
 wjiether a person shall have only a few scattered neighbors, too back- 
 ward to supjx)rt schools, as in Labrador; or .a multitude of progressive 
 Jieigiihors close at liaiul, as in Illinois. 
 
 II. Land Forms. The i ■fleet of the form of the lands can be icadily 
 seen. The prairies of southern Illinois and the most rugged jiails of 
 West Virginia differ relatively little in climate, and only mod(Mately 
 in soil and altitude. Hut tlie\' diffei' gre:;tly in density of po])ulation 
 because rugged inoiinlMiiis proxidc almost no place lor people to li\'e. 
 Because of relief such ix'ople as the 1 )utc!i iuo\e nhoul fret ly and come 
 
HUMAN GEOGRAPHY 
 
 
 Pi 
 
 C 
 
 cc .— 
 
 C ^ = 
 
 E o bt 
 
 H 
 
 5 •- S .2 
 
 o'o'o 2 aj 3'x o 5 S-^S g 
 
 fe 
 
 S 
 
 rt 5 > 
 
 g.2 
 
 O o C tC 
 
 H^WfeSf^J^i^U^KKO 
 
 3 
 
 Pi < 
 
 i—C^fO^iOOt-XClO'-HiMCO^OOt^QCOC'-l .2 
 
 (M 'M 
 
 K 
 
 < 
 K 
 O 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 % 
 % 
 P 
 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 - P^ 
 
 
 U 
 
 CQ 
 
 IS 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 < 
 
 Ph 
 
 
 =3 <_ 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 a 
 
 ^1 
 
 J 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 t- 
 
 
 
 
 
 o - 
 
 o ■- 
 
 ) 
 
 "« 
 
 
 Ua < — 
 
 
 
 c — 
 
 
 'T! 
 
 .2 ■■'■ 
 
 
 
 ■ e3 - 
 
 ;:._^ 6 
 
 
 
 
 rt 
 
 o ^— 
 
 
 . o 
 
 > «— t 
 
 i-:i 
 
 m 
 
 
 a2 
 
 o 
 
 h-i 
 
 HH 
 
 
 > 
 
 > 
 
4 MAN'S HI'I-ATIOX To IMIVSK'AL FA'VI IK )\Mi:\T 
 
 in contact with thoir noip;lil)()rs, while others, hke the Tibetans, are 
 hemmed in hv steep sIojk's, impassable valleys, ami snowy passes. 
 
 HI. Water Bodies. — Oceans, lakes, and rivers often separate 
 country from country, and thus lead to jjreat differences in race, 
 lanpuafie, and customs. On one side of the Engli.sh Channel the 
 people" speak Knulish and on the other French partly because the 
 inten-eninp; body of water has prevented free interminfjlinp;. Bodies 
 of water also serve as m(\ins of communication, and tlius link j-x^ople 
 together. The liuntci- in ( 'aiiada would find it dillicult to travel 
 far throufih tiie forest if he could not use his bark canoe on the 
 many lak(>s and rivers. On a laifier scale the harbors of New York, 
 Liverpool, and Amsterdam, with their Ihionss of great ships, prove 
 how closely th(^ oceans link country to country. 
 
 I\'. Soil and Minerals. — A large part of the world's wealth comes 
 from the soil. Where the soil is fine-grained and deep, as in the 
 plains of northei-n France and Ohio, the farmers are prosperous. 
 A poor sandy soil, even with a good climate, may make a region 
 poverty-stricken. For instance, in ]Mississipi:)i and Alabama the 
 chief physical difference between the sandy pine belt and the rich fine- 
 soiled " black belt," where cotton grows, is the soil; but this differ- 
 ence makes one region the home of poor farmers who can scarcely 
 get a living, unless large quantities of fertilizers are mixed with the 
 soil, while the other is one of the most prosperous parts of the South. 
 
 Mineral wealth, as well as soil, is of vast importance. Without 
 metal-bearing ores Hke those of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, 
 there would be no such thing as the machineiy which runs the mills 
 of Massachusetts. Other minerals such as the coal of Pennsylvania, 
 and the jwtroleum of Texas, are the chief source of power for manu- 
 facturing and commerce. After the Great War the demand for 
 petroleum was so insistent that every one of the great powers, in- 
 cluding even Russia in the midst of its revolution, sent a commission 
 to Mexico to tiy and get a share in that countiy's oil. At the same 
 time the sliicken people of Europe, who were almost starving, were 
 cr>'ing to the I'nited States for minerals, especially coal, almost as 
 urgently as for food. 
 
 V. Chmate. 'Die last of the five great features of physical envi- 
 ronment is the most important. Climate enters into each of the other 
 four, as shown by the arrows in Fig. 1. It depends on location; 
 it is greatly influenced bj^ land forms and water bodies, and influences 
 tliem in icturii; and it has a great effect on the character of many 
 soils. I'oi- example, the difference betw(>en the d<>seii climate of the 
 coast of Peru :iiid llie wet. climate of the foicsted headwaters of the 
 Amazon in I'razil is wliolh- due to the form or I'dicf of the Andes. 
 
HUMAN GEOGRAPHY 5 
 
 On the other hand, the sand dunes of western China are the result 
 of a desert cUinate, while the "Black Earth" region of Russia owes 
 its rich soil to a moist climate. 
 
 CUmate also determines the character of the plants and animals 
 in different regions. It causes oranges and bananas to come from 
 Costa Rica, and wheat from Minnesota. Still more important is 
 the fact that man's energy depends largely upon climate. The 
 Costa Rican planter cannot possibly work as hard as the Min- 
 nesota farmer. In the far North not only does the climate cause the 
 Eskimos to be poorly nourished, but the steady cold benumbs their 
 minds and bodies, and prevents progress. In the Congo forests, on 
 the other hand, it hampers progress by favoring malaria and other 
 deadly diseases. Only in countries like England, where the weather 
 is variable, and not too extreme, can man be at his best. 
 
 A. Plants. — It is almost impossible to think of the five great 
 features of physical environment without also thinking of plants. 
 The location of Greenland reminds us of the absence of vegetation 
 and the consequent impossibility of man's getting a living. When 
 land forms such as plains, are mentioned, broad acres of rich crops 
 come to mind, while the word "mountains" brings a picture of rough 
 slopes covered with forests. 
 
 Even water bodies infiucnce man through the minute plants 
 which make it possilile for fish to inhabit their cool depths, and thus 
 lead men out over the stormy seas as fishermen. When it comes to 
 soil there is ahnost no reason for thinking of it except as it enables 
 corn, wheat, or grass, for example, to grow richly as in Iowa, while in 
 other regions, such as the sandy parts of Cape Cod, it makes the 
 crops almost too poor to be worth harvesting. Finally, to many 
 people, the chief indication of climatic chfferences is vegetation. 
 The date pahn stands for dry hot deserts, the cocoanut palm for 
 moist tropical coasts, the cotton plant for somewhat more temperate 
 regions, and timdra moss for an arctic climate. 
 
 B. Animals. — Although animals are less important than plants, 
 they influence man in a thousantl ways. If there were no horses and 
 oxen the prairies might have remained uncultivated, and in most 
 parts of Europe and America the growth of a thick sod would make 
 agriculture impossible. Without the sheep not only would our food 
 supi^ly be diminished, but we should not know where to turn for 
 warm winter clothing. The only good substitute would be furs, 
 but they, too, are derived from animals. Ahnost equally impoitant 
 in our daily lives are the cows, which give us the most perfect of all 
 foods; wliile the hens that lay several Inllion eggs eveiy year in the 
 United States would be sadly missed if tlu-ir cackle should forever 
 
6 MAN'S RELATION To I'II^SI(•AL KWIlxOXMENT 
 
 cease. In many sections of Portup;ucse East Africa llio tsotso fly 
 not only kills all the horses, sheej), and cattle, but transmits to man a 
 terrible wasting disease; while the malarial mosciuito continually 
 brings sickjiess and helps to make him ineffective. Even in our 
 own land animals are harmful as well as helpful. The common or 
 tyi>lioiil II3' brings many dangerous diseases; and the disgusting rat 
 not only consumes hundreds of millions of dollars' worth of property 
 each year, bul also spic-ids llic ]/lague. 
 
 C. Man: How Man Responds to Geographic Surroundings, (a) 
 Material Needs, and (b) Occupations. — The total effect of physical 
 en\'ironment upon man is sununed up in the last two columns of 
 Fig. 1 on i^age 3. The first of these two colunms divides the re- 
 sponses into four great classes. In studying the first class, material 
 needs, we ask: How do man's geographical surroundings determine 
 the materials which he uses to satisfy his jih^-sical needs? In the 
 second class come man's occupations, and here we ask: How does 
 man supjily his physical needs, that is, what occupations does he 
 follow for this purpose? 
 
 (c) Efficiency. — ^\Miile all men have material needs and all follow 
 certain occupations in order to satisfy these necnls, the energy which 
 they i)ut into their occupations varies enormously. Some are so lazj^ 
 that they never work unless they are actually hungry, wliile others 
 are so energetic that they work until they kill themselves. Such 
 differences depend partlj-- on race or inheritance, for some races 
 "i,ppear to be naturally vigorous and especially gifted with l)rain 
 power. The di.stribution of these races is a purely geogra])hical 
 matter. Nevertheless, it is not treated in this book, because the 
 actual degree of ability among different races when placcil in the 
 same geograpliical sui'rouiidings and given exactly \\\v same ojijwr- 
 tunities and training is not yet accurately known. Much of what is 
 called racial character is due to the next item untler efficiencj^; 
 namely, health and energ\', which flepend largely on climate, but arc 
 in lm"n greatly modified l)y ]K'o])!e's habits and esi)ecia!ly by the way 
 in which they spend their s])are tijne, that is by their recreations. 
 
 {(I) Ilidher Needs. — \\iKit man gets out of life is bettcM- me;u<ured 
 Vjy the way he supplies his liiglier needs — mental, esthetic and 
 spiritual — than li>- the way he su])plies his malciiai nceils. I'lveiy 
 group of people has at least an elementaiy form of government, 
 education, science, religion, and art. In one sense these things are 
 not geographical. Yet the diicction which they take, the resources 
 which sui)pf)rt lliem, and the degree of efficiency with which they 
 are developed all dei)enfl largely on geographical surroundings. 
 Akhough the way in which these higher needs are satisfietl is the best 
 
HUMAN GEOGRAPHY 7 
 
 measure of ci\'ilization, all the other classes of responses also play an 
 important part. Civilization rises high only when all tlie material 
 needs are well satisfied; when all the occupations are represented in 
 proper proportion; when the higher nvcds arc recognized as even 
 more important tlian the lower; and when the pursuit of both the 
 higher and the lower needs is carried on with efficiency. 
 
 (a) How Geographical Surroiuidings Influence Man's Material 
 Needs. — In order thoroughly to understand the peo])]e in any part of 
 the world we need to be al)le to answer each of these questions: 
 What do they eat? How do they dress? What kind of houses do 
 they live in? What tools do they use? How do they travel and 
 transport goods from place to place? The answers depend largely 
 on geographical conditions. Everyone must have food, but the man 
 who lives on a certain remote island in an unfrequented sea must 
 live largely on sago, cocoanuts, and pork, th.e chief products of his 
 island, for the location is too remote to allow him to get food from 
 other regions. If the island takes the form of mountains perhaps he 
 may not be able to raise crops easily; while the body of water aroimd 
 him may cause him to get most of his food from the sea. If the soil 
 is rich, the climate warm and damp, the vegetation luxurious, and 
 food animals relatively few, as in the Philippines, the people will live 
 on rice and bananas; but if the soil is gravelly, the climate dry, the 
 vegetation merely short-lived grasses, and the number of cattle 
 relativeh" large we shall find people like the cowboys of western Argen- 
 tina who dry their jerked beef in the sun, and eat it ^^•ith corn and 
 beans. 
 
 So, too, with clothing and shelter. Tlu» thin cot Ion clolliing, 
 straw sandals, and thatched huts of the Hindu farmers could scarcely 
 be used by the miners of Alaska for two reasons. In the first jilace, 
 it is not easy to get the materials for such clothing and shelter in the 
 far Norlli. ;iiid in the s(X'ond i)lace, even if they could ensily be pi-o- 
 cured they would not afford enough pi'otection from the weather. 
 The Yukon miner wants clothing of fur and wool, lu^avy leather boots,, 
 and a warm house of solid logs with the cracks well stuffed to keep 
 out the cold. The tools and the means of transportation in 
 India and Alaska show an ecfual diversity. The little hoes, wooden 
 plows, ox-goads, and rude ox-carts of the Hindu faiiiier would be of 
 little use to the northern jniner who wants (hills, hammers, and i)icks 
 with which to dig into the solid rock, and freight cars or river boats 
 in which to send away his ore. 
 
 (b) How GeograpJiiccd Surroundings Influence the Eight Great 
 Occupations. — In supplying their material needs tlie people of diff<M-ent 
 parts of the earth generally follow the occupations in which il-eir 
 
8 M.WS HKLA'I'IOX TO PH^SICAI. KXVIHOXMKXT 
 
 gcoprapliic surrouiuliii^s j^ivo llioin llic jiioalcst. ciiMnco of success. 
 The Pyjiiiiics of lh(> delist' forcsls of ("ciilral Africa aio wamleriiifz; 
 hunters not because tlicy clioosc thai occui)a1ion, hut because no 
 other is possil^le. The elimale is so moisl and the forest so dense 
 that tliey cannot ]iractic(> aiiiicuhure; the water bo(Hes do not fur- 
 nisli any great amount of fisli: callle will not tlnive; it is useless to 
 cut lumber, for thei'e is no maiket for it; there are no valuable ores, 
 or else they are so covered with soil that no one lias found tliein, and 
 lience there is no minin<]!;; and more advanced occujxitions sucli as 
 maiiufactuiiiiii; and commerce arc l)eyoiid llie capacity of people who 
 live in such surroundintis. 
 
 , Similarly on the Labrador coast, fishinii; is the only occupation 
 which furnishes a fairly sure livin<ii;, and (>V(M1 liiat is somelinics pic- 
 carious. In Sonora in northern Mexico the climate is too dry for 
 agriculture in many sections, but cattle can live on the short grass 
 even though it dries up in a month or two. Hence the people are 
 cattle hei'ders. 
 
 In more favored regions such as Denmark the levehiess and cli- 
 mate and the absence of other resources cause agriculture to l)e the 
 great occupation. 
 
 In similar fasliion the great forests are almost the only resource of 
 the mountains of Western Sweden, so that the inhabitants have to 
 be lumbermen, just as in Spitzl)ergen the low temperature and the 
 presence of rich ores make mining i)ractically the only occupation. 
 England like Spitzbergen possesses vahiable minerals in the shajX3 
 of beds of coal and iron, and these not only foster mining, but cause 
 manufacturing to take the lead. In Holland, on the other hand, the 
 location of the country on the shores of the North Sea and at the 
 mouth of the Rhine, between Germany and hhigland, raises com- 
 merce to the leading position. 
 
 Pennsylvania : An Example of Many Occupations in One Region. — 
 In the more advanced parts of the world several occupations are 
 always carried on close together. One simple kind of occupation 
 may have prc^vailt'd at first, but others are introduced until all are 
 rej)resented. In rennsylvania, for instance, up to the beginning 
 of the last centuiy many Imlians lived b-y lumting and fishing, and 
 even to-day a few people are still suppoited exchisi\-ely in this way. 
 Some of the early colonists lived by these same occupations, but. 
 most of them at once began lumbering in order to clear the land for 
 agiicullure. l",\(ii to-da>' many I'ennsylvaiiians are engaged in 
 lumbering, although this occupation is negligible comjxired with 
 farming or mining, which rose to great importance after the steam 
 engine was invented. The life of the farmers differs fron: the life 
 
f- 
 
 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY 9 
 
 of the miners as much as if the two lived in separate countries. After 
 farming and mining had become w(41 developed, manufacturmg and 
 commerce, whicli had formerly existed on only a small scale, began 
 to be the occupations of large numbers of people, and are now of 
 great importance. Thus, to-day in Pennsylvania, hunting, fishing, 
 and lumbering are each represented on a small scale, while farming, 
 mining, manufacturing, and conmierce arc all well r(>presented. Such 
 a development of many occupations is characteiistic of advanced 
 countries. 
 
 (c) How Efficiency Depends on Geographical Surroundings. — The 
 great trouble with most people and with most races is not that they 
 do not have ability, but that thej^ do not make the most of what they 
 have. They are lazy, or they lack will power, or find it difficult to 
 concentrate on their work. Much of this inefficiency is due to lack 
 of health and energy. 
 
 Health and energy, as everyone can see, are largely influenced 
 by people's occupations and by the way in which their material needs 
 are met. Many a man has poor health because he eats poor food, 
 or eats good food too rapidly, or in too large amounts. Others lack 
 energy because they dress unwisely, five in houses that are not 
 properly ventilated, use machines that necessitate unnatui-al posi- 
 tions, ride too much in automobiles, or follow unhealthful occupa- 
 tions which keep them in offices and factories instead of outdoors. 
 
 These reasons for lack of health and energy are closely bound up 
 with geography, because man's occupations, food, clothing, and 
 shelter all depend largely on jihysical environment. 
 
 Certain geographic conditions, however, have a much more direct 
 effect, and are so powerful that not even the strongest races have yd 
 learned to overcome them. For example, the Dutch ai-e a wonderful 
 people, possessed of fine minds, and great energ}^; but when they go 
 to such places as Borneo, where the climate is tropical, they soon 
 cease to accomplish as much ns in their own land, for they suffer in 
 health and energ\\ This is due not only to distinct diseases, but to 
 the direct effect of climate, as we ourselves see when we feel dull and 
 listless in hot weather. Thus it appears that a considerable part of 
 what we call the character of a race or nation, by which we often 
 mean their efficiency, depends upon geographical surroundings. 
 
 (d) Why Matins Higher Xccds Depend on Geography. — That 
 country stands highest in which the gi'eatest number of people take 
 an intelligent and active interest in government, education, science, 
 religion, and art. These nuvuis of satisfying the higher necMJs are 
 much influenced by geographic surroundings ev(>n though they 
 also depend largely upon racial character, the accidents of historical 
 
10 MAX'S i{i:latr).\ to rin-siCAL KX\'nj()XM!:xT 
 
 devclopniont . aiul the presence of men of genius. The geographical 
 infliU'iK'cs acl llirough five agencies: (1) density of i)opuIati()n; (2) 
 (l(>gree oi prosj>erily; (3) degree of isolation; (4) local differences in 
 interests or resources, and (5) degree of energy-. 
 
 (1) Hoic Density of Population is Favorable to Ma7i's Higher 
 Needs. — Where the population is dense people can easily get together 
 and talk things over; thej' can all be within the reach of law courts, 
 election ])laces, schools, churches, and ait museums, and they can 
 learn how to adapt themselves to new surroundings much more easily 
 than can people who are scattered in small groups over a large area. 
 That is one reason wh}' southern Scotland is less conserv'ative and 
 better educated than the northern part of the country. Nevertheless 
 the peopl(> of \hv North maj- be even more competent than those of 
 the South. 
 
 (2) Hoic Prosperity and Poverty Injlic^nee the Higher Needs. — 
 Where favorable surroundings lilce those of Indiana make a com- 
 munity rich and prosperous it can afford to maintain a good govern- 
 ment, and support teachers, scientists, clergymen, and artists. A 
 region like eastern Quebec with poorer soil and a less favorable 
 climate cannot afford to spend so much. 
 
 (3) Hoiv Isolation is Unfavonible to Afan's Higher Needs. — China 
 illustrates the effect of geographical isolation on the higher activities. 
 Although Buddhism came from India, the intervening mountains 
 have prevented the two countries from having much influence on one 
 another. The sea long shut China off from the rest of the world. Now, 
 however, the old isolation is breaking down. So we see the Chinese 
 government change from an a])sohitc monarchy to a rcpu])lic; the old 
 system of learning by rote gives place to study for the purpose of learn- 
 ing to think; wi-iting with thousands of difficult characters gives place 
 to a new system with only thirty-nine lettei-s, almost as simple as our 
 own; and witchcraft is beginning to Ix; replaced by scientific medicine. 
 
 (4) Hoiv Loeal Cirenmstanees Alter the Responses to Man's Higher 
 Needs. — Geographical conditions often have a direct effect on the 
 nature of art, religion, govermiient, educnlion, and other i)hases 
 of civilization. For instance, the scatlercd location of the various 
 parts of the British iMiipire causes llic most pi-ogi(>ssive of them to 
 be far iiioic iiKlcpciiilcnl tli;iii me llic Stales in oiii' own couiitiy. In 
 the sajiie way because our States cover a huge area and have difrer(>iit 
 climates and dilTerent relations to the sea, they can be joined hapi)ily 
 in a single country only if the vaiious parts have more self-govern- 
 ment than have the provinces of l-Vance, which lie close together and 
 have only slight divergences of interests. Again in education, con- 
 trast the great number of trade schools in England, where coal, iron. 
 
HUMAN GEOGRAPiri^ 11 
 
 and other factors coin])ino to encourage manufaeturinj]^, willi the 
 schools of a country I'ke Argentina, where sucli subjects find no place. 
 
 So, too, Germany has turned especially to chemistry because the 
 presence of rich deposits of unusual minerals, and the use of the 
 beet for suga.r gave the Germans great interest in that science. In 
 like fashion the English, because of their wide use of the sea, have 
 been the cliief investigators of the science of oceanography; and 
 California, by reason of its clear air, holds an uncommonly high place 
 in astronomy. 
 
 Eveiy rehgion is at least modified by its surroundings, especially 
 those of its birthplace. The objects of worship are often deter- 
 mined by geography. In India where the coming of the rain is 
 uncertain, the rain god is one of the chief deities. In the lofty pla- 
 teaus of the Central Andes, where one is never warm, except when 
 actually in the sunlight, sun worship jjrevails. In Egj-pt the Nile 
 was once an object of rehgious adoration, since the Egyptians knew 
 that their very lives depended upon it. The fact that both Judaism 
 and Christianity sprang from a dry region where sheep herding is 
 one of the chief occupations is evident in many parts of the Bible: 
 " I am the good shepherd and know my sheep." " The shejiherd 
 giveth his hfe for his sheep." '' The Lord is my shepherd; I shall 
 not want. He maketh me to lie down in green pastures: He leadeth 
 me beside the still waters." Such quotations reflect the chief occu- 
 pation of Palestine. 
 
 The art of a country like Japan, where wood, silk, and copper 
 are abundant and easily worked, and where stone cannot readily be 
 procured, is bound to be very different from that of a country like 
 Greece, where easily worked marl)l(> is far more common than good 
 lumber, and where there is little silk and no metals. The Ja])an(^se 
 build wooden temples with pointed roofs, and place in them i)aintings 
 on silk anrl Buddhas cast in bi'onze, while tlu^ Greeks built flat-roofed 
 temples of stone and filled them with marble statues. Not only the 
 materials used in art, but the subjects show the influence of environ- 
 ment. In Japan v(ni(M-al)le scraggly pine trees and symmetrical 
 volcanoes are among the chief subjects of art, while in Egypt the lotus, 
 a water lily of that valk^y, ])ecame the main ornament of architcH'ture. 
 Similarly the acanlhus leaf was characteristic of th(^ art of Greece 
 where that bold handsome plant thiives in the dry soil. Even in the 
 most progressive countries the art reflects local conditions. 
 
 (5) How the Higher Needs Res'pond to Energy. — Lastly, the degree 
 of perfection to which a country carriers its governnuMit, education, 
 science, nJigion, and aii, dej^ends largely on the eiuM'gy of the iieo]il(>; 
 and lliat, as we lia\c just seen, is inllucnccd moiv l»y climate than l)y 
 
12 MANS UET.ATIOX TO PTTYSICAT. FXVIROXMEXT 
 
 :iuy oilier one factor. IIciu-o ^ood-fiovcnunciil clubs, oducational 
 societies, scientific associations, j)lHlanlliroi)ic orjianizations, and 
 musical clubs are vastly more numerous in a countiy like 
 Denmark, with a slimuialiuii; climate, than in a tr()])ical counti'v like 
 Siajn. 
 
 An Example of Human Geography: Khirghiz Nomads of Cen- 
 tral Asia. — The natui'e of human {j;eograi)hy inay he ilhisl rated by an 
 e.xamjile. Some of the Khiif^hiz of Central A.-^ia are wandering herds- 
 men, or i)astoral nomads, who live in the {^reat Tian Shan Plateau of 
 Central Asia in sununer, and descend to the \'alleys and llic lowland 
 plain in winter. They are densely ignorant and sujM'rslitious. 
 So low are they in the scale of civilization tliat they know almost 
 nothing; of manufacturing, science, and art. Their furniture consists 
 of little except bags, sadtlles, and quilts. They eat theii- meals with 
 their fingei's from the connnon dish while sitting cross-legged on the 
 bare ground oi* on the woolen rugs which are almost the only goods 
 that they manufactuie. Often their diet for months consists of 
 sour milk, cheese, and meat with abnost no bread and no vegetables 
 or fruit of any desciiption. Aecortling to our standards the Khirghiz 
 are dirty, lazy, and unprogressive. Those who give up their usual 
 mode of life and settle down to live permanently among the Russians 
 of Siberia, become still woise, for they begin to deteriorate not only 
 in character, but in health. To offset these unfortunate traits the 
 Nomadic Khirghiz aic delightfully hospitable, quite honest, and so 
 bold and hai'dy that one cannot help admiiing tl-em. 
 
 How Their Location Isolates the Khirghiz.— In saying that the 
 Ivhirghiz li\(' in (Vntral Asia we have alread}' stated tlu> main fact 
 as to their location. It is necessaiy to add that they live in the 
 "middle latitudes," since the center of that vast continent is midway 
 fnjjn the ('([uator to the pole. Nowheie in all the world is tlu^re a 
 region moic icmote fiom the sea and fiom all the broadening influ- 
 ences which the great waters carry with them. On the south the 
 great deserts of Chinese Turkestan and the huge desolate plat(>au of 
 Tibet sei)arate Ihc Khiighiz fiom India and nil outside inlluences 
 in tliat direction. On the east and west they are also shut in by 
 deserts so that they cojne in contact only with nomads like them- 
 selves — Mongols on one side and Turkomans on lheolh<'r. ( )nly 
 toward the north, where the desert is less severe, do the Khirghiz 
 come in contact with a civilized ]M>oi)le, the Russians, but even that 
 contact is slight. Thus isolation is the kej'note of the Khirghiz 
 local ion. 
 
 How Plains, Mountains, and Plateaus Encompass the Khirghiz. — 
 IJroad plains io the north and high mountains and vast plateaus to 
 
HUMAN GEOGRAPHY 13 
 
 the south are the land forms anions whicli iho Kliirghiz have their 
 home. It is a womU^-fiil expericnt-o to start in the broad plain and 
 ride southward on horseback, with the Kliirghiz. At first the ])lain is 
 almost as level as the sea, and one's vision is liniitcnl only by the un- 
 broken horizon, except whei'e distant blue mountains l)reak the sk}'- 
 line far to the south. The next day's march l)rings us among low 
 hills; then the hills become so high and numc^rous that the trail 
 winds up a valley instead of going straight toward its destination. 
 Only after several tlays' riding, however, does it enter a real mountain 
 valley, where the cliffs rise steepty on each side and 1he trail can 
 scarcely find a foothold. When there is no room at the bottom of 
 the valley, it nuist zigzag up a steep rocky slope, where a mis-step 
 or an unnoticed ])it of ice sometimes sends a horse tumbling hun- 
 dreds of feet into the river. Finally, the valley opens out into a fine 
 plateau, where broad, green basin-shaped i)lains lie pleasant h^ spread 
 out at heights of 8000 to 12,000 feet. On ever}' side rise snow- 
 covered niountains, wonderfully tinted with blue or pink, and studded 
 here and there with glaciers. Such are the wandering places of our 
 Khirghiz nomads. 
 
 The Part Played by Water Bodies. — In the land of the Khirghiz 
 there are salt lakes such as Balkash in the desert lowland, and fresh 
 water lakes of rare beauty, such as Issik Kul among the mountains. 
 These, however, have little effect on the lives of the nomads, except 
 that certain dry lake bottoms furnish salt. Far more important are 
 the rivers; for they serve as drinldng places for cattle and because 
 they have carved the valleys up which the Khirghiz climl:)s to the 
 mountains. Such livers are very hard to cross when the snow 
 is melting in the spring. Sometimes a Khirghiz horseman tries to 
 cross when the water is too high; his horse stmnbles aniid the b()uld(M-s; 
 and horse and rider are swept down sevei-al hundred yai'ds in the icy 
 water, and are fortunate if they can finally scraiul)le ashore. S()nu>- 
 times the streams ctumot be crossed, and thus the trails arc forced 
 high up the mountain sides. 
 
 The most noticeable habit of the riv(M-s is the suddenness with 
 which the}' rise. By night in siunmcr the mountains ar(> cold and no 
 snow melts, so that in the morning the rivers are low. By day there 
 is much melting, and the streams sw(>ll lapidly. In some rivers the 
 flood comes down at a regular hour each day. and the Khiighiz urge 
 their hoi-s(>s to a gallop in order to reach the ford before the thick 
 muddy tide of melted snow cojnes pouring down. 
 
 The most iinpoiiaiit of all water bodies to the Khiighiz are the 
 springs beside which they camp. Among the mountains these are 
 numerous. Init in the diy lowlands, far from the rivers, they are so 
 
14 MAN'S In-.I.ATIOX TO PlIVSTrAL F.WIKOXMKNT 
 
 rare as t-o l)i' ^■<•I•v precious. In siumiier largo .stretches are iniiii- 
 lialiilalile Itei-iuse no di-inkiiiir water is oblainaMi*. 
 
 Why Soil and Minerals Have Little Influence. — Neither soil 
 iKtr minerals have much effect on the Khiij^hiz. The soil is excellent, 
 hut ils use is limited to grass since tlie climate jirevents the p;ro^vth 
 of crops. The mineral wealth thus far discoveretl shows that some 
 day it nia>- he important, but isolation has kept the Khirghiz so 
 backward that they have not yet learned to use the miiuM-ais of their 
 mountains. 
 
 The Nature of the Climate. — The Khii-ghiz hve so remote from 
 th(^ ocean that the winds have largely lost tb.eir moisture before they 
 penetrate so far inland. Hence the lowlands are barren slcjjpes. 
 Fortunately what precipitation they get comes in smnmer rather 
 than in wntcr, but it is never enough to support agriculture. The 
 contiast of the seasons is great, for the summers are steadily hot, 
 wliile the winters are long and liitterly cold with occasional fierce 
 wild gales. 
 
 Among the mountains the fall of snow and rain is jnuch greater 
 than in the plains. In winter the mountains are so cold and snowy 
 that no one can \ixe there. In summer they are cool and wet, but 
 not uni^leasant. Frosts may occur at night on the plateau even in 
 July, and showers are fairly common, Iml the ])right clear days during 
 nnich of the summer are delightful. 
 
 How the Climate Determines the Vegetation. — T1k> plants that 
 flourish in a climate such as that of the Khirghiz are limited. In the 
 ilry lowland plains there is a fairly good growth of short grass dming 
 tlie sunnnC.r, but it is the thin grass of the steppes and not the rich 
 verdure of the prairies. AVhcrc water is available for irrigation 
 excellent crops can be grown, but such places are too rare to support 
 any great number of jieoj^jle. As one passes from the treeless grassy 
 stepjies into the mountains a fringe of willow trees is often seen beside 
 the streams, but there are no real forests nut 11 a luMght of perhaps 0000 
 feet is reached, where the rainfall is suflicieiil for tree growth. Above 
 that for about 2000 feet the slopes are clothed with pine forests, but 
 the total area of these is insignificant, for the heights soon become too 
 cold for trees. Above th(^ tree line grass again predominates. This 
 time it is thicker, and more turfy than that of the lowlands. It is 
 the beautiful, flower-studd(>d grass of the Alj^ine lieights for which 
 the cool wet summer is ideal. In some ])laces it grows a foot or more 
 tall and is full of daisies, red peonies, and other bright flowers. Else- 
 where it is .shorter and spangled wit)i thousands of wild ixuisies. 
 Finally, near the snowline, the grass gives jilace to lichens and moss. 
 Grass is the dominant vegetation of the home of the KJiirghiz. 
 
HUMAN GEOGRAPHY 15 
 
 The Wild Animal Life. — In the steppes of southeni Siberia and 
 the plateau of Tian Shan where the Khir^Iiiz have their home there 
 are thousands of insects, birds, and mammals, but only a few which 
 influence the hfe of man. The wild animals that he chiefly notices 
 in the lowlands are antelopes, quail, and wolves. Herds of ant(>lope 
 browse on the diy grass. The quail feed on seeds and are themselves 
 a great delicacy. The wolves not only sometimes stampede the 
 horses that are turned loose at night to feed around the Khirghiz 
 tents, but also kill many lambs. On the plateau the most important 
 wild animals are two that live on the rich grass. One is the mountain 
 sheep with its enormous curved horns six or more inches in diameter 
 at the base. The other is the marmot, a small animal Uke a wood- 
 chuck. So abundant is the marmot that one can sometimes count a 
 hundred in fifteen minutes, all browsing near their burrows or sitting 
 up attentively on their hind legs beside their holes and ready to dive 
 at the approach of danger. 
 
 How Man Responds to Grasslands. — In such an environment 
 what mode of life should we expect? In other words, how is man to 
 get a living? Since grass is the cliief resource the best way is to 
 keep domestic animals such as sheep, cows, horses, or camels. Since 
 each family needs many animals the grass in any one place is eaten 
 up in a month or two. Moreover, the most nutritious grass grows in 
 the high plateau where it is deeply buried in snow except for three 
 or four months in summer. Hence the most practicable mode of life 
 is pastoral nomadism. That is, the Khirgliiz must keep animals, 
 and drive them from pasture to pasture. In summer he is on the 
 high plateaus among the mountains with his flocks and lierds, but as 
 winter approaches the animals must gradually be driven downward 
 to the lowest valleys, and out upon the plains where hay has been 
 stored and where relatively permanent camps are occupied for three 
 or four months in mid-winter. 
 
 Why Animals Furnish Most of the Food. — Such being their mode 
 of hfe, let us see how tlie Khirghiz resi:)ond to the environment in 
 other respects. Why is their diet so largely limited to milk, cheese, 
 and meat? 
 
 Since the summers are too cold for gardens, vegetables are ahnost 
 unknown. IMcat, too, is by no means eaten regularly, as one might 
 supix)se. Some of the j'oimg animals that grow up each year must 
 be kept to increase the flock, and replace those lost in storms or 
 eaten by wolves. Most of the rest must be exchanged for flour, cloth, 
 knives, or other necessities. Hence onlj^ a few can be eaten. Milk is 
 the staple food. Part of it is made into butter or hard sour cheese, 
 and kept for weeks or months. The rest is used at once, but not till 
 
16 MAN'S l^FLATIOX 'I'o I'lIVSirAL EXVTROXMEXT 
 
 it ]i;is Ix'coino scnir. Tlic Kliir<iliiz liave learned lli;i1 if milk is used 
 in hiijzc (luantitics. it is n:i:'.'h more healthful sour than fresh. 
 
 To many a Khirjihiz hoy or {lirl l)r(>a(l is as n:uch a luxuiy as is 
 eakc to a ehild in America. '1 lie fjoui' must \>v hroujiht lonfi; distances 
 on hor.'^es or camels. Tlie supply may be exhausted lonjj; before the 
 suinjner stay in the ir.ountains is over. A J\hiiu;hiz mother often 
 takes preat pains to stow liei' little s1or(> of bread wheiv the cliihhcn 
 will not find it and be temi)ted to eat it without permission. As there 
 is no fuel except dry <2;rass or the dried dunfr of aniinals, and as stoves 
 ai'e too lieavy to l)e easily 1i;ins])()i-1e(l, ilie bicad is baked in thin 
 sheets over open fires, or perhaps the dough is cut into cubes and 
 boiled in fat like doufihnuts. 
 
 The Relation of Clothing to Environment. — The clotliing of the 
 Khir<r;hiz is fitted for life in the cool damp mountains in summer 
 and in the cold lowlands in winter. At all seasons both men and 
 women wear thick i)added ti'owns that shed l]ie lain, and hiuli boots 
 for walkiufi; in the wet grass and among the cattle. Much of their 
 clothing is made from the wool of tlieir sheej) and the skins of their 
 animals The men wear grcvit cai)s of sheepskin with the wool on 
 the outsitle, and everyone has a sheepsldn coat made so that it can 
 be woi"n with the wool in or out according to the weather. The 
 women wear head (•()\-erings of col Ion ciotli fiom Russia. They 
 Vind long embroidei-ed stiij^s into head-dresses a foot high. Both 
 nen and wom(>n keep their hands warm and dry by means of sleeves 
 ihat extend down a foot or so l)elow the hands. It is amusing to 
 watch them thi'ow back their sleeves when they eat, or ])egin to work. 
 Tlie necessity of selling aniinals to obtain cloth for clothing is one of 
 the chief reasons for what little coinnierce th(M'e is among the Khii-ghiz. 
 
 The Movable Homes of the Ncmads. — Peoi)le who frequently 
 migiate must use a shelter that can readily be taken down, packed on 
 animals, and set up in a new site. A tent is adniiably adapted to 
 such purjjoses. 'i'he tent of the Khirghiz is round and covered with 
 a thick felt made from the wool of their sheep. A folding lattice 
 fence of willow fniiiis a cii'cle IweK'e to fifteen feel in diameter. 
 I''rom the top of this, light i)oIes coiiA-erge U|)ward toward a large 
 circular opening. Over the frani(>-woik thus foiined, the felts arc 
 smoothly stretched, and aic most elTe(•(i^•e in keejiing out cold, rain, 
 and wind. 
 
 The Tools of Pastoral Nomads. T'ndcM- the heading tools we 
 inrluile not only oidinaiT tools, bnl all kinds of iiiiplenients, utensils, 
 and even machines — in fact everything that ])eople make in order to 
 hel]i themselves in some occu])alion. Since all of a family's goods are 
 carried (jn the backs of animals eveiy few weeks, especial kinds of 
 
HUMAN GEOr.RAPHY 
 
 17 
 
18 
 
 MAX'S i;i:i.ATI()X TO PIIVSirAL ENVIRONMENT 
 
 utensils arc needed. China dishes arc too breakable and metal bowls 
 loo h(>avy. Therefore, milk, cheese, and butter arc kept in whole 
 sheepskins partial]}' tanned, ^^'hen the faniil}' sits down to a meal a 
 great wooden bowl holds the sour milk, soup, or meat. As foiks and 
 spoons cannot easily be made and arc a luxury beyond the reach of 
 the Khirfihiz, eveiyone eats with his fingers from the same dish. 
 Since furniture is too awkward and hca\y to be transportetl on the 
 backs of animals, rugs fi-om the wool of the sheep take the place of 
 chairs, tables, and betls. 
 
 Fig. 3. — Erecting a Turkoman Tout in Transfii-'^pia. 
 The Turkomans, like their Khirghiz neighbors, live in round felt tents that can be 
 
 easily set up. 
 
 How the Khirghiz Family Moves. — A Khirghiz migration is an 
 interest ing siglil . At dawn a group of t(Mi1s stands on the gi'eeii turf 
 at tlie l»as(! of a high clilT. An liour latei' tlie tetit:^ have been pulled 
 down b}' the women, while the men have started on tlie day's journey 
 with th(> slow-moving sho(>p. A five-year old child leads a snarling 
 camel to the pile of felts, poles, and lattice where his mother has just 
 jnilled down the tent. A jerk on the rope tied to a pin in the crea- 
 ture's nose makes it kneel in s)iite of its fierce snarls. The mother 
 ami all (ild'T boy tie the tent ])oles. a ])ox or two, and some bags and 
 rugs on the animal's back. A big sister fastens some wooden bowls 
 
HUMAN GEOGRAPHY 19 
 
 and some sheepskins of sour milk and cheese on one side, and on the 
 other ties the baby's cradle. The baby is put into the cradle, a big 
 rug is tied firmly over it, and the camel, grunting and complaining, 
 is led away to take his place at the head of a string of other camels. 
 The mother and all the cliildren down to the five-year old j'oungster 
 follow on horseback. By nightfall the tents are set up ten or fifteen 
 miles away and the new encampment looks as comfortable as the old. 
 
 The Work of Cattle Herding.— The life of the cattle herder is 
 sometimes easj" and at others very strenuous. Some of the men go 
 out with the sheep and sit around all day doing nothing except 
 occasionally bring back a straying sheep. Others on horseback, 
 round up the cattle or yaks to see if all are on hand and perhaps to 
 pick out one for sale ; still others, with nooses tied to the end of what 
 look like fishing poles, gallop off to catch horses when more are needed. 
 
 Occasionally, however, the Khirghiz must ride all day to recover 
 stray animals. Wolves must sometimes be fought, while during the 
 great snow storms the sheep must be carried to safety, one by one. 
 Thus the Khirghiz men are forced to tremendous exertions for a while. 
 They come back to the tents so tired that they Me down and do almost 
 nothing for daj^s. As the women milk the animals and do all the 
 routine work the occupation of herding tends to make the men lazy. 
 They laugh at the danger of fording a roaring torrent, which makes the 
 city man pale, but they do not know how to stick to hard, steady 
 work, for their occupation does not require it. 
 
 Why Manufacturing and Commerce are Backward.— This lack of 
 steadfastness, the difficulties of tranpportation, the isolation, and 
 the lack of other incentives cause Khirgliiz industries and commerce 
 to be poorly developed. The women weave, or rather knot, beautiful 
 rugs of wool, which are prized even in Europe and America for their 
 harmonious colors and pleasing patterns. The women also make 
 gay felts by beating wool of various colors into a firm waterproof 
 mass; the skins of animals are tanned; and a few other sbnple opera- 
 tions are carried on. From the materials available to pastoral 
 nomads, the Khirghiz make the things that they need and can easily 
 carry, but that is the limit of industrial development. 
 
 Commerce is equally backward. In the autmnn droves of sheep, 
 horses, and camels, and perhaps a few cattle are driven to a distant 
 town for sale. Flour, cloth, guns, and othcM- small articles are brought 
 back. Even in these simple transactions — their only commercial 
 dealings — the nomads are frequently cheated by the city men, for 
 though the Khirghiz daie traverse the most narrow and dangerous 
 trails, their daily life gives them no skill in the art of buying and 
 selling. 
 
20 M.WS RELATION TO PHYSICAL EXVIROXMEXT 
 
 Are the Khirghiz Efficient? — It is not easy to nioasure the 
 efficiency of the KJiir^hiz. So fai- as we can dctcrnnne, the Turanian 
 race to wliicli they Ix'lona; piohalily stands lower in mental power 
 than does either the wliite race or the yellow Monfi;olian race to 
 which the Chinese belong. We have seen also that their occupation 
 tends to make the Khiiirhiz la/y and ineffici(Mit-. As to health no 
 figures are availaMc, hut the Kliiij^liiz an- |)r()l)al)ly not lonp;-lived. 
 They seem stroiiu and liearty, however, and the outdoor occupation 
 of both men and women as well as the life in the open tents is certainly 
 beneficial. How valuable these are is evident when the Khiighiz 
 move to tlie Russian villajies and live in close stuffy houses. I'nder 
 sucli circuuistanccc their health suffers at once. Even when living 
 out-of-doors the Khirghiz have some disadvantages. The winter 
 Ls so long, cold, and monotonous, that it saps th.eir vitality. Little 
 fires of the dried dung of cattle are the onl}' help against the cold. 
 The cool suininci', however, is ex( cllc^nt, except that there is a good 
 deal of exiK)sure to dampness and chills. 
 
 The Exhilarating Recreation of the Herders. — That the Khir- 
 ghiz are strong, hardy people is evident from their favorite games. 
 In one of these the players are on h.ors(>back. Their oliject is to see 
 who can skin a dead calf and cany off the hide in spite of the attempt 
 of the others to pull it away and skin it them. selves. At first the 
 calf is thrown on the ground in the midst of a circle of riders. At the 
 word eveiyone whips liis hors(^ into the center and all lean over and 
 try to pick up the dead animal. The ouv wjio liually gets it darts out 
 of the jilunging, kicking group of hors(>s, throws his leg over the calf 
 and whips out liis knife to begin skinning it as he rides. The liorses 
 gallop furiouslj'-, the men shout wildly, and one thinks that half the 
 band of riders will be killed. I'inally a skillful rival ovei'takes the 
 leader, yanks the calf from under Jiis leg, and goes on with the skin- 
 ning. The same thing soon happens to the rival; and so it goes until 
 someone daics galloji down a trea.cherous slope or foid a rushing 
 river, and thus gel far enougli away from the rest to pull the skin off, 
 and llius win the prize. Such a game is as good a recreation as could 
 be devised, for it gives health, strength, and good sport, and also 
 efficiency in the hardest j^art of the herdei-'s occuiiation. 
 
 How Environment Influences the Higher Needs cf the Khirghiz. — 
 Where geogia|)hical coiKhtions cause nomadic hei'ding to be the 
 chief occui)ation, man's higher needs are usually neglected. Thus 
 the Khiighiz, secure in their remote grasslands, pay little attention 
 to the central government. If a ciime is coimnitted, if a feud l)r(>aks 
 out, or if a new trail is needed, they take the matter into their own 
 hands. In each group of relatives who pitch their tents together the 
 
HUMAN GEOGRAPHY 21 
 
 oldest, or the most competent of the older men is the chief or patri- 
 arch. He rules by his sense of justice and by the dictates of custom 
 instead of by written laws such as we submit to. 
 
 Among nomads like the Khirghiz education and science are even 
 less developed than govermiient. The individual communities are 
 too small to have schools. The absence of contact with outside 
 people and their own lack of inquisitiveness prevent the Khirghiz 
 from making scientific discoveries. In religion they are content to 
 follow many Mohammedan customs, but are too isolated to get any 
 new ideas or even to follow fully the practices of other Mohammedans, 
 Art finds ahnost its only chance for expression in the woolen rugs, 
 bags, and felts which the Khirghiz use for many purposes. Thus 
 civilization remains stationary. The Khirghiz are not savages, but 
 the gulf between them and the more enlightened nations is growing 
 wider. The influence of European civilization has begun to reach 
 them, but their mode of life will probably change only a httle so 
 long as they depend chiefly upon the grass of the plains and high 
 plateaus. 
 
 Geography and other Influences. — In spite of its great impor- 
 tance, as illustrated Ijy the life of the Khirghiz, we must think of 
 geography as only one of the factors that influence human character. 
 Some persons are born with high abihty and some without. A man 
 of great energy and a fine mind even in a del^litating climate far from 
 educational advantages and other opportunities, is worth more than 
 a weak stupid man who lives in the most favorable place in the world. 
 Even an apparently dull boy who has the detennination to make 
 hunself of value will succeed better in a poor environment than will 
 a l)nght boy who lives amid better surroundings, but has not the will 
 to live up to high ideals. So, too, the right kind of government, a 
 good education, or a religion which leads people to serve the public 
 instead of seeking their own petty ambitions ma^- make people 
 amount to more in a poor enviromnent than in a good one without 
 such influences. Moreover, mankind is constantly learning to over- 
 come the influence of unfavorable circumstances, and is even caus- 
 ing them to help him. Tlius although good gergi'aphicnl surround- 
 ings are highly (lcsira])le, it must conslantly be renicmlKn-ed that 
 they are only one of the great factois which determine the progress of 
 a nation. 
 
 QUESTIONS, EXERCISES AND PKOIUJIMS 
 
 1. Write a dcscriijtion of your homo rojiion on llir model of tlic K'liiruliiz. 
 
 2. Compare tlie iiulustries and recreation of tlic ])imi|i1c wlm ii\-(' in \dur State 
 
22 MAX'S RELATION' TO IMIVSICAL ENVIIIOXMEXT 
 
 with Ihoso of the Kliirphiz. or snmo otlirr pooiilo. What aro the (jualifies of mind 
 and body di'veh)|H'd in i'a( li \>y the activities of daily hfc? 
 
 3. Cljissify the twelve chief raw materials used for the food and clothing of the 
 people of your home town according to (a) whether they are animal, vegetable, 
 or mineral, (b) whether they are imi)orts or domestic iiroducts. 
 
 4. Compare the geographic environment of Joseph and his brethren in Egj-pt 
 with that of their Jewisli descendants of the East Side of Xew York. Point out 
 how this would cause diflerences in respect to the huuiaii responses included under 
 {a) material needs, {b) occupations, in Fig. 1. 
 
 5. \\'rite a comivirison of Figs. 2 and 3, in order to show what these two 
 tj'pes of dwellings illustrate a.s to the effect of environment on («) occujiation; 
 (6) raw materials, (c) methods of hoase building. 
 
 0. Select some backward region that especially interests you in any part of the 
 world. ( )n the basis of your own knowledge and of accounts in encyclopaedias, 
 refi'rence books, books of travel and magazine articles, write a geograjihical de- 
 scription. ITsc the Khirghiz as a model. Pick out the most important features of 
 the geograjihic environment and treat them with special fullness. 
 
 7. Select some jirogressivc region and treat it in the same way. As you 
 treat the different topics explain why in some of llicm progressive people arc much 
 more difficult to describe than uuprogrcssive. 
 
PART II 
 
 MAN'S RELATION TO LOCATION 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 THE EFFECT OF THE EARTH'S FORM AND MOTIONS 
 
 The Earth as a Globe. — In the diagram on page 3, location stands 
 first because upon it depend a great many other geographical condi- 
 tions such as distances and cHmate. The only possible way of stating 
 the location of a place is by gi\ang its position in reference to some- 
 thing else. The fact that the earth is a rotating globe is highly impor- 
 tant in this respect, for it means that the earth has two fixed points, 
 the poles, whose position can be determined with absolute precision 
 and in reference to which all other positions can be fixed. The 
 equator, for example, is merely an imaginary line half way l)etween 
 the poles. 
 
 The evidence that the earth is a globe is abundant. The hull of 
 a distant ship disappears before the sails or smoke stacks. Hence 
 the intervening surface must be curved. The altitude of the stars 
 changes by a practically uniform minilx'i- of degrees for each himdred 
 miles that one travels northward or southward. This is j)ossible 
 only on a globular earth. Moreover, thousands of people hav(^ 
 actually gone around the glo])e in many diffcreiit directions since 
 Magellan's first circumnavigation. 
 
 The evidence that the earth rotate:- on an axis is not so clear as 
 the evidence that it is a globe. The sun, moon, and stars, to be sure, 
 rise and set as if the earth rotated, but tliis might be because each 
 heavenly body revolves around the earth, as was supposed by the 
 ancients. So fiiinly was this idea established that when Galileo 
 announced that \ho earth's rotation accounts for day and night and 
 llie rising and selling of the stais, he risked violent persecution and 
 even death. One of tlie most couAiiiciiig jH'oofs that the eai'th rotates 
 is the course of a ball dropped fiom a grcvit height. Barring a slight 
 deflection due to the varying density of different jiarts of tiie earth, a 
 plumb UnesuspcMK led fi-om a lofty st met ui-e such as the I'itTel Tower in 
 
 23 
 
24 
 
 MANS i;i;i.Ari()N to location 
 
 jlorth Pot, 
 
 I'aris pdiiils st raitilil towai'il the cailh's cciitcr. If a liall lie dioppcd 
 from till- point (tf sus|)ciisi(tn. it will not stiikc the caitli at the point 
 t )\vai'.l which the |)hiinl) line was (hicctiMl, luit an iix'h of nioic to the 
 cast. During tlic few seconds while 1 he hall i> fallinti, holh hall and 
 earth move eastward hy rotation. The hall falls perfectly straifiht, 
 l)ut it lias an eastward motion ^ireatcr than that of the point below it. 
 The Meaning of Latitude and Longitude. — The relation of lati- 
 tude and longitude to the lilohulai- huni and lotation of the earth 
 ma\- he illustrated hy an umhrella. The handle represents the 
 eai'th's axis u!)on which lotation takes place. It jxasses through the 
 cloth at the pole, while the lower edge of the cloth, if it were straight 
 instead of scalloped, would represent the ecjuator. The ribs represent 
 meridians hy which lonjiitude. oi- angular distance cast or west, is 
 measured. Circles parallel to the mnl)rella's lower edge would cor- 
 respond to the parallels by which latitude, or angular distance north 
 or south is measured. If a marked rib serves as the pi'ime meridian 
 of London, the puyitiun -A any point on the umbrella may be indicated 
 
 as so many degrees of longitide east or 
 west of the ]irime meridian, and so 
 many degrees of latitude from the equa- 
 tor. All these relationships, as they 
 appear upon a globe, are shown in Fig. 4. 
 
 Although latitude and longitude arc 
 angular distanc(»s they can readily be 
 converted into distances in mil(>s pro- 
 vided the size of the globe is known. 
 The length of a degi-ee of latitude is 
 everywhei'e about (1!) miles, while a 
 (l{'gl'(>c of longitude has the same length 
 at the ('(luatoi-, but decicases steadily 
 until it ])ecomes nothing at the i)()les where the meridians con- 
 vei-g(^ 
 
 The distinction between longit 
 j-enieinbered by bearing in mind 
 180°, but is the lonij dimension of the Me<lit(>rranean Sea where 
 the terms were Hrst used. Latitude luns only to 90°. The word 
 comes from the Latin for " wide," meaning the width of the Medi- 
 t-eri'anea n. 
 
 Another |)oint to renieinbei' is that hiuli latitudes are not only 
 designated by high iiiimheis both north and south of the ecjuator, 
 but are those which would be Inghest on the umbrella of our illus- 
 tration. The continent of Antarctica is in high Latitudes, while 
 Ecuador, which means ]']{juator Country, is in low latitudes. Our 
 
 Fig- 4. — Latitude aiul Long- 
 itude un a Globe. 
 
 ude and latitude can easily be 
 hat longitude notonly runs to 
 
THE EFFECT OF THE EARTH'S FORM AND MOTIONS 25 
 
 own country is in the middle latitudes, which are Ihe best parts of 
 the world. 
 
 A good example of the use of latitude and louiiitude is the way it 
 enables ships at sea to state their exact position. When the Lusitania, 
 for example, was torpedoc'd b}' a German submarine in 1915, it sent 
 out a wireless message tliat it was in 51° N. latitude, 9° W. longitude. 
 Instantl}' the ships recei\ing the message hastened to the exact sjxjt 
 even though it was far ])eyond their vision. Though the Lusitania 
 sank in twenty minutes many people were saved. An airplane in 
 crossing the ocean asks the latitude and longitude of every shi[) that 
 it passes, in order that the aviators may knoNN- just where they are. 
 
 How Time is Determined. — In order to ascertain the location of a 
 place on the earth's suiface, time as well as latitude and longitude 
 must be employed. 
 
 The sun is the natural time-keeper for all the world. Wlien 
 people first made careful measurements of time they based their 
 reckonings on the hour at which the shadow cast by the sim is shoi'test. 
 This gave the simplest form of " local " time, but it was ultimately 
 found that the days measured in this way vary in length, because 
 of the earth's vaiying rate of motion around the sun. By mak- 
 ing corrections on this basis, they obtained what is called " mean " 
 time, according to which twelve o'clock is the average time at which 
 the sun reaches its highest point throughout the year. ^Phis was an 
 imjiortant step. Today, however, local mean time is rarely used in 
 progressive regions. It is not convenient in these days of railroads, 
 automobiles, air planes and i'ai)id trav(>l, for no two places have the 
 same local time unless they happen to be on the same meridian. 
 Wlien railroads were introduced each raih'oad used the time of the 
 city where its liead(|uarlei's wow located. At raih'oad junctions 
 there thus were often ditter(Mit times. In one town //re systcMus were 
 in use as late as ISSO, while in the United States as a whole the rail- 
 roads ran on 53. 
 
 To oiniate this confusion the ]:)resent system of " standard " time 
 was adopted with only four l)el1s. Thes(> belts are based on longitude. 
 Since the eai'lli lotates 15° an hour, the laili'oads in IS83 agreed 
 to use only the k)cal i'unc of cei-tain " standard " in(>i-idians that 
 are multiples of 15°. Tiie countr}' is divided into belts lying on 
 either side of these inciidians. 
 
 The most easterly belt uses the time of the mei-idian 75° west of 
 Greenwich. Eastern Time, as it is called, is thei{>foi-e five hours 
 behind that of London. The next, oi' nHlnil liinr belt, uses the 
 time of tli(^ OOlii niei-idian, six houi's Ix'hind London : wiiilc the moun- 
 tain time of the 105th meridian and (he Pacific time of the 12()th are 
 
26 
 
 MAX'S HI:LA'I"I().\ to locatiox 
 
THE EFFECT OF THE EARTHS FORM AND MOTIONS 27 
 
 respectively seven and oiolit hours behind London. This sj'stem is 
 very convenient, for people do not need to change their watches ex- 
 cept on passing from one belt to another, and then the change is al- 
 ways exactly one hour. The standard time belts of the United States 
 are shown in Fig. 5. As the raih'oads prefer to change time at division 
 points where new trains are made up, rather than in the middle of 
 long runs, the belts are irregular in shape. 
 
 How Travelers Gain or Lose Time. — On a journey around the 
 world the time changes twenty-four hours. In 1519 Magellan left 
 Spain with five ships to make the first voj'age round the world. AVhcni 
 his sole surviving vessel reached Spain three years later the crew 
 cound not understand whj' their reckoning made the date September 
 6, while the people at home said it was September 7. No mistake 
 could be found in the ship's records, and the travelers were much 
 puzzled until Paoli Sarpi told them that during their adventurous 
 voyage they had lost a day by going around the world with the sun. 
 If they had gone eastward, they would have gained a day, and would 
 have recorded the date of their return as September 8. 
 
 The explanation is simple. Suppose a traveler starts from London 
 at noon on Monday, and travels westward at the rate of 15° a day. 
 Since 15° of longitude are equal to an hour of time, the sun at the 
 second noon will reach the zenith an hour later than at London. 
 Therefore at noon by the sun on Tuesday, the traveler's watch will 
 say 1 P.M., and he will have to set it back an hour and will actually 
 have twenty-five hours in his day. Such changes in the clock are 
 made regularly on ships that cross the Atlantic. The change, how- 
 ever, is generally less than an hour, for only in high latitudes can 
 ships travel through 15° of longitude in a day. On Wednesday, if 
 the traveler continues westward at the rate of 15° a day, a change of 
 another hour will be necessary. London tune will now be ahead of 
 the traveler's by two hours, for each of the traveler's days has been 
 twenty-five hours long instead of twenty-four. If he keeps on 
 around the world he will traverse 360° of longitude, and change his 
 time twentj^-four hours. Whether he travels slowly or rapidly he 
 will gain the same amount of lime in traveling the same number of 
 degrees, and when he gets l)ack to London he will liave gained a whole 
 day. 
 
 Of course such a traveler does not really live twenty-four hours 
 more than his friends who stay at home; therefore, in order to have 
 his calendar correct he must skip a day, that is, move the date ahead 
 one day to make up for the twenty-four hours which hixxv b(>en added 
 bit by bit to his other days. In traveling eastward the days are 
 shortened instead of lengthened, and the watch nmst be set ahead 
 
28 
 
 MANS in:i-\'II<)X TO LOCATIOX 
 
 instead of liack. A cciiain amount of the twontj'-fom- luniis is lost 
 
 out of each chiy. As the daj's 
 
 are sliorter. they ]mss more 
 
 rajiidly tlian a .honu\ and \\\un 
 
 the traveler ^vti^ Iniek to his 
 
 startinfi])oiiit liis reckoning; will 
 
 be one day ahead of that of 
 
 the ])eo]ile who have stayed at 
 
 home. Therefore, he nnist set 
 
 his calendar one day hack, that 
 
 is, re]ieat on(> date. 
 
 Where Days are Lost or 
 Gained. — ^^'hi<•hever way one 
 tra\'els around the world the 
 date nnist evidently ho changed 
 somewher(\ If each person 
 ('han<i;ed when he finished his 
 jouniey, it would cause great 
 confusion. The easiest place to 
 chanp;e the date is the 180th 
 meridian, for this lies abuost 
 wi lolly in the ocean, and com- 
 paratively few peoiile cross it. 
 For convenience the actual 
 Intertiational Date Line is a 
 little zigzag, as sho\ni in Fig. 0, 
 for the Fiji and Chatham 
 Islands prefer to have the same 
 day as New Zealand, while tlie 
 Aleutian Islands wish to be like 
 the rest of Alaska, ^\■henever 
 a ship crosses this line it adjusts 
 its time, that is, (lro])s the next 
 daj' of the calendar if hound 
 westward and adds a day usual- 
 ly called Meridian Day if boimd 
 eastward. Perhaiis the only 
 unhapi)y result of this arrangc- 
 nient is to the boy whose birth- 
 day may fall u]ion a lost da\-. 
 
 How Navigators Find Their ,, ,. , , . , ,, . , 
 
 ° J'Ki. (). — IiilcriialioiKil Date Line. 
 
 Location. An exact knowledge 
 
 of latitude and longitude and also of time is essential to the great art 
 
THE EFFECT OF THE EARTH'S FORM AND MOTIONS 29 
 
 of navigation. The sea captain has no mile posts or signals to guide 
 him as has the engineer on a locomotive. He cannot even measure 
 his speed with perfect accm'acy. His ship, to be sure, is equipped with 
 a log or little wheel that drags in the water far astern and measures 
 the distance like the speedometer of an automobile. The mariner 
 also knows how many revolutions the propeller makes and how 
 far each is supposed to send the ship forward. Yet since the 
 speed and direction of ocean currents are not constant, one cannot 
 be sure how much of the distance indicated by the log and pro- 
 peller is due to the actual movement of the ship and how much 
 to the currents. Moreover, the mariner cannot always be sure 
 that his ship is moving in the right direction. Its prow may always 
 
 Fig. 7 — Position of a Ship bj^ Dead Reckoning and by Obscrvatiou. 
 
 A — B =Course by dead reckoning. 
 B — C=Unreckoned drift. 
 .1 — C =Actual course. 
 
 point right, but an unusually strong current or wind may carry 
 the vessel many miles from its true course in spite of all the mariner's 
 corrections. 
 
 WTien the navigator approaches land such mistakes are most 
 hazardous unless he can correct them by determining his exact loca- 
 tion. In other words, he must be able to determine his latitude and 
 longitude, and thereby correct any mistakes that he has made in his 
 "dead reckoning" from the log and propeller and from his direction 
 as determined by the compass. 
 
 Latitude at Sea. — Wherever one may be,, the mmiber of degrees 
 from the zenith to the noonday sun is always equal to the number of 
 degrees between the observer's position and the part of the earth 
 where the sun's rays are then falling vertically. The ''Nautical 
 Almanac"^ tc>lls the mariner exactlj^ where the rays are vertical at 
 any given tijne. Hence the only thing for him to do is to measure 
 with his sexuint the mnnber of degi'ces in the angle between his 
 zenith and the noon-daj^ sun and add or subtract the number of degrees 
 by which the vertical rays are north or south of the equator. For 
 convenience, however, the mariner actually measures the distance 
 from the horizon to the noon-day sun, and sul)tracts this measure- 
 ment from 90°. Tliis is merely because the horizon can easily l)e 
 
 * The American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac is to be obtained for a 
 gmaii fee from the Supt. of Documents, Gov't Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 
 
MO 
 
 MANS Ki:i,AI'I()\ TO I.OCATIOX 
 
 located wiiilc tlic zciiitli is ?iol (Icliiiitcly iii;iikc<l. At sea the zenith, 
 of course, is al\va>s DO lidiii all pacts of I he lioiizoii. 
 
 Longitude at Sea. While (letei-miiiiii«;- liis hititude the mai-iiier 
 may (leteniiiiie the houi' of local noon, by finding- the exact inonienl 
 when the sun is hiuiiest. Knowiim; this he can delciniine jiis 
 
 Imc.. 8.— Uso of tho Sextant. 
 
 The litUo diagram on the left shows a graduated circle on which the angle 6 has been 
 measured. A sextant has a similar graduated arc on which tho observer measures the angle 
 between his horiion and the noonday sun. Such an angle is shown at b in the upper 
 part of the main diagram. At the equinoxes, when the sun is vertical at the equator, the 
 latitude of the place of observation is measured by eitiier of the angles marked a, since the 
 lines marked "to sun" are parallel. But the angle a is evidently equal to 90°-b. Hence, 
 to find the latitude at any time of the year it is merely necessary (1) to mca.sure the angle 
 h at noon with a sextant, (2) to subtract /) from 90°, and (3) to add or subtract the latitude 
 where the sun's rays happen to fall vertically on the date in question as given in the Nautical 
 Almanac. 
 
 lontiil ud<' l)y simply compaiin<i- local noon with ( Ireenwich t ime which 
 is ;d\\;iys kept on ships hy clocks of remaikalile actairacy, called 
 chr.m.inK h IS. in ])i;ic| ic- he m.-ikes .anothei' ol)sei-\at ion foi' this 
 earlier in the day. 
 
 Since an\- place on the earth's surface rotates throuiih 1.") in one 
 hour, there is a difference of 1.5'' in lon<iitude foi' evei'v liour of differ- 
 ence between the mariner's local noon and the time indicated hv the 
 
THE EFFECT OF THE EARTH'S FORM AND MOTIONS 31 
 
 chronometer. Thus if local noon occurs when the chi-ononietci- 
 reads 1 p.m. the ship is 15° from the prime meridian. Since local 
 time is behind Greenwich time the ship is west of the prime meridian. 
 Hence the lonfj-itude is 15° W. Suppose that local noon came at 9.40 
 a.m. by the chronometer. In this case the difference in time is two 
 hours and twenty minutes, which is equivalent to 35°. Hove local 
 time is ahead of CJreenwich time. Hence the ship is east of tlu^ prime' 
 meridian, and the longitude is 35° E. Wlien the mariner has deter- 
 mined both latitude and longitude, he knows exactly where he is, 
 and can locate the spot on his chart of the sea on which he is sailing. 
 The more important points upon maps are first located by methods 
 like those used by the mariner. Then when the latitude and longitude 
 of man}" places are known, the map can be drawn. 
 
 How Maps Depend on the Earth's Form and Motions. — The shape 
 and movements of the earth and its relation to the sun are of primary 
 importance not only in determining latitude, longitude, time and the 
 seasons, ])ut in determ-ining how maps shall be fnade. If there were 
 no equator and poles, and if the earth's rotation did not cause the sun 
 and stars continually to move through the heavens, there would ])e 
 no such thing as locating points by means of observations of latitude 
 and longitude. Because of the earth's rotation an explorer in Central 
 Africa with his sextant and chronometer can put a newly discovered 
 town on the map with a high degree of accuracy in an hour. If the 
 earth did not rotate and were of irregular shape the only way to make 
 maps would be by direct measurements from some centcn-, such as 
 London. Accurate measurements, how^ever, would cost lnnidr(Mls of 
 dollars per mile by land, and would be almost impossible by sea. 
 Thus, the accuracy and completeness of the art of mapmaking depend 
 direct 1>' on the earth's foim and motion. 
 
 Why Maps are Important. — It is impossible to stud>' geograph\- 
 intclligentl>' without nui])s. The primary purpose of ma])s is to show 
 location. It is easy to say that a large city is located ai)i)i-oximat(>l\- 
 in north latitude 30° and west longitude 90°, that it is on the IMissis- 
 sippi River 107 miles from its mouth, close to Lake Pont chart rain, 
 and that it is 140 miles southeast of Mobile and 165 south of Jackson, 
 Mississippi. But how vasth' easier it is to look at a map and see at 
 a glance the relation of New Orleans not only to the moutli of the 
 Mississippi, Lake Pontchartrain, Mobile, and Jackson, but to hun- 
 dreds of other rivers, towns, mountains, bays, gulfs, and otiier g(M)- 
 graphical features. Thus a map is chiefly- us(>ful b(H'ause it shows th(> 
 loc.'ilioii of a great many features and their iclalion to one another 
 botii in (hstanceand direction. In fnct . undei- tlie hea(hng " location 
 in Fig. 1, page 3, maps are by far the most unportant item. We 
 
32 MANS Hl'.I.AIl" "N ■l( ) |,()(\||()\ 
 
 fiilK' rcali/c tlicir impoilaiicc (inl>- when we arc in (•irciiiuslances 
 liki" those of i)iis(MU'is in (iciiiiaiiy, for cxaiiiplc duriiijr ilic (Jrcat 
 War. At that time maps were so important to an\ man wlio wished 
 to c'sca])(' that iJiisoncr-^ U'-idc hlllc maps on their linger nails, inside 
 their shoes, or in ahnost any place that they thought would not l)c 
 noticed by their (lenuan fiuards. Kwu these inadccpiatc maps 
 helped them to find ilu ii' wa>' oiil of ( Ici many when they had 
 escajx'd from i)iison. 
 
 What Can be Shown on Maps. Althouuh ihc i)ui])ose of all 
 maps is to show location, they are e(pially useful in showin<i- any of 
 the other items of the table of Fiji. 1. I'or instance, almost every 
 one is familiar with iclief majis which show land foims hy means of 
 iiacliures. shadinu;, contour lines, or colois. .Most maps show lakes 
 and riAX-rs, l)ut mai)s of minerals and soils ai'e less common, altiiough 
 they are used by every intelligent mining man, and by many of the 
 most up-to-date farmers. In the same way climatic maps are very 
 eonunon. Ivich day tjie Weather Bui'eau gets out a ma]) showing the 
 atmosphei'ic pressure, winds, tem])eratm'(>, and cloudiness for the 
 whole riiiied States. By studying the weathei- map wide-awake 
 firemen in large buildings save thousands of tons of coal. IManj' a 
 mariner, fruit raisei', and shi])i)ei' studies these maps with the greatest 
 care, for he knows ihat his ])i(»fits may l)e destioyed if he I'eads the 
 map incoi-rectly. 
 
 Other conditions, such as tlu^ (list libut ion of ])lants oi- animals, can 
 readilx' be ))ut on maps, as can every one of the human responses in 
 the table of I-'ig. I. Such maps may tell wlieic fishing is the pre- 
 vailing mode of life, foi- example; tiie location of banatia plantations; 
 where people li\'e in adobe houses, oi' wear wooden sandals instead 
 of leather shoes. The}' may also show where people ha^■e much 
 energy, where influenza is most common, where col ion goods are 
 manufactured, where caravans are used most largely in tiansporta- 
 tion, where coal is an important article of connnerce, where ]ieople 
 worship idols, where democi'atic forms of government i)re\ail, where 
 basei)all is a faVorit(> recreat ion, an<l where civilization is high. 
 
 How Maps Help Explain Geographical Distribution. In the pre- 
 ceding paragraph examples luiA'e been gi\'ei: iA' maps ])ei'taining to 
 each of the elements of geographical en\ii-onnient and many of the 
 human resjionses as given in l''ig. I. Xotiee thai in e\-ery case 
 something is .said about location or else the word " wli<'re " is used. 
 That word furnishes the key to the \alue of maps, liut to know 
 where an\tliing is located is not enough; we must also know why. 
 Man\' times we can delerniiiie why by compaiing one maj) with 
 a not her, and such comjj.arisons ai'c one of t he most impoi'tant features 
 
THE EFFECT OF THE EARTH'S FORM AND MO'IIOXS 33 
 
 of human geography. Only by a comparison of maps showing 
 density of population and rainfall, for exaini)le, can we clearly under- 
 stand how great a diminution of population results from too little 
 rain. Even the best maps, however, cannot ex);lain many of the 
 most interesting responses of man to his geographical environment, 
 and for these we nuist rely on the accounts of travelers, on tables of 
 statistics, and on many other sources. 
 
 Map Projections. — The fundamental consideration in any map of 
 a fairly large ai'ca is the projection, that is, the method by which a 
 curved surface shall be represented as Hat. The cur\-ed surface can- 
 
 A. Stereographic. B. Mercator. C. Conical. 
 
 Fig. O.^Types of Map Projections. 
 
 not possibly be made flat, as is easily seen when one tries to flatten out 
 an oi-ange skin without bi'eaking it into bits. This has led to many 
 attempts to represent the earth's surface with its incridians and 
 parallels as accurately as possible. These all fail in one or anothei' of 
 the following i-esj^ects: (1) the shapes of the regions rejiresented 
 are wrong; (2) the areas are wrong; (3) the distances are wrong. 
 p]xamples of three types of projection are given in Fig. 9. The first 
 of th<>se is the stereograi)hic pi'ojection, wiiich is sometimes used for 
 hemispheres. The sheet on wliidi ilic map is to be drawn touches 
 the glo])e at a point on the ecjualor. From a point directly opposite 
 this and also on the etjuator straight lines ai'c drawn through points 
 in the hemisphere next to the map sheet and aic piolongcd to the sheet 
 itself. As a matter of fact the parallels and meridians for this pro- 
 jection, or any other, aiv drawn by geometiical piinciples so that 
 actual juxtaposition of the nia]) sheet and the globe is not neces.'^ai'y. 
 
34 M.WS HKLATIOX TO T,nc.\TI()\ 
 
 The cent nil part of a stereograph ir projection is in \v\iv pioportioii, 
 hut on the cd^cs llie (hstancos are douhled. 
 
 In the Ah-rcator ])rojection a cvHnder is supixiscd to l)e \vrai)i)('d 
 ai-ound I lie jilohe touchinj^; it everywhere at the equator. Lines are 
 draw n from the center of the globe to the cylinder through the points 
 wiiich it is desired to locate. When such a cylinder is cut ojx-n tlie 
 whole earth appears as a single niaj) wiili no bi-eaks between the licin- 
 ispheres. l^oth nuM'idians and parallels are straight liiu^s. Hence a 
 given ])oiiii ot 1 he (•onii)ass is always in the same direct ion (»n all parts 
 <;f the map, which is not ti'ue where the inei'idians or i)arallels are 
 curved. MoicoA'ei'. the })ai'ts of the map iieai' the e(iuatoi' show the 
 earth's featuics without distortion and with the correct icIatiNC 
 ai'eas. These advantages are offset by the fact that on a ]\Iercator 
 projection the poles cannot possibly be represented, and high lati- 
 tudes are so extremely exaggerated that they are usually omitted or 
 arbitrarily reduced in size. Moreover, even in low latitudes the 
 distances and areas become exaggerated as soon as one gets much 
 away from the e(}uator. 
 
 The conical projection is made by placing a conical map sheet 
 so that it touches the earth on the circle of latitude passing through 
 the center of the nia]). lines are drawn from the center of the eai'th 
 to the cone. When the cone is opened the meridians are foimd to be 
 straight lines and the parallels are curves. The parts of such a maj) 
 near the central parallel show no distortion or exaggeration. Maps of 
 small areas are usually made on the conical projection, while for 
 larger areas, such as countries or continents, it is conmion to employ 
 a modified conical projection made by combining the conical pro- 
 jections for a series of pai'allels of latitude. Furthei- infoimation as 
 to map projections can be gained from ex(>rcis(> 9 at the end of tliis 
 chapter and from Fig. 18. 
 
 The Effect of Tides. — Let us now turn fiom latitude, longitude, 
 time and maps, and discuss still anothei' geogiaphical condition 
 which depends largely on the e.arth's rotation. 
 
 During a visit to the seashore, the tides give rise to some of the 
 most interesting experiences. At low tide in some places gi'eat 
 stretches of oozy mudflats invite l)arefoote(l clam-diggers to wander 
 over them with short-handled pitchfoiks. Elsewhei'e acres upon 
 acres of sea grass lie flat on the giound, broad sandy lu^aches are 
 strewn with strandecl hits of seaweed, broken shells and jellyfi.sh; 
 while on more rugged coasts the rocks are carpet (h1 with seawe(>d. In 
 the coves many sin.all boats lie on their sides where they have been 
 left li\- the retreating water. A smell of decay buideiis the air, not 
 wholK- unpleasant, yet suggesting that all is not ((uit(> as it should be. 
 
THE EFFECT OF THE EARTH'S FORM AND MOTIONS 35 
 
 Thou tlie tide turns, aiitl the water slowly rises. After three or four 
 hours the mudflats, grassy places, and weed-strewn rocks are covered, 
 fishei'nien with their nets eni])ark in the boats which are now afloat, 
 bathers appear on the sandy beaches, strong currents flow up the 
 inlets where previously the water was flowing outwaid. The whole 
 appearance of the shore suggests life and activity which reaches a 
 maximum at high tide. Then the sea seems to be brimming full, all 
 signs of death and decay are hidden, and a strong, life-giving odor 
 pervades tlu^ air. 
 
 The Nature of Tides. — The tides are great waves with a length 
 from crest to crest ecjual to half the earth's circumference. As the 
 wave aj^proaches the shore the water encroaches more and more on 
 the land until the crest arrives, when it is high tide. In the same 
 way the arrival of the trough of the tidal wave brings low tide. Ex- 
 actly the same thing can be seen in miniatin-e and in an exceedingly 
 brief time when a stone is thrown into a mud puddle. Notice how 
 the margin of the water keeps changing its position, advancing with 
 each wave and then retreating ])efore the arrival of the next. 
 
 The height of the earth's tidal wave varies from 2 feet in the 
 open ocean to 5 or 10 feet on ordinary shores and 20 or even 50 in 
 
 Fig. 10.— The Effect of Shallow Water on the Height of Waves 
 
 funnel-shaped bays like the Bay of Fundy. This is partly because 
 of the shape of the shore, and partly because as soon as the waves 
 reach shallow watei- the velocity decreases; the crest rises and the 
 trough sinks, making the height gi-eater; and the front becomes so 
 much steeper than the back that finally it may t()i)ple owr. A gootl 
 illustration is seen in the ordinary waves of any l)ody of water where 
 surf occurs. As a wave apjiroaches the shore it can be seen to rise 
 higher and higher, as appears in Fig. 10. 
 
 How the Moon Causes Tides.— The cause of tides is the attrac- 
 tion of the moon and of the sun. The reason why they occur at 
 regular intervals is the rotation of the earlh and the revolulion of 
 the moon around the earth. C.ravitation tends to bring any two 
 particles of matter togollier, and the tend(>ncy is stronger the 
 nearer the particles. But the movements of the earth and the 
 moon in their orl)its keep the two bodies ai)art even though their 
 relative distances vary continually. Nevertheless the moon's grav- 
 
36 
 
 MAX'S HKLATIDX To LOCATION 
 
 itation is ablo In distott ilic siitT;ic(' of the ocean. A walor sui- 
 faco always places itself at li.ulil ansjlrs to ihc pull of <iia\itation. 
 SiiK'o the moon as \V(>11 a.s the railli exerts a i;i'a\i!at ioiial pull, the 
 sui'face of the ocean or of an\' other body of water must j)lace 
 itsi^lf at. riij;ht angles to the combined strong pull of the earth and 
 weak pull of the moon. But the strength and direction of the 
 moon's gravitational pull ke(^p changing, because the earth's rota- 
 tion, as well as the moon's own revolution around the earth, 
 introduce constant and regular variations. Suppose that the sm-face 
 of a section of the oc(>an were a \as1 sheet of curved glass. The 
 var\ing diiection of \\\o moon's gravit at ion, oi- inor(> specifically 
 the so-called hoii/ontal component of that pull, which is the part 
 that causes the tide, may be thought of as tipping the sheet fii'st 
 
 Fu;. 11. — The Stat i(>n;iry Waves of tli' 'i'ides. 
 
 i4B, water surface tilted by moon; CD. same surface tilted in other direetion. Tlie entire 
 line CM has high tide at once, much as in the Hay of Fundy. 
 
 one way and then another. Thus one side is raised a little while 
 the opposite side is depressed and the cential portions i-emaiu 
 .stationary. A complicated series of warjiings like this is the primary 
 cause of the tides. The size of the areas which act as units depends on 
 the depth and configuration of the oceans. MoreovtM', wIkmi a so- 
 called " stationary " wave of the kind here described has once ])oou 
 start (id it progresses outward like any other wa\-e. The result 
 is an extremely compUcated series of tidal waves nl<)^•ing in all 
 directions accf)r(ling to the part of tiie ocean which one happens 
 to ob.s(;rve. Often a tide lags many hours behind th(> condition of 
 the moon which caused it, and in deep bays thei-e may even be 
 two tides at the same time. I'\)r (>xample, as a tidal wave jiro- 
 gre.s.ses up Chesapeake Bay from Old Point Comfoi-f the shaUow- 
 ness of the bay hinders it so mucli that by the lime it reaches 
 the head of the bay north of Baltiinoie, a second tide has entered the 
 lower part of the bay. 
 
 How the Sun Modifies the Tides. The sun causes tides like 
 those of the moon, but in most places not so liigh. The usual way 
 in which the^' become apparent is by increasing or decreasing the 
 lunar tides, as appears in Figs. 12 and i:^. When moon, earth, and 
 
THE EFFECT OF THE EARTH'S FORM AND MOTIONS 37 
 
 sun arc in a straight line at full luoon or new moon fFig. 12) the two 
 tides combine so that the high tides are higher ihan usual and the low- 
 tides lower. These are spring tides. When the sun and moon are 
 
 Ocean 
 SoUd Earth ^<<uSnr>\Moon Tide 
 
 Full Moon 
 
 New Moon 
 
 Fig. 12. — The Causo of Spring Tides. Moon and Sun Act Tog.>fh?r. 
 
 at right angles to one another as seen from the earth (Fig. 13), they 
 partially counteract one another so that neap tides neither rise so 
 high nor fall so low as ordinai'y tides. In Figs. 12 and 13 it should 
 
 A To Sun 
 
 Earth 
 
 Ocean i.' 
 
 Moon 
 
 Fio. 1:5. — Thi' ("aus" of Neap Tides. Moon and Siin Act at Rijilit Angles. 
 
 he noted that 1I10 high tides are .shown 00 degrees from the sun 01 
 moon which ciiusc them, thus allowing for a certain lag which is 
 usually in (>vidence. At ports where the harbor bars ai-e just pass- 
 able at high tide, a ship may have to wait some days if it happens 
 to arrive at ne.'ip tide The exact time of occui'icnce of eithei- spi'ing 
 or neap tides varies from place to |)lace, and in som(> regions may 
 be as much as five days before or after the combination of lunar and 
 solar a('ti^'it\■ which causes it. 
 
38 M.WS RELATION To T-OCATION 
 
 The Construction of Tide Tables. — The ('lii(>f practical applica- 
 tion of our knowlcdf^c of how ihc moon and sun intiuciicc^ tides 
 lies in the construction of tide and current tables. 'J'JH>se depend 
 not only on the relative positions of the sun and moon l)ut on the 
 variations in the height of these bodies above the horizon at noon 
 in dilTerent seasons. These cause such complex relations that 
 Ihev rcMpiii-e lal)orious calculations which are sometimes performed 
 l)y means of mcH'hanical devices; these sum up all the dilTeicnt 
 efTects and determine for years in advance how hi^li the normal tide 
 will be in any ,ii;iven ])lace at any ,ti:i\cii lime, 'i'lic tides at any 
 given place can only l)e predicted aftei" ol)servations have l)een made 
 for at least a month, and they have to be separately computed for 
 each i)oi't. Tlie tidt^s at neai'])y places can be i-oughly deduced 
 from those at the principal ports. The alterations in the usual 
 course of the tides because of storms and winds, however, cannot 
 readily be prenlicted. At London, for example, a storm with east 
 winds has been known to make the tide five feet higher than was 
 predicted. 
 
 How Tides Improve Harbors. — Tides have an important effect 
 upon harbors. i\Iany ship channels such as those of New York, 
 Boston, and Liverpool arc kept from silting up by the tidal currents 
 which scour them out daily. In many casi's where it has not been 
 worth while to dredge channels the tide enal)les shi]> to enter har- 
 bors which would otherwise be inaccessible. Off the mouth of nux^t 
 rivers there is a narrow zone where the scdinumt brought by the river 
 is largely dcix)sited, and forms bars. The depth over the bar is just 
 enough to allow the water from the river to pass over it at all times. 
 Where there are tides, the deiith at low water is the same as it would 
 be at all times if there were no tides, while at high water the depth is 
 corres]ion(lingly greater. Thus harbors like Bangkok in Situn, and 
 l.i\cil)()ol in its natural stat(\ which would not be deep enough if 
 there were no tides, admit ocean liners because of the depth at high 
 tide. 
 
 Revolution of the Earth around the Sun. — Thus far we have been 
 st\i(lying the el'f(M't of the earth's rotation. Now, we arc to consider 
 the earth in its varying positions in its path aroimd the sun. 'i'he 
 earth not only rotates on its own axis, but revolves around the sun in 
 an enormous and imictically circular ])ath at a distance of about 
 03,()0(>.(M)() miles from that body. Fig. 14 represents the size that 
 this path, or orbit, would have if the sun were the size of the Utile 
 dot in the center. The earth is so small that on this scale twenty 
 earths would be needed side by side to equal I he tliickness of the 
 ihinnest part of the line representing the orbit. 
 
THE EFFECT OF THE EARTH'S FORM AND MOTIONS 
 
 39 
 
 How to Show the Earth's Changing Attitude toward the Sun. — 
 
 The earth's revolution arouiul the sun would make little difference 
 to mankind if the axis on which the earth rotates were vertical to the 
 
 Fig. 14.— The Earth's Orbit. 
 
 plane of the orbit around the sun. As a matter of fact, however, the 
 axis is tilted, and hence the earth's revolution causes seasons. The 
 tilting of the axis may be understood from Fi<2;. 14. Here the ])l:iiie 
 of the orbit coincides with the pn^v. Let the earth's axis l)e repn^- 
 sented by a pin around which w(> will imaiiine that \hv\v is a tiny 
 rotating sphere representing!; the earth, and lyinu- in tiie plane t)f the 
 page. Set the pin perpendicular to the i)ag(> at any point on th(> circle 
 in Fig. 14. Now cany the i^in around the circle or orbit, keeiiing it 
 perpen(nenlar to the page all the time. Whenever the ])in may lie, 
 the relation of the earth to the cential sun remains the same. That is, 
 some part of the e(iuatorial region of our imaginary earth always faces 
 
40 MAN S in;LAll()X TO LOCATION 
 
 the snn. and neither pole has any special advantage. Now tip the 
 pin so that its head points toward a certain point in the ceiling on the 
 farther side of the room. Sot the pin at various places on the circle 
 with its head always pointing toward this same point in the ceiling, 
 which corres]K)nds to the North Star. On one side of tlie circle the 
 northern henns])here will incline toward the s\ni while the southern 
 hemisphere will incline away from the sun. On the other side of the 
 orbit the conditions will be rcvei-sed, for the northern hemisphere 
 will incline away from the sim, while the southcni will incline 
 toward it. 
 
 Imagine now that you are far away in space and arc looking down 
 on the north poles of both the earth and the sun just as you look down 
 on the page before you. The earth would seem to move around the 
 circle in the dinn'tion opposite to the hands of a clock, or co\mter- 
 clockwisc. ^^'ith the axis still pointing to the North Star place the 
 pin in such a position that the regions surroundhig the north pole 
 will get as much light as possible. That will represent the true 
 position about June 21. Now carry the pin a quarter around the 
 circle counter-clockwise, remembering still to keep it pointing to the 
 north star. Now it is in the proper ]iosition for September 22, and 
 the axis is hiclincd neither toward nor away from the sun. Place 
 the pin in the proper positions for December 21 and March 21. Fin- 
 ish the work by revolving the earth through its orbit for twelve 
 months, stopping on your l)irthday, or on the day when you study 
 this page. 
 
 Human Habits and the Length cf Daylight. — The inclination of 
 the earth's axis causes the sun to remahi above the horizon far longer 
 in some places and at certain seasons than at others. Hence daylight 
 and night, vary greatly in lengt.h. This influences a multitude of 
 hiunan hal)its, such as hours of rising and times of r(>creation. In 
 places like Norway or Alaska, where the period of daylight is long in 
 summer, some people become so tired and nervous from lack of 
 sleep that tluy ai-e often irrital)le mid soinetinu^s IxM-otne insane. 
 The I'liig wiiilci- nights, on the othci- Imud, biiiig with t hem a 
 pciiod (if (•(iinparat i\'e idleness which has a, bad cITccI on t lu^ 
 chai'ai'lcr. 
 
 'i'hr i(lati\'c Iciiglh of (hiyliglil and in'ght has also an important 
 biaiing <ui temperature, and thus on ])lants and agrirulture. In 
 high lalit\idcs th(> earth antl air Ix'come very cold during the long 
 winter nights. If snf)W falls, practically' none melts during the short 
 days, and it may acrumulate so that even the long days of suinm(>r 
 cannot nieh all of it. and hence no croi)s can he gi'own. On the other 
 
THE EFFECT OF THE EARTH'S FORM AND Mcri'lOXS 11 
 
 hand, where Httle of the summer's heat is used up in melting, the 
 long days cause the air to become warm in spite of the low position 
 of the sun. Hence in Siberia and Canada, grain and vegetables 
 can be raised as far north as the Arctic Circle. 
 
 Effect of Length cf Daylight on Production of Seeds. — Another 
 remarkable effect of the length of daylight is seen in the production 
 of seeds. For many species of plants, and probably for all, a certain 
 definite duration of daylight is necessary if flowers and seeds are to 
 be produced. Temperature, moisture, and the intensity of light 
 all have a marked effect on the vegetative growth, that is, on the size, 
 shape, and vigor of the stems and leaves, but not on the time of 
 flowering. This depends almost wholly on the length of the period of 
 light. For example, a certain kind of tobacco called Maryland 
 Mammoth was long known to be valuable because it grows to great 
 size, sometimes 12 to 15 feet high. It was hard to raise, however, 
 because no matter how early it was planted it would not produce 
 seeds except when transplanted to a greenhouse during the winter. 
 Then it was found that plants started in the autumn and only 1 of 2 
 feet high would produce seeds in the winter at the same time as the 
 great stalks that had l^ccn growing since spring. Finally experiments 
 showed that if the tobacco were covered so that no light reached it 
 during part of each day in summer, it would produce seed without 
 regard to its size. In other words a healthy plant begins to produce 
 seeds when the length of the period of daylight is reduced for a few 
 weeks to eight or nine hours. 
 
 Other plants like the radish, for cxamj^lo, usually blossom only 
 when the period of light is long. For that reason many of the 
 common vegetables of the temperate zone will not produce seeds in 
 the tropics, for there the daylight never lasts more than twelve liours. 
 On the other hand, when such plants are grown in a greenhouse timing 
 the short days of winter, they can be made to blossom by subjecting 
 them to electric light dm-ing part of the night. 
 
 Many kinds of trees that blossom early in the spring are stimulated 
 to form flower buds by the short days of the autumn. Cold w(^ather 
 comes on, however, and checks their gro\\'th, but as soon as the air 
 is sufficiently warm they blossom during the short days of spring. 
 All this is important to the farmer. If he wants his crops to 
 blossom quickly without making much growth of st(>ni and leaf, he 
 should plant them only a little before th(^ time when the lenglh of 
 the days causes the flower buds to (le\"elop. if he wants much 
 vegetative growth, however, he nuisf jilaiit long before the time when 
 the length of the day leads to flowering. 
 
42 
 
 MAN'S KI;LAI"1()N 'I'o L()C\'|-I()\ 
 
 How Daylight and Night Vary in Length. The cause of ^;u•iat ions 
 in tile leii^:tli of daylight and ni<ihl is illustrated in Fifz;. 1"). This 
 repivsents tiie distribution of sunlight in tlie northei-ii lieiiiisi)lierc 
 during each month of the year. The pi-opoitions of tlic caiih. sun, 
 and orl)it are far from true, l)ut this is necessary in order to make 
 the earth larir(> enough. In the figure the North Polo i.s toward us, 
 and tile cart li is revolving around llic sun in t lie direction sliown 
 
 Fi(j. 15. — Loiii^th of Day and Ninlit. 
 
 |jy tiie dates. It rotates in tiie same dii-ection, that is, eounter- 
 cloclcwise. 
 
 In studying l'"ig. 1.") let \is l^egin witli tiie s])riiig ('(piiiiox, Mareli 
 21. On tiiat date, as a])pears hi tiie u])])erinost of tiie little globes, 
 the sunliglit l)arely readies tiie Nortii Pole. In oth(>r words from 
 there the .sim would be seen on tlie horizon. Tliere it remains tiiroiigh- 
 out the twenty-four lioiu's, swinging around the horizon through 
 360°, liut not seeming to rise liigiier or sink lower. ]']xce])t at the 
 poles all jiarts of tiie earth at this date lia\c' a day and nigiit of e(|Ual 
 
THE EFFECT OF THE EARTH'S FORM AXD MOTIONS 43 
 
 length. Therefore this date is called the spring equinox, for the 
 name means " equal night." There is also an autumn equinox 
 about September 22. 
 
 Look now at the diagrams for April, May, and June. At the pole 
 the sun is now considcrabh' above the horizon. In spite of the 
 earth's rotation, it remains visible at all times, so that there is no 
 night. It stands at a slowly increasing height day after day. If its 
 path were traced in the heavens it would form a flat spiral moimting 
 slowly upward until it reaches its highest point a])()ut June 21. Then 
 the sun ceases to rise in the heavens, and from this point of view seems 
 to stand still before it begins to descend again. Hcncc^ .June 21 is 
 called the solstice, or standing still of the sun. 
 
 Let us work out the length of the days at different latitudes and 
 at different seasons. For instance, on July 21 five-sixths of the Arctic 
 Circle is in the sunlight. Therefore a miner at the great Ijend of the 
 Yukon would see the sun five-sixths of the time, or al)()ut twenty 
 hours. During the night of four hours the sun would be so little 
 below the horizon that he could see all the time. Let us see how 
 day and night would compare about July 21 in St. Paul and Minne- 
 apolis in latitude 45°. In the July diagram in Fig. 15 approxi- 
 mately four and a half out of the twelve divisions into which the 
 meridians divide the 45th parallel are in the darkness. As each 
 div'ision reprc^sents 30° of longitude the dark part of the circle contains 
 about 135° and the hght part 225°. As 15° of longitude equal one 
 liour of time, the night lasts nine nours, and the day fifteen. 
 
 The Cause of the Seasons. — (1) The Relative Length of Day and 
 Night. — The seasons [)lay so overwhelming a part in our lives that 
 it is interesting to understand their causes. The difference between 
 sununer and winter is due to three chief causes, each of which is 
 dependent upon the inclination of the earth's axis. The first, but 
 not the mast important cause, is the relative length of day and night. 
 We have alrc^ady seen that when the pcMiod of sunlight is short in 
 winter, the amount of heat given to the earth hy the sun is necessarily 
 small, but it increases as the days grow longer. 
 
 (2) The Relative Distance Traversed by the Sim's Rays in the 
 Atmosphere. — The second cause of the seasons is the degree to which 
 the sun's heat is absorl)('(l b\- tlie atmosphere. At sunrise or sunset, 
 even on the hottest day. one can look (hrectly at the sun without 
 difficulty. At noon, however, this is impossible. The reason for 
 the contrast is that the air itself intercepts nuicli light and heat , \\ hilc 
 the dust and moisture contained in the air inteiccpt still moic At 
 suiu'ise or sunset th(> rays of light reach the eye onl\- alter ])assing 
 thioutih much nioic aii' than at noon, as mav be seen in l ig. Iti. 
 
■\\ 
 
 MAX'S RELATION To I.ocatiox 
 
 Hence iinicli less heat i-cachcs the caitliV .•-iiil'acc ulicn the sun i> low. 
 Since tlie sun nev(>r rises hi^h in polai- latitudes, such rejiions are 
 always cold. Since tlu> sun is low dining part of the year in middle 
 latitudes, and hiuli at othei- times such jilaccs have i)i-onounced 
 seasons of waiin and cool weather. \\'here the sun is always hifih 
 
 Fig. 16. — Effect of the Atmosphere on the Ainount of Suiiliglit. 
 
 in equatorial latitudes, the weather is warm at all tim(>s and the 
 .seasons are not jironounced. 
 
 (3) The yariiiiKj SUint of the S}{n\'< Xodtidd)/ l\(n/s.-~A lliiid 
 imjjortant reason for the difference of the seasons is illustrated 
 in l'"i^. 17. The middle jilobe shows the earth at the e(]uinoxes, 
 March 21 and Septemher 2'.]. The sun, which is f;ir away to the 
 lifiht. is so i)laced that its rays ar(> vertical at the (Mpiator. BetwiH-n 
 the sun and the earth has been ])laced a screen with two rectanirular 
 holes of the same size. Th(> same amovmt of sunliuht falls thiouuh 
 each and warms a si)ot on the earth's surface. The si)ot at the 
 ('(juator, however, is much smaller than th(> one l)etwe(Mi 50° and 
 ()()° farther north. There is a dilfeicnce in siz(> because at the 
 ('([Uator th(! rays fall vertically and hence cover the smallest |)os- 
 sible amount of .sjiace. while toward the j)oles they fall aslant and 
 in ihi- p;ii liciilai- latilude ai'e spivad o\-ei' an aica twic(> as lai'fiC 
 as at the (-(juator. Since the amount of heat is the same in both 
 cases, a sfpiai-e mile, foi- instance^, would receiv(^ twice* as nmch heat 
 at the ('(jUator as a s(|Uare mile in the other jjosilion. This simi)le 
 
THE EFFECT OF THE EARTH'S FORM AND MOTIONS 45 
 
 illustration shows that the sun gives most heat where its rays are 
 vertical and least where they are most slanting. 
 
 The globes above and below in Fig. 17 show the conditions at the 
 June and December i^olstices. Since the sun's rays are vertical at the 
 Tropic of Cancer at the June solstice, the sun is nearly overhead in the 
 United States, and a given amount of light and heat is concentrated 
 in a relatively small area. In our winter, on the contrary, the sun is 
 vertical at the Tropic of Capri- 
 corn, 47° south of the summer 
 position. Therefore, in all 
 parts of the United States the 
 light falls at a considerable 
 slant, a given quantity is 
 spread over a larger area than 
 in summer, and the heating 
 effect is less. 
 
 The Varying Distance of 
 the Earth from the Sun. — 
 These three causes of the 
 difference between summer 
 and winter are slightly mod- 
 ified by the varying distance 
 of the earth from the sun. 
 But this has only a weak effect 
 upon the relative temperature 
 of summer and winter. In 
 January the earth is about 
 3,0()(),()()() miles nearer the sun 
 than in July. Hence this 
 period is called perihelion, 
 which means " near the sun," 
 while July is called aphelion, 
 or " far from the sun." These 
 conditions make the winters in 
 
 the northci-ii hemisphere slightly warmer than tliey would otherwise 
 be, and the sumnuM's corresponding!}- coolei-. In tlie southern 
 hemisphere, on the other hand, the seasons instead of being tempered 
 are made slightly more extreme. In that hemisphere the earth's 
 varying distance from the sun causes the winters to be a little colder 
 and the summers warmer than would othei'wise be the case. 
 
 How Plants and Animals Respond to the Seasons. In the whole 
 realm of nature f(>w (■()n(Hti()ns of environment (Hiual the seasons in 
 their effect upon life. One of the most obvious results is tlie io\ i\al 
 
 Fig. 17.— Effect of Latitude and of Tilting 
 of the Earth's Axis on Area Warmed 
 bv a Given Amount of SunH^ht. 
 
46 MANS RELATION TO L0("AT10N 
 
 of vo;i;o1ali(»n in llic s])i-int!: and its icliiin lo ;•, liaircn stale of doi- 
 nianry in winlcr. ll is li;ii(l to rc;ili/.c llic niaivcli>us (iiuility of lliis 
 chaniic until one lives wiiciv there is almost complete uniformity at. 
 all seasons as in dry deserts, jiolar refjions. lii<;li nioimtains. and damj) 
 tro])i('al foi'ests. I'^pially mai-\"el()us and almost more imjjortant is 
 the etTeet of the seasons upon the jii-oduetion of si'eds, fi-uits, tubers, 
 and praetically all the devices hy which plants store up (Mther food or 
 water. Willioul these storage origans man and many animals ranu;- 
 lUji, from the hear and the sciuincl to hirds, insects, and worms would 
 be unal)le to find food. 
 
 All sort.s of f^i-ains, nuts, root crops, and fruits owe their ori<i'in 
 primarily to the necessity of storing" up food durinji; one season so 
 that the ])lant may have something!; uj)on which to make a start when 
 a period of imfa\'orable weather is ended and tlu^ season of iifowth 
 has come. In the parts of the torrid zone where there is i)lenty of 
 moist lU'e at all sc^isons, seetls and fruits are rare, and man is corre- 
 spondingly' handicai)|)ed in his search for food. In such ])laces the 
 plants gi'ow so fast that many of them can easily reproduce themselves 
 by mere spores such as those of the fern or by tlu^ vegetative growth 
 of shoots as in the banyan, banana, and mangroxc. In the oceans, 
 where the contrast between one season and another is reduced to 
 very slight proportions, no seed plants have ever been evolved. What 
 few there are have come back to the water fiom the land. It is 
 enough for the water plant to send out spores — mei'e imclolhed cells. 
 They do not have to endure the rigors of a long cold or dry season. 
 It is not necessary that lliey make haste to grow as fast as possible in 
 order to make the most of the tim(> when the weather is favora])le. So 
 no little plant has to be packed away with its main organs already 
 developc'd, and no store of food is needed to insure it a good start. 
 Hence the i)lant life of the ocean has I'emained at a low level, while 
 the stiimilus of vari(>ty and especiall>- of th(> seasons has caused the 
 vegctat ion of 1 he lands to be highly X'aried ;iiid progress! \'(\ 
 
 Among animals the effect of the seasons is as m;uked as among 
 plants. The hibei-nation of bears, rod(Mits, and insects, th(^ migi'a- 
 tions of birds and fish, the growtii ;ind shedding of winter hair (sr fur, 
 and the putting on of fat at the approach of winter are all responses 
 to th(> change of seasons. These and other similar changes have 
 II nidi Hiiportance foi' man. \\ (lol, fur. lard, .and bacon I'; it are .art icles 
 which the animals produce seasonally- in order to protect themselves 
 from the winter. In warm count I'ies sheep's wool becomes hair and 
 the hogs are all lean. 
 
 The fact that warm-blooded animals, that is, the birds and 
 mammals, arc found almost wholly on the lands and are air breathers, 
 
THE EFFECT OF THE EARTH'S FORM AND MOTIONS 17 
 
 even when in the water, appears to be partly duo to the seasons. 
 When animals first came out of the water and lived on tlie land mil- 
 lions of years ago, a great advantage was suppos(>ly I'eaped })y those 
 able to warm themselves a little and thus continue their activities in 
 cold weather. Warm blood put a great premiiun on intelligence and 
 on the development of the higher qualities such as parental care and 
 love for offspring. The cold-blooded animals practically never care 
 for their eggs or 3'oung. They do not need to. Among warm-])looded 
 animals, however, if there are cold seasons the eggs must be kept 
 warm and the 3'oung must be protected from bad weather. This was 
 apparently one of the primary reasons why the parents took an 
 interest in their 3'oung. Little by Httle the swing of the seasons 
 selected for preservation the types of animals that had these new and 
 higher instincts. This gave a peculiarly good chance for natin-al 
 selection to preserve those whose brains were most highh- developed. 
 Thus along with the parental instinct the development of intelligence 
 was fostered by the seasons. 
 
 All this meant that the 3'Oung animals became more and more 
 dependent upon the mothers. Hence wIkmi t3-pes that placed the 
 3^oung in pouches were develoi:)ed, the3' had an advantage in the 
 struggle for existence because the 3'oung could be protected not onl3' 
 from enemies l)ut from th(^ inclement weather. The last step was the 
 evolution of true mammals whose helpless 3'oung are ])orn alive. 
 Their evolution, so far as we can tell, took ])lac(^ chiefi3' in the great 
 continental intericjrs where the contrasts of the seasons are greatest, 
 and where the rigors of winter are among the most jiowerful factoi's in 
 eliminating man3' t3'pes and preserving those whose intelligence is 
 relativelv high. 
 
 In the oceans nothing of this sort has taken ]:)lace, for there the 
 almost complete unif()rmit3' from season to season has not favoi'cd the 
 evolulion of the higher t3-pcs. \Mhmi llic higher types go back to the 
 m()not()n3' of the oceans, as tlie whale has done, the lack of seasonal 
 stimulus joins with the unifoi'mit3- of the environment in other 
 respects in causing tiiem to lose their higher capacities. Thus the 
 seasons hav(^ nuieh to do with liie fact tiiat tli(> oceans are the home of 
 low, cold-blood(Ml foinis of animals as well as of low, spore-bearing 
 types of ])lan1s, while the lands and especiall\- t hose parts with strong- 
 seasonal conti'asts, are the home of the highlv develop(>d mammals, 
 birds, and seed-b(>aring plants. 
 
 How Man Responds to the Seasons. — Among men the influence 
 of the seasons is no less tiian among plants and animals. There is 
 scarceh- an occupation wlu'ch does not varv according to the seasons. 
 W iih farming this is ])i-e('ininentl\' true. A farmei' who has few liv€^ 
 
48 MANS Ki:LA'ri()N 'I'O LOCA'I'ION 
 
 stock, — and ihcrc aic millions of such, has practically nothing to do 
 during the wintci'. If snow lies on ihc lii-ouiul or th(> soil is fi-ozon, 
 time often hangs hcaxy on his hands. In the siunnicr, on the other 
 hand, in spile of the loiii; (la\s he is Imsy every moment and his 
 wdik often piles up ahead of iiini. Willi students and most people 
 who ai'e engaged in liiciary and scieiilihc ])tusni1s cpiite the ojijiosite 
 is true. In winter, when daylight is shoit , they often injuic their 
 eves by jxiring owr hooks from morning till midnight. In siunmei' 
 when tlu' long tiays are hesl U)r study so far as light is conceined, 
 although not necessarily otherwise, ihey fi'e(|uently spend weeks oi- 
 montiis with little oi- no study. Jietween the farmers and the students 
 arc people upon whom the seasons have almost every degree of effect. 
 The railroad man, the manufactiu'cr, the banker, the carpenter, and 
 the hardware merchant all have busy seasons and slack seasons at 
 regular times of the year. Moreover, the character of their work 
 varies from season to season. Health and recreation vary similail>', 
 for people generalh' have the best health in the autumn, while such 
 games as hockey and football are rarely played except at certain 
 seasons. The difficult}' is not to find examples of seasonal vai'ia- 
 tions, but to find occupations or activities upon which the seasons 
 have no effect. And all these seasonal activities depend directly or 
 indiicctly u])oii the differences in weather arising from tlu^ inclina- 
 tion of the earth's axis. 
 
 How the Seasons have Helped to Civilize Mankind. — Without 
 the seasons mankind might perhaps never have become ci^•iliz(Hl. 
 When early man began to rely on his mind instead of on physical 
 strength, one of his liist iiupoitaiit ideas was to store uj) hxxl for 
 seasons of scarcity. So long as he lived In Inmting this was relatively 
 unimportant, but as soon as ho began to practice farming he could 
 not live unless he stored up food in sunnnei' to last him thidugh the 
 winter. In lemperate regions with strong seasonal changes this 
 was far more necessary than in warm regions with no I'cal winter. 
 Moreover, the strong contrast between the seasons stimulates him to 
 be active and energetic not only in storing up food, but in making 
 new in\-en1ions. Tn every stage of life those |ie()])l(^ are most success- 
 ful who plan intelligently for the future which lies months or even 
 yeais ahead of them. The inclination of the (>arth's axis and the 
 resultant seasojis iiave been one of the i-hief incentives to this kind of 
 foresight. 
 
 QUESTIONS, EXERCISES, AND 1'1{()HL1;MS 
 
 1. A. On a nlolic folliiw \(iiir nicridiiiii sonlliwanl until you aro in a south 
 latitude equal to ^our Ikjiuo latitude. How many defji'ee.s of longitude 
 are yovi from South AnuTJca, and how many miles? How does the 
 time th(>rr romjjare willi that at your o\\Ti home and at Greenwich? 
 
THE EFFECT OF THE EARTH'S FORM AND MOTIONS 45 
 
 B. Find a place half way around the world in your own latitude. Express 
 
 the location of this place in latitude and l()n}i;itude. 
 
 C. Express the exact location of your antipodes in terms of latitude and 
 
 longitude, and find the place on the globe. How far and in what 
 direction is this place from the nearest land? What is the hour of the 
 day there while you are working out this exercise? 
 2. Locate the following points in respect to some country, island, or body of 
 water : 
 
 A. The place having the lowest latitude and longitude. 
 
 B. The lowest latitude and the greatest longitude. 
 
 C. The highest south latitude and least longitude. 
 
 D. All the places having a latitude of 45° and a longitude of 45°. What 
 
 is their time when it is noon at Greenwich? 
 
 3. A. On March 22 a sea captain observes the nooiulay sun 55° south of his 
 
 zenith. What is his latitude? 
 
 B. On June 21, what is the latitude of an observer if the noonday sun is seen 
 
 10° south of the zenith? If it is seen 10° north of the zenith? 47 ° north? 
 
 C. In what harbor is a ship located if on December 22 the captain observes the 
 
 noonday sun 75° south of the zenith, and notes that the chronometer 
 agrees with the local time. 
 
 D. What is the location of a vessel whose chronometer reads 9.40 a.m. at local 
 
 noon, and whose captain observes the noonday sun 43° south of his zenith 
 on September 22? 
 
 4. A. Pittsburg, with a latitude of 40° 28', and Charleston, South Carolina, with a 
 
 latitude of 32° 48', both lie on the 80° meridian. What is the distance in 
 miles between the two cities? 
 
 B. Enumerate the countries you would cross in following your parallel cast- 
 
 ward around the world. 
 
 C. Follow eastward the parallel in the southern hemisphere corresponding to 
 
 your own in the northern, and list the countries that are crossed. 
 
 D. Similarly follow your meridian starting southward and list the countries 
 
 that would be crossed in passing around the world. 
 
 5. How is it that an account of the last shots in the Great War was published in 
 
 the morning papers of San Francisco although the firing did not stop 
 till 11 A.M. of that day? 
 C). What kind of tides would there be in New England if on the full of the moon 
 a \'igorous northeast storm were in progress? Explain. 
 
 7. (iive an illustration from your own observation or experience of the influence 
 
 of seasons upon (1) food, (2) clothing, (3) shelter, and as many as possible 
 of the other " hinnan responses " listed in the last column of Fig. 1. 
 
 8. Wh}- should southern New England favor the " daylight-saving plan " while 
 
 northern New England prefers that clocks and watches should use the 
 same standard the year round? 
 
 9. Map Projections. — One of the most imjiortant features of tlu^ map is the pro- 
 
 jection, i. e., the method of representing the rounded surface of a globe on 
 a flat page. DitTerent i)rojections are used for dilTerent jjurposes. In 
 order to realize how projections vary, work out the following exercises: 
 A. In this book or in an atlas, find maps on the following i)rojections: (a) 
 Mercator; (/;) stereographic (or any jirojection showing two hemispheres 
 separately); (c) homalographic (or any projection showing the whole 
 world in a single ellipse); (d) conical (the type usually cmployiHl fur iiiai)s 
 of a continent or small area). 
 
no 
 
 MAX'S 1?T:T.\TT0\ to T>()r'.\TH»\ 
 
THE EFFECT OF THE EARTH'S FORM AND MOTIONS 50a 
 
 B. Trace the form of each of the following regions according to each projection: 
 (a) Greenland; (b) India; (c) Australia; (d) Alaska. In each case 
 compare your tracings with a globe and determine which projection gives 
 the truer idea of the real shape. Determine which projection causes 
 the greater departure from the truth in (a) area; (6) shape. 
 
 C. In Fig. 91 the munber of cattle in India is about 60 per square mile, while 
 
 in German}- it is 100. Explain why India is so much blacker. A great 
 many maps in this book employ the Mercator projection where some 
 other would be better. This is because these maps were taken from 
 other sources and it has not been feasible to redraw them. 
 
 D. Fig. 18 is a map of the world on a new projection, which in many respects is 
 
 better than those commonly in use. Refer to your tracings in exercise 
 B, or else employ any other test, such as is applied in exercise C, and fuid 
 out in what respects this newer projection is advantageous. State 
 clearly the advantages and disadvantages under tlie following heads: 
 
 Fig. 19.— Density of Population in the United States, 1910. 
 
 (a) for giving an idea of the relative size of land and oceans; (b) for trac- 
 ing ocean routes; (c) for gaining an idea of the shape of the continents. 
 E. Study a map of the regions around the North Pole. Placing a piece of 
 tracing paper over the map, mark the North Pole and two meridians 
 of longitude, then draw the direct route going north from Norway, from 
 Iceland, from North CJreenland, and from Nova Zemhla. Draw an east- 
 west line, i.e., a i)arallel of latitude, through the nortliern point of Green- 
 land. Compare the i)olar map with the globe, and determine the accu- 
 racy of the polar projection in comparison with the four projections men- 
 tioned under A. Write a statement of the characteristics of each of the 
 
506 MAN'S lU'.LA'noX 'I^O LOCATION' 
 
 five prnjortions in tlio following ros])ccts: (a) direction of a north and 
 south lino in difTcriMit parts of tho map; (h) ilircction of an cast and 
 west line; (c) location of the north ])ole. 
 
 10. (Ircat Circle Sailing. St«amshi|)s practically never follow lines of latitude or 
 longitude. Moreover, they do not go in what seem to be the shortest 
 courses on the map but follow " great circles," that is, circles whose 
 centers coincide with the center of the earth. Find out why this is so 
 by taking a globe and measuring with a string the shortest route from 
 Seattle to ^'okahama. Locate three intermediate points on this route 
 by latitude ;ind longitude. Now locate these on an outline maj) of the 
 worKl, and draw the route. Do the same for the following routes: (a) 
 .Santiago, Chili, to Auckland, New Zealand; (b) London to Panama; (r) 
 Capet o^\^l to Boston. Write out your conclusions as to great circle 
 sailing. 
 
 n. In Fig. 19 the numbers in circles show the number of iidiabitants per square 
 mile in each State in 1910. Lines have been drawn and appropriate 
 shading has been added to distinguish the areas having the following 
 density of population: (o) over SO ])er .scpiarc mile, {b) 40-80 per sciuare 
 mile, (c) 10-40 per scjuarc mile, ((/) under 10. 
 A. From the World Almanac or some other source, jirocurc similar figures for 
 1920, and insert them on two outline maps. On one map add shading 
 like that of Fig. 19, but let State boundaries determine the limits of 
 each type of shading. On the other, draw smooth lines like those of 
 Fig. 19, and then shade. 
 H. Discuss the relative merits and defects of the two maps thus drawn, \^'hich 
 
 gives a truer idea and why? 
 C. Compare Fig. 19 v.-ith the similar map for 1920 and describe the general 
 nature of the changes in the di.stribution of j)opulation from 1910 to 1920. 
 
 12. Select some statistical toi)ic which interests j-ou, such as the yield of corn \wv 
 acre, deaths from tuberculosis, the per capita expenses of cities, the per 
 capita development of water power, the temperature or rainfall of a 
 given year or month. Find the figures for this by States or cities in the 
 Abstract of the U. S. Census, the Reports of the Department of Agriculture, 
 the census volume entitled Mortality Statistics, the Statistical Abstract of 
 the l^uitcd States, the World Almanac, the Weather Review, or some other 
 reference book. Make a map similar to the better of the two majts of 
 density of i)()i)ulation. Majjs of this kind arc ouc of the most valuable 
 tools of the geographer. 
 
PART III 
 MAN'S RELATION TO LAND FORMS 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 THE CONTINENTS AND MAN 
 
 The Form of the Solid Part of the Earth. — In the diagram of 
 Human Geography on page 3 "location" is followed by "land forms." 
 Hence these are the suljject of the next section of this l^ook. The 
 greatest land forms are the great iiplantls known as conthients between 
 which lie the vast hollows filled with water and called oceans. 
 
 This arrangement of continents and oceans is apparently due to 
 the fact that the earth is slowly coohng. Geologists say that the 
 earth is steacUly losing heat and therefore contracting. Since the 
 crust is stiff it cannot shrink any more than can the shell of a nut. 
 If we want to make a nut occupy less space, the only way is to break 
 the shell by shoving it inward. During untold millions of years much 
 the same thing has haiipened to the earth's crust. It has slowly set- 
 tled downward by reason of its own weight. The parts that have 
 fallen inward foriU the hollows that now contain the oceans, while the 
 parts that have not fallen form the lands. 
 
 At fii-st glance there seems to l)e no system in the distribution of 
 the continental uplands and the oceanic hollows which have thus 
 resulted from cooling. But look at a globe and see how the northern 
 continents form an almost complete band near the arctic circle, and 
 enclose the hollow of the Arctic Ocean. From this band three 
 branches extend southward: (1) North and South America; (2) 
 Europe and Africa; and (3) Asia, the Malay Peninsula and Aus- 
 tralia. The Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans fill the hollows 
 between the branches while Antarctica rises where the southern con- 
 tinents would meet if jirolonged soutliward. 
 
 This (hsirihution of the lands as biond lidges between f<iur chic^f 
 oceanic iiollows makes the solid pint of the eartii slightly tetraluHJial 
 in form. A teti'ahedron is a four-sided solid (Fig. 20) resembling the 
 tent of Fig. 21. \( a hollow elastic tetrahedron were blown up mitil 
 it formed a sphere excej)! foi' bioad tidges along th(> six edges, its shape 
 
 51 
 
52 
 
 MANS HF.LATIOX TO LAND FORMS 
 
 would roughly oorrospond to that of the solid oaiih. Tf 1I10 part oor- 
 rospotuiiiifz; to the floor of the tent were at the north, the northern hol- 
 low would !)(' filled hv the Aretie Oeean. while the surrounding; ridjjes 
 would correspond lu the lin^ of land foniied by Asia. I'lurope, and 
 noithern North America, where the main 
 mountains run nearly cast and west. The 
 crests of the three southward running ridges 
 would correspond to the main moimtain 
 systems of the Americas, eastern Asia, antl 
 Australia wliicli lie close to the Pacific hol- 
 low, and of Africa close to the Indian hol- 
 low. The third iiollow, though occuj)ied 
 by the Atlantic Ocean, has few mountains 
 parallel to its shores. Far to the south 
 Antai-ctica represents the meeting place of the three continental 
 ridges. 
 
 Because of the earth's tetrahedral shape fotn-- fifths of the lands 
 of the northern hemisphere lie ])etw(>en 30° and G(j° from the ecjuator 
 in the latitudes where the varial)le cUmate is best for civilization. 
 How hn})urtant this is may be judged from the fact that all the great 
 
 Fig. 20.— a Tetrahedron. 
 
 Fig. 21.— a Tetrahedral Indian Tepee. 
 
 powers are in this zone. Fom-fifths of the area of the south(>rn pro- 
 jections, on the otiier hand, lie in regions too warm and jnonotonous 
 to i)romo1c human ])rogrcss, and hence are the home of backward and 
 
 dc])cnd(iit ])co])les. 
 
THE CONTINENTS AND MAN 53 
 
 Where Mountain-building, Volcanoes and Earthquakes are Most 
 Active. — The tctrahedral form of the earth also seems to determine 
 the location of the greatest mountain ranges. The Sierras and 
 Rockies, the Andes, the Himalayas and Hindu Kush, the Alps, and 
 the PjTenees, all nm more or less parallel to the edges of the earth's 
 rough tetrahedron, with the continents flanking them on one or both 
 sides. These mountains, because they are edges, are lines of bending 
 and breaking along which volcanoes break out and little movements 
 of the earth's ciiist keep taking place. Such movements give rise to 
 earthquakes, which are most frequent where high mountains rise 
 abruptly from oceans of great depth, as along the west coast of both 
 Americas and along the opposite side of the Pacific Ocean from Kam- 
 chatka to New Zealand. In Figs. 22 and 23, notice how abundantly 
 volcanoes and earthquakes are found in three tongues that extend 
 southward on the east sides of Australia and Africa and on the west 
 side of South America, that is, along the tetrahedral edges. Notice 
 how another volcano and earthquake area also corresponds with a 
 tetrahedral edge, for it extends from south-eastern Asia through the 
 Himalayas and Asia Minor to Vesuvius and Aetna on the northern 
 side of the IMcditcrranean Sea, and thence skips to Iceland with its 
 craters and volcanic hot springs in the midst of snow and ice. 
 
 Usually earthquakes merely cause the earth to vibrate and even 
 rumble, but do no harm. Sometimes, however, they cause cities to 
 cnunble to dust, start conflagi'ations wliich cannot be checked, and 
 overwhelm whole provinces with terror. In our own country the 
 one volcano that has been active in recent 3'ears, Lassen Peak, is 
 located in the southernmost extension of the Cascade Range about 140 
 miles from the deep Pacific Ocean and two hundred from San Fran- 
 cisco, where some of the greatest recent earthquakes have taken place. 
 
 The Continuity of the Lands. — The same internal forces which 
 cause earthquakes and volcanoes have heaved up the mountainous 
 edges of the earth's rough tetrahedron so fully that aside from Ant- 
 arctica the continents ahnost unite into one connected series. There 
 would l)e no insuperable difficulty in building a railroad frojn the 
 soutlieni tip of South America to Berhig Strait, under the strait by 
 tunnel to Asia, then to Suez, and so to South Africa. A branch 
 might run to the Atlantic coast either at Lisbon or by tunnel to Eng- 
 land and Ireland. Another branch might nm southward in Asia 
 along the Malay Peninsula and then, witli several ocean ferries, could 
 be continued through the East Indies to AustraUa. 
 
 How Plants, Animals and Man Spread from Eurasia to North 
 America. — The continuity of the lands has had a great el'lVct on the 
 distribution of plants, annuals, anci man. Eurasia is not only by 
 
54 
 
 MANS l;i:i.A|-I().\ TU LAND FOimS 
 
 Q ^ 
 
 
 
THE CONTINENTS AND MAN 
 
 55 
 
 3 
 
 fe3 
 
56 
 
 MAX"S KELATIOX 1"() I,.\N1) F(MIMS 
 
 k^ 
 
 P^ 
 
 L- _ 
 
THE CONTINENTS AND MAN 
 
 . 57 
 
 Fig. 26. — A liailrouJ ia the Andci. . 
 A Bampie of the diflScuIties which mountain railways often have to surmount. 
 
58 . MAN'S RELATION TO LAND FORMS 
 
 far the largest of the continents, but has been most subject to changes 
 of ahitiule, diniato, and size. Hence it has been tlie repon wliere 
 new forms of life have developed most rapidly dming imtokl millions 
 of years. 'J1ie hoi-se, ox, camel, sheep, deer and elephant; the ash, 
 po]ilar, onion and wheat; and coimtlt^ss other animals and ])lants, as 
 well as man himself, all orighiated there. In recent geological times 
 a bridge of land connected Eurasia and North America where Bering 
 Strait now lies, so that all the conthients except A\istralia and Ant- 
 aix'tica were united. Moreover, the cUmate for a while was com- 
 paratively warm even in the Far North, so that ]ilants and animals 
 sj^nwd from hhirasia to America. For that reason when we go to 
 Km-ope or northern xVsia the oaks, iiines, maples, birches, and other 
 trees have a familiar look. The wikl animals, too, .such as rabl)its, 
 S(iiiirrels, foxes, bear, and many othei-s are also essentially the same. 
 Karly man seems to have followed the plants and animals to America. 
 Hence the American Indians are more closely related to the Mongols 
 of eastern Asia than to any other ra<'e. 
 
 Land Connections of Africa and of South America. — The tropical 
 clunate of Africa and South America causes their hving creatures to 
 differ gi'eatly from those of t(^mperat(^ regions. Africa, however, 
 can easily be reached l)y land from Asia. Hence such African animals 
 as the elephant, lion, and horse-like zebra are closely related to the 
 animals of Asia. Not onh' have animals Ikh^u able to pass oA-er from 
 Asia to Africa, but the Indo-Furopean, Semitic, and Negi'oid races 
 have all done likewise. South America, on the contrary, can be 
 reaclunl b}' ])lants and anunals from Asia only by way of North Amer- 
 ica and the Isthmus of Panama. Hence its animals and ]ilants differ 
 greatly from those of lOurasia. The little llama, for instance, is the 
 nearest American relative of the camel. Again America has no 
 native animal corres])onding to the horse and zt^bra. The niodeni 
 horse was introducetl into both North and South America by man 
 only after ('oluml)us o])ened the way across the sea. The native 
 Iiuhans of South Aanerica are also so different from the native races 
 of Asia that few resemblances can be seen com])arable with those that 
 are so marked when one com]iares the ]ieo])l(> oi North Africa such 
 as the Berbers and Bedouins with those of I'AU'ope and Asia. 
 
 The Breaks between the Continents: How the Australian 
 Break has Isolated Australia. — Although the continuity of the lands 
 has been of gi-e:it iiii])()it:ince in allowing ])lants, anunals, and man to 
 spread freely, the breaks hi this continuity are no less important. 
 One of these l)reaks has isolated Australia. Be<'ause of the inter- 
 vening sea that contiiunit nMiiained unknown even long(>r than Amer- 
 ica. When finally e\])l(ii'eil it was foiunl Id contain strange forms 
 
THE CONTINENTS AND iMAN 
 
 59 
 
 PQ 
 
 c 
 
 o j- 
 
 O -J 
 
 fcD i- 
 
 i I 
 
 o 
 
no MAX'S RELATION TO LAND FORMS 
 
 (if life lik(' tlic kangaroo, cassowary, cockatoo, honey-suckers, and 
 tlu' (Micalyptiis tree. The people, too, were found to have little m 
 coiuiiioii with other races, and to be the most backward hi the world. 
 They luul no permanent dwelUngs, no knowledge of farnung, no 
 ability to coinit more than four, and went about entirely nude. Like 
 gorillas, they have thick skulls, small l)rains, thick broad noses, 
 heavy arms, receding chins, thick necks, and hair^^ bodies. 
 
 The peculiarities of Australia do not mean that the continent is 
 unfit for the forms of life found in other continents, but men^ly that 
 the other forms have never had a chance to get there. This is proved 
 by the way Eurasian animals flourish when introduced to Australia. 
 For instance, inidor the hifluence of energetic British settlei-s that 
 continent has become one of the world's great sheep-raising regions. 
 E\n*o]-)ean rabbits thrive wonderfull}', and have become such a pest 
 in ]iastures and farms that rabbit-proof wire fences have been built 
 for hundreds of miles to keep them out. Their astounding increase 
 is due to the fact that the break between Asia and Australia has kept 
 out foxes, wolves, and other flesh-eathig animals. 
 
 How the Mediterranean Break Influences Commerce and Cli- 
 mate. — The most unportant of the breaks between the continents 
 begins at Gibraltar. After stretching eastward for nearly two thou- 
 sand miles as the Mediterranean Sea it splits into two arms. One 
 leads northward through the Bosphorus to the Black Sea. The 
 other leads southward through the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean, but 
 is interrupted by the Isthmus of Suez, which once obliged Europeans 
 to sail around Africa to reach India. The Isthnuis was such a hin- 
 drance that the Suez Canal was finally computed in 1869. Through 
 Suez to-day passes practically all the couinu'rcc of Europe with the 
 Far East and Australia. 
 
 In addition to all this the iMediterranean break is of great impor- 
 tance in its influence upon clmiate. ^^'ithout the water evaporated 
 from the Mediterranean Sea Italy, Greece, and the coasts of Asia 
 Mincjr and Syria woidd be as chy and scantily populated as Persia 
 or Arizona. 
 
 Why Gibraltar is of Supreme Military Importance. — Because 
 Gibraltar guards the western entrance to tlie two-branched Mediter- 
 ranean break in the continents, it is the most iin])ortant military 
 position hi the world. In case of war the country that holds it can 
 prevent the shii)s of America and all the countries of northern Europe 
 from reaching .southern France, Italy, Austria, Greece, the Balkan 
 States, southern Russia, and Turkey. Shice Britain also holds 
 Aden, she was able (hu'hig the Great War to examine the cargo of 
 ever}' shij) entering the Red Sea or the INh-ditcrrancan, and thus to 
 
THE CONTINENTS AND MAN 61 
 
 prevent ammunition or other supplies from Ijeing shipped to her 
 enemies. 
 
 How Constantinople Rivals Gibraltar. — In the same way Con- 
 stantinople guards the northern branch of the Mediterranean bn^ak. 
 The country that holds it is in a position to impose enormous suffer- 
 ing on Rumania and Russia by throttling their trade. For gener- 
 ations Russia coveted Constantinople so that she might have at least 
 one outlet to the sea through ports that are not blocked with ice foi 
 months each year. In the Great War the fate of Constanthiople was 
 one of the deciding factoi-s. The British and French made great 
 sacrifices in a vain attempt to open the Dardanelles. They hoped to 
 secure a waterway whereby Russia could ship gi'ain to her allies, while 
 she herself received the guns and ammvmition which her own factories 
 could not supply. If they had succeeded the war might have ended 
 nuK'h sooner and Russia might have been saved from the terril)le 
 massacres, famine, and plague which prevailed under the Bolshe\iki. 
 
 Why the North Atlantic Break is Important Climatically and Not 
 Otherwise. — Another place where a tctrahedral edge of the earth 
 breaks down is between western Europe and Newfoundland, where 
 the Atlantic Ocean projects north to the Arctic, This has no great 
 effect on shipping, but its clinuitic effect is far greater than that of the 
 Mediterranean. Because the Gulf Stream and Atlantic Drift find 
 this outlet to the north, the waters west of England and Norway are 
 warmed so that the winds from them give all the countries of north- 
 western Europe a climate adapted in the highest degree to the pro- 
 motion of civilization. Without this warm branch of the ocean 
 England and Germany would have a climate al^out like that of south- 
 em Alaska and the neighboring parts of British Columbia to the 
 eastward. Not only would agriculture be less successful than now, 
 but stinmlating changes of weather from da}^ to day because of storms 
 would be less frequent. 
 
 West of Newfoundland and still more to the west of Greenland, 
 the North Atlantic l)reak ceases to be an advantage, for it permits a 
 cold current to come from the north. The presence of cold currents 
 on both coasts is one reason why Greenland is covered with a vast 
 continental glacier, a genuhie ice-sheet. The other break leading to 
 the Arctic Ocean at Bering Strait is of little importance, because it is 
 so narrow and lies so far north. 
 
 The "American Mediterranean" Break. — The last of the great 
 breaks, sometimes known as the American Mediterranean, is occu]:)ied 
 by the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico. Like the Euro]x\m 
 Mediterranean it not only exercises a strong hifluence u])on commerce, 
 but is highly ini])()rtaiit climatically, ami is closed by an istlnuus 
 
62 MANS HKI.ATIOX 'I'o LAND F(MmS 
 
 across which men have foinul it wortli while to dig a canal at enor- 
 mous expense. Since the American Mediteiranean is smTounded by 
 islands and can be (>ntered at many i)()ints, no one place exercises a 
 military control like that of CJibraltar or Aden, ^'ct in onler to 
 p:\ianl the Panama Canal the UnitcMl Slates Ixniiiht the Danish West 
 Intlies, or Virj^in Islands, in 1917. and inaintaiiis an imi^ortant naval 
 station at Guantananio in Cuba. It also has strongly fortified 
 Panama itself, so that the Canal is now one of the world's most im- 
 portant military i)ositions. The relation of the United States to 
 Panama is strikingly like that of England to Suez. Just as England 
 has been obliged to assume a ]irotoctorate over Eg^-pt in order to 
 ]irotect Suez, so we have had to jirotict the Keiniblic of Panama for 
 tiic sake of onr canal. As England has military centere at Gibraltar 
 and .Aden whose iin])ortance is dnv hirgcly to Suez, so our stations at 
 Ciuantanaino, the \irgin Islands, and Honolulu owe their chief im- 
 portance to Panama. 
 
 Climatically the American Mediterranean does for us what its 
 namesake does for Europe. Without the Caribbean Sea and the 
 Gulf of Mexico the central United States would be far drier than now. 
 Louisiana would be as dry as New Mexico, and even in Iowa the 
 aridity would do much harm to farming. As things are now, much 
 of the rainfall of the Mississippi Valley, esp(>cially in siunmer, comes 
 from the Gulf of INIexico. 
 
 The Continents : How Asia's Location Gives it Connections by 
 Land. — Having considered the general relations of the conthients, 
 and the way in which they are united or divided, let us consider each 
 continent seiianately, ]ia>'ing special attention to location, size, relief, 
 shape, and iclation to the sea. To Ix^gin with Asia, its location is 
 noteworthy because; the continent is very central so far as land com- 
 nnmication is concerned. Asia is the only continent that has a direct 
 land connection with two other continents. Hence western Asia, 
 being closely connected with Europe and Africa, has had a gi-eat 
 influence upon both, and thus largeh' determhied the kind of civiliza- 
 tion which came to North America after the use of ships overcame the 
 water barrier. How true this is we may judge from the fact that 
 from Asia by way of l">urope we have recei\i'd our language, letters, 
 and iniiiierals. Our chief domestic animals, the horse, cow, sheep, 
 pig, and hen are all of Asiatic orighi. Wheat and barley, as well as 
 rice and jnillet, were apparently })rought to the other continents from 
 Asia, so that all of our chief somres of food except com and potatoes 
 were derived from Asia. In later times Christianity, Judaism, and 
 Mohammedanism all spread westward from this gi-eat continent not 
 only into Afri( a but into i'iiro])e and tlnis into America. 
 
THE CONTINENTS AND MAN 63 
 
 Hov/ the Size of Asia is a Handicap. — In spite of the advantage of 
 its ])osition in the center of the lands Asia is seriously handicapped by 
 its size. Because of the size vast tracts are so far from the ocean that 
 they are deserts. The few inhabitants are very backward, not only 
 because the drjTiess keeps them in hopeless poverty, but because their 
 remoteness and the difficulties of travel keep them from coming in 
 contact with other people whose ideas might spur them to new efforts. 
 Many of the Khirghiz, for example, do not know the difference be- 
 tween Americans and Tibetans, and think a man is lying when he tells 
 them how fast he can go on skates, which most of them have never 
 heard of. Everywhere the size of Asia leads to great climatic ex- 
 tremes. Hence the disasters are on a scale unparalleled elsewhere. 
 When drought ruins the crops in India or when tremendous floods 
 swamp the rice fields of China gaunt famine menaces tens of millions 
 of people. 
 
 How the Relief of Asia Keeps Countries Apart. — The relief of Asia 
 is as gi"eat a hantlicap as the size, for Asia possesses the world's 
 highest mountains, greatest plateaus, and deepest depressions below 
 sea level. The main feature of Asiatic relief is a vast band of moun- 
 tains and plateaus which extends from Asia Minor eastward through 
 the Elburz Mountains across the whole of Persia and Afghanistan to 
 a huge knot in the Pamirs northwest of India. Then the band broad- 
 ens fanwise; one side, the Tian Shan, Altai, and Yablonoi ranges, 
 striking northeast toward Bering Strait; and the other, the Hima- 
 layas and Burmese Mountains, southeast to the Malay Peninsula. 
 How great a barrier these mountains are may be judged from the fact 
 that though China and India are close together, no railroad connects 
 them, and far more caravans go from China to Siberia than from 
 China to India. 
 
 How the Shape of Asia and its Relation to the Sea Depart from 
 the Ideal. — The shape of Asia is no more favorable than its relief. The 
 continent has many gi'eat peninsulas, bat the sea rarely penetrates far 
 inland. So bulky is Asia that the interior contains an area the size 
 and shape of the United States with every part more than 1000 miles 
 from the sea. On the north many harbors that might otherwise be 
 used are blocked with floating ice, and only since the invention of ice 
 Ircakers and of wireless telegi'aphy to wani of the presence of ice 
 has it been possible for ships to reach the mouths of the gi'eat Siberian 
 rivers without the greatest risk. On the southwest the uiilifted 
 shores of Arabia and Persia with their smooth, narrow coastal i)lains 
 are devoid of good harbors. Almost the only native sailoi*s inv a 
 few fishers for sponges and pearls chiefly in the Pei-sian (lulf. The 
 only good harbor from Suez to India is at Aden. India is inore 
 
64 MAN'S RELATION TO LAND FORMS 
 
 favored than the countries farther west, for Bonil)ay and Calnitta 
 are good ports, but between them the mainland has no really good 
 harbor. From Suigajwre to Kamchatka, however, the many indenta- 
 tions show that the lantl has been snlimerged or " drowned," so that 
 the water has entered the valleys and surrounded many of the out- 
 Ijnng moimtain ranges siicli as Japan and Formosa. So there the 
 junks of the Japanese and Cluncse dot the watei-s with tlieir colored 
 sails just as the boats of the Greeks abound off the coast of Asia IMinor 
 where similar conditions prevail. 
 
 How Europe is Favored by its Location. — In Europe the con- 
 ditions are almost the reverse of those in Asia. In the old days when 
 men traveled only on hind or close to it, Europe was completely cut 
 off from both North nml South America by the Atlantic Ocean, and 
 could reach e\-en Africa only with difficulty. Now in the days of 
 water transportation Europe is the most centrally located of all the 
 continents. It lies in the very center of the hemisphere which includes 
 the greatest possil)le amount of land, as appears m Fig. 27. From 
 Europe every one of the other continents except Austraha can be 
 reached by a sail of less than 3000 miles. If all the world were to 
 agree upon a place where they could meet with the greatest conven- 
 ience, western Europe would be chosen, as it has been for the central 
 offices of the League of Nations. The continent's position is also 
 better than that of any of its rivals in still another way. No part 
 lies near enough to the equator to be seriously hindered by heat, 
 while poleward the continent grows narrower so that only a small 
 portion lies in the cold latitudes north of 60°. Even that part, 
 as we have seen, is somewhat warmed by winds from the warm 
 Atlantic. 
 
 The Great Advantage of Europe's Size and Relief.^In size and 
 relief, as well as in ])()sition, Euro])e is highly fortunate. Unlike 
 Asia, it is small eno\igh so that except in Russia, no part is over 400 
 miles from the sea. The central feature of the relief is the plain that 
 begins in l^ngland and after the interniption of the English Channel 
 and North Sea stretches eastward across France, Belgimn, Holland, 
 and Northern Clermany to Russia. This is the most important of 
 the world's plains, agi-iculturally, industrially, conunercially, and 
 poUtically. Its fertile soil raises unusually heavy crops. Large 
 s\ipplies of coal and iron on its bordei-s as well as within it encourage 
 all sorts of manufacturing, whib its level sui-face, navigable rivei-s, 
 and good harbors stijnulate conunerce. The cro\\nnng aihantage 
 of the plain is the excellent climate which makes its people healthy and 
 capaljle of hard work. So\ith of the plain lie nunmtain ranges, some 
 of them clail with <iiow even iu smnmer, but all of small size com- 
 
THE CONTINENTS AND MAN 
 
 65 
 
66 MAN'S RELATION TO LAND FORMS 
 
 parod with those of Asia. In France, Austria, and Turkey they are 
 more or less completely broken throiifjli so that cojiniiunication from 
 one sitle to the other is easy. 
 
 Europe's Fortunate Shape and Relation to the Sea. — ^The shape 
 of l']ur()]H' joins with the size, in inakinji; its relation to the sea ex- 
 traonlinarily favorable. The continent is really a larfi;e peninsula of 
 Asia, from which })roject many smaller peninsulas se]mrated by exten- 
 sive bays or seas. Thus the sea reaches far into the conliiieiit. per- 
 mittnijj; almost everj' country to have its own seacoast. Mi)i(i)\( r, 
 recent subjiiergence of a lar<2;e ]xirt of tlie coast has drowned nu- 
 merous ^•a.lleys, converting them into small bays that form excellent 
 harboi-s like that of Liveri^ool. Hence nearly all the i;;uro])ean 
 co\mtri('s have easy conununication with one another by water as 
 well as by land (Fig. 2S.) 
 
 Importance of Europe. — In view of ]'!ui()]ie's ])()siti()n, ri'lief, 
 and shajie, together with the relation to the sea and the advantages 
 afforded by climate and mineral resources, it is not strange that five; of 
 the seven "Cheat Powere" are located there. Onl}^ two, the United 
 States and Japan, are in other continents. Nor is it strange that 
 throughout the world the word European is almost sAnionjnnous with 
 "civilized."' 
 
 Why North America almost Rivals Europe in Location. — Our 
 own continent stanils next to luiroi)e in th(^ favorableness of its con- 
 ditions. In location North America is better off than Asia, but less 
 favored than Europe. We cannot reach Australia and the east 
 side of Africa so easily as the Asiatics, but South AmtMica and west 
 Africa are more accessible to us than to them. On the other hand. 
 North Ameiica is not far from the more ])iogressive i)ait of Europe, 
 while Asia borders on the less ])i()gressive jiai't. The distance from 
 North America to Europe became a (leci>i\'e factor in the Great War. 
 Had it been much more than 30t)0 miles it might have i)revented the 
 I'nited States fi'om ])utting across two million sohliers in time to 
 help in emling the ( Jerman onslaughts. MoreoAci-, \\(> ca.n. r(>ach 
 Jai)an, China, and other important parts of Asia nuich more easily 
 than can the i)eo})le of r]urope. Thus the fact that one coast of 
 America faces the Atlantic and Europe, while the other faces the 
 Pacific and Asiji, is beginning to make our location ahnost as favor- 
 able as that of I-'urope. 
 
 How North America is Hampered by its Size and Relief. —One of 
 the chief disadvantages of North America is that, like Asia, it is so 
 large that oceanic hifluences camiot easily reach the interior. This 
 disadvantage is increased by tlu^ relief, for a gi'eat coixlillera on the 
 western side of the continent prevents the highly favorable influences 
 
THE CONTINENTS AND MAN. 
 
 67 
 
 -\Xv^ 
 
68 MANS in;i,\ri()X to t.axd fokm,^ 
 
 of the wostorn occnii t'lniii pciiclintiiiii f;ii' iiil;iii(l. Ilciicc lar^c ai'oas 
 an* too (liy for a dense ])o])ulatioii exce])t when inijiated. This 
 (lisjulvaiitaKO i;^ iiartly offset by a vast jilaiii extendiiiji; iioith and soutli 
 throuuh ihe centei-. in striking!; contrast with Asia's severe handicap 
 of a central zone (•ontainin<>; the Iliniala.xas and the hu<>;(> j^hiteau of 
 Til)et. Since tiie A])i)alachian Mountains can l)e easily ci-ossed in 
 several places coniniunicati(»n fioni east to west as far as the Rocky 
 Mountains is only a little haidei' than in Euro])e. 
 
 The Intermediate Condition of North America in Shape and in 
 Relation to the Sea. — In pi-ojiortion to its size North America has 
 more deep arms of the sea than Asia, hut less than Kurojic. \\v have 
 already seen the value of the (lulf of Mexico and the ('aril)l)ean Sea 
 in their effect on climate. Their effect on commeice is also ini])oi- 
 tant as is evident from the presence of such ]iorts as New Oi-leans. or 
 Galveston, where the outward shipments, chiefly cotton, are {ireater 
 in value than those of an>' otluM' American ))ort except New Yoik. 
 From the stand])oint of commerce the (!reat Lakes coi'i-es])ond in 
 value to th(» Baltic Sea, which occupies a coires])on(linfi- jiosition 
 in Europe. The fact that they extend from east to west along the 
 line of greatest mov(>nient in a part of the continent where the favor- 
 able soil and climate would cause the ])()pulation to be dense even 
 if they did not exist, gives them an importance greater than that 
 of the Gulf of Mexico. In this same general latitude the Gulf of 
 Saint Lawrence and many other small arms of the sea do much to 
 encourage commerce, especially on the Atlantic coast, but also on the 
 Pacific. Farther north, however, th.e great hiland wa-t(>rway of 
 Hudson Bay still remains almost unused. In spite of many projects 
 to cany gi'aiii from western Canada to l']uro])e by way of Hudson 
 Bay, no hnportant tralhc has yet been estal)lished because of the ice 
 and snow. 
 
 How the Southern Continents are at a Disadvantage. — The three 
 southern continents are far less favored than the thi-ee northern. In 
 size, to be sun\ they do not suffer from the ponderousness of Asia, 
 although the northci-n ])art of Africa (>x])ands to an unfavorable degree 
 and contains the S;ihara Desert. In other res])ects. however, they 
 are severly handicai)])ed. (1) Their location is such that most of 
 their teri-iloiy h;is a troi)ical climate which in many ])()i-tions is ex- 
 tremely unhealthful and enen-ating. (2) M()re(i\-er. the i)arts of 
 all three where t.he climate is most h(>altliful. taper to small areas and 
 lie so far from the other continents that the long sea vo^'^age inevi- 
 tably hami)ei-s connnerce even in these days of swift steamships. (3) 
 None of the three is jiarticularly favored hi its relief. In each case 
 large parts of the coast are bordered by mountains so that com- 
 
THE CONTINENTS AND MAN 69 
 
 munication with the interior is difficult. (4) In shape and in rela- 
 tion to the sea Africa and South America are about as \nifa\'orahlc as 
 they could be. Both have smooth outlines with no im])ortant inden- 
 tations. Moreover, the coasts are generally of the imsubmerged 
 typo, so that good harbors are sadly lacking. AustraUa fares better 
 in this respect, but its coasts as a whole arc by no means so favorable 
 as those of the northern continents. 
 
 The Railroads of the Continents. — -The character of the continents 
 is well sunmied up in their railroads. The most unportant of the 
 continental railroads run east and west except hi Africa. Tiiis 
 is because they are designed to connect the regions of greatest 
 progTessiveness and commercial activity, and these regions are 
 strung along east and west bands determined by clhnate (see 
 Fig. 20). 
 
 Main Railroads of North America. — In North America nine main 
 Hues, that is, two in Canada and seven in the United States, cross 
 the wide part of the continent, while four of minor importance follow 
 short routes from ocean to ocean in ]\Iexico and Central America. 
 All these lines are obhged to run across the grain, so to speak, for 
 they have to pass across the great Rocky IVIountain system. In the 
 arid western half of the United States they also have to cross great 
 sparsely settled districts where local traffic is not sufficient to make a 
 railroad pay. The profit comes from connecting the people in the 
 w(>ll-poi:)ulated region in the central and eastern parts of our coimtiy 
 with the smaller well-populated region of the Pacific coast. This is 
 one reason why the United States and southern Canada have a much 
 gi'eater mmiber of miles of railway in proportion to the po])ulation 
 than bas Europe. The United States has about 27 miles of railroad 
 for each 10,000 peoi)le, while such countries as Britain, Germany, 
 France, and Austria have only 6 or 7. In these European coini- 
 tries, however, waterways arc much more in use than in America. 
 Moreover, the advantage of the great railway mileage of the United 
 States is partially offset by its great area, ^^'e have only about 6 
 miles of raili-oad for cmtv lunulred square miles of country, while the 
 chief lMii'()])can coinitrics have from 10 to 20. 
 
 Main Railroads of Europe. — In Europe seven main railway lines 
 extend entirely across the continc^nt from west to east. They do not 
 have to follow long routes across the mountains or across scmi-?irid 
 areas of scanty population. Starting from the Atlantic Ocean in 
 Franc(> or on the shores of the North S(ni two reach the Balkan Pe- 
 ninsula through Austria-Hungary, and three reach the Black Sea by 
 routes nortii of the Cari)atiuans. Only two are left for all the rest of 
 the great plain of Hussia. These alone continue into Asia, 
 
70 
 
 MAN'S HKLATIOX TO LAND FOKMS 
 
 Asian Railroads. I'cu niilioiuls pass from Ihintix- to Asia 
 
 because its \;ist desert iiitei-inr is so s])arsely ijopuhited ami its luouu- 
 
 Fii;. '_'!» A. Hailwuvs of the \\'i)rl(l North Aniciic:!. 
 
 tains am so lofty. As yet it. lias not boon worth while to build rail- 
 roads across the ,spac(> which inten-enes betwecMi tho contoi"s of ]io]ni- 
 lation on the cast in ('liitia ami Jajjaii, and on the west in Europe. 
 
THE CONTINENTS AND MAN 
 
 71 
 
 Nevertheless in the easily traversed Siberian plain one great trans- 
 continental railway has been built, while in eastern Persia where tlu; 
 
 Kio du JanieT'O 
 
 PRINCIPAL RAILWAYS OF 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 SCALE OF WILES 
 
 2C0 400 6C0 £00 
 
 •m. 
 
 I'll.. L".t 15. -Railways of the World — South Anicrica. 
 
 great central mountain mass l)rcaks down, a line practically links 
 Russiti wilh India. The great length of th(> Trans-Sibci-iaii line was 
 a great factor in the defeat of the Russians in the Hiisso-.IapanesQ 
 
72 
 
 MAX'S RET.ATIOX TO LAND FORMS 
 
 war. It was also a continual hindrance: in the Great War while 
 Russia was endeavoring to receive supplies throu<!;h the port of 
 A'ladivostok. 
 
 African and Australian Railroads.— In Africa no east and west 
 transcoiitiii<'iil;il line has yet been liiii'^licd. In Aust lalia (he only 
 one was coiiiijlclcd in 1917. It I'uns cast imd west along the soutcni 
 
THE CONTINENTS AND MAN 
 
 73 
 
 coast and connects the active southwestern corner of the continent 
 with the prosperous southeastern part by crossing a barren desert 
 over a thousand miles wide. In South America one raih'oad crosses 
 
 the narrow southern part of the continent. It surmounts the great 
 dHhfulties of the Andes in order to connect the two progressive 
 regions of Argentina and ( 'hile, just us for similar purposes the North 
 
74 
 
 MAN'S RELATION TO LAND FORMS 
 
 Amorican tmnscontinontal linos siirnimint the Rockies and Sio.rras, 
 wliilo tho Trans-Sil)(>rian road overcomes the p-eat difficulties of 
 enormous distance (see V'\^. 20). 
 
 PRINCIPAL RAILWAYS OF Cape Town 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 SCAIE OF WILES 
 
 aw -100 000 1-00 looo 
 
 Fk;. •_".» i;. — Pvailwiivs nf I he World Arri( 
 
 North and South Raikoads. Aloiii;- ikuI li-aml-soul li lines no ji;reat 
 trans-continental lines iiave yel hccn liuislicd in any of the continents 
 except IOuro])e. The gi'eatest of such I'oads wil! lie in Al'iica and 
 
THE CONTINENTS AND MAN 
 
 75 
 
 America. Their purpose, like that of tlie other great roads, will be 
 to connect highly advanced centei"s which in their case are on opposite 
 sides of the equator. In Africa the Cape to Cairo Railway is well 
 
 nndcn" way along the east side of the continent between the jirosperoiis 
 I^ritisii colonies of Eg>Tot and Smith Africa. It follows the Nile to 
 the (Ireat Laki^s of Central Africa and then rontinues sontliwai'd 
 
76 MAN'S RELATION TO LAND FORMS 
 
 nloTig thp platoan. Tlio other p-oat nortli-and-soiith railroad will 
 some day niu from the United States throiigii Mexico to Brazil, Arfi;en- 
 tina, and Chile, but. as yet it is only a project. The increasing 
 gi'owth of t lie sout hcni cniuitries is renderhig it more and more neces- 
 sary. A\'lu'u it is built it can scarcely follow the difficult Andean 
 hi{>;hland, but must prol^ably make its way along the ))l;iiiis. Africa 
 has an advantage over South America in this respect, for its north- 
 and-south railroatl can follow the broad plateau antl thus cross the 
 tf)rrid zone in a comparatively healthful region, while the American 
 highlands are so lofty that the railroad will i)robably be forced to seek 
 the densely forested, unhcalthful lowland. 
 
 QUESTIONS, EXERCISES, AND PROBLEMS 
 
 1. On an outlino map of the world and with the help of a globe and relief maps 
 lay out the best rovite for a railroad from Cape Horn via Bering Strait to Cape 
 Town with branches to Dublin and Melbourne. State where you would put 
 tunnels and ferries. Remember that the cond'tions which a railroad chiefly needs 
 in order to make it a .success are (1) a dense population, (2) abundant sources of 
 food, raw materials or manufactured goods, and (3) a level route. Th(> conditions 
 which hinder it most are (1) mountains, (2) deserts, (3) si)arsely jxipulatcd trojii- 
 cal forests, (4) regions with much snow and ice. 
 
 Divide your railroad into sections having a length of from one thousand to 
 three thousand miles. For each section make a table showing the following 
 points : 
 
 a. Countries through which the road passes. 
 
 b. Chief cities on the line. 
 
 r. Type of country, i.e., plains, moimtains, tropical forest, timdras, deserts. 
 d. Density of jwpulation — spar.se, medium, or den.se. 
 
 c. Mode of life of people (jee Chiiplcr I). 
 
 /. Main tyix; of freight on railroad. This (if course depends on whether the 
 people are farmers, manufacturers, cattle raisers, lumbermen, miners, fishermen, 
 hunters, etc. 
 
 (1. (Commercial language. 
 
 //. Probable importance of this section of the railroad. Would it have much 
 or little traffic and why? 
 
 i. The existing railroads that could be used as parts of the world railroad. 
 2. If you could reconstruct Nor'h .America, what improvements would you 
 suggest in (1) locat on, (2) size, (3) re! ef, (4) shape, and (5) relation to the .sea. 
 Draw a map of the continent embody ng your suggestions. 
 
 3. Europeans discovered Iceland before the middle of the '.itli cenlury. (Ireeii- 
 land was discovered by them during tlie lOth cenlury, but .Xewfoiuuiland not 
 until the end of the ir)th, and X'irginia not until the I'ith. .Make a tracing of the 
 Atlantic Ocean to show how these facts in the jirogress of discovery are connected 
 with the flistribution of land and water. 
 
 4. Find out from the Statesman's Yearbook the total tonnage that pa.s.ses 
 through the Suez and Panama C'anals. State how the relative size of these fig- 
 ures is influenced {n) by the number of routes converging on the two canals, 
 
THE CONTINENTS AND MAN 
 
 77 
 
 (6) by the location of the canals in respect to the world's land masses. Determine 
 how far the use of the canals depends on the proximity of the various countries. 
 5. The following figures show the rainfall and temperature of Denver, Indian- 
 apolis, and Philadelphia by months. Plot these on "coordinate" or "plotting" 
 paper. Compare the three places in latitude, altitude, and distance from the sea. 
 Point out v\'hat effect these conditions have upon the temperature and rainfall. 
 
 Average Monthly 
 Temperature in ° F. 
 
 Average Monthly 
 Rainf.\ll in Inches. 
 
 Denver. 
 
 Tnd. 
 
 Phila. 
 
 Denver. 
 
 Ind. 
 
 Phila. 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 32 
 
 0.5 
 
 2.8 
 
 3.3 
 
 32 
 
 31 
 
 34 
 
 0.5 
 
 2.3 
 
 3.4 
 
 39 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 0.9 
 
 3.8 
 
 3.4 
 
 48 
 
 52 
 
 51 
 
 2.0 
 
 3.4 
 
 2.9 
 
 57 
 
 63 
 
 62 
 
 2.5 
 
 4.0 
 
 3.2 
 
 G7 
 
 72 
 
 72 
 
 1.4 
 
 4.4 
 
 3.2 
 
 72 
 
 76 
 
 76 
 
 1.6 
 
 4.2 
 
 4.2 
 
 71 
 
 74 
 
 74 
 
 1.4 
 
 3.2 
 
 4.5 
 
 03 
 
 67 
 
 68 
 
 0.8 
 
 3.3 
 
 3.3 
 
 51 
 
 55 
 
 57 
 
 0.9 
 
 2.8 
 
 3.0 
 
 39 
 
 42 
 
 45 
 
 0.5 
 
 3.7 
 
 3.2 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 36 
 
 0.7 
 
 3.0 
 
 3.0 
 
 January. . 
 Februarj' . 
 March . . . 
 A])ril .... 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 August . . . 
 September 
 October. . 
 November 
 December 
 
chapti:k IV 
 
 HUMAN ACTIVITIES IN MOUNTAINS AND PLAINS 
 
 Civilization among the Mountains. — T\w woixls " mountaineer," 
 " highlander," " mountain white," and " hillsman," usually suggest 
 peojile who (Hffer from plainsmen not only in habits and modes of 
 life, l)ut in physi(}ue and character. The (hctionaiy defines a moim- 
 taineer as " a person who lives in a mountainous eoiuitry or district; 
 hence a l)oorish person." The word highhmder makes us think of 
 hold raids such as are described in Walt(M- Scott's novels. Mountain 
 white suggests people oi the white nwc who ai-e l)a(kwni(l and uned- 
 ucated because they live in rugged and inaccessil)le regions. To many 
 people hillsman brings to niind some of the wild tribes that live in the 
 mountains north of India. 
 
 These are not the only ideas associated with these words, however, 
 for mountaineer also makes us think of men who go to the Alps, the 
 Rockies, the Himalayas, and othci' high mountains foi- th(> jileasure of 
 climbing. Among civilized people the mention of the mountains 
 piobably calls up the idea of vacations and fine scenery more often 
 than anything else. 
 
 Yet even s(),1here is a tendency to tlunk of the people who live all 
 the time among the mountains as different from others. j\Ioun- 
 taineers are a])t to be st\u-dier and manlier tlian tlie ]icoi)l(' of the 
 plains, but even hi highly ciWlized comitries they are also likely to 
 be less echicatcd, more ])rovincial, and a little behind the times. In 
 the less (•i^•iliz(•d jiarts of the world the mountahis are the homes of 
 secluded peo])le like the Tibetans, of imtameablc tribes like the 
 Afghans, or of varied and warring races like those of the Balkans and 
 the Caucasus. 
 
 Civilization in the Plains. — AMien i^lains are mentioned, we think 
 of i)ros])(rniis ]»co])le li\ing in floin'ishiiig villages, among fertile 
 fields and rich farms, or else in thriving cities. The ])e.ople of the 
 farms and villages may be consen-ative, but not so nnich so as those 
 of the mountains. 
 
 As we think of ])1ains, we recall tli(> growth of (^arly civilization in 
 the fertile plains of l•]g^•pt , ^h'so])otamia, and elsewhere. We r(\'ilizc 
 that to-day the gi-eat nations of the world all h:iv(^ their densest popu- 
 lation and greatest cities in the i)lains, or at least in the lowlands 
 
 78 
 
HUMAN ACTIVITIES IN MOUNTAINS AND PLAINS 79 
 
 where the rchef is gentle. Think of the world's great cities: London, 
 Paris, Berhn, Petrograd, Menna, Budapest, Constantinople, Bom- 
 bay, Calcutta, Pekin, Toldo, Pio Janeiro, Buenos Aires, New York, 
 Chicago, and many others. Not one of them is actually among the 
 mountains, although some, like Pio Janeiro, Boni])ay, and Vienna, 
 are close to their foot. The plains of the woi-ld, together with the 
 lowlands where the slopes are gentle, are evidently the most desirable 
 places for hnniaii habitation and progress. 
 
 How Mountains are Formed. — The study of how mountains orig- 
 inate and pass from youth to old age is one of the most interesting 
 branches of geography. Here, however, we can merely call to mind a 
 few of the chief processes. The shrinking of the earth and the bend- 
 ing and folding of the outer crust sometimes cause long breaks or 
 faults extending hunch-cnls of miles. The two sides of the fault move 
 differently, so that one finally may stand thousands of feet higher 
 than the other and forms a tilted block mountain. Such moun- 
 tains are generally steep on the faulted side and more gcMitle on the 
 other side, as may be seen in the Wasatch range, which has a steep 
 fault face on the west side and a gentler slope toward the east, and in 
 the Sierra Nevadas, where the reverse is the case. Other moimtains 
 are formed by a wavelike folding of the crust as in the Jura Mountains 
 of France, where each ridge represents a wave. Such simple folded 
 mountains, however, are rare. ]\Iost great mountain ranges consist 
 of a crumpled mixture of folds and fault blocks, and often the blocks 
 have been pushed in various directions or even one over another. 
 The structure of these complex mountains is reflected in the ii'regularity 
 of their ranges and ridges; as may be seen in the Alps, Pockies and 
 Himalayas. 
 
 How Mountains are Carved: Valleys. — It would be a mistake 
 to suppose that the form of mountains as we now see them is usually 
 due to the faulting, folding, and crumpling that they have passed 
 through. These processes are very slow according to human stand- 
 ards. Hence even while they are in progress the rivers and to a 
 mucli less extent the glaciers have a chance to carve valleys and carry 
 away enormous amounts of rock. So far has this process gone that 
 among the Pocky Mountains only rarely is it easy to detect the orig- 
 inal form due to movements of the earth's crust. Every little stream, 
 and even every tiniest ri\adet formed duiing a shower carries away 
 part of the substance of the mountains and tends to form a valley. No 
 matter how hard the rock may be, a river or even a small stream can 
 eventually carve a valley thousands of feet deep and then with the 
 help of its tributaries can widcMi that valley and reducf^ the stei^pness 
 of its slopes until finally the very niduiilaiii (ops incit down. I'oward 
 
80 MAN'S RELATION TO LAND FORMS 
 
 the rinl of tlic jirocoss the ni<»mil:iins l)oc{)iiio low niid rduiidcd like 
 tlip ^^'hitp iMouiitaiiis ami tlic Adirondacks. '^riic only ]);irls that, 
 still stand high are those where the roek is particularly hard and 
 resistant. Such mountains are called res-hhtal, and any one of them 
 may be called a nioncuhioch after a monntain of that name in southern 
 New Hampshire. 
 
 DiU'ing the early stages of their life-history, when the valleys are 
 3teep-sidetl and often very deep and preci])itous, and when parts of 
 the form due to the original uplift of the cnist arc still visible, moun- 
 tains are spoken of as young. At such tunes all the influences 
 upon civilization w'hich we shall later describe are at their greatest, 
 as may be seen in many parts of the Andes. When the valleys begin 
 to widen and the slopes become less steep, and the original form due 
 to uplift has disappeared, as has happened in the Rockies, the moun- 
 tains are called mature. Their effect on civilization, however, is still 
 very pronounced. Yj\q\\ when \\\Qy become old with gentle slopes, 
 wide valleys, and no great height this still remains true to a certain 
 extent. In their final stages, however, the moimtains arc worn so 
 low that they are reduced to a peneplain, that is almost to a plain. 
 They then form a low- rolling co\mtry with only a few monadnocks 
 rising here and there as in the Piedmont region of the Atlantic slope, 
 and arc practicall}^ plains with all their advantages. 
 
 How. Plains are Formed. — Plahis are formed by the wearing down 
 of any kinil of region to a gentle relief, or else by the deposition of 
 materials brought down from higher rc^gions. IMost plains are of this 
 latter sort. Some, such as the "high plains" of Colorado and Texas 
 or the basin plains of Utah and Nevada, have been formed by streams 
 which flow out from the neighboring moimtains. When the streams 
 lose their velocity on reaching the lowlands, they at once begin to 
 deposit their load of gravel and silt. They thus block their own 
 chaimels and arc forced to flow in new com-ses. Thus during the 
 lapse of ages they flow now here and now there imtil finally they build 
 almost level plains covering hundreds of thousands of sfjiiare miles. 
 Other plaiiis, s\ich as a large section of the central Ignited States, were 
 once part of the sea floor, and hence for millions of years received vast 
 deposits of fine clay and silt brought by rivers from the lands. Then 
 the movements of the earth's cnist finall}'^ brought them almost un- 
 changed to a level above that of the oceans. 
 
 Plateaus and Basin Regions as Combinations of Mountains and 
 Plains. — Vast portions of the earth's surface, such as the ])l:i,t(>aus of 
 Tibet, Peru and Arizona, and the basin n^gions of Pei-sia and Utah, 
 combine the features of mo\mtains and ]ilains. In the platea\is a 
 plain or region of low relief has been uplifted, and streams have exit 
 
HUMAN ACTIVITIES IN MOUNTAINS AND PLAINS 81 
 
 valleys in it. Thus tho valleys and their slopes have the charaeter of 
 mountains while the uplands have some of the characteristics of 
 plains. On the whole, however, most plateaus are so cut up that they 
 are more like mountains than plains, as is clearly evident in the 
 Allegheny Plateau. In the basin regions, on the othei- hand, a moun- 
 tainous countiy has l)een converted ])aitly into i)lains, as may be 
 seen by the way in which the jieaks of iialf bui'ied mountains often 
 stick up through great jilains of giaAcl in parts of Nevada. Often 
 plateaus and basins are coml)ined as in Mexico, whei'c Mexico C'ity 
 is located on a high ])lateau, but also in a Imsin which is floored with 
 a plain of soil brought down fi'om the mountains. 
 
 It would be highly profitable to study the various kinds of moun- 
 tains, plains, and plateaus in order to see how each exerts its own special 
 influence on man. We should find that even under similar condi- 
 tions of climate the mountains vary greatly in the degree to which 
 they hamper transportation and agriculture, retard education and 
 progress, or favor the sightseer and hunter. We should find that 
 although most plains have relatively deep soil and dense population, 
 and are comparati^•el^' easy to traverse, the}" differ greatly in these 
 respects. I'nfortunately, the limits of space oblige us to confine 
 our study to the contrast between the life of typical mountains and 
 typical plains. We shall talk chiefly about the mountains, however, 
 because this is the only chapter where their influence is fully dis- 
 cussed. Plains are so important that they form the chief theme in 
 the chapters on Soil and Agi'icultui'e. 
 
 Reasons for the Contrast between Mountains and Plains. — 
 (1) The Effect of Altitude. — There are three chief reasons why the life 
 in mountains differs from that in plains, namely, (1) altitude, (2) 
 climate, and (3) relief. Altitude alone is relatively unimportant. 
 People with heart trou])le, to l)e sure, cannot live even at an altitude 
 of 5000 feet, and most people find difficulty in l)i-cathing at altitudes 
 of 10,000 feet or more. Nevertheless when people go to high alti- 
 tudes tile body soon adapts itself to the new conditions. An increase 
 in the number of I'cd corpuscles in the l)lood enables it to absorb 
 oxygen mow lapidly, and thus the rarity of the air, which is the great 
 difficulty a1 higli altitudes, is I'obbed of much of its effect. Wh(>n 
 people come down from the moimtains this (^xcess if red corpuscles 
 makes them feel very strong, but it (luickly passes awaj'. This 
 prompt ciiange in the blood enables people to adapt themselves to 
 any altitude^ where the climate and relief make it possible to get a 
 living. Denver, for example, has become a gn^at city a mile above .'^ea 
 level, Mexico City is half a mile liighei-, (^uito pi'ospers at an altituiU^ 
 of nearh' two miles, and certain \ill;igcs in the Andes and Tibet raise 
 
82 MAN'S RlOLATloX TO LAM) KoRMS 
 
 barley and sliooji nearly throo miles above the sea. In each case a 
 higii plain makes it possible for the city or village to grow tip in sjMte 
 of the altitiulc. 
 
 (2) How the Climate Differs in Mountains and I^lains. — In the 
 loftiest villages of tlu^ An(l(>s and Tibet the villagei-s thhik little about 
 the altitude, bul iiiucli nbout the climate. This is because altitude 
 influences clhnate in three main Avays: (a) Tem]ierat\n-e decreases 
 with :iltitu<lo. In the free air the fnll I? nbout 1° F. for 100 foot of 
 nlliludi' ill siiiiinirr niiil I'oi- .")()0 tret in winter. The l';ill is iii(>r(> 
 marked where mountains rise stee])ly almAc a lowland as in the Alps, 
 than in regions like the (Ircat Plains where one can rise from sea level 
 to Denver almost without noticing any grade. Nevertheless the 
 average yearly temperature at Deiucr is about ;^° 1ow(m- than at 
 Indianapolis, which Ues in the same latitude but 4500 feet lower. 
 (6) The greater the altitude the more variable is the temperatui-e. 
 The rarity of the air allows the sun's heat to pass through it readily 
 and thus the earth's surface is quickly warmed, but the same con- 
 (htioii also allows the earth's heat to pass away rapidly at night, so 
 that there are great extremes. The relief also causes vai-iability, 
 for cool air may flow down a valley at night while warm air lises by 
 day. (c) Mountains are also more cloudy and lainy than plains, 
 for the currents of air that approach them nuist rise. Henc(^ the air 
 is cooled and its water vapor condenses into clouds and rain. On a 
 perfectly clear day in tlu^ jolains of California one can often see great 
 banks of clouds enshrouding the crests of the Sierras only 10 miles 
 to the east. While the dry brown grass of the plains shows that no 
 rain has fallen for months, the dense pine forests of the mountains, 
 and the httle brooks flowing amid rich green grass or thick biakcs of 
 flourishing bushes betoken rain in plenty. 
 
 (3) The Great Importance of Relief. — In tlu^ rest of this chapter we 
 shall confine oui-selves largelj^ to relic^f, the third of the great reasons 
 for the contrast in the life of mountains and ])lahis, but it must be 
 remembered that climate and relief work together so closely that they 
 often cannot be s('])arated. 
 
 The Uneven Distribution of Population in Mountain Regions 
 and the Even Distribution in Plains: Switzerland versus Iowa. — 
 One of the conditions where the effect of relief alone can be most 
 clearly seen is in the different distribution of the po]ndation among 
 mountains and in plains. Fig. 30 is a map of Switzerland showing the 
 density of jiopulation. Notice how inciiularly the people are scat- 
 tered. There is a great concentiation in the northern lowland, 
 where most of the people live, while among the mountains the inhab- 
 itants arc distributed here and there Avithout apparent order, but 
 
HUMAN ACTIVITIES IN MOUNTAINS AND PLAINS 
 
 83 
 
 really along the main valleys. Contrast this with Fig. 31, a similar 
 map of the plain of Iowa. How evenly the people are distributed! 
 
 INHABITANTS PER 
 SQUARE MILE 
 
 I I Under 5 
 
 I I 5 to 65 
 
 t-oY I 65 to 133 
 
 1 133 to 324 
 
 I Over 32t 
 
 10 go 30 40 50 
 
 Fig. 30. — Densitj- of Population in Switzerland. 
 An example of extraordinary diversity due to relief. Contrast with Fig. 31. 
 
 
 NHABITANTS PER 
 
 SQUARE MILE 
 
 5 to 63 [ I 
 
 65 to loo M \ 
 
 155 to 3-'4^^ 
 
 ^////''/////''/''Vv^y' 
 
 I'iG. 31. — DciLsity of Population in Iowa. 
 
 .\n example of extraordinarily even distribution of population in a plain, with a few dense 
 areas due to rivers. No county in the State has a density of less than 22 per S(iuare mile, or 
 over 200. 
 
 Practically every township of 30 s(iuar(> miles contains al)()ut a 
 thousand. A few cities have grown up, but are quite evenly spaced 
 
84 
 
 MAN'S RELATION TO LAND FORMS 
 
 throughout the State and jiot concpntratcd in nuv sc^ction, as in Swit- 
 zerland. Tlio reason is obvious: In Switzerlatid ])e()])le cannot live 
 in any large nuinhcrs in the rugged i)ortions and must concentrate 
 in the valleys; in Iowa the plain is so uniform that people can live 
 aiiy\vh(>r(\ 
 
 The Sparsity of Population in Mountains Compared with the 
 Density in Plains. — There is a strong contrast between moinitains 
 and ))lains in the dotsiii/ of po]i\ilation as well as in the distrilaition. 
 This is due to the coinl)ined effects of rehef and clunate. In Califor- 
 nia there is a beautiful district called Alpine County. In 1890 its 
 population numbered GG7, or a little less than one for ev(>ry square 
 
 INHABITANTS PER SQUARE MILE 
 
 r^: ■■ I 5 to 65 
 f-E-^vfi:^ 65 to 155 
 
 ^■H Over 324 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 111 
 
 Distiiinaio]! of I'opuhitioii in Sc'nlhuul. 
 
 mile. In 1000, this had fallen to 500. in lOlO to 309, and in 1920 
 to 2\'A. Some SO miles west of Alpine County, Sacramento County, 
 though only a httle larger, contained 1(),()0() jn'oplc in 1S9(), oi' more 
 than 10 to the sfjuare mile, while in H)()() the population munlx'red 
 40,000, in 1010, (iS.OOO, and in 1920, 91,000. Why sjiould one 
 county contain only one pei-son in .Ss(|iiaic miles and show little or 
 no prospect of c(»nlaining more, while the other contains 92 jx'ople 
 to the s(juarc mile? Tlu; answer is simply that .\lpine County is 
 one of the most moimtainous parts of the I'nited States, while 
 Sacramento County is a smooth plain. 
 
 Such contrasts between mountains and plains occur e\cty\\liere. 
 In India the little country of Blmlati on the rugged .'^oulhein slope of 
 
HUMAN ACTIVITIES IN MOUNTAINS AND PLAINS 85 
 
 the Himalayas contains only 12 people per sq\iare mile, while close 
 at hand the level plain of Bengal has over 500. Even where the con- 
 trast between mountains and plains is less striking there are great 
 differences in the density of the population. For instance, in Fig. 32 
 notice how the peo])le of Scotland are concentrated either in the 
 southern lowland from Glasgow to Edinburgh and Dundee, or else 
 along the plains of the eastern coast where Aberdeen is located. The 
 rugged highlands both in the north and south have so few people that 
 they appear ahnost white on the map. 
 
 The Advantage of Plains over Mountains in Transportation. — 
 We come now to a condition where tlu^ rclii'f of the moinitains is an 
 especially heavy handicap. In mountainous regions the roatLs and 
 even the railroads must go up and do^^•n hill. Everyone knows how 
 hard it is to haul a heavy load uphill. The load not only has to be 
 carried forward, but nuist be lifted against the pull of gravity. Another 
 difficulty in a rugged country is that the roads must often win<l in 
 broad curves or go out of their way to follow valleys, so that they 
 tra\'erse much gi'eater distances than are necessary on a plain. Com- 
 pare the two parts of Fig. 33. The southern part with the 
 straight railroads belongs to the level plain of southern New Jereey, 
 while the northern part with the cur^'ed roads is in the rugged 
 portion of that State. 
 
 The hard ^\•ork and long distances on mountain roads combine to 
 cause three other disadvantages which are not felt in plahis. Firet, 
 ti*ansportation is slower. For example, on the level stretch between 
 New York and Philadelphia a fast train on the Pennsylvania Pailrotul 
 travels 50 miles an hour, while on the mountainous stretch where 
 the road climbs the Allegheny I''scari)ment over the Horseshoe Curve 
 between Altoona and Johnstown the average speed is only 20 miles 
 per hoiu'. Second, the st(H'p(>r gradi^s cause greater wear and tear 
 on l)otli annuals and engines. In rugged \'ermont an automobile 
 is considered " junk " after traveling half as many miles as in level 
 Kansas. Third, the uphill uoik, the slow speed, and the wear 
 and tear all increase the cost of transportation among the moinitains 
 as com])arcHl with plains. For instance an automobile that makes 16 
 miles on a gallon of gasoline in Nevada, can make only wlu^n it 
 clhnbs the Sierras into California. Monnn'er, the cost of making and 
 especially of re])airing roads and railroads is often ten tunes as nuich 
 in the mountains as in the level i)lains. 
 
 Lookhig at th(> matter from thv stand]ioint of jilains we find that 
 they have the following advantages: tiiey ])erniit trans^iortation 
 routes (1) to avoid hard grades, (2) to go in any direction, and to 
 follow straight lin(>s, (3) to form as dense a network as the inhabitants 
 
86 
 
 MAX'S inil.ATloX To T.ANI) I'ollMS 
 
 ■•Cape M;iy City 
 
 Fit;. 33. — Kiiilroad Map of New Jcrsej^. 
 
HUMAN ACTIVITIES IN MOUNTAINS AND PLAINS 87 
 
 require, (4) to be adapted to rapid travel, and (5) to be built and 
 maintained cheaply. 
 
 Why the Means of Transportation Differ in Mountains and 
 Plains. — The most striking difference between the means of trans- 
 portation used in mountains and plains is that in the mountains 
 primitive methods are still used while in the plains advanced methods 
 have made much more progress. Even in the most ci\dlized coun- 
 tries like Switzerland pack trains are still coimuon among the moun- 
 tains, while in the plains of the same countries they are unknown. In 
 plains it is possible to build numerous railroads and also trolley roads 
 not only because the cost of construction is moderate, but because 
 there are many people. Not only are there more plainsmen than 
 moimtaineere, but they produce and consume more per capita, and 
 hence provide the railroads with more business. Even the airplane 
 is far more adapted to plains than to mountains, because it requires 
 broad level spaces in which to land. 
 
 Since railroads are less numerous in mountain regions than in 
 plains, the mountaineers must rely upon roads and often must carry 
 their products long distances. What is true of railroads, how- 
 ever, is also true of roads. In the plains they can be built easily and 
 cheaply and there are many people among w^hom to divide the cost. 
 In the mountains they are expensive and there are few people to bear 
 the cost. Therefore many parts of the mountains have no good roads, 
 and wagons cannot be used. Hence goods must be transported on 
 pack annuals, which can follow rough trails that require no expense 
 for their const niction. The animals that have been domesticated for 
 this purpose vary from place to place. 
 
 This difference in the means of transportation does even more than 
 the steep grades and the gi'eater distances to make transportation 
 more costly in the mountains than in the plains. For example, it 
 costs about two cents to carry a ton of freight a mile on a level rail- 
 road. To caiTy a ton the same distance on the backs of horses among 
 the mountains often costs from $1 to $5. It may pay to cany cloth 
 long distances by such expensive methods. It rarely pn.ys to cany 
 cheap, hea\y articles like iron. If grain were carried from Illinois to 
 New York by this expensive method it would cost at least S20 to S30 
 a bush(>l. 
 
 An Example of the Effect of Mountain Transportation. — Some- 
 times the (liflicuhy of transportation among the nunnilains leads to 
 peculiar kinds of law-breaking. For instance, in Kentucky, Ten- 
 nessee, and other places in the southern Ajipalachian Alomitains there 
 used to be many "moonshiners" and there are still some who distill 
 whisky illegally. They need ready money; the com, \\ hicli is their 
 
88 
 
 MAN'S RELATION TO LAND FORMS 
 
HUMAN ACTIVITIES IN MOUNTAINS AND PLAINS 
 
 89 
 
90 MAN'S RELATION T(^ T.AXD FORMS 
 
 chief crop, rminot l>o lakoii to niarkot down in tlio lowlands Ixraiiso 
 thpiv aiv Ui) j!;u(>il roads. The prkv at which the corn would sell would 
 not ])ay a (jiiartcr of the cost of tiTinsiiortation. 
 
 If the same corn is made hito whisky the resulting prochict is only 
 one-thirtioth as Inilky as the corn. The cost of transportation is thus 
 reduced so that the mountahieer can cany his i)roduct to the lowlands 
 and sell it at a ]irofit. This fact has caused the mountaineers to 
 break the law for many p;enerations. When the government col- 
 lected a tax on whisky the "moonshiners" felt that it was not right to 
 take away their profit on the only ])roduct that they could take to 
 the lowlands and sell for cash. AMien the sale of whisky was com- 
 pletely forbidden, the moinitaineers felt that a still gi'eater injustice 
 was done them. Tims for manj^ years they have broken the law 
 because the mount nins niak(> trans^iortation so difficult. 
 
 Difficulties of the Farmer in Rugged Regions: (1) Rapid Erosion. — 
 The farm(>r in rugged regions is at a disadvantage because he lives 
 in a region of erosion. Ever^' rain carries away some of the soil, 
 especially when the fields have been freshly plowed. In the Caro- 
 linas, Georgia, and other Southern States the Appalachian foothills 
 have suffered almost in-eparable harm in this way. lender the influ- 
 ence of unwise cultivation the soil of hundreds of farms has been 
 gullied so that the fields are rmned. A\'here the slopes are fairly 
 gentle this difficult}^ can be overcome by plowing so that all the 
 fuiTows are horizf)nt.al and the rain water stantls in them instead of 
 running down them. This is called contour plowing because the 
 furrows run horizontally like the contoin- hues on a map. The wash- 
 hig away of the soil by the rain and also by landslides and avalanches 
 is doubly harmfid for the material carried from tlu> fields is often 
 spread out on the valley flooi-s and tlu-n^ for a time ruins other fields. 
 
 (2) Thin Rock]/ Soil. — Althou^ii moic soil is actually formed in 
 motmtain regions than in plains, so much is carried away by (n-osion 
 that the remaining soil is thin and rocky. Among the Himalayas, for 
 ('xami)le, the iields are so rocky that each year after they have been 
 plowed, women go about picking up the stones and throwing th(>m 
 over their shoulders into baskets strapped to their backs. Tlu^y 
 have done this for centuries, yet the stones are still numerous, for 
 new ones are ])lowed up or brought down by the streams. 
 
 (3) Lack (if Ld'cl Spaces: Terraces. — Another great difficulty of 
 the mountain farmer is the scarcity of level places for fields. lie uses 
 the \;illi'\' bottoms, but they do not prox'ide space ciiouuh. To get 
 more land lie must construct tenaces on the iiillside. In countries 
 like China and .hi|)an this has been done on an eiioiiiious scale. 
 W'IkjIc mountain .-iides arc often cuwrcd with lerracci where walls o 
 
HUMAN ACTIVITIES IN MOUNTAINS AND PLAINS 91 
 
 or 10 feet high have been iMiilt up in order to form terraces 20 or 30 
 feet wide. The labor of making «uch terraces and of keephig them in 
 repair is so great that it helps to keep the mountain people poor. 
 
 Cattle Raising among the Mountains. — Since ordinary farmhig 
 is so difficult, mountaineers try to make a living in other ways, for 
 instance, by keeping cattle and sheep. These animals can easily 
 graze on slopes too steep for cultivation. They can also be pastured 
 on the rich grass which covers the valley floore and the mountain 
 sides above the tree line. In California in June along the roads lead- 
 ing into the high SieiTas, one must often pick his way through herds 
 of hundreds of cows and calves or through flocks of stupid sheep that 
 refuse to turn out for the passing automobile. The annuals are being 
 driven to the high mountains to graze during the sunnner. 
 
 In Switzerland the mountain meadows are called "Alps," and have 
 given their name to the world's most famous mountains. Every sum- 
 mer when the snows disappear the people of the lower mountains 
 move with their herds and flocks to chalets or huts among the flowery 
 meadows near the snow-line. There they spend the smmner caring 
 for the cows and making butter and cheese. Such a life may be 
 pleasant for a while, but it is lonely and unstimulating, so that the 
 people who follow it are apt to be uneducated and backward. 
 
 Tree Crops in Contrast to the Cereals of the Plains. — In many 
 resjDects tree crops are to the mountains what grain crops are to the 
 plains. Although the world's most important food products are the 
 cereals, including rice, corn, wheat, rye, barley, and oats, they are 
 not adapted to the mountains. They need fine, deep soil, and a Avide 
 acreage, for the average yield per acre is relatively small, being only 
 15 or 20 bushels in the case of wheat. In order to be profitable they 
 must be planted and reaped by niacliinery. All these conditions 
 are met in the plains, but not in the mountains. 
 
 With trees the case is different. Although people often forget 
 it, trees furnish not only fruit, but unportant food crops such as nuts, 
 olives, berries, and forage seeds. In America this source of wealth 
 is as yet little appreciated, but in the countries aroimd the Mediter- 
 ranean Sea it is highly unportant. Many kinds of trees gi'ow quite 
 as well upon hillsides as on plains. The rockiness of the soil makes 
 no difference in their cultivation, for the land does not have to be 
 plowed. ]\Ioreover, since there is no plowing the soil is not washe<l 
 awaj' so easily as where the crops are planted anew each A'ear. The 
 roots of the trees also hold the soil in ])la('c, ^\ liilc thcii' IcaAcs increase 
 its depth. 
 
 Because of these conditions tree cro]is are highly jn'ofitable in 
 regions of nigged relief. For examiilc in France and Italy rough, 
 
92 MAN'S RELATION TO LAM) FORMS 
 
 rocky hillsidos plantrd wit.li chostimt t.nn's aro sojiiotimos worth as 
 luiicli JHT acre as our best wheat lands. Wahnits, {'hostniits, beech- 
 nuts, jx'oan nutKS, filberts, and biiticnuits all furnish excellent food 
 for man and can be raised on stcc]) slopes. So too, can the olive, 
 which fm-nishes the l)est of vegetal )le oils. 
 
 Aconis, likewise, gi"ow admirably on stecj) sloiu's. Althoujih 
 they are not a particularly good food for man, the Kurds in Turkey 
 often grind them into floin- for bread. For pigs, however, they are 
 excellent. C!reat herds are fattened on them in llic mountains of 
 Serbia. In Spain ]ii<rs arc also tui-ncd into the .•hcstnut^ orciiards 
 to fatten on the nuts that have been droi)pcd while the crop i.s being 
 harvested. Sometimes the orchards are located on such steep slopes 
 that farmers dar(> not tuin in the larg(\ fat i)igs for fear that they niaj' 
 lose their footing and roll down. 
 
 Peaches and especially apjiles also grow excellently- in rugged 
 land. They are to-day the chief tree crop of the United States. 
 Millions of acres, however, might be used for other tree crops and 
 thus the mountain people might greatly increase their prosperity and 
 at the same time add to the wealth of the country as a whole. 
 
 Lumbering as a Mountain Industry. — Trees for lumber as well 
 as for food will always ])e more abundant in rugged regions than hi 
 plains. Many of the plains that are now densely populated were 
 once covered with trees, but to-day in temperate latitudes forests 
 are largely restricted to nigged areas which cannot be used for farm- 
 ing. Such forest lands are found in northern New England, the 
 Adirondacks, the Ap])alachians, antl the northern parts of IMichigan, 
 Wisconsin, and IMinnesota. The Ozark region of Arkansas, parts of 
 the Rocky Mountains, and much of the Sierra, Cascade, and Coast 
 ranges are likewise forested. In Europe the words "forest" and 
 "moimtain" are almost synonymous. The terms "Black Forest" and 
 "Black Mountains" are both used for the same part of (lermanj'. 
 Similarly in France the forests have been cut away so fully in all 
 parts except the rugged uplands that a term like Argonne means 
 both forest and highland. 
 
 Until the latter part of the last century lunil)er and lirewood were 
 abimdant in the United States because new lowland areas were being 
 cleared for settlement. Now, however, exce])t for some of the sandy 
 pine lands of the South, the main reliance of the country is almost 
 wholly the forests of rugged areas. Even there so many trees have 
 been cut and new growth is so slow that the su])]-)ly of lumber does not 
 keep pace with the demand. Hence the price of many khids of wood 
 is five or ten times as mui^h as thirty years ago. This would be an 
 advantage to the people of the mountains, but \nifortuTiately for them 
 
HUMAN ACTIVITIES IN iMOUNTAINS AND PLAINS 93 
 
 keen business men of the cities bought up enormous tracts of forests 
 before tlic country in o-onoral realized their vaUie. 
 
 Wasteful Lumbering Methods. — In the past the method of 
 lumbering has been very wjist(^fui. The owners of timber tracts have 
 often desired merely to get rich as ciuickly as possible. Therefore they 
 have sent crews of woodcutters into the forests with orders to cut down 
 everythhig that is large enough to be of any ])ossible use. As the 
 large trees fall they crash into the yoimg ones and ruin them. Only 
 the main tmnks of the trees are used. The branches and the upper 
 third of the tnndv are wasted because transportation in forests and 
 especially in rugged regions is so difficult that it does not pay to bring 
 anything ])ut the best timl^er out to the plains. Wlien the ])ranches 
 become dry, a stroke of lightning, a match, a lighted cigar, or a 
 camper's fire may start a forest fire that Imrns down the timlxn* for 
 hundreds of square miles. This is a terrible disaster, not only because 
 of the trees that are destroyed and the jieople that are rendered home- 
 less, but because the humus of the soil is bununl wy). In rugged re- 
 gions the remainder of the soil thus left exposed is likely to be rapidly 
 carried away by the rain. 
 
 Forest Conservation. — -To-day a new method of lumbering is ])eing 
 introduced. People have l^egun to realize that if there were no ])er- 
 manent forest reserves we should l)e put to great stress to find a sul)- 
 stitute for wood. Our condition would be like that of China, where 
 the density of population and the dryness of the climate in spring 
 and fall cause the country to have almost no forests. Wood is there 
 so scarce that many people have difficulty in getting enough for doors, 
 fiooi's and furniture for their houses, and the coffins for tluMuselves 
 which they buy yeai*s before they die. So scarce is wood that the 
 houses themselves are generally made of adobe, stone, or brick. 
 
 In spite of this danger we arc still cutting the trees reckk^ssly. 
 Nevertheless the good example of European count lic^s, such as 
 France and Sweden, is beginning to be ado])ted unckn" the leadership 
 of the United States Forest Service. The Forest S(>rvice l)elieves 
 that the great forests ought not to enrich a f(>\v individuals, but should 
 benefit everyone. To accomplish this they must ])e ownetl by the 
 government, but there must ])e the freest oi)])ortunity for everyone 
 to buy timber at reasonable tcn-ms. Accordingly hu-gi> tracts of 
 rugged land in all parts of the country (sec Fig. 3G) have been set 
 aside by the national or State governments as forest rcsen'cs. Their 
 total area in 1918 was nearly 200,000,000 acres, or more than tht> 
 area of all the Atlantic States from Virginia northward, including 
 Pennsylvania. In these tracts everythhig is jilanned so that bad trees 
 are eliminated, good ones are planted, anil the land is covered with 
 
94 
 
 MANS RELATION TO LAND lOHMS 
 
HUMAN ACTIVITIES IN MOUNTAINS AND PLAINS 95 
 
 trees of the right sort to maintain a steady supply of lumber. Anyone 
 who chooses may buy standing timl)ei' i^rovided he cuts only the 
 larger trees, and fells them so that they do not damage the smaller 
 ones. He must also dispose of the l)i-anch(^s and useless to])s so that 
 there is no risk of devastating fires. 
 
 In addition to all this, the Forest Service maintains a corps of for- 
 est rangers and fire wardens. High on a mountain top a warden 
 often lives all sunmier miles from the nearest neighbor. Every day 
 at certain hours he goes to points of vantage and searches with his 
 field glass for signs of smoke. If he sees signs of a forest fire he 
 telephones to the foresters down in the valley, and a gang of fii-e 
 fighters at once starts to put out the blaze. An aeroplane jiatrol 
 in some places also aids in discovering fires. 
 
 Why Civilization is More Backward among Mountains than in 
 Plains. — (1) Scarcity of Good Artisans. — ^A progressive community 
 must contain not only farmer's, lumbermen, and laborers, but skillful 
 artisans, manufacturer, and professional people. Among the 
 mountains tliis is almost impossible. Take the case of the most 
 necessary kind of artisan, a carpenter. In the plauis he usually does 
 nothing but carpenter work, and hence is highly skillful. Among the 
 mountains, however, there are so few people, they are so scattered, 
 and the scarcity of good soil keeps them so poor, that little money is 
 spent for new houses or unprovements. Hence the carpenter can 
 find work only a small part of the time. If he is really skillful and 
 ambitious the chances are that he will move away to the lowlands 
 where there is plenty of work. If he is less skillful or has little energy, 
 he stays in the mountains and perhaps devotes part of his tune to 
 running a farm. Thus he excels neither as farmer nor carpenter. 
 Since he is not a particularly good workman and his neighbors are 
 poor, they employ him only a few days when they are building a 
 house or barn, and do most of the work themselves. This teaches 
 the mountaineers to try all sorts of work, but it residts in many poor 
 cabins and shacks. 
 
 Blacksmiths, masons, mechanics, plumbei-s, and other artisans 
 find it still harder to get work among the mountahis, and hence are 
 scarcer than carpenters. Therefore the mountaineer has to do abnost 
 everything for himself, but because he nuist do so many things he 
 rarely learns to do any of them unusually well — "Jack of all trades 
 and master of none." It is the things that are done unusually well — 
 better than ever before — that cause the progress of ci\'ilization. 
 
 (2) Enforced Idleiiess. — Dining the winter when tlu>re is little 
 farm work, the mountaineers are often idl(^ At such times the low- 
 lander can often find work not far away in factories, but this is diffi- 
 
96 MANS RELATION TO LAND I'OliMS 
 
 ctilt for tho moTmtaiiuTr. Ho must stay at home to take care of the 
 animals, clrar tlic snow, brc^ak out the roads, get firewood, and the 
 Uke. If he were surrounded by neighbors as closely as is the farmer 
 ill the rich lowland it would be much easier to hire a neighl)or to help 
 with the chores while the farmer went away and earned money else- 
 where. Sometimes this is possible, but if the nearest neighbor is a 
 mile or two away and the roads are heavy with snow it may be a 
 dangerous thing to leave wife and children alone. Therefore the 
 moimtain farmer stays at home in the winter and does nothing except 
 his routine chores. 
 
 Some mountaineei"s are so energetic, however, that they engage 
 in occupations such as the woodworking of Switzerland and the Black 
 Fort'st. Shice there is plenty of wood around them, the ])e()])le have 
 taken to can'ing it into all sorts of toys for childnni and also into 
 elaborate patterns such as clock cases and paneling for churches. 
 The women often make lace or embroideiy. Woodworking, and 
 embroidery, like the moonshine whisky described earlier, all represent 
 a high value in a small compass, and can easily be transported out of 
 the moimtaiiis. The mountaineers really export their skill, their 
 raw material being of little or no value. Even so, the expense of 
 marketing their products leaves the mountaineei-s a return much 
 smaller than that of the lowland(^r for equally good work. 
 
 (3) Professions. — A large part of the new ideas of a conuuunity 
 come from its professional people, its teachers, clergymen, lawyers, 
 and doctors. Among the mountains they are und(M- the same sort of 
 disadvantage as the artisans. As the population is witlely scattered, 
 the schools and churches are small, and can pay only the most meager 
 salaries. The schools are in session only a few months each year, 
 and church services are held only occasionally. Only a few p(M)ple 
 are within reach of the lawyer and doctor who settle in a moimtain 
 valley. 
 
 Shice the eaniings of ])r()fessioiuil peojile luv small, it is generally 
 necessary to eke theiu out by engaghig in sonu> otiier occupation 
 part of the lime. Tlu> teacher juay be also a car]ienter, the lawyer 
 a blacksmith, and the minister a mason, and all may carry on a little 
 farming. Naturally such men do not have much time iOi- study and 
 the imi)rovement of their minds; nor much money to Iniy the books 
 and make the journeys to conventions that are essential if they are to 
 keep up in their professions. Moreover, it is no easy life for a physi- 
 cian, for exam])le, to have to take long rides on hors(^back in darkness 
 and storm over ]ioor roads or trails, and then be paid barely enough 
 to live on. Unless teachers, ministers, lawyers, and physicians are 
 working solely for the good they can do, tlux^e who have spent nnich 
 
HUMAN ACTIVITIES IN MOUNTAINS AND PLAINS 97 
 
 time and money in preparing for tlunr professions arc unwilling to 
 pass their lives in lonely places where the tlifhciilties are so great and 
 the rewards so few. Hence the mountains lose and the plains gain. 
 
 Why Mountaineers are Bolder than Plainsmen. — Mountaineers 
 are generally bolder than the people of ])lains. This is partly because 
 they are strong and healthy, but also because they have many exper- 
 iences which never come to lowlanders. A mountain boy has no 
 fear of wild animals because he often sees them. He dares to take 
 off his clothes and wade through a cold turbulent stream that would 
 give the city boy a bad fright and make hmi sick from the chill. The 
 mountaineer is also bold because he frequently undergoes such hard- 
 ships as tramping a scoi'e of miles in a vain search for game, or spend- 
 ing the night alone in the woods when he hunts for stray cattle on the 
 unfenced mountainside. 
 
 Again, in backward regions poverty often makes the . mountaineer 
 bold and quarrelsome, for his envy of the richer people of the low- 
 lands may embolden him to try to get a share of their possessions. 
 Hence when times are particularly hard the mountain- tribes of Persia 
 and Afghanistan, for example, descend on horeeback to raid the farms, 
 plunder the houses, and drive off the cattle. In some regions such 
 raids occur almost every year at harv^est time. The lowlandere are 
 so used to them that they build spscial towers of sun-dried brick to 
 which they run for refuge when raidei-s are seen. The boldness of 
 mountaineers was ilhistratcd l)y the Gurkhas from the Himalaj-as in 
 the Great War. ]\Iore than any other soldiei-s from India they made 
 the most daring kind of raids right into and across the German 
 trenches. 
 
 Why Feuds are Common in Mountains. — ^AMien one man wrongs 
 another in the mountains it is difhcult to get rcxlress through the law 
 because the officials are usually fai- away in the lowlands. Among 
 cowardly peopk' this might mean that wrongs would go unrighted. 
 Among bold, sturdy mountaineers, however, it leads men to tiy to 
 right their own wrongs. Thus if a man is muidcM'ed, Jiis bi-others, 
 sons, and oth(>r I'elativc^s feel that it is their duty to kill the murderer 
 tluMuselves. If they tlo so, the relatives of the nuu-derer try in their 
 tui'n to take vengeance. Thus family feuds arise, and may last for 
 many g(Mierations. Sometimes a little quarrel over some tiitle aiouses 
 l)e()])le's anger and blows are struck. 1'lie ([uai-rel thus started may 
 go on for decad(^s and caus(> th.e children and grandchildren and e\-en 
 the gr(>at-grandcliildren of tliefiist pair to lie in wait by the roadside 
 to shoot one another. Not many years ago a Kentucky feud led the 
 memlxM's of one family to conu' down to the courthouse in the low lands, 
 take a man out of jail with the connivance of the jailer, and shoot him 
 
98 MAN'S RELATION TO LAND FORMS 
 
 ill the ])ul)lic sciuarc. Such tliiniis would not happen if the isohilion of 
 the inountaius had not forced i)ooi)k' to look out for their own ri}:;hts. 
 
 Tln' very men who are fiercest in cariyin^ on feuds often l)e<-onic 
 some of the strongest an<l most vahiahle membei-s of the connnmiity 
 wlien tliey come down to tlie lowlands and leani the ways of more, 
 advanced conuniinit ies. Often indeed, they s\n'ixiss those whose 
 ancestoi"s have had every advantage for generations. In Scotland 
 in ]>ast centni-ies the IIij;hlanders used to raid the Lowlands most 
 immercifiilly. "^ro-day the descendants of the raidei"s are among 
 the most useful and ca])al>le i^mi])]!' in the I'ritish l'Jii])ire. 
 
 How the Mountains Attract the People of the Plains. — Just 
 as the wealth of t.lie ])lains has lonj;" at ti'acted the tx'ojjle of the inoun- 
 tains, so the scencny and ]Hn"c air of the mountains now attract the 
 people of the ])lains. Only the most hi<ihly civilized ])eo]ile, however, 
 have learned the value of the mountains as ])laces for rest and enjoy- 
 ment durinu' A'a-cations. Not more than a century or two ajio ciAilizc^l 
 I>e()])le like those of the lowlands of I'jijrland and ( iermany thought of 
 the mountains as ])laces to he shunned. In old books the mountains 
 are often refciTcd to as tciTifyint;-, <;loomy, frightful. I'A-en to-day 
 when people first look at a stee]) mountainside they sometimes feel 
 dizzy. The vast majority of civilized p(M)])le, however, now regard 
 the mountains as a ])leasin"e ground. Thousands of families escape 
 from the city each summer in order to gain strength and ha.])])iness 
 among the mountains. They want to enjoy the wildness, clinih 
 rugged peaks, antl feel the exhilaration of the view from a moimtain 
 top. 
 
 In places like the Aljjs, th(> ^^'hite Alounlains, the Adirondacks, 
 and certain parts of the Sien-as the peo])le of the mountains make a 
 large part of their living by taking boarders, running hotels, su])])ly- 
 ing niilk and vegetal)les, selling small artich^s made (hu'ing the wintcn', 
 acting as guides, and in oilier ways caring for tourists. In such 
 comjnunities the disath-antages of mountain lif(> ar(> much diminisluHl. 
 ►Since people no longer de])end wholly on their farms, their ]iros])erity 
 increases They can have better schools, better roads, moi-e books, 
 Ixjtter prf)f(!ssional men and artisans, and more advantages in many 
 ways. Since they come in contact with ])eo])le from many lowland 
 regions tlicy gain liew ideas, and their life is broadened and dee])ened. 
 
 QI:KST1()NS, exercises, and rilOBLEMS 
 
 1. Compare Fi^s. 37 and 38 until you arc .sure you understand how I'i^;. 37 
 by putting a dot for each inilhon people, shows the (lislribulion of i)oi)uhif ion, wliile 
 Fig. 3S, by dilTcrent grades of shading, shows tlie dinxiti/ of population, that is 
 the number of people per square mile. Select four eounlrics or hirge regions that 
 
HUMAN ACTIVITIES IN MOUNTAINS AND PLAINS 
 
 99 
 
100 
 
 MANS REr^\TIOX TO LAND FORMS 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 Ph 
 
 o 
 
 
HUMAN ACTIVITIES IN MOUNTAINS AND PLAINS 101 
 
 aro jiredominantly plains and four ni)t far away that are mountainous. On the 
 basis of Figs. 37 and 38, write a statistical account of the differences in the dis- 
 tribution and density of population in the two types of regions. 
 
 2. Figs. 34 and 35 illustrate the effect of relief on transportation. Contrast the 
 two in as many ways as j^ossible. Describe the effect on each of the modes of 
 transportation shown in Fig. 34 if tlie grade of the valley floor were decidedly 
 steeper. 
 
 3. Study the railroads that cross the Rockies. Name examples of lines which 
 follow the valleys. Find out which ones avoid the valleys and run along the high- 
 land. Exi)lain why this happens. 
 
 4. Select three parts of the w^orld characterized as follows: (a) a region of 
 plains, abundant rain, and slow rivers; (b) a region of gentle relief and exceedingly 
 low rainfall; (c) a region of great relief where the higher mountains are always 
 capped with snow. List the difficulties \,hich confront a railroad engineer in each 
 of these places. On the map determine how abundant railroads are in the places 
 j-ou have chosen. 
 
 5. Make a diagram to show the relief of j^ourown State. Use the following 
 scheme of shading: (a) heavy, for mountainous portions; (b) light, for the regions 
 of low hiUs; (c) no shading, for the plains. Locate on your map the 20 largest 
 towns of the State. Discuss the relation between the relief and the location of the 
 towns. If your own State does not show marked relief, choose any other in which 
 you are interested. 
 
 6. Study the capitals of Euroiie in relation to the relief. Classify them accord- 
 ing to location as follows : (a) near the centers of plains ; {b) on the edges of ])lains; 
 (c) m narrow valleys or among the mountains. Explain the reasons for the 
 relative numbers of the different types. 
 
 7. A good seaman has been defined as "one who can turn his hand to any task 
 and who can make the best use of any material he may happen to have." Dis- 
 cuss the extent to which this is true of a mountaineer as compared with a i)lains- 
 man. Show specific features of the geographic environment which lead to your 
 conclusion. 
 
PART IV 
 MAN'S RELATION TO BODIES OF WATER 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 THE INFLUENCE OF THE OCEANS 
 
 Few features of man's geographical surroundings are more impor- 
 tant than the division of the earth's surface into continents and oceans. 
 At first thought one might say that only the lands are really necessary. 
 We Uve on the lands; their soil yields food for man and l^east; the 
 lands contain mines from which we extract minerals; we travel chiefly 
 upon the lands; and even when we traverse the oceans it is only to 
 reach some other pohit upon the lands. It would seem that the 
 ocean merely covei-s three-fourths of the earth's surface which might 
 otherwise form fertile plains supporting millions upon millions of 
 people. Such a view is wrong, however, for the oceans are as neces- 
 sary to man as are the lands. They are of the greatest service in the 
 following five respects: (1) as a source of rain; (2) as rcgiilatoi-s of 
 temperature; (3) as an aid to health; (4) as a soin-ce of minerals; 
 and (5) as a source of food. Oceans also serve (6) as barriers, and 
 (7) as carriere of conunerce. In these two respects the relation of 
 the oceans to transportation is the reason for their profoiuul effect 
 upon man's life. In most respects large lakes act in the same wa}- as 
 oceans. 
 
 Why the Oceans are Important. — (1) As a Source of Water for 
 Clouds and Rain. — Even in the heart of a continent much of the 
 rain consists of moisture wafted thither l)y winds from the ocean. 
 If the cro]:)s dcpendcnl only on moisture evaporated from the lands 
 includinii thoir lakes and I'ivers, they would l)c as scanty as in deserts. 
 Nohi-aska and the Dakotas, although in the middle of a continent, 
 raise millions of bushels of wheat l)v means of water from oceans 
 over lOOO miles away. Practically all the woild's corn crop depends 
 on sununer rains from oceans 500 to ITjOO mil(>s away. This is not 
 surprising for two chief reasons: (n) The evaporation from tlu^ huul 
 js usually less than from the same area of water, as is evident from the 
 
104 MAX'S RELATION TO BODIES OF WATER 
 
 dampness of a sea hrcczc^ coniimnMl with tlu> dnnioss of a land Itroozc; 
 (6) the area of t lie oceans is two and a half t iines that of the lands, and 
 two hinidretl tunes that of all the lakes, rivci-s, swamps, and other 
 bodies of water on the lands, includinfi; the great Caspian Sea. If all 
 the lakes in the world should be evai^orated Ihey would sii])])]y only 
 one-fifteenth of the rain that falls eaeh year on the lands. 
 
 (2) Ocea7is as Regulators of Temperature. — In addition to sn])])ly- 
 ing moist\n-e the oceans prevent the land from l)(>coniins too hot or 
 too cold. Water becomes warm much more slowly than the materials 
 that form the land, and is correspondinp;ly slow in cooling. Moreover 
 since water is easily movable it is l)lown alxnit in the form of currents 
 which cany warm water from the torrid zone toward the poles and 
 cold water from polar regions toAvard the equator. Because water 
 heats and cools skn\ly and because the warm and cool parts are mixed 
 by currents, the ocean is warmer than the lands in winter and cooler in 
 summer. Hence winds that blow across the oceans are warmed by 
 the water in winter, and cooled in smnmer. Thus when thej' reach 
 the lands they make the sununci's cooler and the wintei-s wanner 
 than they would otherwise be. How great this effect is may be seen 
 by com])aring Seattle, Washington, where the Pacific Ocean influences 
 the temperature, with Bismarck, North Dakota, which is far from 
 either ocean. In Januaiy wdiile the farmei"s around Seattle are 
 plowing in an average temperature of about 40° F. for day and night 
 together, those around Bismarck, where the average is only about 
 7°, can do little except feed their cattle and protect them from bliz- 
 zards. In July, on the contrary, the average at Seattle is 64° and at 
 Bismarck 70°, so that Avheat gi-ows much better at Bismarck than at 
 Seattle. If there were no oceans all parts of the United Stages 
 would have extremes much gi-eater than those of Bismarck so that 
 the sunmici-s would be unbearably hot and the winters unbearably 
 cold. It is well that the continents are surrounded by gi'eat oceans. 
 
 (3) The Ocean as an Aid to Health. — The Sea Coast. — As compar- 
 atively few people sail the sea, the coast is the place where the ocean 
 exerts its influence directly upon the greatest nmnber of pei-sons. 
 There the oceans are a wonderful aid to health in ii\-e cliief waA's: 
 (a) Extremes of temperature arc rare; (b) cxtnnie diyness is also 
 rare; (c) small short-lived changes of temperature f i( )in day to da}' and 
 even from horn- to hour arc^ frequent ; (d) the variety and beauty of the 
 seashore tem])t i)eo})le to engage in outdoor sports such as bathing, 
 fishing, and walking; (c) the ocean is a wonderful pmufier, and not 
 only carries away but. destroys most impui'ities brought into it from 
 the land. 
 
 The first three of tliese favorabU> contlitions all arise from the 
 
THE INFLUENCE OF THE OCEANS 105 
 
 winds that l)low from the sea. Ahnost as soon as a land broczo begins 
 to cause extreme heat in summer or extreme cold in winter, a sea 
 breeze brings a change and causes the temperature to moderate. 
 The only unfavorable effect of the seacoast upon health in temperate 
 latitudes arises from the fact that during " hot spells " in summer the 
 dampness of the sea makes the heat harder to bear than when the 
 air is dry. Prostrations and deaths from heat in New York City, for 
 example, are often due to this cause, but such occasions are so rare 
 that they are a small matter compared with the benefits derived from 
 being near the sea. The coml)ined effect of all five upon health is to 
 cause much of the shore from Maine to Florida to be lined with smii- 
 mer cottages. 
 
 Recreation on a Submerged Coast. — In Maine the summer visitor 
 delights ill the beaut ies of a submerged coast, where innumerable deep 
 bays dotted with picturesque rocky islands tempt him to sail and en- 
 joy their beauty, even if he does not care to catch the fish ^^'hich 
 abound in the cold water. The intervening peninsulas with their gar- 
 ment of spicy pine forests and their rugged cliffs worn by the ever- 
 gnawing waves tempt him to go on long walks or to sit at the top of 
 some bluff and watch the dashing waves, or catch fish from the rocks. 
 The materials woni from the rocky cHffs on the outer part of the pen- 
 insulas and capes are carried by the currents to the heads of the 
 innumerable liaj's, and there form little beaches where boats can 
 safely be drawn up, and where on sunny days the water may become 
 warm enough to permit l)athing. 
 
 Recreation on an Emerged Coast. — Farther south in Florida the 
 fact that the coast has emerged gives rise to broad sandy beaches. 
 The surf rolls in magnificently to the pleasure not only of the spec- 
 tatoi-s who sit in the sun on the beach, but of the bathei-s who can 
 enjoy the warm water for hours each day. Children delight to dig 
 in the dry sand near high tide level, and watch the pelicans open tlunr 
 enormous bills. Between the levels of high and low tide the damp 
 beach is so hard and smooth that it offcn-s an ahnost ideal place for 
 automobile races. Boating is not so easy as on the submerged coasts, 
 farther north, for onlj^ where streams enter the ocean can even small 
 boats be kept. When the boats get out to the sea, however, they 
 afford the finest kind of sport hi catching fish like the baracuda. 
 
 A few weeks of ocean air and pleasant recreation on almost any 
 seacoast of the United States at the right season make one feel full 
 of energy and ready for all sorts of work. It must not be o^Trlooked, 
 however, that part of the benefit is ilue to the change from home 
 conditions, together with the outdoor life, and the opportunities for 
 new forms of recreation. 
 
106 MANS RELATION TO BODIES OF WATER 
 
 How Coasts Benefit the Health of the Tropics. — Tii tro]M(al roun- 
 trics thi' cooliii}^ clTcct of the sc;i is csjx'ciHlly iiu])(»rt;nit. Winds 
 from tlio sea temper tlie coust.aiit heat and make ])eo])le feel miieh 
 more like work than is possil)le for those wlio live farther hilanil. The 
 oeean winds also drive away the mosciuitoes and other insects which 
 are so great a menace to health and comfort. l'"or these reasons a 
 snriM'isingly large i)art of the ])eo])le of ('(juatorial Africa, for ex:uni)le, 
 have placi'd their high-i)itched cottages along the shore where the 
 afternoon sea breeze serves as the " doctor." 
 
 How the Ocean Disposes of Sewage. — Another important fimetion 
 of oceans is their he!]) in dis])osing of sewage. One of the most ex- 
 pensive duties of the modern cities is to get rid of the sewage in such 
 a way that it will do no harm. In general the sewage is conducted 
 into some neighhorhig Ixxly of water. If the water is in motion the 
 sewage is carried aw^ay and gi-eatly diluted. Thus in a short time 
 the water ]HU'ifies itself so that even the most carefid analysis fails to 
 show pollution. If sewage is conducted into a body of stantling 
 water without marked currents, however, the water becomes polluted 
 and may prove a source of grave dang(>r. Chicago found this to 
 her cost when she tried to dump sewage into one part of Lake 
 Michigan and take drinking water from another. She had to s])end 
 about $40,000,000 in order to build a drainage canal dee]) enough so 
 that the dirty Chicago River, into which the sewage pours, would 
 flow toward the Mississippi River instead of toward the lake. On 
 the sea coast, cspeciall}^ where there arc strong tides, the difficulties 
 of disposing of sewage arc reduced to a minimum. In some coast 
 cities such as Boston, for example, part of the sewage is held in reser- 
 voirs until strong outgoing tidal currents have devel()))ed. Before 
 the timi of the tide it has been carried so ftu" that it has bcH-ome mixed 
 with an enormous body of ocean water and has become harmless. 
 
 (4) The Ocean as a Storehouse of Minerals. — Since 3| pi'r cent of 
 the weight of sea water consists of solid niineral matter in solution, 
 the ocean serves as a storehouse of minerals. Every stream and 
 river carries a small amount of such material in solution. AVhen 
 the water reaches the sea the liciuid eventually is eva])orated and goes 
 back to the land, but the minei-al matter remains. Thus tlie sea has 
 slowly accumulated a vast amount of common salt, lime, potash, 
 phosphorus, and many other materials. l']ven gold and silver are 
 included, but in amounts so extremely small that they camiot be 
 recovered at a profit. 
 
 (o) Salt. — The only dissolved material that man takes from the 
 water in large quantities is common salt. On waim sunn\- seacoasts 
 where the water is shallow, large ponds are often banked off by dykes. 
 
THE INFLUENCE OF THE OCEANS 107 
 
 Here the water evaporates until the salt crystallizes out. On the 
 shores of the Mediterranean Sea near Smyrna, for example, and on the 
 coasts of Central America, great piles of white salt crystals often form 
 gleaming cones. Most of the world's salt, however, comes from an- 
 cient deposits Hke those at Syracuse and Stassfurt, and was laid down 
 long ago in salt lakes whose waters very slowly dried up in the same 
 way that the water of the enclosed ponds on the seashore now does. 
 
 (b) Limesfone. — Aside from salt, the most valual)le mineral in 
 seawater is lime. Shellfish constantly use this for their shells. Some 
 of the shells are thick and heavy like those of clams, oysters, and the 
 great edible abalone of the Pacific coast. Others are beautifully 
 branched like many corals. Still others are so small and thin that tlies- 
 cannot be seen by the naked eye. Such are those of the glo]>igerina 
 ooze, a soft mud which covere large areas of the sea floor, and which 
 would form chalk if converted into stone. One or another of these 
 kinds of shells has given rise to vast deposits of Imiestone. Since 
 the sea once encroached far into what is now the continental interior, 
 large de]3osits of limestone are found in most parts of the country. 
 Without them we should be at a loss to make cement and concrete, 
 to obtain lime for mortar and plaster, and to find the flux so essential 
 in the smelting of iron. 
 
 (c and d) Potash and Phosphorus. — Certain other valuable mate- 
 rials, although present in cjuantities too small to be profitablj^ ex- 
 tracted by man, are taken from the seawater by plants ami animals. 
 One of these is potash. A certahi alga or seaweed called kelp con- 
 tains so much potash that it is gathered by seacoast farmers as a 
 fertilizer. According to the United States Department of Connnerce 
 the kelp crop on our Pacific coast would be worth SI 00,000,000 per 
 year if properly harvested. Another valuable fertilizer, phosphorus, 
 is taken from the seawater by fish, and is found in their bones and 
 scales. 
 
 (5) The Ocean as a Source of Food: Marine Vegetation. — Except 
 wh(M-e waves and cuiTcnts are too violent the sea floor from the level 
 of high ti(l(^ to a depth of alwut GOO feet is largely covered with ])lants, 
 chiefly of tlic kind called algie. In deeper water plants cannot grow 
 because there is no sunshine. I'A-en in mid-ocean, however, as far 
 down as the Ught penetrates, the water is full of microscoi)ic one- 
 celled plants, small larvae and other ininut(> animal forms. When the 
 " plankton " dies nnicli of it sinks so that cvcmi in mid-ocean mimite 
 bits of vegetable and animal matt(>r fall constantly. The ocean 
 vegetation is of lillle diicct use to man, l)ut it fui'uishes a vast supply 
 of food for organisms like oysters, sliiiinps, and fish, whieli in turn 
 arc eaten by man. 
 
108 MAN'S RELATION TO BODIES OF \\ATER 
 
 How Man Utilizes the Food in the Ocean through Fisheries. — The 
 
 prost'nceof ves^'tation aiul hciu'cof fish in the ocean fi;ives the people 
 of llie sea coast an advantage because they can carry on fisheries as 
 well :is the ordhiary occupations of the hind. The word fisheries 
 means not only tlie work of catcliing fish, l)ut of gathering nioUusks 
 or shellfisli Ulve the oyster and clain, crustaceans Uke the lobster and 
 crab, and even mammals like the whale and seal. The fisheries of 
 the United States furnish an amount of food eciual to nearly half the 
 pork consumed in the country. In countries like Norway and Japan, 
 where the mountains make farming difficult and \\her(' the deeply 
 hidented coasts are favf)ral>lc to navigation, fish form the most im- 
 Ijortant animal food. In Japan the traveler is s\u-])rised by the 
 variety of ways in which they are served, for in addition to the 
 ordinary dishes, he may be offc^red raw fish with sail and pe]>per, or 
 a SOU]:) made of the water in which fish have been boiled. In our own 
 country fish are used chiefly near the indented coasts of the rugged 
 northeast and northwest, but form an im])ortant element of diet in 
 most parts of the com i try. 
 
 Shallow-water Fisheries. — Fisheries fall into two classes accord- 
 ing to whether they are carried on in shallow waters near the coast, 
 or in deeper waters out in the open sea or on ocean "banks." Many 
 shallow-water fisheries are concerned with shellfish and can be carried 
 on without the use of boats. Clams, for exam]ile, are dug in large 
 numbei"s at low tide on the New England and Middle Atlantic coast. 
 The oyster "crop," w^hich amounts to a third of the value of all the 
 fi;lieries in the country, is dnnlgod from the bottom in water not over 
 100 feet deep. About five-sixths of the world's oysters come from the 
 Atlantic coast of the United States, especially from Cape Cod to 
 Cape Hatteras. The lobster, which lives in shallow waters, especiallj'- 
 on the Atlantic coast from the Delaware Kivcr to the Saint Lawrcnice, 
 is so highly prized that the United States has been oldigcnl to ])ass 
 stringent laws to consei-ve the sui^ply: hence our chief supply now 
 comes from Canada. 
 
 The Government and the Sea Floor. — The animals in the shal- 
 low oceanic water:* are so vahiabU> and the (U^nand for them so great 
 that the government has Ijeen obUged to hcli) in two respects. l'"irst, 
 it is trying to increase the supply by prolccting the eggs and raising 
 young animals hi huge (piantities initi) they luv. large enough to be 
 free and shift for themsehcs. Second, it is setting aside c(;rtahi i)arts 
 of the sea floor for a sort of imvate ownershi]). so that ])eople may care 
 for tiie eggs or s])awn of the oyster, for example, and si>e that the young 
 oysters have a chance to gi'ow. This makes it wort.h while for a man 
 not only to place old oyster shells or tree branches in the water 
 
THE INFLUENCE OF THE OCEANS 109 
 
 to provide lodging places for the spawn, but also to hatch oysters 
 artificially and place them in beds on the sea bottom. He knows that 
 the government will protect his right to harvest the crop that he has 
 planted, and will punish unscrupulous people who come on a dark 
 night or in a fog to steal the crop, just as it will punish the thief in 
 a peach orchard. 
 
 Salmon Fisheries. — The chief shallow-water fisheries arc con- 
 cerned with animals that live at the bottom of the sea and do not 
 travel great distances. Some, however, are concerned with genuine 
 fish such as the shad, sardhie, herring, and sahnon that travel long 
 distances in great shoals in order to reach their feeding gi'ound or to 
 find safe places where they may lay their eggs and where the little 
 fish may grow up. Dming the spa"\\niing season the lower parts of the 
 rivers that empty into the Pacific Ocean from California around by 
 Alaska to Japan are crowded with salmon. So numerous are the fish 
 that great waterwhcels are sometimes arranged so that as the current 
 turns them they throw the fish out into boats. The rest of the fish 
 come crowding on regardless of those that are captured. In the 
 cold rivei-s of Alaska multitudes of salmon are caught by men who go 
 there for a month or two each sununer simply for that purpose. No 
 other fish is so extensively canned. 
 
 Deep-sea Fisheries. — The deep-sea fisheries are centered in the 
 ''banks," or oceanic shallows of three chief regions. One region 
 extends from George's Bank off Cape Cod to the banks of New- 
 foimdland and Labrador. This is the fishing ground in which the 
 United States is chiefly interested, for although fishermen come there 
 from Europe and Canada, the greater part of the catch is made by 
 New Englandere, especially by men from (il()U('(>st(n-, who take their 
 fish to Boston. 
 
 The second region includes the banks of the North Sea, where the 
 world's gi-catest fisheries are located. With these may be included 
 the fishing regions off the coasts of Norway near Iceland, Faroe, and 
 other islands. The third region is the Pacific watere near Japan and 
 northward, where thousands of boats scour the seas for tlu^ fish that 
 foi'iu the main animal food of the fifty million Japanese. 
 
 Tiie banks on which all these fisheries are located are shullo\\- places 
 where the depth does not prevent the light from reaching the bottom, 
 and hence where great quaiititic^s of algic provide food for the count- 
 less small animals on which the larger fish prey. The most impor- 
 tant fish is the cod. which is usually salted and dried. It is shipped 
 to all parts of the world. In the early days of New England the 
 codfish was so important that several times the colonists would 
 almost have starved wilhout it.. Therefore it is fitting tiiat a cod 
 
no MAN'S RELATION TO BODIES OF WATER 
 
 should lianp over tlio cliair of the Prosifloiit of tho Massachusotts 
 Senate. 
 
 Location of Fishing Communities. — The world's chief fishhig 
 comnuniities are all alike in three unportant respects, (a) They 
 are located in comparatively northern latitudes; (b) they are in 
 regions where apjiculturc meets with special difficulties; and (c) 
 they arc upon submerged coasts. Let us study these thn^e conditions. 
 
 (a) EJfcct of Latitude. — One of the reasons why fisheries have 
 developed in high latitudes rather than near the equator is that fish 
 can easily Iw presen'cd in cool clunates, but not in warm. \\'hen fish 
 are caught far from land it is impossible to dry them. The only way 
 is to salt them down in the ship's hold. This is successful only 
 in high latitudes, for elsewhere the fish will not keep. The people of 
 the tr()])ics generally catch fish only for ijmnediate consumi)ti()n. 
 Tlu^ modern process of cold storage, however, is at last making it 
 possible to catch fish profitabty on a large scale in tropical regions, 
 and thus ojx'us up an enormous and abnost untouched source of 
 food. 
 
 A second reason why fisheries have developed in high latitudes is 
 that fishing takes a great deal of energy. On the sea, as on the land, 
 the development of new resources waits for the active people of the 
 North. The adventurous spirit of the northerners seems to lead 
 them to go to sea out of sheer curiosity even if there is no other reason. 
 
 (6) Fisheries and Agriculture. — Another reason for the develop- 
 ment of fisheries in high latitudes is that agi'iculture is there difficult. 
 In cool northern lands hkc Norway or Newfoundland only a scanty 
 living can be obtained from agriculture, partly because the land is 
 hilly, but still more because the climate is too cool. Therefore such 
 people are forced out onto the sea. In a less degree the same is true 
 of New England, England, Brittany, and Japan. 
 
 (c) Fisheries and Suhmerged Coasts. — Along some coasts the land 
 has recently been submerged. On such drowned coasts the water has 
 filled the valleys with bays and left the ridges as headlands or islands. 
 In North America such coasts arc found along the north Atlantic 
 shore from \'irginia to Labrador, and on the Pacific coast north of 
 San Francisco. In Eurasia they are found around the North Sea 
 and northward to Scandinavia, and in Japan and the regions farther 
 north. On subnun-ged shores inmunerable little harboi-s tempt people 
 to keep boats. The island headlands arouse curiosity and lead 
 people on and on. WTien storms arise an island or a bay usually 
 offers shelter. The land Ix^lund the coast is apt to be hilly, so that 
 people arc forced to seek the level land along the shore. Thus in 
 such surroundings many conditions combine to cause a large portion 
 
THE INFLUENCE OF THE OCEANS 111 
 
 of the people to l^e faniiliai- with tho soa, and to fj;ive thorn confidence 
 to undertake short trips within sight of hind, and then lonp; adven- 
 turous voyaj^es across the ocean. 
 
 Fisheries as a School of Seamanship. — On such voyages no on(> 
 can succeed except men who have learned the art of bravely enduring 
 difficulties and who have great strength and courage. On the 
 Newfoundland Banks, for example, the fishing fleet, partly steamers 
 and partly schoonei-s, often lies for weeks in the cold fogs. On the 
 Banks the fishermen are exposed to the danger of being run down b}' 
 great ocean "liners," for the fishing grounds are near the route from 
 England to America. Icebergs often bear down upon a boat and some- 
 times overwhehn it before they are seen. In the fog the small boats 
 that are sent out to take the fish from the trawls and rebait the hooks 
 occasionally lose their bearings, and may never l)e al)le to get back. 
 Even when the boats are in no danger, the work is miserably wet, 
 cold, and tiresome. Ages of such fisliing have bred courageous quali- 
 ties in New England, the Maritime Provinces of Canada, Norway, 
 Great Britain, and Japan. This has greatly helped to give those 
 regions a foremost rank in commerce. The fishhig fleets are the 
 school of seamanship, and from them come the men who make it 
 possible for a gi"eat fleet of merchantmen to be developed. 
 
 Norway furnishes the best example of the effect of geographical 
 conditions upon fishing and thus upon conunerce. Her abimdant 
 harbore, bracing northern climate, and agricultural povertj' cause her 
 to have a merchant marine surpassed only by those of the far more 
 populous countries such as Britain and the United States. Italy 
 illustrates the matter in another way. The coasts of Italy are 
 not particularly well supplied with harboi-s and the land is fertile. 
 Accordingly, from the days of Caesar to our own, Italian ships haA-e 
 been largely manned by sailors from the submerged and relati\'ely 
 sterile Dalmatian coast on the other side of the Adriatic Sea. This 
 condition led to a serious quarrel at the end of the Great War. Italy 
 wanted to keep the Dalmatian coast, especially Fimne, because of 
 the Uttle Italian seaports along it, but the other powers thought 
 Jugo-Slavia ought to have this coast. 
 
 (G) Oceans as Barriers. — From the earUest tunes the ocean has 
 been a barrier, but its importance in this respect is steadily decreas- 
 ing. For thousands of years the Atlantic, the Pacific, and the other 
 oceans were such barrici-s that people ncA-er crossed them. That is 
 one chief reason why the race of men and tho species of animals and 
 plants in Australia are so different from those of the other conthients. 
 That is also the reason why the gi'cat land mass on one side of the 
 world is called the Old World, while the two continents on the other 
 
112 MAX'S ];i-r.\'ri(^x to bodies of water 
 
 side are the A>u'. Not till 1492 did any Europeans except the Norse 
 cro.s.s the Atlantic l)arricr to the strange lands of America. They 
 marveletl at the Red ]\Ien, they were surjirised to find a new grain 
 kno\\ii as maize, a new vegetable called the potato, a weed which 
 people snioked in pi])ea, and a host of other things which were un- 
 known to them because they had not been able to cross the water. 
 
 How effective the ocean bamer may be is illustrated Ijy tlK> life 
 of Napoleon. After he had been conquered ])y the EngUsh, 8])anish, 
 and Clermans he was sent to the island of l^lba as an e.xile. There, 
 however, the water that separated him from France was so narrow 
 that he escaped from exile and retimied to lead his armies once more. 
 Then when he was again conquered at Waterloo in 1815 he was sent 
 to the little island of Samt Helena, separated even from Africa by a 
 barrier of 1200 miles of water, and from France by 5000. Hc^ could 
 not escape, and so spent the rest of his life there. Like; the light- 
 house keeper on a rocky island during a storm, he was held in one 
 small place because he had no means of crossing the ocean barrier. 
 
 Water as a Defense against Enemies. — \\'ater barricre are as 
 effective in keeping people out as in keeping them in. In prehistoric 
 times our ancestor protected themselves by buikling their huts of 
 poles and bark on piles in the shallow water near the shore of lakes. 
 The same method is employed at present in New Guinea and other 
 East Indian Islands. A narrow walk leads from the shore across 
 the water to the inits. Part of the walk consists of a plank which 
 can be lifted from the seaward side. Thus when a community is 
 gathered in its huts with the canoes tied imder them and the ])lank 
 raised, enemies have hanl work to approach because of the barrier 
 of water. 
 
 Water Barriers of Great Britain. — Great Britain is ahnost like a 
 home on ])iles with the ])lank drawn up. It lies close to the coast of 
 the most progi'essive part of Europe and can communicate freely 
 with the rest of the world when it so desires. Yet it is separated by 
 a narrow body of water which checks and delays whoever would 
 approach uninvited. Although the twenty miles of water between 
 Dover and Calais once made I'higland isolated and backwanl, they 
 have in the long run been of ahnost hicalculable value to that countiy. 
 In the later decades of the last centiny and the earlier ones of the 
 present when the other gi*eat Powere of Europe were spending imtold 
 millions in prepanng vast armies, England was content with only a 
 small army, and saved her money either to develop the industries of 
 peace or to build wai-ships. She knew that Ixicause of the water no 
 large army of invadei-s could (juickly be landed on her coasts, and that 
 she was safe from attack. So nnich did she \alue her island i)osition 
 
THE INFLUENCE OF THE OCEANS 113 
 
 that after a tunnel under the English Channel was actually begun, the 
 project was abandoned. England did not wish to })uild an easy- 
 entrance to her front door and thus perliaps give an enemy the oppor- 
 tunity to bring in an army. For the sake of safety she proposed to 
 compel those who came to her to come in l^oats. 
 
 "When the Great War came, Germany could do little harm to the 
 island empire, try as she might. Even dirigibles and airplanes 
 WTOUght only intermittent and local destruction on the English 
 coast and in London. The island as a whole was unaffected. In the 
 end, because England's water boundaries had led her to develop a 
 great navy, she maintained control of the sea, and cut off a large 
 share of Germany's foreign commerce, while she herself was being 
 greatly helped by supplies and annnunition from America and else- 
 where. Wheal America was ready to enter the war, British ships 
 carried more than a million of our men overeeas. 
 
 Water Barriers of Japan. — Aside from Great Britain many other 
 large islands have the advantage of protection by water. Only Japan, 
 however, has so stmmlating a cUniate and is located so close to a con- 
 tinent that it reaps an advantage similar to that of Britain. Japan, 
 to be sin-e, has the disadvantage of l)eing far from the center of the 
 land hemisphere and of having no highly advanced neighbors close 
 at hand. On the other hand, her island position has allowed her to 
 develop her civilization without being swamped by the barl^arous 
 invaders who have again and again entered Chma from the bleak 
 deserts of Central Asia. In our day Japan is fast building up a navy 
 and acquiring a large merchant marine, so that she follows closely in 
 the footsteps of Great Britain. 
 
 (7) Oceans as Carriers of Comvierce. — Although the oceans serve 
 as })arri(n-s they are also a great help in transportation, provided 
 people can build the right Idnd of boats. Transportation by water is 
 the cheapest known method, and hence the oceans carry a vast volume 
 of c()min(M-ce. Let us compare this method with others. 
 
 The Low Cost of Ocean Transportation. — The cost of transporting 
 goods l)y hand sledges across snowy mountains is sometimes as high 
 as S2() per ton for a single mile. That is what it cost, for example, 
 when the Klondike mines on the Yukon were fii-st opened, and 
 supplies had to be carried from southern Alaska. To carry a ton a 
 mile in the air costs several dollai"s, although the rate is fast decreas- 
 ing. Th(^ cost by rail is far lower, being less than two cents in the 
 more thickly settled ])arts of the United States. On the oceans, 
 however, this low rate falLs still lower, that is, to less than a fifth of a 
 cent per mile for a ton. This is only about a tenth as much as by 
 rail, perhaps a hundredth or a thousandth as much as by the air- 
 
114 MAX'S RELATION TO BODIES OF WATER 
 
 piano or (liriu;il)lc ami a i.cn-lhousandtli as much us ])y sledge over 
 Arctic iiKniiitaiiis. 
 
 Why Ocean Transportation Costs so Little. — (a) The Fnr High wuy. 
 — Transportation by sea costs far less than on land for several reasons. 
 In the fii-st place the ocean is a ready-made highway free to all, 
 hence ocean transjiortation is not binxlened with three classes of heavy 
 expenses that are borne by railroads: (a) Construction. Trains 
 require trac^ks which may cost only $20,000 per mile in a smooth 
 plain where wood is alnmdant. (.enerally, however, the cost is 
 nearer one or even two hundred thousand dollars ])('r mile including 
 roadbed, stations, sidings, and so forth. .-Vmong mountains the cost 
 is much gr(>ater. The interest paid annually on this exi)entUture is 
 an imi)ortant item in the cost of land transportation. (6) Mainte- 
 nance. Large smns nnist be paid by the railroads to maintain the 
 road Ix^d in good condition. Since the tracks wear out, they nmst 
 constantly be watched by track walkei-s and repaired by section men. 
 (c) Taxes arc another item. Even in ISIaine, where there are only 
 about 2300 miles of track, the railroads pay about $000,000 per year 
 in taxes. 
 
 (6) The Small Amount of Power Needed on Waterways. — Another 
 imjiortant advantage of transportation by sea is that less power, 
 and hence less coal and oil, are needed by steamere than by trains to 
 do tlu; same work. A pei-son of ordinary strength can push a 40-ton 
 boat away from a wharf, provided wind and tide do not interfere, 
 but he could not start a freight car weighing forty tons without the 
 aid of some mechanical appliance like a lever. Again, the ocean is 
 absolutely level, while no railroad can be free from gi'ades for more 
 than a limited distance. The gi-ades are expensive Ix^causc the loads 
 must be lifted. Of course they are not lifted straight u]i, but the 
 total amount of work is the same as if they were. 
 
 (c) The Small Number of Men Needed on Ships. — Another advan- 
 tage of water transportation is that a given load on a steamship 
 rcquires fewer men than on a train. A good-sized freight steamer 
 registered at 12,000 tons can actually carry more than 25,000. Such 
 a ship travels steadily at the rate of about 15 miles an hour, which is 
 (luite as fast as a freight train when allowance is matle for the time 
 spent in waiting on sidings or in the yards where new trains are made 
 up. To cany 25,000 tons of freight would nuiuire about 20 trains 
 of ;>() cars each. Each train reciuires a crew of at least five or six 
 men, ajid three crews are iiecijcd duriiiu- tlic t \\('n1>--four hours. 
 In addition some attention is ic(|uii('<l I'loni many station agents, 
 train des])at,chers, flagmen, switch tenders, oilers, and others, so 
 that the total amount, of work is eciual to t^hat. of about .'i() men 
 
THE INFLUENCE OF THE OCEANS 115 
 
 for each train, or 720 for the 20 trains. A 12,000-ton steamer, 
 if used only for freight, needs a crew of only about 100 men. 
 
 (d) The Low Cost of Building Skips as Compared with Locomotives. 
 — ^The cost of building a steamer is less than that of the corresponding 
 trains. An average locomotive costs S70,()00 and a freight car about 
 $3500, so that a 30-car train would cost alxnit $175,000, and 20 trains 
 about $3,500,000. A 12,000-ton freight steamer could be buiU, for 
 $2,000,000. 
 
 (e) The Safety of Water Transportation. — From the ])()int of view 
 of safety water transportation has an advantage. The proportion 
 of passengei*s lost at sea is less than on land, while in the number of 
 accitlental injuries to emplo^'(>es the conditions at sea are still more 
 favorable. Every accident costs something for damages,' so that 
 even in this resi^yect irans]iortation by water costs less than by land. 
 
 The Role of Harbors in Water Transportation. — Transjiortation 
 on the ocean would be as difficult without harbors as would railway 
 traffic without stations and freight yards. A good modern harbor 
 must furnish (a) protection from winds and waves, (6) good de])th of 
 water in the channels and close to the shore, (c) abundant anchorage 
 room, and (c/) plenty of space for docks. A harbor may possess all 
 these qualities, however, and yet not lead to the growth of a great 
 city, as may be seen at Mount Desert in Maine and in the many 
 deep bays that border the Gulf of California. It needs also (e) abun- 
 dant level land for city buildhigs, (/) easy lines of communication with 
 the interior, and (g) a rich "hinterland^' or "back country" in which 
 to sell imported products in exchange for raw materials, food, and 
 manufactiu'od goods. 
 
 (a) Why Harbors Need Protection. — No matter whether people 
 use primitive canoes or huge modern steamships, navigation is 
 nnicli hamp(M"ed unless the harbors are well i)r()tected. Islands and 
 headlands break the force of the winds and waves and thus, hy pre- 
 venting the boats from being tossed about and perhaps dashed against 
 the shore or against one another, make it easy to load them at all 
 tinu^s. So important is protection that millions of dollars are spent 
 amuially for breakwaters. 
 
 (6) The Constant Demand for Deeper Harbors. — The depth of the 
 water in a harbor becomes increasingly important \yith the gro^^'th 
 of civilization. For small sailing shijis, harboi-s 10 to 20 feet deep are 
 sufficient. So long as such ships were the largest that sailed the 
 ocean it was possible for a port like Salem, Massachusetts, to do more 
 business than Boston, and almost as much as New York, while New- 
 Innyport, (^doucester, Fall River, New Bc'dford, New London, and 
 many other places were almost equally iniiiortant. ^\'hen the steam 
 
IIG MANS ri;latiux to iu)1jii:s or water 
 
 cngiiio was invent od, and still more whcMi steel took the plac(> of 
 wootl in builtling vessels, the size of ships began to incretisc rapidly. 
 
 The size of ships also increases constantly because large ships are 
 more economical than small ones. A freight steamer costing S')00,000 
 and recjuiring a crew of 40 men will carry twice as much as two 
 smaller steamers costing Sr)00,000 together and recjuiring 50 men. 
 Some modern shii)s have a " tonnag(> " of ")0,000 tons and could cany 
 over 1(M),000 tons of freight if the}- did not give up so much .space to 
 passengers. Such a ship is nearly 1000 feet long, 100 feet wide, and 
 over GO feet from the keel to tlie ii])})er deck. It needs from 35 to 40 
 feet of water. For such stcanu^rs a shallow harbor, no matter how 
 well ])rotected, is useless. Practically no hnportant ports, however, 
 have natural harbors with any such de])th. Hence each year millions 
 of dollars are spent by the national government in order to deejien 
 harboi's, while cities and States also make a])])r()priations for it. In 
 a decade the national government has s])ent as much as $4,000,000 
 on the im]irovement of the approaches to Philadeli)hia alone. 
 
 The Depth of American Harbors. — At present Xew York and 
 San Francisco arc the only Amciican .seaports having channels deej) 
 enough for great steamers drawing 40 feet. The people of Boston 
 talk about a 45-foot channel to acconunodate not only all present 
 ships but the still lai'ger ones that are expected in the near future. 
 At present the Boston channel is 35 feet deep, v,hich is practically 
 the same as that of Philadelphia, Baltimore, Norfolk, New Orleans, 
 and Seattle. Such important ports as Oakland and Los Angeles, 
 where the original dei)th of part of the harbor was only 2 feet, and 
 Galveston, have 30-foot channels; Charleston, 28; Savannah, 27, and 
 Tampa and IMo])ile, 20. No other harl)ors in the United States 
 have such deep channels. \\'ith the gi'owing tendenc}' to build large 
 ships the more favored ports are bound to gi'ow more and znore at the 
 expen.sc of those with shallower channels. 
 
 (c) The Need for Roomy II arbors. — D(>ep water is needed not only 
 in the channel but in ]ilaces nf)t far from shore where vessels can find 
 room to anchor and turn around. A 1000-foot vessel needs nearly 
 half a mile of free space in which to turn around, even though she 
 has the lid]) of tugs. W'lien the great I tiijKrolor first came into New 
 York Harl)or the ca])tains of some of the other boats in the North 
 River did not realize how much room she required in order to tui'n 
 and get into licr bciih in ihc dock. Consequently she bumped one 
 or two other siups, ran into a wharf, and did such damage that her 
 landing cost .S45,000. Because of the large area required to maneu- 
 ver niodcin steamships .i river such as forms the harbor at Savan- 
 nah is rarely .so valuable as a bay along a submerg(>d coast like that 
 
THE INFLUENCE OF THE OCEANS 117 
 
 of the Atlantic from Norfolk northward, or the Pacific from Puget 
 Sound northward. 
 
 (d) Dockage Space as a Necessity of a Good Harbor. — Harbors on 
 submerged coasts not only furnish ample room, hut also adequate 
 dockage space. Liverpool, for example, on the estuary of the JMersej^, 
 where it has been easy to build many docks, has a gi'cat advantage 
 over Shanghai, on the Yangtse delta, where ships have to discharge 
 their cargo into lighters while at anchor in the middle of the river, 
 five miles from the city. In bays formed by submergence the long 
 shoreline and deep water close to the shore enable numerous docks 
 to be built, so that steamers can be loaded directly from the land. 
 It is an expensive thing when a ship costing a million dollars has to 
 spend two-thirds of its time lying idle while waiting to come up to the 
 docks, as has often happened at the oil port of Batum; the charges 
 for interest and depreciation, that is, for wear, rust, breakage, decay, 
 and old age, count up almost as rapidly as if she were carrying mer- 
 chandise, while the wages of the crew also continue. Hence ship- 
 owners prefer to send their ships to places where abundant docks 
 make it possible to receive cargoes directly from warehouses or from 
 railroad trains which come alongside, so that their loads may be 
 hoisted from the cars to the ship's hold. Boston is an example of a 
 great port which has suffered from lack of docks in the past, although 
 now this is being remedied. New York, on the other hand, has 
 perhaps the best dockage facilities in the world. Counting all the 
 little bays and estuaries New York Harbor has a water frontage of 
 771 miles, 290 of which have been improved. 
 
 (c) How Land for City Building Affects the Value of a Harbor. — If 
 a harbor does much business it must have a large city beside it. Such 
 a city needs level land, especially for its business sections. Some 
 cities such as San Francisco have gi*own great in spite of the hills, 
 but those like Philadelphia, which have plenty of level land, are 
 fortimate. So necessary is this that in many places shallow bays have 
 been filled to make artificial land. The best residential section of 
 Boston is the Back Bay, where once the tide ebbed and flowed. It 
 paid Seattle to spend millions of doUare to cut down a steep hill of 
 gravel in the heart of the city. By means of gi'eat streams of water 
 squirted against the hill it was washed into the shallow^ part of the 
 bay. Thus level land was obtained both by cutting down the hill 
 and by filling the bay. 
 
 (/) How Lines of Inland Communication Make or Mar a Har- 
 bor. — A modern seaport can become of much importance only 
 when it is served by numerous lines of land trans]iortation. Along 
 the Pacific coast, for example, Ihc Iwin potts of S;ui I'l-ancisco and 
 
118 MAXS Hi;i.ATI()X TO BODIES OF WATER 
 
 c 2 
 
 H 5 
 
 H -2 
 
 Ph -z 
 
THE INFLUENCE OF THE OCEANS 
 
 119 
 
120 MAN'S HKLATIOX TO BODIES OF WATER 
 
 Oakland are gi'catly helped Ix^caiise the combined Sacramento and 
 San Joaquin valleys enable railways easily to reach the interior of 
 California. Northward to the mouth of the Cohmibia River, on the 
 other hand, no great city could gjow up even if there were a good 
 harbor, because high mountains everywhere hinder conmiunication 
 with the interior. 
 
 (g) How the Hinterland Deteimines the Trade of a Harbor. — A 
 harbor has Uttle value unless it has plenty of business. Business 
 depends not only on the seaport itself, but on other places which are 
 trilnitary to it. The region where such places are located is called 
 the "hinterland." The hniwrtancc of a hinterland depends not only 
 on its size, but much more upon the number of inhabitants and their 
 power to produce goods and to buy. Para is a seaport of minor 
 rank, because its hinterland, the enormous basin of the Amazon, 
 is sparsely populated and undevelo] )('({. Providence, on the other 
 hand, is far more important because its very limited hinterland, even 
 though it eml^races little more than Rhode Island, is densely popu- 
 lated and highly civilized. 
 
 A lunited hinterland hindei-s the gi-owth of a port even though 
 the harbor is excellent, as is illustrated by the experience of a ship 
 called the Minnesota. When she was built she was the largest vessel 
 flying the American flag. She was put in commission between our 
 Pacific coast and Oriental ports. Unfortunately, however, she could 
 not at that time get a full load without a long wait. This was so 
 expensive that finally she was transferred to the Atlantic side. The 
 trouble was that on the Pacific side the hinterland contained too few 
 people to supply full cargoes at frequent intervals. The hinterland 
 on the Atlantic side, however, was so much more populous that it 
 easily employed this ship and many others. 
 
 How a Great Harbor was Made in an Emergency: Brest. — The 
 importance of most harbore is the result of gradual gi'owth, but once 
 in a while a harbor suddenly becomes gi'eat because of some emer- 
 gency. For instance, Gary, at the southern end of Lake Michigan, 
 suddenly l)ccamc a considerable port when the United States Steel 
 ('oi-]>oration established its plant there. The most striking example 
 of this kind, however, is Brest in western l^'rance, at the end of the 
 peninsula of Brittany. Before 1lie (Ircat War Brest was a compar- 
 atively insignificant port to which there came only one ship for every 
 two hundred that came to Ue Havre, near Paris, at the mouth of the 
 Seine. Of the seven refjuirements for a good harbor Brest had only 
 three. It was protfvtefl from winds and waves because it lies at the 
 inner end of a dec]) gulf I 1 miles long; for this reason it had 
 abundant anr|i()rag<- s])acc; and there was ])lenty of space for docks 
 
THE INFLUENCE OF THE OCEANS 121 
 
 because the coast of Brittany is submerged, so that it is long and 
 winding. 
 
 In all other respects the harbor was far from fii"st class: the 
 water was not deep enough for large vessels either in the channel or 
 close to the shore where docks would have to be made ; there was little 
 level land for the gi'owth of a city, for the hills rise steeply so that in 
 many cases the ascent from the lower to the upper town has to be 
 made by means of flights of steps, and the second or third story of one 
 house is often on a level with the gi-ound floor of the next. More- 
 over, the lines of communication with the interior were only moderate, 
 for the one direct railway to the interior of Finance winds gfeatly 
 among the hills of Brittany and is not adapted to heav}' traffic. 
 Finally Brest had onlj^ a small hinterland, for the ports of Nantes on 
 one side and Cherbourg and especially Le Havre on the other are 
 so much nearer the main centers of France that Brest had only 
 a part of Brittany as its hinterland. 
 
 When the United States entered the Great War in April, 1917, 
 these other ports were so busy with the shipping of France and 
 England, and it would have been so difficult to enlarge them, that 
 this country decided to convert Brest into a flrst-class harbor. More- 
 over Brest is the French port nearest America, and hence ships ran 
 less danger from submarines in reaching it than in reaching more 
 distant ports. Accordingly machinerj^ of all kinds was at once sent 
 over and thousands of soldiers fell to work with iml)0unded energy 
 and enthusiasm. Great dredges scooped out a channel deep enough 
 for the largest ocean liners. Huge docks of concrete were constructed 
 with deep water alongside of them, and with railway tracks, cranes, 
 and warehouses upon them. Space for camps, machine shops, and 
 munitions works was obtained by going ])ack onto the level plateau 
 beyond the town and by running automobile lines to places that had 
 hitherto been thought too far from the shore. 
 
 In addition to all this work directly on the harbor and port, the 
 railway lines to the interior w(m-(^ much improved. All this was 
 worth while, because Brest had suddenly acciuircd a gn^it luiitciiaiid 
 — the entir(> area where the .American Army with its ceaseless tlemands 
 for food, guns, i^rojcctih^s, camp supplies, and men, was helj^ng to 
 win the war for the freedom of nations. By the s])ring of li)18 Brest 
 had all seven of the retiuisites of a great seajiort and soon InH-ame one 
 of the world's Inisiest harboi"s. Nowhere else in all the world have 
 nearly 300,000 men ever landed at any one port in a month. So 
 great was the work of caring for the freight and ])assengers that ]iassetl 
 through the port that the ])opulation increased many thousand. 
 Then when the war was won, the Americans went away and the 
 
122 
 
 M.WS RELATION TO I'.onil'S OF WATER 
 
 hinterland was rodiiocd once move to :i ]ijirt of Brittany. In the other 
 six r('s]K>cts l^rcst. still ranked lii<j:li ainonfj; French jjoils, hut the ))oi)u- 
 lation soon hepm to diminish. I'>r(^-l is too far from Paris and the 
 otlier ^reat centers of ])i)])ulati()ii and hence has too small a hinter- 
 land to retain its tiosition as a I'cally jireat ])ort. 
 
 Why Seaports Grow. — Just as l^rest had to ex])aiid suddenly to 
 aeconuiiodate the workei-s who li()<ke(l in to make it a tn'cat ])ort, so 
 every seaport jii'ows jiiore gradually to accommodate similar workers. 
 These ])rovide a market for other ])eo])le who sell food, clothinji, and 
 other necessities; still others serve as clerks, stenographer, teachers, 
 masons, shoemakers, mechanics, and the other kinds of workers who 
 are n(H>ded in every large conununity. Thus a city arises beside the 
 harhor. 
 
 Such a city, whether it he a port on the ocean like Baltimore, on a 
 lake like Buffalo, or on a river like New Orleans, ]ioss(>sses several 
 advantages. For the manufacturer many kinds of raw materials 
 are cheaper and are found in gn^ater variety there than elsewhere, 
 while it is relatively easy to build u\) foreign trade because the repre- 
 sentatives of foreign business houses come to seaports much oftener 
 than to cities in the interior. The merchant also prefers a seaport 
 because it ])uts him in such close contact with the markets of the 
 world. The people who are chiefly interested in art, music, science, 
 or other intellectual pursuits prefer the seaports because so many 
 travelers come to them, and thus those who live in the seaports are 
 stimulated by personal contact with people who Ining new ideas 
 from other lands. When once a seaport, or a ])ort on a lake or river, 
 is well started it gi'ows in spite of itself. 
 
 Concentration of Population in Seaports of the United States. — 
 The remarkal^li! way in which trans])()rtation by water influence's 
 the size of cities is shown in the following table: 
 
 RELATION OF CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES TO TRANS- 
 PORTATION BY WATER 
 
 Population 
 1918. 
 
 Number of 
 Cities. 
 
 PerrcntaKO 
 Reached i>y 
 
 Ocean and 
 Lake Trans- 
 
 Percentage 
 Reached by 
 
 River or 
 Canal Trans- 
 
 Percentage 
 not Reached 
 
 by Water 
 Transi)orta- 
 
 
 
 I)ortation. 
 
 portation. 
 
 tion. 
 
 
 
 Ocean Lake 
 
 
 
 A. Over 3.".n,OnO 
 
 20 
 
 7") (50+2.5) 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 B. l(K),(l(l()t(..T)n.000 
 
 r^r^ 
 
 31 (25+ (5) 
 
 29 
 
 40 
 
 C. r)(),()0() to loo.ono 
 
 (17 
 
 30 (27+ 3) 
 
 22 
 
 48 
 
 D. 2.J,0U0to 50,0U0 
 
 128 
 
 25 (17+ 8) 
 
 20 
 
 55 
 
 This table means th.at all of the twenty largest cities in the United 
 
THE INFLUENCE OF THE OCEANS 123 
 
 States have water transportation. Ten are reached l)y ocean-going 
 vessels; five an; on the Great Lakers, and the other five on the Missis- 
 sippi or Ohio. One of these twenty, however, that is, Los Angeles, 
 made its growth without the help of navigation, but felt the need of 
 being a seaport so strongly that it reached out 20 miles and built a 
 harbor at San Pedro, so that it is now a s(^aport. ^^'ashington, also, 
 does not owe its growth to water transportation, but is included 
 among the seaports because it is located on the Potomac estuary. 
 In the United States thus far no city has risen to the fii-st rank unless 
 it is on the ocean or Great Lakes, or else on the Mississippi or one of 
 its main trilnitaries. Yet the amount of land within five miles of 
 these l)odies of water is less than 3 per cent of the entire area of the 
 country. 
 
 In the second hne of the table we see that among cities of the 
 second class with a population of from 100,000 to 350,000, about a 
 third are on the seacoast or on lakes, another third on navigable 
 rivei-s or canals, and the remaining 40 per cent have no water com- 
 munication. With cities of the third class having fi-om 50,000 to 
 100,000 people about a third are on the coast, while a quarter are on 
 rivei-s or canals, and nearly half are not favored with water transpor- 
 tation. Finally onl}' a quarter of the little cities of the fourth class 
 with from 25,000 to 50,000 people are on the coast, while more than 
 half have no relation to the water. If our table included the hundreds 
 of still smaller towns with from 10,000 to 25,000 people, the pro])or- 
 tion not reached by water transportation would be still greater, while 
 with places having less than 10,000 more than 95 per cent are neither 
 on the coast nor on navigable waterways. 
 
 Concentration of Population in Seaports throughout the World. — 
 Not only in the United States, Init in all parts of the world the de- 
 mands of conmierce cause the greatest citic^s usually to be located 
 beside the sea. Of the 40 largest citi(>s in the world, 23 can be reached 
 by ocean steanun-s, and 2 by those plying on the Great Lakes of 
 North America. Even among the 15 interior cities 7 are located 
 on large navigable rivers such as the Mississippi, Danul)e, Vistula, 
 and Nile, 3 are on small na\'igabl(^ riv(M"s of no great importance, such 
 as the Seine, Spree, and Oka, and only 5 are wholly without com- 
 munication by water. 
 
 These facts, like those shown in the table for the Ignited States, 
 indicate that there is a gi'cat concentration of largc^ citi(>s on the 
 coasts of oceans and great lakes. A.^' time goes on this conccnti-alion 
 increases, for it is the logical r(>sult of the growth of manufacturing 
 and commerce and tluM'slablisiiKMit of closer relations among the 
 nations. But to acconnnodate nioi-e coninierce the sc;i])orts must 
 
124 MAN'S RELATION TO BODIES OF WATER 
 
 havo more docks, Mirtrcr slii]is. (l("('])cr cliamicls, and inoro ofTicos aiul 
 warehouses, \vliih> more railway trains must ])ull into the great tvv- 
 minals. Hence the hig s(>a]X)rts and l;ikei)orts grow more and more 
 huge, so that som(> hke New York can scarcely find room for all their 
 buildings. 
 
 Oceans and Civilization. — Year l)y year the commerce carried 
 upon the ocean gi'ows more important. The lines of steamship 
 traffic are like arteries and veins which can-y life wherever they go. 
 ISIerchant vessels break down the bairicn- of the sea. and o])eii the 
 seaboard parts of the world to the inliuence of all the otlici- ]iarts 
 that have harbors. The more the life of the nation deiMMids upon 
 them, the more important it becomes that they should not l)e de- 
 stroyed by calamities like the (Ireat War. 
 
 Before man became civilized the sea and the other great bodies of 
 water played almost no part in his life, except to regulate the rain- 
 fall and temperature of the lands, to furnish iish for food, and to pre- 
 vent his migi-ating in certain directions. To-day the navigable 
 waters arv of su]ireme importance, for they enable the distant ])arts of 
 the earth to contribute to one another's su])])ort ; they an^ one of the 
 conditions of the growth of our largest cities; they enable civiliza- 
 tion and conunerce to spread to all parts of the globe; and their con- 
 trol enables a nation to develop without fear of being overcome by its 
 enemies. 
 
 QUESTIONS, EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS 
 
 L !Make a table of the forty largest cities of the world in order of size, beginning 
 with the largest. Opposite each put first the population in thousands as found in 
 the latest year book, like the Statesman's Year book or the World Almanac, and 
 then the class of transportation by which the city is reached; i.e., (a) ocean trans- 
 portation, (h) lake tran.sjKJrtation, (c) river or canal transportation, or (d) no water 
 transportation. Now see if the proportions are the same as when this book was 
 printed by comparing your figures with those on a preceding page. 
 
 2 Do the .same as suggested in lOxercise 1 with the cities of the United States 
 with a population of more than SoO, ()()(). 
 
 3. Describe the harbor nearest j-our lionie, or some othiM- in which you are 
 interested, in resjiect to the seven conditions discu.ssed in this chapter. Point 
 out in which conditions it excels and in which it is deficient. Organize the whole 
 
 into a problem with this form. Why has become such 
 
 an important seaport? Or why has not become more 
 
 important as a seaport? Let each of the seven conditions take tlic fdiiii of minor 
 problems, such as, IIow has the i)rotec1i()n wliidi tlic harlxir furnishes vessels 
 helped (or hindered) the growth of 
 
 4. How does the interior location of Czecho-Slovakia handicap that country? 
 
 5. In tlie following table of water-l)orne commerce of some of the worki's chief 
 ports, select any pair of ])orts on tlic same horizutilal line ami put tlH>m into a 
 
 problem as follows: "Wlij* has l)econie so much more important as a 
 
 seaport than ? Compare them as to each of the seven 
 
THE INFLUENCE OF THE OCEANS 
 
 125 
 
 qualities mentioned in this chapter so far as you can find the facts in encyclopedias, 
 geographies, and other books. 
 
 VALUE OF THE WATER-BORNE COMMERCE OF SOME OF THE 
 WORLD'S CHIEF PORTS 
 
 New York 
 
 (1917) $4,390,000,000 
 
 Boston 
 
 (1917) 
 
 420,000,000 
 
 London 
 
 (1916) 
 
 2,666,000,000 
 
 Cardiff 
 
 (1916) 
 
 110,000,000 
 
 Liverjiool 
 
 (191G) 
 
 2,317,000,000 
 
 Manchester 
 
 (1917) 
 
 431,0()(),()()0 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 (1913) 
 
 1,902,000,000 
 
 Belfast 
 
 (1916) 
 
 50,0()(),()00 
 
 Antwerp 
 
 (1912) 
 
 1,211,000,000 
 
 Bordeaux 
 
 (1913) 
 
 168,000,000 
 
 Marseilles 
 
 (1913) 
 
 755,000,000 
 
 Bilbao 
 
 (1913) 
 
 32,000,000 
 
 Havre 
 
 (1913) 
 
 617,000,000 
 
 Southampton 
 
 (1916) 
 
 82,000,000 
 
 Montreal 
 
 (1917) 
 
 606,000,000 
 
 Quebec 
 
 (1917) 
 
 32,000,000 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 (1917) 
 
 574,000,000 
 
 Vera Cruz 
 
 (1913) 
 
 83,000,000 
 
 Bremen 
 
 (1913) 
 
 582,000,000 
 
 Rio de Janeiro 
 
 (1916) 
 
 134,000,000 
 
 Genoa 
 
 (1915) 
 
 509,000,000 
 
 Naples 
 
 (1915) 
 
 123,000,000 
 
 Buenos Aires 
 
 (1916) 
 
 440,000,000 
 
 Valparaiso 
 
 (1916) 
 
 38,000,000 
 
 Calcutta 
 
 (1916) 
 
 454,000,000 
 
 Bombay 
 
 (1916) 
 
 187,000,000 
 
 Yokohama 
 
 (1916) 
 
 353,000,000 
 
 Antofogasta 
 
 (1915) 
 
 31,000,000 
 
 Kobe 
 
 (1916) 
 
 352,000,000 
 
 Canton 
 
 (1916) 
 
 67,000,000 
 
 Sydney 
 
 (1916) 
 
 351,000,000 
 
 Alexandria 
 
 (1916) 
 
 284,000,006 
 
 Hull 
 
 (1916) 
 
 422,000,000 
 
 Tampico 
 
 (1913) 
 
 63,000,000 
 
 Glasgow 
 
 (1916) 
 
 369,000,000 
 
 Havana 
 
 (1916) 
 
 272,000,000 
 
 Trieste 
 
 (1913) 
 
 337,000,000 
 
 Fiume 
 
 (1912) 
 
 98,000,000 
 
 New Orleans 
 
 (1917) 
 
 408,000,000 
 
 Santos 
 
 (1916) 
 
 170,000,000 
 
 Baltimore 
 
 (1917) 
 
 400,000,000 
 
 Callao 
 
 (1916) 
 
 62,000,000 
 
 Seattle 
 
 (1917) 
 
 370,000,000 
 
 Montevideo 
 
 (1911) 
 
 75,000,000 
 
 Shanghai 
 
 (1916) 
 
 349,000,000 
 
 Tientsin 
 
 (1916) 
 
 54,000,000 
 
 6. Contrast your home State with an interior or coast State of the same 
 latitude in respect to the average January temperature as given in any encyclo- 
 pedia. In respect to the average July temi)erature. How do j'ou exjjlain tliese 
 contrasts? 
 
 7. Why is farming so thriving in Great Britain while in Labrador in tlie same 
 latitude it is practically impossible? 
 
 8. If there were no oceans why would it be impossible for man to carry on 
 farming in the vicinity of interior bodies of water like the Great Lakes? 
 
 9. If you had your choice between a visit to an emerged or a submerged coast 
 for a summer vacation which would j'ou choose? Why? 
 
 10. Give three advantages that are enjoyed by a city on a coast of submer- 
 gence that are denied an interior city. 
 
 11. (a) What is the chief fish taken in each section Ust(>(I in tlic table ciitillcd 
 "Fisheries in the United States" in the World Almanac/ 
 
 h. What is the tonnage of the average boat engaged in fisliing in each section 
 of tli<' country? 
 
 c. Why are the Alaskan vessels far larger than any others? 
 
 d. Why do the New England vessels come next? 
 
 e. Determine roughly the number of j)er.sons employed ])er vessel, and com- 
 pare this with the size of the vessels. 
 
 /. On the Mississijipi River and its tributaries how does it happen that al- 
 though the tliirty-ninc fishing vessels have an average size of only seven tons, 
 there are over 250 (ishcrnicn Id each vessel? 
 
126 MAN'S iu:lati()\ to hodiks of watkr 
 
 g. State all the reasons wliy the Xew Kiinlaml States are still the preat school 
 of sailors in spite of the fact that their fisheries enii)l(>y fewer men than do those 
 of other sections? 
 
 h. Why is the value of the Xew England catcli (jf lish ahnos! as great as that 
 of the Middle Atlantic States, where twice as many boats and over twice as many 
 men ar ■ employed? 
 
 ?. Why is the value of the Alaskan (atch nearly half that of the whole cmmtry? 
 
 12. a. On an outline map of the world insert in their pro])er jilaees the finurcs 
 given in the accompanyitif!; table showing the aimual value of fishery imnlucts per 
 person. 
 
 b. What country or .section shows best the efTecl of luu:li latitude on fisheries? 
 The effect of low latitude? 
 
 c. What region shows best the cfTect of a long irregular coastline and a si)arse 
 population? The effect of a short regular coastline and a dense population? 
 
 (i. ^^■hat region shows best the effect of broad shallow seas adjacent to the 
 coast? Of neighboring seas of great depth? 
 
 e. Why do Japan and England rank relatively low in the table, although 
 they are important fishing regions? 
 
 /. Why does Ala.ska head the list? 
 
 g. Why docs Deinnark rank so much lower than Iceland? 
 
 h. Why does Germany fall near the bottom? 
 
 i. Explain why Italy and Ireland with their long seacoasts catch so few fish. 
 
 APPROXIMATE ANNUAL VALUE OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 PER PERSON 
 
 Alaska (1917) $800.00 
 
 Newfoundland (1914) 40.00 
 
 British ColumI)ia (1017) 30 . 00 
 
 Iceland ( ) ■-'•'' ()0 
 
 Maritime Pro viiicesoi Canada (1017) 17.00 
 
 Norway (1913) (iOO 
 
 Scotland (191(i) d.r,{) 
 
 New England (19()S) 2.50 
 
 Pacific States (1915) 2.00 
 
 Denmark (1914) 1 . 50 
 
 Portugal (1914) 1 .50 
 
 Jai)an (1911) 1.10 
 
 Englaii.l and Wales (19Ui) 1 .00 
 
 France (1913) 1.00 
 
 Holland (1912) 1.00 
 
 Middle Atlantic States (1908) .80 
 
 Spain (1914) .00 
 
 Gulf States (1908) .50 
 
 Ireland (1915) .30 
 
 South Atlantic States (1908) .30 
 
 C.'nnanv (1913) .15 
 
 Belgium (1912) .15 
 
 Italy (1913) 10 
 
 Mississippi Valley States (1908) U) 
 
 India -05 
 
THE INFLUENCE OF THE OCEANS 127 
 
 13. Give the five chief reasons why it is possible for steamships to compete 
 successfully with railroads in carrying freight between New Y'ork and San Fran- 
 cisco. 
 
 14. In the World Almatiac, look up the tonnage of the vessels in the chief coun- 
 tries of the world. By using a table of population, find out how much the ton- 
 nage amounts to per million inhabitants. On an outline map of the world insert 
 the figures thus obtained and sliade the map to show four grades. Contrast the 
 countries in the highest grade with those in the lowest in respect to conditions 
 described in this chapter as promoting ocean commerce. 
 
 15. In order to i^repare for the study of climate in a later chapter, begin a 
 weather record as indicated in Exercise 1, Chapter XII. Also, secure copies of 
 the daily weather map for the ne.xt three or four months. Study these to see 
 whether you can detect any influences of continents and oceans. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 THE USE OF INLAND WATERS 
 
 The most important inland waters comprise lakes, both salt and 
 fresh, rivers, and canals. Like the oceans, these serve as (1) regu- 
 lators of temperature, (2) sources of moisture, (3) as an aid to health, 
 (4) as a source of minerals, (5) as a source of food, (6) as barriers, and 
 (7) as carriei-s of commerce. They also serve as (8) sources of water 
 supply, (9) as a source of power, and (10) as a means of irrigation, 
 fertilization, and drainage. This last pertains so largely to agiiculture 
 that it is dofrrrcd to Part IV. 
 
 Inland Waters as Regulators of Temperature. — As regulators 
 of temperature even the largest lakes are of little importance com- 
 pared with oceans. Yet the southeastern shores of Lakes IMichigan 
 and Erie arc great regions for gi'apes and other fruit because the 
 water, which retains the heat of suinnici- in the fall, warms the north- 
 west winds and prevents early frosts. Also in the spring the lakes 
 retain the low temperature of winter and thus prevent the fruit trees 
 from flowering too early and being nipped b}^ the frost. In the same 
 way Cliicago is a much more healthful and vigorous citj' because in 
 sunmier the hottest days arc often relic\-ed by lake breezes which blow 
 like sea breezes in the afternoon. Even a small lake or a broad river 
 has a sUght cooling effect on the wind in summer and a warming effect 
 in the autumn, when the water does not grow cold so fast as the land. 
 
 Inland Waters as Sources of Moisture. — In this respect lakes 
 and rivers are no nunv ini])()rtant than as regulators of temperature. 
 Nevertheless at the southern end of the Caspian Sea the northern 
 slopes of the Elburz Mountains are very well watered by rain derived 
 from this great salt lake, and form a striking contrast to the barren 
 deserts on either side. The ('as])ian Sea, however, is so large as 
 to be almost like a part of the ocean, and the high mountains at its 
 southern end would cause rainfall even if it were dry. An inland 
 body of water as large as Lake Michigan receives only a little more 
 rain on its eastern or leeward side than on (he windward side. 
 Smaller lak(\'; have practically no ct't'cci on rainfall. 
 
 Inland Waters as Aids to Health. — ^When it comes to health 
 and recreation inland watei-s take high rank, although not so impor- 
 tant as the ocean. How high they stand is evident from the way in 
 
 128 
 
THE USE OF INLAND WATERS 129 
 
 which little summer houses skirt the shores of lakes, ponds, and rivers 
 all over the United States. The boj^ who goes to the swimming hole 
 on a hot summer day is illustrating the importance of inland waters 
 in this respect. So, too, is his sister who takes her sewing down by 
 the river to enjoy the cool breeze, and his college cousin who goes to 
 Canada on a canoe trip. Few summer resorts are more famous than 
 those around the Rangeley Lakes, at Lakes Champlain, George and 
 Placid, and along the shores of the upper peninsula of Michigan. 
 The Thousand Isles in the picturesque St. Lawrence River are equally 
 noteworthy, as are Lakes Louise and Tahoe in the western mountains. 
 
 Inland Waters as a Source of Minerals. — Fresh-water lakes and 
 rivers do not furnish minerals, but other inland bodies of water are a 
 source of medicinal salts, iron ore, peat, salt, and potash. ]\Iany 
 springs like those of Saratoga are full of dissolved minerals which have 
 a most valuable healing quality. Swamps are the source of bog iron 
 ore. To-day this is not important, but the fii-st iron foundrj'^ in 
 America was established at Lynn in 1643 to smelt the ore from 
 neighboring bogs. Swamps also furnish peat, which may be called a 
 half mineralized vegetable product. IMost of the world's coal appears 
 to have been formed in ancient swamps which were part of the earth's 
 inland waters. Salt lakes also furnish not only rock salt, such as is 
 obtained by evaporating the water in little ponds on the shores of the 
 Dead Sea, but also rarer minerals, such as potash, which is found 
 abundantly in many little lakes in western Nebraska. ]\Iany 
 important salt deposits such as those deep down in the earth near 
 Syracuse, N. Y., were laid down millions of years ago in salt lakes 
 that were gradually drying up. 
 
 Inland Waters as Sources of Food. — Most of the stories of fisher- 
 men are based on the experiences of amateure in inland waters. Li 
 spite of all the stories, however, the amount of food procured hi this 
 way is small. This is largely because in most inland watei-s the 
 suppl}' of fish is too small to tempt professional fishermen. The 
 fish are caught by amatein-s who go fishing only a few times each year. 
 Nevertheless some rivere like the Illinois and some of the larger lakes 
 support far more fishermen in proportion to their size than do the 
 seas. These men and those who catch salmon and other fish at the 
 mouths of rivers entering the sea procure two-fifths of the whole catch 
 in the United States. In Russia, also, the Volga, Don, and other 
 rivei-s support very extensive fisheries, the most famous of wliicli 
 are the sturgeon fisheries, where caviar, or sturgeon roe, is procured. 
 
 Inland Waters as Barriers.— The importance of inland watei-s as 
 barriei*s is even gieater than that of the oceans. Every pei"son who 
 reads this book has probably been put to inconvenience hundreds 
 
130 MAXS ri:latiox to bodies of water 
 
 of times because of some comparatively slifj;ht water barrier. Per- 
 haps it was only a In'ook across which it was necessary to juniji. Or 
 perhaps it was a river which made it necessary to p;o several blocks 
 out of tile direct route to reach a bridge or ferry. The reason why 
 inlantl watei-s luv more troulilesome than the Aast water barrier of 
 the ocean is, their small size and jjreat number. Because they are 
 small, one can rarely tra\'<'l far on them in the right direction. Be- 
 cause they are numerous, fre([uent ])ridf!;es are necessary along most 
 routes, or else one nuist keep changing from land transi)ortation to 
 water transportation. 
 
 The Mississippi River as a Great Water Barrier. — The IMississippi 
 river illiisti-ates many of the ways in which inland watere scn'e as 
 barriei*8. On the nui]) notice how largely this great river forms the 
 boundary l)etween States. This is natural, for the stream is so wide, 
 so deep, and so subject to gi'eat floods that it is very difficult to cross it 
 in boats or to bridge it. Until Memphis is reached, 500 miles up- 
 stream there is no bridge, and of the two there only one is passable for 
 wagons. The next bridge is near Cape Girardeau, 175 miles farther 
 up, and 1 he next at St. Louis, 125 miles still farther. Not till St. Louis 
 is reached, over <S00 miles from the Gulf of Mexico, or 1270 as nu^is- 
 ured along the windings of the river, is there a second l)ridge which 
 can be crossed by wagons and foot passengers as well as by trains. 
 
 In order to realize the importance of the Mississippi barrier, 
 consider how many di'lays it causes. Even where a ferry is close at 
 hand, it is a slow way of travel. At New Orleans, for instance, all 
 railroads connecting with the west have to run their trains on to 
 feriyboats. This takes time, for the cai"s have to be shunted back 
 and forth, the ferryboat moves slowly, and the landing stage must be 
 raised or lowered so that the tracks on the land and on the boat meet 
 exactly. Moreover, the loss of lif(^ on the river, the extra effort 
 involved in crossing it, and the long dehiys all cause expense, and 
 so does the building of boats, britlges, and tunnels, so that every 
 water barrier is a great consumer of money. 
 
 To sum it all up, the chief reason why the Mississippi and other 
 bodies of water are baiTiei-s ih that they re([uire a change in the mode 
 of traveling. The train nnist run on an ex]xMisive bridge or ferryboat 
 instead of an ordinary track; the. ])edes1ri;iti inuNt swim or get a canoe 
 or other boat. The change is what makes the troul)le, for when a 
 man or a )iiece of freight is once aboard tlie boat it is a chea]) and easy 
 means of conveyance. The m;in who keei)s a motor boat on the 
 banks of the. Mississi])))! has the means of overcoming the water 
 barrier almost as effcictively as his automobile overcomes distance 
 on the land. 
 
THE USE OF INLAND WATERS 131 
 
 How Water Barriers Determine the Location of Cities : London. — 
 Since bodies of water aet as barriers, the places where it is easy to 
 cross them are likely to develop into towns. This is because roads 
 converge at such places, and people are often obliged to stop there. 
 London is a good example. Ten or more centuries ago the most im- 
 portant part of England was the southeastern corner. The next 
 most important part was the region north of the lower Thames, and 
 south of the curious square-cornered indentation called "The Wash." 
 The silk merchant who went from Cambridge to Paris, for example, 
 or the pilgrim who w-as returning from Rome to Norfolk, was obliged 
 to cross the Thames, or else go around its head. The lower reaches 
 of the river w^ere not easy to cross because the stream widens toward 
 the sea and is bordered by marshes. Hence traffic converged at the 
 lowest point where the stream is narrow and the banks are firm, and 
 there London grew up. Its site was Avhere the water barrier could be 
 easily crossed. That is why London Bridge, at the point where the 
 river was first easily crossed, is one of the world's most famous struc- 
 tures. 
 
 Of course other factor helped to cause London to become so great, 
 for the city lies at the head of ocean navigation on the Thames, and 
 the Thames estuary faces two other estuaries — those of the Scheldt 
 and the Rhine. In our day the people of London do not think much 
 about the Thames as a barrier. Nevertheless they often have to go 
 out of their way to get across the river, even though there are fourteen 
 passenger bridges, one ferry, and four tunnels. These facilities for 
 ordinary traffic, aside from the railways, cost between thirty and forty 
 million dollars, and the cost of maintaining them and of jiaying inter- 
 est on the original investment is about two million dollars a year. 
 The Thames is still a costly barrier. 
 
 Other Cities. — Paris, at the little Isle of Orleans, where the Seine 
 is easily crossed, is another citj- whose location was originally deter- 
 mined by a river acting as a barrier. The city has grown great 
 because it lies near the center of a rich agricultin-al region known as 
 the Paris Basin. So prosperous a region needs a (■it\' of considerable 
 size as its center, but aside from the island which helps to overcome 
 the barrier of the Seine and which at one time served as a stronghold 
 protected by w'ater, there is little reason why the city should be 
 located at one place rather than another. In the same way Cairo is 
 located at a point where the Nile begins to divide into the many 
 branches or distributaries of its delta, and hence where an ini]iortant 
 ferry is maintained, since it is easier and cheaper to maintain one 
 large feny than many small ones. Chicago's gi-owth in the lii-st 
 favorable location west of the southern end of Lake Michigan is ilue 
 
132 MANS RELATION TO BODIES (JF WATER 
 
 to the fact that the lake is a ban-ier. All the traffic from the North 
 Atlantic States to Wisconsin, Minnesota, and the Dakotas must 
 converge at the lake's southern end, and hence a gi'eat railroad center 
 
 had to trrow \i]^ there. 
 
 The Expense of Water Barriers: New York City. — The city of 
 New York, unlik(> London and Paris, owes its location not to water 
 barricM's, ])ut to the excellent water conununication with which it is 
 provided. The very water which affords such good means of com- 
 munication with Ijii'o])c and other far-away ])laci's, howevcn', is very 
 troublesome as a hindrance to local communication. This is l>ecause 
 New York is l)uilt on isjatuls. IManhattan Island and Long Island 
 contain more important parts of the city than the mainland. "While 
 the city was small the so-called "rivers" which separate the islands 
 and the mainland caused little trouble, for f(>w people made joiu'neys 
 out of town. In tinu\ however, the lower end of Alanhattan became 
 thickl}' covered with buildings. Thereu])()n the price of land began 
 to rise. People who were ])lanning new business enter])rises did not 
 want to locate beyond the water barriers, but wci-e willing to pay high 
 prices for land near the center of the city. Accordinglj^ to-day in 
 some parts of New York a single scjuare foot of land is worth over 
 $1000. A piece the size of an ordinary school desk is worth about 
 S'")000. From the nwrv rent of an area the size; of five desks the owner 
 could get much inore than the average wages of a laborer, or enough 
 to support a family in moderate coinfort. 
 
 When land l)ecame so valu;d)le ])eo])le began to try to over(^ome 
 the difficulty due to the water barrier by erecting higher and higher 
 buildings. New York has now more than 200 over foiu'teen stories 
 high. The lowest of these tower about 200 fcn^t, whiU^ tlu' highest, 
 with fifty or more stories, rise 700 feet, and some acconunodate about 
 15,000 workers. The streets between tlu m aic like dwp canyons, so 
 gloomy that rents in their lower stories have decreased. When the 
 elevators cease to run, as has sometimes hapi)ened during a strike, 
 some of the workers are actually unable to cHmb to their offices, or 
 take half an hour to do it. 
 
 While the sk3'-scra])er type of architecture was being develojied 
 as one response to the water barrier, a gi'eat many ferries were coming 
 into existence as another response. Thus large mnnbers of ])eo])le 
 were able to build homes in Brooklyn or on the .lei-sey side of the 
 Hudson, where land is relatively chea]) and the sui'ioundings pleasant. 
 On this accomit the ferry system gi'ew to such ])ro]iortions that 
 there are now over forty lines. Th(> railroads, too, except those now 
 known as the New ^'ork Central, ;ind the New York, New IIavi>n & 
 Hartford, had to carry tlieii-i)assengers and freight to the city by boat. 
 
THE USE OF INLAND WATERS 133 
 
 In addition to all this the New Yorkers, in thoir desire to overcome 
 the water barriei-s of their island home, have ])nilt five huge ])ridges 
 to Brooklyn at the enormous expense of 890,000,000. They have 
 also dug tunnels under the rivers, five to Brooklyn and three to the 
 Jersey side. The cost of the ferries, bridges, and tunnels, by which 
 New York overcomes the water barriers, must have been as much as 
 a billion dollars. Every year the interest on this amounts to $10 
 for every man, woman, and child in the cit3^ Although the water 
 of New York's harbor is one of the chief causes of the city's greatness, 
 the water between the different parts of the city is a most expensive 
 hindrance. 
 
 Inland Waterways as Carriers of Commerce. — ^Inland waterways, 
 including rivers, canals, and lakes, are especially important as carriers 
 of commerce in backward countries like China, Siberia, and northern 
 Brazil, which possess large rivei"s, but have not a highly developed 
 railway system. They are also important in adA'anced countries 
 like Holland and Germany, where numerous ri\'ei-s flow through 
 densely populated plains. Nevertheless, in view of the chea]iness of 
 water transportation, the use of inland waterways is by no means so 
 great as would be expected. This is iDecause a good inland waterway 
 must be favorable in each of the following respects, all of which are 
 rarely satisfactory in a single bodj'' of water: (1) depth and breadth; 
 (2) length; (3) character of the course; (4) current; (5) seasonal 
 changes; (6) hinterland; and (7) direction. 
 
 (1) Depth and Breadth. — These two qualities are closely connected 
 and both depend largely on volume. If a river comes from a region 
 of heav}^ rainfall it is likely to have great volume and hence to be 
 deep enough and broad enough for important traffic. The Amazon 
 is such a river. For a distance of 2300 miles its vast volume causes 
 it to average 120 feet deep and to have a width of more than a mile 
 and often five or six. So vast is the river that while a ship is still 
 beyond sight of land the sailors sometimes let down buckets -and draw 
 up fresh water from what seems to he the ocean, Init is really the enor- 
 mously wide mouth of the river. Cases have actually been known 
 wh(n-e sailoi-s have dicnl of thirst when adrift on the fresh water at the 
 mouth of the Ajnazon. 
 
 The Rio Grande illustrates the opposite condition. Although it 
 is half as long as the Amazon, it is practically muised for navigation. 
 It comes from a region of such sparse rainfall that it has little volume 
 and hence very slight depth. Even at its mouth it is shallow, and 
 higher up it sometimes is dry. On almost all rivei-s the ])resence 
 of sandbai-s at the mouth and of other shallow places higher up is one 
 of the chief hindrances to navigation. 
 
134 MAX S RELATION TO BODIES OF WATER 
 
 (2) Naviciahic Lcncjth. — The length of tlio navip;al)lo stretches 
 on a river is of tlie fii-st inqiortance. Tlie Yangtse, for exani])h\ is 
 navigable for lOOO miles in one continuous stretcii from its mouth 
 far into the heart of China. Tliis makes it of great value for com- 
 merce. The Orange River, ou the contrary, although it has an 
 actual length of 1300 miles, is of no \ alue for navigation, because the 
 sti-etches where boats can ply extend only a few score miles. It 
 would never pay to ship goods fifty miles by boat, then thirty Ijy rail, 
 again one hundred by boat, once more by rail, and so on. The reason 
 is that trans-shi])jnent is very expensive. With some kinds of freiglit 
 it actually costs more to load a ton onto a steamer and take it off 
 again than to carry it all the way from New "iOik to Livtn-pool, and 
 even with kinds that can be loaded inex])eiisively a single loatling 
 costs as much as scores of miles of actual transportation. Hence no 
 waterAvay is of much use for commerce unless its navigable reaches 
 are long and uninterrupted. 
 
 (3) Character of Course. — Straight rivers like the Amazon, Hudson, 
 and St. Lawrence are far the best for navigation. On rivers with 
 winding coui-ses not only are distances nuich increased, Init the 
 channel is ahnost sure to wind still more, so that little s])eed can be 
 made, and there is danger of running aground. On the Mississi])])i, 
 which has an extremely winding covn'se, some of the meandei-s or 
 bends are so extreme that after tiowing ten or fifteen mik>s around a 
 horse-shoe curve the stream comes back to within a few hundicd 
 yards of its earlier position. 
 
 (4) Current. — The more gentle the current of a ri\(M- the better it 
 is for navigation. The great Volga River, even at its sour<-e, is only 
 665 feet above sea level, while 1500 miles from its mouth it is only 190 
 feet above the level of the ocean and 280 al)()ve the ( 'aspian. Henc e 
 throughout most of its course the current is so gentle that slii])s arc 
 little impe(l(Ml and locks and dams are unnecessary. Contrast the 
 Volga with the IJrahmaputra, which rises 15,500 feet above the sea, 
 and flows so swiftly over rapids and falls that along nnich of its course 
 ncj one has ever used a boat. The Zambesi is another gr(>at river, 
 along which numerous rai)itls, in ad<htion to the great \'ictoria 1-alls, 
 divide the navigable water into sections too short to b(^ of much use. 
 'Ihe other great .Xfricaii rivers suffer th(> same disadvantage, l-'ven 
 the Nile, which has 2000 miles of uninterrupted navigation at high 
 water, is at most seasons broken into many sect ions by rapids, or 
 cataracts, as they are callid. 
 
 (5) Seasonal Cfinnfirs. j'ract ically every river is sut)ject tosfi-oiig 
 seasonal changes. T'loods and droughts are more or less universal, 
 while freezing is common. The rivers most free from floods come 
 
THE USE OF INLAND WATERS 135 
 
 from great lakes, as in the case of the St. Lawrence, or receive an 
 abundant supply of rain at all seasons, as is the case with the two 
 greatest equatorial rivers, the Amazon and Congo. The rivers of 
 Siberia have the disadvantage not only of floods, but of ice. In the 
 winter the Amur, for example, is frozen for six months; then when the 
 ice breaks up, gTeat floods occur and would wash away not only the 
 shipping, but the floating docks, wliich are the only kind possible, 
 if these w^ere not all safely moored in harbors of refuge. Later, 
 however, in IVIay and June, the floods make navigation easy, since 
 the shallows are deep and the rapids smooth. Finally, in the fall 
 before the river freezes up, it falls so low that ships are greatlj^ ham- 
 pered by the danger of running aground. 
 
 (6) Hinterland. — Even if an inland waterway were ideal in other 
 respects, it would not carry much commerce unless it had a well-popu- 
 lated hinterland able to supply raw materials, food, or manufactured 
 goods in exchange for products brought from afar. Compare the 
 Danube and the Yukon. The Danube flows through some of the 
 most densely populated and progressive parts of the world. Hence it 
 carries thousands of boats of all sizes from small ocean steamers and 
 large canal barges down to rowboats. So far as natural advantages 
 for navigation are concerned, the Yukon is little inferior to the Danube 
 except for the long frozen period from October to April. Neverthe- 
 less, it does not carry one boat for a hundred on the Danube, for its 
 hinterland contains only a few minere who do not consume nmch, and 
 do not furnish any articles of export in quantities large enough to 
 supply cargoes. 
 
 (7) Direction. — The direction is the one feature of inland water- 
 ways which man cannot control. He can deepen and broaden a 
 river, or increase the navigable length and overcome falls and rapids 
 by building canals and locks. He can straighten windings, control 
 the current, overcome the effects of seasonal changes, and populate the 
 hinterland, but he cannot change the general (Urcction in which a river 
 flows. Yet this condition is tlie most important in determining the 
 value of an inland waterway. The Rhine is a relatively small river, 
 but because it flows toward the place where England lu^ai-s the con- 
 tinent, and where are located Rotterdam, Antwerp, ami London, it. 
 supports an incredibly active connnei'ce. The INIacKenzic and the ( )h 
 are far larger than the lvhin(% but in a year they carry no more com- 
 merce than the Rhine doc^s in a day, for they flow toward tlu^ frozen 
 north instead of toward the i)laces where trade and manufacturing 
 are active. 
 
 The Good Inland Waterway of the St. Lawrence and the Great 
 Lakes. — Let us now take a few of the world's great systems of inland 
 
136 MAN'S RELATION TO BODIES OF WATER 
 
 waterwaj's and see how they stand in rospoct to the sovcn require- 
 ments mentioned aV)ove. The St. Lawrence River and the (Ireat 
 Lakes form one of the world's finest systems. They furnish a broad, 
 deej), and relatively straight waterway penetrating a])out 1700 miles 
 mto the interior. There is some difficulty, however, because of the 
 Lachine and Sainte Marie rapids and the falls of Niagara, but these 
 have been partly overcome by canals and locks so that shi]is drawing 
 14 feet can go from the sea to Chicago or Duluth. Another and more 
 serious difficulty is that although seasonal changes have no gi-eat 
 effect upon the depth of the water, they cause the St. Lawrence 
 River and the Great Lakes to be closed by ice for three months during 
 the winter. Such difficulties, however, are more than compensated 
 by the wondei-ful hinterland which includes the great grain regions of 
 the central plains, the unexcelled iron deposits near Lake Superior, the 
 immense coal mines of Pennsylvania, and the rich farm lands of New 
 York and southern Canada. ]\Ioreover, throughout the Great Lakes 
 region the direction of tiiis gi'cat waterway is almost ideal, for it con- 
 nects regions of three gi'eat t\T3es producing food, raw materials, 
 and manufactured goods. Down the St. Lawrence the direction is 
 also excellent so far as relations with Europe are concerned. It would 
 be far better, however, if the river flowed to New York and the givat 
 markets on the Atlantic coast instead of to the ban-en coasts of Labra- 
 dor and Quebec. This has made it advisable to dig the New York 
 State Barge Canal, 362 miles long, which extends from Buffalo to 
 Albany, where it connects with the Hudson River. This canal, 
 however, is only 12 feet deep, so that neither lake nor ocean steamers 
 can enter it, and trans-shipment is necessary at each end. For this 
 reason it carries only one-fiftieth as many tons of freight as the Sault 
 Sainte Marie at the outlet of Lake Superior. In 1920 the tonnage car- 
 ried by the canals of New York State was only about a fourth as 
 great as in 18S0, ])ut. it, is h()i)(>d that this will now ra]ii(lly incn^asn. 
 
 The Excellent Waterway of the Rhine and the German Canals. — • 
 The system of inland waterways of which the Rhine is the main artery 
 owes its importance to its hinterland and its direction. Because 
 the Rhine flows through an extremely populous and progressive 
 region and toward the center of tlic world's activities, the Germans 
 and Dutch have fomul it worth while to deepen and broaden it; to 
 increase its navigal)lc length by canalizing certain parts; to straighten 
 out the windings; to provide cables to pull ships up through the strong- 
 est currents; and to make provision for the regulation of floods. To 
 take further advantage of this excellent waterway, the Germans have 
 built many canals to connect it with the Weser, Elbe, and other rivers 
 farther east. The canals greatly enlarge the hinterland, and cnabli? 
 
THE USE OF INLAND WATERS 
 
 137 
 
138 MAN'S RELATION TO BODIES OF WATER 
 
 traffic to move east and west rather than in a more northerly direction 
 along the line of the main rivei"s. Thus goods from the \istula 
 River can now be earned to Holland l)^' inland waterways without 
 breaking bulk. The Khine and the Cierman canals well illustrate 
 the tendency of conmierce to aim straight at the most thicklj- settled 
 industrial regions. A detour to the Baltic Sea, where the suiTounding 
 population is much less dense than around the North Sea, is much like 
 a detoin- down the St. Lawrence to Newfoundland. 
 
 The Superior Inland Waterway of the Yangtse.^ — The Yangtse 
 River, more than any other inland waterway, fuliills all the condi- 
 tions mentioned in this chapter. It is generally so broad and deep 
 that even without artificial improvement ocean steamers of 6000 
 tons can usually reach Hankow, al)out 700 miles from the coast. In 
 this stretch the windings are not particularly troublesome, and the 
 cuiTent is negligible, for the river falls only an inch per mile. Al- 
 though floods raise the river 40 or 50 feet at Hankow, they do not 
 seriously hinder traffic. In fact, for these 700 miles, the advantages 
 for navigation are little inferior to those of the Amazon, while the 
 liinterland is far superior. Above Hankow small steamers can go 
 another 300 miles to Ichang, where the river is still only 130 feet 
 above sea level. Then rai^ds intervene for 350 miles, but so large 
 is the river, so excellent its direction, and so rich and populous the 
 Szechuan hinterland that much traffic is carried even here, while 
 higher up the stream is again easily navigable. 
 
 Ever>'^vherc for nc^tirly 2000 miles the Yangtse flows through a 
 region full of industrious people, so that its hinterland is one of the 
 best in the world. It contains more people than the entire western 
 hemisphere. If ever these should become as energetic as those in the 
 hinterlands of the Rhine and the St. Lawrence, ships might pass as 
 frequently as at the Straits of Dover. The direction of the Yangtse is 
 ideal, for the river runs through the heart of the most fertile part of 
 China directly toward the part of the coast where the greatest cities 
 are located and where trade is most active. The importance of the 
 stream is still further increased by large navigable tributaries, the 
 chief of which join the main stream near Hankow, and by the drand 
 Canal, which connects the mouth of the river with Tientsin and the 
 great cities of the ll\v:mg \':illcy. 
 
 The Great Difficulty of the Mississippi Waterway. — In jnoportion 
 to its size and length the Misslssi])pi River is used far less than the 
 St. Lawrence, Rhine, and Yangtse. Li fact, the tonnage carried by 
 the IMississijipi is less than that of many far smaller rivers like the 
 Elbe. This is sun^rising in view of the many advantages of the river. 
 The channel has a depth of 9 feet to St. Louis, r27() miles from the 
 
THE USE OF INLAND WATERS 139 
 
 mouth, whereas the Rhine has an equal depth for only a c[uarter as 
 far, to Mainz. The length of the ]\Iississi])i)i is a wonderful ad\'an- 
 tage, for with its main Ijranch, the Missouri, it constitutes the longest 
 river in the world. The current is also cojn]~)aratively favorable, for 
 though it is rapid in places, the river falls only 4 inches a mile from 
 St. Louis downward. Finally, the hinterland is ideal, for it includes 
 the most fertile parts of the United States. Against these advantages 
 stand two minor and one main disadvantage. The disadvantages 
 of the many windings of the river's lower course ajid of the seasonal 
 floods could be overcome without undue expense. The nuiin dis- 
 advantage is the insurmountable drawback that the river does not 
 flow toward the eastern manufacturing districts and Europe, which 
 are the great markets for the food and raw materials of its rich hinter- 
 land. If the INIississippi flowed from St. Louis to Baltunore or 
 Philadelphia many peo]ile believe it would pay to spend nuich more 
 than the hundivd million already spent in improving navigation, and 
 the river might carry far more freight than any other inland waterway. 
 I'nfortunately, however, the ]\Iississii)pi lies at right angles to the 
 main lines of traffic. Thus, like the railroads that cross the continents 
 from north to south, it cannot vie with lines of communication that 
 run east and west. Only v/hen the trade of the United States with 
 South America and the Orient l)y way of the Panama Canal develo]« 
 to large proportions will the gi'eat river come into its own as one of 
 the world's main inland waterwaj-s. 
 
 (8) Why a Large Water- Supply is Needed. — As people l)ecome 
 more ci\'ilized, the need of a large water supply steadily increases. 
 It is needed for three main uses: (1) domestic; (2) numici])al; and 
 (3) industrial. The domestic uses l^egin with drinking, which de- 
 mands only about half a gallon per pcn'son each day on an average. 
 Cooldng reciuu-es a larger amount, while washing and l)athing demand 
 many gallons ])er day. To this must l>e added the water drunk by 
 domestic annuals, and that which is used for watering i)lants, gar- 
 dens, and lawns. 
 
 The munici])al uses include all that is needed for fire protection, 
 public fountains and drinking places, street sprinkling, and the flush- 
 ing of sewers. This amount varies from nothing in small villages to 
 many gallons ])cr jicrson in large cities. In the same \va>' t he anidunt 
 of water used for industrial pur})oses varies from nothing u]) to a 
 quantity much larger than for the domestic and munici]ial ])ur])oses 
 combined. It includes the water used for engine- l)(»ilei-s, for con- 
 densing steam, and many special industrial pur])()ses like washing 
 cloth and cleansing hides. 
 
 For all these ])uriioses together, an ordinary town in the Unite<l 
 
140 MAX'S REI.ATIOX TO BODIES OF WATER 
 
 State's requires from 50 to 150 gallons of water ])vr day for each ]i(t- 
 son. Usually this sui^iily is obtained so easily, hy siiii))ly tuniiufj; a 
 faucet, that pe()])le do not realize how iiiqiortant it is. They feel the 
 importance of the matter, however, when tlicre comes a droup;ht, as 
 occurred in New l^njrland in 1911, and the lawns nuist be allowed to 
 dry u]'), the takinji of baths is restricted, and some of the factories have 
 to sluit down for a few weeks. 
 
 What Kind of Water Supply is Needed. — The quality of a water 
 su])i)ly is even moi-e ini])ortant than its (juantity. For that reason 
 every up-to-date city employs skilled enf]:;ineers not only to determine 
 the best source of water and how it shall be protected from contam- 
 ination, but also to construct purifyinji; works if necessary and to test 
 the water continuallj^, to see whether it contains any hannful iin])uii- 
 ties. The requisites of a p;ood water supply are as follows: 
 
 (1) Freedom from Mud. — Mud is a coni])aratively common (nil, 
 but does little harm. The people of St. Louis, for example, drink 
 the muddy water of the Mississippi River. Now they filter it, but 
 even before they had their great filtration ])lants, thej' found it whole- 
 some. A httle mud is harmful chiefly because it does not look attrac- 
 tive, and it is larp;ely for this n^ason that cities build settling basins 
 where the water stands still for some hoin*s and dro]is its load of silt. 
 In some cases, however, even a prolonged period of quiet will not cause 
 the finest clay to settle, and some of the most wholesome water sup- 
 plies are a little cloudy. 
 
 (2) Freedom from Taste and Smell. — Water that has a disagi'ee- 
 able taste or especially a distinct smell is undesirable. Often, how- 
 ever, what people call a disagreeable taste means menly a taste 
 different from that to which they are accustomed. A smell is more 
 likely to be a sign that something is really wrong. Yet neither taste 
 nor smell necessarily indicates that the water is unwhok^some, as 
 many people in ))iairie towns are well aware. Nevertheless, since 
 both are disagi-eeal)le, and since either may indicate that the water is 
 bad, cities go to gi'eat ex])ense in order to get rid of them, either by 
 filtration or by chemical treat nieiii. 
 
 (3) Freedom from Chcniicdl I )ti]>urities. — Some chemical iin])uri- 
 ties reveal themselves by llicii- laste or smell. A laruc ihiiiiIhm', how- 
 ever, such as the lime which causes hardness, do not. make the water 
 disagreeable, while some — such as iron — which ])roduce. both tasteand 
 smell, are iKMieficial. Lime is l)y far the most harmful of the com- 
 mon chemical im]iurities of water and the hanlest to get rid of. When 
 hard water is used in boilei*s it causes the deposition of a limy cake on 
 the inside of the boiler and soon ruins it. In the same way, in man's 
 body, it may increase the susc(>ptibilily to rheuniatisni, goiter, and 
 
THE USE OF INLAND WATERS 141 
 
 other diseases. Yet such wat(>r may be sparkling and clear, without 
 odor, and with the most dehghtful taste. 
 
 (4) Freedom from Bacteria. — This is by far the most important 
 quaUty of a water supply. Water that is ideal in other respects may 
 contain the germs of typhoid fever, dysentery, and other diseases. 
 The city of Niagara Falls has suffered greatly from typhoid because 
 Buffalo discharges its sewage into Lake Erie and Niagara Falls takes 
 its water from the Niagara River wliich flows from that lake. Even 
 though the water seems to have become perfectly clear and has no 
 mud, no taste, no odor, and no chemical impurities, the disease germs 
 of Buffalo still live and do vast harm. In Europe the prevalence of 
 typhoid germs in the water supply of many of the cities is one chief 
 reason why wine and beer are used so extensively. In China, where 
 disease germs are still more abundant in the water, the people ahnost 
 universally drink tea. They have found by long experience that the 
 best way to get rid of bacteria is to boil the water, a lesson which 
 people ought to remember when obhged to use doubtful suppUes of 
 water or when typhoid and dysentery are common. 
 
 How a Water Supply is Procured and Distributed. — (1) Primitive 
 Methods. — The shnplest way of getting a supply of water is to dip 
 it up by hand from a stream, spring, or lake. In Oriental countries 
 like Pei-sia, and in tropical countries like India and Venezuela, one 
 can any day see scores of women walldng gracefully to the stream 
 or the fountain with earthenware jare poised on their heads or shoul- 
 ders. Elsewhere men with plump goatskin bag's on their backs or 
 driving barrel-shaped little donkey carts bring water from the nmddy 
 river and fill the big earthenware pots that stand in a shady corner of 
 every courtyard. 
 
 (2) Ordinary Wells. — Among civihzcd people and among many 
 ^^•ho are only partly ci\'iUzed, wells are the most common source of 
 water. This is because the soil and the solid rock are everj^vhere 
 saturated with water below a certain depth. The varj-ing level at 
 which permanent water is found is called the water table. The water 
 table is only a few inches below the surface in swam])S, l)ut generally 
 several hundred feet in deserts. Wherever a well is sunk it nuist go 
 deep enough to penetrate below tlu^ lowest level to which this table 
 falls in dry seasons. The chief difficulty with wells is to I'aise the wat.(n- 
 to the surface. In many places this is done b}' hand with long rojies. 
 In parts of tropical IMexico long fines of women come to t lie wells in the 
 cool of the morning long before sunrise and wait their turn in o\\\vv to 
 pull up water from a dejith of a hundred feet or more. Often, how- 
 ever, this work is done by horses, oxen, or camels. In ISIexico the 
 well rope is sometimes fastened to the horns of an t)x, or to the saddle 
 
142 MAX'.^ HKLA'l'loX TO BODIES OF WATKIl 
 
 of a horse, where it causes a p:reat and unnecessary strain which soon 
 kills the animals. These ])rijnitive methods, however, are fast beinp; 
 replaced by machinery. The sim]ilest machine for drawing; water is 
 the hand pump, Init ])umi)s run by animal power, by wind, and by 
 gasoline are also largely used. The use of such power pumjis usually 
 leads to the building of tanks or resei-\'oirs, and thus makes it easy 
 to have running water in the house at all times. This is a great advan- 
 tage, for the easier it is to get water the more likely people arc to use 
 it, not only for drinking and cooking, but also for bathing, washing, 
 and fire protection. Moreover, such a water system is a gi'eat help 
 in insuring purity. 
 
 (3) Artesian and Driven Wells. — The use of machinery has made 
 it possible to drill wells of gi-eat dc]ith. Artesian wells are those in 
 which the well jienetrates to porous layers of rock lying between im- 
 pervious clayey layers. The layers must be tilted sufiicienth', so 
 that part of the porous layer will reach the surface at a point higher 
 than the top of the well. In that case, the water will flow out of llie 
 well and even gush out, as at Louisville, Kentucky, where, if un- 
 hindered, it spouts up 170 feet. One such well at Lillei*s in France has 
 been flowing steadily for nearly 800 yeare. Artesian water from gi-eat 
 depths is always warm. A well 2050 feet deep at Charleston, South 
 CaroUna, for example, has a temperature of 87° F. 
 
 Artesian wells are especially important in dry regions like the 
 Sahara Desert, where they supi^ort many oases. The French have 
 there tapped deep sources of water derived from rain that falls many 
 hundred miles away. Driven wells, w^hich penetrate deep into the 
 ground but do not strike water that rises, are also highly important 
 in dry regions, since they give a water supply which does not diy up. 
 They are very expensive to operate, however, since it costs a good deal 
 to ]:)ump water from such gi-eat depths by means of gasoline or elec- 
 tricity. In the southwestern United States such wells are common, 
 but they are much more feasible on cattle ranches, where only a small 
 sui)ply of water is needed, than on irrigated farms where a large su])])ly 
 is required. ]\Ioreover, the water from such w{>lls is apt to contain 
 a large percentage of dissolved minerals, and thus is good neither for 
 men nor for plants. 
 
 City Water Systems. — The most complicated methods of ol)taining 
 and distril)Uliiig water are employed in gi'cat cities. No matter what 
 may be the source of the water, a city nuist have an extensive system 
 of large water pipes or mains, and of minor pipes ruuniiig to every 
 street and house. Filtration plants are also needed in many cases, 
 and a well-developed sewage system is always planned in connection 
 with the water system in every ui)-to-date city. Each city ought also 
 
THE USE OF INLAND WATERS 143 
 
 to have a reservoir sufficiently large and located high enough so that 
 in case of sudden demands such as fires, or in case the mains are 
 broken, there will be enough water for an emergency. 
 
 The sources of city water are very various. Some cities like 
 Pittsburgh pump water out of rivers and have to spend much money 
 in purifying the water and in raising it high enough to supply the hilly 
 parts of town. Others, like Chicago, get water from lakes close at 
 hand, and have the same problem of purification and pumping, al- 
 though the cost of pumping is slight because the city lies so close to 
 lake level. In other cases hke New York, the city spends an enor- 
 mous smn in building great reservoirs far away among the hills. 
 The Ashokan Reservoir lies among the Catskill IVIountams 85 miles 
 from New York, and its water is brought to the city by a gi-eat aque- 
 duct which goes under the Hudson River in a tunnel of great depth. 
 Although the first cost of such a reservoir and aqueduct is enormous, 
 the later cost is slight. Little expense is needed for maintenance, 
 piu'ification is unnecessary, since the reser\^oir is protected from con- 
 tamination, and the water flows by gravity without being pumped. 
 Some of New York's skj^-scrapers, however, are so high that for a long 
 time they had to maintain their own pmuping plants in order to raise 
 the water to the upper stories. Los Angeles, being located in a region 
 w'here there is a long dry season, has to bring its water much farther 
 than New York. It taps the Owens River on the east side of the Si- 
 erras, and brings the water through an aqueduct about 250 miles 
 long, crossing some of the mountains in a tunnel. 
 
 Cities also get water from artesian and driven wells. Although 
 London's supply comes chiefly from the rivers Thames and Lea, it 
 likewise has a huge system of artesian wells driven into the underlying 
 chalk. So numerous are these wells and so great the demand of 
 London for water that the water table has been permanently lowered 
 over a large area. Before Brooklyn shared New York's water supply 
 it had a similar experience on a smaller scale. 
 
 Perhaps the most unusual method of getting a water supply is 
 that of Baku and Aden. Both cities are located in regions so dry 
 that sufficient fresh water cannot be secured. Hence the only re- 
 coui-se is to piece out the meager supply with distilled sea water. Tliis 
 is inexpensive at Baku because of the abundance of oil, but at Aden, 
 where coal must be brought from a distance, the water suppl}' is 
 unusually costly. 
 
 Water as a Source of Power. — Water furnishes the cheapest 
 kintl of ])()\\('r. In order easily to use this power the water must 
 flow regularly at all s(>asons and must descend rapidly to provide a 
 good "head."' Ileiice three coiulitions are favorable to the develop- 
 
144 MANS RELATION TO BODIES OF WATER 
 
 mcnt of water powor: Cl) ru^fxcd rclii'f, (2) lakes or other roser- 
 voii-s, aiul (3) nil alHindant rainfall well distributed throughout the 
 year. 
 
 (1) IIow Ru(j(]C(l Ueliif Favors the f'.sr of Water Power. — In a 
 nigfjjed eouiitiy the streams descend rajndly, and thus furnish a 
 ])r()])ci' head of water. IIow important this is may l>c illustrated by 
 (•omi)arin^ the Mississi])])i Kiver in its u])])er and lower ])ortions. 
 The available ]M)wer from the main stream of the river during its 
 course of nearly a thousand miles in the gi-eat central ])lain, \\here it 
 descends only five inches pvr mile, is only 147,000 hors(>-power. A 
 smaller amount of water flowing a similar distance in the ii})per trib- 
 utaries in regions of rugged relief where it descends rapidly, is cap- 
 able of furnishing 0,430,000 liorse-])()wer, or about forty-three times 
 as mucli as in the plain. 
 
 (2) How Lakes Favor the Use of Water Poxcer. — Lakes are also 
 a great hel]D in the development of water power. They serve as 
 resen-oii-s so that the volume of the rivers which flow from them 
 varies relatively little from season to season. For example, the 
 Niagara River, coming from the huge resen-oirs of the Great Lakes, 
 carries onh' one-third more water at its highest than at its lowest 
 level. The Potom;ic, wit h no lakes whatever, is sometimes 250 times 
 as large in flood as at low water. In July, 1911, a drought caused the 
 lakeless Catawba Kiver in the Carolinas to become so low that 152 
 cotton mills shut down foi' lack of i)owei', and 70,000 operatives were 
 thrown out of work. Such variations do so much harm that power 
 companies have sjient millions of dollai's in creating artificial lakes 
 by means of dams. This has been done on many small ri\ers, the 
 Connecticut and its tributaries being notal)le examples. 
 
 Th(! ])resence of abundant vegetation has somewhat tlu^ same 
 effect as lakes in steadying the volume of rivei-s. AA'here the slopes 
 are well covered with vegetation, the rain does not run off all at once, 
 but is caught in the rootlets and soil and seeps out slowl}' in springs. 
 This is one of the chief arguments for forest consei'\'ation. 
 
 (3) How Abundant Rainfall Favors the Use of Water Power. — 
 The value of abundant and regular rainfall in promoting the use of 
 water power may be judged from a comparison of Wisconsin and 
 Nevada. Although Wisconsin is only half as large as Nevada and is 
 much less rugged, its water power ])ossibilities are several hundred 
 times as great Ixjcause of its heavier rainfall. In I he noii lui n Pacific 
 drainage area of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho the abundant rains 
 combine with favorable relief to cause that region to be ca]xible of 
 furnishing two-fifths of the water power of the United States. Al- 
 though the wat(>r power in that region is not yet gi'catly developed, 
 
THE USE OF INLAND WATERS 
 
 '145 
 
 X; 
 
 
 *^ 3 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 rt 
 
 <A 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 a 
 
 rt 
 
 W 
 
 P 
 
 & 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 (M 
 
 < 
 
146 
 
 MANS liKLATIUxX To iU»l)li;s oi" WATER 
 
 
 
 ,(M 
 
 K 'i 
 
 f^ 
 
THE USE OF INLAND WATERS 147 
 
 it may some da^^ fiirnisli nearly 15,000,000 horse power, that is, more 
 than is obtained from the 150, 000, 000 tons of coal l)urned each year 
 by the railroads. This, however, would recjuire a dam every few 
 miles, that is, at every place where a head of water could be secured. 
 The presence of cheap power is sure some day to cause that region to 
 become prominent in manufacturing. 
 
 How Seasonal Variations Hinder the Use of Water Power. — The 
 chief disadvantage of the northwestern water power is that, although 
 the rains fall heavily part of the year, they diminish greatly in sum- 
 mer. In the United States the irregularitj^ of the rains reaches a 
 maximimi in the Southwest. The winter rains on many of the 
 mountain ranges of Utah, Arizona, and southern California would 
 furnish abundant water power, but it does not pay to ])uild ])ower 
 plants because they would have to be idle during the long dry sum- 
 mer. Moreover, they might be ruined l)}^ the floods which are char- 
 acteristic of such regions, where the bare slopes of the mountains have 
 httle vegetation to hold back the water in winter. Some of these 
 mountains, however, are so high that much of their precipitation 
 takes the form of snow. If this melts slowly it acts like a reservoir, 
 and holds back the watcn- until the warm dry season when it is needed. 
 Sometimes it melts rapidly and forms l)ad floods. Some of the worst 
 floods in regions like New York and Pennyslvania are due to the melt- 
 ing of the snow which represents the accumulated rainfall of the 
 winter. 
 
 Why Glaciated Regions have Abundant Water Power. — (1) Falls 
 and Rapids. — The parts of tlu^ world which possess the most favor- 
 al)le combination of rugged relief, many laki's, and ainmdant rainfall 
 have all been glaciated. This is because during the cold, stormy 
 glacial period in the earth's history, great glaciers sprcnid out from 
 cool, well-watered elevated regions. As they movcMl slowly forward 
 they changed the topograph}^, turning rivei-s out of their courses so 
 that they formed numerous iii\\> and ra])ids, and causing many great 
 hollows which are now filled by numerous lakes. Niagara Falls, 
 the finest sourc(^ of water power in the world, canu^ into existence 
 because ice closed the ancient outlet of Lake Erie. The lake over- 
 flowed along a new course, which caused it to tumble ov(m- a clifT. 
 Hence to-day Niagara Falls furnish light and power to multitudes of 
 people. Tiiey might furnish tiuve million horse-power, or nearly a 
 tenth of all that is used in the United States, if the governments of the 
 United States and Canada had not imposed restrictions in order 
 to presen-e the wonderful natural beaut v of the tremendous water- 
 fall. 
 
 In New England, Wisconsin, and similar regions the ancient 
 
148 MANS RELATION TO BODIES OF WATER 
 
 glaciere did not caiisp such strikinp; falls as at Niagara, hut gave rise 
 to many smaller ones, and to freciuent rapids which can easily be 
 dannned. This has stinmlated the gi'owth of such industrial cities 
 as Manchester, Nashua, Lowell, and L;i\\v(>nc(' on the .Mei-rimac 
 River, Holyoke, Simngfield, and Ihirttdrd on the Connecticut, and 
 a string of small cities on the lower I"o\ liiver in Wisconsin (see 
 Fig. 42.) 
 
 In mountainous regions the ancient glaciers deepened the valleya 
 and steepened their walls so that tributary' streams often enter the 
 main valley in a series of cascades which can readily be utilized for 
 power. In Switzerland and Norway, wliere glaciers persisted in 
 valleys for thousands of ycare after the continental glacier had re- 
 treated, such falls are numerous, and are one reason for tlu> \nv- 
 eminence of those countries in the use of w^ater power. 
 
 (2) Glacial Lakes. — Over 90 per cent of all the lakes in the world 
 are due to glaciation. In some cases, such as the Great Lakes, the 
 Finger Lakes of Central New York, and the famous lakes at the 
 foot of the Alps in northern Italy, the glaciei-s dug out enor- 
 mous hollows which were filled by water when the ice melted. In 
 other cases, such as hundreds of lakes in New England, Wisconsin, 
 Canada, and Russia, the ice laid down great masses of rock and soil 
 called moraines, and these caused lakes by acting as dams. AMierever 
 such lake regions have sufficient relief they afford all the conditions 
 needed for the development of abundant water power. The glacial 
 lakes, falls, and rapids of New England, for example, are one of the 
 chief reasons why New England early developed its manufacturing 
 industries and is still able to maintain its position although it 
 has neither coal nor raw matcnials. 
 
 The Value of Water Power in Switzerland. — In the use of water 
 power Switzerland is even farther advanced than New England. 
 To-day the power used by practically all the street railways and by 
 the bulk of the industrial enterprises in that countiy comes from 
 waterfalls. The railways, too, arc giving up coal and using hydro- 
 electric power, that is, power derived from electricity generated by 
 the streams that pour down from the mountains. Tlie loom of the 
 lace-maker and the maehine of the watchmaker in the home are also 
 liein^j; driven by hydro-electric energy. Such energy even goes into 
 the barn and house of the peasant. Thus grain is threshed, butter 
 is churned, water is pumped, food for cattle is ])rcpared, and the 
 farmer is relieved of his most arduous labor. Much of this develojv 
 ment of water power is due to the wise policy of govcrmnent regula- 
 tion and the payment of royalties to the state by users of the 
 water. 
 
THE USE OF INLAND WATERS 149 
 
 The Growth of the Use of Water Power. — In view of the great 
 demand for power it seems strange that only about one-sixth of the 
 possible^ water-power of this country has ])een developed. We must 
 remember, however, that many of the best water-power sites have 
 been unavailable because located in mountainous ref2;ions wlun-e the 
 rough ground affords little opportunity for factories and houses, and 
 where transportation is expensive. At last, however, hydro-electric 
 methods of transmitting power have so developed that not only is a 
 400-mile line in operation in southern California, but engineers are 
 considering the construction of a 700-mile line in Africa from the 
 Victoria Falls of the Zambesi to the mines at Johannesburg. 
 
 No water power site can hope to rival Niagara. The size of the 
 river, the sudden fall from a great height, the regularity of the rain- 
 fall, and the steadiness of the river because of the gi-eat reservoirs back 
 of it are all advantages of the highest order. In addition to this the 
 falls are located in a comparatively level region where transportation 
 is easy and cheap, and where there is plenty of room to establish 
 factories and build houses. And finally, the falls are in a district 
 where the population is dense, energetic, and progressive, and which 
 even without water power would be one of the world's great manu- 
 facturing regions. 
 
 The nearest rivals of Niagara are both called the Victoria Falls. 
 One, on the Zambesi, is over twice as high as Niagara and carries an 
 enormous volume of water. The other, on the River Iquassu on the 
 boundary between Brazil and Argentina, and only 16 miles from 
 Paraguay, is 215 feet high and has a series of twenty falls separated 
 by islands just as Goat Island separates the American and Canadian 
 Falls at Niagara. Neither of the two Victoria Falls has yet been 
 used for water power Ix'cause both are located in an unfavorable 
 climate far from manufacturing centers, 
 
 QUESTIONS, EXERCISES, AND PROBLEMS 
 
 1. Discuss the relation of the following places to inland waterways: Pitts- 
 burg, Manchester (N. H.), Mainz, Belgrade, Assouan, Port Said, Minneapolis, 
 Ashokan. What bodies of water have helped to make these places important? 
 To what uses is the water put in each case? 
 
 2. Measure the appro.ximate length of the longest river in each of the follow- 
 ing regions: tlie United States, Russia, England, France, Germany, and New 
 York State. Draw a grai)h reiir&senting the relative lengths of these rivers. Also 
 show graphically the total population of all the cities of over 100, 000 along each 
 river, using the table of cities in the World Almanac, or an elementary geography. 
 
 3. On an outline map of the Atlantic States locate the following places: 
 Manchester, X. II., Lawrence, Fall River, Springfield, Waterbur>-, Trenton, Rich- 
 mond, Raleigh, Columbia, Augusta, and draw the rivers on w liu li t licy are located. 
 
150 
 
 MAN'S IIELATIUN TO UUUIES OF WATlJi 
 
 Find out what coininon characteristics those places have, (a) in chief occupations; 
 {b) in the use of inland waters; which ones ap])ear in Fig. 44? Interpret Fig. 
 44, by showing how far the location of cotton factories depends on iiilaiKJ waters 
 and how far on other geograi)hical conditions. 
 
 Insert on your map the cities at the mouths of the rivers already located. 
 Find out how far these cities and the factory cities arc benefited bj' the use of 
 inland waters for navigation. Ciive reasons why Xew England rivers are more or 
 
 I Establishment 
 ".More tlian 10 Establisli- 
 
 IllL'IltS 
 
 Fiu. 11.— Cotton Mills in the United State: 
 
 less useful for cither power or navigation than are the rivers of the Carolinas and 
 deorgia. 
 
 1. Try in liii^l nut from :i rdicl' map and a rainfall map what are the prospects 
 of gi'tting ciMiujzh water powiT to run factories in New Zealand. Find out other 
 condition.^ which may cause industry to develop. 
 
 5. "Nortli ll.ily has undergone an industrial revolutimi during the last cen- 
 tury." Fiiiil oul to wlial extent this development is due l<> I lie jihy.sical geography 
 pf the region. 
 
THE USE OF INLAND WATERS 151 
 
 6. Look up the U. S. G. S. map of Mount Shasta and explain why the southern 
 edge of the mountain is so much more cut uj) tiian its northeastern part. 
 
 7. Use the following maps: (.1) relief map of the world; (B) rainfall map 
 (Fig. 81); (C) distribution of population (Fig. 37). From a comparison of these 
 three make lists of the four regions where you think that there are the greatest 
 possibilities of investment in each of the following kinds of enterprises: (a) the 
 development of water power for manufacturing; (h) the construction or improve- 
 ment of inland waterways for navigation; (c) the utilization of existing inland 
 waterways for commerce. Justify your choice of regions. 
 
PART V 
 MAN'S RELATION TO SOIL AND MINERALS 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 SOIL AND THE FARMER 
 
 The Relation between Soil and Plant Food. — The poets some- 
 times speak of tlie earth as the mother of all things. They mean 
 that practically all living things depend upon the soil for existence, 
 the plants directly, and animals and man indirectly. To suppose, 
 however, that the soil supphcs the main food of plants is a mistake. 
 From 93 to 95 per cent of the dry weight of plants consists of carbon, 
 oxygen, and hydrogen derived from water or from the carbon dioxide^ 
 of the air. The water comes to the plants through the soil, but its 
 amount depends primarily upon climate and relief. The relative 
 abundance of water has more effect upon the distribution and char- 
 acter of life than has any other factor except temperature. The 
 carbon dioxide of the air, on the contrary, although as essential as 
 water, has little effect upon the distribution of life or upon valua- 
 tions in character from place to place, because the supply of air 
 is sufficient practically everywhere, and the percentage of carbon 
 dioxide varices very little except in a few extreme cases. If water is 
 abundant, plants can get carbon from the air anywhere, and some 
 species can grow in almost any soil. 
 
 The nitrogen which forms an appreciable percentage of all plants 
 also comes originally from the air. Only certain nitrogen-fixing bac- 
 teria, however, are positively known to take nitrogen directly from that 
 source. They thrive on the roots of leguminous plants such as clover. 
 All other plants obtain nitrog(>n from the soil, but even this comes 
 chiefly from dcM-aycd organic matter. In addition to tiiis the soil 
 suppliers from 1 to 4 per cent of the w(>lght of the average plant in th(^ 
 form of mineral matter or ash. This small percentage is absohitely 
 essential. In a certain way it bears to the main elements a relation 
 analogous to that of salts, acids, and vitamines to the carl)ohydrates, 
 fats, and protcids which form most of the food of man. It should 
 
 153 
 
151 MAX'S RELATION TO POIL AND MTXF.RALS 
 
 1)(^ nolod thai tlio A-arioiis clicniical olomonts derived from soil, air, 
 and water ave not cxactlx- jjlaiil foods when fiist al)sorl)('d l)y the 
 jiiaiits. l^oforo they can iiouiisli llic ])laiit tlicy must ])ass throufili 
 the cldiiiopliyl cells and lie elian.i;ed into starch, SU^ar, proteids, fats, 
 and other substances like those which nourish animals. 
 
 The soil also sei'ves as a base or foundation upon which the ])lants 
 can <irow and in which they can spread their roots. Thus the func- 
 tions of the soil may he sununed up as follows: (1) to act as a i)hysical 
 support of ve<i(>tation, (2) to serve as a medium for storinjj; wat(M- and 
 bringinji- it in contact with tlie roots, and (3) to supply a small but 
 essential percentaji;e of the materials which are converted into plant 
 food by means of lifiht. This last fact makes the soil a gicat 
 problem and inxoK'es an ex])ense of millions of dollars each year. 
 Althoujih water and cai'bon dioxide supj)ly most of tiie bulk of 
 plants there is no danjier of exhausting; the su))i)ly. 'Hie necessary 
 chemicals of the soil, on the other hand, can be rapidly exhausted. 
 Each year we put ])ack only part of the fertilizinp; elenu^nts that we 
 take away, so that year by year the soil ])ecomes less fei'tile and [hv 
 earth poorer. Some day we shall realize that among the things that 
 man wastes or destroys none is nior(> ini]:)ortant than the connnon 
 soil beneath our feet. 
 
 How Soil is Formed. — (a) Mechanical Age7its. — All soil is dcriv(^d 
 fi'om rocks. The fii'st process is the breaking of the rock into frag- 
 ments by mechanical agencies. (1) ^Vlu>n rocks are heated by the 
 sun and cooled by the wind and lain, they alternately expand and 
 contract. This causes them to crack like a piece of glass in hot water, 
 although not so violently. The S})hinx in Kgyi)t has ])vcu cliii)]H>d 
 ill this way. (2) The rocks are also brokiMi into fi-agiiien(s l)y move- 
 ments due to the earth's contraction. The largest of these move- 
 ments arc earthciuakes. Still othei- cracks are formed becaus(> the 
 rocks have contract(Ml wiiile cooling and hence have sj)lit a little and 
 then settled downwai'd. I'A'en where th(> rocks ajipeai' solid Iheir 
 upper parts arc broken liy innumerable cracks. Into cracks foinied 
 in any of these ways rain water ])ercolates sooner or latei'. \i it 
 freezes, it expands and thus ])ushes open the cracks .a liny bit and 
 forms new ones. When it iiiells, I he \\;ilei- settles inld the enlarged 
 (,,)cniiiLis. 'i'lieii il' it freezes again, they are enlarged still more, (o) 
 \\ he|-e s!ii;ii! p;i it ides of rock lie on t he Si 1 if: ice 11 Hilling water, W;i\'es, 
 ;iiid winds .-dl iiio\c llieiii and thus grind tlieiii still liner. At \\\c. 
 same time the removal of the soil by these agencies eximscs new rock. 
 In ])laces like ( 'jijie Cod, the wind sometimes carries the loose sand 
 along with such \iol(iice that windows are etched so that people 
 cannot see through tiieni. 
 
SOIL AND THE FARMER 155 
 
 (h) Chemical Agents. — The cracks formed by mechanical agents 
 make it easy for chemical agencies to convert the rock into soil. 
 ( 1 ) The water that percolates into the ground is sure to contain 
 impurities. From the air it gathers some of the carbonic acid gas 
 given off by animals when they breathe. On the surface of the 
 ground it seeps among decaying leaves, roots and other organic 
 matter, and there dissolves hmnic acid, ammonia, and other chem- 
 icals. Thus the water becomes a weak chemical solution, usually 
 acid, and is able to dissolve some minerals and weaken the rest. 
 
 (2) The air itself, especially when moist, produces similar results. 
 The water, oxygen, carbonic acid gas, ammonia, and other chemicals 
 which the air contains in minute quantities cause decay. The proc- 
 ess is like the rusting or oxidizing of iron, which sometimes goes on so 
 rapidly that a bright blade may become red when left out of doors 
 overnight. Oxidation is the commonest method by which rocks are 
 converted into soil. The red, yellow, or Ijrown coating on the out- 
 side of rocks is the result of oxidation. 
 
 (c) Organic Agents. — Anything which helps to expose bits of 
 rock to the attack of air or water helps to make soil. (1) A lichen 
 helps when it attaches itself to the side of a bare, solid rock. (2) 
 The higher plants help when they send rootlets into cracks. As the 
 roots grow the cracks are forced open. (2) Animals such as wood- 
 chucks and prairie dogs expose bits of rocks to the air when they 
 dig their bmTOws. (3) The patient ants in the same way bring up 
 innumerable tiny bits of rock and place them within reach of sun and 
 rain. (4) Angle worms get their food by eating the fine soil. In the 
 process of digestion the}- take out the decaying organic matter, while 
 the soil passes through them and is subjected to chemical action. 
 
 If all of the soil of a given region were swept into the ocean the 
 mechanical, chemical, and organic processes here described would 
 in time break up the exposed I'ocks and form a new cover of soil, but 
 it would take hundreds of thousands of yeai's. 
 
 Kinds of Soil. — (1) Gravelly Soils. — For most kinds of plants the 
 gravelly soils formed ])y swiftly running water are generally too 
 coarse. They allow air and water to penetrate freely to the I'oots, 
 but do not retain the water, and the crops are ai)t to dry U]). 
 Moreover, although the roots can find their way easily among the 
 particles, the soil does not furnish solul)le chemicals in sufficient 
 quantities. Gravelly soil is also hard to plow and cultivate because 
 of the stones. When a flood in the Miami River spread four or five 
 inches of gravel over some of the farms in Oliio the fai-mei-s were 
 completely discouraged at first. Then tlu'\- went to work with tip 
 carts and laboriously clearetl off the gravel acre by acre. 
 
150 MANS 1!];L.\'11()N 'lO S()II> AND MINllKAI^S 
 
 (2) Sandy Soils. — Sand, which usually consisls largely of quartz 
 grains, has similar disadvant aires. It is, indeed, easy to plow and 
 cultivate, hut it I'urnishcs httlc n(iuiishin«: niatei-ial I'oi' plants, and 
 the water luiis through it (iuiekl>'. In the sandy "pine harrens " 
 of ("arohna, (leoi-iiia, ;ui(l I'loi'ida the water escapes so fast th;it only 
 a few jrra.ssos can grow, and 1 he enunt ry is almost a deseii . hi !■ lorida 
 the oranjTc frrower must each year give his gi-oves tons and tons of 
 fertilizer, because the sand in which the orange trees grow contains 
 such small supplies of the essential chemicals. 
 
 (3) Clai/cy Soils. — Clay has the i)])i)osite faults from sand and 
 gravel. .Mthough it contains a fair supply of the essential chemicals 
 in i-elati\-el\- avail.ahle form it is SO sticky and compact thai plowing is 
 (lillicult. Iacii the strong(>st plants can bai'ely send their I'oots into 
 it, antl the well-digger dreads "haid pan," as he calls a layer of clay, 
 almost as much as solid rock. In ( hinese Turkestan certain sticams 
 that are used for irrigation bring down large (pi.-intities of ela\- ;md 
 spread it on the fields to a depth of two or three inches in a single 
 season. When the clay dries it forms a solid cake so hard that it 
 must be left two or three years before it can be cultivated. 
 
 (4) Loamy Soils. — Many soils consist of hxiin, a mixtm-e of sand 
 and clay. The best loam also contains humus, ov (Un-ayed vegetable^ 
 matter. Peat and coal were originally pure hunuis. Since hunuis 
 consists largely of carbon it gives a dark or even black color to the 
 soil. Although hunuis is of great value as a fertilizer, plants do not 
 flourish in it alone. Thus neith(n- j)ure sand, pure clay, nor pure 
 hunuis is good for agriculture. What the farmer most desires is a 
 rich loamy mixture of the three which has the good qualities of each. 
 
 Poor Soil and Poverty Compared with Rich Soil and Prosperity. — 
 Most parts of (leorgia and Alabama consist of a coastal plain which 
 has been worn down somewhat, so that it now forms belts of varying 
 soil and topography. The outermost l)elt, Ijoideiing the coastal 
 swamps, has a poor sandy soil. Hence much of it is still unculti- 
 vated and is co\-ered with ])ine foi'ests, so that it is known as \hc 
 " timber belt." Kxcej)! where large (|uaiitities of fei1iliz(M- ar(> used 
 the farmers of the tinibei- belt are poor and backward. The soil 
 yields such scanty returns that the pdpulal icni is si)ai-se; schools 
 and eliurehes are rare; and the teachers and ministers very jioorly 
 l)aid; trails often take the place of loads; .and few of the i-oads are 
 improved; physicians aic so few ami I'ar between that sick people 
 often die before one can l)e secured; and most of the people know 
 little and care less about what is going on elsew her(\ 
 
 Inland from the timber belt lies the " black belt," so called because 
 of the rich, deej), black loam. l'!verywhen> the fertile soil is so well 
 
SOIL AND THE FARMER 157 
 
 adapted to cotton raising, that this region is also known as the " cot- 
 ton belt." The land owners are very prosperous and the poijiilation 
 dense. Formerly, the rich soil made slave labor especially profitable, 
 and the number of colored people even now is so large that people 
 sometimes mistakenly suppose that their presence is the reason for 
 the name "black belt." Some of the most prosperous cities, such as 
 Selma and Montgomer}-, are located in this region, and the g(>neral 
 conditions of education and culture are unusually high. From some of 
 the counties blessed with this fertile soil the proportion of young people 
 who go to college is remarkable, and naturally manj^ of them become 
 the leading men of the State. Thus while sandy soil leads to poverty 
 and ignorance, a rich soil opens the way to comfort and opportunity. 
 
 Why Transported Soils are Generally more Fertile than Residual 
 Soils. — The character of a soil depends partly on the kind of rock from 
 which its various parts were originally derived. Soils that have not 
 been moved from their place of origin are called residual, because they 
 reside, as it were, where they were first formed. Residual soils derived 
 from quartz-bearing rocks like granite are apt to be so sandy and poor 
 that the farmers can scarcely make a living. The residual soil derived 
 from dark heav;^^ lav^as or from limestone, on the other hand, is gen- 
 erally rich in essential chemicals, but often has the disadvantage of 
 being clayey and sticky. In wet weather the horses can scarcely pull 
 the plows and the plowman's boots are almost dragged from his 
 feet. If fine sand could be brought in and mixed with such soils they 
 would form almost ideal loams, soft, pliable, and easily w^orked. 
 
 Fortunately a large portion of the earth's soil does not remain 
 where it was formed. It is carried by running water, glaciers, or 
 wind and mingled with other soils. Thus sand and clay. are brought 
 together and form loams. A soil that is poor in one essential ingre- 
 dient is mixed with a soil that is rich in that respect. Hence trans- 
 ported soils are on the whole much better than residual soils. They 
 are found as a rule in plains and lowlands while residual soils prevail 
 in highlands. That is one reason why plains are much more pros- 
 perous tlian mountains. 
 
 How Transportation by Glaciers Improves the Soil. — As an 
 example of the way in which transported soils are Ix'ttcr than rcsiihial 
 soils let us take the glaciated part of Wisconsin. Two of the most 
 characteristic actions of glaciers are, first, t!iat they scour off the 
 more rugged prominences, and second, that they caiiy along large 
 quantities of the material thus scoured from distant regions. This 
 " drift " material, as it is called, consists of fine soil mingled with 
 ])ouldei's. It is de]K)site(l in the low i)lac<'s and tends to lill up the 
 hollows. The transported soil thus formed is improved by the mix- 
 
158 
 
 MAX'S Ki:LA'ri()X To SOIL .\M) .mim:i:\ls 
 
 turo of in;itcri;ils from nno ri'^ion with tli;it from ;iii(illitM-. Tliis is 
 (*sp('ci;illy tlic cm.^c where drift from a Hmotdiie area i.-< brought into a 
 i-e^ioii of .><an(lstoM(\ The following; tahle shows liow great is the 
 (lifferencc between the avera{j;o erojis from tlie <ilaciatod part of Wis- 
 consin and from the " driftloss " area of tliat State where the glaciers 
 did not come: 
 
 AVERAGE NUMB]:i{ ( )V liUSHELS PER ACHE 
 
 
 Corn. 
 
 Rye. 
 
 Potatoes. 
 
 Averapc. 
 
 Driftlcss Counties 
 
 Glaciated Counties 
 
 21.0 
 
 20.3 
 
 9.G 
 11.3 
 
 70.0 
 107.0 
 
 35.5 
 47.8 
 
 In every ease tlie glaciated soil yields a larger return. The reason 
 is that the sandy residual soil of the driftlcss areas is ])oor. AMu-re 
 the glaciers ha\'c brought large quantities of drift from limestone 
 areas to sandstone areas, it is as if the farmers had brought large 
 quantities of Ihne for fertilizer. The presence of such fertilizers is 
 worth millions of dollars to a great many glaciated regions. It is 
 estimated that the value of glaciation to the State of Wisconsin 
 amounts to at least $50,000,000 per year. Most of this is due to tlie 
 improvement of the soil by transportation, l^ecause of this extra 
 mcome of the farmere, Wisconsin is able to have better roads, better 
 schools, and a better university than would be possible otherwise. 
 
 How Climate Influences the Soil. — Other conditions affect the 
 soil quite as much as does glaciation. Before the soil can be used by 
 jilants its valuable portions for plant food must be dissolved. In 
 tropical countries, where rain is abundant and the chemical processes 
 active because of the heat, the more soluble elements are sometimes 
 wholly dissolved and carried away, thus practically ruining the soil. 
 In dry regions, on the contrary, the rainfall is so scanty that the plant 
 foods are neither carried away, nor used by vegetation. In fact, 
 mat(n-ials from lower layers of the soil are often l)i-ought to the sur- 
 face so that the soil grows richer and richer. This is l)ccause much 
 of the rainfall of dry regions sinks into the ground only to come out 
 again by evaporation. As it evaporates it leaves the dissolved chem- 
 icals Ix'hind. I f I he farmer irrigates such soils he finds them unusually 
 fertih^ This partly accounts for some of the wonderful crops in New- 
 Mexico, Arizona, southern ('alif()rnia,eastern Washington, and Oregon. 
 
 In ordinary temperate chmates witii a lair amount of rain the 
 plant foods ar(> !iot washed away as they are in the wet, warm trojiical 
 regions, noi- do they accunnilate as in dry regions. Hence ordinary 
 vegetation usually has enough of each kind, but when a single crop 
 is cultivated for a nmnber of years certain chemicals are used up 
 
SOIL AND THE FARMER 159 
 
 more rapidly than they are prepared by the processes of weathering. 
 There may be enoiijih of th(>ni, but tliey are not ready for use. 
 
 The Unwise Use of Soil. — Since all life depends on the soil it is 
 evidently of supreme importance to preserve or renew its fertility. In 
 a state of nature most plants die where they grow. The materials 
 which they contain are thus returned to the soil through decay. 
 Moreover, there are usually many varieties of plants on the same 
 area, so that the same kind of food is not demanded by all. On 
 farms, on the contrary, it is usually necessary to dcA^ote the whole of 
 a given area to a single crop at any given time. When the crop is 
 reaped, it is carried away and consumed somewhere else. Thus there 
 is a gTeat drain on the soil. For example, many early settlers of the 
 great plains of our Central and Western States wanted to get rich as 
 quickly as possible. Accordingly, they planted wheat or some other 
 favorite and profitable crop year after year, and returned nothing to 
 the soil. At first the crops were wonderfully abundant, but soon 
 the soil began to show signs of exhaustion, the crops fell off, and the 
 value of the farms declined. They forgot that one of their duties is 
 to see that the fields are passed on to their descendants in good con- 
 dition. In the Southern States, also many farmers have injured 
 their lands by planting nothing but tobacco, which speedily exhausts 
 the phosphorus of the soil, or cotton, which does the same thing more 
 slowly. These crops bring good prices and are an easy way of getting 
 ready money, but to sell the fertility of the soil along with the crop 
 is like killing the goose that lays the golden eggs. 
 
 The Wise Use of the Soil. — (1) Rotation of Crops. — The wise 
 farmer lessens this drain on the soil in two ways: (1) by rotation of 
 crops, and (2) by using fertilizers. Rotation of crops means that the 
 farmer plants different crops from year to 3'ear, so that on a given 
 area the same elements are not constantly required in large amounts. 
 It is called rotation because after a few years the same series of crops 
 is planted over again. In planning a rotation the object is not onlj' to 
 use crops which do not require the same food, but to include some, 
 such as buckwheat and clover, which can be plowed under to serve 
 as fertilizer. For instance, beets necxl a great deal of potash, while 
 wheat in proportion to its bulk requires only half as much, but needs 
 nearly twice as much nitrogen. Clover, and peas, on the other hand, 
 do not require much nitrogen from the soil. Indecnl they actually 
 take nitrogen from the air and give to the soil. Hence beets, wheat, 
 and peas would make a proper rotation. 
 
 The rotation of crops has still another value, as the people who 
 raise cotton found out in the early part of the Great War. As Kng- 
 hiiid ]irevented the shipment of cotton to Germany and Austria, 
 
IGO MANS KELAllU-N TO SUlL AND MlNEllALS 
 
 the market for the crop was restricted and the price fell very low. 
 As the fanners had no other ini])ortant croj) to sell many of them 
 could not iKiy their debts, eventhoiiiih they had lar^e sup])lies of 
 cotton. If they luul practiceil rotation of croi)s, part of their land 
 would have been in corn, ])art in Ijeans, j^eanuts, or sweet ])otatoes. 
 They could hnw sold these ci-ojjs at <i'ood ])rices and thus have l)een 
 able to jjet alontj; for a year or more until cotton ajjain rose to a profit- 
 able price. In 1915 tluy began to leai'u this l(>sson, and ])lanted far 
 more corn than ever before. The rotation of cro))s also helps in 
 checkini; the ravaj^es of ins(>cts and of various i)lant dis(>ases due to 
 l)acteria and other causes. Wise farmers fintl that a variety of crops 
 is as valual)le in i)eace as in war. 
 
 (2) Use of Fertilizers. — The SoutluM-n farmer who i-aises cattle 
 and pigs can use the second method of pn^serving the fei'tility of the 
 soil. The seed from his cotton, after the oil has ])een extracted, 
 makes good food for cattle, while corn is the best kind of food for pigs 
 and hens. Thus nuich of the nutriment taken from the soil by the 
 crops is returned in the form of manure. The Chinese not only 
 return to the soil all the waste pi'oducts of animals, but also human 
 waste and sewage which we permit to pollute our rivers and harbors. 
 Inevitably, however, if some products are carried away from the 
 farm, there is a loss of fertility, even though there is a wise rota- 
 tion of crops and many animals are raised. If weathering is ver^' 
 rapid this loss may be supplied by the freeing of new materials in 
 the lower parts of the soil, but generally the soil becomes steadily 
 poorer unless artificial fertilizers are employed. 
 
 What Chemicals Plants Need from the Soil. — In order to jiro- 
 vide the rigid kind of aitificial fertilizei's it is necessary to know (1) 
 what chemical compounds ])lants need, and (2) how nuich of these 
 the soil contains. A good soil must contain at least seven chemical 
 elements in such foi'm that tiiey can readily be dissolved and absoi-bed 
 by the plants. Thi'(>e of these are magnesium, iron, and sulphui-. 
 The farmer need not worry about these, foi- tlu^v are jii-actic-illy 
 always present in sufficient abundance for any kind of ci-op. Tiie 
 supply of the othei- four — calcium, ))hosi)hoi us, ixitassium, and 
 nitrogen — is often in.adeciuate. ('eitain other elements such as 
 silicon, chlorine, and sochum are also taken from the soil by plants, 
 l)ut do not seem to be ess(>ntial, for gi'owth goes on ap]iar(Mitly 
 unelieekeil witlioiii theiii. Therefore, among the many chemicals ot 
 the soil, only calcium, piiosphorus, potassium, and nitrogen cause the 
 farmei' ti'oul)le because they are not available in sufficient (juantities. 
 
 How the Farmer Knows what Kind of Fertilizer to Use. — The 
 following tal)Ie shows the amount of the chiet' elemeids used 1)V an 
 
SOIL AND THE FARMER 
 
 161 
 
 acre of beets each year, \\u' amount of each in the uppei- part of an 
 ordinary loamy soil, and the number of years that the element would 
 last if the beets could get every bit of it. Evidently the farmer who 
 is raising beets needs to provide fertilizers rich in potash and nitrogen 
 rather than in phosphorus and calcium. It must be rememl)ered, 
 however, that the process by which nature prepares the soil ingre- 
 
 liy courtesy of U. S. Dcpt. Ayricullure. 
 Fig. 45. — A Phenomcual Corn Crop Raised by Boys. 
 This shows what can be done even by boys if the soil is properly enriched and cultivated. 
 
 dients is slow. Hence if beets are raised each year tliey exhaust the 
 available supply while large reserves are still waiting to be prepared. 
 Even after five or ten years, unless fertilizers are applied, the avail- 
 able nitrogen would be so scanty that the crop would not be worth 
 raising. In other kinds of soil, some of the other chief elements 
 may be exhausted. For example, in a sandy soil, tlie j^lants are 
 stunted for luck of lime. 
 
162 
 
 MAX'S RELATION TO SOIL AND MINERALS 
 
 6 r 
 
 rr c o 
 
 H 2-3 
 
 J^LXLl.- 
 
SOIL AND THE FARMER 
 
 163 
 
 RELATIVE AMOUNTS OF IMPORTANT INGREDIENTS IN 
 AN ORDINARY SOIL 
 
 A 
 
 Soil Tngi-cdionfs 
 
 B 
 
 Amount used Eaoh 
 
 Year by an Acre 
 
 of Beets, Lbs. 
 
 c 
 
 .Amount in Upper 
 
 Foot of an Acre of 
 
 Loam, Lbs. 
 
 D 
 
 Number of Years 
 lliat Ingredient 
 Would Last if Whole 
 Supply were Avail- 
 able. 
 
 Calcium in the form of 
 
 lime 
 
 Phosphorus in the form 
 
 of phosphoric acid. . . 
 Potassium in the form ot 
 
 potash 
 
 Nitrogen in the form of 
 
 nitrates and ammonia 
 
 43 
 
 53 
 
 300 
 
 149 
 
 54,000 
 
 12,800 
 
 23,000 
 
 7,000 
 
 1,260 
 240 
 
 77 
 47 
 
 Artificial Fertilizers. — Lime. — In searching for fertilizers other 
 than manure, it is necessary to find materials whicli are not iinchily 
 expensive and which will furnish lune, phosphoric acid, potash, and 
 nitrogen in forms tliat the plants can readily assimilate. Lim(; pre- 
 sents no special difficulty. Almost all parts of the world contain 
 hmestone l:)eds, and it is merely a ciuestion of finding the cheapest 
 means of pulverizing the rock and making it easily accessible to the 
 plants. 
 
 Phosphates. — Phosphates are not so easy to find. They are ob- 
 tained from four chief sources: (1) They occur abundantly in a few 
 minerals such as apatite, but these are generally so intermingled with 
 quartz, feldspar, and other materials that it is difficult to pn^pare 
 the phosphates as a fertilizer. (2) The easiest source is the slaughter 
 house, from which the bones and refuse meat of domestic animals are 
 taken to ill-smelling fertilizer plants. In former yeare bon(>-hunters 
 drove their wagons over our Western plains gathering the skeletons 
 of buffalo and cattle that had perished in blizzards, by the wolf pack, 
 or at the hand of the hunter. 
 
 (3) As the present supply of bones and other niiiiual refuse is not 
 sufficient, man draws on the past. One of the iiiii)()it:iiit sources of 
 jihosphates is great beds of guano or bird droppings on several di-y 
 islands of the South Pacific and West Indies. From about IS'M) to 
 1880 guano worth about $600,000,000 was taken from the Chiiicha 
 Islands off the coast of Peru and carried around Cape Horn to be 
 sold in Europe and America at $30 to $00 per ton. The Peruvian 
 government was largely supported by the taxes on tli(> guano until 
 the deposits were exhausted. ( )nly a limited supjily is now availal)li\ 
 (4) To-day the world is drawing on still older deposits of animal bones 
 and refuse in the form of phosphate rocks. The chief supi)ly comes 
 
164 MAX',^ RELATION TO SOIL AND MIXKRAT^S 
 
 from I'loiida, Soutli ( 'aiolina, mihI Tennessee, together witli Tunis, 
 Algeria, and sonic of the small islands of the sea, bul much is availai>le 
 in Montana, Idaho, I'tah, and Wyoming. 
 
 l\)t(ish. — For a long lime the United States had more difficulty 
 in getting jiotash than i)hosi)horus. The only largely worked dejiosits 
 were in Stassfui't, Pi'ussia; other sourees, such as Alsace and Sjiain, 
 supplied i-clativcly little. Tlic daiigci' that tlic supply would he cut 
 otT, and the pi'ice rise to a prohibitive hgur(> led the I'nited States 
 government to undertake a seai'ch for ncnv sources. This led to the 
 use of several salt lakes whence most of tlic limited Amciicaii jn'oduc- 
 tion now conu^s. It also led to the use of kelp along the Pacific 
 coast, as already described, and to the further development of the 
 processes of cxti'act ion of jjotash from the dust of cement mills and 
 blast furnaces. 
 
 The largest single soui'ce of i)otash in the I'nited States is Scarles 
 Lake in southwestern California. This strange desert lake, twenty 
 square miles in extent, r(>sembles a mass of ice covered with an 
 inch or two of slush and saturated with l)itter l)rine. The ice-like 
 material is rock-salt ami other saline materials dei)osit(Hl as ciystals 
 by the diying uj) of a large lake whose traces are still seen in muuei-ous 
 shore-lines at high levels. Th(> brine is pumped from wells 75 or ]()() 
 feet deep and evaporated until the potash crystallizes out. The 
 pi-oduct is shipped all over the country to replace that which the 
 fai'mers have sent to market in the form of meat, wheat, and other 
 food supplies. If the fai'mei- would ])r()])eily ])reserve the straw, 
 cornstalks, cotton-seed l)ull)s and similai' sul)stances that are now 
 wasted or burned, the ne(Ml of ]:)otash would be nuich diminish(Ml. 
 
 The Search for Nitrogen, Among the essential ingredients of 
 the soil nitrogen is nnich th(> hardest to obtain. Its original sourc(» is 
 chiefly the air. The amount in the air is inexhaustible. Yet until 
 recently it was almost, useless to the farmer, for no one knew how to 
 convert it into a soluble compound that could be carried through the 
 roots of the plants. This is because nitrogen is one of tlu; most 
 inacti\'e (•hcniical clcnirnts. (^)uitc unlike such an active substance 
 as oxygen, it will not readily unite with other elements. 
 
 No plants are by themselves able to take nitrogen fi'om the air. 
 Fortunately, however, there are c(M-tain bacteiia which have this 
 power. They grow only on ])lants of the legume family, that is, on 
 beans, peas, clover, alfalfa, and similar sjx'cies. They thrive espe- 
 cially on the roots, where they form little bunches or tubercles full 
 of nitrogen. All other cultivated ])lants diminish the sui)i)ly of 
 nitrogen in the soil; the legumes alone replace it. I'armers have 
 known for generations that it pays to plant peas or beans and plow 
 
SOIL AND THE FARMER 165 
 
 them under for fertilizer, Init did not know why. Scientific investi- 
 gators after much study discovered the reason and found that the 
 bacteria that cause " nitrification " can be raised artificially, and 
 shipped anywhere. When clover seed is inoculated with them the 
 roots become covered with imusually large tubercles which contain 
 nitrogen, and thus the fields are fertilized. 
 
 Many farmers do not want their land to "waste a year," as they 
 say, while a crop of clover refertilizes the soil. They prefer to raise 
 something that pays in money and therefore are glad to buy com- 
 mercial nitrogen fertilizers. This has had some interesting results. 
 The Atacama Desert in northern Chile contains by far the largest 
 known deposits of nitrates or compounds of nitrogen. They have 
 been exploited to the value of $50,000,000 each year. The taxes 
 ]iaid In' the British companies that work the nitrate fields are the 
 cliief sources of the revenue of the Cliilean government. Before the 
 value of the nitrogen was known the Atacama Desert was such a 
 barren waste that no one thought much about it, although Chile, 
 Peru, and Bolivia all laid claim to parts of it. When its value began 
 to be appreciated, however, about 1879, the three countries wanted 
 it. This led to a long war in which Chile was the victor. 
 
 Another interesting result of the demand for nitrogen fertilizers 
 is seen in Norway. After the value of nitrates was reaUzed people 
 l)egan to search for means of utilizing the unlimited supply of nitrogen 
 in the air. Success was at last obtained by means of strong electric 
 currents which cause the atmospheric nitrogen to unite with lime or 
 other sul)stanccs. ]\Iuch power is reciuired for the electric discharges, 
 so that the process is conunercially profitable only where power is 
 cheap. The cheapest known source of power is waterfalls, which are 
 especially abundant in rugged Norway. Since raw materials of 
 most kinds are not abundant there and nitrogen is present eveiy- 
 where the manufacture of nitrogenous fertilizers has become an im- 
 portant industiy. In the United States part of the water power of 
 Niagara is being used for the same purpose. 
 
 The work of obtaining fertilizers from old bone dei)osits, from 
 desert lakes, and from the air may seem remote from the lives of 
 people Avho live in cities. Yet it concerns eveiy one of us. The 
 farmers supply us with most of the materials for the food and clothing 
 which play so large a part in the lives of all of us. If the farmei-s do 
 not have rich soil and cannot raise their crops abundantly and chea])ly, 
 the price of food and clothing goes up, and we all suffer. Therefore, 
 it is of tlu^ greatest inqiortance that the farmers' need of good f(>r- 
 tilizers should be fully net. 
 
166 
 
 MAN'S HI;LATI()X to soil and MINKRALS 
 
 QUESTIONS, EXERCISES, AND TJiOBLEiMS 
 
 1. Classify the soils of the neighborhood \Yhcre you live, according to their 
 texture; i.e., (a) gravel, (h) sand, (r) clay, ((/) loam. Also, if possible, classify 
 them according to the fertilizing elements which they esjiecially need. For help 
 along this line write to the Director, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C, 
 and lind whether a .soil rejjort has been i.ssued on your region. A.ssign to each 
 main kind of soil its j)roper rank according to (a) the area which it occupies, {b) 
 its utility to fanners anil gardeners, and (c) the crops that arc raised on it. Find 
 out what manures and fertilizers are used to incrcvise the productivity of each .soil 
 and where these fertilizers come from. 
 
 2. Take a small test tube, a large test tube, and a glass beaker. Fit the test 
 tubes with corks through each of which run two glass tubes. Arrange the three 
 vessels as shown in Fig. 47 and run a stream of water through them by connecting 
 the rubber tube O with a faucet. Note that the current pa.ssing through the 
 small tube A is very swift; note that the water moves less swiftly through tube 
 
 Fig. 47.— Effect of Currents on Texture of Soil. 
 
 B and slower still in the open vessel C. Now empty tlic a])])aratus and fill the 
 tube A with garden soil. Run the water through it again for five minutes and 
 examine the result. State carefully the character and size of particles found in .1, 
 B, and C, respectively, and interi)ret this rough analysis of the soil. Do the same 
 with some sandy soil; with gravel, and with day. Write a geograi>hical interpreta- 
 tion of your results by a])i)lying them to three or four t yjn's nf soil near >dur hdiiic 
 
 3. Make a tracing of the map of the State of Alabama and mark tiie position 
 of every town with a population of 3000 or more. A list of towns is found in the 
 census reports and in several popular atlases. Write a careful statement of the 
 distribution of the population indicated by your map, and suggest reasons for this 
 distribution. 
 
 4. Find out what schemes of rotation of crops are used on the farms in your 
 ncighborhof)d. How and why does the rotation dilTer on dilTerent kinds of soil? 
 On the basis of this anfl of exerci.se 1, make a maj) of the chief agricultural divisions 
 of your neighborhood. 
 
 5. In Germany an<l northern France, the raising of sugar beets is nearly always 
 connected with stock raising. Make a list, showing the advantages and dis- 
 advantages of this method. 
 
 6. At the docks at Liverpool, tramp steamers from Ar^M'iitiiia may be .seen 
 unloading cargoes of bones. \\'hy are the bones .sent on (ramp vessels; wh}' from 
 Argentina; and why to the United Kingdom? 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 METALS AND CIVILIZATION 
 
 Why Minerals Are Most Abundant among Mountains. — It is 
 
 fortunate tliat the earth's iiiteniiittent contraetion has bent and 
 broken the crust and caused molten materials to move from lower to 
 higher levels. Otherwise many minerals would be practically un- 
 known, for metals, which are the most valuable minerals, are heavy. 
 For instance, iron weighs three and gold seven times as much as 
 quartz. Consequently during the earth's cooling the metals seem 
 largely to have sunk into the interior. That is probably one reason 
 why the earth as a whole weighs twice as much per cubic foot as docs 
 the outer mile or two of the crust. If the crust had never been bent, 
 broken, and uplifted, and if molten parts of the interior had never 
 been forced upward, the heavier minerals would probably now be 
 almost entirely buried far beyond our reach. 
 
 It is equally fortunate that erosion has taken place on a large 
 scale. Otherwise most of the metallic deposits, even though uplifted, 
 would be buried under an enormously thick layer of dense rock. 
 During the lapse of millions of years, however, erosion — especially the 
 work of rivers — has carried away thousands of feet of rock and ex- 
 posed many deep-seated deposits. Unfortunately, an inmieasurable 
 quantity of valuable minerals has thus been wasted l>y being carried 
 to the sea as mud, but this is necessary if the underlying rocks are to 
 be exposed. 
 
 The processes of bending, breaking, and uplifting the crust, of 
 bringing melted materials from the interior, and of eroding the higher 
 and more exposed rocks are all most active among mountains. There 
 the ores and other deposits have been raised al)ove the ordinary 
 levels, so that they are easily exposed by erosion. Hence mining 
 industries are largely concentrated in regions of rugged relief. Thus 
 in the United States the chief mining regions are in the Sierra Nevadas, 
 the Rocky Mountains, and the Appalachians. The mountainous relief 
 of Arizona is one of the factors in its annual production of minerals 
 worth more than $40,000,000, oi- a value of over $170 for eacli inhab- 
 itant. In the same way mountainous INIontana produces over $175 
 per inhabitant. Texas, on the contiaiN, ^\hich consists largely of 
 plains, produces minerals worth only si'..")!) to $3 jier inhabitant 
 
 1G7 
 
1G8 MANS RELATION TO SOIL AND MINERALS 
 
 while the li^un> for the flat State of Mississi])])! is only 70 cents. 
 None of the mineral Avealth of Mississi]i])i is nu'liillic. 
 
 In some eases, such as thc> Lake Superior district, with its iron 
 and co]i])er, a niincinl region presents almost the gentle relief of a 
 l)enei)lain, hut the jjiMitly rounded hills still show that the}' were 
 once mountains of rutii:;(>(l relief. 
 
 Mineral fuels, unlike most of the metals, are found in ])lains as 
 well as in i-u<i<i-cd repons. Thus coal is mined extensively in the 
 plains of Illinois and Ohio as well as among the hills of western Penn- 
 sylvania. Among mountains, such as those of eastern Pennsylvania, 
 the coal is likely to have been so folded, heated, and press(>d that it is 
 changed from the soft, bituminous form of the plains to the hard 
 form known as anthracite. 
 
 Petroleum occurs almost entirely in regions where there has 
 l)cen little ilisturbance of the rocks. The world's givat oil fields are 
 often found in ])huns like those of California, Oklahoma, and Mexico. 
 If th(> rocks are nuich bent, the petroleum with the accompanying 
 natural gas is almost sure to escape. 
 
 Stages of Mining Industries. — (1) Prospecting. — The first stage 
 of the mining industry is prospecting which includes any kind of 
 search for valuable minerals. Among the mountains of Colorado 
 or California, for example, one now and again meets an unkempt, 
 unsha^'en ]irospector flriving two or three donkeys laden with samples 
 of rock to be "assaj-ed" or tested. For months he has been camping 
 alone and spending his days prowling among the mountains in search 
 of rock that looks like good ore. Now and again he places a "loca- 
 tion" paper in an empty tin can on the end of an upright stick, and 
 leaves it to declare that he claims this particular location. If the ore 
 proves valuable, he will file the necessary documents with the govcn-n- 
 ment. 
 
 The lon(^ly and often dangerous lih^ of tlu^ ]irospector makes him 
 hard>' and resourceful. He is so glad to see a new face that he is ex- 
 tremely o])en-hearted and hospitable not only to his conu'axU^s, but 
 to strangers. In spite of these good traits, however, i)i-os])e(toi-s 
 rarely prosper. All their dangers and har(lshi])s seldom result in 
 riches or even in a good living. The trouble is that on their rare visits 
 to town they promptly waste their money, — "blow it in" on gambling 
 and dissi])ation, — and are soon poor again. When they make a real 
 find their jnoney comes so easily that they have the gambler's spirit, 
 and spend it at once because they think that they can quickly get 
 more. With the growth of the science of geology even the ignorant 
 prospector is realizing the value of the trained expert who lives in 
 the lowland cities mi id makes occasional expeditions to the mountains. 
 
METALS AND CIVILIZATION 169 
 
 (2) Development. — After a promising prospect has been located, 
 it is "developed," sometimes by the prospector, but usually bj^ some 
 lowlander who can furnish the necessary capital. "Development" 
 consists of exposing enough ore to see whether its quality and 
 abundance warrant the building of a mill and the installation of 
 permanent machinery. Roads must be constructed to carry the ore 
 to places where it can be assayed, and to bring supplies; shacks must 
 be built; and miners must be hired. Where much development is 
 going on small towns grow up. They are the typical smaller mining 
 "camps" of our Western mountains. They contain almost no lam- 
 ilies, for since the work may end any day men do not bring their 
 wives and children. The poolroom and dance hall are usually the 
 main social centers. Wages are high; the stores charge exorbitant 
 prices; and the miners spend their money freely. Such a camp is 
 full of the evil influences that go with a life that depends chiefly on 
 "luck" and not on steady work. 
 
 Mining Booms. — While mines are being developed among the 
 mountains, "booms" are apt to be launched in the cities of the low- 
 lands. The owners of a valuable prospect must replace their rough 
 trails by good roads or railways, they must erect stamp mills to crush 
 the ore, and smeltei"S to melt it and separate the metal from the im- 
 purities. In order to attract capital they print glowing advertise- 
 ments telling how rich and abundant is the ore and how quickly in- 
 vestors will grow wealthy. Often the promoter of such a prospective 
 mine really believe what they say, but are mistaken. Equally often, 
 unscrupulous promoters tell big stories without regard to the truth. 
 Rarely do investore in mines that are pubUcly boomed recover even 
 the money that they put in, and much less make a profit. Generally 
 if the prospects are really good, there are plenty of people to supply 
 the capital without much advertising. Among the urban population 
 of this country who have a small surplus for investment many 
 have lost money in mining ventures. They ought to know that the 
 vast majority of mines do not pay. 
 
 (3) Permanent Mining. — INIost mining ventures never get beyond 
 the stages of prospecting and development. The few that sur\-ive 
 may give rise to relatively permanent industries. Iron ore, alu- 
 minum-bearing rocks, and coal beds frequently occur in such abun- 
 dance that work can be carried on in the same region for generations. 
 The coal beds of Wales, for example, have yielded a vast supply of 
 fuel for over a century. In the United States the enormous iron 
 deposits of the Lake Superior district have been worked extensi\cly 
 since the early eighties of the nineteenth century, but they show no 
 signs of exhaustion and some actually grow richer the more dcx^plj^ 
 
170 
 
 MAX'S RELATION' TO SOIL AND MIXIlltALS 
 
 thoy :iro pcnptratcd. Tlu> precious metals on the contrary are 
 
 usually found in small veins which may suddenly come to an end 
 without warniiifi, and the same is tru(> ot" copper and lead, luii 
 to a less de}j;ree. I'etrohnnu deposits arc also likely to diminish 
 rapidly. 
 
 The Precious Metals.— (1) J*Iacer Mining. — The ]m'cious metals 
 may serv^e as an example of the stages of the mining industr}^ Gold 
 occurs in such a form tliat it particularly encouraj^es ]irospecting. 
 Much of it is found in small flakes or nufigets in "])lacers," that is, in 
 gi'avel deposited by runninji; water. Even with the crudest a.])])aratus 
 the gold can be recovered. The gravel may l)e jjlaced in a large i)an 
 
 Dollars 
 20,000,000 
 
 15,000,000 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 I 11 I { I I M I I I I I I I I M I I I I I I ' M 1 I 
 
 Dollars 
 - 20.000,000 
 
 15,000,000 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 Fig. 48. — Golil iJroduclidii in ^'^ll\()n. 
 
 with water and swii-led ubout. so that the water and gravel gradually 
 spill out. The gold, being heavy,. stays at the bottom of the ])an. 
 Hence anyone who can pay his way to the mining region can eng.age 
 in gold mining. There is always the cliance of coining u])on a pocket 
 of gold dust or nuggets and l)e('oming rich in a, day. 
 
 When the news of the great gold dei)osits of Klondike became 
 known in LSOl), miners and adventures from many lands toik^d across 
 the bitlcrl>' <'(ild mountains of Alaska, l^veryone was so feverishly 
 anxious to "make his pile" that almost no one was willing to do the 
 ordinaiy work of life sucli as cooking, house-lniilding, stor(>-keeping, 
 and road-building. Hence wages rose to fi\ c or ten times their usual 
 
METALS AND CIVILIZATION 171 
 
 level. Since the cost of carrying a ton a mile over the mountains 
 was about $20, the vast majority of the 30,000 people who penetrated 
 the region had to spend most of their earnings in paying for food and 
 lodging. The production of gold increased rapidly for a few yeai-s as 
 is shown in Fig. 48, but soon declined. This is tjqoical of most min- 
 ing ventures. So too is the way in which most of the minei-s returned 
 home as poor as when they came. 
 
 (2) Hydraulic Mining. — Fig. 48 shows that after 1907 the pro- 
 duction of gold at Klondike beg-an again to rise. This was because 
 of new methods. In the hydi-aulic method, for example, gi-eat 
 streams of water are shot against gravel banks. The water carries 
 the gravel into sluices where the heavy gold lodges in corrugations 
 like those of a washboard. In California hydraulic mining has 
 caused the bottoms of many mountain valleys to l)e stripped to the 
 naked rock, for all the gravel has been washed down to the lowlands, 
 where it does nuich harm to the farms. Wliere gold placers l^ordc^r 
 navigable rivei-s as in the plain of California, gi'eat floating dredges 
 scoop vip the gi'avel and extract the gold. Such a dredge digs its own 
 channel ahead of it, and fills the space behind itself with gi'eat heaps 
 of washed pebbles and cobble stones. 
 
 (3) Mines in Solid Rock. — The particles of gold in placer deposits 
 come from veins in the solid rock. There — far under grountl — hot 
 mineralized water long ago deposited the gold as thin plates or scat- 
 tered bits in the midst of such minerals as quartz. After the excite- 
 ment of a new gold field is over, prospectors begin to search for the 
 veins that have been exposed at the surface by uplift and prolonged 
 erosion. Then comes the more permanent stage of mining. The 
 process of getting either gold or silver from the veins demands 
 much capital and is impossible for the ordinaiy miner. Larger 
 companies are formed and towns grow up. 
 
 A good sample of such a town is Virginia City in Nevada. At 
 first the ignorant miners there searched onl}^ for gold, and threw 
 away a black silver ore which formed the great Comstock Lode, the 
 richest ore deposit in the world in proportion to its size. From 1859 
 to 1880 the Lode produced nu>lals valued at 8305,000,000. In 1877 
 the value was over S3(),()0(),000. At that time Nevada alone pro- 
 duced inoic gold and silver tlian all the rest of the United States. 
 Viiginia City prospered, althougli its food, timber, and other sup- 
 plies had to be hauk'd up sleep mountain roads to a height of 0200 
 feet. Although the town lias lately i-cvived somewhat because of 
 the consolidation of ])i'()perties and the discoveiy- of more ore, Vir- 
 ginia City is tyi)ical of what happens when veins of precious metals 
 become exhausted. For years the streets were almost empty, the 
 
172 
 
 MAX'S RELATION TO SOIL AND MINERALS 
 
METALS AND CIVILIZATION 
 
 173 
 
174 
 
 MANS 1{i:laiion to soil and minerals 
 
 hotc^ls l){)artl('(l up. most of the houses untciiiuitcd and falliiiu; to ruin, 
 while fine schoolhous(>s stootl aljandoned. 
 
 Economic Importance of Gold and Silver. — Ahhou^li gold and 
 silver are not ono-thousantllh as useful as iron, their allraetivcn«*ss 
 and rarity have made them the world's sttmdard of value. In 1800 
 A.i). a ])iece of a <iiv(Mi size would ])urchase almost as nmch wheat, 
 barley, or milk as had been the case centuries earlier. Then the 
 invention of the steam engine enabled civilized man to travel easily 
 to all parts of the earth and to discover many new mineral deposits. 
 Moreover, the use of machinery and the invention of im])r()ved proc- 
 esses for extracting the metals so cheapened gold and especially 
 
 Dollars 15QQ ^p j^qq j^qq 1800 1900 
 
 BOO.OOO.OOOU' " ' i I ' ' ' I I I I M 11 i ' II 11 iiU ' 1 1 1'lij J 11 1 1 I ui I J I 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 I ji ! 1 1 I iJ 1 1 1 in I j ■ I 11 I ' II 1 1 1 '■ 
 
 400,000,000 
 
 300,000,000 - 
 
 200,000,000 
 
 100,000,000 - 
 
 Fig. 5L — Production of Oold for Four Centuries. Annual Averages for Periods 
 
 of 5 to 20 vears. 
 
 silver that in the latter half of the nineteenth century most of the 
 great countries ceased to use silver as a standard of monej'. In 1914 
 the price of silver had fallen so low that a silver dollar when nuvlted 
 was worth less than half a dollar. Silver coins, to be sure, weri^ still 
 used, but the silver in them was not worth its face value. Thus gold 
 became the single standard of value in practically all parts of the civil- 
 ized world. 
 
 Gold Supply and the Increased Cost of Living. — The fact that 
 gold is the sole standard of \ aJue causes great trouble, for man is still 
 exploring new regions and discovering new sup])lies. At the same time 
 he is also inventing easier ways of recoA-ering the mental from 1 he rcK'ks. 
 Both the discoveries and the inventions tend to dec reast" the a .alue of 
 the metal. Figs. 51 and 52 show how the jjioduction of gold has 
 
METALS AND CIVILIZATION 
 
 175 
 
 varied. The ten-fold increase between 1850 and 1855 was duo to 
 the discovery of great deposits in Cahfornia and Australia. After 
 that there was almost enough gold to serve as money everywhere. 
 Of course in most countries the gold itself does not circulate, but is 
 kept in reserve by the government and is represented by paper 
 money which can at any time be exchanged for gold. 
 
 o 
 
 Dollars 2 2 2 2 S 2 S DoIlaTS 
 
 500.000.000L' M I I I I I I I I I I I ) I 1 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I M I I I M I I I I I I I lSOO.000,000 
 
 400,000,000 
 
 300,000,000 - 
 
 400,000,000 
 
 :oo.ooo,ooo 
 
 1""k;. .")2. — \\'()rl{l I'roduction of (lold aiul Silver Since ISlU), 
 
 From 1855 to 1890 gold production changed littk'. Then geo- 
 graphical discoveries opened enormous new fields in Alaska, Austraha, 
 and es])ecially South Africa. The supjily of gold increased about 
 five-fold in thirty years. At the same tinu^ the cyanide process 
 made it possible to use low-grade ores that previously were consid- 
 ered valueless, (lold became so common that its value fell greatly. 
 Hence a dollar that would previously purchase two bushels of wheat 
 would purchase only one, and an income of $1000 would buy only 
 
176 M.ws in:r.\Ti(»\ to sott. axd mt\f,t? al^? 
 
 as much as SoOO a few decades earlier. Thus even before the rise in 
 ]-)nces due to tlie (Jn^at War the cost of hvinfj; kept <:oiii<r up, whicli 
 means in lartje ))ail thai llic Aaliic of uold went down. 
 
 Why New Discoveries May be a Disadvantage. — The same 
 ti'(iul)l(' will ))rol)al)ly icapprai' in the future, for jieofiraphical (hs- 
 (•(ivery and the iniprovcnicnt of mininfr processes and ti'ans})<)itat ion 
 have by no means reached their limits.* Western China, Tibet, 
 Afjihanistan, and especially northeastern Siberia contain vast 
 amounts of gold, which will be exploited when railroads In-ing those 
 repons into close contact with the rest of the world. In South 
 Africa the AVitwatei-s field alone is believed to contain from ten to 
 twenty l)illion dollai"s' worth of g,o\d. The increased ])i-oiluction of 
 gokl l)enefits a few people, but for the majority it merely helps increase 
 the cost of livinp;. In this it joins with short hoin-s, poor work, heavy 
 taxes, and the effects of war. So much trouble arises from changes in 
 the value of gold that many economists think it should be given up 
 as the standard of value. They advocate a new standard based on 
 goods of all kinds and so framed that a dollar will buy just as nmch 
 food, cloth, iron, coal, or otlun- necessities in one year as in another. 
 
 Remarkable Nature of Iron. — If all the gold in the world should 
 be dcsti-()>('d man's activity would go on almost unchanged, but i' 
 iron should be taken away, it would \)v enormously moic dillicult 
 than at present to maintain our material civilization. 
 
 Why is iron used so universally? Is it Ijccausc iron is the most 
 common metal? No, for the earth's crust contains about 8.2 parts 
 of ahmiinum out of a hundred, and only 4.6 of iron. ]\Ioreover, such 
 metals as calcium (3.5 parts), magnesium (2.6 jxirts), sodium (2.6 
 parts) and potassimn (2.4 parts), are only a little less abundant than 
 iron, but are not used one-thousandth as nuich. Is the univei-sal use 
 of iron due to the ease with which the metal can be se])arated from 
 its ores? Partly, but cop])er can ))e se])arate<l still more easily, and 
 zinc with almost equal ease. 
 
 The chief reason for the unixersal use of ii'on is its ])('ciiliai' prop- 
 erties, especially (1) its capacity for assuming many different forms, 
 (2) its strength, (8) its hardness, (4) its ductility or capacity for being 
 drawn into wiic, and (">) its magnetic pro]ieities. l^ecausc of tlu^se 
 quahties iron is the universal material foi' tools and machines, and thus 
 l)ecf)mes one of i]\r most im]X)rtant factors in jjromoting civilization. 
 
 How Man Has Attained the Iron Age. — Since iion is so important 
 it is not strange thai the jx'riod in w liich we li\-e is known as the 
 
 * DuriiiR and after flic (!n^!it War tlic production of t^old declined and i)rices 
 fluctuatefl for other reasons. When eoiiditioiis a^ain l)eeonie stable, however, 
 the old conditions are likelv to revive unless some mw factor infervi-nes. 
 
METALS AND CIVILIZATION 177 
 
 Iron Age. The earliest men lived in what is known as the Stone 
 Age. Their only tools were made of stone or sometimes of bone. 
 Ordinary stones of almost any kind were used for hammers or as 
 weapons to throw when hvmting game, bat only flint and a volcanic 
 glass called "obsidian" could be easily cliipped to a cutting edge. 
 But what is such an edge compared with the edge of a razor. Peo- 
 ple with such tools are greatly hampered in the advance toward 
 civiUzation, 
 
 When primitive people discovered that copper could readily be 
 hammered into tools, the Copper Age began. It was not greatly 
 different from the Stone Age, however, for copper is so soft and pliable 
 that tools made from it can never be given an edge that will last. 
 In tune it was discovered that if a httle tin is melted with copper a 
 material called bronze is produced. This is harder than copper and 
 makes better tools. This discovery gave rise to the Bronze Age. 
 The new metal helped mankind to advance, but it did not surpass 
 copper sufficiently to cause a pronounced change in civilization. 
 
 Not till men learned to smelt iron did there come a radical change. 
 Since then, during the two or three thousand years of the Iroji Age, 
 the strength and hardness of iron tools have enabled us to clear the 
 forests, plow the sod, dig deep mines, and construct railroads, steam- 
 ships, and all kinds of machinery. Within the last half century the 
 increasing use of iron in its strongest and hardest form has brought us 
 into the Steel Age, a new stage of the Iron Age. In 1870 the United 
 States produced 1,665,000 tons of pig iron, only 4 per cent of which, 
 or alx)ut 70,000 tons, was used for steel. In 1900 the output of steel 
 had increased to 10,000,000 tons, in 1905 to 20,000,000, in 1913 to 
 32,000,000, and in 1918, at the climax of the Great War, to 50,000,000. 
 
 The utilization of the magnetic properties of iron has enabled man 
 to enter upon a still more advanced stage of the Iron Age, the Age 
 of Electricity. As lately as the early part of the last century the 
 only practical use of the electro-magnetic power of iron was in the 
 compass. To-day we depend upon electricity not only for lighting, 
 transportation, and communication, but also for the transmission of 
 power from waterfalls, for motive power in factories,. and for a host 
 of other uses. Even now the full possibilities of the magnetic prop- 
 erti(^s of iron are only beginning to be n^alizcd. 
 
 Scanty Iron Deposits and the Character of Early Civilization. — 
 One of the chief reasons for the differences between the ancient civi- 
 lization of Egj-pt, Palestine, Mesopotamia, (Ireece, and Rom(\ on 
 the one hand, and the modei-n civilization of Western Eiuope and 
 the Ignited States, on the oth(T, is the amount of iron avaihible for 
 everyday use. In i)hascs of civilization such as art, literature, 
 
178 
 
 .MANS UELATlUN TU SUIL AMJ MINERALS 
 
 philosopliy, rclipon, and povorninont, in wliich niinoral rosourccg 
 pUiy (inly a small ])art, the pco])!^ of ;uici(>nt times made p-(\il. prog- 
 ress, and in many ways excelled tiie nations of to-day. In other 
 phases sueh as manufaeturinfi, trans])oitation, eonnneire, and min- 
 ing, where complex maeliiiuMy plays an important jiart, they made 
 little progress and were in about the same stage as nations like modern 
 China. This difference was due largely to the degive of availability 
 of suppUes of iron (see Fig. 53). 
 
 Iron ores do not occur in plains like those of Egypt, Mesopotamia, 
 northern India, eastern China, and Guatemala, whcMe the world's 
 earliest civilizations grew up. Nor are such (jres alnnidant and easily 
 
 Fig. 53. — Distribution of Iron Ore. 
 
 obtained in limestone countries like Syria and Greece. Italy also 
 has only a little iron, and most of that comes from the island of I'Jba. 
 'ilnis practically all of tlu^ great countries of anticjuity are deficient 
 in natural sii])])li<'s of iron. Moreover, in those countries and also in 
 some outlying regions such as Asia ]\Iinor and the Libyan Desert 
 where ore is found, there are coniparat.ively few trees, and thus the 
 smelting of iron was greatly limited. \\'itli (heir small availai)lc 
 su])])ly of iron the civilized ]K>oi)le of early times made only such 
 small tools as knives, hoes, and weapons. Sim]ile machines such as 
 the steam engine of Hero of Alexandria, 130 n.c, and tlic hand loom 
 which was wi<lely used, had inde(>d been invented, but could not be 
 extensively develo]ied for lack of iron. 
 
 Abundant Iron Deposits and the Character of Modem Civiliza- 
 tion. — Modern (•i\ilizati()n, unlike ancient , is located in regions where 
 
METALS AND CIVILIZATION 179" 
 
 it is easy to procure both iron and the fuel to smelt it. The most 
 energetic races dwell in countries such as northern Spain, France, 
 Belgium, Germany, England, and Sweden, which contain abundant 
 iron ores and are naturally covered with heavy forests. Hence when 
 these regions emerged from barbarism the use of iron increased. 
 People were able to use it freely for such purposes as armor, nails, 
 and plows, for which it had previously been too expensive. In the 
 days of Queen EUzabeth the demand for iron became so great that 
 laws had to be passed to prevent the forests from being wholly con- 
 sumed as fuel in iron furnaces. 
 
 At this stage another geogi-aphical condition became important. 
 England, northern France, Belgimn, and Germany contain great 
 deposits of coal located close to the iron ore. In England, soon after 
 1600 A.D., people discovered that by converting coal into coke they 
 could use it for smelting. The rapid adoption of this method so 
 increased the available supply of iron that such large machines as the 
 steam engine could be turned out in large numbere. The abihty of 
 modern civilization to use iron for tools and machinery is one of the 
 chief causes of the contrast between ancient civilization with its 
 emphasis on art, literature, philosophy, religion, and government and 
 modern civilization with its emphasis on science, on man's material 
 betterment, and on the use of natural resources through manufactur- 
 ing, transportation, conmierce, and mining. The great civilization of 
 the future will place equal emphasis on the idealism of the ancients 
 and the inaterialisni of the pi'osent. 
 
 Where Iron. Ore is Most Favorably Located. — Countries like 
 the United States, England, Germany, and France, where coal and 
 iron are both abundant, have a tremendous advantage. Countries 
 like Sweden and Spain, which have plenty of ore but little coal lose 
 much of this advantage. They have to send the ore to places, Uke 
 England and Germany, well supphed with fuel. This is cheaper 
 than to take the coal to the ore, for two tons of coal are needed 
 to smelt a ton of iron ore. 
 
 Our own country is particularly favored because it has enormous 
 deposits of both coal and iron. They are, to be sure, at a considerable 
 distance from one another, for the largest coal beds center in Penn- 
 sylvania, while the best and largest iron deposits are in the Lake 
 Superior region. For most of the distance between the two, however, 
 there is cheap transportation by the waterway of the Great Lakes, 
 and the ore can easily be carried to the fuel. Moreover, the coal is 
 near the center of the great market of the northeastern United States, 
 so that after the ore is made into iron it does not have to travel far 
 before being used. During the first part of the ( Ircat War, \vliil(> the 
 
180 
 
 MANS H1:LATI()X to soil- AM) MIXKRALS 
 
 other p'oat iron-producinp; countrios wore fi^htiiip;, the use of iron in 
 Anierica increased as iicvit Ix'fore. Tiie excellence of both the coal 
 and the ore in the United States will ijrobably hel]i the country to 
 maintain tiie leadei*ship in the iron industry whicii it then ol)tained. 
 Over 90 pi'r cent of tiie world's aiunial ])n)duc.ti()n of 1,700. ()()().()()() 
 tons of minerals consists of coal and lion and a third of this is mined 
 ill the United States (see Fijr. .")!). 
 
 The United States Steel Corporation. — Since iron is (he most 
 important of the materials used in niamitacturiiiti.. it has led to in- 
 dustrial comliinations of enormous size. Tlic (Ii'cal ( lerman Steel 
 ( 'om])ine controls ])ra('ti("i]ly the entire steel business in ( !(>rmany and 
 was lony; t.he lai'iiest, business combination outside the I'nit.ed 
 
 l""i<;. rA. — I'rodiictidii of Inm 
 
 States. The United States Steel ( Orjioration. however, is even 
 larjrer. It has r(\ache(l its present size b(>cause economy demands that 
 a jiTcat nuinlxM' of o])erations in se\'(>ra,l diCfei'eiit ])laces should be 
 ])erConne(l undei' one manaticmenl . In ]iroducinii' iiiu; iron it is neces- 
 sary first to ha^•e ji,reat ore beds in the bake Superior district or else- 
 where. Next the ore nmst be carried by lak(> and rail to the vicinity of 
 the coal mines in Pennsylvania. Coal must be mined and converted 
 into coke and then broujjht to the factory, while limestone must also 
 \xi quarried. When a sin}i;le company owns mines, quarries, steam- 
 boats, railroads, coke ovens, and factories it saves a great amount of 
 wjiste and a large nund)er of profits which would go to the juiddle man 
 if the various raw materials and half-finished jjroducts changed hands 
 after each o])efa,1 imi. 
 
 Because of such advantages the Unit.ed States Steel Corpora- 
 
METALS AND CIVILIZATION 181 
 
 tion to-day controls more than half the steel business of the United 
 States. It employs over 250,000 men distributed from Alabama to 
 Lake Superior and from Peimsylvania to Colorado. Its 150 s^'i'at 
 manufacturing plants, its 130 iron mines, its 750,000 acres of coal 
 lands, its 1300 miles of railway, 1400 engines, 60,000 freight cars and 
 its 100 steamers, together with its docks, Hmestone (juarries, gas wells, 
 and oil wells, are worth two billion dollars, and yield a profit of 
 between one and two hundred million dollars each year. A part, 
 but by no means the greater part of the i^rofits has come back to 
 the public. For instance, Andrew Carnegie, for a long time the 
 largest stockholder of the Corporation, gave not far from $350,000,000 
 for }:)ublic use in libraries, scientific organizations, educational insti- 
 tutions, and many other forms. This is the only rigiit course, for 
 the profits of all such industries, although due in part to wise man- 
 agement, are also due partly to the fact that our laws permit ]irivate 
 individuals to ol)tain control of valuable natural resources like coal 
 and iron. 
 
 How Copper Influences Human Progress. — After the time 
 when iron tools came into use at the end of the Bronze Age copper 
 played a minor role, its chief use being for cooking vessels. Within the 
 last half century, however, copper has again become important, for 
 the world has learned to use electricity. Among all the conunon 
 substances copper is the best electrical conductoi', therefore no power 
 plant, electric light plant, telephone, telegraph, or autoniol>ile is made 
 without copper. In California and elsewhere cop])er wire now 
 makes it possi])le to transmit electric power 400 to 500 miles. The 
 need of good electrical conductoi"s is growing so ra])idly that to-day 
 copper is the most important of all metals after iron. Eight tinn^s 
 as much coppcn- was ])roduced in 1910 as in 1880, and there has biHMi a 
 steady increase in more recent ycai"S. In 1913 the world's production 
 was over a million tons. 
 
 Copper Production of the United States. — The United Statics dom- 
 inates the copper situation, for it produces more than half of the 
 woild's supply. It is the oidy great industiial couIltIy^ asi(l(> from 
 Japan, that has large copper mines. The American supply formerly 
 came largely from the Upi)er Peninsula of Michigan. Oddly enough 
 the fact that the ore 'tliei'e often occurs in large pieces of pure metal is a 
 disadvantage. C()])])er ore can be smelted more easily than pure 
 cop]ier can be dug out, for the metal is so ductile that it caimot be 
 broken by blasting. Arizona and jNIontana are now the cliit'f <-o])])('r 
 States. 
 
 The Character of a Copper Town. — The dtMuand for (•o])])('r has 
 led to the growth of many cities such as Butte, Montana, and Pisbec, 
 
182 
 
 MAX'S HKI.ATIOX T(^ SOTT, AND MINERALS 
 
 Arizona. The surrounclinp; rcpjions have l)ccn thoroup;hly prospected 
 and tlio coppor industiy has assumed a permanent aspect. Hence 
 the towns have lost man}' of the bad qualities of the " boom" towns 
 
 Fig. rvi. — Distri])uti(in of Coi)j)or Ores. 
 
 which p^'ow u]! whevc the ])r(M'ious metals are mined. A man may 
 settle in a copper mininji; town with the idea of staying there for life. 
 
 l''i<;. .')(■). — I'roductioii df Copper. 
 
 The cliicf (lr;i\\ l):i.(k is that luiuini!: is ;i hard, disagreeable occU]iati()n. 
 Aside froiii llio skilled su])criiit('iid('nts, engineeix, and foremen, it 
 usually attracts only the ixjorcst. kind of labor. Moreover, most of 
 
METALS AND CIVILIZATION 183 
 
 the copper mines are not located in agreeable surroundings, for the 
 bare deserts of the region west of the Rocky Mountains are less 
 attractive than the more fertile regions eiscnvhere. Another draw- 
 back is that the smelting of copper ore fills the air with vast clouds of 
 sulphur, for many of the best ores are a combination of copper and 
 sulphur. At Butte, Montana, and at other ])]aces, the sulphurous 
 smoke is carried to h(ught;; of four or five hundred feet in great chim- 
 neys. Yet it settles down in such volume that not a tree can grow 
 within miles of the smelters. Such conditions often drive capable 
 people away from the mining towns, and thus retard their progi-ess. 
 
 Copper in Other Countries. — -The other countries where copper is 
 abundant are Chile, Japan, Spain, Mexico, and Australia, in the 
 order named. The Chuquicamata deposits in Chile, owned by an 
 American corpoi'ation, are by far the largest in the world. Copper 
 is one of Japan's chief metal products, but her total production is 
 only about one-eighth that of the United States. Aside from Spain 
 the countries of Europe have little copper. In the Balkan Peninsula 
 and Asia Minor supplies are reported, but are not extensively worked. 
 Germany's inabihty to get copper during the Great War was a great 
 handicap. Ordinarily that country produces only 26,000 tons a 
 year and consumes about 260,000 tons. During the War her 
 need was vastly increased. The government requisitioned (>very 
 available bit of copper, including trolley wires, electric light fixtures, 
 faucets, old teapots handed down for generations, and the very 
 roofs and bells from the churches. Even the Emperor's palace 
 was not spared, and attempts were made to bu}' up the copjier 
 coins of other countries such as Norway, Swed(>n, and Switzerland. 
 
 Aluminum. — The light metal known as aluniiiium is a compara- 
 tive newcomer. Not till about 1910 was it sold at such a price that 
 it could be used like iron and copper for ordinary purposes. Its 
 uses lie between those of tlu^ other two metals. Pound for pound it 
 surpasses copper as an electi-ical conductor, but cannot so easily be 
 made into wire that will not 1)reak. It is harder than copper, how- 
 ever, and hence in automobiles and especially airplanes it can be 
 used for parts like the oil pan of the engine, where the strength of 
 iron is not required and where lightness is desirable. 
 
 Luckily aluminum is contained in common clay and in a great 
 numb(>r of rocks, so that the supply is practically imlimit(Ml. The 
 chief drawback is that to extract it from the or(^s strong electric 
 currents are required. Therefore the gi-(>at aluiiiinuin ])lants are 
 located where the ore occurs near powerful wali'rfall.^ such as those 
 of SchiUThauseii, Switzei'Iaiid, and Niagara I'alls. Savoy in l-'rancc 
 and the nioiiiil aiiioii^^ \)()rti()ns of Germany and Italy are also (he 
 
184 
 
 MAX S KliLATlUN TO bUlL AND MINERALS 
 
 seat of alumimiin factories. If ])o\v(>r could \h' obtained rhoaply 
 piiouiih, Mluniiiiiiin would soon be used nioi-e than any metal except 
 iron. '11 K' towns where it is made arc n\)\ to l)c located in pleasant 
 
 KiG. 57. — Production of the World's Lead .Supply. 
 
 parts of the country, for that is where the water-])Ower is- found. 
 They do not have a lar'>;e body of low-<;Tade labonTs workinji; under- 
 ground, for the ore is taken from open ciuarries reciuirin^- relatively 
 
 I'lii. ."J.s. rroducliou ol" the W'orld'.s Zinc .Sup])i\'. 
 
 little l:d)oi'. ]\Ioreovei", the amount of machinery and of skilled 
 re<[uire<l in the ])roduction of aluminum is unusually lar^'e. 
 gcther aliniiiiiuiii has a larii'c number of fa\(ii-able characteristics 
 effects on man. 
 
 work 
 Alto- 
 in its 
 
METALS AND CIVILIZATION 185 
 
 Why We Need to Conserve our Mineral Deposits. — Minerals far 
 more than forests need to 1)C carefully consci-\'ecl. Forests will gi'ow 
 again, but when minerals have once been destroyed they can never 
 be replaced. Among the metals discussed in this chapter gold and 
 silver are consen-ed with great care, for eveiyone is car(;ful not to lose 
 the smallest bit of either. Yet they need to be consei-\'ed far less 
 than the other metals, for they play httlc part in the world's \\ork. 
 Iron plays so great a part that our supplies of that metal are our 
 most important mineral resource. As yet, however, they have not 
 been seriously diminished, for there are vast quantities of low-grade 
 ores. Aluminum is fortunately far more abundant than iron, and the 
 supplies have as yet scarcely been touched. With copper the case is 
 far more pressing. Its use is constantly growing, while the supplies 
 are rapidly being exhausted. The same is true of many minor min- 
 erals, such as zinc, lead, phosphates, and tin. If they are once 
 exhausted many of our industries will suffer seriously, and future 
 generations will wonder how wo could have been so careless. 
 
 QUESTIONS, EXERCISES, AND PROBLEMS 
 
 1. How do you explain the lack of mining in Denmark? In Florida? 
 
 2. Why are swindles so easily made with mining stock? 
 
 3. Why is iron more precious to man than the "precious metals," gold, and 
 silver? 
 
 4. What effect would it have on prices if no new gold mines were to be opened 
 for several decades? 
 
 5. How does it happen that the world's largest business combination is one 
 that deals with iron rather than any other material? 
 
 6. How does the control of the chief metals by English-speaking countries 
 strengthen their international i)osition? 
 
 Put this in the form of a problem. — Make a list of six to eight chief producers of 
 iron, copper, zinc, lead, tin, aluminum, gold, silver, platinum, mercur\-, antimony, 
 bismuth, nickel, and radium. How do the United States and the liriti.sh Em- 
 pire compare in this respect? What nation or group of nations having the same 
 speech comes second in controlling metals? How do the metals that they control 
 compare in importance with those controlled by the English-speaking people? 
 
 7. Point out which of tlu< following are desirable in order to conserve our 
 natural resources : 
 
 (a) The building of ships and bridges with rc-inforced concrete instead of 
 wood or steel. 
 
 (b) The use of alumiiumi instead of copi)er in pots, kettles, and electrical 
 machinery. 
 
 (c) The substitution of steel passenger and freight cars for tho.se of wood. 
 
 {(I) The use of aluminum iu many i^arts of automobiles and airplanes in place 
 of steel. 
 
CTTAPTKR TX 
 THE SOURCES OF POWER 
 
 Importance of Power.^ — In the i)itsimi1 A^v of Steel and ]]lectricity 
 all sources of power have assumed a now and increasing importance. 
 The manufacturer needs po\v(T to drive his machinery, to ])riii<f raw 
 materials, and to cany liis finished products to market. TIk^ mer- 
 chant needs power to run his elevator, and su])])ly liini wilh light. 
 The farmer needs it. to plow his fields, saw his wood, shar]X'n his 
 scythes, chiu-n his l)utter, and cany his crops to market. You j'oiu'- 
 self need power to light your home, to cany you on journeys, and to 
 bring you letters and suiii)lies. It is clear, therefore, that eveiyonc in 
 a civilized conununity uses i)ower either dircn-tly or indirectly. Farms, 
 transportation systems, and factories, however, are the greatest 
 users of power. Hence in this chapter we shall think particularly of 
 their needs in considering the seven great sources of power (1) man's 
 own body, (2) animals, (3) wind, (4) water, (5) wood, (6) coal, and 
 (7) petroleum. 
 
 Kinds of Power. — (1) Man. — The oldest and most connnon source 
 of power is the energy of ??m?;'.s hocli/. He uses it to raise food, build 
 houses, carry loads, and wield the ax. He also uses it for manu- 
 factures such as the woolen rugs of the Ivhirghiz and the carved toj-s 
 of the Swiss. 
 
 In tro]Mcal countries man's strength is the chief source oi power. 
 For instance in India, Africa, and tro]iical South America l(Mig lines 
 of coolies trudge hundreds of miles through jungle and swam]) weighed 
 down wit.h heavy loads on their heads or backs. In ("liina some 
 device like a wheelban"ow is usually used to aid man's strtMigth in 
 carrying both goods and ])eople; aiid in .Inpan the jimil\isha serves 
 the same ])Ui-])ose to bett.er eiYect. in tlu' most advanced countries, 
 although millions of men furnish ])ower for traiis]K)rtation, unlike the 
 coolie, they ti-aiis])()rt llieir loads only short distances, as in carrying 
 })ricks and mortal', loading boxes into wagons, and lifting leather into 
 cutting machines. In our own country man's bodily ixjwer is used 
 less than anywhere else, since i;s place is taken liy so many devices 
 such as elevators and electric trucks. 
 
 (2) AiiitiKils. — Since man's own strength is not sufhcicMit to ac- 
 complish all his anibilious ijjans, he long ago obtained ol.iicr sources 
 
 1S6 
 
THE SOURCES OF POWER 187 
 
 of power by taming the horse, donkey, ox, camel, water buffalo, ele- 
 phant, yak, llama, and reindeer. His use of one or another of these 
 animals, quite unlike his use of his own strength, is least in tropical 
 countries and greatest in the most advanced parts of the world. 
 
 In tropical countries animals are little used for two chief reasons: 
 (a) The people are not energetic and intelligent enough to take good 
 care of their animals. (6) The most useful animals like the horse 
 and ox do not thrive in tropical countries because of the poor grass 
 and pestering insects. The fine animals introduced by the United 
 States into the Philippines deteriorate rapidly if left to the care of the 
 natives. 
 
 In countries like Japan and eastern China horses and other beasts 
 of l)urden are also rare. The climate is not favorable to gi-ass, and 
 the places where food for animals might be raised are needed to sup- 
 ply food for the dense human population. In dry, grass}' regions like 
 the steppes of Central Asia and our o^^•n ^^"este^n States, horses and 
 cattle are numerous, for there is much land that is good for grazing and 
 not for agriculture. Nevertheless, animals are not used for power 
 nearly so much there as in the great agricultural regions like the 
 eastern United States, especially Illinois and its neighbors, or north- 
 western Europe, especially northern France and the Low Countries. 
 In such places horses are so valuable for farm work that their number 
 is increasing in spite of the increased use of automobiles. 
 
 (3) How Wind Furnishes Power. — The sources of power thus far 
 considered demand little or no mechar.ical skill. The use of wind, 
 however, demands that people shall b(^ invc^ntive and able to construct 
 machijier}'. Hence windmills are imknown within the tropics except 
 where Europeans or Americans have introduced them. The steady 
 trade winds, however, are almost ideal for wind-])ower. Hence in 
 tropical towns like ]\Ierida in Yucatan, a regular forest of wiiuhnills 
 may be seen, since most of the 65,000 people use water punq^tMl from 
 caverns and streams (Un^p down in the porous linu^stone. The chief 
 development of windmills, however, is in the energetic tem]ieratc 
 zone. In level open regions like Holland, Wisconsin, and Iowa, 
 where the winvl blows freely and stc^idily, tlu>y arc^ uschI in large nuin- 
 bei-s to ])ump water into tanks, and to cut wood and fodder. 
 
 Aside from windmills, sails are the chi(>f method of using the 
 power of the wind. In China wh(>ell)arrows as well as shi]is are pro- 
 IM'lled in this way. Although wind-]iower is very chea]) its use for 
 ships has greatly declined, and the same is true of windmills. In 1800 
 all ocean vessels were ])ro])ellcd by the wind, for steajnl)oats were still 
 unknown. In 1870 the iiuml)er of vessels of the two kinds in Creat 
 Britain was about equal. In I'.U 1, just bcfori> the Creat War, the 
 
188 MAX'S KELATloN TO SOIL AM) ML\J:1:ALS 
 
 stoani toniiafi(^ of (Ircat Brilain was ovor twrnty timos as larpp as the 
 sailing toniiajic In tlu> United States the steam tonnage is now 
 over ten times as large as the other. W'v have a large proportion 
 of sailing vessels l)ecaus(> they are adapted to coastwise trade, which 
 our laws encourage, while for transoceanic trade, which om' laws have 
 rai*ely encouragetl, steam vessels are aknost universally employed. 
 Even in our own country, however, the use of sailing vessels is rapidly 
 dechning. 
 
 The reason for the (Iccliiic in the use of wind-power is that the wind 
 may die down just when it is most needed, whereas gasoline and other 
 engines have l)ecome more and more reliable. If one of the readers 
 of this book should invent a cheap stoi*age battery, it would enable 
 the ])ower of high winds to ho saved for times when there is no wind. 
 iSuch an invention would go far toward solving the great proljlcm of 
 how the world shall continue to have cheap ])()wer when such fuels as 
 coal and petroleum are exhausted or have risen to exorbitant prices. 
 
 (4) Water Power. — This su])ject is considered in Chapter \T, on 
 "Inland Waters," and should be reviewed at this point. 
 
 (5) Wood as a Source of Power. — The sources of ]iower thus far 
 considered fall into two great tj^ies, (a) the power derived from li\ing 
 beings, including both animals and man, and (6) that deii\(Ml from 
 the movement of air and water. A\'e must now consider a third 
 t^-pe, (c), the power obtained by burning fuel. Fuel may be burned 
 slowly as in a fire or explosively as in a gasoline engme. The three 
 chief foi'ms of fuel are wood, coal, and petroleum. I^et us see what 
 spcH'ial geogi'aphical conditions cause one to be used rather than the 
 others. 
 
 Although wood was originally of great importance as a source of 
 power, its use for that i)vu'pose has reached a low ebb in more advanced 
 regions. 
 
 Ill such regions trans])()rtation systems and farmei-s almost never 
 use wood lor power, and factories use it only for special reasons. 
 Furniture factories have such a reason because they can use their own 
 sawdust, shavings, and chips. 
 
 Again at the Swedish iron works at Danjiejnora iron ore is smelted 
 with wood in the form of charcoal. This is ])artly because the 
 surroimding fon'sts fm'nish a vast su])i)ly of wood, but chietly because 
 certain of the finest gi'ades of tool steel can be niade only with char- 
 coal. 
 
 In backward regions which comprise more than half the earth's 
 habitable suiiace, wo(jd is still the chief source of ])owi>r. "^rhis is the 
 case chiefly in heavily forested regions, or else in backward countries 
 where the di(ii<'ultics of ti-ansi)or1ation m:ik-v' coal un<lu!y expensive. 
 
THE SOURCES OF POWER 189 
 
 In the vast forested plains of northern Russia and Siberia, for example 
 the g;i'eat piles of cordwood that one sees stacked up Iw^side the rail- 
 ways are fed into the locomotives and produce a shower of sparks 
 equal to a Fourth of July celeliration. In tropical rej^ions, too, the 
 river steamers often stoji for hours on the eilge of the forest to let a 
 crowd of half-naked black men throw sticks of firewood upon the 
 deck. 
 
 In such backward regions the factories as well as the transporta- 
 tion S3'stems commonly use wood for fuel. Both in nuniber and sizej 
 however, the factories that use wood are insignificant. For instance, 
 in tropical coinitri(^s the scattered little sugar mills, hemp factories, 
 canning factories and rul)l)cr-smoking plants, are some of the kinds 
 that depend upon wood or other vegetable fibei-s for fuel. 
 
 (6) Coal OS a Source of Power. — ^If there were no coal, manufac- 
 turing could be carried on by means of wood and waterpower, but its 
 development on a large scale would be impossible. Factories require 
 so much fuel that on the present scale they would soon exhaust the 
 world's wood suppl3^ The United States mines about 600,000,000 
 tons of coal each year. To get an equal supply of power from wood 
 would require one and a half l)illion tons of cordwood which would be 
 three or four times as much as all the wood used each year in the 
 United States for both fuel and lumber. 
 
 How the Use of Coal Varies. — (1) Progressive Countries rvith 
 Much Coal. — The distribution of coal is highly favorable. Large 
 supplies happen to be located in places where the people ara physically 
 active and hr.ve alert, inventi.-e minds. The countri(^s of the world 
 may be divided into four groups according to the activity of the people 
 and the abundance of coal. The first gi'oup consists of progressive 
 countries with much coal. It includc^s Europe +i om Poland, Czecho- 
 slovalda, and Austria westward, and the northeastern quarter of the 
 United States east of the INIississippi. Not eveiy part of these regions 
 has coal at its very doors, but all can bring it without difficulty and 
 therefore share in its benefits. In England, more than elsewhere 
 great supplies of coal, as weU as iron, in the midst of a large popula- 
 tion gave the steam engine full ()])])ortunity to develo]). In pro- 
 portion to its size Great Britain has nuich the largest and best 
 deposits of coal in the world. The United States, to be sure, has much 
 more coal than Clreat Britain, and for household use Peimsylvania 
 antiii-acitc is Ix^ttci' than even the finest Welsh coal, but this counti'\- 
 is thill \-t"our times as large as (Ireat l>i-i!ain. 'l'hi> extcMit to which 
 coal is mined in various countries may he judged from th(> fact that 
 liritain protluces over (> tons for each inhabitant, the United States G, 
 (!(>rinany 4, and Belgium 3. In propoition to thei'* population these 
 
190 MAN'S KKLATIUX TO SOIL AMJ .MINERALS 
 
THE SOURCES OF POWER 
 
 191 
 
 four countries are the <2;reatest producers of coal. They are also the 
 leadina; nianufacturina; countries. 
 
 (2) Progressive Countries with Small Coal Supplies. — Next in coal 
 
 Fig. 60. — Distribution of Coal Deposits. 
 
 production to the countries just named come France, Canada and 
 Australia with about H tons per inhalntant. Then follow C'zecho- 
 
 FiG. 61. — Distribution of Coal Production. 
 
 Slovakia, Poland, and South Africa, with 1 ton, and Russia and.lajxui 
 witli <)ii!\' half a t.oii. At least portions of each of these count vies are 
 inhal)it('d hy ])eople so wide-awake and encM-getic that they have 
 
192 MAXS KKLATIOX TO SOIL AND MI.NKRALS 
 
 developed their coal to frreat advanta^^e and are therein' al^Ie to carry 
 on a pxul deal of nKunifaeturin^. 
 
 {'A) lUu-hu-avd Countries with Much Coul. — ( hhia, Indo-China, and 
 Siberia have larjre dei)osit.s of coal, those of China being second only 
 to those of the United States. Yet in these regions the coal has re- 
 mained largely unused. Only during recent years under the influence 
 of l-'uropeans has it begun to l)e exploited. The lack of manufactures 
 in these countries coni]-)ar{>(l with the activity of manufacturing in- 
 dustries even in count ries with limited supplies of coal such as France, 
 southeastern Australia, New Zealand, and Japan, shows that coal 
 alone is of little ini])ortance in developing manufacturing industries 
 unless th(U-e ar(^ also ciicrgctic i)eo])l('. 
 
 (4) Backward Countries with Little Coal. — Tropical countries are 
 the least favoretl in tlunr su])plies of coal, as well as in the character of 
 their people. Peru and Bolivia, to l)e sure, have a little coal, but have 
 never mined it extensively. IncUa, in proportion to its population, 
 has no more than these countries, although the presence of the English 
 has caused it to l)e developed. Other tropical countries appear to 
 hav(! almost no coal, although there may be large supplies as yet un- 
 discovered. At any rate, coal has had little effect on their industries. 
 
 Conservation of Coal. — Since coal is the most important mineral 
 product aside from iron it should l)e most carefully consented. The 
 world is using up its coal at the enormous rate of between two and 
 three l)illion tons a year. If the use of coal should continue to in- 
 crease at the present rate, all the coal would be gone in 150 years. 
 Even if the rate of increase declines and we cease to waste so nmch, 
 the coal will be largely exhausted in not much over a thousand years. 
 Then what will our descendants do? No other known fuels can fill 
 our needs. The world's sui)i)ly of peat, for exami)le, is estimated at 
 13,0()0,000,0()() tons. This sounds large. l)ut if ]ieat. had to be sub- 
 stituted for coal the entire su])])ly would be gone in six or seven yeai-s. 
 
 Fortunately much of the coal of the United States still lu'longs to 
 the nation as a whole. Therefore it. can be carefully guarded so that 
 it may not be wasted or gi\'en away to favored individuals :is has 
 hap]X'ned so largely in the ]iast. ISIoreover, there are many ways of 
 decreasing the waste of coal. (1) For example, in can-jang coal from 
 the mines to the fa<"tories we use an enormous amount of power in 
 running the trains and steamships. Experiments in I'jigland and the 
 experience of power plants in America show that by Imiiiinii the coal 
 at the mines and sending the energy economically by electricity to 
 factories we should save all the coal consumed by thousands of freight 
 trains as well as many other expenses, and at the same tune should 
 make ovu- cities clean aiul wholesome. The same purpose would 
 
THE SOURCES OF POWER 
 
 193 
 
 be accomplished, at least in part, by burning the coal at seaports, 
 where it could be delivered inexpensively and sending the power to 
 the cities of the intcaior. 
 
 (2) When coal is burned to run a steam engine only about 15 
 per cent of the possible energy is con^-erted into power. The other 
 85 per cent is wasted in the heat that goes off into space. When the 
 15 per cent of power that is saved is us(\l to produce light there is an 
 enormous further waste, so that the final power used in ordinary 
 
 lij C0ltrti.:.y -if Clul.t I.n'inr Cuinini.s.-iivii, A. V. <\i,j. 
 
 Fig. 62. — Shoving Cars in a Coal 'SUne. 
 
 A hard, disagreeable job. 
 
 electric lights is onl}' one-fivc-hundredth of the original energy of the 
 coal. Already we are learning that gas and a liquid like gasoline can 
 be extracted from coal and exploded in such a way that the loss of 
 energy' is much less than with the steam engine. Further inventions 
 are possible which will prevent the enormous waste of power which 
 now occurs wIumi we use coal for heat and light. 
 
 (3) One of the gi-eatest sources of waste in coal mines is the pillai-s 
 and walls that have to be left in order to prevent the roof from ca\ing 
 in and killing the miners. Sometimes the coal thus left is recovered 
 by "robbing" the i)ilhirs, that is, by digging them out after the rest of 
 
194 
 
 MANS RELATION TO SOIL AND MINERALS 
 
 the work has Ijoon dono, and letting the roof cavo in. In a sparsely 
 inhabited country this process is allowable, l)ut. it is danf!;erous where 
 then^ are jnany houses on the land above the mines, as it is likely to 
 wreck tlicii- fduiidations when llie surface >;l(»wly sinks down. In 
 the future, howcA-er, coal is likely to be so valuable that it may be 
 worth while to substitute concrete ]iillai"s for those of coal, and thus 
 save millions of tons which are now wasted. 
 
 r 
 
 Fig. G3.-— Spinning in raicstinc. 
 An example of primitive industry where human power nlone is employed. 
 
 The Life of Coal-mining Regions. -Although coal is of tremen- 
 dous \ alue in manufacturing and transportation, it is in some ways a 
 hindrance to civilization because of the life at the mines. The proc- 
 ess of brealdng out the coal and loading it into little cai"s far under- 
 ground is monotonous and tiresome. It is not particularly well paid, 
 for it does not reciuirc much skill. Moreover, coal mining is one of 
 the most unhealthful and dangerous occupations. The presence of 
 coal dust and "fire damp" in coal mines impairs the miners' health by 
 constantly obliging them to breathe polluted air. Ex])losions caused 
 
THE SOURCES OF POWER 195 
 
 by fire damp, dust, and the careless use of artificial explosives cause 
 many deaths. The gi-eatest danger, however, is the falling of pieces 
 of the roof and wall which often bury the miners. Hence, even more 
 than in most industries, those who are more competent seek worl: in 
 other lines where there an; better opportunities to rise. Their places 
 are taken by less competent ViTorkers, who until the Great War, came 
 to America in a steady stream from the more backward comitries of 
 the Old World. So many inunigrants thus poured in that in many 
 mining regions w here they lived by themselves it was not possible to 
 Americanize them. They still s])oke their old languages, followed 
 foreign customs, thought in foreign ways, and beHeved that liberty 
 meant license. 
 
 Under such circumstances, the conditions of homes, schools, and 
 churches, and of social life in general cannot be the best. Strikes, too, 
 are common. In the history of the United States the worst of all 
 strikes have occurred in coal mines such as those of West Virginia 
 and Colorado. Such strikes are most apt to occur in isolated com- 
 munities inhabited largely by a foreign-born population. Since many 
 miners are ignorant, both politics and social life have usually been 
 dominated either by unscrupulous mine owners or equally unscrupu- 
 lous anarchistic agitatoi-s. Since other industries are not developed, 
 it is not easy for the miners to enter other occupations, and there is no 
 body of skilled laborers, merchants, and other substantial people to 
 act as a "balance wheel." Hence when strikes occur, violence is apt 
 to be common on l)oth sides. In several cases serious fighting has 
 taken place, and United States troops have been brought in because 
 the local police and even the State troops have been unable to cope 
 with the trouble. This oft-repeated condition has led the great coal 
 State of Pennsylvania to estabUsh an effective State police force, or 
 "constabulary," which is used in preventing disorder- when strikes 
 occur. 
 
 In England also the coal mines have been the scenes of some of the 
 worst strikes. During the Great War the miners saw their oppor- 
 tunity to demand higher wages. A temporary strike threw the 
 country into gi"eat alarm, for if the coal supply had been cut off, the 
 operations of both peace and war would have been brought to a stand- 
 still. Thus it appears that while coal is the foundation of mod(>rn 
 industry, the actual work of mining the coal is a hindrance to civili- 
 zation. 
 
 Petroleum and Natural Gas. — (1) Why They arc En.vly Obtained. 
 — Although ]K'trolc-um and natural gas have been known from early 
 times, their common use for light and heat did not begin till about 
 1860, and for ])()wer till near the end of the century. Among the 
 
196 MAN'S RELATION TO SOIL AND MINKHALS 
 
 world's ijn]iortant fuels petroleum and natm'al }z;as are (1) the most 
 easily oi:)tained, (2) the most easily distributed {'.^) the most varied in 
 their uses, and (4) the most easily exhausted. They are easily ob- 
 tained because when holes arc tlrilled in the deep-seated rocks where 
 they accinnulate the pressiu'e causes them to well up. Often oil and 
 pas push out so violently that the well-drillinp tools fly hiph in the air, 
 and the flow cannot be checked for weeks or months. Such "pushcn-s" 
 sometimes take fire. When oil was struck at the San Bocas well in 
 the Tampico oil field ot Mexico in 1908 the oil that pushed out caupht 
 liic from the drillinp enpine. li biinicd 57 days, consuminp 175, ()()() 
 barrels of oil a day, and wastinp material worth $3, OOO, ()()(). The 
 flame was 800 to 1400 feet hiph and pave so much lipht that a news- 
 paper could be read by it at nipht 17 miles away. Such a well, when 
 properly capped, is worth thousands of doUare a day. 
 
 When such hupe returns are possible from the insipnificant labor 
 of drillinp a well, it is not surprisinp that the search for oil has been 
 carried on with the same eaperness as that for pold. When new oil 
 territory' is opened, prospectore rush in to pet hold of the best sites, 
 and there is all the reckless excitement, cuiarrclinp, and trickery which 
 occur durinp stampedes for pold. The first days of the CaUfornia and 
 Texas oil-fields, for example, were man-ed by preat lawlessness. 
 
 (2) Whj Petroleum and Gas Can Easily be Transported. — Petro- 
 leum can be transported cheaply because it can be pumped into tank 
 cai-s or tank steamere as easily as water. It can also be pumped 
 throuph pipes for lumdreds of miles, thus pivinp it the cheapest pos- 
 sible mode of trans]X)rtation. Pipe lines to-day run not only from 
 the oil fields in Pennsylvania and Illinois to New York, but from 
 Oklahoma to Chicapo. In Asiatic Russia a pipe line runs from the 
 Greak Baku oil field on the Caspian Sea to Batum on the Black Sea. 
 Gas, too, is ])ii)e(l liundreds of miles. Throuphout larpe ;iic;is of 
 Pennslyvania, West Virpinia, iiiid ( )hio :iliiios1 e\-ei'\- house is su])])lie(l 
 with natural p;is which is used lor cookiup, lie;i1inp, mid lipiitiup. 
 The pas does not e\-eii ha\-e to be |)unipe(l, for with the aid ol' com- 
 pressors it is carried alonp by the pressure of th(> well behind it. 
 
 (.3) The Varied Uses ,)/ Petroleum.— M\u-h the pivalest uses of 
 petrol(Miiii ai-e for power and lipht. In some eases it is burned in its 
 ciMide form. I'oi- instance, in the southwestern I'nited States and 
 soutiieasteiii i{ussia oil-burniiip locomotives are us(m1, not only 
 because the lailroads nvo near the ()il-fi(>lds of Oklahoma, Texas, 
 California, or Baku, but because oil can be employed more easily 
 than coal, since it docs not need a stoker. Alany warships are oil- 
 burners because of the ease and spee<l willi which this kind ol luel 
 can be put aboard. Even in mid-ocean during a storm or a battle a 
 
THE SOURCES OF P0^^^5R 
 
 197 
 
 warship can renew its supply of potrolouni by puinpin«!; the liquid 
 from a tender through a hose. As a source of light petroleum is 
 used all over the world. City people often fail to realize this, l)ut 
 among farmers and in backward countries kerosene is tlu; main 
 source of light. 
 
 In its use for power petroleum possesses a great advantage because 
 it can not only be burned, but exploded, thus giving power without 
 the intervention of a boikn- and steam. Everyone is familiar with 
 its use in this way in automobiles, where the refinetl pi^troknnn ])rodu('t 
 known as gasoline is employed, but crude oil can also be used in the 
 same way in the Diesel engine. 
 
 As a lu])ricant the effect of petroleum upon the developnunit of 
 power is fast coming to be almost as important as its effect as a fuel. 
 Modern methods of utilizing many kinds of power demand high, 
 speed machinery like dynamos, motors, automobile and airplane 
 engines, and many machines in factories. Such machinery must be 
 lubricated with high-gTade oils, and petroleum is the only good source 
 of such oils. Hence without petroleum many of our prisent uses of 
 power would be hnpossible. 
 
 (4) Why Petroleum Should be Used Sparingly. — By its veiy nature 
 petroleum tends to rapid exhaustion. At first, when a soiu'ce of oil 
 is tapped, the gushers often waste a gi-eat deal, later thvy merely 
 flow gently, next they cease to flow naturally, and must be pumpc^l, 
 and finally the wells that are pumped give a smaller and smaller out- 
 put. A well that lasts a generation is rare. In s])ite of the drilling of 
 new wells, the yield of the Pennsylvania field has fallen from 33, ()()(),- 
 000 ban-els in 1891 to only 7,000,000 in 1917. Pennsylvania, which 
 in 1890 ranked as the world's greatest producer, was in 1917 exceeded 
 by Oklahoma, California, Texas, Illinois, Louisiana, Kansas, West 
 
 PETROLEUM PRODUCTION, MILLION BARRELS 
 
 
 1903. 
 
 1909. 
 
 1913. 
 
 1917. 
 
 Per cent of 
 World Produc- 
 tion 1917. 
 
 United States 
 
 Russia 
 
 Austria ((lalicia) 
 
 Rouinaiiia 
 
 63.0 
 75.0 
 5.7 
 1.6 
 1.0 
 2.2 
 0.8 
 
 182.0 
 
 65.0 
 
 14.9 
 
 9.3 
 
 6 . 6 
 
 11.4 
 
 1.8 
 
 248.4 
 60.9 
 
 13.5 
 7.5 
 
 11.9 
 1.0 
 
 25.6 
 
 335.3 
 
 70.0 
 
 5.5 
 
 6.0 
 
 8.5 
 
 12.7 
 
 2.9 
 
 55.3 
 
 66.7 
 
 13.9 
 
 1.1 
 
 1 2 
 
 Pritisli India 
 
 1 7 
 
 Dutch East Indies 
 
 Japan 
 
 Mexico 
 
 2.5 
 
 0.6 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 World Production 
 
 
 2S5 
 
 381.6 
 
 503.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
198 
 
 MANS KKLATIOX TO .SOIL AND MINERALS 
 
THE SOURCES OF POWER 
 
 199 
 
 Virginia and Ohio among the American States, as well as by foreign 
 regions such as the Tampico and Baku fields. The way in which 
 production changes Ls well illustrated in the table on page 197. 
 
 The demand for petroleum, especially for automobiles and for 
 lubricants, is increasing enormously. If the present conditions con- 
 tinue it will be only a few decades before the supply will be largely 
 exhausted. So far as fuel is concerned this will not be serious, for 
 wood alcohol made from the abundant vegetation of the torrid zone 
 can take the place of gasoline, and coal can do all that is done by the 
 cruder forms of petroleum. For lubricants so essential to power, 
 however, we know of no good substitute. If they should become 
 scarce and high priced it would cause great inconvenience and ex- 
 pense. It is a serious question whether the country ought not to 
 take steps to prevent the consumption of oil where other substitutes 
 
 Fig. 65. — Production of Petroleum 
 
 are available, such as coal on wai-ships, hydro-ek^ctric power on rail- 
 ways, and alcohol in automol^iles. 
 
 A somewhat hopeful feature of the situation is that vast beds of 
 shale in Colorado, Scotland and many other regions are impregnated 
 with oil. This can be extracted by heating the shale, but the jii-oc- 
 ess is costly. Hence Scotland is the only country where there 
 has thus far been large production, and the oil shales will jjioI "ably 
 be available long after the liquid petroleum is largely exhausted. 
 
 How Petroleum Influences Human Activity. — In its effect on 
 man the gcograpiiical (Hstribution of ])etv(»leuni is nuicii less impor- 
 tant than the distribution of coal. 11 its value for fuel liad l)een 
 known eailiei' it might have caused mainitaet uring cities to grow up 
 
200 MAN'S IJELA'I'IOX To SOIL AM) MlNliliALS 
 
 whoro it occurs, but now this rarely happens. This is partly because 
 jxHrolcuni is so easily transijorted, anil i)artly because towns in oil- 
 jiroilucinfj; regions arc generally disagreeable. Even the better resi- 
 dential ))()rtions usually smell nl" nil. while the ])arts wheic most of the 
 people nmst woi'k aiHM'cMy diily and iireasy. Slimy, oil-coN-ered pools 
 are scaltei'ed aiiKHig black, t'orbiddiiig derricks. Aiidthei- reason 
 why manufacturing centers do not grow up aidund <ul wells is that 
 such i)laces are not permanent. Like *' boom " mining towns, they 
 usually grow for a few decades and then decay as the oil gives out. 
 
 The most important effect of petrolemii upon man is the way in 
 which it has led to two gi-eat improvements in machinery: (1) It 
 has made all sources of power much more effective by maldng it 
 possible to use high-s])eed machinery, requiring cheap, heavy lubri- 
 cants. (2) It has led to the invention of the light engines which are 
 necessaiy for the automobile and especially the airplane. If there 
 had i>een no such thing as cheap, easily combustible kerosene and 
 gasoline it is doubtful whether we should have had these means of 
 transportation for generations. When the world's petrolemn is 
 practically exhausted and its place taken by alcohol and other sub- 
 stances still to be invented, future generations will still owe to petro- 
 lemn one of the most important advances in transportation. 
 
 An Example of the Political Effect cf Petroleum. — The high value 
 and limited distril)ution of i)etroloum make all the great nations eager 
 to secure new supplies. This is especially true of countries like lOng- 
 land and Germany, which have little or none within their own terri- 
 tories. Even if countries have an abundance at home, howe\-er, their 
 business men are eager to find new^ supplies, for the development of 
 new fields is extremely profitable. Hence when a wondei-fully jiro- 
 ductive oil ivgion was discovered on the northeast coast of Mexico 
 near Tampico, Americans, British, Germans, Dutch, and other 
 foreignei-s all hastened to get control of as much land as possible. 
 The production of oil increased so ra])iilly that although it was negh- 
 gible in 1910, Mexico to-day stands next to the United States as an 
 oil producer, and th{> Tam]:)ico region ])r()duces more oil than any 
 other area of eciual extent. 
 
 The oil fields of Mexico ai'e liiulil)' iin])ortant. for that, country 
 itself as well as for the foreigners who use the oil or who make 
 fortunes by ex])loiting it.. Since ^lexico has little (oal, the oil is by 
 far her givatest fuel. It is used not only for some of the factories, 
 street car lines and lighting systems, but for about half the railways. 
 Still more im]iortant from the Mexican standjKjint is the fact that 
 taxes on oil lands and on exported oil are one of the main sources of 
 the go\-ei'ninent 's revenue. 
 
THE SOURCES OF POWTSR 201 
 
 Because of these facts there has been much conflict between three 
 sets of people, each wishing to get as much as possible from the oil 
 fields: (1) the foreign exploiters who have acquired title to the lands 
 and have invested much money; (2) the Mexican government, which 
 feels that it must impose heavy taxes in order that Mexico may get 
 its fair share of the great wealth that keeps flowing out of the ground; 
 and (3) Mexican bandits and rebels, who also waiit a share in this 
 wealth and sometimes terrorize the workers at the oil fields, rol) and 
 even kill the paymasters and others, and thus compel the oil com- 
 panies to pay large sums for protection. The Mexican government 
 has sometimes been unable to prevent this or to punish the offendei-s. 
 Such complications lead some people to say that people from the 
 United States have no right to exploit the resources of their more 
 backward and less competent neighljor, while others say that this 
 country ought to intervene and give Mexico a good govermnent. 
 
 In certain respects the relation of Japan to the coal mines of China 
 is like that of the United States to the oil of IMexico. In such cases 
 the fact that a backward country contains wonderfully rich supplies 
 of a valuable source of power gives rise to one of the most complex 
 of the political problems that confront the League of Nations. 
 
 The Standard Oil Company. — Petroleum occui-s in such a way that 
 a few people can easily obtain control of a large part of the product. 
 WTien this happens, great economies can be practiced and prices can 
 be kept up so that enormous fortunes are made. The history of the 
 Standai-d Oil Company illustrates the matter. That Company, 
 though now broken up into a number of supposedly indc^pendent con- 
 cerns, holds its place as one of the largest industrial organizations 
 in the world. In this countiy only the United States Steel Corpor- 
 ation exceeds it. Time and again it has driven rivals out of the 
 market. It has done this largely because it could produce oil more 
 cheaply than its rivals and could utilize every possible by-product, 
 such as vaseline, paraffine, benzine, and a hundred others. More- 
 over, in the early days it obtained special railroad rates or entered 
 the tenitoiy where a competitor hkuIc its sales and ])ut the prices so 
 low that the other company had to go out of business. TIumi j^rices 
 were raised and the great Standard Oil Company got back what it 
 had lost during the period of competition. Being protected from 
 competition in the United States by peculiar tariff regulations, the 
 comjxany kept prices at a high level in this countiy and soUl much 
 cheaper abroad than at home. In order to mcvi c()in])(iiii(iii in for- 
 eign markets the company' also acciuired interests in other countries. 
 In these various ways and also by wis(^ management it acciuinul So or 
 90 ])er cent of all the oil business in the United Staff's Thus since 
 
202 MAX'S K1:LA1"I()\ IO soil, AM) MlXllUALS 
 
 alumt ISSO it has dislributrd more tli.-iii a lullion dollars in dividciids 
 an<l has also a('(iuii-cd a vast, amount of jji^opcrt y which lias hecn 
 j)aiil for oul of pidlils. 
 
 The reason why the Standard Oil (\)ni])any has ])0('omo so strong 
 is not that it owns all the oil W(>lls, for it owns nuich loss than half, 
 l)u1 l)('caus(> it contiols tiansportatioii. Almost cvcrvwhci'c it has 
 succeeded in pr(>ventinji; the construction of any i^jx' lines excejit its 
 own. Since transportation l)y ])i]ie lines is far cheaper than b}- rail, 
 independent pi'oducers can iai-el>- make a profit unless they can use 
 ])il)e-lines. Then^fore they have had to s(dl their product to the p;rcat 
 com])any which dominated the business and would not sei've th(Mn 
 ()lhei-\vise. l'\)rt uiiately some of the leadinji,- mi ii not only in the 
 Standai'd Oil Company but in otlua' lines of business feel that at 
 least i)art of tlu^ w(>alth derived from great natural resom-ees and fi-om 
 the growth of ]ioi)ulation belongs to the comnumity and not to them- 
 selves. Therefore consitleral^le sums of Standard Ci\ profits have 
 gone back to the pul<lic in the form of (Midowments to such institu- 
 tions as Chicago I'liiveisity, the International Health ( 'ommission, 
 and the gicat Ivockefeller i''ounda1 ion. 
 
 How Power May be Obtained in the Future. — In s])ite of all 
 possible economies and inventions the time will surely come w lien new 
 sources of ])ower will be needed. jMan-]X)wer and animal-i)ower have 
 long been insufficient. The space available for raising wood decnviscs 
 as the world's ])o])ulation becomes more dense. Coal and ))e1roleum 
 are rapidly being exhausted. Among the sources of jiower now used 
 onl}' the wind and running water can be counted on as p{>nnanent 
 sources of abundant power. It is estimated that when ])ro])er dams 
 and resen'oirs are built the streams of the United States may ])ossibly 
 sup])ly more than 1()(),()()(),000 horse-power. At jin^scait our factories 
 aii<l traiis])()rtati()n systems use :d)out 30,000,000 li()ise-])()wer; the 
 heat used in houses, and tlu^ power us(>d on farms, in automobik's, and 
 for all manner of minor ])ur])oses ])r()ba.bly brings the total \\]^ to 
 50,000,000. Thus if the water-i)o\ver could all be utilized it would 
 suffice for the ])resent, but our ])()])ulation is growing with great 
 rapidity, and the amount of ]iower n(M>(led ])er individual is also 
 increasing by leaps and bounds. Hence if we have 200, 000,000 
 people in 1!)70, we shall iirobably need much moix^ than 100, ()()(), 000 
 horse-power for all ])uri)()ses including heat ;ind light. Similar con- 
 ditions will ])rob;d)ly ])i-e\;iil in ot liei- cduiit I'i. s. Thus cxcw w lien all 
 the water-power has been harnessed, the woild will ultimately n(H^d 
 nmch additional ]iower to heat its houses. <'o(ik fnod, carry on indus- 
 tries, and kee]) t i'ans])()rt;il ion systems in o])ei'ation. 
 
 Pai"t of t.his can i)ei-ha])s be ol)tained from the wind, but the 
 
THE SOURCE OF POWER 203 
 
 greatest source of power is the sun. In the (h'iei- part of Texas, where 
 the sky is usually cloudless, any two average counties among the 245 
 in the State receive from the sun enough power to run all the factories 
 and transportation systems in the whole of the United States. If we 
 can de\dse means of using sun-power directly and cheapty, one of the 
 world's greatest problems will be solved. To-day steam can be made 
 in solar steam engines whose boilers are heated by concentrating the 
 sun's rays upon them by means of mirrors. Such engines, however, 
 are too expensive to be practicable, and can be used only in places 
 where the sun is rarely clouded. The engineer who invents a solar 
 engine that is practical and cheap, and that has sufficient storage to 
 carry it through cloudy days, will do mankind a most wonderful 
 service. When that is accomplished, we may hope at last to get rid 
 of our strike-breeding coal mines except as places from which material 
 for dyes, medicines, and so forth is extracted. We might also get 
 rid of the factory chimneys that pollute the air of our cities. Per- 
 haps our factory towns will be as clean and wholesome as are those in 
 Switzerland and elsewhere that now use hydro-electric power. We 
 may be able to extract aluminum cheaply and in enormous quantities 
 and thus conserve less abundant metals such as iron and copper. 
 We may perhaps pump water for irrigation so cheaply as to cultivate 
 many dry regions that now are almost uninhabited. We may be able 
 to heat our houses electrically with as much ease as we now light 
 them. Think of the work and dirt that would be saved in that one 
 way! The cost of transportation and of manufactured goods will be 
 lessened, for now one of the largest items, especially in transportation, 
 is the cost of coal. In short, if ever solar energy should ])ecome 
 cheaply and easily av^ailable, life might l)e revolutionizotl almost as 
 nuu'h as it has been by the invention of the steam engine, and the 
 change would in most respects be beneficial. 
 
 QUESTIONS, EXERCISES, AND PROBLEMS 
 
 1. Make a list of ten industrial plants near your home, including at least one 
 power j)lant. Classifj^ them according to (1) the source of power; (2) the use to 
 which tho jiower is i)ut; (3) the distance and method bj- which the power is trans- 
 mitted; (4) the relative cost of the jtowcM' and flic reasons for choosinji; each 
 Iiarticular kind. 
 
 2. In Switzerland tourists are surprised to see even the most primitive cot- 
 tages lighted by electricity. List six other parts of the world where a similar 
 development is likely to take place. Arrange these in the order in which >()U t liink 
 an investment in water power would be profitable, and give your reasons. 
 
 3. IMake a map of all the routes of transjiortation in j'our home district. Show 
 the method of transportation by the character of the line u.sed; for example: rail- 
 roads, a solid line; trolleys, a double l)roken line; automobile roads, a dotted line; 
 
204 MAN'S lUOLATlOX TO SOIL AM) MIMOHALS 
 
 wapon roads, a line of dashes. Color the lines according to the kind of power 
 enii)loved. Compare the routes acconhng to (1) t()|)onraphy; (2) their value to 
 the coninuuiity; ('.i) the difficulties of construction. 
 
 4. Make a tracing of a map showing the coal fields of EuruiJC. -Vl.su trace 
 from a population map the most densely pojiulated jiarts of Europe. Compare 
 these two maps and interpret them. Contnist the density of jMjpulation in the 
 Russian coal fields and in tho.se of Alsace and Belgium. Explain t!ie diffcreiKc 
 
 5. Make similar tracings for Great Britain. Pick out five centers of den.se 
 population and explain how they differ in their relation to the sources of j^ower. 
 
 6. E.xpress the production of jx'troleuni in various countries in the form of a 
 graph. 
 
 7. Make a map of the world showing by different shadings or colors the kinds 
 of ]K)wer that arc most conunon. l'^xi)lain ycur map in terms of geographical 
 environment. 
 
PART VI 
 
 MAN'S RELATION TO CLIMATE 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 CLIMATE AND THE CLIMATIC ZONES 
 
 A. Why Climate is Important 
 
 Climate is the most important of all the geographic factors. It 
 acts upon man in three chief ways: (1) It sets up barriers which 
 limit his movements. (2) It determines the supply of most of the 
 materials needed, not only for food, but for clothing and shelter. (3) 
 It has a direct and important influence upon health and energy. 
 
 (1) How Climate Acts as a Barrier on the Ocean. — Clmiate limits 
 man's movements directly when a rainstorm keeps people in the house 
 for example, or a gale prevents ships from going to sea. Its chief 
 effects, however, are indirect or in combination with other factors. 
 For example, a large part of the difficulty in crossing oceans and 
 mountains is climatic. America did not remain undiscovered so long 
 mercl}^ because of the broad ocean, but because people feared that 
 climatic conditions in the form of storms and winds would wreck them 
 or prevent them from coming home again. To-day travelers do not 
 fear the ocean when it is cahn, but only when it is disturbed by cli- 
 matic influences such as winds, waves, fogs, and icebergs like that 
 against which a great ship called the Titanic struck her bows and sank 
 with 1500 people. The effectiveness of the ocean as a barrier would 
 be gi'catly reduced if the climatif dangers could lie eliminated. 
 
 How Climate Sets up a Barrier among Mountains. — In the same 
 way the barricn- of the mountains is largely climatic. For instance, in 
 crossing the Himalayas from India to western China the steep slopes 
 and thin air are indeed a great hindrance. Yet these direct effects 
 of relief arc far less dreaded than are the climatic conditions of low 
 temperature, nipping wind, and fierce snowstorms, followed In' the 
 blinding glare of the sun. Woi"sc still are the cUmatic conditions that 
 cause avalanches which sometimes bury whole caravans, and glac'e'-s 
 
 205 
 
200 MAN'S RELATION TO CLIMATE 
 
 where man and Ix^ast somotinirs plnnp;o to tlioir death in deep cre- 
 vasses. Worst of all is the absence of vegetation, because the climate 
 is so cold lliat on vast stretches of high barren plateau no one can 
 dwell and not even p;rass can gxow. It is so diflicult to brinp; food 
 there that among the caravans on the way from India to western 
 China, hundreds of weakened animals die each year from hunger 
 and exjiosure. In a single day's journej^ a traveler counted 32 dead 
 horses that had recently fallen l)y the trail; the next da}' he counted 
 220; and the third day 474, in adchtion to one human corpse. All that 
 was due to the cold climate acting either directl}^ through storm 
 and wind, or indirectly through the absence of vegetation. 
 
 How Climate Bars the Way within the Frigid Zone. — The climate 
 of cold regions erects barriers even more impassable than those of 
 mountains and oceans. The world's largest unexplored areas are 
 the snowy plateaus of Antarctica and Greenland and the bitterly cold 
 regions of northern America and Asia. So impassable are the great 
 fields of snow and ice that the poles were not reached till the 
 present centuiy in spite of attempt after attempt. Peary reached 
 the North Pole and Amundsen the South only after long experience 
 had taught explorers how best to use dogs and other means of trans- 
 portation, how to caiTy and store great supplies of food and fuel, and 
 how to ]-)ro^•ide the warmest clothing and shelter. 
 
 How Climate Acts as a Barrier in Deserts. — Next in difficulty to 
 1 1 le (I imatic bamer of cold regions come hot, dry deserts. In southern 
 Arahia the desert climate makes such a barrier that no explorer has 
 ever penetrated a region hundreds of thousands of scjuare miles in ex- 
 tent. The natives fear this region not only because there is no 
 water, but because of the extreme difficulty of clmibing the loft}^ 
 dunes of diy, sliding sand piled up lunulreds of feet by violent winds. 
 When the wind dies down the dust settles in the low flat areas between 
 the dunes. As no rain falls for years at a time the dust l)ecomes so 
 deep that one sinks in it above the ankles even on the. edges, and 
 every movement raises it in stifling, choking clouds. No one dares 
 go farther for fear of sinking de(>])er and then falling and being 
 smothered. 
 
 How Climate Sets up a Barrier in Tropical Forests. — The damp 
 heat of troi)ical forests creates a barrier to lunuan movement almost 
 as serious as that of deserts. Not only does such heat cause the 
 growth of dense forests through which 1ra\('l is ahnost unpossible, 
 but it is most exhausting to human energy, and fostei^s some of the 
 world's most deadly fevers. Even so wise and A'igorous an explorer as 
 Theodore Roosevelt was baffled by the barrier of the South American 
 forests, and could not escape the ravages of tropical fever. Thus on 
 
CLIMATE AND CLIMATIC ZONES 
 
 207 
 
208 
 
 MAX'S KKLATIOX TO CLIMATE 
 
 ^ 1 
 
CLIMATE AND CLIIMATIC ZONES 209 
 
 oceans, among mountains, in deserts, and in both high and 
 low latitudes such clunatic conditions as high winds, intense 
 cold, extreme aridity, and damp tropical heat, are among the 
 circumstances most unfavorable to man's movement from place 
 to place. 
 
 (2) Clhnate and the Food Supply. — The effect of climate on man's 
 material needs can best be illustrated bj^ considering the food supply, 
 for materials for clothing and shelter vary from place to place in the 
 same way as food. Clhnate, more than anything else, determines 
 the nature and abundance of vegetation and hence of man's food 
 supply. People who have spent their lives among the forests and 
 meadows of a moist temperate climate such as prevails in the eastern 
 United States often feel as if such vegetation prevailed everywhere. 
 Similarly a person who has always lived in a diy climate is likely 
 to think that all parts of the world consist of thriving in-igatcd 
 orchards and fields surrounded by barren land with only a few scraggly 
 bushes and tufts of dry grass. The man who lives among the forests 
 and meadows may raise cattle, oats, turnips, and potatoes. The 
 man in the chy climate may raise grapes, oranges, wheat, and celery. 
 These examples illustrate how greatly food may vary in response to 
 the climate. 
 
 Variations in the food supply in their turn have much to do with 
 people's habits. Since the Esldmo, for instance, lives in a climate 
 wliich almost forbids the gi'owth of vegetation upon the land, but not 
 in the sea, he must catch sea animals for food. Therefore he is a 
 good hunter and a bold fisherman, and wandei-s far and wide upon 
 the water. He is as much at home in his kayak as upon the land. The 
 Fiji Islander, on the other hand, lives in a climate where a few bread- 
 fruit trees or cocoanut palms furnish food for himself and his family 
 without work. That is one reason why he is lazy and effeminate and 
 spends most of his time sitting idly at home. 
 
 (3) Climate in Relation to Health and Energy. — Man's health and 
 energy are influenced by climate both directh' and indirectly. In the 
 temperate zone eveiyone knows that some days the air is invigorating 
 and on others depressing. IMost people work slowly on hot, nuiggy 
 days, for if they work fast the result is unusual weariness. On a clear 
 bracing day in the autumn, on the contrary, we often feel as if we 
 could do anytliing no matter how hard. Still later, on a cold winter 
 day, we sometimes run to keep warm, but in the house we feel a little 
 dull and stupid. Thus in many ways oiu- activity of mind and body 
 is infhienced directly by climate. That is one chief reason why 
 tropical races have never made nni<li i)r()gress. Their climate is too 
 warm. On the other hand, such peoi)lc as the C'hukjees of northern 
 
210 MAN'S KELATKJN TU CLIMATE 
 
 Asia are made stupid and tlicir propross is retarded because their 
 climate is too cold. 
 
 Climate also influences the body indirectly, especially through 
 diseases. "When negroes or other tr()])i('al races change their climate 
 by coming to the North they are liable to suffer from consumption, 
 pneumonia, and similar diseases of the lungs. In lr(»])ical couiilries 
 the diseases encovu'aged by the clhuate are far woi^se. There the 
 cUmatic conditions favor many disease-bearing insects such as the 
 anopheles mosquito, which carries malaria, and the st€(jo7naria mos- 
 quito, which carries yellow fever. How bad the tro])ical diseases arc 
 maj' be judged from the account of a recent traveler in the Amazon 
 Basin. He speaks of ihc change in some of his comrades after only 
 two weeks in the steaming, insect-inh^sled forest. "Several of them 
 were already suffering from violent attacks of malaria, and their 
 faces were colorless and sallow; others who had been in the region 
 longer stared at our boat with sunken, lusterless eyes hi which not 
 even a vestige of interest in our visit or of hope was evident ; a iew had 
 apparently reached the stage ^\ here the sight of the twelve newl}- made 
 graves on the hill-top no longer aroused feelings of dread or a]ii)rc- 
 hension, but rather of indifference tempered with longing for a wel- 
 come release." 
 
 The Varying Nature of Climate. — Among the five great elements . 
 of ])hysical enviionment climate is by far the most variable. The 
 location of a place cannot vary; the land forms and water bodies do 
 not change perceptibly during many generations; and neither the 
 soil nor minerals change appreciably except where man int<>nTnes. 
 Climatic conditions, on the contrary, arc constantly changing. In 
 the temperate zone a down^iour of rain is followed by cloudless 
 skies to-morrow; a warm, muggy day by one that is crisp and bracing. 
 
 Some winters are long and so cold that nuich snow accunnilates; 
 othei-s are short and opc^n. One year may be warm and wet, and the 
 crops abundant; while the next year is so dry that tlu> farmers can 
 scarcely raise enough to make a living. I'.ven in ti-o])ica.l and ])olar 
 regions there are marked differences between different years, although 
 the variabilit}' is not so great as in the t(Mn])erate zone. 
 
 Climatic variations last through long ])criods as well as short. 
 Perhaps twenty-five or thii'ty thousand ycai-s ago occui-icd the cli- 
 max of the last glacial e))och. Ice several thousand fcvi thick covered 
 much of northwestern Muropc and most of North Anieiica noith 
 of the Missouri and Ohio Rivers. Since that time the climate 
 has changed so that most of the ice has nu'lted and some of the jdaces 
 whicli it covered have become the most progressive parts of the world. 
 The change, however, has been irregular, for sometimes the climate 
 
CLIMATE AND CLIMATIC ZONES 211 
 
 has for a time tended to go back to the former glacial conditions, and 
 then has become even more mild th:in at present. Altogether we 
 may say that cUmate is the variable factor in geographic environ- 
 ment. With every climatic variation, whether it be a gi'eat change 
 lasting thousands of yeare or a little seasonal variation from one year 
 to another, or from month to month, there is a correspontUng change 
 in vegetation, in anunals, and in man. 
 
 B. How Climatic Zones Originate 
 
 The Controlling Climatic Factors.— The fii-st step in understand- 
 ing climate is to know why it differs from place to place. These 
 differences depend on four factoi's: (I) the earth's rotation, (II) the 
 revolution of the earth and the inclination of its axis, (III) the dis- 
 tribution of land and water, and {l\) the relief of the lands. Let us 
 take each of these four factors separately and consider its effect upon 
 tcm]XM'ature, pressure, winds, and rainfall. 
 
 How Rotation Affects the Distribution of Temperature. — In order 
 to undei"stand the effect of rotation, let us for the present ignore the 
 other three factoi's. Let us suj^pose that the earth's axis has no 
 inclination, and that the relief and the distribution of land and sea 
 have no effect. A\'ith such a simphfied globe the sun's movcnnent; 
 through the heavens would at all tunes follow the couree it now follows 
 at the eciuinoxes. Hence there would be no seasons. For the reasons 
 pointed out in Chapter 11 the equator would always b(> ihc warmest 
 part of the earth, and the temperature would d(H-line steadily toward 
 the poles. 
 
 The Distribution of Pressure. — The most prominent feature of the 
 distribution of atmosjiheric pressui'e on the earth as a whole is the 
 more or less regular rise of pressure from polar regions to approxi- 
 mately iMitude 30°. Since the days of Ferrel this has been supposed 
 to be due to a circumpolar whiil ai'ising from the westerly winds which 
 make an eddy with a depression in the center like a whirlpool in 
 water. This explanation, however, is so doubtful that for the present 
 we may think of a steady increase in pressun^ from equator to poles as 
 the normal condition on a simple rotating planet with a uniform surface. 
 
 This simple distribution of pressure, however, would be altered by 
 the temperature conditions described above. The high temi)erature 
 of equatorial regions causes the air there to expand. Hence, if the 
 atmosphere had an upper surface, as we may say for convenience, the 
 heat would raise this surface well bej'ond the level that it would occupy 
 under the influence of rotation alone. Such Imlging would not in it- 
 self cause a change in pressure, for the total amount of air would be 
 
212 
 
 MAN'S KKLATIOX TO CLIMATE 
 
 the same after expansion as bc'fore. as a matter of fact, however, a 
 portion of the overbulp;inp; air flows away just as water flows from the 
 center of a g:i'eat fountain where the supply wells up from Inflow. 
 The air that flows away from the equatorial bulp;e moves northward 
 or southward, but not east or west, because there the same bul^ins 
 occui-s. So much air flows from the equator that the pressure at the 
 
 I'ol.ir Calms 
 
 Zone of the 
 
 WosUTly Winds 
 
 Tropic;il Calms 
 
 N.E. Trade Winds 
 
 Low rrcssure 
 due to Heat 
 
 Eiiuatorinl Calms 0"| 
 
 loi 
 
 S.E. Trade Winds 
 
 Tropical Calms 
 
 Zone of tlie 
 Westerly Winds 
 
 Fic. G8. — Pressure I^elts on a Siini)lifii'(I (Ilohe 
 
 sarth's surface dcH-reases. ITencc an (iimiloridl hdl of loir ])r<f<snrc is 
 foriiicfl as shown in Fifj;. 08. 
 
 Ill tiie latitude of the tropics and a little farther poleward so much 
 ;iir is added by ihc flow from the equator that the pressure is increased, 
 foiininfi; a suhtropical beli of hi(jh prcHHure in cacli li(Mnis])h(M'e. Farther 
 j)oleward the air that has risen in equal orinl latitudes <iia(lual1\' 
 descends givinp; rise to westei-ly winds. These circle lomid the eartli 
 in a fj;reat whirl wliidi i-ediices llie picssiwe in liiirh latitudes. Tims 
 a simplified ^lobe would have an ('(luatorial belt of low pressui'C 
 
CLIMATE AND CLIMATIC ZONES 213 
 
 between two subtropical belts of high pressure, while in high lati- 
 tudes there would lie two polar areas of lov pressure. 
 
 How Winds Would Blow on a Simplified Globe. — Let us now see 
 how the pressure belts would influence the winds on our simplified 
 globe. Their distribution is shown in Fig. 68. We will begin with 
 the subtropical belts of high pressure because they are the starting 
 point of two of the earth's chief types of surface winds. The weight 
 of the upper air in the regions of high pressure causes the air to settle 
 slowly downward, but the movement is so gentle that it cannot be 
 felt. Hence the subtropical high-pressure belts form regions of 
 calms, the " horse latitudes," as they are called. 
 
 On the borders of the subtropical belt of high pressure the down- 
 ward movement in the central region forces the air outward and 
 forms regular winds on the earth's surface. These blow toward the 
 equatorial l:)elt of low pressure on one side and toward the polar area 
 of low pressure on the other. In the warm equatorial belt of low 
 pressure, as we have seen, the air is heated and expands so that 
 part flows away at the top. This reduces the mass of the air so 
 much that the cooler, heavier air from the neighboring high pressure 
 areas is able to push in below and lift the warm, light air. This 
 cooler air is in turn warmed and pushed up. Thus an ascending 
 current of air is formed in the equatorial belt and there are no steady 
 winds. In other words this ascending current is accompanied by 
 equatorial calms just as the descending current is accompanied by 
 subtropical calms. 
 
 How Rotation Influences the Direction of the Winds. — Although 
 the winds that blow out from the subtropical high-})ressin"e area start 
 toward the equator and the poles, the rotation of the earth gradually 
 deflects them. In the northern hemisphere the deflection is toward 
 the right and in the southern toward the left. Thus in the northern 
 hemisphere a wind that starts toward the pole from the northern side 
 of the subtropical belt is gi-adually deflected to the right initil it 
 l)ecomes a southwesterly wind, that is it blows from the southwest, 
 for winds are always named from the direction whence they come. 
 Fuither deflection causes such a wind to become westerly, as is shown 
 in Fig. 68, and even northwesterly. Thus it happens that on the 
 noi-thern side of the northern subtropical belt of high pix^ssuic tlu^-e 
 is a belt of prevailing " Westerhes." Similarly the air jiressetl out 
 from the southern subti-ojiical l)(4t toward the south |)ol(> starts as a 
 north wind, but 1>\- ddhM-lion to its left bcconu-s a northwest and 
 finally a west wind. This gives rise to a belt of " ^^'estel•li(>s " in the 
 southern hemisphere as well as in the northern. 
 
 Let us go l)ack now to the noithern heniisph(M-(\ On the south- 
 ern side of the northern sul)tropieal belt the air starts ccjua forward 
 
214 MANS RELATION TO CLIMATE 
 
 as a northorly wiiul. It is dofloctod to its rijiht just as in the wost- 
 crlies. Ilciu'o it Itlows as a iiortlicast wind. The direction and steadi- 
 ness of sueh winds liave caused thcni to he callcil the "Northeast 
 Trades." In the southern henns])h(M-e similar winds start ('({uator- 
 ward as southerly winds from the sul)tropical helt, hut because of a 
 left-lianded detlection lu'comc Southeast winds. This with their 
 steadiness j:;ives thejn the name of "Southeast Trades."* 
 
 Tlie rej^ularity and strength of the tilules is so great thai, for 
 centuries saihng ships from England and France have fo\nid it to 
 their advantage to go south to the trade wind zone in order to be 
 blown wcstwaixl to America. On the return voyage, on the other 
 hand, if a ship started from Morida., for instance, it went north at 
 fii-st in order to get out of the trade winds into tlie w(^sterli(>s which 
 would blow it back to Europe. \\'ith tlu^ increasing use of aii-ships 
 the direction of the wind is becoming of still gr(>ater importance. It 
 is worth while for an airship to go hundreds of mik>s out of its direct 
 course in oitler to find favorable winds. 
 
 The discover}' of America was made easier because Columbus haj)- 
 pened to get into the trade winds which blew him across the 
 ocean. The fii-st airships to cross the ocean, on the contrary, used 
 the westerlies instead of the trades because they wanted to cross win re 
 the ocean was naiTow. Hence in 1019 when Englishmen were trying 
 to forestall Americans in being the fii-st to make a trans-Atlantic 
 flight they brought their airships by steamer to Newfoundland in 
 order to fly with the prevailing winds. 
 
 The westerlies and the trades together with the regions of calms 
 give rise to nine wind belts. In the center lies the equatorial belt of 
 low pressure, rising air and calms. On tlu^ north side of this belt lie 
 the northeast trades and on the south the southeast trades. Next 
 to them come the two subtropical belts of high ])i-essure, d(^scending 
 air, and calms. Still farther toward the poles come the w(^slerlies 
 blowing generally from the southw{>st in the northern luunisi)here 
 and from the northwest m the soutiiern. finally around tiie i)oles 
 we have two areas of iiregular winds and calms. 
 
 Zo72es of RainjaU on a RoUitiiuj CU.hc. — On a simplified rotating 
 glol>e the zones of rainfall would coi-ics])on<l (o the belts of teiii])(>ra- 
 ture, pressure, and winds that have just been descrii)ed. Jvain occurs 
 because air is cooled, fweryone knows that warm air can hokl more 
 
 *To understand the deflection of the \vind.s by (he earth's rotation, suppose 
 yourself t(» be in the northern subtropical belt of IurIi pressure. Face the equator 
 and benin to walk southward, but as you proceed, turn more and more to your 
 right. Your course will correspond to that of the northeast trades. Repeat the 
 experiment to represent the .southea.st trades, and the westerlies of each hemi- 
 sphere, remembering that the earth's rotation causes deflection to the ri^ht in the 
 northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern. 
 
CLIMATE AND CLIMATIC ZONES 
 
 215 
 
 moisture than cold.* That is why wet shoes dry so much bettor beside 
 tlie Idtchen stove than in the woodshed. When air rises the pressure 
 upon it decreases because there is less air above it. Therefore it 
 expands, and in so doing grows cool. When we fill a tire with a 
 handpump we notice that the pmnp cylinder gets hot, for the com- 
 pression of air develops heat. Conversely when air expands it loses 
 heat and grows cool. Thus rising air becomes cool. It gives up 
 moisture in the form of clouds, much as warm, moist air gives up 
 dew when it touches a pitcher of ice water and thus causes the pitcher 
 to " sweat." Hence clouds are formed and rain falls upon any part 
 of the earth where the air rises sufficientlv. 
 
 
 
 Compressing, 
 Warniing', 
 Capacity for 
 holding moisture 
 increasing 
 
 ^>^ 
 
 ^^Atx^ 
 
 Area of 
 
 Low Pressure 
 
 Calms. 
 
 ..d^r^ Area of 
 
 ^^ 
 
 High Pp 
 
 Cnln 
 
 Fig. 69. — Diagram of Rising and Cooling Air 
 Vertical scale so exaggerated that one mile occupies as much space as a thousand miles 
 horizontally. 
 
 Rainfall of the Equatorial Belt of Low Pressure. — In no otlun- part 
 of the world does air rise so steadily and so abimdantly as in the 
 equatorial belt of low pressure. Therefore this is the region of great- 
 est rainfall. Fig. 69 shows what happens there. During the rainy 
 season of the equatorial belt, the mornings are usuall.y sunny; clouds 
 gather towaixl noon, showers fall in the early afternoon, and then the 
 air (clears. So regularly does this happen that people count on it, 
 and plan accorchngly. "Let's play tennis an hour after the shower," 
 one man may say to anotlun-. 
 
 Rainfall of the Trade Wind Belts. — Since the air in the tradi^ 
 wind belts moves horizontally its capacity for moisture suiTers ])rac- 
 
 * \\\ roality the air dop.s not hold tho moi.sturo, for tho jjarticlos of both water 
 vapor and gas are so small and far apart that tliey fly about in the same general 
 area and interfere with one another very little. It is .s/wirp, not air, that holds 
 water vapor, hnt the cxjircssion used in the text is so common that it is employed 
 here ar.d elsewhere. 
 
216 MANS l{i:LAil().\ H) CLlMArK 
 
 t icMlly no chanjio bocaiiso of inciease or dccrcaso of jm-cssuiv. Some 
 cliaiino, howcvci', arises from flip fact tluit on its way towartl the 
 (H|uaU)r the air moves from cooler to warmei" parts of \\\v earth's sur- 
 face. Thei-efdi'e the air gradually grows warm and the cai)acity of 
 space to hold moistiu'e is increased. Hence the probability of rain 
 grows less and less. That is one reason why the Sahara is so arid. 
 
 Rainfall of the Subtropical Belts of High Pressure. — Poleward 
 from the (hying trade winds the air descends in llie sulit i()])ical l)elts 
 of high pr(>ssure and calms. Therefore hkc tlic coinpicsscd air in 
 an automobile pumj:) this air grows warmer. lien('(> the amount of 
 water vapor that can be mingled with it constantly increases and 
 when the diy ail' readies the earth's surface what moisture it finds 
 on the ground is eagerly evajKjrated. Thus a dry belt is pi'oduced and 
 the subtro])ical regions are imiong the di-iest parts of the world. 
 
 Rainfall of the Belt of Westerly Winds: Cyclonic Storms. — In 
 the belts of westerly wimls the air moves hoi-izontally i)art of the 
 time. This movement may cause a little rain l)(>cause the air is mov- 
 ing from lower to higher latitudes and hence is gi-owing cool. The 
 chief reason for the abundant rainfall of the belts of westerly winds, 
 however, is that they are regions of cyclonic storms. 8uch stoi-ms arc 
 areas of low pressure, 500 to 1000 miles or nioi'e in wiiltli. The winds 
 ])low toward the centei's of such ureas, but not directly, for they ai-e 
 dedected to the right in the northern hemisi)here and to the left in the 
 southeiii. This causes th(> air in such areas to move si)irall>' in gi'eat 
 whirls and hence gives rise to the term cyclonic which means wheel- 
 like. Sometimes cyclonic storms of small area and great severity 
 occui- in the trade wind belt. These ti-oi)ical cyclones are called 
 '' hui-ricanes." Tornadoes, also, which are often wrongly called 
 cyclones, are cyclonic in character, but cover only a small area and 
 are very severe. Some lhimd(M'st()nns are of the same kind, but less 
 .severe. By far the most important cj'clonic storms, however, are 
 those which cause the ordinary changes of weather in the I'nited 
 States, Europe, .Japan, Ai-gentina, New Zealand, and other parts of 
 the l)elts of pi'cvailing westerlies. 
 
 Ordinary cyclonic storms, or cyclones, as they may jiidpeily be 
 called, are always associated with ant i-ey clonic aicas or anti-cyclones. 
 These are areas of high jiresssure which may be .")00 to 1000 miles in 
 diameter or may sometimes cover a contiiuMit. The high ])i-(>ssure of 
 anti-cyclonic areas causes the winds to blow outward in all dii'cct ions. 
 These out-blowing winds naturally move toward the low-])ivssure 
 areas of llie cyclones. Bf)<h anti-cyclones and es])ecially cyclones are 
 carried foi'w;ii-il in the gener.-il (hilt of the westeily winds. Some- 
 times the center of a cyclonic storm moves 1000 miles in a day while 
 at r)ther times it moves onlv a few miles. 
 
CLIMATE AND CLIMATIC ZONES 217 
 
 How Cyclones and Anti-Cyclones Influence the Weather. — The 
 
 passage first of cj'cloncs and then of anti-cj'clones over a i)lace gives 
 rise to frequent changes of weather. Since the cyclones are areas of 
 low pressure their conditions resemble those of the equatorial Ix'lt- 
 of low pressure. Their passage is accompanied by a gentle uj^ward 
 movement of the air, and by clouds and rain. That is why the word 
 cyclone means almost the same thing as storm. Because of the high 
 pressure in anti-cyclones, on the other hand, the air there descends, 
 just as in the subtropical high-pressure belt. Hence it becomes 
 relatively warm and its power to hold nioisture increases. There- 
 fore anti-cyclones arc marked by clear weather. Anti-cyclones arc 
 often cooler than cyclones, especially in winter. This is jjccausc the 
 clear skies permit heat to be radiated rapidly during the long 
 nights, and because the air usually moves from higher to lower 
 latitudes. Aloreover, sometimes the loss of heat at high levels is 
 so great that the air may come down cool in spite of the heat due to 
 compression. 
 
 Cyclones and anti-cyclones are of the utmost importance to man. 
 The cyclonic storms troulMe the farmer in summer because they bring 
 rain when he wants to get in his hay. They trouble the railroads in 
 winter by piling up deep drifts of snow. They bring heavy rains 
 which make floods like those wliich at various tmies have almost 
 annihilated such towns as Johnstown, Pennsylvania, and Dayton, 
 Ohio. Yet in spite of these disadvantages, cyclonic storms are one 
 of the best things that a country can liave, for they bring rain at all 
 seasons. In the same way anti-cyclones are both a trouble and a 
 blessing. They troul^le the peach grower in New Jei-sey, for example, 
 by bringing frosts when the trees are in blossom. They do great good, 
 however, l^ecause in combination with cyclones they cause constant 
 changes of weather and these are one of the best aids to health and a 
 great stimulus to work. 
 
 Rainfall of Polar Regions. — The two polar Ix^lts might be expected 
 to have nuich precipitation in the form of either rain or snow, because 
 the pressure is low. As a matter of fact, however, they have little 
 because the air is so constantly cold that it can aljsorb little moisture. 
 Hence when the air rises in storms it pc^ds only slight pre<'i]iitation. 
 
 How the Earth's Revolution and the Inclination of its Axis Affect 
 the Climatic Belts. — If the eiuth's axis were not inclined to the plane 
 of the orbit, in which the earth moves around the sun, the climatic 
 belts would always remain in the location shown in Fig. 68. Hence 
 there would be no seasons. Since the axis is inclined, however, and 
 the vertical rays of the sun migrate back and forth from latitude^ 
 23^°S. to23|''N, the heat equator and with it all tlu> climatic belts 
 migrate similarly and cause seasons. These, as we have seen, prtxiuce 
 
218 MAXS RELATION TO CLLMAii: 
 
 a profound offoot upon man's lifo. If tho sun stood always at its most 
 southerly ])osition the climate of the northern United States would 
 permanently become abiiost like that of the Poles, and only people 
 like th(> l-l^kinios could live there. If llic sum stood ah\ays at its 
 most northerly ])osili()ii conditions would not he quite so l)ad, but 
 the heat of .Inly would ])revail all the year, and people would become 
 as lazy as those of tlic ti'o])ics. 
 
 The effect of the migration of the cliiuatic bells ujjon rainfall is 
 especially interesting. It causes the rainy season to come in summer 
 in some places and in winter elsewhere, and thus determines which 
 regions are the best for farming. Su])pos(> you had a choice bclwccMi 
 a farm in northern Texas and one in northern California, each faiiu 
 being in the center of a plain where the soil is excellent, but wluic 
 irrigation is expensive. Suppose also that j^ou knew that both 
 places had the same rainfall, an average of 20 to 25 inches a year, and 
 the same tem])erature, an average of al)oiit 60° F. for the year as a 
 whole. In Texas and CaUfornia there are places of just this kind. 
 What kind of farming would you plan in each case and how would 
 you expect to live? If j'ou were wise you would ask the Weather 
 Bureau at Washington for monthly rainfall rei-ords of each sec- 
 tion. You would find that Texas hes far (>nough south t.o receive 
 abundant sununer rains while this part of ('alifornia is in the sub- 
 tro])ical belt of winter rains. Hence during the six months of the 
 growing period from April to September the Texas farm would get 16 
 inches of rain and the California farm only 4. Unless you could 
 spend a large sum to bring water for irrigation this particular Tali- 
 fornia farm would be of value chiefly as a cattle range, while on the 
 Texas farm you could raise excellent crops of corn as wi'U as other 
 farm products. 
 
 Why Equatorial Regions have Two Wet and Two Dry Seasons. — 
 I''ig. 70 illustrates the effect of the seasonal migration of the earth's 
 clunatic belts upon rainfall. The shaded ai-cas incUcate the rainfall 
 month by nionl li t hroughout the year in vaiious latitudes. To begin 
 with the e(iu:it(iii;i! belt in the center, notic(^ that in January there is 
 almost no rain. The sun is then so 1"ai' south thai the eijuator is 
 under the. influence of the northeast trades willi tlieii' diyini; elTect. 
 As tlie sun mo\'es noi-flnvard the abundant (Miuatorial rains come with 
 it. Hence the rainfall increases. It- rea<'hes a maxinunn in A])ril or 
 May, a month or more after th(» sun has passed the ecjuinox, for the 
 seasons usually lag a little behind the sun. Then as th(> sun goes 
 northwiird to the Tropic of Cancer, the rainfall once more diminishes. 
 The Ix'lt of southeast trades swings over the ecjuator and in .luly there 
 is almost, no rain. 
 
CLIMATE AND CLIMATIC ZONES 
 
 219 
 
 As the sun and tho accompanying rain bolt move southward once 
 more, the rainfall at the equator increases until after the September 
 equinox, only to dmimish as the equatorial belt passes southward and 
 the northeast tratles again prevail at the end of the year. Thus at 
 the equator, although there is no summer or winter, there are four 
 
 Fig. 70. — Diagrammatic Plan of Seasonal Rainfall and of Vegetation on an Ideal 
 
 Globe. 
 
 seasons: (1) the dry season when the sun is in the south, (2) the 
 wet season when the sun crosses the equator northward, (3) the diy 
 season when the sun is in the north, and (4) the wet season wIumi the 
 sun crosses the equator on its way south. This t}i3e of rainfall with 
 two wot and two dry seasons prevails almost unmodified in the 
 equatorial rc^gions of South America, Africa, and tlu^ East Indies. 
 
220 MAN'S RELATION TO CLIMATE 
 
 Why Sub-equatorial Regions have One Wet and One Dry Season. 
 
 — In the two (liajiTunis (2N and 2S in Fip;- "<>) illustrating tlu> con- 
 ditions of rainfall in the trade \Yinil latitudes 15 to 20° from tlie ecjua- 
 tor quite a difTerent seasonal distribution is seen. These latituiles 
 an^ n(>ar the margin of the ecjuatorial belt, and hence arc calletl sul)- 
 equatorial. \\'hen the sun is far south in Jamiary it carries the e<}ua- 
 torial rain l)elt with it, so that the soutliern sub-equatorial regions re- 
 ceive a heavy rainfall as appeare in Fig. 70. ( )n the other side of 
 the equator, however, the southward migration of the climatic belts 
 causes the di'j-ing trades to blow over the sub-equatorial regions and 
 gives them a dry season in January, as is shown in the figure. Six 
 monihs later the conditions are revereed. Since the sub-equatorial 
 belts he m such low latitudes that they are always warm, they really 
 have two seasons, wet and dry. Southern Mexico, northern Australia, 
 and a strij) of northern Africa just south of the Sahara have this type 
 of rainfall. 
 
 The Seasons of the Desert Belt. — -The third type of rainfall, 
 tropical calms in our diagram, is that of the desert belts 25 to 30° from 
 the equator. When the sun's rays are vertical near the equator these 
 latitudes in both hemispheres lie in the belt of subtropical liigh 
 pressure or else on the borders of the trade winds. Hence they re- 
 ceive no rain. They are warm, or more often hot, at these times, 
 because the sun's rays are only slightly oblique, and the sky is un- 
 clouded. In January the climatic belts swing so far south that the 
 northern desert belt may be touched by the edge of the westerlies, 
 and hence occasionally receives a little rain. At the same time the 
 southern desert belt is touched by the edges of the equatorial rainbelt. 
 Thus the desert belts have two brief periods of slight rain. This 
 gives four seasons, (1) a slightly rainy winter with pleasant tem- 
 peratures, (2) a hot, dry spring or "fore-summer," (3) a hot sunnner 
 with a little rain, and (4) a dry, hot autumn, or "after-summer." 
 Southern Arizona and central Arabia are good examples of this type. 
 
 Why Subtropical Regions Have One Wet and One Dry Season. — 
 In the next diagnuus we come to the subtropical legions. Here in 
 latitudes 30 to 40° the belt of high pressure and aridity rules during 
 the sunnner of each hemisphere, while in winter the belt of westerlies 
 swings ccjuatorward and gives raiji from frequent cj'clonic storms. 
 Notice how the cui'\'es for the two hemis])heres in this and all other 
 cases arc really the same except that the seasons arc six months 
 difTerent. Thus the subtropical rains of the northern winter in Jan- 
 uary correspond to the rains of the southern winter in July. Cali- 
 fornia and such Mediterranean countries as southern Italy, Greece, 
 and Palestine are good examples of the subtropical ty|:)c in the north- 
 
CLIMATE AND CLIMATIC ZONES 221 
 
 ern hemisphere, while Cape Colony and central Chile are of the same 
 kind in the southern hemisphere. 
 
 The Seasons of Temperate Regions. — The next diagrams represent 
 the fortunate temperate regions where westerly winds and cyclonic 
 storms prevail, and there is plenty of precipitation, that is, either rain 
 or snow, at all seasons. There the seasons depend upon changes of 
 temperature and not of rainfall. The northern and eastern United 
 States and western Euroi^e, together with JajMin and New Zealand, 
 are the chief examples of this Ujye. The people who live there are 
 always talking about the weather because it keeps changing. This 
 is quite unlike the dry belts, where little is said about the weather, 
 because it is ahnost always clear. There the water supply is one of 
 the chief subjects of conversation. The abundance of water at all 
 seasons in regions of cyclonic storms makes it possible for farmers to 
 li^'e everj^vhere. People do not ha^•e to be crowded uito compact 
 villages near the central water supply as they do in dry countries. 
 They live where they choose, even though it be miles from neighbors. 
 This has helped to make the people of such regions more resourceful 
 and better able to take care of themselves than are those of other 
 parts of the world. 
 
 Even Distribution of Polar Precipitation.— Finally well toward 
 the poles we find precipitation throughout the year, but chiefly in 
 summer, as may be seen in Fig. 70. The amount is small l)ecause 
 cold air cannot hold much moisture. 
 
 With certain modifications due to the continents and their relief 
 the rainfall of any part of the world belongs to one of the tj'pes 
 shown in Fig. 70. When these types are understood one can easily 
 judge of the probable nature of the seasons in any part of the world. 
 Thus one can appreciate the effect which the seasons are hkely to 
 have upon farming and other industries about which he reads, and 
 also upon his own pleasure if he travels in distant regions. 
 
 Questions, Exercises, and Problems 
 
 1. How has climate ever served as a barrier to your movornonts in July? 
 in January? in March? in April? 
 
 2. How does it happen that the best residential sections of many manufactur- 
 ing cities of the United States lie in the western quarter of the city? 
 
 3. In which climatic zone wovild pcnver from wind mills be most reliable? 
 
 4. Trace a map of the Atlantic Ocean and insert the route of Columbus on his 
 first voyage to and from America. Add arrows to show tlie direction of the winds 
 in the climatic belts which he traversed. \\'hat relation was there between the 
 winds and his success? Find out about the duration as well as the location of his 
 return voyage and of later voyages, and determine the relation of these facts to the 
 winds. 
 
222 
 
 MANS 1U:L.\TK)X TU cumate 
 
 5. Discvi.'tf! the .seasonal chanp;es throughout the year on an ideal globe in the 
 following latitudes: 10° X., 20° X., 30° S., 45° X., (U)° S. Draw diagrams .sliow- 
 ing how the niiiif.ill and t('iiij)cratun' would \arv from month to month in each 
 latitude. 
 
 (■). It is .said tliat sailor.s can sometimes dip fresh water from the ocean surface 
 in eijuaturial regions. How can you explain this possibility? 
 
 7. Draw diagrams illustrating the seasonal march of temperature and precip- 
 itation, that is, the conditions from month to month, in i)laccs having the 
 temperature and i)recipitation shown in the following table: 
 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 
 Temp. 
 
 Precip. 
 
 Temp. 
 
 Precip. 
 
 Temp. 
 
 Precip. 
 
 Temp. 
 
 Precip. 
 
 Jan 
 
 Feb. ....... 
 
 Mar 
 
 Apr 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 Aug 
 
 Sept 
 
 Oct 
 
 Nov 
 
 Dec 
 
 30° 
 31° 
 40° 
 
 50° 
 58° 
 68° 
 72° 
 71° 
 66° 
 55° 
 42° 
 3'j° 
 
 2.5 in. 
 
 2.3 
 
 2.6 
 
 2.8 
 
 3.0 
 
 3.1 
 
 3.1 
 
 3.3 
 
 3.0 
 
 2.8 
 
 2.6 
 
 2.0 
 
 ■74° 
 75° 
 77° 
 "9° 
 81° 
 79° 
 77° 
 78° 
 79° 
 77° 
 75° 
 74° 
 
 0:4 in. 
 
 0.6 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.5 
 
 2.5 
 
 8.0 
 15.0 
 11.0 
 
 6.0 
 
 4.0 
 
 1.5 
 
 1.0 
 
 60° 
 63° 
 
 68° 
 75° 
 
 80° 
 83° 
 
 85° 
 84° 
 82° 
 75° 
 08° 
 64° 
 
 0.5 in. 
 
 1.2 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.4 
 
 1.3 
 
 0.8 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.4 
 
 78° 
 77° 
 72° 
 65° 
 58° 
 54° 
 50° 
 50° 
 ^3° 
 62° 
 70° 
 74° 
 
 0.0 in. 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.5 
 
 1.4 
 
 3.0 
 
 4.2 
 
 4.5 
 
 3.2 
 
 2.5 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.0 
 
 Av 
 
 51°. 5 
 
 
 77°. 1 
 
 
 73°. 9 
 
 
 63°. 3 
 
 
 Total. ... 
 
 33.7 in. 
 
 .52.5 in. 
 
 5.3 in. 
 
 20.5 in. 
 
 Locate each cf these places in its proper latitude on a simi)lified globe, and 
 describe the temperature, j)ressure, winds, and rainfall of the zone in wliich it lies. 
 For help in this use Figs. 70, 71, and 72. 
 
 8. What would be the probable climatic conditions of your own home if the 
 earth neither rotated nor revolved around the sim? \\'hat would be the 
 probable result if the earth revolved round the sun l)ut did not rotate? 
 
 9. Plot rainfall and temperature curves of four jjlaces of wliich you know the 
 climate by experience, (live ten practical results of the seasonal changes of 
 climate in these ])laees durin;^ your experience. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 THE CLIMATE OF CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 
 
 A. The Effect of Land and Sea 
 
 (1) Hoiv Oceans and Continents Influence Temjierature. — The 
 simple arrangement of the climatic belts considered in the previous 
 chapter and shown in Fij;;. 70 must now be modified to show the 
 influences of (a) the distribution of land and sea, and (6) mountains 
 and plains. 
 
 The land and the sea differ groatly in climate. This, as we have 
 seen, is because land becomes hot under the sun's rays much more 
 rapidly than does water, and likewise cools much more rapidly. 
 This is evident to anyone who goes to the seashore either in summer or 
 winter. In June a thvellcr in Minneapolis may leave his home at a 
 temperature of 90° for a trip to Europe. Three da3\s later in the 
 same latitude on the Atlantic he may want his overcoat in a noon 
 temperature of only 55°. The ocean water still retains something of 
 the cold of wintoi'. 
 
 It is not necessary to go so far, however, in order to note the con- 
 trast between land and sea. Often the smnnier air is cool and bracing 
 close to the seashore, while ten miles inland it is hot and depressing. 
 On the coast of central California at places like Montcnv}- people 
 jokingly say that in summer they must go into the interior to get 
 warm. The ocean is so cool and west winds blow from it so steadily 
 that the thermometer stays between 55° and 70° even when there 
 are temperatures of over 100° one or two hundred niiles awny in the 
 great interior valley, where the land has yielded to the influence of 
 the hot svmimer sun. 
 
 In the winter the contrast is the other ^^■ay. -V buy from central 
 New York, for example, may leave his companions coasting on deep 
 snow in January. At Boston in the same latitude, he may find ])are 
 gi'ound and not even any skating. This is not because Boston has 
 less precipitation than central New York, but because it lies on the 
 seacoast and in wiiit(>r is kept at a higher average temiK>rature than 
 the interior Ijy occasional winds from the ocean. 
 
 Since the lands in summer become warnu r than Ww oceans and 
 in winter colder, the change.' from one season to the other must be 
 
 223 
 
224 MAN.S RELATION TO CLIMATE 
 
 gi'oator on the continents than on the oceans. This is ilhistrated by a 
 coni]iarison of TiRH. 71 and 72, wliich show average temperatures in 
 January and July. 
 
 Marine versus Continental Climates. — (a) The Uniform Marine 
 CliiiiaU (if the Lufukn Islauils. — Let us compare an extreme marine 
 climate with an extreme continental climate in the same lati- 
 tude. The southern Lofoten Lslands off the coast of Norway, and 
 ^'erkhoyansk in Siberia, probably furnish the greatest contrast to be 
 fountl anywhere between places lying at equal distances from the 
 efiuatf)r. Both are within the Arctic Circle. Yet in winter the 
 winds blowing from the ocean prevent the Lofoten Lslands from suf- 
 fering the usual Arctic severity of such latitudes. Grass remains 
 green and cattle are pastured out-of-doors all the year. In suininci-. 
 however, although the weather is milder than in winter, the temi)era- 
 ture of the ocean is so nearly the same as in winter that the islands arc 
 raw and chilly. So cool is the air that practically' no trees and crops 
 will grow, and the people wear the same thick, warm woolen clothing 
 summer and winter alike, 'i'he great characteristic of the marine 
 climate of the Lofotcns is its uniformity. 
 
 (6) The Extreme Range of the Continental Climate at Verkhoyansk. 
 — Verkhoyansk is so different from the Lofoten Islands that one can 
 scarcely believe that both places are in the same latitude and no 
 farther apart than Portland, iNIaine, and Portland, Oregon. At the 
 Sil>erian town the range from the average January temperature to 
 the average of July is 120° F., while in the Lofotens it is only 20°. 
 At Verkhoyansk the temperature has been known to fall to 90° 
 below zero, and almost every year it goes down to —70 or —80°. 
 In fact the average for the whole month of January is a]>out — G0°. 
 It is so cold that a steel skate, so it is said, will not "take hold" of 
 the over-hardened ice, but slips on the surface. 
 
 Strange^ as it may seem, the sunuuer at \'erkhoyansk is warmer 
 than in the islands off the Norwegian coast. This, of course, is 
 because the land of the continental interior jnelds quickly to the 
 sunuuer sun. The average temperature in July is 60°, or as high as 
 the higlied ever laiown in the Lofolens, where the July average is only 
 51°. Temperatures as high as S.l ' liav(> been recorded at ^'erkhoy- 
 ansk, while 75° to 80° is connnon during the long days of rmnmer. 
 Hence some trees grow in s]iit(^ of the intense cold, and crops can be 
 raised, although none will grow on the Norwegian islands. To l)e 
 sure, the ground never really thaws. If a man digs down a foot or 
 so in liis vegetaljle garden in July or August he comes to frozen soil, 
 for only a thin layer on the surface ever melts. 
 
 in a place like ^'erkhoyansk not only (he change-; from season to 
 
THE CLIMATE OF CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 
 
 225 
 
226 
 
 MAN'S RELATION 'In CIIMATE 
 
THE CLIMATE OF CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 227 
 
 season but from day to night are often extreme. Out of doore on a 
 March night one wants all the fur coats he can get, and Qxon then 
 one's nose may fn^eze diu'ing a short walk. The next noon, however, 
 the warm sun and still air make it possible to chop wood with bare 
 hands. By day in August light clothing is sufficient, but at night 
 frosts may occur. 
 
 Wn-khoyansk and the Lofoten Islands represent the extremes of 
 continental and oceanic climates, but many other regions show some- 
 what similar conditions. In the typical continental climate the 
 winter is long and cold, and the summer long and hot, with brief 
 transition periods in fall and spring. The typical oceanic climate has 
 a mild winter and a cool summer, with no sharply marked transition 
 seasons. 
 
 (2) Hoic Continents and Oceans Affect Pressure. — Since the con- 
 tinents and oceans alter the distril)ution of temperature, they nnist 
 also alter the atmospheric i^rcssure. As the continents grow warm 
 in sunnner the air expands. Therefore at high levels it flows away 
 from the lands and accmuulates over the cooler air of the oceans. 
 This gives low pressure in smnmcr over the lands and high over the 
 oceans. In winter the opposite occurs. The lands become cold 
 much faster than the oceans. Therefore the air over the lands con- 
 tracts, while that over the water remains expanded. Accordingly 
 some of the upper air moves from the oceans to the lands. The result 
 is low pressure in winter over the oceans and high pressure o\'er the 
 lands. 
 
 The gi'owth of the continental areas of high or lov,- pressure does 
 not entirely wi]ie out the pressure belts that have l>een described for a 
 simplified earth, but it greatly modifies them. Look at Fig-s. 73 and 
 74, which show the distribution of atinosjiheric ])ressure in January 
 and July. The dotted lines indicate high pi-ossure and the solid linens 
 low, with intermediate regions between them. In tlic Januai-y nia]) 
 notice how the northern sub-tropical belt of high i)ressin'e ex]iands 
 over the cold continents, while the southern belt is broken l)y the con- 
 tinents which are warm in the soutluTU summer. In the July map 
 notice how the northern high-pressure belt is ])roken l)y the low- 
 pressure areas over the warm continents, while in the cool southern 
 hemisphere the ])elt is continuous. 
 
 (3) Uoir Minds Bloic in Respect to Coidincnts. — The im]iortance 
 of the changing areas of high and low pressure over continents and 
 oceans lies in their effect on the winds. Since winds blow from nrea^ 
 of high ]iressure toward those of low, they tend to ])low outward from 
 the continents in winter and inward in summer. In I'igs. 73 and 74 
 the arrows show liow the winds l)lo\v duiing .Iainiai\' and .hih'. Of. 
 
228 
 
 MAN'S RELATION TO CLIMATE 
 
THE CLIMATE OF CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 
 
 229 
 
230 MAN'S HKLATION 'I'O CLIMATE 
 
 course the diroclion iiuiy clKUitic from day to day, Init the avorafijo 
 direction is what is here shown. ( "oin]i;n(' tlic two maps. In .hiii- 
 iiary ihc majority of the wind arrows ])()int away from the hi^h 
 pressure areas of the interior of the northern continents. In .Inly 
 the arrows point inward toward tlie are:is of low ]m'ssure in tlie 
 northern continents. Thus in winter the cold di-y air of the con- 
 tinental intx'rior blows outward while in sunuuer the moist anil rela- 
 tively cool air of the oceans blows inward. These outflowing winter 
 winds and inflowing simimer winds are strongest in Asia Ix^.cause of 
 its givat si''.e and its location in a latitude where t.he contrast between 
 sununer and winter is extreme. They arc weak in Africa in spite of 
 the size, for that continent lies largely within the tropics. 
 
 Winds Cause Ocean Currents. — The movement of the winds 
 causes a corresponding movi'mcnt of the ocean waters. The cur- 
 rents thus fomicd cany ships out of their courses ^^hen the sky is 
 cloudy and the true position cannot be determined. During and 
 after the Great ^^'ar they spread explosive mines far and ^^•ide to the 
 great danger of shipping. Since the trades are the steadiest winds, 
 thej' cause the strongest movements. On either side of the (H[uator 
 the trade winds blow the suiface water westAA-ard, causing what 
 are known as the Equatorial currents. If there were no continents 
 these would cond)ine so that one broad continuous cunvnt would 
 pass completely around the world. The continents, however, deflect 
 the currents either northward or southward. In Fig. 75 notice 
 that Cape Saint Kociue in South America divides the southern half 
 of the Atlantic I^quatorial cuiTent into two parts. One goes south- 
 ward as the Brazil cuiTent, while the other joins the northern 
 equatorial current and swings aromid northward into the (lulf of 
 Mexico. 
 
 Where the equatorial current conies out fi-oni 1 ne (lulf of Mexico 
 between Florida and Cuba it begins to be known as the ( lulf Sti-eam. 
 It is the strongest ocean current that we know of, the only one that 
 moves like a great river. In liie Straits of klorida it has a, (le])th of 
 2000 to .'^000 feet, a width of about 10 miles in the narrowest ])art, and 
 a velocity (;f nearly five miles an houi\ As it comes out into the main 
 Atlantic, however, it (juickly loses its ri\-er-like (luality and s])r(>ads 
 into a broad shallow sheet which moves more and more slowly until its 
 rate is only half a mile an hour. Although it kee])s away fi'om the 
 innnediatc coast of the I'nited States, its inlluence can be lelti as 
 far north as ('a])(> ('od. Because of its ])reseiice the walei' on tlu^ 
 south side of that cajx' is distinctly wanner than on tiie north, as 
 everyone knows who has batJK'il in both i)l;ices. When vessels sail 
 from New ^'oI■k to l'.ur()])e the ])assengei-s can easily detect, the time 
 
THE CLIMATE OF CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 
 
 231 
 
232 MAN'S RELATION TO CLIMATE 
 
 whoii tlio vossol cntoi's tlio stroani, for tho air hoeomos warmor, tlie 
 ^vat^r changes color, and jc^lly-fish aiul other forms of lifo hcconie 
 more aluiiuhiiit. 
 
 How the Atlantic Drift Modifies the Climate of Europe. — As the 
 Gulf Stream is {lriv(>n eastward l)y tlie prevailing? westerlies it spreads 
 out to a breadth of hundreds of miles and Ijeeomes the Atlantic 
 "Drift." On the eastern side of the Atlantic part turns south and 
 finally rejoins the equatorial current, while part passes northeast- 
 ward to the Arctic Ocean past Norway. In the North Atlantic the 
 Drift s]-)reads over the ocean's surface so widely that the winds blowing 
 from the Atlantic Ocean to Europe are warmed, for they absorb some 
 of the heat lirought by the current from equatorial regions. Hence 
 the winds l)lowing from the Atlantic Ocean to Europe are warmer 
 than those blowing from the Pacific to our own continent. 1'his is 
 one reason why the most progressive and populous parts of Eurojie 
 are about 10°, or 700 miles, farther north than the coiTesponding 
 parts of North America. It must be remembered, how^ever, that the 
 W'esterly winds from the North Atlantic would give western Eiu'oiie 
 a decidedly warmer climate than Labrador even though there were no 
 warm ocean ciu-rent in the Atlantic. 
 
 The Effect of the Cold Labrador Current.— Since the Gulf Drift 
 pom's ])art of its waters into the Arctic Ocean, a retm'n current is 
 caused. This cold Arctic cuiTent creeps along the eastern coast of 
 Greenland to Labrador and thence to New England. The Labrador 
 Current, as it is called, is of considerable influence in causing 
 the east winds of New England to be cool and raw. Its pres- 
 ence explains why sea-bathing is so much less common at the 
 summer resorts of Maine than on the south shore of Cape Cod, 
 for example. 
 
 It also explains the fogs in which the fishermen on the Grand Banks 
 of Ne^^d■oundland are sometinies lost and perish. When south winds 
 reach the Labrador Current they are cooled so much that their mois- 
 ture condenses. This causes frequent fogs not only on the Grand 
 Banks of Newf(jimdland, but along the coasts of Maine and NoA'a 
 Scotia. The dangei-s of the Grand Banks are increased bj' the ice- 
 Ix?rgs wliicli (he Labrador Current brings southward from Davis 
 Strait. Not only are the icel>ergs dangerous in themselves, but their 
 low temperature increases the fog. Fig. 76 is the official sailing 
 chart of the North Atlantic for August. Notice how inaiiy foggy 
 days occur near the Grand Banks. The dangers Iheic aic so uicat 
 that since the Titanic was sunk by hitting an iceberg in I'.M'i, the 
 great North Atlantic trade route has been lengthened a little to 
 carry it south of the Banks. 
 
THE CLIAIATE OF CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 
 
 233 
 
 p < 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 Fljt-^ p''^ , 
 
234 
 
 MAX'S HKLATloX To CLIMATE 
 
 The Oceanic Whirls. — Each of tho otlior oceans, like thp Atlantic, 
 has a sciics of cuncnts wliicli arc kc]it circling; around by the ])revail- 
 in<i winds. The ('([uatoiial jiart of llic Pacilic whirl, as it may be 
 called, is tlellected northward like that of the Atlantic, l)ut not to so 
 fireat an extent. Nevertlu'less, the ecinatorial waters fiowinji; north- 
 ward alon<i the west coast of Asia warm llie winds sufficiently to 
 make the east side of Japan distinctly warmer than the northwest 
 side, just as the south of ("a])e Cod is warmer tlian the north. Even 
 ill Alaska the cit'ect of the warminpi; of the water in distant equatorial 
 rejiions can he telt in the fact that oti the soutli coast tlie hai'lxirs an^ 
 fr(>e from ice in winter. 
 
 In the southei'ii hcmis])here the wliii'ls of the ocean currents p) in 
 
 Fig. 77. — North Atlantic Sailing Chart for August. Gale.s. 
 
 the opposite direction fiom tlios(> of the northein liemisphere, since 
 the winds, as we have seen, are deflected to the ri^lit in the north and 
 the left in the south. Beyontl the southern limit of the whirls an 
 almost unl>rokeii cuii-ent flows eastward encircling' Antarctica. It 
 adds its el'fect to tiiat of the "roarinji; forties," as the westerlies are 
 called, in making navif^ation diflicult. ('a])tains of sailinp; vessels 
 who liaAc to navigate in this region oft.en i)rei'er to go two or 
 three, thousand miles extra and travel around the world with the 
 winds and cuiTcnts rather than to take a shorter ('oui"se against 
 them. 
 
 In the Indian Ocean there are cuiTents like those of the larger 
 oceans. In that region, however, the monsoon winds Mow in op- 
 posite directions in diU'ei'ent, seasons, and the cui'i'eiils ai'e cdri'e- 
 spondingly reversed. 
 
THE CLIMATE OF CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 235 
 
 (4) Why Continental Interiors Have a Good Supply of Summer Rain. 
 — The movement of the ah', as we have ah'cady seen, (leterniines.how 
 much rain a given place shall receive. In summer when the con- 
 tinents form warm areas of low pressure and inblowing winds, much 
 moisture is brought inland from the oceans. As the moisture-ladi'n 
 air approaches the center of low pressure it gi'adually rises and hnally 
 produces clouds and rain. Look at Figs. 78 and 79 and see how 
 heavy the rainfall is during the smumer when inl)lowing winds prevail. 
 
 Because continental interiors receive more rain in sunnner than at 
 any other season, central Kansas, for example, gets 16 inches of rain 
 in the six months from April to Septemter and only 4 during the 
 other six months. If the Kansas rainfall were evenly distrilnited 
 throughout the year it would not be enough for agiiculture. Luckily 
 the continental low pressure causes the winds to blow toward the 
 interior more strongly in smnmer than at any other season, and hence 
 as far west as central Kansas the crops are usually well watered. In 
 winter, on the other hand, the low temperature, high pressure, and 
 out])lowing winds cause ths interiors of the continents to be very 
 dry. Thus though the Dakotas are much colder than New York 
 State in winter, they have far less snow. This is an advantage in some 
 ways, for it permits cattle to pasture all winter, while in the s])ring 
 the ground is not covered with a layer of snow which would delay the 
 melting of the frost and so prevent early plowing and planting. 
 
 How the Great Seasonal Contrasts of Asia Cause Monsoons. — 
 The most extreme effect of a continent upon winds and rainfall is 
 seen in Asia. Because of the gi'cat size of Asia the extreme diff(n-ence 
 of tempcratiu'e V^etween summer and winter may amount to 175° in 
 Siberia north of the Arctic Circle, and to 100° even in soutliern Persia 
 and western India. The difference's between the. low j)ressin'e of 
 smimier and the high pressiu-e of winter are correspondingly extreme. 
 The variations of pressure naturally give rise to strong inblowing 
 winds in sununer and outblowing winds in winter. These are best 
 deA'eloi)e(l in India and are called monsoons. In Figs. 73 and 74 
 notice that in January the winds in the southern half of Asia all blow 
 more or less from the north. Since they come from the dry interior 
 there is practically no wintin- rain in large ])arts of India and China. 
 In spring when Asia grows hot and the high pressure of the interior 
 giv^es ])lace to low, the outblowing winds weaken and are replaced 
 by irregular winds and calms. Then the air ])egins to move in from 
 the ocean, and soon strong south or southwest winds are established. 
 In the July map the arrows ])()int in almost the opposite direction 
 from those of January, and the winds of southern Asia all l.)low in- 
 ward. 
 
236 
 
 MANS KELATIUN TO CLIMATE 
 
 3 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 cr 
 
 3 
 O 
 
 P^ 
 
 a 
 
 cr 3 
 ^ E 
 
 <5 
 
 
 T 
 
 
THE CLIMATE OF CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 
 
 237 
 
 3 
 
 
 a 
 
 1-5 
 
 03 
 
 3 
 
 ^ 
 
 Ph 
 
 
238 MANS RELATION TO CLIMATE 
 
 In Tiidla tlio altoriiation hot worn tho northoast monsoon in winter 
 antl the soutliwcsl monsoon in suinincr is r('nKU"kal)ly r(>^ulav. The 
 peoi)l(' couni u])()ii iliis r('uiil;u'il>' so nuicli lliat. foi'mcily when crude 
 sailinj:; A'esscls were tlic chief cavricM-s of commerce, native boats from 
 India used to sail to Zan/ihai' and the African coast each winter witli 
 the wind at theii- barks. Then they s])ent se\-eral months in tra(hnf>; 
 or in icUeness wait in ji f(»r the southwest monsoon to ])e well estal)lish{Ml, 
 and finally with \hc wind blowing towanl India they nicrril}' came 
 back with the wind as favorable as on the outward voyage. Even 
 now the natives of the coral islands west of India depend on the 
 monsoons to take them to the mainland and back again. Their sail- 
 ing boats arc so primitive that they cannot make headway against 
 a wind. 
 
 How the Southwest Monsoons Bring Prosperity and Health. — 
 The most im])ortant elTect of the monsoons is the rain. In winter 
 only the southern ti]) of India gets nuich rain, for th.at is the only tmrt 
 of the country where the northeast traders blow from the sea to the 
 land. Elsewhere drought prevails month after month and the 
 jX'ople long for the sunnner monsoon. Before it comes the air is 
 burning hot, the ground is ])arche(l, and almost nothing will grow. 
 Then the southwest wind begins to blow, the clouds gather, the sky 
 is full of lightning, the thun(k'r craslu^s, rain falls, the air is cooled, 
 and except in the Indus desert the land is ready for the seed. The 
 people welcome the rains with feasting and rejoicing, for their timely 
 coming usually gives ])romise of good croi)s. INIoreover, the mon- 
 soon rains restore the lu>alth of tlic sick, check epidemics, and bring 
 the most healthful i)art of the year. 
 
 B. The Effect of Relief 
 
 (1) How Relief J nflneneefi Temperature. — The effect of relic^f 
 upon the four climatic element.s is more easily seen than is the eff(>ct 
 of land and sea. Eveiyone knows that t he tem])erat \uv changes from 
 the ba.se of a mount.ain to its to]). At the base the air may be so 
 warm that the lower slopes are sliroude(l in tree ferns, graceful ])alms, 
 twining creepers, and other tr()])i(al growths. Ilighei- u]) the vege- 
 tation consists of the bi'oad-leaved tnn's of the t('m])erate zone. At 
 the top the air is so cold that wastes of naked rock lie close t o ]~)erpetual 
 snow hke that which shrouds the Andes e\-eii at t.he (Mjuatoi-. 
 
 In tro])ical lands the temperature becomes more and more favor- 
 able to human activity u]i to a height of al)out oOOO or ev(Mi lO.OOO 
 feet. Only at su<'li alt it.udes does t lie air gain sdiiiel hiiig of t he st inm- 
 lating (juality which is so Ix-neficial to health and eiiei-gv in tem- 
 
iHE CLIMATE OF CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 239 
 
 perate lands. This is shown in the location of the capitals of the 
 South American republics. Most of them are at altitudes of five to 
 ten thousand feet, that of IMexico City, for example, being over 
 7000. Even Brazil has decided at some time to remove the capital 
 from beautiful Rio de Janeiro to the interior on the Brazilian plateau. 
 Similarly the summer resorts, recreation centers, and sanatoriuins 
 for white people in India are ''hill stations" at high altitudes. Simla, 
 among the Himalayas, 7500 feet above the sea, is becoming more 
 and more fully the summer capital of the country. In the Pliilip- 
 pines the hill station of Baguio is gi'adually assuming a similar im- 
 portance. Without it many American officials and their families 
 would have to leave the islands in order to recover their health. 
 
 In high latitudes, on the contrary, the highlands are usually too 
 cold to support many people. In Norway, for example, the central 
 highland is inhabited only l)y a few Laps. 
 
 (2) Relief and Atmospheric Pressure. — The effect of rehef upon 
 atmospheric pressure is important chiefly in relation to rainfall. As 
 winds blow up a slope the air expands ])ccause of a decrease of pres- 
 sure. Tlius it gi'ows cool and gives up rain. 
 
 (3) Hoiv Relief Changes the Course of the Winds. — One of the most 
 important ways in which relief influences climate is through move- 
 ments of the air. This is because highlands and mountains often 
 change the direction of currents of air, and prevent certain wuids 
 from blowing in protected places. For instance, the maritime Alps 
 and the northern Apennines shield the Riviera from tlu; cold north 
 winds. Hence this region on the ^Mediterranean coast north of the 
 Gulf of Genoa rarelj^ experiences frost even in January, while at 
 Portland, Maine, in the same latitude, the ground is sometimes cov- 
 ered with snow for five solid months. The Swiss and Italian Alps 
 in smiilar fashion pjrotect the Italian Lake region. Lemons and 
 oHves grow there in the latitude of Bi'iMo or even St. Paul and 
 Minneapolis. The niild winters and beautiful scenery of both the 
 Riviera and the Lake region attract pleasure seekers and invalids 
 from all over Europe. The prc^sence of a gi'eat nmnber of people 
 with plenty of money and nothing to do has caused ]\Ionte Carlo, in 
 the little ])rincipality of Monaco, to become the most famous gam- 
 bling resort in the world. All these results are due largely to the fact 
 that the Alps by shutting off the winds from the north, prevent cold 
 waves like those which in our own country swee]) across the plains 
 and sometimes kill the orange trees even as far south as I'loiida. 
 
 The Himalayas in the same way cause northern India to be 
 warmer than the parts of China in the same latitude. For instance, 
 Delhi, the capital of India on the .luimia, lies in about the sajne 
 
240 MAN'.'^ HKLATIOX TO CLIMATH 
 
 latitudo us ?Iankow, llic (•iniiinrrcial contcrof China on Iho Yanfjjtso, 
 l)ut its .laimarv tcniiicrat uic ;^^•(•^au;os 5S° while tliat of Hankow is :\9°. 
 How Relief Permits Orange Growing in Northern California. — 
 The effect of relief upon movements of the air and thus ii])on tem])er- 
 atiin' e-an be seen not only in great contrasts like that between India 
 and China, but in small contrasts between places only a few miles 
 ajxirt. For instance, in California at the western base of the Sierra 
 Nevadius in a latitude as far north as l'hila(lel])hia, there are many 
 small valleys where oranges ripen, although in otlier valleys close at 
 hand they will not ripen at all. In fact the oranges ripen earlier in 
 some of these northern valleys than in the region around Los Angeles, 
 400 miles farther south. There are several reasons for this, but all 
 ai-e cK)imected with the relief. (1) The valleys are so located that 
 they face the southwest and thus receive^ abimdant warm sunshine. 
 (2) They are protected from cold wintci- winds from the interior by 
 the high Sierras innnediately to the east. (3) ^^■hen air grows cool 
 at night it contracts and therefore becomes comjiaratively heavy. 
 Hence in these valleys instead of remaining and becoming so cool that 
 frost occurs, the air drains away because of the relief. Its place is 
 taken bj^ air which is waiinod by descending from above. Where the 
 slopes are favorable tlicic may be no frost, although ice foiins not far 
 away in the hollows where the cold air comes to rest. Wherc^'er there 
 is danger of frost wise farmers take advantage of air drainage if their 
 farms are on slopes. They plant their peach and apple orchards, for 
 exami)le, on the warmest slopes where late spring frosts will not nip 
 the blossoms. 
 
 The effect of relief upon niovcinents of the air and thus u])on tem- 
 perature is so common that most people have noticed it. At night, 
 for instance, one feels chilly in a hollow, and then is sin-prised that 
 after going one or two hundred fe(>t u]) hill the iemperaturc becomes 
 so warm that one fe(>ls (juite comfortable. 
 
 How Relief Influences Rainfall. — Aside from cy<'loni(' storms and 
 the great ('(juatorial belt of low pressure, the relief of the lands is 
 the chief cause of rainfall. When a wind reaches a mountainous 
 region the slopes force; it to rise. As we have seen in the equatorial 
 belt of low pressure and elsewhere, rising air expands, cools, and loses 
 part of its capacity to hold moisture. Hence clouds forni, and rain or 
 snow falls. The ]iroce.ss is illustrated in Fig. 69. A good example is 
 seen in the wi ^Icin Tnited States. The shaded part of Fig. 80 shows 
 the altitude of the land from tlu^ Pacific Ocean eastward to central 
 Nevada. >Miere the west(>rly winds laden with water from the 
 Pacific Ocean strike the low hills at San I'Yancisco the rainfall in- 
 creases from 18.5 inches to about 23 iKX'ause llie air rises and hence 
 
THE CLIMATE OF CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 
 
 241 
 
 grows cool. Beyond the hills the rainfall decreases a little, but at 
 the foot of the Sierras, where the air once more ascends, it increases 
 rapidly to more than 50 inches. Beyond the mountains part of the 
 air descends down the eastern slope. The descent compresses and 
 warms it, so that its capacity for moisture increases and it sucks up 
 moisture instead of giving it out. Hence at the eastern base of the 
 SieiTas there would be no rainftdl were it not for occasional cyclonic 
 storms which raise the air to high levels. Thus Reno gets G inches of 
 rain and Wadsworth a little over 4. 
 
 Regions like Nevada, lying to the leeward of the mountains and 
 thus sheltered from rain-bearing winds, are said to be in the "rain- 
 shadow." Places in a rain-shadow get little rain, just as places in an 
 ordinary shadow get httle sunUght. The rain-shadow often causes 
 
 Coast Great Valley 
 
 Range of California 
 
 Sierra Nevada Great Basin 
 54.2 I I j The Shading is 
 
 *"•" 1 ,,^>^ .~LA. ' in proportion to 
 
 ^'•^ I J yJ^r-CS-y?^ "'■ It, I 1 9 , o the amount of 
 ' X.^Cwiii/\ Si.'"".:;*-'' ^2 rainfall 
 
 Island 
 in Paciflc 
 
 NevadpT 
 
 Great Valley 
 
 Fig. so.— Effect of Altitude on Rainfall. 
 
 Great Basin 
 
 deserts where scraggly little bushes at wide intervals replace the 
 splendid forests whicii lie at the same altitude on the windward side. 
 The Wonderful Effect of the Himalayas on Rainfall. — The Him- 
 alayas furnish the most remarkable example of the effect of moim- 
 tains on rain. The southerly monsoon winds from the Bay of Bengal 
 brmg an abundant supply of water which they deposit as they rise 
 over the lower slopes of the mountains. At a i:)lace calkHl ( "lun-ra- 
 pimji, 4000 feet above the sea and not far north of Calcutta, the aver- 
 age rainfall each year is 466 inches. Compare this with the part of 
 the United States east of the Mississippi where the average is 
 only a little over 40 inches. In 1861 the enormous amount of 018 
 inches, or 76^ feet, actually fell at ('herra]nmji. ]\Iore than a thiixl 
 of this, or 372 inches, fell in .July alone, and 42\ inches in one day. 
 Think of it. As much rain in one day as most Ajuericans see in a year. 
 The heavy rains wash all the soil from the slopes and leave onlj' naked 
 rock, practically bare of vegetation. Yet in the flat places there is 
 a perfect tangle of tn>es and vines, and plants grow as much in a 
 
242 
 
 MAN'S in;i,.\'ll()X I'd ('l.l.MA'I'l': 
 
 .3 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
THE CLIMATE OF CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 243 
 
 month as they do with us in a year, for even during the rainy period 
 there is some sunshine ahnost eveiy day. 
 
 At higher altitudes on the same side of the Himalayas the rainfall 
 greatly diminishes. The air has lost so much moisture that it cannot 
 give u]) much. Hence here, as on the ^Yind^vard slo])e of every moun- 
 tain, the rainfall increases only up to a certain level after which it 
 decreases. Beyond the Himalayas the air has been so robbed of 
 moisture that vast regions in central Asia are deserts. They Ue in 
 the world's greatest rain-shadow. 
 
 Questions, Exercises, and Problems 
 
 1. From Figs. 71 and 72 (showing average temperature in January and July) 
 find out the difference of temperature between summer and winter at latitude 
 40° N. in (a) the central United States, (6) your home, (c) Kansas City, (d) 
 Bermuda Islands, (e) Irkutsk. In which place do you find the greatest con- 
 trast? The least? Write out an explanation, and illustrate it from other parts 
 of the maps. 
 
 2. How Climate Influences the Density of Population. — Climate largely deter- 
 mines the number of peoj)le in a given region. It does this chiefly by control- 
 ling the food supply, ^^'here the climate is too cold, too dry, or too wet for food- 
 producing plants the population is generally scanty. The only imi)ortant ex- 
 cejitions are regions where mining, manufacturing, commerce, or other special 
 reasons cause people to bring food from a distance. In order to understand how 
 climate through its effect on vegetation influences the density of population com- 
 pare Figs. 71 and 72 with Fig. 38 and then also compare Fig. 81 with Fig. 37. 
 
 (a) In your note book make a list of regions where sparse population results 
 from low temperature as in northern Canada; from aridity, as in Arabia; from 
 heavy rainfall combined with tropical heat, as in the Amazon Valley. Arrange 
 your lists under the following headings: 
 
 Regions of Sparse Poptilation 
 resulting from 
 
 1. Low Temperature. 2. Aridity. 3. Heavy Rainfall and Tropical Heat. 
 
 (6) Make a statement as to the relative sizes of the three kinds of regions with 
 scanty population for the world as a whole, (c) What exceptions do you find to 
 the statement that "arid regions contain a sparse population?" {d) How do 
 you explain these exceptions? (e) What exceptions do you find to the statement 
 that "heavj' rainfall combined with trojiical heat causes a sparse jjopulation?" 
 (/) How do you explain these? 
 
 3. (a) Next make lists of the regions where the population has a density of 
 100 or more per square mile. Arrange under headings as in 2a. After studying 
 the regions in each list add as a part of each heading the conditions of rainfall 
 and temperature that apply in general to the regions listed in the columns. 
 
 (b) Write out a statement as to the kind of temperature and rainfall most 
 favorable to a dense population. 
 
244 
 
 MAN'S REI^VTION TO CLIMATE 
 
 >; sa 
 
THE CLIiMATE OF CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 245 
 
 i^f^fir^isN 
 
 St.Paul, Minn. 
 
 San Francisco, Cul. 
 
 'f. 
 
 Kansas City, Mo. 
 
 / 
 / 
 
 X.^ / 
 
 40 
 :iO 
 
 ^^^^ 
 
 K^ / 
 
 Pittsburgh, Pa. 
 
 Los Angeles, Cal 
 
 Fig. 83. — Avcrago Moiiilily Temperature and Rainfall of Typical Placce in North 
 
 America. 
 
2-lG 
 
 MAN'S KELATIUX TO CLIMATE 
 
 l^l-lsl» 
 
 Tomsk 
 
 r''\ 
 
 1 i ?. |< R 4 
 
 
 Vladivostok 
 
 ''""X 
 
 / 
 
 \ 
 
 v 
 
 \'ienna 
 
 
 
 in 
 
 _ .^i' \^ _ 
 
 
 ^^^^^^^^B 
 
 
 Fia. 84. — Average Monflily Tcniperattiro and TJainfall (if Typical Places in (lie 
 
 Old W'urld. 
 
THE CLIMATE OF CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 
 
 247 
 
 4. Why is it that in Ireland the January temperature scarcely falls below 40° 
 and in July the average is only 59° in the north and 62° in the south, while in 
 Kamchatcka, in the same latitudes as Ireland, winter temperatures of 40° below 
 zero are common, and in summer 64° is experienced. 
 
 5. Fig. 82 shows the main mode of life in various parts of the world. From a 
 comparison of this map with Figs. 71, 72, 78, and 79, make a table having the 
 following headings: 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 IMode of Life. 
 
 Regions where 
 mode prevails. 
 
 Temperature con- 
 ditions (1) Win- 
 ter, (2) Summer. 
 
 Rainfall conditions 
 (1) Winter, (2) 
 Summer. 
 
 On the basis of this table, what do you infer as to the effect of climate on man's 
 mode of life? 
 
 6. From the climatic mai)s in this book and from relief maps in an atlas, 
 determine the type of equiiiment needed for a camping trip in or near the follow- 
 ing places during the months of May, June, and July: (a) Spitzbergen; (b) the 
 Ganges Delta; (c) Bagdad; {d) the center of southern New Zealand; (e) Para; 
 (/) Phoenix, Ariz.; {g) Tomsk; (/;) Hong Kong. Decide for each place the season 
 when travel would be the most pleasant, easy and interesting, and give your rea- 
 sons. From Fig. 82 and from other sources, decide what sort of accormnodations 
 for travellers you would find in the smaller centers of poj^ulation. 
 
 7. A. Figs. 83 and 84 illustrate the conditions of temperature and rainfall 
 
 in t\^pical parts of North America and Eurasia, together with North 
 Africa. Select diagrams which furnish typical illustrations of as 
 many as possible of the following climatic types: (1) cyclonic 
 storms; (2) monsoons; (3) continental interiors in zone of westerlies; 
 (4) subtropical regions; (5) trade winds; (6) tropical interiors. 
 
 For each diagram make a table showing the approximate temperature 
 and rainfall for each month. Explain how the diagrams differ from 
 what would be found in the same latitude on a simplifietl globe such 
 as is described in Chapter X. 
 C. Among the diagrams of Figs. 83 and 84, ])ick out four in wliicli the 
 effect of relief is evident. Explain. 
 
 In Figs. 83 and 84 classify the diagrams according to tlie following: 
 
 I. The mode of life as shown in Fig. 82. 
 
 II. The density of population as shown in Fig. 38. 
 Explain the relation between Figs. 83 and 84 on the one hand and 
 
 Figs. 38 and 82 on the other. 
 
 B. 
 
 8. A. 
 
 B. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 CLIMATE AND HUMAN ENERGY 
 
 How Climate Affects Man Directly. — Man's hoalt.h and onorgy 
 dopcnd on climate and wc^athcr more than on any otlior sinfj;lo factor. 
 The well-known contrast Ix^twcen the enersotic ])eo])le of the tem- 
 perate zone and the la/y inhaMtaiit.s of the ti'o])ics is (lu(> to climate. 
 It is imi>ossil>le for a ])eo])le to advanc(> ra])idly in civilization when 
 handica])])ed hy an enervating tropical climate, and even the climate 
 of intermediate rejiions like Pei-sia, tends strongly to kee]) people back- 
 ward. 
 
 The best way to nndei"stand how climate^ influences health and 
 energ>^ is to consider how the weather caiises our own condition to 
 vary from day to day and season to season. Although some ])e()])le 
 are more affected than others, everyone is influenced by temperatin*e, 
 hujiiidity, wind, sunshine^ barometric pressure^ and perhaps other 
 factors such as atm<)si)heric electricity and the chemical composition 
 of the air. On days wIkmi all these factors are favorable, people feel 
 stioiig and hopeful; theii' bodies arc capable of unusual exertion, and 
 their minds are alert and accurate. If all the factors are unfavorable, 
 ix'ople feel inefficient and dull; their i^hj-sical weaknesses are exagger- 
 ated; it is hard to concentrate the rnind; the day's work drags slowly; 
 and ])e()ple go to IhhI at night with a tired feeling of not having 
 accomplished much. Hence in vaiiable climates like that of the 
 United States ])eo])le"s ])hysi(;d and mental energj^ keep changing 
 from day to day and season to season. Somc^thnes one f(>els abnost as 
 inert as if he lived within the tro])ics, but soon a change comes and one 
 again feels the health and energ"^' which make it possible to work hard 
 and think clearly. 
 
 How People's Health and Energy are Measured. — There are 
 many ways of measuring the variations in the health and energy of a 
 connnunity from season to season. P(>o])le's energ>' can be measured 
 by stud>'ing what they accom])lish in cases where they do the same 
 thing day after day as among ])i('ce woi'kei's in factories. Again, 
 a good measui'c of the enei-gy of individuals is found in the test- 
 ing appai'atus used in gyjimasiums. Or the health of children, for 
 instance, can be meas\n( il hy i-ecording their rate of gi'owth in height, 
 and weight. l"he health of the whole commimity can be measured 
 
 248 
 
CLIMATE AND HUMAN ENERGY 249 
 
 by the number of deaths from disease. Or again the health and 
 energy of the mind can be measured by finding out the difference 
 from week to week in the work done by school chihh-cn, bank ck'rks, 
 or other people whose occupations demand brain work. All these 
 ways of measurement, as well as many others, lead to the same con- 
 clusion. In a variable climate such as that of the United States 
 people's health and energy go through a regular series of changes 
 each year. 
 
 The Way in Which People's Physical Energy Varies from Season 
 to Season. — The variations in people's strength from month to month 
 are so hnportant and teach so much a])out the distril)ution of health 
 and energy throughout the world that we may well study them 
 closely. Let us consider first how physical strength varies during the 
 coui-se of the year in the great section extending from southern New 
 England and New York westward to the Rocky IMoimtains. October 
 is usually the best month. At that time people feel like working 
 hard ; thoy get up in the morning full of energ\^, and go at their work 
 quickly and without hesitation; they walk briskly to business or 
 work; and play with ecjual Aigor. Headaches, colds, indigestion, and 
 other minor illnesses are fewer than at other seasons; there are also 
 fewer serious illnesses, so that the doctors have less than usual to do, 
 and the number of deaths is less than at any other time of jxar. 
 
 Then as cold weather comes on, the workers accomplish less, ill 
 health becomes more and more common, the physicians are kept 
 busy, and deaths increase. By January or February the gc^neral 
 efficiency and health may have dropped 20 or 30 per cent. In a cold 
 winter these bad conditions may last through March, l)ut ordinarily 
 there is an unprovement as soon as the air begins to become warmer. 
 The improvement continues through the spring until in May or early 
 June the conditions of health and energj^ are almost as good as in 
 October. Th(ui with the arrival of hot weather an unfavorable change 
 begins. By the middle of July peo])le's health and en(n-g>' are often 
 no better than in January and may be woi"se. The diseases are not 
 cjuite the same as in the winter, since stomach troubles, for instance, 
 are morc^ common than colds. Moreover, the feeling of laziness 
 that comes over people in hot weather is not ciuite the same as the sort 
 of suffocating stupid feeling that one has in winter. Yet the effect on 
 work and health, and the result in low efficiency and many deaths 
 are the same. 
 
 How the Effect of the Seasons Varies with Latitudes. — If we study 
 the pe()])le of diff(>rent latitudes we find that the periods of greatest 
 and least energy' occiu' at different times. In northern Maine or 
 Minnesota, and still more in Canada, there is only one unfavorable! 
 
250 MANS REL.\T1UN TU CLLMATE 
 
 poriod. tlio wintor. Pooplo aro at tlioir host from July to Roptomlx^r; 
 thou their hcaUh and cflicicncy dccHiu' stcaiHly as llic cold winter 
 comes on, and in .lanuaiy and I'ehruaiy reach a lo\v(>r level than 
 durino; the same months in New York, Chicajio, or St. Louis, for ex- 
 ample. Farther south, as we have just seen, tlu>re are four periods, 
 two of good health in spring and fall, and two of bad health in summer 
 and winter, but the contrast between the <iood and bad is not so great 
 as in latitude a little higher or lower. In still lower latitudes there are 
 once more only two i)erio<ls, but in such warm regions the long smn- 
 mer is the unfavorable time, while the short winter is favorable. 
 In central Florida, for example, the long warm sunnner shows a 
 pronounced decline in health lasting about six months, while the 
 short winter is much the best ])art of the yeai-. The loss of health 
 and strength due to continued warm weather l)ecomes more pro- 
 nounced the farther one goes toward the equator. 
 
 In the other continents similar conditions prevail. In Europe, in 
 the latitude of Central France and Southern (lermany, the seasonal 
 variations of health and strength are much the same as in Boston, 
 New York, Cleveland, and Detroit. That is, people are most healthy 
 and strong in October and early Novemlxn- and again in jNIay and 
 early June, while they are weakest and most subject to disease in 
 January, Fel^ruary, and early i\Iarch, and again in July or August. 
 Therc, as here, great variations occur from year to 3'ear, according to 
 whether the weather is unusually hot or cold, rainy or diy, variable or 
 monotonous. Farther north, for example, in Scotland, Scandinavia, 
 and Finland, the smmner is the best time of the whole 3'ear and the 
 winter the woret. To the south, on the contraiy, in Italy, Spain and 
 Greece, the harmful effect of the winter decreases and that of summer 
 increases, until linally on the south side of the Mediterranean the 
 winter is much the best time of the whole year, while the long sum- 
 mer gi'oatl}' diminishes people's efficiency and increases disease and 
 deaths. 
 
 How the Periods of Mental and Physical Activity Differ. — In 
 general p(H>ple's mental activity varies from season to st^ason in the 
 same way as physical activity', but there is an interesting tlilTcrence in 
 one respect. In the latitude of New York, for example, people do 
 the ln'st brain work about the end of Novem])er or b(>ginning of 
 Decembc^r, that is, a month or six weeks after their physical strength 
 is greatest. In the spring, on the. cojitrary, the best mental work is 
 done in ^larch, a month or two before the ])hysical strength reaches 
 its maximum, 'i'liis means that ])e()])le's minds are most stimulated 
 in w'eather somewhat cooler than that which most stimulates their 
 bodies. 
 
CLIMATE AND HUMAN ENERGY 251 
 
 The Optimum Temperature. — ^Throe conditions of climate are of 
 special importance in their influence on health and energj^: (1) 
 temperature; (2) humidity; and (3) varial)iUty. For each of these 
 there is a certain most favoral>]e or ideal condition which is called 
 the optimum. Every species of plant and animal has an optimum 
 temperature at which it thrives most vigorously, and man is no ex- 
 ception. The optimmn may vary a little from indiviihial lo individual, 
 but not much. It is more likely to vary from one typ(i of activity to 
 another. For physical health, among the white race, the l)est tem- 
 p(n-ature is an average of not far fi-om ()4° F. for day and night 
 together. In other words, people's health and strength are gn^itest 
 when the thermometer droj:)s to about 56° to ()0° at night and rises 
 to somewhere between 68 and 72° during the middle of the day. For 
 mental activity the optimum temperature appears to be a good deal 
 lower than for physical, being probably al)Out 40°. As a rule, peojjle's 
 minds are most alert and inventive, people do their best thinking and 
 planning and have the best judgment when the thermometer falls 
 about to freezing at night and rises to perhaps 45° oi' 50° by day. 
 
 All human progress depends on activity of both mind and body; 
 an active engineer, for example, is needed to plan a system of water 
 works, an active day laborer to dig the ditches. Hence the best 
 climates appear to be those with an average temperature of not fa!' 
 from 40° during the winter and of about 64° during the sununcM-, 
 but other conditions, such as variability, humidity, and rainfall 
 may alter this. Southeastern England comes lu^arer to this ideal 
 condition than any other part of the world. 
 
 The Optimum Humidity. — When the temperature averages about 
 64° and is therefore close to the oiitinnim foi- health, the best condition 
 of moistiu'e seems to be a relative hiunidity of about 80 per c(Mit for day 
 and night together. This means that the air contains about 80 per 
 cent as much moisture as it is capable of holding at that particular 
 temperature. When the air grows cool at night, its capacity for 
 moisture becomes less. Hence the water vapor that it contains 
 increases relatively when conii)ar(>d with what it is capable of con- 
 taining, and at length becomes 100 per cent at a temperature of 
 58°. Then dew begins to form, since the air must give up some 
 of the moisture. By day, on the ofluM' hand, when the lliciiiioincfer 
 rises to 70° the air contains only about 65 per cent as nnich moisture 
 as it might if it were saturated. AMien the relative humidity at 
 noon, however, falls nuich below 50i)erc('nt, the delicate mucous 
 membrances of the nose and throat begin to sutler, the skin is likely 
 to be too dry, p(>ople tend to become nervous, and the giMieral con- 
 ditions of heallli decline. It nuist l)e renienibci'ed, lio\vc\-cr, that 
 
252 MANS liKLA'lloN TO ('LIMAI'E 
 
 the outdoor life wliich is |)ossil)l(' in a (lr\- cliinato makes up for much 
 of the liann due to diyness. If people wen; wise they would have 
 as iiiuch outdoor lite and outdoor air in moist climates as in dry. 
 
 In warm weather, such as we have in summer, hifi;h iuimitlity 
 coupled with hi^h tenipeiature is \-ei-v harmful, as is shown hy the 
 extreme death-rate in .la|)an duiiiiir Aufi;ust and September, w hen the 
 hot, humid summer pioduees its full effect. On the other hand, ex- 
 trem-e dryness is also haimful in summer. Some of the worst colds, 
 especially those of a ratanhal nature, come from extreme dryness in 
 hot \veatlier. Oddly enough tlu^ effect of hot and cold weather is in 
 some respects the same, for both increase neryousness and make the 
 mucuous membranes sensitive, thus f?iving bacteria a chance to grow. 
 
 How to Remedy Indoor Dryness in Winter. — In ^vintcr such desert- 
 like chyness is Acry common inside our houses and is one of the gi'eat 
 reasons why our work falls off and disease and death increase in the 
 community. By heating our houses we successfully overcome the 
 effect of low temperature, but at the same time we make the air so 
 dry that it is very harmful. In spite of the common idea to the 
 contrarj^, a damp winter month with an average temperature of 80°, 
 for example, is more healthful than a dry one of the same temperature 
 pr()\-ided the dampness is not too monotonous. Hence every wise 
 householder takes pains to see that there are large water pans in the 
 furnace and that they are fitted with wicks or other devices for giving 
 a large surface for evaporation. ( )r if steam or hot water is used 
 for heating, he puts on the radiators some device such as pans of 
 water with cloths suspended in them so that they draw out the water 
 and cause enough to be evaporated to raise the relative hmuidit.y in 
 the house to at least 50 per cent and preferably 60 per cent or 70 per 
 cent, if this does not cause wet walls, instead of 30 per cent or less, 
 as IB now the case in cold weather. When this is done, the temper- 
 ature can, and must, ])e kept between G4° and 68°, where it lielongs, 
 for moist air feels warmer than dry air at the same temperature. 
 
 The Optimum Variability. — A climate may be ideal in tempera- 
 ture and in humidity, and yd be by no means the best kind. This 
 Ls Ixicause all li\'ing creatures seem to need change. If animals are 
 fed absolutely the same food day after day they do not thrive nearly 
 so w(>ll as if their fo<jd is varied. So, too, if ])lants are kept at the 
 optlmiun tempcn-ature day after day, tliey will not gi'ow so well as 
 those which enjoy fii-st a warmer and tlian a lower tem])erat.ure. 
 Man is also extnunely sensitive in this res])ect. In general a rise of 
 tcmiXTature harms him and a dro]) stimulates liim, but a cond^ina- 
 tion of frequent changes in both directions does him much more good 
 than uniformity. In Kew York City, for exani])le, a droji in tem- 
 
CLIMATE AND HUMAN ENERGY 253 
 
 perature causes an increase in people's acti\ity l)()th in summer 
 and winter and a c()rres]i<)ndin^" dro]) in the tlealh-rate. 
 
 Why a Drop in Temperature is Beneficial. — It is easy enough to 
 understand how a drop of temperature is beneficial in summer, for 
 then it causes an a]ii)roach to the optinnmi. In winter, however, the 
 drop takes the temi)erature away from the optimum. How then can 
 a cold wave ])e helpful? It seems to act in two ways: (1) When 
 people are out in the air while the temperature^ is fallino; it acts like a 
 cold bath. Unless the change is too great it increases the rapidity 
 of the circulation causing a healthy glow. (2) When people ai-e within 
 doors a tlrop of temperature in winter is stinmlating l)ecausc it causes 
 the air insider the house to vary in temperature. The fiu'nace fails to 
 preserve that uniform temperature which so many people wrongly 
 suppose to be desirable. Thus the rooms ])ecome first a little cool and 
 then grow warm, giving variations which are beneficial to health. 
 
 Why Cold Spells are Harmful. — While a cold snap is beneficial, 
 a cold spell is harmful for three reasons: (1) The au- in the house 
 maintains a nearly stationary temperature. (2) It l)ecomes ex- 
 cessively diy. (3) People keep their houses too warm. This is 
 because the extreme dryness of the air makes them feel (^hih}', for it 
 causes rapid evaporation from the skin. Even a moving door causes 
 a perceptil)le and chilly draft. Hence the furnaces are pushed to the 
 limit, and people who feel comfortable at 65° in the fall now want a 
 teniperature of 72° to 75°. These three conditions make peo])le feel 
 stupid, nei"\^ous, and cross; manj^ catch cold or suffer from headaches; 
 others become sick; and the conummity sufYei-s more than the usual 
 number of deaths. 
 
 Why Cyclonic Storms are So Helpful, — Changes in other respects 
 as well as in temperature are highly desirabk\ For instance, steady 
 sunshine is not nearly so gootl as a ])('ri()d of smishine and tluni one 
 of clouds and rain. But too nuich clouiUness also leads to ill health 
 and to inefficiency. Wliat is needed is frcciuent changes of all sorts, 
 not too extrenie, but quite fre(|uent. I'or this reason the. countries 
 in the it'gions of cyclonic storms are ixirticularly fortunate. They 
 enjoy changes of weather ev(>ry f(^w days. 
 
 Take a week in early April as an exam))l(\ On the fii-st day there 
 is frost in the morning, but a wai'm s\m in u brilliant blue, sky raises 
 the tiiermometer to above 50° at noon, and ])eo])le begin to talk of 
 tluiir gai'dens. That night there is no hint, of frost even in the coldest 
 valleys. The next day a dry wind blows fi-om the sout.h; tlu^ tem- 
 perature reaches 70° by noon; the robins cliir)) on the lawn; the buds 
 on the lilacs swell visibly; and ])eo])le wish ihcy had ])ut on their 
 sununer clothes. The third dav the wind has shil'tcd to t he .■^oul hcast. 
 
254 MANS 1{KLATI()X TO CLIMATE 
 
 and tlio air tli()up;li si ill warin is soft, with inoistiiro and fools much 
 picasantor tlian the day Ix-foro. All day clouds conio and j^o. the 
 Itcautilul liillou>' clouds of s])riii.ir. Several times little showei-s fall, 
 but after a few minutes tlie sun comes out a}:;ain. People say to 
 one another, "April showei-s brinu" May flowei-s." In the afternoon 
 a warm rain bejiins, but by morninu; the wind has shifted to the east 
 and the air is cooler. Tiien toward eveninjj; a violent fziaie blows from 
 the north, the thermometer dr()]is 5° an hour, and the «rround is cov- 
 ered with snow to a de])th of an inch or two. That nif^ht the clouds 
 ilisapiH-ar b.efore a strong northwest wind, the stai-s shine like twin- 
 klinjj; })oints in a sky of crystal, and it s(>(mus as if winter nad retm-ned. 
 Yet the next morning the air is l)racini>; ratluM- than cold; the lilac 
 buds are larger then ever, and when the warm sun melts tlie snow the 
 grass appeal's suri)risingly gTeeii. And so the weather comes back to 
 where it started. Within five days the temperature^ has \aried from 
 almost arctic to abnost tropical; the hmnidity has ranged from that 
 of deserts to that of mid ocer.n; and the wind has changed from the 
 zephyrs of the hoise lalit\ides to the gales of tlu' roaring forties. Such 
 are the habits of the weather in some of the regions ol' cyclonic storms. 
 
 Where is the Ideal Climate for Man's Work? — We are now 
 ready to ask ourselves wluit parts of the world have the best climate. 
 Remember that the best climate has three chief characteristics: 
 (1) It must have cool but not cold winters, as a mental stinmlus, 
 and warm, but not hc^t sunnners as a physical stimulus. (2) It must 
 have, a fairly high humidity excei)t in warm weather. (3) It must have 
 frequent changes of weather. No region on earth fully sat isf ies all 
 three of these requirements. Southeastern England and the neigh- 
 boring ])arts of continental Europe come nearest to the ideal. Their 
 chief limitation is that changes of weath(>r are not ciuite frecjuent and 
 strong enough, and there are sometunes long peiiods of monot.onous 
 damjmess. Earther east, in Germany, the conditions are nuich like 
 those of the southern N(nv England States and Ncnv York exce])t that 
 changes are not (juite so numei-ous nor so extreme. The iioilh.ern 
 United St-ates east of the Hocky ^Mountains is almost iileal in its 
 number of storms and its humidity, but its winters are too cold and its 
 Kunnners often loo hot. The western coast of the bnited States, on 
 the contrary, is abnost ideal as t.o teini)erature and has a favorable 
 degi'oe of humidity jnost of the tinu^ It does not have enough storms, 
 however, and hence is loo monotonous. 
 
 Ja])an is another country that ai)proaches the ideal clbnate 1)0- 
 oause of its favorable tem])eratur(\ many storms, and fnuiueiit 
 changes. The chief diflicult>- in the southern ])art where most of the 
 peo])le li\-e is I liat the sunnners are too warm and es])ecially too moist. 
 
CLIMATE AND HUMAN ENERGY 
 
 255 
 
 In the southern hemisphere, New Zealand has probably the best 
 climate, for there are no extremes of tenqierature and stomis are 
 fairly abundant. The southeastern corncn- of Australia also has a 
 fairly stimulating chmate, as have ])arts of Argentina and Chile, 
 but in these three re£,ions cyclonic storms are not very numerous and 
 hence there is not sufficient variability. 
 
 A Map cf Climatio Energy. — Fig. 85 shows how hmiian energy 
 would be disti'ibuted li" it d('])('nded wholly on climate. Of coui"se it 
 actually depends aL.o on many other conditions such as inheritance, 
 food, shelter, and training, but for the present purpose^ we may omit 
 these. The heavily shaded parts show where tlu; climate has the 
 
 Fig. 85. — Map of Climatic I'^nergy. 
 
 greatest effect in giving ])eo])]e good health and inaking them ener- 
 getic. Notice the two main dark areas, on(^ in the United States 
 and the other in western Europe. The area in the United States is 
 interrupted somewhat in the desert parts of the country because of the 
 long summer heat and drought. The European area projects east- 
 ward into Russia on the borders of Siberia, but graduall}' disa]')pears, 
 for many of the cyclonic storms die out, while extremes of tinnpera- 
 ture and of dryness prevail in the center of the continent. Only on 
 the far eastern side of Asia in Japan does another area of high energy 
 api^ear. South of the three good areas in the United States, I'Au-ope, 
 and .Japan, the conditions of health and energy steatlily decline, and 
 reach their woi'st near the equator. Then they hn]irove, but nowlu^-e 
 in the southern hemisphere do they rise as high as in the north. Thus 
 
2o0 
 
 MAX'S HKLAllo.N TO CLIMATE 
 
 throo main facts appear: (1) the north tonippratc zone of cyclonic 
 storms is much the Ix'st part of the world; (2) the interiore of conti- 
 nents in the zone of cyclonic storms are usually not so good as the 
 coastal regions; and (3) the southern hemisphere has good areas 
 corresi^onding t(^ those of the nortiu>rn, but not eciual to them. 
 
 How Climate Influences Character. — Energy has an important 
 relation to chai-actcr. Where tiie clijnate is stimulating it is eas}- for 
 people to l>c industrious. When they get up in the morning they 
 often f(M>l so nnicli like work lluit they are eager to begin before the 
 legular time. Such people are likely to be inventive or to make im- 
 pro\'ements and carry out reforms. They do not necessarily have 
 nioi'e ideas tlian otliers, but their en(M-gy makes it possible to ])ut the 
 
 Fig. 8G. — Map of Civilization. 
 
 ideas into practice. In an invigoi'ating climate it is also easier to be 
 honest and sober and self-controlled than in a more enervating one. 
 It is much easier to speak tin- ti-ulli or to conli'ol one's teni])er when 
 one feels strong than when on(> feels weak. 
 
 People who live in good climates are a]il to lool^: down u])on lliose 
 who live in ])oorer climates. That is a gi'eat mistake. The elTect of 
 climate is like that of food. WC do not look down u])on ])eo])le who 
 are weak because they hav(> been unable to get gofxl food. Peo])lc 
 sui-h as missionaries and wise, colonial adniiiiist I'atoi's who haxc li\'ed 
 long in tro])ical counti'ies have learne(l that while religion, (nlucation, 
 and good government greatly benefit, th(> natives, nothing can over- 
 come the effect of the climate. Will power, industry, and sell'-i-eliance 
 like that of people in more bracing climates can be gained only by a 
 process so slow that it will take centuries. 
 
CLIMATE AND HUMAN ENERGY 257 
 
 Because a person happens to be born in an unfavorable climate 
 he is not necessarily incapable or less high minded than those born 
 where the cUmate is more stimulating. In fact when a man who 
 lives in an unfavorable climate such as that of Venezuela distinguishes 
 himself he deserv^es greater credit than does an equally distin- 
 guished man from a more favored region such as Louisiana, and nmch 
 more than one who lives in a highly stimulating region like Ohio. 
 The "N'enezuelan has to draw upon his own will power for much of his 
 energy, while the man from Ohio receives his from a stimulating cli- 
 mate. Thus our Southern States deserve more credit for their 
 achievements than do the Nortliern States. 
 
 How Climate Explains the Distribution of Civilization. — Climatic 
 energy has much to do with the advance of civilization. Fig. 86 
 shows the distribution of civilization according to the opinion of 
 about fifty eminent men from different countries in North America, 
 Europe, and Asia. The heavily shaded regions contain people who 
 stand especially high in the scale of civiHzation. Compare this map 
 with Fig. 85, which shows climatic energy. On both maps the 
 black areas together with the heavilj' shaded areas which smTound 
 them cover approximately the same regions. Thej^ embrace most of 
 the United States and southern Canada, most of Europe, Jajian, 
 southeastern Australia, and a portion of South America. The agree- 
 ment between regions of stimulating climate and high civilization 
 means that the health and energy imparted by such a climate are 
 among the conditions necessary for progress. Other conditions such 
 as the influence of men of genius, good government, an ennobling 
 religion, and strong institutions are also necessary just as good water, 
 good food, and proper shelter as well as gootl air arc necessary to 
 health. 
 
 A Climatic Comparison: The Bahamas and Canada. — To imder- 
 stand the relation of climate and civilization let us compare the pro- 
 \'ince of Ontario, where the climate is one of the best in the world, and 
 the Bahama Islands, which have a warm, monotonous, tropical cli- 
 mate. The original white settlers in both places were of the same 
 stock. They were English colonists, man}'- of whom left the United 
 States at the time of the Revolution because of their loyalty to Eng- 
 land. To-day the descendants of the Loyalists in Canada are one 
 of the strongest elements in causing that country to be conspicuously 
 ,well governed and progressive. In the Bahamas the descendants of 
 similar Loyalists prolmbly show a larger proportion of inefficient, 
 incompetent individuals than can be found in almost any other 
 Anglo-Saxon conmiunity. Ajnong the Canadians practicalh' ever>'- 
 one has a fairly good education. Among the Bahamans a large 
 number have never been to school, and many who learned to read and 
 
258 MAN'S RELATION TO CLIMATE 
 
 wr'iio in tlioir cliildluiod li:ivo forgotten thosp arts because tlioy do not 
 pnictice them. 
 
 The nuiin cause of these (hfferences is tlie climate, althoujih other 
 factore siicli as the ])resence of negi'oc^s in the Bahamas ])lay an impor- 
 tant part. As tlie Bahanians themselves say, "Tliis climate is veiy 
 healthful and pleasant as everyone knows. That is why people come 
 from the North to s])end ]mrt of the winter at beautiful Nassau. The 
 only trouble is that it doesn't make one feel like work. In winter 
 it's all right, although cwn then we can't fly around the way you 
 Americans do. In summer we go to bed tired and we get up more 
 tired, anil our summer lasts from April to October. It's all very well 
 for you Americans to think we're lazy, but try living here a year or 
 two youi'selves, and you'll be as lazy as we arc." A Hahaman girl 
 who returned to the Islands for a visit after stu(l> ing nursing in New 
 York was asked whether she enjoyed life more in the United States 
 or at home. "How can one help enjoAnng it more there?" she an- 
 swered. "There one feci s like doing things. Here one never /cf/.s like 
 doing anything." The whole matter is well summed up by a local 
 proverb which says that 3'ou cannot tell whether a Bahanian woman 
 is pretty until slie goes away and has a chance to grow plump and get 
 some color in her cheeks. Some of the more thoughtful Bahaman 
 parents send their children to the United States or I'Jigland, not only 
 for education, but to live permanently. They feel that the Bahamas 
 are not a white man's countiy. 
 
 The chief trouble in the Bahamas seems to be the monotony of the 
 jlimate. There is almost no malaria or hookworm disease, two of 
 the chief scourges of more tropical countri(^s. The temperature^ is 
 not excessive and the hottest days are by no means so warm as in 
 Kansas City, for example. Tlun-e are few cyclonic storms, however, 
 and therefore few changes, and nothing to stimulate activity. Hence 
 although people may have good ideas and may int(Mid to carry them 
 out, it is very hard to make an effort. Wlu>n the Bahaman gets up 
 in the morning he feels a sort of dulhicss. Th(> regular i-ou(iiic of 
 daily life can l)e carried on without much difliculty, but when a new 
 kind of work is to be done, he saj's, "\\ ait till to-morrow." Hence 
 civilization will continue to make little progi'ess utitil the Bahamans 
 are taught how to overcome their climatic handi<a]). 
 
 The Canadian cousins of t.hc Haliamans, on tlic contrary', 
 make gi'eat progress in ci\ilizalion. Tiiey are full of that super- 
 alnmdant energy wlii<'h makes ])('o])l(> want to g(>t out and do 
 something. We all know the feeling. It somc^times l(\-ids us to do 
 foolish and even harmful things, but on the whole it kee]is us profit- 
 ably active and alert. This activit.y and alert tiess are one chief reason 
 why Canada is an important member of the Family of Nations. 
 
CLIMATE AND HUMAX EXERGY 
 
 259 
 
 The Bahainan should not be blamed for his laziness or tho Ontarian 
 praised for his achievements. It is the climate that deserves blame 
 in one case and praise in the other. 
 
 Climate only One Factor in Causing Civilization. — It nmst not Ijc 
 for<;otten that a sthniilatiiij;- climate is only one of the conditions which 
 promote a country's civilization. The world may be likened to a 
 canvas upon which several artists are painting a picture of civiliza- 
 tion. One artist, called «>iimatc, paints a set of colors which may be 
 harmonious in one place and unpleasantly lurid or faded in othei-s. 
 Race adds other tints, sometimes good and sometimes bad. Religion 
 paints still other colors, while institutions, government, and education 
 each add their tints. If all the colore are good in any part of the 
 world, that region will have a high civiUzation. The United States 
 and western Europe are particularly fortunate in being the two areas 
 where the colore form favoraljle combinations on the largest scale. 
 
 QUESTIOXS, EXERCISES, AXD PRCJBLEMS 
 1. A. Keep an outdoor weather record and an indoor record for a period of 
 two or three months during the winter (and, if joossiblc, again in 
 summer). For the outdoor record use three thermometers: (1) 
 maximum; (2) minimum; (3) wet bulb. The maxinuun thermometer 
 may also be used as (4) a dry bulb. For the indoor rccoril use a wet 
 and a dry bulb thermometer. Be sure to fan the wet bulb a minute 
 before taking a reading, especially indoors, where the air is still. 
 The indoor thermometer should be hung in some room where people 
 are in the habit of sitting. The indoor record should show the usual 
 conditions and not those when the room is being aired. 
 Once a day at a regular hour make a record of the following four tem- 
 peratures outdoors: (1) maximum; (2) minimum; (3) wet bulb; (4) 
 dry bulb. Note the direction and force of the winds according to 
 the following scale: 
 
 Scale Numbers. 
 
 Corresponding Wind. 
 
 Limits of Uourly Velocity 
 Miles per Hour. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 4 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 Calm 
 
 Light breeze 
 
 Moderate wind 
 
 Strong wind 
 
 Gale 
 
 Storm 
 
 Hurricane 
 
 Und<n- 2 
 
 2-12 
 13-23 
 24-37 
 38-55 
 56-75 
 
 Above 75 
 
 At the same time make a record of the wet and dry bvilbs indoors. .Mso 
 record the days when you feel particularly energetic or particularly 
 well able to study, and the days when you do not feel energetic and 
 when work drags. Omit, however, the days when you know that your 
 condition is due to some special circumstance, as good news, a late 
 party, or too much or too little exercise. 
 B. After your record is well started plot on a single sheet the following 
 conditions: (1) outside temperature; (2) change in outside tern- 
 
260 
 
 MAN'S RELATION TO CLIMATE 
 
 poratiiro in 24 hours; (3) insido tomi)Pratiiro; (4) avprago tompomture 
 of niaxiiimni and iiiiiiiinum which is practically the mean for the day; 
 (5) relative humidity of the outside air; ((>) relative humidity of the 
 inside air; (7) strenj^th of the wind. 
 C. Pick out from the record the days which seem to you particularly ^ood 
 on the liasis of (1) temjierature, paying attention to l>oth indoor 
 and lutiloor ctinditions; i2i relative humidity indoors and out; (3) 
 ohanfie of temi)erature; (4) movement of the air. Explain whatever 
 relation you see between your physical and mental conditions and the 
 weather. 
 
 RELATIVE HUMIDITY TABLE 
 
 To determine the relative humidity find the reading of the dry hull) ther- 
 mometer on the left (jf the table and in the line thus indicated find the proper 
 number in the column having at its head the dilferenee between the dry and wet 
 bulbs. For example; Dry bulb 68°, wet bulb 61°, difference 7°. In the column 
 headed 7 and opposite a temperature of 68° we finrl 67, whicli means that the air 
 has the e.xcellent relative humidity of 67 per cent. 
 
 Difference 
 
 IN Degrees Between Wet and Dry Bulb Thermometers 
 
 of Dry Bulb 
 Theniiom- 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 ctcr, 
 Fahrenheit 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 90 
 
 79 
 
 69 
 
 60 
 
 50 
 
 41 
 
 31 
 
 22 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 90 
 
 80 
 
 71 
 
 61 
 
 52 
 
 42 
 
 33 
 
 24 
 
 16 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 90 
 
 81 
 
 72 
 
 62 
 
 53 
 
 44 
 
 35 
 
 27 
 
 18 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 91 
 
 82 
 
 73 
 
 64 
 
 55 
 
 46 
 
 37 
 
 29 
 
 20 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 91 
 
 82 
 
 73 
 
 65 
 
 56 
 
 48 
 
 39 
 
 31 
 
 23 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 37 
 
 91 
 
 83 
 
 74 
 
 66 
 
 58 
 
 49 
 
 41 
 
 33 
 
 25 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 38 
 
 91 
 
 S3 
 
 75 
 
 67 
 
 59 
 
 51 
 
 43 
 
 35 
 
 27 
 
 19 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 39 
 
 92 
 
 84 
 
 76 
 
 6S 
 
 60 
 
 52 
 
 44 
 
 37 
 
 29 
 
 21 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 92 
 
 84 
 
 76 
 
 68 
 
 61 
 
 53 
 
 46 
 
 38 
 
 31 
 
 23 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 41 
 
 92 
 
 84 
 
 77 
 
 69 
 
 62 
 
 54 
 
 47 
 
 40 
 
 33 
 
 26 
 
 18 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 42 
 
 92 
 
 85 
 
 77 
 
 70 
 
 62 
 
 55 
 
 48 
 
 41 
 
 34 
 
 28 
 
 21 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 43 
 
 92 
 
 85 
 
 78 
 
 70 
 
 63 
 
 56 
 
 49 
 
 43 
 
 36 
 
 29 
 
 23 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 44 
 
 93 
 
 85 
 
 78 
 
 71 
 
 64 
 
 57 
 
 51 
 
 44 
 
 37 
 
 31 
 
 24 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 93 
 
 86 
 
 79 
 
 71 
 
 65 
 
 58 
 
 52 
 
 45 
 
 39 
 
 33 
 
 26 
 
 20 14 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 46 
 
 93 
 
 SC) 
 
 79 
 
 72 
 
 65 
 
 59 
 
 53 
 
 46 
 
 40 
 
 34 
 
 28 22 16 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 47 
 
 93 
 
 .sc, 
 
 7!) 
 
 73 
 
 ()6 
 
 60 
 
 54 
 
 47 
 
 41 
 
 35 
 
 29 23 17 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 93 
 
 87 
 
 SO 
 
 73 
 
 67 
 
 60 
 
 54 
 
 48 
 
 42 
 
 36 
 
 3l|25 19 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 49 
 
 93 
 
 87 
 
 80 
 
 74 
 
 67 
 
 61 
 
 55 
 
 49 
 
 43 
 
 37 
 
 32 26 21 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 93 
 
 87 
 
 81 
 
 74 
 
 68 
 
 62 
 
 56 
 
 50 
 
 44 
 
 39 
 
 33 28 22 
 
 17 
 
 12 
 
 7 2 
 
 
 
 
 61 
 
 94 
 
 87 
 
 81 
 
 75 
 
 69 
 
 63 
 
 57 
 
 51 
 
 45 
 
 40 
 
 35 29 24 19'l4 
 
 9 4 
 
 
 
 
 62 
 
 94 
 
 88 
 
 81 
 
 75 
 
 69 
 
 63 
 
 58 
 
 52 
 
 46 
 
 41 
 
 3()3()25 20 15 10 6 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 63 
 
 94 
 
 88 
 
 82 
 
 75 
 
 70 
 
 64 
 
 58 
 
 53 
 
 47 
 
 42 
 
 37.32 27 22 17 12 7 
 
 3 1 
 
 
 54 
 
 94 
 
 88 
 
 82 
 
 76 
 
 70 
 
 65 
 
 59 
 
 54 
 
 48 
 
 43 
 
 3S 
 
 33 
 
 2S 
 
 23 
 
 18 
 
 141 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 
CLIMATE AND HUMAN ENERGY 
 RELATIVE HUMIDITY TABLE— Cotitinued. 
 
 261 
 
 Reading 
 of Dry Bulb 
 Thermom- 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 G 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 eter. 
 Fahrenheit 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 94 
 
 88 
 
 82 
 
 76 
 
 71 
 
 65 
 
 60 
 
 55 
 
 49 
 
 44 
 
 39 
 
 34 
 
 29 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 
 56 
 
 94 
 
 88 
 
 82 
 
 77 
 
 71 
 
 or. 
 
 61 
 
 55 
 
 50 
 
 45 
 
 40 3.">;;i -'O-M 17 12 s 3 
 
 
 57 
 
 94 
 
 88 
 
 S3 
 
 77 
 
 "■■) 
 
 1 it ') 
 
 61 
 
 56 
 
 51 
 
 46 
 
 413O0J J7 23 Is 11 10 5 
 
 
 58 
 
 94 
 
 89 
 
 s:j 
 
 ~"" 
 
 7) 
 
 07 
 
 62 
 
 57 
 
 52 
 
 4 
 
 42 38 33 28|24!20 
 
 15ll2 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 59 
 
 94 
 
 89 
 
 83 
 
 78 
 
 73 
 
 6s 
 
 63 
 
 58 
 
 53 
 
 48 
 
 43 39 34 30 
 
 25 21 
 
 17 13 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 60 
 
 94 
 
 SO 
 
 si 
 
 7 s 
 
 7.", 
 
 (Is 
 
 Cio 
 
 .")S 
 
 53 
 
 40 
 
 44 40 35 31 
 
 27 
 
 2218 14 10 
 
 6 
 
 61 
 
 94 
 
 S'. I 
 
 St 
 
 7'.) 
 
 71 
 
 (Is 
 
 Cil 
 
 .")'.) 
 
 .".1 
 
 .")() 
 
 45 40 36 32 28 24 20 15 12 7 
 
 62 
 
 94 
 
 89 
 
 SI 
 
 7'. 1 
 
 71 
 
 (i: 1 
 
 c. 1 
 
 0(1 
 
 :..") 
 
 ."lO 
 
 46 41 37 33 20 25 21 16 14 9 
 
 63 
 
 95 
 
 90 
 
 Si 
 
 7>.) 
 
 71 
 
 7( 
 
 (i.") 
 
 (lO 
 
 oti 
 
 7)1 
 
 47 42:38,34 30 26,22 17,15,11 
 
 64 
 
 95 
 
 90 
 
 85 
 
 79 
 
 75 
 
 70 
 
 66 
 
 61 
 
 56 
 
 52 
 
 48 
 
 43 
 
 39 35 31 27 23 18 
 
 1612 
 
 65 
 
 95 
 
 90 
 
 So 
 
 SI) 
 
 7") 
 
 70 
 
 66 
 
 62 
 
 57 
 
 53 
 
 48 
 
 44 
 
 40 36 32 28 25 20 
 
 17 
 
 13 
 
 66 
 
 95 
 
 on 
 
 S.') 
 
 SI) 
 
 77) 
 
 71 
 
 66 
 
 62 
 
 58 
 
 53 
 
 49 45 
 
 41 37 33 29 26 21 
 
 18 
 
 14 
 
 67 
 
 95 
 
 0(1 
 
 sTi 
 
 so 
 
 711 
 
 71 
 
 67 
 
 62 
 
 58 
 
 54 
 
 50 46 
 
 42 38 34 30 27 22 
 
 19 
 
 15 
 
 68 
 
 95 
 
 90 
 
 85 
 
 81 
 
 76 
 
 72 
 
 67 
 
 63 
 
 59 
 
 55 
 
 5147 
 
 43 39 35 31 28 23 20 
 
 16 
 
 69 
 
 95 
 
 90 
 
 86 
 
 81 
 
 77 
 
 72 
 
 68 
 
 64 
 
 59 
 
 55 
 
 5147 
 
 44 
 
 40 36 32 29 24 21 
 
 18 
 
 70 
 
 95 
 
 90 
 
 86 
 
 81 
 
 77 
 
 72 
 
 68 
 
 64 
 
 60 
 
 56 
 
 52 48 
 
 44 
 
 40 37 33 30 26 23 
 
 19 
 
 71 
 
 95 
 
 90 
 
 S(i 
 
 s2 
 
 — 
 
 73 
 
 69 
 
 64 
 
 60 
 
 56 
 
 53 49 45 
 
 4138 34 3137 24 20 
 
 72 
 
 95 
 
 91 
 
 Sil 
 
 s_' 
 
 7s 
 
 73 
 
 69 
 
 65 
 
 61 
 
 57 
 
 53 49 46 
 
 42 39 35 32 28 25 21 
 
 73 
 
 95 
 
 91 
 
 Stl 
 
 S'J 
 
 7s 
 
 73 
 
 69 
 
 65 
 
 61 
 
 58 
 
 54 50 46'43 40 36 33 29 26!22 
 
 74 
 
 95 
 
 91 
 
 86 
 
 S2 
 
 78 
 
 74 
 
 70 
 
 66 
 
 62 
 
 59 
 
 54 
 
 5147'44i40 37i34 30 
 
 III 
 
 26 23 
 
 75 
 
 96 
 
 91 
 
 87 
 
 82 
 
 78 
 
 71 
 
 7(1 
 
 liO 
 
 i>:i 
 
 ," ', 1 
 
 M 1 1 1 1 
 .".:. 7.1 is 44 41 38 34 31 
 
 27 24 
 
 76 
 
 96 
 
 91 
 
 87 
 
 83 
 
 78 
 
 74 
 
 7(1 
 
 ti7 
 
 li.; 
 
 ."1 '. 1 
 
 7..-, :,_■ is 4542 38 35 32'28 25 
 
 77 
 
 96 
 
 01 
 
 s7 
 
 s3 
 
 79 
 
 75 
 
 71 
 
 67 
 
 63 
 
 60 
 
 56 52 49|46 42 39 36 33 29 26 
 
 78 
 
 96 
 
 01 
 
 s7 
 
 s3 
 
 79 
 
 75 
 
 71 
 
 67 
 
 64 
 
 ()0 
 
 57'53 50'46 43,40 37 34,30 27 
 
 79 
 
 96 
 
 91 
 
 S7 
 
 s;j 
 
 70 
 
 75 
 
 71 
 
 6S 
 
 01 
 
 00 
 
 57 '. 1 :)( ) 47 
 
 44 
 
 41 
 
 37 34 31 28 
 
 80 
 
 96 
 
 91 
 
 87 
 
 83 
 
 79 
 
 76 
 
 72 
 
 68 
 
 64 
 
 61 
 
 57 54 51 47 
 
 44 
 
 41 
 
 38 35 32 29 
 
 82 
 
 96 
 
 92 
 
 8S 
 
 SI 
 
 so 
 
 76 
 
 72 
 
 69 
 
 65 
 
 62 
 
 58 55 52 49 
 
 46 
 
 43 40 36.33130 
 
 84 
 
 96 
 
 92 
 
 Sn 
 
 si 
 
 SI) 
 
 77 
 
 73 
 
 70 
 
 66 
 
 63 
 
 59 56 53 50 
 
 47 44 4137 3431 
 
 86 
 
 96 
 
 92 
 
 88 
 
 85 
 
 81 
 
 77 
 
 74 
 
 70 
 
 67 
 
 63 
 
 60 57 54 51 48 45 42 38 3632 
 
 88 
 
 96 
 
 92 
 
 88 
 
 85 
 
 81 
 
 78 
 
 74 
 
 71 
 
 67 
 
 64 
 
 61 58 55 52 
 
 49 46 43 40 37 34 
 
 1 1 1 1 
 
 90 
 
 '.Hi 
 
 '. •_' 
 
 S9 
 
 85 
 
 81 
 
 78 
 
 / •) 
 
 71 
 
 (is 
 
 t'.7) 
 
 62 59 56 
 
 53 
 
 50 
 
 47 
 
 44 
 
 41 39 36 
 
 92 
 
 96 
 
 92 
 
 89 
 
 85 
 
 82 
 
 78 
 
 75 
 
 72 
 
 69 
 
 65 
 
 62:59 57 
 
 54 
 
 51 
 
 48 
 
 45 
 
 42 40 37 
 
 94 
 
 96 
 
 93 
 
 89 
 
 86 
 
 82 
 
 79 
 
 75 
 
 72 
 
 69 
 
 66 
 
 63,60 57 
 
 54 
 
 52 49 
 
 46 
 
 43 
 
 4138 
 
 96 
 
 96 
 
 93 
 
 89 
 
 86 
 
 82 
 
 79 
 
 76 
 
 73 
 
 70 
 
 67 
 
 64 61 58 55 
 
 53 50 47 
 
 44 
 
 4239 
 
 98 
 
 96 
 
 93 
 
 89 
 
 86 
 
 83 
 
 79 
 
 76 
 
 73 
 
 70 
 
 67 
 
 64 6159 56 
 
 53 51 48 
 
 46 
 
 43140 
 
 100 
 
 96 
 
 93 
 
 90 
 
 86 
 
 83 
 
 80 
 
 77 
 
 74 
 
 71 
 
 68 
 
 65 62!59 57 
 
 1 1 
 
 54 52 49 
 
 47 
 
 44 42 
 
262 MAN'S RELATION TO CLIMATE 
 
 2. On an outline map of the world indirato by dots the desert and semi-arid 
 regions having a rainfall of less than 20 inches i)er j'ear. Trace on this maj) the 
 isotherms for 70° in July (Fig. 72) and 30° in January (Fig. 71) and shade the 
 undotted lands between these two Unes. What does this map indicate as to the 
 extent and location of regions where the climate is highly stimulating both men- 
 tally and physically? It must be remembered, of course, that considerable areas 
 on each side of the shaded areas also i)ossess excellent conditions. 
 
 3. In Bartholomew's Meteorological Atlas, Huntington's Civilization and Cli- 
 mate, or some other book find a map of the distribution of storms. Compare this 
 with Fig. SG showing the distribution of civilization and record your conclusions. 
 
 4. On an outline map of the world indicate by a solid line the 70° i.sotherm 
 for summer and by a dotted line the 70° isotherm for winter. Shade the lands 
 between these two lines. How do the size and location of the shaded areas com- 
 pare in the two hemispheres? What does this indicate as to the variability of 
 climate north and south of the Equator? Which has the advantage? Why? 
 Compare your map with the map of civilization. Fig. 8G, and draw conclusions. 
 
 5. Look up the following aboriginal people: (a) Kaffirs; (b) Bantus; (c) 
 Maoris; (d) Australian Aborigines. Indicate on a map of the world the i)laces 
 where each of them was originallj' most numerous. What specific (climatic influ- 
 ences help to account for the diverse abilities of the four races? 
 
 6. Look up the statistics for immigration into the United States for five 
 years, using the reports of the Commissioner of Immigration or the World 
 Almanac. On an outline map of the world draw a line in each chief country pro- 
 portional to the number of immigrants sent by it to the United States. Comjjare 
 j-our map with Figs. 85 and 8G. ^^'hat do you conclude as to the civilization 
 of our immigrants and the climate of the countries from which they come? 
 
PART VII 
 MAN'S RELATION TO VEGETATION AND ANIMALS 
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 THE EARTH'S GARMENT OF VEGETATION 
 
 The Importance of Plants and Animals. — Thus far wo have do- 
 voted our attention chiefly to the direct responses of man to the five 
 great elements of physical environment. We have passed from lo- 
 cation, land forms, water bodies, soil and minerals, and climate 
 directl}^ to man's activities. Only here and there have we touched 
 on the plants and animals which form the second column in the geo- 
 graphic diagi'am of Fig. 1. Now that we have studied climate, 
 however, we are ready to consider how plants and animals influence 
 man's activities. They exert their influence chiefly through agricul- 
 ture, the gi-eat industiy which furnishes most of our food and raw 
 materials. 
 
 How important plants and animals are may l)o judged from the 
 fact that in the United States about 40 per cent of the population 
 depend directly upon agricultm-o. Sonu^ono has well said that 
 previous to 1900 the chief manufactiu'od product of the United 
 States was 5,740,000 farms with an area of 840,000,000 acres. The 
 number of farms is still incnnising, although not so rapidly as formcM'ly, 
 because the greater part of the good land has already been occupied. 
 In 1920 the farms of the l^nitcnl States, including buildings, equip- 
 ment, and animals, as well as the soil wlun'o th(^ cro])S are grown, 
 were worth a])out one himdred billion dollars. Tliis is more than 
 twice as much as the ca})ital invested in all kinds of manufacturing 
 enterprises in this country. The mnnlx^r of i)e()])l(> who Uve on the 
 farms is also twice as large as the mnnber who depend on manu- 
 facturing. 
 
 Even in a country like England, where manufacturing is jiredomi- 
 nant and home i)roduction of food does not begin to sui)i)ly the tle- 
 mand, agriculture employs more people than all the railroads, steam- 
 shi])s, and other means of conuinuiicatioii. and inovc than the metal 
 
 2G3 
 
204 MANS i;i:i.\ri().\ to vegetation and animals 
 
 indiistrios which have inado British cutlery and other hardware 
 famous all o\i'r the world. Elsewhere agrieuUure is still more im- 
 portant. In Russia three-fourths of the pco])le arc peasants, while in 
 India and China the proportion is even larger. Thus plants and 
 anijnals determine the mode of life and the prosperity of far more than 
 hiilf the world's inhabitants. 
 
 How the Nature of the Vegetation Determines the Character of 
 Agriculture. — Although the fanner uses both jjlants antl animals, 
 j)l;ui1s are much the more unportant because annuals as well as men 
 de])en(l n])(iii them. The full importance of plants, however, does 
 not a])i)ear until we also realize that the differences in agi'iculturc from 
 region to region d(>pend largely on the different kinds of plants which 
 the climate and soil permit. The man who cleai-s the tropical jungle 
 cannot possiljly raise the same crops as the one Avho lives in the far 
 north where a gi'owing season of only three months permits Httle saAe 
 barley to be raised. Nor can he plant and reap his crops in the same 
 way, or use the same variety of animals. So, too, the man who lives 
 in the fertile gi'asslands of the prairie raises corn, wheat, horees, and 
 cows, while the one who inhaljits a hot desert oasis raises millet, dates, 
 camels, and goats. AMiat the chestnut and olive are to the Spanish 
 peasant, the bread-fruit tree is to the scantilj^ clad inhabitant of the 
 tropical Marquesas Islands in tlie South Pacific. Even in the same 
 latitude the parts of Yucatan that favor the growth of sisal give rise 
 to a kind of farming different from that which prevails in the wetter 
 regions where rubber trees and cacao thrive. The La]:)p who raises 
 reindeer does so because the vegetation that will grow in his cold 
 northern region will support no other kind of animal, and will not 
 fin-nish crops that man can eat. In all these cases vegetation is the 
 chief factor in determining how the pc'ople get a li^^ng. 
 
 The Three Great Types of Vegetation. — Since plants are the most 
 important factor in the Uvcs of such a vast number of people, we must 
 luiderstand the variations of natural vegetation and the causes of their 
 (listril)uli()n. The ordinary ])lants thai I'oiiu the caith's gaiiuciil (if 
 vegetation may be divided inio ihice great groups: (1) trees; (2) 
 bushes, scrub, and woody perennials: and (8) grasses and other liei'- 
 baceous l'()iiii>. Without this \aiie(l tianiieiit of vegetation tiie lands 
 of t he eait h would be as barren as 1 he moon with its w asles of desola- 
 lion. \\ liile soil and relief ha\'e much to do with the local distribu- 
 tion of t hese three groups, t heir geneial (li>t ri but ion o\'er t lie world as 
 a whole depends chiefly upon two climatic lactoi's: (a) the length 
 of the season warm enough foi- growth; and [h) the ])i-opoit ion of 
 that season during which there is moistui'e enough to pi-omote 
 growth. 
 
 Treca. — Although trees ai-e the highest foi'in of ^■egelable life, lliey 
 
THE EARTH'S GARMENT OF VEGETATION 265 
 
 are in many ways more sensitive than bushy or gi*assy vegetation. 
 They are sensitive to drought, especially when yoiuig. Everyone 
 who has traveled from a well-watered region to one that is dry knows 
 how the trees diminish in size and become scrubby, or else become 
 few in number and are limited to places with more than the usual 
 amount of moisture. Trees also need a fairly long gi'owing season. 
 That is why the tree-line on mountains is lower than the upper limit 
 of grasses. On the higher slopes of the mountains, although there 
 is plenty of moisture the v/arm period when growth is possible is not 
 long enough to enable trees to make their growth and ripen their 
 seeds, although grasses succeed without cUfficulty. Accoixlingly 
 trees attain a fine gi'owth and form gTeat forests in regions which 
 have a moderately long warm season during which there is abundant 
 moisture. Such regions may be as varied as the Belgian Congo, Si- 
 beria, the eastern United States, and the Andes of southern Chili. 
 
 Bushes and Scrub. — The plants classified under this head range all 
 the way from scrubby trees to perennials with more or less woody 
 stems which die back in part after each growing season. Such plants 
 are mixed with the trees in most forested regions. Where the condi- 
 tions of climate or soil become unfavorable to trees, however, bushes 
 crowd them out and become the chief growth. This can be seen near 
 the tree line on the sides of mountains where low temperature pre- 
 vents the gi'owth of trees sooner than of bushes. It is also seen on the 
 edges of swanaps where too much moisture in the soil prevents many 
 kinds of trees from growing, but does not drive out the bushes. Again 
 where the soil becomes thin and hence dry, the trees give place to 
 bushes. The most noteworthy of all regions for bushes, however, are 
 subtropical and desert regions or the parts of the torrid zone where 
 the drj' season is particularly long. The mountains of Sicily with 
 their scrubby "dry forests," the sage brush d(^s(n't of Utah, the bushy 
 desert of Arizona, and the areas of tropical scrul) in (he dr}' parts 
 of Colombia are all examples of this type. 
 
 The bushy growths of dry regions differ from Irin^s in Ixnng able 
 to maintain Ihcinselves through protracted droughts provided they 
 have water at occasional intervals. ]\Iany of tlieni have drought- 
 resistant leaves. In some, like the laurel and li\i' oak, the leaves 
 arc hard and shiny; in others such as the sage, they are soft and fiu'ry. 
 Both types have coverings that hinder evaporation and thus protect 
 th(^ plants during the long dry season. Many such plants also bear 
 l)ri(kly leaves or si)ines. These incidentally protect the plants against 
 the ravages of animals, but in most cases they originate tln-ough a pvo- 
 gressive reduction in I he plant 's evaporating surface. 'I'he jilants in 
 which (•\a])ora( ion is rest I'ictctl h;l^■(• the Ix-st chance of sur\i\:il in 
 the (Icsci-t. 
 
26G MAX S UliLATlOX TO VECKTATION AND ANIMALS 
 
 l«Gk^it r 
 
THE EARTH'S GARiMEXT OF VEGETATION 
 
 267 
 
 £ ^ 
 
 — . ._ jj 
 
2G8 MANS KELATIUX TO \KC;1:TAT1()X AND A.M.MALS 
 
 CrafifiCft. — Tno modest p-assos p:i-ow iindor a p^'oaror variety of cir- 
 cumstances than do eitlier trees or bushes. ]\Iany gi'asscs can com- 
 plete their gi'owth and mature their seeds in a few weeks so that a 
 siiifjle sliowc^r in the desert may be enoup;h for them. The}'' often 
 grow so rajiidly that they can thrive on high moimtains where the 
 wann season is too short for trees or bushes. Hence above the tree 
 Hne there are lofty gr(>en pastures or "alps" that furnish food for 
 sheej) and cattle in Switzerland, Norway, and elsewhere. Grasses 
 can endiu-e not only aritlit}^, low temperature, and short seasons of 
 growth, but also excessiA-e moistm-e which would be fatal to trees and 
 bushes. Hence the dripping hills of Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, 
 and the soggy mai"shes of Holland are clothed with soft- lush grass 
 which makes (>\c(>llciit ■i);istur('. 
 
 A Mountain Showing World-wide Types of Vegetation. — A most 
 interesting illustration of the relation of climate to trees, bushes, and 
 grasses is found on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada in Cali- 
 fornia. At the base the climate is so dry that the traveler finds the 
 plain and the lower foothills clothed with grass which is green only 
 a few weeks. A little higher up, as the rainfall increases, bushy 
 vegetation of many sorts is met, including the wild lilac, the joicca, 
 and the manzanita, with its smooth hornlike stems. The live-oak 
 tre«, with its hard, prickly leaves appears, and before one has climbed 
 far he is in the midst of a dry forest, that is, one composed of drought 
 resistant trees many of wliich are scrubby. At higher altitudes 
 where there is abundant rain the dry forest is replaced by a wet 
 forest of broad-lca\'cd trees like the oixlinary oak and sj^amore. 
 Then, where the air is colder, the tjqoe changes to coniferous forests 
 of pines, giant sequoias, spruces, and fii-s. Next, where the gi'owing 
 season becomes too short for trees, one struggles through a 
 dense thicket of bushes bent down by six months of snow each year. 
 Finally, when these are left below, the open grassy slopes of the "alps" 
 are reachcti, for here wliere the t(Mnpei';i1ui'(^ is loo low for wood}' 
 plants the grasses thrive fai" bet tef 1 liaii tlicy do in thcdi-y. hoi desert 
 fur below. Thus within a day's climb one may liiid illu^i I'al ions of 
 most of the woild's main types of vegetation. 
 
 Distribution of Vegetation on a Simplified Globe. — The distril)U- 
 tioii of trees, bushes, and grasses over the earth's sui'face seems at first 
 sight to l)e most complicated. It follows definite laws, however, as may 
 be seen from a (•()mi)ai'ison ol'thc accompanyinii,- lalilc willi l'"ig. <S'.). 
 Th(> table shows how veg(>tation would lie distributiMl on a simplified 
 glol)e, such as we have usimI in dis(aissing climate. The map shows, 
 in a gcnei-al way, tlic actual dist libut ion. \'>y comparing the ma]) 
 with the table we can see how the distribution of ])lants is alTected 
 
THE EARTHS GARMENT OF VEGETATION 
 
 2G9 
 
270 MANS l{i;i.A'lI()N TO MXlllTATloX AM) ANLMALS 
 
 Pi 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 I— I 
 
 H 
 
 <; 
 
 S3 
 
 HH 
 H^ 
 1—1 
 
 > 
 
 I— ( 
 
 o 
 Q 
 
 o 
 
 l-H 
 
 H 
 
 w 
 o 
 
 > 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 »— I 
 
 H 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 0) 
 
 J3 C 
 
 ■g -a 
 
 
 •S 
 
 c ,- o 
 
 
 
 
 .t« 
 
 1 i£ 
 
 O C iJ 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 0; o 
 
 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 'Is 
 
 
 ^ .= .22 
 
 ^ 5 ? — 
 
 e3 
 
 _ n 
 
 
 a. 
 
 a 
 
 PI °^ 
 
 PL, Dh 
 
 
 5 5= 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 Xi 
 
 
 ■< 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 TJ 
 
 X 
 
 
 >-i 
 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 i ^ 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 C3 
 
 
 o 
 
 t! c fl 
 
 
 >, 
 
 ^" a 
 
 c^ 
 
 c; 
 
 
 fa 
 
 S t- i- (3 
 
 
 S 52 
 
 t- — 
 
 
 
 
 1 1 1 
 
 
 Z" — 
 
 
 
 :2; 
 
 
 
 
 C '^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "o c 
 
 
 
 *- fci 
 
 a^^ 
 
 & 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 C.2 
 
 _o 
 
 !^ ' 
 
 § c^ -J-^.^ 
 
 -1^ 
 
 
 
 ^^ , 
 
 « — ^' ^ 
 
 ^_— ^ 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 (BOO 
 
 O <1> 
 
 ^ J ^ — 
 
 ^^ 1 
 
 b 
 
 « 
 
 CO 
 
 UU 
 
 > h^ hJ 
 
 h-5 > 
 
 S K 
 
 > w 
 
 > 
 
 < 
 
 o S 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 "-' o 
 
 
 
 
 -li 
 
 
 "a 
 o 
 
 c 
 o 
 
 >.'5 
 
 rt 
 
 tS 
 
 ■rt 
 
 rt 
 
 
 Dcnsit 
 Popula 
 
 1 - ^ 
 
 M Q '^ 
 
 O rt 
 
 S Q 
 
 
 cS" 
 
 
 c 9 o 
 
 ^§•2 
 
 1 ^' 
 
 ■g IT >' 
 
 feS 
 
 ( 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 X ._. 
 
 "^^ "t^ — 
 
 .5 ""^ 
 
 
 
 9. tt ^.'S 
 
 « EC g 
 
 f-^ !r ^ 
 
 >.^ 7. > 
 
 SJ >-j 
 
 
 E 
 
 =^ ^ STL 
 ^ c -5 +-" 
 
 
 5 '^ H 3 
 
 C r- 
 f- o 
 
 - c 
 
 ;4 
 
 U 
 
 
 c^ 5 ^' >. 
 
 t 1 52 _ 
 
 
 ■? 
 
 
 m to o tc 
 
 73 o t: 
 
 
 :: !^ >, E *-' 
 
 ^ 't. 
 
 03 
 
 
 s: ^ ^ 5= 
 
 ili^ 
 
 -^"s'-ll 
 
 "^-•c >- O =" 
 
 ip 
 
 tc S CO 
 
 
 
 ^ ^ ^ 
 
 < < 
 
 o o 
 
 S 
 
 ^ 
 
 2 o 
 
 o o 
 
 o o 
 
 o o 
 
 a o 
 
 
 
 
 s-o 
 
 t^ iQ O 
 
 lO O 
 
 O lO 
 
 »0 lO 
 
 lO 
 
 o 
 
 Si 
 
 ^ 'M 
 
 i .1 i 
 
 7 7 
 
 J ! 
 
 « CO 
 
 1^ 
 
 5' 
 
 S-J 
 
 ■-H 
 
 ^ (M 
 
 CO CO 
 
 Tf lO 
 
 CO 
 
 i^ 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "i f -§ 
 
 g5 
 
 c3 
 
 t 
 
 *3 -l^ 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 u 
 
 
 S b 
 
 
 
 .2 
 
 tc 
 
 
 o o 
 
 
 
 
 s *- 
 
 
 1 
 
 <*; «*- 
 
 
 ^-* 
 
 
 
 
 
 g § 
 
 
 Km 
 
 
 
 rt S «- 
 •> rt «5 
 
 
 2 2 
 1 § 
 
 c 
 
 3 
 
 
 o 
 
 a H H 
 
 .X Q 
 
 .:c PL. 
 
 Q O 
 
 H 
 
 PL, 
 
 H 
 
 s s s 
 
 S js 
 
 s s 
 
 S S 
 
 o 
 
 .— 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^' 
 
 w 
 
THE EARTH'S GARMENT OF VEGETATION 271 
 
 not only by the zonal an:ui<>;ement of toni])oratvn'o and moisture' on 
 the earth's surface, l)ut by the relief of the lands, and especially by 
 the presence of moistin-(\ Far larg;(n- areas bear sparse vegetation 
 because of aridity than because of low temperature, 
 
 (1) Equatorial Rain Forest. — Close to the equator a simplified 
 globe would be sin-rounded by a zone of the densest kind of equatorial 
 rain forest. It is called the rain forest because the dry seasons are 
 here so short that the gi'oimd never becomes parched, and most of the 
 year there is a superalnmdance of moisture. As the temperature is 
 always high, vegetation can gTow rapidly at all tunes. The trees 
 rise to gi-eat heights and form a soml)er canopy v/hicli shuts out the 
 sunlight. The forest is mostly uninhabited, ai:d t!:e few people who 
 dwell in it are uncivilized savages like those of the Amazon Basin. 
 On the map this kind of forest does not form a continuous equatorial 
 belt, because it is interrupted not only by the oceans but l>y moun- 
 tains and plateaus. Nevertheless it covci-s vast areas in the Amazon 
 and Congo basins and in the East Indies and the Malay Peninsula. 
 Smaller outlying areas of similar forest arc found on the rainy east 
 coasts of Central America and Brazil, on the west coast of India, and 
 the Malay Peninsula, and at the base of the eastern Himalayas. 
 
 (2) Tropical Jungle.- — ^Poleward of the tropical regions, ap]iroxi- 
 mately in latitudes 7° to 15°, the rainfall on a simplif'cd globe 
 though still abundant, would diminish and the dry season l>ecome 
 longer than at the etiuator. Herice the equatorial rain forest ^\•()uld 
 give place to the kind of forest called tropical jungle. ]\Iany of the 
 trees in such a forest are of large size. ]\Iore, however, are moderate 
 in height and in some of the drier parts bushes become abundant. 
 The chief characteristic of the tj^jical jungle is the way in which 
 vegetation runs riot. The plants crowd upon one another so closely 
 that a pci-son unskilled in the lore of the forest may lose hunself in 
 five minutes. This is th(> part of the world where it is easiest for 
 man to get a living. Hence? in the cleared portions, the population is 
 often dense, but the people do not stand high in civilization. In 
 America the jungle regions comprise large areas in Central America 
 and the northern part of South Aiuerica, together with southeastern 
 Brazil. In Africa there is a good deal of jungle on the bordeiv. of the 
 equatorial forest and also in Abyssinia, Madagascar, an<l along the 
 eastern coast, but owing to the high altitude the proportion of jungle 
 is less than in other tro]iical regions. In Asia, the best exain]il(>s of 
 jungle arc in soutiici-ii India. lii(lo-( 'liiiia, and llie drier i^arts of the 
 Kast Indies, wliile iioitiierii Aust ralia also has a (•onsideral)le area. 
 
 (3) Triipicitl Scnih. Although equatorial rain forests and tro]iical 
 jungle ;ti-c the two most tyi)ical kinds of vegetation in the warmest 
 
272 MANS KllL.VnoN TO \ KGK TATK )X AND ANIMALS 
 
 l)ar(s of the oarth, there aro aL<o vast areas of scrul) and grassland 
 I^oth of tliese are more or less mixed with the .iungl(> and with each 
 other by reason of ^ariatioIls in soil, alliludc, and relief. ( )n a sini- 
 ])lified <ilol)e ihe scrnl) wonld foi'in a hand on eaeli side of thi' ecinator 
 where the jnntiie diminishes in hei^lit and vigor because of the increase 
 in the lcnt:th of the dry season as one <rets farther from 1 he e(|nat.or. 
 In the scrub regions the l)ushes are gr(>en fully half the year, but 
 lose their leaves during the dry seiison and look like a s(M'ond growth 
 in an American woodlot. late in the autumn. Occasionally. ho\ve\-er, 
 a bare bush covered with great red, wiiite, yellow, or i)urple tlowei-s 
 makes one realize^ that he is within the tro))ics and only 10'^ to 20° 
 from th(> ecjuatoi'. In l"ig. S!) it is not easy to show the location of 
 areas of tropical scrul) with any accuracy ])ecause they are a])t to l)e 
 small and scattered. They occur, liowever. in many parts of southern 
 Mexico and ('entral America, c(Mi1ral and southern Africa, the drier 
 parts of the plateau of India, and the northern jiortion of Australia. 
 Although civilization is low in such regions, it is often higher than in 
 the jungle regions, as apiM'ni's in Yucatan an<l the noilhcrn ])art of 
 the Deccan Plat(>au in India. This is l)ecause disease is less rife than 
 in the insect-infested jungle regions, more work is nee<lcd to get a living, 
 :md more care must be taken to provi<lefood for the long dry season. 
 (4) Sarannn. — As one proceeds away from the equator on a 
 sim])lifie(l globe, the scru])by brush lands gradually give phico to 
 broad gi'assj^ areas. Sometimes these are dottcul with cluni|)s of trees 
 or bushes, the out])osts of the forest and the scrub. In otlun- ])laces 
 they are al)solutely treeless except along the rivers. The "])ainpas" 
 of Argentina and the "Llanos" of Venezuela are sonu^ of the ])est 
 known savannas. In central Africa among the highlands and farther 
 north in the great ])laiiis of the Sudan similar grasslands are d(>velo]HHl 
 on a vast scale, while in northern India and noi'thern Ihirma they 
 occur in large patches. The ])arts of such savannas where trees 
 alternate with grass are almost ideal for l)ig game. The trees furnish 
 slu^lt.er. while the grass fu'Tiishes food for innumerable animals sucji as 
 butfaloes, aiitelo])e, giraifi's, zel)ras, elephants, and many snuUler 
 h;'rl)i\'orous s]iecies, and these in turn su]i]ily food for lions, tigers, 
 leo])ards, and other (■ariii\()i'es. l"or man, howcAcr, the savannas 
 are not. so good. The grass, to Ik> sure, fm'iiislu^s food for cattle, 
 although it is a])t to be nuich tougher and less nutritious than the 
 grass of moi'e northern regions. In the long dry season, howcA'cr, 
 water can be procured only from wells of exti-eme dei)th. The sod 
 is yf) tough that it is difficult to plow. Hence most of the natives 
 ((!' tropical grasslands wander from |)l;ice to place with tlieii- cattle. 
 A gootl example i> t he Kallirs of South Africa, among whom prices are 
 
THE EARTH'S GARMENT OF VEGETATION 273 
 
 reckoned in so many cows. Many tropical highlands also have large 
 areas of gi'asslands, and these are among the best parts of the tropics 
 as may be seen in the plateau around Mexico City. 
 
 (5) Deserts. — Poleward from the grasslands the desert begins. 
 Usually there is no sharp transition, for the gTassland and sometimes 
 the scrub gi-adually diminish as one passes into regions where the 
 equatorial rain belt has less and less effect. On a siaiiplificd globe the 
 deserts would be most pronounced between 25° and 30° from the equa- 
 tor, where the subtropical area of high pressure and the trade \\inds 
 prevail alternately according to the season. On the actual earth, 
 however, the deserts occupy these latitudes only on the western sides 
 of the continents, while rainy monsoon areas lie on the east. To 
 make up for this, as it were, the deserts extend into much higher 
 latitudes in the interior of the continents, especially in Asia. 
 
 Both grasses and bushes are found in the deserts. The plants 
 which support such wandering people as the Arabs consist of grasses 
 and other small herbaceous forms wliich sprout quickly after the in- 
 frequent rains, remain green only a few weeks, and then wither and 
 disappear so quickly that one would never know they had existed. 
 In most deserts, however, there is also a more permanent tj^^e of 
 vegetation, consisting of httle bushes spaced far apart so that each has 
 a large area where it can spread its roots horizontally and thus get as 
 much water as possible from each infrequent shower. Some t^T^es, 
 which gi'ow in hollows, form what may be called an inverted forest, 
 for the roots reach far down to ground water, and are so large that 
 they form as it were an undergi'ound forest, far bigger than the small 
 plants that rise above the surface. Tlu'oughout most of the desert, 
 however, the water table is so deep that plants are luiable to reach it. 
 
 Although the total number of plants in a desert is small compared 
 with moister regions, the number of species is large. Not only are 
 there the relatively long-lived bushy types and the temporary gi'asses 
 and the other herbaceous forms which grow up quickly after rains, 
 but in the moist spots there are the same kinds as in regions of abim- 
 dant rain, while around the salt lakes there are forms sunilar to those 
 that grow on the seashore. In addition to this the desert is full of 
 highly specialized plants like the cactus adapted for storing large 
 quantities of water. The cactus can retain water so long that speci- 
 mens which were pulled up by the roots and hung in a dry place 
 for eight years still retained half as much water as at the Ix^ginning. 
 The desert of northwestern Mexico is the lioiiic of a cm-ious almost 
 leafless bush somewhat larger than a cun-ant bush. Its stout tapering 
 stems are covered with a glossy bark and look hard and woody. 
 When a twig is cut, however, the knife goes through it easily as if it 
 
274 MANS in;i..\ll(>X TO VEGETATION AND ANIMALS 
 
 were made of wax, and (Imps of sap begin to fall almost in a stream. 
 The bark is watcrjiroof, Imt wherever it is broken tiie stored water 
 oozes out rapidly. Hecause of the necessity of :i(l;i])tinji; ihemsclves 
 to extreme aridity, many of tiie genuine di'sert ])iaiits are jx-culiarly 
 awkward in a])i)earance. Their fat, hairy st(Mns, their s])ines, and 
 their fuzzy or Icallicry Icavi^s seem uiicnui h coniiJai'cd w ith the gi'aee- 
 ful vegetation of moister regions. 
 
 (0) Subtropical Dry Foirst.- — '_)n the cooler borders of the desert, 
 especially on the western side of the continents, the vegetation in 
 latitudi's 30° to 40° or more consists of subtropical dry forest. This 
 is also found on many mountains which rise within the d(^s(>rt itself. 
 It is composed of small, gnarled, hni'd-leaxed t ices or bushes which 
 often form oi^en park-like expanses through which it is easy to travel. 
 In some places, however, they g:i'aduate into a tangle of bushes above 
 whicli rise frequent trees. For exanii)le, along the southern coast of 
 Asia Minor the lower mountains are clothed with scattered trees 
 and occasional Imshes which give an open, friendlj' aspect like a park. 
 Higher u]). however, toward the level wheic the coolness and moisture 
 of the mountains cause them to be clothed with pine forests, there is 
 a bushy belt almost impossible to cross. The subtropical trees 
 whirl) make up the dry forest, altliough not conifers, are Ukely to be 
 evergreens like the hmrel, olive, holly, and live oak. This is an ad- 
 vantage, IxM-ause the winter temperature in these latitudes is often 
 ciuite high and as the rain comes chiefly in winter, the trees can grow 
 even at that season. This makes u\) in ])iiYi for the dry sunmier when 
 growth must cease. 
 
 (7) Prairie. — In the table of Fig. 90 a belt of prairie or steppe 
 is shown in latitudes slightlj' higher than those of the subtro]iieal 
 dry forest. As a matter of fact, as appc^ars on the map, subtro]>ical 
 dry forest, desert, ])i'airie, and deciduous forest all occur in tlu' same 
 latitudes in both North America and l^urasia. The forests occur near 
 the coasts and the deserts and jirairies in the interior. The distri- 
 bution of ])i-aii-ies de))eiids on the season of rainfall and the kind of 
 soil. ( irasses are such assertive, tenacious ])lants that they can drive 
 out the trees in i^laces wh(>re trees could grow if nothing else inter- 
 fered \\illi them. Thus large ])aits of the American prairies and the 
 st.e])])es of liussia and Hungary are located in n^gions where certain 
 kinds of trees can flourish if they are i)rotected when young. The 
 grasses, however, because of their moi-e ra,i)id gi'owth and greater 
 liardiness, haxc. dri\-en out the ti-ees. 0^•er niost of the prairie 
 region the rainfall is a])t to be deficient in the spring when the trees 
 especially need it. Hence when seedling trees begin to grow they are 
 at a disadvantage and are strangled 1)}' the more rapidly growing 
 
THE EARTH'S GARMENT OF VEGETATION 275 
 
 grasses. If such a region is swept by fires or is grazed l^y herds of 
 animals like the buffalo, the grass and seedlings both suffer, but the 
 grass springs up again in a few weeks, while the young trees must 
 start from new seeds and hence are ousted in the long run. Because 
 of their stimulating climate and rich soil, the prairies hold high rank 
 in both agriculture and civilization, as is shown by our own Middle 
 West. 
 
 (8) Deciduous Forests. — In the eastern United States and western 
 Europe the prairies give place to deciduous forests. These are com- 
 posed of trees like the maple, beech, oak, and poplar, that drop their 
 leaves in the autumn. They grow in places where the winters are 
 cold but not extremely long and where the smnmers are not only 
 warm, or even hot for a while, Init have plenty of moisture all the time. 
 These are the regions of cyclonic storms and of abundant rains at all 
 seasons. The regions of deciduous forests are so excellent for men 
 that they have been largely cleared and to-day support some of the 
 world's densest populations, and contain the great manufacturing 
 centers and the countries that stand in the forefront of civi- 
 lization. 
 
 (9) Coniferous Forests. — In an average latitude of about 50° the 
 other types of vegetation merge irregiilarly into vast forests of spruce, 
 fur, pine, hemlock, and similar coniferous trees which thri\o where 
 the winters are long and cold, and the short summers warm and rainy. 
 This evergreen forest forms a great belt a(.'ross Canada and another 
 from Sweden through Russia and Siberia. On the whole the con- 
 iferous forest is too cold for agiiculture. Hence it has been occupied 
 by settlere only in the southern portions. The rest still stands as the 
 world's greatest forest reserve outside the tropics. "NMicre the con- 
 iferous forest region is inhabited, the people are generally in a high 
 state of civilization. 
 
 (10) Tundra. — Nearer the poles the coniferous forest gradually 
 breaks clown into a ])clt of bleak, grassj^ tundra. The seasons are too 
 short for any vegetation except gi'asses together with lichens and 
 other small hardy forms. No agi'iculture is possible. The reindeer, 
 caribou, and niuskox, however, can get a living, though they nuist 
 often paw away the snow to get at the plants beneath. Hcnice, 
 civilization is very low as we see in the extreme northern ])art of Asia 
 and North America. 
 
 (11) Polar Dese7-ts. — Near the poles in laliludes a.l>ov(> 75° the 
 temperature is almost e^-(>rywh(>re so low that no vegetation can exist 
 unless it bc^ minute bacteria. Therefore this region consists of 
 polar deserts like nod hern Greenland and Antarctica, which are 
 whollv (l('\'(iid of inlKil)itants. 
 
276 MAX'S HICLATION TO VEGETATION AND AM.MAL8 
 
 It is worth noting tliat in polar dosorts it is not tho tonijMM-aturo 
 alone which |)r()hil)its the <rrowth of jilants. Th(> lonjj; period wiicn 
 the ground is frozen i)revents th(> plants from fiettinji enou}z;h water. 
 There is no way in which loss of water l)y transpiration can be 
 balanced by absorption of water through the roots. 
 
 QUESTIONS, EXERCISES, AND PROBLEMS 
 
 1. Classify the t>iies of vegetation in the country around your home aceordinp 
 to Fig. no. What clTcct liave the variou.-^ type.s upon man's life".-' 
 
 2. Draw a yirapli shuwin^ llic :ipi>n)\iinate percentage formed by each of the 
 following in your county: {a) laud in crops; (6) gra.ssland; (c) uncultivated 
 l)asturc; ((/) productive woodland; (e) waste land. Explain the geographic con- 
 ditions which give rise to these proportions. 
 
 3. ^^■hat ])ercentage of trees in your region lose their leaves in winter? Make 
 as full a da-ssification as possible of the difTcront kinds of trees in your vicinity 
 and of their uses. 
 
 4. Classify the main crops of j-our county according to their u.ses and accord- 
 ing to the kind and amount of ground which they occupy. The Census returns 
 will give you the figures with which to check your observations. 
 
 5. It is often stated that the lack of forests in China is due to the constant 
 cutting of the trees and that this had led to a change in climate. Modern research 
 gives no support to the idea that deforestation causes climatic changes. What do 
 you conclude as to the cause of the absence of forests in China, taking into con- 
 sideration the following facts: (a) the length of the growing season in northern 
 China as shown by some of the temperature and rainfall curves in this book; {b) 
 the relation of tree growth to rainfall in spring, summer and autumn, respectively; 
 (c) the fact that southern China has many trees while northern China has few; 
 (rf) the relative density of population in north and south China (Figs. 37 and 38); 
 (e) the fact that parts of the United States, like eastern Kansas, with a particular 
 type of seasonal distribution of rain, are treeless while regions like England, with 
 no more rain but a different seasonal distribution, have many trees. 
 
 G. "Wheat is merely a cultivated grass and will grow anywhere on tlic natural 
 gra.ss lands of the earth." Examine carefully the truth of this statement. The 
 answer may be put in graphic form by sui)erposing two maps, one showing the 
 natural grasps lands of the world and the other the areas of wheat pn)(luclinii. A 
 written interpretation should accomi)any your map. 
 
 7. A few years ago numbers of advertisements aiii)eared in ICngland (>inphasiz- 
 ing the advantages of rubber plantations in Hurmah. Study the climatic maps 
 and find out whether the climatic conditions justify such advertising. 
 
 8. From Fig. 89 estimate the relative areas where vegetation is seriously 
 restricted by aridity versus temperature. How does each type of restriction 
 influence trans])ortatioii and interfere with the general intercourse of the dilTiM-ent 
 parts of the world . 
 
 9. In the text savatuuis receive more space than prairies, deciduous forests, or 
 coniferous forests. On which of the following grounds is this justifiable: 
 (ii) degree of familiarity to the average reader, (l>) amount of space actually 
 covered as shown in Fig. 89, (c) importance to civilization'^* 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 VEGETATION AND MAN IN THE WARMEST REGIONS 
 
 Section I. Life in the Equatorial Rain Forest 
 
 Equatorial Rain Forest. — ^It seems strange that the finest vegeta- 
 tion should be associated with the most backwai'd ty]ies of men. 
 Such is the case in ecjuatorial regions, where high temperature is 
 accompanied by abundant moisture at practicallj'' all seasons. The 
 trees are often so huge and leafy that their lofty tops form an almost 
 unljroken canopy through which the sun rarely shines. In these dense 
 equatorial ;-a//H/o/r.s/.s the trees are often covered with l>right-colored 
 parasitic plants, while long vines, or leaves, hang down like great 
 living ropes. Near the ground there is little vegetation except 
 where the death of an old tree has left an opening. Thcr(^ hosts of 
 young plants gi'ow so fast that they seem to be racing, the prizc^ being 
 life for those that attain dominance, and death for the rest. As 
 shown in Fig. 89 such forests occur in the Amazon basin eastern 
 Central America, west central Africa, the East Indies, nortneastern 
 AustraUa, and the parts of India on the seaward slope of the main 
 mountain ranges. 
 
 Handicaps to Health. — In such regions man is subject to most 
 serious handicaps. He has little energy, ]3ecause the damp, st(nxdy 
 heat never changes and never invigorates. H(^ suffers t(>rribly from 
 malaria and other 1i'o])icnl (Useases. When ground was l)eing In-oken 
 for a raih'oatl in the forest of eastern Guatemala the managejnent 
 dared not kec^p the ^^'{^st Indian lal)orers at work more than two or 
 three weeks at a time. A longer stay would ahnost surel}' have led 
 to death from malignant malaria. 
 
 Along with the trying concHtions of cUmat(> and dis(\ise go a host 
 of insect pests and other little irritations. In Libeiia., for example, 
 moths eat up clothing; cockroaches devour ])()()kl)iiuling-s and swarm 
 in the detached cookiiouse which takes the i)lace of a ki(<'h(>n; rats 
 climb to seemingly inaccessible locations and leave nothing but tiie 
 fragments of the treasurers they have eaten; white ants consume* the 
 sills of houses and the rungs of chairs, wliich col]a])se most unex- 
 pectedly; (.h'iver ants sweep through the house, and cveiy oth«ir 
 
 277 
 
278 MANS llELATloX TO \EG1:TAT1(»N AXI) ANIMALS 
 
 croatiiro fvdin man to lizard must vacato ovon if it l)o in thr midst of 
 rain and llic dead of nifjlit; "jisf?<'i"s" l>oro under the skin of tiio foot 
 and lay their e^Rs; ficas bite; the dani]) heat ])ro(hiees rash afj;ainst 
 whieh the lij^htest clothinfi; feels lik(> nettles. These things and a 
 hundred others are irritating enouf«;h at any timf\ hut through the 
 blur of a "touch of sun" or the haze of a liiirniiiir fev<T ihey assume 
 pro])ortions out of all reason. The odors, the mists, the si<rhts, the 
 sounds f«;et on the nen'es; the hea\y, drooping. sil(>nt, impenetrable 
 green forest every^vhere shuts one in like a smot heving <ii-a\-e ; t he mind 
 grows sifk. and the Ixxly follows. 
 
 Scarcity of Beasts of Burden. — A second great haiulica]) in v(\\\a- 
 torial ra ill-forests is the difficulty of kee])intr domestic animals even 
 in the clearing's. Noxious insc^'ts ])lague animals almost as badly as 
 they plague luan. For exami)le, in large parts of troincal Africa the 
 bite of the tsetse fly not only causes the deadly sleeping sickness in 
 man, but is fatal to domostio animals, for even the donkey is not 
 inunune. Even if animals escape disease, they rarely thrive, for 
 what little grass can grow among the luxuiiant trees is usually so 
 rank and coar-^e that it is not nutritious. 
 
 Difficulty of Transportation. — The difficulty of keeping domestic 
 animab em])hasizes another great handicap of 1 he equatorial forests, 
 namely, the difficulty of transportation. If the natives attempt to 
 travel through the forest without I'oads, they encounter swamps, 
 great projecting roots, dense thickets, and other obstructions as 
 bad as anything oiu' ancestors met v.hen they first settled in America. 
 They are also likely to be attacked by wild beasts and snakes, 
 as well as by poisonous insects. Suppose sonuHJiie has energy 
 enough to clear away the forest for a road. New plants spring 
 up almost overnight, and grow 10 to 20 feet in a year. The map 
 of Quintana Hoo, the densc^ly foi'ested and uninhabited southein 
 l)art of the "\'ucatan peninsula, foi- (>xample, shows a mnnber of I'oads, 
 but when a ti'aveler wish(>s to follow them he is told that they do not 
 exist. TIp'v were kept open a few years when chide, the sap fi'om 
 which chewing gum is made, was l)(>ing gathered, but when this work 
 was finished tlu^ trails were smothercxl in vegetation within two or 
 three years. .\ macadam road or e\-en a I'aih'oad may suffer the same 
 fate, although more slowly. On the railroad that runs from the 
 (lulf of Mexico to the Pacific Ocean across the istlunus of Tehaun- 
 tepec, for example, men nmst be explove<l to (ait the bushes eveiy 
 few months. Where connnunication is so (li(iicult. ])(V)ple naturally 
 can profit lit tie by intercoui'se with oIIum's who bi'ing new methods and 
 ideas. Bolivia. Peru, Ivaiadoi-, and ('olombia sulTer greaily because 
 tlie ef|Uatoi'iaI forests wliich licuin on the easlciii slo])e of the Andes 
 
VEGETATION AND MAN IN THE WARMEST REGIONS 279 
 
 hamper communication with the Atlantic side of the continent, and 
 so with lun-ope. 
 
 Difficulties of Agriculture. — Another and even gi-eatcr handicap 
 of tlie eciuatorial forest is the difficulty of carrying on agriculture. 
 When our forefathers cleared the forests of America their task was 
 child's play compared with the clearing of an equatorial forest. Not 
 only did they encounter smaller trees than those of the tropics, but 
 they cut pine, birch, beech, and other soft woods most of the time, 
 and not mahogany, teak, rosewood, and other tropical species as hard 
 as oak. They cut the trees in the cool bracing autunm or in winter 
 when a man wants to work fast in order to keep warm. Think how 
 different it would have been if they had had to cut oak trees on the 
 muggiest kind of hot summer daj^s. When the trees have been 
 felled the difficulties of the would-be farmer in the equatorial rain 
 forest have only begim. On our farms at home it is hard work to 
 keep down the weeds, ]:>ut suppose the weeds gi-ew a foot or two a 
 month, and kept on growing twelve months in the year. How could 
 anyone keep them down ! The useful plants would be choked almost 
 before they sprout from the seeds. That is what happens in the 
 equatorial rain forest. Unless the inhabitants possess a vigor far 
 surpassing tliat of the best farmers of the temperate zone, successful 
 agriculture is un])ossible. 
 
 Natives and White Men in the Equatorial Rain Forest. — We are 
 apt to look down upon the ahnost naked Pai)uans of New Guineaj 
 Pygmies of Central Africa, and aboriginal Indians of the Amazon 
 basin. We wonder at people who still live by hunting with poisoned 
 arrows, who make their homes in little huts in the trees or on poles, 
 who run and hide at the sight of a stranger, and who have notliing 
 that can be called civilization. Vie ought rather to pity them, for 
 even we, with all our ojiportunities, have not yet learned how to 
 cultivate the lands in the eciuatorial forest, maintain good roads, and 
 avoid the enervating effect upon health and character. We do these 
 things in the Panama Zone where many people are gathered in a small 
 space, where vast smns of money are available, and where everyone is 
 under government order's, but that is very differ(>nt from the oixlinaiy 
 forest region. No wonder the natives make little ])i'()grcss. 
 
 Vegetation gi'ows sora])idlyin regions of equatorial rain forests that 
 they might be the most productive parts of the whole world, proA-ided 
 men knew how to cultivate them. As yet, however, we o])tain from 
 them only rubber, chewing gimi, quinine, mahogain'. and other forest 
 products. The natives are employed by the white man to search 
 for the trees from which these products are dinived, but such work 
 does not advance ci\iIization. In tenijKTate regions trees of oiu> kind 
 
280 MAX S REL.\TION TO VEGETATION AND ANIMALS 
 
 often cover many squaro niilc^s, l>iit. within the tropics a pjeat variety 
 of sjiecies usually grow together. So the natives wander through the 
 forests, climbing tall trees sometimes to look out over the top of the 
 forests and i)ick out specunens of the sjiecies they are seekhig. Then 
 they ta]) the rubl)er trees and collect the sap, or call the axman to 
 chop down a fine rosewood tree. Their overseers arc often brutal 
 white men who have come to the tropics sunply to get rich. Un- 
 checked l)y the restrictions of ci\'ihzation such men use the most 
 outragous means to gain wealth or to compel the natives to do a\ hat 
 they wish. Disappointment and ill health make them more and more 
 l)rutal, so that they often treat the natives most cru(>lly. Altogether 
 the natives are by no means im])rov(Ml by their wdrk for the white 
 man. They merely get a jnttance which they s])en(l for drink or for 
 useless fiiuny. They are isolated not only from the n'st of the world, 
 but from one another, for their mode of life pennits only the scantiest 
 ]M)])ulation. For in s])ite of our twentieth centmy progi'ess the equa- 
 torial rain forest still remauis ahnost the worst enviromnent for 
 man. 
 
 Section II. Life ix Troi'ual Jungle Regions 
 
 The Appearance of Tropical Jungle. — Tlu' equatorial rain forest 
 does not occupy tiie whole of the warmest n^gions which form the 
 subject of this chapter. Parts of it are occupied by less luxuriant 
 tjTX!S of vegetation. As one passes from the equatorial regions of 
 greatest and steadiest rainfall, the size of the trees and the density 
 of their stand dhninish. Tropical jungle, the second heading in the 
 table of Fig. 90, takes the place of the drii)])iiig rain forest, and 
 the conditions of life correspondingly improv(\ Tiiis doc^s not 
 mean that trhe vegetation is small or scanty. Larg(^ trees still grow 
 in abundance, but among such kinds as mahogany, teak, rosewood, 
 and logwood, one hnds also a l)ewildering variety of palms, bamboos, 
 tree ferns, Ixuianas, canes, and many shrubby t>iies. In drier 
 regions prickly crecpei-s and thorny shrubs add to the variety of 
 plants. For miles the tangle of vegetation is often so dense that one 
 can penetrate it only by cutting a path through the living wall. Now 
 and then a grou]) of chattering monkeys goes swinging through the 
 tree-toi)s, parrots with hai-sh voices call attention to their own beauti- 
 ful colors, and the jaunt}' crow of the jungle cock reminds one of the 
 barnyard. Oecnsionally an e]ei)hant is seen browsing on the bushes, 
 deer junqi through the o]ienings, wild ])igs, dogs, and rodents scamper 
 through the l)rush, while tigei-s, let)i)ards. and other beasts of jirey lie 
 in wait on low branches or prowl in secret i)aths hidden fioni the 
 sight of man. 
 
VEGETATION AND MAN IN THE WARMEST REGIONS 281 
 
 Ease of Jungle Life. — ^In regions where tropical jungle still prevails 
 in its natural state, the people get a Uving with little effort, provided 
 the population is not dense. The cocoanut and banana furnish 
 food with practically no work, the big fruit of the papaw suppUes a 
 family with a meal for the plucking. Wild rice in Siam, yams in 
 Central Africa, the edible seeds of the bamboo in southern India, can 
 be gathered when needed. Elsewhere the breadfruit tree, the sago 
 pahn, the sugar palm, the jack-fruit tree, and many other food-pro- 
 ducing plants need only be planted and protected in order to furnish 
 abundant food. Life is relatively easy and the natives have little to 
 spur them to effort. Clothing is a luxury, not a necessity; houses 
 need to be Httle more than a thatch of pahn leaves set on a rude frame 
 of poles; wood for building and cooking can be picked up anywhere. 
 Lender such conditions we should not expect much progress in the 
 well-watered jungle regions of southern IncUa and Ceylon, Indo- 
 China, the East Indies, Central America, and large areas on the 
 borders of the dense rain-forest in Africa and South America. These 
 are the places which we think of as tjT^ically tropical. They form 
 by no means all of the tropical zone, for rain-forests on the one hand 
 and grass and dry scrub on the other occupy vast areas. Yet regions 
 that were originally covered with jungle are the home of the majority 
 of tropical people. 
 
 The Primitive Character of Jungle Agriculture. — The lowest and 
 easiest type of agriculture is found in the s]iai"sely settled parts of the 
 tropical jungle. It consists of plantmg a few palm trees, banana 
 plants, and other fruit trees. After that, as is jokingly said, the 
 native has nothuig to do except lie mider the trees and wait for the 
 fruit to drop into his mouth. Such agriculture, if we may call it by 
 that name, is a step toward civilization, but only a slight one, for it 
 does not stmiulate the natives to steady work. 
 
 In tlie more densely populated tropical countries a somewhat 
 higher t>qoe of agricultiu'e ]:)revails. The bushes and smaller trees 
 of the jungk^ are luickcxl down and the larger trees are killed bj- cutting 
 off a girdle of bark. At the end of the dry sc^ason the brush is dry 
 enough to burn. Then the primitive farnuM" goes over the burned 
 fudd with a pointed stick making lioU^s into which seeds are dropped. 
 A little rough weeding is carried on until the young jilants are large 
 enough to take care of themselves. That is all the work until han'est 
 time. The easiest food to raise is such starch}' tubei-s as yams and 
 the common sweet potato, or such starchy roots as the cassava or 
 manioc from which f)in' tapioca is made. Several soft varieties of 
 Indian corn, the common ]iumpkin, and various kinds of beans furnish 
 a supi)ly of food more heallhful and niorc lasting than the roots. 
 
2S2 MANS i:i;i.\ri<)\ to vi-xn-yiAiioN and animals 
 
 the roots. They also I'cMiuiic moic cai-cful i)hiiuun}i ami in()r(> 
 work, aiul thus have a corrc-ixJiHliiiiily jifcater cfToct in proiiidt iii<i 
 industry. 
 
 Difficulties of the Tropical Farmer. (1) H(ipi<l Kxluiu^ioii of 
 Soil. Atiiiculture in tropical countrios is more difficult than in 
 the temperate zone. In the first place, the soil is easily exhausted, or 
 spoiled hy the accumulation of bacteria. The constant heat and 
 moist ui'c cause dead vegetation to disapjiear so completely and 
 rapidl\' that the soil contains little humus and hence little nitioucn. 
 ()th(M" ])lant loods aic also scarce, t'oi' as soon as t he soil is dcconiposrd 
 l)V weathei'iiiii-, the heavy rains leacii them out. Thu^ although the 
 lirst crop is often most bountiful, later ones dimini-^li i-apidl>-, e>])eci- 
 
 Courlcsu of I'. S. Hi imrlminl iif Auriculturc. 
 
 Fig. 91.— World I )isl rilmt ion of Cattle 
 
 ally when corn and millet are planted and bacteria become abundant. 
 Hence many jungle fainicis cleai" a new patch of jungle every two or 
 three j'^ears, and often every year. 
 
 (2) Tough drosses. — In densely populated regions the same land 
 must be used year after year in si)ite of th(> scanty crops. Hvvc other 
 troul)les ai'ise. l'"or instance, if other weeds ai'e kept down, ti()|)ical 
 grasses, like witch-grass but far wor.se, ofttMi ovei'run the land. In 
 the Philii)pines " cogon " grass has been th(> ruin of thousands of 
 fai'uiers who have tried to use fertihzcis ;iiid olhei'wise follow modern 
 methods so as to keej) the sam(> held in cult i\'at ion for a numbei' of 
 years. As llie grass often grows as high as a man's head and li.as 
 correspondingly- tough roots, no oidinai'y animals can diag a plow 
 Ihromrh it. 
 
VEGETATION AND MAN IN THE WARMEST REGIONS 283 
 
 (3) Sparsity and Poor Quality of Domestic Animals. — The difficul- 
 ties due to the poor soil and rank grass are increased by the fact that 
 in the jungle regions domestic animals generally thrive only a little 
 better than in the equatorial rain forest. In proportion to the popu- 
 lation, the United States, for example, has nearly thirty times as 
 many horses and mules as India, and 50 per cent more cattle, even 
 though Indian buffaloes as well as the common hmiiped cattle are 
 included. Moreover, the Indian animals are of poor quality, under- 
 sized, ill-fed, and ill cared for. Hence not only arc they unable to 
 plow tough sod, but they supply onlj^ a small amount of manure, es- 
 peciallj' in the moister regions, where animals are least abundant 
 and fertilizer is most needed. Even in moderately dry parts of India 
 animals are so scarce and fertilizer so valuable that people often pay 
 for the privilege of having goats and sheep herded on their fields 
 during the night. 
 
 (4) Insect Pests. — As the climax of his difficulties the tropical 
 farmer has to contend with all manner of insect pests, rusts, blights, 
 and bacterial infections. They are woree than those of the temperate 
 zone almost in proportion to the gi'eater luxuriance of vegetation. 
 Thus although the farmer can get a living without much difficulty, 
 he is greatly handica])ped when he attempts new methods. 
 
 When to the handicaps of poor soil, tough grass, few domestic 
 animals, and insect pests we add the lack of energy which is natural 
 in a tropical climate, it is not strange that through long ages the 
 jungle farmer has acquired the habit of not caring whether he makes 
 progress or not. If our ancestors had lived for centuries in such a 
 region, we should probably'- l>e as inefficient as the present people of 
 the tropical jungle. 
 
 The Careless Rice Farmer of Ceylon. — The inefficiency of tropical 
 people is well illustrated ])y the way in which rice is often raised. 
 When the fields in the wet districts of Ceylon, for example, have 
 been thoroughly saturated by the first rains of the season, or by water 
 turned on from irrigation ditches, the soil is turned up with a rough 
 spade or wooden plow and then trampled with the feet until it becomes 
 a creamy paste of mud on which the seed is sown broadcast. When 
 the seed has germinated, water is again atUnitted, and the rice left to 
 grow until harv'est time. Then the water is turned off and the crop 
 ripens upon diy ground. The grain is harvested with sickles and is 
 threshed by being trodden under the feet of bullocks. It is winnowiul 
 in an equally primitive fashion by being thrown into the air from flat 
 basketwork trays, and caught again, while the chaff is blown away. 
 
 The people who practice this pruuitive mode of rice culture are 
 astonishingly indolent. For instance, in 1903 the inhabitants of a 
 
284 MAN'S RELATION TO VEGETATION AND ANIMALS 
 
 certain district in Coylon raised an inmsiially larf;c cro]-) of rice. They 
 thereupon sat down to cat it, and raised not a Ijlade of rice the next 
 year. The third j-ear their seed rice was ahiiost all they had left. 
 This was sown, but the crop was largely destroyed by caterpillars. 
 Then these lazy peo]ile wlio had not worked for nearly tv/o years 
 appealed to the government to keep them from famine. 
 
 The Skillful Rice Farmer. — Although such occun-ences are typical 
 of tropical pcui)lc, they become less connnon where more careful 
 methods of rice culture are employed. In many regions, for example, 
 the rice seed is sown in prepared beds. Then after five or six weeks 
 it is painstakingly transplanted to the fields which have been care- 
 fully jjlowed and manured. The rice fields are surrounded by mud 
 embankments so constructed that water can l)e held there week after 
 week, not standing perfectly still, Init gcnitly moving. The beds are 
 occasionally weeded with care and finally the crop is han'ested 
 promptly so that the rip(^ gi-ains may not fall out and be lost. Under 
 good conditions 50 pounds of rice will furnish seed for an acre of trans- 
 planted rice, and the yield will be 2500 pounds or fifty-fold. This 
 amount, when combined with some beans or meat to fm-nish protein, 
 is ample food for five adults a year. Thus a population of 2000 per 
 square mile is possible. On that basis all the people in the United 
 States could bo su^^Jiiorted on an ar(>a ecjual to Xew York State. 
 
 How the Best Rice Farming Promotes Civilization. — Hice cultine 
 is a distinct help in promoting civilization. For one thing, a rice 
 farmer can profitably keep cattle. Even though the animals are small, 
 they can plow the soft soil of the weedlcss rice fields. As they can 
 be fed on rice straw the scarcity of good grass is not important. They 
 also enable hmi to use the same fields permanently, for thej' supply 
 manure, and thus the soil does not become exhausted. 
 
 In the next place, since the enrichment of the soil enables the 
 farmer to devote his energies to one particular piece of land he is 
 likely to build new rice beds, take care that he has a good supplj' of 
 water, and that all his little ditches and dikes are in good order. He 
 finds that the work of one year gives him much benefit the next. 
 Moreover, he cannot go off and leave the rice crop untended, for a 
 few weeks of carelessness will ruin it. All these conditions cause the 
 careful rice-raising jicoi^le of India, Java, and Indo-C'hina to be more 
 industrious and reliable than other tropical farmers. For the same 
 reasons they are more hopeful and progressive, since they have learned 
 that their efforts are not in vain. Moreover, as the pojnilation whore 
 rice is raised is much denser than elsewhere, wild anijnals do less dam- 
 age than in other tropical regions, roads can be maintained, and the 
 people can got more stimulus from one another antl from outsiders. 
 
VEGETATION AND MAN IN THE WARMEST REGIONS 285 
 
 U 
 
 f^ 
 
286 MAX'S hi:lati()X to vf.c.etatiox and aximals 
 
VEGETATION AND WAN IN THE WARMEST REGIONS 287 
 
 Possibilities of Plantation Agriculture 
 
 The Products of Tropical Plantations. — In addition to nco fann- 
 ing another kind of tropical agricviltnrc is hol])inj2; to ])ro]not(> civiliza- 
 tion. It depends on the fact that the jx'ople of more Imicing climates 
 are willing to pay good prices for tropical products. Before the days 
 of steam navigation when Eiu'opeans rarely came to the tropics, 
 there was no agTiculture for export. The rule of tropical farmers was 
 "Grow only what you need and consume only what you grow." 
 
 When Europeans came to the tropics, however, they began to want 
 tea, coffee, cocoa, rubber, and other products. These at fii^st were 
 luxuries, but fast became necessities. In general they are not like 
 the staple food crops which have to be planted each year. They are 
 tree crops which do not require frequent renewal. Hence they are 
 raised in large plantations where the same kind of tree or bush is 
 planted over wide areas. Coffee is a good example. Although small 
 quantities arc raised in regions such as Java, Ceylon, Central America, 
 and Mocha, where it first became known, four-fifths of the world's 
 supply comes from Brazil. There hundreds of thousands of acres of 
 tropical jungle have been cleared of most of the trees, and coffee 
 bushes have been planted in the shade of the rest. Tea flourishes 
 under similar conditions, although it grows over a witler range of 
 latitude than coffc-e. It is raised in great plantations on moist sunny 
 slopes not only in places like Ceylon and the lower Himalaj'as 
 north of Calcutta, but especially in southern China. 
 
 In the same way Europeans and Anunicans have established 
 large plantations for the cultivation of the cacao tree, from whose 
 seeds chocolate and cocoa are made. Some cocoa conies from tropical 
 Africa, parti(nilarly the Gold Coast and the Island of Saint Thomas, 
 and from Asia and the East Indies, but still more is deriv('(l from the 
 jungles of Central America, the West Indies, and the northern part of 
 South America. 
 
 Bananas grow in the same regions with tea, coffee, and cocoa. 
 They prefer the moister parts of the jungle on the l^jrdei-s of the e(iua- 
 torial rain forest, and gTow well in ])road lowlands. In Central 
 America, the West Indies, and the north(>rn part of Soutli Anu>rica 
 gi-eat corporations from the United States have cleared thousaiuls of 
 acres of jungle and planted it with tliis easily raised fruit. One 
 great company employs many thousand men and has regular lines 
 of steamships to luring bananas and other tro])ical fruits to New 
 Orleans, Baltimore, rhila(l(>l])hia, New York, and Boston. 
 
 Rubber is raised in nnidi the same way as bananas. The ])i'n- 
 cip-il plantations are in Ceylon, the I'ast Indies, and the Malay 
 
288 MANS REL.\TION TO VEGETATION AM) ANIMALS 
 
 Peninsula. Part of the world's supply, to bo suro, still comos from 
 the wild (roes of tho forests of Central and South America, hut the 
 plantation is of (■(iiisl;iiitl\- incicasiiiii- importance. 
 
 Still other trojjical jjiants such as the manilla hemp of the Phil- 
 ipjiines — the best of fibers for stronji; twine and ro])c — have their 
 home in the jungle, but are g;i-adually being raised more and more 
 exclusively in ]ilantations. The same is true of indigo, which is 
 still raised in large ([uantities in India and Java in spite of the gi'eat 
 use of aniline dyes made from coal tar. Quinine, the great remedy 
 for malaria, is another article which was formerly derived from wild 
 trees. Now, however, the cinchona tree from whose bark it is made 
 is cultivated in ])lantations not onh' in the Andean countries of its 
 origin such as liolivia and Colombia, but in Java, Ceylon, India, and 
 Jamaica. The sweet bark of the cumamon tree, raised especially in 
 Ceylon, is another sample of the many kinds of tropical products 
 which are being more and more used by Europeans and Americans, 
 and which lend themselves to plantation agriculture. 
 
 Sugar as an Illustration of a Plantation Product : Its Importance. 
 — The most imi)ortant of all i)lantati()n croi)s is sugar. Two hun- 
 dred yeai-s ago, the average person in England consumed less than 4 
 pounds of sugar per year, and the average American a decidedly 
 smaller quantity. Before the Great War the average English con- 
 sunii)tion was abnost 100 pounds, and the American over 80. To-day 
 sugar has become such an important food that the average English- 
 spoaking pei'son consumes a third as much of it as of wheat. Ordi- 
 narily ])eo])le do not n^alize the ini])ortance of the sugar sup])ly, but 
 during the Great War almost eveiyone realized it. In New York a 
 *^,emporaiy shortage actually led to riots in which mobs broke into 
 stores that were sup])osed to have a sui)i)ly. For many months no one 
 could buy more than a pound or two at a tini(\ and the nain(>s of the 
 buyers were carefully recorded so that no onc^ might get more than 
 his share. 
 
 Sugar from Tropical versus Temperate Regions. — About half 
 1 he world's sugar comes nornialh fi'Din 1 lopical countric^s. A century 
 ago the whole supj^ly came from there. The ti'opical sugar is made 
 from the sugar cane, a plant from 6 to 12 feet tall and resembling a 
 cornstalk without ears. The rest is made from beets and comes from 
 the most advanced countries such as Germany, France, Belgium, 
 western Russia, and the United States. 
 
 Sugar is one of the few products in which temperate and tropical 
 regions compete. Tiic tropical regions have a great advantage be- 
 cause the\- possess cnormous areas fit for sugar antl as yet unused. 
 Moreover, the sugar-care is naturally able to yield much more sugar 
 
VEGETATION AND MAN IN THE WARMEST REGIONS 289 
 
 per acre than are beets. The tempei'ate regions, on the other hand, 
 have the gTeat advantage of being located closer to the chief markets, 
 so that their sugar saves freight charges, and of l)eing close to a supply 
 of labor that is vastly more efficient and economical than tliat of the 
 tropics. Because of these conditions the Ix^et and its methods of 
 treatment have been so much improved that where 18 i)ounds of beets 
 were needed to make 1 ])oinid of sugar in 183G, only a third as many 
 are now needed. The improvement of the sugar-cane, on the other 
 hand, has scarcely begun. Like many other tropical products it is 
 good in its unimproved state and the backward people of the tropics 
 have not thought of making it better. Now, however, the people of 
 the temperate zone are taldng charge of sugar production, and during 
 the next few decades we may expect as great an unprovement in the 
 cane as has taken ]ilace m the Ixn^t. 
 
 How Sugar is Raised in the Tropics. — Sugar is so useful and so 
 easily extracted from the sap that gi'eat quantities of cane are raised 
 in little patches in most tro]iical regions, especially where there is 
 plentj' of sun as well as water. This home-made sugar, however, 
 rarely reaches the world markets. Their supply comes from big 
 plantations. Cuba and the other West Indies are the chief sources 
 of the Ajuerican supi^ly, but almost every tropical country makes 
 some sugar. Most of the plantations are near the seacoast, largely 
 because the coastal regions are not only more accessible than the in- 
 terior, but are more apt to have the kind of warm damp plains which 
 the sugar-cane loves. Often too, the nnmediate coast is more health- 
 ful than the hot steamy plains a few miles inland. This is particu- 
 larh' the case in countries like British Guiana, wlien^ the climate is 
 admirable for sugar, but bad for people. The nati\'e labor there is 
 so inefficient and luu'eliable that it has l)een necessary' to import 
 la]x)rei's from the East Indies and India. The contrast bc^tween the 
 natives and the unported labor is a good example of th(> way in wliich a 
 rice-raising ]wople reac'hes nuich higher le\'els than ]:)(M)})le whose agri- 
 culture has scarcely risen al)ove the point of growing yams. 
 
 INIany cf tlie sugar plantations, not merely in Guiana, but in 
 most sugar regions, are of large size and highly profitable. In Giiba 
 wlience the United States gets most of its cane sugar some plantations 
 employ as niany as 5000 people, and have scores of miles of little 
 porta])l(^ railways which can be laid wherever they are wanted to 
 bring the cane from the fields. In the Hawaiian Islands the absence 
 of any duty on sugar iinpoiicd into the United States has helped to 
 make sugar the dominant product. In good years jM'ofits of three or 
 foil!- hundred dollars per acre are possible. The industry is so jirofit- 
 al)le that it has been worth while to go to great expense for irrigation. 
 
290 MANS UKLATlOX TO VEGETA'iloX AM) ANIMALS 
 
 Wat(>r has ]^oon puniporl in sonio cases to a level several Imiulred 
 feet al>()Ve its source, -while in other inslanc(>s. tunnels ha^■e been 
 l)uih thi"()U^h inoiuitniiis to briiiii' the water from llie wiiulw ard side, 
 where it is (lejjosited l)y the northeast trades, to the (hy, suiniy 
 leeward side where the cane <in'o\vs fastest ])rovideil it is well watered. 
 
 How Plantations Promote Civilization. — Plantation ap^iculture is 
 l)e<z;inninii; to have an ini])()rtant effect ui)on tropical civilization. In 
 ])laces where there are no ])lantations white a(lv(>ntin"ers still send the 
 iiatix'es out into tlic jiiniiie to pitliei" wild cocoa, wild ciiM-liona, wild 
 rul)l)er, and even wild hein]i and wild bananas. The natives live as 
 they have always lived. If they have enoujih to eat. they stay at 
 home no matter how eaji'cr the white man may he to coiii])lete a load 
 for his vessel. If one day's work pves food enoujiii for three days, 
 they work only a third of the time, no matter how nuich the white 
 man com])lains. If thej' contract malaria or other diseases in tlu; 
 junf^le they die without care or medicine. 
 
 On the plantations these things arc beginning' to be changed. 
 The plantations are usually owned and managed by Europeans or 
 Americans who have a ])ermanent int(n-est in them. On the best and 
 most profitable plantations the em])loyees arc obliged to live in better 
 houses, and take more care of health and sanitation than tro])icaI 
 peo])le ever thought of before. Drains arc dug, stagnant )X)ols arc 
 tilled, and other measures are taken to get rid of niosc[uito(^s and other 
 disease-bearing insects. Machinery is introduce*!, and the natives 
 are taught to use it. At fii-st they arc rarely C()m])et(Mit for any l)ut 
 the shnplest tasks. Little by little, however, they actjuire skill and 
 industry. Preference is given to those who work regularly, kvvp their 
 huts neat, obey the health regulations, and show evid(>nce of willing- 
 ness and al>ility to learn the com])licated methods of the white man. 
 Anollici- iiicciitix (' to progi'css is the desii'c to imitate the wliite man 
 and ])urchase some of the luxuries dis])layed in tlie com])any stores. 
 
 On the plantations health is consid(>red of great im])ortance. 
 HosjMtals are ])i-o\ idcd not only for the white man, l>ut for the natives. 
 Where the government does n(jt su])i)ort them as in ("eylon, tiiey are 
 often run by ])riva,te com])ajhes, as a mat.ter of economy. Tiie largest 
 fruit com])aiiy in tidi»ic:d Amei'ica regularly deducts 2 per cent from 
 the wages of its eni])loyei's from the highest to the lowest, and uses 
 the mont'V as a fund to ]M-otect the geneial health. Thus the strength 
 of the natives is not sapped by disease so much as formerly, and they 
 are better able and more willing to do hard work. 
 
 As the ■|)lantations increase in mnnbei', the ■])o])ul;it ion grows more 
 dense. In certain i)laccs such as iKirts of ,)aAa the land is so fully 
 occu])ied th; t tlicic cease to be lai'ge waste areas Vihere lazy natives 
 
VEGETATION AND MAN IN THE WARMEST REGIONS 291 
 
 can pick up a living on wild fruits. Thus while the plantations 
 provide the opportunity'' for steady work, they are also making it less 
 easy for people to get a living unless they settle down to such work. 
 Of course it is still difficult to find tropical people who will work except 
 when compelled to do so l)y hunger, but the standards of life are 
 bc^ginning to rise. This is bound to happen more and more, for the 
 tropical zone to-day offers perhaps the largest and richest of all fields 
 for th(^ investment of ca]iita] and brains. 
 
 The Successful Plantations of Java. — Java under Dutch rule has 
 carried the plantation system farther than anj' other country. There 
 rice-growing and plantations under European management combine 
 to encourage stead}' work to a degree scarcely eciualed in any other 
 tropical rcgion unless it be Barbadoes and Jamaica. As one re- 
 sult the population has increased enormously. We have no figures 
 for earlier tunes, but in the last forty years, icithout immigration, the 
 population has doubled. On the less rainy north side of the island 
 where tropical jungle prevailed l^efore it was cleared, large areas sup- 
 port from 1000 to 1200 people per square mile. This is even more 
 dense than the population of manufacturing countries like Belgium 
 and England. Yet so rich are the lands near the (^luator that Java 
 does not raise nearly as much food as she might if her people had the 
 energy of the temperate zone. 
 
 QUESTIONS, EXERCISES, AND PROBLEMS 
 
 1. Wliich of the elements of geographic environment (Fig. 1) first led Euro- 
 peans to oxjilorc the tropics? Which elements now furnish motives to the greater 
 part of the Americans and Europeans who go to the tropics? Explain in detail 
 the geographical conditions which make it far more necessary for Americans 
 and Europeans to keep in touch with tluur old homes when in the trojiics than 
 when they go to places like New Zealand and Siberia? Why is it more necessary 
 for Europeans to keep in touch with the tropics than for Americans? 
 
 2. In the Statesman's Yearbook or elsewhere look up the exports of a trop- 
 ical land mentioned in this chapter. Classify the exports under the following 
 heads: (a) products of wild vegetation; {h) products of plantation agriculture; 
 (c) non-vegetable products. What geographical reasons can you see why one or 
 another of these types of products should come from each specific country? 
 
 3. Examine the areas covered by the colonial em])ires of England, France and 
 Russia. Classify these lands according to the vegetation zones in which they lie. 
 From the Statesman's Yearbook find out the three chief products of a country 
 typical of each zone. 
 
 4. (a) Write an advertisement for a land company with larg(> holdings in tlic 
 tropica! jungle of Venezuela. Let every statement be absolutely true, but 
 emphasize the advantages. 
 
 (6) Write a criticism of your own advertisement pointing out the disadvantages 
 a settler would find in taking U]) land, clearing it, building a house and barn, rais- 
 ing and harvesting his crops and getting them to market. Show in what respects a 
 
292 MAX'S RELATION TO VEGETATION AND ANLMALvS 
 
 settler from Wisconsin or from your own StatewouUl be especially annoyed by his 
 own ijinorance or by his inability to pet the kind of labor, transportation, food, 
 and other necessities that he is used to. 
 
 5. Look up in the Xaiionnl Geographical Magazine or elsewhere an account of 
 the struggle to render the Panama Zone healthful. Write a short resume of tiiis 
 health campaign in its relation to geographical conditions. 
 
 (■). In the government reports on Foreign Commerce and Navigation, and in 
 the Statistical Abstract of the United States, look up six plantation products from 
 tropical countries, ^hlke a table as follows and arrange the products in order 
 according to the increase in their per capita use: 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 Product 
 
 Percentage of increase in 
 imports per capita for 20 
 years. 
 
 Chief countries of origin. 
 
 7. In Brazil the number of immigrants arriving during the year before the 
 Great W^ar was as follows: Portuguese, 2S,()()(); Spaniards, 19,()()0; Italians, 
 1G,()00; Japanese, 4000; Poles, 3000; Syrians, 3000; Austro-IIungarians, 1000; 
 French, 700; English, 500. Determine which of these settlers would find it 
 easiest to adapt themselves to (a) the coiTee regions; (6) the drier grassy region of 
 the interior; (c) the Amazon valley. Consider this question from the point of 
 view of (1) health; (2) agriculture; (3) customary methods of house building; 
 (4) use of animals. 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 LIFE IN SUBTROPICAL AND MONSOON REGIONS 
 
 How East Coasts Differ from West Coasts in Latitudes 20^ to 
 40°. — Nearly half the people of the earth live between latitudes 20° 
 and 40°. In these latitudes each continent shows a strong contrast 
 between a spai-se population on the west side and a dense popula- 
 tion on the east. This is because the west has its rainy season in 
 winter, and is driest in smnmer, while the east receives its rains in 
 smnmer. In each case the dry season is due chiefly to the subtropical 
 belt of high pressure. The winter rains of the west coast regions are 
 due to the invasion of cyclonic storms. The relatively dry and 
 sparsely populated west coasts are called subtropical. The siumnei- 
 rains of the east coast regions, on the other hand, are caused by a 
 similar invasion of the subtropical belt by the monsoons which aid 
 the trade winds in bringing moisture from the ocean. Hence the 
 relatively moist and populous east coasts maj' all be called monsoon 
 regions. In general the corresponding parts of the various continents 
 in similar latitudes have the same kind of climate except whiu'c this is 
 modified by the size, shape, and relief of the lands and Ijy ocean cur- 
 rents. 
 
 Where Subtropical and Monsoon Regions are Located. — In I'^u- 
 rasia the comparatively dry subtropical regions comprise southern 
 Spain and Portugal, southern Italy, Greece, Turkey, and Persia, to 
 which should be added the neighl)oring parts of North Africa l)or(ler- 
 ing the IMediterranean Sea. These, it will be seen, include jn-actically 
 all the most famous empires of antiquity, such as Pome, (Jreece, 
 Babylonia, Sjaia, Egypt, and Carthage. The corresponding populous 
 monsoon regions on the east side of Eurasia are the great Indo-Gan- 
 getic plains of India, and most of China Proper. These, too were the 
 seats of ancient civilizations. 
 
 In South Africa the tapering of the conlincnt brings tlu> subtrop- 
 ical and monsoon regions so close together that i)()th are included in 
 the Union of South Africa. Yet the contrast between tlu> dry sul)- 
 tropical region of the west coast around Caj^e Town and tlu^ wet mon- 
 soon region of the east coast around Durban in Natal is scarcely less 
 than between Greece and China, for example. In Australia th(> two 
 regions are much farther apart, but the contrast is nuich the same as 
 
 293 
 
294 MAXS rj:LATI(^X to VEnilTATlOX AM) ANIMALS 
 
 ill South Al'ric;!. \\'('st('rii Australia is so dry that its po])ulation is 
 only onv in thn-c s(|iuin' miles, wliilo in Quccnsliuul and New Soiitii 
 AValcs on the cast tiic rains arc so favorahlc that tlie poi)uhition is 
 twenty times more (lens{\ 
 
 In the western luMnis])hero the diy subtropical regions of northern 
 Chile contrast stronj^ly with the wet monsoon or trade wind rcfiion oi 
 southern l^iazil and Uraguay. In our own counti-y California and 
 Utah share many of the qualities of tlie Methterranean subtropical 
 regions, while (Jeorgia and the neighboring States have the monsoon 
 qualities of abundant sununer rain and a fairl}^ dense population. 
 
 A Subtropical Region Contrasted with a Monsoon Region. — Let 
 us coni]);in' :i typical subtro])ical and a ty|)ical monsoon region and 
 see how tlic\' dil't'er. Sui)pose a friend should ask you about the 
 famous Turkish ])roAince of Ale])])o and the ecpially famous Chinese 
 province of Shantung on o]ip{)site sides of Asia in latitude 34° to 
 38° X. ( 'ould you tell which has the greater i)o])u]alion; wliich would 
 be a better field for a ))ig irrigation project; or which would offer a 
 better market for reaping-machines, leather, hoes, or cotton cloth? 
 Could you tell ill which ])lace one could buy horses, camels, or sheep, 
 or in which new varieties of pigs or watermelons might l)e found? 
 When you understand the difference between subtro])ical and mon- 
 soon climates, you will easily answer these questions and many others 
 with no hel]) beyond a good ma]). 
 
 A Visit to a Typical Subtropical Region. — Sui)])os(> you w(^re to 
 land at Alexandretta in August and ])roce(>d inland to Ah^iipo, the 
 ca])ital of the ])rovince of the same name. You could easily hire a 
 carriage for the dusty drive of 60 or 70 miles, but it would bo more 
 interesting to tiaxcl (»ii horseback along one of the many trails. The 
 mountains, which must hi-st be crossed, are covered with typical 
 sul»tropical \-egetation. Sometimes it is scru])])y dry forest. Else- 
 where it is grass so dry and l»ai'reii that you wonder what su]))iorts the 
 flocks of shec]) tiiat follow the ragged shei)herd l)oys as they jiipe on 
 shrill, wooden flutes. 
 
 The i)iMii)le li\c in the valleys. P>(^sido every s])ring of sufficient 
 size stands a village surrounded by vineyards and by groves of apri- 
 cot, mulbeiTv, fig, and po])lar trees. Asid(> from a few ])at('hes of 
 melons and onions there are few vegetable gardei s. l'";icli \illage, 
 however, ])ossesses broad, unfenced fields of i)ale yellow stubj)le wh(>re 
 cattU^ are now browsing. Two months or niore ago the grain was 
 cut, and the cii'cular Ihrcsliing lloors of smoothly ])acked earth 
 were piled with golden wheat, and ])aler sti'aw, or ]>erchance with 
 barley. Tlien tiic; grain was threshed by the feet of oxen and 
 donkeys diixcn around ami around oxer the straw. Now some of 
 
LIFE IN SUBTROPICAL AND IMONSOON REGIONS 295 
 
 it is waiting to bo carried homo, for the Oriental docs not hurry. 
 In sjiite of its long staj^ in the open air, one sees no evidence that 
 it has l)een wet by rain. 
 
 In the villages the houses are made cither of sun-dricnl adobe 
 bricks or of stones plastered with nnid. Some have low pyramidal 
 roofs covered with red tiles, but most of the people can afford only 
 flat earthern roofs, which have to be rolled after every rain to keep 
 them hard. The women, being Mohammedans, conc(^al their faces, 
 but one occasionally gets glimpses of them at work giinding flour in 
 hand mills, or doing other household tasks. The men and boys seem 
 to spend most of their time loafing. As the traveler dismounts they 
 spread a rug for him under the mulberry trees beside one of the little 
 reservoire that hold the limited water supply. Then they bring coffee 
 from Mocha in Arabia, and wheat bread, mutton, melons, grapes, and 
 the sour milk called "leben" or "yowort." 
 
 At the base of the mountains on the edge of the great inner plain 
 each of the larger vallej's has a village at its mouth, and fields of dry 
 stubble extend for miles. As the traveler proceeds across the plain, 
 however, the villages and fields become less and less frequent, until 
 finally a group of low black tents appears beside a well, with a flock of 
 sheep and a drove of camels not far away. He has reachcHl a region 
 too dry for agriculture, and fit only for desert nomads, A\ho ^\'ande^ 
 with their animals in search of water and pasture. 
 
 The Trade that Might Flourish. — ^^^lile riding through this coun- 
 try, you would perhaps say to youreelf, ''Not much chance to sell 
 leather here. From the hides of their numcn-ous animals the people 
 can get all the leather they want, but this might be a good place to 
 buy either undressed hides or wool. Not much niarkct for hoes, 
 either, for the vegetable gardens are small and gTain (Ux^s not need 
 hoes, but these people ought to plow their broad holds with some- 
 thing better then wooden plows and reap them with machines instead 
 of hand sickles. How good those melons were? AVe ought to have 
 that Idnd at home." 
 
 Why Manufacturing Does not Flourish. — Then j-ou might fall to 
 wondering why manufacturers do not thrive when there scc^nis to 
 be so nmch unemployed labor. During the reaping season, and 
 again in the fall when the seed is sown, \\\o pcniplo work willingl}- but 
 slowly from dawn till dusk, Init b(>tweon whil(\s they luv idle. Partly 
 because of the hot, monotonous sinmnei"s and partly for other reasons, 
 such as lack of education, the people are not sufficiently energetic, 
 ambitious, and inv(Mitive to save up capital and ])uild manufacturing 
 plants which would keep them busy when there is not much farm 
 work. 
 
200 MAX'S l?ET.ATIOX TO VKCETATIOX AND AXIMALS 
 
 A Midsummer Visit to a Typical Monsoon Region in Eastern 
 Asia: Transportation. — A visit to Sluintvui}:; at the same season 
 as our Aleppo \isit \\()ulcl sliow a vciy didcrent scene. Even at the 
 steamer landing in Tsing-tau there are no carnages and animals. 
 The only vehicles are those drawn or pushed by men. For passen- 
 gers there are jiurikishas, like overj^rown hahy can-iages, while for 
 freight and baggage there are wheelbarrows whh the wheel in the 
 center half way from front to back, instead of at the end. In the 
 interior away froju the few railroads, j^ou would find it unpossibL 
 to hire even a '"rikshaw," because there are no roads for these two- 
 \\ heeled vehicles. As there are no riding animals you would probably 
 dcH'ide to walk and have 3'ovn" l)aggag(^ carrii>d on a wheel]:)arrow. 
 
 Density of Population. — In Shantung one meets twenty people 
 to one in the Turkish province. There are villages cverj'Avhere, 
 made of adol)e as in Turkc^}-. Unlike the Turkish villages, however, 
 they are rarely surrounded by trees, and stand bare and gi-ay in the 
 midst of the fields. The mountain slopes are not given over to flocks 
 and shei^herds as in Tiu-key, 1)ut are covered with terraces, each of 
 which is a Uttle field banked up with a wall of stone or earth. Out on 
 the plains in striking contrast to the Turkish province, the population 
 is more dense than among the foothills. No room here for nomads 
 and camels or even for many domestic animals. A cow or a horse 
 needs several times as much land for its support as does a man. 
 So numerous are the villages that there is not land enough to raise 
 food for any animals except pigs and chickens, which do not need 
 room for pasture, and can be fed on refuse. 
 
 How Intensive Farming is Carried on. — In Shantung small fields 
 and gardens seem to be the rule rather than broad fields such as we 
 saw in Ale])])o. This is no place for complicated farming machiner>'; 
 it is the land of t.lie hoe. In southern Sliantung, l>oth men and 
 women are wading about in rice fields, pulling up weeds and repair- 
 ing little dams in the irrigatioji channels. Elsewhere the chief crops 
 are wlieat, millet, Indian corn, and vegetables. Some of the people 
 are carefully canying refuse to the fields in pails to serve as fertilizer; 
 others arc hoeing the gi'oimd for a new crop after radishes, beans, or 
 peas have been harvested. Still others are setting out seedlijigs that 
 have been raised in beds as our greenhouse men raise tomatoes and 
 pansies. Thus two or three crops arc oiivn procured where we 
 would rais(> only one. 
 
 How the Monsoon People Supply their own Needs. — So busy are 
 the peopU; that, the}' scarc(>ly take tim(^ to sleej). lOven in winter 
 they work harder than the peasants of most countries. In their 
 homes they weave cloth, make rope, and prc])ai'e their crude utensils. 
 
LIFE IN SUBTROPICAL AND MONSOON REGIONS 
 
 297 
 
 They also economize in every possible way. For example, they mend 
 their clothes till the patches hide all the orifrinal cloth. It would seem 
 as if niaiiiifactiiring ought to thrive among such people, but in recent 
 centuries they have not shown nnich inventiveness, and lunice man- 
 ufacturing has made little j)rogress. Accordhigly it would s(Hun as if 
 the enormous population of China would offer a fine market for cheap 
 cloth, knives, hoes, and other inexpensive manufactured articles. 
 The only trouble is that because the people are so nmuerous and un- 
 inventive, they are wretchedly poor and have only slight purchasing 
 power. 
 
 The Effect of Winter Rain and Summer Drought in Subtropical 
 Regions. — As we have already seen, the striking difference between 
 the provinces of Aleppo and Shantung on the two sides of Asia is 
 
 J F Mr A My Jn Jy i 
 
 L 8 S D 
 
 Aintal) 
 
 ^ J 
 
 J F Mr A My Ju Jy A S N D 
 
 Shang - Tung 
 
 Fig. 94.— Subtropical Versus Monsoon Rainfall. 
 
 due largely to the rainfall — -not the amount, for in that respect 
 Shantung has only a slight advantage, but the season at which it 
 falls. In Fig. 94 compare cUagrams A and B, showing how nmch 
 rain falls each month in the two regions. 
 
 In the subtropical climate of Alei)])o abundant rain normally falls 
 during the winter from November to March, but the sununer from 
 June to September is practically rainless. Hence corn, beans, pota- 
 toes, and most veg-etables will not gTow well without irrigation. 
 The same is true of oats, rye, millet, and th(> kinds of wheat and bar- 
 ley that are planted in the spring. On the other hand, ir/zi/cr wheat 
 and barley grow excellently without imgation. The seed is sown 
 in October and Xovenilxn-, when the rains fii*st become abundant; 
 it sprouts ])efore the weather is cold, gi'ows a little during the mild, 
 open winter, and is ready to grow rai)idly in INIarch, Ai)ril. and May. 
 The dryness from May onward is favorable to ripening, and makes the 
 
298 MANS Hi:i,\'i'iox of vf/iktattox axd animals 
 
 work of h:ir\osting; easy, since there is little trouble from storms. The 
 fields of stubble furnish pastmv for animals during; the dry sum- 
 mer when other -[lasturafic^ is especially difiicult to find. 
 
 The Effect of Summer Rain and Winter Drought in Monsoon 
 Regions. — Look ajiain at Fig. 94, and not(^ the contrast, lu'tween 
 diai;iains A and B. When the subtropical rainfall of Turkey is 
 cominj; to an (Mid in May, th(> monsoon rainfall of China is begin- 
 nin<r. ( 'hina gets its rain in the warm season when it is most needed, 
 "^i'hat is why tiie po])nlation is so dense. Since the rains fall on moun- 
 tains and plains alike. ;ill tlie land that is not too steep can be culti- 
 vated. There is no loom for roads or for cattle, and the whole coun- 
 try is a vas<^ patchwoi-k of gard(Mis. "Wheat and l)arle3' thrive best 
 ill the north; mill(>t, corn, beans, and root crops like beets and turnips 
 grow exccllentl}^ everywhere; while rice flourishes in the south. 
 Millet and rice arc the staple foods in such a climate. They j'ield 
 enoi'moiis returns under intensive cultivation. This type of agri- 
 culture is highly characteristic of monsoon regions and is another 
 reason why they are able to support so larg(^ a ]oo])ulatiGn. 
 
 Why Famines Occur in Regions of Seasonal Rainfall. — In one 
 resi)ect subtroi^ical and monsoon countries arc alike. Both are 
 l)articularly liable to famines. To begin with monsoon countries, 
 famines are worst in ( 'hina and in India. Long ago in the years 1344 
 and 1345 India exp(M'ienc(Hl such a tcn-rible famine that even the 
 Mogul emperor is reported to have been unable to obtain sufficient 
 food for his huge household. As recently as 1877 fiv(^ million people 
 are said to hav(^ perished from hunger in India, and almost ten million 
 in northern China, while in every recent decade millions of people 
 hav^e suffered. In both countries the reason for tlu^ famines is the 
 same. Since practically all the people are closely d(>]KMi(lent upon 
 agriculture, the prospcM'ity of ihv whole countiy depends ujwn a short 
 season of abinidaiit r;iiii in summer, l^veiy few yeai's the rains are 
 either scanty oi' come so late that the crops camiot matures Ix^foi'c the 
 end of the growing season. Sonu'tijnes the delayed I'ains pour down 
 in such a deluge that tli('>- flood the. ric(> fields too deeply and destroy 
 the prosi)ects of those seemingly fortunate ones who have l)(>en able 
 to start their crops by jneans of ii-rigation. l']lsewhere the heaiy 
 rains gully the slopes and cai'iy away the precious soil thai should 
 raise the ci'ops of fiitui'e years. Disasters by floochng are most severe 
 in China, while the failure of the rains has probably produced the 
 worst effects in India. 
 
 Subtropical countries occasionally suffer fi-om famines w^hich 
 would 1)(^ as bad as those of China and India if the ])()])ulation were 
 equally dense. Sj'ria, for example, has lost its peoi:)le 1)\' the hundred 
 
LIFE IN SUBTROPICAL AND MONSOON REGIONS 
 
 299 
 
 thousand on account of drought. Its famines are caused either by 
 the failure of the rains to begin at the proper time in the fall, or to 
 continue late enough in the spring. 
 
 Such famines are one of the unportant reasons why most monsoon 
 and subtropical regions are backward. As equatorial regions are 
 held back by excess of rain, so these regions suffer from insufficient 
 rain. A drought of a single month at the critical time is enough to 
 cause dire distress. For generations the people have suffered such 
 disasters, and this has helped to make them hopeless and therefore 
 inefficient. One of the most interesting questions of the future will 
 be to sec liow fully the Zionists in Palestine with the advantages of 
 
 CouTtesv of the U. S. Department of AgHcuUvre. 
 
 Fig. 95.— World Produftion of Rice, 1920. 
 
 good government, modern methods and abundant capital can over- 
 come the handicaps which have hitherto retarded most subtropical 
 countries. 
 
 Mediterranean Subtropical Regions. — The most important of sub- 
 tropical countries do not sulfei' from famine as do those of Asia, for 
 the}^ arc located in Euroi)e and have a better rainfall than the rest. 
 They are Italy, Spain, and Greece. With them may be grouped the 
 countries of North Africa that border the Mediterranean Sea. Since 
 Europe, Asia, and Africa really form one great land mass penetrated 
 by such gulfs as the Mediterranean and Red Seas, this whole group of 
 countries actuall}^ lies in a position corresponding to that of California. 
 Thty are so important that tlie term "Mediterranean climate" is 
 often used instead of "subtropical climate." They contain not far 
 from a liuudrccl inillioii p(H)ple, which is four times as ni;ui>' as the 
 
300 
 
 MAX'S KKLATIOX '1"() VKCKTATION AM) ANIMALS 
 
 subtropical regions of the rest of the world, but less than a c}uarter as 
 many as the monsoon rep;ions of Asia. 
 
 On the whole the Mediterranean countries are more advanced 
 than the Aleppo jirovince which we have used as a type. Even Italy, 
 the most profi;ressive, however, is Ijehind California. All alike are 
 notable for their extensive irrigation, and for their great crops of wheat, 
 barley, and fruit. Yet there are great differences mnong them. For 
 example, in Turkey and Morocco most of the farmers use cnule wooden 
 plows tipped with a bit of iron; they thresh the grain under the feet 
 of oxen; and winnow it by throwing it into the wind. In Greece and 
 Tripoli such plows are also used, but nmch less commonly. The 
 
 [^ Courtesy of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. 
 
 Fig. 9G. — World Distribution of Sliocj). 
 
 threshing floors are often of stone; a roller or sledge with short teeth 
 like a harrow is used for threshing, and a hand machine for winnowing. 
 In Spain wooden plows are found in out-of-the-way regions, but a good 
 many modern steel ones are ijnj)orted together with some threshing 
 machiner}'. In Italy the island of Sicily is as backward as an}' part 
 of Spain, but farther north almost everyone uses modern implements. 
 althougii generally of a simple type. 
 
 The North American Subtropical Region: The Advantages of 
 California. - Although the soutlu'rn half of California has a tj'pical 
 sul'jtropical cHiiiate, it is moni favored than even the best of the corr(>- 
 epondiiig ()lil W'oild regions. The chief reason for tliis dilTerence is 
 that ah hough the winters have about the same temjjerature, the 
 California summers are not nearly so hot as those of the Mediter- 
 
LIFE IN SUBTROPICAL AND IVIOXSOON REGIONS 301 
 
 •5 
 
 o .a 
 .3 ^ 
 
 3 t 
 
 
 fi. 
 
302 MANS HKI-ATION TO \ llCi:'!' A'n( )N AM) ANIMALS 
 
 ranonn roplonp. Tlianks to the prpsoncc of the cool Pacific Ocean the 
 suinnuT tciniH'iaturc at Los Angeles averages about 11° F. cooler 
 than at Beirut, which li(\s in the same latitude and is directly ui)on the 
 coast instead of twenty miles inland. Similar diffenMices picvail 
 throughout the coastal regions. Hence California has a gi'eat adxaii- 
 tage, for the eneigj' of the people is not sapped by extieme heat, 
 and the gi-ound does not become parched so rapidly through rapid 
 evaporation. Aiiolhci- advantage of California is that its mountains 
 are nuicli higher than those of Alejipo and Syria, and therefore furnish 
 much laiger supplies of water for irrigation. 
 
 Subtropical Farming in California. — (1) The Pastoral Stage. — 
 Agriculture is the great industry of California. The products of 
 th(> farm are worth three times as much as those of all the mines, 
 oil wells, and quarries. Even the manufacturing intlustries consist 
 largely of the preparation of farm jtroducts. 
 
 The agi'icultiu'e of California has passed through three stages in 
 which gi-ass, grain, and fruit have been successively the most impor- 
 tant forms of vegetation. The first white settlei-s were Spaniards from 
 Mexico. They depended solely on gi-ass, for they raised cattle in 
 enormous numbei-s. The animals thrived on the broad plains, for 
 the thick gi'een grass which is so lovely in the spring when it is span- 
 gled with bright flowers, is equally nutritious when it becomes dry 
 and brown in the sunmier. Up to 1848 hides and tallow were almost 
 the sole Californian products. So eager were the Spaniards to make 
 room for more cattle that they Idlled large numbere of hoi-ses. A 
 live horse was no more valuable than his hide. 
 
 The cUscovery of gold in 1848 and the consequent increase in 
 population checked the cattle industry, for l)read as well as meat 
 was \\anted Ijy the new settlei-s. In 1802-04 a fearful drought, such 
 as sometimes comes to subtropical countries, gave a still gi-eater 
 check, for it destroj'cd thousands of cattle. Then sheep-raising 
 a.ssumed gi-eat hnportance imtil tlu^ flocks threatened destruction l)oth 
 to the forests and to the gi-asslands where the sheep nibbled off the 
 seedlings and grasses to llio very roots. In the drier parts of Cal- 
 ifornia and among the jnoiinlains cattle and sheep are still the main- 
 stay of many of the people, but elsewhere they are much less iiiii)or- 
 tant than in better watered States like Wisconsin. 
 
 (2) The Whcdt-raisiiKj Stage. — After the discovery ot gold, a 
 second stage of agi'iculture began in California. Wheat became the 
 staple cro]), just as in the subtroi)ical regions of Turkey. The size 
 of the ranches accordingly decreased, while the population increased. 
 Wheat-raising, to be sure, reciuires large farms, but not nearly so large 
 as does cattle raising. In ]sr)() the averajje ranch contained about 
 
LIFE IN SUBTROPICAL AND MONSOON REGIONS 303 
 
 4500 acres, and some comprised several hundred tlioiisand acres. Ten 
 years later the average farm was only one-tenth as large. Now the 
 size has fallen to about 300 acres and is still declining rapidly. Never- 
 theless some farms are still so enormous that in the morning ten or 
 twenty plows start from the barns and take all day to make a complete 
 trip across the field and back. 
 
 The level nature of the great interior vallej^ and the size of the 
 wheat farms has led to the introduction of remarkable machinery. 
 Great gangplows drawn by steam engines or by twenty or thirty 
 horses plow a dozen or more fm-rows at a tune. E(iually wonderful 
 harvesting machines are used. Drawn by twenty-five or thirty 
 horses or propelled by gasoline engines they cut, thresh, and sack 
 the standing gi-ain in one operation at the rate of two bushels a min- 
 ute. Such machinery can he used only in regions where the harvest- 
 ing season is dry and sunny as in subtropical California, for only the 
 thoroughly dry kernels can be threshed while the grain is being cut. 
 One man's work with modern machinery in California harvests as 
 much grain as the work of twenty or thirty in Turkey. Since 1880 
 when California harvested 54,000,000 bushels of wheat the production 
 has fallen off, but this is partially compensated by a great amount of 
 barle}'. INIuch land which cannot be irrigated will always be better 
 for grain than for anything else. 
 
 (3) The Fruit-raising Stage. — So long as California devoted itself 
 largely to raising cattle and cereals the chief advantage of its farmere 
 over those of Turkey lay in greater energy and skill. During the 
 last forty years, however, the State has reaped another great adA'an- 
 tage from the almndance of the water in its mountains. To-day 
 California depends for a large part of its wealth upon irrigation. 
 The irrigated farms are generally of small size and are devoted chiefly 
 to fruit, with some vegetables. With the possible exception of parts 
 of Italy and Spain there is no part of the world where fruit is more 
 abundant. The beautiful plum orchards of such places as Santa 
 Clara County furnish more prunes than any similar areas in the 
 world. Equally remarkable are the hundreds of square jniles of 
 gi-een vineyards in Fresno Count}' and elsewhere. The California 
 grape is known everyw^here, and is converted into famous raisins, and 
 grape juice. A still more wonderful scene is the orange groves of the 
 south, especially in the valley from San Bernardino to Los Angeles. 
 Literally millions of trees with Iheir ])()lished leaves and synunetrical 
 round shape are so loaded with yellow oranges that one scarcely can 
 believe them to be natural. For the high (juality and great abun- 
 dance of its fruit California is indebted not only to irrigation, but to 
 the drj' sunny weather in the summer and fall. TIow iiu])()rtaiit 
 
304 MANS RELATION TO VEGETATION AND ANIMALS 
 
 this is may bo jiulp;(Hl from a comparison with I'lorithi. AUhougli that 
 State raises a third as many oranges as C'ahfornia and a far hirger 
 supply of grape fruit, it raises less than 1 per cent as many gi'apes, 
 apples, pears, ])eaches, plums, and other orchard fruits. 
 
 The necessity of exercising great care in order to sell their fruit 
 in the distant markets of the East has led the fruit growers to com- 
 bine their interests. Practically every community has a co-operative 
 packing house where fruit is cleaned, sorted, and packed, and from 
 which it is shipped to meet the demands of the market. In the hamls 
 of a people who are full of ambition and energy the great natural 
 resources of California together with such co-operative enterprises 
 
 Courtesy of U. S. Department of Agriculture. 
 
 Fig. 98.— World Production of Cotton. 
 
 have made the State the most prosperous and ])i-()grcssive of all sub- 
 tropical countries. 
 
 The Monsoon Region of America. — Florida and the neighl)or- 
 irig coastal districts Ijclong to the monsoon type, since the prevailing 
 winds blow from the northwest in winter and the southeast in summer. 
 No part of the Atlantic coast, however, shows a rainfall of the purely 
 monsoon type, for cyclonic storms supplement the monsoon rains. In 
 summer the rainfall of Florida, as appears in Fig. 83, is of the typical 
 monsoon character. By November it has fallen off so that it seems 
 to promise a dry season, l)ut cyclonic storms cause the rain to 
 increase a^ain. Except for the heavy frosts which somethnes 
 follow in their wake, and the consfHiuciit (jamage to the orange 
 groves, these storms give the southeastern United States a great 
 
. LIFE IN SUBTROPICAL A\D MONSOON REGIONS 
 
 305 
 
 only (1 
 te crop 
 
 ocs the 
 failures 
 
 advantage over Southern China and India. Not 
 
 occurrence of rain at all seasons i)revent such coniple 
 
 as afflict the Asiatic 
 
 monsoon countries, but 
 
 the frequent storms 
 
 bring stimulating 
 
 changes which help 
 
 to make the people 
 
 energetic. 
 
 Farther north, as 
 appears in Fig. 83, 
 the rainfall of the 
 Carolinas shows only 
 a little monsoon in- 
 fluence, and is almost 
 as abundant in winter 
 as in sununer. 
 
 Why the American 
 Monsoon Region Has 
 Fewer People than 
 the Asiatic Regions. 
 — Since Florida and 
 the neighboring States 
 combine the advan- 
 tages of abundant 
 monsoon rain in sum- 
 mer and cyclonic 
 rain the rest of the 
 year, we should expect 
 a dense population. 
 Florida, however, had 
 only 18 inhabitants 
 per square mile, in 
 1920, and cvcnGeorgia 
 only about 50, while 
 the monsoon regions 
 of China and India 
 had about 500. There 
 are three main reasons 
 ness. 
 
 (1) In Florida the relative s])arsity of po]uilation is due partly to 
 the abundance of swanii)s like the Everglades. A more imj^ortant 
 factor, both in Florida and the neighboring States, is that the coun- 
 
 for this, (1) soil, (2) climate, and (3) new- 
 
o()() 
 
 MAN'S KKLAIION lO \ i:( li;'!' A TloX AND ANIMALS 
 
 tiy consists larst'l}' of siuuly soil wliicli has iccciilly omergcd from the 
 s(';i and wliicli is in constant nccil of ahiuulant fertilizers. Moreover, 
 in all waiJii, wet regions the soil does not liave enough hunuis l)ecause 
 vegetation decays so rapidly. In India and ('liiiia, however, the 
 monsoon regions witli the densest {)oi)ulation contain great ilelta lands 
 and luoad tlood plains, where the water and silt of great rivers are 
 regulai'ly spread o\-('r the iiclds and itiicw their t'crlihty. 
 
 v~i 
 
 SPREAD OF THE 
 
 MEXICAN COTTON 
 
 BOLL WEEVIL 
 
 Fig. 100.— M iteration of the Boll Weevil, 
 
 (2) Although the monsoon climate of the South Atlantic States 
 is highly favorable for agriculture, it has not encouraged immigration. 
 The United States was settled mainly by people from the cool, stuuu- 
 lating cluuates of northwestern Europe. Such jjeojile can live and 
 prosper in the Southern States, but as they themselves say, they do 
 not have so much energy as in the North. This is especially true if 
 they attempt to work in the fields and endure the sun and heat of 
 summer. For this reason, as well as because of the presence of a 
 colored laboring population in the South and the demand for labor 
 in the Norlli, innnigrants fi'oiii iioi'thciii Mui'ope \vA\r iMcrcii'cd 
 to go to the Noi'thern Slates, wliicli up to the present time have 
 offered so much unoccaipicd teiritoiy that there was room i'oi' every- 
 liody. This coiKhtioii is rai)idly changing, ])ai'tly because the Noi'th 
 is becoming well i)oinilatetl, and partly because immigrants now come 
 in large numl)ers from Mediterranean countries, whose people are 
 better adapted to out-of-door work in a souliieni climate than are 1 he 
 English, ( lei-nians, Scandinavians, and other noithein immigiaiits 
 of earlier days. 
 
 (8) Till' chief reason, however, why the ])o])ulaf ion of oui' Soulhei'ii 
 
LIFE IX SUBTROPICAL AND MOXS(X)X REGIONS 307 
 
 States is sa scanty compared with that of the monsoon areas of Asia 
 is that America is still new, even thoiiuh we think the Atlantic States 
 are old. 
 
 QUESTIONS, EXERCISES, AND PROBLEMS 
 
 1. Copy from Figs. 78 and 79 the parts which illustrate the contrast between 
 subtropical and monsoon regions. Insert the names of all the places mentioned in 
 connection with Aleppo and Shantung. Add chief products; also the important 
 steamship routes which connect these regions with the rest of the world. Insert 
 blue arrows for prevailing winds in winter and red for those prevailing in summer. 
 On the basis of the maps explain which of these two regions has the greater advan- 
 tages. 
 
 2. Look up the article on architecture in the Encyclopaedia Britannica and 
 read the paragraph about the origin of architecture. Look up what J. Bruhnes, 
 in his book on "Human Geography," saj-s about architecture as a reflection of 
 the physical geography of the country. Apply this to the facts stated in the pres- 
 ent chapter. Compare the various parts of the United States in this respect. 
 Give examples from your own region, and from any other region with which 
 you may be familiar. In each case suggest reasons for the facts you state. 
 
 3. "In countries where communication is difficult sheep are profitable animals 
 to keep." Examine the truth of this statement when applied to Turkey. Con- 
 sider the following factors: (a) the articles of trade obtained from sheep; (b) 
 the conditions of transportation; (c) the density of population; {d) the conditions 
 of indastry. 
 
 4. Write a descrii^tion of the products and industries of the Balkan Peninsula 
 modeled on that of the Aleppo region given in this chapter. Facts may be found 
 in the Statesman's Yearbook, the encyclopaedia, books of travel, etc. 
 
 5. In the Bible, in the writings of Omar Kha\'yam, and in other literature, find 
 metaphores suggested by the physical geography of the subtropical lands of the 
 Eastern Mediterranean. 
 
 6. Read the first chapter of Rudyard Kipling's "Kim," making a list of all the 
 references to food, clothes, domestic animals, occupations, habits, and houses. 
 Discuss the extent to which these show a direct response to the conditions imposed 
 by physical geography. 
 
 7. Make diagrams showing the percentages of the world's production of wheat, 
 barley, and rice raised by India, Spain, and Italy, respectively: For each of the 
 three graphs write a statement of how it is explain(>d by the i)hysical geographj' of 
 the country. 
 
 8. Some children from central China who visited Pennsylvania were never 
 tired of looking at the cart horses and marveling at their size and strength. They 
 were also astonished at the number of wild blackberries to be had for nothing, 
 and at the width of the country roads, the frequency of village greens, and the 
 recklessness with which people burned wood. Explain the geographic basis of 
 all their feelings. 
 
 9. A. Examine the maps of products in this book (Figs. .53-58, (iO-Ol, 04-65, 
 
 91, 95-90, 98-99, 104-5, 108 and in the Geograpliy of the \\()rkrs Agri- 
 culture (published by the U. S. Department of Agriculture). Make 
 a list of all the products for which world maps are available, and of 
 the subtropical and monsoon countries in which they arc produced. 
 Classify the products as follows: (1) those produced abundantly; 
 
308 MANS i{i;LA'ri()N to vi:(;i:iAri()N and animals 
 
 in (a) sul)t Topical countries; (/') monsoon countrios; (2) those pro- 
 ducpcl moderately in («) subtropical and (^) monsoon regions; (3) 
 those produced either not at all in such countries or only in small 
 quantities. 
 B. For each of the five classes in your list, write a statement of the geo- 
 graphical conditions which determine the extent to which the various 
 products are jjroduced. Fig. 1 will help you. Remember that geo- 
 graphic conditions which alTect transportation, health, etc., are as 
 important as those which directly affect the product. 
 10. I^ok up the cotton-boll weevil. Study Figs. 99 and 100, and describe 
 the progress of the weevil. Where did it ajiparently come from? Try to find 
 from the publications of the U. S. Dei)artment of Agriculture how far it has now 
 spread. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 MODES OF LIFE IN DESERTS AND POLAR REGIONS 
 
 The great deserts that border the torrid zone comprise the 
 intensely hot and dry regions of Arabia, the Sahara, the Kalahari, 
 central Australia, northern Mexico, and northern Chile. These 
 regions are all alike in having the following characteristics: (1) 
 slight rainfall; (2) scanty vegetation; (3) practically no agriculture; 
 (4) dependence of man on animals; (5) a sparse nomadic popula- 
 tion; and (6) low civilization. 
 
 If we examine the whole world we find that certain other regions 
 also have these six qualities. These other regions are of two types, 
 (1) continental deserts and (2) polar regions. The continental 
 deserts are in most respects like the trade wind deserts. The chief 
 difference is that although most of the year they are hot like the trade 
 wind deserts, they have a period when they are cold like the polar 
 deserts. Nevada and Utah are mild examples of this kind, while the 
 deserts of Central Asia from the Caspian Sea to the borders of Man- 
 churia are extreme examples. The polar regions, which have ihc 
 six characteristics named above, are not deserts in the ordinary sense 
 for they are covered with snow much of the time and the ground is 
 moist when this melts. Yet in their effect on man the cold regions of 
 (Greenland, the northern parts of North America and Asia, the vast 
 continent of Antarctica, and many limited regions at high altitudes 
 like Tibet are much like deserts. Hence in this chapter we shall treat 
 these cold wet polar deserts as well as the ordinary hot dry deserts. 
 
 Sparsity of Desert Population. — The sparsity of desert population 
 is astonishing. For instance, the desert part of Arabia, omitting 
 the fairly well-watered regions of Yemen and Oman, is as large as 
 the United States cast of the IVIississippi River. Yet its population 
 is probably less than 2,000,000, while the corresponding portion of the 
 United States has 70,000,000. In southern Arabia over 300,000 
 square miles of absolute desert have never been explored and probably 
 contain no inhabitants. This area equals Germany and Italy, 
 combined, which contain 100,000,000 peojile. The great Sahara, 
 which is as large as the Unitcil States, probably has less people than 
 the Arabian desert, while the Australian desert has least of all among 
 the diy deserts. In our own countiy, Nevada has only one pei-son for 
 
 309 
 
310 MANS HKI.ATIOX TO VllCKTATloX AND ANIMALS 
 
 each sqiuuc iniU\ and most of these are gathered in oases such as Reno 
 at the eastern base of tlie Sierras. Contrast this witli Massachusetts, 
 which has 450 peoi)le per square mile. 
 
 Cold deserts have even U'ww pcojilc than dry deserts. For in- 
 stance, if we omit the Labrador coast and the Yukon niinin<i- (Ustriet, 
 the nortliern jirovinces of Canada, with an area of 2,000.000 scjuare 
 miles have only about 20,000 inhabitants. This part of Canada is 
 as larne as all Europe aside from Russia, but it has only one inhabitant 
 where the lMn-()])ean countries have 10,500. Antarctica, the jireatest 
 of all deserts, has not a single inhabitant. 
 
 The Effect of Scanty Rainfall on the Appearance of Dry Deserts. 
 — L)r\' deserts ])i-esent a ijccuhar a])])earance. Parts consist of inoun- 
 tams and ])arts of i)hiins. Amoiia; iiiouiitaiiH the bare rock every- 
 where sticks out, often ])ainting the laiidscaiic^ with weird coloi-s. 
 
 Sometimes it is shattered and ])roken l)y the action of frost and 
 sun. Elsewhere it is roughly pitted l)y the wind. Only in the 
 higher parts of the mountains is the cUmate moist enough so that 
 there is a fairly deep cover of soil held in place by vegetation. 
 
 The weathered rock and soil from the mountains are washed down 
 to the lowlands by the occasional violent rains which fall even in 
 deserts. At the base of the mountains the wet weather torrents 
 deposit their load in gi-eat tracts of sloping gravel hke enormous 
 l:K?aches from 1 to 40 miles wide. Close to the mountains the gravel 
 consists of large nnigh fragments, but farther away the materials be- 
 come more ])ebl)ly and sandy, and finally they merge into plains of 
 sand and clay. Often the sand is heaiied into dunes while the clay 
 is scoured l)y tlie wind into fantastic ])illars and tables. 
 
 If the mountains furnish water enouuli tlie lowest part of each 
 plain contains either a salt lake or else a "dry lake," known as a ])laya. 
 Such a lake at most times jn-esents the appearance of an al)solutely 
 flat expense of smooth clay, but after one of the occasional rains it is 
 transformed into a laki^ in which the water may l)e only a few inches 
 deep. 
 
 In the well-populated parts of tlu> world vegetation is so abundant 
 that it hides the soil. In deserts, however, the vc^getation is so scanty 
 that the traveler is constantly reminded of the rock and soil. W'iiat 
 little vegetation he sees, however, is ])eculiarly interesting l)ecause 
 of th(> strange forms which it has ac(iuired in its attempt to meet the 
 conditions of drought. 
 
 Sandy Deserts.— Although sandy deserts do not occupy any 
 larger area t han t hose of bare rock, gravel, and clay, they present much 
 the most interesting a])])earanc(>, largely because of the ])resence of 
 dunes of every size. That is why the most familiar ])ictures of deserts 
 
MODES OF LIFE IN DESERTS AND POLAR REGIONS 311 
 
 show sandy dunes. In the Takla Makan desert of western Cliina 
 milHons of sand (hnies of many tones of yellow, brown, and ])ink, look 
 like the waves of a huge dry sea 600 miles long. Only the boldest 
 explorei-s dare launch their caravans on such a waterless sea. The 
 wind piles the dunes up to a height of 500 feet and thus causes them 
 to be an almost uupassable ])arri(n'. Ev(ui when the dunes are small 
 the feet of men and annuals sink into the imstable sand and slip and 
 sUde so that progress is extremely slow. Often it is imjiossible to 
 cUmb the steep leeward slope of a dune, although the gentler wind- 
 ward slope may he comparatively easy. When \dolent winds blow 
 the sharji sand with cutting force into the traA'eler's face there is 
 nothing to do but turn one's l)ack to the wind and try to escape suffo- 
 cation. The camel has become so well adapted to this condition of 
 desert life that he is able to close his nostrils and only open them at 
 long intervals for a quick breath. 
 
 How Loess is Formed and Used. — "\^^len the wind blows over the 
 desert it not only heaps the particles of sand into dunes, but carries 
 away the finer dust and deposits it in the form of loess. From the 
 Takla Makan and Gobi deserts the dust is sometim(>s ])lown in such 
 quantities that 60 or 100 miles to the southeast it makes the air so 
 hazy that the sun is hidden even at noon. Beyond the limits of 
 the deserts it falls as a fine yellow powder. It even sifts into the 
 tightl}'- closed houses and makes it difficult to write b}^ coating the 
 paper and clogging the pen. In northwestern Chuia this desert dust 
 has accmnulated in some places to a dcj^th of scores of hundreds of 
 feet over an area larger than France. It is very fertile provided it is 
 well supplied with wat(n-. "Where there is no vc\g(>tation to hold it, 
 however, it is so light that it is quickly blowii away. Along the 
 roads in the loess country th(^ feet of horses stir u{) the dust and then 
 it is blown away so that the roads become (hop trenches. In sjiite 
 of its Ughtness the loess does not easily crumhle. Its thick, fine- 
 gi-ained masses can be cut likc^ cheese and it sticks togetlun- so w(>ll that 
 houses can be excavated in it. Near the borders of the deserts in 
 northwestern China many peasants live in such houses dug in the 
 walls of the sunken sti'ccts. 
 
 Why Desert Lakes are Salt. — ^Aside from the dunes and the vege- 
 tation one of the most striking features of the desert is the lakes. 
 Occasionally they arc loeautiful, but oftener they have flat nuiddy 
 shores crusted with white crystals and looking something like .tide 
 flats and smelling far woi-se. Desert lakes generally have no out- 
 lets and henc(> are salty. This is because l)()th in (U^serts and else- 
 wh(M-e every stream contains a little dissolved salt, although ortlinarily 
 this < aiuiot be detected except by chemical analysis. In deserts, 
 
312 MANS KELATIUX TO VEGETATION AND ANIMALS 
 
 howovor, ova]")oration removes the water wltlioiit ivmoving the salt, 
 which in orthnary lak(>s escapes throu^li tlie outlet. Hence all tiie 
 salt that is brou^l't in by the streams remains in the lake, and finally 
 forms a stronji brine s(j heavy that the bather finds himself lifted 
 from the l>ottom when he walks out as far as his armpits. Woe be- 
 tide him, in the Dead Sea, for example, if he gets the stinging brine 
 into his eyes or nose. The Dead Sea is well named for there is prac- 
 tic^dly no life in it. Many great salt lakes have diied up, leaving 
 their salt in solid layers, scores or hundreds of feet thick. In Central 
 Asia such salt dcijosits coxci- thousands of s(juare miles. 
 
 Types of Desert Vegetation. — The vegetation of deserts varies 
 from region to region as much as does that of the forests. For ex- 
 anijile, on the l)ordei-s of the Transcaspian Desert lieyond the Caspian 
 8ea and in i)arts of the Arabian Desert the whole country seems to 
 consist of nothing but Imre sand dunes. Then comes a hea\y rain, 
 and within a w(H>k or two the sand is covered with a short, sweet 
 growth of grass which makes it look as fertile as the prairie. Y(>t in a 
 few more weeks the grass has ripened its seeds and dried u]i, and soon 
 the sand is blowing freely as before. Farther out in the desert grass 
 almost n(n-er ap])ears, but the sand is dotted here and there with 
 tough little bushes thr(>e or four feet high which seem leafless until 
 one notices the little scales pressed tight against the stems. In some 
 of the greatest deserts where sand dunes rise to heights of several 
 hundred feet the space between the dunes is gouged out by tlie wind 
 to such a depth that the water tabk; is almost reached. Here one 
 sometimes finds beds of reeds or patches of the feathery shrub called 
 tamarisk. As the dunes slowly advance they may kill sucii ]ilants, 
 but sometimes, if the dunes are small, the plants may shoot u]) fast 
 enough to kce]! their heads above the sand. Occasionally, aUvr the 
 dimes haAcgonc on and again left them uncovered one finds reeds and 
 bushes curiously elongated as if on stilts. 
 
 In the gravel deserts the vegetation is even less abundant tlian in 
 the sand, for there are few favored spots and even when rain comes 
 the ])lants have hard work to grow. In some of the vaster deserts of 
 Persia and Central Asia the gi-avel at the foot of the mountains 
 foinis expanses like huge beaches 10, 20, or even 40 miles wide. Here 
 the gravel is ccMuented together by a slightly salty calcareous de])osit. 
 Soinctimes after this has been soaked by one of the occasional rains it 
 s])lits iiili) incgular ])(ilyg()ns .') to 12 feet in diameter, and cracks 
 several inches dee]) are foi'ined along the edges. In these the wind 
 deposits sand, and latei' tiny plants take root so that sometimes the 
 polygons are oiilliiiecl in green, like lit tie gai'dens where the ])laiits 
 occupy the ]);itlis instead of the beds. In deserts where gl"avel i^ 
 
MODES OF LIFE IX DESERTS AND POLAR REGIONS 313 
 
 mixed with soil an iiiuisiial rain may sometimes cause the desert to 
 blossom as the rose. One would have to travel far to find any scene 
 more beautiful than the IMohave Desert of California at such a time 
 when it is carpeted for miles with the loveliest flowei-s, white, yellow, 
 orange, and blue. 
 
 In deserts like most of those in the United States where some 
 rain falls in both summer and Avinter, l^ushy vegetation is the pre- 
 dominant t>T)e. The newcomer who sees the abundant sage brush of 
 Utah and Nevada, or the larger greasewood and mesquitc of Arizona 
 with the accompanying cactus and the gi'asses that spring up after 
 rains, can scarcely believe that in a region which looks so fertile 
 agriculture is impossible. INIany a tenderfoot from the East has 
 thought to his cost that the westerners were l>Ting y\\\cn they told him 
 not to take up land of that kind. He found, however, that the types 
 of vegetation which grow in the desert can subsist on an amovmt of 
 moisture which will not possibly support crops. That is the gi'eat 
 outstanding feature of every desert. 
 
 Oases. — The spots called oases are places where desert vegetation 
 gives place to that of ^^•ell-watered regions. Although they are in 
 the desert, they are not of it. Yet they must be considered, since 
 thej^ occur in every desert, and support far more people than the vast 
 surrounding areas. Moreover, the true desert people, the nomads, 
 have much the same relation to the oases that countrj' people have to 
 cities. The larger oases are places where streams from the mountains 
 spread out upon the desert plain and sen'e for irrigation. The moun- 
 tains and the oases may be as far apart as the snowy heights of the 
 Himalayas and the hot sunny delta of the Indus. The \\hole of 
 cultivated Egypt indeed, with its 11,000,000 people, is a gTcat oasis 
 watered by the rains that fall on the mountains of Central Africa. 
 In such oases crops like millet, wheat, barley, grapes, and many other 
 fruits are raised. The houses are generally made of sun-dried bricks 
 called adobe. Sometimes, where there are trees enough, the houses 
 have wooden frames, but in the oases of the driest deserts like eastern 
 Persia even the roofs are made of adobe bricks forming small domes. 
 In books we hear much of the beauty of such oases as Damascus, but 
 generally the descrii)tions are exaggerated. Nevertheless, when a 
 traveler on a camel, the ship of the desert, comes to an oasis where he 
 can rest and supply his needs it seems very l>eautiful to him just 
 as any port seems a haven of rest to a storm-toss(Hl mariner. 
 
 Palm Oases. — In the smaller oases of tlu^ driest, hottest deserts 
 sucli as those of Arabia and northern xVfrica, ]xilm trees are almost the 
 onl}' kind of vegetation. We are apt to think that this kind of oasis is 
 typical, but really it is comparatively unimportant. Such oases are 
 
314 MAX'S RELATION TO VEGETATION AND ANIMALS 
 
 locatod whore littlo sjmnfrs Inibblo out of tho oartli or in dcprossions 
 wlu're tho p-oiiiul is sUfj;htly moist and wolls can Ix- duj?. Tlio pahns 
 are of ton jilantod in pits 5 or G foot doop whore the soil is moist. 
 At miifli gr(>atc>r dojitlis -vvator can 1)0 ol)tainod in wolls. It is raised 
 by hand or by camols drawing buckets at the end of long ropes and is 
 conducted with gi'oat care to the pits where it watere the trees. 
 
 Why Desert People Follow the Nomadic Mode of Life. — Out- 
 side the oases the only thing uihhi which di-sert ])((>])1(" can rely for a 
 livuig is animals. Sheep, goats, donkeys, ami (^specially camels can 
 live on the scanty vegetation of almost all deserts, but they must 
 constantly be kept moving from one pasturage to another. Hen<'e the 
 desert people are nomadic. Their success depends upon their ability 
 to find for their flocks sufficient vegetation and water. Accordingly 
 it is not siu'prising that when one meets a Bedouin Arab in the Sj'rian 
 desert, for example, he at once asks, "Has rain fallen anywhere?" If 
 the traveler reports showers along his route, the Aral) hastens Ixack to 
 camp, announces the good news to his family and gives orders to pre- 
 pare to move. Next morning the tents are taken down, the household 
 goods are gathered up and with the children are put on the backs of 
 camels. In an hour the trampled ground and the blackened stones 
 where the fire has gone out are the only signs of the encampment. 
 
 It must not be tliought that the Arab rashly moves his camp with- 
 out knowing where he can get water. He is famihar A\ith all the water 
 holes, springs, and wells, and has special places to wliich he regularly 
 migi-atos providcnl there is gi'ass. Sometimes, to be sure, if tho rain 
 is especially abundant and the gi-ass grows thick and green, as occui-s 
 at long intervals, he does not need to camp beside a source of drinking 
 water. The animals eat so much green grass that tlu^y can get along 
 without water and the people make milk sene for l)ot h food and diink. 
 As for washing it is enough for the Aral) to rub his hamls in the sand. 
 In s])ite of tho fact that the j\Iohamni(>dan religion es])ecially teaclu>s 
 cleanliness, millions of Arabs have probably lived and died without 
 ever taking a real bath. 
 
 The Property of Desert Nomads. — Among desert nomads there is 
 nothing that can really be called wealth. Some, to be sun\ have 
 larger herds and flocks, better guns, and better clothing than tlu-ir 
 comnides, but none live in houses or have elaborate furniture. If a 
 man tried to have such things he could not reach fresh ])astures and 
 new springs in tune to keep his animals in good condit ion. Moreover, 
 life is so hard that there is no chance to accunudate the sur])lus that 
 would buy these things. Among the Aral)S, for exam])U>, ])overty is 
 so ncarlx- uni\-ei"sal that there are few differences such as exist whore 
 some peo])le live iti great ])alaces and others in houses of one or two 
 
MODES OF LIFE IN DESERTS AND POLAR REGIONS 315 
 
 rooms, and where &ome perform hard, ill-paid manual labor, while 
 othere live in ease upon the accumulated wealth of their ancestoi"s. 
 
 The chief thing that keeps the Arabs poor is that the rain may 
 fail and the grass wither at any tune. Then the animals begin to 
 suffcn- from hunger; the mother camels and sheep give no milk, and 
 their colts and lambs begin to die. Soon the Arabs have neither 
 young anmials to exchange for rice, millet, and dates in the oases, 
 nor milk to keep themselves from stai*\-ation. So long as anyone has 
 food he shares it with his neighbors, but all alike suffer greatly. They 
 dare not kill too many anunals for then tlu^y would tlestroy their sole 
 means of support. 
 
 How Poverty Leads to Desert Raids. — The hardships of the desert 
 cause the nomad's ideas of right and wrong to differ from ours. What 
 is an Arab to do when his camels, his sheep, his wife, his children, 
 and himself are all suffering the pang's of hunger? The only thing 
 that occui'S to him is to plunder. Hence he goes on raids. A raid is 
 an interesting event. A group of Arabs are sitting on the ground in a 
 circle at sunset. Suddenl}^ one of them rises and thrusts his spear 
 into the gi'ound. 'T am going on a raid," he saj'^s. "Who will go 
 with me?" One by one the othei-s quietly but vigorously drive their 
 spears into the sand as a sign that the}' too will go. Early the next 
 morning a dozen or twenty keen-eyed Arabs ride off across the desert 
 on their camels. A few are leading horses for the final swift dash. 
 On long raids only those hoi"ses can be used that have been taught to 
 drink camels' milk. After riding one or two hmidred miles the 
 raiders discover a nomad camp which they plan to plunder. Waiting 
 until nightfall the horsemen silently and swiftly drive off the camels 
 which are herded not far from the tents. If necessary the raiders 
 shoot the camel-keeper, ])ut they tiy to avoid such extreme measures, 
 for if one member of a family or clan is killed, the rest are never satis- 
 fied until they take a Hfe for a lite. 
 
 How Raids Influence Arab Character. — We beUeve that a man 
 should treat his neighbors as he would wish to be treated himself, but 
 through thousands of years tlu> hard conditions imposed by the desert 
 climate have weeded out the Arabs who are not ready for violence. 
 To succeed in the desert a man nuist be ready not only to engage in 
 plundering expeditions, l)ut to endure heat, thii'st, and the weariness 
 of long rides. Unfortunately, however, he has littJe need of steady 
 industry. When he comes home from a raid or from an exhausting 
 hunt for stray animals, he is so tired that he Ues down and does noth- 
 ing for days. If he is al)le to summon up his ]-)owei-s when his canu^ls 
 are driven off or his sheep have strayed, his laziness does little harm. 
 The ordinaiy work of caring for the animals is so light that the women 
 
316 MAX'S RELATION TO VEGETATION AM) ANIMALS 
 
 and cliiklron can easily do it and still havo ploiity of tinio to rost. 
 Hcnci' the Aral) is not only dishonest according to our standards, but 
 lazy. Ill' thinks of raids as a part of the oixlinary routine of life, and 
 of steady work as soinelhiiiif fit only for slaves. 
 
 How Nomads are Governed. — Nomads who live in tents and go 
 on niitls are almost invariably a source of trouble to an oixlinary 
 govermnent, for not only are they lawless raiders, Init they bitterly 
 resent any outside intei-ference. As the camps are small and widely 
 scattei-ed it is extremely difficult to punish evil doei-s. Hence patri- 
 archal government, or the "rule of the father" still persists. Each 
 c:im)) is nyti to consist of relatives. The father sets up his tent sur- 
 rounded by the families of his sons and nephew'S, and often of his 
 gi-andsons. His word is law. AMiere several families live together 
 the i)ower is given to a sheikh. Sometimes the office of sheikh passes 
 from father to son, but only when the son's character justifies his 
 authority in the eyes of the clan. Othen^■ise, the sheikh is elected 
 because of his wisdom, coiu'age, and hberality. 
 
 Good QuaUties in the Desert. — The desert promotes good quaUties 
 as well as bad. The traveler is struck by the proud and manly bearing 
 of the bronzed Bedouins. Although fierce and reckless when pushed by 
 necessity, they are faithful unto death when once they have given 
 their word. Hos])itality, too, is a univei-sal trait. As the nomad 
 travels about the desert in search of straj' animals or on his waj' to an 
 oasis to buy dates or sell animals he would often suffer severely or even 
 perish if the occasional people whose tents he ]>asses were not willing 
 to entertain liim. Even in the tents of his enemies a man finds food 
 and shelter and can remain safely from the evening of one day till 
 the morning of the second day after. So strong is the sense of hos- 
 pitality that an Arab will make a feast for a guest even if he and his 
 family are obUged to go hvmgiy. 
 
 The Frozen Deserts of the North.^ — In cold deserts the nomads 
 depentl jnirtly on laiul animals and ])artly on those of the sea. Among 
 the Lapps who live in the tundra the reindeer takes the place of the 
 camel I'nlike the Arabs, however, the Lapps arc not gi'eat raiders. 
 This is partly because fajnhie does not beset them so sorely as it does 
 the Arabs, and partly because they cannot travel so easily. 
 
 The Eskimos who depend on sea anijnals have a harder time than 
 do the rein(l(>er people. In extremely cold countries not only is the 
 vegetation of the sea more abundant than that of the land, but the 
 amount of small floating animal life is more than in any other ])art of 
 the ocean. Hence along the northern coasts of Asia and America the 
 sea is inhabited by seals and fish whidi furnish food for polar bears, 
 wolves, fo.xes, gulls, and other sea birds. All of these animals can 
 
MODES OF LIFE IN DESERTS AND POLAR REGIONS 317 
 
 be used by man for food. The land furnishes much less food than 
 the sea, for although musk oxen and caribou are sometimes found, 
 they cannot be depended on. Unfortunately the sea animals cannot 
 be domesticated. The seals, fish, l^eare, and gulls come and go as they 
 choose and the Esldmos, Aleuts, and other coast nomads who depend 
 on them must follow as best they can. 
 
 During the summer the nomads Uve in tents — crude little shelters 
 made of sldns and supported in the center on sticks of precious drift- 
 wood or large bones like the ribs of whales. The Eskimos have even 
 less fvu'niture than the Arabs, and their tents are less pn^tentious. In 
 winter such tents are too cold, for the thermometer remains far below 
 zero for months during the long, depressing Arctic night. At that 
 season little hunting can be done, and so far as possible the Eskimo 
 nuist live on meat that they have stored during the siunmer. There- 
 fore, having moved to the most southern part of the region which 
 they frequent, they shelter themselves in huts of stone, sod, and 
 skins. Sometmies, however, they are obliged to migrate in search of 
 food even in winter. Then at each camping place they build houses 
 of blocks of snow, with sheets of ice for windows. 
 
 The only domestic animal that the Eskimo can keep is the dog, 
 which draws his sledge and helps him in his himting. The dog can 
 live in the far north because he eats flesh, whereas all other domestic 
 animals except the comparatively useless cat live almost wholly on 
 grass, grain, or other vegetable products. Since most of the animals 
 that are hunted by the Eskimos live in the A\'atcr, boats are of far 
 more importance than dogs as means of transportation. They are 
 constructed with the greatest skill from sealskin, bones, and driftwood. 
 Few races are more clever than the Eskimo in making the most of 
 scanty resources. 
 
 The Eskimos are as notable for their peaceable character as are 
 the Arabs for raids. This does not mean that the Eskimos have 
 higher standards of right and wrong than the Arabs, or that they have 
 greater prosperity. They steal from outsider whenever they get a 
 chance, and are so poverty strick(Mi most of the time that they would 
 plunder if they could. They refrain from raids simply because raids 
 do not pay. The next encampment may be 100 miles away, for along 
 the whol(> northern coast of America and part of Asia tne Eskimos 
 nmnber only about 30,000. No one has flocks, heixls, or other wealt h. 
 The chances are nine out of ten that at times when one comnumity 
 is suffering from hunger, their neighbor, even though far ilistant, 
 are also suffering. 
 
318 .MAN .S RKLATKtX TO VEGETATION AND ANIMALS 
 
 QUES'l'IONS, EXERCISES, AND I'HoiU.EMS 
 
 1. Trace from a map of llic Uiiitod States the houmlaries of Arizona, Kansas, 
 and Pennsylvania, putting tlie three in a row. Insert one dot for each 1()(),(M)0 
 inhaliitants. Make a table showing the comparative conditions of the three 
 States in the following respects: (a) latitude; (6) altitude; (c) distance from the 
 ocean; (ri) mean temperature; (e) total rainfall; {/) season of most rainfall; (g) 
 type of vegetation; (/() mode of life; (i) main industries; {j) population; (k) density 
 of i)opulation. Point out the effect of (o) to {c), respectively, on each of the con- 
 ditions {g) to (A-). 
 
 2. Write an account of the Egyptians in contrast witli tlic nomads of Aial)ia. 
 Give statistics as to rainfall, temperature, and density of i)()pulution for each 
 country. Describe main resources, method of utilizing the resources, types of 
 dwellings, government in its relation to environnirnt, and any other t<)i)ics that 
 interest you. 
 
 3. Look up the article on the Mahommedan religion in the Encyclopaedia 
 Britannica. Under the sub-heading Ethics you will find what are sometimes 
 called the "Ten Commandments" of the religion. How many deal with habits 
 and customs arising out of conditions of nomadic life? Exi)lain. 
 
 4. Read some account of Arctic or Antarctic ex;)l()ration (Peary, Scott, 
 Sliii/ckleton, etc., will do. Mrs. Peary's account of housekeeping, etc., in Green- 
 huul is excellent), and then classify the difficulties encountered under the follow- 
 ing heads: {a) food; {h) preparation of a dwelling house; (c) clothing; (d) trans- 
 portation and communication; (e) effect of climate on health through (1) daily 
 conditions, (2) seasonal conditions. 
 
 5. Read some account of desert exploration and treat the matter as in the jire- 
 ceding question. 
 
 6. Find out what you can about the aborigines and first settlers in Arizona. 
 In what respect were some of their occupations and habits like those of the Arabs? 
 Were there any laws at all similar to tho.se of the Mahommedans? What geo- 
 graphical conditions have done most to diminish the resemblance between Ari- 
 zona and Arabia? 
 
 7. A. In an encyclopa'dia or general history look up the following subjects: 
 
 (1) the Huns under Attila and others about 450 a.d.; (2) the Arabs 
 who burst out from Arabia about 650 a.d.; (3) G(J)enghis Khan, 
 who devastated Asia about 1200 a.d.; (4) the Moguls, who swept 
 into India soon after 1500 a.d . 
 
 B. Find out what effect the conditions of life in stejjpes and deserts have liad 
 
 in forming the succe.ss-making cjualities of conciuerors who came from 
 these regions. 
 
 C. Describe as many ways as possible in which the desert environment re- 
 
 flects itself in the habits and military methods of the.se conciuerors. 
 Some are suggested in the following quotation regarding the Hims: 
 "Trained riders, archers and javelin throwers from infancy, they 
 advaticed to the attack in numerous comjianies of horsemen following 
 hard u|)on each other, avoiding close (luarters, ])ut wearing out their 
 antagonists by the ])ersi.stencj' of their onslaughts. Scarce a corner 
 of Euroi)e was safe from them." 
 
 D. The four outbursts of desert people mentioned under A. all took place 
 
 during jteriods when the de.serts sufTered from muisual aridity. Point 
 out what this may have had to do with the matter. 
 
CHAPTER XVII 
 IRRIGATION 
 
 How Egjrpt Gets its Water for Irrigation. — In all parts of the world 
 where there is a long thy season irrigation is practiced, but it is most 
 unportant in monsoon and cs])ecially subtropical regions. Forty or 
 fifty centuries ago in the days of the ancient Egyptians and Baby- 
 lonians it had already reached a high stage of development. In 
 Egj'pt nature makes it remarkably easy to practice irrigation on a 
 large scale. The White Nile or main stream comes from three of the 
 great lakes of Central Africa \\'hich serve as reservoirs and gi\'e a 
 large supply of water at all seasons. The Blue Nile and the Atbara 
 come from the highlands of Abyssinia and are subject to great floods 
 which cause the river to overflow its banks during the summer. Thus 
 at that season the river not only waters the land without exertion on 
 the part of the farmers, but fertilizes the fields with rich alluvium. In 
 order to equalize the flow of water and make irrigation possible at all 
 seasons the great Assuan Dam has been built. 
 
 Some of India's Irrigation Projects. — In India one single irrigation 
 project on the Chenab, a tributary of the Indus, watere 2,500,000 
 acres and supports a milhon people. The Chenab Canal Avas built 
 by the British government to increase the production of gi'ain 
 and relieve the severe overcrowding in other parts of India. Before 
 any land was assigned to settlers the fields, streets, and village sites 
 were all laid out in what was then a desert. Places for the ])ost ofhce, 
 bazaars, and government offices were assigned, and evei-ylhing was 
 ready. Then 800,000 people pounnl in within eight years. The 
 canal cost nine million dollars and to-day the cr()])s each year are 
 worth about twelve million. Since ancient times southern India has 
 been full of ''tanks" or small ponds built for irrigation. In recent 
 decades all sorts of clever schemes have been (kn-ised for bringing 
 water from places where it is plentiful to those wher(^ it is scarce. 
 For instance, the Cardamom ISIountains at the southern end of the 
 western (ihats receive 80 or 100 inches of rain and the ]ilains to the 
 east only 20 or 30. Accordingly the Periyar Hi\-er draining these 
 mountains on the wet west side has b(>en made to flow througii the 
 mountains in a tunnel a mile long. I'juerging on the east side it 
 waters the dry i)lains near the city of Madura, 
 
 319 
 
320 MANS ki:lati()x of \T5GETation and animals 
 
 Irrigation in the United States. — The people of the eastern United 
 States rarely realize the iiii])()rtaii<'e of irrigation, for in the entire 
 country only one farm in forty is irriuated. Nevertheless in the 
 western ])art one million ])(:(i])lc Vwv on fifteen million aci'cs of ii-ri)j;ate(l 
 land. 
 
 The (.list rihut ion of this land is illustrated in the following table: 
 
 IRRIGATION IX Till'] INITED STATES 
 
 Utah 
 
 Nevada 
 
 Wyoming. . . 
 Colorado . . . . 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Arizona 
 
 California. . . 
 Now Mexico 
 Montana. . . . 
 
 Oregon 
 
 ^^'asllington . 
 
 PprocntaKo of 
 
 Total Area 
 
 nicludcd in 
 
 Irrigation 
 
 Projects. 
 
 Percentage of 
 
 Partus under 
 
 Irrigation. 
 
 3 J 
 
 91 
 
 2 
 
 89 
 
 31 
 
 57 
 
 9 
 
 56 
 
 OJ 
 
 53 
 
 1 
 
 53 
 
 5^ 
 
 45 
 
 1^ 
 
 36 
 
 4 
 
 34 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 The first column of figures shows what percentage of the total 
 area of each State is included in irrigation projects. These projects 
 include over two-thirds of the 45,000,000 acres which may possibly 
 be irrigated some day. As yet, however, they hav(> been d(>\'eloped 
 only to the point where about half of the area included in them re- 
 ceives water. The second colmiin shows what ixMcentage of all the 
 farms arc irrigated. In such a State as Arizona, e^■en though the 
 splendid Roosevelt Dam watei^s 270,000 acres, there is not water 
 enough to irrigate more than 1 per cent of the total area, and only 
 alxjut one-half of 1 per cent has thus far been utilized. This small 
 fraction, however, includes 53 per cent of the farms in the State. 
 The remaining 47 per cent arc mostly cattle ranches, and will prob- 
 ably never be irrigated. 
 
 California is nnich better off than Arizona. It ])ossesses enough 
 water so that 51 per cent of the land will probably be irrigated Ix^fore 
 many yeai*s. Moreover, among the 55 jier cent of farms which are 
 not iiTigated a large number are wheat ranches, many of which are of 
 unconnnonly large size. The largest single imgation project in 
 California is in the Imjierial \'alley. Thcic the watei*sof the Colorado 
 Kivcr, which till 1900 flowed unused through a desert, now support 
 
IRRIGATION 
 
 321 
 
 some of the richest farms in the United States. Tliis region closely 
 resembles Mesopotamia and Egypt, and raises certain crops such as 
 dates, the silky Egyptian cotton, and rare varieties of melons wliich 
 grow almost nowhere else in the United States. 
 
 Utah and Nevada depend on irrigation more than any other 
 States, for al^out 90 per cent of their farms have an artificial water 
 supply. So dry are these States, however, that in spite of the streams 
 
 Fk;. 101. — Irrigation Projects under Reclamation Act of 1902. 
 
 coming from the great Wasatch and Sicma Nevada ranges, the 
 area included in inigation projects is only 3| per cent of Utah and 2 
 per cent of Nevada. 
 
 How Mountains Make Irrigation Possible. — Irrigation d(>]ienils 
 largely ujxjn the presence of mountains. This is jiartly because 
 mountains receive more rainfall than the dry lands at their base and 
 partly because mountains act as i-esen'oii-s. Tlu^ grotmd water which 
 seeps into tliem in the rainy season gimhuilly Hows out through 
 
322 .MANS RELATION TO VEGETATION AND ANIMALS 
 
 sprinp;s at lower levels. If the mountains are high enough so that the 
 snow lasts till sunnner, the water is set free when it is most needed for 
 irrigation. That is one reason why India has deve]o])(Hl irrigation 
 more highly tlian has any other country. The fact that both the 
 Ganges and tiie Intlus flow from mountains covered with perpetual 
 snow makes it possi])le for a fifth of all the cultivated land of India to 
 be irrigated. Northern Italy is another fortunate region. It not 
 only has the snows of the Alps to serve as a resen'oir, Ijut some of its 
 rivei's such as the Ticino and Adda pass through the beautiful Lakes 
 Maggiore and Conio which aid in keeping then- How stead\' and in 
 preventing Hoods. 
 
 In the preceding table see how the prt^sence of snowy mountains 
 influences the figmvs in the second column. Nine per cent of the 
 lands of Colorado are included in irrigation projects because that 
 State has great plains l^ing at the ])ase of the snowy Kocldes. A 
 unique irrigation project is located in this State. The Clunnison 
 A'alley contains a large river, but only a littU^ flat land, while tlu^ 
 neighlx)ring Uncompahgi'e Valley contains a small vlvvr and ])l(iity of 
 flat land. To bring the water to the land where it is needed a tunnel 
 () miles long has been (hig so that the water of the Gunnison River is 
 now turned into the Uncompahgi-e Valley. Idaho and California as 
 well as Colorado receive large streams from snowy mountains, and 
 hence the figures in colunm 1 are comi)aratively large, while Arizona, 
 New Mexico, and Nevada do not luu'e such high mountains and are 
 less foi-tunat(\ 
 
 The Need of Artificial Reservoirs. — AMiere the moimtains are not 
 high enough to give abundant water tin-oughout the (by season 
 artificial reservoirs nuist b(; made such as the Koosc^velt Uesen-oir in 
 ArizcMia, or the tanks of India. Th(>. chief troul)le with n^servoirs is 
 that unless great precautions ai'c taken they ultimately l>ecoiiie filled 
 with silt. India is full of old tanks that have thus gradually l)e(>n 
 converted into smooth ])lains which are now cultivated with the help 
 of irrig-ation From newer tanks. 
 
 Methods of Raising Water for Irrigation. — In many places the 
 demand for iri'igation cannot be iwci. entirely by su])])lies of water 
 that flow to the fields from mountains oi' reser\"oirs. The additional 
 su])])ly nmst l)e raised mechanically frojn stn>anis or wells. One of 
 the most ])rimitive metlwxls of doing this may ho seen in I'^gj'pt along 
 the banks of tiie Nile. Tiicrc 1 he biown-skinnrd ])easants fill buckets 
 susiH-nded from one end of a bar wiiicli mo\-es like a seesaw. With 
 the he!]) of a weight at the other end they lift the water to a higher 
 level. There it is raised again by another seesaw a.n<l so on until it 
 reaches the level of the fields. In India the most familiar means of 
 
IRRIGATION 
 
 323 
 
 
 y. 
 
 q ^ 
 
324 MAX'S RELATION TO VEGETATION AND ANnfALS 
 
 
 ~ a 
 
IRRIGATION 325 
 
 raising water is from wells by means of a large leathern bag, suspended 
 by a rope passing over a pulley. When the bag is filled a pair of 
 bullocks attached to the end of the rope arc slowly driven down an 
 incline, thus raising the bag, which is emptied into a sluice leading 
 to the fields. 
 
 These Oriental methods contrast vi\-idly with the practices in 
 many of our own irrigation projects where the water is raised by 
 efficient pmnps driven by windmills, by gasoline engines, or ])y elec- 
 tricity generated by the irrigation water at the dams higher up the 
 valleys. What is needed now is some means of reducing the cost of 
 power. If solar engines were practicable and cheap, irrigation would 
 be possible in many places where it is now out of the question, for the 
 constant sunshine would furnish abundant power at low cost. 
 
 Special Advantages of Irrigated Lands. — Agriculture in irrigated 
 regions enjoys seven distinct advantages : (1) The soil of dry regions, 
 as we have already seen, is peculiarly rich in plant foods, for the 
 meager rain carries away onlj' a small portion of the solulile ingi-e- 
 dients. (2) In addition to the abundant plant food in the original soil 
 new food is often provided, for many irrigating streams deposit mud 
 which serves as a fertilizer. (3) Since the sun shines much of the 
 time in irrigated regions growth is rarely hindered by cool, cloudy 
 weather. (4) Neither do the plants suffer from drought or from too 
 much rain, for they can be given o,s much or as little water as is ncnxlcd. 
 (5) Weeds do not grow as they do in wet countries. (6) The fruits 
 grown on irrigated lands can be dried easily and cheaply. (7) Hay 
 and grain always ripen perfectly and can be harvested without getting 
 wet. In rain}' lands vast quantities are often spoiled by being rained 
 on at harvTst time. 
 
 Thus many circimistances combine to produce large crops with 
 onl}^ a moderate amount of labor. In the United States the aA'crage 
 value of the crops on an acre of irrigated land is from 25 to 65 per 
 cent greater than in the country as a whole. 
 
 Chief Crops in Irrigated Regions. — (1) Hay. — The most valuable 
 irrigated crop in the United States is alfalfa. It occupies 30 per cent 
 of the irrigated land, and often jields from three to five crops each 
 year. Otlier kinds of hay crops occupy another 30 per cent of the 
 irrigated land. This is not surprising in view of the fact that in the 
 United States as a whole hay is more important than any crop excej^t 
 corn. 
 
 (2) Fruit. — The next most valuabl(> irrigated cro]) in the United 
 States is grapes and orchard fruits such as ]n-unes, cherries, ]H>aches, 
 and apples. Subtropical fruits such as the orange and lemon stantl 
 next ill hnportancQ. In other subtropical countries where fewer 
 
32G MANS 1{I:LATK)N to VEGETATIUX AND ANIMALS 
 
 animals are kept and loss hay is nordcHl the importance of fruits is 
 even pjeater. For instance, the cliief monej' crop of (Jrcecc is little 
 seedless gi-apes which arc sold in our stores under the name of dried 
 currants. \\illi(»ut tiicni tlic (Irccks would not know what to do for 
 ready money. 
 
 (3) Rice. — Although relatively little rice is raised in the United 
 States, it is the most imi)ortant of irrijiated crops in the world as a 
 whole. The crop in this country jjrows in th(> scini-monsoon regions 
 along tb.e ( hilf and South Atlantic Coasts. IJicc is the only great crop 
 the cultivation of which is limited to irrigattnl rc^gions. It cannot 
 grow ]m)perly unless its roots are bathed for months in slowly moving 
 water. Monsoon countries practice irrigation chiefly for th(> rice 
 crop, although other cro])s need it in the early s]n-ing before the rains 
 arriv(\ 
 
 Irrigation Supports Dense Populations. — Irrigation adds enor- 
 mously to the density of population. For instance, in the Ebro 
 and Tagus \\alleys of Spain much of the land produces twelve times 
 as much as it would without irrigation and therefore supports a 
 corresponding number of ])eo]ile. I'tah has an area of 85,000 S(iuare 
 miles, but most of the 400,000 people live in the 1500 s(iuare miles 
 that are irrigated. There the population is more than 200 for every 
 square mile, while elsewhere it is less than one. In Arizona it is 
 cstijnated that one person is added to the population for every two 
 acres brought under iri'igation, or over 300 per square mile. In the 
 Libyan oasis west of Eg}'pt, w^hich would be uninhal)ited without 
 irrigation, there are 500 people for each square mile. Egj'pt is still 
 more remarkable. Its cultivated area, including the long, nar- 
 row flood plain and the triangular delta, amounts to about 
 11,000 sfjuare miles, and contains 11,000,000 people, or 1000 per 
 squai-e mile. It is one-fifth as large as Iowa, but supports five 
 times as many inhabitants, or twenty-five times as many ]ier scjuare 
 mile. 
 
 '{"he cCfc*'! (if irrigation on the density of p()])ulation is well illus- 
 trated by com])aring Meso])otamia and Kg>'pt. lioth n^gions have 
 rivei-s capal)le of use for irrigation, and both were denseh' ]io])ulated 
 before the time of Christ. Then the people degeneratcMl and were 
 troubled by fierce invasions. Acconlingly in Meso]i()tamia the dams 
 and canals were neglected, and were ruined by disastrous floods of the 
 Tigiis and ICuphrates. Hence for centuries the formerly fertile 
 plains have had almost no ]io])ulation. Now that the Great "War has 
 put this region imder the jirotection of Fnglaiid new ii-rigation works 
 are being binlt, and in a few generations the i)()i)ulati(in may be as 
 dense as that of l'gy])t. 
 
IRRIGATION 327 
 
 How Irrigation Prevents Famine. — One of the most important 
 advantages of irrigation is tliat it prevents famine. Thus it saves 
 millions of Uves, especially in densely populated areas Kke India and 
 China. In India the British govermnent has not only carried out 
 great irrigation schemes to reclaim deserts, but has spent millions of 
 dollars to irrigate land that needs water only in occasional years of 
 special drought. One such project cost $1,500,000. Its ordinary 
 receipts from the sale of water are not enough by over $G0,000 per 
 year to pay interest and running expenses, but in a single dry year, 
 1896-7, when the crops would have failed without it, this one project 
 enabled the farmers to raise crops worth $750,000 and saved thousands 
 of lives. 
 
 In Egypt the floods commonly rise to a level averaging 2oh feet 
 above the ordinary low water level at the First Cataract. In 1877 the 
 flood rose only 20 feet. The difference of 5| feet prevented the water 
 from flowing to nearly a million acres of land. Terrible famine 
 ensued and the govermnent lost $5,500,000 simply in taxes because 
 the poverty-stricken, famishing people could not pay. The gi'eat 
 Assuan Dam was built to prevent the recurrence of such disasters. 
 Behind it the Nile has been converted into a narrow lake 200 miles 
 long so that there is plenty of water at all seasons. 
 
 Contrast Eg;>q3t's experience with that of China. Although 
 China has many small irrigation works, she has not had a modern 
 government to carry out great irrigation projects. Therefore we are 
 frequently called upon to contribute to relief funds for the millions 
 who suffer from famine. In addition to her primitive irrigation 
 system, China needs great dams, canals, and aciueducts, not onh- to 
 provide water in times of drought, but to control the water in times of 
 flood. If China's gi'eat rivers could be properly regulated, not only 
 would the people themselves be saved from untold suffering, but the 
 wealth of the country would greatly increase to the benefit of other 
 countries as well as of itself. The purchasing power of the country 
 would probably increase so much as to make a difference of scores of 
 millions of dollare each year in the trade of the United States alone. 
 
 How Irrigation Promotes Civilization. — Irrigation is one of the 
 strongest agencies in promoting civilization. The earliest civiliza- 
 tions grew up in Egypt, Mesopotamia, Northern India, and China, 
 where irrigation has always been of the highest iin])ortance. There 
 are at least five distinct ways in which irrigation promotes ci-\-ilization: 
 (1) People who practice irrigation cannot wander from place to ])lace 
 as do primitive savages. They must stay in one home. Hence 
 every improvement that they make in their houses or fields is of per- 
 manent value, and stimulat.es them to do more, 
 
328 MAX'S RELATION TO VEGETATION AND ANIMALS 
 
 (2) Such people loam to have forotlioiip;ht, for otherwise their 
 ditches and dams will not he ready, and llicir cr()])s will not p:row. 
 They also learn industry, for they cannot put off liicir work. If the 
 water is led onto the fields too late or allowed to remain too lonp; there 
 will he a ix)or han'cst. Forethought and uidustry arc at the base of 
 all advances in civilization. 
 
 (3) In-igation also ])romotes civilization hy teachinp; p(>ople to live 
 in peace and submit to the will of the majority. Su])])os(' a number of 
 fanners settle along a small stream in a lunv countiy. In a diy year 
 those living farther u]vstream are tempted to take too much water, 
 thus insuring good cro])s for themselves, but ruining those of the 
 people farther down-stream. "\Mu^n sucli things ha]')p(^n quarrels 
 arise at once. In our own "\\'est(n-n States, when irrigation was fii-st 
 begmi and In^fore laws had been framed, more than one fight with 
 guns occurred for just these reasons. Such a concUtion, however, can- 
 not continue. People soon realize that if anyone ])egins to tam]wr 
 with the water, all the rest run the risk of serious loss because^ their 
 own crops may ]yo left chy. Hence strict laws are passed, and i)ublic 
 o])inion enforces them most sternly. "When people learn to obey the 
 law so carefully in one res])ect, they tend also to obey in others. Ac- 
 cordingly few places are more peaceable and law-abiding than irriga- 
 tion connnunities even among peo])le otherwise 1(jw in the scale of 
 civilization. 
 
 (4) Irrigation also helps to teach self-government. For example, 
 in piiris of northern Italy the users of water from a givcMi ditch meet 
 in November and elect re])resentatives to a sort of water ])arliament 
 representing all who are su])])lied by onc^ large canal. Each village 
 plans beforehand what cr()])s it will raise the next year. Then the 
 water is divided according to the need of each. 
 
 (5) Another way in which irrigation ])romotes civilization is ])y 
 causing people to live close together, and yet letting each family' have 
 a yard of its own. In California, for instance, the irrigated farms, 
 especially those where fruit is raised, are comparatively small and no 
 one feels that he is far from his neighboi-s. Where ])eo])l(' live com- 
 pactly in irrigatcnl district.s, they aic a]>le to support good schools, 
 churches, and other helpful institutions. 
 
 QUESTIONS, EXERCISES, AND PROBLEMS 
 
 L A. Use the table near tho bc-Kinniiifi; of tliis chapter as a basis of a dia- 
 gram. Let lines of appropriate l('iit!;th rc|)resent (1) the area of 
 each State included in irrigati(jn projects; (2) the percentage of irri- 
 gated furiu-s. 
 
IRRIGATION 329 
 
 B. Add to your diagram (3) the proportion of each State which is mountain- 
 
 oas and (4) the population per scjuare mile. You can estimate what 
 part of each State it mountainous by studying relief maps. 
 
 C. On an outline map of the United States insert heavy lines of appropriate 
 
 length to indicate the percentage of farms under irrigation. Regard- 
 less of State boundaries, draw lines to indicate what you infer to be 
 areas showing the following conditions: (1) over 80 per cent of farms 
 under irrigation; (2) 20-80 per cent; (3) 1-20 per cent; (4) less than 
 1 per cent. In making your map use Figs. SI and 101. 
 
 2. In the budget estimated for 1915-191() for India, a total expenditure of over 
 £83,000,000 was planned. Of tliis £1,000,000 was set aside for famine relief and 
 almost £4,000,000 for irrigation. In the estimated expenditure for Canada these 
 items are not listed. Explain these facts by reference to the physical geography. 
 Find similar figures for the United States and discuss their meaning. 
 
 3. The French recently advanced a project for great irrigation works in the 
 upper French Congo which, it was claimed, would make the region a second 
 Egyi^t. Make maps to show the rainfall, mountain, and river systems, and 
 natural vegetation of the two countries in order to test the truth of this conten- 
 tion. Write an account of French Nigeria from this point of view, using your 
 maps as illustrations. 
 
 4. The possibility of irrigating Egypt is largely due to the rehef of Africa. 
 Find two regions in the Southern Hemisphere which have a rainfall and natural 
 vegetation comparable to those of Egj-pt. Examine how far it is possible to 
 increase their fertility by irrigation and the part played by the relief in such a 
 project. 
 
 5. Compare the rainfall of the United States with the irrigation map of the 
 Western States. Choose four important irrigated areas in ditT(>r('nt States. 
 Find out the distribution of rainfall in summer and winter. Show tlie relation 
 of this to irrigation. Show also what other conditions make irrigation necessary 
 or profitable. In which area would >ou expect the water sujjply to be most steady 
 and abundant? ^^'hy? 
 
CIIArTKR XVIIl 
 MAN'S WORK IN REGIONS OF CYCLONIC STORMS 
 
 The Location of the Regions of Cyclonic Storms. — Iji our siir- 
 voyof hujiuui activities \vo luiv(Ui()W coiiu' to the most advanced })arts 
 of the world. These ar(> the rejiioiis of cyclonic storms. Thej' form 
 two irregular belts. 'J'he southern lich includes only the southern 
 part, of South America and a small hit of southeastern Australia to- 
 gether with New Zealand. The northern hi'lt crosses North America 
 and Eurasia at their widest parts. In the western hemisphere it in- 
 cludes most of the United States and southern Canada, and in the 
 eastern, most of Europe. The only parts not included are southern 
 Spain, southern Italy, the Balkan Peninsula, and tlu^ dry region 
 around the Cas])ian Sea together with the districts bordering the Arc- 
 tic. In Asia the northern cyclonic belt extends into Siberia, where it 
 is followed by the line of the Siberian Hailroad, but the cold tundra- 
 like regions on the north and the great deserts on the south compress 
 it to such narrow limits that in the far intei'ior it almost (lisapi)ears. 
 On the eastern coast of Asia, however, it icapix'ais and binadcns to 
 include .Ia])an. 
 
 Characteristics of a Cyclonic Climate. — Climatically the cyclonic 
 belts iia\-e three chief characteristics: (1) Rain falls in moderate 
 al)undance at all seasons. (2) The weatlun* is subject to marked 
 changes every few days. These two characteristics arc both due to 
 the frequent passage of cyclones followed by anti-cyclones. (3) 
 The seasons are strongly pronounced. The ^\ inters are cool or more 
 often cold, and the summers A\arm or hot. Thus the regions of 
 cyclonic storms are ])articuhii-iy favorable not only to agi'iculture 
 because of the even distribution of rainfall throughout the year, but to 
 man because of A-ai'ialions of weatlun-both from day to day and from 
 season to season. In the course of a year they (^\])erience sa.m])les of 
 the climate of ahiiost e\('ry l)art of the ^\•orld. 
 
 The Natural Vegetation of Cyclonic Regions. — The cyclonic 
 regions, in a. state of nat ure, are usually clothed with deciduous forests, 
 but also include the southern fringes of the great coniferous forests of 
 the northern hemis])here. Some ]iarts also consist of grasslands lik(> 
 t he ])raiiies. The deciduous forests com])rise bi-oad-leaA'cd t I'ees such 
 as the birch, beech, ash, mai^le, oak, elm, willow, and i)oi)lar. Pines 
 
 330 
 
MAN'S WORK IN REGIONS OF CYCLONIC STORMS 331 
 
 however, are frequently mixed with them. Such forests prevail in 
 large parts of the eastern United States, England, France, Germany, 
 and neighboring parts of Europe. The variety of the trees is in accord 
 with the variety of crops wliich can be raised in the cyclonic regions. 
 
 The coniferous forests included in the cyclonic area occupy south- 
 ern Canada, southern Scandmavia, and central Russia together with 
 certain mountainous sections like Japan. 
 
 The grasslands he in the interior of North America and Eurasia 
 in the same latitude as the deciduous forests. They occur in places 
 where, although rain falls at all seasons, continental influences cause 
 it to be less abundant in winter than in summer. Thus while the 
 American prairies, the plain of Hungary, and parts of the plains of 
 Russia and Siberia have a cyclonic chmate favorable for man and 
 agi'iculture, they are not favorable for trees. 
 
 How Cyclonic Regions Dominate Civilization. — ^Although the 
 regions where cyclonic storms are highly developed occupy only a 
 tenth of the total land surface of the earth, they support a population 
 of 000,000,000 and include the world's most progressive countries, 
 as appears in Fig. 85. This is clear from the following list: 
 
 COUNTRIES INCLUDED IN AREA OF CYCLONIC STORMS 
 
 A. Europe (about 400,000,000 peo])le) B. North America (about 100,000,000 
 
 British Isles people) 
 
 France United States 
 
 Belf^ium Southern Canada 
 Holland 
 
 Denmark C. Asia (about 80,000,000 people) 
 
 Southern Norway Japan 
 
 Southern Sweden West central Siberia 
 SoutherTi Finland 
 
 Germany D. South America (about lO.OOO.OOO 
 
 Switzerland people) 
 
 Northern Spain Central Argentina 
 
 Northern Italy Central Chile 
 Austria 
 
 Poland E. Australia (about ri,000,000 jieople) 
 
 Czechoslovakia Southeastern Austraha 
 
 Jugoslavia New Zealand 
 Bulgaria 
 Roumania 
 
 Western, Southern, and Central 
 Russia 
 
 This list includes the only im]i()rtant parts of tlu^ world where 
 iii;i.inif;i(t tiring :iiid commerce as well as agiiculture an> eai'ried on 
 exti'nsi\-elv. '1 he inhabitants of the (•^'(•loIli(• n^gions are so I'.neru'etic 
 
332 MANS Ki;LAri(»N TO VEGETATION AND ANLMALS 
 
 t.h:it they r;iiso f:ir inoiv food tluMi those of other ropions; thoy mine 
 most of tlie miiicrtils. ami ])r(']xir(' most of the raw materials. Tiiey 
 iIl^•ellt and run the world's machinery, eonstruct its ^vii\ ])ower 
 ])laMts, and i)repare its manufactured floods. They also build rail- 
 roads l)oth at home and abroad; tlu>y en^;ineer the pjeat tunnels, 
 bridges, and harbor works in e\ery land; and sail their shii)s to every 
 corner of the seven seas. ^Moreover, they Severn the world, for 
 amonji them they rule ])racti('ally all of Africa, and all of Asia exee])t 
 China, while elsewhere their voice is dominant tlu'oujih the I.eaji;ue of 
 Nations. All these act i\itics ])ut them in the forefront of civilization. 
 The World's Chief Products. — It is most (extraordinary to see how 
 large a ]xirt of the articles that enter into the workl's commerce come 
 from countries where cyclonic storms ])revail. This is true of food 
 and raw materials as well as of manufactured j2;oods. Here is a table 
 of 37 of the most imjjortant ])roducts aside from manufactures. The 
 approximate value of the new material produced each yc^ar is (riven in 
 the table, l)Ut it must be understood that this is only a roufih estimate, 
 since figures are not available for all parts of the world and prices vary 
 constantly. Nevertheless the figures give a good idea of the relative 
 importance* of different j^roducts, and of their enormous production, 
 l-'or wood and millet, however, no data are available even for an 
 estimate, but they have been given j)laces that indicate their pnjbablo 
 importance. 
 
 THE WORLDS CHIEF PRODUCTS 
 
 A. Food Prod ads 
 
 1 . Rice $8,000,000,000 
 
 2. Whotit** .^).()()().()(»(),()()() 
 
 :i. Potatoes** ."), 01)0. noil, ()()() 
 
 4. Dairy pnxiucts** r),()l)(). ()()(). 0(10 
 
 T>. Corn* ;i,.")( )(),()()( I. ()()() 
 
 (). Slu'Pi) and goats* .3, 01)0. ()()(), 000 
 
 7. Millet 
 
 5. Cattle fexeliuliii^ Indcs)* 'J.^OO.OOO.OOO 
 
 9. Swine** 'J.oOO.OOO.OOO 
 
 10. Poultry and eggs** 2,r)()0,00().00() 
 
 11. Oats** 2,r)()0.0()0,()0() 
 
 12. Venetahles (cxcliKliiifi potatoes) 
 
 V.i. Rye** 2,0()(),000,000 
 
 14. Siinar* 2, 000. 000, 000 
 
 1.'). Beans l.:)00.0()0,()00 
 
 IC). liarley* 1,. ■)()(). 000, 000 
 
 17. Coffee (100. 000, 000 
 
 15. Tobacco 100,000,000 
 
 B. Raw Mdlcridls 
 
 1. Coal** c.ooo.ooo.ooo 
 
 2. Cotton 2,000,000.000 
 
 ;}. Iron** 2,000,000,000 
 
 4. Petroleum* 2,000,000,000 
 
MAN'S WORK IN REGIONS OF CYCLONIC STORMS 333 
 
 5. Wood* 
 
 6. Wool* $1,500,000,000 
 
 7. Hides* l,r){)(),()()0,()()0 
 
 8. Copper* .")()( ),()()(), 000 
 
 9. Gold 1()(),()()(),()(){) 
 
 10. Rubber 4()(),()()(),()()() 
 
 11. Raw silk** 30(),()()(),()()() 
 
 12. Flaxseed ;■}()(),()()(),()()() 
 
 13. Flax fiber 'ioO.OOO.OOO 
 
 14. Lead** l.')(),()()(),()()() 
 
 15. Silver* 140. ()()(), ()()() 
 
 16. Tin l:i(), 000,000 
 
 17. Zinc** 120,0()0,0(K) 
 
 C. Other Products 
 
 1. Hay 3,500,00(),()00 
 
 2. Horses 1,500,000,000 
 
 In the table of the world's chief products two stars have been 
 added to each product which comes mainly from cyclonic regions; 
 and one to those derived in about equal measure from cyclonic and 
 non-cyclonic regions. Notice that of the 23 products with a value of a 
 billion dollare or more per year 1 1 come mainly from cyclonic regions, 
 namely, wheat, potatoes, dairy products, oats, rye, barley, swine, coal, 
 iron, hay, and horees. Eight others corn, sheep, poultry, cattle, sugar, 
 wood, hides, wool, and copper, come partly from such regions. This 
 leaves only three, rice, millet, and cotton, which are not produced in 
 vast quantities in the cyclonic regions. How poor the non-cyclonic 
 regions seem with only three great products of their own and part of 
 nine others, although they occupy nine-tenths of the land area of the 
 globe. Contrast this with the 11 great products of the cyclonic 
 regions, to which must be added part of eight othere and practically 
 all of the world's machinery, textile products, and other manufac- 
 tures. Although the cyclonic regions include only about a t(Mith of 
 all the lands and two-fifths of all the world's people, their prodiK Is 
 are worth three times as much as those of all the rest of the world. 
 In other words, each individual in the cyclonic regions pro(luc(^s at 
 least five or six tinu\s as much as the average individual in the otiicr 
 parts of the world. 
 
 The great supremacy of the cyclonic regions is due ])riniai'ily to 
 the inherit(Ml a])ility of the people, and to the stimulating cHmate, as 
 explained in a previous chapter. It is also due in part to three other 
 causes: (1) a climate more favorable than any other to crops whicii 
 are highly nourisliing and can be kept a long time; (2) climate 
 and veg(>tation favorable* to tlie most Aaluable of all domestic 
 animals; and (3) great suppliers of coal and iron which are easily 
 available. 
 
834 
 
 MANS HELATIOX TO VKHF/l' A TlOX AND ANIMALS 
 
 Food Products of Cyclonic Regions: Wheat. — In onlcr to };ain 
 ;i deal- idea of tlic coiulit ions wiiich make cyt'louic rcfjions so favoral)le 
 to tlio i^rodiK'tion of food, lot us examine some of the chief food prod- 
 ucts and study tlieir distribution as shown on maps. Most people 
 recojinize that wheat is the most vahiahle of all food-stuffs, but not till 
 wheat Ix^camc scarce during the Great War did the world r(>alize how 
 nnich we lean on this staff of Ufe. Then England, France, Italy, ancl 
 other coimtries Ix^sought the United States to send wheat, more 
 wheat, and still more wheat. For a time it was more valuable than 
 guns and ammunition ; it was the one thing that could not by anj' pos- 
 sibility be s]xired if the war for self-government was to be fought to a 
 finish. So the I'liiled States had to limit its own coiisumijtion, and 
 
 Courtesu of U. S. Department of Agriculturr. 
 
 Fh;. 104.— The World'.s Production of Wheat. 
 
 pay ]x)unties to the farmei-s to enable them to raise larger quantities 
 of this most valuable of food products. 
 
 The great value of wheat lies in the fact that (1) it is highly 
 nutritious, so that ev(>n if people have no other food they can hve on 
 it a long time. In this respect it is much superior to rice, its nearest 
 rival in imjiortance. (2) It is economically produced. From seed 
 time until it, is barreled up as flour all the processes can be performed 
 b\ machinery. (3) Wheat can be kept a long time either in the 
 form of the whole grain or flour. In this it is far supcM-ior to corn, 
 which would otherwise* have an advantage because the yield per acre 
 is s(j large. 
 
 Let us now turn to Fig. 104 and sec how the ]m«luction of wheat 
 is related to the cyclonic areas. 
 
MAN'S WORK IN REGIONS OF CYCLONIC STORMS 335' 
 
 Althoiigh western Europe is one of the most densely populated 
 parts of the world, it is also the greatest center of wheat production. 
 The cj'clonic area of the United States and Canada comes second, 
 and that of central Argentina holds high rank. 8u])tr()pical and 
 monsoon countries, especially the Mediterranean lands, and northern 
 India produce a good deal, but their production is not a sixth as gi-eat 
 as that of the cj'clonic regions. In equatorial regions the warm moist 
 climate forbids the growth of wheat. Even in the northern cyclonic 
 regions large areas produce only a Uttle because they are too moist in 
 summer or else too snowy in winter. Wheat wants a region with cool 
 
 Fig. 105. — Distribution of Potatoes. 
 
 From Gcoyraphij of the WorhVs AffricuUurc, by V. C. Finch and O. E. Baker. 
 
 wintei-s, and plenty of moisture in the fall and spring, but not too 
 much in sununer. It is naturally a product of subtroi)ical regions, 
 where its bearded wild ancestor is still known. Nevertheless through 
 the ingenuity of man it has now become mainly a product of the re- 
 gions of cyclonic storms. Contrast its distribution with that of rice, 
 Fig. 95, which is a t3'])ical i)roduct of tropical and especially monsoon 
 regions. 
 
 Potatoes. — Potatoes, Fig. 105, are a cyclonic crop even more 
 strikingly than wheat. Practically none are raised outside the cy- 
 clonic regions. Western L'urope seems almost to be one great jiotato 
 patch. We think that w(> rais(> a great many potatoes, but I'ju'ope 
 raises 90 ])er cent of the woild ci'o)). In norlhci-n I'urojK' this croj) 
 occupies ]nuch Ihc same ])re-cniincnt ))osition as tlu' rice ciop in the 
 
330 MANS HKLATIOX TO \ I-.di; TATIUX AND ANIMALS 
 
 Orient and corn in the corn belt of the United States. We speak of 
 Irish potatoes IxH-ause the damp cool cUniate causes them to be the 
 chief food in Irehmd. Tlie Irish crop, however, is a small matter 
 compared with that of CJermany, which is four thnes as larji;e as that 
 of the whole United States. 'Hiis (^xi)lahis how it ha])])ened that 
 during the Great War the savinu' of the waste causcil by jx'eling raw 
 potatoes was an important means of enabling the Clermans to get 
 food enough when their outside supplies were cut off. It is strange 
 that the ]>otato which originated in the tropical highlands of America 
 should now l)e raised chiefly in the cyclonic regions of E;ur()])(\ 
 
 Corn. — The map of corn, Fig. lOG, shows an interesting contrast 
 to that of potatoes. The two crops both grow most abundantly in 
 
 Cuurtcsy of V. S. Dcpartnunt of Atiriculturt . 
 
 Fig. 10().— The World's I'roductioii of Corn. 
 
 thc^ United States and Iun-()])e, but. not in the same places. Corn on 
 the whole gi-ows somewhat equatorward of potatoes. It needs hot, 
 sunny weather with abundant showers. In the United States these 
 conditions occiii- on the southeastern flank of the cj'clonic l)elt from 
 Iowa, Illinois, ami Ohio southeastward. In Europe the corn belt. 
 lies similarly on the southeastern flank of the storm belt, so that it 
 falls in Italy, Austria, and Koumania. In South America, again, 
 the main corn area in Argentine lies in a similar position, which means 
 that it is located on the northeast or equatorward margin of the storm 
 lx;lt. Corn likewise- gi'ows outside of the cyclonic belt in ])laces like 
 Mexico, and in Mg>'pt and India where it is irrigated. Three-fourths 
 of the world's cro]), however, grows in tiie United States, while the 
 
MAN'S WORK IN REGIONS OF CYCLONIC STORMS 337 
 
 production in other American countries, especially Mexico and 
 Argentine, equals that of the rest of the world. In this case, quite 
 unlike the potato, a plant which is native to America is still cultivated 
 chiefly in this continent. Nevertheless, although corn originated in 
 tropical regions and was mainly cultivated there for many centuries, 
 the superior energy of the people of the cyclonic belt has now caused 
 it to be chiefly a crop of cyclonic areas. Corn, potatoes, and wheat 
 all illustrate the striking fact that if a plant is unusually good for 
 food the people of cyclonic regions take it in hand and not only im- 
 prove it, but produce new varieties which will grow where these people 
 want them. That is one great reason why so large a number of the 
 world's chief food crops grow in cyclonic regions. 
 
 Courtesy of U. S. Department of Agriculture. 
 
 Fig. 107. — World Distrihutiou of Hogs. 
 
 Oats, Rye, and Barley. — Of the three cereals which stand next to 
 corn in imix)rtan<'(% both oats and barley are naturally products of 
 the cyclonic regions of Europe where they now chiefl>' occur. Rye 
 came originally from the mountainous parts of the subtropical n^gion 
 around the IMediterranean and in western Asia. Oats, Fig. 108, grow- 
 in nmch the same cyclonic regions as potatoes, but are more wid(>ly 
 distributed. They are equally good for men and hoi-ses, but unfor- 
 tunately are so bulky that they cannot bear the cost of long trans- 
 portation. Hence they arc largely consumed close to where they 
 grow and are used for horses more then for men. Rye gi-ows in much 
 the same places as ]iotatoes and oats, that is, farther nortii tiian wheat, 
 but within the hmits of the cyclonic regions. About 96 per cent of 
 
338 MAN'S RELATION TO VEGETATION AND ANIMALS 
 
 the world's cntiro crop is raised in Euro])o, ospcM-ially Bolp:inm, Oor- 
 niaiiy, and central Hussia. It occu))i('s llic jjoorcst soils of cyclonic 
 regions as well us the poorcsl clinialcs. and is eaten l>y the poorest 
 people. Harley ^rows in essentially tlu> same ))laces as wheat, hut 
 has a shorter ^i-owinji season and can endure jri'eater aridity and lower 
 tein])eraturc. Hence barley increases in relative inii)ortance on the 
 edp's of the wheat rejjions, such as North Africa and 'I'urkey, where 
 the climate is dry, and in (Ireat Britain antl Scantlinavia, where the 
 climate is cool. 
 
 Swine. — Swine, Viii. 107, illustrate the way in which the people of 
 the cyclonic areas take animals, as well as plants, from other parts of 
 
 Fig. 108.— Distribution of Oats. 
 
 From Geoaraphy uf the World's Agriculture, by V. C. Finch and 0. E. Baker. 
 
 the world and make them much more useful than in their native 
 homes. Wild i)ifi;s of one kind or anotlun- are found in most parts of 
 Europe, Asia, and Africa, while Iheii- near relatives, the peccaries, 
 occur from New Mexico southward to Pata<::onia. The wild ]iiss 
 find it easiest, to fjet a living in the warmer regions, and domestic 
 ])ijrs can l>e ke])t in sudi re<;ioiis with the niiiiimuni amount of work. 
 Yet to-day the central I'liited States, where there have heen no wild 
 ])ips for millions of yeai-s, has more swine in ])roportion to the ])o])u- 
 lation than any country except Demnark. ()ther cyclonic coun- 
 tries like ( iermany, .Austria. Ilunfiary, and Arjicntina also have a 
 relatively larfie numher. When^ tro])ical or Oriental countries have 
 maiiN- ]>itz;s. as in X'enezuela, ( 'olombia, and ('hina, it generally means 
 that they have very few other domestic animals, and that they can 
 
MAN'S WORK IN REGIONS OF CYCLONIC STORMS 339 
 
 keep the pigs with ahnost no troii])le. In Mohammedan countries, 
 on the contrary, the use of swine for food is for]>idden l)y rehgion, and 
 hence as the map shows, the famihar pig stye is absent in those 
 lands. 
 
 Americans often suppose that pigs everywhere Uvc on corn. This 
 is true in America, as may be seen by comparing Figs. !()() and 107. 
 In the more progressive countries of Europe, however, the pigs are 
 fed on barley, potatoes, skinuned milk and root crops, while in regions 
 like Servia they are often turned out in the oak forests to fatten on 
 acorns. In Germany before the war about 600,000,000 bushels of 
 potatoes, or one and a half times the ortUnary crop (jf the United 
 
 Fig. 109. — Distribution of Horses. 
 
 Froyn Geography of the World's Agriculture, by V. C. Finch and 0. E. Baker, 
 
 States, were fed to the pigs each yoar. Just as the American farm- 
 ers of the cyclonic b(4t raise millions of bushels of corn in oixler that 
 they may have plenty of pork, ham, and bacon to eat and to sell, so 
 the Germans raise potatoes, \\liile the Danes raise barley or use the 
 skinuned milk of their cattle after the cream has been taken off for 
 butt(T. 
 
 Cattle.— The distribution of cattle. Fig. 91, affords still another 
 interesting illu;;t ration of how differently people utilize their resources. 
 The ma]) siiows four chief cattle areas: two are the gi-eat cyclonic 
 areas of the United States and western Furojie which stand out, so 
 ])r()mincntly in many other lines; a third is on the i^iuatorial Ixu'der 
 of the southern cyclonic region in the American coinitries of Uruguay 
 and Argentina: and tiie fourth is in tropical Java anil India. 
 
340 MAX'S INFLATION TO VECKTATlOX AND ANIMALS 
 
 Why tiie Cattle of India Yield so Small a Return. — Let us hop:in 
 with Iiulia and see liow little the ik'()1)U' exert tlieniselves in cattle 
 fanniiit: and how little they get from it. Althoufjh India has an 
 enormous number of cattle, it has few in proportion to the population. 
 A score of other countries have relatively more. The Indian cattle 
 are usetl almost entirely for jilowing or for drawinp; carts. Few are 
 used for food. Long ago the nmiiber of animals in India was so small 
 that there was great difficulty in getting enough for plowing. Hence 
 it was not considered right to kill theiii, and finally this became a 
 strict religious prohibition which no Hindu dare bicak e\-en in the 
 direst need. Only Mohammedans kill and eat them, and most of the 
 cattle therefore li\-e on and on and die of old age. Thus a large ])er- 
 centage of those in India are too old to be of much value except for 
 manure. Most of the cows are not even used for nulk. This is 
 jjartly because the gi'ass is poor. If the cows are milked the >ield is 
 so scanty that the missionaries call them "tea cup" cows. More- 
 over, the people have so Uttle initiative and energy^ that they make no 
 effort to see that the animals are better fed, and that the breeds are 
 improved. Even when the cattle of India die manj- of the hides are 
 not used. Thus the cattle of India yi(4d only a slight return, but 
 this is as much as is warranted l)y the slight care given them. 
 
 Why the Cattle of South America Yield a Moderate Return.— The 
 cattle of southern Brazil, Uruguay, and especialh- noilhern Argentina, 
 are of greater use than those of India. To a certain extent they are 
 employed as draft animals, although horses also do this work, but 
 the main use is for food and hides. As soon as they are large enough 
 tliey are slaughtered for export. Rarely, however, are they used for 
 milk. This is partly because, although their natural food is b(>tter 
 than in India so that they would give more milk if ]irop(>rly car(>d for, 
 the ])am])as grass is not so good as that of cooler regions. Still more 
 Irnportaiif is the fact that the peo])le l)elie\-(> that it does not pay to 
 care for milch cows, but this is only half tru(\ On many a cattle 
 ranch where there are hundreds of cows that might be milked, high 
 prices are paid for condensed milk brought fiom the United States. 
 In the more cyclonic parts of Argentina, however, conditions are 
 Ix'ginning to be lik(^ those in the Ignited States, and Initter and casein 
 are ex])()rte<l. 
 
 Why the Cattle of Cyclonic Regions Yield a Large Return. — In 
 the cyclonic regif)ns of western 1mu'o]x> and the United States cattle 
 are far more useful than in any other climatic zone. They do not do 
 much plowing or iiauling, to be sine, since they are too slow for that. 
 As a source of food, however, they :ivv vastly more important than 
 elsewhere. \'ast nujuix'rs are ke])! as milch cows, and arc tended so 
 
MAN'S WORK IN REGIONS OF CYCLONIC STORMS 341 
 
 carefully that farmers are sometimes accused of looking out for their 
 cows better than their children. Such care is well rewarded by- 
 abundant supplies of milk, cream, butter, and cheese. Some of the 
 animals that are not needed for milk are killed as calves, but more are 
 allowed to gi'ow up. None of those meant primarily for food, however, 
 are allowed to gi-ow old. but all are fattened and killed while their 
 meat is still tender. Not only are the hides of such animals used, as 
 in parts of India, and the hides, hair, and meat as in South America, 
 but the bones, horns, blood, and internal organs are all used for fer- 
 tilizer, glue, and other products. Such gi-eat effort in taking care 
 of the cattle for milk, manure, meat, fertilizer, and other purposes, 
 and in improving the breeds, is due to the energy of the people of 
 cyclonic regions, but these regions also have other advantages. The 
 cattle raiser in places like Wisconsin and Holland, for example, is 
 favored with the finest kind of gi-ass and with gi-eat markets close at 
 hand. Thus in cattle raising, as in many other respects, the cyclonic 
 regions are blessed with conditions that are favorable for plants and 
 animals as well as for man. 
 
 How the Cyclonic Regions Compare with the Rest of the World 
 in Producing Raw Materials. — In the table of world products, the 
 chief raw materials, as distinguished from foodstuffs and fuels, are as 
 follows: (1) cotton; (2) iron; (3) wood; (4) hides; (5) wool; (6) cop- 
 per; (7) rubber; (8) silk; (9) lead; (10) zinc; (11) tin. These 
 materials fall into two gi'cat classes: (a) five mineral products the 
 occurrence of which has nothing to do with climate, and which are 
 as likely to occur in one zone as another; (h) six plant or animal 
 products which can be raised only in certain regions determined by 
 cHmate. Let us see where each class comes from and where it is 
 used. 
 
 Where the Metals are Mined and Used. — Among the five most 
 useful metals, four, namely, iron, copper, lead, and zinc, are so widely 
 distributed that each climatic zone appeal's to have an abundant 
 supply stored away among its mountains. Yet look at Figs. 53 to 58 
 and see where the world's supply comes from. All are produced 
 overwhelmingly in cyclonic regions. Iron, the ores of which are by 
 far the most universally distributed over the earth's surface, is the one 
 produced most exclusively in cyclonic regions. The extraordinaiy 
 leadership of the cyclonic regions is vividly brought out by compar- 
 ing Fig. 53, showing where iron ores are known to exist in lai'gc (]uan- 
 tities, with Fig. 54 showing where iron is actually mined. 
 
 Tin alone among the five most useful metals occui-s almost wholly 
 in ()n(> climatic zone, for it is produced mainly in Malaysia and Bolivia. 
 Most of the tin, however, is now mined l)y European methods, 
 
342 MANS ri:lati()X to \egetation and animals 
 
 and ]iracllc:illy all of tho product is slii]i])pd to cyclonic rcp;ions. 
 Witli most of the other metals, as well as with noii-iiietallic mineral 
 products like hrickclay, sijiiilar conditions jncx ail. If the distribu- 
 tion of the ores is limited, as in the case of ^old, silver, and mercury, 
 the mines in other regions are usually run by people from the cyclonic 
 areas. If the minerals are widely distributed in all zones, as are 
 aluminum ores, ]X)tt(>r3^ elays, and roadbuildiug stones, they are 
 exploited pre-eminently in the cyclonic areas. Because of their 
 greater energy the people of cyclonic regions not only have developed 
 their own mineral resources with ahnost reckless raiiidity, but have 
 reached out and procured for their own use the best of all that occui-s 
 elsewhere. 
 
 Where the Vegetable and Animal Raw Materials are Produced 
 and Used. — The six must useful non-metallic raw materials, as wc 
 have seen, are cotton, wood, hides, wool, rul)l)'r, and silk. Unlike 
 the metals, these cannot possibly be produced in most parts of the 
 world. Cotton is a product of monsoon and subtropical climates. 
 Good wood is common in four of the world's main regions of climate 
 and vegetation, namely the equatorial rain forest, the tropical jungle, 
 the deciduous forest, and the coniferous forest. A scattered suppl}^ 
 moreover, is found in tropical scrub, in savannas, in subtropical dry 
 forests, and in the irrigated parts of deserts. Nevertheless far the 
 best kinds of wood for ordinary use arc the larger conifers especially 
 the pines, which are both easily worked and durable. These grow 
 best on the southern bordcre of the great coniferous forests and in 
 scattered areas on mountains or in special soils farther south. Hence 
 they are largely a cyclonic product. North of the cyclonic regions 
 the coniferous forest is relatively stunted antl is valuable chiefly for 
 piilji wood for im]>er. 
 
 Wool ami hiilcs both come from animals which naturally live in 
 tiie grasslands of tlu^ prairies, steppes, and savannas, ami hence are 
 ada]ited to many climatic regions. Rubber is the only genuinely 
 tro])ical article on our list, while silk, like cotton, belongs naturally to 
 monsoon and subtro]Mcal climates. Thus no one of the six most 
 useful non-metallic raw materials is primarily a ])roduct of cyclonic 
 regions, but wood, wool, and hides can be produced there as well a3 
 anywhere. As a matter of fact, however, they are jiroduced in those 
 regions far in excess of all other regions. ?Tow t rue t his is may be seen 
 from Figs. 96 and 91, since wool and hides iia1urall>' come from the 
 places where sheep and cattle are most r.umerous. ^Die same is true 
 of silk, the other animal jM'oduct on our list. "\\'e thiidv of it as a 
 produit of warm regions, but the vast bulk of the world's silk supply 
 c<.)mes from two cyclonic regions. ,Ia))aii and northern Italy. The 
 
MAN'S WORK IN REGIONS OF CYCLONIC STORMS 343 
 
 people of these cyclonic regions have taken silk worms, just as others 
 have taken cattle and sheep, and have developed typc^s that thriA-e in 
 climates somewhat cooler or moister than those where the anmials 
 originally lived. 
 
 Rubber and cotton illustrate the dominance of the cyclonic r(>gions 
 quite as forcibly as do any other products. Rubber does this in the 
 same way as tin, for although it is a purely tropical product, it is 
 practically all exported to a few cyclonic coimtries and there man- 
 ufactured. The United States consumes over half the world's 
 rubber. Cotton ir.ustrates the matter in nnich the same way. Fig. 
 98 shows where the world's cotton crop is grown. It is clearly limited 
 to fairly warm regions. But compare this with Fig. 44 which shows 
 where the cotton is woven into cloth. Evidently the greater part 
 of the cotton crop is carried to cyclonic regions and there manu- 
 factured. 
 
 Why Crops Improve as They are Moved toward Cyclonic Regions. 
 — Cotton shows the eft'ect of the energy of the i)e()i)l(' of cyclonic 
 regions in still another way. The average jdeld of the cro]! per acre 
 in the United States displays a general tendency to increase toward 
 the north. Near the northern In nit in southern ^lissouri and Yu- 
 ginia the yield per acre is a])out twice as great as in Florida and 
 Louisiana. Like many other cro]:)s, cotton naturally grows bc^st 
 in about the middle of its geographical range. We see this in all wild 
 plants. The best pine trees, for example, grow neither in the far 
 north nor the far south; the holh^ is a little bush in New P^ngland, it 
 becomes a great tree in the Southern States, where it thrives best; 
 while still farther south it again dmiinishes in vigor. So, too, with 
 thousands of other wild ]ilants, both great and small. Yet among 
 cultivated plants derived originally from warmer climes, not only 
 cotton, but corn, wlu^at, potatoes, oranges, grape fruit, and others 
 gi'ow best at their northern limit. In othc^" words, \A'hen these crops 
 are gradually moved toward the regions where man is most com- 
 petent their productivity and (luality improve because of the care 
 given them, although natin-ally they would not thrive in their new 
 homes. 
 
 The Supremacy of the Cyclonic Regions in Transportation. — 
 Figs. 109 and 33 illusti-ate the concentration of hoi-ses and of railways 
 in the cyclonic regions. How far is this due to other factoi-s than 
 climate? Plains, especially gi'asslands, ccit ;iinly have an effect on the 
 distribution of hoi-ses, for there are more lioi-ses in the grassy plains of 
 the central United States, eastern Argentine, and southwestern Kussia 
 than in the neighboring regions. lUit in the gi'assy plains of the 
 non-cyclonic regions of the Orinoco, and the Sudan, thcvc :ir(> ]irac- 
 
3-l-t MANS lUlLATION TO VEGETATION AND ANIMALS 
 
 tirally none. So, too, railrouls an' numerous throughout, the })lains 
 of cyclonic rcjjions, hut arc ahsent in the still p:i*eater plains of the 
 Amazon Basin, nortiiern Canada, northern Siberia, and Aral)ia. 
 The density of tlu' ])o))ulation also has an elTcct on the distribution 
 of both hoi-ses and railways, ])ut how important is this? Comjiare 
 Figs. lO'.t and .'J.S with Fif^. 37, showing the distril)ution of ])()])ula- 
 tion. China, Java, and India are among the blackest areas on the 
 pojMilation map, yet there is only one mile of railway for eveiy 30 
 square miles of territory in Java, 50 in India, and 220 in ( liina, while 
 there is a mile of railway for every 11 scjuarc miU^s in the United 
 States, 8 in France, 6 in Holland, and o in Great Britain. Morecver, 
 both Java and India would have a railway net even less dense than 
 that of C'liina if they had not received railwaj'- systems from their 
 Dutch and Mnglish rulei-s. Thus it appears that while relief, vegeta- 
 tion, and density of po])ulation all have some effect on the develop- 
 ment of means of transjiortation, the main effect is due to the cy- 
 clonic ('Innate. In cyclonic regions the people have plenty of work 
 for h()i*ses and plenty t)f freight for railways, and they also have the 
 ability and energy to improve the breeds of horses and to invent and 
 build railways. 
 
 If we had maps showing the world distribution of good roads, 
 automobiles, trolley lines, or air])lanes, they would all show the same 
 pre-eminence of the cyclonic regions. 
 
 Where the World's Manufacturing is Done. — If a country is to 
 be ])rominent in manufacturing, there must be (1) coal for i^ower, 
 
 (2) iron for machineiy, but much the most hnportant reiiuisite is 
 
 (3) inventive energetic people to manage the factories and run the 
 machineiy. V\o have already seen that though iron ore is found in 
 pi^actically all parts of the world, it is extensively mined and smelted 
 only in cyclonic n^gions. Coal follows the same rule. Although 
 coal is less abundant in tropical countries than elsewhere, it is found 
 in all the climatic zones, as appeal's in Fig. GO. Some of the finest of 
 all de]X)sits are in ( 'hina and Indo-China. Yet almost all the mining 
 is done in the cyclonic regions, as is clearly evident from Fig. (31. 
 Wliat little coal mining is earned on elsewhere, as in Spitzbcrgen, is 
 often done in order to bring more coal to the cyclonic regions. As a 
 rule, however, the amount of coal mining outside of cyclonic regions 
 is so small that coal is carried in large quantities from the United 
 States and esjx'cially I'Jigland to remote parts of I lie earth like ( 'hina, 
 even when those regions have supplies of their own which are not yet 
 developed. 
 
 The ])resence of energetic people, as we have seen, is due largely to 
 the stimulating elTect of the varied clunate of cyclonic regions. Let us 
 
MAN'S WORK IN REGIONS OF CYCLONIC STORMS 345 
 
X\{j MAX> KKLATIOX TO \EC;ETATlOX AND ANIMALS 
 
 soo how tliis cliinatic condition, with tlio liolp of coal and iron, has 
 caused tlic world's manufacturing to be ilistriljuted. Fig. 110 shows 
 the ]K'rccntage of the inhabitants who are engaged in manufacturing 
 in various regions. The (hirker the shading the gi*eater the jjercent- 
 age. Notice that there are two prominent thirk areas, one in the 
 eastern United States, and the other in northwestern luirope. Each 
 is in tlie lieart of one of the world's two main cj'clonic regions. Be- 
 yond their limits the amount of manufacturing rapidly diminishes, 
 so that large parts of the map are unsluuled. The only other places 
 wlK>re the shading again becomes noticeal)le are a few smaller cyclonic 
 areas like ,Ia]mn. 
 
 Why Cyclonic Countries are the Worlds Chief Markets. — Strange 
 as it may seem, manufacturing countrie;; buy from one another far 
 
 In;. 111. — Purchases of the United States Abroad. 
 
 more than trom other climatic regions, and their sales are made in the 
 same regions, luigland, for exam])le, does t(Mi or twelve times as much 
 Imsiness with the 100,000,000 people of llie Initetl States as whh 
 more than three tijnes as many in China, liven with the 3()(),0()(),000 
 peojjle of its own chief colony in Imlia it does only about as much 
 business as with the 40,000,000 ])eople of France. The purchases and 
 sales of tihe United States in foreign countries are shown in ligs. Ill 
 and 112. if the trade of the United States with the ;j(K),()()(),000 
 pc()))lc ill I lie Ic.'uliiig nations of cyclonic regions were cut ofT, two- 
 tliinls of oiu" comniei-<'(' would be gone in s))ite of the fad thai there 
 woul.l still be 1,20(),00(),()()() peojjle with whom to trade 
 
 I'usiiicss men continually urge the expansion of oiii' tiade witi'. 
 China, Sibo'ia, and es])ecially Latin America. Tluy are right in 
 
MAN'S WORK IN REGIONS OF CYCLONIC STORMS 317 
 
 thoory, for those countries, particularly the ones that are lro])ical, 
 produce many useful products wliich our own country cannot furnish. 
 It is far more important for us as a nation to be able to purchase plenty 
 of tropical rubber, quinine, coffee, and tin, which we cannot possibly 
 produce in our own country, than to he able to buy European cloth, 
 machineiy, or dyes, which arc not veiy different from our own, and 
 which we could perfectly well make ourselves. Yet in spite of this 
 it is far more difficult to add a billion dollai-s to our trade with tropical 
 America than to add the same sum to oin- trade with cyclonic Europe. 
 The reason is largely the difference in energy. The tropical people 
 do not exert themselves to produce goods that we want, nor do they 
 earn enough to be able to buy large quantities of the goods that we 
 
 Fici. 112. — Sales of the United States Abroad. 
 
 make, no matter how attractive such goods may be. Hence most of 
 the world's trade, as well as most of its other activity, centers in the 
 cyclonic regions. 
 
 How the Cyclonic Regions Lead the World. — The people of the 
 cyclonic regions rank so far above those of other parts of the world 
 that they are the natural leaders. For mstance, the form of demo- 
 cratic government which was worked out in France and England, 
 but which was fii-st really tried in the United States, is the form which 
 every country in the world is gradually trjang to adopt. The con- 
 stitutions of all the South .American countries as well as of Cliina are 
 directly modeled on that of the United States, while those of other 
 covmtries have been greatly influenced by it. Again the inventions 
 of cyclonic regions, especially the United States and England, have 
 led the way to the ufc of machinery wherever the steam engine, 
 telegi'aph, and sucli devices as the sewing iiKicliiiic \\ii\e gone. So, 
 
34S MANS HKLATIOX TO VEGETATION' AND ANIMALS 
 
 too, the scioiu'o and litoraliiro writton in Knfjlish, Fronch, and Gor- 
 man aiv translated into other huijiiui^cs and servo as models in (>very 
 ])ar1 of the v.'orld. In ihe same w a>- the ])('(i])le of Asia look to .lajjan 
 as the k'ader who is showinji; them how to put themselves on an 
 equality with the countries inhabited ])y the white raee. In art, 
 music, philoso])hy, and other higher elements of civilization the 
 enersTN' of the cyclonic regions likewise makes them the leaders of the 
 workl. 
 
 QUESTIONS, EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS 
 
 1. A. The Abstract of the United States Census gives a tal)le of illiteracy 
 
 among native whites. On an outhne map of the United Stat-is insert 
 the figures there given and draw smoothly curved hnes at intervals of 
 5, 10, lo, etc. Shade the map so that the best areas will be dark and 
 the worst light. What kind of relation do you detect between your 
 map and Figs. 37, 85, 86, 104, 109, 110? Exi)lain. 
 B. Draw a similar map of illiteracy among colored people, llow far does 
 this resemble the map of illiteracy among native whites? A\'hy? 
 
 2. The following table shows the average annual death rate in Europe for (5 to 
 10 years inunediately before the Great War. Except where enclosed in paren- 
 theses the figures have been corrected according to a "standard population," 
 that is, allowance has been made for the proportion of children, old people, and 
 so on. From the figures make a map in the same way as in the preceding exer- 
 cise, drawing your lines at death rates of 14, 17 and 22. Compare your map with 
 Figs. 2!), 38, 61, 81, 85, 89, 105 and 112. Explain whatever relationshijis you 
 detect, and state your conclusions as to the connection between health and each 
 of the other conditions illustrated in these mai)s and in those mentioned in Plxer- 
 cisc 1. 
 
 Annual Death Rate in Europe 1904-1913 
 
 Austria 21.8 France 16.6 Rumania (24.7) 
 
 liclgium 15.9 Germany 18.0 Russia (28.9) 
 
 Bosnia and Ilerze- Ilung.ary 24.3 Scotland 16.7 
 
 govina (26.7) Iri'huid 15.1 Serbia 23.1 
 
 Bulgaria 22.4 Italy IS. 9 Spain (22.8) 
 
 Denmark 12.4 Netherlands 13.5 Sweden 12.0 
 
 EnglaiKJ 15. -1 Norway 119 Switzerland 15.8 
 
 Finland 15.7 Portugal (20 . 5) 
 
 3. Take one country from each of the groups mentioned below, and in the 
 Statesman's Yearl)ook, the U. S. Reports on Conunerce and Navigation, or the 
 encyclopa'dia, fiml figures for its foreign trade: {<i} Britain, France, Germany, 
 Holland; {h) Rumania, Hu.ssia, Bulgaria, ICgyj)!; (c) Siam, lOcuador, I'eru, Belgian 
 Congo; {(t) Argentina, Chile, Union of South Africa, New Zealand. For each of 
 the countries thus (;ho.sen draw maps like Figs. Ill and 112. Write an account 
 of the more notable resemblances and differences among the four ma])s and of 
 the geographical conditions which give rise to theni. 
 
MAN'S WORK IX REGIONS OF CYCLONIC STORMS 349 
 
 4. Let each member of the class select some one country and find the figures 
 for its trade with each of the other main countries. Combine the imports and 
 exports and form a table, thus" 
 
 FOREIGN TRADE OF (COUNTRY CHOSEN BY STUDENT) 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 Names of 
 
 other 
 countries. 
 
 Total trade with (country 
 chosen by student). 
 
 (Express this in hundreds 
 of thousands of dollars, 
 pounds, francs, or what- 
 ever unit your tables hap- 
 pen to use.) 
 
 Total population 
 of other coun- 
 tries in hundreds 
 of thousands. 
 
 Trade per capita 
 of other coun- 
 tries with (coun- 
 try chosen by 
 student ) i.e., B 
 divided by C. 
 
 Austria etc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Insert the figures of column D in their proper places on a map of the world. 
 Draw smoothlj^ curved lines to divide the world into about five zones according 
 to the per capita trade of their inhabitants with the country you have chosen. 
 Shade the chosen country black and the other zones with shades proportional to 
 their trade with the chosen country. 
 
 Study your own map and three or four others. Write j'our conclusions as to 
 the effect on foreign trade of («) distance; [b) relief; (c) waterways; (d) soil and 
 minerals, and (e) climate. 
 
 5. Obtain a list of all the countries that took part in the Great War. On an 
 outline map of the world shade heavih' all those that plaj^ed a really important 
 part in proportion to their population. Shade moderately those that took some 
 part, but did not do a great deal. Shade lightly those that declared war, but took 
 no real part. Compare your map with Figs. 85 and 86. How do you explain 
 the resemblances and difTerenccs? 
 
 6. For each of the world's chief jiroducts. as given in the table near the begin- 
 ning of tliLs chapter, write a list of from two to five countries whore the ])roduct in 
 question is i)roduced in especially large (|uantities in proportion to the popula- 
 tion. Use commercial maps in geographies or atlases. On an outline map of 
 the world print the name of the product in each of the countries where it is espe- 
 cially important. Count the number of names in each country and arrange the 
 countries of the world in (ndcr according lo the number of names. Discuss the 
 five covuitries that stand higliest on your list, and give the geographical reasons 
 for theii- positiun, Iij tUc aume \vay dJ:>cuss tliK live cuuutiics that stand lowest. 
 
CHAPTI'R XIX 
 
 THE WORLD'S DIET 
 
 What Constitutes a Good Diet. — The coiiditions of agriculture 
 ami civilization discussed in ])i-cvious cliaijlcis dctcniiiiic llic kind of 
 food tiiat ix'o])lc oat. The food has uiuch to do with hetdth and 
 strength. A good diet must contain ihicc main elements — carbo- 
 hj'-drates, fats, and pi'iitcids. ('(irholinilrali s ai'c substances sudi as 
 starch and sugar, which, hke/a/.s are composed of carbon, hydi-ogen, 
 and oxygen. The carbon is slowly burneil in our bodies, and thus 
 gives us warmth and energy. Proteids are substances such as cheese, 
 meat, and fish, containing nitrogen. They are necessaiy b(>cause 
 without them the body cannot build new tissues and rejiair its con- 
 tinual waste. An ordinary' adult man engaged on ordinary woik 
 requires about eighteen ounces of carbohydrates or fats and 4 to 4', 
 ounces of proteids ])er day. For children, sick jieople, or those who 
 are working very hai'd, the amount is dilTcicnl , but in general the 
 carboliydrates and fats should \)o four or i\\c timers as abundant as 
 the ))roteids. 
 
 In addition to the three main food substances there is ncvd of 
 smaller (luantities of salts, vitamines, and the acids of fruits. A good 
 diet should contain not only the right amount of these and of carl)o- 
 liydrates, fats, and ])roteids, but should vaiy fi'oni day to day so 
 that ])eopl<> may not get tired of it, and may be sure to get all th(> 
 needed elements. Aside from the prosperous inhabitants of advaiice(l 
 coimtries, however, the majority of (lie world's jieople live largely on 
 a few kinds of food. 
 
 A Table of Food Values. — The value of the food uscmI in different 
 ]iarts of the woild may be judged, from the table given lu'low. Col- 
 unm A sliows tlie kind of food; B, (', and 1) show what i)ercentage 
 of each kind is waste material like (B) skin and bones, (C) water, 
 or (D) mineral matter, such as salt. Colwiim F. gives the ])ercentage 
 of a<'tual food materials in the various articles as we buy them in the 
 market. It will b(> seen that this varies from oidy 9 per c(Mit in beets 
 which contain much water and a good deal of waste, to *.)() pi r cent in 
 oatmeal and 100 per cent in sugar. 
 
 Columns F and (! should be considered together. ( 'olunm F 
 shows how many ])omids of a given ;irlicle would liave to be ])ur- 
 chased in order to get from it \\ ounces of i)roteids, tlie daily nnjuire- 
 
 350 
 
THE WORLD'S DIET 
 
 351 
 
 NUTRIENT VALUE OF FOODS 
 
 Kind of Food. 
 
 Animal Products. 
 
 Fish (Fresh Cod) 
 
 (Fresh Mackerel) 
 
 Eggs 
 
 Veal 
 
 Beef 
 
 Chicken 
 
 Mutton 
 
 Pork (Fresh) 
 
 Bacon 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Milk 
 
 Butter 
 
 Cereals. 
 
 Oatmeal 
 
 Wheat (Graham) 
 
 Wheat (White Flour) . . . 
 
 Corn Meal 
 
 Rice 
 
 Rye Flour 
 
 Rye Bread 
 
 Wheat Bread (Graham).. 
 
 Wheat Bread (White)... 
 
 Vegetables 
 
 Peas (Dried) 
 
 Beans (Dried) 
 
 Beets 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 Sweet Potatoes 
 
 Fruits. 
 
 Grapes 
 
 Bananas 
 
 Apples 
 
 Nuts 
 
 Almonds 
 
 Walnuts 
 
 Chestnuts 
 
 Sugar 
 
 ^■2 
 
 30 
 
 45 
 
 11 
 
 17 
 
 15 
 
 26 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 35 
 25 
 
 45 
 
 58 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 C. 
 
 58 
 40 
 66 
 57 
 53 
 47 
 44 
 45 
 17 
 34 
 87 
 11 
 
 11 
 12 
 13 
 12 
 13 
 36 
 36 
 35 
 
 10 
 13 
 70 
 63 
 55 
 
 58 
 49 
 63 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 38 
 
 
 
 D. 
 
 11 
 14 
 22 
 25 
 31 
 26 
 40 
 39 
 71 
 62 
 12 
 86 
 
 90 
 
 87 
 87 
 86 
 88 
 86 
 62 
 62 
 64 
 
 87 
 83 
 9 
 16 
 24 
 
 17 
 15 
 12 
 
 51 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 100 
 
 Sj=^ 
 
 2.8 
 
 2, 
 1 
 1, 
 2. 
 2. 
 2.1 
 2.5 
 1.1 
 8.5 
 28.2 
 
 1.7 
 2.1 
 2.5 
 3.1 
 3.5 
 6.6 
 3.1 
 3.2 
 3.1 
 
 1.1 
 
 1.2 
 
 21.6 
 
 15.6 
 
 20.1 
 
 28.1 
 35.2 
 93.8 
 
 2.4 
 4.1 
 5.4 
 
 ^3 
 
 "^ o.S 
 
 Pi* 
 
 564.0 
 
 26.8 
 
 12.2 
 
 12.2 
 
 7.4 
 
 9.2 
 
 6.8 
 
 4.3 
 
 1.8 
 
 3.3 
 
 12.5 
 
 1.3 
 
 .8 
 
 .5 
 
 .5 
 
 .5 
 
 .4 
 
 1.4 
 
 2.1 
 
 2.1 
 
 2.1 
 
 1.8 
 1.8 
 14.4 
 7.6 
 5.0 
 
 7.2 
 
 7.7 
 
 10.1 
 
 2.8 
 3.4 
 
 2.8 
 
 H. 
 
 II m 
 
 
 -226.0 
 -9.6 
 -5.8 
 -6 
 -4 
 -4 
 -3 
 _2 
 
 + 1 
 -3 
 -1 
 
 8 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 +21.6 
 
 -1.1 
 
 + 1.4 
 + 1.7 
 +2.1 
 +2.5 
 +4.7 
 + 1.5 
 + 1.5 
 + 1.5 
 
 -1.6 
 -1.5 
 + 1.5 
 
 +2.1 
 +4.0 
 
 +3.9 
 
 +4.6 
 +9.3 
 
 -1.2 
 
 + 1.2 
 + 1.9 
 
 Noprotei|d8 1 . 1 
 
 * Less than half of 1 per cent. 
 
3r)2 MANS JJKLATIOX TO VKC.F.TATloX AXl) ANIMALS 
 
 
 
 c i 
 
THE WORLD'S DIET 
 
 353 
 
 r 
 
 c = 
 
 c '-5 
 
 l^ S 
 
351 MAN'S i;]:i,Ari()X to vKcKTA'nox Axn animals 
 
 mont of an active adult man. Column (1 shows how manj' pounds 
 would 1)0 nopdcd in order to j^ct tlie daily reciuinMuent of 18 ounces 
 of carbohydrates or fats. In many cases a sufficient sujiiih' of both 
 types of food could not be p;ot from a sinjilc article without eatinjj; an 
 enormous (pinntily. For itistnncc, sui)p()se a piM-son has to live for a 
 while on nothing but fresh cod, as often happens to llie Lalirador 
 fisherman. About 2.5 pounds of fresh fish would sui)])ly the lu'cded 
 proteids. An ordinary person could easily eat this quantity in a day. 
 Codfish are so lean, however, that 564 pounds would have to be eaten 
 to get enough carbohydrates and fats, 
 
 ■ Or suppose a Korean peasant has no siipi)lies except dried beans, 
 would he be as well off as a Turkoman noniad east of the Caspian 
 Sea who has no food except cheese? About 1.2 pounds of dried beans 
 and 1.1 of cheese would be needed for pi'oteids, while 1.8 pounds of 
 beans would have to be eaten to get enough carbonaceous material, and 
 over 3 of cheese. Therefore the Korean with legumes like beans and 
 peas is better off than the nomad with cheese. In order to get enough 
 carbohydrates or fats from cheese the stomach would have to be over- 
 loaded with three times as nuich proteid as it needs and would thus 
 be injured. 
 
 In Colunm H the whole matter is sununed up !)>■ means of index 
 numbers. A value of 1 means that an article contains the I'ight 
 proportion of proteids and car])onaceous materials. Anything 
 between 1 and 2 forms a fairl}' good article of diet even liy ilsell'. A 
 plus sign means that carbohydrates or fats predominate and a minus 
 sign indicates an excess of proteids. In a good diet th(> ]ilns articles, 
 carbonaceous, should balance the miiuis one.; with much proteids. 
 Thus beef just about balances swe(>t potatoes, and chicken balances 
 bananas. On the other hand, a little butter with its great predom- 
 inance of fat balances a large amount of beans with their slight exce'ss 
 of jjroteid. 
 
 The Unbalanced Diet of Frigid Regions. — Let us now us(> tlu^ table 
 as a test of the ordinary diet in vai'ious ]iarts of tlu> woild. Con- 
 sider first the meat diet of frigid regions. The Eskimos seem to revel 
 in fat. When Ihey can get it they litei'ally stuff th(Mns(>lves. Sitting 
 on the liooi- of theif dark, smoky huts lliey seize it with tlieii' hands 
 and ciam it into their mouths so greedily thai their faces shine with 
 fat and theii' clothing is stre;d>;ed with it. Tlie I'^skimo wants much 
 fat liec.ause he needs internal fuel to keep him waiiu in his far northern 
 climate. 
 
 Sometimes the l\skimos ai'o ol)liged to live foi- long ]i(M"iods on 
 nothing but fish, which .are laigel\- ])rotei(l. At such times the ]K)or 
 Eskimo .and his famil\- eat and eat, but are not satisfied. Their 
 
THE WORLD'S DIET 355 
 
 bodies clamor for carljoh^'drates, the intestines become deranged, and 
 many Eskimos die from diseases induced in this way. To the dis- 
 advantage^ of too much fish and meat is added the ^vciit disadvantage 
 of no cer(>als, v(\geta])les, or fruits. Accoi'cUnii'ly the pe()i)l(' of the 
 frigid North cannot be expected to have th(> enchu'ancc and stamina 
 of the white man with his varied and nutritious cHet. 
 
 Diet of Equatorial Rain-forests. — Lc^t us now take a long jump 
 from regions of perpetual cold to those of perpetual heat, 'ilie 
 tropical rain-forest is subject to a disadvantage like that of the fiigid 
 regions; that is, the people often eat only one kind of food foi' weeks 
 or even months at a time. For instance, where l:)ananas can be 
 procured they eat them day after day. Yet althougli they gorge 
 themselves they cannot get enough proteid from that source, for that 
 would require from seventy to eighty bananas a day for eacii person. 
 Many equatorial people have protruding al^domens cither because of 
 the great l)ulk of th(> Ixmanas that they have to stuff down in the (effort 
 to satisfy their hunger or more prol)a])ly from the diseases thus 
 induced. The poor quality of the food in time ruins their (Ugestion. 
 Equatorial people also suffer because their meals are not regular. Not 
 only do they eat at any hour when they feel like it, but when they find 
 plenty of food they gorge themselves, and then go hungry for days. 
 
 Diet of Tropical Jungles. — In the parts of the tropical jungle w here 
 agriculture is simplest the food is scarcely l^etter than in the equatorial 
 forest. The crops are such roots as the sweet potato and yam, and 
 such fruits as the cocoamit and ])ananas. In such a tliet starcli or 
 sugar predominates so largely that people^ eat ravenously, l)ut even 
 thus do not get enough proteids. Although an occasional pig, fowl, 
 or goat is eaten, and some fish are caught in the streams, this 
 happens at such rare intervals that much harm is done in the mean- 
 time. 
 
 Where the jungle peo])le raise corn, rice, or millet the diet becomes 
 better than in jungl(> regions with more primitive agricultui-e. Notice 
 in Column H of the tal)le that corn and rice luv only about half as 
 starchy as bananas and sweet potatoes. Mihet is not (niite as good 
 as corn and rice, although it is wickdy eatcni l)ecause it can easily be 
 raised in wai-m places where the rainy season is short. All three 
 grains, however, have the advantage of not containing a great amount 
 of water or other waste materials — only ]'.i pei- cent as apjicars in 
 Colunm C. Therefore they do not ov(>rburd(>n tli(^ stomach and cause 
 digestive troubles, as does the mon^ piiniitiAc tropicnl diet. Never- 
 theless, they contain twice as nuich starch as is advisal)le. More- 
 over, the lack of certain vitamin(>s rcMuUM's those who eat such a diet 
 liable to certain (Hseascs such as l)eri-lieii. In the majoritv of well- 
 
35() MAN'S i;i:i.\ TioN TO \-K( ;i:T.\'n(>\ and animals 
 
 populated tropical rc(j;ions mciit is usually so scarce and expensive 
 that it forms no apj^reciable part of the diet, and there is nothing to 
 counteract the starchiness of the other foods. In spite of this the 
 tropical people who raise corn, millet, and especially rice, are not only 
 benefited by the necessity of steady work, as we have seen, but by the 
 fact that their diet is better than that of more primitive people. 
 
 Diet of Monsoon Regions. — In monsoon regions like China, for 
 example, the conunonest food is rice or millet. (See Fig. 95, Rice 
 IMa]).) Since tlu^se grains are starchy, the ]~)eople make great efforts 
 to satisfy Ihcir craving for ])r(»tri(ls. Because of th(^ dcnsily of the 
 population and the conseciucnt scarcity of animals, even the less 
 ex])ensi^■e meats likc^ ])ork are too costly for ordinary people except 
 at feasts or other special occasions. That is why the Chinese some- 
 times eat rats, dogs, and other animals which we despise. Perhaps 
 we should feel differentl}" if our sui)ph' of proteids were as limited as 
 that of the Chinese. Fish, however, can l)e raised without diverting 
 land from the crops needed by man. Hence no people in the world 
 take more pains than the Chinese to catch fish in the sea and rivei's, 
 and raise them in ponds. In spite of this the anunal food of China is 
 inade(iuate. Therefore recourse must be had to plants for proteids. 
 As legumes contain more proteids than any other vegetable foods 
 the Chinese raise them in enormous quantities, especially beans. To 
 render them palatable and to avoid monotony they make them into 
 fx^an flour, bean macaroni, bean oil, bean curd, pickled beans, and 
 soy, a hotly spiced sauce. Thus they obtain a fairly good diet, al- 
 though it still has too much starch and not enough proteids. More- 
 over, it has not enough fruit, for fruit seems a luxury to the Chinese, 
 althougii i-ealiy it is needed to round out a balanced diet. 
 
 Diet of Subtropical Regions. — Subtrojiical ]i(>ople arc more for- 
 tunate than those of monsoon regions. \\ heat, their staple crop, is 
 among llic best articles of diet, esi)ecially if one ])i'()(luct has to be 
 used as the main food, ll is somewhat starchy, but as the sub- 
 tro])ical regions arc favoi-aJile to doincstic animals, esi)ecia-lly sheep, 
 there is ])!enty of meat to su])))ly ])i()t('i(ls. Moreover, both fruits 
 and nuts thrive admirably in subtr()])ical countries, especially under 
 in'igation, so that the best kind of diet is available. 
 
 The food sujiplN- of sul)ti'opical regions is favorable not only 
 because it contains a healthful proportion of proteids, carbohydrates 
 and fats, but beeau.se it renders such regions less liable to famines 
 than are tho.se that depend on lice or millet with b(>ans or ])(>as. A 
 poor wlieat crop is not accompanied by a failure of the sui)i)ly of 
 proteids. W hen a dry season causes poor crops in sul)li()pical regions 
 where animals are abundant, tiie i)rice of meat may even go dcnvn for 
 
TPiK w()i;ld's diet 357 
 
 a while. This is because the scarcit}- of j^asture, fodder, and grain 
 makes it ini])ossible for people to keep all their animals. Therefore, 
 many of them are sold for slaughter; thus when the carbohydrate 
 supply is short, the proteid supply tends for a while to increase. In the 
 rice and millet countries the beans and peas are likely to fail at the 
 same time with the cereals, since all depend upon the same rains. The 
 failure of l)oth kinds of food produces correspondingly severe famines. 
 Diet of Cyclonic Regions. — The cyclonic zone is the most favor- 
 able part of the world in respect to food as well as in other ways, for 
 four main reasons: (1) there is a great variety of good food; (2) it is 
 constantly available; (3) it is well cooked; and (4) it is served regu- 
 larly. 
 
 (1) Not only does the cyclonic zone raise as great a variety as the 
 subtropical zone except perhaps in the matter of fruits, but it brings 
 still other varieties from other climates. On the farms people usually 
 raise several kinds of grain and vegetables as well as apples or other 
 fruits, chickens, eggs, and cows. In the towns because of the activity 
 of trade, food of every kind comes from all parts of the world. Even 
 in winter the markets provide fresh fruits from tropical countries and 
 gi'een vegetables with their health-preserving vitamines from regions 
 Uke Florida and Tripoli. Only among the most ignorant and poverty- 
 stricken people is there danger from great monotony of diet. All 
 wise people, even though their means are Imiited, eat a sufficient 
 variety to maintain health and vigor. Thus all the necessary food 
 elements are supplied in due proportion. 
 
 (2) The people of cyclonic regions are rarely troubled by scarcity 
 to-day and an excess of perishable food to-morrow. They need not 
 half starve and then gormandize, as frequently happens to the people 
 of all the less favored regions except the subtropical zone. 
 
 (3) In the cyclonic regions far more than elsewhere food is, on the 
 whole, well cooked. This makes it nuich more aiijietizing than the 
 raw or half-cooketl food eattni by people like the I*]skimos and the 
 dwellers in the tropical jungle. Moreover, thorough cooking guards 
 against disease by killing a gi'eat many germs. 
 
 (4) The people of cyclonic regions have the further advantage 
 of having their meals at regular hours, three times a day. This not 
 only economizes time, but is nuich better for health than are the 
 in-egular meals of tropical people who eat when they happen to ob- 
 tain food. 
 
 With all these advantages the strong well-fed peo]ile of the cy- 
 clonic zone owe it to the rest of the world to teach the more backward 
 races how to insure themselves a constant supply of varied footl 
 l)r()])('rly ])repar(>d. 
 
358 MAN'S RELATION TO \'EGETATIOX AND ANIMALS 
 
 QUESTIONS, EXERCISES AM) PROBLEMS 
 
 1. ^\'ith the aid of tlu" fahlo near the honiniiiiin of tliis cliaijtcr oxamino a 
 breakfast wliich consists of fruit, ocroal, eggs, broad, butter, colTee, milk and 
 sugar. How far is this a well balanced meal? On an outline map of the world 
 shade the aretus where you think that an ordinary i)erson of moderate means 
 could obtain such a breakfast regularl3\ Exi)lain what tyi)cs of regions you 
 exclude. 
 
 2. It is claimed that enough food is raised in France to supply a well balanced 
 diet during the whole year to each member of its population. In the article on 
 France in the Statesman's Yearbook study the sections entitled "Agriculture" 
 and "E.vports." In the light of these sections and of the table at the beginning 
 of this chapter, write a criticism of the jirobablc truth of this statement. 
 
 3. In England more and more space is being given up to market gardens. 
 Give reasons for this and explain its wisdom in com])ari.'^on with the wisdom of 
 raising wheat or cattle, or of letting the farming population work in factories. 
 
 4. Suppose the area within 50 miles of j^our home to be cut off from outside 
 sources of food. List the changes this would make in the following respects: 
 (a) variety of food. Consider the main items of your diet derived from near at 
 hand and those brought from a distance, noting the place whence they come. 
 {b) The healthfulness of your diet. Would cereals, meats, dairy products, fruits, 
 sugar, vegetables or beverages be chiefly cut ofT? Would the communitj' sulTer 
 most from lack of carbohydrates, fats, proteids, acids, or vitamines? 
 
 5. The early colonists of America relied at first on corn and game for their 
 chief food. Discuss the advantages or disadvantages of such a diet. Discuss 
 also the value of the arrival from England of a sliip carrying flour, bacon, cheese, 
 so far as improvement in diet was concerned. 
 
 6. During the latter part of the Great War, it was exceedingly important to 
 get wheat for western Europe to make up for the deficiency caused by the cut- 
 ting off of supjilies from south Russia. Classify the countries from which wheat 
 could be imported to meet this need with regard to (a) amount e.x])orted annually 
 in a normal year; (h) distance from western Europe; (c) the season at which 
 the harvest falls. 
 
 7. Classify the cliitf trees which furnish food for man according to the zone of 
 vegetation in wiiich they thrive, 
 
CHAPTER XX 
 MAN'S CHANGING SURROUNDINGS. 
 
 Geographic Constants and Variables. — Among the physical 
 features of man's surroundinos three, namely, location, land forms, 
 and water bodies may be regarded as constants. The location of a 
 place in relation to the poles and the equator or in relation to the lands 
 and the oceans never changes, or at least changes so slowly that man 
 is not conscious of it. Land forms are almost equally constant. 
 Although the mountains may be worn down a little by erosion in the 
 course of hundreds of thousands of j'eare or raised a little higher by 
 earth movements, they have not changed appreciably during the 
 period covered bj^ human history. With water bodies, the third 
 element, the changes are equally unhnportant except where variations 
 of climate cause a desert lake, for instance, to dwindle in size, or 
 a river like the Hwang Ho to become China's sorrow, or where man 
 himself has built rcsei-\'oirs. enlarged harbors, and reclaimed land 
 from swamps or from the sea as in Holland. 
 
 Soils and minerals, the fourth great feature of man's physical 
 surroundings, are more variable than the first three. Their changes, 
 however, are either extremely slow or are due to man's own actions. 
 Slow changes consist of the weathering of new soil, the accumulation 
 of hunuis, and the formation of new mineral deposits by wat(>r that 
 percolates through the rocks. These changes, however, are almost as 
 slow as the changes in relief. The changes caused by man are more 
 important. By cultivating the soil he robs it of its wealth. In 
 China thousands of square miles have entirely lost the valuable soil 
 cover because it has been washed away after the cutting down of the 
 forests. In long-cultivated countries like Greece the soil has sulil'ered 
 much from constant cultivation without the addition of proper fer- 
 tilizers. In Italy and other countries such exhaustion of the soil 
 probal)ly helped to cause the fall of the Roman Ilmjiire. Mineral 
 deposits are likewise exhausted by man. In any mining coimtiy 
 one can find towns like Virginia City, Nevada, that once were pros- 
 perous, but now have fallen to ruins because the earth has been 
 robbed of its mineral de])()sits. 
 
 Climate, the fifth gr(>at feature of physical environment, is far 
 more variable than any of the others. A cool wet sununer may cause 
 
 350 
 
3G0 MAX'S KKT. \rii)X OF VFXIETATIOX AXD AXIMALS 
 
 an Adii'oiidark resort to Ix' almost dcsortcd, and thus haiiki'Ujit. the 
 hotel keei)ers, cause the {luidi^s to ^o elsewhere for a liviiifi, ami 
 make the boats and railroads run at a loss. A droufiht of a few 
 months may caus(^ famines like those we have discussed in India. 
 
 Often the climate f^rows wetter and colder for a few years and then 
 l)ecomes drier and warmer until it returns to the orifrinul condition, 
 only auaiii to entci' U])()n a new cycle of the same soi't. There arc 
 irn^fiular climatic cycles of evcny grade from those of ahout three 
 yeai-s. throufjh those of 11, 33, 100, and so on u]i to the f?i-eat cycles 
 known as glacial jieriods. Thus, climate is th(> one great physical 
 condition which varies a]i])recial)ly. The otluu" four — location, land 
 forms. wat(n" hodies, and soil and minerals — are relatively constant 
 except when long jieriods are considered. 
 
 Though most of the i)hysical features of man's environment 
 change hut little, the plants and animals upon Avhich man depends 
 so laigcly are subject to many variations. These usually tak(^ the 
 form of migrations, blights, and diseases. Let us begin with some of 
 the variations in plants and animals and then ]xiss to those due 
 directly to cUmate. 
 
 Examples of Geographic Variables. Animal Migrations: Lo- 
 custs. The migrations of anijnals illustrate the effect of geograi)hic 
 variables. Those of ijisects are, on the whole, much more important 
 than those of larger animals. One of the l)est known migratory in- 
 sects is the locust. Its movements depend larg(>ly upon climate. 
 In years when the eggs are able to hatch in larg(> nmu])ers vast swarms 
 of the insects infest states like Kansas. HaA'ing eaten ever}- gi-een 
 thing where they were hatched they begin to migrate, and move 
 across the country by the million, all headed in the same direction, 
 although no one knows why. They leave behind them a desert 
 ])eo])led by ])overty stricken and discouraged farmcn-s. 
 
 The Destructive Effect of the Cotton Weevil. — The damage done 
 by locusts is ])i-(jl)ably small com])ar(Hl with that due to various insects 
 which attack cotton. It is esthnated that insects damage the cotton 
 en.]) of tiie I'nitrd States to the extent of $100,000,000 amiually. 
 A little more than half of this is due to insects which live pcn'manently 
 in the cotton area. The remainder is duo to a small gi'ay beetle called 
 the t>oll weevil. Since about 1800 the weevil has been slowly s])read- 
 ing from its original home in Mexico into the cotton ])roducing region 
 of the I'nited States. (See i-'ig. 100.) The weevils sting thetlower 
 buds in older to lay their eggs, which are deposited at the base of the 
 young bolls oi- pods. This ruins the cotton. .Vs the weexil occupies 
 new territory year by year new groups of farmers are added to those 
 who suffer. To gel rid ol 1 he wee\il I he American taimei's have t I'ied 
 
MAN'S CHANGING SURROUNDINGS 361 
 
 many methods such as killing the weeds on which the insect lives part 
 of the year, and introducing new and resistant varieties of cotton, such 
 as that of Guatemala. 
 
 How the Phylloxera Ruins the Grapes. — The phylloxera, a kind 
 of plant louse which ruins grape vines, has done even more damage 
 than the boll weevil. Its original home is the United States, but 
 there the vines have become uimume to its attacks. That is, in the 
 course of many yeai-s, those that were most injured have been killed, 
 and only those that could endure its ravages have lived. 
 
 About 1860 the phylloxera was accidentally introduced into 
 Europe through the importation of American vines. It spread at 
 once and did enormous damage. For instance, in 1865-7 the little 
 commune of Graveson near Bordeaux in France obtained its ready 
 money for taxes, clothing, and incidental expenses by producing 
 220,000 gallons of wine each year. In 1868 the phylloxera reached 
 this section, and by 1873 the production of wine had fallen to 1100 
 gallons. By 1888 the total loss to France as a whole is estimated at 
 two billion dollars. In some places the consequent poverty of the 
 farmers led to violent political agitation, for people often have the 
 strange idea that troubles due to geogi'aphicai conditions can be 
 remedied by changes in the laws. 
 
 When once the phylloxera is introduced the only remedy is to root 
 up all the vines and start with new ones raised from American stock. 
 Not only France, but almost every gi-ape-raising region in the world 
 has suffered niore or less in the same way. 
 
 Scales and Moths.- — ^Many other insects, and also certain fungi, 
 do sunilar damage. The orange scale, for instance, has almost ruined 
 many orange groves. In the northeastern United States the g\'psy, 
 brown-tail, and other moths which were introduced from Europe 
 during the latter part of the nineteenth century have greatly injured 
 certain species of trees. Massachusetts, for example, has spent 
 millions of dollars in a single year to get rid of these pests or at least 
 to prevent them from migrating into ticw leiritory. The only 
 real remedy seems to be the introduction of ])arasitic contagious dis- 
 eases which spread from moth to moth. When the weather is warm 
 and moist such diseases kill the insects by the million. 
 
 Plant Migrations. — The niigrations of j^lants are as harmful 
 as those of animals. The daisy, for instance, was introduceil into 
 America from Europe, and then spread over millions of acres. It 
 diminishes the hay crop by hundreds of thousands of tons, for it 
 crowds out good grass, exhausts the soil, and is itself not eaten by any 
 domestic animals. The Scotch thistle does similar harm. 
 
 Even greater damage is done by small forms of yeast-like plants 
 
3(32 MAX'S RELATION TO VEGETATION AND ANIMALS 
 
 callod parasitic fungi, Avhieh grow on othrr plants as mold gi-ows on 
 ('lu'('S(\ Among the worst of these are ihv wheat rust and the potato 
 blight, which sometimes ruin the crop in mnisually wet seasons. 
 In the eastern I'nited States the slowly sjjreadiiig chestnut blight has 
 ruined many a great tree like that under which stood the village black- 
 smith's shop in Longfellow's famous poem. The only known remedy 
 is to cut down all the chestnut trees in a broad belt, as has l)een done 
 in Pennsylvania, so that the blight may have nothing upon which to 
 live. 
 
 Migrations of Disease. — ]\Icn and animals as well as plants are 
 often attacked by pests wliich spread from place to place and hence 
 are variables. For instance, influenza is one of the most dangerous 
 diseases because it is highly contagious and even if its victims survive 
 they are weak for a long time. In this case, as in most variables, two 
 factors are concerned: (1) the bacteria which cause the disease, and 
 (2) man. The bacteria are present in most countries at all times. 
 Occasionally, for reasons not 3'et underetood, they suddcnlj- become 
 extremely virulent and devastating epidemics occur. Man's varia- 
 tions are better understood. Under ideal conditions of climate, 
 ventilation, and food, he is able to resist the disease even in its worst 
 form, provided his health is not impaired in other ways. Rarely, 
 however, do these ideal conditions prevail, and hence epidemics break 
 out and cannot be stopped. Every winter there is a mild outbreak 
 because man's power of resistance is at a low ebb. One of the last 
 great epidemics developed in Asiatic Russia in 1889, perhaps because 
 of a severe winter and poor food. It tlu^n spread raj^idly without 
 apparent regard to weather or climate, following the lines of human 
 intercoui'se along the world's great trade routes to the remotest coun- 
 tries. In 1918 a far worse epideniic broke out, apparently in connec- 
 tion with the Great War. More people died than in any epidemic 
 since the notorious Black Death of the fourteenth century. In the 
 United States half a million people died cither of influenza or of the 
 pneumonia which often follows it. In the world as a whole about 
 1"), ()()(),()()() peo])le, or nearly one in ev(>ry liundred, fell victims to the 
 disease; in India the number was 6,UUU,UU0, or one in 50; in Mexico 
 one in 25; in Yekaterinburg, a Ru.ssian city as large as Savannah, a 
 third of the ]i()])ulati()n jK-rished, and in some Indian cities, half. The 
 great ravages of influenza in trojiical countries and also in regions like 
 Russia, where the people were especially weakened by war and 
 famine, show that the greatest safeguard against the disease is a 
 general condition of good health. The gi*eat mortality from influ- 
 enza in the camps of our own army shows how the crowding of 
 ix'ojjlc into small areas favors the spread of infectious diseases. 
 
MAN'S CHANGING SURROUNDINGS 363 
 
 Microscopic Creatures as part of Man's Environment. — Since 
 the microscope was invented people have learnetl the importance of 
 tiny gernis inclucUng both the minute animals called "protozoa," such 
 as produce malaria, and the equally small plants called bacteria, such 
 as spread tj'phoid fever. These tiny creatures are a part of man's 
 geographic surroundings as much as the bigger forms of life such as 
 horses, tigers, fish, and insects, or trees, bushes, grass, and corn. 
 Because the protozoa and bacteria, however, can be seen only under a 
 powerful microscope and are known only by the results they produce 
 they were long ignored. Their effects upon man, however, are fully 
 as important as those of the larger forms of life, as is clear from the 
 examples of diseases which we have just considered. Man must 
 study the mmuter forms of life with special care because of their great 
 variety, and because they are so variable in their activity. He can 
 plan to meet the attacks of tigers and wolves, but it is harder to 
 meet the attacks of tiny creatures so small and numerous that we 
 may take them in by the miUion at eveiy breath and so deadly 
 sometimes that they kill a thousand men where wild animals kill 
 only one. 
 
 The Newfoundland Fisheries. — Thus far in considering geogi-aph- 
 ical variables we have concerned oureelves largely with pests. Let 
 us now look at the movements of useful animals such as the fish of the 
 Newfoundland Banks. IMore than half of the people of Newfound- 
 land are engaged in catching and curing fish. The total catch varies 
 greatly from year to year because of changes in the fishes' food supply, 
 in the amount of salt in the water, and in conditions of temperature, 
 storminess, and winds. Hence the island sometmies enjoj's prosperity 
 and sometimes suffers distress. From about 18G0 to 1868 the New- 
 foundland fisheries were so unproductive that widespread destitution 
 prevailed among the working classes. Hence people began to turn to 
 agi-icultin-e and stockraising and farming received such a start that 
 it has increased ever since, in spite of the cool clunate. This is for- 
 tunate, for Newfoundland cannot prosper unless other resources beside 
 fishing are exploited. A less favorable result was the introduction of 
 a system of poor relief, not only for people who were unable to work, 
 but for the able-bodied. This proved very demoralizing, for people 
 said that if the government would support them, they were not going 
 to work. Even though the fisheries ])ccame successful again in 1869 
 the poor relief system had lasted long enough to do serious harm. 
 
 Weather as a Geographic Variable. The Galveston Hurricane. — 
 Many geogra])hic variai^les such as insect jiests, epiileiuics, and 
 the migi'ations of fish are due indirectly to the weather. The direct 
 effects of variations in the weather are ccjually iini)()rlant. I'or in- 
 
3(U MAX'S Hi:r-A'l'I()X TO VEr.KTA'IMOX AND ANIMALS 
 
 stance, in Soptcniber, 1900, Galveston, Texas, was visited by a hum- 
 cane from tlie West Indies. A violent wind Mew for (M<i;hteon hours, 
 reaching a luaxinnun velocity of 84 miles an hour. The watei-s of 
 the CUilf of Mexico were ]iiled u]) in enormous waves that swe])t 
 across a large jiart of the city, destroying or l)a(lly damaging more 
 than SOOO l)uiidings, and entailing the loss of about (iOOO lives and of 
 l)ro|X'rty valued at S3(),()()(), ()()(). Thereupon the city set to work to 
 prepare for the recurrence of this variable geographic condition. A 
 wall of solid masonry was built for 5 miles along the water front at 
 an expense of §2,000,000. The entire gi'adc of the city was raised 
 from 1 to 15 feet above its former level. 
 
 In .\ugust, 1915, there came another hurricane nearly as violent 
 as that of 1900. The maxiinmn velocity of the wind was 93 miles 
 pen- hoiu", but the tide at the highest rose only 12 feet instead of 20 as 
 in 1900. Thanks to the seawall and to the warnings sent by the 
 
 B^: . j — ^-. j w^ — 5_ 
 
 Fig. 115. — Summer Rainfall in Kansas. 
 
 Rainfall of May, .June, and July, weighted, and smoothed to show the efTect on the corn crop. 
 Black sliadiuK indicates drought. 
 
 Weather Bureau to jx'ojjIc li\iiig l^'vond the ])ro1ection of tlic wall 
 the loss of life in 1915 was only about 275, w liilc t he ))ro])('rt>' loss was 
 much less than before. 
 
 Rainfall and Settlement in Kansas. — Rainfall is aiiollicr clcniciit 
 of weather, the variations of which are of great im])ortance. In 
 western Kansas, for example, the corn crop dcjjcnds on the summer 
 rain, especially that of July, when the ears are (l('\(lo])iiig most ra])i(ll>-. 
 The curved line of Fig. 115 shows how the variations of the rainfall 
 of May, .lune, and July have affected the farmers of western Kansas 
 since 1870. When the cuncd line is abo\'c the sti-aight line r('])i'c- 
 scnting the average rainfall the farmers ])ros])er. When it falls 
 below, Ihey often cannot raise enough to sujiport their families and 
 pay tlii'ii- debts. 
 
 The meager rainfall from 1870 to 1877 did little harm, for then 
 theic were few settlers in western Kansas, and most of them de])ended 
 uixin cattle nifire than on ci'OlJS. I'A'eii among these, liowe\'ei", solium 
 became so ])oor that they had to mo\-e a\\a>'. The ])eiiod from 1878 
 
MAN'S CHANGING SURROUNDINGS 365^ 
 
 to 1886 was oxcellont, for the rainfall was abundant, Settlei"s moved 
 into western Kansas in considerahU^ numbers. I'.ach farmer received 
 from the government a "quarter section," that is, a quarter of a 
 square mile of land, or 160 acres. For a few years everyone was en- 
 thusiastic, and the land availa])le for settlement was rapidly taken up. 
 
 Then came a period of scanty rainfall lasting till about 1896. 
 Thus the climate and the crops completed a cycle. Dry conditions 
 returned just as the summer retm-ns in the shorter cycle of the y(>ar. 
 Year after year the rainfall was scanty and the crops were poor. The 
 farmers were able to struggle along only l)y mortgaging their houses 
 and getting more and more into debt. At last, with no im])r()V(nn(Mit 
 in rainfall, conditions became so bad that farms were abandoned by 
 the hundred. INIany families were too poor to pay railroad fares. 
 They packed up all their l)elonging's in great farm wagons, and drove 
 away seeking new homes. During this low period in the cycle of 
 rainfall not only did the farmers themselves suffer, but the merchants 
 who supplied their wants, the people l)ack in the East who had loaned 
 them money, the manufacturers who made the goods that they con- 
 sumed, and the railroads that usually carried the crops that they 
 raised. 
 
 How Dry Farming Helps in Regions of Scanty Rainfall. — Little 
 by little the farmers of drj' regions are learning to proA"ide against 
 drought. In Kansas, for example, during the com])aratively favor- 
 able period since the nineties they have learned to preserve the water 
 in the soil for many months or even from one year to another. They 
 do this by plowing or harrowing after every rain in order to break up 
 the crust that forms when the soil dries. Thus the surface is always 
 covered with a layer of soft, dry dust. Anj^one who has made 
 bread knows how flour, which is merely wheat dust, almost refuses to 
 allow the water to enter it except by the aid of vigorous stimng. 
 Such a layer of dust on the surface of the fields prevents the ground 
 water from evaporating and hence is a gi'cat help to the crops. This 
 method of "dry farming" enables crops to be grown with compar- 
 atively little rainfall. It is a great help to the farmer, luit demands 
 a large amount of labor. Even where dry-farming is practiced, how- 
 ever, it is only a partial remedy for scanty rainfall. Abiuidant rain- 
 fall still causes prospcM'ity, while scanty rainfall may bring poverty. 
 
 Variations in Rainfall and Migration from Western Europe. — 
 One of the most important occurrences of the past hundred years has 
 been the migration of l*]uropeans from the Old World to the New. 
 The fundamental cause is of coui'se the fact that America is a new land 
 with aliuii(l;ui( ()i)])()rtuiiit ics. while Europe is an old land densely 
 popuhiti'd. These coiiditioiis are a constant cause of luigration, and if 
 
3GG MAN'S RELATION TO VEGETATION AND ANIMALS 
 
 acting lUoiic wouUl give a rise to a steady How of people into tiic 
 I'nited States. Other variable factors, however, enter into the prob- 
 lem from year to year. From 1914 to 1920 the (Ireat War was the 
 chief factor in controiUng migration, l)ut under ordinaiy conditions 
 dianges in rainfall or climatic cycles are the chief cause of variation. 
 Too much rainfall in Scandinavia, Britain, the Netherlands, and 
 Germany may be as bad as too little in Kansas. Those countries are 
 so far north and are usually so well supplied with rain that when the 
 rainfall is above the average, vegetation does not get enough sun 
 and warmth. Hence the crops are scanty; poverty and discontent 
 arise ; people want to get away to another country ; and there is much 
 eniigi-ntion. The I'nited States lies enough farther south than north- 
 west i-rn lun-o])e so that on the whole it is benefited by abundant 
 rainfall. Hence prosperity is apt to prevail here when poverty pre- 
 vails there, provided the rainfall cycles are the same in the two places, 
 which is often the case. Thus good conditions here may attract 
 people from Europe just when poor conditions there are driving them 
 away. 
 
 How too Much Rain Brings the Irish to America. — The European 
 region that has been most affected by emigi'ation to America is Ire- 
 land. Through emigration the po]Hilation of that country has been 
 reduced bj' half. At the census of 1841 there were 8,200,000 people, 
 and in 1911 onlj^ 4,400,000. As in many other cases the emigration 
 from Ireland is due to a constant cause which is within human control, 
 and a variable geogi'aphical cause which is beyond human control. 
 The constant cause is the unfavorable social conditions. For instance, 
 the land has till recently l)een largc^ly owned by a few absentee land- 
 lords who did not often visit their estates and who cared Httle for the 
 poor tenants provided the rent was paid. The variable cause is the 
 fluctuations in the rainfall, and lu>nc(> in the ])()tato croji, tlu^ chief 
 agi'icultural resource of Ireland. 
 
 Previous to about 1845 Ireland enjoyed a coin]xiratively dry 
 jx'riod with excellent crops most of tlu> time. The jjojnilation in- 
 creased until in 1845 it reached a maxiiniun of 8,300,000. Then came 
 a series of damp years with such complete failure of the potato crop, 
 that 200,000 to 3()0,()()0 i)e()i)le died of stan'ation and fever. The 
 British government provided work for over 700,000 ])eoi)le at one 
 time, but this w'as not enough. Then food was distributed in enor- 
 mous ([uantities, and over 3,000,000 ])e()ple were at one period su])])lied 
 with rations. Nevertheless such great discontent arose that in 1848 
 a rebellion was attempted. 
 
 Periiajjs the most unportant r(>sult of the exc(>ss of rain was a rajiid 
 emigi'ation to America beginning in 184G. In live yeai-s the popula- 
 
MAN'S CHANGING SURROUNDINGS 
 
 367 
 
 tion diminished to 6,000,000, a loss of 20 per cent. During the suc- 
 ceeding chy favorable period the rate of emigration declined rapidly, 
 as is shown in the accompanying table. In the eighties, however, 
 another prolonged wet period with poor han^ ests made the bad social 
 conditions still worse, and the people again flocked to America. If 
 the cUmate of Ireland had been less variable, the important Irish 
 element in the United States would still be here because of the con- 
 stant cause of emigration found in social and economic conditions, 
 but it would presumably be nuich smaller than is actually the case. 
 
 POPULATION IN IRELAND 
 
 Date. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Decrease in 
 Population. 
 
 Percentage of 
 Decrease. 
 
 1841 
 
 8,200,000 
 
 
 
 1851 
 
 6,600,000 
 
 1,630,000 
 
 20 
 
 1861 
 
 5,800,000 
 
 770,000 
 
 12 
 
 1871 
 
 5,400,000 
 
 390,000 
 
 7 
 
 1881 
 
 5,100,000 
 
 240,000 
 
 4 
 
 1891 
 
 4,700,000 
 
 470,000 
 
 9 
 
 1901 
 
 4,500,000 
 
 240,000 
 
 5 
 
 1911 
 
 4,400,000 
 
 80,000 
 
 3 
 
 How Rainfall Cycles Affect the American Farmer. — Too much rain 
 and too little are both harmful, but in the United States more harm 
 comes from too Uttle than from too much. Corn illustrates this. 
 The corn produced in the United States is worth over three billion 
 dollare each year, or about as much as all the ores, metals, and other 
 mineral products including coal, iron, pctrolcmn, copper, gold, cement, 
 and many other less valuable products. Its variations from year to 
 year, however, are very great. For instance, in 1894 about one 
 billion two hundred million bushels were raised, while in 1895 the 
 crop was a billion bushels larger. Smce corn was then worth 50 cents 
 a bushel on the farm, the cUfference between the amount of money 
 received by the farmei-s in those two yeai-s would be nearh' $500,000,- 
 000, which was as niuch as a bilUon now. There was a similar 
 difference between 1901 and 1902, while differences of 300,000,000 
 bushels from one year to the next are coimnon. 
 
 The chief cause of such variations is rainfall. Corn can get 
 along with a small supply of moisture during the early and lat(^ ]iarts 
 of its life, but from the end of June to early August when the cars ar(> 
 swelling, plenty of water is essential. The gi'eat corn ])roducing 
 States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas, 
 and Oklahoma with the corn growing parts of the neighboring States 
 plant SO to 90 milUon acres of corn each yrnv. If tlic .luK' rainfall t)f 
 
308 MANS RELATION TO VEGETATION AND ANIMALS 
 
 this area uviTa^irs about 2\ iiiclics in one year and 'A\ in another the, 
 difference iii the yield of corn is aljout G-i Imsliels per acre, or the 
 huge amount of more- tiian half a biUion bus;iiels. If the price on the 
 farni is a dollar jx-r bushel, the value of this one inch of rain is more 
 then $500,000,000. Another inch of rain adds nearly half as nuich 
 more to the value of the crop. It scarcely seems credible that a single 
 inch of rain can ])rotluce such tremendous results, even though it 
 covers such a large area. Surely rainfall is a geographic varia])le <jf 
 ahnost unhmited power. 
 
 Luckily the whole country never suffers from deficient rainfall at 
 one time. Yet there are years such as the early nineties when the 
 deficiency of rain is veiy widespread. It was such a deficiency that 
 caused the corn crops of 1894 and 1901 respectively to be worth half 
 n billion dollars less than those of 1895 and 1902. Thus the income 
 of the average corn-raising farmer was reduced two or three hunflred 
 doUare. 
 
 Think what it means when not only the corn, but many other crops 
 respond to abundant rainfall. Not onlj^ do the farmei"s prosper, but 
 the railroads receive far larger sums than usual for the freight on the 
 abundant crops and on the goods that are bought in exchange for 
 them. The merchants prosper, for manj^ more shoes, hats, suits, 
 dresses, plows, clocks, knives, automobiles, and all sorts of manu- 
 factured goods are bought by the farmer in the good years than in the 
 bad. Many factories also prosper, for since the farmers buy more 
 goods than usual, the factories run on full time. Thus few people are 
 out of work, and the manufacturing population as well as the farmers 
 have more than the ordinary amoimt of money to spend. News- 
 jiaix'i-s and niagazines are bought more fre(iuenth' than at other times, 
 mo\nng pictures and other amusements are patronized with gi'eater 
 freedom. Moreover, manj'' farmers who have hocn in debt are able 
 to pay off their mortgages so that capital is available for new enter- 
 prises. Altogether the whol(^ country feels a wave of iir()S])('i-ity 
 which shows itself ncjt onh' in busin(>ss, but in (juiet political condi- 
 tions, in gi'eat gifts for uni\-ei-sities, hospitals, and other ])ublic 
 institutions, and in a general feeling of satisfaction and c>ncourage- 
 nu^nt. 
 
 Ancient Climatic Cycles. — (1) Ruins as an Evidence of Decrease 
 in liaiiifall. — In past centuries climatic cycles seem to have gone to 
 greater extrenu's than those of our own day and to have lieen one of the 
 iinportant fact.ors in the rise and fall of nations. The chief evidence 
 of this is found in (1) ruins, (2) the level of salt lakes, (3) the gi'owth 
 of old trees. Palmyra in the S>Tian Desert is one of the best examjiles 
 of a ruin showing evidence of changes in climate. In the early cen- 
 
MAN'S CHANGING SURROUNDINGS 369 
 
 turies of the Christian era Paknjrra was a great city as large as modern 
 Damascus, which has a population of 150,000. Ancient writers 
 speak with enthusiasm of its sweet water and beautiful gardens. Its 
 caravans traveled all over western Asia, and it grew so wealthy that 
 its rich citizens took pride in adorning it with wonderful colonnades 
 and temples. To-day Palmyra is a vast desolate ruin in the midst 
 of the desert, and harbors only a village of about 1500 people. Its 
 water is still derived from the old acjueducts, but instead of being 
 sweet and abundant, it has a disagi'eeable odor of sulphur, and is so 
 scanty that the people cannot get enough to irrigate even the small 
 gardens on which they now depend. Such conditions not only here, 
 but in hundreds of other places, seem to afford conclusive evidence 
 that during the past 2000 yeai-s the progress of great climatic cycles 
 has caused the rainfall and the population to dwindle. It may be 
 that during the rainy portion of another cycle Palmyra will again 
 become a great city. 
 
 (2) Hoiv Salt Lakes Shoiv Changes of Rainfall. — Salt lakes are a 
 particularly sensitive index of changes of chmate since, having no 
 outlets, they rise and fall in response to increased or decreased rainfall. 
 For example, Owens Lake at the eastern base of the Sierras in Cali- 
 fornia must formerly have been fresh, for an old outlet channel, rem- 
 nants of a gi'eat beach, and chffs cut by the waves prove that it once 
 stood 180 feet higher than now and sent out an abundant overflow. 
 When the Los Angeles aqueduct was being built the amount of salt 
 now in the lake was found to be only as much as would be brought in 
 by the Owens and other tributaries in not much more than 2000 
 years. Therefore geologists conclude that at the time of Christ or a 
 few centuries earlier the lake must have been a body of fresh water 
 with an outlet. If that is so, the climatic cycle which enal)led 
 Pabn>Ta to prosper so greatly must have had a smiilar effect in south- 
 ern California. Other lakes in our own country and especially in 
 Asia show similar indications of changes of cUmate so that their evi- 
 dence is as widespn^ad as that of ruins. 
 
 How the Caspian Sea Shows Alternate Wet and Dry Epochs. — 
 The changes of climate during historic limes do not seem to belong 
 to one cycle but to several. Since records of the level of the Cas])ian 
 Sea are available for 2000 years that salt^ lake furnishes an uncom- 
 monly good nieasure of the climatic cycU's of the Christian I'lra. 
 These records relate to three main kinds of facts: (1) the distance 
 from the lake shore lo know n laiid-niarks; (2) old walls like the Great 
 Chinese Wall and old l)uildings wiiich were built on dry land but arc 
 now sul)merged IxMieath th(> lake; (3) old l)uildings which tiie lake 
 once reached, but which ;iic now abo\'e its \v\(-\. All these kinds of 
 
370 MANS RELATION TU VEGETATION AND ANLMALR 
 
 facts iiulicato that at tho tiiiio of Christ or carhrr the Caspian Sea 
 stood at a level 75 or 100 feet ahove tlie level of to-day. Six or 
 seven hundred yeai's later tiie cliinate was so <hv tliat the lake stood 
 even lower than now, as is indicated l)y the ends of two jrreat walls 
 constructed to keep out barbarians. A few hundred years later, how- 
 ever, in the tenth century, the wet ])art()f a cycle was reached, for a 
 Pei-sian j:eo<i;rai)her tells us that the Casjnan Sea had then risen some 
 40 or 50 feet to the level of a certain tower, and a little later the water 
 probably rose still higher. It is interesting to know that at this 
 same time PalnnTa jiartially recovered. 
 
 This does not end the fluctuations of the Caspian Sea, however, 
 for in the twelfth or thirteenth century a second dry i)erio(l again 
 lowered the lake level. A c(>ntury later the old records tell us that the 
 Caspian again rose to a lu>ight of nearly 40 feet al)Ove the ])resent 
 level. Thus it appeai-s that the Caspian Sea stood at a suii)risingly 
 high le\-el at the tunc of Christ, at a low level six or seven hundred 
 
 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1000 1900 
 
 Fig. IIG. — Changes of Climate in California During the Christian Era. 
 
 Black shading indicates drought. 
 
 years later, high again about 1000 a.d., low in the thirteenth cen- 
 tmy, high in the fourteenth, and now low once more. Hence it is 
 clear that there have been two complete main cycles of rainfall since 
 the tijue of Christ, and we are now in a third. 
 
 (3) How Trees Slioir ('linidtic Cycles. — A\'ithin 50 inil(>s of Owens 
 Lake, but on the other side of the Sierras, the famous Big Trees of 
 California furnish a still fuller record of these same clunatic cycles 
 and of many smaller ones during a period of over 3000 years. The 
 rings of trees vary in thickness for sc^veral causes, but in a dry climate 
 like that of sf)Uthern California the chief cause is the amount of rain 
 and the season ;it uliich it falls. As huiidreils of the P)ig Trees have 
 been cut down for fence ])()sts and matchwood, it is ])ossil)le to measure 
 the thickness of the rings as th(\v a])]iear on the stujn])s. I^y count- 
 ing in from the edge it is easy to find a I'ing thai was formed in 1776, 
 for instance, in 1402, or at the i)irlh of Christ. 
 
 The rings dating from the time of Christ are thick and indicate 
 that at that time, when Palmyra had an abundant su])i)ly of water, 
 when Owens Lake overflowetl and there was high water in tho Caspian 
 
MAN'S CHANGING SURROUNDINGS 371 
 
 Sea, the Big Trees also had plenty of water and grew rapidly. Six or 
 seven hundred years later when PalmjTa was abandoned and when 
 the Caspian Sea stood 15 or more feet lower than at present, the trees 
 formed only narrow rings, because the climate was dry. The way in 
 which the growth of the trees has varied is shown in Fig. 116. 
 The high parts of the curve indicate abundant rainfall. The black 
 shading at the bottom indicates periods of comparative aridity in the 
 subtropical belt. 
 
 Variations in Climatic Cycles According to Latitude. — Climatic 
 cycles, whether large or small, produce uniform effects in suniliar 
 clunatic regions, but quite different effects in different zones. The 
 wonderful Maya ruins of Guatemala, for example, appear to indicate 
 that when California had abundant rainfall, the northern parts of 
 Central America suffered a decrease. Thus at the time of Christ and 
 for a few centuries thereafter, and again about a.d. 1000 Guatemala 
 and Yucatan appear to have been drier than now. Many of the most 
 remarkable ruins are located in places where the forest is of the 
 equatorial type and so dense and malarial that agriculture and civili- 
 zation are now apparently impossible. In the days of the IMayas, 
 however, the clmiate was apparently dry enough so that conditions 
 were like those of the more favorable jungle regions instead of like 
 those of the dense rain forests. All these changes, both in the sub- 
 tropical and equatorial regions, were apparently due to a shifting of 
 the location of the climatic belts. 
 
 It is unportant to understand that the changes of climate during 
 the cycles of historic times do not appear to have caused great changes 
 in temperature. Variations of temperature from day to day, how- 
 ever, were apparently more numerous than now because of more fre- 
 quent cyclonic storms which at certain times followed paths nearer 
 the c(|uator than at present. 
 
 Effect of Climatic Cycles upon Man. — (1) IIoiv Economic Pros- 
 perity Varies. — Climatic changes appear to have produced three 
 kinds of effects, economic, political, and physical. In the early days 
 of Rome, about 400 b.c, five acres of cultivated land together with 
 space for pasturage was considered enough to support a family. 
 About 200 B.C., however, when the trees of California were growing 
 particularly slowly and the lakes of Asia were dwindling, a gi'eat 
 change became evident. The careful agi-iculture of the ))ast with its 
 a))undant crops and careful fertilization disai)peare(l. The farmei*s 
 became so poor that many of them gave up their land, wliicii was sold 
 at low prices and fell into the hands of large owners. The uvw owners 
 stocked it with cattle and shee]i since ordinary fanning did not ]my. 
 The people who remained on the farms fell so di'eply into debt that 
 
372 MAX'S K ELATION TO VEGETATION ANlJ ANIMALS 
 
 >^ 2 
 
 P^ = 
 
 <5 
 
 _3 C O 
 
MAN'S CHANGING SURROUNDINGS 
 
 373 
 
 they were almost slaves. ]\Iany were so eager to escape from this 
 condition that they flocked to the cities in search of work, until laws 
 were passetl which forbade them to leave their homes. This, it will 
 
 Fig. 118. — A Ruined Tower in Eastern Persia. 
 
 The town surrounding this old Mohammedan nios<iiie in Scistan lia.s boon abandoned Iiorauso 
 of the fall in the level of the neighboring lake and tlie cunsetiuent lowering of the water table. 
 
 be seen, is like what hapi^ens in our own day during- diy iicriods in 
 western Kansas, only far worse. It hai^,p(>ned not only in Italy, but 
 in all tli(> coinitries around the Ah'dit.(>nanean S(>a as far east as Pei-sia 
 (ind cciilral A.sia. Other causes such as exhaustion of the soil and mis- 
 
374 MANS liET.ATTOX TO VTXIKTATIOX AND ANIMALS 
 
 p)V('nini('ii1 li(l])<'(l to ])i<i(luc(' ihcsc hail conditions, but they would 
 not have doiu' so luucli liarm, liad llicy not liai>]^oiiO(l (lurinfz; tlio diy 
 ]mrt of a climatic cycle. 
 
 At the time of ( liiist the rcluni of favorable climatic coiiditions 
 did nmch to lu'l]) Rome nn'over her ])rospcrity, but two centuries 
 later there Ix'gan a decline in rainfall which was one of the main 
 causes of Rome's final collapse. 
 
 (2) Iloir Political Life Varies. — The drought and poverty of the 
 dr>' parts of climatic cycles are apt to exaggerate political troubles. 
 For exaini)l(', in the second cenluiy B.C. the taxes which the Roman 
 farmers luid ])reviously paid with ease from full gi'ain bins became 
 ver>' hard to pay now that the bins were half empty. IIcikc IJome 
 suffered from what is called the Slaves' Revolt, and from olher 
 agi-arian troubles. The famous ( Iracchi brothers lost their lives in a 
 vain attempt to remedy the trouble, but when the rainfall increased 
 the remedy was easy. 
 
 Another ]M)litical eff(H't of the diy part of climatic cycles is bar- 
 barian in\asions. Nomads such as those of central Asia are the 
 first to feel the effect of increased aridity. The springs in the desert 
 dry up, grass for ]^asturagc is unusually scanty, and the nomads are 
 forced to seek new i)astures. IMany of the barbarian invasions of 
 Europe during the early part of the Christian era appear to have been 
 due to tliis cause. Finally in the seventh ccntur>^ the gi'eatest oi all 
 out])ourings from the desert occurretl just at the tune when the trees, 
 the lakes, and the ruins indicate that the climate of subtropical and 
 desert regions was driest. Under the influence of the IMohanunedaii 
 religion the Arabs surged out and overwhelmed all the surrounding 
 regions. Theii- Jiew religion ke])t. them together and guided ihem, 
 but the (hyness of the desert a])i)arently made them ready for a 
 migration. 
 
 Thus large parts of the Roman Empire changed their i)olitical 
 allegiance. 
 
 (3) Iloir JIuitian Energy Varies. — We have already seen that 
 variations in the weathc^r from day to day are ouo of the greatest 
 stinndants to human activity. Apparently the ])art. of climatic 
 cycieswhich hasabundant rain in sid)tro]Mcal climat(>s has many more 
 storms and mu<h more variable weathei' than 1 he di\- ])art of I he cycle. 
 Therefore the wet jmrt is stinudating and people ha\-e much energ}\ 
 This seems to be one of the great reasons why the ]x>oi)le of coun- 
 tries like (Ireece, Palestine, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Persia were 
 much more energetic in the past than at preseid. In those days they 
 apparently had sonu'what the same kind of climatic stimulus which 
 the people of the United States and noilhweslei n Europe now have. 
 
MAN'S CHANGING SURROUNDINGS 375 
 
 QUESTIONS, EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS 
 
 1. Palestine, when first occupied by the Chikh'en of Israel, is described as a 
 land flowing with milk and lioney. A little furtlier north in Syria, according to 
 a careful American archu'ologist, at about the time of (Jhrist, "an area embracing 
 somewhat more than 20,000 square miles was more thickly populated than any 
 area of similar dimensions in England or in the United kStates is to-day, if one 
 excludes the immediate vicinity of the large modern city . . . Mile after mile 
 of this barren gray country may be traversed without encountering a single human 
 being. Day after day may be spent in traveling from one ruined town to another 
 without seeing any green thing save a terebinth tree or two standing among 
 ruins .... No soil is visible an\^vhere except in a few pockets in the rock 
 from which it could not be washed by the torrential rains of the wet season. Yet 
 every ruin is surrounded with the remains of presses for the making of oil and 
 wine. Only one oasis has been discovered in these high plateaus." 
 
 Explain the preceding facts. Show how and why man's surroundings in 
 Palestine and S3Tia have changed in each of the following respects: (a) vege- 
 tation; {b) soil; (c) agriculture; (d) density of population. 
 
 2. Study the diagrams of rainfall in subtropical, monsoon and mid-continental 
 regions, Figs. 83, 84, and 94. Show^ in each case what effect a diminution of rain- 
 fall and a shortening of the rainy season would have upon the following condi- 
 tions; (a) the seasons of planting and reaping; (b) the character of the crops; 
 (c) the use of animals; (d) the depth of soil on the mountains. Which of the three 
 kinds of regions would be most influenced? Why? 
 
 3. In any volume of the Mortality AStatistics issued by the United States Census 
 Bureau, look up the table headed "Deaths by IMonths of Occurrence." Plot the 
 monthly nimiber of deaths for the following places, beginning and ending each 
 curve with January: (a) California; (b) Miimesota; (c) Maine; (d) Missouri; 
 (e) North Carolina; (/) registration cities of Alabama; (g) your own state or citj'. 
 (These diagrams will be much more accurate and instructive if the numbers given 
 in the table are first divided by the number of days in the month, and the results 
 are again divided by the number of inhabitants reckoned in hundreds of thousands. 
 This will give the number of deaths per day for each himdred thousand people, 
 and the resulting curves can be compared without the necessitj- of making allow- 
 ances for the number of days in the month and the number of inhabitants.) Inter- 
 pret each curve as follows: (1) Which seasons are best and worst respective!}' and 
 how much do they differ in percentages? (2) What effect is produced by the onset 
 of warm weather? By the continuance of such weather? (3) The same for 
 cold weather. (4) Sum up the effect of the changes of the seasons in each ca.se, 
 and show where the effect is greatest. Be sure to make full allowance for the 
 numlx>r of inliabitants, for otherwise a small state or city will invariably appear 
 more healthful than a large one. 
 
 4. Discuss Fig. 100, as an illustration of a geograi)hic variable. 
 
 f). Describe in detail some variable geographic factor with which you arc 
 familiar, and discuss its effect. 
 
PART VIIl 
 MAN'S RELATION TO MAN 
 
 CHAPTER XXI 
 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 In all parts of the world geographical suj'roimdings have a strong 
 influence on political conditions. This is equally true among primi- 
 tive people and among those most highlj^ advanced. For example, in 
 eastern Pei-sia the chief poUtical idea of the primitive "Fowlei-s" who 
 live on birds and cattle in the vast swamps of Seistan is to evade pay- 
 ing taxes. This is because they are easily able to hide themselves 
 and their simple belongings among the tall reeds where the tax col- 
 lector cannot find them. The settled agricultural people on the open 
 irrigated lands not far away, on the contrary, look upon taxes as no 
 less inevitable than the seasons, for their environment furnishes no 
 way of escape. Among advanced people environment produces a 
 similar political effect when it causes the coastal sections of a countiy 
 to vote for ship subsidies, while the interior is strongly against 
 them. Each of the great elements of geographical environment 
 plays its part in causing political differences, for location, land forms, 
 water bodies, soil and minerals, climate, and plants and animals all 
 make some people want the govermnent to act in one way and some 
 in another. 
 
 (1) Why the East and the West Differ as to Immigration. — The 
 opposed desires of the East and AVest of the United States as to immi- 
 gration well illustrate the political effect of location. 'I h(> western 
 United States, which faces Asia, does not want Asiatic iimnigrants. 
 Its people feel so keenly on this question that some of lluin have 
 engaged in riots against the Chinese and Japanese, and ha\e com- 
 pelled the countiy as a whole to adopt the policy of excluding these 
 races. The East, because it faces Europe, is indifferent al>out Asi- 
 atics, but is intensely interested in I^urojiean inunigration. For many 
 yeai's the East wanted as man^^ innnigrants as possil)le, and hence 
 was against all restrictions. Now, however, the East is in nmcli more 
 
 377 
 
378 MAX'S ri:latk)X to max 
 
 danpcr from undrsirable Lmmigjants than is the West. Hence in 
 ahiiost every session of Congress Eastern niembei-s introduce bills 
 to restrict Ilurojx'un in mil juration. They feel that unless the level 
 of the iiiiinip;rants from the backward countries of eastern Europe is 
 raised, this country will soon find itself greatly injured because of the 
 dull minds inherited by great nmnbers of its citizens. 
 
 Why the Coast and Interior Differ as to Congressional Appropria- 
 tions. — Although the Ivist and the West differ as to inunigration 
 because they face different oceans, they agi-ee with one another and 
 differ from the interior of the United States as to spending money for 
 harbors, because they are both on the sea-coast. Both East and West 
 want large aiijiroiiriations for the navj', for coast defenses, for harbor 
 development, and for the encouragement of foreign trade. The inte- 
 rior States, howe^■er, are inclined to say that the United States is so 
 strong and rich that no power will ever dare attack us, and the coun- 
 try will prosper no matter whether the government helps foreign 
 ti*ade or not. ^^'hat they want is large appropriations for river im- 
 provement, national highways, irrigation projects, forest reser\-es, 
 and national parks. They say that if vast sums are spent to deepen 
 harbors on the Atlantic or Pacific coasts, equally large smiis ought to 
 be spent for improvements in States which have no water-borne 
 conmierce. 
 
 This conflict of interests often leads to log-rolling and results in 
 the so-called pork-barrel bill. Unscrujiulous congressmen try to get 
 appropriations for some project in tlu>ir own district no matter 
 whether it is good or bad, and all sorts of foolish compromises are the 
 result. It is a grave mistake to think that money should be sjx-nt in 
 one's own jxirticular State whether it ])r()duces national ]>enefit or 
 not. Pe< )])](• who do this overlook the fact that money sjient on 
 New York Harbor, for example, is a direct benefit to ( liicago, St. 
 Louis, and almost every part of the country, because it stimulates 
 trade and reduces the price of imported goods. In the same way the 
 coast States err when they opjiose the spending of monej^ for irriga- 
 tion or foi- the l)uil(litig of gi'eat national highways. It is time for 
 Americans to give up the jn-ejudices and gnH'd wliicli s]iriiig from their 
 location and ask only whetiier a given ]iroj('(t will be :i txncfil to the 
 nation as a wliolc, no mat (ci- where t he iiioiu^y may Ix' sjieiit . 
 
 How Belgium became a Victim to Location. — lielgiuni illustrates 
 the efVecf of location in (|uite a different way. Because she is located 
 between Germany and France and on the best route from one to the 
 other, CJermany sent her armies across that Httlc country in 1914. 
 Thus Belgium, in a (piaiTel with which she had nothing whatever to 
 do, sufferetl the loss not only of hundieds of tliousaiids of men but of 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY 379 
 
 a multitude of women and children. Through starvation, oppression, 
 and cruelty her people suffered as nmch as any of the chief parties 
 to the quarrel except northern France. She also lost an enormous 
 quantity of machinery and treasure; her factories were ruined, and 
 her material progress set back for decades. 
 
 (2) How Relief Influences Political Allegiance. — ^While location 
 causes political differences chiefly between people who live at some 
 distance from one another, the form of the land may cause equally 
 great differences between those in closely neighbormg regions. In 
 the Civil War the main line of cleavage was between the North and 
 the South, but within the South the relief of the Appalachian Moun- 
 tains caused a split between the highlands and the lowlands. The 
 liighlanders, by reason of their geographical surroundings, were poor 
 and scattered, and their farms were small and unproductive. They 
 could not raise large amounts of money-making crops like cotton 
 and tobacco. Hence slave la])or did not pay. Moreover, the 
 mountaineers did not have the capital to purchase slaves. Hence 
 throughout the whole Appalachian region from West Virginia south- 
 ward the mountaineers did not agree with the slave-owning plains- 
 men, and would not consent to secede. Manj^ of them joined 
 the Northern army, and all welcomed the coming of Northern 
 troops. 
 
 How Relief Keeps the Balkan Problem Astir. — On a map of the 
 Balkans notice the numerous mountain ranges, and the many direc- 
 tions in which the\' run. Between them lie numerous plains, some 
 of considera]:)le size like those of eastern Roumelia in Bulgaria, and 
 others mere little pockets among the mountains. 
 
 Into this region have come many sorts of people. Some, like the 
 Turks, have found a resting-place here when want and famine or hos- 
 tile invasions caused them to migrate from Asia to Em-o{)e. Others, 
 such as the Jugo-slavs, have been forced out of the plains of eastern 
 Europe by similar causes. Thus IMontenegrins, Albanians, Serbians, 
 Greeks, Bulgarians, Turks, Wallachs, and Roimianians are inex- 
 tricably mixed. In a broad plain these people might gradually have 
 become more or less unified as have the races from which sjn-ung the 
 English or the French. Each little valley or ])lain in the Balkan 
 Peninsula, however, is more or less isolated by a mountain wall, so 
 that the various races preserve their own social, political, and religious 
 characteristics. Consequently they engage in ahnost continual 
 quarrels. In addition to this, all alike have been discontented because 
 of the poverty which generally prevails among moimtains, and luu-e 
 been inclined to attribute their troubles to tlieii* neighbors or to the 
 government. 
 
380 MAX'S RELATIOX TO MAN 
 
 I'or .'ill tl»(>so reasons llic P):ilkans havo always ]ilay(*cl a trou1)lo- 
 soinc role in lMn-()])('. The Turks, when tliev wvvv in ]iowor, abused 
 and massacred \\\v ("hrislian races until they ajjpealed to the ])owei-s 
 of Europe for ])i-()lect ion. W hen 1 he ( 'hristians became su])reine, they 
 often ill-treated the Turks. ^Moreover, the Christians have alnised 
 one another most cruelly because of differences in creeil, lan«fuage, 
 and race. First one (Ireat. Power, then another, and finally all 
 top^ther have tried to brinji; order out of the Balkan chaos, but 
 always the mountains and the conditions which jjo with them have 
 baffled such attem])ts. Austria, took possession of llie ])id\iiices of 
 Bosnia and Dalmatia and gave them a stable but rc^pressive ficncrn- 
 ment. but the mountaineers did not like foreign rule, and the Ser])ians 
 of Serl)ia were <'oiitiiuialK' inciliuij; their fellow Sei'bians of the Aus- 
 trian ])rovinces against the government. Troubles of this kind in 
 l',)14 w<n-e the hmnediate cause of the Clreat War, although other and 
 dee]X'r factoi-s were still more miportant. When Austria demanded a 
 reckoning with Serbia the Russians stood bj^ that little Balkan 
 country and thus the great conflict was precipitated. 
 
 After the war the various Slavic races of the nortlnnn P)alkans 
 united in the re]iublic of Jugo-Slavia, while I^ulgaria, Poumania, and 
 (Jreece remained nuich as before. At once, however, there arose great 
 difficulties because Bulgaria and especially Jugo-Slavia c^ach ne(Mled 
 an outlet to the sea, whiU> (ireece and Italy wished to keep control of 
 the whole yEgean and Adriatic coasts. Jugo-Slavia and Italy almost 
 went to war over the port of Fiume, because this was ahnost 
 the only place where the relief gave Jugo-Shuia an outU^t to 
 tlie sea. 
 
 (3) Russia\s Thwarted Ejjorh to Gain a Good Sea Frontage. — 
 Russia furnishes a good exam])le of the effect of bodies of irater upon 
 pf)litical relations. That count ly has the longest coastline of any 
 counti-y in the world, but most of it is useless. Let us considei- each 
 of the four coasts: (a) The Western coast, bordering on the l^altic 
 Sea, has a twofold disadvantage. First, the ports are closed by ice 
 from tiln-ee to fiN'e months or more in the \\inler. Second, all the 
 conunerce bound for tlu^ ()])en ocean nuist i)ass through the nari'ow 
 straits at the western end of tlie Baltic, which can easily be blocked 
 by an enemy. Dtn-ing the (Ireat War ( ieiiiiany was easily able to 
 close the Baltic com])letely to Russian conunerce. In spite of these 
 disadvantages Petiograd, the chief seaport of Russia, lies on this 
 coast. 
 
 (Ij) The whole vast northern coast of Eurojie and Asia is prac- 
 tically useless. During the (Ireat A\'ar the closing of the I^altic by 
 Germany compelled Prussia to use the western ])art of her bleak 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY 381 
 
 Twrthern coasts during the short open season. The ports of Mur- 
 mansk and Archangel assmned a temporary importance, but this 
 vanished with the n^turn of peace. 
 
 (c) On the east, that is, on the Pacific coast of Siberia, Russia is 
 hampered only a little less than on tlu^ north. I]vcn as far south as 
 Vladivostok the ports are troubled by ice for four or more months in 
 the winter, and conunerce is impeded. Therefore in 1895 Russia 
 obtained from China the right to Ijuild a railroad through Manchuria, 
 and to hold an ice-free outlet to the open sea at Port Arthur. She 
 held tliis desirable harbor only a few years, however, for Jajian had 
 long coveted it and was desirous of asserting her influence in the 
 northern parts of China. Accordingly, Japan declared war and ex- 
 pelled Russia from the coast of southern Manchuria. 
 
 (d) On the south Russia's only sea-coast was for a long time on the 
 inland Caspian Sea and on the Black Sea, whose only outlet to the 
 open ocean is through the narrow strait of the Bosphorus at Con- 
 stantinople. Since the Turks held Constantinople and there seemed 
 no prospect of obtaining a free outlet there, the Russians again and 
 again considered the project of an advance across Persia or Afghanis- 
 tan in order to reach the Pei-sian Gulf or the Arabian Sea. In spite 
 of some progi'ess, however, they never succeeded, partly because of 
 England's strenuous diplomatic opposition, but also because the des- 
 erts and mountains of Persia are serious obstacles to railroad build- 
 ing. Because of her inal^ility to gain a desirable seacoast Russia has 
 been gi-eatly hampered. This cut her off from the rest of the Allies 
 dm'ing the Great War, and the isolation thus caused was a gi'eat 
 factor in her collapse and in the spread of Bolshevism. 
 
 The Rivalry of England and Russia in the Waters of Southwestern 
 Asia. — lOngland has generally op})osed Ivussia's ])lans to rcacii a 
 favorable seacoast because their success might threaten British rule 
 in India. For a long time l']ngland feared that war might arise with 
 Russia. If that hai^pened a strong Russian fleet coming out of the 
 Black Sea or from a good base on the Persian coast might close the 
 Suez Canal, cut England's conununication with India, and cripi)le 
 the Britisii Empire. For that reason luigland for many y(>ai"s sup- 
 ported Turkey, and insisted that Russia and the otiier Great Powers 
 sign a tr(\it\' which agrecnl that in tijne of war the Bosjihorus and 
 Dardanelk^s should generally remain closed to the passage of all war- 
 ships except those of Turk(>y. I'or the same reason England us(>d 
 even' possible means to strengthen her influence in Pei-sia. The 
 Great War and the common enmity against (iermany, however, con- 
 verted this rivalry of England and Russia info friendship. Xt)w the 
 infe]-nationalization of Constantin<)])le and the collapse of Russian 
 
382 MAN'S RELATlUX TU MAX 
 
 ani])iti()iis for oxpaiisloii havo frood England from all fear of Kussia 
 l\y sea. 
 
 How England's Relation to the Sea has Spread British Invest- 
 ments Worldwide. — Englanil's relation to Russia is only one phase of 
 iier interest in sea jiower. II(m- activity by sea has not onlj' given 
 Great Britain the gi'catcst colonial enii:>ire, but has led the British to 
 make investments in every corner of the world. Before other great 
 nations were ready to do so she was al)le to carry the world's trade 
 and thereby built u]) p'cat fortunes from the jirofits on freight. Be- 
 cause she hatl suri)lus capital from those sources and from her man- 
 ufactures and also because her abundant means of comnumication 
 by sea kept hf>r in touch with all parts of the world British capital has 
 been invested in all kinds of enteri)rises from CajM' Horn to Alaska 
 and from New Zealand to Norway. These investments kee]) her 
 ])ernianently interested not only in her colonies, but in every other 
 part of the world, and thus give the British a broad interest in world 
 politics quite tUffercnt from the proA'incial mterests of most people who 
 live far from the sea, 
 
 Germany's Challenge of British Sea Power, — Great Britain and 
 Russia are not the only nations that appreciate the value of suprem- 
 acy ui)()n the sea. Germany's eagerness in this respect was one 
 of the causes of the Great War. Cramped and overcrowded con- 
 ditions in Germany because of the rapid growth of population and the 
 limitations of the frontiers led the whole country to agi'ee with the 
 far-seeing Bisniarck when he said, "The futin'(> of Germany lies u])on 
 the sea." A givat merchant marine was rapidl}' built, and a large 
 navy to protect it. At the same tunc an attempt was nvMh to obtain 
 colonies and to foster foreign trade. Such activities aroused British 
 jealousy. The luiglish know that the strength of their empire de- 
 ))ends ujxni the protection of the Unes of conmiunication between 
 tiie island center and the great dependencies in all ])arts of the world. 
 If any otlier ])ower or combination of i)owers should overcome the 
 British navy, tiie l'jn])ire would ciunible to pieces. The fear that 
 Germany might in time ])v strong enough to bring about such a result 
 was one reason why Ijigland gave \\p her hostility to Kussia at the 
 beginning of tlu^ present century and joined with that country anc', 
 France to form the Triple Entente as a balance to the Triple AlUanee 
 of CJermany, Austria, and Italy. 
 
 In the ]):ist the great nations of the woild lia\-e di\ide(l the land 
 among thejnselves. To-day they are also taking the sea mider their 
 dominion, "^i'luis metluxls of using the sea are beginning to ])lay a 
 large ])art in the ])olili(;il discussions of many countries. Japan, for 
 exaini)le, as well as Prussia, England, and Gennany is keenly desir- 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY 383 
 
 ous to gain wealth and influence from the sea. This is natural in view 
 of her island character. The example of all these countries and the 
 need of abundant ships during the Great War has led the United 
 States to build not nierclj^ a strong navy, but a great merchant 
 marine. Otherwise we should have been in danger of losing much of 
 our influence. 
 
 (4) The Ownership of Minerals as a Political Problem. — In some 
 countries such as England the owner of a piet-e of land is supposed to 
 own ever}i:hing from the surface down to the center of the earth. 
 In other places, such as many of our Western States, he owns the soil, 
 the water, the stones, and all the rights that are needed for agri- 
 culture, house-building, or other orchnary pursuits, but does not own 
 the minerals that are extracted by mining. They belong to anyone 
 who discovers their presence and files the proper claims. In still 
 other regions such as Argentina, Italy, Germany, and Mexico, the 
 minerals belong to the state, and can be mined onl}- on proper pay- 
 ment to the government. 
 
 Many thoughtful people think that in our own country this last 
 sj^stem should be followed, since they believe it is not right that a 
 man should make milUons simply because he happens to be able to 
 file a claim to a niineral deposit, while another who works harder and 
 with much more intelligence makes only a fair living. Hence the 
 Govermnent has withdrawn large areas of mineral lands, that is, it has 
 said that for the present they shall not be gi-anted to individuals. In 
 both this country and England there has been much agitation for the 
 nationaUzation of the coal mines. The supporters of this idea say 
 that minerals like coal and petrolemn are so important and so easily 
 exhausted that the State ought to guard them. Others say that 
 government ownership would be unjust and would cause the mines to 
 be worked inefficiently and wastefully. Some people take a middle 
 ground and say that the best plan is that the government should own 
 the mines, but should allow private companies to operate tliem on 
 the payment of a royalty or percentage of the profit. These differing 
 views cause the ownership of minerals to be an inijiortant political 
 question not only in the -United States, but in England and else- 
 where. 
 
 Why Black England Wants Free Trade and Green England 
 Protection. — The soil and minerals of lOngland have giM>n rise to 
 one of the chief political problems, a i)roblem which has agi- 
 tated the country for a century and is not j-et settled. "Black Eng- 
 land" is the smoky industrial and mining section located chiefly 
 in the uplands of the center, but lunning from Cardiff in South 
 Wales to Yorkshire in the nortli. 'Hicre minerals are the chief 
 
384 MAN'S RKLATIOX TO MAN 
 
 soiirco of wealth. "ClvctMi England" is the agi'icultural plain of the 
 cast and soutii where the soil is the chief soinro of livelihood. The 
 greatest need of the manufacturing antl mining po])ulation is an 
 aliundance of cheap food. Therefore Black England is eager for 
 free trade, so thai it may hnport food without paying duties. On the 
 other hand, the farmers and landownei-s of CJrcen Ijigland see the 
 matter quite differently. They cannot compete with the wheat of 
 the great ]ilains in countries like Canada, Argentina, and Russia. If 
 they could im])ose a tluty on imports of food, however, the price of 
 agricultural ])roducts would rise, and the owners and tillers of farms 
 would ))r()s])er. Hence the slogan of Green England has been "Pro- 
 tection and Prosperity." Thus the contrast l)etween the minerals 
 of Black England and the soil of Green England has often led to a 
 main line of cleavage between the two chief British political parties. 
 The consequent tariff ])roblem can never be solved to eveiyone's 
 satisfaction, for the minerals and the soil will always lead to diver- 
 sity of interests and hence to differences in politics. Since manu- 
 facturing and mining, however, employ many more people then 
 agriculture, free trade is likely to continue as it has for several gen- 
 erations. 
 
 (5) How a Difference of Climate led to the Civil War. — Climate, like 
 other geogi-aphical conditions, has a strong effect upon political rela- 
 tions. The clunate of the Southern States causes them to be one of 
 the best places in the world for the highly profitable crops of cotton 
 and tobacco. Strange as it may seem this fact has in one way been 
 a decided disadvantage for it lead to the introduction of negro slavery. 
 The early settlei-s soon found that they could make great i^rofit out 
 of tobacco if only they had laborers, and when cotton became still 
 more profitable the need of laborers increased. Since white people 
 of the Northern races generally become sickly if they work nuich 
 out-of-dooi-s in the South, e<|)eciall>- in suuinicr, owiiei-s of largo 
 farms or plantations began bi-jnging black slaves from Africa. 
 
 No one then thought this wrong. In early days slaves were held 
 among the Puritans of New England as well as among the people of 
 the South. In the North, however, slave labor did not pay. To get 
 a living from the soil demanded hard, steady work, for which the 
 slaves were not fit. A slave ate as much as a white man, and wasted 
 much more. In the Northern States it w^as actually more ])rofitable 
 to hire a white man than to own a slave. Hence slavery ditl not long 
 survive. 
 
 In the South, on the contraiy, slavery was profital)le. The white 
 man was not at his best becanse of the long summer. A slave, how- 
 ever, ciiulil d(i iintrc than in llic North because there was no severe 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY 385 
 
 winter to hinder hini. In the Southern cUmate even the labor of an 
 inefficient slave furnished more than enough to support himself and 
 his family, and the work of other members of the family swelled the 
 profit to the owner. This was especially true when the prices of to- 
 bacco and cotton were high. Therefore, in the South slavery per- 
 sisted. 
 
 While slavery thus became entrenched in the South the world was 
 gradually becoming convinced that hmnan slavery is wrong. This 
 conviction easily spread in the North but failed to make headway in 
 the South since the people were blinded ])y their great profits. Hence 
 for a tune Anti-slavery and Pro-slavery dominated the politics of the 
 whole country and finally brought on the Civil War. That terrible 
 struggle would never have occurred but for the mai'ked climatic 
 contrast between the North and the South. Even to-day the politi- 
 cal divergence arising from the difference in climate between the 
 North and the South still persists in the fact that the Democrats 
 count on the vote of the "solid South," while the chief strength of 
 11^ Repubhcans is in the North. 
 
 (6) How GeograpJnj Donihiates the Tariff Question in American 
 Politics. — -IMany people suppose that they believe in free trade or pro- 
 tection because of principles of general justice. The vast majority, 
 however, hold one belief or the other simply l>ecause of the place 
 where they Uve or the occupation that they follow. The plants and 
 animals that grow in a place or are used in its industries influence our 
 beliefs far more than any amount of theoretical argument. 
 
 As a congressman once put it: "We are not patriots in our treat- 
 ment of the tariff. We forget the good of the country as a whole, 
 and think only of what products we want free or protected because of 
 the geographical conditions in our particular part of the country." 
 The following examples of things that have actually happened in 
 Congi'css when a tariff bill has Ixnm under discussion illustrate his 
 words. (1) A IVIassachusetts Hepublican, although belonging to the 
 party that advocates protection, demanded that hides be placed on 
 the free list. He came from a shoe manufacturing region. At the 
 same tune a Texas Democrat whose party believes in free trade, 
 insisted that the duty on hides be increased. The plains of Texas arc 
 excellent for cattle, and a high duty on hid(>s would increase^ the j^rice 
 of their sldns. (2) A South CaroUna Democrat demanded a pro- 
 tective duty on rice. (3) When the tariff on sugar was icduccd by the 
 Democrats the Louisiana Democrats and the Michigan I\e])ul»li('ans, 
 representing cane sugar and beet sugar, united in op])osing the 
 measure tooth and nail. (4) Senators from the Rocky IMountains 
 dwelt ujMjn the ijuportance of protection of wool. (5) Tiie rcjire- 
 
3S6 MAN'S IJKT.ATIOX TO MAN 
 
 scntativos from California doiuaiulcMl protoctioii of lemons. (G) 
 Minerals liavc tho same cfToct as ])lants and animals. I'or when the 
 Hepuhlicans voted for free coal a Pennsylvania Kei)iil)H(aii ('eclared 
 that this was a repudiation by his party of its policy of protection. 
 
 In general each ]mrt of the countiy wants protection and hifi;h 
 prices for the thin}j:s that it jiroduces, and free trade and low prices for 
 the things which it must luin^- fiom elsewhere. Manufacturers 
 generally want a tariff on mnimiact ui-ed uoods and free trade for 
 raw materials and food, 'i'hc rich ;mii(iilt mal States of the Miss- 
 issijii^i \'alley generally want low (hitics on iii;iinil;ni urcd goods and 
 high duli(>s on food. The Soiitliciii States in geneial favor free 
 trade l)ecaus(> they luiim- ])ia(ti(ally all I heir manufactured goods 
 from a distance. Free trade does not alter materially the price of 
 their one large export, cotton, because other ])aTts of the world have 
 not enough to export to America. 
 
 How the Monroe Doctrine has Sprung from the Isolation of the 
 New World. — ^Thc Alonroe Doctrine, like the whole ))roblem of bound- 
 aries, depends on a number of geographical conditions. According 
 to this doctrine no nation outside of America is allowed to obtain new 
 territorj'' in the Western Hemisphere or to establish a new govern- 
 ment over any part of it. The United States took the lead in this 
 movement of America for the Americans partly because this count i>- 
 is located in the most stimulating climate of the New World, ^^'e 
 were able to maintain it partl}^ because the wide Atlantic separates the 
 Americas from Europe. The IMonroe Doctrine was first declared in 
 1823 when the South American countries had revolted from Spain 
 and were establishing republics. At that tune there was danger that 
 I']in*o))ean countries would take ix)ssession of South .America as they 
 later took possession of Africa. The United States did not wish this, 
 for the people here Ix^lieved in self-government and wanted those of 
 South America to Ikuc an o])port unity to try it for themselves. 
 
 If South Aiiiciica had been as close to Europe as is Africa, this 
 country could not lia\(' ))revented iMigland, Germany, France, and 
 other ]^uro])eaii ])o\vers from taking ])arts of Latin America. So 
 much time, e\i)ense, and danger, however, are involved in trans- 
 porting an ariii\' across the sea that no European power thought it 
 worth while to go to war with us in order to obtain colonies. Thus 
 South America was left to tiy its own experiments in self-govern- 
 ment. 
 
 Through the Monroe Doctrme we have as it weic, ])l(>dg(Ml our- 
 selves to see that the ex])erijnent of self-goveinment has a tlKU'ough 
 trial. This, however, ]ilaces on us a heavy responsibility. Judging 
 by India, l'-gy])t, South Afii<'a, and other P>i-itish colonies as well as by 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY 387 
 
 French Tripoli and the Dutch Islands of Java and Sumatra, the more 
 tropical portions of South /jnerica would to-day be better 'governed, 
 more prosperous, and more peaceful than at present if they were held 
 by such an enlightened colonial power as Britain. Therefore be- 
 cause the sea has enabled us to say ''Hands off" to Europe we are 
 bound to see that no part of Latin America is the loser on this ac- 
 count. We do not want to govern the Latin Americans or take their 
 territory. To do so would be a burden to us and would prevent them 
 from learning through experience. We should be equally carc^ful 
 not to exploit their wealth selfishly, although it is inevitable that the 
 development of their resources should come largely through foreignere. 
 
 Without governing or exploiting the backward parts of the 
 Western Hemisphere we can help them in a thousand ways. We owe 
 it to them and to the rest of the world to see that they have stable, 
 just govermnents, such as we are trying to support in Cuba. Wo 
 can serve them greatly by teaching them to observe the difficult laws 
 of health and sanitation, as at Panama; we can do much by means of 
 schools and education to arouse them from the inertia which is so 
 common in tropical climates, as many missionaries are doing in 
 Mexico; we can assist in improving their homes, their business 
 methods, and all the other factors which make up a healthful, vigorous 
 civilization, as a great American fruit company is doing in Guate- 
 mala, Costa Rica, and elsewhere. We need not expect thanks for all 
 this, yet we must do it not merely because in the long run it will be 
 best for us as well as for them, but because the presence of the sea 
 has caused us to establish the ]\Ionroe Doctrine and thus to take upon 
 ourselves the protection of the weak and the oppressed on this sid(> of 
 the Atlantic. 
 
 The Relation of Geography to Political Boundaries: The Value 
 of Mountains as Political Boundaries. — Many iJoHtical effects s])iing 
 from a great variety of geographical causes. Boundaries, for example, 
 depend on land forms, water bodies, soil, minerals, climate, vegetation, 
 and even on the distribution of animals. Alountains determine ])()lit- 
 ical boundaries more often than does any other geogi'aphical feature 
 except the seacoast. This is because they possess a number of dis- 
 tinct advantages: (1) They form barrici*s which naturally separate 
 the people on the two sides; (2) a mountain boundaiy usually lies in 
 unoccupied lands which have no great value; (3) the crest of a moun- 
 tain range is usually well defined, so that there is little question as to 
 where the boundary lies; (4) sucli a l)ouiidaiy is not subject to changes 
 like those of rivers. 
 
 Spain fm'nishes one of the l)est examples of [he ])olilicnl value of 
 mountain boundaries. The Pyrenees, wliich cut it oft" from the rest 
 
388 MAN'S i{i;la'i-I()\ to max 
 
 of Europe, are so liard to cross that throufrhout iinicli of its liislon- 
 Spain has boon (iiiit(' separate fi'oin cciifral iMiidpc 'rii(> moun- 
 tains were one of the chief reasons \\h\- Spain played so httle part in 
 the Great War. Ital\-, also, is cut off from the rest of Europe by the 
 Alps. AceordinulN' no armies except those of two of the world's most 
 darinii; srenertds, Hannil)al and Napoleon, have ever crossed the main 
 chain of the Alps. Only at either end where the Alps descend to mere 
 foothills can they be crossed with comparative ease and even there 
 the i-ailroads need tunnels. Yet in the past armies from France and 
 esjiecially Austria have sonu^times fjone this way to Italy. 
 
 How Good Political Boundaries may be Bad Commercially.— It is 
 imi)()rtant to realize clearly that the politiail effects jiroduced by 
 geosjraphical conditions may be good while the commercial effects may 
 be decidedlj^ bad. For e.^'ample, politically a country is fortunate if 
 its boundaries are sharply defined by high mountains and are not 
 easily crossed. Commerciall}' such l)oundaries are imfortunate, for 
 they hamper transportation and trade. India and China illustrate 
 the matter. They are separated by the great barrier of the Hima- 
 layas and various other mountain ranges. This has been an advan- 
 tage politically because it has prevented wars. It has been a great 
 disadvantage commercially, however, for it has almost prevented 
 commerce. It has also prohibited the intcM-ciiango of id(>as and has 
 thus hamjiered the progj-ess of civilization. 
 
 Why Artificial Boundaries are a Disadvantage. — "Wherever in- 
 ternational boundaries fail to coincide with natui'al barriers, trouble 
 is apt to ensue. For example, the southern ]>oundarv of the I'niled 
 States is marked in part ))y the Rio Grande, but farther west it 
 traverses the open plateau. Even the Rio Grande loses its value as a 
 barrier in dry weathei-, foi- then it can easily be forded at many jioints. 
 The rest of the boundai>- is marked only 1)\- pillars set so that one 
 can be seen from the other. Only in a few sections is it followed 
 by a high barbed-wire fence built in order to prevent cattl(> from 
 straying or being driven across the boundary in defiance of th(> 
 customs r(>gulations. When Mexico is in commotion, as frequently 
 happens, there is nothing aside from a shallow river or an occasional 
 fence to prevent armed raiders from crossing into the United States. 
 In 19K1 a uoloiious raid of this kind occurred at ('olund)us, New 
 iSIexico. American ci\iliaMs and soldiers were killed li\- Mexican 
 bandits. Auiericaii troops were sent into Mexico and stay(>d for 
 months, and uai- lietween the two countries was avcM'ted only with 
 great diflicultw All this would never have happened if tiu> two 
 countries had been separated by a boundary which is also an effective 
 barrier. 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY 389 
 
 Unfortified Boundaries. — The only effective method of avoid- 
 ing troul)le iilong an international boundary where there is no natural 
 barrier is that which prevails on the northern border of the United 
 States. From the Great Lakes westward our northern boundary runs 
 across plains, mountains, and rivers with no regard to natural features 
 of relief. It is as easy to pass from one country to the other as to 
 travel within the lunits of either comitry. Fortunately because of 
 the friendship growing out of similarity in race, language, and ideals, 
 Canada and the United States have agreed that neither will ever for- 
 tify the boundary' or make any preparation for military activity along 
 its coui"se, nor will either power have warships upon the Great Lakes. 
 This agreement is rigidly carried out, yet frequently small disturbances 
 occur because evil docre cross from one side to the other. During the 
 Civil War, for example, Canadian sympathizers with the Southern 
 Confederacy tried to organize an armed expedition to cross from 
 Canada into the Northern States. Half a centmy later, during the 
 early part of the Great War, German sympathizei"s from the 
 United States crossed the boundary and tried to injure Canada by 
 blowing up the Welland Canal and the international bridge across the 
 Saint Croix Ri^•er. 
 
 Sweden and Norway furnish another example of unfortified boimd- 
 aries. They have agreed that a strip within L5 kilometers on either 
 side of the international boundary shall form a "l)uffer zone" wlun-e 
 neither power will erect fortifications. The same sort of agreement 
 has been entered into l)etween Siani and Burmah. 
 
 How Germany's Frontiers Helped Bring on the Great War. — • 
 Among the world's great nations (Germany has politically the most 
 unfortunate l)oundaries. An understanding of them helps to explain 
 some of the causes of the Great War. The really bad sections of 
 Germany's boimdaries are on the east and west. Thc^ eastern bound- 
 ary crosses a featun^less plain, while the Dutch boundary on the 
 west is of the same kind. The pre-war bomidary toward Belgium and 
 France lay mostly in a region of low hills easily traversed. Coni- 
 merciall}' such boundaries would be good were it not that they gave 
 Germany the mouths of tlu^ Nienu>n and A'istula Rivers which nat- 
 urally belong to Russia,, and cut Germany off from t.lu> mouth of her 
 most important river, the lihine, where the chief (ierman sca])ort 
 would naturally be located. 
 
 The indefinite character of her eastern and western boimdaries 
 was one reason why Germany encroached on h(>r neigiibors. Li the 
 eighteenth centuiy she annexed part of Poland, and in tlu> niiu>t(>enth 
 took Alsace-Lorraine from France. France naturally- wanted to 
 recover Alsace-Lorraine^, for in that region tlie majority of the 
 
300 MAX'S RELATION TO MAN 
 
 p(M)plp arc Froiich in rac(^ and in s>inpathios. Excopt alonp; the 
 \'()sg('s Mountains in southern Alsace there are no pliysieal bounthu'ies 
 to separate it from France any more tlian from Germany. There- 
 fore l)oth countries felt oblif^ed to i)rovi(le military defenses alonj? 
 Cli-rmany's western boundary. In the same way on the east Kussia 
 and Clermany were not phj'sically separated. Before the Great War 
 they had no afjreejnent like that Ix'tween the United Staters and 
 Canada. Moreover sueh an afireenieiit is diflicult because, the. two 
 countries differ ^"eatly not only in hiiiuuatic and habits, but in ideals 
 and ])ur]>oses. l-jich has const ant 1\' been afraid of encroachment by 
 the other. 
 
 Even in times of peace the absence of any distinct barriers on the 
 east and west of (lerjnany caused difficulties. The Poles by the 
 hundred thousand went from Russian Poland into eastern Germany 
 and took the place of German workmen who had moved west to the 
 g:i-eat manufacturing districts or mifiTated to America. Thousands 
 of Germans went into the Baltic provinces of Russia and there be- 
 came a dominant force. These things made Germanj- feel that her 
 power was declining in the south(>ast(n-n part of her own country, 
 while at the same tune she was losing her own citizens elsewhere. 
 On the west the Germans felt hampered and hemmed in because the 
 gi'eat volume of fonngn commerce that cajne down the Rhine had to 
 pass through the hands of the Dutch who control the lower Rhine. 
 In the same way the Belgians profited because much of Germany's 
 foreign conunerce that was borne by rail passed through their ter- 
 ritory. The discontent caused by these conditions was one reason 
 \\ h>- ( lermany was so ready to go to war. 
 
 The Character of the Present Boundaries of Central Europe. — 
 From the purely- physical standpoint the ])rcseiit l)oun(.larics of cen- 
 tral Europe are little better than the old ones. Germany's boun- 
 daries have the same disadvantage's as before. The Rhine indeed is 
 geographically far less of a bari'icr than the \'osges iMountains. On 
 the east the boundary c\-cry\\ Ik ic liaverses a level ])lain and can 
 easily be crossed at any point. The only advantage is that tlu> new 
 boundaries satisfy the racial aspii"ations of more ]k'oi)1(> than did the 
 (tld, wiiili' the League of Nations intends to pievciit the building of 
 fori ificat ions along any frontier. 
 
 Poland's boundiu'ies are politically even woi'sc than (leiinany's, 
 since that country is carved out of an oi)cn plain. In fact the 
 lack of any barriers between Poland and her neighbors was one of 
 the main reasons why t.he old Poland of a century ago was divided 
 bclwccn < iciiiiany, .\n-tria, ;fnd Russia, in llic I'ulurc the lack of 
 bariici- boundaries ma\- foster Poland's t i-ade, but will cause the Poles 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY 391 
 
 in different sections to want to enter into intimate relations with their 
 respective neighbors and may cause strong poUtical differences. 
 
 Czecho-SIovakia, Jugo-Slavia, Hungary, Austria, and the other 
 little states of that ])art of Europe suffer more or less in the same way 
 from lack of definite physical barriers in the places where racial dis- 
 tribution causes the location of boimdaries. Because of this fact 
 gi'eat tact and wisdom are iK^ecknl on the part of the League of Nations 
 to prevent further troubles hke those of Poland, Austria, and the 
 Balkans in the past. 
 
 QUESTIONS, EXERCISES, AND PROBLEMS 
 
 1. On an outline map of the United States, color all the boundaries both state 
 and national, according to the following scheme: (a) boundaries determined bj' 
 mountains — red; (6) by water — blue; (r) by deserts — yellow; (d) by arbitrary lines 
 of latitude and longitude or other straight lines — ^green. Discuss your map to 
 show what i)arts of the countrj- are characterized by each kind of boimdaries, and 
 why. 
 
 2. Make a boundary map of Europe like the "one for the United States de- 
 scribed in Exercise 1, and discuss it in the same wa3^ Write out a statement of 
 the chief points of contrast between the maps of the United States and Europe, 
 and their reasons. 
 
 3. Prepare a map showing the present boundaries of European countries com- 
 pared with those previous to the Great War. Discuss the geographical conditions 
 which determined the location of each new boundary. Show the effect of (a) 
 mountains; (6) distribution of races; (c) routes of transportation; (il) arliitraiy 
 exercise of power. 
 
 4. Look up the climatic graph for Vladivostok (Fig. 84) and point out what 
 features of it have had an effect on international relations and how. 
 
 5. On an outline map of European Russia and Siberia, color the coasts which 
 are icebound in winter. Insert the Trans-Siberian and Trans-Caucasian raiiwaj's 
 with their main branches and connections to foreign countries. Draw lines along 
 the four most feasible routes by which Russia and Siberia might find outlets to the 
 ocean on the .south. Describe each route from tiie following ])()ints of view: (a) 
 topography; (?;) climate; (c) location in respect to well settled parts of the 
 Russian Empire; (d) difficulty of building and operating lines of communication; 
 (c) international relations. 
 
 6. It has been said that the great area covered by the United States presents 
 real community of interest. Prepare both pros and cons for a debate on this 
 question. 
 
CHAPTER XXII 
 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 
 
 How the Strong Nations Have Expanded. — One of tho cliicf 
 ])()litical (iiu'slioiis of tlio twciitirth cciitury is the iclalion of stroiii!; 
 nations to those that are weak or l^ackwanl. Cieojq'aphical con- 
 ditions, as we have ah'cady seen, strengthen some nations and 
 weaken othei"s. Hence such conditions have a profound influence on 
 international relations and so on the ideals which are one of the great- 
 est factoi-s in advancing or retarding ci^dlization. Histoiy shows that 
 strong nations in invigorating clunatcs ahnost inevitably expand and 
 dominate the weak ones in less favorable clmiates. In the past they 
 did this without restraint, but now their expansion is more or less 
 controlled by the concerted action of other nations. 
 
 The direction in which strong nations expand depends on geograph- 
 ical conditions. As a rule a strong nation gi'adually expands into 
 adjacent temtory that is either spai-sely populated or ])oorly governed. 
 At first the expansion is more or less accidental, or at least is merely 
 the work of individuals, but later it is guided by definite purposes, 
 which become part of the national ideal. Let us trace the expansion 
 of each of the gi'cat powers, so that wc may undc^rstand both Jioir it 
 has taken ])iaco and ?/7///. 
 
 (1) Great Britain. How Britain Expanded Across the Sea. — 
 The earliest attempt of Britain to expand beyond the limits of the 
 British Isles was directed toward France, but as that country, accord- 
 ing to the standards of those early days, was neither sjiarsely po]iu- 
 latcd nor poorly governed, England was baffled. Then Britain turned 
 her attention across the sea. Si)ain, Portugal, and France, however, 
 the other three main countries on the side of Europe toward the Atlan- 
 tic, were also looking for opportunities across the water. S]miii and 
 Portugal, in accordance with their geographical position, founil their 
 sphere of activity in low latitudes where the niild climate prevented 
 their colonies from growing great. I'Jigland and I'rance colonized 
 farther north, where the climate is stijnulatiiig. The fact that 
 England is an island, and looks seaward, while l''rance is part of the 
 continent and is more interested in the land than in the sea, helped 
 the English to wrest from the French their possessions across the 
 geas. Thus by far the best part of America became EngUsh, 
 
 393 
 
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 393 
 
 During the early days the EngUsh had no idea that some day 
 their colonics would expand into the great Dominion of Canada and 
 the still greater United States of America. The fact that the colo- 
 nists Uved in a highly stimulating climate, however, mad(^ such ex- 
 pansion inevitable. That same fact also had much to do with the 
 separation of the United States from England, for energetic p(H)plc 
 will not tolerate abuses which more apathetic pcoi)le put up with for 
 centuries. 
 
 In India the effect of geographical conditions upon England's 
 colonial history was very different from the effect in the United 
 States. Soon after the discovery of America British merchants went 
 to India to engage in trade and with no pur))ose of foimding a vast 
 Indian Empire. They found a densely populated countiy whose in- 
 habitants lacked energy because of the tropical clmiate, and who were 
 correspondingly l)ackward in civilization. Accordingly, for their 
 own convenience and safety, the British merchants assmned control of 
 a small area near Calcutta and governed it. At first they nierely 
 took space enough for forts within which to shelter their warehouses 
 and offices. Then, for greater peace of mind, they spread their ])()wcr 
 over the towns where the forts were located and in tune over surround- 
 ing districts. But neighboring Indian states troubled them. Some- 
 times the trouble was due to the aggression of the forceful English 
 traders; sometmies to the dishonesty and tn^achery of the natives. 
 In cither case the strong people from an invigorating clunate con- 
 quered the weak tropical people. Thus British rule was spread 
 abroad. The process has continued until England governs over 300,- 
 000,000 people in southern Asia. 
 
 During the Great War the location of Mesopotamia and Palestine 
 gave England a special interest in those regions. Cermany had l^ccn 
 encroaching on ]Mcso})otamia, and thus bade fair not only to dom- 
 inate the land route from the Mediterranean to India, but to threat en 
 the sea route. Turkey, on the other hand, began to threatcMi tlic 
 Suez Canal from Palestine. Hence lilngland concpuMx^l not only 
 Mesopotamia, using India as her base for supplies and tiooiis, 1ml 
 Palestine with Egj^pt as a base. AVhen peace was declared l-jigland 
 was left in control of these regions and in a position to carry out 
 her long-cherished plan of a land route of licr own from Egypt and the 
 Mediterranean to India. Outside her actual i)ossessions the intlu- 
 ence of England is paramount in Persia, Afghanistan, and Tibet, 
 because her position in India makes her the nearest strong i)ower to 
 each of them. 
 
 In the Southern ne]nis])liere l')ritish ex])ansion followed nnicli the 
 same course as in the Northern. Australia, with its sparse native 
 
394 MANS RELATION TO MAN 
 
 ])(i])ul;i(i<in and its j^ood clijiialc in tho soutlicast, ropoatod the 
 history of Nortli Ajiicrica on a small scale, us ilid New Zealand. 
 There \v:us never ar.y revolution, however, because England learned 
 the lesson of good colonial government from her war with the ^\jner- 
 ican colonies. In South Africa the course of events was midway 
 lu'tween that in Australia and India. The British settlers encoun- 
 tered a denser native population and a less stinnilating climalc than 
 in Australia. They dominated the natives as in India, but they 
 themseb-es have gradually ])een weakened so that progress is not so 
 rapid as in a place like New Zealand. In tropical Africa the concjuest 
 of the British Colonies took place much as in the later stages of India's 
 history, but the results have been relatively meager. lOlsewhere the 
 British colonies are relatively small or unimportant. In I-^gypt 
 England acquired a colony because Egypt happens to lie on the highly 
 imjiortant route which connects the homeland w'ith India. But 
 in 1922 iMigland gave up her direct control over Egypt except for a 
 canal zone where her i)osition i'^ much like that of tiie United States 
 in the Panama Canal Zone. 
 
 Why the British Empire Has Grown so Great. — (a) Britain's 
 Central Location. — The leasons why the British Empire to-day 
 embraces nearl}^ a quarter of the earth's surface may well be classified 
 according to the table in Chapter I, showing llic elements of geog- 
 raph}'. The location of Britain off the northwest coast of Europe 
 brings it nearer to the middle^ latitudes of America than is any other 
 country of Europe. This is important because Britain was thus led 
 to occupy the best part of Ameiica. That helps to explain wliy hjiglish 
 is the most widely used language. The location of Britain in icsjKH't 
 to India was also influential in causing the Suez Canal to be dug, and 
 was the reason why l^igland took charge of Egypt and still controls 
 its foreign policy. After C.i'eat Britain became imbued with the pur- 
 pose to build u| ) a great empire she set herself to control the best lines of 
 approach to each of her possessions. This involved picking up islands 
 like the Bennudas,and Falklands,and ports like Hongkong all over the 
 world. To-day along her most important route leading to India h'ng- 
 land has secured a whole string of w'ay -stations, including (Jibraltar, 
 Malta, Cyprus, Suez, Perim, Aden, Socotia, and the Kuria ]\Iuria Isl- 
 ands. Thus I^rilain is the nu'cting jilace of the most rcniaikalilc net- 
 work of lines of conimunicaton that the world ever knew. Slir lias im- 
 proved her own location even though it was already highly la\()rable. 
 
 {h) The Advantacje of the Emqyire's Island Home. — England is 
 fortunate that her land takes the form of an island, and jiai'ticularly of 
 an island willi a submerged coast. Had her territory liccn joined to 
 that of the mainland she might perhaps have I'cmained united 
 
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 395 
 
 with France as a single nation. Certain!}^ her interests would have 
 been directed toward the continent as have those of France because 
 of the need of protecting herself from other countries and of main- 
 taining constant intercourse with them. Had her coast not been sub- 
 merged she would have lacked the hundreds of harbors, great and 
 small, that keep her in touch with the sea. Moreover, when she 
 came in conflict with othei nations which were also expanding l)y sea 
 she had an advantage because her long coast gave her far more sailors 
 and ships than had the others, and also led her people to l)e interested 
 in conunerce and remote overseas venturers in a way that is not pos- 
 sible for an inland country. 
 
 (c) How the Ocean Brought Worldwide Expansion. — Being sin'- 
 rounded l)y water Britain had to expand by sea or not at all. Smce 
 she expanded across the water she was able to choose whatever places 
 she preferred with much less hindrance than if she had tried to push 
 this way and that by land. As the most active of the gi-eat nations 
 on the sea, she was able to take possession of ahnost all the best 
 regions in America, Africa, Asia, and Australia. Even when other 
 nations had preceded her, she often drove them out as happened to 
 Holland in New York, to France in Canada, and to Portugal in Cey- 
 lon. 
 
 (r/) How Coal and Iron Aided the Empire'' s Growth. — The minerals 
 of Britain have been of the first importance. An abundance of cheap 
 coal close to the water enabled Britain to substitute steamships for 
 sailing vessels sooner than did any other nation. Then it enabled 
 her to run her ships cheaply and gave her cargoes to take abroad in 
 exchange for bulky food stuffs and raw materials. Thus coal cUucIkhI 
 Britain's control of the sea. So having picked up an island here, a 
 seaport there, and a whole province somewhere else, she was able to 
 hold them easily. Her iron ore helped equally, for with the coal it 
 enabled her to become a manufacturing nation sooner than did any 
 other country. Her manufactures suppHed her sliips with the most 
 profitable kmd of goods for export, and thus are one of the main 
 causes of the growth of the em])ire. Petroleimi is the onlj^ important 
 mineral product which neither Britain nor her colonies supply. For 
 that reason after the Great War some influential Englishmen wanted 
 to retain Persia and ]iart of Transcaucasia in order to control the 
 Baku oil fields. Others, howe^•er, felt that such a course was con- 
 trary to the spirit embodied in the League of Nations. 
 
 (e) How British Eucrgij Turns the Scales. — P^ngland, as we have 
 seen, probably has the best chmate in the world. It keeps peojilc out 
 doors, and makes them tough and sturdy; it stinuilates the miml, 
 and jnakes it easy to think ck'arly and act energetically. Thus when 
 
396 MAN'S RELATION TO MAN 
 
 thp British arc pitted against othrr nations their extra energy has 
 again and again tiu'ned tlie scales and enabled them to hold parts of 
 tiie world against their rivals. ( )ne of the niain reasons for the 
 strength of the Hritish Ijnjnre is that several of the chief colonies 
 have climati's which resemble that of England in their sthnulating 
 qualities. Southern Canada, New Zealand, and southeastern Aus- 
 tralia, rank highest. No other countiy has colonies which at all 
 ap]")roach these in this respect. ThcMr ^'alue is evident from the 
 sturily helji that they gave hi the Great ^^'ar. 
 
 (/) How the Need of Food and Haw Materials Forced Expaimoti. — 
 From the point of view of a colonial ein]iire it is well that certain 
 useful jilants and animals cannot grow in the lirilish Isles, for it was 
 the search for valuable products like tea, spices, and silk, which led 
 to Britain's first expansion to India and America. In later times, 
 when manufacturing became huportant, the fact that Britain can- 
 not produce either food or raw inatcnials in sufficient quantit}' and 
 variety unpelled the British still further to ex])and their emjiire. 
 The jute and hides of India are far more valuable than all her spices, 
 silk, tea, and precious metals. So, too, the wool and meat of Aus- 
 tralia, the wheat, wood, bacon, cheese, and paper of Canada; the 
 cotton of Eg^'pt ; the rubber of Ceylon ; and the wool of South Africa, 
 are the kind of i)ro(hi('ts t hat make her colonies worth Avhile to Britain. 
 
 (2) The Expansion of Russia. — Just as England furnishes the 
 gi'eatest exam])le of expansion by sea, so Russia furnishes the best 
 example of ex])ansi()n In" land. Compared with the 13, ()()(), 000 square 
 miles and 440,000,000 peoi)le of the British Empire, Kussia, before 
 the Great War, had 8,600,000 square miles and 180,000,000 people. 
 Yet the Russian Empire had little of the strength antl vigor of the 
 British, for Russia and Siberia are subject to many geographical tlis- 
 advantages. 
 
 (a) In location the Russian Empire had the disadvantage of be- 
 ing in the worst part of I^urope and in the least accessible part of Asia. 
 Thus it came in little contact with the w^orld's most progi'essive coun- 
 tries. It had the advantage, however, of b(>ing a single conqxact mass 
 instead of a vast number of isolated and vulnerable parts such as com- 
 pose the British Enq:)ire. 
 
 (6) The /or//? o/ ^/ic /a/) r/ in Bussia courted expansion, for in the 
 great portion between the dense northern forests and the southern 
 deserts t.he \iist plain is easily traversed. From Moscow, where 
 the ciiijjire began, the plain stretches awaj' in every direction. To 
 tlu; jKjrtii it finally reaches a boundary only in the Arctic Ocean, and 
 to the south in the Black Sea and tlu^ Caucasus Mountains. West- 
 ward the Fkiissi;tn Enq)ire never reached any iialural boundary, for 
 
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 397 
 
 before the form of the land changes appreciably, new races are found 
 and new conditions of climate and vegetation. In this lay much of 
 Russia's weakness, for when the Empire began to cnunblc these 
 border regions at once broke into minor principahties hke Finland, 
 Poland, and Ukraine. Eastward the plain is only slightly inter- 
 rupted by the low Ural IVIountains and extends thousands of miles 
 to the plateaus of northern Siberia. Its vast extent was one chief 
 reason why the Russian Empire became so huge. 
 
 (c) As we saw in the last chapter Russia has always been handi- 
 capped bj' her unfortunate relation to the oceans. So far as inland 
 bodies of water are concerned, however, her expansion has been helped. 
 Because Sil^eria is a plain the pioneei*s in that country were able to 
 float down one river and pole their boats up another time and again. 
 Such water transportation aided greatly in allowing the Russians 
 to spread easily over northern Asia. 
 
 (r/) One of the important points where Russian expansion dif- 
 fered froni that of Britain was the use of minerals. In Britain coal 
 and iron are found near the most densely populated parts of the 
 country. In Russia, the deposits are not only far less abundant 
 than in England, but he largely on the outer edges. For these rea- 
 sons and also because Russia is in many respects less advanced than 
 the other great powers, her coal and iron have done little to help in 
 the development of manufactures. They neither caused the empire to 
 expand, nor prevented it from faUing apart under the shock of war 
 and revolution. 
 
 {e) Although western and central Russia have a highly stimu- 
 lating clivmic, it deteriorates along every possible line of cx])ansion. 
 This made it easy to conquer the people of outlying regions, but it 
 denied to Russia the chance to develop strong colonies like Canada 
 and Xew Zealand, which in some respects excel the mother coimtry. 
 On the contrary the farther Russia expanded toward the south, 
 east, and north, the less became the energy' and power of th(^ po()])le, 
 and the weaker their union with the central government. 
 
 (/) Another disadvantage appeal's in the plants and animals. 
 England's expansion enabled her to draw on all sorts of new food 
 stuffs and raw materials. That of Russia in early days, to be sure, 
 brought her the rich wheat fields of the south and of western Siberia, 
 but in later times she acquired nothing new — merely more of the old 
 kinds, but of jjoorer quality. Hence there was no gi'cat stinuilus to 
 trade, and little incentive to ijtnprove the difficult means of cojiuniiiii- 
 cation between the outlying n^ginns and the center. 
 
 Russia's Great Handicap, Monotony. — To sum up tlu> wh()l(> 
 matter, although some great minds like IVter the (ireat made i)lans 
 
30S MAN'S RKr.A'riOX TO MAN 
 
 to attain tlofmito ends such as an outlet on ice-free seas?, most of 
 Russia's growtli was lar}z;('ly accidental. The ninrr riior<rctic people 
 of the western and central jjarts j)ushetl out over the ])lains jnucli as 
 the British pushed out across the water. Quarrels with the natives 
 ensued. The government stepped in to protect its citizens, and the 
 result was an enlarj^ement of the Russian Empire. Yet the cold 
 climate and the consequent spai-sity both of people and of materials 
 for commerce prevented the Russian I'hiipire from being tied into a 
 great net as is tlie British Emjiire, and so it fell to pieces. The. 
 pieces may ultmiately form parts of a new and happier Russian Em- 
 pire, for the unity of the language and the unity of the vast plain 
 strongly tentl to hold the country togc^tlun-. But such an empire can 
 scarcely hojie to rival those of the United States and Britain whose 
 territories are blessed with a variety which is a potent source of 
 stnMigth. Comi)ared with such a country as the United States 
 Russia is handicapped by intense monotony. The plain shows it; 
 the climate shows it; the plants and annuals show it; and so do the 
 peojile. 
 
 (3) The Expansion of the United States. — Because our own coun- 
 try'' is a region of high energy and is inhabited by a strong race the 
 process of expansion has gone on rajndly. A\'e bought Louisiana and 
 Alaska because they are located nearer to us than to any other strong 
 ]i()\vor. Hence they were worth more to us than to France or Russia, 
 tlicir jirevious owners. Two other geographical conditions also 
 entered into the matter, namely the fact that Louisiana guards the 
 month of our greatest waterwaj-, while Alaska is rich in fish and fur. 
 In the cases of Texas, New IMexico, Arizona, Nevada, and California 
 location was also a prmiary factor in causing the expansion of llie 
 United States. In Texas, however, the form of the land and the 
 nature of the dunate were unportant. The great j^lain, continu- 
 ous w'ith that of Louisiana, invited settlers, while the fitness of llu^ 
 climate and vegetation for the raising of cattle were strong incentives. 
 The other States fell into our hands largely ])e(ausc so much of them 
 was desert and the ])aits tluii were not desert were so far from IMt^xico 
 tliat few Mexicans li\-e(l l,hei-e and misgovernment was ranqiant. 
 Hence in s]iite (»f niuch talk, ther(^ was little organized o])])ositi(m 
 in Mexico wiien they were ceded to this country. Although 
 I he whole transaction was to the advantage of Texas and the 
 United States, it was not strictly just. It illustrates the way 
 in which the demands of the eiuYgetic people of cycloni<' regions 
 are forced u])on the weak ])eo])le of the tropics and the Orient. 
 It nnist also be remend)ered that by reason of its own natural 
 growth and the addition of settlers frojn l]in-o]K'., the United 
 
INTERXATIOXAL RELATIONS 399 
 
 States was rapidly expanding, while Mexico was changing but Uttle. 
 Mexico hei-self, together with the unfavorable clmiate, prevented 
 us from expanding southward, whik^ England was firmly estab- 
 lished in Canada. Hence the natural direction of expansion was west- 
 ward. This explains wh}- the settles of the United States pressed 
 into Washington and Oregon ahead of the British, who claimed those 
 regions because of their fur-trading posts. Our other acquisitions 
 also illustrate the effect of clunatic contrasts and of location. At 
 first our expansion, like that of Russia, was entirely b}' land, but later 
 we followed England's example and went across the water. Firet 
 we took the Hawaiian Islands because they are nearer to us than to 
 any other country. IMoreover, although not on the main route be- 
 tween this country and Japan and China, they are a port of call for 
 many steamers. For these reasons and also because of their wealth 
 in cattle, sugar, and other tropical products Americans already formed 
 a solid nucleus for seK-government and we felt obhged to support 
 their aspirations to become part of our union. In Samoa, also, we 
 took action, first because we wanted a naval station in the South 
 Pacific, and then to prevent misgovcrnment. 
 
 After the war with Spain in 1898 we placed a protectorate over 
 Cuba. Because it hes at our very door we were interested ui its 
 sugar crop, and wanted to right its wrongs. Our acquisition of the 
 island possessions of the Phihppines and Porto Rico, however, had 
 little geogi'aphic cause except m so far as Spain's weakness and cor- 
 ruption were of geogi'aphical origin. As for Guam, we were glad to 
 get it because of its location where a coaling station was needed if we 
 were to maintain much intercoiu'se with the Philippines. Since then 
 we have annexed the Panama Canal Zone and have established a mild 
 protectorate over the RcpubHcs of Panama, Nicaragua, Haiti, and 
 Santo Domingo. We have not done this from any desire for expan- 
 sion, but simply because our location near these countries has obliged 
 us to use our strength in forwarding the gi'eat international enter- 
 prise of the canal and in protecting oiu* own people or others from the 
 misgovernment of weaker countiies. The Virgin Islands fall in a 
 group by themselves. We bought them from Denmark because the 
 United States is coming to feel that it shoukl not rim the risk of letting 
 islands guarding the approaches to Panama fall into unfriendly 
 hands. 
 
 (4) The Expansion of France. — France is another of the countries 
 located in a region of highly stimulating climate. She, too, has ex- 
 panded into regions occu]')ied by weaker people, but not in the same 
 way as Britain, l^ussia. and the United States. She has not had much 
 surplus p()i)ulati()n with which to estal)lish colonies like tlinse of 
 
MM) MAX'S RELATION' TO MAX 
 
 Britain. Her frontioi-s, unlike tliosc of Russia, have boon boitlcrod by 
 stronp countries so tliat she eoukl not expand into ncifihborin}? terri- 
 tory. Soon after tlie (Useovery of .Vinerica siic jiiadc her first colonial 
 attempt in the same way as (li'cat Bi'itain. Alaiiy of her people 
 settled in ( "anada, and Louisiana, and India. These places she lost, 
 chielly to England, because of the lOnplish energy' and sea power and 
 l>ecause being a self-supporting agiicultural country with no excess 
 population she did not reall}'' need colonies. All that she holds 
 to-da>' in these regions is a few tinj^ l)its like the islands of St. Pierre 
 and Miquelon off Newfoundland and the port of Pondicheny in 
 India. In thus losing her early American and Indian colonies 
 France suffered the same fate as Holland and Portugal. 
 
 During the nineteenth centuiy, when the need of raw materials 
 and of markets started all the gi*eat countries of Europe on a new hunt 
 for colonies France again niade an attempt. This time she did not 
 expand from her Atlantic coast where she had failed before and where 
 she would have had to compete with England. Instead she went out 
 from her Mediterranean coast to Tunis and Algeria, the nearest land 
 that was not held by a strong nation and hence was weaklj' governed. 
 Then she expanded into the Sahara and eventually took the bulk of 
 west Africa. To-day her possessions in the continent of Africa are 
 twenty times the size of France, while even the island of jNIada- 
 gascar, off the southeast coast, is larger than all of the home coun- 
 try. Finally the French turned again toward Asia, and there, unlike 
 Great Britain, they entered upon a deliberate plan of conquest in 
 Indo-China. To-day the French possessions are larger than the 
 United States and have half as great a population. England alone has 
 a larger colonial empire. Strangely enough all this territory is 
 commercially tributary to the Mediterranean coast of France, and 
 aUhougii Paris is the capital, Marseilles is the great colonial port. 
 
 (5) The Expansion of Japan. — Among the nations of Asia Japan 
 is the only one which is strong because of its location in a region of 
 cyclonic storms. The example of other strong nations convinced her 
 of the vahic of colonies. The ^I'ow tli of licr own population made her 
 feel the need of them. The weak and poorly governed regions of 
 Fonnosa an<l Koica only a little distance from her coasts gave her the 
 desired op])ort unity for expansion. They were not enough to satisfy 
 her, however, and :us Manchuria is the nearest easily accessible region 
 she exi)anded ra))idly there. 
 
 .lajian's ex])ansion is the result of a real need. Not more than 
 one-filth of iier tenitory can be cultivated because it is so moun- 
 tainous. Thai lil'tli. comprising only 21,000 square miles, supports 
 5.^,000,000 peo|)le, or 2'A)i) to the s(iuaf(> mile. .\s the jjopnladon 
 
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 401 
 
 increases and the standard of living rises, the Japanese must ha\e 
 new means of support. They have thought they could obtain these 
 by acquiring new lands, and hence have adopted a policy of attempt- 
 ing to control China. At the end of the Great War, they tried to 
 cling to Shantung, which they had wrested from the Germans, and 
 at the same time acquired new concessions farther south in Fukien. 
 
 How Japan Can Best Solve Her Chinese Problem. — The expe- 
 rience of I'rance and of most countries that have colonies shows, how- 
 ever, that the real solution does not lie in political control. It lies 
 in cultivating friendly relations so that a profitable trade may develop 
 between countries like Japan and China. In Japan the geographical 
 conditions cause manufacturing and commerce to be of ever-increas- 
 ing importance. In China the lower degi'ee of initiative among the 
 people and the presence of great natural resources cause that countiy 
 to offer its chief possibilities as a source of food and raw materials. 
 Political domination of weaker nations by those that are stronger is 
 needed only to prevent misgovermnent. It is needed in China far 
 less than in India. 
 
 Warm friendship promotes trade far more than political domi- 
 nation, as we have found through our treatment of Cuba. Yet the 
 greatest of all incentives to trade is geographical location. Countries 
 that are near together are sure to carry on a hvely trade, especiall}- if 
 one supplies food and raw materials and the other supplies manufac- 
 tured goods. France and Germany prove the pov/er of geogi-aphical 
 position, for even though thej- are mutually hostile and differ only a 
 Httle in their products, French trade with Germany before the war 
 amounted to as much as the trade of France with all her colonies. 
 In the same way, in proportion to the population Canada does sev- 
 eral times as much business with the United States as with Great 
 Britain. Thus it appears that if Japan remains on friendly terms 
 with China without political control she can some daj^ be the chief 
 factor in the trade of that country, and at the same time maintain 
 the world's respect. In some ways the relations of those two coun- 
 tries are similar to our relations with Mexico, although China is better 
 governed and more adA'anced than Mexico. 
 
 (6) The Expansion of Germany. — The relation of German}^ to its 
 weaker neighl)oi"s is different from that of anj^ other countr}'. She 
 was so busy with attempts at unifying her own states that she was not 
 ready to look abroad until after the formation of the German Empire 
 in 1871. After that she gradually formed the purpose of building up 
 an empire outside Germany. Just as England's purjiose was tlie 
 formation of a great empire of self-governing dominions, and as 
 that of the United States was the spread of self-government and 
 
102 MAX'S RELATIOX TO MAN 
 
 liberty to people ^vho wore o]ipressed, so Germany's great idea was 
 that she should nilo tlie world by land and by sea. 
 
 .Vinonfj; all the (ireat Powei-s (5ennany is the only one that has had 
 no real ()])])ortinnt.y to expand either to adjacent territory or to terri- 
 toiy hiufz; just across neifz;hborinp; seas. Landward she was henuned 
 in by France, xVustria, and Russia, all of which were then stronjz; and 
 were in the process of expansion. In part she was also hennned in by 
 the Uttle nations of Denmark, Holland, Belgium, and Switzerland 
 which, though small, arc too energetic to be fields for expansion, as 
 Germany found to her cost in Belgium. She did, to be sure, expand 
 a little, absorbing part of Poland, taking Schleswig-Holstein from 
 Demnark, and Alsace-Lorraine from France. This gained hvv only 
 a small area, however, and increased the difficulty of farther expansion 
 by arousing antagonism among her strong, energetic neighboi-s. 
 Ex]iansi()n by water to the north has been impossible, for ISorway 
 and Sweden are as energetic and highly civilized as France and 
 Denmark, and their boundaries are so sharply defined that there can 
 be no possible dispute as to where they he. SeaAvard her expansion 
 was blocked by British sea power and by the fact that Britain 
 had already acquired a vast colonial empire before the Germans 
 awoke to the value of colonies. 
 
 In distant and backwaid i)aits of the world Germany also found it 
 difficult to acquire colonies. In the early days of the modern colonial 
 movement her continental position did not encourage her i)eoi)lc to be 
 world-wide traders hke the British. Moreover, the many German 
 states were so late in uniting into a strong empire that when at last 
 CJermany was able to seek colonies, most of the available territory 
 had already been claimed by other powers. Yet her population was 
 increasing greatly. German manufactured goods were flooding the 
 world, and the country was eager to exi)and like the other nations of 
 cyclonic regions. Germany, to be sure, obtained a few colonics, such 
 as German lOast Africa, German West Africa, Kamerun, and i)ar1 of 
 New CJuinea, but they were Ihc scraps left over after tlic Ixst ])aits 
 li.ad been taken, and they did not sujijily the I'aw jnalei-ials 
 which (lerjnaiiy so much desii'cd. Nevertheless (iennaii expansion 
 was boinid t(» coine in one form or another. 
 
 (1) It might have come by taking ]X)ssession of South Ajinerican 
 regions such as l^razil and AvgcMitina, but there tlu^ T'nited States 
 with its Monroe Doctrine blocked the Nvay. Germany- knew that if 
 she encroached in America, i'.rii.-iin was ready to use her licet to hclj) 
 the United States, and Gerjuan ])r()S]nM'ts would have been blasted 
 ut once. 
 
 (2) ( iermany's ex])ansion might ha\'(> come 1>\' ciushing one of her 
 
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 403 
 
 neighboi-s, but that was difficult because all her neighbors are ener- 
 getic nations living in the cyclonic region of gt'cat energy. IMoreover, 
 they were largely allied with one another, and the larger nations 
 had agreed to protect the small ones. 
 
 (3) Next after South America the region that the Germans most 
 desired as a field for expansion was China. Hence they took Tsing- 
 tau on Kiau-Chau Bay, and began to exploit the province of Shan- 
 tung. They dared not go farther, however, for England, France, 
 Japan and Russia all were looking for new territory in China, while 
 the United States was trjdng to preserve China intact. 
 
 (4) Still another possible field of expansion was Turkey, the only 
 remaining large and backward part of the world which no strong 
 nation had yet converted into a colony or at least protected against 
 the aggression of other nations. 
 
 (5) German expansion might also have come in tlu> new way which 
 the League of Nations now fostei-s. She might have spread her in- 
 fluence through the peaceful channels of trade, education, science, and 
 friendly intercourse, especially in eastern Europe and Turkey, just 
 as Japan now has an opportunity to do in China, and the United 
 States in Alexico and South America. 
 
 For this kind of expansion the German prospects were particu- 
 larly bright. She was well on the way to success, but the process 
 was too slow. Ambitious Germany wanted to achieve world suprem- 
 acy at a single bound. Therefore she chose the fourth alt(n-native, 
 and began to seek to control Turkey. First she went to work to 
 build the Bagdad Railway, from Constantinople across Asia INlinor 
 to ]\Iesopotamia. The water route from Germany to Turkey is long 
 and is at the mercy of England. There is a short and safe land route, 
 however, through Austria and tlie Balkans. If Germany could 
 control this route together with the Bagdad Railway she would have 
 a direct land route through the heart of the prize that she coveted. 
 The easiest way to work for this was through the Germans of Austria, 
 the strongest element in the old Austro-IIungarian Emjiire. Hence 
 the Germans of Germany combined with those of Austria to gain 
 control of Serbia, the nearest t(n-ritory available for that puri)ose. 
 That led to the Great War, during tlie first three years of which 
 Germany became suprcinc not only in tin' non-German parts of 
 Austria, but in Serbia, ]>ulg;nia, Ivujnania, and the Turkish 
 Empire. 
 
 Thus Germany in a sudden um-ighteous outburst and with the 
 infliction of frightful suffering, carried out in three j'eai's an cx]xxnsion 
 like that which Great Britain, Russia, and the United States had 
 accomplished slowly and with far less suffering tluring many gcner- 
 
404 MAX'S RELATION TO MAN 
 
 ations. If Cormany luul acconii^lisluMl tliis ivsult by moans of poaco- 
 ful comiiiorcial ix'iiotratiou the world woukl have raised no objections 
 pvater than those raised against the exi:)ansion of all strong countries. 
 Because she disregardetl treaties and did deeds which no civilizcnl 
 people can tolerate, the whole world was against her, and she lost 
 not only her recent ill-gotten gains, but her earlier ones in Denmark 
 and Alsace-Lorraine, and all lun- foreign colonies. 
 
 The final result of the war was closely in accord with geograi)hical 
 conditions. Germany was defeated by the western nations living in 
 the most bracing cyclonic areas. Wherever she was ])iitc(l :i<raiiist 
 nations living in regions less invigorating than her own she was success- 
 ful. After her tU^feat on the west she could not remain dominant in 
 the Balkans antl Turkey' because England, France, and Italy arc all 
 interested in those regions and can easily reach them by water. In 
 central Europe, however, the war left a number of small new nations, 
 including Austria, Poland, and Czecho-Slovakia. These three, to- 
 gether with a gi'eatly weakened and chaotic Russia, adjoin Germany. 
 The Austrians, being Germans in race and language, sj-mpathize 
 with their fellow Germans. The others dislike Germany, but she is 
 the nearest gi'eat manufactming nation, and the one to which they 
 naturally turn for capital, for engineei-s, and for the many services 
 which less-developed countries constantly seek from those that arc 
 most highly developed. The countries bordering Germany on the 
 east stand just enough behind Germany to look up to her and to let 
 her dominate their commerce and industiy. Thus in a limited s]ihere 
 Germany is now canying out the commercial method of expansion 
 which she might far more successfully have carried out on a much 
 larger scale if she had not chosen war instead of peace. Like the 
 other great cyclonic nations she is expanding, and her expansion is 
 primarily into the somewhat w'eaker regions adjacent to her on the 
 cast. 
 
 Methods of Colonial Control. — (1) ExpIoilatio)i. — Tn the incnitable 
 expansion of the strong nations of the cyclonic regions into other cli- 
 matic areas four different methods have ])een pui-sued: (1) ex])loita- 
 tion, (2) absolute control, (3) self governjnent under foreign con- 
 trol, and (4) benevolent regulation. Exploitation consists of 
 taking ])(jssession of a country solely to squeeze from it as nuich 
 wealth as possible. The early Spanish explorei*s and colonists in 
 Mexico, Peru, the Philijijiines, and many other places adopted this 
 method. They robbed, o))pressed, and enslaved the natives without 
 thought of what would ha])i>en in the future. Hence Spain's colo- 
 nics gave her great wealth for a lime, but soon became poverty- 
 stricken and resentful. When she tell into trouble they were quick 
 
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 403 
 
 to throw off her ht^avy yoke, and Spain in the long run was the 
 loser. 
 
 Unfortiniately a modified form of this method of exploitation is 
 still common. Individuals from oiu' own country often go to places 
 like Mexico, get hold of the best natural resources, and make fortunes 
 as quickly as possible ^\•ith no thought of responsibility for the natives. 
 So far as we do this we are harming our own countiy. 
 
 (2) Ahsohdc Control. — -When the strong nations l)ecame convinced 
 that mere exploitation of colonies did not pay, most of tiiein adopted 
 the method of absolute control. The purpose of this is to rule the 
 colony in such a way that it shall yield the largest possible return to 
 the mother country, but shall not be so oppressed that it becomes 
 poorer. This is the commonest method at present. In some form 
 it is pursued by practically' all the colonizing powers to a greater 
 or less degree. Where it prevails a nation rules its colonies arbi- 
 trarily, and the natives are given little or no share in the governjnent. 
 Fine public buildings are erected to impress the natives with the 
 strength of the government; roads, railroads, warehouses, wharves, 
 and other facilities for commerce are provided ; and law and order 
 are carefullj^ preserved. The natives neither understand nor like 
 such methods. Of course the degree to which the rulers control 
 their subjects is not always the same. In the German colonies 
 before the war, for example, everything was su])ject to the most 
 strict and minute regulations ''made in Germany." The French 
 have followed this anticjuated method less closely and their 
 subjects are correspondingly l)ctter satisfied. The Dutch at fii'st 
 pursued the method rigidly in Java and other places, but like the 
 other colonial powers they are learning that it does not pay. The 
 Austrians tried it in Bosnia and Dalmatia, but it wa^ not successful, 
 and was one reason for the Serl)ian trouble in 1U14. 
 
 (3) SeJf-Covernment: (a) The Bn'tli<}i McOiod. — A much better 
 colonial method is that of the British. They have learned this 
 method ])art ly because of tiu> high degi'ee of self-control and will ])()wer 
 which has always characterizcnl the ])eoj)le of the British Isles, and 
 ])artly because their strong colonies in cyclonic regions have taught 
 them some stern lessons. Nations \\liicli Ikuc onl>' weak, tropical 
 colonies find tluMU so easy to go\'ern that they ilo not learn to res})ect 
 the rights of others. 
 
 In their dealings with colonic^s the British (Mn])hasize thice ]irinci- 
 ples: (1) Tlu^ govtTnment strives forabsolut(^ justice. The white 
 man, no matter how superior he ma}' feel, is maile to obsen'c the law 
 in exactly the same way as the huml)lest troi)ical native, as many a 
 traveler in India lias been surprised to discover. Of coui"se some 
 
40(3 MAN'S iu:latiux to .man 
 
 serioiu^ iiiistakrs occur, but tlio British colonial officials arc choson 
 from tlic best men in tii(> country and arc iillcd with the idea that it 
 is tlicir (hity to see that the natives have fair i)lay. 
 
 (2) The British colonies have a voice in their own affairs. From 
 her cxjx'rience with the Ajnericaii colonies Britain learned that tliis is 
 the only way to prevent rehelHon. Accordingly the present British 
 method is to allow conii)lete self-frovernment in the jnorc advanced 
 colonies of C'anathi, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa, and a 
 considerable measure in more backward countries like India. So far 
 has this jirocess <j;one that thi' four colonies in cyclonic rej^ions not only 
 control their own internal affairs and even le\y tariff duties against 
 Great Britain, but have a part in international affairs as is show^n by 
 their seats in the Assembly of the League of Nations and their re])re- 
 sentatives in foreign countries. Even India is fast progressing toward 
 self-government, and already has a seat in the League Asseml)l3\ 
 
 (3) The British do not attempt to force their own civilization upon 
 the nati^•es, but merely offer it to them if they choose to take it. 
 Hence the natives are not annoyed by minute regulations, and are 
 allow(Hl to live according to their own laws and customs so far as 
 these are consistent with the general \\-elfare. 
 
 The result of these three priiHi))l('s of colonial conduct^ is that 
 millions of ])e()])le in the British ])ossessions are to-day extnunely 
 loyal to the empire. They ])ride themselves on behig British subjects, 
 and even full-blooded Hindus sometimes speak of England as "home." 
 Germany ex])ected that India would rebel during the Great ^\'ar, but 
 it enthusiastically sent troojis and su])plies to aid the Allies, l^oth 
 in India and Ireland, to \)v sure, certain groups want full self-govcM'n- 
 mcnt, but th(! vast majority of the British Empii'c want t(j retain 
 their connection with the mother country. 
 
 Self-government: (b) The American Md hod. — America is tiying 
 a colonial method which carries self-governjnent a step farther 
 than in British colonies. Our ])lan is not merely to 'perniit colo- 
 nies to enjoy self-goveriunent A\lieii they demand it, but to give 
 theju definite training in order to fit them for self-govei'innent as 
 soon as ])ossii)le. ()ur i)in'])ose as ])racticed in the Phili])])iiies and 
 Porto biro is to 1 1'eat. t he colonies as good ]);iveiits treat t.lieii- cliildren, 
 cliecking them if they do wrong, but sti'iving earnestly to aid them in 
 their edu<'ation. As fast as they show themselves fit to take charge 
 of I heir o\\ II u()\-eiiiiiieiil. we want 1 hem to do so. W'e oiilv insist that 
 first they must, learn. We think that t.hey cannot be truly trusted 
 to manage their own go\'eriMnent, milil th(>y ha^■e learned self-control, 
 just as a parent would not letive a six-year-old child to i)Iay with a 
 i"azor. 
 
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 407 
 
 (4) Benevolent Regulation. — In Cuba a new and promisinp; 
 method of partnership rather than control has been estabHshed 
 between a strong nation and a weaker neighbor. We have said to 
 the Cubans, "You niaj^ govern yourselves so long as you govern 
 properly. If, however, you have a revolution, if you get too d('(>])Iy 
 mto debt, or if in other ways you show youi-selves unfit, we shall 
 intervene." 
 
 Thus without exploiting the weaker people we are trj-ing to liclp 
 them forward in civilization. That is the method which has become 
 our ideal. Under the guidance of the League of Nations and under 
 the mipulse of worldwide pubhc opinion it bids fair to prevail among 
 all the strong nations who live in the stimulating regions of cyclonic 
 storms. As all parts of the world become more and more closely 
 bound together through the development of transportation, industry, 
 and commerce, the strong nations have ever-increasing opportunities 
 to dominate the others. The world is fast becoming a gi'eat family 
 of nations just as our own country is a family of States. If one 
 nation remains poor, ignorant, vicious, misgoverned, discontented, 
 all the nations suffer, just as the whole United States suffei^s if po^'erty, 
 ilUteracy, crune, violence, or discontent prevail in any of our States. 
 If the world is to go forward rather tlian backward the strong nations 
 must remember that the more a nation can promote the progress and 
 especially the contentment of other nations, the more it is doing for 
 itself and for the whole world. 
 
 QUESTIONS, EXERCISES, AND PROBLEMS 
 
 1. Discuss the exjiansion of Italy accordinfj to the inotliod used for tlio other 
 great powers. Show how the location and character of the Italian colonies arc 
 related to (a) the location of Italy; {b) the rapidity with which Italy has devel- 
 oped i)olitically and commercially; (c) the relative size of the Italian niercliant 
 marine and navy compared with those of other countries. 
 
 Look up the geographic conditions which led to (a) the problem of '"Italia 
 Irredenta" (Unredeemed Italy) during the Great AVar; (6) the Fiume question 
 at the end of the war; (c) Italy's interest in the eastern side of the Adriatic Sea. 
 
 2. Make a map to show the former colonial empires of Spain and Portugal. 
 Write notes on the climate, position, and i)roducts of each of the parts. Com- 
 pare the actual degree of self-government and civil liberty in these regions at 
 present with those in the British dominions of Canada and Australia. What 
 has this to do with the geographic environment? ^^'hat efTect has it on inter- 
 national relationships? 
 
 3. Consider the following statements, and write a synopsis of the g(>()grapliical 
 conditions which exi)lain them: 
 
 A. "Newfoundland and Tasmania are two islands each of which has a 
 pojiulation of something over 200,000. They are identical in race, 
 
IDS MAX'S KELATIOX TO MAN 
 
 languaRO, idoals, and civilization. Ncvcrtholcss, the United States 
 is far more interested in Newfoundland than in Tasmania." 
 B. "France and Germany are near neighbors yet they are bitterly hostile, 
 while the French-speaking Swiss have no hostility toward the 
 ( lerman-speaking Swiss." 
 C "Similarity of race, language and liabits is the foundation of the won- 
 derful loj-alty of the English-speaking British colonies toward their 
 mother-country." 
 D. "The feeling of the ])C(ipl(' of the United States is much wanner toward 
 Belgium than towards \'en(>zuela because the habits of Belgium and 
 the United States are much more alike than those of the United 
 States and Venezuela." 
 
 4. Go over the four statements given in Problem 3, and frame a general 
 statement as to the chief factors making for international friendships and enmities. 
 Separate the factors into ge()grai)hical and non-geographical. 
 
 5. On the basis of your general statement of Problem 4, exjilain the inter- 
 national relations of the United States with (a) Japan; (b) Canada; (c) Mexico. 
 Examine the volume of their trade with the United States; the numlur 
 of their citizens in this country; the number and nature of the lines of com- 
 munication; the habits, languages, methods of government. Prei)are a sum- 
 mary of the geographical conditions which are most important in each case. 
 
 6. Consider the hostility between Germany and England before the Great 
 War and discuss it in the light of your general statement of Problem 4. Con- 
 sider in this connection (a) position in respect to the ocean; (6) opportunities for 
 colonization and for busine.ss; (c) similarity or dissimilarity of occupations and 
 products by reason of (1) climate, (2) resources, (3) race. 
 
 7. Make a tracing of the Rhine showing (a) the Dutch part at the inoutli and 
 one port; (b) the boundaries of Alsace and Lorraine; (r) the \'alley of the Ruhr 
 and three towns; (d) the Vosges Mountains and the Black Forest. Define the 
 boundaries of Belgium and Luxemburg. Discuss the part played in the Great 
 War b\- the geographic conditions thus shown. 
 
 8. On an outline map of the United States apply difTerent kinds of shading to 
 each of the following areas: (a) the Atlantic coastal plain; (//) the (Jreat Lakes 
 region; (c) the Mississippi valley; (d) the Pacific coastal regions. Discuss an 
 international problem in which each of these is particularly interested. Show 
 how their interest depends on geographical environment. 
 
 9. Make three maps showing (o) French expansion into Africa; (/)) Italian 
 expan.sion into Africa; (c) all the spheres of influence of the United States near 
 the Panama Zone. Point out the resemblances and dilTerences in the exjjansion 
 of these three countries, and explain them so far as they are geograi)hical. 
 
 10. Make maps showing {<t) the main trade routes of Eurojie before the dis- 
 covery of America; {h) the main routes after the discovery of America and before 
 the making of the Suez Canal; (c) the routes of the jiresent day. 
 
 In the light of the maps comment on the commercial advantages of (a) Eng- 
 ImihI: (/>) Austria; (c) Italy, in the.se three periods. 
 
 11. Find out from the Statesman's Yearbook the ten nations having the 
 greatest trade with the United States. Add the imports and exports together 
 in each ca.se and arrange the.se nations in the order of their commercial importance 
 to the United States. In parallel colunms write notes on their propinquity, 
 climate, chief natural resources, health and energy, manufactures, language, 
 and civilization as compared with those of the United States. Name an inter- 
 national problem in which each is involved with the Ihiited States. 
 
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 409 
 
 12. Why is it that the United States is in such close touch with western 
 Europe while the intercourse between China and Japan is very hmited? What 
 strictly geographical factors play a part in this? 
 
 13. The international relationshijjs of China are unicjuc. This is partly a 
 matter of racial character and historical development, but geographical 
 conditions enter into it. Describe these conditions and their international 
 results. Among other things consider the following: (a) the effect of density 
 of population on China's prosperity at home and on foreign trade; (h) China's 
 degree of geographic diversity or uniformty, and its elTect on both internal 
 and external trade; (c) the boundaries of China and their effect on international 
 relations; {d) the relatively inert character of the Chinese; (c) the position 
 of Japan relative to that of other energetic nations; (/) the energy of Japan rela- 
 tive to that of other Asiatic nations; (g) the resources of China; (h) the accessi- 
 bilit}' of the Chinese coast and of the interior, and the development of transporta- 
 tion. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Abyssinia, measurement of time in, 25 
 
 Acorns as food, 92 
 
 Activity, mental, see Mental activity 
 
 — , physical, see Physical activity 
 
 Aden, water supply of, 143 
 
 Adiroudacks, as tourist resort, 98 
 
 Afghanistan, gold in, 176 
 
 — , raids in, 97 
 
 Africa, Central, see Central Africa 
 
 — , disadvantages of desert, 68 
 
 — , French possessions in, 400 
 
 — , healthful seacoast of, 106 
 
 — , land connections of, 58 
 
 — , railroads of, 72 
 
 Agriculture, and fisheries, 110 
 
 — , — vegetation, 264 
 
 — in Aleppo, 297 
 
 , England, 263 
 
 , tropics, 282 
 
 , jungle, 281 
 
 — plantation, 287 f . 
 
 Air, rising and cooling (diagram), 215 
 Airships, use of westerlies b}-, 214 
 Alabama, soil of, 4, 156 
 Alaska, clotlung in, 7 
 — , effect of long days, 38 
 — , mining in, 170 
 — , time in, 29 
 Aleppo, journey to, 294 f. 
 — , manufacturing in, 295 
 — , trade in, 295 
 Aleutian Islands, time in, 29 
 Algeria, French expansion to, 400 
 Alpine County, Cal., 84 
 Alps as political boundary, 387 
 — , — tourist resort, 98 
 — , mountain meadows of, 91 
 Alsace-Lorraine, accjuisition by Ger- 
 many, 389 
 
 Altitude, effect on the blood, 81 
 
 — , climate, 82 
 
 — , clouds, 82 
 
 — , rain, 82 
 
 — , temperature, 82 
 
 Aluminum, 183 f. 
 
 — , abundance of, 169 
 
 Amazon basin, health in, 210 
 
 — River, climate of, 4 
 
 , depth and breadth of, 133 
 
 America, effect of British cxj)ansion in, 
 392 
 
 — , monsoon regions of, 304 f. 
 
 — , see also North America 
 
 American Indians, origin of, 58 
 
 " — - Mediterranean," 61 
 
 Amur River, seasonal changes of, 135 
 
 Andes, religion in, 11 
 
 Animal migration, a geographic vari- 
 able, 360 
 
 — products, 342 f . 
 
 Animals, as source of power, 186 
 — • domestic, of rain forests, 278 
 
 , — Savanna, 271 
 
 , — tropics, 187, 283 
 
 — , feature of enviroiunent, 5 
 
 — , importance of, 263 ff. 
 
 — , migrations of, 55 
 
 Anti-cyclones, 216 
 
 — , influence on weather, 217 
 
 Apatite, phosphates in, 163 
 
 Aphelion, 43 
 
 Appalachians as mining region, 167 
 
 — , loss of soil in, 90 
 
 — , political effect of relief, 379 
 
 — , transportation in, 87 
 
 Apples, 92 
 
 Arabian Desert; vegetation in, 312 
 
 Arabs, character of, 315 
 
 — , poverty of, 314 
 
 411 
 
412 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Arabs, raids of, 374 
 
 Arclianncl, seaport of Russia, 381 
 
 ArKeiilina, climate of, 255 
 
 — , education in, 11 
 
 — , fooil of, 7 
 
 Arizona, acquisition by U. .S., 398 
 
 — , copper in, 181 
 
 — , irrigation in, 320 
 
 — , population in, 326 
 
 — , relief of, 167 
 
 Artisans, scarcity in mountains, 95 
 
 Artesian wells, sec Wells, artesian 
 
 Asia, cause of monsoons in, 235 
 
 — , Central, sec Central Asia 
 
 — , Khirghiz nomads of, 12 f . 
 
 — , location of, 62 
 
 — , railroads of, 70 
 
 — , relation to the sea, 63 
 
 — , relief of, 63 
 
 — , shape and size of, 63 
 
 Assuan Dam, 327 
 
 Atacama Desert, nitrates in, 165 
 
 Atlantic drift, 61 
 
 , effect on Eurojiean climate, 2;V2 
 
 Atmospheric pressure, see Pressure 
 
 Australia, climate of, 255 
 
 — , effect of British expansion on, 393 
 
 — , isolation of, 58 
 
 — , railroads of, 72 
 
 — , shape and relation to sea, 69 
 
 Australian break, 58 
 
 Axis, inclination of, 36 
 
 , effect on climatic belts, 217 
 
 B 
 
 Bacteria, 363 
 
 — , in water, 141 
 
 Bagdad railway, a cause of Great 
 
 War, 403 
 Bahamas, climate in, 257 
 Baku, water sui)i)ly of, 143 
 Balka.sh salt lake, 13 
 Balk.'ins, effect of relief on, 379 
 lialtic Provinces, Germans in, 390 
 Bananas, food value of, 355 
 — , plantations, 287 
 Bangkok harl)or, 26 
 " Banks," fisheries cm, 108, 109 
 liarlcy, distribution of, 337 
 Barriers, climate, sec Climate as barrier 
 — , water, sec Water barriers 
 
 Basin regions, character of, 80 
 
 Beans, food value of, 354 
 
 lieasts of burd(>n in rain forest, 278 
 
 Bedouin Arab, 314 
 
 lieets, fertilizers for, 160 
 
 Belgium, coal and iron in, 179 
 
 — , victim of location, 378 
 
 Bengal, population of, 85 
 
 Bhutan, population of, 84 
 
 Bismarck, climate of, 104 
 
 Black Belt in Alabama and Georgia, 156 
 
 Black Death, 362 
 
 " Black Earth " region of Russia, 5 
 
 " Black England," 383 
 
 Black forest, woodworking in, 96 
 
 Bog iron, source of, 129 
 
 Bolivia claims Atacama Desert, 165 
 
 Boll weevil, migrations of, 360 
 
 Bones, source of phosphates, 163 
 
 Bosphorus, British influence in, 381 
 
 Boston fishing trade, 109 
 
 — harbor, 36 
 
 — , sewage disposal in, 106 
 Boundaries, artificial, 388, 389 
 
 — of Central Europe, 390 
 
 — , political influence of, 387, 388 
 — , unfortified, 389 
 Brahmaputra River, current of, 134 
 lirest harbor, 120 ff. 
 Bridges over IMississipi)i River, 130 
 British Emt)ire, government in parts of, 
 10 
 
 , growth of, 394 f . 
 
 , coal and iron in, 395 
 
 — Guiana, sugar raising in, 2S9 
 Bronze Age, 177 
 
 Bushes and scrub, 265 
 
 — in deserts, 273 
 
 Butte, Montana, suli)hurous smoke in, 
 183 
 
 c 
 
 Cacao plantations, 287 
 
 Cactus, 273 
 
 Cairo, water barriers of , 131 
 
 Calendars, 25, 26 
 
 Calms, equatorial, 213 
 
 California, acquired by U. S., 398 
 
 — , astronomy in, 11 
 
 — , big t r(>es of, 370 
 
 — , cattle raising in, 91 
 
INDEX 
 
 413 
 
 California, climate of, 300 
 
 — , effect of relief on orange growing 
 in, 240 
 
 — , fruit raising in, 303 
 
 — , hydraulic mining in, 171 
 
 — , irrigation in, 320 
 
 — , population of, 84 
 
 — , prospecting in, 168 
 
 — , subtropical climate of, 300 
 
 — , — farming in, 302 f . 
 
 — , temperature contrasts in, 223 
 
 — , wheat raising in, 302 
 
 Camels, 315 
 
 Canada, climate compared with Ba- 
 hamas, 257 
 
 — , effect of long days on, 38 
 
 — , French emigration to, 400 
 
 — , trade with Great Britain, 401 
 
 — U. S., 401 
 
 — , unfortified boundary, 389 
 
 Canals, German, 136 
 
 Cape Cod, vegetation of, 5 
 
 — Girardeau, bridge at, 130 
 Carbohydrates, 350 
 
 Cardamum mountains, irrigation from, 
 
 319 
 Caribbean Sea, 61 
 Carnegie, Andrew, 181 
 Carolinas, monsoon influence in, 305 
 Caspian Sea as measure of .'climatic 
 cycles, 369 
 
 , effect on rainfall, 128 
 
 Catawba River, water power of, 144 
 Cattle, distribution of, 339 
 
 — herding among Khirghiz, 19 
 
 — in California, 302 
 
 cyclonic regions, 340 
 
 India, 48, 340 
 
 South America, 340 
 
 Switzerland, 91 
 
 — raising among mountains, 91 
 Central Africa, clothing in, 2 
 , progress of, 1 
 
 — America, salt in, 107 
 
 — Asia, progress of, 1 
 
 — Europe, boundaries of, 390 
 Cereal crops of the plains, 91 
 Ceylon, rice farming in, 283 
 Character, effect of climate on, 250 
 — , irrigation on, 328 
 
 — of desert people, 316 
 
 Charleston, S. C, artesian well at, 142 
 Chatham Islands, time in, 29 
 Cheese, food value of, 354 
 Chemical agents in formation of soil, 
 154 
 
 — impurities of water, 140 
 Chemicals for plant growth, 160 
 Chenab River, irrigation from, 319 
 Chicago, effect of lake on, 128 
 
 — , sewage disposal in, 106 
 
 — , water barriers of, 131 
 
 system, 143 
 
 Chile, climate of, 255 
 
 — , war over Atacama Desert, 165 
 
 China, bacteria in water supply, 141 
 
 — , climate of, 5 
 
 — , coal mines in, 201 
 
 — , density of population, 296 
 
 — , diet of, 356 
 
 — , famine in, 298 
 
 — , forests in, 93, 276 
 
 — , geographical isolation of, 10 
 
 — , German expansion in, 403 
 
 — , gold in, 176 
 
 — , intensive farming in, 296 
 
 — , irrigation in, 327 
 
 — , life in, 296 f. 
 
 — , loess in, 311 
 
 — , trade relations with Japan, 401 
 
 — , use of terraces in fanning, 90 
 
 Chincha Islands, guano from, 1()3 
 
 Christianity, influence of sheep raising 
 on, 11 
 
 Chronometers, 31, 32 
 
 Cinnamon jilantations, 288 
 
 Cities effect of water barriers on loca- 
 tion of, 131 f. 
 
 — , of U. S., and water transporta- 
 tion, 122 
 
 — , water systems of, 142 
 
 Civil War, effect of A])p;ilacliian relief 
 on, 379 
 
 , Canadian boundaries on, 
 
 389 
 
 , climate on , 384 f . 
 
 Civilization, among mountains, 78, 95 
 
 — and metals, 167 f . 
 
 oceans, 12 1 ff. 
 
 vegetation, 270 
 
 — , climate and tliedistribution of, 257 f 
 — , distribution of vegetation and, 270 f. 
 
•Ill 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Civilization, rarly, olTort of sranty iron 
 
 on, 177 f. 
 — , efTcct of coal on, 194 
 
 — , cyclonic storms on, 3131 
 
 — , iron on, 17S 
 
 — , irrigation on. 327 
 
 — , plantations on, -i'.lO 
 
 — on the plains, 78 
 
 — and rice farming in tropics, 284 
 Clams, 108 
 
 Clay soil, 1.55 
 Climate, 205 ff. 
 
 — . and the distribution of civilization, 
 257 ff. 
 
 food supply, 209 
 
 human energj% 248 ff . 
 
 work of man, 254 f . 
 
 — as barrier in deserts, 206 
 
 frigid zone, 206 
 
 tropical forests, 206 
 
 mountains, 205 
 
 on oceans, 205 
 
 source of British energy, 395 
 
 — , cyclonic, 330 
 
 — , efifect of altitude on, 82 
 
 — , Atlantic Drift on Kur()]K';ui, 
 
 232 
 
 — , Labrador Current on N(-\v 
 
 iMigland, 232 
 
 — , land and sea on, 22)5 ff . 
 
 — , relief on, 23S iT. 
 
 — , — on human energy, 374 
 
 — , man's health, 248 
 
 — , political relations, 384 
 
 — , war and peace, 384 
 
 — favorable, in England, 251, 254 
 , — Europe, 254 
 
 — , geographic variable, 359 
 
 — , in human geography, 4 
 
 — , — relation to health .iih! ciicr^iy, 
 
 209 f. 
 — , influence of Miilili rnmcaii lircak 
 
 on, f.O 
 — , — on clKuactcr, 256 
 
 — , Khirghiz, 14 
 
 — , soil, 158 f. 
 
 — , marine versus continental, 224 fT. 
 
 — of Argentina, 255 
 Australia, 255 
 
 Bahamas and Canada, 257 
 
 Chile, 255 
 
 Climate of continents and oceans, 
 223 fT. 
 
 Europe, efTect of .\tlantic Drift 
 
 on, 232 
 
 Jai)an, 254 
 
 New Zealand, 255 
 
 Ontario, 257 
 
 Russia, 397 
 
 southern continents, 68 
 
 U. S., 254 
 
 Verkhoyansk, 224 
 
 western Europe, 01 
 
 — , variabilitj- of, 210 
 Climatic belts, effect of revolution, and 
 inclination of axis on, 217 
 
 — cycles, ancient, 368 f . 
 
 , effect on economic prosperity, 
 
 371 
 
 — — , human energy, 374 
 
 , man, 371 ff. 
 
 , ]X)litical life, 374 
 
 , in Palestine and Syria, 375 
 
 , latitude variations of, 371 
 
 , tree growth, 370 
 
 — energy, 255 ff. 
 
 — factors, 211 
 
 — zones, 205 ff. 
 
 , origin of, 211 f. 
 
 Clouds, effect of altitude on, 82 
 — , source of, 103 
 
 Coal, and British expansion, 395 
 — , as source of jiower, 1S9 
 
 — beds, abundance of, 169 
 — , conservation of, 192 
 
 — deposits, distribution of (inap), 191, 
 
 344 
 
 , in i)lains and hills, IGS 
 
 , Russia, 3!)7 
 
 — , nationalization of, 'AS'.i 
 
 — production, distribution of (map), 
 
 191 
 
 — regions, life of, 193 
 
 Coastal plain in Alabama aiul (Jeorgia, 
 
 156 
 Cod, food value of, 109, 354 
 Coffee i)lantations, 287 
 " C^)g{>n " grass in Phili|)i)ines, 282 
 Cold wave, effects of, 253 
 Colonial ex])ansion, sec Ex])ansion 
 
 — control, methods, 404 ff. 
 , — , absolute, 405 
 
INDEX 
 
 415 
 
 Colonial control, American, 406 
 
 , — , benevolent relations, 407 
 
 , — , British, 405 
 
 , — , exploitation, 404 
 
 , — , self government, 40G 
 
 Comstock Lode, 171 
 Colorado, irrigation in, 322 
 — , prospecting in, 168 
 
 — Iliver, irrigation from, 320 
 Commerce among Khirghiz, 19 
 
 — and inland waterways, 133 ff . 
 political boundaries, 388 
 
 — , influence of Mediterranean Break 
 
 on, 60 
 — , oceans as carriers of, 113 
 Congo, climate of, 5 
 Congressional appropriations for coast 
 
 and interior, 378 
 Coniferous forests, 275 
 Conservation of coal, 192 
 
 minerals, 185 
 
 petroleum, 197 
 
 Constantinople, political importance of, 
 
 61, 381 
 Continental climate, at Verkhoyansk, 
 
 224 
 versus marine, 224 
 
 — interiors, summer rains in, 235 
 Continents, arrangement of, 51 
 — , breaks between, 58 
 
 — , climate of, 223 ff. 
 
 — , continuity of, 55 
 
 — , direction of winds over, 227 
 
 — , effect on pressure, 227 
 
 — , general description, 62 
 
 — , influence on temperature, 223 
 
 — , isolation of, 58 
 
 — , winds in relation to, 227 
 
 Contour plowing, 90 
 
 Contraction of the earth, 51 
 
 Copper Age, 177 
 
 — , distribution of, 182 
 
 — , human i)r()gress influenced l)y, isl 
 
 — , production of, in U. S., 181 
 
 Corn and rainfall, 367 
 
 — , distribution of, 336 
 
 — , use in whisky making, 87 
 
 Cost of living, 174 
 
 locomotives, 115 
 
 ships, 115 
 
 Costa Rica, fruits of, 5 
 
 Cotton belt in Alabama and Georgia, 
 
 156 
 — , distribution of, 343 
 
 — in Southern States, 384 
 
 — weevil, 360 
 Council of Nicaea, 26 
 Crops, acorns, 92 
 
 — , apples, 92 
 — , nuts, 91 
 
 — of cyclonic regions, 343 
 
 irrigated lands, 325 f. 
 
 — , rotation of, 159 f. 
 
 Cuba, American protectorate, 399, 407 
 — , stable government in, 387 
 — , sugar in, 289 
 Currants, in Greece, 325 
 Currents, effect on navigation, 134 
 
 — of Indian Ocean, 234 
 
 — — Pacific whirl, 234 
 Cyclones, see Cyclonic storms 
 — , anti, see Anti-cyclones 
 Cyclonic climate, 330 
 
 — regions, cattle in, 340 
 
 , civilization of, 331 
 
 , crops of, 343 
 
 , density of population, 344 
 
 , diet in, 333 f ., 357 
 
 — ■ — , government in, 347 
 
 , inventions in, 347 
 
 , raw materials in, 340 
 
 , transportation in, 343 
 
 — • — , vegetation of, 330 
 , world markets in, 346 
 
 — storms, 216 ff. 
 
 , beneficial effect of, 253 f . 
 
 , effect on man's work, 330 f. 
 
 , influence on weather, 217 
 
 , location, 330 
 
 D 
 
 Daisy, migrations of, 361 
 Dakotas, open winters in, 235 
 Dannemora, Sweden, iron works, 188 
 Danube, hinterland of, 135 
 Dardanelles, British influence in, 3S1 
 Daylight, cause of variations in length, 
 
 39 
 — , effect on human habits, 38 
 
 — , seeds, 38 
 
 — , temperature, 38 
 
 Dead reckoning, 30 
 
•no 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Dead sea, salt nature of, 312 
 
 Deciduous forests, 275 
 
 Defleetion of winds, 213 
 
 Denmark, energy of, 12 
 
 — , oeeui)ations in, S 
 
 Desert, Arabian, 312 
 
 — , belt, seasons in, 220 
 
 — , character of inhabitants, 316 
 
 — grasses, 312 
 
 — lakes, cause of salt in, 311 
 — , mode of washing in, 314 
 — , modes of life in, 309 f., 314 
 — , Mohave, 313 
 
 — nomads, ])roi)erty of, 314 
 
 — raids, caiLsed by poverty, 315 
 — , s;ilt lakes of, 311 
 
 — , Syrian, 314 
 
 — , Takla Makan of Cliina, 311 
 
 — , Transcaspian, 312 
 
 Deserts, appearance of dry, 310 
 
 — , climate as barrier in, 206 
 
 — , effect of scanty rainfall, 310 
 
 — , frozen, of the North, 316 
 
 — , gravel, 312 
 
 — , homes in, 317 
 
 — , polar, 275 
 
 — , population of, 309 
 
 — , sandy, 310 
 
 — , vegetation of, 273, 312 
 
 Diet of cyclonic regions, 357 
 
 equatorial rain forests, 355 
 
 monsoon regions, 350 
 
 polar regions, 354 
 
 subtropical regions, 356 
 
 tropical jungles, 355 
 
 world, 350 fT. 
 
 Disea-ses, influence of climate on, 210 
 
 — , migrations of, 302 
 
 Distribution of ijojjulation, 82 
 
 Dockage space, 117 
 
 Dog, use among Eskimos, 317 
 
 Domestic animals, ncc Animals, domes- 
 tic 
 
 "Drift" in Wisconsin, 157 
 
 "Driftless" area in Wisconsin, 15R 
 
 Drought, summer, in sul)tropical re- 
 gions, 297. 
 
 Dry farming, 305 
 
 Dryness in winter, indoor, 252 
 
 Dunes, 312 
 
 Dutcli, cliiiraclfristics of, 
 
 E 
 Earth, contraction of, 51 
 — , effect of form and movements on 
 
 map making, 43 
 — , garment of vegetation of, 263 ff. 
 — , revolution of, 30 
 
 — , , effect on climatic belts, 217 
 
 — , , measurement of time, 25 
 
 — , rotation of, measurement of time. 
 
 25 
 Earthquakes, location of, 55 
 East coasts, or monsoon regions, 293 
 Easter, date of, 26 
 Education, among Khirgliiz, 21 
 — , effect of local conditions on, 10, 11 
 Efficiency, among Khirghiz, 20 
 — , dependence on geographical sur- 
 
 roimdings, 9 
 EgjT^t, influence of England in, 394 
 — , irrigation in, 319, 327 
 — , lack of iron in, 177 
 — , population of, 326 
 Electricity, age of, 177 
 Emerged coast, recreation on, 105 
 Energy and climAte, 209, 24S f. 
 — , climatic, 255 f. 
 — , measurement of, 248 f. 
 — , see also Mental activity; Pliysical 
 
 activity 
 — , variations in, 249 
 England, climate of, 5, 251, 254 
 — , coal and iron in, 179 
 — ■, education in, 10 
 • — , free trade vs. protection in, 383 
 — , iron smelting in, 179 
 — , island character of, 394 
 
 — -, market gardens in, 358 
 — , relation to sea, 382 
 
 — , rivalry with Germany, 382 
 
 — , Russia, 381 
 
 — , submerged coast of, 394 
 
 — , trade of, 340 
 
 — , worldwide investments of, 382 
 
 I'liiglish Channel, tunnel imder, 113 
 
 E(iuatorial l)elt of low ))ressure, 212 f. 
 
 — — , rainfall in, 215, 218 
 
 — calms, 213 
 
 — currents, 230 
 
 — forests, 277 ff. 
 
 — , see also llain forest; Jungle 
 iMluinox, 40 
 
INDEX 
 
 417 
 
 Erie, Lake, see Lake Erie 
 
 Erosion, 90 
 
 Eskimos, characteristics of, 5, 317 
 
 — , diet of, 316, 354 
 
 — , effect of climate on, 209 
 
 Europe, climate of, 254 
 
 — , effect of Atlantic Drift on, 232 
 
 — , death rate in, 348 
 
 — , favorable location of, 64 
 
 — , health in, 250 
 
 — , importance of, 66 
 
 — , migration from, 365 
 
 — , railroads of, 69 
 
 — , shape and relation to sea, 66 
 
 — , size and relief, 64 
 
 — , waterways, map of, 137 
 
 — , western, see Western Europe 
 
 Expansion, methods of colonial, 392 f ., 
 
 404 f. 
 Exploitation, a method of colonial con- 
 trol, 404 
 Exports, study of, 349 
 
 Falls, source of water power, 147 
 Famine, effect of seasonal rains on, 298 f . 
 
 — in China, 298 
 India, 298 
 
 subtropical regions, 356 
 
 Farming, dry, 365 
 
 — , effect of the soil, 153 f. 
 
 — , rapid erosion on, 90 
 
 — in California, 302 f . 
 China, 296 
 
 — , use of terraces in, 90 
 
 Ferries, 130 
 
 Fertilizers, use of, 160 ff. 
 
 Fiji Islander, effect of climate on, 209 
 
 Fish, food value in China, 356 
 
 Fisheries and agriculture, 110 
 
 suVjmerged coasts, 110 
 
 — as a source of food, 108 
 
 — , school for seamanship, 11 1 
 
 — , control by govermnent, lOS 
 
 — , deep sea, 109 
 
 — , effect of latitude on, 110 
 
 — in Japan, 108 
 
 Newfoundland, 363 
 
 Norway, 108 
 
 United States, 92, 108 
 
 ■ — , salmon, 109 
 
 Fisheries, shallow water, 108 
 
 Fishing communities, location of, 110 f. 
 
 — grounds of Japan, 109 
 
 North Sea, 109 
 
 United States, 109 
 
 Fiume and fishing. 111 
 
 Florida, effect of monsoons on, 304 
 
 • — , soil on population of, 306 
 
 — , emerged coast of, 105 
 Fogs, cause of, 232 
 Food from inland waters, 129 
 oceans, 107 
 
 — of cyclonic regions, 333 f . 
 world, 350 ff. 
 
 — supply and climate, 209 
 
 — values, 350 
 Foreign trade, 349 
 Forest conservation, 93 
 
 — fire wardens, 95 
 
 — rangers, 95 
 
 — service in United States, 93 
 Forests, coniferous, 275, 331 
 
 • — , deciduous, 275 
 
 — , equatorial rain, see Rain forest 
 
 — in China, 276 
 — , location of, 92 
 
 — , subtropical drj^, 274 
 
 "Fowlers" of Seistan, 377 
 
 France, African possessions of, 400 
 
 — , coal and iron in, 179 
 
 — , expansion of, 399 f. 
 
 — , food of, 358 
 
 — , government in, 10 
 
 — , soil of, 4 
 
 — , trade with Germany, 401 
 
 — , vinej-ards in, 3t)l 
 
 Fruit in irrigated rcigons, 325 
 
 Fruit-raising in California, 303 
 
 Fuel, types of, 188 
 
 G 
 
 Galveston hurricane, 363 
 CJary, Ind., port of, 120 
 Gas, natural, see Natural gas 
 German canals, waterway of, 136 
 
 — influence in Turkey, 310 
 
 — steel combine, ISO 
 
 Germany, and Fnglish sea power, 382 
 — , artificial boiuularies of, 389 
 — , coal and iron in, 179 
 — , education in, 1 1 
 
418 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Gcniiany, ox]iansion in China, 403 
 — , — of, 401 f . 
 — , potato crop in, 336 
 Geographic constants, 359 
 
 — variables, 359 
 
 Geography, and iJohtical boiuidarics 
 387 f. 
 
 tariff in United States, 385 
 
 tlie Monroe Doctrine, 380 
 
 — , influence on Khirghiz, 21 
 
 — , political, 377 ff. 
 
 George's Bank, 109 
 
 Georgia, effect of soil on, 156 
 
 — , loss of soil in, 90 
 
 Ghats, 319 
 
 (Jibraltar, military inii)ortanre of, Gl 
 
 Glacial lakes, 148 
 
 Glaciers, soil inijiroved liv, 157 
 
 Glaciated regions, water jiower of, 147 f. 
 
 Gloucester, fishing trade of, 109 
 
 Gobi desert, loess in, 311 
 
 Gold, economic importance of, 174 f. 
 
 — mining, 170 f. 
 Government among Khirghiz, 20 
 
 — among Xomads, 316 
 
 — control of fisheries, 108 
 
 — , effect of local conditions on, 10 
 
 — in cyclonic regions, 347 
 Great Circle sailing, 49 
 
 Great Lakes, as boundaries, 389 
 
 , value of, 68 
 
 , waterway of, 135 f. 
 
 Great Britain, central location of, 394 
 
 , coal deposits in, 189 
 
 , Empire of, see British Empire* 
 
 , exjiansion of, 392 f . 
 
 , , by sea, 394 f. 
 
 , food and raw material su])i)ly of, 
 
 3% 
 
 , island home of, 394 
 
 , method of colonial control, 405 
 
 , sea i)ower of, 395 
 
 , water barriers of, 112 f 
 
 CJrcat War, and Bagdad railway, W-i 
 
 , British energy in, 39() 
 
 , causes of, Balkan situation, 380 
 
 , , Germany's frontier, 389 
 
 , , sea power, 382 
 
 , countries engaged in, 349 
 
 , effect of boundaries on, 389 
 
 , influenza ei)idemic in, 362 
 
 Great War, mountain influence on, 388 
 
 , use of copper, 183 
 
 , iron, 179 
 
 , potatoes, 336 
 
 , wheat, 358 
 
 Grape, pests destroying, 361 
 Grasses, 268 
 — , Arctic, 275 
 
 — in desert, 273, 312 
 
 tropical lands, 282 
 
 — , Philippine "cogon," 282 
 Grasslands, effect on distribution of 
 
 horses, 343 
 
 — in cyclonic regions, 331 
 — , influence on Khirghiz, 14 
 — , man's resi)onse to, 15 
 
 ■ — , the savannas, 271 
 
 — in tropical lands, 271, 272 
 Gravel deserts, 312 
 Gravelly soils, 155 
 (Jreece, art of, 11 
 
 ■ — , lack of iron in, 177 
 "Green England," 384 
 Greenland, vegetation of, 5 
 Greenwich Observatory, 24 
 
 — time, 26, 31 
 Gregorian calendar, 25 
 
 Guam, acquisition by United States, 
 
 399 
 Guano, source of phosphates, 163 
 Guatemala, climatic cycles, 371 
 — , health in, 277 
 Gulf of Mexico, 61 
 
 — Stream, 61, 230 
 Gunnison \'alle}', 322 
 Gusher oil, 196 
 
 H 
 
 Haiti, American protectorate, 399 
 Hankow, Yangste river at, 138 
 Harbors and iiihiiHl cuniniunicalion, 
 
 117 f. 
 — , depth of, 11 r, IT. 
 
 — improved Ijy tides, 36 
 
 — protection of, 115 
 ■ — , role of, 115 
 
 Harbor trade, determined by hinter- 
 land, 120 
 Hawaiian Islands, expansiiMi of U. S. 
 
 to, 399 
 , sugar in, 289 
 
INDEX 
 
 419 
 
 Hay, 325 
 
 Health and climate, 209 f., 24S fY. 
 
 energy, measurement of, 248 
 
 — , relation to efficiency, 9 
 
 — , effect of tropical seacoast on, lOG 
 — , inland waters on, 
 
 — in Europe, 250 
 
 India, monsoon effect on, 238 
 
 rain forest, 277 
 
 tropical plantations, 290 
 
 U. S., 249 
 
 — , measurement of, 248 f . 
 
 Hero of Alexandria, steam engine of, 
 
 178 
 Hides, distribution of, 342 
 Highway construction, cost of, 114 
 Himalayas, climate of, 205 
 — , effect on climate of India, 239 
 
 — , rainfall, 241 
 
 — , fields in, 90 
 
 Hindu clothing, 7 
 
 Hinterland, effect on commerce, 135 
 
 — , trade of harbor, 120 
 
 Holland, occupations in, 8 
 Horses, distribution of, 343 ] 
 Houses of snow, 317 
 Human energy, see Energy 
 
 — habits, effect of daylight on, 38 
 
 — geography, elements of, 1, 2 
 
 — progress, influence of copper on, 181 
 Humidity, optimum, 251 
 
 Humus in loam, 156 
 Hurricanes and cyclones, 216 
 Hydraulic mining, 171 
 
 Ichang, Yangste River at, 138 
 Idaho, water power in, 144 
 Immigration in East and West, 377 
 
 South Atlantic States, 306 
 
 Imperalor in New York harbor, 11 ( > 
 
 Imperial Yalley, 320 
 
 Imports, study of, 349 
 
 India, British rule in, 381, 393 
 
 — , cattle in, 48, 340 
 
 — , famine in, 298 
 
 — , irrigation in, 317, 322, 327, 329 
 
 — , land route to, 393 
 
 — , material needs of, 7 
 
 — , monsoons in, 235 f. 
 
 — , rainfall in, 238 
 
 India, religion In, 11 
 
 Indian Ocean, currents in, 234 
 
 Indians, origin of American, 85 
 
 Indigo, 288 
 
 Indo-China, French e^xpansion to, 400 
 
 Europeans, migration of, 58 
 
 Influenza, spread of, 3(52 
 
 Inland conuuunication antl harbors, 
 
 117 f. 
 Inland waters, 128 ff . 
 
 ■ as aids to health, 128 
 
 , barriers, 129 f . 
 
 , — regulators of temperature, 128 
 
 , sources of food, 129 
 
 • , — — minerals, 129 
 
 • — waterways, carriers of commerce, 
 
 133 f. 
 
 , depth and breadth, 133 
 
 , direction of, 135 
 
 of central Europe (map), 137 
 
 Insect pests, in tropics, 277 f., 283 
 International date line, 29 
 
 — relations, 392 ff. 
 Inventions in cyclonic regions, 347 
 Iowa, population of, 82 
 
 — , vegetation of, 5 
 
 Iquassu River, Victoria Falls on, 149 
 
 Iron, abundance of, 169 
 
 — Age, 176 
 
 — and British expansion, 395 
 early civilization, 177 f. 
 
 — distribution of, 341 
 
 — in Russia, 397 
 
 — , remarkable natiu'e of, 176 
 
 — works at Dannemora, 188 
 Ireland, potato crop, 336, 366 
 — , rainfall and migration, 36() 
 Irrigated lands, special advantages of, 
 
 325 
 Irrigation, 319 ff. 
 — , chief crops, 325 
 — , effect of mountains on, 321 
 — , — on character, 328 
 
 • — , on jjopulation, 326 
 
 — , from Periyar River, 319 
 
 — in China, 327 
 
 Egypt, 317 
 
 India, 317 
 
 U. S, 320 f. 
 
 — , influence on civilization, 327 
 
 — , methotls of raising water for, 322 
 
•}2() 
 
 INDEX 
 
 irrinatioii, iirovontion of fainiiio hv, 
 
 :i27 
 
 Issik Kill fresh hxko, 13 
 ••Italia Irredenta, " 407 
 Italy, fishinn iiulustry in, 111 
 — , cxiiansion of, 407 
 — , irrigation in, 32'2 
 
 J 
 
 .laiian and Chinese coal mines, 201 
 
 — — Port Arthur, 381 
 sea jiower, 382 
 
 the Chinese i)r()l)leni, 401 
 
 — , art of, 11 
 
 — , climate of, 2r>4 
 
 — , copper in, 183 
 
 — , exjiansion of, 400 f. 
 
 — , fisheries of, 108, 109 
 
 — , trade with China, 401 
 
 — , use of terraces in farminfj;, 90 
 
 — , water barriers of, 113 
 
 .Tava, plantations of, 291 
 
 Judaism, influence of sheep raising? on, 
 
 11 
 Julian calendar, 25 
 Jungle, apiiearance of, 280 
 
 — life in, 280 IT. 
 
 — , primitive agriculture in, 281 
 — , tropical, 271 
 
 K 
 
 Kansas, rain in, 235, 3G4 
 
 — , settlement of, 364 
 
 Kentucky, 87 
 
 Khirghiz, art of, 21 
 
 — , cattle herding, 19 
 
 — , character of, 20 
 
 — , clothing of, 16 
 
 — , diet of, 15 
 
 — , education among, 21 
 
 — , fuel used hy, 16 
 
 — , geographical surroimdings, 12 
 
 — , government of, 20 
 
 — , homes of, Ki 
 
 — , manufacturing and commerce of, 19 
 
 — , migration of, is 
 
 — , nomads of Central Asia, 12 
 
 — , recreations of, 20 
 
 — , religion of, 20 
 
 — , scientific development among, 21 
 
 — , tools of, 16 
 
 Klondike, gold in, 170 
 Kurds in Turkey, 92 
 
 Labrador current, elTect on climate, 232 
 
 — , fisheries of, 109 
 
 — , occupation in, 8 
 
 Tiake Erie, effect on fruit, 128 
 
 , glaciation cause of Niagara 
 
 water power, 147 
 
 — Michigan, as water barrier, 131 
 , effect on fruit, 128 
 
 , rainfall, 128 
 
 — Superior district, iron and copi)er in, 
 
 168, 169 
 
 Lakes, desert, cause of salt in, i^ll 
 
 — , development of water power, 144 
 
 — , glacial, 148 
 
 Land connection of South America, 58 
 
 Africa, 58 
 
 — , continuity of, 55 
 
 — , effect on climate, 2'23 ff. 
 
 • — forms, 51 
 
 among the Khirghiz, 12, 13 
 
 as geographic constant, 359 
 
 in human geograi)hy, 2 
 
 Lands, irrigated, value of, 325 
 
 Lapps, modes of life, 316 
 
 Latin America, self government in, 387 
 
 Labrador cm-rent, effect on New Eng- 
 land climate, 232 
 
 Latitude at sea, 30 
 
 — , effect on fisheries, 110 
 
 — , effect on health, 249 
 
 — , how determined, 23 
 
 League of Nations, assembly, 406 
 
 in relation to boundaries, 390 
 
 Germany, 403 
 
 — mineral products, 
 
 395 
 
 -, influence on colonial control, 
 
 407 
 
 , problems of, '201 
 
 Legumes, food value of, 356 
 
 — , source of nitrogen, 164 
 
 Liberia, health in, '277 
 
 — , insect pests in, 277 
 
 Libyan oasis, population in, 326 
 
 Life in subtropical and monsoon re- 
 gions, 293 ff. 
 
 tropical jungle, 2S0 f. 
 
INDEX 
 
 421 
 
 l-illers, France, artesian well at, 142 
 
 Lime, sources of, 163 
 
 Limestone, 107 
 
 Liverpool harlior, 3G 
 
 Living, cost of, 174 
 
 Llanos of Venezuela, 272 
 
 Loam soil, 156 
 
 Lobsters, 108 
 
 Local time, 26 
 
 Location as geographic constant, 359 
 
 — , determination of, 23, 29 
 
 — , effect on Khirghiz, 12 
 
 — in human geography, 2 
 
 — of Asia, 62 
 
 Great Britain, 394 
 
 North America, 66 
 
 — — Russia, 396 
 
 — , political effect on Belgium, 378 
 Locomotives, cost of, 115 
 Locusts, migrations of, 360 
 Loess, formation of, 311 
 
 — in China, 311 
 
 Lofoten Islands, marine climate of, 224 
 Longitude, 23 
 
 — at sea, 31 
 
 London, artesian wells in, 143 
 — , water barriers of, 131 
 Los Angeles aqueduct, 369 
 
 water system, 143 
 
 Louisiana, French emigration to, 400 
 — , purchase of, 398 
 Louisville, Ky., artesian well at, 142 
 Lubricant, petroleum as a, 197 
 Lumber in United States, 92 
 Lumbering as mountain industry, 92 
 — , wasteful methods in, 93 
 Lusitania, 25 
 
 M 
 
 Machinery, high sjjced, 197 
 
 — on farms, 303 
 MacKenzie River, flow of, 135 
 Magellan, 28 
 
 Maine as pleasure resort, 105 
 
 — , submerged coast of, 105 
 
 Man and vegetation in tropics, 277 f. 
 
 — as source of power, 186 
 
 — , changing surroundings of, 369 ff. 
 — , effect of climate on health, 2 IS 
 
 — , work, 254 f., 330, 371 
 
 — , climatic cycles on, 371 ff. 
 
 Man, effect of cyclonic storms on, 330 f. 
 
 — , petroleum on, 199 
 
 ■ — , efficiency and energy of, 6, 11 
 • — , environment of, 15 
 — , food of, 7 
 
 — , health and energy of, 248 ff. 
 — , higher needs of, 6, 9 
 — , inheritance, 6 
 — , isolation of, 10 
 — , material needs of, 6, 7 
 — , mental and physical activity of, 250 
 — , migration from Asia to North Amer- 
 ica, 55 
 ■ — ; occupations, 6 
 — , poverty or prosperity of, 10 
 - — , white, in rain forest, 279 
 — , work of, see Work 
 Manufacturing among Khirghiz, 19 
 
 — in Aleppo, 295 
 
 — location, 344 
 
 Manilla hemj) plantations, 2SS 
 
 JNIaj) projections, 46 
 
 Maps, conical, 46 
 
 — , determined by form and motions of 
 
 earth, 43 
 — , homalographic, 46 
 — , importance of, 44 
 - — , Mercator, 46 
 — , stereographic projections, 46 
 — , uses of, 44, 45 
 
 Marine, climate, of Lofoten Islands, 
 224 
 
 — versus continental climates, 224 ff. 
 — - vegetation, 107 
 
 Markets in cy(;lonic regions, 346 
 Maya ruins of Guatemala, 371 
 Mechanical agents in formation of soil, 
 
 153 
 Mediterranean break, 60 
 
 — regions, 299 f. 
 
 - — — , trees in, 91 
 
 — Sea, salt in, 107 
 Mcmi)his, bridge at, 130 
 Mental activity, 2.")0 
 , see also Energy- 
 
 Merida, Yucatan, wiiulinills in, 187 
 
 Meridian day, 29 
 
 Mesopotamia, inlluence of KnglanJ in, 
 
 393 
 — , lack of iron, 177 
 — , population in, 326 
 
422 
 
 iM)i;x 
 
 Motiils, aniounl and (list rihut ion of, 
 170, :}41 
 
 — , and fivilizniion, Id? (T. 
 
 — , jirccious, 170 IT. 
 
 Mexico, occui)ations in, 8 
 
 — , pctrolomn in, 200 
 
 — , wells in, 141 
 
 Miami Hivcr, gravel on soil from, lo") 
 
 Mirliigan, copper ore in, 181 
 
 — , mineral wealth of, 4 
 
 — , Lake, sec Lake Michigan 
 
 Microscopic creature;., a geogra])lii(^ 
 variable, 303 
 
 Migration, from Asia to Nortli Amer- 
 ica, 55 
 
 — , Europe, 365 
 
 — , Ireland, 366 
 
 — of animals and plants, 360 fT. 
 
 Indo-Europeans, 58 
 
 negroid races, 58 
 
 Semites, 58 
 
 the Khirghiz, IS 
 
 Minerals, al)un(lant in mountains, 
 107 iT. 
 
 — and politics, 383 
 
 — , conservation of, 185 
 
 — from inland waters, 129 
 salt lakes, 129 
 
 — in human geography, 4 
 
 — in oceans, 106 
 
 — , influence on Khirghiz, 14 
 
 Mines, government ownershij) of, 383 
 
 Mining booms, 109 
 
 — camps in West, 169 
 — , hydraulic, 170 
 
 — , industries, staging of, 108 f. 
 
 — , permanent, 169 
 
 — , ])lacer, 170 
 
 Minucsala (ship), 120 
 
 Mississippi, minerals in, 107 
 
 — , soil of, 4 
 
 Mis.sissii)pi Riveras awater barrier, 130 
 
 , relief affecting power of, 114 
 
 , winding course of, 134 
 
 watenvay, 138 f. 
 
 Modes of life in deserts, 309 ff,. 314 
 
 polar regions, 309 ff. 
 
 Mohave desert, 313 
 
 Moisture, inland waters as source of, 
 
 12S 
 ^Ionadnock type of mountain, 80 
 
 Monroe Doctrine and geography, 386 
 
 influence on German exjjansion 
 
 inS. A., 402 
 Moon as cause of tides, 33 
 
 — as measure of time, 25 
 Moonshiner, 87 
 
 Monsoon regions, diet of, 356 
 
 , life in, 293 ff. 
 
 , location of, 293 
 
 in America, 304 ff. 
 
 Monsoons, effect on prosperity and 
 health, 238 
 
 — in Asia, cau.se of, 235 
 ■ India, 235 f . 
 
 — , seasonal contrasts of, 235 ff. 
 Montana, copper in, 181 
 — , minerals in, 107 
 Moths, migrations of, 361 
 Moimtain building, 55 
 
 — industries, cattle raising, 91 
 
 , lumVicring, 92 
 
 Mountaineers, boldness of, 97 
 — , idleness among, 95 
 
 — , professions among, 96 
 Mountains, age of, 80 
 — , Appalachian, 379 
 
 — as a pleasure ground, 98 
 
 • — as political boundaries, 387 
 
 — , cattle raising among, 91 
 
 — , civilization among, 78, 95 
 
 — , climate as barrier of, 205 
 
 — , contrast between plains and, 81 
 
 — , distribution of jiopulation among, 
 
 82 
 — , effect on irrigation of, 321 
 — , fueds in, 97 
 — , formation of, 79 
 — , minerals in, 107 f. 
 — , scenery in, 98 
 — , transportation in, 85, 87 
 — , tree croj)s among, 91 
 — , tyjjcs of, 79 
 — , vegetation in, 208 
 Mud in water supply, 140 
 
 N 
 Nai)o]('on, effect of ocean l)arriers on 
 
 career of, 112 
 Nations, ex-pansion of, 392 ff. 
 Natives in eciuatorial rain forest, 279 
 Natural gas, 195 f. 
 
INDEX 
 
 423 
 
 Navigation, 30 
 
 Newfouiulhuul Hanks, fishing on. 111 
 
 — compared with Tasmania, 407 
 
 — fisheries, 109, li&d 
 
 Negro shivery and climate, 384 
 
 Negroid ra(!cs, migration of, 58 
 
 Nevada, acquisition by U. S., 398 
 
 — , gold and silver in, 171 
 
 — , irrigation in, 321 
 
 — , water power of, 144 
 
 New England, effect of Labrador cm-- 
 rent on climate, 232 
 
 , glacial lakes, falls and rapids, 148 
 
 , glaciated regions, sources of 
 
 water power, 147 
 
 New Guinea, lack of cattle in, 2 
 
 , water barriers in, 112 
 
 New Jersey, progress of, 1 
 
 , transportation in, 85 
 
 New Mexico, acquisition by U. S., 398 
 
 New Orleans, ferry, transportation at, 
 130 
 
 , location of, 44 
 
 New World, isolation of, 386 
 
 , expense of water communica- 
 tion, 132 
 
 New York City, heat in, 105 
 
 , water system, 143 
 
 , harbor, 36, 117 
 
 New Zealand, climate of, 255 
 
 , time at, 29 
 
 Niagara Falls, aluminum plants at, 183 
 
 as source of water power, 147 
 
 , effect of Great I^akes on, 144 
 
 Niagara water power, for manufacture 
 of nitrogen, 165 
 
 Nicaragua, American protectorate, 399 
 
 Nile River as a barrier, 131 
 
 , influence on religion of Egj'])t, 
 
 11 
 
 ■ as source of irrigation, 319 
 
 Nitrification, artificial bacteria for, 1()5 
 
 Nitrogen, sources of, 164 
 
 Nomadic Khirghiz, character of, 12 
 
 Nomadic mode of life, 314 
 
 Nomadism of grasslands, 15 
 
 Nomads, government of, 316 
 
 North America, location, 66 
 
 , railroads of, 69 
 
 , shape and relation to sea, 68 
 
 = , size and relief, 66 
 
 North America, subtropical regions of, 
 300 f. 
 
 North Atlantic break, effect on cli- 
 mate, 61 
 
 North Sea fishing grounds, 109 
 
 Norway, commerce of. 111 
 
 — , fisheries of, 108 f. 
 
 — , glacial regions and water power, 
 148 
 
 — , length of day and night, 38 
 
 — , nitrogen fertilizer in, 165 
 
 — , unfortified boundary of, 389 
 
 Oases, 313 
 
 Oats, 337 
 
 Ob River, flow of, 135 
 
 Occupations, influence of geographical 
 
 surroundings on, 7 
 Ocean currents, caused by winds, 230 
 
 , cold, 61 
 
 Ocean transportation, low cost of, 113 
 
 Oceanic whirls, 234 f. 
 
 Oceans and civilization, 124 ff. 
 
 — , arrangement of, 51 
 
 — as aid to health, 104 
 barriers. 111 
 
 commerce carriers, 113 
 
 — , regulators of temperature, 104 
 
 — , sewers, 106 
 
 — , source of food, 107 
 
 — , rain water, 103 
 
 — , a storehouse for limestone, 107 
 
 — , minerals, 106 f . 
 
 — , potash and phosphorus, 107 
 
 — , salt, 106 
 
 — , climate on, 205, 223 f . 
 
 ■ — , effect on clouds and rain, 103 
 
 — , political relations, 380 f. 
 
 — , pressure, 227 
 
 — , influence of, 103 f. 
 
 — , , on temperature, 223 
 
 Ohio, soil of, 4 
 Ontario, climate of, 257 
 Optimum humidity, 251 
 
 — temperature, 251 
 
 — variability, 252 
 
 Orange River, navigable length of, 134 
 Oregon, water power of, 144 
 Organic agents in formation of soil, 155 
 Outdoor life, benefit of, 252 
 
424 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Owens Lako, Calif . 360 
 Oysters, lOS 
 
 Pacifir, currents of, 234 
 
 Pack animals, 87 
 
 Palestine, climatic cycles in, 375 
 
 — , influence of England in, 393 
 
 — , lack of iron in, 177 
 
 — , occujjations in, 11 
 
 Palmyra, elTect of climate on, 3GS 
 
 Panijjas, of Argentina, 272 
 
 Panama Canal, military aspects of, G2 
 
 — — tonnage, 7G 
 
 Zone, annexation by U. S., 399 
 
 — , Hei)ul)lic of, Aiiicrican i)rot('i'tonite, 
 
 399 
 Papuans, characteristics of, 1 
 Paris, water barriers of, 131 
 Peat, world's supply of, 192 
 Peccaries, 338 
 Peneplain, 80 
 Pennsylvania, occupations in, 8 
 
 — Railroad, 85 
 Perihelion, 43 
 
 Periyar River, irrigation from, 319 
 Persia, raids in, 97 
 Peru, claim on Atacama Desert, 165 
 — , climate of, 4 
 Petroleum, 195 fT. 
 — , conservation of, 197 
 — , distribution of (map), 198 
 — , effect on man, 199 
 — , England's need of, 395 
 — , in Mexico, 196, 200 
 — , — plain.s, 168 
 — , — Texas, 
 — , political effect of, 200 
 — , production of, 197 f. 
 — , uses of, 19() 
 
 Philadclpliia, cost of labor in, 116 
 Philippines acfiuircd by V . S., 399 
 — , American method of colonial con- 
 trol in, 406 
 — , "cogon" gra.ss in, 282 
 — , food of, 7 
 
 Phosphates, sources of, 163 
 Phosphorus in ocean, 107 
 Phylloxera, migrations of, 301 
 Physical activity, 150 
 
 — energy, ate Energy 
 
 Pig iron, production in U. S., 177 
 
 Pigs, domestic and wild, 33S f. 
 
 " I'iiie barrens" of Carolina, Georgia 
 
 and Florida, 155 
 Pittslnirgh, water supply of, 143 
 Placer mining, 170 
 Placers, gold in, 170 
 Plains and mountains contrasted, 81 
 — , cereal crops of, 91 
 — , civilization on, 78 
 — , distribution of population on, 82 
 — , formation of, 80 
 — , transportation over, 85 
 Plant growth, need of chemicals for, 160 
 Plantation, agriculture in tropics, 287 ff. 
 Plantations, effect on civilization, 290 
 — , health on, 290 
 
 — of Java, 291 
 
 Plants, as feature of physical en\-iron- 
 
 ment, 5 
 — , imi)ortance of, 2(53 ff. 
 — , migration of, 55 
 Poland, boundaries of, 390 
 J'lateaus, character of, 80 
 Polar areas of low pressure, 213 
 
 — bears, 316 
 — • deserts, 275 
 
 — precipitation, 221 
 
 — projection, 48 
 
 — regions, climate as barrier in, 206 
 , diet in, 354 
 
 , mode of life in 309, f. 
 
 , rainfall in, 217, 221 
 
 Poles, migrations to Germany, 390 
 Political agitation, causes in France, 
 361 
 
 — boundaries and commerce, 388 
 , mountains as, 387 
 
 — geography, 377 ff. 
 
 Poor relief in Xewfovmdland, 3(53 
 Population among niouiit.iins, 82 
 — , density of, 10 
 
 ■ — , , influence of climate on, 243 
 
 — , , in cyclonic regions, 344 
 
 — , , — plains, 84 
 
 — , , — seaports, 122 f. 
 
 — , , — Shantung, 296 
 
 — , , — U. S., 48 
 
 — , distribution of, 82 
 
 — in desert, 309 
 
 irrigated areas, 326 f. 
 
INDEX 
 
 425 
 
 Population in monsoon regions, 305 
 
 plains, 82 
 
 — of China, 29(5 
 
 Egypt, 32G 
 
 Florida, 306 
 
 Iowa, 82 
 
 Scotland, 84 
 
 Switzerland, 82 
 
 — , sparsity of, 82, 306 
 — , "standard," 348 
 Port Arthur, 381 
 "Pork-barrel bill," 378 
 
 Porto Rico, acquisition by U. S., 399 
 , American method of colonial con- 
 trol in, 406 
 Portuguese East Africa, insect pests in, 
 
 6 
 Potato crop in Germany, 339 
 
 Ireland, 36G 
 
 Potatoes, distribution of, 335, f . 
 
 Potash in oceans, 107 
 
 — , sources of, 164 
 
 Potomac, water power of, 144 
 
 Poverty, in relation to soil, 156 f. 
 
 Power, kinds of, 186 f. 
 
 — on waterways, 114 
 
 — resources of U. S., 202 
 — , sources of, 186 f. 
 
 — , , coal, 189 
 
 — , , in the future, 202 
 
 — , — , — , sun, 202 
 
 — , , water, 143 f . 
 
 — , , wind, 187 f. 
 
 — , , wood, 188 
 
 — , waste of, 193 
 — , water, see Water power 
 Prairie, 274 
 
 Pressure and relief, 239 
 — , ctTect of continents and oceans on, 
 227 
 
 — , relief on atmospheric, 239 
 
 — rotation on distribution of, 
 
 211 
 Pressure l)elts on a simplified );i(>i)(', 
 
 212 ff. 
 Products, tropical, 2S7 
 — , world's chief, 332 
 Prospecting for minerals, 168 
 Prosperity, effect of monsoons on, 238 
 
 — in relation to rich soil, 156 f. 
 Proteids, 350 
 
 Protozoa, effect on man's environ- 
 ment, 363 
 Pygmies, occupation of, 8 
 Pyrenees as political boundary, 387 
 
 Q 
 
 Quinine plantations, 288 
 
 Quintana Roo, transportation in, 278 
 
 R 
 
 Rabbits in Australia, 60 
 Races of man, 6 
 Railroads, distribution of, 344 
 — , north and south, 74 
 
 — of North America, 69 
 
 the continents, 69 
 
 Rain, effect of altitude on, 82 
 — , source of, 103 
 
 — , summer, in continental interiors, 
 
 235 
 — , winter, in subtropical regions, 297 
 
 — forest, 271, 277 ff. 
 
 — — , diet in, 355 
 
 , health in, 277 
 
 -, inhabitants of, 279 
 
 Rainfall and migration from Europe, 
 365 
 
 Ireland, 366 
 
 water power, 144 
 
 cycles, effect of in America, 367 
 
 lakes on, 128 
 
 oceans on, 77 
 
 relief on, 240 ff. 
 
 — on Caspian Sea, 369 
 
 deserts, 310 
 
 ruins, 368 
 
 — salt lakes, 369 
 
 — in desert belt, 220, 310 
 
 equatorial belt, 215 
 
 India, 238 
 
 Kansas, 235, 364 
 
 Polar regions, 217, 221 
 
 sub-equatorial regions, 220 
 
 subtropical belts, 216, 220, 297 
 
 temperate regions, 221 
 
 trade wind belts, 215 
 
 westerly wind belts, 216 
 
 western I'nited States, 240 
 
 — , seasonal, and famines, 298 
 — , subtropical vs. monsoon, 297 
 — , variations in, 3t>S IT. 
 
426 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Rainfall zones on rotfttlnp; globe, 214 
 Itain-Hluiilow, 241 
 
 Rapids as source of water power, 147 
 Relief and atniosphoric jircssure, 239 
 
 — efTect on Halkans, 379 
 cliniato, 23S fT. 
 
 — political allegiance, 379 
 
 rainfall 240 f. 
 
 temperature, 238 
 
 winds, 239 
 
 — , favorable to water power, 144 
 — , importance of, 82 fT. 
 
 — in California, effect on orange grow- 
 
 ing, 240 
 
 Europe, 64 
 
 North America, 66 
 
 southern continents, 68 
 
 Religion elTect of surroundings on, 11 
 
 — of Khirghiz, 21 
 Reservoirs, 322 
 Residual mountains, 80 
 Revolution of earth, around the sun, ;U) 
 
 , effect on climatic belts, 217 
 
 Rhine as boundary, 389 
 
 — , flow of, 135 
 
 — , waterway of, 136 
 
 Rice, 326 
 
 Rice farming, effect on civilization, 284 
 
 in Ceylon, 283 f. 
 
 Rio Grande as boundary, 388 
 
 , depth of, 133 
 
 Rivers in human geography, 13 
 
 — volume affected by vegetation, 111 
 Riviera, effect of relief on, 239 
 "Roaring forties" (westerlies), 234 
 Rocky mountains as mining regions, 
 
 167 
 Rome, barbarian invasions of, 374 
 — , effect of climatic cycles on, 371 f. 
 — , lack of iron, 177 
 Roosevelt Dam, 320 
 Rotation, effect on pressure, 211 
 
 — , temperature, 211 
 
 — , winds, 213 
 
 liubber in cyclonic regions, 343 
 
 — I)lantations, 2S7 
 Ruins and rainfall, 3()8 
 Russia, calendar of, 26 
 — , climate of, 5, 397 
 — , coal and iron in, 397 
 
 — , dLsadvantages of location, 396 
 
 Russia, expansion of, 396 
 
 — , food and raw material of, 397 
 
 — , form of land, 396 
 
 — , inland waters of, 397 
 
 — , monotony of, 397 
 
 — , ocean frontage of, 61, 380 ff., 397 
 
 — , rivalry with luigland, 381 
 
 — , wood as fuel in, 189 
 
 Rye, 337 
 
 St. Louis, bridge at, 130 
 
 , channel of Missis.sii)])i at, 138 
 
 St. Lawrence River, waterway of, 135 f . 
 Sacramento county, poi)ula1i(>n of. 84 
 Sahara Desert, artesian wells in, ] 12 
 Salmon in Pacific Ocean, 109 
 Salt, desert lakes, 311 
 
 — in oceans, 106 
 
 — lakes and rainfall, 369 
 
 , source of minerals, 129 
 
 Samoa, expansion of U. S. to, 399 
 Sand, soil, 155 
 
 Sandy deserts, 310 
 
 Santo Domingo, American protectorate, 
 
 399 
 Savoy, aluminum factories in, 183 
 Savannas, 272 ff. 
 — , animals of, 272 
 Scales, migrations of, 361 
 Schaffhausen, aluminum plants at, 
 
 183 
 Scotch, characteristics, 1 
 Scotland, population of, 10, 84 
 Scrub and buslu's, 265 f. 
 — , tropical 271 
 Sea, effect on climate, 223 ff. 
 
 — coast, effect on health, 104 f. 
 in tropics, 106 
 
 — floor, government jjrutection of, 
 
 108 
 Seamanship, fi.sheries as sclu^il of, 1 1 1 f . 
 Si;i|)()rts, growth of, 122 
 — , population in, 122 f. 
 Searies Lake, Calif., source of potash, 
 
 164 
 Sea.sonal changes of rivers, 134 
 
 — contrasts, cause of nioii.soons in 
 
 A.sia. 235 
 
 — variations, effect on water jjower, 
 
 147 
 
INDEX 
 
 427 
 
 Seasons, causes of, 36, 41 ff. 
 — , effect on civilization, 43 
 — , health and energy, 248 f . 
 
 — in desert belt, 220 
 temperate regions, 221 
 
 — of rainfall in equatorial regions, 218 
 — , variation in effect of, 249 
 
 — , wet and dry, in equatorial regions, 
 218 
 
 — , , — sub-equatorial regions, 
 
 220 
 
 — , , — sul:)tropical regions, 
 
 220 
 Seattle, climate of, 104 
 — , expense of harbor at, 117 
 Seeds, effect of daylight on, 38 
 Seine River, a barrier, 131 
 Seistan, 377 
 Self-government, method of colonial 
 
 control, 405 
 Semites, migration of, 58 
 Serbia, acorns as food in, 92 
 — , German aggressions in, 403 
 Sewage, disposal in oceans, 106 
 Shape and relation to sea, of Europe, 66 
 
 , — North America, 08 
 
 , — South America, 69 
 
 , — southern continents, 
 
 69 
 Shantung, journey to, 296 
 Sheep in California, 91 
 Ships, cost of, 115 
 — , decline in sailing, 187 
 — , need of men on, 114 
 Siam, energy of, 12 
 Siberia, effect of long days on, 38 
 — , inland water transportation, 397 
 — , Russians of, 12 
 — , seasonal changes of rivers, 135 
 — , wood as fuel in, 189 
 Sierras as tourist resort, 98 
 — , cattle raising among, 91 
 Sierra Nevadas as mining regions, 1()7 
 
 , vegetation of, 268 
 
 Silver, economic importance of, 174, f. 
 Size of Europe, 64 
 
 North America, 66 
 
 Sky-scrapers, result of water barri(Ms, 
 
 132 
 Soil and the farmer, 153 ff. 
 — , changes in, 359 
 
 Soil, exhaustion of, 282, 359 
 
 — improved by glaciers, 157 
 
 — in human geograjihy, 4 
 mountains, 90 
 
 relation to poverty and pros- 
 perity, 156 f. 
 — , — tropical lands, 282 
 — , influence of climate on, 158 f. 
 
 — — on Khirghiz, 14 
 — , kinds of, 155 ff. 
 
 • — ■ of Alabama and Georgia, 156 
 
 South Atlantic States, 306 
 
 — , residual, 157 
 
 — , transported, 157 
 
 "Solid South," 385 
 
 South Africa, effect of British expan- 
 sion on, 394 
 
 , gold in, 176 
 
 Soutli America, cattle in, 340 
 
 , influence of Monroe Doctrine, 
 
 402 
 
 , land connection of, 58 
 
 — — , railroads in, 73 
 
 , self-government in, 387 
 
 , shape and relation to sea, 69 
 
 South Atlantic States, mon.soon cli- 
 mate of, 306 f. 
 
 Southern continents, area of, 68 
 
 ■ — ■ — , climate of, 68 
 
 , relief of, 68 
 
 , shape and relation to sea, 69 
 
 Southern States (of U. S.) climate of, 
 384 
 
 Spain and mountain carriers, 387 
 
 — , chestnut orchards of, 92 
 
 — , colonial methods of, 404 
 
 — , effect of little coal on, 179 
 
 — , population in irrigated areas, 326 
 
 Species, origin of, 58 
 
 Spitzbergen, occupations in, 8 
 
 Standard Oil Company, 201 
 
 — time, 26 
 Standards of time, 25 
 Steel Age, 177 
 
 — , use of charcoal in smelting, 188 
 
 Steppe, 274 
 
 Stone Age, 177 
 
 Strassfurt, Prussia, source of potash, 
 
 164 
 Submerged coasts and fisheries, 110 
 of Maine, recreation on, 105 
 
428 
 
 INDEX 
 
 SulvK'qujitorial ropinns, rainfall in, 220 
 iSubtropiail belt of high pressure, 212 f. 
 
 — dry forest, 274 
 
 — farming in California, 302 f. 
 
 — regions, diet of, 356 
 
 , famines in, 350 
 
 , life in, 293 IT. 
 
 , loeation of, 293 
 
 of Mediterranean, 299 f . 
 
 North America, 300 f. 
 
 .rainfall in, 210, 220 
 
 , winter rain and summer drought, 
 
 297 
 
 — seasons, 220 
 
 Suez Canal, tonnage of, 76 
 
 , military importance of, 02 
 
 Sugar plantations, 2SS f. 
 
 — raising in Hritish Guiana, Cuba and 
 
 Hawaii, 289 
 
 — tropical versus temperate, 288 
 Sulphurous smoke in copper mining 
 
 regions, 183 
 Summer, causes of, 41 
 Sun as cause of tides, 34 
 Swamps as source of bog iron, 129 
 Sweden, effect of little coal on, 179 
 — , occupations in, 8 
 — , unfortified boundary of, 389 
 Swine, sec Pigs 
 
 Switzerland, cattle raising in, 91 
 — , population of, 82 
 — , water power of, 148 
 — , woodworking and embroidery in, 
 
 90 
 Syria, climatic cj'cles in, 375 
 Syrian desert, mode of life in, 311 
 
 T 
 
 Takla Makan desert, loess in, 311 
 Tamarisk in deserts, 312 
 Tainpico oil field, 190, 200 
 "Tanks," use in Indian irrigation, 319, 
 
 322 
 Tariff question in United States, 3S5 
 
 in England, 383 
 
 Tasmania c<)iiii);irc(l with Ncwfoiiii(l- 
 
 land, 407 
 Tea plantations, 287 
 Tennessee, effect of moiuitain trans- 
 
 IM)rtation, 87 
 Tehuantepec, isthmus of, 278 
 
 Temperate regions, seasons of, 221 
 
 Temperature contrasts in California, 223 
 
 — , effect of rotation on. -'1 1 
 
 — , influence of altitude on, 82 
 
 — , continents on, 223 
 
 — , inland waters on, 128 
 
 — , oceans on, 77, 104, 223 
 
 — , relief on, 238 
 
 — , optimum, 251 
 
 Tent, Indian, 52 
 
 • — , Khirghiz, 10 
 
 Terraces, use in farming, 90 
 
 Tetrahedron, shape of earth compared, 
 with, 51 f. 
 
 Texas, acquisition oy U. S., 398 
 
 — , minerals in, 107 
 
 Thames River, a barrier, 131 
 
 Thunder stormsand cyclonic storms, 216 
 
 Tian Shan i)lateau, 12 
 
 Tibet, gold in, 170 
 
 Tides, effect of, 32 f . 
 
 — , , on harbors, 30 
 
 — , influence of moon on, 33 
 
 — , sun on, 34 
 
 — , nature of, 32 
 
 — , neap, 35 
 
 ■ — , sjmng, 35 
 
 Timber belt in Alabama and Georgia, 
 150 
 
 Time, central, 20 
 
 — , change of, in England and Amer- 
 ica, 20 
 
 — , determination of, 25 
 
 — , eastern, 20 
 
 ■ — , local and standard, 20 
 
 — , mountain, 20 
 
 — , Pacific, 20 
 
 Tin, production of, 311 
 
 Tit(nnc, sunk as result of fog, 232 
 
 Tobacco, effect of long daj's on seeds of, 
 38 
 
 — in Southern States, 384 
 Tornadoes and cyclones, 210 
 Trade and friendly relations, 401 
 
 — in Aiepix), 295 
 
 Trade wind belts, rainfall in, 215 
 Trades (Trade winds), 214 
 'I'ranscaspian desert, vegetation in, 312 
 Transportation, by pack animals. 87 
 — , cost of, 87 
 — , effect of, in nioimtains, 87 
 
INDEX 
 
 429 
 
 Transportation, and oil industry, 201 
 
 — in cyclonic regions, 343 
 
 equatorial forests 278 
 
 New Jersey, 85 
 
 — , means of, 87 f. 
 — , ocean, see Ocean transportation 
 — , over plains and mountains, 85 ff. 
 — , water, see Water transportation 
 Trans-shipment, cost of, 134 
 Tree crops among mountains, 91 
 
 in France, 91 
 
 Italy, 91 
 
 Mediterranean region, 91 
 
 Trees and climatic cycles, 370 
 
 — as type of vegetation, 264 
 
 — of California, 370 
 
 mountain regions, 92 
 
 Triple Alliance, 382 
 
 — Entente, 382 
 
 Tropical countries, animals in, 187 
 
 — farmer, difficulties of, 282 
 
 — forests, climate as barrier in, 206 
 
 — grassland, 271 
 
 — jungle, see Jungle. 
 
 — lands, agriculture in, 282 
 
 , exhaustion of soil, 282 
 
 , grasses of, 282 
 
 , insect pests in, 283 
 
 — products, 287 
 
 — scrub, 271 
 
 Tsetse fly, in tropical Africa, 278 
 
 Tundra, 275 
 
 Timis, French expansion to, 400 
 
 Tunnel under English Channel, 113 
 
 Tunnels, 130 
 
 Turanian race, mental powers of, 20 
 
 I'urkestan, Chinese, clay soil in, 156 
 
 Turkey, German influence in, 403 
 
 — life in, 294 f. 
 
 — , political situation of, 393 
 
 U 
 
 Uncompahgre Valley, Colorado, 322 
 United States, agriculture in, 263 
 
 , boundary, northern, 389 
 
 , — , southern, 388 
 
 , climate of, 254 
 
 , coal and iron in, 177, 179, 1S9 
 
 , copper production in, 181 
 
 , corn crop in, 336 
 
 , density of pojxilatioii, IS 
 
 United States, expansion of, 398 
 
 , fisheries of, 108, 109 
 
 , geography and the tariff, 385 
 
 , harbors of, 116 ff. 
 
 , health in, 249 
 
 , irrigation in, 320 f . 
 
 — — , method of colonial control, 406 
 , mining regions in, 167 
 
 — — , power resources of, 202 
 
 , rainfall cycles in, 367 
 
 , — in western part of, 240 
 
 , relations with Mexico, 401 
 
 , trade with foreign countries, 346 
 
 , water power in, 149 if. 
 
 United States Department of Agricul- 
 ture, and nitrification, 165 
 
 Steel Corporation, 180 f. 
 
 Utah, irrigation in, 321 
 
 — , population in irrigated areas, 326 
 
 Valleys, origin of, 79 
 Variability, optimum, 252 
 Vegetable products, production of, 342 f. 
 Vegetables, effect of tropical daylight 
 
 on seeds of, 39 
 Vegetation and civilization, 270 f. 
 
 man, 263 ff. 
 
 in equatorial regions, 277 f . 
 
 — , effect of climate on, 14 
 — , — on agriculture, 264 
 — , distribution of, 270 f . 
 — , earth's garment of, 263 
 • — , marine, 107 
 
 — of cyclonic regions, 330 
 deserts, 273, 312 
 
 — on mountains, 268 
 — , tj-pes of, 264 ff. 
 — , zones of, 268 
 
 Veins, placer gold deposits from, 171 
 \'erkhoyansk, continental climate at, 
 
 224 
 Victoria Falls on the Ivivcr hjuassu, 149 
 — ■ — on the Zambesi, 149 
 \'ineyards in France, 361 
 Virgin Islands, military value of, 62 
 
 purchased by U. S., 399 
 
 Virginia City, Nevada, mining in, 171 
 Vladivostok, port of, 381 
 Volcanoes, location of, 55 
 A'olga Hiver, iiurcnt of, 134 
 
430 
 
 INDEX 
 
 W 
 
 Wales, rnal IwhIs of, 109 
 
 Washington (SUito),\vatorpowcr of, 14 4 
 
 Water as a defcnso, 112 
 
 source of power. 143 fT. 
 
 — , bacteria in. 141 
 
 — , chemical impurities of, 140 
 
 — , smell of, 140 
 
 — , taste of, 140 
 
 — barriers, expense of, 132 fT. 
 
 , inland waters as, 129 fT. 
 
 , location of cities determined by, 
 
 131 f. 
 
 , Mississippi River 130 
 
 , oceans as, 111 
 
 of Great Britain, 112 f. 
 
 ■ Japan, 113 
 
 Water bodies as geographic constant, 
 359 
 
 in human geography, 4 
 
 ■ , influence on Khirghiz, 13 
 
 ■ , — of lakes and relief on, 144 
 
 — power, effect of rainfall on, 144 
 
 , seasonal variations on, 147 
 
 in glaciated regions, 147 f. 
 
 , use of in U. S, 149 ff. 
 
 Water supi)ly, kinds of, 140 f. 
 
 , methods of distributhig, 141 
 
 , mud in, 140 
 
 , need of, 139 
 
 — systems, city, 142 
 
 — table, 141 
 
 at London, 143 
 
 — transportation 64 
 
 *and cities of U. S., 122 
 
 , safety of, 115 
 
 Waterways, inland, sec Inland water- 
 ways 
 — , power needed f)n, 114 
 Weather as a geogra])hic variable, 'MV.i 
 — , effect on health and energy, 24S 
 
 — , man, 24S ff. 
 
 — , influence of cyclones and anti- 
 cyclones on, 217 
 Weather Hureau, value of, 304 
 Wells, artesian, 142 f. 
 
 — as source of water supply, 141 f. 
 — , driven, 142 
 
 — in Mexico, 141 
 
 "We.st coa.sts," or subtropical regions, 
 293 
 
 Westerlies (winds), 213 
 
 Westerly wind belts, rainfall in, 216 
 
 Western Kuroi)e, elTect of iron deposits 
 
 on, 177 
 Wheat, food value, 356 
 
 — in Great War, 358 
 
 — production in cyclonic regions, 333 
 Wheat-raising in California, 302 
 Whirls, oceanic, 234 
 
 — , Pacific, 234 
 
 Whisk}', illicit inaiiufai'ture, 87 
 
 White men in equatorial rain forest, 279 
 
 — - Mountains as tourist resort, 9S 
 
 Wild animal life, influence on Khir- 
 
 ghiz, 15 
 Windmills, 187 
 Winds as cause of ocean currents, 230 
 
 source of power, 187 f . 
 
 — , deflection of, 213 
 — , direction of, 227 
 
 — -, , effect of rotation on, 213 
 
 — , effect of relief on, 239 
 
 — , — on ocean climate, 106 
 
 — , in relation to continents, 227 
 
 - — , on a simplified globe, 213 
 
 — , trade, see Trades 
 
 Winter, causes of, 41 
 
 Wisconsin, glaciated and drift less area 
 
 of, 157 f. 
 — , water i)ower in, 144, 147 
 Witwaters, South Africa, gold field, 170 
 Wood as source of power, 188 
 — , distribution of, 342 
 Woodworking in Switzerland ami Hlack 
 
 Forest, 96 
 Wool, distribution of, 342 
 Work, effect of cyclonic storms on, 330ff. 
 — , ideal climate for, 254 
 
 Yangste River, navigable length of, 134 
 
 , superior waterway of, 138 
 
 Ycjir, length of, 25 
 Yucatan, climatic cycles in, 371 
 — , transportation in, 278 
 Yukon, clothing, 7 
 — , hinterland, 135 
 
 Z 
 
 Zambesi River, current of, 134 
 , Victoria Falls on, 149 
 
t.ARTH SCIENCES LI BRAKY 
 
 14 DAY USE 
 
 RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED 
 tAKTH SClt.i\«^c^i> L.iDK>\rtT 
 
 This book is due on the last date stamped below, or 
 
 on the date to which renewed. 
 
 Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. 
 
 
 •. 
 
 O0T-^13BB~~ 
 
 0CTJJ-t372'" 
 
 
 ^-J^^2 1S7J 
 
 
 APR - 4 1980 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 T T» oi An.^ in 'fir General Library 
 
-X^" 
 
 f4 
 
 ;3