UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 AT LOS ANGELES
 
 HP 
 
 **C^f 
 
 I 

 
 
 Mess Officer's 
 Assistant 
 
 (Third Edition) 
 
 PREPARED BY 
 
 MAJOR L. R. HOLBROOK 
 
 I. ATE COMMISSARY, U. S. ARMY 
 
 Late Director 
 
 Army Training School for Bakers and Cooks 
 Fort Riley, Kansas 
 
 -^" . 
 
 (Eighth Tnotuaru 
 
 AMERICAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION 
 
 SOLDIERS 
 
 GEORGE BANTA PUBLISHING COMPANY 
 MENASHA, WISCONSIN 
 
 '") r '.'\r\'\ :' 
 
 5 1 4 \ < f-'J
 
 COPYRIGHT 1917 
 BY L. R. HOLBROOK
 
 
 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 The first edition of the MESS OFFICER'S 
 ASSISTANT was prepared in the early part of 
 1908, for the use of student officers taking the 
 course at the Mounted Service School. This 
 edition became exhausted some months ago and 
 rendered a complete revision and re-setting of 
 the type necessary. 
 
 The subject matter, though not prepared for 
 
 enlisted men, was found to be of such general in- 
 
 terest to Instructors and Student Cooks as to 
 
 cause part of the text to be used in our regular 
 
 instruction. 
 
 This book teaches the essential principles to 
 
 r*- be followed in the messing of troops and con- 
 
 j tains much information of interest to the officers 
 
 rather than to the enlisted man. It should, how- 
 
 ever, be constantly studied in connection with 
 
 the Mess Sergeant's Handbook which contains 
 
 much information relative to the financial hand- 
 
 ling of the mess not heretofore published. 
 
 L. R. HOLBROOK, 
 Captain, Commissary, U. S. Army. 
 January 15, 1911.
 
 PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. 
 
 / 
 
 The Second Edition having been exhausted, 
 it has become necessary to print a new edition. 
 Major Holbrook, being absent in France, the new 
 edition has been left to us to get out. It is the 
 same as the old edition with a few minor cor- 
 rections. 
 
 U. S. CAVALRY ASSOCIATION.
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 For some years past much experimenting 
 has been carried on to determine the most suit- 
 able ration for horses, cattle, hogs, sheep, poultry, 
 etc., with a view to determining what food is the 
 most economical, with reference to the end de- 
 sired, and today, through mutual arrangements, 
 between Agricultural Colleges and Commanding 
 Officers of military posts, extensive experiments 
 are being made on horses of entire troops and 
 batteries to determine just what amounts and 
 kinds of forage will produce the best results com- 
 mensurate with, or regardless of, cost. 
 
 In regard to human dietary, much has been 
 written and some experimenting has been done, 
 but without doubt we have more reliable infor- 
 mation as to the manner of feeding animals than 
 men. Data is available covering experiments 
 with a few individuals, and with small squads of 
 men soldiers, students and athletes and the 
 results ably analyzed by physiological experts 
 show beyond a reasonable doubt that people in
 
 iv. THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 general eat too much, especially of protein foods 
 and that a more rational method of eating 
 brings about remarkable changes in one's desire 
 for food, both as regards class and quantity and 
 that many diseases are curable through a proper 
 regulation of the diet. 
 
 In this little book no attempt has been made 
 to set forth new methods or principles, but to 
 clearly announce those which we believe should 
 be followed in handling the ration as now pro- 
 vided. As desirable as it may be to reduce the 
 consumption of food to actual requirements and 
 to introduce new methods of mastication, it must 
 be recognized that our men are mostly young 
 and hardy, and are daily subject to strenuous out- 
 door exercise that enables them to consume, with 
 impunity, classes and quantities of food that 
 would be impossible with those whose habits are 
 quite sedentary, or who have already become so 
 disabled through improper dietary habits as to 
 force them to seek renewed youth and energy in 
 new and well proven methods. 
 
 Our rations is based upon what men under- 
 going a considerable amount of labor actually 
 consume, when they are free to choose their food 
 and eat it in such quantity and manner as their
 
 INTRODUCTION. v. 
 
 inclination suggests. The minimum consumed by 
 such people has been considered as the least 
 amount that should be supplied as a regular diet. 
 Professor W. O. Atwater placed the daily re- 
 quirement at 3,500 calories for a man doing 
 moderate work, and at 4,500 calories for a man at 
 hard work. Professor Chittenden has, how- 
 ever, shown conclusively that mental and bodily 
 vigor are maintained and even tend to be greatly 
 increased on a much smaller quantity of food. He 
 shows that the meat proteins especially should be 
 reduced much below that found in the ration 
 allowance, as the amount of toxins present in 
 such foods are sufficient to produce injury in the 
 system, while protein itself is not required in the 
 quantity supplied by the articles now composing 
 the ration, to replace waste and repair the muscu- 
 lar tissues. 
 
 The time is not yet ripe, however, to reduce 
 our ration to the standard established by 
 Professor Chittenden. The people at large will 
 first have to be educated up to Scientific Nutri- 
 tion, and it would be impracticable to change the 
 well established habits of young and growing 
 men, such as now constitute the greater part of 
 the enlisted strength of the Army.
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER PARAGRAPH 
 
 I. HISTORY OP THE RATION 1-19 
 
 II. FOOD VALUES AND ELEMENTARY PRIN- 
 CIPLES OF NUTRITION.... 20-35 
 
 III. ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF COOKING 
 
 AND HANDLING FOOD.... 36-70 
 
 IV. THE GARRISON RATION... .. 71-157 
 
 V. MILK, CHEESE, LARD, COMPOUND, 
 
 ETC.... ...158-211 
 
 VI. PRESERVATION OF FOODS, BACTERIA 
 
 AND MOLD.... ....212-231 
 
 VII. BRIEF EXTRACTS FROM LECTURES BY 
 
 THE AUTHOR.... ....232-250 
 
 VIII. DEFINITIONS 251-445 
 
 INDEX.
 
 The Mess Officer's Assistant. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 HISTORY OF THE RATION. 
 
 1. The ration now supplied to the Ameri- 
 can soldier is beyond doubt the most liberal is- 
 sued to any Army in the world. Congress has 
 ever been most generous in its appropriations 
 for subsistence, from time to time increasing the 
 food values of the ration, keeping pace with the 
 increased demands of the people in their more 
 elaborate mode of living. 
 
 THE RATION FROM 1775 TO 1834. 
 
 2. In 1798 the following ration was estab- 
 lished by Congress: 
 
 Beef, 1)4 pounds per ration. 
 Bread or flour, 18 ounces per ration. 
 Salt, 4 pounds per hundred rations. 
 Vinegar, 4 quarts per hundred rations. 
 Soap, 4 pounds per hundred rations. 
 Candles, 1^ pounds per hundred rations.
 
 10 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 These quantities were based upon actual 
 necessity and were presumed to be sufficient to 
 sustain the soldier while doing arduous service 
 in the field, as well as in garrison. 
 
 3. The above ration differed from that 
 authorized during the Revolutionary War, and 
 for the next half century, chiefly in that liquor 
 was issued at times, and certain substitutes were 
 allowed for beef. The quantities of the com- 
 ponents as stated above have remained practically 
 unchanged to the present day. 
 
 4. The quality of the ration then supplied 
 was not satisfactory for the reason that Purchas- 
 ing Agents were allowed 10 per cent, on all sav- 
 ings made to the government thus placing a 
 premium on the purchase of inferior articles. 
 Later the entire ration was supplied by contract 
 and this was even more unsatisfactory. 
 
 THE RATION FROM 1834 TO 1861. 
 
 5. Although since 1818 the President has 
 been authorized to make such alterations in the 
 ration as due regard to the health and comfort
 
 HISTORY OF THE RATION. 11 
 
 of the Army and economy required, little advan- 
 tage has been taken under this authority to in- 
 crease the ration, as additional Congressional 
 appropriations are equally necessary. 
 
 6. However, in 1834 the President substi- 
 tuted 4 pounds of coffee and 8 pounds of sugar 
 for the liquor component, and this was increased 
 in 1838 by Act of Congress to 6 pounds of coffee 
 and 12 pounds of sugar per 100 rations "when it 
 can be done to the covenience of the Public 
 Service, and when not so issued to be paid in 
 money." This was the beginning of the now 
 well established custom of making "savings," 
 and it has since been favorably passed upon by 
 the Supreme Court. 
 
 7. In 1860 the allowance of coffee was in- 
 creased to 10 pounds and of sugar to 15, and 
 prior to the Civil War the bean component was 
 added. 
 
 8. In 1861 the allowance of flour was in- 
 creased to 22 ounces, and an issue of potatoes 
 was authorized three times a week. The ration 
 of tea was fixed as at present and allowed to be 
 drawn in the place of coffee such increase in 
 the ration to be continued during the war.
 
 12 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 v 
 
 THE RATION FROM 1861 TO 1908. 
 
 9. This ration was, however, reported up- 
 on in 1864 as being in excess of the soldiers' 
 needs and was reduced to that issued prior to 
 1861, with the exception of 4 ounces of pepper 
 per hundred rations, which was authorized in 
 1863 and has continued as a part of the ration 
 to the present day. Incident to this reduction 
 of the ration there was a corresponding increase 
 in the soldiers' pay for the reason that all savings 
 then accrued to the Post and Regimental Funds 
 and not to the immediate benefit of the organiza- 
 tion or soldiers upon whom the saving was made. 
 
 10. An extra allowance of one gill of whiskey 
 for men undergoing hard labor or excessive fatigue 
 was authorized by Act of Congress in 1819, 
 and disappeared in 1878, since which time the 
 issue of whiskey as a part of the ration has not 
 been authorized. 
 
 11. In 1890 one pound of fresh vegetables 
 was added to the ration, and in 1899 \1]/2 pounds 
 of dried fruit for each 100 rations (later being 
 reduced to 10 pounds, and by the ration authorized 
 May 1, 1908, to 8 pounds.)
 
 HISTORY OF THE RATION. 13 
 
 12. In 1901 the allowance of sugar was in- 
 creased to 20 pounds per 100 rations. No other 
 changes in the Garrison Ration occurred until 
 May 1, 1908. 
 
 KINDS OF RATIONS. 
 
 13. Prior to 1878 there was but one ration 
 for all purposes known to regulations, although 
 during the Civil War a "Marching Ration" is 
 often referred to, and consisted of salt beef or 
 bacon, hard bread, coffee and sugar. 
 
 14. The Travel Ration was established in 
 1878. 
 
 15. The Emergency Ration was established 
 in 1896 and then corresponded very closely to 
 the "Haversack Ration" of today, but it was 
 soon superseded by a desiccated mixture molded 
 into cakes and hermetically sealed in one-pound 
 cans with a certain amount of salt, pepper and 
 coffee, or chocolate. The present Emergency 
 Ration consists of three cakes of chocolate to 
 which a small percentage of sugar, malted milk 
 and egg has been added in the process of manu- 
 facture. The weight is 8 ounces and fuel value, 
 about 1,300 calories.
 
 14 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 16. -The Field Ration i was established in 
 1901, although prior to this time certain changes 
 were made in the "ration" for field service. 
 
 17. The Haversack Ration was established in 
 1908. (It is now called the Reserve Ration, and 
 the former term is no longer used.) 
 
 18. The Garrison Ration as now constituted 
 was established in May, 1908, and passed to the 
 cash credit basis July 1, 1910. (See Par. 4, Mess 
 Sergeant's Handbook.) 
 
 19. It is noted that in 1819 it was declared 
 on the floors of Congress that the ration was 
 amply sufficient since which time it has been 
 decreased by the liquor component only, while 
 it has been increased by the coffee, sugar, bean, 
 fresh vegetable, dried fruit, syrup, lard, butter 
 and milk components, in addition to baking powder, 
 various seasonings and extracts, besides substi- 
 tuting turkey or chicken for beef on holidays, 
 while many substitutive articles have been author- 
 ized for issue when, in the opinion of the com- 
 manding officer, such issue is necessary for the 
 health of the troops. This elaborate ration was 
 based almost entirely upon actual requirements, 
 as determined from data kept for three years at
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE RATION. 15 
 
 the Army Training School for Bakers and Cooks 
 at Fort Riley, Kansas. The quantities of the 
 various classes of foods, i. e., meat, flour, vege- 
 tables, coffee, sugar, etc., are about right for sup- 
 plying a well-balanced diet (though not in all 
 cases quite sufficient), and it is hoped that, since 
 the garrison ration has passed to a strictly cash 
 basis, it will be purchased in about the quantities 
 in which it was formerly issued, and as fully ex- 
 plained in the Mess Sergeant's Handbook.
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 FOOD VALUES AND ELEMENTARY 
 PRINCIPLES OF NUTRITION. 
 
 20. It is impracticable to make more than 
 the briefest mention of the Principles of Nutri- 
 tion and the Nutritive Values of Food. Very 
 complete and satisfactory information on this 
 subject may be secured from Bulletins Nos. 34 
 and 142, U. S. Department of Agriculture upon 
 which many of the following statements are 
 based.* 
 
 21. A WELL BALANCED RATION is 
 one that supplies proper nourishment to the body 
 without having any component greatly in excess 
 of the requirements. The term is full of scien- 
 tific significance but conveys little meaning to the 
 average person. 
 
 It would be impracticable to lay down a par- 
 ticular diet by weights that could be said to es- 
 tablish the exact amount of protein, fats, carbo- 
 
 *See also Wiley's, "Foods and Their Adulteration," 
 Hutchisons's " Foods and Dietetics," and various books on 
 "Military Hygiene." 
 
 16
 
 FOOD VALUES NUTRITION. 17 
 
 hydrates, etc., required for any particular per- 
 son much less for a company of soldiers whose 
 habits and labors vary from those of the seden- 
 tary clerk to the hard working horseshoer or the 
 enthusiastic athlete. 
 
 In general, however, it may be remarked 
 that during periods of inactivity the meat com- 
 ponent of the ration should be reduced, and that 
 beans and heavy fruit puddings should be used 
 less frequently. At such times fresh fruit and 
 vegetables should constitute a relatively greater 
 portion of the ration consumed, and greater cart 
 should be exercised in preparing and serving the 
 food. Savory odors and palatable seasoning will 
 stimulate the appetite and start the flow of diges- 
 tive juices when the pangs of hunger are bridled 
 by inaction or sedentary habits. Moreover a 
 constant variety of food must be supplied at all 
 times. Prisoners have been known to vomit at 
 the sight of food served in the same form for 
 indefinite periods. 
 
 In regard to the company mess it may be 
 said that as a rule the appetite of the average 
 soldier is good and requires no special stimulus.
 
 18 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 If the meals are properly prepared he frequently 
 takes too much food on his plate, and eats too 
 fast and too much for his own good. 
 
 22. A ONE-SIDED DIET is one in which 
 one or more compounds are supplied in much 
 smaller quantity than is required for proper 
 nourishment. As a result the digestive organs 
 are overloaded with superfluous materials in order 
 to provide proper sustenance. For example, the 
 vegetarian often overworks the digestive organs 
 in order to provide the necessary amount of muscle 
 making material. Many tribes of uncivilized 
 people and certain classes of poor people are 
 either underfed or are forced to eat great quanti- 
 ties of a relatively plentiful article in order to 
 supply the necessary nutrition, but the soldier's 
 ration is selected for him, the food elements are 
 presumed to be in about the proper proportions 
 and generally in sufficient quantity. 
 
 23. FOOD by definition includes all those 
 substances that build up the tissues, restore waste, 
 or furnish heat or energy. From 25 to 30 dif- 
 ferent elements are found in the body, the most 
 important being oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitro- 
 gen, calcium, phosphorus and sulphur, Both
 
 FOOD VALUES NUTRITION. 19 
 
 in our bodies and in the food we eat these ele- 
 ments are, however, combined into certain com- 
 pounds, the most important of which are water, 
 protein, fats, carbohydrates, and mineral matters. 
 The body of the average man contains about 
 60 per cent, of water, 18 per cent, of protein, 15 
 per cent, of fats, 6 per cent, of mineral matters, 
 and 1 per cent, of carbohydrates. 
 
 24. WATER neither builds up the tissue 
 nor supplies heat nor energy and hence cannot 
 be termed food, though it is indispensable to 
 our existence. Forty to fifty per cent, of water 
 is found in the ordinary cut of beef, the quantity 
 decreasing with the amount of fat present. 
 Therefore a piece of meat containing a good 
 distribution of fat has a greater fuel value than 
 an equal amount of solid lean meat. (See table 
 of food values following). Fresh vegetables 
 often contain from 80 per cent, to 90 per cent, 
 of water, and dried seeds and cereals as low as 
 from 10 per cent, to 12 per cent. These however, 
 take up a large percentage of water in the pro- 
 cess of cooking. 
 
 25. PROTEIN compounds are known as the 
 muscle builders. They include: 
 
 (a) The Albuminoids which are found in
 
 20 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 great quantities in lean meat, whites of eggs, 
 gluten of wheat, curd of milk, etc., and whose 
 chief function is in building up the tissues and 
 restoring waste. 
 
 (6) The Gelatinoids, which are found in great 
 quantities in the tendons, connective tissues, 
 skin, etc. It is not believed that they build 
 up the tissues, but rather that they protect the 
 albuminoids by reason of being more readily 
 transformed into heaf and energy. 
 
 (c} The Extractives, which are the most im- 
 portant part of beef stock, beef extracts and beef 
 tea. (See definitions.) They neither build up 
 the tissues nor supply heat nor energy, but act 
 rather as stimulants and appetizers. The crav- 
 ing for meats, especially in the tropics, is pre- 
 sumed to be largely on account of the extractives 
 contained in them. 
 
 26. FATS occur chiefly in the meats, but- 
 ter, milk, cereals, and nuts. They may be con- 
 sumed as fuel, but it is believed that they are 
 generally stored in the body as a reserve source 
 of energy to be used when the normal supply of 
 ordinary fuel (the carbohydrates') is insufficient.
 
 FOOD VALUES NUTRITION. 21 
 
 Fat is the most concentrated form of body fuel, 
 and its high calorific value (Par. 34) explains 
 the economy of nature in storing it as a reserve 
 in the body. 
 
 The Eskimos consume large amounts of fat 
 daily for the simple reason that they require a 
 great deal of body heat and nature has provided 
 great quantities of it for them in the seal, walrus, 
 etc. 
 
 Soldiers serving in Alaska require more heat 
 foods than others, and consequently the bacon 
 and fresh vegetable components of the ration have 
 been materially increased for this service. 
 
 27. CARBOHYDRATES. The carbohy- 
 drates are the great energy producers. If not 
 required for immediate use they may be trans- 
 formed into fat and remain stored in the body in 
 this concentrated form until required for use. 
 They are found chiefly in such vegetable foods 
 as flour, rice, potatoes, etc., and in fruits, in the 
 form of starch, sugar and fibers (or cellulose). 
 In young vegetables these fibers are quite easy 
 of digestion but if matured they appear in the
 
 22 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 form of toughened strings called woody fiber 
 and can be broken down only by a long process 
 of cooking. If taken into the stomach while raw 
 or partially cooked they are unfit for food and 
 are practically indigestible. 
 
 28. MINERAL MATTERS. Mineral in- 
 gredients are found not only in the bones and 
 teeth, but also in the muscles and circulation. 
 They are generally supplied with the ordinary 
 foods in sufficient quantity but yield little or no 
 energy though like water they are necessary for 
 our existence. When food, or the body, is burned 
 the mineral ingredients remain as ash. 
 
 29. REFUSE AND WASTE. That por- 
 tion of the food supplied and not generally con- 
 sidered as suitable to eat, or if eaten, is not di- 
 gested, is termed refuse. It may include decayed 
 portions of vegetables, or their husks, hulls, 
 skins, etc., stones and seeds of fruits, bones of 
 fish, etc., etc. The refuse frequently contains 
 the same ingredients as the edible portion, but in 
 such form that it may be difficult to eat, indigest- 
 ible, or of an objectionable flavor. For these 
 reasons, the value of a food to the system is not 
 always accurately measured by the expressed
 
 POOD VALUES NUTRITION. 23 
 
 calorific value. Refuse should not be confused 
 with waste, i.e., with food that should generally 
 be served and consumed, but which, through 
 haste, carelessness, indifference or extravagance, 
 finds its way to the garbage can. 
 
 30. CONDIMENTS. The condiments (seas- 
 onings) possess little actual food value, but are 
 of the greatest importance in making food more 
 palatable. In doing so they stimulate the flow 
 of the digestive juices and by their presence 
 render the food more easily and completely di- 
 gested. ' Among the condiments, salt occupies a 
 unique position in that it is the only mineral that 
 has a food value. It supplies the hydrochloric 
 acid without which digestion in the stomach 
 could not take place. Hence it is indispensable. 
 
 31. DOUBLE FUNCTION OF FOODS. 
 Protein, fats, and carbohydrates may all be con- 
 sumed to supply energy if necessary, though pro- 
 tein alone can build up the tissues. Carbohy- 
 drates, fats, and gelatinoids are first called upon to 
 supply energy, thus protecting the muscular tis- 
 sues (albuminoids) to the last Emaciated men 
 and horses returning from active field service 
 are familiar examples illustrating the loss of fat
 
 24 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 and muscular tissue consumed to furnish much 
 of the heat and energy that normally would have 
 been supplied by the fats and carbohydrates of a 
 proper diet. 
 
 32. BREAKFAST FOODS. Such foods 
 made from wheat, corn, oats, etc., are placed on 
 the market in the form of "nuts" or "flakes" can 
 have no nutritive property not found in the flour 
 or meal from which they are derived, and the 
 claims of the manufacturers for superior nutri- 
 tion are considered more or less ridiculous. Such 
 concentrated foods are generally eaten with 
 great quantities of milk (or cream) and sugar, 
 which add enormously to the food value of this 
 part of the meal. The retail prices of specially 
 prepared breakfast foods are from two to five 
 times greater than those of the ordinary cereal 
 products, and if the latter are properly prepared 
 in cooking, evidence derived from experiments 
 does not indicate any difference in the thorough- 
 ness with which they are digested, nor in their 
 nutritive value. It is not considered that "con- 
 centrated" of " predigested " products possess 
 any special advantage as a food for a healthy 
 man. If specially relished they may be eaten for
 
 FOOD VALUES NUTRITION. 25 
 
 variety, as any other palatable food, for they are 
 seldom adulterated. As a matter of fact, how- 
 ever, a certain amount of bulk is considered nec- 
 essary for the proper peristaltic action of the in- 
 testines, and it is believed that healthy digestive 
 organs should perform a normal amount of labor, 
 as well as the brain and the muscular tissue. 
 
 33. BRAIN WORK AND ITS RELATION 
 TO FOOD. While intellectual activity is some- 
 what dependent upon the materials selected by 
 the brain from the blood circulated through it, 
 the particular substances and quantities con- 
 sumed are unknown. Hence, little confidence 
 should be placed in articles sold on the market as 
 "Brain Foods." 
 
 34. FUEL VALUE. The following gen- 
 eral estimate has been made for the energy fur- 
 nished to the body: 
 
 Protein, fuel value, 4 calories per gram, or 
 1,820 calories per pound. 
 
 Carbohydrates, fuel value, 4 calories per gram, 
 or 1,820 calories per pound. 
 
 Fats, fuel value, 8.9 calories per gram, or 4,040 
 calories per pound.
 
 26 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 It is an interesting fact that the energy 
 given off from the body as heat when the man 
 is at rest, or as heat and mechanical work to- 
 gether, if he is working, exactly equals the latent 
 energy of the material burned in the body. This 
 has been verified by many accurate experiments. 
 
 TABLE OF FOOD VALUES. 
 
 35. The table on pages 28 and 29, is of special 
 interest when comparing the usefulness to the 
 system of different classes of foods, or when 
 determining the relative value of substitutive 
 articles. For example, in order to keep down the 
 expenses of a mess, and to add variety, it may 
 be desirable to substitute beans for meat on cer- 
 tain days. In both cases, potatoes would prob- 
 ably be served, but when beans are placed on the 
 bill of fare, they may not only take the place of 
 meat, but also of a "second vegetable," as onions, 
 tomatoes, turnips, cabbage, etc. 
 
 Assume a mess of 100 men, and that for the 
 noon meal they consume 45 pounds of solid beef, 
 and as a second vegetable, 25 pounds of onions 
 (See Par. 14, Mess Sergeant's Handbook.)
 
 FOOD VALUES NUTRITION. 27 
 
 From the tables of food values we note : 
 
 45 (pounds round), x 890 (calories) =40, 050 calories. 
 25 (pounds onions), x 230 (calories) = 5,750 calories. 
 
 Total 45,800 calories. 
 
 Now substitute a mess of beans for the 
 above; twenty-five pounds of beans and five 
 pounds of bacon (for fat and flavor) is considered 
 sufficient. 
 
 From the tables of food values we note : 
 
 25 (pounds beans), x 1,520 (calories) =38, 000 calories. 
 5 (pounds bacon), x 2,715 (calories)=13,575 calories. 
 
 Total 51,575 calories. 
 
 Assuming that the latter are as fully digested 
 as the meat and onions, it would seem that the 
 ordinary addition of from 20 to 25 pounds of 
 bacon is not only unnecessary, but an expensive 
 luxury. 
 
 In the same way it may be shown that mac- 
 aroni and cheese may be used as a satisfactory 
 substitute for meat, and practical results bear out 
 our theoretical deduction. In either case, the 
 amount of protein (muscle building material) 
 and of fat and carbohydrates (energy produ- 
 cers) compare favorably with that found in the 
 meat. In the same way we may show that fresh 
 garden truck should not constitute the bulk of 
 any meal, or compare the fuel value of coffee, 
 cocoa, chocolate, etc.
 
 Average Composition and Fuel Value of Common Food Products 
 
 Food materials as purchased 
 
 Ref- 
 use. 
 
 Wa- 
 
 ter. 
 
 Pro- 
 tein. 
 
 Fat 
 
 Car- 
 
 bohy 
 dra- 
 tes. 
 
 Ash 
 
 Fuel 
 value 
 per 
 W. 
 
 Animal Food. 
 
 Beef, fresh: 
 Porterhouse steak 
 
 PER 
 CENT. 
 
 12.7 
 
 PER 
 CENT. 
 
 52.4 
 
 PER 
 
 CENT. 
 
 19.1 
 
 PER 
 CENT. 
 
 17.9 
 
 PER 
 CENT. 
 
 PER 
 
 CENT. 
 
 .8 
 
 CALO- 
 RIES. 
 
 1,100 
 
 Ribs '. 
 
 20.8 
 
 43.8 
 
 13.9 
 
 21.2 
 
 
 .7 
 
 1,135 
 
 Round : 
 
 7.2 
 
 60.7 
 
 19.0 
 
 12.8 
 
 
 1.0 
 
 890 
 
 Fore quarter 
 
 18.7 
 
 49.1 
 
 14.5 
 
 17.5 
 
 
 .7 
 
 995 
 
 Hind quarter 
 
 15.7 
 
 50.4 
 
 15.4 
 
 18.3 
 
 
 .7 
 
 1,045 
 
 Beef, corned . 
 
 8.4 
 
 49.2 
 
 14.3 
 
 23.8 
 
 
 4.6 
 
 1,245 
 
 Veal: 
 Fore quarter 
 Hind quarter 
 
 24.5 
 20.7 
 
 54.2 
 56.2 
 
 15.1 
 16.2 
 
 6.0 
 6.6 
 
 
 .7 
 .8 
 
 535 
 580 
 
 Mutton : 
 Fore quarter 
 
 21.2 
 
 41.6 
 
 12.3 
 
 24.5 
 
 
 .7 
 
 1,235 
 
 Hind quarter 
 
 17.2 
 
 45 4 
 
 13 8 
 
 23.2 
 
 
 .7 
 
 1,210 
 
 Pork, fresh: 
 Ham 
 Shoulder 
 
 10.7 
 
 12.4 
 
 48.0 
 44.9 
 
 13.5 
 12.0- 
 
 25.9 
 
 29.8 
 
 
 .8 
 .7 
 
 1,320 
 1,450 
 
 Pork, salted, cured and 
 pickled : 
 Ham, smoked 
 
 13.6 
 
 34.8 
 
 14.2 
 
 33.4 
 
 
 4.2 
 
 1,635 
 
 Salt pork 
 
 
 7.9 
 
 1.9 
 
 86.2 
 
 
 3.9 
 
 3,555 
 
 Bacon, smoked 
 
 7.7 
 
 17 4 
 
 9.1 
 
 62.2 
 
 
 4.1 
 
 2,715 
 
 Sausage : 
 Pork 
 
 
 39.8 
 
 13.0 
 
 44.2 
 
 1.1 
 
 2.2 
 
 2,075 
 
 Soups: 
 Beef 
 
 
 92.9 
 
 4.4 
 
 .4 
 
 1.1 
 
 1.2 
 
 120 
 
 Tomato 
 
 
 90.0 
 
 1.8 
 
 1.1 
 
 5.9 
 
 1.5 
 
 185 
 
 Poultry : 
 Fowls 
 
 25.9 
 
 47.1 
 
 13.7 
 
 12.3 
 
 
 .7 
 
 765 
 
 Turkey 
 
 22.7 
 
 42 4 
 
 16.1 
 
 18.4 
 
 
 .8 
 
 1,060 
 
 Fish: 
 Mackerel, whole fresh 
 
 44.7 
 
 40.4 
 
 10 2 
 
 4.2 
 
 
 .7 
 
 370 
 
 Shad, whole, fresh 
 
 50.1 
 
 35.2 
 
 9.4 
 
 4.8 
 
 
 .7 
 
 380 
 
 Cod salt 
 
 24.9 
 
 40 2 
 
 16.0 
 
 .4 
 
 
 18.5 
 
 325 
 
 Salmon, canned 
 Oysters, "solid" 
 
 
 63.5 
 
 88.3 
 
 21.8 
 6.0 
 
 12.1 
 1.3 
 
 ""sis' 
 
 2.6 
 1.1 
 
 915 
 225 
 
 Eggs: Hen's eggs 
 
 11.2 
 
 65.5 
 
 18.1 
 
 9.3 
 
 
 .9 
 
 635 
 
 Dairy Products, etc. : 
 Butter . . . 
 
 
 11.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 85.0 
 
 
 3.0 
 
 3,410 
 
 Whole milk 
 
 
 87.0 
 
 3.3 
 
 4.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 .7 
 
 310 
 
 Skim milk 
 
 
 90.5 
 
 3.4 
 
 .3 
 
 5.1 
 
 .7 
 
 165 
 
 Condensed milk . 
 
 
 26.9 
 
 8.8 
 
 8.3 
 
 54.1 
 
 1.9 
 
 1,430 
 
 Cream 
 
 
 74.0 
 
 2.5 
 
 18.5 
 
 4.5 
 
 .5 
 
 865 
 
 Cheese, full cream 
 
 
 34.2 
 
 25.9 
 
 33.7 
 
 2.4 
 
 3.8 
 
 1,885 
 
 Vegetable Food. 
 
 Flour, meal, etc. : 
 Graham flour 
 
 
 11.3 
 
 13.3 
 
 2.2 
 
 71.4 
 
 1.8 
 
 1,645 
 
 Wheat flour, pat. roller 
 process High grade 
 and medium 
 
 
 12.0 
 
 11.4 
 
 1.0 
 
 75.1 
 
 .5 
 
 1,635 
 
 Low grade . . .... 
 
 
 12.0 
 
 14.0 
 
 1.9 
 
 71.2 
 
 .9 
 
 1.640 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 28
 
 Average Composition and Fuel Value of Common Food Products 
 
 Food materials as purchased 
 
 Ref- 
 use. 
 
 Wa- 
 ter. 
 
 Pro- 
 tein. 
 
 Fat 
 
 Car- 
 bohy 
 dra- 
 tes. 
 
 Ash 
 
 Fuel 
 value 
 per 
 Ib. 
 
 Vegetable Food Con. 
 
 Macaroni, vermicelli, etc.. 
 
 PER 
 CENT. 
 
 PER 
 CENT. 
 
 10.3 
 
 PER 
 
 CENT. 
 
 13 4 
 
 PER 
 CENT. 
 
 .9 
 
 PER 
 
 CENT. 
 
 74.1 
 
 PER 
 
 CENT. 
 
 1.3 
 
 CALO- 
 RIES. 
 
 1,645 
 
 Rye flour 
 
 
 12. 9 
 
 6.8 
 
 .9 
 
 78.7 
 
 .7 
 
 1,620 
 
 Corn meal 
 
 
 12.5 
 
 9 2 
 
 1 9 
 
 75 4 
 
 1.0 
 
 1 635 
 
 Oat breakfast food 
 
 
 7.7 
 
 16 7 
 
 7.3 
 
 66.2 
 
 2.1 
 
 1,800 
 
 Rice 
 
 
 12.3 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 79 
 
 4 
 
 1 620 
 
 Tapioca 
 
 
 11.4 
 
 .4 
 
 1 
 
 88 
 
 .1 
 
 1,650 
 
 Starch 
 
 
 
 
 
 90.0 
 
 
 1,745 
 
 Bread, pastry, etc: 
 White bread . : 
 
 
 35.3 
 
 9 2 
 
 1 3 
 
 53 1 
 
 1.1 
 
 1,200 
 
 Graham bread 
 
 
 35.7 
 
 8.9 
 
 1.8 
 
 52.1 
 
 1.5 
 
 1,195 
 
 Rye bread 
 
 
 35.7 
 
 9.0 
 
 .6 
 
 53.2 
 
 1.5 
 
 1,170 
 
 Sugars, etc. : 
 M olasses 
 
 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 
 1.225 
 
 Sugar, granulated 
 
 
 
 
 
 100.0 
 
 
 1,750 
 
 Maple sirup 
 
 
 
 
 
 71.4 
 
 
 1,250 
 
 Vegetables: 
 Beans, dried 
 
 
 12.6 
 
 22 5 
 
 1 8 
 
 59 6 
 
 3.5 
 
 1,520 
 
 Beans, Lima, shelled 
 
 
 68.5 
 
 7.1 
 
 .7 
 
 22.0 
 
 1.7 
 
 540 
 
 Beets . . .. 
 
 20.0 
 
 70.0 
 
 1 3 
 
 1 
 
 7.7 
 
 .9 
 
 160 
 
 Cabbage 
 
 15.0 
 
 77.7 
 
 1.4 
 
 .2 
 
 4.8 
 
 .9 
 
 115 
 
 Celery 
 
 20.0 
 
 75.6 
 
 .9 
 
 .1 
 
 2.6 
 
 .8 
 
 65 
 
 Corn, green (sweet) edible 
 portion 
 
 
 75.4 
 
 3.1 
 
 .11 
 
 19.7 
 
 .7 
 
 440 
 
 Cucumbers 
 
 15.0 
 
 81.1 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 2 6 
 
 .4 
 
 65 
 
 Lettuce 
 
 15.0 
 
 80.5 
 
 1.0 
 
 .2 
 
 2.5 
 
 .8 
 
 65 
 
 Onions 
 
 10.0 
 
 78.9 
 
 1.4 
 
 .3 
 
 8.9 
 
 .5 
 
 190 
 
 Parsnips . 
 
 20.0 
 
 66.4 
 
 1 3 
 
 .4 
 
 10 8 
 
 1.1 
 
 230 
 
 Peas, dried 
 
 
 9.5 
 
 24.6 
 
 1.0 
 
 62.0 
 
 29 
 
 1,565 
 
 Potatoes 
 Rhubarb 
 
 20.0 
 40.0 
 
 62.6 
 56.6 
 
 1.8 
 
 .4 
 
 .1 
 4 
 
 14.7 
 2.2 
 
 .8 
 .4 
 
 295 
 60 
 
 Sweet potatoes 
 
 20 
 
 55.2 
 
 1 4 
 
 ft 
 
 21 9 
 
 .9 
 
 440 
 
 Squash 
 
 50.0 
 
 44.2 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 4 5 
 
 .4 
 
 100 
 
 Tomatoes 
 
 
 94.3 
 
 .9 
 
 .4 
 
 3.9 
 
 .5 
 
 100 
 
 Turnips 
 
 30 
 
 62.7 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 5 7 
 
 .6 
 
 120 
 
 Fruits, etc., fresh: 
 Apples 
 
 25 
 
 63.3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 10 8 
 
 .3 
 
 190 
 
 Bananas 
 
 35 
 
 48.9 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 14 3 
 
 .6 
 
 260 
 
 Muskmelons 
 Oranges 
 
 50.0 
 27 
 
 44.8 
 63 4 
 
 .3 
 6 
 
 ' i 
 
 4.6 
 9.5 
 
 .3 
 
 .4 
 
 80 
 150 
 
 Watermelon 
 
 59 4 
 
 37.5 
 
 .2 
 
 .1 
 
 2.7 
 
 .4 
 
 50 
 
 Fruits, dried: 
 Apples 
 
 
 28.1 
 
 1.6 
 
 2.1 
 
 66.1 
 
 2.0 
 
 1,185 
 
 Apricots 
 
 
 29.4 
 
 4.7 
 
 1.0 
 
 62.5 
 
 2.4 
 
 1,125 
 
 Miscellaneous; 
 Chocolate 
 
 
 5.9 
 
 12.4 
 
 48 7 
 
 30 3 
 
 2.2 
 
 5,625 
 
 Cocoa, powdered 
 
 
 4 6 
 
 21 6 
 
 28 9 
 
 37.7 
 
 72 
 
 2,160 
 
 Cereal coffee, infusion (1 
 part boiled in 20 parts 
 water) 
 
 
 98.2 
 
 .2 
 
 
 1.4 
 
 .2 
 
 30 
 
 29
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF COOKING 
 AND HANDLING FOOD. 
 
 36. OBJECT OF COOKING. Before foods 
 can be taken up and used in the system, they 
 must be changed into forms more soluble than 
 those in which they appear in the raw state. 
 
 37. Fruits when ripening on the trees un- 
 dergo certain changes analogous to cooking 
 in which the component parts are transformed 
 into more digestible elements. Similar changes 
 may take place as a result of cooking or baking, 
 or when the food is acted upon by the digestive 
 juices. 
 
 38. Food is cooked to develop certain fla- 
 vors, to make it more palatable, and to kill dis- 
 ease germs or parasites should they be present. 
 Generally the more civilized a people the more 
 advanced they are in matters pertaining to the 
 preparation of food. 
 
 39. METHODS OF COOKING. The ob- 
 ject to be attained will often decide the manner 
 
 of cooking. For example, in roasting meat we, 
 30
 
 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES. 31 
 
 desire to retain the juices within. Hence the 
 meat is placed in a ver^ hot oven, to seal the 
 pores and prevent the escape of the juices, the 
 oven being reduced to a lower temperature when 
 the meat has been thoroughly browned. 
 
 40. If we desire to make beef stock we first 
 place the bones and fresh meat in cold water 
 for some time, as the juices of the bones and 
 meat are readily extracted in this manner. The 
 process is hastened by the addition of a little 
 salt. 
 
 41. If a stew or pot pie is made, we wish 
 to have a part of the meat juices retained in the 
 meat and a part in the surrounding liquid ; hence, 
 we place the meat in cold water, but bring it 
 to a boil as soon as possible in order to seal the 
 pores after a certain amount of the juice has 
 been extracted, and retain the remainder within 
 the meat. 
 
 42. If we want the best quality of boiled 
 beef, we desire to retain the juices within the 
 meat, and the water is made to boil briskly 
 before the meat is introduced. Upon contact 
 with the hot water the pores are sealed, and 
 the temperature may be lowered, and the cook- 
 ing continued at a simmering temperature.
 
 32 THE MESS OFFICERS' ASSISTANT. 
 
 43. SIZE OF ARTICLES. The time re- 
 quired for cooking any article depends upon its 
 size; consequently, when several pieces of meat 
 are roasted in the same pan, or when potatoes 
 are baked together in the same oven, an effort 
 should be made to have them of about the same 
 size. 
 
 44. REASON FOR UNIFORM TEXTURE. 
 It is owing to the maintenance of an even tem- 
 perature in the presence of moisture that it is 
 possible to make bread, cakes, meat balls, fritters, 
 etc., of the same even texture throughout, while 
 a thin brown crust is formed on the surface. It 
 has been shown by the use of a maximum ther- 
 mometer that while the temperature of a baking 
 oven is about 450 degrees Fahr., the temperature 
 within a loaf of bread while baking never rises 
 appreciably above 212 degrees Fahr., the highest 
 temperature of free steam. 
 
 45. TEMPERATURE OF BAKING, ETC. 
 Frequently too little attention is paid to the 
 proper temperature of the oven and the general 
 character of the meat or other article to be cooked. 
 For example, a temperature that is exactly right 
 for browning a roast would ruin a fruit cake in 
 a few minutes. To properly roast an old tough
 
 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES. 33 
 
 piece of meat requires a "slow" oven and much 
 time in order to permit the heat to penetrate 
 to the center and thoroughly dissolve and break 
 down the tissues and thus make it "tender", 
 while a small tender piece of meat could be 
 roasted in a "quick" oven. It is this principle 
 of slow cooking in a moderately low temperature 
 for a long period that renders the "Fireless 
 Cookers" so much superior to anything else 
 for certain kinds of work especially that of 
 cooking old tough meat until it is "as tender as 
 chicken." 
 
 46. HOW TO DETERMINE THE TEM- 
 PERATURE OF AN OVEN. The only prac- 
 tical method of getting the temperature of an 
 oven is to insert the hand well into it and count 
 the number of seconds that you are able to keep 
 it there. (See definition of oven counts, Par. 
 391). The burning sensation experienced about 
 the roots of the nails is sufficiently uniform in 
 those performing the duty of a cook to render this 
 a reliable method and it should be followed by 
 the experienced chef as well as by the student cook. 
 If the temperature of the oven is somewhat 
 greater than anticipated, food will often give all
 
 34 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 the appearances of being well done when, as a 
 matter of ' fact, the cooking has barely begun. 
 For this reason a cook should have some idea as 
 to the "times" of cooking, as well as to oven tem- 
 peratures, and tables have been prepared and are 
 inserted in the Mess Sergeant's Handbook. 
 
 47. COLD is useful in preventing fer- 
 mentation and hence is a preservative of food. 
 We constantly make use of this fact by placing 
 butter, milk, meats, etc., in the ice box, by stor- 
 ing certain vegetables and fruits in root cellar 
 and pits in the ground, in preserving yeast by 
 keeping it in a cool place and in stopping the 
 further proving (rising) of dough when it is 
 ready to bake before the oven is ready to re- 
 ceive it. Fresh meat will keep better in a moder- 
 ately cool, dry place than in a damp ice box at a 
 much lower temperature. However, should hot 
 weather require the use of the ice box, the meat 
 should not come in contact with the walls nor 
 with the ice. 
 
 48. Cold water keeps fresh vegetables from 
 wilting. It quickly restores such garden truck 
 as radishes, lettuce, onions, etc., that may have 
 been exposed to the sun after gathering, or have
 
 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES. 35 
 
 been left in a warm temperature for a time, render- 
 ing them fresh, crisp and wholesome. Potatoes 
 and turnips that have been peeled must be placed 
 in cold water to keep them crisp and to prevent 
 them from becoming discolored and tough. 
 If cooked while wilted, and discolored, they 
 retain their discoloration and toughness to a con- 
 siderable extent. 
 
 49. Cold water draws out certain undesir- 
 able flavors in vegetables and certain canned 
 barrelled or dried fish, or meats. The juices of 
 meats and bones are readily extracted in its pres- 
 ence and this process is hastened by the addition 
 of a small quantity of salt. 
 
 50. FLAVORS, ETC. Food should pos- 
 sess de*cided flavors without being too highly 
 seasoned. It should be served hot or cold as in- 
 tended. Generally we like our tea, coffee, cook- 
 ed vegetables, and meats served hot while we 
 prefer our drinking water, butter, salads, fresh 
 fruits, such garden truck as lettuce, radishes, 
 and onions and many of our desserts cold. Many 
 components of a meal that are luke warm instead 
 of decidedly hot or cold are most unappetizing. 
 
 51. The heat of cooking seems to create
 
 36 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 new flavors in food and to change the odor, taste 
 and digestibility of nearly all articles of food. 
 It swells and bursts the starch cells in flour, rice, 
 and potatoes. It hardens the albumen of eggs, 
 fish and meats, and softens the fibrous substances 
 in tough meats, vegetables and fruits. It devel- 
 ops new flavors in tea, coffee, roast meats, vege- 
 tables, crusts of bread, baked beans, etc. 
 
 52. Air (or the oxygen which it contains) 
 plays an important part in the development of 
 certain flavors. Steak broiled in the open air, 
 bread toasted in the same manner and roasted 
 ears of corn possess certain flavors that cannot 
 be attained in any other way. 
 
 It is also noticeable that articles of food, 
 cooked in a closed oven, possess certain flavors 
 that are lost if the cooking is done in the open 
 air on the top of the range. 
 
 53. Baked Apples have a particularly fine 
 flavor, largely due to transformation of starch 
 into sugar, and to the carmelization of the sugar 
 used in baking. 
 
 It is generally held that certain vegetables, 
 such as turnips and cabbage, should be well ven- 
 tilated while boiling, in order that the obnoxious 
 sulfurous and other gases may escape from the
 
 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES. 37 
 
 food, and that, if this is not done, the vegetables 
 will possess an inferior flavor, become discolored, 
 and contain certain elements that are believed 
 to be injurious. Nevertheless, we have been 
 able to boil cabbage and turnips perfectly and 
 retain the fresh color and elegant flavor by sub- 
 merging them in boiling water for a half hour 
 or so, according to the size. In this way, obnox- 
 ious fumes do not escape, but such sulfur as is 
 extracted from the vegetables remains in the 
 water. 
 
 54. WATER is a necessity in certain forms 
 of cooking. For example, beans and pease 
 have to absorb a great deal of water to replace 
 that lost in the process of ripening, before they 
 can be made into palatable food. The same may 
 be said of desiccated (dried) fruits. 
 
 55. Soft Water is used to advantage in soft- 
 ening the texture of meats, in extracting the 
 juices from bones and meat in the preparation of 
 beef stock, and oils from tea or coffee. Dried 
 beans and pease should be boiled in soft water, if 
 practicable, as the lime in hard water hardens 
 the albumen present, and retards softening of the 
 vegetables. 
 
 30S2282
 
 38 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 56. Hard^ Water, or water containing salt, 
 should be used in boiling fresh pease and beans, 
 in order to preserve them whole and retain their 
 juices and flavors. 
 
 57. In the preparation of beverages, fresh 
 water should be used. It is the air and mineral 
 and vegetable matters contained therein that 
 render it palatable. In the process of boiling, 
 the air escapes with the steam, and the mineral 
 matters are precipitated to a considerable extent. 
 Especially in making tea and coffee, care should 
 be exercised to see that the taste is not ruined by 
 continuing the boiling after the boiling point is 
 reached. 
 
 58. Should it be suspected that water con- 
 tains disease germs, it should be boiled 15 to 20 
 minutes before using, and if it can then be aerated 
 the taste will be greatly improved. 
 
 59. Water is said to be scalding hot at a 
 temperature of about 160 degrees Fahr. This 
 temperature is sufficient to burn the skin, burst 
 open starch cells found in potatoes, rice, flour, 
 etc., or to kill the yeast germ. 
 
 60. Water is said to simmer when the bub- 
 bles burst beneath the surface or at a tempera- 
 ture of about 185 degrees Fahr.
 
 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES. 39 
 
 61. It boils when the bubbles burst at the 
 surface. When this point is reached, the heat 
 applied to the water escapes with the steam, and 
 no amount of fire will raise the temperature of 
 fresh water in an open vessel above 212 degrees 
 Fahr., or salt water above 224 degrees Fahr. 
 
 62. It is a well established fact that water 
 boils at lower temperatures in the higher altitudes 
 on account of the diminished pressure of the 
 atmosphere, and consequently it will take a 
 longer time for food to cook, for, the water hold- 
 ing less heat, the vegetables will be subjected to a 
 lower temperature. The boiling point of fresh 
 water, which is 212 degrees Fahr., at the sea level 
 decreases 1 degree Fahr., for each 600 feet of 
 altitude. 
 
 It is frequently reported that beans cannot be 
 cooked thoroughly in high altitudes. In our 
 experience, however, we have found no difficulty 
 in cooking them in various camps at altitudes of 
 over 8,000 feet. If only alkali water is available 
 however, much difficulty is experienced, but this 
 disappears if a pinch of soda is added to the 
 water. 
 
 63. The boiling point of water may be 
 raised by the addition of salt or sugar, or any-
 
 40 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 thing that increases its density, or by pressure as 
 when boiling in a closed vessel. These facts are 
 taken into consideration in steam cooking, in 
 double boilers, in boiling meats, and in general 
 cooking in the higher altitudes. 
 
 64. DEEP LARD. The superiority of ' ' deep 
 lard" in cooking lies in the fact that lard or 
 drippings can be heated to such an extremely 
 high temperature that certain articles can be 
 thoroughly cooked without giving time for the 
 grease used in frying to soak into them. Grease 
 itself boils at about' 565 degrees to 600 degrees 
 Fahr., but these temperatures are too high for 
 cooking ; the exterior of the food would be burned 
 before it could be cooked through. 
 
 65. The grease begins to smoke between 
 385 degrees Fahr., and 450 degrees Fahr., and 
 this is the best temperature for using it. The 
 great difficulty is that so much food may be 
 introduced at one time as to cool the fat and 
 allow it to soak into the food before it is thor- 
 oughly cooked. If this fact is borne in mind 
 almost anything that can be fried at all can be 
 fried in "deep lard." Meat balls, potato balls 
 and croquettes are rolled in egg and cracker or, 
 bread crumbs before frying ; the egg coagulates,
 
 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES. 41 
 
 and the crumbs which are held in place by it 
 form a brown crust surrounding the ball and the 
 grease is prevented from penetrating further. 
 
 Corn fritters contain a great many eggs and 
 a nice crust is quickly formed preventing the pene- 
 tration of the grease. 
 
 66. It is noticed that as soon as the articles 
 mentioned have been dropped into the grease 
 which is far below its boiling point, a violent 
 ebullition is observed. This is due to the escape 
 of steam formed by contact of the moisture of 
 the article introduced, with the hot grease. All 
 articles fried in "deep lard" should have as dry 
 a surface as possible. If food with a damp sur- 
 face is introduced, grease is apt to be thrown out 
 upon the range, take fire and cause trouble. 
 
 67. Oysters should always be fried in deep 
 grease, also doughnuts and all kinds of fritters 
 Saratoga chips and French fried potatoes. Sau- 
 sages and hamburg steaks may be fried in this 
 manner, though it requires care to keep them 
 from going to pieces. Beef steaks and liver may 
 be fried to perfection in deep grease, but this is 
 not recommended in company kitchens as inex- 
 perienced men often drop too many steaks into 
 the grease at a time. If the frying in deep lard
 
 42 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 is properly done, there will be much less grease 
 used than when it is done in the ordinary man- 
 ner. Fish fries very nicely in deep lard, but 
 there is the objection that the lard cannot be used 
 again except for frying fish; (unless the fish be 
 quite dry, and free from oil and slime,) and if 
 fish is not on the bill of fare often, one would 
 not care to keep a pot of lard for this purpose 
 only. 
 
 68. The flavor of articles cooked in this 
 manner is determined largely by the character of 
 the oil, fat, drippings, etc., that have been used. 
 It is probable that anything cooked in olive oil 
 would have a taste superior to that cooked in 
 other oils and fats. If the fat consists entirely of 
 beef suet, or suet and mutton fat, there would be 
 a more or less tallowy taste left in the mouth 
 depending upon how much of the fat the food 
 had been allowed to absorb. Generally speak- 
 ing the flavor will improve with the proportion 
 of hog fat used and if possible an attempt should 
 be made to have from a third to a half of it present. 
 
 69. FRYING IN SHALLOW LARD (or 
 SAUTEING) is considered the worst form of
 
 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES. 43 
 
 cooking, though it will do well enough in camp 
 and when the digestion does not demand special 
 attention. Almost anything that can be fried at 
 all can be fried in deep lard with less disagreeable 
 smoke and a great saving of lard. Too often 
 in frying in shallow lard, much fat is allowed 
 to soak into the food, a part of which is fried 
 until hard, crisp, and indigestible. The same 
 food properly cooked in "deep lard" would have 
 a thin crust throughout. 
 
 70. SEASONING. Cooks must not be sat- 
 isfied with learning the proper proportions of 
 ingredients, and think that the work is done when 
 the cooking begins. Food must be properly pre- 
 pared, delicately seasoned and served hot or cold as 
 desired. Luke warm, ill seasoned food is un- 
 palatable, and if served in a slovenly manner 
 is most unappetizing. Any amount of season- 
 ing at the table cannot make up for poor seas- 
 oning in cooking the same flavors cannot be 
 obtained. It is the Cook who not only gets the 
 proper proportions in cooking, but, who also 
 delicately seasons his food and serves it in an 
 appetizing manner that should be styled a chef.
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 THE GARRISON RATION. 
 
 71. GENERAL REMARKS. A proper 
 handling of the garrison ration requires an in- 
 timate knowledge of its composition, for the 
 reason that, although it has now been placed on 
 a strictly cash basis, its value is based upon the 
 quantities of various articles formerly issued, 
 and such quantities were determined by the neces- 
 sity of providing a well-balanced diet. (See 
 Par. 21.) In passing from an issue to a cash 
 basis, the actual value of the garrison ration has 
 been increased from one-half to one and one- 
 half cents, on account of allowing credit for a, 
 greater proportion of bacon and jam (relatively 
 expensive articles) than were generally drawn. 
 
 In providing for our messes, we should keep 
 in mind the amounts of the various components 
 of the Garrison Ration and in general purchase 
 about the amounts of meat, vegetables, coffee, 
 etc., that were formerly issued; and unless some 
 44
 
 THE GARRISON RATION. 45 
 
 such system is followed, it is feared that the new 
 mess officer will meet with financial surprises 
 when settling his bills at the end of the month. 
 
 COMPONENTS OF THE RATION SEPA- 
 RATELY CONSIDERED. 
 
 72. MEAT. The cash credit derived from 
 the meat component, if properly handled, is suf- 
 ficient to provide meat in some form for each 
 meal, and still make a saving of about ten per 
 cent. While there is no doubt that we generally 
 consume too much meat in Army messes, it is 
 still considered the basis for each meal, and if it 
 cannot be provided in some form, other articles 
 rich in muscle building material and fat should 
 take its place. Beans flavored with bacon and 
 enriched with its fat, macaroni and cheese, and 
 fish chowder are good substitutes to keep down 
 the expenditure of the meat component. (See 
 Par. 35.) 
 
 73. In garrison, such variety of meats can 
 be supplied from the cash credit derived from 
 the meat component as to render it unnecessary, 
 to serve meat in exactly the same form more
 
 46 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 than once a week, and few oftener than once in 
 two weeks. (See article for Bills of Fare in Mess 
 Sergeant's Handbook.) Such meats as beef 
 hearts, liver, sausage, pork, fish, etc., procured 
 on the market, or prepared in the kitchen, are 
 frequently as cheap, or cheaper than beef, con- 
 sidering that bone appears in small quantity, or 
 not at all, and with care in their selection and 
 preparation, they will lend almost an endless 
 variety in rounding out the bill of fare. The fol- 
 lowing is an example of the manner in which the 
 meat component may be handled. Note how the 
 cost of the cheaper and more expensive meats 
 are balanced, so as to provide a desired variety, 
 and still not exceed the cash credit derived from 
 this component. 
 
 Example: Assume an organization of 100 
 men; Commissary price of beef, 7.22 cents, bacon 
 19 cents, and prevailing prices of the substitutes 
 purchased as noted below : 
 
 700 rations of beef, 875 Ibs., at 7.22c per Ib $ 63.17 
 
 300 rations of bacon, 225 Ibs., at 19c per Ib 42.75 
 
 $105.93
 
 THE GARRISON RATION. 47 
 
 SUBSTITUTES FOR BEKF PURCHASED. 
 
 (See Par. 16, Mess Sergeant's Handbook.) 
 
 per. Ib. 
 
 1. Beef Hearts (Dinner) 40 Ibs. at 6c $ 2.40 
 
 2. Spare Ribs (Dinner) 56 Ibs. at lOc 5.60 
 
 3. Headless Pickerel (Breakfast) 30 Ibs. at 9c 2.70 
 
 4. Bacon &(See Par. 35) (Dinner) 6 Ibs. at 19c > 2.70 
 
 Beans 25 Ibs. at 6c i 2.64 
 
 5. Frankfurters (Dinner) 40 Ibs. at 8c 3.20 
 
 6. Ham Butts (Dinner) 45 Ibs. at 12c 5.40 
 
 7. Brains (Supper) 45 Ibs. at 6.5c 2.93 
 
 8. Bacon and Beans (Dinner) Same as No. 4 2.64 
 
 9. Bacon (Breakfast) 20 Ibs. at 19c 3.80 
 
 10. Beef Liver and (Breakfast) 22 Ibs. at 5.5c 1.21 
 
 Bacon ....10 Ibs. at 19c 1.90 
 
 Total cost of substitutes for beef. $ 34.42 
 
 Balance of cash credit on beef 71.51 
 
 $ 105.93 
 
 The balance of the cash credit ($71.51) is 
 sufficient to purchase 990 pounds of beef at 7.22 
 cents per pound. While providing meat for one- 
 third of the meals in the ten day period, even 
 when most of the meals were the heaviest of the 
 day (dinner) we have expended less than one- 
 third of the cash credit derived from the meat 
 component. It would seem that considerably 
 less than two-thirds of 1,000 rations of beef, 
 i. e., 2-3 x 1,250 or 833 pounds should still be con- 
 sumed in the ten day period, and therefore that 
 even a greater saving than 990:833, or 157 
 pounds of beef, at 7.22, or $11.34, should be 
 saved on this component for general purchases.
 
 48 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 This result corresponds very closely with our 
 School records, which show that we actually do 
 save more than 10 per cent, on our meat com- 
 ponent. In any case, a judicious substitution of 
 the cheaper meats, bacon and beans, macaroni 
 and cheese, fish chowder with a well seasoned 
 sage dressing, etc., will provide for the purchase 
 of chicken, pork or high grade fish for Sunday 
 dinners, and at other times. 
 
 74. Much study must be given to the cut- 
 ting up of meat so as to use it to the best advan- 
 tage in the kitchen. Being supplied in bulk, it is 
 necessary for the Cooks to have some knowledge 
 of the proper method of cutting it up for kitchen 
 use and they should know for what purpose each 
 cut is best adapted. All parts of the meat, as 
 delivered, can be put to some use. Parts espe- 
 cially good as roasts, if in sufficient quantities, 
 should not be consumed in stews or pot-pies, nor 
 should steaks be used for soup stock, but each 
 part should be worked in to the best possible ad- 
 vantage. The new Manual for Army Cooks gives 
 instructions for handling meat that should be 
 closely followed by the Cooks. 
 
 75. Special Uses. The tougher parts of fresh 
 meats, not otherwise consumed, should be
 
 THE GARRISON RATION. 49 
 
 put through the grinder and used up in Hamburg 
 steaks. Except in hot weather, corned beef 
 should be regularly prepared by the Cooks and 
 in sufficient quantity for use with, or without 
 cabbage, about once in ten days. Beef cheese 
 should be prepared and consumed about as often. 
 Sausage may be prepared to advantage in the 
 kitchen whenever pork is available, and frequently 
 at less than market price. All left-over meats 
 should be used up in meat balls, croquettes, hash, 
 etc., and no cooked meats should be thrown 
 away, except that which has been taken on the 
 plate and has not been consumed. 
 
 76. Preservation of Meats. Meats should 
 not be allowed to spoil in the hands of the cook. 
 Lacking facilities for its preservation while fresh, 
 it should be roasted dry, boiled, corned, or worked 
 up into cheese for future use. 
 
 77. Lean Meat. Lean meat contains a very 
 high percentage of water about half -and if 
 fat is present, the water. is proportionately less. 
 Therefore, in roasting lean meat, suet should be 
 added. Remember that meat is best when 
 medium well done.
 
 50 THE MESS OFFICER-'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 78. Bacon. The best use for bacon in gar- 
 rison is to give flavor to other articles and to en- 
 rich them with its fat. In the ten day period 
 from one to three messes of beans may be served. 
 For use with them, in soups, and as seasonings, 
 and for one meal during the ten day period, 
 from 40 to 50 pounds would be required for 100 
 men. 
 
 79. Tough Steaks, Etc. Observe carefully 
 the principles of cooking, as laid down in Chapter 
 III. If old or tough meats have to be used, 
 remember that a long period of slow cooking is 
 best. For example, prepare the steaks, medium 
 well done, from one to two hours before the time 
 for serving and let them stand in a heated earthen 
 jar (or other receptacle), either on the shelf of 
 the range, or in a pan of boiling hot water, until 
 meal time. All solid meats, roasted or boiled, 
 might well be treated in the same manner, slicing 
 them immediately before serving in order to re- 
 tain the juices. So long as a temperature above 
 130 degrees Fahr., is maintained, changes go on 
 within the fibrous tissue and render it tender. 
 
 All meats should be sliced in the kitchen be- 
 fore serving in order that fats, gristle, and other
 
 THE GARRISON RATION. 51 
 
 portions that will not be eaten if taken on the 
 mens' plates, may be saved and either rendered 
 out, or served in some other form. Serve all 
 sliced meats on platters so that the men may help 
 themselves. For the same reason, stews, and pot- 
 pies, should be served in suitable ea them ware 
 dishes. There is sufficient in the ration to give 
 the men plenty, and any tendency to take more 
 on their plates than can be eaten will disappear 
 under proper supervision of the Mess Sergeant. 
 
 80. Soup Stock. Soup stock should be 
 made fresh every day or two. Cut the fresh 
 meat into small chunks, break or saw the bones 
 and place them together in cold water for several 
 hours, if practicable, and then set on the range 
 and allow to simmer for eight or nine hours. The 
 juices of the meat will be extracted in about two 
 hours of simmering, and it should be removed 
 from the boiler at the end of that time, in order 
 that the fibers will not become hardened and in- 
 digestible. (See Par. 81.) Cooked meat, if 
 used, should be added after the boiler is placed on 
 the range. When prepared, strain the stock into 
 earthen jars and set in a cool place. The grease 
 will rise to the top and harden, and can then be 
 easily removed. Clean out the stock boiler and
 
 52 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 start over next time with an entirely new loo of 
 bones and meat. The stock is used, not only in 
 making soups, but also in hash, meat balls, pot- 
 pies, gravies, sauces, etc., and sometimes in mashed 
 potatoes. 
 
 81. Prevent Waste. No portion of the meal 
 or bones should be thrown away so long as any 
 nutriment remains in them. Remember that in 
 boiling beef, only the juices are extracted, and that 
 most of the nourishment remains in the meat, 
 though by continued boiling, the fibers are hard- 
 ened and rendered less digestible. If run through 
 the hash machine, the meat from the stock boiler 
 can be used to advantage in hash, meat balls, 
 croquettes, etc., though if used alone, it will be 
 dry and tasteless, on account of the absence of 
 the extractives. 
 
 82. Soup. A rich, well-seasoned, stock soup 
 should, as a rule, form a part of the dinner each 
 day. It should be served in a course by itself, 
 and before the more substantial part of the dinner 
 is brought on. The soup should be set out in 
 covered tureens each of which should be pro- 
 vided with a deep ladle, so that the men may help 
 themselves. Serve plenty of croutons, or crackers
 
 . THE GARRISON RATION. 53 
 
 with it, and see that it is hot when served, and 
 that the grease is skimmed off. In our experi- 
 ence, 10 to 12 gallons is disposed of regularly 
 by a company of 100 men. If the soup is served 
 with the more substantial part of the meal, you 
 should very properly expect the men to pass it 
 by in order to get their share of the pot-pie, etc., 
 and to get it while it is hot. If it is served in the 
 manner indicated, there will be small loss. All 
 that is left in the tureens may be saved and used 
 up in some other form for supper, or other subse- 
 quent meal. 
 
 Strain the soup and save the vegetables and 
 meat for hash, meat balls, etc. The stock may be 
 used again in soup on the following day, or added 
 to hash, gravies, etc. Especially in warm weather 
 stock in which vegetables have been cooked, will 
 sour in a short time and hence it must be used 
 up at once. 
 
 83. BREAD AND FLOUR. In the Train- 
 ing School kitchens about 10 per cent, is saved 
 from the cash credit derived from this component, 
 i. e., after purchasing the bread consumed in the 
 mess and sufficient flour for all other purposes, 
 about 10 per cent, is left to apply, for example,
 
 54 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 on breakfast foods, which are consumed almost 
 daily, but for which no cash credit is allowed. 
 It is considered that not more than two-thirds 
 of the credit on this component should be ex- 
 pended for bread, and that if more bread is 
 purchased, it must form so great a part of the 
 diet that probably it is the best time on the bill 
 of fare, and the mess is a poor one. If the meat 
 and vegetables are well prepared, the organiza- 
 tion will not begin to spend its credit from this 
 component for bread, and if hot rolls, buns, bis- 
 cuits, etc., are frequently made, the purchase of 
 bread should decrease in proportion, as we are 
 but adding variety by giving the flour to the men 
 in a slightly different form. 
 
 84. Flour is the cheapest food that can be 
 constantly used in the kitchen, nutritive value 
 and general usefulness considered. It is rich in 
 muscle building material and in starch, which is 
 converted into sugar and fat, and a study of the 
 various methods of handling it will more than pay 
 for the trouble. 
 
 85. Bread should be purchased in small 
 quantities as required, from day to day, especi- 
 ally if rats and mice are numerous, and a good
 
 THE GARRISON RATION. 55 
 
 bread box has not yet been provided. Just be- 
 fore mess call, it should be cut into thin slices 
 and piled closely on the plates. Toward the end 
 of the meal, only small quantities should be cut, 
 in order to have but few unused slices remaining. 
 Unused slices should not be thrown away, but 
 should be piled closely on the plate, in the form 
 of the loaf as cut, and covered with a slightly 
 dampened cloth, and put away to be served first 
 at the next meal. 
 
 86. Crumbs. Crumbs and dried pieces of 
 bread, and bread that is slightly heavy and not 
 desirable for the table, should be saved and 
 placed in a flour sack, suspended in a dry place 
 in the store room or elsewhere. From time to 
 time, they should be toasted and ground into 
 powder or fine crumbs, for use in the place of 
 cracker dust, in the preparation of meat balls, 
 potato balls, croquettes, etc. The crumbs of 
 bread, or good slices, may be used in the prepara- 
 tion of bread pudding, in stuffiing, etc., or put into 
 cubes, toasted and served as croutons with soup. 
 
 87. Milk Toast. This is a dish that is seldom 
 made, but cheap and greatly appreciated. In its 
 preparation, much bread that might otherwise
 
 56 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 become dry or moldy is prepared in a palatable 
 form. 
 
 88. Bread and Rolls that have been dried 
 out to some extent may be greatly freshened by 
 moistening slightly and placing in a slow oven for 
 half an hour. The moisture within the loaf or 
 roll that has disappeared by combining with the 
 crumb, will be reconverted into steam and per- 
 meate the whole, giving it the appearance of fresh 
 bread. 
 
 Observe the following methods: Place a 
 moistened dish towel in the bottom of a bake pan 
 and then place the rolls upon it, folding the ends 
 of the towel over the tops of the rolls and sprink- 
 ling lightly those exposed. Place in a slow 
 oven (say 25 counts) for about half an hour, and 
 the rolls will be ready to serve. Or, place a pan 
 of steaming hot water on the bottom shelf of the 
 oven, and a pan of rolls on the top shelf, leaving 
 the door on the second notch, to give circulation 
 of steam, and re-heat as before. Or, place a pan 
 of rolls in a larger pan of hot water, and .cover 
 the whole with another pan for about 20 minutes. 
 See that the surface of the rolls is dry before 
 serving.
 
 THE GARRISON RATION. 57 
 
 To further use accumulated bread crumbs, 
 or to cheapen the cost of running the mess, a 
 goodly proportion may be mixed in with the hash 
 and all similar preparations, in Hamburg steaks, 
 in pan cakes, and in fruit pudding. Flour may 
 even be made to take the place of starch in sweet 
 sauces, with but little detriment and little chance 
 of detection. 
 
 Soups- and stews will be -greatly improved 
 by dropping small pieces of dough into them 
 while boiling hot, about 10 minutes before serv- 
 ing. 
 
 89. Pan Cakes. In many organizations any 
 attempt to serve pan cakes has been given up- 
 on account of the apparent necessity of serving 
 them cold. To obviate this, place a hot bake pan 
 on the shelf of the range and as fast as the cakes 
 are fried pile them carefully in tiers of about one 
 dozen each and they will keep hot for a long 
 time. Cover with a clean dish towel, also using 
 one beneath the pile of cakes. 
 
 Frequently the pan cakes that are fried first 
 are tough and soggy, for the reason that griddle 
 is not hot enough and as a result the batter is 
 heated gradually and the gas escapes, thus render-
 
 58 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 ing a cellular structure impossible. Again, the 
 last cakes fried are apt to be heavy, for the reason 
 that the batter has been standing in a warm room 
 for some time, allowing the gas to expand and 
 escape from the batter before it is placed on the 
 griddle. 
 
 The right way is to get the griddle hot, then 
 add baking powder to a portion of the batter only 
 say one-fourth preparing the remainder in 
 similar quantities just before you are ready to 
 fry it into cakes. The griddle should be smoking 
 hot, and- the batter just thin enough to spread 
 readily to the desired thickness on the griddle. 
 As soon as the bubbles begin to appear, and be- 
 fore they have broken at the surface, the cakes 
 should be turned back again to finish frying 
 on the side first coming in contact with the grid- 
 dle. 
 
 Batter cakes can just as well be made by 
 setting a sponge (that is by using yeast), thus 
 making a small saving in money and incidentally 
 avoiding any difficulties met in handling baking 
 powder. In addition, a small amount of baking 
 powder can be added to advantage in the manner 
 above indicated.
 
 THE GARRISON RATION. 59 
 
 90. Hard Bread is occasionally ordered sold, 
 by the Commissary, in order that a fresh supply 
 may be kept in store. The small quantity pur- 
 chased may easily be disposed of as follows: 
 Toast into a quick oven and break into soup im- 
 mediately before serving. Use it in making 
 chowder. Prepare a bread and apple pudding. 
 Use in making pan cakes, or any of the ways in- 
 dicated for crumbs and dried bread. 
 
 91. Corn Meal. Corn meal should be used 
 occasionally to break the monotony of oatmeal 
 as a breakfast food. It may also be served for 
 breakfast or supper in the form of mush, or corn 
 bread and sirup, or made into a genuine hoe 
 cake. Left-over mush of any kind may be sliced 
 when cold, fried and served hot with or without 
 sirup. 
 
 92. There will be an additional fund accru- 
 ing from this component, by way of a bakery 
 dividend at the end of each quarter. This divi- 
 dend will be small possibly $.003 or $.004 per 
 pound of bread purchased by the organization, de- 
 pending upon the extra duty paid the bakers, the 
 price of flour, yeast, etc., used in the bakery. 
 
 93. Baking Powder. The allowance of bak-
 
 60 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 ing powder is generally sufficient, but the amount 
 to be purchased depends largely upon the amount 
 of yeast used iri the kitchen. The allowance will 
 permit of making one component of one meal 
 every day, say batter cakes, biscuits, etc. Roughly 
 speaking, an estimate, of baking powder to be used 
 will be about three-fourths ounce per pound of 
 flour required for the batter cakes, biscuits, etc., 
 or possibly not more than one-half of an ounce, if 
 a good baking powder, such as Royal, or Price's, 
 is used. 
 
 94. In using baking powder, remember that 
 it is a mixture of an acid and an alkali, which re- 
 main inert so long as they are kept perfectly dry, 
 but quickly unite in the presence of water, liberat- 
 ing the carbonic gas, which gives to the dough 
 the porous structure. (See definitions.) The 
 quantity of gas liberated by a given amount 
 of any particular powder is definite, and fixed in 
 quantity, and its premature escape will ruin the 
 food that is being prepared, making it heavy and 
 s ggy- Heat hastens the formation and escape 
 of the gases, therefore use cold water in the mixtures 
 containing baking powder, and bake at once; or, 
 until the dough prepared can be baked, it should 
 be kept in a cool place. Note that the method of
 
 THE GARRISON RATION. 61 
 
 handling baking powder mixtures is exactly op- 
 posite to that followed when handling yeast, 
 where warm water (of 80 to 90 degrees Fahr.) 
 should be used, in order to facilitate the fermenta- 
 tion and formation of gas, and for the same reason 
 an even, warm temperature is required while the 
 dough is rising. 
 
 When using yeast, there is a continuous forma- 
 tion of gas which is stopped only by killing the 
 yeast germ in the oven. With baking powder, 
 there should be little evidence of its presence 
 until the dough has been placed in the oven, when 
 the heat causes its rapid expansion. The oven 
 heat forms a crust, seals the pores, and fixes the 
 framework before the gas has had an opportunity 
 to escape and allow the dough to drop back to 
 its former condition. It is just at this critical 
 stage that a jarring of the dough may rupture the 
 cells that have formed and cause the cake or other 
 preparation to fall. 
 
 95. A fairly good baking powder can be made 
 as follows: Take 16 ounces of cream of tartar, 8 
 ounces of baking soda and 4 ounces of corn starch, 
 and mix thoroughly by putting through the sieve 
 at least nine times.
 
 62 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 96. Yeast. The cook who is familiar with 
 handling yeast in the kitchen has an immense 
 advantage over the one who is not, and he can 
 run his kitchen at a relatively lower cost, while 
 setting a better table and providing a greater 
 variety of food for his men. 
 
 The reason is this: Flour is the cheapest 
 component of the ration that can be used in quan- 
 tity in the kitchen, and consequently any increase 
 in this component over the normal amount will 
 lessen the general expense of running the mess. 
 Furthermore, by the use of yeast, we can supply 
 every day a different variety of hot rolls or cold 
 bread, in the form of Parkerhouse Rolls, Tea Buns, 
 Cinnamon Buns, Coffee Cakes, Crullers, Jenny 
 Linds, etc. The men never tire of these articles, 
 while baking powder biscuits, is used constantly, 
 turn against the stomachs of those men not accus- 
 tomed to eating them. As a consequence of 
 eating more than a normal amount of the cheaper 
 component, the men eat far less of the more ex- 
 pensive articles. 
 
 97. THE BEAN COMPONENT. The cash 
 credit derived from this component is more 
 than sufficient to cover the dried vegetables
 
 THE GARRISON RATION. 63 
 
 that can generally be used to advantage in the 
 kitchen even during the winter and early spring, 
 considering that the beans used with bacon as 
 substitute for beef are considered as bought 
 from the meat credit allowance. (See Par. 35). 
 The variety being served should be as great as 
 possible, and not consist of the issue beans and 
 rice only. 
 
 98. Special care should be exercised to see 
 that beans are thoroughly done before serving. 
 They should be whole but so soft as to be easily 
 mashed in the fingers. Remember that soft 
 water is best, and if the water is very hard, one- 
 half to one teaspoonful of soda per gallon of 
 water should be added. We do not endorse the 
 general method advocated for baking beans, 
 "Soak all day, and boil all night," but in order 
 to prevent the formation of tough, detached hulls, 
 recommend that they be soaked not longer than 
 from one to three hours, boiled not longer than 
 one hour, and thereafter. allowed to simmer (say 
 at 180 degrees Fahr.) until done. In this way, the 
 hulls disappear entirely, and the beans remain 
 whole, giving fine, nutty flavor. 
 
 If beans are well cooked, they are an invalu- 
 able food for the soldier while doing arduous
 
 64 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 service, but if not thoroughly done, they are irri- 
 tating, indigestible, and productive of much intes- 
 tinal disorder. // the beans or pease are ground, 
 they are much more quickly prepared and are 
 more readily digested. Bean and pea meal is 
 strongly recommended for soups and stews in 
 the field. (See Par. 100-a.) 
 
 99. Beans, while an excellent food for the 
 robust and healthy, and for persons leading an 
 active life, are considered unsuitable for persons 
 of sedentary habits and for the invalid and con- 
 valescent. 
 
 Beans and pease contain much muscle build- 
 ing material, but are deficient in fat. With the 
 designated amount of fat added, they approach 
 the food value of fresh beef, though they are not 
 so thoroughly digested. (See Par. 35.) 
 
 100. For an organization of 100 men, the 
 following is about the maximum amount of dried 
 vegetables that can be used to advantage in a ten 
 day period, even during that portion of the year 
 when fresh vegetables are not abundant. 
 
 (a) Issue Beans, 75 pounds. This is suffi- 
 cient for two messes of baked beans, one mess of 
 stewed beans, and one soup. There is a general
 
 THE GARRISON RATION. 65 
 
 idea that beans cannot be baked without soaking, 
 but we find that if simply placed in cold water, 
 brought to a boiling point, and left at a simmering 
 temperature for about ten hours, equally good re- 
 sults are obtained. In cold or moderate weather, 
 the beans may be soaked for five or six hours, 
 though we cannot see that any great benefit re- 
 sults from so doing, and in hot weather they are 
 more liable to sour. 
 
 For flavor and fat (in which beans are de- 
 ficient) about 15 or 20 per cent, of sliced or diced 
 bacon, ham, or salt pork, should be added before 
 baking. If additional bacon is served with the 
 beans, (an unnecessary extravagance) it should 
 be fried or boiled, and served separately, and not 
 cooked with them, as it would make them too 
 greasy. Beans are cooked only fairly well in 
 the type of ' ' fireless cooker ' ' now provided. They 
 must, however, generally be boiled for at least an 
 hour before being placed in the cooker, and be 
 carefully insulated, and even then, it is frequently 
 necessary to re-heat them before serving. 
 
 (b) Dried Pease, 20 pounds. This is suffi- 
 cient for one mess of stewed pease. Add five 
 pounds of diced bacon, and serve as a vegetable.
 
 66 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Dried green pease (whole) are handled in exactly 
 the same manner as dried beans, except that very 
 little sugar is added. They may be baked or 
 stewed. 
 
 (c) Lima Beans, 20 pounds. This is suffi- 
 cient for one mess of stewed beans. Add five 
 pounds of diced bacon and serve as a vegetable. 
 Lima beans break up very easily in cooking; 
 therefore, as soon as they are brought to a boil, 
 they should be set back on the range, or in a pan 
 of boiling water, and allowed to simmer until 
 well done, about two and one-half or three hours 
 being required. 
 
 (d) Kidney Beans, 15 pounds. This is suffi- 
 cient for one mess of stewed beans. Add five 
 pounds of diced bacon, cook over night in an 
 oven and serve as a vegetable Handled in the 
 same manner as issue beans, except for season- 
 ing. 
 
 (e) Chili Beans, 25 pounds. This is suffi- 
 cient for one meal of Chili con Came and one mess 
 of stewed beans. To serve as a vegetable, add 
 five pounds of diced bacon and cook for three 
 or four hours. They are better, however, when
 
 THE GARRISON RATION. 67 
 
 baked over night. Kidney beans and issue beans 
 may also be used in Chili con Came. 
 
 (f) Rice. Rice is very easy of digestion, and 
 is relished by the soldier, if properly cooked, i. e., 
 so that, when ready to serve, the grains are nicely 
 separated from each other and so soft as to easily 
 mash in the fingers. Rice is rich in starch 
 and is consequently an important source of 
 energy, rather than a builder of flesh and muscle. 
 
 For one hundred men, supply about 25 
 pounds for the ten day period, with the expecta- 
 tion of preparing one meal of curry and rice, one 
 pudding, and one mess of boiled rice, in addition 
 to using it in soup. 
 
 To boil rice, place in plenty of water say 
 four times its volume, and let boil until the rice 
 can be almost mashed between the fingers, but is 
 still a little stiff, say for twenty minutes. Set a 
 colander on the drain board and pour the whole 
 contents into it. There will be sufficient heat re- 
 maining to finish the cooking, so that the grains 
 may be mashed in the fingers, but are still sepa- 
 rate and whole. Place in a clean receptacle and 
 set in a warm place until served.
 
 68 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 If the rice has been boiled too long, it should 
 be chilled at once by placing under a cold water 
 spigot, or by immersion in a vessel of cold water, 
 removing at once. 
 
 (g) Dried Sweet Corn, 15 pounds. This is 
 sufficient for one mess of stewed corn and one of 
 soup. It takes up water very readily about 
 twice its weight and can be prepared in about 
 three-fourths of an hour. If, however, the corn 
 has been cured when nearly ripe instead of when 
 in full milk it may be necessary to soak for 3 or 
 4 hours and cook for the same period. 
 
 (h) Hominy, 10 pounds. It may be served 
 as a vegetable if boiled (with diced bacon added), 
 or it may be boiled, and when cold, sliced, fried, 
 and served with sirrup. If milk is available, 
 " Hominy and Milk " may be served. 
 
 101. VEGETABLES. The cash credit de- 
 rived from the potato component is sufficient 
 to cover the cost of all fresh vegetables required 
 for the kitchen, providing that the quality is 
 up to the standard, and the Commissary makes 
 good all loss from decay and sprouts. Where 
 a good garden is maintained, a considerable 
 saving should be made on this component.
 
 THE GARRISON RATION. 69 
 
 From 14 to 16 ounces of potatoes is sufficient 
 for the daily consumption of one man. The 
 onions should not exceed about 10 per cent, of 
 the issue. They are used best for the purpose of 
 seasoning, though they may be served to advan- 
 tage as a vegetable about once in ten days. The 
 same may be said of tomatoes. When fresh 
 vegetables are abundant, a saving should be made 
 on the potato component with a view to making 
 other purchases. 
 
 102. Potatoes should be stored in a cool, 
 dry place. Warmth and moisture hasten decay 
 and promote the growth of sprouts. The sprouts 
 should be removed as soon as they appear, as 
 their growth exhausts the starch and renders the 
 potato unfit for food. 
 
 Potatoes are about two-thirds water. The 
 solid matter consists mostly of starch, though 
 albuminous matters and salts are present in small 
 quantities. In the presence of cold water a 
 portion of the starch is drawn out and settles to 
 the bottom of the receptacle. 
 
 Potatoes that have been frozen and quickly 
 thawed are said to be sweeter than others. 
 Frozen potatoes should be kept in this condition
 
 70 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 until used. To thaw them out, place in cold 
 water and leave until used. 
 
 103. After pealing, potatoes should be placed 
 in cold water and allowed to remain there until 
 ready to cook. If exposed to the air, they will 
 become dark colored and very tough, and will 
 retain these characteristics, to a certain extent, 
 after cooking. 
 
 Potatoes should be boiled until the starch cells 
 are broken. This requires about thirty minutes, 
 depending upon their size, and this condition is 
 noted by the easy penetration of the tines of a 
 fork. The water should now be drawn off, and 
 the potatoes should be allowed to steam for 
 about five minutes with the lid off, when suffi- 
 cient water will have escaped from them to make 
 them mealy. Should the water not be allowed 
 to escape from them in this manner, the starch 
 will absorb it, making the potato gummy. It 
 is said that the longer the potato remains in a 
 dry heat above 125 degrees Fahr., say up ^o one 
 and one-half hours, the more "nutty" and sweet 
 the flavor will become. 
 
 104. For the reason stated above, the skin 
 of baked potatoes should be pierced with a fork
 
 THE GARRISON RATION. 71 
 
 or broken to allow much of the moisture con- 
 tained within to escape. When the skins of boiled 
 potatoes are broken, they will remain mealy for 
 a long time if kept warm, but if skins are not 
 broken, they will become soggy. Only starchy 
 foods like potatoes and rice can be kept for a long 
 time in this manner, without losing their color, or 
 acquiring a strong flavor. 
 
 Boiled, mashed, or baked potatoes become hard 
 and gummy upon cooling, due to the absorption 
 of the water by the starch frcm the ruptured 
 cells. 
 
 105. DEFINITIONS. 
 
 (a) Saratoga Chips are thin slices of raw 
 potatoes, fried in deep lard. 
 
 (b) French Fried Potatoes are strips of pota- 
 toes of about one-third of an inch cross section, 
 cut lengthwise from the raw potato, and fried 
 in deep lard. 
 
 (c) German Boiled Potatoes are boiled potatoes 
 cut to about the size of an egg, with a small 
 amount of browned onions spred over them.
 
 72 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 (d) German Fried Potatoes are raw potatoes 
 sliced crosswise and stewed in a closed vessel 
 (or baked) in a small amount of onions, stock and 
 fat. 
 
 (e) Browned Potatoes are raw or boiled pota- 
 toes, well greased and baked in a brisk oven. 
 Small potatoes are frequently used up in this way, 
 but all should be of about the same size. 
 
 (f) Hashed Potatoes are chopped boiled 
 potatoes, mixed with stock, placed in a well greased 
 bake pan, greased well over the top, and baked 
 in a brisk oven. 
 
 (g) Cheesed Potatoes are the same as hashed 
 potatoes, with a small amount of grated cheese 
 added. 
 
 (h) Lyonnaise Potatoes are prepared by 
 placing boiled potatoes in a bake pan, covering 
 them with about one-tenth the amount of fried 
 onions, spreading over with fat, and baking in a 
 brisk oven. 
 
 (i) Creamed Potatoes are prepared from raw 
 potatoes, cut in small chunks, and stewed in a 
 cream gravy, or from boiled potatoes similarly 
 prepared and covered with hot gravy.
 
 THE GARRISON RATION. 73 
 
 106. All left over potatoes can be used up 
 in the form of fried potatoes, in meat balls, or in 
 hash. The whole potatoes may be cut up and 
 used in creamed potatoes, salads and soup, in 
 addition to the forms just mentioned. As a rule 
 vegetables left over from any meal should be used 
 up in some other form within the next twenty- 
 four hours. In warm weather, they are apt to 
 sour if kept for a longer period. It is a good rule 
 to use up for supper all foods left over from 
 breakfast and dinner. 
 
 107. Onions and Tomatoes. Onions are most 
 valuable as a seasoning for soups, stews, and 
 Hamburg steaks, and in the preparation of salads, 
 lyonnaise potatoes, and beef steak smothered 
 with onions. Boiled Onions are a very palatable 
 dish, and should be served with cream sauce. 
 Onions so served are soothing to the mucous 
 linings of the stomach. In any form they are 
 said to possess certain medicinal properties. 
 
 Tomatoes are used in much the same manner, 
 being most valuable as a seasoning for sauces, 
 although they may be served as a vegetable or s 
 salad.
 
 74 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 108. Cabbage. In preparing cabbage for 
 cooking, it should be first quartered longitudi- 
 nally, and held for a few minutes with the head 
 submerged in salt water, to which a little vinegar 
 has been added. This will rid it of worms and 
 insects. It is one of the most useful vegetables 
 when properly cooked, and is invaluable in the 
 fall and winter when other vegetables are scarce. 
 Cabbage contains a certain amount of sulfur, 
 and is apt to be indigestible and produce flatu- 
 lence when improperly cooked. Cut the cabbage 
 crosswise in rather small chunks, and completely 
 submerge while cooking. If allowed to "steam" 
 for a long time, or if cooked longer than neces- 
 sary, it becomes discolored, tough and indigest- 
 ible. It should be done in about one-half hour. 
 When cooked with meat, do not add the cabbage 
 until one-half hour to 40 minutes before time for 
 serving. 
 
 109. Parsnips and salsify are important 
 vegetables for the company mess, as they with- 
 stand the frost and may be left in the ground 
 over winter, making it possible to have these 
 vegetables in the spring when other vegetables 
 are scarce. They should, however, be dug in
 
 THE GARRISON RATION. 75 
 
 the early spring, as they otherwise will become 
 fibrous and tough. 
 
 110. Turnips, beets and carrots, for summer 
 and fall use, should be the quick growing kind, 
 and should not be allowed to attain any great 
 size. When grown for winter use these vege- 
 tables, like others that are stored, should be- 
 come well matured, as otherwise they will not 
 keep. 
 
 111. Lettuce, radishes and onions, for use 
 during the summer, must be planted at short 
 intervals, in order to keep the table well supplied 
 with tender fresh vegetables. The more rapidly 
 they grow the more tender they will be. They 
 should be kept in cold water, or at least cool and 
 moist, from the time they are gathered until they 
 are served on the table. If these vegetables 
 become wilted, they will be greatly freshened by 
 a few minutes immersion in cold water. 
 
 112. GENERAL REMARKS. All green 
 vegetables should be firm and fresh when put 
 on to cook. New vegetables that have lost this 
 property can be made crisp in a few minutes by 
 soaking in cold water. Older vegetables may re- 
 quire hours. Potatoes that have been kept over
 
 76 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 until spring should be peeled and soaked in cold 
 water before cooking. 
 
 113. Vegetables should be placed in cold water, 
 brought to a boil and cooked continuously until 
 thoroughly done, but no longer. The boiling 
 in the case of potatoes, turnips, beets, cauliflower, 
 etc., should not be so violent as to cause them to 
 fall to pieces. In practice, we seem to get equally 
 good results by placing the vegetables in boiling 
 water, and frequently do so as a matter of con- 
 venience. 
 
 114. During the cooking of most kinds of 
 food, certain gases are developed, which, if re- 
 tained in the food, give it a strong flavor and odor, 
 and there is reason to believe that they are in- 
 jurious. If ventilated, these gases will pass off 
 in the steam, but if submerged while cooking the 
 disagreeable odors are avoided as the sulfur, etc., 
 is retained in the water. 
 
 115. Overcooking changes and toughens the 
 texture of vegetables and injures those substances 
 that contribute to their flavor. Such vegetables 
 are inferior in flavor and appearance, and are 
 often indigestible and unpalatable. 
 
 116. DRIED FRUITS. This component
 
 THE GARRISON RATION. 77 
 
 of the ration is an important one, not especially 
 on account of its food value, which is relatively 
 low, considering the food served, but for the 
 reason that the peculiar fruit flavors do much to 
 tone up and render palatable an otherwise mo- 
 notonous or uninviting diet. 
 
 117. A small amount of certain kinds of 
 acids seems to be craved by the stomach, and 
 fruits supply them in a very attractive manner. 
 Green fruits contain a relatively large amount of 
 acids, and the irritation to the linings of the 
 stomach is such as to cause diarrhea and colic. 
 The smaller amount supplied by ripened fruits 
 is sufficient to lightly stimulate the action of 
 sluggish bowels and is therefore a valuable addi- 
 tion to the ration. 
 
 118. The dried fruits issued are all easily 
 prepared for the table. They are too frequently 
 set out in the form of a stew this being the 
 easiest way for the cook to get rid of them. Each 
 can, however, be made into a very palatable 
 "butter" which is greatly relished by the men. 
 They can all be used as fillings to pies, in rolls, 
 cobbler, bread puddings, plum duff, etc. To 
 further increase the variety of the dried fruits
 
 78 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 a saving from the cash credit accruing from this 
 component should be applied to the purchase of 
 fresh fruit. 
 
 119. All dried fruit should be washed in 
 from one to three waters, to remove the sand, 
 worms, etc., that may be present. They should 
 then be placed in cold water and be allowed to 
 soak for from one to three hours, then brought 
 to a boil in the same water, and allowed to simmer 
 until thoroughly done. 
 
 120. The following receipe for "butter" was 
 furnished by Major Wilkins, Subsistence Depart- 
 ment. It has been tried with excellent results. 
 
 1. Thoroughly wash the evaporated fruit. 
 
 2. Cover with plenty of water and soak over 
 night. 
 
 3. Stew slowly until tender. 
 
 4. Rub through a colander and add three- 
 fourths of a pound of sugar to each pound of dried 
 fruit originally used, also one teaspoonful of cloves 
 and two of cinnamon and a little vinegar to each 
 pound of dried fruit. 
 
 121. COFFEE. Our coffee rations is much 
 abused. It is now issued roasted and ground,
 
 THE GARRISON RATION. 79 
 
 and in a wooden crate or box with paper lining. 
 It quickly loses its aroma after the package is 
 opened and the coffee exposed to the atmosphere. 
 Upon receipt, it should be at once transferred to 
 air tight cans or jars. It would, however, be far 
 better to roast green coffee in small quantities, 
 grinding for each meal only such amount as may 
 be consumed at that time. Roasted and ground 
 coffee is easily adulterated, but its use is gener- 
 ally recommended as few Army Cooks can roast 
 coffee to perfection. 
 
 122. Remember that in making coffee, fresh 
 water should be tised, and under no circumstances 
 either before or after the coffee is introduced should 
 the water be allowed to boil so violently as to carry 
 off the air it contains. With the disappearance 
 of the air, the coffee becomes more or less flat 
 and insipid. If the water is allowed to boil 
 after the coffee is introduced, the volatile oil 
 which gives it the fragrant aroma, is quickly 
 dissipated and fills the room with an agreeable 
 odor, but ruins the coffee. Furthermore, boiling 
 of coffee for more than five minutes extracts 
 the tannic acid and forms injurious compounds. 
 It combines with cream or milk and forms a 
 leathery, indigestible compound that irritates
 
 80 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 the membranes of the stomach. The coffee should 
 not be allowed to accumulate, for more than three 
 meals or be carrried over from one day to the 
 next. Thereafter the first grains introduced 
 supply practically nothing but color, and a bitter 
 taste. 
 
 123. For the reasons stated, it is evident 
 that it is best to make coffee in a porcelain lined 
 receptacle or a jar, rather than iron or tin, when 
 practicable. In preparing the coffee, the boiler 
 should be allowed to remain on the range until 
 the water comes to a boil; add the coffee and set 
 the boiler off, or where it will only simmer for 
 a half hour or so before serving. If there is not 
 sufficient time for this, the coffee may be allowed 
 to boil about five minutes before setting off the 
 range. 
 
 124. Allow one pint of liquid coffee per man. 
 Starting out with fresh coffee, use five ounces of 
 the ground coffee per gallon of water. For the 
 next meal, add to this four ounces of coffee for 
 each gallon water of added, and for the next meal 
 three. After having allowed the coffee to accu- 
 mulate for three meals, throw it all out and 
 thoroughly scour the boiler before the next meal.
 
 THE GARRISON RATION. 81 
 
 If desired, the coffee may be placed in sacks 
 while cooking, but it should have plenty of room 
 to allow circulation of water through it. By this 
 method, the boiler is kept cleaner, but it takes 
 longer to extract the flavor. It is recommended 
 that where practicable the coffee grains be placed 
 in a open sack supported by a ring resting on lugs 
 on the inside of the boiler, and that the water be 
 poured through the sack at least twice. 
 
 125. When soup -is served, coffee need not 
 be, though if it is, the consumption is reduced 
 about one-half, and frequently the same is ob- 
 served when water is placed upon the table, for 
 very often the men take coffee only because there 
 is no water at hand. 
 
 126. We recommend that coffee be served in 
 porcelain lined coffee pots, so that the men may help 
 themselves, and in order that the coffee may be 
 kept hot, instead of giving up the greater portion 
 of the heat present to bring up the temperature 
 of the heavy chinaware pitchers that are fre- 
 quently used. If coffee is served in the heavy 
 chinaware cups, it will generally be cold before 
 the men are ready to drink it, and in addition,
 
 82 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 much will be served that will not be consumed 
 and is consequently a dead loss, whereas if it 
 had been left in the coffee pots, it could have been 
 retained, and used up at the next meal. The 
 coffee allowance is sufficient for serving twice a 
 day only say by using five ounces per gall (1 
 pint per man) for breakfast, and four ounces for 
 each gallon of water added to that left over from 
 breakfast. If tea is used for the second meal, a 
 money saving is made. 
 
 127. .Coffee stimulates the nervous system 
 without reaction and retards changes in tissues. 
 Its effect on the digestion is the subject of much 
 difference of opinion. Chicory and coffee ex- 
 tracts are considered both harmless and worth- 
 less. Especially in the field, the full strength of 
 the coffee is desired and the so-called substitutes 
 serve but to deceive the uninformed. 
 
 128. TEA. Tea is coming more into favor 
 with our men, and is now used quite generally for 
 supper each day. It has practically the same 
 physiological effect as coffee, but has the advan- 
 tage of lightness and smallness of bulk. In pre- 
 paring tea, it is best to first pour over it a small 
 quantity ofjboiling hot water to cleanse it and
 
 THE GARRISON RATION. 83 
 
 remove such coloring matters as may be present. 
 Then put the leaves in a tea basket, or muslin 
 sack, in an earthenware receptacle and pour 
 boiling hot water through them and allow to 
 ' ' draw ' ' for about five minutes before serving. If 
 the leaves stand longer in the water, a bitter 
 flavor is drawn out which is very objectionable. 
 
 129. Three-fourths of an ounce per gallon 
 makes a very strong tea, and one-half ounce, 
 medium. Sliced lemon is said to be a good sub- 
 stitute for milk in tea. It is claimed that it pre- 
 vents the headache and sleeplessness to which 
 many persons are subject from its use. 
 
 130. SUGAR. Sugar may be considered a 
 cheap article of diet, considering the high nutri- 
 tive value, which is not generally appreciated 
 as it should be. In most organizations, this com- 
 ponent is hardly sufficient. Generally about 25 
 per cent, more than the issue allowance is con- 
 sumed, although in some cases a small saving is 
 made. Next 'to fat and oil, it furnishes the most 
 complete food for heat and energy that can be 
 consumed. It is a quick acting food, being readily 
 absorbed into the circulation and is therefore 
 especially valuable to relieve exhaustion. It is
 
 84 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 particularly useful for soldiers engaged in a forced 
 march. 
 
 We are of the opinion that, if sugar is placed 
 on the table for general use, and extravagant 
 waste prevented by the Mess Sergeant, it would 
 not greatly increase the bills at the end of the 
 month. If eating more than a normal amount of 
 sugar, a lesser amount of higher priced food will 
 be consumed. Granulated sugar is considered 
 the best and the cheapest to use. Cut-loaf sugar 
 would prove expensive in mounted commands, 
 as soldiers are not slow in rewarding their favorite 
 mounts with a few lumps when it can be done with 
 so little effort. 
 
 131. The men should be allowed to sweeten 
 their own coffee, but the Mess Sergeant will have 
 to caution them against extravagance by leaving 
 unused sugar in their cups. During the first 
 week of such liberty the consumption of sugar 
 is quite large, but under proper supervision, it 
 soon subsides to a normal expenditure. 
 
 132. Granulated sugar makes an excellent 
 sirup for table use; it is cheaper than other 
 sirups and generally better liked by the men. In 
 making the sirup, take a gallon measure and put 
 one quart of water in it; then add about six and
 
 THE GARRISON RATION. 85 
 
 one-half pounds of sugar, and let boil for about 
 fifteen minutes. If the resulting mixture is less 
 than one gallon, add sufficient boiling water to 
 make the full gallon and allow it to boil for a few 
 minutes. For flavoring, use one-fourth pint of 
 vinegar as part of the liquid added, or better 
 still, use lemon instead of vinegar, and one-half 
 ounce of lemon extract. Juices of fruits may be 
 used wholly, or in part, in the place of the water. 
 
 133. EVAPORATED MILK has been re- 
 duced from the "whole milk" and to restore it to 
 its former consistency, it is necessary to add the 
 same amount of water as was evaporated. For 
 oat meal, two one-pound cans of evaporated milk 
 in sufficient water to make a gallon of milk. In 
 our experience, we favor the use of evaporated 
 milk in company kitchens. It has been sterilized, 
 is of uniform quality, and is well liked by the 
 men. When using only the issue allowance, we 
 do not attempt to put it in our coffee, but reserve 
 it for puddings, sauces, cakes, etc. 
 
 134. Powdered Milk will probably come into 
 more general use, especially in the field. About 
 one pound of the powdered milk per gallon of water 
 is considered sufficient.
 
 86 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 135. CONDIMENTS OR SEASONINGS 
 are not, as a rule, foods in the strictest sense of 
 the term, but they are quite an essential part 
 of the diet. They are important, in that they 
 improve the appetite and the digestive powers, 
 .and are consequently more important for the 
 
 invalid and convalescent, and those of sedentary 
 habits than for the healthy person. Experiment 
 shows that for the latter, unseasoned foods are 
 quite as easily digested as others, though eaten 
 with less relish. 
 
 136. -The allowance of seasonings is just 
 about sufficient. Any excess used, or any savings 
 made, will generally affect the cash account but 
 little. Condiments act through the senses of smell 
 and taste reflectively on the digestive organs, as 
 well as locally when coming in immediate contact 
 with the linings of the stomach. In either case 
 the flow of the digestive juices is stimulated and 
 the digestion is aided. In those particular cases 
 where the linings of the stomach, intestines, etc., 
 are already inflamed, high seasoning must be 
 avoided. 
 
 137. A food is but half prepared when the 
 cooking is only done. It requires delicate, varied,
 
 THE GARRISON RATION. 87 
 
 and well-selected seasoning to do the rest. Too 
 many cooks are devoid of a keen sense of taste, 
 or at least exercise little or no judgment in 
 seasoning their food ; they too often rely upon 
 pepper and salt alone. This is just the reason 
 that soups are so frequently held in disfavor in 
 the service at large. The first requirement is a 
 good stock; second, a varied and substantial fill- 
 ing (various kinds of mixed vegetables say 
 one quart to the gallon, dried bacon, etc.) ; third, 
 a palatable seasoning such as can be obtained 
 from red peppers, chopped parsley, and a limited 
 assortment of herbs properly applied. Varied 
 and savory condiments are necessary to tone up 
 an otherwise iiat and insipid dish and make it 
 popular and much craved by the men, instead of 
 a repulsive "dish-water" introduction to the 
 meal. 
 
 138. Sugar, though constantly used for 
 seasoning, is most useful as a food. The sweeten- 
 ing element is saccharin, which has no food value. 
 Use one to two pounds per gallon of mixture with 
 puddings, custards, and sweet doughs. For rice 
 tapioca pudding, etc., double the amounts of 
 seasoning used. Generally, from three to four
 
 88 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 ounces per gallon of coffee is considered sufficient, 
 when the coffee is sweetened in the kitchen. 
 
 139. Salt is the only condiment actually 
 necessary to health. It is probably taken in suf- 
 ficient quantities in ordinary foods, but such ad- 
 ditions as may be made to give an agreeable flavor 
 is not injurious. In seasoning soups, three- 
 fourths of an ounce of salt per gallon; for stews, 
 and mashed potatoes, about one-half of an ounce 
 per gallon. 
 
 140. Bacon (or Ham) diced or sliced, can 
 be used to advantage in almost any meat, fresh or 
 dried vegetable component, and nothing is rel- 
 ished more. Use about one pound of bacon to five 
 pounds of dried vegetables, or to fifteen pounds 
 of fresh vegetables. 
 
 141. Onions, parsnips, carrots, tomatoes, sal- 
 sify, etc., have a valuable place in the seasoning 
 of soups, stews, etc., and are much appreciated. 
 In soups we use about one quart of mixed chopped 
 vegetables in addition to about two ounces of rice, 
 or barley, or macaroni, etc., for each galllon of 
 liquid. 
 
 142. Pepper is stimulating when used in small 
 quantities, but irritating when used to excess.
 
 THE GARRISON RATION. 8d 
 
 Red or Cayenne Pepper is far more wholesome 
 than black or white pepper, though not com- 
 monly used. In seasoning soups, use one- 
 eighth of an ounce per gallon, and for stews and 
 mashed vegetables, about two-thirds as much. 
 Two sweet red peppers per gallon of soup is ample. 
 
 143. Garlic is much used in small quantities 
 to bring out the flavors of other condiments. For 
 example, one or two of the small bulbs would be 
 sufficient for eight or ten gallons of soup. 
 
 144. Mustard, when used in small quantities, 
 is good for digestion. It can be used to advan- 
 tage with ham, baked beans, and other heavy 
 foods, and when such foods are served it should 
 be placed on the table. 
 
 145. Herbs, such as mint, parsley, thyme, 
 bay leaves, capers, etc., are found in considerable 
 variety on the market at very reasonable prices. 
 They are used to great advantage in meats, stews, 
 soups, chowders, and sauces. Use one bunch of 
 green parsley for five gallons of soup, and in 
 addition, one-half teaspoonful of dried herbs. 
 
 146. Spices are generally used in cakes, 
 and articles of food containing sugar, and some- 
 times with meats, either whole, ground, or as an
 
 90 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 extract. Ginger is perhaps the most healthful, 
 and is often used in sickness, and as a tonic in 
 hot weather. The other spices are better mixed 
 in small quantities, for example, using less of 
 cloves and more of cinnamon, but no one spice 
 greatly predominating, or in sufficient quantity 
 to hide the natural flavor of the food. 
 
 147. Flavors are all good in small quantities. 
 They should not be added while the article is 
 hot, as the heat wastes their strength the aroma 
 passing off with the vapors. When possible, it 
 is best to use natural fruit juices. Others are 
 much subject to adulteration. 
 
 148. Lemon and Vinegar increase the solvent 
 power of the gastric juice, and are useful with 
 meats and vegetables that are difficult of diges- 
 tion. A little vinegar or lemon juice added to 
 tough meats before cooking does much to break 
 down the resisting fibers. 
 
 149. LARD, ETC. The credit allowance 
 for this component is generally sufficient. If a 
 standard quality of beef is supplied and the suet 
 with surplus fat is carefully rendered, this with 
 the trimmings of fat from roasted and boiled 
 meat, and the grease skimmed from stock, soups,
 
 THE GARRISON RATION. 91 
 
 and gravies, will furnish all shortenings, drip- 
 pings, etc., required for kitchen use. If a pork 
 carcass, or parts of a carcass, with all the natural 
 fats is supplied from time to time, a corresponding 
 saving should be made on this component. 
 
 150. Handling the Suet. Keep a long, deep, 
 narrow bake pan constantly on the range for 
 a general receptacle for beef fat, etc. Each 
 day place the suet and fat trimmings in the pan, 
 and from time to time, as the floating grease 
 gathers on the surface of gravies, soups, stews, 
 etc., skim it off and transfer it to the pan. All 
 fats should be trimmed from cooked meats in 
 the kitchen and saved in the same manner. At 
 the end of the day, the accumulated grease is 
 strained off into an earthenware receptacle and 
 set in a cool place. The pan is thoroughly 
 cleaned and a fresh start made each day. The 
 accumulation of grease, which includes all that 
 collected in the kitchen, excepting lard (hog fat), 
 is called drippings, and is used for general pur- 
 poses generally in deep or shallow fryings, or, 
 if carefully strained, in ordinary pastry work. 
 For the latter, lard is better, but the drippings 
 may be used in anything that is to be eaten hot. 
 On account of the relatively high melting point
 
 92 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 of beef fat, a slightly tallowy taste is some- 
 times left in the mouth after eating cold prepara- 
 tions in which the drippings or suet have been 
 used. 
 
 151. Compound. If additional shortening 
 is desired, it is recommended that compound be 
 purchased instead of lard (see definitions). It is 
 perfectly wholesome, devoid of objectionable 
 flavor, and comparatively cheap. 
 
 152. BUTTER. If this component used is 
 on the table, it can be served three of four times 
 in the ten day period, besides being used sparingly 
 in cooking. Note, however, that the govern- 
 ment allowance is one-half ounce per man per 
 day, and where individual butter plates have been 
 used, many organizations have served it once 
 each day, e. g., for breakfast, with hot cakes, or 
 for supper, with hot rolls, with entire satisfaction. 
 Many organizations prefer to save it altogether, 
 and make other purchases instead. If difficulty 
 is experienced in living on the straight ration, it 
 is recommended that this component be saved, 
 and if "butter" is desired, oleomargarin, which 
 is every bit as good, be purchased (uncolored) at 
 from one-half to two-thirds the price.
 
 THE GARRISON RATION. 93 
 
 153. When butter becomes lightly rancid 
 it should be worked over in cold water, and then 
 the desired amount of salt added. If but slightly 
 rancid, it may be used in custards, cakes, pies, 
 etc. If rather too rancid for this purpose and yet 
 not very stale, it may be refreshened as follows: 
 Place the butter in plenty of hot water and let it 
 boil for about half an hour, set to one side and 
 when the water has cooled to, say about 55 de- 
 grees Fahr., the butter will have hardened on the 
 surface so that it may easily 'be removed in the 
 same manner as cakes of grease from beef stock. 
 
 Or, the butter may be placed on the range 
 and boiled until the moisture and acids have been 
 evaporated, but in this case, the butter will take 
 on a darker color. If heated in a steam jacket 
 boiler, the removal of the moisture and acids 
 will take place at a lower temperature, and the 
 butter will not become discolored. Boiled butter 
 does not possess a very fine flavor, but will keep 
 as long as lard under the same conditions. 
 
 154. SIRUP. This component is provided 
 in about the right proportion, but the men do not 
 always like the brands generally sold at the 
 /Commissary, on account of their peculiar flavor;
 
 94 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 and a cheaper grade, either purchased on the 
 market, or made from granulated sugar, is fre- 
 quently more acceptable. 
 
 155. Salads. A good potato salad (or one 
 of onions, beets, or lettuce) can be used to ad- 
 vantage in the company mess for the Sunday 
 evening supper. After a hearty "Sunday dinner " 
 a cold supper may be prepared, and bologna, cold 
 roast beef, or ham will furnish a suitable meat 
 component for the meal. At other times during 
 the week, as when baked beans, pease, or other 
 dried vegetables are used, a piccalilli salad, hot or 
 cold slaw, or other similar preparation of which 
 vinegar or pickles form a part, can be used to 
 advantage. On days when baked beans have 
 been on the bill of fare for dinner, it is frequently 
 convenient to make up a small amount of salad 
 as a "side dish" for supper, by using up the left- 
 over baked beans, to which have been added a 
 good proportion of chopped raw onions, pickles 
 and tomatoes. 
 
 156. Dessert. To many company com 
 manders the word dessert is a synonym for lux- 
 ury and useless and extravagant waste. As a 
 matter of fact, the ration contains within itself
 
 THE GARRISON RATION. 95 
 
 all the materials necessary for providing a dessert 
 every day, and it is frequently one of the cheapest 
 components of the meal. Almost anything in 
 the shape of cheap cake, or rice pudding, bread 
 puddings, plum duff, etc., will be greatly relished 
 if a palatable sauce is provided; the sauce is to 
 the dessert even more than the seasoning to other 
 foods. The sauce may be as cheap, or as inex- 
 pensive, as the cook desires to make it, and the 
 entire dessert need not cost but a fraction over 
 one cent, or even less than one cent, per man 
 though more expensive desserts should be provided 
 as often as the funds will allow. 
 
 157. One gallon of sauce may be regarded 
 as sufficient for 25 men. It can be made with 
 three quarts of water, two pounds of sugar and 
 one-fourth pint of vinegar, together with about 
 four ounces of corn starch, or five ounces of 
 flour, made into a batter. Or, it may be made 
 richer and more finely flavored as follows: Add 
 a one-pound can of evaporated milk in the place 
 of one pint of water, the juice of a half-dozen 
 lemons, or of four oranges, or other fruit juices, 
 in the place of vinegar, one-half pound of butter, 
 and after the sauce has cooled, one-half ounce of
 
 96 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 extract. The mixture may be given a rich color 
 by the addition of a small amount of caramel- 
 ized sugar. The sauce may be prepared in a 
 dozen different ways and still be very inexpensive. 
 In addition to the puddings and sauces, excellent 
 pies may be made from the articles forming a 
 part of the issue ration. Even mince meat can 
 be easily prepared from the articles sold as a 
 part of the garrison ration, and the dried fruit 
 put out in various forms. (See Pars. 116-120). 
 A palatable dessert may be served every day 
 while living on the straight ration or less.
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 MILK, CHEESE, BUTTER, LARD, COM- 
 POUNDS, ETC. 
 
 158. MILK. According to the standard 
 adopted by the Department of Agriculture, Milk 
 is the clean product obtained by the complete 
 milking of one or more healthy cows, properly 
 fed and kept, excluding that obtained within 15 
 days before and 10 days after calving, and con- 
 taining not less than 8^ per cent, of solids (pro- 
 tein, sugar, and mineral matters) and in addition 
 not less than 3^ per cent, of fats. It contains 
 about 87 or 88 per cent, of water. 
 
 159. There is no food that varies more in 
 composition. For instance, the Holstein breed of 
 cattle produces a milk with the minimum amount 
 of fat, and the Jersey about double the amount. 
 The composition of the milk of a single cow 
 varies greatly from day to day on account of her 
 method of feeding, and a more fixed quality of 
 
 97
 
 98 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 milk is obtainable from the dairy milk of the herd 
 than from any one particular animal. 
 
 160. While the milk coming from a per- 
 fectly healthy and clean cow may be regarded as 
 sterile, we might very properly question the 
 purity of milk that comes from cows that have 
 not been subjected to the tuberculin test, and 
 with whose care, attendance and milking we are 
 not familiar. 
 
 161. Disease germs may be derived from the 
 animal itself on account of being diseased, or from 
 unclean surroundings or carelessness in handling 
 the milk. 
 
 Germs, once finding their way into milk, 
 multiply with great rapidity. They are of two 
 distinct classes, those that produce or promote 
 souring, and disease germs. The former are said 
 to be harmless unless in such quantities as to pro- 
 duce diarrhea, but owing to their presence milk 
 cannot be kept for any great length of time with- 
 out souring. 
 
 162. Among the diseases known to have 
 been conveyed by milk are diptheria, typhoid, 
 tuberculosis and perhaps scarlatina and cholera.
 
 MILK, CHEESE, LARD, ETC. 99 
 
 These germs are, however, more easily destroyed 
 than the first class, and by a very simple process. 
 
 163. Pasteurized Milk. This is milk that 
 has been kept at a temperature somewhat below 
 the boiling point about 158 degrees Fahr. for 
 20 to 30 minutes. This process is such as to de- 
 stroy most of the disease germs that may be present 
 though it will not keep the milk from spoiling 
 for more than 2 or 3 days, ulness kept below 55 
 degrees Fahr. Pasteurized milk is almost as 
 digestible as raw milk, but it deteriorates rapidly 
 and should be used as soon as possible. 
 
 164. Boiled Milk. The most satisfactory 
 method of procedure is perhaps to boil the milk 
 for a few minutes, cool quickly and strain. This 
 does not alter the taste greatly, but if boiled for 
 any great length of time it loses its natural flavor 
 and is rendered more indigestible. 
 
 165. Powdered or Desiccated Milk. This is 
 produced by passing a thin sheet of milk between 
 two heated rollers in such a way as to desiccate 
 it immediately. It is then broken up into a 
 fine soluble powder and only requires the addition 
 of water to bring it back to the condition of 
 natural milk again. This powdered form of
 
 100 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 milk contains all of the solids of the original milk 
 in a sterile and soluble form and there can be no 
 doubt but that desiccated milk will come into 
 large use in the near future. 
 
 166. Evaporated Milk is produced by evapo- 
 rating a considerable portion of the water in milk. 
 It contains not less than 28 per cent, of solids. 
 The term Evaporated Cream is no longer in use, 
 but was formerly applied to what is now known in 
 the trade as evaporated milk. 
 
 167. Condensed Milk is the same as evapo- 
 rated milk, with about 40 per cent, of cane sugar 
 added. 
 
 168. Skimmed Milk is milk from which a 
 portion of the fat has been removed. If the cream 
 has been removed by the natural process of 
 allowing it to rise, a considerable amount of fat 
 still remains in the milk. If the cream is removed 
 by means of a separator, little fat remains, and 
 such milk should be termed "Separator Milk." 
 The chief prejudice against skimmed milk arises 
 from the reason that it is frequently disposed of 
 as "whole milk," that is, milk from which the 
 cream has not been extracted. It is still a valu- 
 able food lacking only fat, and this may be
 
 MILK, CHEESE, LARD, ETC. 101 
 
 abundantly supplied by other foods. Skimmed 
 milk is used in great quantities as food for pigs 
 and poultry. 
 
 169. Sterilized Milk is milk that has been 
 heated to the temperature of boiling water or 
 higher for a length of time (say 20 minutes) 
 sufficient to kill all organisms present. 
 
 170. Cream is that portion of milk, rich in 
 fat, that rises to the surface of milk on standing, 
 or separated from it by centrifugal force. It con- 
 tains not less than 18 per cent, of milk fat. 
 
 171. Double Cream is a term applied to the 
 thick cream that is drawn from a Separator 
 running at a low rate of speed, in distinction from 
 that extracted when the Separator is run at full 
 speed. 
 
 172. Buttermilk is the product that remains 
 after the butter is removed from the milk or cream 
 during the process of churning. 
 
 1 73. CHEESE is regarded as one of the oldest 
 forms of food prepared for the use of man. The 
 term is applied to the solid product produced 
 from milk by coagulation of the casein with 
 rennet (a ferment generally prepared from the 
 fourth stomach of calves) or with lactic acid and
 
 102 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 subjecting the solid product thus produced to a 
 process of fermentation and ripening by the 
 addition of appropriate seasoning material, sea- 
 soning and subjecting to storing at a convenient 
 temperature for different lengths of time. The 
 ferments introduced produce certain changes in 
 the material and develop an aroma and flavor 
 more or less agreeable to the smell and taste. 
 
 174. Full Cream Cheese is made from milk 
 containing its full complement of cream. 
 
 175. Cream Cheese may contain any qaun- 
 tity of cream, but generally has less than the so- 
 called, "Full Cream Cheese." 
 
 176. Swiss Cheese is the term applied to 
 any hard, tough cheese in which are found a large 
 number of holes. When cut it makes a leathery, 
 flexible slice and has more or less of the flavor 
 of the genuine Swiss Cheese. 
 
 177. Filled Cheese is a term applied to 
 cheese in which the place of the natural milk fat 
 is taken by fat from some other source. Neutral 
 Lard is used frequently in this connection. Filled 
 Cheese is a poor imitation for the reason that 
 the same aroma and flavor cannot be developed 
 as in cheese containing the natural milk fat.
 
 MILK, CHEESE, LARD, ETC. 103 
 
 178. Cottage Cheese is a nutritious and pala- 
 table product of home manufacturer, and is not 
 suitable for keeping or transporation. It is 
 generally made from sour milk in which the casein 
 has coagulated by the natural formation of lactic 
 acid. The sour milk is placed in a muslin bag 
 and the whey separated by gravitation, or forced 
 out by pressure. It is then salted to taste, and 
 often cream is added to make it more nutritious 
 and wholesome. 
 
 179. Limburger Cheese is made from pure 
 milk, or that from which a portion cf the cream 
 has been removed. The peculiar flavor and smell 
 are developed largely as a result of keeping it 
 stored for a period of about 6 weeks in atmos- 
 phere saturated with moisture and at a low tem- 
 perature. 
 
 180. Edam Cheese is a hard, highly colored 
 Cream Cheese, often covered with paraffin, manu- 
 factured at a small town called Edam near Amster- 
 dam, Holland. 
 
 181. Roquefort Cheese is a foreign cheese 
 made from ewe's milk. 
 
 182. Cheese has about twice the nutritive value 
 of an equal weight of fresh meat. On account of the
 
 104 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 amount of fat present, it is considered rather 
 difficult of digestion for weak stomachs. The 
 harder forms being more completely broken 
 up in the mouth are the more digestible. It is 
 probable that on account of the active ferments 
 present a small quantity of cheese taken at the 
 end of a meal actually assists in the digestion of 
 the food already taken although more or less 
 difficult of digestion itself. 
 
 183. FATS AND OILS. All fats consist 
 essentially of two distinct elements; olein and 
 stearin. The former consist of the oily part that 
 may be pressed out at a moderate temperature, 
 while the stearin is the part that remains and 
 liquifies only at a relatively high temperature. 
 Both serve important but entirely different pur- 
 poses in the preparation of the various com- 
 pounds put on the market as substitutes for lard 
 and butter. 
 
 184. The olein and stearin are separated 
 from suet and beef fat as follows: The fat is 
 melted and allowed to cool. Crystals of stearin 
 quickly form and the fat is spread in flat, rectangu- 
 lar slabs and wrapped in a cheese cloth of fine 
 quality. These slabs are stacked in a pile several
 
 MILK, CHEESE, LARD, ETC. 105 
 
 layers high and gradually subjected to great 
 pressure. The oil (olein) oozes out, and finally 
 the stearin is left in light, cream colored waxlike 
 cakes that are brittle and easily broken in the 
 fingers. 
 
 185. The oil thus extracted retains its liquid 
 form at a moderate temperature and may be used 
 for illuminating or lubricating purposes; or, it 
 may be used in the various lard or butter com- 
 pounds put up by the packing houses. The 
 stearin melts only at a relatively high tempera- 
 ture, thus giving body to the fat, lard, tallow, etc., 
 the quantity present determining the consistency 
 of the article. By ingenious combinations ad- 
 vantage is taken of the properties mentioned and 
 lard and butter compounds are manufactured to 
 meet the various demands of climate and season. 
 
 186. Beef fat has a higher melting point than 
 lard, and beef stearin than lard stearin. In the 
 manufacture of artificial butter, we find the beef 
 stearin combined with neutral lard, and the lard 
 stearin with oleo oil, which is the oil pressed from 
 beef fat. 
 
 187. Tallow is simply beef or mutton fat 
 rendered at a very high temperature to give a 
 higher melting point.
 
 106 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 188. OLIVE OIL is by far the most im- 
 portant of edible oils, both on account of its 
 abundance and palatability, and it would be more 
 commonly used in ordinary cooking except for 
 the cost. It has been used since the earliest his- 
 torical times and was probably one of the first 
 vegetable oils manufactured. By reason of its 
 great value and high price it has been subject to 
 systematic and extensive adulteration. Nearly 
 all of the edible oils have the light amber tint 
 that is characteristic of many grades of olive oil, 
 and if mixed with them to such an extent that not 
 more than 30 per cent, of the olive oil remains, 
 the detection of adulteration may be extremely 
 difficult. 
 
 189. COTTONSEED OIL stands next to 
 olive oil in importance as an edible oil. The im- 
 mense quantity consumed can be best appreciated 
 by the fact that for every pound of cotton fiber 
 grown there are two pounds of seed available for 
 making oil, and the greater part of it is used for 
 edible purposes. 
 
 190. The oil was formerly objected to on 
 account of the disagreeable odor given off in
 
 MILK, CHEESE, LARD, ETC. 107 
 
 cooking, and for a bad flavor in the article cooked. 
 Within the past few years these objections have 
 been removed, and now an oil is placed on the 
 market that is practically odorless and tasteless, 
 and immense quantities are used in cooking and 
 baking. 
 
 191. As in animal fats, there is a large por- 
 tion called stearin, that melts at only relatively 
 high temperatures, advantage of which is taken 
 in producing oil for summer or winter use. In 
 the former the stearin is left in the oil which 
 will retain its liquid condition during the warm 
 summer months; but for winter use, the oil is 
 chilled and the stearin separated by filtration. 
 The oil remaining retains its liquid form at rela- 
 tively low temperatures. 
 
 192. BUTTER. As defined by the Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture, butter is a food product 
 made exclusively from milk or cream or both, 
 with or without the addition of common salt, and 
 with or without the addition of coloring matter. 
 It is the most easily digested of all fatty foods. 
 The cream from which it is derived consists 
 essentially of the fat of milk although other sub- 
 stances (water, sugar, etc.) are present in con-
 
 108 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 siderable quantities. The globules of fat consti- 
 tuting the cream are lighter than the milk and are 
 separated from it either by allowing it to rise to 
 the surface, or by means of a separator in which 
 the separation is made by centrifugal force. In 
 the latter the cream comes to the center and is 
 allowed to flow off in tanks provided. 
 
 193. If desease germs are suspected, the 
 cream may be -pasteurized before churning (by 
 subjecting it to a temperature of about 158 de- 
 grees Fahr., for about 30 minutes) but butter 
 made from such cream is devoid of natural flavor. 
 
 194. Ladled Butter is made by remixing and 
 reworking different lots of butter without melting, 
 so as to secure a uniform grade. 
 
 195. Canned Butter is ordinarily put up 
 when perfectly fresh in cans weighing from % to 
 3 pounds. The cans are completely filled and her- 
 metically sealed. In this condition it will retain 
 its good quality for several months. It can how- 
 ever be kept indefinitely by melting, boiling to 
 drive off the water, straining to remove the casein 
 and sealing hermetically as before. 
 
 196. Renovated Butter is of two distinct 
 classes :
 
 MILK, CHEESE, LARD, ETC. 109 
 
 (a) The product obtained by melting to- 
 gether and refining several different grades or 
 lots of different color without the addition of any 
 foreign matter, the object being to secure a high 
 grade uniform product. 
 
 (fe) Reworked butter that has been impaired 
 in quality and has been subjected to melting or 
 other renovating process. 
 
 197. Oleomargarin is the term applied by 
 the Department of Agriculture to all butter sub- 
 stitutes placed on the market regardless of their 
 composition. In its manufacture the oil is churned 
 with a certain amount of milk, or cream, or 
 with both or with creamery butter, in order to 
 secure the desired flavor. The amount of stearin 
 added is determined by the climate in which the 
 butter is to be used or by season of the year. 
 
 198. LARD. Lard is defined as the fat of 
 swine. From the several parts of the carcass 
 distinct grades are obtained, differing slightly in 
 chemical composition and ability to withstand 
 heat without passing into a liquid form. Thus 
 the part that forms in large leaves, and lines the 
 back of the hog, and is called "Leaf Lard," is the
 
 110 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 best and most expensive. The -intestinal lard, 
 found within the abdomen and attached to the 
 intestines, is also a very high grade of lard. The 
 "Back Fat" is next and constitutes the greater 
 part of the lard placed on the market. . "Silver 
 Leaf Brand" and "Shield Brand" are among the 
 names under which it is sold, although these 
 brands contain no "leaf lard" at all. Lower 
 grades are found in the feet and other parts of the 
 hog, but this is not rendered into cooking lard. In 
 the packing houses the fat of diseased hogs that 
 die in human food is rendered into soap grease, 
 lubricating oils, fertilizers, etc. 
 
 199. The proportion of stearin in lard Meter- 
 mines its melting point. Lard with a high 
 melting point is specially desired for summer use, 
 and that with a low melting point for cold climates 
 and for winter use. The melting point may 
 be regulated by increasing or reducing the 
 amount of stearin used, though any change in the 
 natural proportion must be considered as an adult- 
 eration. 
 
 200. Neutral Lard is made from the "leaf 
 lard," being that portion that is rendered at a 
 relatively low temperature, so that it may be en- 
 tirely free from a steam taste. It is practically
 
 MILK, CHEESE, LARD, ETC. Ill 
 
 free from moisture and acids and hence its name. 
 It is used largely in the manufacture of oleo- 
 margarin of the best quality. 
 
 201. Leaf Lard consists properly of all the 
 lard from the leaf, but there is relatively little of 
 this placed on the market. It demands a high 
 price and few can afford to use it. 
 
 202. Noodle Lard is made from the hog 
 backs. The lard is ground and rendered at a low 
 temperature and used in the manufacture of arti- 
 ficial butter. 
 
 203. Prime Steam Lard is made from fat 
 from all parts of the carcass and rendered by the 
 application of live steam. It practically repre- 
 sents the average fat from the whole animal. 
 
 204. Kettle Rendered Lard consists of part 
 leaf lard and back fat only and as a rulk is a higher 
 grade than the steam rendered lard. The two 
 grades Prime Steam Lard and Kettle Rendered 
 Lard constitute the greater portion of the pure 
 lard placed on the market. 
 
 205. ' Adulteration. Beef fat has a higher 
 melting point than lard, and cotton seed oil a 
 much lower and by a happy combination a com- 
 pound containing no lard at all can be formed
 
 112 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 having the same melting point as any grade of 
 lard. The principal adulteration to which lard 
 has been subjected has been by the addition of 
 such a compound of the same melting point. The 
 law now forbids its sale on the market as lard, or 
 without giving its composition. 
 
 206. The Lard Compounds consist very 
 largely of cottonseed oil to which stearin is added 
 to give a body and to raise the melting point. 
 Some of these compounds contain as high as 75 
 per cent, of cotton seed oil and 25 per cent, of 
 stearin, and are placed on the market at a lower 
 price, furnishing an excellent substitute at a 
 reasonable price. For some purposes these sub- 
 stitutes are almost as good as pure lard, but in 
 pastries about one-fifth more has to be used to 
 secure the same result, and for this reason, econ- 
 omy does not always result from its use. 
 
 207. The Objections raised to the use of 
 artificial butter and the so-called lard compounds 
 are more on the grounds of fraud and deception 
 than of nutritive value. The compounds are 
 wholesome and digestible. Artificial butter differs 
 from creamery butter principally by the ab- 
 sence of certain acids. In the lard compounds
 
 MILK, CHEESE, LARD, ETC. 113 
 
 a pure vegetable oil has been substituted (at least 
 in part) for the animal oil which has been re- 
 moved. 
 
 208. Practically all fats are the same and 
 do the same work in the system, though their 
 flavor and appearance have much to do with our 
 estimation of their value as foods. We cannot 
 consistently object to the use of artificial butter 
 on the ground that it contains animal fat, for we 
 eat quantities of that every day. The objection 
 naturally arises from doubt as to cleanliness in 
 manufacture and as to the actual composition. 
 
 209. A personal inspection of the packing 
 house methods of today would satisfy the most 
 skeptical that artificial butter is made from clean 
 animal fats and that it is put up under far more 
 sanitary conditions than generally exist in the 
 country dairy or in the creamery. In addition, 
 the danger from tubercular germs which are 
 known to frequently exist in butter is practically 
 done away with. 
 
 211. The cheapness and excellent quality of 
 artificial butter found on the market recommends 
 its use in the company kitchen, though the tax of 
 10 cents per pound imposed on that which is 
 colored should exclude that particular article.
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 PRESERVATION OF FOOD BACTERIA 
 AND MOLD. 
 
 BACTERIA. 
 
 212. General Remarks. It may be said that 
 the deterioration of foods through puterfaction, 
 decay, souring, etc., is due to the growth of 
 bacteria* and that preservation requires conditions 
 unfavorable to such growth. Thus, a certain 
 amount of moisture 35 per cent, to 40 per cent. 
 is required for the growth of bacteria, and 
 generally the lower -the temperature until the 
 freezing point is reached, the slower will such 
 growth take place. Hence dryness and cold re- 
 
 *Bacteria, yeasts and molds comprise a series of plants 
 commonly known as micro-organisms, or more popularly as 
 microbes. The general rotting of fruit, decay of meat, souring 
 of milk, and similar phenomena are incident to the growth of 
 such plants. Molds are fungi of considerable size, easily 
 visible to the naked eye and of thread-like formation. Yeasts 
 develop by a process of budding, each little cell being said to 
 reproduce itself every three or four hours. Bacteria are 
 smaller plants that multiply by a process of splitting into 
 rod-like or spiral bodies, 
 
 114
 
 PRESERVATION OF FOODS. 115 
 
 tard decay, but absolute prevention of deteriora- 
 tion requires that all bacteria present be killed 
 and that others be prevented from coming in con- 
 tact with the food. To kill the bacteria requires 
 a sufficiently high temperature to materially alter 
 the flavor of the food, or even cook it, and germs 
 cannot readily be killedin any otherway without 
 spoiling the food. 
 
 As bacteria are found everywhere in the air, 
 water, or earth, it is not always easy to keep them 
 from food, even after they have been gotten rid 
 of. It thus appears that freshly cooked food in 
 general is apt to be freer from bacteria than food 
 that has not been cooked, or that has not been 
 properly portected if "left over" for some subse- 
 quent meal. 
 
 213. Presence of bacteria not always un- 
 desirable. Comparatively few bacteria are harm- 
 ful and some are not even undesirable. For 
 instance, alcohol and vinegar are direct results 
 of bacterial growth, while the flavors of butter 
 and cheese are largely due to the growth of bac- 
 teria. Sauerkraut is a wholesome food which de- 
 rives its characteristic flavor from partial de- 
 composition of the cabbage incident to fermenta- 
 tion during the process of curing. The souring
 
 116 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 of milk is a natural process due to the growth of 
 certain germs in the milk and it is doubtful 
 whether the wholesomeness of the milk is thereby 
 impaired, though it becomes less palatable. If 
 not permitted to sour, certain putrefactive changes 
 would soon take place, producing a more or less 
 dangerous product. However, it is generally 
 desirable to retard the growth of bacteria in order 
 to preserve our food products from decay and 
 this can be done in various ways. 
 
 214. Drying. It has already been noted 
 that a considerable amount of moisture is neces- 
 sary for bacterial growth (Par. 212); hence the 
 absence of moisture will check it. For example, 
 in nature, grains dry out and are thus preserved 
 as seed for the subsequent year, and incidentally 
 flour containing moisture to the extent ordinarily 
 found in wheat is free from bacterial growth. 
 Meats stripped from carcasses of slaughtered 
 animals and dried in the sun will keep for almost 
 indefinite periods. Fruits dried in the sun, or by 
 artificial means, are free from decay so long as 
 they are kept dry. Crackers, which contain 
 practically no moisture, keep indefinitely so long 
 as they are perfectly dry; while fresh bread, 
 which contains a certain amount of moisture will
 
 PRESERVATION OF FOODS. 117 
 
 spoil in days, or weeks, depending upon the 
 amount of moisture contained in it, and in the 
 atmosphere where stored. Dried or toasted 
 bread crumbs keep indefinitely in a perfectly dry 
 atmosphere, if protected from mice and insects. 
 They should be suspended in a clean flour sack 
 until used. The preparation of milk for preser- 
 vation for indefinite periods is a powdered con- 
 dition, and the desiccation of eggs are growing 
 industries. 
 
 Fresh Meat hung in a moderately cool dry 
 place say 60 degrees Fahr. will keep longer 
 than in a damp ice box at 50 or even 40 degrees 
 Fahr., a fact that can frequently be put to use in 
 company kitchens. At the Training School, meat 
 is seldom hung in an ice box, even in summer, but 
 is protected from flies by cloths, and hung in a 
 moderately cool place, in a draught if practicable. 
 
 Dried fish, ham, bacon, dried beef, etc., are 
 samples of meats preserved by dry ness, though 
 the brine in which they may have been cured, the 
 smoke from burning wood, and additional salt 
 have all assisted in their preservation. 
 
 Most vegetables and fruits are now preserved 
 by desiccating either by the application of heat, 
 which drives off the volatile oils, that give
 
 118 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 fruits their peculiar flavor, or by a more recent 
 process of passing air from which moisture has 
 been extracted, over the surface of the same. It 
 is claimed for this latter process that the natural 
 flavors are retained, and actual experience has 
 shown it to be the case in many vegetables and 
 fruits. 
 
 215. Cold Storage. As bacterial growth is 
 checked by low temperatures, cold storage affords 
 a ready means of temporary preservation of 
 foods for periods depending upon the tempera- 
 ture used. Generally, however, all products that 
 have been long in cold storage quickly deteriorate 
 when removed therefrom and hence should be 
 consumed as soon thereafter as practicable. In 
 the Artie regions steaks from the mammoth thous- 
 ands of years in the ice are said to have been 
 eaten with relish. As a rule, beef, is "aged" at 
 temperatures somewhat above freezing, for weeks 
 before it is considered to be of sufficiently fine 
 flavor for high class trade. 
 
 216. Storing in Pits. Should it be desir- 
 able to keep apples or vegetables far into the 
 winter and suitable cold storage is not available, 
 excellent results may be secured by covering such
 
 PRESERVATION OF FOODS. 119 
 
 products in the earth. Dig pits of suitable size 
 say three feet deep and about four feet wide 
 and of a length required for the quantity to be 
 stored. Let the ground chill thoroughly close to 
 the freezing point, and meanwhile keep the 
 apples, etc., in the vicinity covered with hay. 
 While the temperature is nearly down to freezing, 
 line the pit with hay and carefully lay away the 
 apples, etc., without bruising, and gradually cover 
 with hay as the weather gets colder. Finally, 
 lay boards or timbers over the pit and cover well 
 with hay and earth, leaving a small flue for venti- 
 lation. If cared for in this manner, apples, cab- 
 bage, etc., can be kept for several months with 
 but slight loss. 
 
 It is practically impossible to keep other 
 vegetables than sweet potatoes for long periods, 
 in the steam heated basements of modern bar- 
 racks. Sweet potatoes keep best at a temper- 
 ature of 70 degrees Fahr., and should be covered 
 with sand if practicable. 
 
 217. Other means for preserving food pro- 
 ducts. A cool, dry cellar comes next to cold 
 storage. Its value, however, depends upon uni- 
 form temperature and a dry atmosphere. Un-
 
 120 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 slacked lime may have to be resorted to to pre- 
 serve dryness, and ventilation is always a neces- 
 sity. 
 
 The fireles cooker principle can often be re- 
 sorted to for the preservation of foods that have 
 already been chilled. Compressed yeast (not 
 dried, but well chilled) have been kept for nine 
 days in excellent condition, simply by wrapping 
 in a number of layers of coarse paper, and then 
 setting in a temperature of 70 to 90 degrees Fahr. 
 Moist sacks placed around receptacles contain- 
 ing food, or solid damp earth packed about the 
 same, cold springs, etc., have often been resorted 
 to for the preservation of milk, butter, eggs, etc. 
 
 218.' Chemical Preservatives. Before the pas- 
 sage of the Pure Food and Drug Act. many 
 "preservatives" were used to prevent bacterial 
 growth. Such, for instance, were borax, ben- 
 zoic acid, salicylic acid, and formalin, and while 
 acting as antiseptics, were practically harmless 
 so long as taken in small quantities. They were 
 sold under the head of preservatives, antifer- 
 mentine, freezine, etc., and were frequently used 
 in -the home. The principal difficulty seems to 
 have been to determine how many parties had
 
 PRESERVATION OF FOODS. 121 
 
 added the preservative as it passed from the 
 manufacturer, through dealers, to the consumer. 
 Due to the Pure Food Law making the use of 
 such preservatives illegal, the food on our market 
 is now practically free from them, although 
 benzole acid is still allowed in certain foods. 
 
 219. Non-Poisonous Preservatives. Some ma- 
 terials in common use for preserving purposes are 
 not only harmless, but actually beneficial. 
 
 (a) Sugar has an exceedingly high nutritive 
 value and is a natural preservative when used in 
 sufficient quantities, i. e., in quantities frequently 
 as high as 40 to 50 per cent. Its use in the prepa- 
 ration of jellies, preserves, marmalades, etc., is 
 almost universal. Fresh fish is sometimes rubbed 
 with sugar, and condensed milk is preserved by 
 the addition of 30 to 40 per cent, of it. Raisins, 
 
 .figs, currants and prunes are preserved partly 
 with sugar, and partly through drying out. 
 
 The spread of the canning industry has 
 however, reduced the use of sugar to a consider- 
 able extent. 
 
 (b) Salt is the most common form of harm- 
 less preservatives. Its use in connection with
 
 122 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 fish, fat pork, beef, etc., is well known. With 
 sugar and saltpetre, it is frequently used in a 
 brine for corning meats, or curing them prepara- 
 tory to other processes necessary in preparing 
 them for the market. Salt is used to preserve as 
 well as to flavor butter and cheese, and the latter 
 is frequently rubbed with it to prevent bacterial 
 growth. 
 
 (c) Vinegar is commonly used in the prepara- 
 tion and preservation of all kinds of pickles and in 
 certain sausages and mince meats, etc. The 
 acids formed in the souring of cabbage out of 
 which sauerkraut is made preserves that product 
 from the action of undesirable bacteria. 
 
 (d) Spices are recognized as more or less 
 efficient as antiseptics. The preservation of 
 mincemeat, sausage, salads, etc., is largely due 
 to their presence, although they also add a desir- 
 able flavor. Such mixtures are, however, made 
 most frequently in cold weather, when deteriora- ' 
 tion is more easily prevented. 
 
 220. Canning. By the above simple methods 
 of preservation, foods lose their characteristic 
 flavors; frequently they become much less di- 
 gestible, and as a rule deterioration is only
 
 PRESERVATION OF FOODS. 123 
 
 delayed. The only way of securing perfect pre- 
 servation is by killing all the bacteria present 
 (and they are always present in raw foods), and 
 then absolutely preventing their re-entrance. The 
 first requirement is accomplished satisfactorily 
 in many foods by boiling for certain periods, 
 sometimes under pressure to produce such higher 
 temperature as has been found necessary from ex- 
 perience. Thus, most fruits and vegetables, cer- 
 tain kinds of fish, and some sea foods are among 
 the products that can be actually cooked to ad- 
 vantage for the purpose of preservation; but 
 other foods, as raisins, currants, some cured 
 meats, and cereals that are easily dried can 
 neither be satisfactorily nor economically handled 
 in this manner. 
 
 Having gotten rid of the bacteria, it is neces- 
 sary to keep them out by hermetically sealing the 
 receptacle in which the food is placed. In the 
 case of jellies, melted paraffin is generally poured 
 over the surface ; in the household, glass jars with 
 suitable tops and rubber bands, are used to ad- 
 vantage, although frequently the rubbers and 
 covers are not sufficiently sterilized and serve to 
 re-introduce bacteria. In the laboratory and
 
 124 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 sometimes in the household small amounts of food 
 are placed in glass bottles or small jars with mouths 
 stopped with cotton, which is said to actually 
 prevent the entrance of bacteria. 
 
 For the general trade, however, sealing in 
 tin cans is resorted to almost to an incredible ex- 
 tent, and there seems to be no reason why the 
 food hermetically sealed in them should not keep 
 indefinitely. Generally, after the cans are filled 
 and sealed, a puncture is made for the escape of 
 steam when the cans are reheated. A drop of 
 solder then closes the hole and frequently this 
 work is done in a vacuum, in order that the air 
 may be effectively withdrawn from the can before 
 closing. 
 
 MOLDS. 
 
 221. General Remarks. Molds develop from 
 spores found floating about in the air. These 
 spores are slightly heavier than air, and gradually 
 settle to the floor or light upon objects such as 
 exposed foods, damp boards, leather goods, etc., 
 where, according to the species, of which there 
 are many, coarse or fine thread-like growths of 
 various colors develop. Sweeping, dusting, or
 
 PRESERVATION OF FOODS. 125 
 
 simply passing through a room stirs up mold 
 spores that have settled to rest, but the simple 
 covering of food is frequently sufficient protection 
 from them, though this would not protect from 
 bacteria. The latter, however, require much 
 moisture for their growth, while molds develop 
 where but a small percentage may be present. 
 
 222. Jelly, in which the spores have been 
 killed, is protected from mold by pouring melted 
 paraffin over the top. In cooling, it effectually 
 seals the surface against exposure to the air. A 
 little alcohol, brandy, or white of eggs might be 
 used in place of the paraffin, with a clean piece 
 of paper cut to fit the glass pressed down upon the 
 surface of the jelly. 
 
 223. Sausage, packed in a jar is frequently 
 sealed by pouring melted lard over the surface. 
 It forms a solid cake and prevents the entrance of 
 molds. Even after such precautions, however, 
 food should be set in a dry place, as absolute 
 sealing is difficult, and mold will not develop where 
 it is dry. 
 
 224. Canned Goods that have been opened 
 ,and exposed to the air will surely mold in a few
 
 126 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 days at most if subjected to conditions favorable 
 to such growth. Boiling and resealing alone will 
 again prevent them from spoiling. 
 
 225. Almost any foods found in our store- 
 rooms are subject to the growth of molds. Even 
 pickles will support such growth, though the acid 
 present would generally prevent the development 
 of bacteria. Molds feed upon rich foods, and will 
 not develop where minerals only are present. 
 Their growth, however, may be luxuriant upon 
 any vegetable product such as stumps, planks, 
 and stalks of grain. In fact, the musty smell of 
 hay, grain, or of the air in a close, damp room, 
 is due to the growth of some species of mold. 
 
 226. Effect of Mold Growth. The presence 
 of mold causes food to become unsightly. The 
 flavor is impaired or ruined and a musty odor is 
 frequently present. After much growth of mold 
 the decay of food takes place on account of changes 
 incident to its growth. Incidentally, bacteria 
 growth is more than likely to have set up and in 
 part caused the deterioration of the food. 
 
 227. Mold Not Unwholesome. Mold is no
 
 PRESERVATION OF FOODS. 127 
 
 considered as necessarily unwholesome, in itself 
 in fact certain kinds of cheese, as Roquefort 
 derive much of their flavor from the mold present. 
 If consumed in large quantity, slightly poisionous 
 effects may be produced. Molds not being neces- 
 sarily unhealthful, foods in which they appear 
 need not become a total loss, but the mold may 
 be cut from portions of the ham, bacon, cheese, 
 bread, fruits, etc., upon which it appears. 
 
 228. Effect of Moisture. Molds develop best 
 in close, dark and slightly moist atmosphere, with 
 a temperature anywhere between 40 to 100 
 degrees Fahr., different species growing best at 
 different temperatures. 
 
 229. Mold develops best in cozy corners 
 and close atmosphere, and hence where single 
 pieces of bread or fruit, stored on a shelf, re- 
 main free from mold, a stack of bread, or a platter 
 of fruit, will mold with facility. Many materials 
 contain sufficient moisture within themselves to 
 support the growth of molds, should the germs 
 gain entrance; hence, precautions against the 
 molding of such foods may simple retard their 
 growth.
 
 128 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Mold starting in a barrel of apples quickly 
 goes through the entire lot, or if a start is made 
 in a bin of vegetables, the mold will quickly 
 spread to all parts; hence, in storing they should 
 be separated if practicable by papers, or sawdust, 
 or divided into small lots. 
 
 230. From the principles applied, it will be 
 seen that mold can be ejjectulaly prevented only 
 by placing food in dry atmosphere and if the 
 room be light and well ventilated, so much the 
 better. 
 
 Remember, however, that foods just removed 
 from -cold storage quickly condense moisture 
 over their surfaces and for this reason may mold 
 when similar articles that have not been chilled 
 will not. 
 
 231. Mold may be prevented from spreading 
 by wiping the individual articles such as apples, 
 oranges, lemons, etc., as dry as possible, wrapping 
 in dry paper, which of itself will absorb more 
 mositure from the surface of the fruit, and then 
 placing in a moderately dry atmosphere. 
 
 Almost all objects resulting from organic 
 growth, such as cloth, and leather goods, as well
 
 PRESERVATION OF FOODS. 129 
 
 i 
 
 as food products, are subject to molding, and 
 the only effectual remedy is storage in a dry 
 place. 
 
 Especially in the tropics can much food and 
 property be protected from mold by carefully 
 wrapping in dry paper or storage in dry paper 
 sacks.
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 BRIEF EXTRACTS FROM LECTURES BY 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
 232. * * * The efficiency of an organiza- 
 tion commander is measured as well by the intel- 
 ligent supervision he gives to the messing of his 
 men as by any other standard. * * * * 
 
 233. * * * In the regular service, you will 
 generally find the best men where you find the 
 best mess. * * * * 
 
 234. * * * You can demand almost anything 
 from a well-fed organization, and your orders will 
 be cheerfully obeyed. Mental condition is largely 
 regulated by the stomach. * * * * 
 
 235. * * * Remember that wars are waged 
 by youths still in their teens, and not by bearded 
 men, as is frequently painted by the masters of 
 art. Our Civil War was fought by boys averaging 
 
 130
 
 EXTRACTS FROM LECTURES. 131 
 
 less than eighteen years an age at which a well- 
 balanced, well-prepared and liberal diet is still of 
 special importance. * * * * 
 
 236. * * * As a rule, good mess officers are 
 not born; they develop by study and experience. 
 No officer will be successful in playing this role 
 unless he studies this part of his duties as he 
 would his tactics, his guard duty, or his firing 
 regulation. * * * * 
 
 237. * * * The officer in charge of a mess 
 is not expected to usurp the duties of the Mess 
 Sergeant whose efficiency is generally overesti- 
 mated but he should establish a simple system 
 of checking the mess that will prevent a daily 
 expenditure of supplies greater in value than the 
 daily allowance. * * * * 
 
 238. * * * The mere presence of the mess 
 officer in the dining room, and his active interest 
 in seeing that the men get the best he can provide 
 will improve the average mess 100 per cent. In 
 any case, the improvement cannot be figured in 
 dollars and cents. * * * * 
 
 239 * * * th e va i ue O f f 00( } w hen served, 
 depends upon the ability of the system to appro- 
 priate it to the needs of the body and the 4,000
 
 132 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 and more heat units presumably stored up in the 
 field ration, when chemically analyzed, quickly 
 dwindle below the requisite 3,500 for a working 
 man, when the rations are damaged in transit, 
 wasted by the cooks, or are so poorly prepared 
 that much is thrown away by the men as unfit to 
 eat; or, if taken into the system, is largely re- 
 jected by the natural processes, on account of the 
 improper preparation for the body's assimila- 
 tion. * * * * 
 
 240. * * * Refuse is that portion of food 
 which cannot, or should not, be taken, or, if taken 
 into the system, is not readily assimilated; for 
 example, shells, potato skins, and bone from which 
 all the juices have been extracted. Waste is 
 food that should have been served in some form 
 and consumed, but which has been thrown 
 away; for example, portions of fat trimmed from 
 fresh or cooked meats, slices and crumbs of bread 
 not taken on the men's plates, fresh bones, etc. 
 The ration is ample if unnecessary waste is pre- 
 vented. * * * * 
 
 241. * * * Variety in bills of fare, careful 
 preparation of foods, palatable seasoning, preven- 
 tion of waste, and good dining-room service are 
 the requisite factors of a successful mess. * * * *
 
 EXTRACTS FROM LECTURES. 133 
 
 242. * * * The present cash value of the 
 garrison ration, i. e., of the food provided for one 
 man for one day, is, at most posts, somewhat less 
 than twenty-five cents. Many people think it 
 impossible for the soldier to be well fed on this 
 small amount, while others assume that he lives 
 on hash and stews, supplemented by purchases 
 made at the Exchange from his own pocket. 
 Such persons have not considered the additional 
 expenses of feeding the soldier that must be 
 taken into account. For the sake of comparison 
 with the cost of living in a restaurant in civil 
 life, let us take the cash value (or first cost) of 
 the soldier's ration; add a resonable amount to 
 the wholesale price, at which the ration was 
 purchased, add the cost of transportation from 
 the place of purchase to the Army Post; allow 
 suitable wages for the cooks, dish-washers, waiters, 
 cashier, and general manager; and to this add 
 the cost of fuel, lights, rent, breakage, general 
 upkeep of equipment; and then a suitable profit 
 for the business, and you will suddenly find 
 that the soldier's mess might better be com- 
 pared with a restaurant where the charges are
 
 134 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 about 75 or 80 cents per day, or at least $18.00 
 to $20.00 per month * * * * 
 
 243. * * * Though savings, as such, are no 
 longer made (See Pars. 1-5, Mess Sergeant's 
 Handbook) the history of their development and 
 use is still of interest, inasmuch as the cash credit 
 accruing from any component should, in general, 
 be used for the purchase of other articles of the 
 same class. The making of savings sprang up 
 back in the 30's, when the coffee and sugar com- 
 ponents were substituted for the liquor then 
 issued. The regulations provided that when the 
 issue of coffee and sugar was not actually made, 
 its equivalent in money should be paid. The 
 scope of the savings clause gradually spread to 
 other articles, until 1908, when a saving was au- 
 thorized on all of the components of the ration. 
 The object of the saving has not generally been 
 well understood nor appreciated ; too often, it has 
 been presumed that savings were made only 
 with a view to purchasing luxuries for the table, 
 and this idea seems to be the one firmly imbeded 
 in the minds of many of our Congressmen who 
 have suggested making a reduction in the ration, 
 inasmuch as the quantities authorized seemed
 
 EXTRACTS FROM LECTURES. 135 
 
 to be above the requirements since savings 
 could be made and spent for luxuries. Nothing 
 could be farther from the truth. For example, 
 take the flour ration: Eighteen ounces is the 
 ration of bread or flour. A well fed organization 
 will not generally spend more than from one- 
 half to two-thirds of the cash credit accruing 
 from the flour component for bread, and hence 
 the accumulation of a considerable saving on 
 this component of the ration should result. Now, 
 our records at the Training School show that 
 almost the entire saving is spent for flour, and 
 the other necessary ingredients with which to 
 make rolls, buns, coffee cake, batter cakes, des- 
 serts, etc., and that the net saving about one- 
 tenth is insufficient to purchase more than one- 
 half of the oatmeal or other cereal, served for 
 breakfast, but not provided as a part of the 
 ration. 
 
 Next in order comes the meat component. 
 At this station, we make an enormous saving on 
 beef, fully two-fifths of the issue, and why ? Not 
 to buy luxuries, but to vary the monotony of a 
 steady beef diet by providing each day something 
 different sausage, liver, fish, beef hearts, chicken, 
 eggs, macroni and cheese, etc., none of which
 
 136 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 are a regular issue. (See Par. 8, Mess Sergeant's 
 Handbook). Later I will explain the handling 
 of this component in detail to show that there is 
 economy in making such a saving and spending 
 it to provide variety, but not for the purchase of 
 luxuries for the mess. 
 
 In the same manner, we may go on with the 
 other articles of the ration, and show that a sav- 
 ing of the cash credit accruing from the potato 
 component enables us to -purchase cabbage, tur- 
 nips, carrots, parsnips, and sweet potatoes, but 
 that if such a saving and purchase were not 
 made, the authorized issue of the components 
 would from necessity be almost entirely con- 
 sumed. The same may be said of the dried 
 fruit, making purchase of fresh fruit when in 
 season and reasonable ; of issue beans, purchasing 
 lima beans, chili beans, dried sweet corn, pease; 
 of 'coffee to purchase cocoa, or lemon for use with 
 cold tea; of seasonings to purchase red peppers, 
 herbs, etc., and in general, it may be said that 
 the saving on any component is used to purchase 
 articles of the same class, but here and there a 
 little saving for general purposes is made. Where 
 luxuries are provided, it is generally through un- 
 usual economy that has been exercised and good
 
 EXTRACTS FROM LECTURES. 137 
 
 judgment shown in purchasing certain delicacies 
 at moderate prices. 
 
 244. * * * Beef is the most important and 
 expensive article of the ration, generally from one- 
 third to one-half its value; therefore, a saving 
 creates a substantial fund upon which to draw 
 for other purchases; while an over-draft rapidly 
 consumes any savings or money allowance. 
 On the other hand, flour is the cheapest com- 
 ponent of the ration (nutritive value and general 
 usefulness considered) and the more of it used 
 the less will be the running expense of the mess. 
 These two articles (meat and bread) always 
 constitute more than one-half the value of the 
 ration and the allowance of both must be care- 
 fully checked and not handled by irresponsible 
 men. It is noted that when the ration is drawn, 
 the lesser part (consisting of the smaller articles 
 of the ration) is generally carefully checked 
 by the mess sergeant or company commander, 
 but frequently no accurate record is kept in 
 the company of the bread and meat issued from 
 day to day. We are still penny wise and pound 
 foolish. * * * * 
 
 245. * * * If the cooks are unfamiliar with
 
 138 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 handling the ration, do not allow them to touch 
 more than the allowance (as determined by the 
 cash credit) for the day, for if they do, the food 
 will be wasted and the command will go hungry 
 before the expiration of the ration period. * * * * 
 
 246. * * * Perishable articles must be care- 
 fully preserved and frequently must be consumed 
 before others, in order to prevent deterioration 
 and loss. * * * * 
 
 247. Unnecessary waste must be prevented 
 by the careful prepartion and service of suit- 
 able quantities of food. Potatoes must be peeled 
 thin or not at all, and the bread served in thin 
 slices in small quantities as required. Hundreds 
 of pounds of bread were formerly wasted each 
 day on the Army Transports, where it was issued 
 in huge chunks instead of thin slices. Un- 
 touched food left over from each meal must not 
 be thrown away, but should be carefully preserved 
 and used in the preparation of some palatable 
 dish for a later meal. 
 
 248. * * * Gravy boats and sirup jugs should 
 not have their contents dripping over the edges, 
 and on the floor, nor should the meat and vege-
 
 EXTRACTS FROM LECTURES. 139 
 
 tables be simply thrown on the dishes on which 
 they are served. It takes but a moment to ar- 
 range the platters of food attractively, and to 
 wipe off the edges of the dishes so that they 
 may be set on the table in an appetizing form. 
 Soup should be served in tureens in a course by 
 itself, with croutons, or crackers, and the re- 
 mainder of the meal should not be brought on 
 until the first course is finished. * * * * 
 
 249. When soup is served, coffee or tea 
 need not be. The allowance of coffee is suffi- 
 cient for making good coffee but twice daily, i. e., 
 coffee made with four and one-half ounces per 
 gallon of water and one pint allowed to each' man. 
 Tea is cheaper than coffee and less harmful. It 
 is coming into more general use. One-half 
 ounces per gallon of water is the amount required, 
 and it should not "draw" longer than eight 
 minutes. Cocoa and chocolate may be served oc- 
 casionally, using two ounces per gallon, but they 
 are much more expensive than tea or coffffee.***' 
 
 250. * * * The person best qualified to pass 
 judgment upon the work of others is one who 
 can, with his own hands, perform that work. 
 An officer who can shoe a horse can criticise the
 
 140 THE MESS OFFICERS' ASSISTANT. 
 
 work of a horseshoer better than one who has 
 simply observed such work. If he can make good 
 bread, he is better qualified to supervise the work 
 of bakeries than he otherwise would be. If he 
 understands the essential principles of cooking, 
 he will be able to render valuable assistance to 
 many a good cook who falls short of being a 
 chef through lack of just such technical knowl- 
 edge. * * * *
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 DEFINITIONS. 
 
 . 251. AERATED BREAD. Bread result- 
 ing from the dough into which carbonic gas is 
 mechanically introduced, in order to save the 
 starch, which is otherwise lost as a result of yeast 
 fermentation. 
 
 252. ALBUMEN. The transparent, nitro- 
 genous substance which forms the chief and 
 characteristic constituent of the white of an egg. 
 Albumen is found also in the blood and in all 
 serous fluids ; also in many animal and vegetable 
 juices and solids. 
 
 253. ALLSPICE. A common spice (the 
 berry of a West Indian tree) used in mince meat, 
 brown cakes, puddings, soups, game entrees, and 
 gelatin jellies. Ground or whole, it is used in 
 pickling pigs' feet, tripe, sweet pickles, etc. It is 
 supposed to combine the flavor of cinnamon, nut- 
 megs, and cloves ; hence the name. 
 
 141
 
 142 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 254. AMBERGRIS. Obtained from the 
 sperm whale. Also found floating in large cakes 
 in the Indian Ocean. It is much used in flavor- 
 ing liquors, and in perfumes. 
 
 255. ANILINE. One of the many pro- 
 ducts of petroleum. The red shades are harm- 
 less, but the chemicals used in making the blue, 
 green, yellow, and other colors, are injurious. 
 Much used in highly colored confectionery. 
 
 256. ANISEED. A small seed used for 
 flavoring. Resembles caraway seed or celery 
 seed. 
 
 257. ANNATTO. Obtained from a tropi- 
 cal tree. Much used in coloring varnish, silk, 
 cheese and butter. 
 
 258. ARROW ROOT. The starch of the 
 root of a West Indian plant. It is very similar 
 to sage and tapioca. It is frequently made into 
 a gruel for the sick, but is little used in the com- 
 pany. So called from the reputed use of it by 
 the natives .to heal wounds from poisoned arrows. 
 
 259. BAKING. Cooking in a dry heat, as 
 in a closed oven. See "Methods of Cooking."
 
 DEFINITIONS. 143 
 
 260. BAKING POWDER. A mixture of 
 a carbonate of soda and an acid re-agent (as 
 Cream of Tartar, Phosphoric Acid or some form of 
 Alum) together with a small quantity of starch 
 or other material to keep the active agents better 
 separated. The acid and the carbonate com- 
 bine when mixed with water, liberating carbonic 
 acid gas, which, in rising, forms in pockets or 
 cells in the dough, making it light and spongy. 
 Cold water or cold milk should be used in the 
 mixture, which should be disturbed as little as 
 possible after the baking powder has been added. 
 The dough should be baked as soon as possible 
 after prepared, or it should be set in a cool place 
 until the oven is ready. The objection to the use 
 of baking powder is that, as a result of the chemi- 
 cal reaction, certain solids are left in the bread, 
 cake, etc., which are more or less injurious, but 
 they produce no harmful results if used in limited 
 quantities. The exclusive use of baking powder 
 bread is impracticable as it turns against the 
 stomach. Compare with Yeast. 
 
 261. BAKING TEMPERATURE. Gener- 
 ally stated as 385 degrees Fahr., though bread may 
 safely be baked at a somewhat higher or lower
 
 144 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 temperature, say between 300 and 450 degrees 
 Fahr. Many other articles are baked at much 
 lower temperatures. 
 
 262. BARBECUE. To roast or broil whole. 
 Or, an entertainment for which the carcass of 
 an animal, as a hog, is roasted or broiled whole. 
 
 263. BASIL. One of the standard pot 
 herbs of the mint family. Much used in turtle 
 soup. 
 
 264. BASTE. Sometimes to sprinkle, as 
 with pepper or salt; generally, to dash or pour a 
 liquid over with a spoon, as in the case of gravy or 
 stock in baking or roasting. 
 
 265. BATTER. A thick liquid mixture of 
 two or more materials beaten together to be used 
 in cooking or baking. 
 
 266. BAY LEAVES. Leaves of the Cherry 
 Laurel. Much used in soups and stews, and in 
 pickling. 
 
 267. BEEF EXTRACT. This is really a 
 concentrated beef stock, extracted by boiling beef 
 under pressure. It contains very little nutritive 
 matter much less than is found in an equivalent
 
 DEFINITIONS. 145 
 
 weight of beef. It is of especial value on account 
 of the ease and speed with which it may become 
 absorbed into the circulation. It holds an im- 
 portant place in the diet of the sick and conva- 
 lescent. 
 
 268. BEEF JUICE. The liquid remaining 
 in fresh beef after properly prepared for con- 
 sumption, the blood having been removed. The 
 juice may be removed by pressure, or by cutting 
 into small pieces and placing in cold water. The 
 juice having been drawn out, the water is evapo- 
 rated. Much of the so-called beef juice on the 
 market is said to be prepared from the blood of 
 the slaughtered animal. 
 
 269. BEEF TEA. This is really unfiltered 
 beef stock. Instead of constantly skimming the 
 surface of the stock, the coagulated albumen is 
 allowed to remain. It should be made of the best 
 meat. One-half pound of good beef tea may be 
 made from one pound of meat and one quart of 
 water. It has little real nutritive value, but like 
 beef extract, is a light stimulant. 
 
 270. BENCH. A molding table. 
 
 271. BISK (or BISQUE). A shell-fish 
 soup.
 
 146 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 272. BLANCH. To scald vegetables, nuts, 
 etc., to remove the outside skins or hulls. 
 
 273. BLOOD HEAT. The normal tem- 
 perature of the human body, 98 degrees Fahr. 
 
 274. BOILING. The conversion of a liquid 
 into steam by the application of sufficient heat 
 to cause ebullition, or disturbance of the surface. 
 As applied to cooking, it is heating or cook- 
 ing in a boiling liquid. (See "Methods of Cook- 
 ing.") 
 
 Water boils at 212 degrees Fahr., at the sea 
 level. It simmers when the bubbles break be- 
 neath the surface say 185 degrees Fahr. It is 
 scalding hot at 150 degrees Fahr., or at a tempera- 
 ture such that the hand cannot be borne in it. 
 Salt water boils at 224 degrees Fahr. Other solids, 
 as for example sugar, also increase the boiling point 
 of water. A solution having reached the boiling 
 point, the temperature cannot be increased by 
 any amount of additional heat, except under pres- 
 sure, as would result from boiling in a closed 
 vessel. 
 
 Lard smokes at 385 degrees Fahr., and boils at 
 about 600 degrees Fahr. Hence, it is evident that 
 grease, even if not at the smoking or
 
 DEFINITIONS. 147 
 
 point, may be much hotter than boiling water 
 a fact that should always be borne in mind in 
 handling it and in cooking. 
 
 275. BOUILLON. A clear meat broth or 
 soup in rich extractives. 
 
 276. BRAINS. The brains of most slaugh- 
 tered animals are used for food and are considered 
 a luxury. Calves' brains are considered the best, 
 although there is but little difference, and all 
 brains are generally sold under this name. 
 
 277. BRAISING. Method of combining the 
 roasting and stewing of meat in a closed vessel 
 with heat from both top and bottom, as in a 
 Dutch Oven. It is one of the best methods of 
 cooking tough, lean meat. If the kettle is placed 
 in a slow oven, it requires little further atten- 
 tion. 
 
 278. BROILING. Properly speaking, it is 
 cooking over red hot coals by direct exposure to 
 the heat of an open fire, though the term is ap- 
 plied to cooking on an iron plate interposed be- 
 tween the fire and the article cooked. In broiling 
 the fire should be clear and free from smoke. 
 Charcoal is the best fuel to use. It is better to
 
 148 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 broil before a fire than over it, in order to save 
 the dripping grease and avoid the smoky flavor 
 though the smoke from the fat itself is not as 
 objectionable as that from coal or wood. 
 
 279. CALORIE. Quantity of heat required 
 to raise on kilogram of water one degree C. This 
 is the equivalent of 1.54 foot tons. Food values 
 are expressed in calories, and the soldiers' daily 
 ration exceeds 5,000. 
 
 280. CAPERS. Unopened buds of a trail- 
 ing shrub grown in Southern Europe. Pickled 
 and much used in sauces. Caper sauce is fre- 
 quently served with mutton. 
 
 281. CARMEL. A sirup made from scorched 
 sugar, used largely in coloring sauces, as well as 
 for flavoring. 
 
 282. CARAWAY SEED. Seed of a garden 
 herb. Grows like the seed of a carrot or parsnip. 
 Used in various cakes and sweet crackers, in rye 
 bread, and in liquors. 
 
 283. CARBOHYDRATES. Starches, sugars 
 and the fibers of plants. It is principally a source 
 of energy. The surplus is stored in the body as 
 fat.
 
 DEFINITIONS. 149 
 
 284. CASEIN. A proteid compound found 
 principally in milk, of which it is the most import- 
 ant ingredient. When coagulated, it forms the 
 principal ingredient in cheese. 
 
 285. CAvSINGS. A term applied to the in- 
 testines of all animals. They are used to receive 
 sausage, bologna, etc. The hog's stomach is 
 actually used as a receptacle for his head when it 
 is converted in to head cheese. 
 
 286. CASSIA. Bark of a tree similar to 
 Cinanmon. Cultivated in China. Also called 
 Chinese Cinnamon. 
 
 287. CELERY SALT. Much used in salads 
 and seasonings. Prepared by mixing ground 
 celery seed and salt in the proportions in weight 
 of two to one. 
 
 288. CENTIGRADE. Graded to a scale 
 of 100. On the Centigrade thermometer scale, 
 the freezing point of water is 0, and the boiling 
 point 100. 
 
 289. CHERVIL. A garden herb much used 
 in soups. 
 
 290. CHICORY. A perennial herb of the 
 aster family, with heads of large bright blue
 
 150 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 flowers, and dandelion-like roots. The roasted 
 and pulverized root is used in adulterating coffee 
 and as a substitute for it. If grains of coffee con- 
 taining chicory are dropped into cold water, the 
 chicory will settle at once and be followed by a 
 cloudy streak. 
 
 291. CHILI. Red sweet pepper. 
 
 292. CHIVES. A kind of green onion. Tops 
 are slender and pipe-like. "Much used in soups 
 and sauces. 
 
 293. CHOCOLATE. It is ground from the 
 cocoa bean before any of the fat has been ex- 
 tracted. It contains about 35 per cent, of vege- 
 table fat and 45 per cent, of cane sugar. Very 
 nourishing. 
 
 294. CHOWDER. A dish of stewed fresh 
 or salt fish, or clams, with vegetables and crackers 
 added. 
 
 295. CHUTNEY. An East Indian sweet 
 pickle. 
 
 296. CINNAMON. The inner bark of the 
 cinnamon, or cassia, tree. Grown in Ceylon and 
 used as a spice.
 
 DEFINITIONS. 151 
 
 297. CITRON. Large coarse fruit of the 
 lemon family. Used in mince meat and preserves. 
 
 298. CLOVES. Flower buds of the clove 
 tree carefully picked and dried. Should always 
 be purchased whole as they deteriorate rapidly 
 when ground. 
 
 299. COCHINEAL. Coloring matter made 
 from the dried bodies of small insects found 
 in the Southwestern part of the United States, 
 in Mexico, and in Central America. It is harm- 
 less. 
 
 300. COCOA. Similar to chocolate, but not 
 as rich. It is ground from the cocoa bean after 
 much of the fat has been pressed out. 
 
 301. COMINA. An herb found in the 
 Southwestern part of the United States and in 
 Mexico. Much used in seasoning soups and 
 stews. 
 
 302. COMPOUND. A substitute for lard 
 commonly used in bakeries; of about the follow- 
 ing composition, 75 per cent, cottonseed oil, 25 
 per cent., beef stearin. The results obtained are 
 about the same as when using lard, and its use in 
 company kitchens is recommended for economy.
 
 152 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 303. CONDIMENT. Something to give 
 relish to the food and gratify the taste. General 
 term for seasoning. 
 
 304. CRACKLINGS. The crisp residue 
 of hog fat after the lard has been tried out. It 
 may be used in hash, or corn bread, but is valu- 
 able only in proportion as the amount of fat that 
 is left in it. 
 
 305. CRACKLING BREAD. Corn bread 
 to which cracklings have been added. 
 
 306. CREAM BREAD. Bread baked in 
 superheated steam, as when moisture is artifi- 
 cially introduced into an oven, or the bread baked 
 under inverted pans, giving a very thin crust and 
 a light color. 
 
 307. CROQUETTES. A mass of finely 
 minced and seasoned meat, fish, rice or potatoes, 
 etc., made into a ball or other regular shape, 
 rolled in cracker crumbs and fried in deep lard 
 until crisp. 
 
 308. CROUTONS. Cubes of toasted bread. 
 Generally served with soup. 
 
 309. CRULLERS. Small cakes made from 
 a sweet dough mixture and fried in deep lard.
 
 DEFINITIONS. 153 
 
 They may be made with either baking powder or 
 yeast. 
 
 310. CRUMB. The soft inner part of the 
 loaf, as distinguished from the crust. 
 
 311. CURRY POWDER. A yellow powder 
 formed by a mixture of numerous hot pepper 
 and ginger. Used as a high seasoning for stews, 
 etc. 
 
 312. CUTLETS. Term usually applied to 
 the rib cuts of pork, mutton, lamb, veal, venison, 
 etc., but not of beef. 
 
 313. DEVILLED. Highly seasoned. 
 
 314. DEVILLED MEAT. Cooked meats 
 finely ground and highly seasoned. 
 
 315. DOUGH. Technically, the mixture re- 
 sulting from breaking up the sponge and adding 
 the remainder of the flour and other ingredients 
 to be used in making the bread. The term is also 
 applied to the resulting mixture in any subse- 
 quent stage, and sometimes to any mixture in 
 which flour forms the greater part. 
 
 Young or Green Dough. One not fully ma- 
 tured, or not yet risen to the maximum height to 
 which it will prove.
 
 154 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Ripe Dough. One that has fully matured. 
 
 Old or Rotten Dough. One that has been 
 allowed to stand longer than the normal length 
 of time, so that it begins to show signs of sour- 
 ness. In pulling a portion from the general mass, 
 it wil tear more readily than usual, on account of 
 the gluten having become weakened by the action 
 of acids upon it. 
 
 Sour Dough. Generally, one containing a 
 large percentage of acid, on account of being 
 allowed to ferment without the introduction of 
 yeast. A sour dough may also result from un- 
 clean utensils, from proving in too high a tempera- 
 ture, from too long fermentation, or from yeast 
 containing acid germs. 
 
 316. DOUGH-BREAK. A dough knead- 
 ing machine with corrugated rollers. 
 
 317. DOUGHNUTS. Small cakes made 
 from a dough mixture, and fried in deep lard. 
 They may be made with either baking powder or 
 yeast. 
 
 318. DREDGE. To sprinkle, as with pepper 
 and salt, or rub in as with flour, etc. 
 
 319. DUMPLINGS. Pieces of dough, some-
 
 DEFINITIONS. 155 
 
 times with fruit or vegetables enclosed, boiled 
 or baked. If served with meats or stews, the 
 pieces of dough should be dropped into the boiling 
 hot beef stock or stew about eight minutes before 
 being served. 
 
 320. EGGS. For domestic purposes, eggs 
 should be kept in. a cool, dark place the nearer 
 to the freezing point the better. However, 
 changes are constantly taking place within the 
 egg, producing a certain amount of heat, and 
 partly for this reason, eggs will stand a tempera- 
 ture somewhat lower than freezing. 
 
 The porous nature of the shell facilitates de- 
 composition, and eggs dipped in varnish, or other 
 solution (e. g., silicate of soda), that will perma- 
 nently fill the pores will keep much longer than 
 others. Even "cold storage eggs" should not be 
 kept longer than six weeks. They are, however, 
 often kept for a period of six months, or even 
 more, but during this time they acquire a dis- 
 tinctly unpleasant odor and flavor. Eggs kept 
 for a long time in cold storage, or decayed in any 
 way, are extremely injurious. 
 
 321. EGG PLANT. An egg shaped fruit 
 with a dark, purple exterior, weighing from one
 
 156 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 to three pounds. Raised in the South. Allied to 
 the tomato. 
 
 322. ENTREE. Small meats made in var- 
 ious guises, with sauces and garnishings, between 
 courses, or at the beginning of a dinner. 
 
 323. ESTRAGON or TARRAGON. A gar- 
 den herb used to flavor vinegar, soups, sauces, etc. 
 
 324. EXTRACTIVES. The principal in- 
 gredient of beef extract, beef tea, etc. They act 
 as stimulants and appetizers, but have little or no 
 nutritive value. 
 
 325. FAHRENHEIT. The thermometer 
 scale commonly used in the United States and 
 Great Britian, on which 32 marks the freezing 
 point of water, and 212 the boiling point. 
 
 326. FARINA. A fine flour or meal made 
 from cereal grains or from the starch of vege- 
 tables. Some forms specially prepared for break- 
 fast foods. 
 
 327. FENNEL. A garden plant much culti- 
 vated in England. Grows wild in Florida. Used 
 to flavor mackerel and salmon.
 
 DEFINITIONS. 157 
 
 328. FERMENT. A substance capable of 
 producing yeast fermentation. 
 
 329. FILLET. A strip of lean meat without 
 bone. 
 
 330. FILLET OF BEEF. The tenderloin 
 muscle, which lies beneath the backbone in the 
 hind quarter. It is easily detached, and is used 
 in steaks, and less frequently in roasts. 
 
 331. FORCEMEAT. The various mix- 
 tures used to stuff fowl, fish, tomatoes, etc. Some 
 force meats are composed of minced veal and 
 bacon with herbs and seasonings, or pounded 
 chicken breaded with bread crumbs, butter, yolks 
 etc. 
 
 332. FILLET OF FOWL. The breast. 
 
 333. FILLET OF PORK OR MUTTON, 
 strip from the shoulder to the hip on either 
 side of the backbone. 
 
 334. FILLET OF RABBIT. Fleshy part 
 of the back and legs. 
 
 335. FILLET OF VEAL. Pieces of the 
 A round, generally larded, stuffed, boiled, and 
 skewed into a round shape.
 
 158 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 336. FRAPPE. A term given to water ices 
 that have been only partly frozen. It is an iced 
 drink and the name should not be given to a thick 
 custar cream. 
 
 337. FRICASSE. A dish of meat, as of 
 fowl, cut into pieces, fried until partially done and 
 stewed in gravy. 
 
 338. FRIED CAKES. Domestic term for 
 doughnuts or crullers. A general term also ap- 
 plied to batter cakes, potato cakes, etc. 
 
 339. FRITTERS. A small quantity of 
 batter usually inclosing or containing some other 
 substances and fried in deep lard, e. g., corn frit- 
 ters, apple fritters, etc. 
 
 340. GARLIC. A bulb like an onion, with 
 a strong characteristic smell and pungent taste. 
 A clove of garlic means one of the natural sub- 
 divisions of the bulb. A favorite condiment of 
 the people of Southern Europe and of the Orient. 
 It is much used in company cooking to "bring 
 out " the flavor of other seasonings. 
 
 341. GARNISH. To decorate a dish with 
 something to make it more attractive, such as
 
 DEFINITIONS. 159 
 
 bordering salads with capers, parsley, bee.ts or 
 lemons. 
 
 342. GELATIN. Glutinous material ob- 
 tained from animal tissues after long boiling. It 
 readily dissolves in hot water, and forms a jelly 
 upon cooling. While in the liquid state, it may 
 be given any flavor desired. It makes an excel- 
 lent cheap summer dessert. Easily digested and 
 much used in the sick-room. Not of great nutri- 
 tive value. 
 
 343. GEMS OR MUFFINS. Hot breads 
 made from white flour, graham, or cornmeal, and 
 baked in gem pans. 
 
 344. GERM. The earliest stage in the 
 growth of an animal or plant. Also applied to 
 minute organisms which do, or do not, cause 
 disease. 
 
 345. GIBLETS. Liver, gizzard, heart, neck, 
 feet, wings, etc., of poultry as used in pies, stews 
 and rauces. 
 
 346. GINGER. The root of a reed-like 
 plant. The common brown root is the natural 
 state. Jamaica Ginger is made from the same
 
 160 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 root from which the outer surface has been re- 
 moved. 
 
 347. GLACE. Icing. 
 
 348. GLUCOSE. A cheap sugar that will 
 not easily crystallize, or a cheap sirup that will 
 not crystallize very much like "Silver Drip" 
 but much thicker. Glucose is often made by 
 treating cornmeal with sulfuric acid. It is very 
 wholesome. 
 
 349. GLUTEN. The muscle building ele- 
 ment of wheat, rye and other grains. The 
 strength of flour and the toughness and tenacity 
 of dough are determined by the quantity of the 
 gluten present. 
 
 350. GRAHAM FLOUR. Unbolted flour, 
 or white flour mixed with bran and shorts, 
 named from a Dr. Graham of Boston, who 
 strongly advocated the use of unbolted flour. 
 
 351. GRILLED. Broiled. 
 
 352. GRITS. Grains, as of wheat or oats, 
 coarsely ground. 
 
 353. GRUEL. Liquid food made by boil- 
 ing meal or flour in water or milk.
 
 DEFINITIONS. 161 
 
 354. HAM. Properly speaking, it is the 
 thigh of an animal, but the "ham" of the hog is 
 prepared from either the thigh or shoulder. 
 
 355. HAM BUTTS. Part of the hog cor- 
 responding very closely to the chuck of the beef. 
 It is a portion of the shoulder directly above that 
 used in preparing "shoulder hams." 
 
 356. HOMINY. Cracked Indian corn from 
 which the outer husk has been removed. 
 
 357. HOPS are used in the preparation of 
 yeast, not as a food for the yeast plant, but to 
 prevent sourness. 
 
 358. ICE. A general term frequently ap- 
 plied to frozen creams, custards, and other des- 
 serts, as well as to water ices. The latter are 
 fruit juices sweetened with sugar sirup and stirred 
 while freezing. 
 
 359. ICING. Same as frosting. Generally 
 speaking, made of the whites of eggs, with sugar 
 and suitable flavoring, as lemon, vanilla, etc. 
 
 360. JAM. A preserve of fruit boiled with 
 sugar and water.
 
 162 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 361. JELLY. The juice of fruits or meats 
 boiled to an elastic consistence. In making fruit 
 jellies, sugar and suitable flavor is added. 
 
 362. KIDNEYS from all slaughtered ani- 
 mals are used in stews, etc. There is not any 
 great demand for them in American markets, 
 but great quantities are shipped abroad. , Pigs' 
 kidneys are considered the best. 
 
 363. LAMB CHOPS. The short ribs of 
 lamb, with the attached flesh. 
 
 364. LARD. The fat of swine. It is fre- 
 quently adulterated by the addition of a large 
 proportion of cottonseed oil. Pure cottonseed 
 oil, to which stearin is added, making a fairly good 
 substitute. In addition, lard and cottonseed oil 
 compounds are frequently further adulterated by 
 the addition of water, the presence of which is 
 noted by the crackling and sputtering when 
 placed in the spider, or when a small lump is 
 dropped into the fire. 
 
 Watered lard is unnaturally white. Good firm 
 lard is the best for pastries, although refined oil 
 and "lard compounds" will do for most purposes,
 
 DEFINITIONS. 163 
 
 365. LARD, TO. To lard, means to in- 
 troduce thin pieces of pork, ham or bacon, into 
 meats deficient in fat, to improve their flavor. 
 
 366. LEAF LARD. This consists of the 
 leaves of fat lining the back of the hog. It may 
 be torn out without cutting. It is the best quality 
 of lard and may be used in many instances with- 
 out rendering, if desired. The next best quality 
 of lard is that which is found connected with the 
 intestines called "intestinal lard," and the third 
 quality comes from the back of the hog. 
 
 367. LEAVEN. A piece of old dough used 
 with new dough for the purpose of starting fer- 
 mentation. 
 
 368. LEEK. A species of onion, but the 
 leaves are flat instead of round. Much used in 
 soups. 
 
 369. LENTILS. A variety of bean used in 
 making soups. 
 
 370. LIGHTS. The lungs of slaughtered 
 animals. Used to some extent in cheap sausages. 
 
 371. LIVER. Calves' liver is the best of
 
 164 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 all slaughtered animals, and is considered a deli- 
 cacy when served with bacon, in hotels and 
 restaurants. Beef liver is the next best; then 
 pig's liver. The liver of mutton is very dry and 
 tasteless. 
 
 372. MACARONI. First prepared in Italy. 
 A strong flour is made into a stiff dough, pressed 
 into long tubes, and dried in the sun, or by slow 
 heat. Spaghetti is of the same material, but is 
 pressed into the form of long cords. Vermicelli is 
 the same as fine cord spaghetti. Noodles are of 
 about the same consistence. 
 
 373. MACE. The inner coating of the nut- 
 meg. It is a good flavoring for meats and cream 
 soups, puddings and sweets. 
 
 374. MALT. Barley or other grain that 
 has been allowed to sprout, then dried at a low 
 temperature and coarsely ground. Useful in 
 making yeast, as it furnishes food for the yeast 
 plant in the best form possible. 
 
 375. MARJORAM. A mint-like plant, par- 
 ticularly aromatic and fragrant. Much used in 
 seasonings.
 
 DEFINITIONS. 165 
 
 376. MARROW. The material filling the 
 hollow of bones. The beef marrow found in the 
 shin bone of cattle is an excellent fat. In packing 
 houses, it is extracted and sold on the market for 
 shortening. 
 
 377. MAYONNAISE. A sauce for salads. 
 Prepared from the yolk of eggs, with mustard, 
 olive oil, lemon, salt, etc., added. 
 
 378. MERINGUE. A kind of icing made 
 from the whites of eggs, with sugar sprinkled over 
 the top when ready for baking. The sugar being 
 next to the heat, quickly turns a delicate brown 
 and adds a rich appearance to the pie or other 
 pastry in which used. 
 
 379. MINT. An aromatic herb used in 
 cooking. Mint Sauce. Chopped green mint, 
 vinegar and sugar mixed. Served with mutton, 
 either hot or cold. 
 
 380. MOUSSE. Froth. Something light 
 and spongy. Term applied both to meat prepa- 
 rations and ice cream. 
 
 381. MULLIGATAWNY. Curry soup (com- 
 bination of two words from a foreign language, 
 meaning pepper water.)
 
 166 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 382.. MUSTARD. Flour made of mixed 
 black and white mustard seed, deprived of its oil 
 and toned down with more or less meal. 
 
 383. NOODLES. Practically the same ma- 
 terial as macaroni and spaghetti. (See Par. 372.) 
 
 384. NASTURTIUM. Well known garden 
 plant. The green seeds are pickled as a substitute 
 for capers. 
 
 385. NUTMEG. Kernel of the fruit of the 
 nutmeg tree. Much used in desserts, etc. A 
 native of the Moluccas. 
 
 386. OLEOMARGARIN. A term adopted 
 by the Department of Agriculture to designate 
 all kinds of artificial butter. 
 
 387. OKRA. A vegetable plant whose green 
 pods are often used in soups, stews, etc. Also 
 served as a vegetable. 
 
 388. OLEIN. Olein is that portion of oil 
 or fat which gives it fluidity. Fat contains more 
 of it than lard, and lard more than suet. Contrast 
 with stearin. 
 
 389. OREGANO. An herb much used in 
 seasoning soups and stews.
 
 DEFINITIONS. 167 
 
 390. OSEILLE OR ' SORREL. A green 
 herb used as greens and in soup. 
 
 391. OVEN COUNT. The "count" of 
 an oven is determined by the number of seconds 
 that the arm and hand, while at a normal tempera- 
 ture, may be introduced to their full extent, into 
 the oven chamber and held continuously with- 
 out withdrawal. It is reliable only in the case of 
 a dry oven, as moisture has a tendency to scald 
 the flesh and force a premature withdrawal. In 
 a perfectly dry oven, twelve counts (seconds) is 
 about right for baking in a brick or earthen oven. 
 If even a small amount of moisture were present, 
 the same temperature of the oven would be in- 
 dicated by a smaller count, say eight or six. 
 
 To count seconds, repeat moderately slowly: 
 0-1,000, 1-1,000, 2-1,000, and the small numbers 
 indicated will correspond very closely with the 
 number of seconds. 
 
 392. OVEN, QUICK. One heated to a 
 higher temperature than normal, say about 385 
 degrees Fahr. An oven of less than twelve 
 counts. 
 
 393. OVEN, SLOW. One heated to less 
 than the normal temperature for baking, say be-
 
 168 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 low 385 degrees Fahr. An oven of more than 
 about fifteen counts. 
 
 394. OYSTER PLANT. (Salsify.) A white 
 root with the taste of an oyster. Best in the 
 spring of the year after the frost is out of the 
 ground. It is generally left in the ground over 
 winter. 
 
 395. PANCREAS. A gland from near the 
 stomach of slaughtered animals, used as a sweet- 
 bread. 
 
 396. PARBOIL. To cook partly by boil- 
 ing. 
 
 397. PARSLEY. A green herb much used 
 for garnishing and in flavoring soups, stews, cro- 
 quettes, etc. 
 
 398. PARSNIPS. A creamy white root re- 
 sembling the carrot in shape. Much used in 
 stews and frequently served as a vegetable. Like 
 the oyster plant, it is considered best when left 
 in the ground over winter. 
 
 399. PATTIES. There are two distinct 
 kinds of patties. First, a puff paste shell baked 
 and afterward filled. Second, small pies made by 
 lining patty pans with short paste, filling with
 
 DEFINITIONS. 169 
 
 oysters, chicken, etc., covered with a top crust 
 and baked. 
 
 400. PEPPER. The white pepper is made 
 from the ripe seeds, and the black pepper from 
 seeds picked before they are ripe. White pepper 
 is much better for cooking purposes, as it does 
 not show dark specks. Black pepper is pre- 
 ferred for flavoring, especially in dishes that are 
 to be strained afterwards. Pepper is much sub- 
 ject to adulteration and whole pepper should be 
 purchased and ground at home. 
 
 401. PEPPER, CAYENNE. Red pepper 
 pods and seeds ground. Often adulterated with 
 yellow cornmeal, mustard hulls, etc. 
 
 402. PICCALILLI. The same as chow- 
 chow. Green tomatoes, onions, cucumbers, cel- 
 ery, etc., finely chopped with vinegar added and 
 finely seasoned. 
 
 403. PISTACHIO. A pale greenish nut 
 resembling the almond. Much used as a color- 
 ing matter for ice creams and confections. It 
 has a fine flavor. A deeper green is obtained by 
 the addition of spinach. 
 
 404. POACH. To cook in a small amount
 
 170 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 of water or milk. A term generally applied to 
 eggs. 
 
 405. PORRIDGE. A gruel. 
 
 406. PROTEIN. The muscle producing com- 
 pound found in meats, eggs, cereals, etc. 
 
 407. PROVING. The 1 gradual rising or ex- 
 pansion of a dough or sponge, due to the formation 
 of carbonic gas incident to the growth of the yeast 
 plant. 
 
 408. PYROMETER. An instrument for 
 measuring high degrees of heat, usually operated 
 by the expansion or contraction of a metal spring. 
 In our experience, they are not as accurate as the 
 mercurial thermometers, and easily get out of 
 order. 
 
 409. RAGOUT. A highly seasoned meat 
 stew. Liquor is frequently added. 
 
 410. RENDERING. The process of sepa- 
 rating the lard, or beef fat, from the tissue in which 
 it is found. 
 
 411. ROASTING. Cooking before an open 
 fire. Term also applied to baking in a dry oven 
 
 chamber, with free circulation. Certain flavors 
 are developed in roasting before an open fire that
 
 DEFINITIONS. 171 
 
 i 
 
 are closely approximated in a well-ventilated oven, 
 but not approached in a closed oven. 
 
 412. SACCHARIN. A white, sweetening 
 substance (powder) obtained from coal tar and 
 said to possess 300 times the sweetening power of 
 sugar. It possesses certain antiseptic qualities 
 and is a powerful anti-ferment. It contains no 
 nutriment and is little used as a seasoning. Form- 
 erly used in tablet form with the Army standard 
 emergency ration for sweetening coffee. 
 
 413. SAFFRON. The petals of a flower- 
 ing plant. Made into a tea and added to the 
 dough, or stew, etc. 
 
 414. SAGE. A plant with grayish green 
 leaves and much used in seasoning meats and 
 stews. 
 
 415. SAGO. It is made from the pith of 
 a palm tree which grows in the East Indies. It 
 is nearly pure starch and has many imitations 
 on the market, but the form of the grain of the 
 latter disappears in cooking. It is cooked in the 
 same way as tapioca and is also much used in 
 soups. 
 
 416. SALSIFY. See Par. 394.
 
 172 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 417. SAUSAGE. There are from fifty to 
 sixty different kinds of sausage put up in the 
 packing houses, the components, quality and 
 seasoning differing to meet the requirements of 
 foreign and domestic trade. In the course of 
 preparation, they are generally subjected to the 
 smoke from hickory or other hard wood, and 
 then cooked in vats of water, at a temperature of 
 about 160 degrees, from ten minutes for frank- 
 furters to three hours for bung sausages. 
 
 Summer sausages are first smoked and then 
 placed in a drying temperature for about three 
 months. The material put into suasages com- 
 pares favorably with that put on the market in 
 other forms. 
 
 Bull meat is used to considerable extent, as it 
 takes up more moisture than other meats. 
 
 The best pork sausage contains no beef. 
 
 Liver sausage is one of the cheapest and con- 
 tains lungs (lights) as well as liver and other in- 
 gredients not put into better grades. 
 
 A good quality may contain from one-third 
 to one-half of beef, and for Army Sausage, this is 
 an ordinary proportion. 
 
 418. SAUTE. To fry in a shallow pan
 
 DEFINITIONS. 173 
 
 with but little fat first on one side and then on 
 the other. 
 
 419. SCALD. As applied to flour, potatoes, 
 etc., to submerge or wet with water at a tempera- 
 ture of 160 degrees Fahr., or more sufficiently 
 hot to dissolve the bands of the starch cells and 
 expose the individual grains composing it, gener- 
 ally to the action of the yeast plant. 
 
 To scald utensils, etc., to dash over with boil- 
 ing hot water. 
 
 420. SCALLOP. A mollusk similar to an 
 oyster. The shell is corrugated and radiates from 
 the center. Scalloped dishes. Dishes made in the 
 form of a scallop shell. 
 
 421. SCALLOPED OYSTERS. Oysters 
 baked in scalloped dishes, or rolled in cracker or 
 bread crumbs and baked. 
 
 422. SHERBERT. A water ice made from 
 the juice of fruit, diluted, sweetened, flavored 
 and frozen. Liquors are sometimes added. 
 
 423. SHORTENING. Lard, butter, suet, 
 marrow, etc. Mixed in pastries to make them 
 more friable and more easy to crumble. 
 
 424. SLAW. Sliced cabbage with vinegar.
 
 174 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 salt and pepper served cooked, (hot or cold) 
 or raw. 
 
 425. SODA. A white, alkaline compound 
 (sodium bicarbonate) consisting of white powder, 
 or dry transparent crystals. Sometimes us^d 
 to neutralize acids found in sour doughs; also 
 used to manufacture baking powder, or alone in 
 the preparation of certain mixtures in the kitchen. 
 
 426. SOUFFLE. A side dish served hot 
 from the oven, made of beaten eggs, flour, etc. 
 
 427. SOY. A bottled sauce obtained from 
 China and India. Composition uncertain. 
 
 428. SPAGHETTI. See Par. 372. 
 
 429. SPARE RIBS. Ribs of pork with but 
 little flesh attached. 
 
 430. SPONGE. A thick batter, or soft 
 dough, made from flour, water and yeast. It is 
 the first step in the process of bread making. A 
 sponge is said to be green or young before it has 
 fully jmatured; ripe when it has matured, and is 
 ready to be broken up preparatory to making the 
 dough; and old, or rotten, when it has passed the 
 ripe stage, and having risen and fallen more than
 
 DEFINITIONS. 175 
 
 once, probably contains a relatively high percent- 
 age of acid, making it sour. 
 
 431. STALE BREAD. Bread in which 
 all free moisture has so combined with the crumb 
 as to give it the appearance of dryness. This 
 takes place when the bread is from eighteen to 
 twenty-four hours old. 
 
 432. STARCH. A white, odorless, taste- 
 less, flour-like compound, insoluble in cold water, 
 alcohol and other liquids. Found in all grains 
 and seeds of plants, with but few exceptions. It 
 is readily transformed into sugar compounds. 
 
 433. STEARIN. That portion of fats, lard, 
 suet, etc., that gives it solidity. 
 
 434. STERILIZE. To destroy harmless or 
 disease bearing bacteria. Generally accomplished 
 in the utensils used in the kitchen by the use 
 of boiling hot water to which lye is sometimes 
 added. The sterlizing of all utensils used in hand- 
 ling yeasts and doughs is absolutely necessary, in 
 order to prevent souring. 
 
 435. STOCK. The liquid or jelly obtained 
 by boiling meat, bones, etc., for several hours, in 
 water. It is the basis of all good soups.
 
 176 THE MESS OFFICER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 436. SUCCOTASH. Green corn and beans 
 boiled together. 
 
 437. SUET. The large folds of fat found 
 attached to the inner walls of the hind quarter 
 of beef. 
 
 438. SWEETBREADS. The thymus gland 
 (found in the neck of slaughtered animals) and the 
 pancreas (found near the stomach). They have 
 very little natural flavor, but are very tender 
 and considered a delicacy. Those from the calf 
 are best, next best from the beef, sheep and hog in 
 the order named. 
 
 439. TALLOW. Properly speaking, it is the 
 fat of beef, sheep or other animals, from which a 
 portion of the oil has been extracted making it 
 harder than the natural fat. 
 
 440. TAPIOCA. A starch extracted from a 
 South American plant. Used in puddings. Very 
 similar to sago and arrow root. 
 
 441. THYME. A herb used in seasoning. 
 
 442. THYMUS GLAND. A gland of the 
 neck of slaughtered animals used as sweet bread. 
 
 443. TRIPE. A term applied to the stom- 
 ach of the beef, after being cleaned and boiled.
 
 DEFINITIONS. 177 
 
 It has but little flavor, but is considered by many 
 as a very valuable food. It is very easily di- 
 gested. 
 
 444. VINEGAR. The sour liquid formedjby 
 the spontaneous acetic fermentation, or artificial 
 
 1 oxidation of beer, wine, cider, etc. 
 
 445. YEAST. Yeast grows in small spores 
 that reproduce themselves every four or five hours. 
 The spore is found anywhere, floating about in the 
 air, and wherever the proper conditions of food, 
 moisture and warmth are found, it grows spon- 
 taneously. While in a dry state it is unaffected 
 by the ordinary temperatures, though freezing, or 
 a temperature above 160 degrees Fahr., will kill it 
 in the liquid state. While it "works " or grows, it 
 evolves a carbonic gas which gives to the dough a 
 cellular structure, k WhileYproving, the^dough 
 should be kept in an even temperature of about 80 
 degrees, and this should be about the average tem- 
 perature of the dough ingredients when mixed to- 
 gether.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PARAGRAPH 
 
 Adulteration of coffee 127 
 
 Adulteration of lard 205 
 
 Adulteration of olive oil 188 
 
 Aerated bread 251 
 
 Albuminoids 1 
 
 Albumen 252 
 
 Allspice 253 
 
 Ambergris 254 
 
 Aniline 255 
 
 Aniseed 256 
 
 Annatto 257 
 
 Arrow root 258 
 
 Articles, size of, to cook 43 
 
 Artificial butter 207, 386 
 
 Bacon 78, 140 
 
 Bacteria 212 
 
 Bakery dividend 92 
 
 Baking 259 
 
 Baking powder 93 95, 260 
 
 Baking temperature 261 
 
 Balanced diet f. 22 
 
 Barbecue 262 
 
 Basil 263 
 
 Baste 264 
 
 Batter 265 
 
 Bay leaves 266 
 
 Bean component 97 100 
 
 Beans, cooking of 62, 98 
 
 Beef cheese 75 
 
 Beef extract 267 
 
 Beef juice 268 
 
 179
 
 180 INDEX. 
 
 Beef stock 40 
 
 Beef, substitutes for 73 
 
 Beef tea 269 
 
 Beets 110 
 
 Bench 270 
 
 Bisk 271 
 
 Blanch 272 
 
 Blood heat 273 
 
 Body, composition of. 23 
 
 Boiled milk 164 
 
 Boiled beef. 42 
 
 Boiling 274 
 
 Bouillon 275 
 
 Brain foods 32, 33 
 
 Brains 276 
 
 Braising 277 
 
 Bread and rolls 88 
 
 Bread, flour, etc 83 92 
 
 Breakfast foods 32 
 
 Broiling 278 
 
 Browned potatoes 105-e 
 
 Bull meat 417 
 
 Bung sausages 417 
 
 Butter 152, 192 
 
 Buttermilk 172 
 
 Cabbage 108 
 
 Calorie ' 279 
 
 Canned butter 195 
 
 Canned goods, mold in 224 
 
 Canning 220 
 
 Capers 280 
 
 Caramels 281 
 
 Caraway seed 282 
 
 Carbohydrates 283 
 
 Carbohyrdates, fuel value 34 
 
 Carbohydrates, properties of 27 
 
 Carrots .". 110, 141 
 
 Casein 284
 
 INDEX. 181 
 
 Casings 285 
 
 Cassia 286 
 
 Celery salt 287 
 
 Centigrade 288 
 
 Cheese 173 182 
 
 Cheesed potatoes 105-g 
 
 Chef 70 
 
 Chemical preservatives 218 
 
 Chervil 289 
 
 Chicory 290 
 
 Chile 291 
 
 Chili beans 100-e 
 
 Chili con carne 100-e 
 
 Chives 292 
 
 Chocolate 293 
 
 Chowder 294 
 
 Chutney 295 
 
 Cinnamon 296 
 
 Citron 297 
 
 Cloves 298 
 
 Cochineal 300 
 
 Cocoa 299 
 
 Coffee component 121 127 
 
 Coffee, substitutes 127 
 
 Cold, a preservative 47, 212 
 
 Cold storage 215 
 
 Comina 301 
 
 Composition of body 23 
 
 Compound 302 
 
 Concentrated foods 32 
 
 Condensed milk 167 
 
 Condiments 30, 135, 303 
 
 Cooking, effect of 51 
 
 Cooking, elementary principles 36 
 
 Cooking, objects of 36 70 
 
 Cornmeal 91 
 
 Cottage cheese 178 
 
 Cottonseed oil 189-190 
 
 Crackling bread 305
 
 182 INDEX. 
 
 Cracklings 304 
 
 Cream 170 
 
 Cream bread 306 
 
 Cream cheese 175 
 
 Creamed potatoes 105-i 
 
 Croquettes 75-307 
 
 Croutons 308 
 
 Crullers 309 
 
 Crumb 310 
 
 Crumbs 86 
 
 Curry powder 311 
 
 Cutlets 312 
 
 Deep lard frying 64-68 
 
 Definitions 251-445 
 
 Desiccated milk 165 
 
 Desserts 156 
 
 Devilled 313 
 
 Devilled meat 314 
 
 Diet, balanced 22 
 
 Diet, one-sided 22 
 
 Disease germs in milk 161 
 
 Dividend, bakery 92 
 
 Double cream 171 
 
 Dough 315 
 
 Dough-break... 316 
 
 Doughnuts 317 
 
 Dredge 318 
 
 Dried fruits 116-120 
 
 Dried peas 100-b 
 
 Dried sweet corn 100-g 
 
 Dried vegetable component 97-100 
 
 Dryness, a preservative 212, 214 
 
 Dumplings 319 
 
 Edam cheese 180 
 
 Eggs '. 320 
 
 Egg plant 321 
 
 Elementary principles of cooking 37-70
 
 INDEX. 183 
 
 Entree 322 
 
 Estragon 323 
 
 Extractives 25. 324 
 
 Extracts from lectures by the author 232-250 
 
 Evaporated cream 166 
 
 Evaporated fruits 116-120 
 
 Evaporated milk 133, 166 
 
 Fahrenheit 325 
 
 Farina 326 
 
 Fats, composition of 183 
 
 Fats, fuel value of.... 34 
 
 Fats, properties of 26 
 
 Fennel 327 
 
 Ferment 328 
 
 Filled cheese 177 
 
 Fillet 329 
 
 Fillet of beef -... 330 
 
 Fillet of fowl 332 
 
 Fillet of pork 333 
 
 Fillet of rabbit 334 
 
 Fillet of veal 335 
 
 Fireless cooker 100-a 
 
 Flavors 50-53, 147 
 
 Flour, economy in use of 84 
 
 Food definition of 23 
 
 Foods, function of 31 
 
 Food values, table of 35 
 
 Forcemeat 331 
 
 Frankfurters 417 
 
 Frappe 336 
 
 Fresh vegetables 101-114 
 
 Fresh water 57 
 
 French fried potatoes 105-b 
 
 Fricasse 337 
 
 Fried cakes 338 
 
 Fritters 339 
 
 Fruit butter 120 
 
 Fruit flavors.... .. 116
 
 184 INDEX. 
 
 Fruits 37 
 
 Frying, general principles 64-69 
 
 Fuel values 34-35 
 
 Full cream cheese 174 
 
 Garlic 143, 340 
 
 Garnish 341 
 
 Garrison ration, general remarks 71 
 
 Gelatin : 342 
 
 Gelatinoids 2 
 
 Gems 343 
 
 Germ 344 
 
 German boiled potatoes 105-e 
 
 German fried potatoes 105-d 
 
 Giblets 345 
 
 Ginger 146, 346 
 
 Glace 347 
 
 Glucose : 348 
 
 Gluten 349 
 
 Graham flour 350 
 
 Green fruits 117 
 
 Grilled 351 
 
 Grits '. 352 
 
 Gruel 353 
 
 Ham 140, 354 
 
 Hamburg steaks 75 
 
 Ham butts 355 
 
 Hard bread 90 
 
 Hard water 56 
 
 Hashed potatoes 105-f 
 
 History of the ration 1-12 
 
 Herbs 145 
 
 Hominy 100-h, 356 
 
 Hops 357 
 
 Ice 358 
 
 Icing 359 
 
 Issue beans.... 100 a
 
 INDEX. 185 
 
 Jam 360 
 
 Jelly 361 
 
 Jelly, mold in 222 
 
 Kettle rendered lard 204 
 
 Kidney beans 100-d 
 
 Kidneys 362 
 
 Ladled butter 194 
 
 Lamb chops 363 
 
 Lard and lard compounds 149-151 
 
 Lard 198-211, 364 
 
 Lard compounds 206 
 
 Lard, to 365 
 
 Lean meat 77 
 
 Leaf lard 201, 366 
 
 Leaven 367 
 
 Lectures, extracts from 232-250 
 
 Leek 368 
 
 Lentils 369 
 
 Lettuce Ill 
 
 Lima beans 100-c 
 
 Limburger cheese 179 
 
 L'glits 370 
 
 Lver 371 
 
 Liver sausage 417 
 
 Lyonnaise potatoes 105-h 
 
 Macaroni 372 
 
 Mace 373 
 
 Malt 374 
 
 Majoram 375 
 
 Marrow 376 
 
 Mayonnaise 377 
 
 Meat cutting 74 
 
 Meat, general remarks 72-83 
 
 Meringue 378 
 
 Methods of cooking...: 39 
 
 Meats, preservation of 76
 
 186 INDEX 
 
 Meats, special uses 75 
 
 Milk 158-172 
 
 Milk component 133, 314 
 
 Milk toast 87 
 
 Mineral matters ^V 28 
 
 Mint 379 
 
 Molds 212, 213, 221 231 
 
 Mold growth, effects of 226 
 
 Mold, prevention of 231 
 
 Mousse 380 
 
 Muffins 343 
 
 Mulligatawny 381 
 
 Mustard.... ....144, 382 
 
 Nasturtium 384 
 
 Neutral lard 177, 200 
 
 Non-poisonous preservatives 219 
 
 Noodle lard 202 
 
 Noodles 383 
 
 Nutmeg 385 
 
 Niitrition, principles of 20 
 
 Oils, composition of. 183 
 
 Okra 387 
 
 Olein 183-184, 388 
 
 Olein 388 
 
 Oleomargarine 152, 197. 380 
 
 Olive oil 188 
 
 One-sided diet 22 
 
 Onions 101, 111, 141 
 
 Oregano 389 
 
 Oseille 390 
 
 Oven counts 391 
 
 Oven, quick 392 
 
 Oven, slow 393 
 
 Oysters, frying 67 
 
 Oyster plant 394
 
 INDEX. 187 
 
 Pan cakes 89 
 
 Pancreas 395 
 
 Parsley 397 
 
 Parboil 396 
 
 Parsnips 109, 141, 398 
 
 Pasteurized cream. 192 
 
 Pasteurized milk 163 
 
 Patties 379 
 
 Peas 99 
 
 Pepper 142, 400 
 
 Piccalilli 402 
 
 Pistachio 403 
 
 Pits, storage in 216 
 
 Poach 404 
 
 Pork sausage 417 
 
 Porridge 405 
 
 Potato component 101, -114 
 
 Potpies 41 
 
 Powdered milk 134, 165 
 
 Predigested foods 32 
 
 Preservation of foods 212-231 
 
 Preservation of meats 76 
 
 Prevention of mold 231 
 
 Prevention of waste 81 
 
 Prime steam lard 203 
 
 Principles of nutrition 20 
 
 Protein 25. 34, 406 
 
 Proving 407 
 
 Prune component 97-100 
 
 Pyrometer 408 
 
 Radishes 1 1 
 
 Ragout 409 
 
 Ration balanced 21 
 
 Ration, emegency 15 
 
 Ration, field 16 
 
 Ration, garrison 18 
 
 Ration, history of 1-12 
 
 Ration, haversack or reserve 17
 
 188 INDEX. 
 
 -Ration, inarching 33 
 
 Ration, kinds of 13-18 
 
 Kation, travel 14 
 
 Refuse 29, 240 
 
 Rendering 410 
 
 Renovated butter 196 
 
 Rice 100-f 
 
 Ripened fruits 117 
 
 Roasting 39. 411 
 
 Roquefort cheese 181 
 
 Saccharin 412 
 
 Saffron 413 
 
 Sage 414 
 
 Sago 415 
 
 Salads 155 
 
 Salsify 109, 141, 395. 416 
 
 Salt 139 
 
 Salt a preservative 219-b 
 
 Saratoga chips 105-a 
 
 Sauce for desserts 157 
 
 Sausage 75, 417 
 
 Sausage, mold in 223 
 
 Saute 418 
 
 Sauteing 69 
 
 Scald 419 
 
 Scallop 420 
 
 Scalloped oysters 421 
 
 Seasoning, importance of 70 
 
 Seasoning 135 
 
 Separator milk 168 
 
 Shallow lard frying 69 
 
 Sherbert 422 
 
 Shortening '. 423 
 
 Sirup 130, 154 
 
 Size of articles to cook 43 
 
 Skimmed milk 168 
 
 Slaw 424 
 
 Soda ... 425
 
 INDEX. 189 
 
 Soft water 55 
 
 Sorrel 390 
 
 Souffle 426 
 
 Soup 82 
 
 Soup stock 80 
 
 Soy 427 
 
 Spaghetti 428 
 
 Spare ribs 429 
 
 Spices 146 
 
 Spices, 2 preservatives 219-d 
 
 Sponge 430 
 
 Stale bread 431 
 
 Starch 432 
 
 Stearin. 183-184, 433 
 
 Sterilize 434 
 
 Sterilized milk .' 169 
 
 Stews 41 
 
 Stock 435 
 
 Storage in pits 216 
 
 Succotash , 436 
 
 Suet 150, 437 
 
 Sugar ; 130^ 132 
 
 Sugar, a preservative *219-a 
 
 Summer sausage 417 
 
 Sweetbread 395, 438, 442 
 
 Swiss cheese 176 
 
 Table of food values 35 
 
 Tallow 187, 441 
 
 Tapioca 440 
 
 Tea 128 
 
 Texture of bread, etc 44 
 
 Thyme 441 
 
 Thymus gland 442 
 
 Tomatoes 101, 107, 141 
 
 Tripe 443 
 
 Tuberculosis 160 
 
 Turnips 110
 
 190 INDEX. 
 
 Vegetables, fresh 101-114 
 
 Vegetables, preservation of. , 48 
 
 Vinegar 444 
 
 Vinegar, a preservative 219-c 
 
 Vinegar, properties of...: 14S 
 
 Waste 29, 81 
 
 Water boils, when..^. 62 
 
 Water, characteristics of r . 24 
 
 Water, necessity of in cooking 54 
 
 Water, properties of 54 6:5 
 
 Yeast 94-96. 445
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT LOS ANGELES 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 
 This book is DUE on the last date stamped below
 
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