LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. Qtua BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. SUPPLEMENT TO THE SCIENCE OF RAILWAYS BY MARSHALL M. KIRKMAN. PUBLISHED BY THE WORLD RAILWAY PUBLISHING COMPANY. OF THE f UNIVERSITY 1 NEW YORK AND CHICAGO: THE WORLD RAILWAY PUBLISHING COMPANY. 1903 COPYRIGHT BY THE WORID RAILWAY PUBLISHING COMPANY 1902, 1903. Also enttred at Stationer's Hall, London, England A II rights reserved. THE HENNEBCRRY COMPANY PRINTERS.... BINDERS.... CHICAGO TABLE OF CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION, rA 19 CHAPTER I. Railway evolution. The development of the railway illustrated, 21 CHAPTER II. The reconnoissance the first step in railway construction, * 47 CHAPTER III. The preliminary survey the second step in railway construction, 68 CHAPTER IV. The location the third step in railway con- struction, 83 CHAPTER V. Construction, 90 CHAPTER VI. Standards of construction and material, . . 147 CHAPTER VII. Constructing track, 297 CHAPTER VIII. Maintenance of way, 323 CHAPTER IX. Wrecks, ; 441 CHAPTER X. Maintenance of bridges and buildings, . . .455 CHAPTER XI. Construction and maintenance accounts, . 477 CHAPTER XII. Maintenance and operation. What cost is dependent upon, 480 CHAPTER XIII. Maintenance. Fixed operating expenses, . 610 CHAPTER XIV. Maintenance. Cost of operating affected by facilities, 524 CHAPTER XV. Maintenance. Things that enter into the maintenance of a railroad 580 OH) APPENDIXES. B. (1) Relation the various items of track labor bear to each other. . . ._/.-. . - . . . . 559 (2) Relation that various items of track expenses bear to total track expenses. - . . . .. . . 559 C. (1) Relation various classes of maintenance bear to total cost of maintenance ...... . . 560 (2) Relation of the cost of maintaining the property of a road to all other operating expenses .' . 560 D. Percentage of the total cost of operating due to maintenance of organization and the prevention of the destruction of the property from natural causes . . 561 E. Gauges of railroads that are or have been in use in different countries . . : ... . . . 562 F. Quantity of material required to lay one mile of rail- road track on the basis named . . .. , 563 G. Table showing increase in weight of locomotives from 1880 to 1900 . > ..' 564 H. Detailed rules governing the location of railways. . . 565 /. Detailed rules governing surveys and construction of railways and lists of supplies required in the field . . 583 J. Detailed rules governing construction of track of rail- ways and various illustrations of rail sections, specifica- tions and tables, giving details in regard to material used in construction ?. . . . . . . 597 K. Table setting forth modern authorities on the location, construction, track and maintenance of railways . . 629 L. Bridges and buildings Rules, tables and data . . 644 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. no. PAOE. A Jessop's Cast Iron Fish Bellied Rail 24 B The First Rail Chair, A. D. 1797 24 C LeCann's Tram Rail, A. D. 1801 25 Wyatt's Hexagonal Rail, A. D. 1802 25 Tram Rail, A. D. 1803 25 Carlisle's Wrought (Rolled) Iron Rail, A. D. 1811 25 Losh & Stephenson's Edge Rail, A. D. 1816 25 D Tram Rail with Stone Supports, upon which Trevit- hick's first locomotive ran : 27 E Birkenshaw's Wrought Iron Rail, A. D. 1820 28 Hetton Rail, A. D. 1824 28 George Stephenson's Fish Belly Rail, A. D. 1829 28 Rail, Designed by Robert L. Stevens, A. D. 1830 28 F Standard Track, Camden & Amboy R. R., A. D. 1837.. . 30 " Track of Camden & Amboy R. R., Rails Laid on Piling Through Marshes, A. D. 1837 30 " Stevens' Rail, A. D. 1841 30 G Stone Stringer and Strap Rail, A. D. 1833 81 Wooden Stringer and Strap Rail, A. D. 1837 31 H Street Railway Construction 32 I English Fish Belly Rail, A. D. 1832 84 Joint Chair and Wedge, A. D. 1833 85 Stone Block Rail and Joint Tongue, A. D. 1831 35 J Stevens' Rail, Supported by Cast Iron Chair, A.D. 1837 36 Ring, Joint and Wedge, West Jersey R. R 36 Wooden Joint Block, A. D. 1860 36 Double Splice Bar, A. D. 1857 37 " Erie Rail with Ends Stamped for Adams' Cast Iron Bracket Splice, A. D, 1857 . x 37 " Single Splice Bar, A. D. 1855 37 " Double Splice Bar, A. D. 1856 87 K Plain Splice Bar, A.D. 1870 38 Angle Splice Bar, A. D. 1868 88 Angle Splice Bar, A.D. 1875 38 Angle Splice Bar, A. D. 1879 88 Angle Splice Bar, A. D. 1880 38 L An Early Frog Pattern 39 (vli) viii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. L Frogs, A. D. 1825 39 ' Staple iron used as makeshift for frog, A. D. 1831 39 Frog, A. D. 1835 40 Wood's Kail Frog, A. D. 1859 40 M Switches in Colliery Railroads, A. D. 1825 ... 41 N Section of English Permanent Way 41 O Steel Tie. London & Northwestern Ry., A. D. 1885. . 42 Metal "Pot" Tie. India, A. D. 1889 42 Metal Track, Queensland, A. D. 1889 42 Metal Track, Midland Ry., A. D. 1889 42 1 Metal Track, London & Northwestern Ry., A. D. 1889 42 Metal Track, Elferfield Ry., Germany, A. D. 1889 43 Metal Track, Great Central Ry. of Belgium, A. D. 1889 43 Thick Rectangular Rail, A. D. 1838 43 Latrabe's Compound Rail, A. D. 1841 43 First Rail Rolled in America, A. D. 1844 44 92-lb. Rail, A. D. 1848 44 T Rail, A. D. 1850 44 Pear Headed Rail, A. D. 1853 44 Pear Headed Rail, A. D. 1855 45 Pear Headed Rail, A. D. 1855 45 Compound Rail, A. D. 1855 45 Compound Rail, A. D. 1855 45 Compound Rail, A. D. 1855.... 45 * Compound Rail, A. D. 1855 45 Box Rail, A. D. 1855 46 Barlow's "Saddle Back" Rail, A. D. 1856 46 ' Triangular Stringer Capped with Iron, A. D. 1857 46 1.) 2. v Aneroid Barometers for Measuring Altitude 49 3. ) 4. Engineer's Pocket Instruments 50 g \ Prismatic Compass with Clynometer Attachment.. . .50, 51 7. Lock's Hand Level 51 8. Abney's Hand Level and Clynometer 52 9. Field Glasses 52 10. Pedometer 53 lla, lib, lie. Odometer 54, 55 12. Engineers' Transit with Level and Vertical Arc 59 13. " " " " Gradienter Attach- ment 60 14. Engineers' Chain 81 15. Engineers' Improved Tape Chain 61 16. Steel Tape 62 17. Ranging Rods or Poles 62 18. Chester-man's Metallic Tape 63 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. ix 19. Engineers' Scale 63 20. Protractor GA 21. Transparent Protractor witi R. R. Curves 64 22. Engineers' Y Level 64 23. Philadelphia Leveling Rod 65 24. Leveling Instrument and Gradienter for Topograph- ical Work 66 25. Clynometer or Slope Instrument '.'.'. 66 26. Form of Cross Section Book 93 26a. Form of Quantity Book 93 27. Graders' Plow 96 28. Drag Scraper 96 29. " " with Runners 97 30. " " " Bottom Plate 97 31. Back Scraper 97 32. Two Wheeled Scraper 98 33. " " " 98 34. " 99 36. Side View of Grader, ditcher and wagon loader 99 37. Rear " " " " " " " 100 39. Four Wheeled Scraper 101 40. " " " 101 41. Two Wheeled Dump Cart 102 42. End, Dump Wagon 102 43. Bottom, " " 103 44. Iron End, Dump Cart 103 45. Embankment; built full width at Grade and out to the Slope Stakes 105 46. Right and Left Hand Dump Cars 107 48. Rotary Dump Car 107 49. View showing the method of dumping a rotary Dump Car 108 61. Plan and Side and End Elevations of a Steam Shovel 109 54. Steam Shovel Car 110 55. Hard Pan Plow 110 56. Showing the Slopes for an Earth Cut Ill 61. Example of Cristina Method of Tunneling 114 62. Example of American System 116 63. Air Compressor 117 65. Rock Drills for Tunnel Work 117 68 Ventilation of Mt. Cenis Tunnel 120 69-70. Retaining Walls 121 71. Showing How a Cut can be the Full Width at Grade and the Material Taken Out at Slope Stakes, and yet all the Material will not be Excavated 1 72. Steam Pile Driver 125 72a. Form of Force Report 130 726. Form of Estimate Book 131 x LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 73. View Overhaul 133 *74. " " 133 76. Track Laying or Iron Car 135 76. Holnian's Track Laying Machine 138 77. Harris' " " " 140 81. Earth Ballast Galveston, Houston & Henderson Ry.. 155 82. Gravel " " " " " .. 156 83. Earth " Illinois Central Railroad 156 84. Crushed Stone, 2 inches Diameter, on Quarry Spauls 4 to 6 inches diameter N. Y. C. & H. R R. R 156 85. Ballast, Crushed Stone 2> inches Diameter, Penn. R.R 157 86. Rock Cut Stone Ballast 2# inches Diameter, C. & P. D. Branch of Penn. R. R 157 87. Gravel Ballast, A. T. & S. F. Railway 158 88. " " C.&N.W. 158 89. Burnt Clay Ballast, C. B. & Q. R. R 159 90. Hoosac Tunnel, Finished Masonry in Soft Ground 159 91. Section of Tunnel at Port Perry, P. V. & C. Ry 160 92. ' " on the Insbruck Bozen Line, Aus- tria 161 93. " " " used by Government Railway of East India 163 94. Section of Iron Tunnel under the St. Clair River used by the Grand Trunk Ry 163 95. Morrell Metal Tie 194 96. Metal Tie used on the N. Y. C. & H. R. R. R 195 97. Wolhaupter Tie Plate with Rib to Resist the Lateral Motion of the Rail. 197 98. Goldie Claw Tie Plate with Lug to prevent the Lateral Movement of the Rail . 197 99. The C. A. C. Tie Plate 198 100. The Servis Tie Plate 198 101. Wolhaupter Arch Girder Tie Plate 198 102. Track Spikes 215 103. Angle Bars used on a 7o pound Rail of American So- ciety of Civil Engineers' Standard 217 104. Continuous Rail Joint 217 105. Weber Rail Joint 218 10<*. Truss " " 218 107. Common Sense Rail Joint 218 108. C. & N.-W. Ry Joint Base Plate used to give lateral Stiffness to the Rail 219 109. Track Bolts 222 110. Styles of "Verona" Nut Locks 222 111. The Elastic Self-Locking Steel Nut "National" 223 112. Joint Spring Nut Lock 223 113. Shows how a Rail Brace will fail to support the Rail where it cuts into the Tie or the Rail Brace is not properly designed 224 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xi 114. Forged Steel Rail Braces 224 115. Stub Switch showing Head Blocks and Ground Throw for Moving Switch Rails 225 116. Split Switch with Pony Switch Stand suitable for Yards , 226 120. Rigid Filled Frog. . . 121. Chuck Filled Frog .'.'.'.' ' 228 122. " Steel Clamp Frog ...... 22S 123. Rigid Plate Frog 229 124. Spring Rail Frog with Anchor Block . . 229 125. Eureka Spring Rail Frog 230 126. Movable Point Crossing 231 129. Crossing Frogs, Angle 60 to 90 232 130. " " 45to60 .' 232 131. " " with Extra Heavy Angle Irons 233 132. for Steam and Street Railroads 234 133. Jump Crossing Frogs for Steam and Street Railroads. 234 134. Ramapo Safety Switch Stand as it appears when Half Thrown by Hand 235 135. Ramapo Safety Switch Stand as it appears when Half Thrown by Wheels Passing Through the Switch 236 136. Three Throw Switch Stand 23? 187. Automatic Parallel Ground Throw Switch Stand 238 138. Low Pony Switch Stand 238 139. " " " with Safety Bottom Cap 238 140. Ground Throw Switch Stand with Weighted Lever. . . 239 141. Designs for Targets or Signals to be used on Switch Stands 239 142. Target Tripod for Switch Stands 240 143. Haley Semi Steel Bumping Post 241 145. Ellis Bumping Post 242 146. Through Plate Girder Bridge 243 147. Perspective View of Through Plate Girder Bridge 243 148. Through Plate Truss 243 149. Deck Pratt Truss 245 150. Through Warren Truss 245 151. Deck Warren Truss 245 1 52. Whipple Truss or Double Intersection Pratt 247 153. Modified Form of Warren Truss 247 154. Single Lattice Girder Modified Form of Warren T?uss 247 155. Double Lattice Girder Modified Form of Warren Truss 249 156. Deck Baltimore Truss Modified Form of Pratt Truss. 249 157. Through Baltimore Truss Modified Form of Pratt Truss 249 158. Long Span Baltimore Truss Modified Form of War- ren Truss 251 xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 159. Long Span Baltimore Truss also known as the Arched Truss, the Bow String Truss, and the Cainelback Truss 251 160. Another Modification of the Warren Truss for Long Spans 253 161. Duluth Superior Bridge 253 162. Bob Tailed Draw Bridge, Modified Form of Warren Truss, Short Span Counter- Weighted 255 163. Scherzer Rolling Lift Bridge 255 165. Cantilever Bridge 255 166. Pile Trestle Bridge 256 167. Framed Trestle 256 168. Stone Arched Culvert 257 169. Cast Iron Pipe Culvert without Wing Walls 257 170. " " " " with " " 258 171. Open Culvert 258 172. Pump for a Deep Well 260 173. Common Form of Setting up a Pumping Plant for a Water Station 261 174. Combined Gasoline Engine and Pump 262 175. Design for Railroad Pump House and Machinery, using a Gasoline Engine 263 176. Water Tank supported by Wooden Posts or Bents.... 264 179. Automatic Stand Pipe or Water Column 265 180. Track Tank 266 181. Plan of a Coaling Station where Buckets are used 268 182. Transverse Section of a Clinton Coaling Station 269 183. Cast Iron Turntable made by William Sellers & Co. . . 271 184. Wrought Iron Turntable made by the King Iron Bridge Co 272 185. A Turntable Center used by Wm. Sellers & Co 272 186. A Special Sixteen Roller Center for Turntables 273 187. Small Frame Depot with Living Rooms on Second Floor 275 188. Small Frame Depot 276 189. Frame Depot for a Moderate Sized Town 277 190. Outbuildings for Small Depots 278 191. Plan of a Brick Passenger Depot 280 192. "StockYard 281 193. " " Roundhouse and Shops 282 194. " " Brick Storehouse for Supplies 283 195. " " Storehouse for Sand 284 196. Elevation of a Bent of an Air Hoist Ash Pit 285 198. Train Signal operated by the Station Agent 288 199. Automatic Electric Signal 288 200. Lever operated by the Engine to open and close the Electric Circuit 289 201. Block Signal, Operated by the Telegraph Operator. . . 289 202. Switch Lamp, Upper Draught 290 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xiii 203. Switch Lamp, Lower Draught 290 204. Semaphore Signal Lamp, Upper Draught 291 205. Barbed Wire Fence 292 206. Page Woven Wire Fence 292 207. Jones' Wire Fence 292 208. Flexible Clamp, used in making Jones' Wire Fence. . . 293 209. Cyclone Wire Fence and the Machine for Making it.. . 293 210. Terra cotta Base Iron Posts for Fences and Signs 294 211. Cattle Guard 295 212. Climax Stock Guard 295 213. Sheffield Cattle Guard 295 214. Railroad Track Scales 296 216. Plan of Tracks for a small Country Town 300 217. Plan of Tracks for a Junction of Two railway Systems 300 218. Plan of Tracks for a Junction of a Branch with the Main Line 301 219. Plan of Tracks and Buildings for a Yard where Loco- motives are changed and where the grades alter, thus causing a change in the Tonnage of Trains each side of the Yard 301 220. Combination Slip Switch Crossing, with Adjustable Tie Bars and Rigid Center Frogs, Operated from a Sin- gle Switch Stand with Rocker Shaft Connection 302 221. View of a Three Throw Split Switch 303 222. Arrangement of the Switch Points for a Three Throw Split Switch 304 228. Single Throw Split Switch No. 6; Rigid Frog 6 Feet Long 305 224. Single Throw Split Switch No. 7; Rigid Frog 7 Feet Long 305 225. Single Throw Split Switch No. 7; Rigid Frog 12 Feet Long 305 226. Single Throw Split Switch No. 8; Rigid Frog 8 Feet Long 307 227. Single Throw Split Switch No. 9; Rigid Frog 9 Feet Long 307 228. Single Throw Split Switch No. 9; Rigid Frog 12 Feet Long '. 307 229. Single Throw Split Switch No. 10; Rigid Frog 10 Feet Long 309 230. Single Throw Split Switch No. 11; Rigid Frog 11 Feet Long 309 231. Single Throw Split Switch No. 7; Spring Rail Frog 15 Feet Long 309 232. Single Throw Split Switch No. 8J; Spring Rail Frog 15 FletLong...: 310 233. Single Throw Split Switch No. 9; Spring Rail Frog 15 Feet Long , 310 xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 234. Single Throw Split Switch No. 10; Spring Rail Frog 15 Feet Long 310 235. Three Throw Split Switch with No. 6 Rigid Frog 6 Feet Long 311 236. Three Throw Split Switch with No. 7 Rigid Frog 7 Feet Long 311 237. Three Throw Split Switch with No. 7 Rigid Frog 12 Feet Long 311 238. Three Throw Split Switch with No. 8 Rigid Frog 8 Feet Long 312 239. Three 1 hrow Split Switch with No. 9 Rigid Frog 9 Feet Long 312 240. Three Throw Split Switch with No. 9 Rigid Frog 12 Feet Long 312 241. Three Throw Split Switch with No. 10 Rigid Frog 10 Feet Long 313 242. Three Throw Split Switch with No. 11 Rigid Frog 11 Feet Long 313 243. Plan of a Stub Switch 313 244. Plan illustrating the use of a Cross-Over or Switch connecting the Two Main Line Tracks of a Double Track Road 314 245. Plan of a Cross-Over 314 246. Derailing Switch used to prevent a collision between a Train on the Main Line and Cars running off a Side Track onto the Main Line 315 247. Sand Track; used to check the movement of Cars on a grade or when propelled by a high wind from running off a Siding to the Main Line Track 315 248. Derail Switch Point used in connection with Inter- locking System of Guard Crossings 315 249. Standard Guard Rail with Division Blocks and Bolts and Rail Braces 317 250. Guard Rail with the Hook Guard Rail Clamp 318 251. Guard Rail with the Sampson Adjustable Guard Rail Clamp 318 252. Crossing Frogs used where two tracks cross at an acute angle 319 253. Combination Slip Switch and Movable Center Points Switches and Movable Center Points operated by one Switch Stand 319 258. Sectional Perspective View of Gates Stone Crusher. . . . 334 259. Gates Revolving Screen for screening Crushed Stone . 335 260. Arrangement of Stone Crusher, Elevator, Screen and Storage Bins for a Railroad Ballast Plant 336 262. Jenne Track Jack for heavy Ballasting, Surfacing and General Track Repairs 337 263. Trip Jack 337 264. Adze.. . 340 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xr 265. Chopping Axe 340 266. Auger for boring holes in the ground for Fence Posts 340 267. Broom for removing snow from Switches, etc 340 268. Brush Hook for cutting down small Saplings 341 269. Ballast or Napping Hammer 341 270. Ballast Fork 341 271. Brace and Bit 341 272. Hand Car for Section Gang 343 273. Push Car, with Removable Side and End Boards 343 274. Track Chisel, f cr cutting Rails, etc 344 275. ClawBars 341 276. TrackDrill . 344 277. Self Feeding Rail Drill 345 278. Hand File, for smoothing the ends of Rails 345 279. Grindstone, Mounted and Treadle 346 280. Grub Hoe, Mattock, Pick Mattock 346 281. Hatchets and Hand Axe 346 282. Hand Hammer. . . 347 283. Lantern 347 284. Lining Bars, for Throwing Track 347 285. Oil Can for Car Oil 347 286. Spring Oiler for oiling Hand and Push Cars 347 287. Track or Rail Punch 848 288. Railroad Padlock used with a chain to Lock Hand or Push Cars by passing through the two Wheels on the same side of the Car and fastening the Chain by passing the Padlock hasp through two Links of the Chain 348 289. Pick for loosening Earth, Clay or Hard Gravel 348 290. TampingPick 348 291. Rail Tongs 349 292. RailFork 349 293. Hand Saw 349 294. Cross Cut Saw 349 295. Scythes (a) Light; (6) Heavy 349 296. ScytheSnaths 349 297. SpiritLevel 350 298. Spike Pullers 350 299. SpikeMaul 351 300. Stone Sledge Hammers 351 301. . Railroad Shovel for Tamping, etc 351 302. Scoop Shovel 351 303. Long Handled Shovel 351 304. Track Lever or Lifting Bar 351 305 Huntington's Track Gauge 3 306. McHenry's Track Gauge 35 807. (a) Common Track Level; (6) Duplex Track Level .... 352 (c) McHenry's Involute Track Level 353 xv\ LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 308. Tamping Bar 353 309. Torpedo 353 310. Railroad Tool Chest 353 311. Track Wrench . 354 312. Monkey Wrench 354 313. Railroad Barrows , 354 315. Four Wheel Eclipse Light Weight Car 355 316. Velocipede Car 356 318. The Ware Tie Plate Surfacer and Gauge 365 319. American Railway Ditching Machine 370 320. Clarke Jeffrey Split Switch 371 321. Transit Split Switch 373 322. Channel Split Switch 374 323. Lorenz Safety Split Switch 375 324. Views of Different Connecting Rods 375 325. Views of Different Kinds of Bridle Rods 376 326. Ramapo Yoked Frog 876 327. Strom Clamp or Yoked Frog 377 328. Frog with Wood Foot Guard 378 329. Frog with Iron Foot Guards 378 330. Right Hand Turn Out 379 331. Left Hand Turn Out . . 379 332. Right Hand Frog 380 333. To take the Angle of a Frog 380 334. Head Blocks or Head Chairs for Stub Switches 381 335. Bryant Portable Rail Saw 381 336. Rail Bender and Straightener 382 337. " " " " with Horse Power At- tachment 383 338. Plan and Elevation of a joint to take up expansion and contraction of Rails 387 339. Expansion Joint for a Bridge or difficult pieces of Track 387 342. Plan and Section showing Piping necessary to n't a flat Car to sprinkle Track with Oil 388 344. Rotary Snow Plow. , 411 345. Inspection Hand Car 433 348. Double or Four Wheeled Motor Car for Inspection Purposes 433 349. 35 Ton Steam Wrecking Crane 443 350. 15 Ton Double Mast Hand Wrecking Crane 443 351. Automatic Lowering Jack 444 353. Dudgeon's Hydraulic Jack 445 354. Tilden Wrecking Frog 446 355. Palmertou Wrecking Frog 446 356. Elliot Car Replacers or Wrecking Frog 447 357. Device for Splicing a Broken Chain 450 358. Ship Auger Bits, used by Bridge Carpenters 457 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xvii 359. Boring Machine used where Heavy Timbers are Framed 457 360. Crow Bar 458 361. (a) Pinch Bar Without a Heel; (6) Pinch Bar with a Heel 458 362. Shackel Bar used for Drawing Drift Bolts 458 363. (a) Single Block; (b) Double Block; (c) Triple Block. . 458 364. Bridge Gang Hand Car 459 365. Heavy Push Car for usa of Bridge Crew 459 366- Cant Hook 460 367. Pevey 460 368. Timber Grapples. . . 460 369. Hoisting Crabs or Winches, (a) Single Purchase; (6) Double Purchase 460 370. Timber Trucks or Dollys 461 371. Files, (a) Taper File; (6) Double End File 461 372. House Raising Jack Screws 461 373. Bilge Pumps, (a) Bottom Suction; (6) Side Suction.. . 462 377. Steel Socket Bridge Wrench 462 378. Wheel Wrench 463 379. Rail Section App. J 609 380. Pennsylvania R. R. Standard Rail Section and Standard Joint App, J 610 381. New York Central & Hudson River R. R. Standard Rail Section App. J 611 382. Philadelphia & Reading R. R. Rail Section App. J 612 383. Argentine Gt. Western Ry. (South America) Rail Section App, J 613 384. Mexican Ry. Co., Ltd., Standard Rail Section. .App. J 614 385. East India Ry. Co. India Standard Rail Section and Standard Joint App. J 615 2 Vol. 13 INTRODUCTION. VALUE OF WIDE AND DIVERSIFIED EXPERIENCE IN CONSTRUCTING AND MAINTAINING- RAILROADS. It is not probable that questions relating to the Construction and Maintenance of railways will ever cease to interest or excite controversy. The subject is one of the greatest connected with the operation of railroads and is rendered more complex because of the dissimilarity of condi- tions under which they are built and worked. The more light, therefore, that can be thrown on the subject the more advantageous to those who own or operate these properties. Because of this I do not feel that excuse is necessary for offering this book, apart, in addi- tion to what I have already written on the sub- ject in Volume III. of the "SCIENCE OF RAILWAYS," and elsewhere (with less particularity) through- out that work. To students this added matter will be of interest, as it will be to practical men engaged in operating railroads who seek increased knowledge and usefulness from the observation and experience of others. By this I do not mean to say, that what is written here represents my particular experience, because I have never been actively engaged in this department of the serv- ice, but it represents the experience and wisdom (19) 20 INTRODUCTION. of others who have been thus occupied, and have given the subject the benefit of the knowledge thus acquired. From all this the reader must not infer that the building and maintaining of railroads is treated superficially or only partially in this volume. On the contrary I have taken up the subject in order and fully as if nothing had ever been said in regard to it before. Many books I know have been written on the subject of Railway Construction by different men; many more will be written hereafter, and this without doing more than scratching the surface. The subject is too great, the problems too multiplex to be exhausted. Each writer however, will throw new and needed light on the subject and what each says will therefore be useful to owner and operator alike. MARSHALL M. KIRKMAN. CHAPTER I. .RAILWAY EVOLUTION. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE RAILWAY ILLUSTRATED. In depicting railways, an account of the con- ditions which lead up to them is interesting, not only in itself, but as affording a better under- standing of the subject. The origin and growth of property go hand in hand with the birth and development of man. When we describe the condition of one we describe the condition of the other. The two are coexistent. Thus the busi- ness principles which we observe to-day were in the main established by the ancients, who were commercially inclined as we are, many hundreds of years ago. In the same way they originated in the main our utensils and methods. Wejiave simply developed their primary thoughts. In legal phraseology there are three kinds of property real, personal and mixed. Railway property partakes of all these characteristics. The privileges it enjoys are such as are accorded it under the limited knowledge we have of its uses and needs. Its rights are exceptional because of its special duties and responsibilities. Its limitations are such as attach to common car- riers. It represents a new departure in industrial effort; a progressive step greatly stimulative of (21) 22 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. man's efforts. In other respects it presents no distinguishing features. It furnishes, however, another instance, if one were wanting, of the sympathetic tie that connects man's intellectual growth with that which he so greatly prizes, namely, material wealth. The primary purpose of the permanent way of a railroad was to furnish a surface that should be at once hard, smooth and unchanging for wheels to run upon. Railways had their origin in Great Britain in the tramways laid in the mining districts for con- veying coal to the sea from the mines near New- castle-on-Tyne during the seventeenth century. The rails were formed of scantlings of oak, straight and parallel to each other, connected by cross timbers also of oak and pinned together with oak treenails; on these, carts made with four rollers fitting the rails traveled, the carriage being so easy that one horse is said to have been able to draw four or five chaldrons of coal. The benefits derived from this manner of transport- ing coal suggested to the thinking man the em- ployment of similar means for facilitating the conveyance of passengers and general merchan- dise. A road graveled between the rails was at first provided as a foothold for the horses which drew the cars. The wheels were kept on the rails by guides, attached either to the wheels or to the rails. As stated, the earliest railroads were con- structed wholly of wood. In comparing the first railroads with the com- RAILWAY EVOLUTION. 23 mon turnpike road, an early writer says: "A saving is made of seven-eighths of the power, one horse on a railroad producing as much effect as eight horses on a turnpike road. In the effect produced by a given power the railroad is about a mean between the turnpike road and a canal, when the rate is about three miles an hour; but when greater speed is desirable the railroad may equal the canal in effect and even surpass it." Rails were first cast; afterward, early in the nineteenth century, they were rolled. In 1767 the first iron rail was cast at Colebrookdale, Eng- land. This was a great stride forward. It was three feet long, four inches wide at the top, and three inches high. This progressive step pre- pared the way for the locomotive when it should be evolved. However, the rail thus cast proved to be too light, but the difficulty was overcome by making the carts or wagons smaller and coup- ling a number of them together instead of having one big vehicle. Thus the train came into being. Shortly afterward it was found possible to cast a rail six feet long; in 1815 it had grown to fif- teen feet; still later to thirty feet. In 1789 William Jessop first introduced a rail with a smooth, level top, substituting a wheel with a flange for the old-fashioned form. This simple, yet ingenious, device at once revolution- ized previous practices. Before, a flange or something of the kind had formed a part of the rail in order to keep the wheel on the track. This not only added to the cost of the rail, but rendered it less strong and more easily worn out. 24 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. The flanged wheel cleared the sky. In 1797 Jes- sop also contributed to the development of rail- roads by inventing the iron chair, which he in- serted between the rail and the tie. Rails at this time were very light, and the load and speed were made to correspond. Jessop's Cast Iron Fish-bellied Rail, A. D. 1789. [NOTE: The attention of the reader is particularly called to the fact that in the accompanying illustra- tions not only the form of the rail is shown, but also the fastenings, splice bars, chairs, ties and other details of interest connected with the track.] FIG. A. The First Rail Chair. Newcastle-on-Tyne, A. D. 1797. FIG. B. Figures A and B illustrate the Jessop rail and iron chair. Some of the various styles of rails used for tram roads are illustrated by Fig. C. With the introduction of the locomotive to take the place of the horse commenced the de- velopment of the present railroad. This was about the year 1830. George Stephenson, while he did not invent the first successful locomotive, is, nevertheless, RAILWAY EVOLUTION. 25 rap vitw. Sfcr/o*. LeCann's Tram Rail, requiring neither bolts nor spikes. Wales, A. D. 1801. Wyatt's Hexagonal Rail, North Wales, A. D. 1802. Tram Rail, Surrey Railway, A. D. 1803. Carlisle's Wrought (rolled) Iron Rail, A. D. 1811. Lcsh & Stephenson's Edge Rail, Stockton & Darlington Railroad, A. D. 1818. FIG. C. quite generally accredited with being the father of this machine and, therefore, of the railway system. He did much to perfect the locomotive. As I have had occasion to remark elsewhere, his 26 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. prominence in connection with the opening of the Liverpool & Manchester railway, where for the first time the attention of the world was generally drawn to the railroad question, concen- trated attention upon him, so that it was believed, though erroneously, that he invented the loco- motive and operated the first successful one. The idea of the locomotive originated with Trevithick, in 1803, but it was not a financial success. Af- terward, John Blenkinsop accomplished what Trevithick had been unable to do. Blenkinsop had constructed two locomotives which answered every requirement, so far as the action of steam and economy of operation were concerned, before Stephenson manufactured his first machine. The locomotive followed naturally the inven- tion of a suitable roadbed, as the wagon and car- riage followed a suitable highway. The railway track, as referred to elsewhere, was first utilized in connection with the handling of coal. The bulk of the latter, and the necessity for cheapen- ing its price, made some simple appliance for transporting it a matter of the greatest possible importance to the people of Great Britain. Horses were at first used, then steam. The cost of transportation over these tramways, or primitive railroads, is said to have been about ten per cent, of that over the common turnpike. The character of the track on which Trevith- ick' s first locomotive ran is illustrated by Fig. D. The character of the rails used for the first track on which locomotives were operated is shown by Fig. E. These rails were of light weight; in 1825 RAILWAY EVOLUTION. Tram Rail with stone supports, upon which Trevithick's first locomotive ran. FIG. D. the average weight of rails per yard was about 28 pounds; in 1830 (about the time the locomo- tive was introduced) the weight was increased to 35 pounds per yard. As the weight of locomo- 28 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Birkenshaw's Wrought-Iron Rail, A. D. 1820. George Stepnenson's Fish-Belly Rail, Manchester & Liverpool Railway, Rail designed by Robert L. Stevens, A. D. 1830; adopted by American railroads. Shaded section shows rail as originally designed, 1830. Section not shaded shows rail as rolled, 1831. This rail was fastened to stone blocks with hook headed spikes; at the joints were iron tongues fastened to the stem of the rail, put on hot. FT. E. RAILWAY EVOLUTION. 29 tives and speed of trains have increased, the weight of the rail has grown heavier. Ninety and even 100 pounds per yard is not uncommon in use now. The method of supporting the rails on the tram road and the first railroad was generally stone blocks placed at their ends, as illustrated by Figs. A, B, C, D and E. With the introduction of rolled wrought iron rails, in 1805, their length began to increase, and this led to the introduction of intermediate sup- ports between the joints. The T rail, Fig. E, led to the use of cross ties, the early method of use is illustrated by Fig. F. 30 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Standard Track of Camden & Amboy Railroad, A. D. 1837. Track of Camden & Amboy Railroad. Rails laid on piling through marshes, A. D. 1837. Stevens' Rail, Vicksburg & Jackson Bailroad, A. D. 1841. FIG. F. RAILWA Y E VOLUTION. 31 To cheapen construction, the strap rail was largely used on the early American railroads; it is illustrated by Fig. G. Stone Stringer and Strap Rail, Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, A. D. 1833. Thla was a favorite American device. Wooden Stringer and Strap Rail, Albany & Schenectady Railroad, A. D. 1837. A strap rail was used on many of the first railroads in America, par- ticularly in the Central and Western States. FIG. G. 32 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. The method of constructing track with stone blocks and stone stringers gave a rigid road bed and rough riding track which were very destruc- tive to locomotives and cars. This led to the introduction of the T rail and the use of cross ties.* Cross-Section of Track in Asphalt Cross-Section of Track in Granite Block FIG. H. STREET RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. The rails are laid on continuous beams of concrete made of cement, sand and broken stone. The track is held to gauge by steel ties spaced ten feet centers. The space between the rail and beam is solidly filled by ramming In a mixture of cement and sand. The space under the ties is filled with liquid grout. This construction is somewhat of a departure from the usual practice in this country, and is found to be more durable and no more expensive than the usual wood tie construction. The above used at Buffalo, N. Y., St. Paul, Minn., and Kansas City, Mo. During the winter months the track of the steam railways is practically such as the above. The failure of the early methods was du c to poor track and poor rolling stock. In connection with the construction of railway track, it is interesting to notice the methods *While the cross tie is generally used by railroads throughout the world, the Great Western Railway of England uses a longi- tudinal support for its rails. Such support was quite common in the early days of railroading, but has, as a rule, been abandoned. RAILWAY EVOLUTION. 33 adopted by street railways to secure a permanent way where expensive pavements are laid, as illus- trated by Fig. H. The weight of the first loco- motive on the London and Manchester K. R. was 7i tons including the tender; in 1831 the weight of a goods train with engine was about 50 tons. The weight of a modern electric car and motor is from 33 to 58 tons; the additional weight of passengers when fully loaded is from 4 to 5 tons, making a total of 37 to 63 tons. We find that this rigid street car track with modern rails and roll- ing stock is giving a smooth riding track without injuring the rolling stock. No rigid connection between the ends of the rails laid in a track was made until 1847. Prior to that time they were placed one against the other in a chair, especially designed for the pur- pose, called a joint chair. The ends of the rails were not held securely in this chair, but could slide past each other and were quickly ruined by the wheels jolting over the uneven surface. In 1847 fish plates for uniting the ends of the rails were introduced, and the device has since been generally adopted. By this means the rails are firmly held together, affording an even surface at the top. The fish plate, a strip of iron about an inch thick, was placed on either side of, but not touching, the web of the rail, the edges of the plate being made to perfectly fit the sloping sides of the head and foot of the rail. The fish plate is held in place by bolts, called fish bolts, which pass through the rail and the two fish 3 Vol. 13 34 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. plates (one on either side of the rails), drawing the plates together and tightening their edges against the rail. The rail was further strength- ened at the fish joint by the cross ties being laid nearer each other there than in other portions of the track. The efficiency of the fish joint de- pends upon the plates being kept securely in their place. They require to be frequently looked after and the bolts screwed up, as they are liable to work loose with the jar of the trains passing over them. Various styles of fish plates English Fish-belly Rail, New Jersey Railroad, A. D. 1832. FIG. I. and fastenings have been introduced, the object being to find some way for holding the bolt and RAIL WAT E VOLUTION. 35 Joint Chair and Wedge, Old Portage Railroad, A. D. 1832. Stone Block, Rail and Joint Tongue laid on Camden & Amboy Railroad, A. D. 1831. FIG. I. nut firm after being screwed into place, so they cannot work loose. The early method of fastening rail joints is shown by Fig. I. The development of the rail joint fastening up to 1860 is illustrated by Fig. J. 36 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Stevens' Rail Supported by Cast-Iron Chair, A. D. 183T. Ring, Joint and Wedge, West Jersey Railroad. Wooden Joint Block, New Jersey Railroad, A. D. 1860. FIG. J. RAILWAY EVOLUTION. 37 Double Splice Bar. Erie Rail with ends stamped for Adams' Cast-Iron Bracket Splice, A. D. 1857. Single Splice Bar. Double Splice Bar. FIG. J. The fish plate or splice bar, and the angle plate or angle splice bar, had come into general use by 1870. Fig. K. illustrates its development from 1860 to 1880.* *In another chapter the reader will find illustrations of the rail joints now in use. The best method of fastening the ends of rails is still much discussed. 38 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Plain Splice Bar. A. D. 1868. Angle Splice Bar, Angle Splice Bar. Angle Splice Bar. FIG. K. RAILWAY EVOLUTION. 39 Early frogs and switches are illustrated by Figs. L and M. Frogs, Colliery Railroads of England, A. D. 182o. Staple Iron used as a makeshift for a Frog, Camden & Amboy Railroad, A. D lool* FIG. L. 40 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Frog, Old Portage Railroad, A. D. 1835. Wood's Rail Frog, New Jersey, A. D. 1859. FIG, L. RAILWAY EVOLUTION. 41 "Switches in Colliery Railroads, England, A. D. 1825. FIG. M. The Method of using bull head rails is shown by Fig. N. Section of English Permanent Way FIG. N. As timber became scarce in Europe and other countries, metal ties were adopted. Fig. illus- trates some of the styles used and the methods adopted for fastening the rails. BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Steel Tie, London & Northwestern Railway, A. D, 1885. Metal "Pot" Tie, Midland Railway of India. Metal Track, Queensland, A. D. 1889. A. D. 1889. Metal track, Midland Railway, A. D. 1889. Metal track, London & Northwestern, A. D. 1889. FIG. 0. RAILWAY EVOLUTION. 43 Metal track, Elferfeld Railway, Germany, Metal track, Great Central Railwayof Belgium, A. D. 1889. A. D. 1889. FIG. 0. During the development of the T rail, from 1830 to 1860, there were a number of devices and patterns proposed, some of which are illus- trated by Fig. P. r v , ** i KVW\%I yf e .d en Stringer,** Thick Rectangular Rail, A. D. 1838. Latrobe's Compound Rail, wood and iron. Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, A. D. 1841. FIG. P. 44 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS'. First Rail rolled in America, Baltimore & Ohio 92-pound Rail, 7 inches high. Railroad. T Rail, A. D. 1850. Z years sennet*, bottom, Ufwards.6Zlbi.il 'Uiilllllilliiiliiin L Pear-headed Rail, A. D. 1853. FIG. P. RAILWAY EVOLUTION. Pear-headed Rail. Pear-headed Rail. Compound Rail. Compound Rail Compound Rail. Compound Rail. Fie. P. 46 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Box Bail. Barlow's " Saddle Back " Rail, laid without supports. Triangular Stringer capped with Iron. FIG. P. CHAPTER II. THE RECONNOISSANCE. THE FIRST STEP IN RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. In locating a new railway line or extending an existing one, many factors must be taken ac- count of, such as the cost of the proposed line considered in relation to its probable revenue; the cost of operation and maintenance; and the financial resources of the owners. From an operating point of view it is desirable that the route shall be as direct as possible, a straight line drawn between the termini would be the ideal, but other considerations intervene, such as the most effective and profitable service that can be rendered the population within the territory, the cost of construction first and the expense of maintenance and operation afterward, the effect of the competition of existing or possible lines or other forms of transportation, etc.* When it is desired to construct a new line be- tween given points or extend an old one to a cer- tain point, the first things to know before it can *It is recorded that when a great railway line was projected in the Russian Empire, the route was a matter of much contro- versy. The emperor, however, solved the problem by taking a ruler and ruling a straight line between the termini. In coun- tries like ours, however, commercial considerations are para- mount, and no such heroic disposition of the matter is possible. (47) 48 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. be determined upon are, what will be the best route to take, and the probable cost and charac- ter of the road required. To ascertain these it is necessary that the country to be traversed should be examined by engineers. This examin- ation is called a reconnoissance, and is made un- der the direction of a civil engineer. * It is of a preliminary character only and is not intended to give an accurate survey of the country. It is made to determine: (a) an approximate location for the proposed line; (b) that it is possible to ascend from a valley on a given grade, and get over the summit of the divide; (c) that it is pos- sible to descend from this divide and cross the summit of the next on a given grade; (c) the elevation of the passes of the divides to the right and left, and (e) that the road can be built with- in certain limits of expenditure. The method of making the reconnoissance dif- fers, of course, according to conditions. If the country proposed to be traversed is well known and has been settled, accurate maps and surveys of it can be readily obtained. Accord- ingly, the engineer provides himself with a map made preferably on the scale of one inch to a mile. Such a map, where a government survey has been made, will give the township and sec- tion lines; generally the sub-division of each sec- tion by farm fences enables any desired point to be accurately located. In cases where the coun- *The duties and peculiarities of a railway civil engineer are referred to more fully in the book "Railway Organization." THE RECONNOISSANCE. 49 try has not been surveyed by the government, a map or plat will have to be made on a larger scale than that indicated say two inches to a mile, so that the boundaries of farms and other properties can be clearly shown. The engineer who makes the reconnoissance will require the following: an aneroid barome- ter (Figs. 1, 2 and 3), engineer's field books and FIG. 1. FIG. 2. FIG. 3. ANEROID BAROMETER FOR MEASURING ALTITUDES. They indicate the weight or pressure of the atmosphere, from which the altitude above sea level is determined. note books, drawing paper, a set of pocket in- struments, (Fig. 4); a tin map case or two, a 100 ft. steel tape, a prismatic compass (Figs. 5 and 6); a hand level (Figs. 7 and 8); afield glass (Fig. 9). Provided with these instruments, the engineer travels the country mostly on foot, lo- cating the controlling points. Upon his map he will depict not only the location of section lines 4 Vol. 13 50 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. PIG. 4. ENGINEER'S POCKET INSTRUMENTS. These generally embrace drawing pens and large and small compasses. PIG. 5. PRISMATIC COMPASS WITH CLYNOMETER ATTACHMENT. Used to take bearings. THE MECONN01SSANCE. 51 FIG. 6. PRISMATIC COMPASS WITH CLYNOMETER ATTACHMENT. Used to take angles of slopes. The Prismatic Compass is used for taking the magnetic bearing of a line. The Clynometer attachment is used to take the slope of the surface of the ground with a horizontal plane. FIG. 7. LOCK'S HAND LEVEL. BUILDING AND REPAIRING ll^ULWATS. FIG. 8. ABNEY'S HAND LEVEL AND CLYNOMETER. Hand Levels are used for the purpose of ascertaining points on the same level as the eye of the observer. The Clynometer attachment is used to take the slope of the surface of the ground with a horizontal plane. FIG. 9. FIELD GLASSES. The Field Glass brings distant objects within view of the engineer. and boundaries of farms and properties, but all water courses, ravines, hills, highways, towns, villages, etc. In his survey the engineer will ascertain by the use of his aneroid barometer along the summits of divides * the low points or *In engineering parlance a "divide" is the line separating the water-sheds of two adjacent systems of drainage or rivers. THE RECONNOI88ANCE. 53 the * passes. He will ascertain the elevation of valleys, and will take the elevation of spurs from the divides, also plat the contours f of the country at difficult points when necessary. Where the country is unsettled and no gov- ernment survey has been made, the method will differ somewhat from the foregoing. In such case the engineer must secure the eleva- tion and distance of the controlling points, while in the former case the plats supplied him with the distances. In addi- tion to the instruments specified he will need a pedometer (Fig. 10); -j j , /TV and an OQOmeter {V IgS. 11A, 11B, 11C), and a good watch. He will not need to be provided with instruments for determining latitude and longitude, for the problem has already been re- duced to sections. For example, after making the summit of one divide, his problem is to cross *A "spur" is a ridge extending from a divide and separates the water-sheds of two branches of the same river. fThe contour of a country is indicated by lines laid down on a map showing the location of points of the same elevation. FIG. PEDOMETER. Is a pocket instrument which records the distance the person carrying it has walked. In reality it records the num- ber of steps taken, but by proper ad- justment the distance traveled is in- dicated. 54 BUILDING AND REPAIRING R^ULWAYS. the next valley and reach the summit of the next divide, using the desired grade and curva- ture. Any errors of dis- tance made from one di- vide to another will not affect those beyond. In making such surveys camp outfits are neces- sary. These should be as light and simple as pos- sible. If the country is even and sparsely set- tled, the engineer will probably take two ponies, one to carry his appli- ances, and the other to ride. When possible he FIG. 11 A. ODOMETER. Records the distance traveled by the tire of a wheel. In reality it re- cords the number of revolutions, but by proper adjustment the distance traveled is indicated. FIG. HB. ODOMETER. Inside dial with leather case and straps. secures a guide having local knowledge of the country. THE RECONNOISSANCE. 55 In making a reconnoissance the most direct line should always be examined first, unless there is positive knowledge of some insurmountable difficulty. Should this be the case, of course the territory to the right or left will be examined. The short route, other things being equal, should not, however, be too quickly aban- doned. Rocky val- leys, giving the im- pression of difficult and expensive con- struction, have of- ten been summari- ly avoided, when af- terward they have proved to be the cheapest location. When the gen- eral direction of a proposed line cros- ses ravines or pas- ses from a summit into a valley, fol- lows a stream for some distance and then ascends another stream to a divide, it will be found advisable to look for a high line and keep on the summit, following a spur out to the stream, cross the stream by a viaduct to a spur on the opposite side and again take the summit. Such locations need careful comparison as to first cost and cost of operating and maintenance, and FIG. 11C. ODOMETER. Inside dial with leather case and straps. 56 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. in making a reconnoissance the engineer will give them most careful consideration.* Mountain and valley lines are not the most difficult to construct as is generally supposed. The greatest errors of location have been made on open prairies and foot hills of mountains on account of stopping exploration when a location giving the desired grades curvature and cost was found without endeavoring to find a better. In making a reconnoissance the engineer will, as he proceeds, make calculations and notes showing the probable nature of the material to be handled i. e.> whether earth> loose rock, hard pan or solid rock, and the percentages of each at dif- ferent cuts. This will be approximate only, but his observation will afford a basis upon which to estimate cost. He will note also the probable quantities of excavation, embankments and bridg- ing per mile; the fuel supply; possibilities of bus- iness; the geological formation, the water supply; the timber available for ties, piling and bridging; the character of the rainfall, and the effect it may have on operation. It is an axiom that nature always works along the line of least resistance. The engineer fol- lows the same rule and makes use of the forces of nature to overcome difficulties. The highest compliment that can be paid a railroad civil en- gineer is for passengers going over a completed *On a railroad in north America a valley line as described above was built and afterward abandoned for a high line which saved 12 miles of track, and cost nearly a million dollars less than the valley line. THE RECONNOISSANCE. 57 road to remark that the location and construc- tion were easy, and required no great knowledge or skill, because the passenger is ignorant of the expensive bridging avoided and the deep rock cuts, the long tunnels and heavy fills, which were unnecessary on account of the skill displayed by the engineer who made the reconnoissance. (NOTE: The student requiring detailed information in regard to the methods of making a reconnoissance, and the use of the barometer, stadia, and gradienter to measure distance, will find a list of standard books on the subjects in Appendix K). CHAPTER III. THE PRELIMINARY SURVEY. THE SECOND STEP IN RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. The reconnoissance having been completed and a report thereof made to the projectors, they will have the information needed to enable them to decide whether or not they will proceed with their venture. If their decision is in the affirm- ative and the outlook is favorable, the second step is now taken which is to make a Prelimin- ary Survey; this duty falls to the lot of a civil engineer, generally called a locating engineer, who takes the field with his corps of assistants. The instruments the locating engineer will re- quire in this work will be (a) a hand level, () an aneroid barometer, (c) a field glass, (d) a prismatic compass, (e) a pedometer and (/) a 50 ft. steel tape. The party will, of course, be fur- nished with the necessary stationery and kindred supplies. The organization of the force making the pre- liminary survey will vary according to the char- acter of the country and other considerations, such as the resources of the projectors and the degree of haste required, the latter factor being often controlled by financial considerations, or the probability of an invasion of the field by rivals. (58) THE PRELIMINARY SURVEY. 59 If the proposed line is a new one, the chief en- gineer will probably take direct charge of the FIG. 12. ENGINEER'S TRANSIT WITH LEVEL, AND VERTICAL ARC. Used to take vertical and horizontal angles; also to extend straight lines. The level enables approximate elevations to be taken within limited dis- tances. The vertical arc is used for taking vertical angles. work; if on the other hand it is an extension of an existing system, a locating engineer will have 60 BUltDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. charge, acting in subordination to the chief en- gineer of the system. FIG. 13. ENGINEER'S TRANSIT WITH LEVEL, AND GRADIENTER ATTACHMENT. The gradienter attachment is for the purpose of locating the axis of the telescope on a grade line parallel with the grade of the proposed road; in con- nection with a level rod it is also used to measure distances. The organization of the force making a pre- liminary survey generally consists of (a) a tran- THE PRELIMINARY SURVEY. 61 sit party, (6) a level party, (c) topographers, (d) draughtsmen, (0) commissary and camp. The transit par- ty is generally made up of a transit man who, in the absence of the locating engineer, is in charge; the tran- sit man is respon- sible for the ac- curacy of all angles, bearings and measure- FIG. 14. ENGINEER'S CHAIN. 100 feet long, having 100 links. ments taken ; his assist- ants are a head flagman or chainman, a rear chainman, an axeman or stakedriver, and a rear flagman. The num- ber of assistants will vary according to cir- cumstances; thus, the number of axemen will depend on whether there is much or little timber or brush to be removed, etc. The in- struments and supplies the transit party need are (a) a transit (Figs. 12 and 13), (b) an engineer's FIG. 15. ENGINEER'S IMPROVED TAPE CHAIN. 62 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. chain (Figs. 14 and 15), (c) a 100 ft. steel tape, (Fig. 16), (d) two ranging poles or rods (Fig. 17), FIG. 16. STEEL, TAPE. (e) brush hooks, (/) axes, (g) transit books, (h) lead pencils, hard and medium, (i) kiel pencils, FIG. 17. RANGING RODS OR POLES. Used in placing hubs. (j) tacks for centers on hubs, (k) two 50 ft. Ches- terman's metallic tapes (Fig. 18), (/) engineer's field book, (m) scratch blocks, (w) one sounding rod, 3 joints 8 feet each, (o) red and white flan- nel for signals, (j?) drawing paper, (#) tin map cases, (r) scales (Fig. 19), (s) protractor (Figs. 20 and 21), (tf) steel straight edge, (u) triangles, (v) THE PRELIMINARY SURVEY. 63 India ink and ink slab and carmine blue and neutral tint water colors, (w) set of, drawing in- struments and drawing board. The leveling party is generally made up of a leveler and a rodman, but if rapid work is to be done, the force can be increased to meet re- quirements. The level- ^ ing party is responsible CHESTERMAN'S METALLIC TAPE. for the correct elevation of the ground at all sta- FIG. 19. ENGINEER'S SCALE. Divided into 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60 parts to the inch. FIG. 20. PROTRACTOR. . tions where stakes are driven, the elevation be- tween the stakes where the slope of the ground 64 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. changes and the correct location of this point; the elevation of the water in streams; the elevation of FIG. 21. TRANSPARENT PROTRACTOR WITH RAILROAD CURVES. FIG. 22. ENGINEER'S Y LEVEL. For taking elevations and establishing benches. high water during freshets; and the elevation of the beds of the streams which will enable cross THE PRELIMINARY SURVEY. 65 sections of the stream to be platted; the placing of benches at proper intervals and the correct elevation of them. The leveling party will require the following: (a) a level (Fig. 22), (6) two Philadelphia leveling rods (Fig. 23), (c) one Chester- man's fifty-foot metallic tape, (c?) nails to use in benches, (e) a hand axe with leather case and belt, (/) level books, (/fC/ FIG. 26. FORM OF CROSS SECTION BOOK. end areas; form Fig. 2 6 A, can be used in this connection: STAT/OM AREAS SQ. FT. QUANTITIES CU. YDS REMARKS" EXCAVATION EMBANKMENT EXCAVATION EMBANKMEW , FIG. 26A. FORM OF QUANTITY BOOK. While the assistant engineers are testing and revising the alignment and levels and starting 94 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. the cross-sectioning, the division engineer will be examining the country to the right and left of the line to ascertain the area and nature of the territory to be drained, and thus be enabled to decide on the size of openings for bridges, cul- verts, etc. At this time he will also decide on the changes, if any, to be made in water courses, ravines, etc., to reduce the number and size of openings, if possible.* In deciding upon the size of openings the en- gineer must rely on his local knowledge; he must take into account the height of freshets, the cross-sections of streams at high water and the rate of fall of streams or valleys. This is one of the engineers perplexing problems; he does not want to have embankments washed out after the road is opened for business; neither does he want to build unnecessary bridges. The best he can do in a new country is to compare his opin- ion with the data given and size recommended by the engineer on location and preliminary sur- vey, and act upon his best judgment. The division engineer prepares a bill of ma- terial for all bridges and openings on his division and gives the location of each; these he sends to the chief engineer so that the material can be forwarded without delay. *There are engineers who use a formula to determine the size of openings for culverts and bridges, based on the area drained; as, however, the slope of the area drained, the porosity of the soil and other variable or unknown quantities cannot be taken into account in any formula, it is of doubtful value. The subject is one about which little is known even for cities where the size of sewers depends on it, and a formula good for one locality is worthless for another. CONSTRUCTION. 95 The first work of the contractor is to clear and grub the right of way; stumps and logs are re- moved from under embankments, but where the embankment is to be more than three feet in height, no grubbing will be required, cutting the stump off close to the ground will suffice. The estimates for material for track, bridges required to be erected by false work, buildings, shops, etc., are made in the chief engineer's office, and thf division engineer often has nothing to do with such work except to give track centers over his division. At the point or points where the new line con- nects with a railroad, material yards are estab- lished, and in these the material for track, build- ings and bridges, etc., is assembled, each kind of material being piled separately.* The methods adopted by contractors to do the grading depend, of course, on the nature of the material and the size of the cuts and fills. Where embankments are light, i. e., fills not over ten feet, the material is generally taken from borrowpits on each side of the embankment leaving a. bermef of not less than five feet be- tween the bottom of the slope and the borrowpit. In this class of work the earth in the borrowpits *It sometimes occurs that material for large trestles or false works, or for use in cases where a number of streams cross the line close together, is hauled across the country from some other railroad to the place where it is to be used thus enabling the work to be done ahead of the tracklayers and so preventing delay. fThe "berme" is the space between the base of an embank- ment and the inside edge of the side ditch. 96 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. is loosened with a plow, and drag or wheel scrapers are used to haul it to place. (See Figs. 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 3 FIG. 27. GRADERS' PLOW. FIG. 28. DRAG SCRAPER. *There is being introduced for this class of work machines known as "elevator graders and ditchers." These machines are drawn by six or more horses, and in suitable earth excavate the material in the borrowpit, elevate it and dump it in the embank- ment or into wagons (see Figs. 36 and 37.) The objection to mak- ing embankments direct from borrowpits with this machine is that the earth is loose in the embankment, and, consequently, great shrinkage ensues. Where, however, the machine loads wagons and they haul the dirt to the embankments this objec- tion is removed. Embankments four to six feet high have been successfully made with this machine by having teams pulling harrows anJ rollers on the embankment to pulverize and com- press the earth delivered on the embankment by the machine. CONSTRUCTION. FIG. 29. DRAG SCRAPER WITH RUNNERS 97 FIG. 30. DRAG SCRAPER WITH BOTTOM PLATE. FIG. 31. BACK SCRAPER. 7 Vol. 13 98 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. FIG. 32. TWO- WHEELED SCRAPER. END GATE CLOSED. PIG. 33. TWO- WHEELED SCRAPER. CONSTRUCTION. 99 End gate open. FIG. 34. TWO- WHEELED SCRAPER. FIG. 36. SIDE VIEW OF GRADER DITCHER AND WAGON LOADER. 100 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. FIG. 37. REAR VIEW OF GRADER DITCHER AND WAGON LOADER. Heavy fills are generally made wholly from material excavated close by, but where the loca- tion has been made with the view of avoiding cuts as much as possible, the heavy fills will ha ye to be made with material from borrowpits. In this case the bottom is put in with material borrowed on each side of the road and at the point of heavy fill; the top is made with material bor- rowed at the end near grade and hauled out on the top of the embankment and is built up in lifts of two or three feet at a time; the top material for the embankment is taken from the cut at the end, which is widened or used as a borrowpit on the side from which snow will come. Where the length of haul is considerable, four-wheeled scrapers, wagons and carts are used (see Figs. 39 to 44.) CONSTRUCTION. FIG. 39. 101 FOUR-WHEELED SCRAPER IN POSITION FOR LOADING FRONT PAN. FIG. 40. FOUR-WHEELED SCRAPER. REAR PAN DUMPED. 102 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. FIG. 41. TWO- WHEELED DUMP CART. FIG. 42. END DUMP WAGON. CONSTRUCTION. 103 FIG. 43. BOTTOM DUMP WAGON. FIG. 44. IRON END DUMP CART, Embankments must be built up regularly, and carried up their full width as they progress, to ensure uniform settlement. The degree of settle- 104 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. ment of an embankment is an uncertain quantity, depending on the kind of material and the state of the weather when the work was done; if wet, the embankment will be more compact than if the weather was dry. The manner of doing the work also affects sattlement, thus, if embank- ments are put up wholly with drag scrapers from the sides they will be the most compact; if put up by wheel scrapers from the side they will be less compact, while the poorest embankment is made by wagons and carts hauling from a cut or borrowpit at one end and building the bank in lifts of two or three feet at a time, the empty wagons returning on the top of the embankment. Wagon and cart embankments settle the most. Frosted or frozen material, especially clay, should never be put in an embankment, unless provision is made to meet excessive and uneven settlement under the tracks afterwards. In case frozen clay is used, the embankment is liable to slide out laterally when thawing takes place. Stumps, logs and brush should never be allowed in an embankment. The matter of providing for shrinkage on a new bank is largely one of individual opinion, based on experience. A good practice is to build the embankment so as to allow a shrinkage of one-tenth, i. e., an embankment in a ten-foot fill should be built eleven feet high. The bank should be the full width at the top and carried out full to the slope stakes at the base, and no sags should appear in the slope between the top or grade and foot of slope. In Fig. 45 the dotted CONSTRUCTION. 105 lines show how contractors will skimp an em- bankment where material is scarce, the haul FIG. 45. Embankment; built full width at grade and out to the slope stakes. long, or the embankment high. Particular care must be taken at the bridges to have the ends of embankment, and also the slopes full. A good practice is to get more earth into an embank- ment than the section requires, especially at bridges, thus allowing for shrinkage and washing down of material. It must always be borne in mind that the cheapest material put in an em- bankment is that put in by the contractor before the track is laid, though this can be carried to extremes and be made to unduly increase the cost. The material should be paid for as measured in excavation, and this is not only fairer, but makes the contractors' interests correspond large- ly with those of the owners. In cases where an embankment has no open- ings through it except arched culverts and cast iron pipe drains, the addition of one-tenth per foot for shrinkage, as indicated, will increase the grade gradually at one end of the cut and de- crease it gradually at the other, but this will cause 106 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. no inconvenience in operating trains. Where, however, there is an opening for a bridge, trestle or open culvert, the structure must be put at the established grade, and the embankment sloped off gently at each approach, so that trains wili not drop suddenly from the embankment on to the bridge. The practice of building an embank- ment with shrinkage added and then putting the bridge to a grade to correspond with the top ot the embankment as built, is faulty; the effect is to change the grade permanently and lose the object sought in giving shrinkage to the embank- ment. Cuts are not handled by contractors in the same way as embankments; their methods vary according to the kind of material to be handled; whether the material must be placed in embank- ment or wasted; and the ingenuity of the con- tractor. Contractors prefer, as a rule, to waste the ma- terial near the center of cuts, where the cuts are light and the material from borrowpits is conveni- ent to the embankment. Engineers on the other hand may wish the excavated material all placed in the embankment rather than unnecessarily disfigure the landscape in a thickly settled coun- try; they may decide it is cheaper to pay over- haul * when necessary, than purchase extra right of way for borrowpits; or they may not wish the material wasted on the sides of cuts where the soil is liable to slide back into the cut or in- *The term "overhaul" is used to designate the length of haul in excess of the agreed length of free haul. CONSTRUCTION. 107 terfere with surface drainage. The length he has to haul material is a vital point with the con- tractor. The length of free haul that the con- FIG. 46. RIGHT AND LEFT HAND DUMP CARS. FIG. 48. ROTARY DUMP CAR. tractor must perform is decided upon in advance, and is known at the time the work is bid upon; a price is also agreed upon for each 100 feet that material is hauled in excess of the free haul.* *The length of free haul is different with different roads, but one thousand feet is often adopted. 108 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Earth cuts are handled in much the same man- ner as described for excavations for borrowpits. For large earth cuts the contractor often lays a narrow gauge track, and conveys the material in dump carts hauled by horses or a steam engine, as shown in Figs. 46, 48 and 49. The earth is FIG. 49. VIEW SHOWING THE METHOD OF DUMPING A ROTARY DUMP CAR. excavated and loaded into the cars by picks and shovels or steam shovels, according to the extent of the cut (see Figs. 51 and 54). Where loose rock is encountered the work is conducted in much the same manner as earth. Hard pan is a cemented gravel, and is found in all stages of hardness from earth to solid rock; however, the latter occurs but seldom. It occurs sometimes in mass and again in veins from a few inches to several feet thick; as generally found it can be broken up with a specially designed plow (see CONSTRUCTION. 109 110 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Fig. 55). If it is extremely hard, it is often blasted by explosives, but it does not break up FIG. 54. STEAM SHOVEL CAR. FIG. 55. HARD PAN PLOW. well; it "blows out, 77 to use a grader's expression, in "hatfulls." It is sometimes removed by steam shovels where the deposit is large enough to war- rant one being installed. Solid rock excavation CONSTRUCTION. Ill affords the contractor opportunity to exhibit his skill; a cut which has been cross-sectioned for earth when solid rock is encountered, must be re-cross-sectioned for rock. m (See Fig. 56.) FIG. 56. SHOWING THE SLOPES FOR AN EARTH CUT. The dotted lines show the slopes for an earth cut. The full lines show the slopes for a rock and earth cut. The methods adopted for removing rock from excavation may be stated in a general way as follows: Blasting with powder or any other con- venient explosive, and reducing large pieces by block holes and small charges.* It is often found cheaper to use explosives plentifully and blow the upper part of the fcut out beyond the slopes, so it does not have to be handled.f *The better way and cheaper is to arrange a ginpole or cheap derrick in the cut, and hoist the large pieces on to a dump cart frame, of which the sides are removed, and only break up the extremely large pieces by block holes and blasting. |An extreme case of handling rock in this way occurred some years ago. Galleries were blasted out in the cut as in a mine, and a carload of powder used at one charge, blowing practically all the rock to be excavated beyond the slopes. 112 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Where explosives have been used freely to break the mass of rock, steam shovels are some- times used to load the broken mass on cars. The cars, carts, and wagons mentioned and illustrated are used in handling rock. When building an embankment with rock, it is generally safe to calculate that the material in the embankment will occupy twenty-five per cent, more space than it did in the cut; it is also safe to use slopes of one and one-quarter horizon- tal to one vertical. But great care must be taken in building the embankment to keep the slopes at both the end and on the sides of the dump as even as practicable, so that the stones when dumped do not catch on each other and form holes thus honeycombing the bank. Should this take place it is liable to cause settlement of the bank under the track; if it is on the slope the stones will in time slip and take their natural position causing the side of the bank to slide from under the track. To prevent this long poles must be kept at a convenient place on the dump to be used by men standing to one side of the rocks lodged on the slope and bear them down without being themselves in the line of the slid- ing rock. This provision must be made when large masses are put in the damp, but it is not so necessary when stone is loaded in carts and cars by hand. Rock dumps should not be brought to grade, but should be built to within three feet of grade and stone placed by hand to fill the openings; this should be followed by a course of smaller CONSTRUCTION. 113 stone, and on this should be placed spauls* to bring the embankment to grade. Tunnels should be avoided wherever possible; they are expensive to construct and maintain. The alignment requires great care in the instru- ment work, and a high grade transit must be used. While it is not always possible to lay a tangent through a tunnel, yet curves should not be used until it has been thoroughly demon- strated that a tangent is not possible without greatly increased cost; there should never be a level grade through a tunnel. In the construc- tion of a short tunnel, the drilling can be done by hand at less expense than by compressed air drills. The conditions met with are so various and call for so many different methods to over- come the difficulties that no attempt is made here to go into detail.f In. a general way, however, it may be stated that the methods of excavating are as follows: a. Excavation may begin at the bottom and proceed upward, or, b. Excavation may begin at the top and pro- ceed downward. c. The entire area of the tunnel may be ex- cavated. d. A heart, kernel or core may be left stand- ing. The methods of timbering may differ, as for instance: *"Spauls" are the small stones produced by blasting or the larger stones broken by sledges. fFor more exhaustive information the reader is referred to the work on tunneling by Henry S. Drinker, E. M. 8 Vol. 13 114 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. e. The tunnel may be supported by rafter tim- bering, or, /. Longitudinal bar timbering may be used, FIG. 61. EXAMPLE OF CRISTINA METHOD OP TUNNELING. The manner of building the masonry may differ, thus: g. The masonry may be begun at the founda- tions and the abutments erected before the arch, or, CONSTRUCTION. 115 h. The arch may be turned first and the abut- ments built last. The engineer in charge of a tunnel must keep constantly in mind that there is always a pres- sure, more or less great, on the false work ex- erted by the material composing the hill or mountain in all directions bottom, top and sides. In Europe there are five general methods used to support the roof of the tunnel during construction; they are known as the English, Belgian, German, Austrian and Cristina. The last has been used by Italian engineers in the Alps, and is fairly illustrated by Fig. 61. The other European methods have as many timber braces, etc., but the arrangement is different; the reader is referred to the work mentioned previ- ously for the details of them. One of the methods adopted in America is il- lustrated in Fig. 62. It was used on the Cincin- nati Southern Railway. Air compressors and drills are illustrated by Figs. 63 and 65. To hasten the construction of tunnels, shafts are often sunk and the work carried on from both sides of the shaft. Where shafts are used or at the end of a tunnel where the grade descends into the tunnel, pumping plants of liberal capac- ity must be installed to enable the working head to be relieved promptly of water, should a large quantity be encountered. The masonry will con- sist of the foundation, invert, abutments and arch; they must be of the best material and work- manship, laid with thin joints and paralleled beds or courses. The backing must be thorough- 116 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. m Fm. 62. EXAMPLE OF AMERICAN SYSTEM OF TUNNELING CONSTRUCTION. 117 ly rammed between the rock or soil and the ma- sonry, so that the pressure will be uniformly FIG. 63. AIR COMPRESSOR. FIG. 65. ROCK DRILLS FOR TUNNEL WORK. distributed over the masonry. Openings must be left in the masonry for drainage, and recesses 118 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. must be made at intervals for workmen to use when trains are passing through the tunnel. If the tunnel is long, provision must be made for ventilation; this is a difficult problem, and the methods tried have been numerous, such as shafts, a division of a double track tunnel by a parti- tion, stacks with a fire at the base, blowers op- erated by steam, compressed air or water power. Fig. 68 illustrates the method of ventilating the Mont Cenis Tunnel. Attempts have been made in Europe to use iron framing to support the roofs of tunnels, also for centers for the masonry; the methods are known as the Menne and Bziha Systems. The inventors claim they are successful, but while timber is plentiful in America, these systems are .not likely to be extensively used. The Detroit River Tunnel for the Michigan Central Railroad is a case in which the tunnel was excavated by the use of a shield and com- pressed air, and the tunnel lined with cast iron made in segments of a circle and bolted together as put in position. Earth banks, at all openings, bridges, cross- ings of streams and places where the water at any stage of a stream or river reaches the em- bankment should be protected by rip rap;* the amount of rip rap used need not be alike in all cases, but a good failing and one not often made is to have too much. This rip rap should be a good hard stone of the largest size that can *"Rip rap" consists of broken stone placed on an earth bank to protect it from the wash of a stream or the action of waves. CONSTRUCTION. 119 be handled, and should at no place be less than two feet thick measured at right angles to the slope. Where a railroad parallels a river which is sub- ject to ice gorges and the ice floes are large, the rip rap should not be less than three feet thick, measured at right angles to the slope; in such cases, however, the opinions of experienced men differ regarding the size of rock to use.* Retaining walls should never be built too light. A safe practice is to make a retaining wall three feet thick at the top and batter the face three inches to the foot, or offs'et the back one foot to each four feet of ^height. Thus, a retaining wall fifteen and one-lialf feet high would be six feet ten and one-half, inches thick at the base where the batter is made on the face, and where it is built by offsets on the back it would be six feet thick at the base and three feet thick at the top under the coping (see Figures 69 and 70). *A case in point was where a large river in the Atlantic Coasj States of North America was paralleled on one side by a canal, and on the other side by a railroad. The railroad company used large stone hoisted on to dump carts by a derrick for the rip rap * with the interstices filled with smaller stone. The canal com- pany used for rip rap what is known by quarrymen as "one and two men stone" dumped without placing by hand. During an ice jam in the river, the railroad embankments at numerous points were carried away by the ice floes catching on the large rock and carrying the rock out of position. The action of the ice on the canal embankments was to displace the small stone where the large floes struck it, and the stone above at once slid down and replaced those carried away; the canal embankments were not damaged to nearly as great an extent as those of the railroad. The theory of the Superintendent of the canal was "small stone make the best rip rap to stand an ice jam if you have enough of them." 120 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Openings should be made in the wall to allow water to escape, if there is any indication of its being likely to collect behind the retaining wall. Figure 71 shows how contractors will take out a cut if not looked after. Drainage is one of the main features the engi- Fra. 68. VENTILATION OF MT. CENIS TUNNEL. neer must keep in mind; he must never lose an opportunity to get a dry road bed; all cuts should, therefore, be made with a grade through them; the character of the material through which a cut is made must carefully be examined, for if a water bearing strata of clay or gravel exists, prompt nieas- CONSTRUCTION. 121 ures must be taken to prevent slides. This is done sometimes by making trenches up the slope at intervals through the cut and filling these trenches FIGS. 69 AND 70. RETAINING WALLS. with small stone leading to the side ditches, or, better still, by putting in an under drain. Ditches well back from the slope must be made to carry 122 BUILDING AND REPAIRING I^LTLWAYS. off the surface water to the end of the cut, and not allow it to pass down the slope into the cut. Borrowpits must be connected by ditches to give drainage to openings, and, where there are no bor- rowpits, ditches must be made to protect embank- ments from being washed by water coming down slopes. Where ditching is resorted to, to reduce FIG. 71. Showing how a cut can be full width at grade and the material taken out at slope stakes and yet all the material will not be excavated. openings in embankments, ample bermes must be left and the changes in direction made by easy curves. Where water is allowed to come down slopes against an embankment and flow off by a ditch through a knoll, the embankment must be reinforced by earth and, if possible, stone in suffi- cient quantity to keep the embankment from being softened by the water standing against it. CONSTRUCTION. 123 It must never be forgotten that a well drained roadbed is affected less by frost in winter, dam- aged less in rainy seasons and costs less to keep in good order. The practice is to use cast iron pipe of the style used for water mains in cities, for culverts and small pile bent bridges; some roads, however, use wrought iron pipe for this purpose. Cast iron is admitted to stand corrosion better than iron or steel, and in time will probably be used to the exclusion of iron or steel riveted pipe. Streams of considerable size can be carried under or through embankments by using several lines of large sized cast iron pipe, and building retaining walls of masonry or concrete at each end of the culvert. Care must be taken to have the earth packed firmly around the pipe and against the retaining walls, so that the water will be forced to pass through the pipe, and not be per- mitted to wash away the embankment. This ap- plies with equal force to stone arched and open culverts. Where stone cannot be secured to pave the spillway* at the discharge end of cast iron pipe culverts, the original sod must not be disturbed for a distance of at least twenty feet on each side extending across the entire right of way. This is a choice point for the contractor to use for a bor- rowpit, and must be looked after closely. Spillways and spaces between the walls of stone arched culverts and open culverts must be care- fully paved with stone not less than eighteen *A "spillway" is the outlet of a culvert or drain. 124 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. inches long, set on end and close together, the in- terstices being tilled with spauls. All open culverts, bents of pile and trestle bridges and abutments of bridges should be at right angles to the track. If for any reason this cannot be done, the bridge seat must be so arranged that the end of the bridge will be at right angles to the track. The location of the bents for pile and trestle bridges must be carefully made; this requires the center line of the railroad to be given for each bent, the axis of the bent transversely to the line of the railroad; and these points must be carefully referenced by hubs which will not be destroyed by contractors, workmen or timber haulers. In giving the location for driving the piling and the cut off for the piling, the work must be done de- liberately and carefully, and all work of line and elevation re-run and checked. Bridge abutments and piers require the greatest care in location; steel tapes only should be used, and they should be used with a spring balance. The tape should be stretched on a level piece of ground to the same tension and two hubs driven at the distance measured on the sight of the bridge and the distance measured between the hubs. Generally the length of spans is decided upon first. In such case the length of the spans should be carefully measured on level ground and hubs driven at the proper distances, and the measure- ment with a long steel tape and balance taken in the reverse order mentioned. Where the streams are of considerable width, the piers will have to CONSTRUCTION. 125 be located by triangulation, using a high grade transit for the purpose. The foundations for pile and trestle bridges are secured by driving piles in the ground and sawing FIG. 72. STEAM PILE DRIVER. them off at the proper elevations for the caps of pile bridges and sills of trestle bridges; figure 72 gives a view of a pile-driver. The experience of the engineer is called into play to decide when 126 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. a pile has been driven sufficiently; the timber in a pile can be shattered by over-driving so it will possess very little strength to support a load; neither will it support the load if not driven sufficiently. Rules are given by Trautwine, Wellington and others re- garding this subject; a rule much in use is to stop driving when six blows with a two-thousand pound hammer falling a distance of twenty feet fail to drive the pile over one inch. This rule, however, must be used with judgment. There have been cases where piles would settle a foot at each drop of the hammer, and, if left over night, they could not be started by the hammer, and yet these piles are today successfully support- ing heavy trains on a trunk line.* Again there are frequent cases where piling could not be secured of sufficient length to reach the bottom of the soft strata of cedar and tamarack swamps where the material did not possess the property of closing around a pile and supporting it as in the preceding case. In such cases the support for the roadbed has been secured by laying long logs transversely to* the line of the road close to- gether, and building an embankment on them.f There are yet other cases where the soil is of a nature that during a prolonged season of dry, hot weather the soil becomes so hard that a pile is with difficulty driven into it, yet during the rainy season this soil becomes soft and spongy. Great *This case was in marshy ground where quick sand settling around the pile gave it the necessary support. fThis is known as corduroying a swamp. CONSTRUCTION. 127 difficulty is encountered in such soils to get the piling down a sufficient depth during dry weather to support the load during wet seasons and not shatter the pile by overdriving. The foundations for abutments and piers are secured in a number of ways; in a general way they can be given as follows: (a) Where a pier is built outside of a stream during low water the earth is excavated below the water line, or to the rock; the water is kept out by pumps; where rock is not reached or a firm soil capable of bearing a weight of four to five tons per square foot, piling is driven, the tops sawed off and a timber grillage* built on top to carry the masonry. Recently a mass of concrete about six feet thick, in which the tope of the pil- ing project three feet, has been used instead of timber grillage. (b) Where a pier is located in a stream of mod- erate depth of water, sheet piling is driven in two rows around the foundation, and the space filled with clay and rammed tight and the foundation secured as described above. In greater depth of water, piling is driven and the tops sawed off level at or near the bed of the stream, and a caisson sunk on to the piling and the masonry built in the caisson. Where the bed of the stream is rock, the foundation has been secured by making the bottom of the caisson to correspond with the ir- regularities of the rock and sinking the caisson *' 'Grillage" consists of square timbers placed on top of the piling to distribute the weight of the masonry evenly on each pile. 128 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. directly on to the rocky bed of the stream. Where there is great depth of water or an allu- vial formation subject to changes of channel by floods, the pneumatic caisson is resorted to. * All piers and abutments require rip rapping and other necessary measures taken to protect them from damage by ice where the stream is subject to ice jams. The masonry for piers, abutments and culverts, need not be of a quality known as first-class; but it must be well bedded and bonded and built solid, no voids being allowed. The bonding must apply to the backing as well as the face stone, so as to approach as near as possible to a monolith. The stone used should be large and the coping thick, and of a quality which will not deteriorate on exposure to the weather, or crush under the weight which it will have to support. Where a stream is shallow, and subject to sud- den overflow and drift, which would carry away false work, low water tracks are used to extend the road. These low water tracks leave the located line at each side of the valley and when possible are laid parallel to and a sufficient distance from the located line, so that they can be used to deliver ma- terial required for constructing the bridge. The low water track is carried across the steam on a low trestle securely anchored to the bed of the stream so that when a rise in the river takes place it will not be washed away. This low water track per- mits the rapid extension of the line and gives *This is a large subject and the reader is referred ito the liter- ature treating of it mentioned hereafter. CONSTRUCTION. 129 facilities to forward track and construction ma- terial, and it has even been used in operating the road for some months before the bridging was completed. High water in streams of this nature seldom interferes with the operating of trains for more than a few hours at a time, and the drift would carry away any trestle bridge or false work which obstructs the stream. The approach to a bridge from a new bank should be supported on a mud sill; after the em- bankment has fully settled, piling or masonry can be used to replace the mud sill as desired. Masonry can be saved by omitting an abutment and making the approach to the first pier on a trestle, or better still, a plate girder. The grade must be surfaced true before ballast is put on; or for track, if the ballasting is to be done after track laying. For this purpose the engineers give center and grade stakes, the grade stakes being placed every one hundred feet on tangents, and every fifty feet on curves. Two grade stakes are required for each center stake; one five feet each side of the center; on curves the grading should be made to conform to the elevation to be given the outer rail. The inside grade stake to be depressed as much below the grade line as the elevation to be given the outer rail, and the outside grade stake to be raised the same amount* Monthly estimates are made as the work prog- *This is the method adopted by one of the Eastern Trunk Lines of North America and is believed by some to cause a train to ride more evenly when entering and leaving a curve. 9 Vol. 13 130 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. resses and progress profiles made, showing the work done both in excavation and embankment. The resident engineer takes account of the num- ber of men, teams, etc., in each gang as he passes over the work daily and makes a monthly report, as per accompanying form (7 2 A), to the division COLUMBIAN /?* Co &TOCKDALE BRANCH FORCC R FOR. T rOR THE MONTH OF 190 THE rOLLOWINC. NUMBERS Or MEN,TCAMS.TC REPRESENT TH AMOUNT WORKING. ONE DAI. SECTIONS PLOUGH TE AMS SCRAPER TE AMS WHEEL CD SCRAPER TEAMS DUMP WAGONS FOREMEN LABORERS REMARKS FIG. 72A. FORM OF FORCE REPORT. engineer. * At the end of each month the resident engineer gives line and grade over all work done during the current month, .and the division en- gineer goes over the work and takes notes of the stations between which work has been done dur- ing the current month. The record he keeps is in the following form (72B). The resident engineer furnishes the quantities *This report is generally called a "force report." CONSTRUCTION. 131 in a report to the division engineer, and he com- pares their quantities with those calculated in his office from the center heights and slope of the ground and with the force account. The division engineer forwards the estimates for sections and also the force account for sec- tions to the chief engineer, who compares them with the data secured from the preliminary survey CL- '06 HAND PAGE //; r HAND FIG. 72B. FORM OF ESTIMATE BOOK. and location and what is being accomplished by similar gangs of men on other divisions. By this method all parties are protected from charges of favoritism, and anyone returning the wrong quan- tities will be discovered; where the surveys have been made as outlined previously, the chief en- gineer has the means of determining the approx- imate quantities and classification. The subject of classification of material is one 132 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. about which no two engineers will give the same decision, though they may not materially differ. There is no clearly marked line between earth and loose rock, or earth and hard pan, and there are cases where it is a question whether it is loose rock or solid rock. The method of estimating given here enables a second engineer to examine the work and intelligently criticise the opinion of the ojie making the estimate. The manner of estimating and calculating quantities varies with different roads. There have been cases where the resident engineer cross-sectioned the work, and each month made a report that the work was completed between given stations. The quanti- ties were calculated at the office of a division engineer, and also the estimates made at the same office from the notes of the resident en- gineer. Under this method the resident engineer can look after a longer residency; but the force in the division engineer's office is increased and the advantage of a check on estimates between the two offices is lost. Borrowpits should be cross-sectioned both be fore work is commenced and after its comple- tion.. The amount to be paid for overhaul is calculated differently on different systems. The method generally adopted is to ascertain the free haul first, and then ascertain the center of mass in the cut beyond the free haul, and the center of mass in the fill beyond the free haul. The distance A. B. (see Fig. 73) less the free haul is the length of the overhaul, and the cubic yards of the mass C. CONSTRUCTION. 133 D. E. and F. in the excavation is the amount hauled. Another method is to find the center of mass of the entire amount in the excavation FIG. 73. VIEW OVERHAUL. hauled into the embankment, and the center of mass in the embankment (see Fig. 74). From this distance A. B. deduct the length of free haul FIG. 74. VIEW OVERHAUL and use for the amount overhauled the entire amount taken out of the excavation. Pipe culverts are paid for by a price per ton miles hauled, and a price per ton for placing, and the excavation for bedding them. 134 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Stone arched and open culverts are paid for at a price per cubic yard for the excavation for foundation, and the masonry; the paving is paid for by the square yard of surface paved. Bridging with timber is estimated as follows: Piling is estimated at the length swung in to the leads where the railroad company furnishes the bill of material and specifies the length of piling; otherwise the contractor is paid for the length of piling from the point to cutoff. Square timber is es- timated by the number of feet, board measure, in the completed structure; a different price is paid for pine and oak, the quantities of each being kept separate. Iron such as bolts, spikes and other wrought iron is estimated by the pound, and cast iron washers and spreaders the same way. False work is sometimes included in the price for an iron or steel bridge; in cases where the railroad company puts it up to get construc- tion material to the front, it is estimated the same as for wooden bridging but the price may be different. Retaining walls are estimated for by the cubic yard. Rip rap is estimated for by the cubic yard. After the completion of the sections, a careful final estimate is made, but final payment is gen- erally withheld until track is laid over the work. Cuts and fills having been made, culverts, trestle bridges and false work erected and depot grounds graded a sufficient distance from the junction with the present railroad, the track lay- ing force is in a position to commence work. The division engineers at the front estimate the date CONSTRUCTION. 135 the track layers will reach their respective divis- ions, and look over their divisions carefully with regard to the amount of material to move, and the forces employed in grading and bridging. Tardy contractors are urged to greater activity and every effort made to secure the completion of the grading and bridging before the track lay- ing forces arrive. The chief engineer comes out over the line to give a personal inspection and hurry forward the work on heavy sections. The manner in which the track is laid depends FIG. 75. TRACK LAYING OR IRON CAR. on the length of the new road and the character of the country. One method is as follows: A construction train brings the material to the front, and the ties are unloaded and hauled forward with teams, and placed on the grade; the rails are brought to the front on the cars which were used to bring them from the material yard. The necessary quantities of fishplates, bolts and spikes are placed on each car to lay the rails contained on the car. The rails are drawn over the end of the car and placed on a track-laying or iron car 136 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. (see Fig. 75). This car is pushed forward as fast as the rails are laid, the joints are half bolted and the rails quarter spiked; when the last pair of rails is drawn off the iron car, the engine pushes forward the train of construction material, and the iron car is reloaded. This operation is repeated until the head car of the construction train has been unloaded of rails, when the entire train is taken back to its siding and the empty car left there, and the next car loaded with rails becomes the first or head car next to the iron car. * While the above is being done a gang of men is placing the splices or fishplates, bolts, nuts, nutlocks, and spikes. Another gang is throwing off the ties as fast as the teams can haul them ahead, and wher- ever the grade will permit, the ties are loaded direct from the cars to the wagons. By this method the ties are not hauled over five hundred feet. Behind the construction train is a gang of men completing the spiking. An average of one mile per day has been made in a good country by this method. The construction train at the front is made up as follows: The front cars are loaded with rails, splices, bolts and spikes, there being a sufficient number of cars to contain the necessary material for one day's work. Behind the iron *Where the run to a side track is too long and will cause de- lay in delivering track material to the track layers, two iron cars are used and the rails thrown from the cars to the ground along side of the construction train; the train pulls back and the rails are loaded on the iron car, the loaded iron car is taken to the front, the empty one having been taken off the track by being turned over and left standing on its side; the construction train is then brought forward and another lot of rails thrown off to load the second iron car. CONSTRUCTION. 137 cars come the cars loaded with ties; there being enough of these also for one day's work; these are followed by the boarding cars. By this method the only switching required is to set the head iron cars as unloaded on the side track. When the day's work is completed, the train is hauled back to the first siding, and the boarding cars left there while the engine takes the empties to the material yard and returns with another train load for the next day's work. Where the route of the new road is in a rough country which will not permit the ties to be hauled ahead by teams the manner of handling the ties is as follows: Two iron cars are used, the first one is loaded with six to eight rails and the necessary fastenings, and on top of braces placed above the rails are placed the necessary ties to support the rails without bending them while the construction train passes over. This car is pushed to the front by men or hauled by horses. While the track material on the first car is being laid, the second car is being loaded. The empty car is thrown off the track and stood on its side to permit the loaded one to pass. The ties for the iron car are loaded on the car containing the rails in such a manner that the rails can be pulled from under them; the ties to be placed under the rails after the construction train passes over are unloaded as the train pro- ceeds. Behind the construction train there is a gang placing the ties omitted at the front. This gang also finishes the spiking. In the construction of track, machines for the purpose are used called "Track Laying Ma- 138 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. chines." The Holman and the Harris machines are the principal ones. The Holman machine (see Fig. 76) is composed of a series of tramways 30 feet long and about 20 inches wide, fitted with heavy iron rollers. These tramways are attached to the sides of ordinary flat cars, without any changes, and are supported by adjustable iron stakes that fit into the pockets on the sides of the FIG. 76. HOLMAN'S TRACK LAYING MACHINE. cars, and, being connected, operate the full length of the train, the same as one continuous tram- way. The ties and rails are thrown upon these tramways and rolled down to the front, where men receive and place them in position on the roadbed. The ties come down on the right hand side of the train and the rails on the opposite side. On the tie side, a chute, supported by a wire cable, runs out thirty-five feet in front of the train, which allows the men handling ties to be one panel ahead of the men handling rails CONSTRUCTION. 139 and consequently out of each other's way. A train of ten cars, viz: six of ties, three of rails and the tool car will carry all material required for a half -day's work, and from one-half to three- fourths of a mile of track. One and one-half miles of track per day can be laid with this machine, with from forty to fifty men and a capable foreman, provided the Railroad Company can deliver the material at the front fast enough and in proper shape. (Some expert foremen have laid two miles of track per day. ) This includes full tieing, laying the rails in position, joint, quarter and center spiking, putting on the fishplates or angle- bars and two bolts through the same. This leaves the track in safe condition for the construction train, and the balance of the work is finished be- hind the train without reference to or use of the machine. As fast as the panels are laid the train moves forward, 30 feet at a time, carrying all material with it, leaving nothing scattered along the line. The main object of the machine is to dispense with the use of teams in the distribution of material and also to reduce the cost of rail- way building. On the Northern Pacific Railroad 8,400 feet of track was laid in eight hours actual working time with one foreman and sixty-six men as follows: In front of machine 1 tie man, 8 tie carriers, 2 bolters, 4 spikers, 1 chute man, 6 rail carriers and 2 nippers. On train, 2 men unloading rails, 2 men pushing rails, 16 men handling ties. Behind train, 2 spacers, 8 spikers, 3 bolters, 4 nippers, 4 liners and 1 peddler. On this day the boarding train was about five miles 140 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. in the rear; two hours were consumed in going to and from work and making up train, leaving eight hours actual working time. The Harris machine (see Fig. 77) consists of a Fig. 77. HARRIS' TRACK LAYING MACHINE. continuous tramway or track (about eight feet six inch gauge) laid and spiked firmly upon the top of a construction train of platform cars. Upon this tram track runs a small automatic car, de- signed for carrying ties. Cast-iron rollers are placed in the center of all cars that are used for carrying rails. In fitting up cars for the machine five ties (ten and one-half feet long) are fastened firmly across each car. Eails are then selected from those to be laid in the permanent track, and spiked to the ties, thus making a track (eight feet six inch gauge) thirty feet long on each car of the train; short adjustable pieces of rails are placed between each pair of cars to connect the permanent rails, and which permit of their easy removal after the train has been unloaded, and their ready replacement again when the next u rain comes to the front. The front or pioneer car has a frame work or extension permanently fastened to it, which extends the tram track about CONSTRUCTION. 141 twenty feet ahead of the train. Across the. front end of these extension timbers is fastened a double roller, about one foot lower than the cast-iron rollers on the pioneer and construction cars, for receiving and carrying the rails after leaving the train. The small automatic tie car has a mova- ble top which unloads the ties automatically cross- ways the roadbed, enough at a time for sixty feet of track. Kails are loaded on the forward cars of the train, being piled between the cast-iron rollers and the tram track, half on each side of the car. On each car used for carrying rails sufficient joint fastenings, spikes, bolts, etc., are loaded for use of the track laying force in front of the train. The balance of the materials required to finish the track are carried on the tool and supply car next to the locomotive, and are distributed from this car as required. Ties are loaded crossways the rear cars of the train or those nearest the lo- comotive. Sufficient "short rails" for keeping joints even on curves are carried on the pioneer car, and are always convenient when required. When the train arrives at the "front" it is coupled to the pioneer car (which always remains at the end of the track). The men, in going for- ward from the tool car (where they generally ride) drop the short connecting rails into place, to make the tram track continuous and the ma- chine is ready for work. There is absolutely no time lost during the day in getting the machine ready for work, or in removing any apparatus when the cars are unloaded. Ties enough for two lengths of rails, or sixty feet of track, are 142 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. loaded upon the automatic tie car and run on the continuous track over all the cars of rails to the front end of the extension timbers, when the front wheels of the car come suddenly in contact with the stop block. The top frame of the car (which moves oh rollers) suddenly darts forward and dumps the ties instantly crossways the road- bed, and scatters them a distance of from twenty to forty-five feet ahead of the last track laid. The tie car is immediately run back and reloaded with ties, and returns in -time for the next sixty feet layout. The ties are immediately put in their right places on the roadbed. Four rails, two for each side of the track are bolted together on the top of the train, and are run from the rollers of the construction cars to the double roller which carries them on a down grade until they are re- ceived on the roller of a low trestle or "dolly," which assists in carrying them on the same de- clining grade to the point opposite where they are to be laid into the track. The men on the ground immediately drop them on the ties and heel them into the angle plates (which have been fastened loosely to the last rails laid). Three ties on tangents and four on curves are quickly spiked, and the train moves forward over the sixty feet of track just laid. The process is re- peated until the work is finished. The balance of the spiking, bolting and lining the track is performed after the train passes over it. When it is desired to lay a track at a speed of two and one-fourth or two and one-half miles per day, or at a speed of only one or one and one-fourth miles CONSTRUCTION. 143 per day, the above method of working" the ma- chine is varied somewhat to suit the circum- stances. On the Chicago, Kansas & Nebraska Railway an average of 2.16 miles of track per day was made in laying 288 miles of track. The maximum grade was 52 feet per mile. The train was made up as follows for one-half day's work Harris Track Lay ing Machine: 5 cars of steel 76 rails per car. 5 cars of ties 270 ties per car. 10 cars of ties for back filling two engines, one tool car, one caboose, one car of crossing plank, one car of telegraph material. The force employed consisted of one foreman and 139 men as follows: 10 men on the cars delivering the ties over the front of the machine. 10 men on the car delivering the steel over the front of the machine. 35 men in front of the machine placing ties, handling steel, putting on fishplates (i bolted) and spiking two ties to a rail. 14 men handling ties out of the cars, and on the grade, placing them under the steel behind the train. 60 men back spiking and bolting. 5 men lining track. 5 men surfacing track. The telegraph line was kept up with the track layers, poles were placed thirty to a mile; there were two wires put up. The force consisted of: 8 men digging holes. 3 men setting poles. 144 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 1 man* putting on cross-arms. 1 man on the train distributing material. 2 men stringing wires. The methods above described are varied according to the opinions of track laying fore- men; the ties can be hauled by teams if desired where either machine is used. The track may be only half tied ahead of the construction train and other ties put in behind the train; these ties can be brought to the front by another train, thus lightening the load on a heavy ascending grade. The skill of the track laying foreman is shown in adapting his appliances to the chang- ing physical conditions of the line.* A gang surfacing with earth or gravel as cir- cumstances permit or ballasting and surfacing follows the track layers. The details of ballast- ing and surfacing and track work in general are taken up in another chapter. Side tracks for depots should be graded by the contractor when grading the main line, and the track laying force should lay the sidings which they will require in handling their construction material and boarding cars. Track layers will often have to lay temporary sidings where depots are not located close together to avoid delays in coming back to switch the empty cars out and put loaded cars in the construction train. The water supply having been decided upon, a force of men is at once put to work behind the *Appendix J gives details of the late practice in laying tracks, curving rails, etc. CONSTRUCTION. 145 track layers.* The means of securing a water supply call forth the same skill as is displayed in obtaining that for a city, only of course, not on so extensive a scale. Springs, streams, im- pounding reservoirs, open wells both shallow and deep, artesian wells, siphons, are called into use as conditions suggest. The methods adopted to elevate the water are as various as the source of supply; windmills, steam pumps, pumps operated by gas, and hot air engines, hydraulic rams, or gravity from a supply in the hills or mountains adjoining may be adopted. The plant has to be built so that the supply will not be cut short dur- ing a severe winter, and must be cheap to operate. The fuel supply has to be attended to at the same time as the water supply is being looked after. Coal sheds and chutes are usually located near a water station; this enables the train to take coal and water with the minimum amount of delay. Delays to trains can be reduced to a minimum by having the water tank or crane and coal sheds so located that west or north bound trains can take on their supply when stopping at stations, east or south bound trains doing the same at another set of stations. While the water and coal supply is being pro- vided for, the turntables must be placed in posi- tion as quickly as possible. Noxt comes the erection of depots, warehouses and platforms, and these are followed by the *It is sometimes necessary to put them to work ahead of track to secure a supply of water for the construction train crew and engine. IO Vol. 13 146 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. roundhouses, shops and section houses. The hotels and eating houses, when erected by the railway company, are among the last to be put up. The offices for the division superintendents and their forces often form part of a depot or hotel, seldom a separate building. The telegraph line is always kept to the front, and an instrument and operator located at the last siding at end of track, where the boarding- cars of the track-laying force are left at night, so that the foreman of the track-layers and the surfacing gang can be kept in communication with the superintendent of construction or chief engineer. Fencing the right of way, depot grounds and yards is generally the last thing done. (NOTE : A list of authors on Construction is given in Ap- pendix K.) CHAPTER VI. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIAL. The standard sizes and quality of the various materials and devices which are used on a new line of railroad are largely determined before the reconnoissance is made, and are in every case definitely decided upon before the located line is finally adopted. STRUCTURES. The financial success of the enterprise will largely depend on the selection of the proper standards for the different structures along the line. Thus if it is decided to erect substantial structures for stations, shops, storehouses, etc., on a new line, the greatest care must be exer- cised, or it may be found that a substantial and costly structure has been placed at a point where very little business is being done. Inasmuch as trading and manufacturing cen- ters spring into existence at unexpected points, it is advisable to keep the first cost of the road down to the minimum, consistent with economy of operating. After the country has been devel- oped and the character of the business deter- mined, then more substantial and permanent structures can with advantage be adopted. (147) 148 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. GAUGE. The gauge or distance between the rails, is the first point to be decided; a large majority of the mileage in America is four feet eight and one- half inch gauge, and it is perhaps safe to state that this is the gauge of the majority of the rail- way mileage of the world. Discussion as to the best gauge has been carried on ever since rail- way building commenced, and was quite spirited from 1870 to 1883, when there was a strong sen- timent in favor of a narrower gauge than four feet eight and one-half inches, which was then and is now called the Standard Gauge. In 1880 there were 4,000 miles of railway having a gauge of three feet, and such lines were then and are now called narrow gauge.* The advocates of the narrow gauge claimed for it the following advantages; First Ability to haul heavier loads. Second Ability to pass around sharper curves. Third That the road could be constructed for less money, and Fourth That the paying load hauled was a larger percentage of the dead load hauled than on roads having standard gauge. As the standard and narrow gauge roads ex- isted and were operated in 1880, these claims were correct, but only the second and third are due to the gauge. The load hauled by a locomotive depends on the relation existing between the horse-power *Appendix E gives a list of the gauges of railroads that are or have been in use in different countries. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 149 and the weight on the drivers, as the load to be hauled increases, the weight on the drivers and the horse-power of the locomotive must be cor- respondingly increased; it is not economy to have the weight of the drivers designed for a greater load than the horse-power of the engine will pull; this would be a case of a dead load having no earning capacity. On the other hand, if the horse-power is greatly in excess of the weight on the drivers, the result is that the driv- ers spin round on the track (slip) when a load suitable to the horse-power is attached to the lo- comotive. The" discussion of the gauges referred to taught the managers of the broad gauge roads that their locomotives could be designed to se- cure greater efficiency or economy. The second claim of the narrow gauge advocates possessed but small value, except in extremely rough and difficult country, and then only at exceptional points. The third claim, which they considered one of their strong points, is not so strong as it appears; where a new line is to be built to de- velop a country, and the business will be light for some years, the bridging, rails, locomotives and cars can be built of a light, cheap standard and the rolling stock kept on the line; bulk ma- terial, such as live stock, grain, wool, etc., can be handled in foreign cars of connecting lines, where the shipment is to a point off the line; this method saves the expense of transferring bulk shipments at terminals, and the bridging, track and rolling stock would cost about the same as for a narrow gauge. The saving in the 150 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. grading for a surface road averaging six feet cut and fill, placing fifty cents per yard for the av- erage price paid per cubic yard of material moved, would be $1,200.00 per mile. A light broad gauged road equipped as above described has, in addition to the advantage of handling bulk freight, the further advantage that the earnings can be used to equip it for heavy traffic as the business of the country is developed, and all improvements can be made to conform to the equipment used on the older roads. At the time of the discussion in favor of the narrow gauge the capacity of the narrow gauge freight cars was a much higher percentage of the dead load than that of the broad gauge freight cars. This educated the managers of the broad gauge roads, and to-day there are freight cars of 80,000 pounds capacity and 36,000 pounds weight or dead load, while in 1880 the capacity was about the same as the dead load. As a rule, all new lines built in a country where railroads already exist should be of the same gauge as existing ones. This will enable freight to be handled more cheaply than where there has to be a transfer from one car to an- other at terminals. The fact that there was a narrow gauge mileage of 4,000 miles in 1880 and a mileage of 3,000 miles in 1899 points con- clusively to the fact that the standard gauge is more economical to operate. CUTS AND FILLS. The next point to be decided is the width at STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 151 grade of the cuts and fills. On a standard gauge road, the following table gives the widths used on some of the lines in North America: SINGLE TRACK. Earth Rock Name of Road. Embankment. Excavation. Excavation. New York Cent. & Hudson River 16ft. 19 ft. 17ft. New York, New Haven & Hartford 18ft. 18 ft. 18ft. Lake Shore & Michigan Southern 16 ft. 23f ft. Baltimore & Ohio 17ft. 19 ft. 18ft. Southern Pacific 16ft. 19 ft. Northern Pacific 14ft. 20 ft. 16ft. Chicago & Nor. -West 20 f t . 24 f t . 22 ft. Tratman recommends 16 ft. 20 ft. 18 ft. Often used on new lines with earth ballast 14 ft. 18 ft. 16 ft. The slopes adopted are generally as follows: For earth cuts 1 horizontal to 1 vertical. For rock cuts \ " to 1 For rock cuts over 30 feet cutting. " to 1 " Earth embankments 1J " to 1 " Rock embankments \\ " to 1 " The slopes of earth cuts near depots in towns and suburban districts of large cities are often flat- tened to 14 to 1 and 2 to 1 and rounded off at the top and sodded. Narrow Gauge Sections. The widths of cuts and fills for narrow gauge railroads can be made less than for a Standard gauge. A deduction of two feet can be made where the gauge is three feet. Controlling Points. The points which control the width of rock cuts are the room required to 152 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. clear the lower steps on the platforms of passenger cars. The long cars and their truss rods are also a factor which has to be taken into account as clearance must be provided for them. The character of the material through which an earth cut is made, and the amount of surface drainage into the cut, are the factors in deter- mining the slope of an excavation and the width at grade. There are often cases where the sur- face drainage is diverted by ditches sometimes called berme ditches ten or fifteen feet back from the edge of the slope to the end of the cut to prevent the water running down the face of the excavation, and where the character of the material will stand a slope of i or f to 1. In such a case a largo saving is made, but the en- gineer who attempts this must have had experi- ence in handling material. There are some gravels and clays which will stand at a steeper slope than 1 to 1. However, with the clays, their lines of cleavage or seams may cause fail- ures under the most promising circumstances. Mr. Tratman in " Railway Track and Track Work " in treating on the widths at grade of cuts and fills says: "The surface at subgrade is almost invariably crowned at the middle to drain off water to the sides, the only exception of which the writer is aware being on the Eastern Railway of France, where the surface is made slightly concave, and tile drains are led from the bottom of the hollow to the face of the bank. The roadbed may be formed in different ways to throw off the water STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 153 reaching it through the ballast: (1), it may have one or more planes from each side to the center; (2), it may have a curved surface with a rise of 3 to 6 inches for single track and 6 to 8 inches for double track; or (3) it may have a flat center por- tion with planes each side of the ditch. In regions of ordinary rainfall the best plan is to give a slope, as it will throw off water better than a flat curve. The more solid and compact the surface of the roadbed is made before the bal- last is applied, the better will be the drainage, and the latest specifications prepared by Mr. Katte, Chief Engineer of the New York Central Eailway require the subgrade to be as nearly homogeneous in composition and consistency as practicable for a depth of 18 to 24 inches, solidi- fied to uniform resistance by thorough ramming or rolling, and truly graded in regular drainage planes, having a rise of 6 inches for a double track roadbed 27 feet wide on a bank. In some cases the roadbed is inclined on curves to give the proper superelevation to the track, but this practice is not general. "In some cases the slope of the roadbed is con- tinued to meet the toe of the slope in cuts, but with earth or other poor ballast and in country with ordinary rainfall, it is better to have a ditch reaching well below subgrade, so as to effectually drain the roadbed. The drainage of the track is effected by the ballast, the crowning of the sub- grade and by side ditches in cuts, which latter carry away the water from the ballast and road- bed, and this drainage is one of the most import- 154 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. ant items in maintaining a good track, its im- portance increasing as the quality or quantity of the ballast decreases, and increasing also in rela- tion to the extent of rainfall. Climatic condi- tions are, of course, to be considered in designing the form of cross-section of roadbed, heavy ditch- ing not being required in dry regions with light soil. On roads through country with a moder- ate rainfall, the ditches should, nevertheless, be of ample capacity to carry off the storm water in occasional heavy rains. The ditches should be parallel with the track, not made to wind around stumps or holders, and must be graded so as to pass all water freely and to thoroughly drain the roadbed and keep both ballast and roadbed firm and dry. The width should increase towards the ends, and if the standard width does not give sufficient capacity, the ditch should be widened on the outer side. "The distance from the rail to the ditch varies according to the nature of the soil, and the bot- tom should be about 16 to 24 inches below the crown of sub-grade. An average arrangement in ordinary material is a distance of 7 feet from the rail to the edge of a ditch 24 inches wide on top, 18 inches wide on the bottom, with the bottom 8 inches below center of roadbed on single track, or 12 inches on double track. In wet cuts the ditches may be lined with cement, or in narrow cuts (especially where the earth slides or bulges) they may be lined with plank or old ties with struts across the top. Sub-drains of tile, brush, or wooden boxes may be laid as STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 155 required. Where it is necessary to carry water from the ditch on one side to the ditch on the other side of the track, or from a center ditch to the side ditches (as on double track) box drains of wood are laid in the ballast. These box drains are usually 12x12 inches inside, 12 to 16 feet long, made of 2-inch plank with the ends sloped to conform to the slope of the ballast, and having four or six flat strips 2x6x16 inches across the top. The ditches may be carried under road crossings by cast-iron pipe, clay, sewer or culvert pipe, or wooden box drains. The first is prefer- able, as wood soon rots and lets dirt fall in to clog the drain, and clay pipe is liable to be broken, as there is generally very little cover over it. The size of the pipe varies according to the amount of water to be carried, but is gener- ally 6 to 10 inches, while the box drain is usually about 8x10 inches, having plank sides and bottom and a top of cross strips nailed close together." Sections of the roadbed and ballast used on some railroads are shown in Figs. 81 to 89. FIG. 81. EARTH BALLAST. GAL VESTON, HOUSTON & HENDERSON RAILWAY. 156 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. FlG. 82. GRAVEL BALLAST. GAL VESTON, HOUSTON & HENDERSON RAILWAY FIG. 83. EARTH BALLAST. ILLINOIS CENTRAL RAILROAD. FIG. 84. CRUSHED STONE, 2 INCHES DIAMETER ON QUARRY SPAULS 4 TO 6 INCHES DIAMETER. N. Y. C. & H. R R. R. OF CONSTRUCTION. 157 FIG. 85. BALLAST, CRUSHED STONE 2 K INCHES DIAMETER.-PENNA. R. R. FIG. 86. ROCK CUT STONE BALLAST, 2 INCHES DIAMETER. -C. & P. E BRANCH, PENNA. R. R. 158 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. CO I GO EH . 3 STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 159 8-0' FIG. 89. BURNT CLAY BALLAST. C. B. & Q. R. R. The sections used in some of the American and foreign tunnels are shown in Figs. 90 to 94. FIG. 90. HOOSAC TUNNEL. FINISHED MASONRY IN SOFT GROUND. 160 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. ffls/f'/"''//////w ^ FIG. 91. SECTION OF TUNNEL AT PORT PERRY.-P. V. &. C. RY. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 161 FIG. 92. SECTION OF TUNNEL OX THE INSBRUCK-BOZEN LINE OF AUSTRIAN SOUTHERN RY CO. (I Vol, 13 162 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. FIG. 93. SECTION OF TUNNEL, USED BY GOVERNMENT RAILWAY OF EAST INDIA. STAND+UtDS OF CONSTRUCTION. I 163 FIG. 94. SECTION OF IRON TUNNEL, UNDER ST. CLAIR RIVER USED BY GRAND TRUNK RY. BALLAST. Newly constructed roads and the branches of some of the larger systems are largely ballasted with earth, or rather, are not ballasted at all, 164 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. either for the reason that financial conditions prevent or the traffic is so light as not to require it. In this case the methods adopted to support the track are fairly illustrated by the sections of the roadbed of the Galveston, Houston & Hen- derson Railway and the Illinois Central Railway where the earth is filled over the center of the tie level with the top of the rail, sloping out to the bottom of the tie at its end; this gives drain- age by conveying the water off the bank rapidly, and permits the moisture under the tie to drain out at the end. The objections to this plan are that the earth over the center of the tie tends to rot it and the lack of support at the end makes it difficult to hold the track to line. However, in the country where these sections are used, the rainfall at some seasons of the year is heavy and continuous and the sections adopted are the best for such climatic conditions. Where the rainfall is not so great and where the ground is more or less frozen during the winter, the earth (and ballast also when used) is not placed on top of the tie. The various kinds of ballast used can be classed as follows: Stone, slag, gravel, sand, cinders and burnt clay. The requirements of a good ballast are that it shall be durable; of a character that will allow water to drain off freely; that it will be free from dust and of such a quality and form that it will remain in position and hold the tie. The material which most nearly fills all the above requirements is trap rock and the harder granites. However, circumstances compel the STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 165 adoption of the best means at hand, and any hard stone which will break into cubical form is used. Shales which break into flat sheets crush into powder, and do not give good drainage, they should, therefore, not be used. The practice of some roads is to lay a bed of large stone 6 to 9 inches thick on the subgrade, and on this place a layer of 6 to 10 inches of stone broken to a uniform size of li to 2 inches; however, care must be taken to first fill the openings in the top of the large stone with spauls before placing the broken stone ballast. The ties are placed on top of the broken stone and broken stone filled in around them up to and level with the tops of the ties. Another method is to place the crushed stone di- rectly on the subgrade; the Pennsylvania Kail- way do this, using 10 inches of stone under the tie. Some roads require the ballast to be broken to such a size that the largest stone will pass through a 2i-inch ring and others through a 3- inch ring. The smallest size used must not be less than one inch cube. In these cases the stone is broken by a crusher and run through a screen which separates the different sizes. The larger size should be laid on the subgrade and the smaller size form the top of the ballast. On this subject Mr. Tratman states: " In some cases a layer of gravel is laid upon a bottom layer of broken stone, but this is not gen- eral, and it is not to be recommended though claimed to combine the good drainage of stone with economy in material, as gravel is in general cheaper and more easily procured. The 2i-inch 166 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. stone is sometimes covered with a top dressing of 1-inch stone, and the Pennsylvania Railway in some places lays small broken stone over the reg- ular ballast and covering the ties, the purpose be- ing to deaden the sound in the cars. The new steel ties for the New York Central Railway will be entirely covered with ballast except over the rail fastenings. This practice is not good with wooden ties as a rule, as it leads to rotting by keeping the ties damp, and prevents inspection, but in very hot, dry regions, it may be permissible in order to protect the ties from the sun. Stone ballast should be handled with forks and not with shovels so as to avoid putting dirt into the track, as the dirt hinders the drainage and affords a chance for weeds to grow. From a main- tenance point of view it may be noted that stone ballast on a poor road involves greater ex- pense for renewal and maintenance (perhaps at a time when little money is available) than when gravel is used. " Slag. Furnace slag or cinder is extensively used on roads in the vicinity of blast furnaces and iron works. It is about as durable as broken stone and in other ways almost as good, though it is sometimes said that ties decay in it more rapidly than in stone ballast. If properly drained, however, the difference is but small. It is con- sidered that it should be as free from lime as possible, but a reported corrosion of rails on slag ballast does not seem to be substantiated. Mr. Mordecai, Assistant Chief Engineer of the Erie Railway, states that furnace companies are gen- STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 167 erally glad to supply the material free on cars at the furnaces, in order to get rid of it. It does not require a great deal of labor to break it up and costs about as much to put under the track as stone, possibly a little less. It should be broken to a 2-inch or 2^-inch ring, and like stone, it should be handled by forks, so as to be free from dust and uirt. There should be at least 10 inches of slag under the ties. The tamping is done in the same way as with stone, though Mr. Morde- cai thinks that slag requires a little more tamp- ing in the middle of the Itie, so a"s to keep the track in good condition for easy riding. It gives excellent results, keeps the track in good line and surface, and does not heave as much as gravel. On the Chesapeake & Ohio Railway it has been used for some years, the average depth under the ties being 12 inches, and Mr. Frazier, Chief En- gineer, states that it is very satisfactory and economical. The bulk of this slag is as small as ordinary gravel, and is loaded with a steam shovel. The engineer has been able to get it in this condition by arranging with the furnaces to pour the hot slag from the pots down an incline 30 to 40 feet, when the slag spreads out and cools very rapidly. This gives it the appearance of broken china, instead of the porous sponge-like appearance of the large lumps of slag handled in the ordinary way. On the Lehigh Valley Rail- way a 12-inch bed of slag is sometimes put under the ties, and then covered with anthracite ashes filled in between the ties. The cross-section is usually formed similar to that for broken stone, 168 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. and an important feature of slag ballast is that owing to the sharpness of its edges it checks people from walking on the track. It is exten- sively used in England, where it is run from a furnace onto a traveling belt and suddenly cooled by water, which hardens it and breaks it up at the same time. In view of its low cost and its excellence as ballast, it might well be adopted by many roads which now use an inferior gravel on their main tracks. If the traffic is heavy, the improved condition of track and the reduced cost of maintenance would probably warrant the ex- pense for transportation of slag ballast from the furnaces. "Burnt Clay This has been used in England and other foreign countries for over twenty years, and its use is extending in this country mainly in the West. The most suitable material is brick clay (or almost any clay that has not too much sand) and gumbo, or clayey earth, and experiments have been made with the ' black wax ' earth of Texas. The site for burning is cleared of top soil, and a row of old ties, cord- wood, etc., about three feet high, is laid the length of the kiln 500 to 4,000 feet. This is covered with a few inches of slack coal, or slack and lump mixed, upon which is thrown a layer of clay 9 to 12 inches thick. The wood is then lighted at intervals, the openings being closed when the fire is started. As the burning pro- ceeds, another layer of coal is placed, and an- other layer of 6 to 9 inches of clay, and these layers are repeated from time to time until the STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 169 finished heap is about 20 feet wide and 10 feet high. One ton of slack coal will burn 4 to 5 cubic yards of clay, and the cost varies from 35 to 85 cents per cubic yard loaded on the cars. About 1,000 cubic yards per day can be burned in a kiln 4,000 feet long, about 50 men being employed. The work is usually done by con- tract, the company furnishing the land, side- track and coal. Partial estimates are given on kiln measurements, and the final estimate is made from car measurements when loaded out, so that worthless material is not paid for. The ballast is light (40 to 50 pounds per cubic foot), easily handled, gives good drainage, is free from weeds, is not dusty, and is in general satisfactory, requiring renewal in six to eight years. It is said to crush rather easily under the ties and to necessitate shovel tamping, but the writer does not consider that shovel tamping is necessary with any ballast under ordinary conditions. The cross-section is formed similar to that for stone ballast, and there should be at least 12 inches under the ties, as this ballast must be used liber- ally to give good results. Further particulars of the manufacture and use of this material are given in the writer's paper on * Improvements in Kail way Track' (Transactions, American Society of Civil Engineers, March, 1890), ^nd in ' Engi- neering News/ New York, November 16, 1893. The cost per cubic yard of ballast in the track is about $1.05, distributed as follows, the price for the first item being variable: 170 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Contract price for burning 38 cents. Average cost of coal 21 Loading on cars 8 Distributing 9 Putting under track 22 Interest and depreciation 4 Land 1 Miscellaneous expenses 2 Total cost per cubic yard $1 . 05 "The burnt clay ballast used on the St. Louis, Keokuk & Northwestern Railway is a black, clayey soil or gumbo, and the railway company contracted for it burned in the pit, the company laying the necessary tracks, furnishing the old ties and slack coal for burning, and loading and hauling the burned ballast. The cost on cars at the pit was estimated at 65 to 70 cents per cubic yard, which is higher than usually estimated, but a number of small items were included which are sometimes overlooked. The burnt ' black wax ' soil ballast on the Texas Midland Railway is said to cost $1.00 per cubic yard in the track, and to have the advantage of being absorbent, so that in ordinary rainfalls most of the water is taken up by the ballast (which does not soften) and does not go through to the roadbed. "Gravel. This material is more used than any other in this country and is of very varying quality. It may be sandy and dusty or loamy (when weeds will grow, drainage will be affected and the track will heave) or else full of large stones, which make an irregular and rough riding track. The best gravel should be clean and coarse, and as far as possible of uniform size and quality. It does STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 171 not give as good drainage as stone, but a fairly coarse and clean gravel will be generally satis- factory. It is good economy to use plenty of gravel, giving at least 8 inches (or better 10 in- ches) under the ties, as it will enable a fairly good track to be maintained nearly all the year through without excessive work. It can be tamped by picks or bars, the latter being gener- ally preferred, and is easily taken care of. In Europe the gravel is sometimes thoroughly washed by machinery to free it entirely from earth and sand. " There are varying opinions as to the cross- section depending upon the quality of the mate- rial and the climatic conditions. Thus with good, clean, coarse gravel, or in warm, dry re- gions, it is better to make the section as with broken stone, bringing the ballast level with the tops of the ties and shouldering it out 6 to 12 inches from their ends. With inferior fine or loamy gravel (and this is the quality most gener- ally met with) or where water and frost have to be considered, it is better to slope the ballast from the middle of the tie to the ends, to allow the water to drain off and not be held back by the rails, the ballast being one inch clear below the rail base. The slope may be made continuous with that of the roadbed to the ditch, and may be to the bottom of the end of the tie or a little higher, so as to leave part of the end embedded, out this latter arrangement is likely to retain water along the ends of the ties. In some cases the ballast is flat on top for about 3 f eet ; and then 172 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. slopes down under the rails to the bottom of the ties. Fine gravel is sometimes filled in 2 or 3 inches above the ties at the middle, but in wet country this keeps the ties damp and leads to rotting, though in dry country it may protect them from the sun and from hot engine cinders. The Houston & Texas Central Railway fills in the gravel between the rails to the level of the under side of the rail heads. On double track the bal- last is usually sloped towards the middle of the roadbed to form a central drain which should be at least 6 inches below the ties, and is sometimes carried down to the surface of the roadbed. Cross box drains in the ballast carry the water to the side ditches. At stations on the Southern Pacific Railway the ties rest on 8 inches of ballast, and cinders are filled in nearly to the underside of the rail heads between the rails and between the main and side tracks. " Cinders. Engine cinders make a cheap and serviceable ballast which will last for some time under light traffic. Being porous it drains well and does not hold moisture. It is easily handled by the shovel, does not heave much with the action of the frost, and prevents weeds from growing. The principal objection is that it makes a very dusty track until after some length of service, when the rain and traffic compact the material very thoroughly. It is very generally used for sidetracks and yards. With a wet roadbed, and with earth or mud ballast in the spring, or in wet weather when the earth is too soft to fulfill its purpose ; a good layer of cinders will much facil- STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 173 itate maintenance, and in very bad cases the mud holes or wet spots may be dug out and filled with cinders. The cinders should not be laid on earth ballast, however, when the frost is coming out of the ground or this action will be checked, and it will be late in the season before it is thoroughly out. In cross-section the ballast is sometimes formed the same as for broken stone, and on side tracks it may either be sloped down to form a drain between that and the main track as on the Baltimore & Ohio Kail way, or be filled in level, as on the Erie Railway. The cinders are some- times applied upon a bed of stone or slag ballast upon which the ties rest. " Sand. This makes a fairly good ballast under light traffic, but unless it is very coarse it requires constant attention and renewal, involving con- siderable maintenance work as it flows from under the ties with the pumping motion of the ties, and is gradually drifted away by the wind and washed away by the rain. It is generally shaped the same as gravel, but if well shouldered out from the ends of the ties and level with them as on the Minneapolis, St. Paul & Sault Ste Marie Railway (shaped the same as broken stone bal- last) it will hold the track better, and there will be much less flowing from the ties. Owing to its instability it does not keep track well in align- ment. It is convenient to handle and drains fairly well, but it heaves in winter, makes a dusty track, and is very hard on the journals and ma- chinery. In India sand ballast is often covered with a layer of broken stone or broken brick to 174 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. prevent strong winds from blowing it away. Special grasses or bushes may also be used as wind breaks in sandy districts." TIES. The quality of the cross-tie has an important bearing on the stability and permanence of the roadbed and the cost of maintenance. Ties can be divided into three general classes: (a) wood untreated; (&) wood treated with a preservative process, and (c) metal. The kinds of wood used for ties vary, of course, with every country. The different woods used in the United States for ties approximate the fol- lowing proportions: oak, sixty-two per cent.; chestnut, five per cent.; pine, seventeen per cent.; cedar (red, white and California), seven per cent.; hemlock and tamarack, three per cent. ; cypress, two per cent. ; redwood, three per cent. ; other kinds, one per cent. The requirements of a good tie are: (a) abil- ity to hold a spike against the strain exerted on the spike by the rail; (&) it must not be brittle and split when the spike is driven; (c) the wood should not yield or be compressed by the rail; (c?) it should withstand the pressure of the bal- last (when stone) without being crushed; (e) its size should give sufficient bearing surface to sup- port the load imposed without the rail sinking into the tie, or the tie being pressed into the bal- last, or become broken; (/) finally, it should be durable. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 175 White oak makes the best tie, both for wear and durability; it generally fails from decay rather than wear; the life of a white oak tie is about eight years under heavy traffic, and some- times twelve years under light traffic. Chestnut oak is the second best variety of oak, and lasts about seven years. The other varieties of oak are not of sufficient durability to be used much. Chestnut is equal in durability to white oak, but being a softer wood the rail cuts into it more, and it is not suitable for use on curves. Several varieties of pine are used, yellow and Louisiana and Texas long leaf pine being among the best; while they are not hard woods they do not de- cay rapidly, and their life on tangents is about seven years, where the traffic is heavy; under light traffic they have lasted ten years. Cedar ties give satisfaction with a light traffic when used on tangents, but the rail cuts into them and they do not hold the spikes well, especially on curves; their life can be placed at about eight years. Hemlock and tamarack are used in sec- tions where they grow, on account of their cheapness; they are soft timber and do not hold the spikes well; the rail cuts into them, and they rot quickly; their life is probably from four to six years. Cypress may be classed with the long leaf pine as to wear and durability; it will average about eight years service. Red- wood is very durable, but, being soft, its length of service is determined by the time the rail will cut into it and destroy it from wear; its or- dinary life on the Southern Pacific Railway is 1?6 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. given from five years up, depending on the amount of traffic. The cause of decay in timber is given clearly in the report of a committee on Preservation of Timber' to the American Society of Civil En- gineers on June 25th, 1885, which is as follows: " Pure woody fiber is said by chemists to be composed of 52.4 parts of carbon, 41.9 parts of oxygen and 5.7 parts of hydrogen, and to be the same in all the different varieties. If it can be entirely deprived of the sap and of moisture, it undergoes change very slowly, if at all. " Decay originates with the sap. This varies from 35 to 55 per cent, of the whole when the tree is filled, and contains a great many sub- stances, such as albuminous matter, sugar, starch, resin, etc., with a large portion of water. ' Woody fiber alone will not decay, but when associated with the sap fermentation takes place in the latter (with such energy as may depend upon its constituent elements), which act upon the woody fiber and produce decay. In order that this may take place, it is believed that there must be a concurrence of four separate condi- tions: " First The wood must contain the elements or germs of fermentation when exposed to air and water. " Second There must be water or moisture to promote the fermentation." "Third There must be air present to oxidize the resulting products. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 17? " Fourth The temperature must be approxi- mately between 50 and 100 F. Below 32 F. and above 150 F. no decay occurs. "When, therefore, wood is exposed to the weather (air, moisture and ordinary tempera- ture) fermentation and decay will take place, unless the germs can be removed or rendered in- operative. " Experience has proven that the coagulation of the sap retards, but does not prevent, the de- cay of wood permanently. It is, therefore, necessary to poison the germs of decay which may exist, or may subsequently enter the wood, or to prevent their intrusion, and this is the of- fice performed by the various antiseptics. " We need not here discuss the mooted ques- tion between chemists whether fermentation and decay result from slow combustion (Erema causis) or from the presence of living organisms {Bacte- ria, etc.)-"* The following table, giving he life of un- treated wooden railway ties, is taken from Bul- letin No. 9, Forestry Division, U. S. Department of agriculture: LIFE OF WOODEN RAILWAY TIES. Railways. Ties. Av. life, years- Delaware & Hudson White oak, 7 to 12 Chestnut, 5 to 10 Lake Shore & Mich. Southern . . White oak, 6 Lehigh Valley White and rock oak, 8 " Cypress, 8 Chestnut, 8 " Yellow pine, 7 * Report A. S. C. E., June 25th, 1885, pp. 288 and 289. 12 Vol.13 178 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Railways. Ties. Av. life, years. Pennsylvania White oak, 5 to 6 " Rock oak, 5 to 6 Allegheny Valley White oak, 9 Central of N. J Oak, 3 " Yellow pine, 8 ...Chestnut, Baltimore & Ohio Oak, 8 Boston & Maine Chestnut, cedar and hemlock, 5 to 7 Michigan Central Oak, 6 to 9 Cedar, 6 to 9 .Tamarack, 4 " , Hemlock, 4 Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis White, burr and chestnut oak; wild cherry, honey locust and black walnut. ab't 9 Alabama Midland Yellow pine, 5 to 6 Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis White or post oak, 6 Mo., Kas. & Texas White, post and burr oak, cherry and sassafras, ' 6 to 8 Burlington, Cedar Rapids & Northern White oak and cedar, 8| Flint & Fere Marquette Hemlock, 5 ... ..White oak, 8 to 9 Cedar, 8 to 10 Chicago & Alton. Oak, 8 Cedar, 6 Chicago & Northwestern White oak, 6 to 8 Cedar, 10 to 12 Hemlock, 5 to 7 Minn., St. Paul & Sault Ste Marie Cedar and oak, 8 to 10 STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 179 Railways. Ties. Av. life, years. Minn., St. Paul & Sault Ste Marie Hemlock and tama- rack, 6 to 7 Minn., St. Paul & Sault Ste Marie Red spruce, 6 Denver & Rio Grande Yellow pine, 5 Oak, 6 to 10 Union Pacific Pine, 5 to 8 Red spruce 8 White cedar, 8 to 9 Pine (burnettized), 7 to 9 Oregon fir and pine, 4 to 7 Tamarack, 5 Louisville & N ashville .... White and post oak, 7 to 8 Chicago, Burl'gton & Quincy . .Oak, cedar, 8 .. Yellow pine, 5 to 7 TREATED WOOD TIES. In taking up the subject of ties and other timber treated with wood pre- servatives the investigator is confronted with a lack of reliable data. This lack of knowledge on the subject has retarded the adoption of preserva- tive methods to a great extent. Advances in the price of ties have brought out the fact that available supplies of the more dura- ble hardwoods have been so far exhausted as greatly to diminish the possible supply. Timber owners have naturally not been slow to avail themselves of this fact and the railroads in many sections of the country are casting about for a remedy. An obvious solution is to follow Euro- pean practice, and to resort to the chemical treatment of the more perishable woods, which are still abundant and comparatively cheap. From a paper by W. W. Curtis, read before the American Society of Civil Engineers, May 17th, 180 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 1899, the inference may be drawn that the prob- lem of treating the softer and cheaper woods, so as to secure a cross tie that will last sufficiently long to make the investment a financial success, has been solved for the United States. He says that "during the last twelve years something like 10,000,000 cross ties have been treated, and dur- ing the present year there will probably be 1,- 500,000 ties treated." Poor's Manual give the mileage of railways in the United States on December, 31st, 1898, as follows: Mileage 184,894.33 miles. Second track, sidings, etc 60,344.54 " Total track 245,238.87 " Taking 2,700 ties per mile and the average life of a tie as eight years, this would require nearly 83,000,000 ties yearly for renewals; besides which perhaps 17,000,000 more are required for new constructions; taking the average price of hard and soft wood ties at 40 cents each, and the average cost of labor in takmg an old tie out and putting a new tie in the track at 15 cents, the cost of re- newals alone to the railroads of the United States would be nearly $45,650,000 per year. The only prospect of securing a reduction of this yearly expense appears to be in the adoption of ties treated by some preservative process, and the use of tie plates on ties made from the dura- ble soft woods. It must not be forgotten, how- ever, that cheapness of process is not the only consideration to be taken into account. The ob- STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 181 ject sought by treating the ties is to increase their life in the track, and this can only be se- cured by adopting some method which has been thoroughly tried and is honestly carried out. European experience covers a period of forty to fifty years, and in the United States it has been carried on on a considerable scale for over four- teen years. The results prove that wood can be effectually protected from decay for a period long enough to add fifty to one hundred per cent, to the life of the tie. An important point which railroads using preservative processes should in- sist upon being faithfully carried out is the rec- ord of the life of the tie. This is one of the most neglected though essential points. To determine this the tie should be stamped on the end with the date it was treated. In France and Germany a galvanized nail, having the date stamped on the head, is driven in the top of the tie in addi- tion to stamping it and a similar practice is being adopted in the United States. Where the ties are thus marked the only further requirement is to record where they were laid and when they are removed, and all that is necessary is a simple blank by which the section foreman can report the date the tie was stamped, what portion of the road it was removed from, and the cause of removal.* During the last one hundred years scores of processes have been experimented with, chiefly *The Southern Pacific Railway Company seeins to have kept the most complete records of treated ties of any road in the United States. 182 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. in Europe, and hundreds of failures have occurred. It has been ascertained that the choice of chem- icals to be employed is limited to a few, and that not only must the most appropriate process be selected, in view of the character of the wood to be operated upon, its cost or value, and its subse- quent exposure, but also that minute care must be observed in the various operations incident to the process. The importance of this is evident when it is considered that time is the only sure test, and that ten or fifteen years must elapse be- fore it is positively known whether a thorough success has been achieved. In a general way the approved methods of pre- serving timber may be classed as follows: Kyanizing or use of corrosive sublimate. Burnettizing or use of chloride of zinc. Creosoting or use of creosote oil. Boucherie or use of sulphate of copper. There are a number of other methods, but at present burnettizing and creosoting appear to be the most used in the United States. There are a number of conditions which affect the value of preservative processes, as shown by the wide variation of the life of treated ties. Thus the time of the year the timber is cut and the amount of moisture in the tie at the time it is treated are among the known factors bearing on the results obtained by the treat- ment. The theory of the process of wood preservation is to withdraw the moisture or sap and to intro- STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 183 duce into the pores of the wood an antiseptic to prevent decay. The American literature on the subject is limited; the report of the committee to the American Society of Engineers on June 25th, 1885, and the paper read by Mr. Curtis be- fore the same Society on May 17th, 1899, are about as full as can at present be procured. On page 377 of the report above referred to, Mr. 0. Latimer, Chief Engineer of the Atlantic & Great Western Railroad, stated that his experience showed "that white oak ties last eight years on the grade and nine years on bridges.' 7 "Eleven years ago the white oak ties cost fifty cents, to-day (1885) they cost forty-five cents per tie."* The same engineer on page 378 states: "If any process can be obtained which will double or add fifty per cent, to the life of cedar or hemlock ties, of course there is an immense economy in it." In regard to the price of cross ties, it must be borne in mind that while for a period of several years there may be no permanent change in the price, yet the source of supply is constantly being reduced, and each year a tie of poorer quality is being accepted; there must, therefore, come a time when contractors will realize that the source of supply is being reduced, and a permanent rise in the price will take place * A condition that tends to discourage investments in this di- rection is the uncertainty regarding the price that timber will command in the future. The cheapening of freight rates some- times enables the supply of cross ties to be procured from dis- tricts which a few years before were considered inaccessible. 184 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. which will doubtless be followed by a period of approximately uniform prices. Thus considered oak ties may be said to have advanced from 16 to 65 cents per tie in the last forty years. Preservative processes it must be remembered will augment the supply of wooden ties, inas- much as some of the softer woods now rejected will be available when treated; thus the hem- lock of -the Northern States and the lob lolly and short leaf pine of the Southern States properly treated will make excellent ties. There can be no doubt that wood preserving processes have been niBasureably successful. In the paper of Mr. Curtis before referred to he states: "The experience of American roads with treated ties may be concluded to be gener- ally favorable. The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway officials, after twelve years trial on a large scale, believe they are getting from eleven to twelve years service from mountain pine hav- ing a natural life of about four years, while from natural (untreated) white oak they get but six years in heavy main line service, and from cedar ten years under light service." Good results with treated ties are also reported from the fol- lowing roads: Union Pacific Railway; Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Railway; Pittsburg, Ft. Wayne & Chicago Railway; Duluth & Iron Range Railway; Southern Pacific Railway. The expe- rience of the English, French and German rail- roads is that pine ties are made to last from fif- teen to thirty years by chemical treatment, the life depending upon the process adopted. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 185 The cost of treating woods varies greatly in the different processes and methods; it is also affected by the price of chemicals used, the vol- ume of the business done, the skill and efficiency of the men employed, cost of coal, etc. The rail- road manager contemplating the adoption of a preservative process for his road will have to take into account the conditions on his line, con- sidering the character of the timber he can pro- cure, and to adopt the method and processes best suited for such timber. A German report on railways* gi^es the following information: TIES TREATED BY CHLORIDE OF ZINC. Kind of tie Oak Beech Pine Cost of crude tie $1.49 $1.01 $0.84 Absorption, Ibs 24.2 34 34 Cost of treatment. $0.13 $0.15 $0.16 Total cost $1.62 $1.16 $1.00 Average life, years 15 9 12 Cost per year $0.108 $0.13 $0.083 TIES TREATED BY CREOSOTE. Absorption, Ibs 15.4 66 50.6 24.3 79.2 79.2 Cost of treatment . $0.21 $0.50 $0.43 .29 .59 .57 Total cost $1.70 $1.51 $1.27 1.78 1.60 1.41 Average life, years 24 30 20 28 34 23 Cost per year $0.071 $0.05 $0.063 .063 .047 .061 The life of ties can be prolonged to some ex- tent by a study of the nature of the various * Published in the "Organ of the Progress of Railroads," Se- ries 1897. Wiesbaden. 186 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. woods used. In this relation Mr. B. E. Fernow, of the United States Department of Agriculture, Forestry Division aptly points out that not only the different species of wood in practical use show varying durability, that is, resistance to decay, but the same species exhibits variation according to the locality where it is grown and the part of the tree from which the wood is taken, and even its age seems to influence dura- bility. Young wood, he observes, is more sus- ceptible of decay than old wood; sap wood is less durable than the heart. The idea that young wood is more durable because it is young, which seems to prevail among railway managers, must, he says, be considered erroneous. On the contrary, young wood, which contains a large amount of albuminates, the food of fungi, is more apt to decay, other things being equal, than the wood of older timber. Sound, mature, well grown trees yield more durable timber than either young or very old trees. Kapid growth exhibited in broad annual rings and due to favorable soil and light conditions, yields the most durable timber in hard woods, and only as far as the growth in the virgin forest has been slow, ought there to be a difference in favor of second growth timber. In conifers, however, slow growth with narrow rings, which contain more of the dense summer wood in a given space, yields the better timber. In piling ties, he recommends that they should be placed in squares, with not over fifty ties in a pile, in such a manner that one tier shall contain six to nine STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 187 t; 3S, separated from each other by a space equal to about the width of the tie; the next tier to consist of one tie placed crosswise at each end of the first tier. The bottom tie should consist of two ties, or better, poles, to raise the pile from the ground. The piles should be five feet apart. The piling ground should be somewhere in the woods, or at least away from the sun, wind and rain, so as to secure a slow and uniform season- ing. If dried too rapidly, the wood warps and splits, the cracks collect water, and the timber is then easily attacked and destroyed by rot. He points out that the best method of obtaining proper seasoning, in a shorter time, without costly apparatus, is to immerse" the prepared tim- ber in water from one to three weeks, in order to dissolve and leach out the fermentable mat- ter nearest the surface. This is best done in running water if such is not at hand, a tank may be substituted, the water of which needs, however, frequent change. Timber so treated, like raft timber, will season more quickly, and is known to be more durable. The application of boiling water or steam is advantageous in leach- ing out the sap. Referring to the decay of rail- way ties, he ascribes the lack of durability to two causes, viz.: (1) a mechanical one, the breaking of the wood fiber by the flange of the rail and by the spikes, and (2) a chemical or physiological one, the rot or decay which is due to fungus growth. These causes work either in combina- tion or, more rarely, independently. The cut- ting of the wood may be prevented by the use of 188 BUILDING AND REPAIRlJXb RAILWAYS. tie plates. The damage caused by the spikes may be lessened as pointed out elsewhere. In reference to drainage he suggests that rock bal- last is best drained, and hence the best record comes from such roadbeds; gravel is next best, and clay or loam the worst. On the other hand, where soft wood ties like chestnut are used, the hard rock ballast, while unfavorable to decay, reduces their life by pounding and cutting. Sand ballast seems to vary considerably; a sharp, coarse, silicious (not calcareous) sand with goo5 underdrainage should be next to gravel, while some reports give a heavy black soil and loam as better than sand. The reason why sand, although offering good drainage, is favorable to decay, may be sought in its great capacity for heat, which induces fermentation. Referring to wood preservatives, Mr. Fernow says in France wooden ties are universally subjected to preservatives; that similar practices are quite general in Eng- land and throughout Europe, caused by the scarc- ity of wood, and its great cost. He ascribes lack of interest in the subject in the United States to ignorance, to unwise economy, to cheapness of wooden ties, and to the fact that the flange cut- ting of the rail is even more destructive than de- cay. He recommends the use of tie plates in order to prevent this. The following table gives the size of ties used by some of the railroads in the United States: Length. Width. Thickness. Railway. Feet. Inches. Inches. Inches. Pennsylvania Railway 8 6 7 Southern Pacific Cypress 10 10 7 STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 189 Length. Width. Thickness. Railway. Feet. Inches. Inches. Inches. Southern Pacific Cypress 9 10 7 " " Pine 808 6 Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe . . 8 6 Chicago & Northwestern 8 8 6 New York Central 8 8 7 Pittsburg & Lake Erie 869 7 Ties are spaced differently on different roads. The following table gives the spacing used to a thirty foot rail by some of the roads in the United States: Pennsylvania, Main Line 14 wide ties. " Sidings 12 ties. Northern Pacific 16 Chesapeake & Ohio 18 Central Ry. of New Jersey 16 Southern Pacific, Main Line 17 " " Branches 15 The joint ties should be the largest ones and should be more closely placed than the others to give a better bearing for the rail ends. The following table gives the number of ties per mile of single track: CROSS TIES PER MILE. Center to Center. Ties per Mile. 18 inches 3,520 21 " 3,017 24 " 2,640 27 " 2,347 30 " 2,112 No. of ties per 30-ft. rail 12 2,112 " " " 14 2,464 " " " 16 2,816 " " < " 18 . 3,108 190 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Metal ties have been used to a large extent in some countries where timber is scarce or decays rapidly. There is a great variety of styles and patents, but in a general way they can be classed under three heads, viz: Longitudinal Supports. This method is accom- plished by placing iron plates under each rail, and holding the two rails together by means of rods or iron bars. The metal plates are of vari- ous designs and dimensions. This method has been used more in Germany and Austria than anywhere else; the Germans are not, as a rule, satisfied with it and it is being abandoned. The method is still favored by some Austrian roads. Bowls and Plates. This is a modified form of longitudinal supports. Cast iron bowl shaped plates are used in p]ace of wrought iron or steel plates in the longitudinal method; these are con- nected by rods or bars of iron to hold the rails to gauge they are mostly used in India and South America. Metal Ties are the third style and these are designed after the wooden cross tie, with such changes as become necessary in a change from wood to iron or steel. This form of metal tie is more largely used than any other. The latest reliable data of the mileage of metal ties in use in Europe is given in Bulletin No. 9 United States Department of Agriculture, For- estry Division, and the figures given there are used in the following tables: STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 191 SUMMARY OF TRACK IN EUROPE LAID WITH METAL TIES. Countries. Longitudinal, Cross tie, Total miles, Total miles, miles. miles. 1894. 1890. England 73 73 70 France 128 128 52 Holland 322 322 329 Belgium 176 l?6 115 Germany 3,580 8,025 11,605 8,787 Austria & Hungary. . 62 154 216J 123 Bosnia 12 12 Switzerland 480 480 397 Spain 7 7 7 Portugal 1 1 * Sweden & Norway. . . i * * Denmark 18 18 18 Russia 2 7 9 Turkey (Europe) 71 71 71 " (Asia) 309 309 Greece 28 28 Totals 3,644^ 13456 9,970 SUMMARY OF TRACK LAID WITH METAL TIES BY GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS. H 94 | 18' )0 Miles of metal track Total miles of track. Miles of metal track Total miles of track. 13,456 137 000 9 970 132 071 Africa 2,401 5 675 1 290 5 200 Australia 234 12,000 186 10 640 Asia . 14,586 22,000 9 314 19 106 South America ] Central " West Indies [ ' Mexico K orth America .... 4,416 2* 21,500 190 000 3,764 2 20,701 174 000 Totals 35,095 388,175 24,526 361,718 *Ten miles of track on the New York Central Railway are not included; the inets.1 ties were purchased but were not yet laid. 192 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. The following countries are the principal users of metal ties: Countries. Mileage, 1894. British India 13,655 Germany 11,605 Argentine Republic 3,638 Cape Colony 906 Egypt 866 All other countries 4,425 Totals 85,095 The report already referred to gave the follow- ing mileage of metal ties in the United States in the 1894 Summary of Railways using metal ties in the United States: Roads. Length in feet of track laid with metal ties. 1894. 1899. Chicago & Western Indiana 1,000 none Delaware, Lackawanna & West- ern 250 Long Island 950 New York Central 1,320 Further use disc't'd. Philadelphia & Reading 5,280 none Minor experiments (estimated). 500 Use discontinued. Totals 9,300 European practice has proven the metal tie to be economically successful under the conditions which prevail there. To prevent the metal tie being lifted by frost or lowered when the ground thaws, the ballast must allow the water to drain off and through it readily; the German practice is to drain the water off down to a point below the frost line. The ballast should be stone broken to go through a 2-inch ring. The tie should be well bedded in STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 193 the ballast to hold it in line. The experience abroad with metal ties, is that more labor is re- quired in tamping them the first year or two than in the case of wooden ties, but after this they require much less labor to tamp them than wooden ties do. There are several causes which have prevented the introduction of the metal ties into the United States, the greatly in- creased first cost over wooden ties being the prin- cipal one; to assist in overcoming this they have been made too light to stand the effects of corro- sion. The cost of metal ties weighing 100 pounds was in 1894 from $2.00 to $2.25 per tie, depend- ing on the method of fastening the rail to the tie. Another reason for their unpopularity in the United States is that they have been tried on roadbeds not properly ballasted and drained for metal ties and have been looked after by section men who were not favorably impressed with their utility. Further it may be stated that in a num- ber of cases their trial was on too small a scale. It is doubtless true that the use of the metal tie is probably a factor which will not receive prac- tical consideration from the hands of railroad managers in the United States for sometime in the future. The line along which present econom- ical practice points is the use of tie plates and rail braces on our untreated ties and this will probably be followed by a more general use of preservative processes to lengthen the life of the wooden tie. Following are some illustrations of metal ties: Fig. 9 5 illustrates the metal tie used by the Dela- 13 Vol. 13 194 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 195 -j'Vzif 196 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. ware, Lackawanna & Western Eailway. Fig. 96 illustrates the metal tie used by the New York Central Railroad. The literature on metal ties is well given by Bulletins Nos. 4 and 9, United States Department of Agriculture, Forestry Division Synopses of re- ports on their use in the Netherlands and Switz- erland in the Engineering News for 1898. TIE PLATES. To prolong the life of the cross-tie by prevent ing the rail from cutting into the tie, tie plates have been introduced. There are three general styles, based on the following principles: First, ribs are placed on the under side of the tie plate running in the direction of the length of the plate, these are driven into the tie and separate, but do not break up the fiber of the wood; with this style of tie plate the greatest resistance to the movement of the plate is in the direction of across the tie or in the length of the rail; the spikes on both sides of the rail being connected by the tie plate, both resist the lateral move- ment of the rail and are assisted by the friction and end resistance of the ribs pressed into the tie. The spikes used with this tie plate are sub- jected to the wearing action of the rail, but to a less extent than without it. Some forms of this style have a rib which comes in contact with the outside of the rail base to assist the spikes in re- sisting the lateral motion of the rail. Fig. 97 illustrates an example of this style. Second, lugs are placed on the under side in such a posi- STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 197 tion that their largest surface is resisted by the end wood of the tie when there is a lateral press- FIG. 97. WOLHAUPTER TIE PLATE. With rib to resist the lateral motion of the rail. ure produced by a passing train; on the top of the plate there is placed a lug against which the outside of the base of the rail is placed. The lateral movement of the rail is resisted by the spikes as in the first case, and also the greater resistance of the lugs against the end wood of. the tie. The base of the rail, during its lateral movements, is resisted by the lug on top of and extending across the plate, thus relieving the spikes of the wearing action of the base of the FIG. 98. GOLDIE CLAW TIE PLATE. With lug to prevent the lateral movement of the rail. 198 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. rail. Fig. 98 illustrates an example of this style. Third, this method aims to have the FIG. 99. THE C. A. C. TIE PLATE. FIG. 100. THE "SERVIS" TIE PLATE. FIG. 101. WOLHAUPTEB ARCH GIRDER TIE PLATE. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 199 plate bolted or spiked to the tie and the rail fast- ened rigidly to the tie plate. This is Sandberg's type of tie plate. Figs. 99, 100 and 101 illus- trate other makes of the first two styles. The same objection applies to the third style of tie plate, which was found to the use of screws in- stead of spikes to fasten the rail to the ties; by the use of screws the rails were held rigidly to the tie and the wave action produced by the train on the rail caused the tie to work more (or pump the ballast) than where spikes were used, thus increasing the cost of track repairs. Where tie plates are not used on all the ties in a track they will be found of special benefit under the following conditions: On. heavy grades and sharp curves they prevent the cutting of the tie and canting the rail and preserve the gauge without the use of rail braces. In tunnels where the moisture tends to soften the tie, they pre- vent the rail cutting into it and preserve the gauge. On swampy ground where the roadbed yields under the weight of the train, they pre- vent ties being cut into by the rail, which leads to excessive creeping of the rails. On long bridges, elevated roads, in busy freight yards, where trains are frequent, track deteriorates rap- idly, and the cost of labor making repairs and renewals is large. At road and street crossings where the planking keeps the ties moist they deteriorate quickly. Ties which have been cut into by the rail can be used again by adzing them down, plugging the spike holes with hard wood and using a tie plate. 200 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Of the various styles each has its advantages and objections. The friends of the first style claim that the metal is not properly distributed in the second and they will sometimes buckle when a heavy transverse strain is produced by a passing train on a curve; those favorable to the second style claim that the lack of a shoulder to support the base of the rail and not having the resistance of the end wood of the tie to oppose a movement of the tie plate does not hold the track to gauge as well as the second style of plate and permits the spikes to be injured more. There are, it may be said, conditions where each claim is well founded, and the selection of style will depend .on the conditions of traffic, grade and alignment. RAILS. The rails now used are manufactured of steel, iron having gone out of use on account of the greater length of life of steel and the price being reduced to a point where there is no longer a saving in the use of iron. Formerly each road had its own standard section for the rails used. This resulted in a great variety of forms of sec- tions, some of which, however, were practically the same, differing only in minor details. In 1873 the American Society of Civil Engi- neers appointed a committee to report upon the forms, sizes, manufacture, tests, endurance and breakage of rails and also the comparative econ- omy of iron and steel. In 1883 the same body appointed another committee to consider the STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 201 proper relation to each other of railway wheels and rails. This led to the appointment of a third committee to prepare designs for standard rail sections. In Appendix J there is a cut showing the section adopted and the dimensions for rails of different weights. Mr. E. E. R. Tratman in his work on " Track and Track Work " speaks of rails as follows: " Tie plates should be used with heavy traffic, as the attempt to get a very wide base support in the rail flange usually results in a section which is not adapted to good rolling. Flat-topped rail heads have been advocated, but the metal in the head does not get so much work or squeeze from the rolls, and is thus of less dense texture on top than is desirable. This was found with rails rolled in England 25 or 30 years ago for the New Orleans & Chattanooga Railway. In addition to this, the lateral play of the wheels would soon wear the top to a curved section. The usual top radius is 12 or 14 inches, though the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway makes it 18 inches, and any radius less than 12 inches is objectionable. The best distribution of the metal is probably that of the American Society of Civil Engineers recommended sections, pro- vided that the rails are of good material and thoroughly rolled, the rolling being as slow and cold as practicable. "The rapid increase in weight of locomotives and cars and train loads has led to the use of heavier and stiff er rails in the sense of girders to carry the increased loads, but in many cases without correspondingly wider heads to sustain 202 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. the increased wheel pressure ratios per square inch of surface contact between rails and wheels. The result in some such cases has been that the metal of both tires and rails has been overtaxed, excessive wear and flow taking place, and neither wheels nor rails giving as good service as had been expected. With this in view, Mr. P. H. Dudley designed a set of rail sections whose type is shown by the 100-lb. rail of the New York Central Railway. It will be noticed that the fillets are of large radius, and that the narrowest part of the web is above the centre line. This gives extra resistance to twisting, so that the head will not bend over the web, nor the web over the base. The following is from a state- ment by Mr. Dudley: "The static pressures under passenger car wheels on rail heads 2J to 2f inches wide, range from 30,000 to 100,000 Ibs. per square inch, while those of locomotive driving wheels range from 110,000 to 150,000 Ibs. To sustain such wheel pressures without undue flow and wear, requires not only broad heads, but a high grade of metal in the rails. Comparisons of tire records on the New York Central Railway before and after the use of the Dudley 80-lb. rail (5J inches high, 5 inches width of base, 2H inches width of head and h inch corners of head) show that with an increase of 40 per cent, in weight per driving wheel the mileage per i\ inch of wear per tire is about the same for the heavier locomotives on the 80-lb. rails, as formerly for the lighter loco- motives on the 65-lb. rails. The former carried STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 203 17,600 Ibs. per wheel, and averaged 19,300 miles per i 1 . inch wear of tire. The latter carried 13,- 360 Ibs. per wheel, and averaged 19,400 miles per A inch wear. Since the general use of this 80-lb. rail, the locomotives rarely go to the shop to have the driving wheel tires turned unless other repairs are needed, the wear of the tires no longer determining when the engines must go to the shop, as was the case when running on the 65-lb. rails. The mileage before re-turning the tires is from 150,000 to 185,000 miles. These facts show the value of the broad heads in in- creasing the life of tires as well as of rails. " Mr. Sandberg, the European rail expert, favors wide heads, with large corners, and his type of section is represented by the 72-lb. rail of the Canadian Pacific Railway. In 1894 he changed his sections somewhat in detail, his modified 100-lb. rail being 5f inches high, 6i inches wide, with a head 3 inches wide, having i-inch top corners. He increased the width of the head, but retained the round form with large corners and a top radius of 6 inches. He admits that sharper corners may be used with the American type of rolling stock, having the short, rigid wheel base of the trucks instead of the long, rigid wheel base of European cars with fixed axles, but it may be doubted whether this distinction is of much im- portance. The width of rail base was increased, so as to avoid the use of tie plates, for while he advocates their use, he has found it difficult to get them introduced by European railways. The rail section has suffered in consequence, and even 204 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. with oak ties (and almost certainly with softer ties) the rails will still cut under heavy traffic and wheel loads. One reason for the disfavor with which tie-plates are regarded in Europe is probably the size and weight and cost, and the difficulty of securing flat plates firmly to the tie, so as not to cause rattling. It may be mentioned that some of the so-called Sandberg 'Goliath' rails are modified from the original to a section for which Mr. Sandberg disclaims responsibility. " Double-Head Rails. In Europe the double- headed rail, carried in cast-iron chairs, was early designed, having two symmetrical heads, so that the rail could be reversed and both ends be util- ized for wear. Some of the sections were of hour-glass section, with two pear-shaped heads. The indentation of the lower head by the chairs, however, made the turned rails very rough rid- ing, and the rails were also found liable to break, so that as early as 1858 the bull-head section was introduced, having the lower head only large enough to give a seat in the chair and a hold for the wooden key or wedge which secures the rail in the chair. . Some years ago about ten miles of 80-lb. iron double-headed rails were laid on the Boston & Worcester Railway (now part of the Boston & Albany Railway), but after ten years' service the track was relaid with T-rails. The bull-head rail is now the standard in England, and is also used somewhat extensively in Euro- pean countries, India, etc. The Pennsylvania Railway has some of the 90-lb. bull-head rails of the London & Northwestern Railway, laid for ex- STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 205 perimental purposes, some on steel ties, and others in cast-iron chairs on wooden ties, but this track has not been able to stand the heavy traffic on this road. One of the great objections to these rails is that they require two heavy cast- iron chairs (weighing 26 to 56 pounds each) on every tie, merely to hold the rail up. These chairs involve much really useless material, and the wear of the rails in the chairs limits their life, being even more than the wear at the joints. Many of these rails have rounded heads, but in some of the modern heavy sections the head has vertical sides and sharper top corners. Many countries now recognize the disadvant- ages of the bull-head rail, and are adopting a more economical, but equally efficient track of T-rails on metal tie plates. In England, how- ever, the erroneous idea very generally prevails that a T-rail track is in itself unsafe, and this has even led to the introduction of double-head rails for colonial railways, involving much un- necessary expenditure, which would have been better applied to the construction of a greater mileage of a more suitable type of track. The English track, as built, is very strong and sub- stantial, but very expensive, and an equally good track can be made and maintained at less ex- pense with heavy T-rails. Mr. Freund, of the Eastern Railway of France, has made investiga- tions from which he concluded that theory and experiment show that a T-rail secured to oak ties by screw spikes is as safe from lateral dis- placement as a bull-head rail in chairs or a T- 206 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. rail with tie plates on pine ties. He further con- cluded that the T-rail comes nearer to giving its proper service than the bull-head rail, because the life of the latter is limited by the wear of the surfaces in contact with the chairs, and not by the wear of the running surface. In most Euro- pean countries, except England, T-rails are exten- sively used, but they are very generally of poor design and very much too light for the traffic, and the consequent poor results in service are among the reasons for the disfavor with which the T-rail section is regarded for main tracks in Europe. European engineers are not, as a rule, well informed as to modern American track, or the successful results of service of good rails under severe conditions of fast, heavy and con- tinual traffic. In some cases a narrow-based T- rail has been adopted, carried in cast-iron chairs, very similar to those for double-headed rails, and secured by large wooden keys, which make an objectionable fastening." In Appendix J the sections of rails used by several American and foreign roads are given; these sections differ from that adopted by the American Society of Engineers, some very mate- rially. Some fifty American roads, most of them western, have adopted the standard section recom- mended by the American Society of Engineers. The tendency is toward heavier rails. In speaking of this, and the road-bed on which they are used, Mr. Tratman remarks: "In regard to the growing increase in the use of heavy rails, it may be pointed out that while it is most desira- STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 207 ble to have rails of ample weight for the traffic, the rail is only one part of the track, and that improvements in ballast, ties, fastenings, joints, etc., are of equal importance in the construction and maintenance of a first-class track. The lay- ing of rails should also be very carefully and thoroughly done, though this is a point that is frequently neglected to a greater or less extent. For instance, new rails carelessly laid on old ties may be given a wavy surface, or permanent set, due to careless handling or to uneven bearing surfaces, which cannot afterwards be remedied and will materially reduce the beneficial results intended to be obtained by the new rails. With an ordinarily good track, on which light rails are replaced by heavier rails, the work of mainten- ance and renewals should be very much reduced, owing to the increased weight and stiffness of the rails, which reduces the deflections, so that the joints can be kept in better condition. The number of ties should not be reduced for heavier rails, as the rail should not be independently considered as a bridge or girder resting upon piers. A fairly large number of ties and fasten- ings greatly facilitates the maintenance and ad- justment of surface, line and gauge to ensure an easy riding track, more so than when the supports and fastenings are 33 to 36 inches apart, as with English track." There have been some trials of rails longer than 30 feet, which is the standard length. Some roads are experimenting with 60- foot rails and others with 45-foot rails. At this date the experience is not considered favorable to 208 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. their adoption, as the expense of handling them proves to be greater per ton or foot than for the 30 foot lengths, beside which they become bent more easily. The street railway companies have made con- tinuous rails by electric welding, and some ex- periments in this line have been made by steam railroads. Mr. Tratman describes one as follows: " Continuous rails, with the ends welded together in the track, are being tried on street railways, and some experiments have been made on steam railways with rails laid without expansion spacing and spliced by riveted angle bars. In June, 1889, Mr. T. T. Gleaves laid on the Durham Di- vision of the Norfolk & Western Railway, three miles of the continuous 'self-surfacing' track patented in 1886 by Mr. P. Noonan, a section foreman. The rails were 56-lbs. per yard, laid on ordinary ties completely buried in the earth, and the spike heads were left f-inch clear above the rail base, so that the wave motion or undulation of the rails would not affect the spikes or ties. As this motion was in advance of the wheels, there was no battering of the ties, and the mo- tion of a train was said to have been as smooth and easy as on heavy rails in stone ballast. The joints were secured by splice bars with f-inch rivets, making the rails continuous and without any allowance for expansion. At each end of the three-mile section were switch points to allow for the expansion of long stretches of rail, and at frogs and switches at stations of course the rails could move longitudinally. The track STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 209 was turfed over, and three-inch terra cotta drain tiles were inserted to carry the water out beyond the track. After being laid, the track was not lined or surfaced for eighteen months, the only maintenance expense being for a watchman, al- though engines weighing 104,000 Ibs. were fre- quently run over it at a speed of fifty miles per hour. The ties were found to decay more quickly by being buried in the earth and becom- ing water-logged, as might have been expected, and the track got somewhat out of surface, owing mainly to the fact that it was not laid on a com- pact roadbed, but in wet clay cuts and on banks that settled in sags. During the same period of eighteen months, there were expended $1,890 in labor for keeping the adjoining three-mile sec- tions in fair condition. With such a track on good ballast some interesting results might be expected." The Illinois Steel Company's standard specifi- cations for steel rails adopted January 1st, 1897, are as follows: SECTION 1. The section of the rail throughout its entire length shall conform to the American Society of Civil Engineers Stand- ard ( ) pounds per yard. The fit of the fishing or male templet shall be perfectly main- tained. When the rolls are new the section of the rail may be one sixty-fourth ( 6 X T ) of an inch low. As the rolling proceeds, a variation not exceeding one-thirty-second (^) of an inch in ex- cess of height over templet may be permitted in a delivery of ten thousand (10,000) tons of rails, after which the rolls must be reduced to standard height of such sections. The standard of measure to be Brown & Sharp United States Standard Steel Vernier Caliper Rule. WEIGHTS. SEC. 2. The weight of the rail shall be kept as near to ( ) pounds per yard as is practical after complying with Section Mo. 1. The rails shall be accepted and settled for according to actual weights. 14 Vol. 13 210 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. LENGTHS. SEC. 3. The standard length of rail shall be thirty (30) feet, at a temperature of seventy (70) degrees Fahrenheit. Shorter rails having length of twenty-nine (29) to twenty-two (22) feet, inclusive, shall be accepted to the extent of ten (10) per cent, of the entire order. A variation in length of one-fourth () inch over or under the specified length will be allowed. CAMBERING AND STRAIGHTENING. SEC. 4. Care to be taken in cambering the rails so as to reduce the amount of work in the straightening press to a minimum. The rails must be straight in all directions as to both surface and line, without twists or kinks. FINISH. SEC. 5. The rails must be smooth on the head and base, and free from all mechanical defects and flaws, and must be sawed square at the ends; the burrs made by the saws must be carefully chipped and filed off, particularly under the head and on the top of the flange, to insure proper tit of the angle bars. DRILLING. SEC. 6. The drilling for the bolts to be in strict conformity with the blue print attached, or the dimensions given. Holes imperfectly drilled to be filed to proper dimensions. All holes must be accurate in every respect. BRANDING. SEC. 7. The section number, name of maker, year and month, to be rolled on the side of the web. The number of the heat to be stamped in the side of the web. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. SEC. 8. The chemical composition of standard rails under seventy (70) pounds per yard to be as follows: Carbon 37 to .45 Phosphorous not to exceed 10 Sulphur not to exceed 05 Silicon 07 to .15 Manganese , 70 to 1.10 The chemical composition of rails seventy (70) pounds and over per yard to be as follows: Carbon 45 to .55 Phosphorous not to exceed 10 Sulphur not to exceed 05 Silicon 10 to .20 Manganese 80 to 1.00 STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 211 TEST INGOTS. SEC. 9. From each heat one test ingot shall be cast 2ix2Jx6 inches long. This to be drawn down at one heat by hammer- ing to a test piece three-eighths (f) inches square by eighteen (18) to twenty (20) inches long. The same when cold to be required to bend to a right angle without breaking. This bar must be bent by blows from a hammer. CUTTING TO BLOOMS. SEC. 10. After cutting off or allowing for the sand on the top end of the ingot, at least twelve (12) inches more of seemingly solid steel shall be cut off that end of the bloom. If after cutting such length the steel does not look solid, the cutting shall be con- tinued until it does. INSPECTION. SEC. 11. The inspector representing the purchaser shall have free entry to the works of the manufacturer at all times while his contract is being tilled and shall have all reasonable facilities afforded to satisfy him that the rails are being made in accord- ance with these specifications. The manufacturer shall furnish daily the carbon determina- tions of each heat and a complete chemical analysis of at least one heat of each day and night turn in which each element is to be determined. NO. 2 RAILS. SEC. 12. The requirements for No. 2 rails shall be the same as for No. 1, except that they will be accepted with a flaw in the head not exceeding one-fourth (J) inch, and a flaw in the flange not exceeding one-half (!) inch in depth. No. 2 rails to the extent of five per cent. (5) of the entire order will be received. The aim of manufacturers of rails is to produce hardness to resist wear and toughness to resist fracture. Carbon gives the metal hardness, and each individual designer has his particular opinion as to the exact amount of carbon to use to pro- cure the best result. The heavier the rail the larger the per cent, of carbon which must be used. Silicon makes the steel fluid and dense, this producing solid ingots and reducing crystalli- zation. Sulphur tends to make the metal seamy and phosphorous makes it brittle. Manganese is 212 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. used for chemical purposes. Not only the opin- ion of the designer, but the chemical constituents and their proportions in the ores used together with the weight of rail to be produced, affect the proportions of the chemical constituents of the rail. The economical question in the specifica- tions of steel rails has been stated very clearly by Mr. Ashbel Welch, Chairman of the Rail Commit- tee of the American Society of Engineers as fol- lows: "An unwise saving of a dollar to the manu- facturer, or a little unfaithfulness in the work- man, will probably reduce the value of the rails ten or twenty dollars. Ten or fifteen per cent, added to the ordinary work on rails would double their value. An expert rail maker knows this very well, but he cannot put the $10 extra work on a ton in order that it may be worth $60 more to the purchaser, who will not allow him any part of the $10 out of the $60 he makes. The railway agent who purchases may also know all this, but he cannot follow his own judgment, for he knows his directors will say he paid $10 more than the market price. It is thus that the inter- ests of stockholders are sacrificed." The life of steel rails cannot be determined by the number of years they have been in use; those on one road may have had, during a given period, two or three times the number of trains passing over them than those in another road had. The tonnage which has passed over the rail is a bet- ter means of comparing the relative value of the rail and its life. Mr. A. M. Wellington states on this subject: "The life of first-class 60 to 80- STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION'. 213 pound steel rails was given by Wellington in his ' Economical Theory of Railway Location ' (1887) as about 150,000,000 to 200,000,000 tons. There are from 10 to 15 Ibs. of metal, or f-inch to f-inch depth of head available for wear, and abra- sion takes place at the rate of about 1 Ib. per 10,000,000 tons, or rVinch per 14,000,000 to 15,000,000 tons of traffic. The rate of wear is increased about 75 per cent, by the use of sand by the locomotives. The failure of modern rails, as a rule, is due more to deformation of section at and near the joints than to abrasion proper, and this deformation and crushing are largely due to the heavily loaded driving wheels, the wear from which is estimated at 50 to 75 per cent, of the total. Heavy freight engines may have three or four driving axle loads 'of 30,000 to 38,000 Ibs. on a wheel base of 12 to 15 feet. The area of contact between the driving wheels and rails is an oval about 1 x f inch, or with worn tires or worn rails Ixli inches, with an area of 1.07 square inch. The maintenance of rails ought not to exceed i cent or 1 cent per train mile, but it is very generally as much as 3 cents, owing partly to work on side tracks. About half the metal in the rail head is available for wear, but the full depth of wear is not obtainable in main track, as the rails would then be too rough for service; about i-inch is the limit of wear in main track, the rails being then removed to branch or side tracks/' In Appendix J the following tables relating to rails and fastenings are given: 214 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Table No. 1 ; Tons per mile and feet of track per ton, of rails of different weight per yard. Table No. 2; Number of splice bars and bolts for one mile of single track. Table No. 3; Number of fastenings required to a ton of rails of different weight per yard. Table No. 4; Pounds and kegs of railroad spikes required for one mile of track, given for different sized spikes and rails of differ- ent weight. Table No. 5; Gives the weight per 1,000 for standard track bolts of various sizes, and for bolts with square and hexagon nuts. Table No. 6; Gives the average number of track bolts of various sizes in a keg of 200 pounds. Table No. 7; The amount of expansion of steel rails and the size of the shim for each change of ten degrees of temperature from 30 to 130 Fahrenheit. Appendix J also gives the practice of the Northern Pacific Railway, in allowing for expan- sion; here the rule specifies that the thermome- ter must be read in the shade, which would make the allowance for expansion greater than if the reading was taken in the sun and is a safer practice. SPIKES. There have been numerous methods tried to fasten the rail to the cross-tie. Screws of differ- ent patterns and other devices have been tried, but the general practice is to use the ordinary railroad spike shown in Fig. 102, cut A. This is STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 215 not, however, an altogether satisfactory spike, but when the first cost and cost of maintenance are taken into consideration, it is considered more satisfactory than anything yet produced. Fig. 102, cut C, shows the way the fibre of the wood is damaged by driving an ordinary railroad spike into a cross-tie. The Goldie spike, Fig. 102, cut B, illustrates a spike designed to accomplish all that the ordinary railway spike does and yet not damage the fibre of the wood to so great an ex- tent. Cut A. CutB. FIG. 102. cut a The holding power of the spike depends on the nature of the tie, the conditions under which the 216 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. spike is driven, and the length of time it has been in the track. The force exerted by the rail when a train passes over it tends to lift the spike out of the wood; this takes place on a tangent, and is in- dependent of any lateral pressure produced by the swaying motion of the train. The holding power of newly driven spikes has been found by experiments to vary from 1,500 pounds to 7,000 pounds, the latter being one of those cases, prob- ably, where the conditions were more favorable than exist in actual practice. In a good oak or pine tie the resistance of a newly driven spike for a 75-lb. rail would probably be about 3,500 pounds. RAIL JOINTS AND FASTENINGS. The best method of fastening the rails together is a controversy not yet settled. There are a number of different methods in use. With the constantly increasing weight of engines the method of connecting the rails becomes a vital question. The fish plate is used only where the traffic is light and heavy locomotives have not yet been introduced. The angle bar (Fig. 103) is a decided improvement on the fish plate, and is used by roads having a moderately heavy traffic; it gives lateral stiffness to the joint and a greater bearing surface on the tie. The continuous rail joint (Fig. 104) gives a greater bearing on the tie and a support to the base of the rail in addition to the advantages of the angle bar; this form of joint STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 217 FIG. 103. Angle Bars used on a 75-lb. rail of American Society of Civil Engineers' Standard. FIG. 104. CONTIMJOUS RAIL JOINT. 218 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. is used on a number of roads some of which have the heaviest engines and greatest number of trains in this country. Figures 105, 106, and 107 represent the Weber rail joint, the Truss rail joint and the Common Sense rail joint, all de- Section FIG. 105. WEBER RAIL JOINT. Side View. FIG. 106. TRUSS RAIL JOINT. Section. Side View. FIG. 107. "COMMON SENSE" RAIL JOINT. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 219 220 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. signed to accomplish the same object as the con- tinuous rail joint. They are used by roads having heavy traffic. Fig. 108 gives a view of a joint adopted by the Chicago & Northwestern Railway Company to secure the advantages claimed for the continuous rail joint without having to dis- card the angle bars; the objectionable feature with this fastening is that the upward wave mo- tion has no greater resistance at the joint than with the angle bar alone; the plate assists in preventing the joint becoming low and adds lateral stiffness when the spikes are well driven. There are two functions to be performed by rail joints. One is to resist the rapid blows from the wheels of the engines and cars of fast pas- senger trains, and the other the slower blows from freight trains. The weight on the driving wheels of the new passenger locomotives of the high speed type is less than the new style of locomo- tives for freight. The latest style of freight loco- motives for the Illinois Central Railway, for in- stance, will have a weight on each driver of 24,000 pounds, while the new high speed pas- senger locomotives for the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Railway will have a weight on each driver of 22,000 pounds. A 60,000 pound capa- city car fully loaded will have from 11,000 to 1 2,000 pounds weight per wheel. In the case of a tonnage train consisting of a twelve wheel engine and one hundred loaded cars (as on the Illinois Central Railway) passing over a rail joint, there will be four blows of 24,000 pounds made by the engine and 260 blows of from 11,000 to 12,000 STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 221 pounds made by the wheels of the freight cars. When this is considered the importance of a good rail joint becomes apparent. The length of rail joints varies from 48 inches with six bolts to 24 inches with four bolts. The spacing of the ties under the rail joints is not uniform; some roads place the joint between the ties, others place a tie directly under the joint; theoretically the former will permit the rail to respond to the wave action more fully than the latter, and those advocating the first style of spacing the ties claim it makes an easier riding track on account of the wave motion of the rail not being so greatly interfered with. The ques- tion of even* and brokenf rail joints appears from the practice to tend to a decision in favor of even joints on tangents and broken joints on curves. Track bolts are made to a standard size; some roads, however, have their own design. In Ap- pendix J, Table No. 5 gives the weight per 1,000 bolts with square and hexagon nuts. Table No. 6 gives the sizes used for rails of different weight, and the number in a keg of 200 pounds. Fig. 109 illustrates the styles of track bolts used. The constant vibration at rail joints when trains are passing over them, causes the nuts to turn and the bolts to become loose; this prevents * When both rails in a track are laid so that the joints are directly opposite each other, the track is said to be laid with "even" joints. f When the joint in one rail is laid opposite the center of the other rail, the track is said to be laid with "broken" joints. 222 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. -Length" Square Nut. .Hexagonal Nut. FIG. 109. TRACK BOLTS. the joint fastening from doing the work for which it was designed. To overcome this, vari- ous styles of nut-locks have been used; in a gen- eral way they can be placed in four classes: First The use of washers partially made of rubber or papier mache. Second Metal washers with a spring action which are designed to keep the nut pressed tight against the threads of the screw on the bolt. (Fig. 110 represents the " Verona" nut-lock, which is of this type.) FIG. 110. STYLES OF "VERONA" NUT LOCKS. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 223 Third An elastic nut designed to clasp the bolt and hold this nut in position by the increased fric- tion between the threads on the nut and bolt. (Fig. Ill represents the "National," which is of this class.) Fourth A nut with an elongated base forming a spring to keep the nut pressed tight against the threads on the bolt. (Fig. 112 represents the FIG. 112. JOINT SPRING NUT LOCK. joint spring nut of this class.) Loose nuts not only mean loose and low joints, but wear on the angle bars and rails and broken joint bolts, and hence are to be obviated. RAIL BRACES. To keep the track to gauge, rail braces are used on curves, and, if soft wood ties are used, 224 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. they can be used to advantage on tangents. They should always be used for the guard rails and lead rails of turnouts or switches. They should be well designed for their work, or the outer edge of the rail will cut into the tie, as shown by Fig. 113. Two designs of forged steel braces for rails are shown in Fig. 114. The tie FIG. 113. Shows how a rail-brace will fail to support the rail where it cuts into the 'tie, or the rail Drace is not properly designed. FIG. 114. FORGED STEEL RAIL BRACES. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 225 plate when used reduces to some extent the ne- cessity for rail braces by giving a hard surface into which the edge of the base of the rail will not cut when a lateral strain is exerted by the train; it also assists in holding the track to gauge by bringing the resistance of the spikes on both sides of the rail to oppose a lateral movement of the rail. SWITCHES. In the selection of switches there are three 'styles to choose from, the stub switch, the split switch and switches of special design or patents, varying from the first two. The stub switch consists of two movable rails connected by rods to hold them to gauge and cause both rails to be moved parallel when thrown by the lever; the ends of these rails rest on a head block or chair. The main line rails and the rails leading to the side track are held firmly by the head block or chair, Fig. 115 represents this style of switch. The split switch is known as the old English Point Switch, which has been in use in. Fra. 115. STUB SWITCH. Showing head blocks and ground throw for moving switch rail* 15 Vol. 13 226 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. England since 1830 and is now coming into gen- eral use in the United States. The Lorenz Switch and the Clarke-Jeffrey Switch are split switches. Fig. 116 illustrates this style. The FIG. 116. SPLIT SWITCH. With Pony Switch Stand. Suitable for yards. third class of switches is designed for special purposes; are protected by patents and they mostly aim to give a continuous rail for the main line. MacPherson's Improved Safety Switch and Frog is devised to lift the train over the rail of the main line without the use of a frog when being switched on to a siding. This switch is in use on some of the great railroad systems. The Wharton Switch is designed to leave the main line rails unbroken at the switch stand, but a STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 227 frog is used where the inside rail of the side track crosses the main line rail. It has been in use for a number of years and is well known. The Duggan Switch is designed to accomplish the same purpose as the Wharton Switch, by having the switch rail work in a vertical instead of a horizontal plane. The principal objection to the stub switch is that the pounding of the ends of the rails at the head block by the passing wheels causes the rails to bind at the head block when the expansion becotnes great, and thus brings about the derail- ment of trains. Their use should be confined to side tracks, but they are not to be recommended for use even there. Frogs can be placed in three general classes: rigid, spring rail and swing rail. The manufact- urers of frogs and switches make about four styles of rigid frogs. Fig. 120 illustrates a filled FIG. 120. RIGID FILLED FROG. frog. These frogs are made in two styles; in one of them the metal between the rails is in two pieces, and the other two pieces where they come together at the point of the frog are welded to- gether, thus making a stiffer frog and giving more support to the point. Fig. 121 represents a chuck filled frog which is lighter than the filled 228 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. SECTION CO FIG. 121. RIGID CHUCK FILLED FROG. frog and suitable for yards or a road with light traffic. Fig. 122 represents a clamped frog, the FIG. 122. RIGID STEEL CLAMP FROG. clamps being made of steel. This is sometimes called a yoked frog. Fig. 123 represents a frog riveted to a plate I to f inches thick, the rivets being countersunk on the under side of the plate to give a flat bearing on the ties. In addition to the styles of rigid frogs mentioned, some roads have styles of their own, differing somewhat in detail, and the various makers also differ in the details of manufacture and style. Eigid frogs STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 229 SCCTGN A-B. FIG. 123. SCC TON C-D. RIGID PLATE RIVETED FROG. should not be used in main track of roads doing a large business; they may, however, be used on branches and in yards to advantage to reduce the expense of construction. Spring rail frogs have been called into use to prevent the pounding at the frog and secure a smooth riding main track; the spring rail frog is considered to have overcome the weak point in the track caused by a frog of the rigid type. Fig. FIG. 124. SPRING RAIL FROG WITH ANCHOR BLOCK. 124 represents one style of a spring rail frog, the block at A B is so combined with the track rails 230 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. and rails in the frog that it forms a frame to prevent the loose spring rail from creeping; the spring rail is channeled to prevent worn wheels from striking it. Fig 125 represents the "Eureka" FIG. 125. EUREKA" SPRING RAIL FROG. Spring Rail Frog. All four ends are spliced sol- idly together as in a rigid frog. The hinge rail is attached to the main rail by a bolt hinge (see section IJ); this allows the rail to move freely and prevents its creeping; it iy attached to the movable part of the running rail by strong bolts passing through both rails and a wrought iron filling (see section E F). This makes this mov- able part strong throughout. Manufacturers have a number of other styles of spring rail frogs, and some roads have patterns of their own. Spring rail frogs and movable points are being used in place of frogs to secure a smooth riding track. Fig. 126 represents a movable point cross- ing, which is used in place of a frog by connect- STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 231 FIG. 126. MOVABLE POINT CROSSING. ing the levers at the movable point with the switch stand. The Coughlin switch rail frog is designed to leave the main line track unbroken at the frog, there being no guard rail or frog required for the main line. The principle of this spring rail frog is in use on the Lehigh Valley Railway and Western Maryland Railway. It can be used with the split switch or Wharton points. The spring rail frog used with the McPherson improved safety switch accomplishes the same object that the Coughlin switch rail frog does, except that a guard rail is required on the main line track. On account of the varying angles at which roads cross each other, crossing frogs have to be especially made in each instance. They are made of steel rails cut to length and shape, and fitted 232 BUILDING ; REPAIRING RAILWAYS. FIG. 129. CROSSING FROGS. ANGLES 60 TO 90'. and strongly bolted together. Fig. 129 represents one type of crossing frog; the rails butt against each other and are solid filled throughout, and FIG. 130. CROSSING FROGS. ANGLES 45 TO 60 , STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 233 securely clamped with angle bars having six bolts through them; the corners are supported by heavy bottom plates. In Fig. 130 the crossing differs from the preceding one, in that the rails at the obtuse angles are solid instead of .being butts. FIG. 131. CROSSING FROGS WITH EXTRA HEAVY ANGLE IRONS. Fig. 131 represents a crossing where the angle irons are very heavy and have eight bolts; bot- tom plates extend the length of the crossing or can be put under the corners only as desired. Fig. 132 is the same crossing shown in Fig. 129, only modified for a street railroad. By making the flangeway on the street railroad as narrow as possible, the life of the crossing is increased. Fig. 133 represents another style of crossing for a steam and street railroad, this is known as a jump crossing, the rail of the steam railroad not 234 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. FIG. 132. CROSSING FROGS FOR STEAM AND STREET RAILROADS. being grooved for the flanges of the wheels of the street cars. FIG. 133. JUMP CROSSING FROGS FOR STEAM AND STREET RAILROADS. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 235 Switch stands are so arranged that they throw the switch and display a signal at one opera- tion; the signal is arranged to indicate a clear track on the main line or show the train crew that the switch is open to enter the siding. With all split and safety switches where the train can trail through and open the switch, an automatic or safety switch stand should be used to prevent either the points of the switch or the switch rod being damaged. Figs. 134 and 135 illustrate a FIG. 134. RAMAPO" SAFETY SWITCH STAND, AS IT APPEARS WHEN HALF THROWN BY HAND. 236 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. FIG. 135. "RAMAPO" SAFETY SWITCH STAND AS IT APPEARS WHEN HALF THROWN BY WHEELS PASSING THROUGH THE SWITCH. safety switch made by the Ramapo Iron Works. This firm have recently added an adjustable crank to their safety switch stand; it assures the switch stand of being able always to fit the throw of the STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 231 switch, and to take up any lost motion that may accumulate from wear and avoid the necessity of adjustable head rods, or of shimming out the rod to keep the gauge. There is an endless variety of switch stands, and the types only will be given here. Fig. 136 represents a switch stand for a FIG. 136. THREE-THROW SWITCH STAND. threfe-throw switch which can be used on the main line or in a yard where there is room for a high switch stand. In a large yard it is better to use low switch stands, as high ones are liable to 238 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. FIG. 137. AUTOMATIC PARALLEL GROUND-THROW SWITCH STAND. FIG. 138. LOW PONY SWITCH STAND. FIG. 139. LOW PONY SWITCH STAND WITH SAFETY BOTTOM CAP. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 239 prevent the signals on other switch stands from being seen. Figs. 137 to 140 illustrate such stands. FIG. 140. GROUND-THROW SWITCH STAND WITH WEIGHTED LEVER. Some of the various designs for signals or targets on switch stands are given in Fig. 141, and Fig. 142 illustrates a method of elevating the signal or target at a dangerous point. FIG. 141. DESIGNS FOR TARGETS Oil SIGNALS TO BE USED ON SWITCH STANDS. FIG. 142. TARGET TRIPOD FOR SWITCH STANDS. 240 STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 24, FIG. 143. 'HALEY" SEMI-STEEL BUMPING POST. 16 Vol. 13 242 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. BUMPING POSTS. There are several designs of bumping posts, the latest are of metal. Fig. 143 illustrates the Haley post which is made of semi-steel, and the spring is made of coil spring steel. The impact is received on a plunger and the blow taken up by two double coil springs, thus reducing the shock on rolling stock to a minimum. The anchorage under >the rails shown in the cut can in some cases be omitted. The Haskell bumping post is made of steel rails and cast steel. The main or base rails form support for diverging braces, and it can be securely anchored. The Ellis bumping post, Fig. 145, is a wooden one, FIG. 145. "ELLIS" BUMPING POST. which has been in use for about ten years on a number of roads. BRIDGES. The selection of bridges must be largely left to specialists and each stream crossed will have to be considered separately; one stream must be crossed with the grade line high above flood water; here a deck bridge can be used with ad- vantage, thus reducing the cost of piers. (See Figs. 149, 151 and 155 ) At another crossing STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 243 FIG. 146. THROUGH PLATE GIRDER BRIDGE. FIG. 147. PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF THROUGH PLATE GIRDER BRIDGE. FIG. 148. THROUGH PRATT TRUSS. A B is the lower chord, to which the bridge floor is attached. C D is the upper chord. A C and B D are the end posts. C E F G and all such verticals are called intermediate posts or verticals and are known as vertical members. C F E G and all such diagonals are called tie-braces or tension braces when the strain is a tension or pull and a tiestrut or strut-tie when the strain is a compressive one or a push in either case they are known as oblique members. 244 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. the grade line is so low that a through bridge can only be used. (See Pigs. 148 and 150.) Again the nature of the stream may prevent false work from being used in the erection of all or part of a bridge and resort will have to be made to a cantilever style. (See Fig. 165.) The stream may be navigable and the channels change at different stages of the river, necessitating a high bridge or two or more draw spans. (See Fig. 160.) The width of the stream and the amount of shipping using the stream may be such that a biscular bridge must be resorted to. (See Fig. 163.) Some of the points which must be considered in designing a bridge are: The relation between the length and the height of the truss, so that the metal will be economically used in the chords and braces. The width of the pannel must be so proportioned, that unnecessary expense will not be incurred for connections for the floor system and lateral bracing; no rule can, how- ever, be laid down for this; it is necessary for the designer to study each peculiar case. The lateral diagonal and portal bracing require care- ful attention, also the floor system. The decision as to whether the bridge is to be pin connected or riveted connections depends on conditions; more rapid erection can be accomplished with pin connections; at busy terminal points or near yards where a number of trains pass over bridges and there is danger of derailment, a lattice riv- eted bridge can be used to advantage; with this style one of the members may be disabled with- STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 245 FIG. 149. DECK PRATT TRUSS. A B is the lower chord. C D is the upper chord to which, the bridge floor is attached. A C and B D are the end posts. E F, G H, etc., are vertical members. C F, E H, F G, etc., are oblique members. In the Pratt Truss the aim is to place the oblique members at an angle of 45 that being the most economical angle; but sometimes the height of the truss E F is greater than the length of the panel F H and this feature has to be waived to secure economy in other directions. FIG. 150. THROUGH WARREN TRUSS. A B is the lower chord, to which the bridge floor is attached C D is the upper chord. A C and B D are the end posts. C E, E F, F G, etc., are oblique members. The Warren truss has no vertical members. The principle of this truss is a combination of equilateral triangles which geometrical figure is the stiffest form of framing; however, there are cases when the length of the panels A E, E G, etc., and the height of truss or vertical distance between the top and bottom chords are such that another form of triangle has to be adopted; in such cases the designer tries to make the angle E A C and A E C as near 45 as possible. FIG. 151. DECK WARREN TRUSS. A B is the lower chord. C D is the upper chord to which the bridge floor is attached A C and B D are the end posts. A E, E F, F G, G H, etc., are the oblique members. 246 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. out stopping traffic over the bridges. (See Figs. 154 and 155.) The forms of truss used in modern practice are as follows: Plate girder is used for short spans; under special conditions it can be used for spans 75 to 100 feet long, however, it is used mostly for spans of 50 feet or less. Figs. 146 and 147 illustrate a plate girder bridge. For longer span than can be economically built with a plate girder, a Pratt or a Warren truss of simple type would be used (See Figs. 148 to 151.) These trusses may be used up to 150 feet span, as the span increases modifications of these trusses are made to afford points for supporting the floor system as shown by Figs. 152 to 157. When the span becomes what is styled a long span, reaching say over 300 or 400 feet, further modifications are found to give economical con- struction; these modifications are shown by Figs. 158 to 160. The 525 foot span erected at Hen- derson, Kentucky, in 1885 was a truss similar to that illustrated by Fig. 158. The following bridges were built with a truss similar to that represented by Figs. 158 and 159. Havre de Grace, Maryland, in 1886, span 515 feet. Ceredo, W. Virginia, " 1893, " 521 " Covington, Kentucky, " 1888, " 550 " The truss used for the bridge at Memphis, Tenn., erected in 1892, was similar to that shown by Fig. 160. The channel span was a cantilever having a span of 791 feet and the two spans west of the channel were each 621 feet. The cantilever, arch and bowstring bridges are merely modifications of the trusses described; STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 247 FIG. 152. WHIfPLE TRUSS OR DOUBLE INTERSECTION PRATT. The height required for the clearance of a train is about 18 ft. above the rail, and in the preceding trusses (Figs. 148 to 151) the panels are made to ap- proach as near as possible to this distance. As the length of the span is in- creased, the height of the truss must be increased, and to place the oblique members at or near an angle of 45 in a Pratt truss or 60 in a Warren truss, the length of the panel must be increased. Modifications must now be made of the simple trusses to afford intermediate points to support the floor system. The Whipple truss is a modification of the Pratt truss made for this purpose; A B C D represents a panel of a Pratt Truss; an extra vertical E P and extra obliques D E and E G are added to afford support to the point E to support the floor system. FIG. 153. MODIFIED FORM OF WARREN TRUSS. As the length of the Warren truss is increased and the height of the truss also increased, making the points A and B of the triangle ABC too far apart to support the floor system, a vertical C D is added to support the floor at the point D. FIG. 154. SINGLE LATTICE GIRDER MODIFIED FORM OF WARREN TRUSS. This is another method of accomplishing what is illustrated by Fig. 153, and in addition stiffens the upper chord; this is two Warren trusses A B C D F G H and A' B' C' D' F' G' H' placed together; the latter one affords points B' D' G' for supporting the floor system and points C' and F' for supporting or stiffening the upper chord. 248 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. the cantilever is merely two spans placed with say their centers on piers, the shore ends anchored and the space between the two spans over the stream or canyon bridged by a truss bridge; the cantilever may be a deck or through bridge; Fig. 165 illustrates a cantilever bridge. The arch bridge is merely a truss with the lower chord built in the form of an arch. Tfie bow- string bridge generally has the top chord in the form of an arch, though sometimes the lower chord is in the form of an inverted arch; Fig. 159 illustrates a bowstring bridge. The draw bridge illustrated by Fig. 161 represents the usual style with a center pier and a channel on each side of the center pier. Where a pier is not allowed to be built in the channel, bob-tailed draw bridges having the short span weighted are sometimes used, see Fig. 162. There has recently been in- troduced another style of draw bridge especially suitable to be used in a narrow channel, known as the Scherzer rolling lift bridge; the advantages over the old styles are as follows: fa) No center piers obstructing the channel, (b) No dock space wasted, (c) When opened it completely closes the roadway and prevents a train from running into the draw. It can be designed as an arch or cantilever. Fig. 163 illustrates this. There are two general methods of determining the strains or loads the various members of a bridge are subjected to; one is by platting the loads or strains and is called "Graphical" statics or "Graphical Method." The other method is a STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 249 FIG. 155. DOUBLE LATTICE GIRDER MODIFIED FORM OF WARREN TRUSS Where the length of the truss becomes too great to use the form shown by Fig. 154, this form can be used to support the intermediate points B" B' C'" on the lower chord and C" C' D'" on the upper chord, ABODE F G being the simple Warren truss with three others A' B' C' D', etc. A" B" C" D", etc, A'" B"' C'" D'", etc., added. FIG. 156. DECK BALTIMORE TRUSS-MODIFIED FORM OF PRATT TRUSS. This is Fig. 148 inverted to make a longer span for a deck bridge than Fi?. 149 is suited for; the floor system is supported by the addition of oblique members A B anJ A' B' and vertical members A C D E, etc. FIG. 157. THROUGH BALTIMORE TRUSS MODIF^D FORM OF PRATT TRUSS. This is another method of accomplishing what is done by the Whipple truss (Fig. 152.) The panels as A B CD have but one oblique D B, to this is added the oblique C E and the vertical E F to support the floor system at F 250 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. mathematical one, based on the laws of me- chanics. * The various members of a bridge must be so designed and connected that the strains will be in the direction of their axis; all strains tending to buckle or shear the members must be avoided in making the design, and in the erection care must be taken that all members are placed as designed, no shortening or lengthening to be allowed, as this would tend to throw a greater strain on some members than they were designed to bear. The manufacture of steel has reached such a high standard that the bridge designer knows definitely what duty it will perform, and bridge designing has become as near an exact science as can be expected of anything produced by human agency. The expansion and contrac- tion of the bridge is allowed for by an arrange- ment of rollers on which one end of the bridge rests, f The piers to support the bridges can be masonry or iron cylinders filled with concrete, the selection of the style to adopt depending on local conditions. Wooden truss bridges are now seldom used on new lines. Pile bridges and frame trestles are now used to cheapen the cost where there is much filling required; they are, however, used as temporary structures especially on lines which do much business; they are replaced as the re- *The details of these two methods are treated very fully by A. J. DuBois and Merriman and other authors, see Appendix K. fThe expansion of rails on draw bridges is discussed under the subject of track. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 251 FIG. 158. LONG SPAN BALTIMORE TKUSS MODIFICATION OF WARREN TRUSS. This is a method in a long span of supporting the floor at three inter- mediate points in a panel as is done by the double lattice girder Fig. 155, ABCDEFGHIis the simple Warren truss,oblique members J K L M, etc., and vertical members C M, N L, O D, F- J, E K, etc., are added to support the floor system at N O P, etc, and to stiffen the upper chord at M K, etc. FIG. 159. LONG SPAN BALTIMORE TRUSS ALSO KNOWN AS THE ARCHED TRUSS, THE BOWSTRING TRUSS AND THE CAMELBACK TRUSS. As shown by panel D D' and E E' this is modified form of a Pratt Truss; AB, B C, C D, D E, E F, etc., D' E', E' F'. etc., are the oblique members of the Pratt truss;B B', C C', D D', E E', F F', are the vertical members of the Pratt truss. To support the floor system at G H I, etc., the oblique members LB'. MC', N C', and the vertical members LG, MH.NI, O J, P K, are added. The pressure exerted by the top chord is carried to the abutment at A by the members already alluded to, and the segment of a circle or arch' made by the members A B, B C', and C 1 D, of the top chord which act as an arch. This form of truss is suitable for long spans and is econom- ical in the use of metal. 252 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. sources of the company permit by earth em- bankments, or in the case of heavy fills, by steel viaducts and arched culverts with earth embank- ments. Fig. 166 illustrates a pile trestle, while Fig. 167 illustrates a framed one; in each of the illustrations short stringers reaching from the center of one bent to the center of the adjoining bent are used; where long stringers reaching from the center of one bent to the center of the second bent are used and are laid with broken joints, a stiff er structure is secured, and the labor in erecting is less than with short stringers; the short stringers have the advantage of costing less and require less labor to replace them when it becomes necessary to make renewals. The stringers are fastened to the caps in Fig. 166 by both passing through a corbel which is drift bolted to the cap. Another method is shown in Fig. 167; here the stringers rest directly on the cap and blocks are placed between them, the stringers are bolted to the blocks and the blocks are drift bolted to the cap. The longitudinal bracing shown in Fig. 167 is dimension timber instead of planking, similar to that used for sway braces as shown in the end elevation; this is a departure made by the Chi- cago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad on one of its new lines. This method makes a stiff bracing and is economical in the use of timber. A stone arched culvert, well designed and the masonry properly laid, is a "permanent structure" in the fullest sense of the term, and this fact is more generally appreciated by the Eastern trunk lines STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 253 FIG. 160. ANOTHER MODIFICATION OF THE WARREN TRUSS FOR LONG SPANS. This is type of the truss used for the bridge across the Mississippi River at Memphis, Tenn. The lower chord is 75 feet above high water. The span is 621 feet. This is a modification of the lattice girder, Fig. 154: to adapt it to long span bridges, the vertical members, E F, E' F', etc. are added to support the floor system at F F', etc., and to stiffen the upper chord at E E'. etc; the horizon- tal brace H G is added to stiffen the end post A A'. With this truss and the arched truss, Fig. 159, the floor system has to be made stronger than for the others, illustrated, as the distances apart of the points of support are greater. FIG. 161. DULUTH-SUPERIOR BRIDGE. This draw bridge is made of two trusses connected with a tower on the draw or center pier by tie or tension braces. Four track b?idge (two steam railroad and two electric tracks) consist- ing of center draw span, 485 feet, and two side spans, 300 feet each. Total weight, 3, 230 tons. Draw span operated by electrical power. NOTE The essential point is to show the draw span. 254 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. than by the Western ones. The arched culvert can be built with one or more spans, and all streams except the larger ones can be crossed with them. Fig. 168 illustrates an arched culvert. The proper thickness to give the arch will depend on the span S, the rise R, and the amount of fill A. The proper thickness B of the side walls depends on the pressure on the arch. Taking a given depth of fill as the length of the arch is decreased the amount of masonry in the wing walls is in- creased. It is the engineer's duty to determine the length which is the most economical, and this cannot be tabulated except for cases where the ground is level transversely with the line of the road. Cast iron pipe laid through an embankment can be used to convey a fair sized stream, or the drainage of considerable area of country. These pipes are used from one foot to three feet in diameter, and several lines of pipe can be kid together when necessary to secure the proper capacity. They are generally made in twelve- foot lengths,, but some roads have the larger sizes made in six-foot lengths. Fig. 169 illus- trates a cast-iron pipe culvert and Fig. 170 illus- trates one with wing walls at the inlet and outlet. Drainage is secured through low embankments by open culverts. In such cases the track can be supported by wooden stringers or steel I beams, Fig. 171 illustrates an open culvert. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 255 FIG. 162. BOB-TAILED DRAW BRIDGE MODIFIED FORM OF WARREN TRUSS, SHORT SPAN COUNTER-WEIGHTED. This draw bridge also consists of two trusses similar to Fig. 153, but in this case the end posts are connected to the tower and form a part of the tower. FIG. 163. SCHERZER ROLLING LIFT BRIDGE. FIG. 165. CANTILEVER BRIDGE. 256 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. W-fsr-tfo^ygJrfe^^^ ^ ^^^^.^ Tirggj FIG. 166. PILE TRESTLE BRIDGE. i .. : . rzi*,. FIG. 167. FRAMED TRESTLE. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 257 ECTiO* THROUGH CD Stcr/orv THROUGH f f FIG. 168. STONE ARCHED CULVERT. FIG. 169. CAST IRQ -\ PIPE CULVERT WITHOUT WING WAULS. 17 Vol. 13 258 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAIL WA YS. FIG. 170. CAST IRON PIPE CULVERT WITH WING WALLS. PLAN FIG. 171. OPEN CULVERT. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 259 WATER SUPPLIES. The importance of the water supply has been discussed in a previous chapter, the selection of pumps, storage tanks and accessories will here be considered. Windmills, probably, are used more as a source of power to pump water for railroads than all other appliances in the United States; the other sources of power are steam and gas. Wheels as large as 30 feet in diameter are used on windmills; their stroke is from 2 to 24 inches and the plungers of the pumps are from 2 to 10 inches in diameter. Where larger supplies of water are required than a windmill can be relied upon to give, a steam and gas or gasoline pump can be used. The gas or gasoline pump has only been recently introduced for this purpose. A steam pump for deep non-flowing artesian wells is illustrated by Fig. 172. When pumping from a well, pond or stream by a steam pump, the pumping plant re- quired is shown by Fig. 173. Fig. 174 represents one of the makes of gasoline engines and pumps designed for railroad water supply. A design for a pump house and machinery is shown in Fig. 175; this shows a gasoline engine belted to a pump. To supply locomotives with water large amounts are required at intervals more or less frequent depending on the number of trains. To obtain an economical plant, provision must be made for storing the water as it is pumped and running the pumping plant steadily; this per- 260 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. FIG. 172. PUMP FOR A DEEP WELL. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 261 mits of a small pumping plant being used, and on a branch or where but few trains are run one man can attend to pumping water for several water stations. The water tanks generally used are 16 feet high and 24 feet in diameter and con- tain 50,000 gallons. They should be placed high enough above the rail to give the water sufficient force to fill the tender rapidly and not unneces- sarily delay trains; some roads are placing the bottom of the tank twenty feet above the rail. The tanks are made of wood and are supported on wooden or iron posts. Fig. 176 illustrates FIG. 173. COMMON FORM OF SETTING UP A PUMPING PLANT FOR A WATER STATION. 262 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. FIG. 174. COMBINED GASOLINE ENGINE AND PUMP. one supported by wooden posts. Some, however, are supported by wrought iron columns and the advisability of using steel in place of wood for constructing railroad water tanks is being dis- cussed. A submerged water station consists of a cylin- der submerged in a well, the cylinder contains a movable piston; the top of the cylinder is con- nected with a pipe which leads up to a post where it can be coupled to the boiler of a loco- motive; when steam is turned on the piston is depressed and water is forced out of the cylinder through a pipe leading to a stand pipe. Mr. E. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 263 H. McHenry, Chief Engineer of the Northern Pacific Bail way, is the inventor and it is in use on the Northern Pacific and Duluth, Missabe & Northern Kailways. Where the water supply is procured from an elevated point and is piped to the track or from a city water- works, a stand pipe or water column is used; where the road is a double track one water column can be placed between the tracks; FIG. 175. DESIGN FOR R. R. PUMP HOUSE AND MACHINERY, USING A GASOLINE ENGINE. 264 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. FIG. 176. WATER TANK, SUPPORTED BY WOODEN POSTS OR BENTS. however, less delay to the trains is secured by using two, as stated in the chapter on construc- tion. An automatic water column or stand pipe is illustrated by Fig. 179. There are several makes on the market. To secure satisfactory service the supply pipe should be large, some roads using a 12 inch supply pipe for a 10 inch water column There must be a sufficient head of water to giv< the necessary force to discharge the water rapidl5 and not detain trains. The column must have a quick opening valve, be readily adapted to high or low pressure, be frost proof, should turn auto- matically to its position parallel with the track, STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 265 FlG. 179. AUTOMATIC STAND PIPE OR WATER COLUMN. BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. the valve should be balanced, it should rotate easily and should drain automatically after use.* To enable fast trains to take water without making a stop " Track Tanks" are resorted to; they consist of a shallow tank 6 to 7 inches deep in the clear and 1200 to 1400 feet long. The approach at each end is sloped so that loose rods on passing trains will not catch and damage the tank. The train can take water when moving at a speed of 45 miles per hour; this is done by lowering a scoop attached to the tender, which, with the force and velocity at which the train is moving, causes the water to flow into the tender, the tank is sloped up at the ends to prevent the scoop damaging it. Track tanks are so placed that water can be taken about every 30 miles run by the train. The difficulty met with FIG. 180. TRACK TANK. A Cross section of roadbed. B Cross section of tank. C Partial longitu- dinal section of tank. *Table No. 8, Appendix J, gives the capacity of single acting and duplex pumps and the fittings required. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 267 is to prevent their freezing and two methods have been adopted to overcome this: one is to inject live steam at points along the line of the tank about 40 feet distant from each other. The other method is to tap the tank at the center and connect it with a suction pipe of a pump and pump the water out of the center of the tank, pass it through a heater and return it at each end of the tank; the latter method gives the best results. Track tanks are in use on a number of roads. (See Fig. 180 which gives details.) COALING. The method adopted for storing and handling coal is important; a badly arranged coal station may require an unnecessary amount of labor in handling the coal which in the course of a few years would equal the cost of the plant. There are three general methods in use. The one used the most consists of a shed about 20 feet wide having the main line on one side and a side track for coal cars on the other. The side next to the siding is boarded up as high as the sides of the gondolas or coal cars. The length of the shed depends on the amount of coal required to be stored. At the center of the shed a platform is erected having a hand crane on it and space for the storage of coal buckets, which are made of iron and contain one-half ton of coal each. A narrow gauge track is laid along one side of the shed, if the shed is much wider than 20 feet the track should be laid in the center. The coal buckets are placed on cars to move them to and 268 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. from the crane to the coal pile; as fast as they are loaded they are placed on the platform, which is the same height above the rail as the top of the tender. Fig 181 shows a plan of such a coal- o FIG. 181. PLAN OF A COALING STATION WHERE BUCKETS ARE USED. ing station, which is arranged to save handling part of the coal by shoveling it direct from the car into the buckets which are placed on a car on the track D, the buckets being hoisted through the opening E on to the platform C. The track A is used for the car when the buckets are loaded from the coal stored in the shed, Another style used more extensively on lines having a large traffic is an elevated coal shed with pockets con- taining enough coal to coal up a tender; these stations can be arranged to unload the cars by dumping from the side or bottom. However they are generally arranged for the cars to be unloaded by hand as a large amount of the coal STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 269 is handled Jby cars having no arrangement for dumping. These stations can be placed between the two main line tracks of a double track road; the coal cars are pushed up an incline track on a grade of 5 or 6 per cent, to the coal shed which is on trestles or the side of a cut. Fig. 182 re- FIG. 182. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF A CLINTON COALING STATION. presents a section of such a coaling station. Where the traffic becomes so heavy that four or more tracks are required, the coal for locomotives is placed in the tender of the locomotive from a bridge spanning the tracks. The storage shed is elevated on a trestle or the side of a cut, a track laid in the coal shed passes over a turn-table where a track from the shed leads to the bridge over the main line tracks. Scales are placed at 270 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. f a point where all coal taken from the shed can be weighed. The coal is loaded into cars of a style which can be easily dumped; under the rails on the bridge there is a hopper terminating in a spout to which a movable section is attached. The operation of loading a tender is as follows: The cars are kept loaded and are pushed from the coal shed out on the track leading to the bridge, when a train pulls up with the tender under a hopper. the movable spout is let down, the coal cars are run to the hopper and the coal dumped and the empty car pushed forward, leav- ing room for a second car to discharge its load into the hopper. In this way the necessary number of cars to load the tender are rapidly unloaded, the movable spout is raised and the train proceeds. Where the men are trained for the work the oper- ation is very rapid. The empty cars are run back into the coal shed, being switched around those which were not unloaded. The skill of the engineer is displayed in adapt- ing the various plans to the conditions of the business and the topography of the country- aiming always to reduce the cost of labor and de- tention of trains to a minimum. TURNTABLES. With the increased weight and length of en- gines, the styles of turntables in use a few years ago are not able to do the work required of them at present. Attention is now being given to im- proving the bearings at the center to secure a distribution of the weight of engine and turn- STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 271 table, so that the table can be quickly and easily turned. Turntables are now made from thirty to seventy feet in length, and of both wrought and cast iron. The two styles are illustrated by Figs. 183 and 184. Turntable centers are illus- trated by Figs. 184, 185 and 186. FIG. 183. CAST IRON TURNTABLE. (Made by William Sellers & Co., Philadelphia, Pa.) 272 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. STANDARD 60-FT. TURNTABLE NO. 2. THC KINO BSIDOC CO.. FIG. 1S4. WROUGHT IRON TURNTABLE. (Made by the King Iron Bridge Co.) FIG. 185. A TURNTABLE CENTER USED BY WILLIAM SELLERS & CO. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 273 FIG. 186. SPECIAL, SIXTEEN ROLLER CENTER FOR TURNTABLES. (Made by C. L. Strobel.) BUILDINGS. In regard to the character of the buildings to be erected, the uncertainty of the development of the country must be borne in mind. Another point to 18 Vol. 13 274 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. be considered is the effect produced by improve- ments made in the arrangement of the interiors, decoration, methods of lighting, heating and ven- tilation,improvements in plumbing and sewerage; in private dwellings the improvements along these lines have been such that a period of about ten years makes a residence, once modern and de- sirable, old-fashioned and undesirable unless re- modeled. It is altogether probable this improve- ment of design, etc., will continue at a more rapid rate in the future than in the past. While railroad structures are probably not affected so much by this improvement as dwellings, yet on account of competition it must be considered. For this reason it is not the greatest economy to erect buildings of a character to last for a long period. It is also difficult to design a building for the present, and provide for extensions to be built when business increases; the increased busi- ness often takes place along unexpected lines and is of a character which could not be anticipated. The growth of the country and the expansion of business, while increasing the receipts of a rail- road, also greatly increase the expenditure made to provide facilities to handle the business. These reasons tend to make careful railway managers use buildings which the public are protesting against and which they are not satisfied with. For the larger buildings such as terminal depots, general offices, depots both passenger and freight at large cities or manufacturing centers, hotels and even offices and shops at division head- quarters, it is impossible to lay down any general STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 275 276 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. plan to be adopted, as the conditions are so dif- ferent. Fig. 187 is a plan of a frame depot suitable for a new line in a sparsely settled country. Living rooms are provided for the agent and his family; a passing track but no house track is provided for. FIG. 188. SMALL, FRAME DEPOT. Fig. 188 is a plan of a frame depot suitable to be used where business is light or moderate and where the agent's family can secure a house away from the depot to live in. Fig. 189 is a plan of a frame depot for a station doing a fair business. A house track is provided for, which can also be used as a team track for carload freight. All of these depots when built in a northern climate should be set on a stone foundation or some other provision made to keep the floors warm. The floor of the warehouse should be of two-inch plank and the waiting rooms, offices and living rooms double floored, the top one being of STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 277 f-.f ;* * IK r< 278 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. hard maple. The doors in the warehouse should be sliding, six feet wide and seven feet high; the other outside doors should be three feet wide and seven feet high. The inside doors can be two feet six inches wide and seven feet high. No windows should be placed in the ware- house, they afford opportunity for petty thieves to ascertain whether fruits, etc., are on hand and tempt them to pilfer. A transom should be placed over the end door. The waiting CT/W"7* 7~/?/9C/< N K H i T^ ' 1 1 I 1 I . 1 . 1 <0 COAL 1 i SO vl 00 1 1 O O G^ r' x :' L lu V ^-~ &' ~->r 3' - \ : 1 FIG. 190. OUTBUILDINGS FOR SMALL DEPOTS. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 279 room and office windows are often made of twelve lights, each eight by sixteen inches, which give a good light for clerks to work in; one feat- ure about windows in a room where clerks are employed is to have them well up above the floor, as the light is required on the books and papers the clerks are working on and not on the floor. Coal and oil should never be kept in a depot. Fig. 190 illustrates out buildings for small de- pots. In these provision is made for storage of coal and oil and for filling lamps. When the business becomes so large that the freight and passenger business cannot be accommo- dated in one station building, a passenger station should be erected. Fig. 191 illustrates a brick one which has been found convenient. One roof covers all the buildings and extends six and one- half feet beyond the outside walls all around, thus affording shelter and leaving the platform unobstructed by posts or columns. The building can be heated by steam or hot water from a boiler in the baggage room. Where the ticket sales are large the ticket seller should have but one ticket window to attend. Where there is a roof over the platform there should always be a window placed in the office above the platform roof to give light for the clerks to work during cloudy weather or when a train is standing in front of the depot; the importance of this can only be real- ized by those who have to work in such offices where there is no window above the platform roof. The present practice is tending toward placing station platforms on a level with the top of the 280 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Oft STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 281 rail and making them of vitrified brick; however, very good results have been secured with small limestone screenings; they pack hard and wear well and can be cheaply repaired. Fig. 192 illustrates a stock pen used by a i / }> ^ > n. r *** O'/VG < / 50- US \ 10*90 V v- / f>[* 0ll5 i ce A, M>* \ . _, ^ \j s Q e Ja E * V AD- " FIG. 192. PLAN OF STOCK YARD. NOTE Where stock pens are built on an extensive scale (as at points where large shipments are made), the alleyway should be 12 feet wide, so that teams can be driven through with loads of hay, and the feed be distributed in the receiving or feeding pens. country stock buyer ; provision is made for re- ceiving pens, feeding pens with sheds and load- ing pens ; the addition of the second runway B enables two cars to be loaded at one time. This plan can be varied to suit the volume of business; where range cattle are to be shipped it will be necessary to add a fence C. D. to enable the herders to get the cattle into the pens. 282 BUILDING AND HE PAIRING RAILWAYS, STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 283 Fig. 193 is a plan of a roundhouse and small repair shops. The roundhouse is heated by indi- rect radiation from a coil of steam pipes placed in the blower room; the air is driven by a blower through the coils of steam pipes and conveyed to the roundhouse in overhead sheet iron pipes and discharged in the pits under the locomotives. Provision is made by a wrought iron pipe placed overhead and steam hose couplings to take the live steam from a locomotive which has just come in and convey it to one that is about to go out. The hydraulic pit for removing drivers is really a part of the machine shop. In the blower room are placed air compressors for handling the sand and operating the ash lift. Fire hydrants H are placed in each stall. 3 Uj 3 | -/ 1 *O 1 (J 1 ^ : * 2 - / 01 o T i T 1 v OFFICE 1 \ ^ 1 i i * 00 1 CENTER. QF SIDE FIG. 194. PLAN OF BRICK STOREHOUSE FOR SUPPLIES. 284 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 1 A brick storehouse is illustrated by Fig. 194. The oil room is paved with stone flagging, and no wood work is in the room except the window frames; some roads provide for the storage of oils in tanks set in the ground, the oil being pumped out as required. OF _ si o^e *N I K 1 1 STORE-ROOM FOK^ fo 5/9/V/> 1 Ido o,eo I !*i-ii m~i~_ _~i rj"^^6"^--i- J-i-. FIG. 195. PLAN OF STOREHOUSE FOR SA.ND. A sand house is illustrated by Fig. 195. The dried sand is placed in a hopper A, and carried by a current of air (which only takes up the fine sand) to an elevated tank; from this tank the sand box on the locomotive is filled by gravity in the same way that water is supplied to a tender. ASH PITS. To reduce the expense in loading ashes at roundhouses, air hoist ash pits have been intro- duced. Fig. 196 illustrates the method of using compressed air for this purpose. The bucket F STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 285 FIG. 196. ELEVATION OF A BENT OF AN AIR HOIST ASH PIT. is placed under the locomotive when the ashes are drawn; it is then pushed down the inclined track G to the position shown in Fig. 196, and is attached to the piston rod B which works in the cylinder A; the attendant then turns a valve at E, and the compressed air causes the piston and 286 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. piston rod B to rise in the cylinder A, thus lifting the bucket F and the attached truck level with the top of the car; another valve at E is then opened and the compressed air is admitted into the cyl- inder C drawing in the piston rod D, and bring- ing the cylinder A and bucket F over the car. The bucket is then dumped and the ashes dis- charged into the car. The attendant then re- verses the air in cylinder C, and the cylinder A and bucket F are brought back to the original position; by reversing the air in cylinder A the bucket F is lowered on to track G and can then be run under the track supported by the cast iron yokes H where it is in position to be filled again. A number of these bents can be placed together, and the operation can be carried on continuously. By this method one man can do the work heretofore requiring a gang of men, their number depending on the number of loco- motives handled. Where the ashes are handled without an air hoist, the track is lowered, so that the journals of the car wheels are on a level with the bottom of the ash pit to afford easy shoveling. PAVEMENT OF TEAM TRACKS IN FREIGHT YARDS. The paving to be used at team tracks in freight yards is quite an item of expense. The cheapest pavement is broken stone, having the large size in the bottom and the small size on top, covering the latter with a layer of screenings or fine gravel; no rolling is required, the traffic can make the road. The greater part of the cost of street improvements in cities is caused by the STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 287 impatience of the public to have a perfect sur- face to the macadam at once; the same condi- tions can be secured later by allowing the traffic to do the work performed by the steam roller. Brick pavement is cheaper than granite, and where the soil is thoroughly compacted and is sandy no concrete base is required, two courses of brick on sand will answer; under other con- ditions six inches of concrete and one course of brick should be used. Where good hard burnt bricks cannot be secured and a first-class pave- ment must be laid granite or trap blocks should be used. SIGNALS.* The method of signaling to adopt will depend on the amount of traffic and number of trains. A light business can be handled by signals dis- played at telegraph offices indicating clear track or a stop required for train orders; such signals are operated by hand by the operator from the office. Fig. 198 represents a style of this kind. Where there are a number of fast trains some automatic system should be resorted to; in this case the power to operate the signals is obtained from electric batteries and the circuits are opened and closed by the passing trains. Fig. 199 illus- trates the signal used a white disc indicates the track is clear to the next signal or block, a red one indicates the train has not yet reached the next signal or block. Fig. 200 shows the lever *The subject of signaling is fully treated in the volume, "Train Service." 288 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. FIG. 198. FIG. 199. TRAIN SIGNAL, OPERATED BY STATION AGENT. AUTOMATIC ELECTRIC SIGNAL. operated by the engine to open and close the electric circuit. Another method used to ac- complish the same purpose is illustrated by Fig. 201. By this method the operator displays a danger signal after the train has passed his tower and leaves it at danger until he is notified by the operator at the next tower that the train has passed, when he changes it for clear track. The first method costs more to install but is safer and less expensive to operate. Both meth- ods are called the Block System. At crossings, STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 289 FIG. 200. LEVER OPERATED BY ENGINE TO OPEN AND CLOSE ELECTRIC CIRCUIT. FIG. 201. BLOCK SIGNAL OPERATED BY TELEGRAPH OPERATOR. yards and terminal points interlocking plants are used, the principle applied here being an ar- rangement by which the switches are thrown by levers placed in a tower and are operated by hand; the mechanism is so arranged that switches, where any two or more opened at the same time might lead to a collision or derail a train, are locked so only one can be opened, and to open a second one of the set the first must be closed. The signals for clear track or 19 Vol. 13 290 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. danger are operated at the same time the switch is thrown. Fig. 141 illustrates some of the sig- nals used on switch stands to indicate in the day time clear track or danger; at night lanterns are placed on the switch stands displaying a red light for danger and a green light for clear track; it is not advisable to use a white light for clear track, as the white light in a lantern may be taken for the signal on a switch stand. The dif- ficulty with a switch light is to get one which FIG. 202. SWITCH LAMP UPPER DRAUGHT. FIG. 203. SWITCH LAMP LOWER DRAUGHT. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 291 will not blow out under all conditions, often a lantern which will not remain lighted on the signal at a telegraph office will give satisfaction on a switch stand. The manufacturers make them with a down draught and an up draught. Figs. 202 and 203 represent these styles. The character of lamps used on a semaphore with the block system is illustrated by Fig. 204; in this FIG. 204. SEMAPHORE SIGNAL LAMP UPPER DRAUGHT. case the light displayed by the lantern is white and the colors red and green are produced by colored lenses attached to the semaphore Fig. 201. FENCES. For a number of years the barbed wire fence was the principal one used to enclose the right of 292 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. FIG. 205. BARBED WIRE FENCE. way Fig. 205 represents this style of fence. The barbed wire fence was followed by the woven wire fence, the McMullen, Lamb and Page being of this class. Fig. 206 represents the FIG. 206. PAGE WOVEN WIRE FENCE. n FIG. 207. JONES' WIRE FENCE. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 293 Page Woven Wire Fence. There is now coming in use for railways a wire fence woven on the Held; the Jones and Cyclone being of this type. Figs. 207, 208 and 209 illustrate them. In FIG. 208. FLEXIBLE CLAMP USED IN MAKING JONES* WIRE FENCE. FIG. 209. CYCLONE WIRE FENCE AND THE MACHINE FOR MAKING IT. 294 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. place of cedar posts, which have been exclusively used until recently, iron posts are now being in- troduced; the weak point with an iron post is its rusting in the ground. To overcome this The Indestructible Post Co., of Brazil, Ind., are mak- ing terra cotta bases, which are set in the post holes and the inside partially filled with a thin grout of portland cement; in this grout the iron post is set, thus leaving only that part of the post which can corrode above the ground where it can be inspected and painted. Fig. 210 repre- sents this style of base. FIG. 210. TERRA COTTA BASE FOR IRON POSTS FOR FENCES AND SIGNS. CATTLE GUARDS. To completely fence in the right of way, a cattle guard is necessary to be placed where the fence line crosses the track at crossings. For- merly cattle guards were mere open pits and the track was carried over them on beams of wood with the edges chamfered. They were found to be expensive to maintain and have been aban- STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 295 American Cattle Guard. FIG. 211. CATTLE GUARD. FIG. 212. CLIMAX STOCK GUARD. FIG. 213. SHEFFIELD CATTLE GUARD. 296 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. doned, surface guards being now used almost ex- clusively. Figs. 211, 212 and 213 represent some of the styles used. TEACK SCALES. The revenue of a railway is based on the rate per 100 pounds, and it is therefore vital to have the weights correct. Car load freight is weighed on track scales, and as the traffic becomes heavy and the schedule faster, the delay caused by weighing becomes annoying to shippers. To overcome this and permit rapid weighing an at- tachment to the track scales has been made and is known as the Automatic Weighing and Ee- cording Attachment. Fig. 214 gives a view of one make of track scales. FIG. 214. RAILROAD TRACK SCALES. CHAPTER VII. CONSTRUCTING TRACK. When the work of the tracklaying force with the track machine, as described in another chap- ter, is finished, the track is far from being com- pleted. The tracklaying force has left only the main line with such sidings as were necessary for handling material and the construction trains. Some of these sidings were temporary and de- signed only to meet the needs of construction operations; such will have to be abolished. An- other and smaller force follows the tracklaying force, its mission being to complete the track (without the tracklaying machine) by laying the required permanent sidings, passing tracks, house tracks, team tracks, private tracks, switches, cross-overs, derailing devices, guardrails, frogs, etc., and, if necessary, widening the gauge and making the necessary elevation of rails at curves, so that the track may be in condition for the operation of trains. Passing tracks should be located as decided, jointly, by the engineering or construction de- partment and the operating department; they should be made somewhat longer than the largest tonnage train, or trains will be delayed in pass- ing. If possible they should be placed at sum- mits or where there is enough length of level or (297) 298 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. light grade for the locomotive to work to advant- age before a heavy grade is reached. It is de- sirable on many accounts that passing tracks should be at stations, but if business does not de- mand a depot and an agent at such points, pro- vision should be made for a telegraph operator to be stationed thereat for the purpose of attending to orders relative to the movement of trains. Water stations should, if possible, be placed at passing tracks, so that through trains will be de- layed as little as possible. It is, however, a diffi- cult problem to secure at one point favorable conditions for a water station, proper grades, the best location for a station, and the proper dis- tance between passing tracks to get the most economical service from locomotives and train crews. House tracks are not essential at small depots where a limited amount of business is done and where carload lots can be handled on a passing track as is sometimes done on branches or on a track to an elevator or warehouse. Where the business warrants a house track, and trains are not frequent, as on branches, the house track can be used as a passing track. When, however, the business at a station becomes large, both house tracks and passing tracks will have to be pro- vided. Team tracks are necessary when the volume of business is such that a track or tracks are re- quired exclusively for carload shipments. Transfer platforms are necessary at points where carload lots of merchandise are to be dis- CONSTRUCTING TRACK. 299 tributed into cars for way or local freights; this operation in the conduct of traffic, takes place under the following conditions: (1) At junction points of two railway systems. (2) At junctions between the main line and branches. (3) Some lines at terminal points or large jobbing centers load merchandise into the cars promiscuously for points over say 300 miles distant, and run these cars out by fast freight. This freight and the freight picked up by the local freights is distributed at a certain point into cars for local freight trains running beyond the 300 mile point. Private track or tracks to manufacturing plants, elevators, warehouses, etc., are laid as the business develops, and provision should be made in the original plan of yards and switches for such growth as far as possible. The arrangement of tracks as often used at a small town is shown in Fig. 216. Fig. 217 gives the arrangement of tracks at a junction of two systems where the business is conducted by a joint agent. An arrangement of tracks at a point where a branch connects with the main line is shown by Fig. 218; in this case it is assumed that the locomotives on the main line run through or are not changed at this point. For a point where locomotives are changed on account of the length of run or change of grade, Fig. 219 repre- sents the tracks, buildings, etc., often used. These plans are only intended to present the essential re- quirements; the arrangement of the tracks in actual practice will depend on the topographical BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS FIG. 216. PLAN OF TRACKS FOR A SMALL COUNTRY TOWN. A Main line track. B Passing track. C House track. D Depot. E Coal and oil house and out buildings. G Section foreman's tool house. H Elevator and warehouse. K Stock pens. L Water tank. FIG. 217. PLAN OF TRACKS FOR A JUNCTION OF TWO RAILWAY SYSTEMS. A A' Mainline tracks. B B' Passing tracks. C Passenger Depot. D Freight Depot. E Transfer platform. G Transfer track. H House track also team track. 1 Siding connecting main line tracks. conditions or lay of the ground, the character and volume of the business, the local conditions as to whether the point is a manufacturing, mining or agricultural center, etc. The main line should have as few switches in it as possible, and to this end three throw switches are largely used; the cost of yards can be reduced and economy in handling cars secured by the use of three throw and slip switches; however, where CONSTRUCTING TRACK. 301 FIG. 218. PLAN OF TRACKS FOR A JUNCTION OF A BRANCH WITH THE MAIN LINE. A Mainline. B Branch. C Passing track. D House track . E Transfer track. G H and 1 Sidings. K Coal track. M Depot. O Trans- fer platform. .. P-Coal shed. Q Water tank. R. R -Stand Pipes. S Roundhouse. T Elevator and warehouse. V Stock pens. L andL' Section foreman's tool house. FIG. 219. PLAN OF TRACKS AND BUILDINGS FOR A YARD WHERE LOCO- MOTIVES ARE CHANGED AND WHERE THE GRADES ALTER, THUS CAUSING A CHANGE IN THE TON- NAGE OF TRAINS EACH SIDE OF THE YARD. A Main line track. B B' B" -Lead tracks. C Coal shed track. D and B Coaling tracks for locomotives. E Ashpit track for cleaning fire boxes of locomotives. G Track for ashes cars. # Track to machine shop, store- house and sand shed. I Track connecting the lead tracks B and B' so loco- motives can reach the sand shed M, ash pits L and coal shed K without using the turntable. K Coal shed. L Ash pit. M Sand tank. N Sand shed and sand dryer. O Machine shop. P Storehouse. R Roundhouse. S Sorting and storage tracks. T Water tank. -302 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. O CM CM CONSTRUCTING TRACK. 303 there is no interlocking plant and they are oper- ated by a switchman, an error on his part when not observed by the engineer will result in de- railing the engine, if nothing worse. In Fig. 219, FIG. 221. VIEW OF A THREE THROW SPLIT SWITCH. by adding a third lead track B, and using slip switches, cars can be taken from the center of the storage tracks to the main line or from one storage track to another. Fig. 220 illustrates the construction of a combination slip switch cross- ing. A view of a three throw split switch is given by Fig. 221 and Fig. 222 shows the con- struction at the switch points. In laying out sidetracks and yards, the correct location of the frogs and rails from the headblocks to the frogs and from the frogs to the sidings is a mathematical problem, though it is often done by 304 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. D U UUUDUUUU BOTTOM CONNECTION SIDE CONNECTION FIG. 222. ARRANGEMENT OP THE SWITCH POINTS FOR A THREE THROW SPLIT SWITCH. the section foreman's eye, often to the injury of the rails and rolling stock. * Often in practice the frog angle and switch point of a split switch and the rail thrown and frog angle of a stub switch are taken as part of the curve of the rail from the headblock to the frog. This is not mathematically correct, especi- ally with the angle of the frog. The Elliot Frog & Switch Company have given dimensions in de- tail for laying out switches where the switch point and frog angle are taken as tangent to the curve of the rail from the headblock to the frog; Figs. 223 to 230 are single throw split switches *The authors on railway location and problems connected with laying out curves, etc., give the mathematical demonstra- tions of side track work. See Appendix K. TRACK. 305 r FIG. 223. SINGLE THROW SPLIT SWITCH No. 6; RIGID FROG 6 FEET LONG. FIG. 224. SINGLE THROW SPLIT SWITCH No. 7; RIGID FROG 7 FEET LONG. PIG. 225. SINGLE THROW SPLIT SWITCH No. 7; RIGID FROG 12 FEET LONG. 2O Vol. 13 306 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. and rigid frogs, while Figs. 231 to 234 are for the same style of switch but with a spring rail frog. Plans with details for the location of the crotch or center frogs and their number for three throw split switches are given in Figs. 235 to 242. A number ten frog is probably more often used in the main line than any other, for the reason that a very good (though not a mathematically correct) switch can be obtained by using two thirty foot rails between the switch point and the frog, and thus avoiding cutting rails. In Appendix J, Table No. 9, is given a list of switch ties for single throw split switches, using frog Nos. 4 to 11 inclusive. Table No. 10, Appendix J, gives a list of switch ties for three throw split switches using frogs, Nos. 6 to 11 inclusive. Stub switches are used to some extent at present on branches and in yards. The names of the parts of a stub switch are given in Fig. 243 and in Appen- dix J, Table No. 11, is given the data to lay out a single and a three throw switch for a standard gauge. Table No. 12, Appendix J, gives the data for laying out a single and three throw switch for a narrow (three foot) gauge. A bill of switch ties for standard gauge single throw stub switches is given in Table No. 13, Appendix J, while Table No. 14 gives a bill of switch ties for a narrow (three foot) gauge, single throw stub switch. The tables and data so far given are for switches in a straight track. Where the main line is curved, special calculations are required for each case, and the solutions of such problems are given in the work previously referred to. CONSTRUCTING TRACK. 307 FIG. 226. SINGLE THROW SPLIT SWITCH No. 8; RIGID FROG 8 FEET LONG. FIG. 227. SINGLE THROW SPLIT SWITCH No. 9; RIGID FROG 9 FEET LONG, FIG. 228. SINGLE THROW SPLIT SWITCH No. 9; RIGID FROG 12 FEET LONG. 308 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Crossovers are necessary on double track rail- roads to enable west or north bound trains to reach sidings on south or east bound tracks and vice versa. Fig. 244 illustrates a crossover and its use. Fig. 245 is a plan of a crossover. The length of the leads are given in Figs. 223 to 230 and the distance D between the points of the frogs in the main line track is given in Table 15, Appendix J. A rule often used by track men to calculate the distance between the points of frogs at crossovers is as follows: From the distance between the gauge lines of parallel tracks, sub- tract the gauge of the track, multiply the re- mainder by the number of the frog, and the result will be the distance between the points of the frogs. Care should be taken to place cross- overs so that trains will run through the switches as shown in Fig. 244 arid not against the point of the switch; this reduces the liability of accidents from derailment. Derailing switches should be placed on all side tracks where the grade is such that cars are liable to run onto the main line. The safest construction is to place derailing switches at all sidings connected with the main line; high winds will cause light box cars to move on a side track, or careless switching when a fast train is due has occasioned freight cars to run into a switch and caused accidents. Fig. 246 illustrates a derailing switch operated from the switch stand which operates the main line switch; when the switch is set for the main track the de- railing switch is set to throw a moving car off the siding on the opposite side from the main line track. CONSTRUCTING TRACK. 309 FIG. 229. SINGLE THROW SPLIT SWITCH No. 10; RIGID FROG 10 FEET LONG. FIG. 230. SINGLE THROW SPLIT SWITCH No. 11; RIGID FROG 11 FEET LONG. FIG. 231. SINGLE THROW SPLIT SWITCH No. 7; SPRING RAIL FROG 15 FEET LONG. 310 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. FIG. 232. SINGLE THROW SPLIT SWITCH No. 8%; SPRING RAIL FROG 15 FEET LONG. ! -"-^ MlOOLt ORDlNATC IN lOTT- FIG. 233. SINGLE THROW SPLIT SWITCH No. 9; SPRING RAIL FROG 15 FEET LONG. FIG. 234. SINGLE THROW SPLIT SWITCH No. 10; SPRING RAIL FROG 15 FEET LONG. CONSTRUCTING TRACK. 311 k FIG. 235. THREE THROW SPLIT SWITCH No. 6; RIGID FROG 6 FEET LONG. h- FIG. 236. THREE THROW SPLIT SWITCH WITH No. 7; RIGID FROG 7 FEET LONG. FIG. 237. THREE THROW SPLIT SWITCH WITH No. 7; RIGID FROG 12 FEET LONG. 312 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. I f I* 68'8'- FIG. 238. THREE THROW SPLIT SWITCH WITH No. 8; RIGID FROG 8 FEET LONG. FIG. 239. THREE THROW SPLIT SWITCH WITH No. 9; RIGID FROG 9 FEET LONG. FIG. 240. THREE THROW SPLIT SWITCH WITH No. 9; RIGID FROG 12 FEET LONG. CONSTRUCTING TRACK. 313 FIG. 241. THREE THROW SPLIT SWITCH WITH No. 10; RIGID FROG 10 FEET LONG. FIG. 242. THREE THROW SPLIT SWITCH WITH No. 11; RIGID FROG 11 FEET LONG. FIG. 243. PLAN OF A STUB SWITCH. A Switch rail. B Toe of switch to point of frog. C=A + B = Heel of switch rail to point of frog. D= Toe of switch to point of crotch frog. E = Throw of switch. 314 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. There has recently been introduced sand tracks, similar to that illustrated in Fig. 247 for check- ing the movement of cars on side tracks and also to take the place of bumping posts. A derailing FIG. 244. PLAN ILLUSTRATING THE USE OF A CROSS OVER OR SWITCH CONNECTING THE TWO MAIN LINE TRACKS OP A DOUBLE TRACK ROAD. C IS THE CROSS OVER CONNECTING TRACKS A AND B TO ENABLE A TRAIN ON TRACK A TO REACH SIDING D. FIG. 245. PLAN OF A CROSS OVER. switch used in connection with an interlocking plant to protect railroad crossings is illustrated by Fig. 248. Guard rails should be placed at all frogs, both at the main line rail arid the rail leading to the siding. They should be securely spiked to the CONSTRUCTING TRACK. 315 FIG. 246. DERAILING SWITCH USED TO PREVENT COLLISION BETWEEN A TRAIN ON THE MAIN LINE AND CARS RUNNING OFF A SIDE TRACK ONTO THE MAIN LINE. This switch is connected and operated by the movement of the Main Line Switch. The cut shows the switch set for the Main Line and the Derailing Switch set to throw a car moving out of the siding from the track. When the switch is set for Siding the Derailing Switch closes automatically. FIG. 247. SAND TRACK; USED TO CHECK THE MOVEMENT OP CARS ON A GRADE OR WHEN PROPELLED BY A HIGH WIND FROM RUN- NING OFF A SIDING TO THE MAIN LINE TRACK. ___. n *== n :TT= n :== n . n -^ = n ~- = -...= = ".: .T x= > . - H ! L L L [ 1 OCTAI. Or MTAO ROD. FIG. 248. DERAILING SWITCH POINT USED IN CONNECTION WITH INTER LOCKING SYSTEM OF GUARD CROSSINGS. 316 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. tie and braced so they cannot turn over. Fig. 249 illustrates a guard rail braced with rail braces; Figs. 248 to 251 illustrate methods of stiffening guard rails by attaching them to the main line rail. In addition to what has already been said in regard to crossing frogs, it is welJ to note here that it sometimes occurs that two roads cross at an acute angle; in such cases the crossing can be made by using crossing frogs as shown in Fig. 252. Crossings of this character are liable to occur at yards and terminal points. To secure a smooth main line track, movable center points instead of a rigid frog have been introduced. Fig. 253 illustrates a combination slip switch crossing with movable center points, the switch points and movable frog points are operated to- gether. The motions are positive, the frog points always corresponding with the switch points, thus avoiding any mistake on the part of the switch- man. This combination of switches and frog points is desirable where the crossing is at an angle of less than ten degrees. The question of widening the gauge on curves has been discussed ever since railroads were first constructed, and no conclusion has yet been ar- rived at. The Roadmasters' Association made enquiries on this subject in 1897, and found no two railroad systems were using the same width of gauge for curves of the same degree, and some roads laid track on both curves and tangents to the same gauge. The present practice of gaug- ing wheels for standard gauge cars leaves a clear- CONSTRUCTING TRACK. 317 CM fc 2 I 318 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. ance of five-eighths to seven-eighths of an men on a four feet eight and one-half ioch gauge on a tangent. In 1898 the Boadmasters' Association recommended commencing to widen the gauge on curves with a seven degree curve. Table No. 16, Appendix J, gives the amount recom- mended by this Association for widening the gauge for different degrees of curvature. FIG. 250. GUARD RAIL WITH THE HOOK GUARD RAIL, CLAMP. a__m fin CJLFI ra O.IDI -f FIG. 251. GUARD RAIL WITH THE SAMPSON ADJUSTABLE GUARD RAIL CLAMP. Elevating the outer rails on curves is done to counterbalance the centrifugal force or that force which tends to cause the train to mount the rail and proceed in a tangent or straight line. The proper theoretical velocity can readily be cal- culated when the radius of the curve and the velocity of the train are known using the formula E = nL m which E equals the elevation of the outer rail, G the gauge in feet, V the velocity of 219 320 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. the train in feet per second, and R the radius of the curve in feet. In practice, however, the problem is a difficult one to solve, and with mixed trains running on the same track, prob- ably never will be. The difficulty lies in the fact that other conditions besides keeping the train on the track have to be taken into account. Steel rails are expensive, and it is also expensive work to take worn ones out of the track and re- place them with new ones. To get the full life of the rails on a curve, the wheels of the rolling stock (that is the cars and locomotives) should pass around a curve in the same manner they do on a tangent. When the outer rail on curves is elevated to give safe and easy riding track for fast passenger trains, the slower passenger trains and freight trains are bearing heavily on the inner rail, and wearing it out faster than the outer rail. On a single track road the problem is further complicated where there is a curve on a grade; descending trains pass over the curve at a high speed while ascending ones pass over it at a low speed especially where the grade is a heavy one. Table No. 17, Appendix J, gives the theoretical elevation of the outer rail on curves of different degree or radius, and for trains at different velocity for both standard and narrow gauge. In practice no standard gauge track should be given more than 6i inches eleva- tion, and on single track such elevation should be made as will most nearly conform to all speeds but favoring passenger trains.* Table No. 18, *Further information on this subject will be fcund in the first article in Appendix J. CONSTRUCTING TRACK. 321 Appendix J, gives the ordinates for bending rails of different lengths to curves of different radius for track and switch constructions. The chapter on Maintenance of Way will contain some data which, while properly being a part of track con- struction, also is a part of the work coming under the supervision of the Roadmaster and his employes. There also was discussed in the chap- ter on Standards some subjects belonging to track. In Appendix J will be found further de- tailed information as to the minutiae of track. 24 Voi. 13 CHAPTER VIII. MAINTENANCE OF WAY. All the steps leading up to the building ana complete construction of a railroad have now been described, and we may suppose that the property is performing its functions, and that trains hauling passengers and freight are daily passing over its tracks. But after a railroad has been completed in as thorough and econom- ical a manner as the resources of the man- agement will permit and it is turned over to the operating department, experience shows that over 23 per cent, of all the expense of operating the road is required for maintaining the track, bridges, culverts', buildings, fences, gates and crossings, and over 15 per cent, for maintaining the equipment in good order so that operations may be continued with economy and safety.* The problem of maintenance of track is con- stantly becoming more and more difficult by rea- son of the increased weight of rolling stock and the heavier loads hauled. f * Appendix G, Table 1, gives a tabulated statement of the weights of the largest locomotives in 1880 and 1890. Passenger locomotives in the past twenty years have increased 65 to 70 per cent, in weight, while freight locomotives have increased over 100 per cent. t Appendices B, C, and D give further information on this point. (322) MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 323 This increase in weight was started by the dis- cussion on the relative merits of standard and narrow gauge from 1870 to 1883, and has been helped along by the effort to cheapen the cost of handling the freight traffic by increasing the tonnage hauled by a locomotive and train crew. In 1880 it was thought that 12,000 pounds was all that could be put on a driver without crush- ing the rail; to-day there are several locomotives whose drivers support a weight of over 24,000 pounds. To meet this condition, steel rails have been increased in weight from 60 to 100 pounds per yard. The effect of this heavy rail is to make it act as a girder, thus throwing the weight carried on a larger number of ties. The increased bearing surface secured by the use of wide ties is shown by the table No. 19, Appendix J, which shows that 16 ties having an eight-inch face, or 14 ties having a nine-inch face, have as large a bearing surface on the bal- last as 18 ties having a seven-inch face. The following table gives the number of ties which can be placed under a thirty-foot rail, leaving ten inches in the clear for tamping, and also the percentage of increased bearing surface for ties 8, 9, and 10 inches wide over ties 7 inches wide. Percentage of increased Nor to a bearing surface on the b 1- Width of tie. 30-f t. rail. last over a tie 7 inches wide. 7 inches 21 8 20 9 per cent. 9 " 19 16i 10 " 18 22| 324 LU1LDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. To support the new class of heavy locomotives and tonnage trains with loaded cars weighing 90,000 to 100,000 pounds, wider ties must be used on well ballasted and drained roadbeds. By increasing the thickness of the tie to seven inches it can be made eight feet six inches long, and thus secure additional bearing surface; ties nine and ten feet long have been used on earth ballast where there are seasons of prolonged rainfall. In addition to the destructive force exerted by passing trains, there are other causes tending to destroy the track, viz.: wet cuts and badly drained roadbeds, creeping of the rails, heaving and settling of the roadbed by freezing and thawing, natural decay of the ties and corrosion of the rails and fastenings caused by the ele- ments.* Organization of Force. The organization of the force in charge of the important duty of maintaining the track of a railway, which, as we have seen, costs almost 25 per cent, of the oper- *I remember going over a piece of road in the eastern part 01 Dakota in 1874 that had been abandoned for some time. Tht train consisted of an engine and two cars, and three days were required to travel eighty miles. The weeds and grass were from 6 inches to six feet in height. Everywhere the roadbed was tunneled with the burrows of jack rabbits and squirrels. The weeds and grass rendered the track so slippery that it was necessary for laborers to place sand and gravel on the rails as wr proceeded. Water was procured with the aid of syphons from ponds along the road and the trestles and bridges swayed under the weight of the train like trees in a tempest. When eventually this particular piece of track was opened for business, it was found necessary to rebuild it entirely, although the abandon- ment had only extended over a period of five years. MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 325 ating expense, and upon which force depends \ery largely the financial success of the railroad, has ngt, as a rule, received the attention its im- portance demands. On some systems the maintenance of way de- department is directly under the engineer, in other cases directly under the superintendent, and in other cases there is a division of author- ity. The roadmasters, who are the officials in actual charge of the track, in some cases report direct or through the engineer to the superin- tendent, and in other cases report to an officer who in turn reports to the engineer. The tendency is to place men in charge of maintenance of way who have had a technical training; but before they can be of any great service they must also have received a practical training. All men who graduate from a tech- nical school or college do not possess that prac- tical turn of mind essential to the successful engineer. Some railroad systems place the young engi- neers in section gangs where they can learn the practical work and are then advanced to section foremen, supervisors of several gangs of section men, and then to roadmasters; this method se- cures men who have both practical and scientific knowledge and who have proved their adapta- bility to the work and ability to manage men. There are two distinct features to be considered in the organization of the roadway department. The first is the execution of that which is to be done; the next, the inspection of that which has 326 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. been done. Under some circumstances, the duties of execution and inspection are combined in one individual; in the broadest sense r how- ever, there should be no community of interests between the inspector and the man who is di- rectly responsible for the work. The man who executes or directs the execution of work is nat- urally inclined to magnify its excellence and ex- cuse its imperfections, but he who views it with the practiced eye of a critic, whose judgment is not tempered with self-interest, will give an esti- mate of certain and just value. Road inspection will therefore be considered under a separate heading, as a distinct system, instituted to meet the increasing exaction of modern railroading. In the organization of the roadway service there should be no division of authority or re- sponsibility; all orders should proceed from a responsible head, and all reports should ulti rnately reach his office and be consolidated by him for the information of superior officers. This head is variously termed the roadmaster, superintendent of roadway, engineer, etc. Un- der this officer come the supervisors, division roadmasters, or assistant engineers, as the case may be; also timber inspectors, pump inspec- tors, and frequently bridge and building inspec- tors; then come the gang foremen, etc., who in turn employ their own laborers. Under such an organization, with a proper system of rules and accounts, a road may be extended to almost unlimited proportions by a simple addi- tion to the number of divisions and subdivisions, MAINTENANCE OF WAX. 327 and an enlargement of the central office. A di- vision roadmaster or supervisor is rarely capable of supervising more than one hundred miles of single track or fifty miles of double track road. On our more important lines, a section of single track should not exceed six miles, and section- houses should be placed as near a telegraph office or station as possible. The foreman should have the care of track and property of the company on his section, and should be held accountable for their proper care and maintenance. As far as possible the roadmaster should lay out the work for his foremen. Foremen should be shown the value of thorough system, of plan- ning the week's work ahead so as to economize time and to accomplish a little more than the proper week's allowance. For this reason it is very essential for the roadmaster to establish the proper allowance of labor, and to issue a little in advance of requirements the necessary material. Foremen should not be permitted to work por- tions of a day at points widely separated, as the loss of time in going from one place to another will easily consume a large percentage of the day's time. The regular inspection, which fore- men should be required to make at least twice a week over every part of their sections, should be made in such a manner that they will use as little time away from their regular work as possible. The following rules for the guidance of em- ployes in the roadway department are in the main generally appropriate.* * I copy them substantially as I find them. 328 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. General Rules. Each employe whose duties require it must have the book of rules with him while on duty. Any employe who does not clearly understand the rules must ask an explanation of his superior officer. Employes must report violations of rules by other employes which endanger life or property, or which prevent them from discharging their own duty. Employes while on duty must refrain from profane or violent language, personal altercation, and from using intoxicating drinks. Each employe is hereby warned that while on the tracks or grounds of the company, or in work- ing with or being in any manner on or with its cars, engines, machinery or tools, he must ex- amine, for his own safety, the condition of all machinery, tools, tracks, cars, engines, or what- ever he may undertake to work on or with, be- fore he makes use of or exposes himself on or with the same, so as to ascertain, so far as he reasonably can, their condition and soundness; and he is required promptly to report to his superior officer any defect in any track, machin- ery, tools or property of said company affecting the safety of anyone in operating upon or with the same. Supervisors, inspectors, foremen and conduc- tors must keep a daily record of their occupation, showing in detail the work done, material used, and the time of each person employed under their immediate supervision. Red must not be worn in a conspicuous man- ner. Supervisors, conductors, section foremen and foremen of all other gangs, during work hours, MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 329 must not leave their respective division, train, section or gang, without written permission from the roadmaster. In case of accident to train or road, the highest officer in the roadway department, or the oldest foreman in continuous service present at the time will have charge of the work until relieved by some one higher in authority. Supervisors must pass over their divisions on trains, and foremen over their sections on hand cars, during stormy weather, and must know that all is safe before allowing trains to pass. Con- ductors must keep in telegraphic communication with the roadmaster and the master of trains during the continuance of storms, and be pre- pared to move on shortest notice. Hand cars must not be towed at the rear of trains, and must not be on the track after dark, nor in foggy weather unless protected by proper signals in front and rear. Standard plans and specifications for the con- struction and location of all structures will be furnished and officers and foremen must inform themselves of such standards and work entirely in conformity with them. Trains must be expected at all times. Foremen and officers must provide themselves with reliable watches before entering upon their duties, and see that they are always in order and conform to standard time. When watchmen are left with danger signals, they must be supplied with tools and required to work. When dangerous places are found, or while work is being done that renders the road unsafe for the passage of trains, the person in charge 330 BUILDING AND RETIRING RAILWAYS. must attend to the placing and maintaining of danger signals on the engineer's side of track in both directions. In no case must they be nearer than fifteen telegraph poles, and on a continuous down grade in the direction of the work the sig- nal must be placed at least twenty telegraph poles from the work. When such points come on a curve, the signal must be placed at the fur- ther end of the curve. If either signal cannot be clearly seen from the work and from an ap- proaching train, a watchman must be left with it. Whenever signals of the roadway department are disregarded, immediate report must be made to the roadmaster. Slow boards must be posted at a distance of ten telegraph poles on each side of the place where the speed is to be reduced. When two or more hand cars may be following each other over the road, they must maintain an interval of at least two telegraph poles apart. Supervisors or Assistant Roadmasters: Must test track levels once a week, and see that they are used in surfacing track; must see that fore- men are supplied with the full number of tools required; and that they are in proper order; must carry with them on their hand car a standard track gauge, an ax, six torpedoes, a red and white lantern, and a red flag; must examine switches, frogs and turntables once a week, and see that they are in proper order; must see that turn- tables and car guards are provided with proper means to securely lock them; must see that their foremen are provided with the proper forms for making reports, and with copies of all rules and schedules; must pass over their respective divis- MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 331 ions at least once a week on a hand car, once a week on an engine, and as often as possible on the rear of a train; must see that signs are placed where required, and are kept in proper order; must see that fences are kept in proper order. Reports of the resignation, discharge, removal, suspension, transfer, death, injury, sickness, or marriage of any foreman must be sent at once to the roadmaster. Foremen: Must be familiar with the regular code of signals and the proper position and use of torpedoes; must work when their entire attention is not required in directing their men; must report promptly in detail to the supervisor any accidents to persons or trains; must notice the signals carried by passing engines; must examine every switch, frog and guard rail on their respective sections at least three times every week, and keep them in good order. The length of a section and the number of men allotted to each gang should be governed by local conditions, whether single or double track and the volume of traffic. A section of double track should be about four miles long, and of single track about six miles long. On roads having a large traffic, each section gang should consist of a foreman and one and one-half men per mile of double track, with an additional allowance of one man for every two miles of sidings. On single track each gang should consist of a fore- man and one man per mile of track, with an additional allowance of one man for every two miles of sidings. Taking these proportions as a basis, sections may be varied in length as locality and circumstances make necessary. Generally speaking no section, should be so reduced in 332 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. length that its proportionate allowance of force would be less than six men and a foreman. Watchmen should be counted extra. All extra work should be calculated to be done by a special gang and ballast train; or extra men should be allowed section foremen. Each section should have a tool house large enough to accommodate a hand car and a full complement of tools. Ballasting. Ballasting when done on a large scale, as is the case when changing from an earth roadbed to one of gravel, slag or broken stone, is done by special gangs, and when repairs to the ballast are done on a small scale the work is done by the section gang. Tracks should be laid alongside of a gravel bank of sufficient capacity to allow switching a train of empty cars alongside the steam shovel, while the loaded ones are being taken out, the object in view being to proportion the forces so that all can work steadily and have no interrup- tions caused by the steam shovel being idle wait- ing for empty cars, or the gang placing the bal- last under the ties being idle waiting for ballast. By using a steam shovel to load the cars with gravel, and a ballast unloader the force on the gravel train can be reduced to a small train crew. Wherever a change is being made from an earth roadbed to one ballasted with gravel, slag or stone, the earth between and at the ends of the ties should be cast out on to the slopes of the embankments and removed entirely from cuts and placed where the embankments are narrow; the aim should be to secure p, roadbed as near the standard section as possible before the ballast is put on. MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 333 There have recently been introduced special cars for handling ballast. Thus the Rodgers ballast car dumps the ballast in the center of the track, the last car in train of ballast cars having a plow for cleaning and flanging the track. The amount of ballast to be distributed is regulated by the amount of opening given to the doors of the hop- per in the bottom of the ballast car and the speed of the train. When a large amount of ballast is to be deposited, it is done by running the ballast train over the track two or more times. Another car for handling ballast is the Good- win Steel Gravity Dump Car. It is dumped by one man by means of compressed air which operates to move the dumping attachments of all the cars in the train at the same time. The bal- last can be dumped all on one side of a rail or both sides, or all on the outside of both rails or all on the inside of both rails. When the ballast used is broken slag or stone, care should be taken to have a sufficient supply to draw from before putting the surfacing gang at work. It is advisable in case of any class of feallast to have a sufficient quantity distributed along the track before the surfacing gang is put to work in order to guard against delays in delivery. A plant is required to prepare stone ballast which should be located at a quarry* storage bins should be provided of capacity sufficient to load at the least a train of cars; it is still more economical, however, to have the capacity of the plant such that when the cars are put in service they can be kept continuously employed until the work is completed. 334 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. FIG. 258. SECTIONAL PERSPECTIVE VIEW GATES STONE CRUSHER FOR BALLAST. REFERENCE TABLE. The names of the several parts designated by numbers in the above illustra- tion may be found in the following table: 10. 11. Bottom Plate. Bottom Shell. Top Shell. Bearing Cap. Oil Cellar Cap. Spider. Hopper. Krcontr'e. Bevel \vh el. Wearing Ring. Bevel Pinion. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 22. 24. Band Wheel. Break Hub. Break Pin. Oil Bonnet. Dust Ring Dust Cap. Head. Concaves. Chilled Wearing Plates. Octagon Step. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 33. Main Shaft. Upper Ring Nut. Lower Ring Nut. Steel Step. Lighter Screw. Lighter Screw, Nut. Counter Shaft. Oiling Chain. Jam MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 335 A large sized Gates stone crusher is illustrated by Fig. 258; this is of the rotary style which is taking the place of those having a jaw worked by a reciprocating motion. The drawing gives the details of the crusher and Fig. 259 shows the FIG. 259. GATES REVOLVING SCREEN FOR SCREENING CRUSHED STONE. rotary screen used to separate the crushed stone into the various sizes desired. A plant with storage bins and three loading tracks is shown by Fig. 260. To economically operate this plant the loading tracks should be on a light grade sufficient to easily move the loaded cars by hand; the empty cars should be placed at the high end of the siding and run under the storage bins by hand. After they are loaded they should be run by hand to the lower end of the loading tracks, thus avoiding the use of a switch engine. A portable railroad ballast plant is often used where rubble stone can be obtained without quarrying as is often the case along rocky blufts 336 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. and hillsides. After the supply of rubble stone has been exhausted at one point the plant can be readily moved to another. FIG. 260. ARRANGEMENT OF STONE CRUSHER, ELEVATOR SCREEN AND STORAGE BINS FOR A RAILROAD BALLAST PLANT. Placing the ballast under the ties should be done by lifting the track six inches at a time by two track jacks, one at each rail and opposite each other. If the lift is more than six inches at a time, the joints and fastenings are liable to be injured. Fig. 262 illustrates a Jenne track jack and Fig. 263 illustrates the trip jack both styles are made with long, narrow bases, so they can be placed between the ties. MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 337 FIG. 262. JENNE TRACK JACK FOR HEAVY BALLASTING, SURFACING AND GENERAL TRACK REPAIRS. FIG. 263. .'RIP JACK FOR BALLASTING, SURFACING AND GENERAL TRACK REPAIRS. 22 Vol. 13 338 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Tools. The following list of tools for a section gang of six men is made from a list of tools used by roads in the Eastern, Central and Western States. Name of Tools. Number Required. Illustrated by Figure Nos. Adzes handles 8 Axes 1 " handles 1 Auger for post holes 1 Brooms. : 2 *Brush hooks 1 * " " handles 1 *Ballast hammers 4 forks 6 *Brace and bits 1 Cars, hand . 1 ' ' push 1 Chisels, track 6 Claw bars 3 Ditch line 100 feet long 1 Drills, ratchet or track drills 1 Files 2 Flags, red 4 ' ' green 2 " white 2 Grindstone 1 *Hoes, grub or mattocks 1 Hatchels or hand axes 1 *Hammer, hand, for nails. 1 Lanterns, red 2 " green 2 " white 2 Lining bars, wedge point 4 Oil can.. 1 Oiler 1 Punches 1 Pinch bars i Padlock and chain 1 Picks, earth G ' ' handles 4 * ' ' tamping 6 " " handles 4 Rakes.. 2 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276-277 278 279 280 281 282 283 283 283 284 285 286 287 288 289 290 MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 339 Name of Tools. Number Required. Illustrated by Figure Nos. Rail tongs 3 291 ' ' forks 2 292 Saws hand . . 1 293 * ' ' cross cut . 1 294 Scythes . . 4 295 ' ' snaths, 4 296 ' ' stones 2 *Spirit level 1 297 *Squaro tie .... 1 *Spike puller 1 298 " mauls. 4 299 " " handles. 4 *Sledges . ... ...... 2 300 " handles . 2 Shovels 6 301 ' scoop . ... G 302 ' l on g handled .... 1 303 *Track lever or lifting bar 1 304 ' lacks 2 262 263 ' gauges 2 305-306 ' level board 1 307 *Tamping bars 4 308 Torpedoes 12 309 Tape line 50 feet long 1 *Tool boxes , ... . 1 310 Wire stretchers . . 1 Wrenches, track ... 4 311 monkey 1 312 *Wheel barrows 3 313 \Vater bucket . 1 " dipper 1 " keg . .... 1 IpuEhole plugs [furnished as required The tools marked with an ^ are not required by all section gangs; a brush hook and grub hoe will be needed in a timbered country but not in a prairie section of , the country; ballast or nap- ping hammers and sledges will be needed where the country is rocky and ballast is often made of the rocks found along the right of way, but will 340 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. not be required where the country is barren of stone. FIG. 264. ADZE. FIG. 265. CHOPPING AXE. FIG. 266. FIG. 267. AUGER FOR BORING HOLES IN THE GROUND TO PLACE FENCE POSTS IN. BROOM FOR REMOVING SNOW FROM SWITCHES, FROGS, ETC. MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 341 FIG. 268. BRUSH HOOK FOR CUTTING DOWN SMALL SAPLINGS. FIG. 269. BALLAST OR NAPPING HAM- MER TO BREAK MEDIUM SIZED STONE TO PROPER SIZE FOR BALLAST; WEIGHT ABOUT FOUR POUNDS. FIG. 270. BALLAST FORK FOR HAND- LING SLAG OR STONE BAL- LAST, SO THAT THE FINE DIRT WILL NOT BE SHOVELED WITH BALLAST. B. FIG. 271. BRACE A AND BIT B FOR BORING HOLES IN TIES WHERE SPIKES HAVE BEEN DRAWN PREPARATORY TO PLUGGING THE SPIKE HOLE. 342 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. FIG. 272. HAND CAR FOR SECTION GANG, OF WAY. 343 344 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. FIG. 274. TRACK CHISEL FOR CUTTING RAILS, ETC. I . j e id B. FIG. 275. CLAW BARS. A HAVING NO HEEL. B- WITH A, HEEL. USED FOR PULLING SPIKES AND BOLTS. FIG. 276. PERFECTION TRACK DRILL FOR DRILLING BOLT HOLES IN RAILS. FEED AUTOMATIC OR HAND AS DESIRED. MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 345 FIG. 277. Q AND C SELF-FEEDING RAIL DRILL. OVER OR UNDER RAIL CLAMPS USED AS PREFERRED. FIG. 278. HAND FILE FOR SMOOTHING THE ENDS OF RAILS BEFORE PLACING THEM IN THE TRACK. 346 BUILDING AND HEPAIPJNCr RAILWAYS. FIG. 279. HERCULES GRINDSTONE MOUNTED WITH TREADLE. FiG."280. GRUB HOE. (A) FOR CUTTING THE ROOTS OF SMALL SAPLINGS. MATTOCK. (B) SOMETIMES PRE- FERRED TO A GRUB HOE. PICK MATTOCK. (C) SOMETIMES PREFERRED TO A GRUB HOE. FIG. 281. HATCHET. (A) WITH A CLAW FOR DRAWING NAILS. (B) WITH A NOTCH IN FACE FOR DRAWING NAILS. HAND AXE. (C) FOR LIGHT CHOPPING. Any of these can be used for the same purpose as a hand hammer. MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 347 FIG. 282. HAMMER FOR NAILING AND DRAWING NAILS. FIG. 283. RAILROAD LANTERN. The rolor of the light depends oa the color of the glass globe used. FIG. 284. LINING BARS FOR THROWING TRACK WHEN LINING IT. FIG. 285. OIL CAN FOR CAR OIL. FIG. 286. SPRING OILER FOR OILING HAND PUSH CARS. 348 BUILDING AND HE PAIRING RAILWAYS. FIG. 287. TRACK OR RAIL. PUNCH. FIG. 288. RAILROAD PADLOCK Used with a chain to lock hand or push cars by passing the chain through the two wheels on the same side of the car and fastening the chain by passing the padlock hasp through two links of the chain. FIG. 289. PICK FOR LOOSENING EARTH, CLAY OR HARD GRAVEL. FIG. 290. TAMPING PICK WITH ONE POINT ENLARGED FOR DRIVING THE BALLAST UNDER THE TIES; THIS IS USED FOR TAMP- ING STONE AND SLAG BALLAST. MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 349 FlG. 291. RAIL TONGS FOR LIFTING RAILS. The head of the rail is gripped by the curved ends and the long bent ends serve as handles for the workmen to carry the rail. FIG. 293. HAND SAW. Used in repair- ing gates, fences and other light work. FIG. 294. CROSS CUT SAW. Used in removing heavy drift from culverts and bridges and other heavy work. FIG. 292. RAIL FORK FOR TURNING RAILS. , The slotted end Is run over the base and the fork handle is used as a lever or the tapered end of the handle placed in the bolt hole nd the slotted end is used as a lever to turn the rail. B FIG. 295. SCYTHES. A. Light, for grass and weeds. B. Heavy, for bushes and small saplings. FIG. 296. SCYTHE SNATHS OR HANDLES. 350 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. FIG. 297. SPIRIT LEVEL FOR DETERMINING THE TRUE HORIZONTAL OR PERPENDICULAR. FIG. 298 SPIKE PULLERS. A. Cant hook or centennial bar, works on the same principle as a cant hook is used to turn a piece of timber. B. Shackle Bar This uses the rail as a fulcrum and aims to pull the spike without bending it. The common claw bar is mostly used for pulling spikes. See Fi x en, just as soon as possible after the storm, and remove from the track sufficient snow at the ench of all drifts to leave a clean flange and a clear face of snow at least 18 inches deep at both the approach and run out end of the drift. It is a notorious fact that a great many engines, when btu king snow, * "Railway Track and Track Work," Tratinan pp. 307-311. 400 mi LSI NG AXD REPAIRING RAILWAYS. run off the track when coming out of, or running into a snow drift. This is generally caused by hard snow or ice in the flanges, as the engine, on being suddenly relieved of the weight of the snow, easily mounts the rail on a hard flangeway and runs off the track. " Whenever the track becomes full of snow in the winter and needs flanging out, section fore- men should take their men and flange out the track at the tops of the heaviest grades first, and next at all places on their sections where it is most difficult for an engine to pull a train. Those parts of a section which need flanging least, such as high dumps, level track, or sags between grades, should always be left till the last. " On roads where snow lies on the ground dur- ing the winter months, section foremen should open up all ditches, culverts, and other water ways which pass along or under the track. Cul- verts which are apt to be covered with snow in the winter can easily be located when the thaw comes if a long stake is driven close to the mouth of each culvert early in the fall of the year, be- fore any snow falls on the ground. "In cuts that are full of snow on each side of the track, leaving only room enough for trains to pass through, foremen should make a ditch in the snow when it begins to melt in the spring, about six feet from the rails on each side of the track, so that when the water begins to run it will not injure the track by running over it. " If there are any snow fences for protection along cuts, they should be watched closely, and OF WAY. 401 whenever a fence is found which has been drifted full of snow or nearly so, a wall four feet high along the top of the highest part of the drift should be built with blocks of snow taken from the inside face of the drift. As long as the weather remains cool, a wall built of blocks of snow will give as good protection to a cut as the same amount of ordinary snow fence would. Snow walls should be made strong and thick and their height increased on the worst cuts in pro- portion to the force of men that can be spared to do the work; double lines of snow wall, fifty feet apart, should be used where they will be bene- ficial. "On the majority of Northern railroads the amount of snow which falls upon the ground during the winter months is not so great as to require the building of snow sheds, but to pro- tect the cuts along the track from filling with snow, fences are built along the tops of the cuts at a sufficient distance from the track to catch the snow when it is drifted, and prevent it from being blown into the cuts and blocking the track. The efficiency of a snow fence, as a protection against snow, depends on its strength, durability, height, how far it is from the track, and the manner in which it is arranged along the top of the cuts. "A snow fence, no matter how well made, or of what material, will rot and become useless in eight or ten years, at the latest. The yearly cost of repairing snow fences, the first cost, and the interest of the money invested, should all be 26 Vol. 13 402 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. considered before putting up a snow fence on any railroad cut; and where the work of grading down a cut on each side of the track, so that it will not hold snow, can be done for an amount of money equal to the cost of the items above re- ferred to, the grading of the cut should be done in preference to the building of a snow fence. In many sections of the Northwest a cut which is only two or three feet higher than the track rails can be graded from the right of way limits down to a level with the bottom of the track ties, and the dirt wasted on the fills near at hand for less than it would cost to maintain a snow fence on the same cut. "Even when the cost of putting a cut into such a condition that it will not hold snow is somewhat greater than that of maintaining a good snow fence, the difference is in favor of grading, on account of the benefit the track de- rives from it. Snow fences are not needed at deep cuts which from their top slope back into a valley within a short distance from the side of the track; nor are snow fences much good as a protection where the ground slopes with an in- cline off from the track, unless the fence is close enough to carry the wind above the cut, or catch the snow before reaching the cut. Snow fences are not needed on cuts where heavy timber or underbrush grows close along each side of the track, the only snow in such cuts being that which falls directly upon the track and cannot be prevented. But where the ground is level for some distance from the track, or on a gently roll- MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 403 ing prairie, cuts are liable to fill up with snow if not properly fenced. Snow fences should be set up at such a distance from the track that the edge of the snow drift inside of them will not reach within thirty feet of the track when the fence is drifted full. The fence should be set about eleven or twelve feet from the track for each foot in height of fence. The height of the snow fence should regulate its distance from the track. If a snow fence is set too far from the track for its height, the wind, after passing over the top of the fence, soon strikes the ground on the inside of the fence and gathers all the snow before it into the cut, and part of the snow which blows over the fence is also carried upon the track. "A snow fence is seldom set up on each side of the track unless the road is so situated as to be exposed to storms from both directions. " Storms from the northwest, north, and north- east are the most prevalent throughout the Northwest, and, as a general rule, the north sides of railroads running east and west, and the west sides of railroads on roads running north and south, need the most protection from snow and need the most snow fence. Where two snow fences are put up on one side of the track, they should run parallel with each other, and there should be a space of at least 100 feet between them. Unless a very large quantity of snow is drifted the outside fence will hold it all. " Very good results have been attained by set- ing out the snow fence next to the track in the 404 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. following manner: If the snow fence is of 01 dinary height, set it up seventy-five feet from the nearest track rail. Enough of the snow fence should run parallel with the track to reach the full length of the cut, no more. After this part of the fence is up, a wing should be turned on each end of it, approaching the track gradually until the extreme end of each wing extends 100 feet beyond the end of the cut, at a distance of about fifty or sixty feet from the track rail. ' When a cut ends abruptly on the beginning of a high fill, the wing on that end of the snow fence should be turned in towards the track be- fore the end of the cut is reached, or at least soon enough to protect the cut from a quartering storm. A snow fence built parallel with the track and without a wing on the end of it, is of very little use when a storm blows nearly along the track, as most of the snow on the inside of the fence is apt to fee blown into the cut. New ties which are received for repair of track the following Spring can be distributed and used advantageously to make a temporary snow fence on cuts where needed. The ties may be laid along in line with their ends lapping each other, about one foot slats or pieces of board can then be put across the ends of the ties where they lap and a new line of ties laid along on top of them until the snow fence is of the proper height. " Clearing the track of snow in the winter be- longs to the roadmaster's department. No man should be trusted with full charge of a snow plow outfit unless it be known that he understands the MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 405 best methods to be employed in opening up the road for traffic after a blockade. The man in charge of a snow plow outfit should be informed, of the exact condition of the road, the depth of snow, the length of drifts, and the location of the same, as nearly as possible, before starting on the road. He should have good live engines and willing engineers. The plow itself should, like the engine and engineer, be the best that can be procured and of a pattern that could throw snow out of a cut eight or ten feet deep. Small plows, fenders, or other makeshifts, which are only good to clean the rails of light snow, or gouge a hole through a big cut should be left at home and not taken out to buck snow. When there is a large quantity of it to be moved, the extra time and labor expended in shoveling and pulling such craft out of the snow would purchase a good plow in one trip over the road. Another engine and car with a conductor, train crew and shoveling gang, should follow close behind the snow plow during the day time, and should be coupled in behind the plow when running after dark. The second engine should be used as a helper in striking deep snow, and to pull out the plow engine whenever it is stuck fast in a snow drift. All cars attached to the helper engine should be left behind on the clear track when both engines run together to buck a drift of snow. The pilot should be removed from the engine which is used for a helper so that a close coupling can be made when both engines are used together. The less slack there is between 406 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. two engines coupled together the less liability is there of the hind engine pushing the front engine off the track. This is most liable to happen on a curve track, or where hard snow is encountered. Two engines should never be allowed to buck snow with a long car coupling between them or with a caboose or other car between the engines, as either arrangement endangers the lives of the men on the train and often results in a wreck. There is no necessity for using two engines be- hind the snow plow to buck snow which one engine can as well throw out. If the snow is not too hard one good heavy engine and plow will clear the track of a snow drift three to five feet deep and from five to eight hundred feet in length, at one run.* " Two good locomotives coupled together be- hind the plow, managed properly, will remove any snow which it is advisable to buck. Snow drifts which are higher than the plow cannot be cleared from the track successfully without first shovel- ing the snow off the top of the drift, except when the drift is very short. Where the top of the snow drift is shoveled off, it should be opened wide enough to allow the plow to throw out of the cut the snow left in it. On roads where a fl anger is used and made to pull behind an engine on a train, it should be sent with the snow plow *On account of the invention of the rotary snow plows it is not likely that snow plowing with a plow on the front of a loco- motive will be done to any great extent in the future, especially where cuts are deep and long and snow is hard. But when the snow is soft and not too deep on the track the old way of getting rid of it is still apt to be practiced. MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 407 helper and used to clean out the snow left be- tween the track rails by the snow plow. When the snow is reported hard, those in charge of snow plow outfits should be very careful to have their engines and plow in as perfect condition as possible. They should run no risk; every snow drift should be examined before running into it, and each end should be shoveled out enough to leave a clean flangeway and a face that would let the plow enter under the snow and keep it down upon the rails. The tendency of hard snow is to lift the plow up over the top of the drift and throw the engine off the track. Whenever the ends of the drifts are not faced as before mentioned there is always great danger when entering or leaving short, shallow drifts of hard snow, while, on the contrary, there is little or no danger in plowing soft deep snow at the greatest speed the engine can make. "The engines with a snow plow outfit should always take on water and fuel to their full capacity at every point on the road where a sup- ply can be obtained, no matter whether it is liable to be used or not. When it is at all prob- able that progress will be slow on account of hard or deep snow, a car loaded with coal should be taken along by the helper engine. If there is plenty of snow the supply of water can easily be made in the engine tanks by commencing to shovel snow into them before they are more than half empty. "Every snow plow, engine and helper engine should be supplied with a piece of steam hose 408 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. which can be attached to the syphon cock and reach from it to the water hole in the back of the tank. With this hose an engine steaming well can quickly make a full tank of water from snow shoveled into the tank. It is also useful to thaw out the machinery or clean the track rails of ice. "In plowing snow the length of runs and the speed of the engine should always be in propor- tion to the depth and length of the snow drifts. If the drifts are deep and long and likely to stick the plow, a good long run should be taken on the clear track so that the plow engine may acquire its greatest speed before striking the drift. A good engineer who has had some practice in bucking snow will so handle his engine that very little shoveling by the men will be needed. "It is not advisable to start out on the road with a snow plow outfit during a heavy storm, but everything should be ready to make a start as soon as the storm is over. The snow plow should be attached to the best and heaviest en- gine in service on the division where it is used. "The man in charge of a snow plow outfit should use his best judgment and have his wits about him at all times, that he may not be caught on the road with a dead engine or be wrecked, and block the road for other trains. It is much bet- ter for the Company's interests and those of all others concerned when all accidents are avoided, even should it take much longer time to open up the road. "The engineer of the snow plow engine should sound the whistle frequently when approaching MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 409 a cut, so that section men if working there will be warned in time to get out of the cut. When the snow plow is making repeated runs for a big snow drift, the signal to come ahead should never be given until all the snow shovelers have left the cut. It is very difficult for men to climb out of a cut where the snow is deep, and many acci- dents have occurred where approaching trains have failed to warn the men in time, or where the men have neglected to look out for the dan- ger until it was too late. If the men with the snow plow are always on the alert and careful and conscientious in the discharge of their duties, the safety of all concerned will be assured and the work will progress rapidly. ' When a snow drift is so long and deep that it may stick the snow plow twice, the best policy is to shovel out snow enough from the approach end of the drift to enable the snow plow to go through in the second run. In this way the labor of digging out the engine a second time may be avoided. "All very hard snow should be broken up by the men and the crust thrown out before striking it with a snow plow. The shock felt when a snow plow strikes a hard drift is sometimes very great and often damages the machinery or knocks the plow from the track. The force of concus- sion may be materially lessened by having the men clean a good flange way, and then shovel out of the face and top of the drift enough snow to make a gradual incline of about one foot to the rod. Besides reducing the force of the shock 410 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. the above method of preparing a hard snow drift enables the snow plow to open a much greater distance at a run.* Snow Plows. The Rotary snow plow is illus- trated by Fig. 344. The leading features of the 'Rotary' are: 1. The machinery of the Rotary is much simpler, very much stronger, and is better ad- apted for the work it has to perform than that of any other steam snow plow or excavator. 2. The machinery of the Rotary is underneath the floor of the pilot house and cab, and is se- curely fastened to the extra heavy steel and iron frame which carries the machine, and is so cov- ered with iron plates as to secure absolute safety to those operating it. 3. Owing to the perfect mechanical principles upon which the Rotary is constructed, its weight is properly distributed over its trucks and varies but a few thousand pounds when in working order. 4. The Rotary is the only steam snow plow which has a perfect working ice cutter and flanger which will absolutely protect it from de- railment by snow or ice. 5. The Rotary is the only steam snow plow which cuts the snow from the bank and dis- charges the same at a single revolution. 6. The Rotary is the only steam snow plow ever operated which has not spread the rails and broken down bridges, and is consequently the only steam snow plow which can be run out ahead of trains with safety. *" The Trackman's Helper." Kindelan, pp. 240-253. MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 411 6 QQ HH 1 412 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Seasons 9 Work. "As to the seasons for doing the different kinds of work, it may be said that general improvements, tile drainage, reballasting, etc., can best be carried on from late spring to late autumn, but all such work should, as far as possible, be planned and arranged for beforehand, so that the track may not be disturbed for re- ballasting just after the section gang has com- pleted a thorough surfacing. Work trains and floating gangs for ditching, ballasting, widening cuts, etc., and special gangs on new interlocking plants, rearrangement of yards, repairing or building structures, etc., may be worked at any time from the end of one winter to the beginning of another. For the ordinary work on the sec- tions no set rules or program of procedure can be formulated, as the requirements vary in dif- ferent sections of the country. In general, how- ever, the year may be divided into four seasons, and the work done during these seasons prac- tically as outlined below: Spring. "As soon as the winter is over, all likelihood of snow past, and the frost coming out of the ground, the work of reducing and re- moving the shims should be commenced. The frost will, of course, remain longer in the road- bed in cuts than on exposed banks. Low joints must be raised, spikes driven, bolts tightened, cattle guards and road crossings cleared and re- paired, ditches cleaned, fences repaired, portable snow fences taken down and piled, rubbish and old material cleared from the right of way, and the necessary lining and surfacing done to put MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 413 the track in good condition previous to the more extensive work later in the season. At the same time sign posts and telegraph poles are straight- ened, fences repaired, and side tracks and yards overhauled. The gang (if not already increased) is then increased to its maximum number and the work of renewing ties is commenced, the ties having been previously distributed on the section. About four days a week should be spent in putting in the ties, all ties being fully tamped as soon as they are in place. The other two days are spent on other necessary work. On some roads the tie renewals are done quickly at the beginning of the season, while on others this work is spread out through the season. The former is by far the better plan, as the continued disturbance resulting from the latter plan is very detrimental to the maintenance of good track. When the ties are all in, the work of thorough lining and surfacing preparatory for the heavy summer traffic is commenced. The lining is done first on account of the bad line resulting from the tie renewals, but the surfacing should follow very closely. The gauging is done at the same time. Ballasting is done after the new ties have been put in. In surfacing, care must be taken not to raise the track too much, but only to give a uniform surface, the track being raised out of a face only about once in four or five years. Summer. " Besides the work of surfacing, rail renewals may be done at any convenient time between spring and winter. The new rails are sometimes laid before the ties are renewed, but 414 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. it is better to put the ties in first and have them thoroughly tamped up, especially if there are many bad ties. A general inspection of spikes, bolts, nuts and nutlocks is then to be made. All worn, bent, broken or improperly driven spikes are removed, the holes plugged, and new spikes are driven. Broken or loose bolts are made good. Switches and switch connections, frogs, guard rails, etc., need to be carefully inspected and re- paired. As fast as the regular surfacing is com- pleted, the ballast should be dressed to the stan- dard cross-section, and the toe of slope lined to a 'grass line' about 5 feet 6 inches from the rail. Tile drainage, correction of signs, and general work not interfering with the track itself can best be done during the summer. Spare time can also be spent in trimming up yard tracks, and clearing yards and station grounds. Autumn. "Weeds should be cut at least once a year and the best time for this is just before seeding. The grass on the right of way should be mowed, bushes cleared and trimmed, and in cases where fires cause trouble, a fire guard may be formed by plowing a narrow strip about 50 feet on each side from the track. Burnt or decayed trees likely to fall near the track should also be re- moved, and the dry brush, old ties, etc., may now be burned. Old material should also be cleared up. About a month before the commencement of the winter or rainy season, a general surfacing, lining, gauging and dressing of the track should be done starting at the farther end of the section and working steadily to the other end. The MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 415 track itself should be put in condition at the same time and the spikes and joints seen to. When this is done ditching must be undertaken, the ditches being cleaned out and improved where necessary to give the necessary width and grade. The more thoroughly this work is done the better will the track be during the winter. Trenches should also be cut under switch rods to prevent water or snow collecting around them and freezing. The culverts and waterways must then be cleared of brush and obstructions, and any signs of scour or undermining looked for, while streams should be examined above and below the culverts and any obstructions removed. After this there is plenty of work to be done in cutting and burning weeds, repairing fences, repairing and erecting snow fences, and stacking additional portable snow fences where they will be needed. Track signs and telegraph poles have to be in- spected and cattle guards and crossings cleaned up. Yards and side tracks may be profitably cleaned, drained, leveled up and repaired before the snow falls. Winter. "The winter work with reduced track forces is largely that of inspecting the track and making small repairs; also looking after the spikes, bolts, frogs and switches. Such work will occupy the time between snow storms or in fine weather. During snow storms the switches, frogs and guard rail flangeways must be kept clear as also all signal and interlocking connections. Salt is used to melt the snow but oil afterwards should be applied to all moving parts, such as slide 416 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. plates, bell crank levers, etc., as the salt water has a tendency to rust the iron, making the parts move hard. In heavy snow storms the section men must work in clearing the track and help the snow gang or shovel ers. In the intervals of fine weather rails, ties, lumber, fence material, etc., may be distributed, ready for spring work. Heav- ing of the track by frost has now to be expected, and proper precautions must be taken to keep the track in surface by shimming, while in very bad places blocking may be necessary. The ditches should be examined as soon as any thaw sets in, and kept clear of ice or packed snow, so as to allow free passage for the water."* Changing Rails. On roads having heavy traffic, it is customary to change rails on Sundays, pre- paring the track on week days. On roads with light traffic, rails can be changed at any time. One side of the track should be changed at a time. Preparing Track Material for Sunday Work. Rails and splices generally require to be filed on the ends to a uniform surface, so as to remove projections; this work is therefore included in preparing the track, though properly speaking it should be done at the mill. The following is the organization of men for such work, namely: The first thing to be done is to put four men on the car of splices, two on each end, to file and inspect the splices, each man having a small bench to lay the splice on to facilitate the filing; after they are filed they should be thrown on a car, laying them at right angles to each other the full length of the splice; this will facilitate their being *' 'Railway Track and Track Work." Tratman, pp. 288-289. MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 417 counted. When the men have sufficient room on the car they are filing on, they should pile the splices behind them in like manner. Rails, splices, bolts, nut locks and plugs should be dis- tributed at the same time as the rails. It is neces- sary, however, to have half of the cars which are loaded with rails turned on a turntable or Y block to admit of their being unloaded, with the brand on the outside of the rails as they will be put in the track. Unloading Rails. Care should be exercised in unloading rails. Rails, on gondola cars espe- cially, should be let down to the ground on skids, and each skid should be provided with a pulley on the upper end, placed below its surface; a rope with a hook sufficiently large to receive a rail should be used through this pulley for lower- ing the rails to the ground; each skid should be provided at its lower end with a round iron pro- jection, around which the rope is turned for the purpose of controlling the rails while being low- ered. Two men on the ground, operating the ropes raise the hooks to the upper end of the skids, when one foreman and twelve men (hand- ling seventy-six-pound rails) will place the rail in the hooks and lower the same to the ground. The first named two men, in addition to lowering these rails, will lift the skids as the car is moved ahead. On another car are the rails for the other side of the track, the men being similarly organ- ized. Unloading a rail on each side prevents moving the train so*often and obviates the men passing from one car to another. Time may be saved by unloading two rails from each car be- fore moving the train ahead, unloading the next two rails one rail length ahead of tho last two. 27 Vol. 13 418 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Two men on the splice car will distribute the splices, bolts and nut locks, and two men with a basket will distribute the plugs from the supply car. Filing Rails, Etc. As soon as the rails are un- loaded, men should be set at work to file the ends of the rails underneath the heads and up- per side of the base. After the rails are unloaded, the men should be organized as follows, namely: One foreman and eight men with tongs should string the rails along the outer edge of the ties; one man with an adze should level any project- ing ends of same, and one man should tack-spike all unspliced ends of each four rails. For six- bolted splices, six men should bolt the rails and lay the splices, bolts and nut locks at each un- spliced end. Four men should remove all the bolts that can be removed with safety from the rails in the track; these men should also put the nut locks, or washers and nuts, on each bolt as it is removed. Four men should pull the spikes that can be pulled with safety, those remaining being left slightly started. On tangents, four spikes to each rail are sufficient to leave unpulled, leaving one of these spikes at each joint; on curves, six spikes to the rail should be left, and one in the slot hole. These spikes should be pulled on the inside when the same sized rails are to be used, and when of different base, the in- side of one rail and outside of the other should be pulled, which will admit of their being laid retaining the same gauge. When pulling spikes on curves, they should be pulled on the side hav- ing the ties cut down the least, which will more readily admit of ties being adzed. Four men should be at work score-adzing each tie on the MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 419 side from which the spikes are removed, keeping well on the outside of the spikes. As each sub- gang finishes its work, it should clear the ballast between the ties and underneath the rails; the other foreman should look after the sub-gangs, except rail stringers. Two boys should be en- gaged in carrying water for the men. In all, forty men will prepare in the above manner one mile of track per day. On double track, one track should be used to distribute from, allowing schedule trains to pass on the other, flagging all other trains and allowing them to pass as they arrive.* Jointing Rails. As it is impossible to change rails and have them joint on the old ties, it is necessary that these ties be changed to admit of the slot holes being spiked, and thus prevent the rails from running. Moving Old Track. Improvements of line, especially double tracking, when the old line is being improved at the same time, render it neces- sary to either take up and relay the old track or move it over to the new line. When the change * GANG FOR CHANGING RAILS ON SUNDAY. The same gang of men that prepared the track at the rate of one mile per day will change the rails at the same rate, organized as follows, namely; Men removing bolts 4 Men throwing out rails 2 Men adzing ties 13 Men spiking rails, joint slot holes, quarters and centers 4 Foremen 2 Men pully^g spikes 4 Men plugging spike holes 2 Man guiding and testing adzing with single-headed spotting boards with face one-half inch broad 1 Water boys 2 As adzing is more or less on account of ties being cut into, these men will require to be increased or diminished accord- ingly. The remainder of the spiking can be done by this gang the next dav, as well as tamping up all ties that are loose or low, especially the joint ties. They should also go over all bolts with wrenches and tighten them up. 420 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. of line is within twenty feet throw, it is cheaper to move the track than to take it up and relay. This work, like changing rails, is usually done on Sundays. It is, however, possible to be done in the week, if there is an occasional half hour or so between trains. It requires skill and scientific ability. Proper Care of Engineers' Stakes. Grade stakes set by engineers for top of rail for new line should be set so as to be clear of the track when it is being moved to place. If, however, the same grade is to be retained, the foreman in charge should put two intelligent men to trans- ferring the level of the lower rail, using a long straight edge and track level for this purpose. The engineers' center line stakes are liable to be in different positions relative to the old track to be moved, necessitating the latter passing over these stakes in many cases. In order to obviate as much as possible the liability of their being moved, they should be driven sufficiently low to clear the bottom of the rail. Another manner of dealing with these stakes is to pull the spikes out of each tie surrounding the same, so as to allow of the track being moved and leave those ties un- touched. This, however entails considerable ex- pense. Another manner of dealing with these stakes is to transfer them so as to be entirely clear of the track when moving. Too great care cannot be taken with these stakes, in order to facilitate the lining and surfacing of the track so changed. Preparing Track for Sunday Work. The bed for the track on a new line should be ballasted and leveled off on tangents, and elevated on curves so that the bed will be within two inches MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 421 of the bottom of the ties. It is necessary to pre- pare this bed with more than ordinary care, so that when the track is moved over to its new position trains can be allowed to pass with- out the necessity of holding them until the track is tamped. All trains, however should run slowly over this track. When old track is to be thrown entirely clear of the old bed, it is not necessary to dig it put between the ties, but only to loosen it up with a pick, so as to make it easier to throw. This loosening might be omit- ted, but in that case it would take half as many more men to pull the track out of the old bed. If old track is to be thrown less than the length of a tie, the part occupying the old bed should be dug out slightly below the bed of the ties, and the remainder loosened with a pick. This being done, the track is ready to be thrown. Moving the Track on Sunday. It is neces- sary that good judgment be used in determining what amount of track can be moved to allow ne- cessary trains to pass without being held, and also to determine the proper place to cut the track so as to prevent the necessity of pulling it longitudinally more than one foot each way. The men may be divided into sub-gangs of not more than thirty men with two foremen each, and a certain piece of track allotted to them. This number of men will admit of being divided, us- ing one gang behind the other in throwing the track, or have one surfacing while the other is finishing the lining and surfacing later. When throwing the track it should not be moved more than twelve inches at any time; this saves the rails and splices and prevents twisting the ties. Rail cuts, to allow for expansion or contraction, 422 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. should be at the center of curves, or at as many more places as the degree of the curve and dis- tance to be thrown render necessary. Not less than six men should be placed at each cut, so as to employ three in cutting rails and three drill- ing; they should first remove the splices from two joints, one on each rail, and pull the spikes on the sides opposite to which the track is thrown so that the ties will be taken along as the track is moved. In order to pass trains after curves have been moved, the line should be changed on the tangents by reversed curve. When the track is in place, two men in each gang with sledge ham- mers should be put at work tapping the ties to proper space and square to the rail. Track in cinder may be tamped only with shovels and tamped with bars later, after it has consolidated. To Move Track During the Week. After the track is prepared, it is necessary to know how much shorter or longer it will be when moved. This can be ascertained by setting temporary stakes. They should be placed on the line of rail where its position will be when changed, measuring along this new line to the similar rail of the old track, after which this latter rail should be measured between the same points; thus the difference between them is obtained. This can only be done correctly by using a steel tape. When moving track during warm weather, the track to be changed should be first exam- ined, and for every tight or close joint one- eighth inch allowed for expansion; the sum of these allowances must be taken into considera- tion in ascertaining the difference between the two rails. The rails should then be cut and drilled ready for use. When the time selected MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 423 to make the change arrives, and the last sched- ule train has passed, gangs should begin to throw the track, always throwing toward the point or points cut loose. As soon as the throw- ing of the track is started, the rails at these points are replaced by those already cut. When the track is finally thrown to position, the ends can be spliced and bolted. Policing. "This work includes the general maintenance of the roadway in neat and proper condition, and is to be attended to continually. Weeds must be kept cut and trimmed to the grass- line; ballast properly dressed and sloped; ditches cleaned; rubbish picked up, and spare mate- rial properly placed. Combustible material must be kept cleared from around bridges, trestles, signal posts, etc., dirt and gravel must be re- moved from bridge seats and trestle caps, and care taken to prevent ballast from working over onto the bridge abutments or falling into streets below. Large loose stones may be neatly piled around the bases of signal posts, sign posts, etc., to keep vegetation from growing. All trees that are in danger of falling on the track, or that in- terfere wrth the passage of trains, or obscure the view must be removed or trimmed. If they are on private land, and the owners object to such work, a report must be made as to the circum- stances. Any interference with or obstruction of ditches, culverts, etc., by land owners must be prevented or a report made thereon. "All old track material, links and pins, or other material from cars, old ties, rubbish, etc., must be picked up and removed from the track, 424 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS.. all scrap being carried to the section tool house to be properly sorted and properly disposed of. All scrap iron, lumber, etc., must be neatly piled on platforms. New material, such as rails, ties, etc., must be properly piled or stacked, and no material should be thus piled within eight feet of the track. " Care should be taken to have a neat and tidy appearance of the section, with track full spiked and bolted, switches cleaned and well oiled, cattle guards and road crossings in good condi- tion, fences in repair and wing fences at cattle guards kept whitewashed, ballast evenly and uniformly sloped and free from weeds, sod line cleanly cut at foot of slopes, and grass and weeds not allowed to grow too high before cutting. Side tracks in yards should also be kept free from weeds and rubbish, old paper, scrap, etc. Station grounds also must be kept neat. Signs must be upright and in good repair. Section houses must be clean and tidy with tools, track material, scrap, etc., properly sorted and placed. "Every possible means, consistent with gen- eral attention to track work, should be taken to keep people from walking on or at the side of the track, and from using the railway as a public path. This is specially necessary near cities where the traffic is heavy. In such cases where people habitually walk on the track, a liberal covering of coarse broken stone or slag, or even cinders may be laid upon the ballast between the rails and tracks and upon the berme at the edge of the roadway. This will soon drive off those MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 425 persons who cannot comfortably walk on the ties. This matter is far too often neglected, and rail- ways are themselves partly responsible for the habit which the public has acquired of treating the tracks as a public way. Station Grounds and Buildings. "In order to have a good reputation for the road on the part of the public, it is very desirable that the grounds at stations should be kept clean and tidy and free from rubbish. On some roads this work is dele- gated to the station agent, wlio has his men attend to it, while on other roads it is part of the section gang's work. The latter is the better plan if the force is sufficient and the work is done by direction of the roadmaster, the station agent not being given authority to employ the section men for this purpose when he thinks proper. On roads having stations with lawns, flowerbeds and nice grounds, a special force is sometimes kept to attend to them. For instance the Boston and Albany Railway has on each of its principal di- visions a gardener with 5 to 12 men who grade, plant and seed the grounds, and take care of them. These men cut the grass with lawn mowers and do the weeding, trimming of shrub- bery, etc. They also attend to places where the banks are graded and seeded. This force is in- cluded in the roadway department. The Penn- sylvania Railway also employs landscape en- gineers and a large force of gardeners and spends large sums of money in making and maintaining attractive grounds. As a result it has a reputa- tion for the appearance of its stations. Some 426 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. western roads including the Fremont, Elkhorn & Missouri Valley Railway have adopted the policy of making a "park" at most of the stations, sod- ding the ground and planting trees. It is speci- ally important to have attractive grounds and pleasant surroundings at important stations and at junctions where passengers may have to change trains or to stop over for connecting trains. "In all ordinary cases, however, much may be done by foremen and station agents who are not averse to putting in a little time in improving the appearance of the station grounds. The agent especially should see that the grounds and plat- forms are kept free from old papers and other rubbish. A plot of turf, cinder or gravel path- way, a flowerbed, a creeper on the building or on a pile of rock work, can be had with little trouble and have a great effect upon the general appear- ance of a station. The approaches and surround- ings on the town side of the station should be cared for as well as the grounds on the railway side. The platforms should be convenient and in good repair and the fences kept in repair. Many a division superintendent and roadmaster can aid materially in maintaining a good appearance along the road by fitting up a car with brake pumps and paint tanks for painting by compressed air, the work being done rapidly and economically by a few men, and being applicable to stations, freight-sheds, ice-houses, pump houses, section houses, signal houses, signal towers, cabins, sta- tion fences, signal posts, and signs, etc., and also MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 427 for whitewashing cattle guard fences, interior of sheds, etc. "The yards, spaces between the tracks, etc. at stations should be neatly leveled, and covered with ashes, and should be kept in order by the section men, but strict rules should be made and enforced against the scattering of ashes and cin- ders from engines (which should be dumped at specified points) the sweeping of rubbish and dirt from the station onto the track, and the sweep- ing out of refuse and dirt from the cars upon the track. Every station should have a can or bin for waste paper and rubbish which should be emptied at intervals into a dirt car; similar re- ceptacles should be provided at yards or places where cars are cleaned. At large terminal yards one man may be kept busy cleaning up paper and rubbish. It is a good plan to have station inspectors to see that the stations, waiting rooms, closets, etc., are kept in proper and sanitary con- dition, and % that the grounds are properly cared for. Cleanliness should be enforced in every case, but the standard of appearance will, of course, vary according to the financial condition of the road and the size of the force. The same is true of section boarding houses and tool houses. Old Material. "In all renewals and the period- ical policing of the track, cleaning up of yards, etc., it mast be borne in mind that new material must be properly used and cared for, and not wasted, and also that no old material should be simply thrown away as useless. Even if really 428 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. useless for railway purposes, the material in the aggregate has a certain selling value, which, if the material is thrown away, is wrongfully lost to the Company. These remarks apply also to the wreckage and scrap resulting from train acci- dents and the burning of cars. Record must be kept of the disposal of all scrap and old material. "Old rails should not be left hidden in the grass and weeds of the right of way, but properly piled for shipment as they may be used for side tracks or branches, sold for scrap, or even made into new rails of somewhat lighter section by heating and rerolling. Old ties have rarely much value, but if thrown away, sold, burnt, used for cribbing, etc., all unbroken spikes should first be pulled, and when ties are burned the ashes should be raked over for spikes. In piling old rails, the splice bars and bolts should all be re- moved, good splice bars sorted in pairs and broken bars kept separate. Nuts and bolts, if good, should be kept together, but broken bolts should have the nuts removed and kept separate. Many spikes that now go from the track to the scrap heap (or down the bank) might be used over again if properly driven in the first place and properly drawn. Foremen should be careful to see that all track and car material, etc., is picked up regularly and that their men do not get in the habit of flinging old bolts, spikes, etc., down the bank. In removing bolts, the nuts should be unscrewed properly, the bolt taken out, and the lock and nut put back on the bolt. If, however, the nut is so rusted or wedged on the bolt that MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 429 it will not unscrew, it is more economical to knock off the nut with the end of bolt in it, with a sledge, than to waste time in forcing the wrench. Only good discipline and good manage- ment of men can insure the exercise of proper judgment as to when to knock off nuts in this way. If a wedge or rusted bolt has to be knocked out, care should be taken not to hit the head of the rail. "At the section tool house the scrap should be piled and sorted (as described under 'Policing') nuts taken off broken bolts, etc., this work being done in wet or stormy weather or when the men cannot work on the track. All scrap iron, lum- ber, etc., must be piled neatly on platforms, car scrap, links, drawbars, couplers, etc., being kept separate. Small scrap, such as bolts, nuts and spikes, may be kept in shallow boxes or in old spike and boli kegs. Rails may be piled on the right of way at mile posts, but should not be piled with splice bars and bolts left on. Old ties may be stacked on the right of way until per- mission is given to burn them, the ties removed being piled at the end of each day's work and not left in the ditch or on the roadbed. " Under this heading it will be appropriate to refer to the treatment and disposal of the mate- rial found in the general scrap pile at the division points or main shops, which subject has been dis- cussed by Mr. J. N. Barr of the Chicago, Mil- waukee & St. Paul Railway in a paper before the Western Railway Club. The style of material delivered for the scrap pile is significant of the 130 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. character of the men sending it, as for instance one man who is somewhat careless and finds it easier to use new material than to sort out the serviceable from the unserviceable scrap at his tool house, will send in many old bolts and nuts that are good for further use. In some cases it may be advisable to go to the expense of putting in a set of small rolls, to bring odd sizes of iron to standard sizes for bolts, plates, etc. ; a shear (perhaps operated by an airbrake cylinder with 4 feet lever and 6 inch jaw) for cutting rods, or even to build a small furnace for heating angles, etc., to be rerolled. Of course it must be borne in mind that while with a single large scrap pile at one large central shop it may be economical to carefully sort and handle the material and treat it as above noted, this may not be the case with several smaller piles at divisional shops. Also, that in some cases an article made by treat- ing scrap may be more expensive than a newly purchased article of the same kind. These are matters for the exercise of judgment and cal- culation in order to insure real economy. "In most scrap piles there is a great propor- tion of bolts. These may be sorted as to their diameters and length and stored in compart- ments. Stub ends of f-inchto 1-inch bolts, about 5i inches long, may be used for making track bolts, a bolt heading machine at the shops being equipped with suitable dies. Nuts may be cleaned of rust by pickling in a weak solution of hydro- chloric acid and then used again, or if damaged they may be slightly compressed by dies in a bolt MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 431 heading machine and then retapped. Plates and shapes may be utilized for small plate girders to cross culverts, etc. Lining bars, crawbars, wrenches, etc., may be successfully made from scrap steel tires, and the slide plates for switches may be made from elliptic springs, the plate being heated to a cherry red and then put in a bulldozer, where it is sheared off and has two square holes punched at one operation. Old flues, which bring little as scrap, make good fencing for station grounds, posts for track signs, or grates for cinder pits, where fireboxes are leaned out. Old fish plates or plain splice bars may be sheared to length and stamped to shape for rail braces. "In sorting, care should be taken to pick out any new or practically uninjured material which ma Y by accident, or carelessness have got in with the scrap. When sorted the stuff should be ar- ranged so as to be easily seen and got at, but dis- crimination should be exercised so as not to store a lot of miscellaneous material on the chance of its being of some possible use eventually."* Inspection. Inspection of tracks should be made daily by the track walker, twice a week by the section boss, and once a week by the roadmaster. Figs. 345 and 348 illustrate inspection cars suit- able for roadmasters, engineers, superintendents and others when examining track or other por- tions of the property distant from depots. The following is a description of a motor inspection car, designed for inspection purposes. * "Railway Track and Trackwork," Tratman, pp. 311-315. 432 BUILDINQ AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. FIG. 345. INSPECTION HAND CAR. Especially designed for light uses in track work; made as light as pos- sible, consistent with strength. Two revolving chairs en front platform. Weight, with chairs, 470 Ibs; without chairs, 390 Ibs. Wheels, wood centre, light pattern, 22 inches diameter, or 20-inch light steel, as desired. The car weighs about 300 pounds and can be quickly put on and removed from the rails by one man, being so arranged that it can be pushed about on one wheel by lifting up one end. Gasoline and an electric battery supply the motive power. The battery consists of a series of eight dry cells, which with proper care will run the car over 900 miles. To start the car is simply to turn on the gaso- line, move a lever which connects the battery with the cylinders the work of but a few sec- onds. To stop the gasoline and battery are turned off and the brakes applied. As it can be started in a few seconds, as fre- quent stops as desired can be made and no delay MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 433 FIG. 348. DOUBLE OR FOUR- WHEELED MOTOR CAR, FOR INSPECTION PURPOSES. A variation of the Motor car is the double type. In this case two com- plete single three-wheeled motor cars are used, and after discarding the third wheel, together with the arm and brace rod, the two main frames are joined by a seat that runs across the front of both, containing ample room for four persons. Back of this, but between the two main frames, is a plat- form upon which a considerable amount of hand baggage or tools can be carried if desirable. At the rear of the car the two driving axles are united by a connecting shaft having universal couplings, by which means any pro- pelling impulse communicated to either of the rear drivers is received by both. There is also on each of the main frames a rear seat for an operator, making a capacity on the device for six persons. Each main frame having its full double engine, there is ample power for use of the car with its full load under all ordinary circumstances. These double cars are so arranged that they can be disconnected at any time and used as two three-wheeled cars. experienced when ready to proceed. A speed of over thirty miles an hour can be developed on a straight level track, so that the car affords a quick and satisfactory means of getting over the ground. The speed is always under the control of the operator, and the car can be run as fast or as slow as desired. It is inexpensive to operate. A gal- lon of gasoline will ordinarily run the car over seventy-five miles. Provision is made for carry- ing with the car four gallons, or sufficient for a run of about 300 miles. It will carry three per- sons; the operator who sits in the rear, and two passengers on the front seat, which is shown open in the cut, but which folds up for convenience when not in use. 28 Vol. 13 434 BUILDING AND KEPAIRING RAILWAYS. On some railroad systems thero is an annual inspection, this generally is done in the Fall. This inspection covers track and the property generally. "The annual inspection of the Wabash Rail- way is conducted to determine the condition of each section and division of main track and sid- ings, in the following particulars: 1, line and surface; 2, level; 3, joints, ties and switches in the main track; 4, drainage; 5, policing; 6, sid- ing (meaning all tracks outside of the main track, and these must be inspected, marked and kept separately from markings on main track). These conditions shall be determined by a system of marking for every mile of road; 10 shall indicate perfection; 5 shall indicate a condition unsafe for a speed of 25 miles per hour, and the worst possible condition, intermediate numbers being used to indicate intermediate conditions. "The annual report shall show the total ex- pense for labor for the year on each mile of main track, and each mile of side track, the rating being determined as hereinafter set forth. The yard sections shall be classified together for the first and second premiums the same as the dis- tricts. "The final rating of each section, for classifica- tion, shall be made as follows: The conditions noted under the markings Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 shall be reduced to an average rating, which, in a column of the report shall represent the gen- eral average for conditions noted on main track. The general average of conditions under marking MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 435 No. 6 in its column, will indicate the general average of conditions noted on all sidings. " Sections having iron rail shall be allowed one point over steel rail, sections having steel rail in service eight years and upwards, half a point, provided this difference does not increase the re- sult above 10. This point will be added to final average and will not be noted by the inspectors. The sections on each division roadmaster's ter- ritory showing the highest general average shall be rewarded by a premium of $35.00 to the sec- tion foreman and the second highest average by $25.00. "1. Line. True line means straight line on tangents and uniform curvature on curves so far as the eye can Detect. When these requirements are fulfilled the condition must be represented by 10. "Continuous and very apparent deviations from the true alignment over the entire length of one mile, which would limit the maximum speed for the safe passage of trains to 25 miles per hour, must be represented by 5. A condition of align- ment which would be difficult for a train to pass, should be recorded as 0. "Conditions intermediate between those de- scribed above shall be indicated in the proper ratio representing these conditions. "Surface. True surface means a uniform grade line between changes of grade, and the conditions must be noted as in regard to line. "2. Level. The inspector must watch the level index and must note unusual oscillations of 436 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. the car due to unlevel track on tangents, want of uniformity of elevation on curves, or unequal gauge. "If the inspector can detect no vibration or oscillation of the car due to unlevel track on tangents, and want of uniformity on elevation of curves, he will record the condition as 10 and in- termediate conditions must be recorded as already noted. "3. Joints, ties and switches. A perfect joint is one that is fully bolted and tight. Ties must be properly spaced as per standard plan, and fully spiked with four spikes in each tie. Ends of ties, one side must be parallel with rail. Switches must be placed exactly as shown in standard specifications. When these are fulfilled the con- dition must be represented by 10 and intermedi- ate conditions recorded as already noted. "4. Drainage. The ditches shall be uniform and free from obstruction, and with sufficient in- cline to afford proper drainage. Ballast should be uniform and equally distributed. Any condi- tion less than described in the foregoing will be represented by such fraction of 10 as it bears to the required condition. "5. Policing. This shall consist of the follow- ing items, and a perfect condition in all these re- spects shall be represented by a marking of 10. "A. Cross ties and iron must be piled accord- ing to the general rules. " B. Grass, bushes and weeds should be kept cut close to the ground within limits of right of way, and not allowed to grow closer than within MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 437 6 feet of the rails. Stumps and logs should be cleared from within limits of right of way. "C. Road crossings must be in accordance with standard plans and must be clear and safe for the passage of animals and vehicles. "D. Signs must be placed in position as re- quired in standard clearance diagram. "E. Cross and line fences shall be kept in re- pair after being constructed by fence gang. They shall be of standard plans. Cross fences and cattle guards shall be clear of all grass and weeds, and shall be whitewashed. "Any conditions less than prescribed in fore- going subdivisions will be represented by such fraction of 10 as it bears to the required condi- tion, i "Expense. The section which is maintained at the least expense shall receive 10 points. The amount of expense on each section to be deter- mined as follows: From the aggregate expense of the year shall be deducted the cost for extra work, such as placing ties, rails, ballast and ditch- ing for which credit will be made as follows: Ties in rock ballast credited at 20 cents per tie; ties in gravel, cinder or earth ballast 8 cents per tie; rock ballast credited at $2.50 per car; other bal- last at $1.00 per car; rail laid credited at $1.50 per 100 feet, ditching at $1.00 per 100 feet. After this deduction is made the section show- ing the least expense will be marked 100, which, divided by 10, will give the rating of that section. For each additional $10.00 of expense over the lowest section for all other sections, deduct one point from 100 points, the remainder after being 438 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. divided by 10 shall be the rating of that section regarding expenses on the general report, and shall be recorded as the average expense of all miles on that section. "The inspection committee suall consist of six or more persons or shall be arranged as shown on the accompanying form. (The form or card is 9i inches long and 6 inches high with ten lines under the heading.) The general superintend- ent will assign duties to inspectors on the day of inspection. The placing of different members of general committee on the several sub-commit- tees will be performed by the officer in charge of inspection. Each member of these committees will be furnished with a form showing the condi- tions which he must note upon which he must indicate the rating of each mile. " The officer in charge of inspection shall take up all forms when rating has been placed thereon, and make a general report to the general superin- tendent showing the rating of all sections as hereinbefore described, showing the names of all persons entitled to a premium. The general superintendent will then cause the awards to be made, and have signs placed on sections to which premiums have been awarded, which will indi- cate the standing of that section on each subdi- vision. " The form of the report is as follows, being printed on sheets about 12 inches wide and 24 inches high. The line of the first prize is printed in heavy faced type and that of the second prize in italics."* * " Railway Track and Track Work," Tratman, pp. 337-340. MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 439 asuadxa No. 3. s. jpeji apig 440 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. UOT108S a| asuadxg; pat! sai^ ' sSuipis OS 1-1 ita a9d aoq'Bi aoj asuad s g s i i 5 #.| 5 *3 3 6 s 9 6 1/2 *.J *3 *5 *4 New South Wales Victoria South Australia ... Queensland . Austria Argentine Republic Belgium Brazil . . . \ British India Canada Cape Colonies . . Ceylon Chili Denmark Eevpt Great Britain < Holland Ireland Italy .. Japan Mexico New Zealand North Germany Norway Nova Scotia. Panama Peru Portugal Russia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tasmania Turkey. . . 1 United States < Uruguay Republic * Gauges in use at present time, January, 1897, t Standard Narrow. j Standard Broad. Standard of Ireland. || Mount Washington. 1 Sterling Mountain. APPENDIX F. QUANTITY OF MATERIAL REQUIRED TO LAY ONE MILE OF RAILROAD TRACK ON THE BASIS NAMED. DESCRIPTION. WEIGHT PER YARD. TONS. NUMBER. SIZE. ^ 651bs. 102Atti 352 30 feet in length. 72 " llSiVft 352 30 " " Rails . < 80 " 125 r Vok 352 30 " " " 85 " 183jVA 352 30 " " 90 ' HliWo 352 30 " " Te inches thick, by 8 inches wide, by 8 feet long, laid Ties 3,017 es 1 " a> Sd PQ fl .a ll ^ ^^ O S= ^bi. g>0) &'S tand eigh 4 M < a pd i i'." v i e 1 Cv \ k m 1 APPENDIX H, 577 Vertical curves are required on summits at all grade inter- sections not less than 50 feet in length for each charge of one-tenth in rate of grade. In "sags" the rate of change should not exceed 0.05 feet per station. In theory, the rate of change should be such as to maintain equality between the rolling resistance and the "acceleration of gravity" of each car throughout the varying rates of speed. RULING GRADES. Grades which limit the maximum weights and length of trains, are termed "Ruling Grades." Maximum grades, which may be operated by heavier engines, or by assistant engines, are not necessarily ruling grades. The economic value of changes in rates of grades is deter- mined by the relative total cost and number of trains, required on each rate of grade to transport the same number of cars and tons. The practical rule is as follows: Multiply the daily number of trains saved or added by the ascertained cost per train-mile, by the length of the division in miles, and by the number of days in the year, the result will be the annual saving or added cost, resulting from such change in rate. To obtain the capitalized value, divide this result by the proper interest rate. When actual values are not known, assume the rate of 60 cents per train-mile (see Volume of Traffic), which capitalized at 6 per cent, is $3,650 (one way only). The cost of operating heavier engines, assistant engines and all other items of expense added or saved, should be computed in addition and capitalized, if necessary (see Vol- ume of Traffic). Every effort must be made to maintain the lowest practicable and economical rate of grade over the entire engine district. When sections of high grade are unavoidable, it is fre- quently practicable to concentrate such "rise and fall" into short sections, which may be economically operated by use of assistant engines. The ruling grade of each engine district should be adjusted with reference to those of the adjoining districts, or to con- ditions of local traffic, in such a manner as to avoid unneces- sary "breaking and making up" of trains. When not practica- ble to secure this by grade adjustment alone a combined ad- 37 Vol. 13 578 APPENDIX II. justment of grades and engine, weights will effect the same end. The ratio of rates of ruling grades to each other at points of intersection should preferably be in proportion to the tractive powers of the available types of engines. On sections of great rise and fall (mountain crossings, etc.) it should be the aim of the engineer to produce the maximum and minimum ruling grades to an intersection, if possible, and in any event to reduce the sections of different rates to the least number. Ruling grades may be of different rates, but equal limiting effect, when adjusted for unbalanced volume of traffic. Train stops on maximum grades must be compensated as fully as practicable, and not less than 3.5 feet in any case. Compensation is not only provided for the increase in starting friction over rolling friction, but in addition to permit trains to acquire speed more rapidly. Train stops near the foot of a long grade are most limiting in this respect. VIRTUAL GRADES. The motion of a train represents stored energy, derived from the engine or gravitation, and, under appropriate condi- tions, the power of the engine may be in part absorbed in imparting speed to the train, or augmented by the surrendered momentum of the train. When rolling and grade resistances exceed the applied force, motion is retarded and energy released in definite proportions, and conversely, when applied force is in excess, motion is accelerated and energy imparted in like proportions. The moving energy of the train at different speeds is given in Fig. 2 in terms of "Velocity Head," which is the vertical height, through which the train would be lifted, at each degree of speed by its momentum alone. I000 1 1500' 2000' FIG. 2. DIAGRAM SHOWING LENGTHS OF VELOCITY GRADES. APPENDIX H. 579 Formula for Determining the Average Virtual Grade. T 1 R W S v =- average virtual grade expressed in per cent. T = mean cylinder tractive power in IDS. for given initial and terminal W = weight of train in tons of 2,000 IDS. ; including engine and tender. R = mean train resistance in Ibs. per ton of train. Note The maximum virtual grade for a given train-load (W) is found by inserting in above formula the train resistance (R)and the cylinder tractive power (T) for minimum speed (10 miles per hour). Example: In above diagram is shown the length of velocity grades for engine Class D 3 Mogul, pulling a train weighing 1,250 tons (including engine and tender) for an initial speed of 30 miles and a terminal speed of 10 miles per hour. The difference in velocity heads (A M) taken from Table of Velocity Heads = 31.95 3.55 = 28.4 feet. The average virtual grade (S v ) is calculated from formula: i r T VI s *= k- R ]-^ T == 11,743, taken from table of mean cyl = 7.3, taken from table of mean train resistance. 11,743 7.3 =0.1047 per cent 1,250 J nder tractive power. The length of velocity grades from A to a, b, c, d, e, etc., is found by con- struction, as shown in the above diagram, or may be found by calculation from the formula d 1 = , in which 1 = length in stations of 100 ft.; d = difference in ve- S-S V locity heads for the given initial and terminal speed; S= actual grade in per cent. , and S v = virtual grade, as found from formula (1 ) . The maximum vir- tual grade of the above example is 1 f 17,850 1 = | 4.7 | = 0.479 per cent. 20 L 1,250 J Table of Mean Train Resistance in Pounds per Ton for Loaded Cars. Initial. 45 (0 Jpeed i Terminal. 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 R. 10.6 8.3 7.3 6.5 5.8 5.2 4.7 Table of Velocity Heads. (Velocity head = 0.0355 v*.) v = speed in miles per hour. Speed in miles Velocity head Speed in miles Velocity head pr hr. In ft. pr hr. in ft. 10 3.55 28 27.83 11 4.30 29 29.86 12 5.11 30 31.95 13 6.00 31 34.12 14 6.96 32 36.35 15 7.99 33 38.66 16 9.09 34 41.04 17 10.26 35 43.49 18 11.50 36 46.01 19 12.82 37 48.60 20 14.20 38 51.26 21 15.67 39 54.00 22 17.19 40 56.80 23 18.79 41 59.68 24 20.46 42 62.62 25 22.20 43 65.64 26 24.00 44 68.73 27 25.88 45 71.89 580 APPENDIX II. The engine tractive power is least at high speed and short "cut off," and greatest at low speed and "full stroke," as shown in Fig. 1. The mean tractive power of these engines from different rates of speed to ton miles per hour is given by the table following Fig. 1, or may be deduced from the diagram. The maximum available power for overcoming rolling and ^rade resistance is represented by the product of the train weight and its velocity head, added to the product of the mean engine tractive power, and the time or distance over which the power is exerted, illustrated, in short, in the effect produced by "taking a run at the hill." FIG. 3. DIAGRAM OF TRAIN RESISTANCE IN POUNDS PER TON. (From A. M. Wellington's Railway Location.) APPENDIX H. 581 Rolling resistance for trains at all speeds is given by Fig. 3, from which mean resistances between different rates of speed may also be readily computed. The simplest rule for computing grade resistance i as fol- lows: Resistance (in Ibs. per ton) = rate of grade (in feet) x 20. A gradient of equivalent resistance to the force exerted by the engine is the "virtual grade," or real resistance taxing the engine cylinders. The virtual grade line may be plotted with the assistance of Figs. 1, 2 and 3, or computed in accord- ance with the general principles before given. "Momentum" or velocity grades may be used with due caution to avoid increasing rate of ruling grades, or to avoid large construction expenditures otherwise necessary. In all such cases train stops, grade crossing and limiting or dan- gerous curvature must be avoided. Velocity grades requiring freight train speeds in excess of 30 miles per hour must not be used, nor should such grades be laid out for speeds in excess of that obtainable under or- dinary working conditions. MAINTENANCE AS AFFECTED BY LOCATION. The cost and difficulty of maintaining track and roadbed may be greatly affected by the general characteristics and local details of the selected route, and all such conditions should receive careful consideration during the location of the route. The greatest differences may exist, even between the two sides of the same valley, as one side may be subject to con- tingencies of drifting snow, slides, cloudbursts, stream en- croachments or "washouts," from which the other side is wholly free. Conditions of greater shade, due to forest or bluffs, may cause longer duration of snow, frost and moisture, or local peculiarities of soil, and the character and number of lateral streams to be crossed may all contribute towards the increased cost of maintenance. Additions to cost of maintenance arising from faulty details of "construction," may not be properly considered in connec- tion with the subject of "Location," unless resulting directly 582 APPENDIX H. or indirectly from the character of the location, such as un- necessary increase in number and length of bridges, grade crossings in lieu of possible under or overcrossings, faulty arrangements of grades, affecting yard and station expenses, and other items of like character. All additions to operating expenses, arising from such causes should be included in equations of alternate routes, capital- izing same if necessary, at the ruling rate of interest. NOTE: The table of Velocity Heads and the economic values given for "Distance," "Curvature" and "Rise and Fall" are derived from Welling- ton's " Economic Theory of Location," the values have been capitalized at 6 per cent. APPENDIX I. DETAILED RULES GOVERNING SURVEYS AND CON- STRUCTION OF RAILWAYS AND LISTS OF SUP- PLIES REQUIRED IN THE FIELD.* SURVEYS AND CONSTRUCTION SURVEYS. The railway company will furnish instruments, transporta- tion, camp equipage and subsistence while parties are em- ployed in the field. Each individual will provide himself with all personal articles, such as drawing instruments, cloth- ing, blankets, etc. All survey lines diverging from any constructed line must be connected with it by measurement, so that the initial point can be located upon the map of such constructed line. Stations will be uniformly 100 feet long each, and num- bered consecutively. It is not necessary to set stakes at each station in all cases on preliminary lines; this may be left to the discretion of the chief of the party. Mark stakes on alternate lines with distinguishing letter A, B, C, etc. Mark stakes on located lines "L." Mark point of curvature "P. C." or "P. S.," point of tangency "P. T." on the stakes of the be- ginning and end of all curves. Mark stakes at the "P. C." or "P. S." with the degree and direction of the curve. Ties must be secured to all township and subdivision lines whenever crossed. Give station number of intersection, angle of intersection, distance along the line to the nearest corner or quarter corner. Whenever possible, make the intersection by running through between the two corners. When line is located through villages or towns, take neces- sary measurements, tieing the center line to the plats, and secure tracings of the town plats as contained in the county *These rules are in force on the Northern Pacific Railway. (583) 584 APPENDIX I. registrar's office, with all dates and certificates contained in original, and send these copies to the office of the Chief Engineer. Tie in all property and land lines and locate all buildings that are near the line. Check all angles by needle reading, or by doubling the angle or both. Check all measurements by chain or tape. Check chains frequently by steel tape or level rod. Keep all instruments in proper condition and good adjust- ment. Always establish a substantial and permanent bench at the initial point of all surveys, and at short intervals along the line. Use the sea level datum, and if one has to be assumed, ascertain its relation with the standard datum at the first opportunity, and correct all elevations accordingly. All level notes must be checked at the end of each day's work by adding the backsights and the foresights, and ascer- taining the difference. MAPS, PROFILES AND RECORDS. Maps of located lines, made in the field, will be usually drawn to a scale of one inch to 800 feet; in broken and diffi- cult localities, one inch to 400 feet. General maps to be sent to the office of the Chief Engineer may be drawn to a scale of one inch to 4,000 feet, etc. .The maps will be made in con- formity with the standard specimen sheets furnished from the office of Chief Engineer. Maps, plans and profiles are to be drawn with the top of the paper to northward or westward, and the letters and fig- ures are to be right side up toward the top or toward the left hand side of the paper, and must otherwise conform with the specimen profiles. Maps and profiles should give names of all rivers and streams, names of owners or occupants of houses, ranches or farms passed by the line, etc. Put on all the information nec- essary to enable another person to fully identify any locality. Be certain to note on profile all extreme high or extreme low watermarks, wherever found, even if only approximate. The meridian should be drawn on all maps, both true and magnetic, when both are known. APPENDIX I. 585 On each drawing of any kind put name of engineer, initial of draftsman, date, place, etc. On both ends of the outside of the paper, give the title in full of the map, plan, sketch or profile. Tracings of maps and profiles of all lines run must be sent to the office of the Chief Engineer, distinctly marked with the name of the line, streams, and all other information necessary to identify the locality. Tracings of located lines showing government and property lines, streams and date of commencing and completing sur- vey, must be made and sent promptly to the office of the Chief Engineer, as soon as each section of twenty miles has been finally located, for the purpose of filing map of definite location in the land office. All changes of line made after the map of definite location has been filed in the general land office must be approved by the engineer in charge before being adopted, and as soon as made, reported to the Chief Engineer with a tracing of new and old line, and tracing profile of the part altered. Topography on general maps should be given for a distance of 1,500 feet on each side of the center line, and further when necessary to show important features. In order to facilitate plotting contour topography, the notes should give distances of contours from the center line. All courses of line must be given in reference to the true meridian, and for that purpose an observation must be taken upon starting the survey and the true course recorded in the field books, as the work progresses. An additional observation should be taken for the correction of meridianal convergency whenever the extent of the survey shall attain a departure of one-half degree of longitude. Curves and bearings of tangents shall be noted on the maps and profiles in the manner shown on the samples furnished. When practicable give true bearings instead of magnetic. State which is given. To avoid cumulative errors, when platting lines, all angles must be laid off from some standard bearing, using the calcu- lated course for this purpose. This can be done best by laying off any convenient bearing in the general direction of the sur- 586 APPENDIX I. vey and transferring all angles turned from this line by parallel rules or triangles, to the last point scaled. This will, on located lines, require all tangents to be calculated from intersection to intersection. Indicate on the map, or otherwise, the width and extent of extra right of way necessary for stations, side tracks, "Ys," borrowpits, etc., on the line of the road. Profiles, when completed, shall contain all the information called for on the sample copy furnished from the office of Chief Engineer, and arranged in the manner shown thereon. The original profiles must be made oc the regular profile paper. Tracings must be made in sections of twenty miles from the original profile, and sent to the office of the Division Engineer, from which the necessary blue-prints will be made for contractors. Intersecting grades are to be connected by vertical curves, having a rate of change of grade per station of 0.05 feet, except on summit curves where the rate of change may be 0.1 foot, or more per station. Profiles should show alignment drawn in red near the bot- tom of the paper. The direction of the curve is shown by drawing the radial lines to an intersection on their proper side, at the middle of the curve. Progress profiles will be sent each month to the Chief Engineer's office, properly colored to show all work done to and included in the last estimate, on the part of the road in charge of the engineer. These profiles must show all work done during the preceding month; not only grading, but de- tails of bridges and culverts built, with their exact location; description and location of all buildings, or structures of any kind, wells dug, main track, sidings, or "Ys" laid, etc. The depth that piles are driven below the surface of the ground should be indicated by dotted lines, showing the point of lowest pile in bent; the mud sills of trestles should be shown by a short heavy line, and on steep side hills the elevation of each mud sill should be indicated in the same way. Prints from "Solar" negatives of tracing profiles in the Chief Engi- neer's office will be furnished for progress profiles. The com- pleted profiles will be retained in the office of the Division Engineer at the close of the work. APPENDIX I. 587 The standard progress colors are as follows: January Chrome yellow. July Sepia. February Carmine. August Emerald green. March Payne's gray. September Cobalt blue. April Deep chrome. October Vermilion. May Prussian blue. November Indian red. June Burnt Sienna. December Sap green. Track profiles must be prepared in all cases when neces % sary for the guidance of the contractor, showing, in addition to the ordinary alignment notes of the profile, the number and length of rails to each tangent, the number of long and short rails in each curve, and the ordinates to which they are to be curved. Field books must indicate each day's work, giving date. The flyleaf of each book must show in ink the name of the branch or division, nature of survey, kind of notes, name of engineer, name of instrumentman, or topographer, and the terminal points contained in the book. See that all sub- jects contained therein are properly indexed and that all notes of adopted or abandoned lines are properly marked as such. Have notes so plain that they may be understood by any one. The original field notes should be sent in to the general office when the survey is completed. In case the original notes are not in good condition have them copied in new book, giving a revised and complete record of alignment, levels, topography, right of way notes and other data per- taining to the line. Diaries will be furnished to engineers and instrumentmen on construction. Details of each day's work must be entered, giving dates of staking out work, commencement and com- pletion of work on excavation, bridges and buildings; rise and fall of streams and other data of future value. These diaries must be returned to the Assistant Engineer at the close of the work. RIGHT OF WAY. As soon as the construction of a line has been ordered the Division Engineer will issue the necessary instructions for securing the right of way, which will be uniformly 100 feet in width, except where additional land is required for 588 APPENDIX I. station grounds, borrowpits, wide slopes or other purposes. The right of way should be secured as rapidly as possible, contracts for same being taken and forwarded immediately to Division Engineer's office, where deeds and vouchers will be made. The right of way agent will be under the orders of the Division Engineer, but will consult freely with the Assist- ant Engineer in charge of the line, and will make all agree- ments as to fences, cattle guards, road crossings, ditches, etc., subject to his approval. The description of irregular tracts which are acquired by the company will be by metes and bounds, obtained by actual survey. The description of right of way through government subdivisions will be made in the following form: A strip, piece or parcel of land 100 feet in width, situated in the northwest quarter of the northwest quarter of section 10, in township 2 north, range 1 west (S. 10, T. 2 N., R. 1 W.), Madison county, Montana, and having for its boundaries two lines that are parallel with and equidistant from the center line of the railroad of the Railway Company, as the same is now located (and constructed). For a more particular description, reference may be had to the plat drawn upon and made a part of this deed. The description of lots in platted tracts should be in the fpllowing form: Lot seven (7), block six (6), in Smith's addition to Helena, Lewis and Clarke county, Montana, according to the recorded plat thereof. All plats drawn upon deeds should give ties to the gov- ernment survey points or to some fixed and indestructible points, so that the land can be located from the description and the plat. As soon as the right of way has been definitely secured, plats of the same will be prepared in Division Engineer's office, conforming to standard scale and plan furnished by Chief Engineer, to whom they will be forwarded when com- pleted, accompanied by the deeds. ESTIMATES. A careful estimate must be made showing the probable cost of every located line and of every structure or special APPENDIX I. 589 work upon which a report is ordered. Great precaution must be taken to include everything necessary to complete the work ready for operation or use. This applies to work to be done by both the Construction and Engineering Depart- ments. In case it is necessary to make the estimate before the exact quantities are determined, it must be replaced by an- other whenever the data can be obtained. In monthly and partial estimates, make returns of grad- ing to nearest ten yards, and masonry to nearest five yards. Monthly statement (form 106), showing expenditures to date and comparison with the preliminary estimate, will be prepared by Assistant Engineer at the close of each month and sent to Division Engineer, who will note and forward to the Chief Engineer. No estimate or statement of quantities will be given to contractors or sub-contractors not bearing the certificate of the Assistant Engineer. The standard record book, form No. 62 of the Company, will be furnished each engineer in charge of a residency. The notes are to be written in ink, when final. The record should contain cross-section notes, and all other data per- taining to calculation of quantities, classification in detail, ground and grade elevations, alignment, material or labor accounts; and the data for every item embraced in the final estimate. A summary will be made giving the final estimate in sections of one mile, conforming to the mile-posts of the branch or division. The record must be kept up, as far as possible, while work is in progress, and must be turned in to the Assistant Engineer at the close of the work, and finally checked in the oflBce of the Division Engineer. GENERAL. The plans and work of the company are its private prop- erty and must not be imparted to any one. Reports must be made to the immediate superior of the engineer or em- ployee, and to no one else. The rates of pay of all employees will be fixed by the Chief Engineer, and no change of rate so fixed shall be made without his authority first obtained. 590 APPENDIX I. Damage, destruction or loss of property of the Company through carelessness or wilfullness, must be made good by the individual at fault. Engineers in immediate charge of parties are responsible for all Company property in their charge, and are expected to prevent extravagance and waste in the use of supplies of all kinds furnished by the Ccftnpany. Locating and resident engineers will forward a weekly re port to their superior officers, reporting progress of work anu all other general items of interest, pertaining to the work. This will be accompanied by the force report. All engineers must make themselves familiar with the conditions of the contracts and specifications for work under their charge; they should attend to any reasonable request of contractors, furnish them heights, lines, stakes, plans, etc., whenever necessary, and in general do all things requisite to enable contractors to work to advantage and without delay. During construction each line will be divided into resi- dencies of convenient length, as directed by Division Engi- neer, each in charge of a Resident Engineer, and provided with such assistants, camp equipage, transportation and other outfit as may be necessary. The nature of the work and the various facilities must be carefully considered as soon as the construction is ordered, so that competitive proposals may be obtained for every- thing that will be required. Each Assistant Engineer in charge of a line will submit, for approval of the Division Engineer, a list of all buildings, sidings, Ys, etc., with proposed location of same, required on his work. The Division Engineer should submit all pro- posed plans for station or terminal facilities to the proper officials of the Operating Department for criticism, and their suggestions must receive careful consideration. The arrangement of all stations and terminals and the ap- purtenant tracks, the location of water tanks, and all mat- ters having a bearing upon the operation of any line, should also be submitted for criticism before construction. Engineers must prosecute their work economically and will be expected to work to the estimates closely. APPENDIX I. 501 All structures will be built in accordance with the stan- dard plans of the Company, and no deviation will be made from same except by authority of the Chief Engineer. Stan- dard plans will be furnished from Chief Engineer's office, and at the close of each piece of work all that have been used on same, by engineers or contractors, will be returned to Division Engineer. The usual classification of grading will be earth, loose rock and solid rock. If cemented gravel or soft rock in place or other distinctive material exists in considerable quantities, the fact must be reported to the Chief Engineer in order that it may have a proper classification assigned to it. In staking out grading, have number of station marked on face of center stake, and cut or fill on its back. On slope stakes have cut or fill marked on the face, and number of station on the back. Banks must be made full and regular. Care must be taken to avoid sags between stations. The roadbed throughout must conform strictly to the standard plan. In regions swept by strong winds, where the snow-fall is liable to be great and drifting to occur, all structures will be put on that side of the track opposite the prevailing winds. Usually this will be the southerly side, and station buildings, water stations, switch stands and every kind of structure that can cause the formation of drifts, will be put on that side. Sidings and spur tracks should be put on the same side, where practicable. When embankments are rip rapped to protect them from action of water, that part of embankment upon which the rip rap is placed should generally be made with slope not less than two to one. If the embankment has been finished at a steeper slope, the rip rap should usually be so placed that its exterior slope shall be two to one. Surface ditches must be laid out with great care to pre- vent water from running down the slope of cut, or against embankments, or being carried to any point where it can act injuriously upon any part of the work. The ditches should be made of ample size; not less than one foot wide 592 APPENDIX I. at the bottom in any case; and if the area is considerable from which water may accumulate, they should be made two feet wide or more at the bottom. Material excavated in their construction should usually be thrown on the side toward the cut. In few matters is there more opportunity to show good judgment than in judiciously disposing of sur- face water about cuts. All cuts must have surface ditches and thorough drainage. In turning streams care must be taken to make embank- ments across old channels strong enough to resist the action of currents. In such cases the width of the embankment should usually be made not less than ten (10) feet from the center line on the side against which the current will act, with slope of two to one. In cases of soft, spongy, or sliding material, this width should be increased on the exposed side. It should be borne in mind that it is less costly to build an embankment with excess of strength at first, than to have it washed out and be compelled to rebuild it. In turning rapid, turbulent streams, take special and full precautions to prevent the new embankments from being washed away while building before they are high and strong enough for effectual resistance. In building culverts and other waterways of perishable ma- terials, ample allowance in size must be made for reconstruc- ing them at a future time of durable materials. Wherever practicable iron culvert pipes should be hauled ahead and placed in position before the embankments are completed. Vitrified tile pipe of double strength will be used under road crossings. In building permanent box culverts of stone or brick, the smallest opening to be allowed is nine square feet, clear of all obstructions. The height of the opening of a culvert should never be less than its width. The greatest care should be taken to secure the foundations of all culverts and water conduits. Stream diversions, even when of considerable magnitude, usually prove much cheaper in first cost and also in subse- quent maintenance than the bridging otherwise required, particularly when the excavated material is used in embank- ments. APPENDIX I. 593 The natural "scour" of the stream may sometimes be re- lied upon to widen channel excavations of small original cross-section, but in all cases due precautions must be taken to insure final cross-sections of full and ample proportions. Pile and trestle bridges, not required in part or in whole for waterway, are too frequently constructed in order to save time or to avoid real or supposed difficulties in forming the embankments. The maintenance cost of such bridges is many times in excess of that of embankments of equal first cost, and no bridges of this character should be built unless the cost of the embankments otherwise necessary exceeds both the first cost of such bridges and the subsequent cost of filling same by train or otherwise. Thorough drainage is a maxim to be impressed on the mind and practice of every one engaged in construction, and engineers must beware of being deceived or misled in so- called "rainless districts," for experience proves that some- times (perhaps at long intervals), most destructive and un- controllable floods occur in such localities. Top of bridge stringers will be set 0.25 foot above regular profile grade, and regular grade changed about 100 feet to meet it. This will apply in all cases, unless otherwise ordered. In the construction of pile and trestle bridges a competent inspector should be retained, whose duty it shall be to keep a record of all piles driven. The inspector's record must show length of piles, depth to which each pile is driven, sinking in inches by the last three blows of the hammer, weight of hammer, and fall in feet of same, and amount of piles cut off. Engineers should endeavor to secure, wherever practicable, at reasonable expense, undergrade or overhead highway crosrings. Bridges and culverts can frequently be utilized at slight expense for undergrade crossings for stock by making necessary openings in right of way fence. Before the completion of the work, all construction material left over and scattered along the line must be picked up and returned to the material yard. Refuse will be burned or otherwise disposed of. 38 Vol. 13 594 APPENDIX I. SUPPLIES FOR 14 MEN, 30 DAYS. 400 Ibs. Flour. 50 Ibs. Buckwheat flour. 40 Ibs. Oatmeal. 30 Ibs. Cornmeal. 150 Ibs. Sugar. 20 Ibs. Salt. 10 Ibs Tapioca, 10 Ibs. Sago. 10 Ibs. Baking Powder. 2 Ibs. Mustard. 1 Ib. Pepper, ground. y 2 lb. Ginger, ground. % lb. Cinnamon, ground. 14 lb. Allspice, ground. 100 Ibs. Ham. 100 Ibs. Bacon. 25 Ibs. Dried beef. 25 Ibs. Codfish. 400 Ibs. Potatoes. 1 case Pears. 1 case Cherries. 2 cases Tomatoes. 2 cases Peaches. 2 cases Corn. 1 case Peas. 1 case Condensed milk. 50 Ibs. Coffee. 10 Ibs. Tea. 40 Ibs. Lard. 12 packages Yeast cakes. 25 Ibs. Cheese. 50 Ibs. Beans. 25 Ibs. Rice. 10 Ibs. Corn starch. 1 box Macaroni. 10 Ibs. Barley. 1 box Soap. 1 bottle Lemon extract. 1 bottle Vanila extract. 10 Ibs. Currants. 1 box Raisins. 5 gallons Syrup. 6 bottles Pickles. 20 Ibs. Onions. 1 gallon Vinegar. 6 bottles Tomato catsup. 1 case Corned beef. 3 Ibs. Baking soda. 50 Ibs. Evaporated apples. 50 Ibs. Dried peaches. 50 Ibs. Dried prunes or plums % lb. Nutmegs. 1 box Soda crackers. 12 boxes Matches. 1 box Candles. 2 Ibs. Lye. 10 Ibs. Sal soda. 60 Ibs. Butter. 8 bottles Worcestershire sauce. 1 case Coal oil. Eggs, fresh meat and vegetables as required, if they can be obtained from the farming community. ENGINEER EQUIPMENT AND STATIONERY (FOR ONE FIELD PARTY). 2 balls Twine. 2 yards Red flannel. 2 yards White flannel. 1 Sounding rod, 3 joints, 8 ft. each. 6 6-H Pencils. 12 4-H Pencils. 12 No. 2 Pencils. 12 Timber leads. 100 Manila envelopes, large. 100 Manila envelopes, small. 6 Colored pencils, red and blue. 12 Penholders. 1 box Assorted pens. 12 Crow quill pens. 1 Slab for india ink. 2 Inkstands. * 1 Pocket inkstand. 2 Pads letter paper. 2 Pads notepaper. 2 Pyramids pins. 6 Rubber erasers. ! steel eraser. 1 Transit. 1 Level. 1 Chain, 10 extra links, 1 extra handle. 4 Flag poles. 2 Level rods. 1 Hand level. 1 Barometer. 1 Pocket compass. 1 Clinometer. 1 Protractor, paper. 48 Thumb tacks. 6 Camel hair brushes. 1 Scale, triangular, decimal. 1 Straight edge, 36 ins., steel, nickel plated. 1 Drafting board and trestles. 1 Stationery chest, tray and board. 2 Hand axes and extra ban- dies. 3 to 6 Axes and extra handles. 1 Hatcfcet. APPENDIX I. 595 1 Water keg, 2 gallons. 2 Brush hooks. 2 50-ft. Tapes in cases, 2 without cases. 1 Bottle mucilage. 2 Bottles India ink. 1 stick India ink. 1 pint Combined writing fluid, stone bottle. 1 small bottle Red ink. 2 doz. Shipping tags. 2 doz. Shipping tags. 5 Transit books. 10 Level books. 10 Typography books. 6 Scratch blocks. 12 Blotters. 1 Time check book. 1 doz. Property reports. 1 block Vouchers. 12 papers Tacks, 8 oz., tinned. 3 quires Wrapping paper. 3 quires Foolscap. 3 quires Journal paper. 1 box McGill's paper fasteners. 50 sheets Cross-section paper, lOths. 4 Triangles, 10, 8, 7, and 5 ins., 30 and 60 degrees. 30 yards Drawing paper, 24 ins wide. 1 roll Plate A profile paper, divided. 1 roll Tracing cloth, 30 ins. 1 Stylus book, with carbons. 24 Time returns. 1 Book of receipts. 1 Pad. 1 Book rules and regulations. 1 Book transportation rules. 1 box Rubber bands, assorted. 2 Tin map cases, 6x36 ins. 2 Ibs. Keil. 2 quires Legal cap. In the case of extended explorations beyond civilization necessary supply of medicines should be provided. CAMP EQUIPMENT (FOR ONE FIELD PARTY). 1 Flesh fork. 1 Biscuit cutter. 36 Teaspoons. 36 Tablespoons. 36 Knives. 36 Forks. 1 Carving knife. 1 Carving fork. 1 Tea kettle. 1 Tea strainer. 24 Coffee cups. 2 Candle lanterns. 3 Washbasins. 2 Dippers. 1 Lunch basket. 1 Dinner table. 2 Trestles for tables. 1 Cook table. 2 Sibley stoves, sheet iron. 1 Cook stove. 3 pieces pipe, with dampers. 12 pieces Pipe without dampers. 2 iron pots. 1 Three-gallon coffee pot. 1 Two-gallon tea pot. 1 Large frying pan. 1 Small frying pan. 2 No. 28 Stew kettles, galvan- ized iron. 24 Pint cups. 36 Plates. 1 No. 24 Stew kettles, galvan- ized Iron. 12 Pie plates. 4 Three-quart Pans. 4 Tents and flies, 14x14 or 14x16. 1 Grindstone. 1 Monkey wrench. 1 Spade. 1 Hand saw. 1 Cross-cut saw. 1 Alarm clock. 1 Two-gallon keg. 1 Washtub, board and boiler. 1 bundle Sail twine and needles: 1 Sail palm. 10 yards Canvas. 2 Three-cornered files. 1 Flat file. 10 yards Toweling. 1 Scrub brush. 1 Broom. 3 Candlesticks. 3 Stand lamps and 6 chim- neys. 2 Stewpans. 1 Water pail. 2 Griddles. 1 Coffee mill. 4 Drip pans, 12x17. 1 Five-gallon dish pan. 1 Five-gallon bread pan 4 Large iron spoons, 12 'ins. 1 Soup ladle. 1 Cake turner. 1 Steel. 3 Butcher knives. 1 Chopping bowl. 596 APPENDIX I. 1 Chopping knife. 4 Four-quart pans. 3 Pepperboxes. 4 Six-quart Pans. 1 Sieve. 18 pint Pans. 1 Steamer. 3 Tin pot covers. 1 Colander. 2 Three-gallon Galvanized wa- 2 Can openers. ter pails. 1 Meat saw. 1 Two-gallon Tin water pail. 1 Potato masher. 1 Pick and handle. 1 Rolling pin. 2 Mess chests. 1 Nutmeg grater. 5 Ibs. lOd. Nails. 1 Bread board. 100 ft. %-in. Manila rope. 10 yards Oil cloth. APPENDIX J. DETAILED RULES GOVERNING CONSTRUCTION OF TRACK OF RAILWAYS* AND VARIOUS SPECIFICATIONS AND TABLES, GIVING DETAILS IN REGARD TO MATERIAL USED IN CONSTRUCTION. TRACK AND BALLAST. Preparation of Roadbed. The standard width of single track roadbed at sub-grade is 14 feet on embankments, 20 feet in earth cuts and 16 feet in rock cuts unless otherwise ordered. All narrow banks must be widened to the standard width from centers, as established by the engineer. Transition curves will be used at the end of all curves of 3 degrees and upwards. The rate of change per degree of curvature should preferably not exceed 1 degree for each chord of 50 feet in length, except on mountain grades, where the chord may be reduced to the minimum length of 25 feet, when necessary. Short sags should be avoided, and in all cases vertical curves should be provided at grade intersections, for which the engineer will establish line anJ grade wherever re- quired. The roadbed at sub-grade should be crowned to facilitate drainage by raising the center 4 to 6 inches higher than the sides, making due allowance for ballast in establishing final grade elevation. Ditches in cuts should be taken out in accordance with the standard cross-section as follows: In earth, 3 feet, wide at sub-grade, 1 foot deep, with side slopes 1 to 1. In rock 1 foot wide at sub-grade, 1 foot deep, vertical sides. Material used for ballasting, widening banks or raising sags should be procured at points where the removal of * These rules are in force on the Northern Pacific Railway. (597) 598 APPENDIX J. same will benefit the roadbed by widening cuts, reducing grades or ditching. Engineers will give this subject their special attention. Ties. The number of ties per rail will necessarily vary with the width of the ties furnished and will usually be from fifteen to seventeen ties per rail length. The minimum width between ties must not be less than ten inches. On construc- tion, ties will be laid two feet c. to c., or 2,640 ties to the mile. The best ties will be selected for use at joints, with faces not less than eight inches nor more than ten inches wide, and must be so placed that the outside bolt will come about the center of ties; the maximum spacing between ties at joints must not exceed ten inches. "Rail cut" ties must be adzed to uniform bearing, old spike holes plugged, and joint ties properly spaced for sus- pended joints, after the new rails are laid, and before the ballast is distributed. In order to maintain the standard gauge, three lines of spikes must be drawn if old steel rails are replaced by rails of wider section. Distributing Rails. The rails may be distributed either from the end or sides of train. If distributed from the sides, both ends of rail must be dropped simultaneously. Skids will invariably be used whenever necessary to unload into piles. In all cases the greatest care must be used to avoid in- jury to rails by dropping them on hard substances or uneven surfaces. Curving. Rails in curves of over 2 degrees must be sep- arately curved, and before being placed in track. An Emerson rail bender or bender of similar type will invariably be used for this purpose. The sledging of rails is positively prohib- ited. Particular care must be given to insure uniform curvature of the rail throughout its length, in accordance with the fol- lowing table of middle ordinates: Degs. Ins. Degs. Ins. Degs. Ins. Degs. Ins. 1 X 6 1ft 11 2ft 16 3M 2 ^ 11* 12 2ll 17 4 H 8 1| 13 3ft 18 4& it 9 2^ 14 3ft 19 4V, 5 1ft 10 2% 15 3y a 20 4ft NOTE. Ordinate at quarters equals three-quarters of middle ordinates. APPENDIX J. 599 Placing Rails in Track. The rails must be laid to line and gauge, and placed in track consecutively, throwing out both rails from the old track ahead, as the new rails are laid when the track is relaid. Split points will be used for closing track for passage of trains. Accurate expansion cannot be secured if long stretches of rails are fastened up to one side of track and subsequently thrown into line, and this method is prohibited. The track will be laid with even joints on tangents and broken joints on curves, except on sections of frequent curva- ture and short tangents less than 1,000 feet in length, where broken joints will be maintained throughout. To pass from even joints on tangents to broken joints on curves, cut and use a rail according to the following rule: Cut rail at point distant from center of rail one-half inch for each degree of central angle of curve, using short rail on inner side of curve. For consecutive curves with short inter- vening tangents, obtain the separate sums of right and left central angles, subtract the lesser from the greater, and the difference will be the required angle. Use short rail on inner side of this angle. The length of the short rail must not be less than ten feet. "Short rails" may be used in inside line of rails in curves of large central angle, in order to maintain position of joints near center of outer rail, and in such cases the above rule must be modified correspondingly. Notes for length of cut or short rails will be furnished in advance by the engineer. Track centers will be furnished by the engineer every 200 feet on tangents, every 50 feet on curves and every 25 feet on easement curves. The track must be laid to conform accurately to the line established. To insure perfect alignment at rail ends, the rails should be brought squarely together, the splices placed and care- fully bolted before spiking. Perfect alignment at rail ends is of great importance in order to prevent excessive flange wear. The position of the brand on the rail is immaterial, whether right or left, inside or outside, but its position must be uni- form with the contiguous rails, and the brand should not be alternated on the same line of rails. 600 APPENDIX J. When relaying track, a convenient method of unloading rails from end of car is by means of two 30-foot lines, equip- ped with grab hooks on each end, one end to be made fast to joints and the other end to slots in ends of rails, using the engine for moving the cars. This insures proper spacing, and is more economical than unloading from the sides. Use roller at end of car when drawing off rail. Expansion. Proper allowance must be made for expansion, according to temperature, as follows: Temp. Ins. Temp. Ins. 100 40 A 80 A 20 M 60 s * ft Proper expansion must be secured by the use of iron shims, provided in accordance with the above specifications, except where track is laid on a steep grade, when sawed wooden shims of proper thickness will be provided. These shims must be left in place until track is full spiked, bolted and thoroughly anchored. In order to prevent rails from "creeping," it is absolutely essential that each individual rail shall be so thoroughly anchored as to insure freedom from contact with adjoining rails. Creeping cannot be prevented if a number of consecu- tive rails are in contact. Bolting. The Harvey grip, or other approved form of bolt, should be used. At the time the rail is laid, two bolts should be placed in each splice, and tightened sufficiently to hold rails in line. The remaining bolts should then be placed and tightened as soon as possible. Nuts should be tightened a second or third time within thirty days after track is laid. Inspect the rails before angle bars are tightened, and^take out kinks or bends by the rail bender. The nuts must be screwed up firmly before joints are spiked. Gauging. The standard gauge will be as follows: On tangents 4ft. 8V ins On curves of 1, 2 and 3 4 " 8% On curves of 4, 5 and 6 4 " 8% On curves of 7, 8 and 9 4 " P J On curves of 10, 11 and 12 4 " 9 On curves of 13, 14 and 15 4 " 9^ The extra width of gauge on curves should be uniformly decreased or tapered off, on the easement curve, from point of full curve to point of tangent. APPENDIX J. 601 Joints and centers should be gauged first and the track gauge must be applied at as many points as may be necessary to insure perfect and uniform gauge. Easement curves must be spiked to gauge at five different points within each rail length, and all track must be accu- rately gauged when spiked. Suitable track gauges for use on tangents and curves, which will insure the retention of the proper gauge during the operation of spiking, must be used. All track gauges must be tested by the engineer or roadmaster at the beginning of the working season, and the date of inspection recorded. Spiking. Track must be full spiked, with inside and out- side spikes driven in opposite sides of the tie. Spikes must be set half their own width from edge of rail and driven verti- cally to a full bearing on foot of rail. The prevalent practices of driving sloping spikes, or of giving them a final lateral blow to close the spikes against the rail will not be permitted. So far as possible the spikes will be driven in the best wood in the tie, which is usually at the outer edge, and must not be redriven in old holes. Elevation. The elevation (in inches) of outer rail upon curves will be made in accordance with the following table: TABLE OF ELEVATION OF OUTER RAILS ON CURVES. De- , ' Rate of speed in miles per hour. , gree 15. 20. 25. 30. 35. 40. 45. 50. 60. of / Superelevation. curve ins. ins. ins. ins. ins. ins. ins. ins. ins. 1 H K A A \l 1A 1A 1% 2X 2 A H 11 1A 1% 2% 2U 3A 4* A .tl !* !8 ?A _ H 7 A 5 \ 7 IA iii 2 4 5K 8 1A 2^ 3A 4}J W, 9 IA 2X 31| 10 1V4 2<* 12 \\ 3^ 15 2& 3}| 6& 18 * 4JJ 20 2J| 5M The greatest elevation must not exceed six inches unless otherwise directed. The elevation of outer rail on curves must necessarily be adapted to speed and other locU conditions with due regard to safety, comfort and economy of track maintenance, for all classes of trains. 602 APPENDIX J: The elevation on mountain grades should not exceed that required for 25 miles per hour. The elevation of outer rail must not be continued beyond the tangent point, but should decrease uniformly along the easement curve from point of maximum curvature to tangent point. To ascertain the elevation required at points on easement curves, trackmen are required to use a cord of standard length, the middle ordinate of which will be equal to the proper elevation, as follows: Speed. Length of cord. Speed. Length of cord. 20 miles per hour 31.74 ft. 40 miles per hour 63.48 ft. 25 miles per hour 39.68 ft. 45 miles per hour 71.42 ft. 30 miles per hour 47.61 ft. 60 miles per hour 79.35 ft. 35 miles per hour. . . .55.55 ft. This method is applicable to all curves, and aids in maintain- ing true alignment, as all ordinates should be equal on full centered portions of curves, and ordinates must decrease uni- formly on easement curves from full elevation to zero at tan- gent point. In using the cord to ascertain elevation, it should be stretched and firmly held at both ends against the inner face of rail on inside of curve. The middle ordinate will then be equal to the required elevation and can be measured by a foot rule, or by attaching a short piece of graduated tape to the cord at its center. All track levels must be tested by the engineer or roadmas- ter at the beginning of the working season, and the date of inspection recorded. Sluggish bubble tubes should be re- placed. Tie-plates. The standard form of tie-plate will be used, with the standard 72-lb. rail section, in lieu of rail braces. Tie-plates will be used whenever necessary to prevent tie cutting, generally on curves of 3 degrees or over, depending upon local conditions. The widest margin must invariably be placed on the outer side of rail. On tangents and light curves, but two spikes will be used in each plate. On sharper curves, three or four spikes will be used, when necessary. In cases of unusual difficulty in main- taining gauge on mountain grades and sharp curves, before APPENDIX J. 603 applying tie-plates the ties may be dapped to allow a sufficient inclination to the rails to check any tendency of the rails to overturn, or to spread, observing due care to maintain gauge. In laying these plates, the line side of the tie is marked, and the plate put on, the other plate being then put on in its proper position by gauging it from the line plate with a gauge rod having lugs to fit the spike holes. The plates may be forced into the tie by a hydraulic press, or in the track by striking vertically with a paver's rammer, or with a short section of rail provided with cross-bar handles. In putting plates on before the rails are laid, a wooden or metal block should be placed on the plate to distribute the blow. If put on after rails are laid, the rail may be lifted, the plate slipped in, an iron plate placed upon each projecting end of the plate, and these two plates struck simultaneously by two strikers with spike mauls; or, one end of the plate may be settled into the tie, and the free end then driven with a sledge, causing the flanges to plow their way through the wood under the rail. Rail Braces. Rail braces will be used when necessary with rail sections for which tie-plates are not provided, generally on curves of 4 degrees and upwards. On curves of less de- gree, double spiking will usually be sufficient. The braces should always be placed in pairs on the opposite ends of the same tie. Frogs and Switches. Switches must be put in track in accordance with the standard plans. When temporary sid- ings are put in, the main line rails must not be cut, but short closure rails must be provided to fill the space between frog and the adjacent rail. Double spiked short rails should be used for this purpose. Ballasting. All spikes should be driven down before ballast is distributed. Ballast should not be distributed until road- bed is of full width and all unsuitable material removed. When material is unfit for use as ballast, it should be cleaned out from bottom of tie and used for widening the banks. Where there is trouble in heaving, or wet spots, the material should be taken out to such depth and in such a manner as to insure perfect drainage. Care must be taken to avoid wasting ballast down the sides of slopes, or otherwise. 604 APPENDIX J. The depth of ballast will be determined in accordance with the local conditions, and the character and amount of ballast already in place, if any. In general, not less than 8 inches of good material will be required under ties. Tamping. Tamp the entire length of ties on new track. Special pains should be taken to insure thorough tamping from end of tie to 1 foot inside of rail. On old track the center should be filled and lightly tamped. Tamp joint and second ties thoroughly. Thorough tamping of the second tie from joints is of equal importance with that required by the joint ties, and will prevent the formation of cracks starting from upper edge of splices by reducing the up- ward deflection of joints when a wheel is over the second tie. Material for filling and ballasting must not be taken from slopes of embankments. When ballasting is completed the track must be in perfect line, surface and gauge, in accordance with the stakes furnished by the engineer. Ballast Cross-Section. Rock ballast should be filled in level with top of tie from center to 2 feet outside of rail, slopes 1 to 1. Gravel ballast must be finished to the standard cross-sec- tion, which is as follows: At the center and for 1 foot on each side thereof, the top of ballast will be even with the top of ties, and thence carried out with a straight uniform slope, passing 4 inches above bottom of ties at ends, to a point 2y 2 feet outside of rail, thence to an intersection with the roadbed, with slopes of IVz to 1. If material is used which is more or less impervious to water the slopes should be carried to an intersection with roadbed on a line with bottom of ties at ends. The practice of crowning the ballast above top of tie at cen- ter causes dusty track and rots the tie at the center, and is not permitted, except when absolutely required for drainage on account of the character of material used for ballasting. Supervision. The engineer will furnish all necessary eleva- tions, stakes and notes, and will make frequent inspections during the progress of track laying, in order to insure com- pliance with the specifications, promptly reporting defects to the roadmasters and superintendents. APPENDIX J. 605 SPECIFICATIONS FOR STANDARD ROADBED AND TRACK.* 1. Roadbed. The surface of the roadbed should be graded to a regular and uniform sub-grade, sloping gradually from the center towards the ditches. 2. Ballast. There shall be a uniform depth of six (6) to twelve (12) inches of well broken stone, or gravel, cleaned from dust, by passing over a screen of one-quarter-inch mesh, spread over the roadbed and surfaced to a true grade, upon which the ties are to be laid. After the ties and rails have been properly laid and surfaced, the ballast must be filled up as shown on standard plan; and also between the main tracks and sidings where stone ballast is used. All stone ballast to be of uniform size, the stone used must be of an approved quality, broken uniformly, not larger than a cube that will pass through a two and one-half (2^) inch ring. On embank- ments that are not well settled, the surface of the roadbed shall be brought up with cinder, gravel or some other suita- ble material. 3. Cross-ties. The ties are to be regularly placed upon the ballast. They must be properly and evenly placed, with ten (10) inches between the edges of bearing surface at joints, with intermediate ties evenly spaced; and the ends on the out- side on double track, and on the right-hand side going north or west on single track, lined up parallel with the rails. The ties must not be notched under any circumstances; but, should they be twisted, they must be made true with the adze, that the rails may have an even bearing over the whole breadth of the tie. For all tracks on main line and branch roads the rules governing the use of cross-ties shall be as follows: a. First-class cross-ties shall be used in tracks where pas- senger and freight trains run at full speed. b. For tracks where the trains run at slow speed new sec- ond-class ties shall be used. For all tracks in yards, or tem- porary tracks laid for construction purposes or otherwise, second-class and cull ties, or good second-hand ties taken out of main track shall be used. 'Used by the Pennsylvania Railroad Company. 606 APPENDIX J. c. On all running tracks where the weight of rail is sev- enty pounds per yard and over, fourteen ties shall be used to each thirty feet of track, and for all tracks in yards and for temporary use, not more than twelve ties shall be used for each thirty feet of track. d. In removing cross-ties from the main tracks, they shall be taken out only as they become unfitted for service, In the manner generally known as "spotting ties," and not by entire renewals in continuous sections, and Sub-division Foremen will be held responsible for the proper observance of this rule. It shall be the duty of the Supervisor or his Assistant to walk over the track with the Foreman and personally in- spect the ties to be renewed before he authorizes the same to be taken out and replaced with new ones. 4. Line and Surface. The track shall be laid in true line and surface; the rails are to be laid and spiked after the ties have been bedded in the ballast; and on curves, the proper elevation must be given to the outer rail and carried uniformly around the curve. This elevation should be commenced from fifty (50) to three hundred (300) feet back of the point of curvature, depending on the degree of k the curve and speed of trains, and increased uniformly to the latter point, where the full elevation is attained. The same method should be adopted in leaving the curve. 5. Joints. The joints of the rails shall be exactly midway between the joint ties, and the joint on one line of rail must be opposite the center of the rail on the other line of the same track. A Fahrenheit thermometer should be used when lay- ing rails, and care taken to arrange the openings between rails in direct proportion to the following temperatures and dis- tances: At a temperature of zero (0), a distance of five sixteenths (5-16) of an inch; at fifty degrees (50), five thirty- seconds (5-32) of an inch; and in extreme summer heat, of say one hundred degrees (100) and over, one sixteenth (1-16) of an inch must be left between the ends of the rails of thirty feet in length to allow for expansion. The splices must be properly put on with the full number of bolts, nuts and nut- locks, and the nuts placed on inside of rails, except on rails of sixty pounds per yard and under, where they shall be placed APPENDIX J. 607 on the outside, and screwed up tight. The rails must be spiked both on the inside and outside at each tie, on straight lines as well as on curves, and the spikes driven in such posi- tion as to keep the ties at right angles to the rails. 6. Gauge. The gauge of the track shall be four feet eight and one-half inches at all points, excepting on curves of four (4) degrees and over, or on heavy grades against the traffic, or on tracks used exclusively for freight trains, where the gauge shall be four feet nine inches. The standard distance between gauge lines of the guard rail and the wing rail of frogs shall be four feet five inches in all cases. 7. Switches. The switches and frogs should be kept well lined up and in good surface. Switch signals must be kept bright and in good order, and the distance signal and facing point lock used for all switches where trains run against the points, except on single-track branch roads. 8. Sidings. All company sidings shall be kept in as good order as practicable, using for this purpose second-class rails and ties, or the partly-worn materials taken from main tracks. Owners of private sidings must be required to keep their sidings in safe condition for use at all times. Throw-off points must be used to prevent cars on siding being run or blown out on main tracks. For spur sidings the end should be curved away from the main tracks. 9. Ditches. The cross-section of ditches at the highest point must be of the width and depth as shown on the stand- ard drawing, and graded parallel with the track, so as to pass water freely during heavy rains and thoroughly drain the ballast and roadbed. The line of the bottom of the ditch must be made parallel with the rails, and well and neatly de- fined, at the standard distance from the outside rail. All nec- essary cross-drains must be put in at proper intervals. Earth taken from ditches or elsewhere must not be left at or near the ends of the ties, thrown up on the slopes of cuts, nor on the ballast, but must be deposited over the sides of embank- ments. Berme ditches shall be provided to protect the slopes of cuts, where necessary. The channels of streams for a considerable distance above the road should be examined, and brush, drift and other obstructions removed. Ditches, cul- 608 ' APPENDIX J. verts and box drains should be cleared of all obstructions, and the outlets and inlets of the same kept open to allow a free flow of water at all times. 10. Road Crossings. The road-crossing planks shall be se- curely spiked; the planking on inside of rails should be three- quarters (%) of an inch, and on outside of rails it should be one-eighth (%) of an inch, below the top of rail, and two and one-half inches from the gauge line. The ends and inside edges of planks should be beveled off as shown on standard plan. 11. Policing. Station platforms, fences and grounds at sta- tions shall be kept clean and in good order, and the telegraph poles, mile posts, whistle boards, bridge boards and other standard signs kept in proper position, and trees near the tele- graph line should be kept trimmed to prevent the branches touching the wires during high winds. All old material, such as old ties, rails, splices, car material, etc., shall be gathered up at least once a week and neatly piled at proper points. Briers and undergrowth on the right of way must be kept cut close to the ground. 12.. Use of materials. Proper judgment and caution must be exercised by Assistant Engineers, Supervisors and Foremen against extravagant use of materials, as they will be held strictly responsible for the same, and for any deviation from these specifications. SPECIFICATIONS FOR CROSS-TIES.* No. 1 Pole Ties must be well and smoothly hewed or sawed out of sound, straight, thrifty timber; must be eight feet long, with sawed ends, and uniformly six inches thick between faces; each face side to be eight inches wide, or wider, at the narrowest place inside the bark, and the faces to be straight, truly lined and parallel with each other. Ties sawed six inches by ten inches wide, or wider, and free from wane, shakes or unsoundness of any kind will be accepted as No. 1. No. 2 ties must be the same as No. 1, except that each face side of hewed or sawed pole ties may be not less than six *Used by the Chicago & Northwestern Railway Co. APPENDIX J. 609 inches, and of manufactured split ties, and of sawed ties not less than eight inches. No. 1 and No. 2 ties must be piled separately. Inspections monthly. All Ties to be delivered on ground at or above the grade of railway track, within thirty feet of same, subject to the in- spection and count of the Purchasing Agent, or any authorized Agent of the Company, whose action in counting and receiv- ing or rejecting the ties offered shall be final and conclusive. TABLE AND FIGURE giving dimensions of rails of the Ameri- can Society of Engineer's Standard; FIG. 379. RAIL SECTION. 39 Vol. 13 610 APPENDIX J. 100 Ibs. per yd. 90 Ibs. per yd. 80 Ibs. per yd. 75 Ibs. per yd. 70 Ibs. per yd. 65 Ibs. per yd. 60 Ibs. per yd. 55 Ibs. per yd. Percentage of Metal: In the Head 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 In the W^eb 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 In the Flange . , 37 87 37 37 37 37 37 37 Base, inches - 5% 5% 5 4JI 4% 4/H 414 4iB Height " 5% 6% 5 418 4% 4A 4^ 4iV RadofWeb, " 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 " Head " . . 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 Angle A, Degrees 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 Angle B, " 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 Dimension C inches 2% %% 2 l /i 2ig 37 21? 2% 2U " D ' 1 U| i?i |i| 1A 1/2 lii E, 3A m 2% 225 2W 2% 2J| 2^1 F, ' Q ' 8 I 3? JL % JL !l H f H, I ' i H d s A a 5 % H y ji y M H ' K ' 9 g 3| ij 33 05 3J Ig L, JL 1 JL K JL JL T U JL FIG. 380. PENNSYLVANIA R. R. STANDARD RAIL SECTION. 100 pounds per yard and standard joint. 2 bars, 34 inches long, 78.7 Ibs. bolts, % x 4tf inches, 7.5 Ibs APPENDIX J. 611 NEW YORK CENTRAL & HUDSON RIVER R. R. STANDARD RAIL, SECTION. Weight 80 pounds per yard. Type P. H. Dudley section for rails, having fillets of large radius and the narrowest part of the web is above the center line. 612 APPENDIX 7. FIG. 382. PHILADELPHIA & READING R. R. RAIL SECTION. 79 pounds per yard. Type of R. H. Sayre section for rails, with top corners of large radius and sides sloping outward from the top. APPENDIX J. 613 FIG. 383. ARGENTINE GREAT WESTERN R'Y, SOUTH AMERICA STANDARD SECTION. 70 pounds per yard. Type of Mr. Sandberg's section for rails, having wide heads with large corners. r or THE UNIVERSITY APPENDIX J. - FIG. 384. MEXICAN RAILWAY CO., LIMITED, STANDARD RAIL SECTION. 82 pounds per yard. .\PPENDIX J. G15 FIG. 385. EAST INDIA RAILWAY CO., INDIA, STANDARD RAIL SECTION. 75 pounds per yard. Standard joint. 2 bars, 19 inches long, 34.0 Ibs. 4 bolts, 1 in.x4M in. long, 6.5 Ibs. 616 APPENDIX J. TABLE No. 1. Tons per mile and feet of track per ton of rails of different weight per yard: POUNDS PER YARD. GROSS TONS PER MILS. FKBT OF TRACK PER TON OF RAILS. POUNDS PER YARD. GROSS TONS PER MILE. FEET OF TRACK PER TON OF RAILS. 48 75-43 70.00 84 132.00 40. o 49 77.00 68.57 85 133-57 ' 39-53 50 78.57 67.20 86 135-14 39-07 51 80.14 65.88 87 136.71 38.62 52 81.71 64.62 88 138.29 38.18 53 83-29 63.40 89 139-86 37-75 54 84.86 62.22 90 141-43 37-33 55 86.43 6l.O9 91 143-00 36.92 56 88.00 60.00 92 144-57 36.52. 57 89-57 58-95 93 146.14 36.13 58 91.14 57-93 94 147.71 35-75 59 92.71 56.95 95 149.29 35-37 60 94.29 56.00 96 150.86 35-00 61 95.86 55-o8 97 152-43 34-64 62 97-43 54-19 98 154.00 34-29 63 99-00 53-33 99 155-57 33-94 64. 100.57 52-50 100 I5/.I4 33-6o 5 102.14 5I-69 101 158.71 33-27 66 103.71 50.91 1 02 160.29 32-94 67 105.29 50.15 103 161.86 32.62 68 106.86 49.41 104 163-43 32.31 69 108.43 48.70 105 16^.00 32.00 70 110.00 48.00 106 166.57 31.70 71 111.57 47-32 107 168.14 31.40 72 3-4 46.67 108 169.71 31.11 73 114.71 46.03 109 171.29 30.83 74 116.29 .45-41 no 172.86 30-54 75 117.86 44.80 III 174-43 30.27 76 1 19-43 44.21 112 176.00 30.00 77 121.00 43.64 3 177-57 2 9-73 78 J22,57 43-o8 114 179.14 29-47 79 124.14 42.53 "5 180.71 29.22 80 125-71 42.00 ti6 182.29 28.97 8t 127.29 41.48 117 183.86 28.72- 82 128.86 40.98 118 185-43 28.47 S3 130.43 40.48 119 187.00 28.24 1 20 188.57 28.00 TABLE No. 2. Splice bars and bolts for one mile of track. Length of Rail. Feet. Number of Splice Bars Required. Number of Bolts Required. Number of Rails or Com- plete Joints. 4-Hole Splice. 6-Hole Splice. 24 25 26 27 28 30 83 880 844 812 782 754 704 640 1,760 1,688 1,624 1,564 1,508 1,408 1,280 2640 2532 2436 2348 2262 2112 1920 440 422 406 391 377 852 320 APPENDIX J. 617 TABLE No. 3. Number of fastenings required to the ton of rails. Weight of Kail per yard. 24-foot Rail. 25-foot Rail. 26-foot Rail. 27-foot Rail. 28-foot Rail. 30- foot Rail. 33-foot Rail. Pounds. Joints. Joints. Joints Joints. Joints. Joints. Joints. 12 23.33 22.40 21.53 20.74 20.00 18.66 16.96 16 17.50 16.80 16.15 15.55 15.00 14.00 12.72 20 14.00 13.55 12.92 12.44 12.00 11.20 10.18 25 11.20 10.74 10.32 9.95 9.68 8.96 8.14 30 9.83 8.94 8.60 8.29 8.00 7.46 6.78 35 8.00 7.68 7.38 7.11 6.86 6.40 5.81 40 7.00 6.71 6.45 6.22 5.99 5.60 5.09 45 6.22 5.96 5.74 5.52 5.33 4.97 4.52 50 5.60 5.37 5.16 .97 4.79 4.48 4.07 55 5.09 4.88 4.69 .52 4.36 4.07 3.70 56 5.00 4.79 4.61 .44 4.28 4.00 3.63 60 4.66 4.47 4.30 .14 4.00 3.73 3.39 62 4.51 4.33 4.16 .01 3.86 3.61 3.28 64 4.37 4.19 4 03 3.88 3.74 3.50 3.17 65 4 30 4.13 3.97 3.82 3.69 3.44 3.13 67 4.17 4.00 3.85 3.71 3.58 3.34 3.03 70 .... .... 3.20 2.90 75 2.98 2.71 80 2.80 2.54 85 2.63 2.39 90 2.48 2 26 95 2.35 2.14 100 .... .... .... 2.24 2.03 TABLE No. 4. Spikes required per mile of track. Size Measured Under Head. Average Number Per Keg of 200 pounds. Ties Two Feet Be- tween Centre and Four Spikes per Tie, Makes per Mile. RAIL, USED. Weight per yard. Inches. Pounds. Kegs. by, x f s 375 5632 = 28.16 45 to VO 5 x /' 400 5280 = 28.4 40 to 56 5 x Yt 450 4692 23.46 40 W* x H 530 3984 = 19.92 35 4 x H 600 3520 = 17.60 30 4# x , 7 8 680 3104 = 15.52 25 4 X T 7 B 720 2932 - 14.66 25 SY, x tf, 900 2356 11.73 20 2V4x % 1342 1572 7.86 16 2*xft 1800 1172 - 5.86 12 618 APPENDIX J. TABLE No. 5. Giving the weight of standard track bolts; pounds per 1,000 bolts with square nuts. Diam. inches 1" % % Ws 2 in. W in. 2*4 in. 23 4 in. 3 in. 3* in. 3V4 in. 3% in. 4 in. 4M in. 4!/ a in. 434 in. 5 in. Diam inches Wt.of 1000 Nuts 260 352 454 626 858 1155 1595 274 370 476 658 901 1210 1666 288 388 498 690 944 1265 1737 302 406 520 722 98. 1320 1808 316 424 542 754 1030 1375 1879 330 442 564 786 1073 1430 1950 344 460 586 818 1116 1485 2021 358 478 608 850 1159 1540 2092 372 496 630 882 1202 1595 2163 386 514 652 914 1245 1650 2234 400 532 674 946 1288 1705 2305 414 550 696 978 1331 1760 2376 428 568 718 1010 1374 1815 ,2447 M i* i 112 146 218 245 374 525 747 Pounds per 1,000 bolts with hexagon nuts. Diam. inches 2 in. 2H in. 2y 2 in. 234 in. 3 in. 3# in. 3*4 in. 3K in. 4 in. ^ In. 4l/ 2 in. 434 in. 5 in. Diam. inches Wt.of 1000 Nuts. $ I X m 253 32V 436 597 822 1087 1513 267 345 458 629 865 1132 1584 281 363 480 661 908 1187 1655 295 381 502 693 951 12*2 1726 309 399 524 725 994 1297 1797 323 417 546 757 1037 1352 1868 337 435 568 789 1080 1407 1939 351 453 590 821 1123 1462 2010 365 471 612 853 1166 1517 2081 379 489 634 885 1209 1572 2152 393 507 656 917 1252 1627 2223 407 525 678 949 1295 1682 2294 421 543 700 981 1338 1737 2365 *4 & % % l * iy* 93 122 182 216 316 462 685 TABLE No. 6. Average number of track bolts in a keg of 200 pounds. Size of Bolt. Square Nut. Hexagon Nut. Weight of Rail. ixx* 8 pounds. 194 x y z 940 12 and 16 pounds. 2 x V4 793 20 pounds. 2j x *4 763 25 pounds. 2^ x *4 733 i. 25 pounds. 2*4 x % 390 425 30 pounds. 379 410 35 pounds. 3 4 x% 366 395 40 and 45 pounds. 3 x /i 250 270 Sfcxfc 243 261 236 253 3?4 x 94 229 244 4 xK 222 170 236 180 - 50 pounds and upwards . 394 x % 165 175 4 x % 161 170 4^ x % 157 165 4Vx % 153 160 APPENDIX J. 619 TABLE No. 7. Showing amount of expansion of steel rails and thickness of shim required for a 30-foot rail, as given by Mr. W. C. Downing, Engineer of Maintenance of Way of the Vandalia Line. VARIATIONS. Temperature Thickness of Ex- Degree Fahrenheit. In Decimals of In Fractions of pansion Shim in Inches. an inch. an inch. 30 .3744 24-64 6-16 20 .3510 23-64 6-16 10 .3276 21-64 6-16 .3042 19-64 5-16 10 .2808 18-64 5-18 20 .2574 16-64 4-16 30 .2340 15-64 4-16 40 .2100 14-64 4-16 50 .1872 12-64 3 16 60 .1638 10-64 3-16 70 .1404 9-64 3-16 80 .1170 7-64 2-16 90 .0936 6-64 2-16 100 .0702 5-64 1-16 110 .0*68 3-64 1-16 120 .0234 1-64 1-16 K'O .0000 .... ^ The rails are supposed to be in contact at a temperature of 130 degrees Fahrenheit. 620 APPENDIX J. TABLE No. 8. Capacity of duplex and single acting pumps. Si/eof I'imip. 3 t ti IMpia. j . 4 ~z fl j s| E X i 5 1 t O 7- .0 . 1 | 5 ~t $5 |s *c S.J ff pj ^ ii I'll tt c^ 1 .1 S t; ~ 5 O M *~ i .22 ~> ? ~1 ~ II "* 5 '" |S .Jk cc a ; ~- J po a: i3^ tt cc s i-j: 3 2K 4 .06 100 to 200 12to 24 tt K 1^ 210 29KxllK 5X 4.% 5 .31 100 to 150 62 to 93 I ly^ 3 570 39Kxl6 ' 5 (5 .51 100 to 150 102 to 153 1 IK 4 840 45 x!7 6 5^ 6 .67 100 to 150 134 to 201 1 IK 4 1240 49 x!7 7 6 10 1.22 75 to 150 183 to 366 IK 2 5 1790 72 x23 8 7 12 2.00 75 to 125 300 to 500 2 6 2780 7 x28 8 8 12 2.61 75 to 125 39110 652 IK 2 6 3720 82 x35 8 10 12 4.08 75 to 125 612 to 1020 IK 2 8 7 6200 90 x43 8 10 15 5.10 60 to 100 61 2 to 1020 IK 2 8 6300 96 x43 10 8 12 2.61 75 to 125 391to 6522 2K 6 5 3940 82 x35 10 10 12 4.08 75 to 125 612 to 1020 2 2K 8 7 6300 90 x43 10 10 15 5.10 60 to 100 61 2 to 1020 2 2K 8 7 6400 96 x43 10 12 12 5.87 75 to 125 880 to 1468 2 2K 10 8 0350 90 x56 10 12 15 7.34 60 to 100 880 to 1468 2 2K 10 8 0800 96 x5G 12 10 12 4.08 75 to 125 612 to 1020 2K 3 8 7 6600 91 x43 12 10 15 5.10 60 to 100 612 to 1020 2K 3 8 7 6800 96 x43 12 12 12 5.87 75 to 125 880 to 1468 2 l / 2 3 10 8 0408 90 x56 12 12 12 14 15 15 7.34 9.99 60 to 100 60 to 100 880 to 1468 2^ 1200 to 2000 2K 3 3 10 12 8 10 0990 97 xnQ 59301 97 x56 12 14 18 12.00 50 to 85 1200 to 2039 2K 3 12 10 6550 122 x5i> 12 15 18 13.77 50 to 85 1377 to 2340 2^ 3 12 6550126 x57 The gallons delivered by a single acting pump are one-half the amount given in the table, APPENDIX J. 621 TABLE No. 9. SWITCH TIBS. Gauge, 4 feet, 8^ inches. Number of Switch Ties for Split Switch- es, Single Throw, for Frogs of following Numbers. Length. Size. 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Feet. In. Feet. In. 8 3 7 10 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 8 6 7 10 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 b 8 9 7 10 2 2 2 2 4 4 4 4 9 7 10 1 2 3 2 3 3 3 3 9 3 7 10 2 2 2 3 2 3 9 6 7 10 1 2 2 2 2 3 9 9 7 10 2 2 2 2 2 2 10 7 10 1 2 2 2 2 2 10 3 7 10 2 2 10 6 7 10 2 2 2 2 2 2 10 9 7 10 2 2 11 7 10 2 2 2 3 2 2 11 3 7 10 11 6 7 10 2 2 3 3 2 3 12 7 10 1 8 2 2 3 3 12 6 7 10 1 2 2 2 3 2 3 13 7 10 1 2 2 3 3 3 3 13 3 7 10 13 6 7 10 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 14 7 10 1 1 2 2 2 3 2 14 6 7 10 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 15 7 10 1 2 2 2 2 3 15 6 7 10 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 2 Head Blocks, 16 feet, in.; 10 in. x 12 In. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Common Switch Stand. Head Block, 16 feet, in. ; JO in. x 12 In. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 When automatic switch stands are used omit the first switch tie and use two head blocks. When pony switch stands are used the head block should be 13 feet 6 inches long. C22 APPENDIX J. TABLE No. 10. SWITCH TIES. Gauge, 4 feet, 8^ inches. Number of Switch Ties for Split Switcl - es, Three Throw, for Frogs of Following Numbers. Length. Size. 6 7 8 9 10 11 Feet. In. Feet. In. 8 3 7 10 3 3 3 3 3 3 8 6 7 10 3 3 3 3 3 3 9 7 10 5 5 5 5 5 5 9 6 7 10 2 2 4 4 4 4 10 7 10 3 2 3 3 3 3 10 6 7 10 2 2 2 3 2 3 11 7 10 1 2 2 2 2 8 11 6 7 10 2 2 2 2 2 3 IS 7 10 1 2 2 2 2 2 12 6 7 10 2 2 13 7 10 3 3 3 3 3 3 13 6 7 10 2 2 14 7 10 2 2 2 3 2 2 15 7 10 2 2 3 3 2 3 16 7 10 1 2 2 3 3 17 7 10 2 2 2 3 2 3 18 7 10 2 2 3 3 3 3 19 7 10 2 2 2 3 3 8 20 7 10 1 2 2 2 3 2 21 7 10 2 2 2 2 2 3 22 7 10 1 2 2 2 2 3 23 7 10 2 2 3 3 3 2 24 7 10 1 1 1 1 1 1 Head Blocks. 16 feet, inches 10 in. x 12 in. ' 1 1 1 1 1 1 When automatic switch stands are used omit the first switch tie and use two head blocks. When pony switch stands are used, the head block should be 13 feet 6 inches long. APPENDIX J. 623 TABLE No. 11. Data for Stub Switches, 4 feet,8 inch Gauge, throw-off Switch Rail, 5 inches. g V "to c CM O i 1 !* I, :! I to 1! i u 03 F f. p w lo It <& I* Feet. Feet. "Feet. Feet. Feet. 4 14 16' 38 54' 150.2 11.5 26.4 37.9 2.8 20021' 15.1 5 11 26" 24034' 235.0 14.1 33.2 47.3 3.5 160 14' 19.2 ft 170 (X 338.7 16.8 39.8 56.6 4.2 13 ar 23.0 7 8 10- 12 26' 461.8 19.6 46.5- 66.1 4.9 26.9 8 7 10* 9033- 600.0 22.3 53.2 75.5 5.7 100 g; 30.9 9 6022' 7 31' 761.6 25.1 59.7 84.8 6.4 34.7 10 5044' 6 ff 938.6 27.8 66.3 94.1 7.1 8 8* 38.4 11 5 V 5. r 1141.8 308 73.0 103.8 7.8 7 22* 42.4 12 4047' 4 13* 1358.2 33.6 79.6 113.2 8.5 4&4 TABLE No. 12. Data for Stub Switches, 3 feet, inch Gauge, throw-off Switr h Rail, 4 ifhches. & I Frog Angle. fc O s Switch Rail. Toe to Frog Point. Heel to Frog Point Number 6f Crotch Frog. *! 47' 640' 859.7 23.9 48,0 71.9 8.5 fl44' 26.9 624 APPENDIX J. TABLE No. 13. Bill of switch ties for standard gauge stub switches. t 1 *! . m *i t 1 Size. Length. 5 & Is s M .: Si* CO CM 6 s 3 ** 1 fc o % 5s o 55 1 fc 10x12 16 feet. j J i ^ 1 7x 9 9 feet. 2 2 3 4 5 7x 9 9 feet, 6 inches. 2 3 3 3 4 I 7x 9 10 feet. 2 3 3 3 3 7x 9 10 feet, 6 inches. 3 3 3 3 3 7x 9 11 feet. 2 2 3 3 3 7x 9 11 feet, 6 inches. 2 2 3 3 3 7x 9 12 feet. 2 2 2 2 2 7x 9 12 feet, 6 inches. j 4 2 2 3 7x10 13 feet. 2 3 2 2 2 7x10 13 feet, 6 inches. 1 1 1 2 2 7x10 14 feet. 1 1 1 2 2 7x 9 14 feet, 6 inches. 1 2 2 2 7x 9 15 feet. 2 2 2 2 S 7x 9 15 feet, 6 inches. 1 1 2 2 2 7x 9 16 feet. 1 2 1 2 i TABLE No. 14. Bill of switch ties for a narrow (three foot) gauge singla throw stub switch, using a number 10 frog. 6 pieces, 6 inches x 8 inches, 8 feet long. 6 " '< 9 6 " 10 " 4 " " ** 12 Cross ties in main track can be in- ches x 7 inches, 6 feet long. APPENDIX J. 625 TABLE No. 15. Table giving distance D Fig. 245 being the distance be- tween the actual point of the frogs of a cross-over on 4-feet 8 % -inch gauge. TRACK CENTERS. "C." No. of Frog. Ft. In. 11 6 Ft. In. 12 Ft. In. 12 6 Ft. In. 13 Ft. In. 13 6 Ft. In. 14 Ft. In. 14 6 Ft. In. 15 Ft.IU. 15 6 Ft. 1 n. 16 6 11 6*6 14 5% 17 5^ 20 5% 23 5y B 26 4% 29 4% 32 4% 35 4/8 38 3% 7 13 7# 17 \Y a 20 6% 24 0% 27 8* 31 0% 34 6H 38 41 5% 44 11% 8 15 7# 19 7 23 6% 27 6^ 31 6A 35 6 39 5% 43 5^ 47 b% 51 5 16 8 20 10% 25 IVi 29 4% 33 7# 37 10 42 0% 46 3% 50 OK 54 9 9 17 8 22 IK 26 7^ 31 1# 35 7 40 0% 44 6^ 49 0& 53 6 57 11% 10 19 8^ 24 7% 29 7% 34 7% 39 7^ 44 6% 49 6% 54 6% 59 6i/ 8 64 5% 11 21 9*6 27 3 32 9 38 3 43 8% 49 2& 54 8^ 60 2K 65 V/ s 71 2^ TABLE No. 16. Widening the gauge of standard gauge track on curves as recommended by the Headmasters' Association in 1898. Degree of Curve. Amount to Widen the Gauge. 1 degree inches 4 5 6 7 8 9 Degree of Curve- Amount Widei the Gau y incl to 1 PC. ics 11 " ... % 12 " 2 13 ^ 14 " % 15 3 16 " ......... & 17 *' m 11) " .:.; :P 40 Vol. 62G APPENDIX J. tl fl g 1 o p ^H ^H r-i rt T-C KI N N !N W CQ (N . X 3 J. hi a a >, a n c! I X * Gradienter. \ ition Curves. ities. Excavation Embankments. & B and Buildings. I 1 a 2 & 1 H % 8 p a c3 ^- f Const I ic -a 'E 3 -2 o a 11 1 2 3 4 5 1 8 9 10 11 1213 Baker I O Berg W G * Burr W. H * Butts E * * Boiler, A. P Boulton SB . . * Bowser, E. A Crandall C. L * * Crehore J D # Crehore Wm W * Cooper Theo .... # Cross C S * * * Du Bois, A. J * Davis J. W * Department of Agriculture Dillenbeck C * Drinker H S . . . Elliott W. H * Foster W. C Gieseler E. A * Greene C. E * Godwin H C .. . .... * # * Howard C R * * Howe, M. A. * * * Johnson, J. B * * * * *The titles of the author's works with a brief description of the same, and the price, are appended to this volume. The World Rail- way Publishing Co., Chicago, III., is prepared to mail any of these books upon receipt of the price. (629) 630 APPENDIX K. NAME OF AUTHOR. Johnson, Bryan & Turneaure. Kindelan. J Merriman & Brooks Merriman & Jacoby Merriman, M Merrill, Wm. E Morison, G. S Nagle, J. C Osborn Paine, G. H Patton, W. M Plympton, G. W Paul,H Reed, H. A Searles, Wm. H Shunk, W. F Simms, W.F Simms, F. W Smith & McMillan Spalding, F. P Torrey, A Tratm.in , E. E. R Trautwine, J. C Wellington, A. M Whipple, S , Wright, C. H Winslow, A Henck.J. B SUBJECTS TREATED OF a o . t/i o> 1 & C3 > a ^ dienter. Curves. Excavat ankment * Building * Reconnoiss Preliminai Topograph Use of Sta Use of Gra Location?" Transition Quantities und Emb Construct! Masonry. Bridge and Track. Maintenan 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1213 * * * * * * * * * * * # * * :: # * * * * 1 * * * * * * * * * # * * * * # * * * * * * * 1 2 8 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1213 DETAILED DESCRIPTIONS OF WORKS OF AUTHORS RE- FERRED TO IN APPENDIX K.* BAKER Engineers' Surveying Instruments. By Ira O. Baker. Each instrument is considered sep- arately, the best form of construction is discussed, the *The World Railway Publishing Company, Chicago, 111., is prepared to mail any book mentioned herein, upon receipt of the price. APPENDIX K. 631 sources of error in use are pointed out, data are given as to the degree of precision attained in actual practice, and suggestions are made as to the most accurate, rapid, and convenient methods of using it. Second edition, re- vised and greatly enlarged. Bound in cloth, 400 pages, 5x7% inches, 86 illustrations, copious index, 12mo, cloth $3.00 Chapters : Chain and Tape, Tripod and Leveling Screws, Mag- netic Compass, Solar Compass, Telescope, Vernier, Transit, Solar Transit, Plane Table, Stadia and Gradienter, Spirit Level, An,- eroid and Mercurial Barometers. "A most excellent work." Engineering News. BAKER A Treatise on Masonry Construction. Containing materials and method of testing strength, etc., Combinations of Materials Composition, etc.; Founda- tions Testing the bearing power of soils, etc.; Masonry Structure Stability against sliding, overturning, crush- ing, etc., etc., etc. Complete in one volume of about 500 pages, with 125 illustrations and eight or ten folding plates. By Ira O. Baker, C.E. Ninth edition, 8vo, cloth $5.00 "If you wish the best book ever published in the English lan- guage on Masonry Construction, turn with confidence to this treatise." Building. "We should be doing injustice to both author and publisher did we not declare at once our conviction that thig is the most valuable and complete Treatise on Masonry as yet published, at least in English." Engineering News. BAKER. D. Van Nostrand's Science Series. No. 91. Leveling: Barometric, Trigonometric, and Spirit. By Prof. I. O. Baker. 18mo, board 50c BERG. Buildings and Structures of American Railroads. A reference book for railroad managers, superintendents, master mechanics, engineers, architects and students. By Walter G. Berg, C.E., principal assistant engineer Lehigh Valley railroad. 534 pages, 700 illustrations, 4to cloth $7.50 Preface. Chap. I. Watchman's Shanties. XI. Sand Houses. II. Section Tool Houses. XII. Oil Storage Houses. III. Section Houses. XIII. Oil Mixing Houses. IV. Dwelling Houses for Employe's. XIV. Water Stations. V. Sleeping Quarters, Reading XV. Coaling Stations for Loco- Rooms and Club Houses for motives. Employes. XVI. Engine Houses. VI. Snow Sheds and Protection XVII. Freight Houses. Sheds for Mountain Slides. XVIII Platforms, Platform Sheds VII. Signal Towers. and Shelters. VIII. Car Sheds and Car Cleaning XIX. Combination Depots. Yards. XX. Flag Depots. IX. Ash Pits, XXI. Local Passenger Depots. X. Ice Houses. XXII. Terminal Passenger Depots. Appendix. 632 APPENDIX K. BURR. A Course on the Stresses In Bridges and Roof Trusses, Arched Ribs, and Suspension Bridges. Prepared for the department of civil engineering at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. By Prof. W. H. Burr, Ninth edition, revised. With appendix on cantilevers. Nearly the entire section of swing bridges has been com- pletely rewritten and considerably extended. Plates, 8vo, cloth . $3.50 "No better practical work on Bridge Stresses has yet ap- peared." M echa-nical World (London). "The book will be valuable not only to the student of Bridge Engineering, but to the Engineer who is already in practice." Journal Railway Appliances. BUTTS. The Civil Engineer's Field Book. Designed for the use of the locating engineer. Con- taining tables of actual tangents and arcs, expressed in chords of 600 feet for every minute of intersection, from deg. to 90 deg., from Al deg. curve to A10 deg. curve inclusive. Also, tables of formulae applicable to railroad curves and the location of frogs, together with radii, long chords, grades, tangents, natural sines, natural versed sines, natural external secants, etc. With explanatory problems. By Edward Butts, C.E. Second edition, re- vised, 12mo, morocco flaps $2.50 "The work is a monument of patience on the part of the author, and should prove a labor-saving investment to the pur- chaser. It is a 'Henck' elaborated, and this is quite recom- mendation enough to the practicing engineer." Engineering News, BOLLER. The Thames River Bridge. A report to the general manager of the New York, Prov- idence & Boston railroad upon the construction of the Thames River bridge and approaches at New London, Conn. By Alfred P. Boiler, chief engineer. Illustrated with numerous folding plates and a handsome heliotype of the bridge. Limited edition, 4to, paper $5.00 BOULTON. D. Van Nostrand's Science Series. No. 82. The Preservation of Timber by the Use of Anti- septics. By Samuel Bagster Boulton, C. E. 18mo 50c BOWSER. A Treatise on Roofs and Bridges, with Numer- ous Exercises. By Edward A. Bowser, professor of mathematics and en- gineering in Rutgers College. Partial table of contents: CHAPTER I. ROOF TRUSSES : 1. Definitions 2. The Dead Load 3. The Live Load 4. The Apex Loads and Reactions 5. Relations between External Forces and Internal Stresses 6. Methods of Calculation 7. Lever Arms Indeterminate APPENDIX K. 633 Cases 8. Snow Load Stresses 9. Wind Loads 10. Complete Calculations of a Roof Truss. CHAPTER II. BRIDGE TRUSSES WITH UNIFORM LOADS: 13. Definitions 14. Different Forms of Trusses 15. The Dead Load 16. The Live Load 17. Shear Shearing Stress 18. Web Stresses due to Dead Loads 19. Chord Stresses due to Dead Loads 20. Position of Uniform Live Load causing Maxi- mum Chord Stresses 21. Maximum Stresses in the Chords 22. Position of Uniform Live Load causing Maximum Shears 23. The Warren Truss 24. Mains and Counters 25. The Howe Truss 26. The Pratt Truss 27. The W T arren Truss, with Vertical Suspenders 28. The Double Warren Truss 29. The Whipple Truss 30. The Lattice Truss 34. The Par- abolic Bowstring Truss 35. The Circular Bowstring Truss 36. Snow Load Stresses 37. Stresses due to Wind Pressure 38. The Factor of Safety. CHAPTER III. BRIDGE TRUSSES WITH UNEQUAL DISTRIBUTION OP THE LOADS : 39. Preliminary Statement 40. When the Uni- form Train Load is preceded by One or More Heavy Excess Panel Loads 41. When One Concentrated Excess Load accom- panies a Uniform Train Load 42. When Two Equal Concen- trated Excess Loads accompany a Uniform Train Load 43. The Baltimore Truss 44. The Maximum Shears for Uniform Live L 0a( j 45. Locomotive Wheel Loads 46. Position of Wheel Loads for Maximum Shear 47. Position of Wheel Loads for Maximum Moment at Joint in Loaded Chord 48. Position of Wheel Loads for Maximum Moment at Joint in Unloaded Chord 49. Tabulation of Moments of Wheel Loads. CRANDALL. Railway and Other Earthwork Tables. By Prof. Chas. L. Crandall. 8vo, cloth $1.50 CRANDALL The Transition Curve. By Prof. Chas. L. Crandall, Cornell University. 12mo, morocco flap $1.50 CREHORE. Mechanics of the Girder. A treatise on bridges and roofs, in which the necessary and sufficient weight of the structure is calculated, not assumed, and the number of panels and height, of girder that render the bridge weight least for a given "span, live load and wind pressure are determined. By John D. Cre- hore, C.E. Illustrated by over 100 engravings, with tables, etc., 8vo, cloth $5.00 "The Mechanics of the Girder for all the various shapes that It assumes before the Engineer, seems to have received here thorough and elegant treatment." -Journal of Franklin Institute. The work is a valuable contribution to science and to the literature of bridge building." W. H. SEARLES, C. E. CREHORE, WM. W. Tables and Diagrams for Engineers and Architects. Fifteen tables and nine diagrams for making various cal- culations for structural work. List sent on request. Price, 25 to 50 cents each; complete set $7.50 COOPER, THEODORE. American Railroad Bridges. Cloth, 7x9% inches; 60 pp., 7 tables and 26 full-page and folding plates $2.00 634 APPENDIX K. "Specifications for Iron and Steel Highway Bridges." (1890.) Paper, 7x9% inches; 23 pp 25c "Specifications for Iron and Steel Railroad Bridges." (1890.) Paper, 7x9% inches; 25 pp 25c "Specifications for Steel Highway Bridges." (1896.) Pa- per, 7x9% inches; 25 pp 25c "Specifications for Steel Railroad Bridges." (1896.) Pa- per, 7x9% inches; 24 pp 25c CROSS, C. S. Engineers' Field Book. Cloth, 4%x7 inches; 166 pp.; illustrated $1.00 DU BOIS. The Stresses in Framed Structures. The present edition of this well-known work appears in a new form, greatly reduced in size and weight, rewritten and reset and printed from new plates. It contains the latest practice and much new matter never heretofore published. Swing bridges, the braced arch and the sus- pension system receive an entirely new treatment. New chapters are added upon erection, by John Sterling Deans, C.E., and high-building construction, by Wm. W. Crehore, C.E. Illustrated, with hundreds of cuts and 35 full-page and 14 folding plates. By Prof. A. Jay Du Bois. Tenth edition, 1 vol., 4to, cloth $10.00 DAVIS, JOHN W., C.E. Formulae for the Calculation of Railroad Excavation and Embankment and for Finding Average Haul. Second edition. Octavo, half roan $1.50 DILLENBECK. Specifications for Railway Stations, By Clark Dillenbeck. Stone and brick passenger sta- tions, frame passenger stations, stone and brick freight houses, frame freight houses. Each occupying about 32 pages, 8x14 inches. Price 40 cents each; full set. . . .$1.50 DRINKER. Tunneling, Explosive Compounds and Rock Drills. Giving the details of practical tunnel work, properties of modern explosives, principles of blasting and descriptions and uses of the various rock drills and compressors, to- gether with American and foreign systems of arching, and tables showing costs and dimensions of over 2,100 tunnels from every part of the world. By Henry S. Drinker. Profiles, maps and over 1,000 illustrations. Third edition, 4to, half bound $25.00 "We think the comprehensive and thorough nature of the work will lead its readers to wonder, not that it has been delayed so long, but rather that it has been completed so soon, For the APPENDIX K. 635 conception and execution of such a work, Mr. Drinker deserve! our thanks no less than our congratulations." Engineering and Mining Journal. Department of Agriculture. Forestry Division of United States Department of Agri- culture. Bulletin No. 4 (1890): "History and Use of Steel Ties." Bulletin No. 9 (1894): "Steel Ties and Preservation of Timber." ELLIOTT. Block and Interlocking Signals. FOSTER. Wooden Trestle Bridges. According to the present practice on American railroads, treating of pile bents, pile drivers, framed bents, floor system, bracing trestles of all kinds, iron details, connec- tion with embankment and protection against accidents, field engineering and erection, preservation and standard specifications, bills of material, records and maintenance, working drawings. By Wolcott C. Foster, C.E. Second edition, revised and enlarged. 4to, cloth $5.00 "The result is a book the like of which does not exist In anj language, and which is often called for by practicing engineers and also in technical schools." Railroad Gazette. GIESELER. Scales for Turnouts. By E. A. Gieseler. Gives graphically the frog numbers, length of lead and degree of curvature for turnouts from 3 deg. to 42 deg. 30 min. Stiff cardboard, pocket size. More convenient and certain than tables. Price, with full directions for use 25c GREENE. Graphics for Engineers, Architects and Builders. A manual for designers and a text-book for scientific schools. "Trusses and Arches." Analyzed and discussed by graphical methods by Chas. E. Greene, professor of civil engineering, University of Michigan. In three parts. Part I. "Roof Trusses." Diagrams for steady load, snow and wind. New revised edition (1890). 8vo, cloth $1.25 "This new edition of the first part of Prof. Greene's work on Graphical Statics contains some considerable additions, modifica- tions and rearrangements of material, tending to further improve the work, our favorable opinion of which is sufficiently indicated by the fact that the substance of the work is a reprint of a series of articles originally contributed to this journal." En- gineering News. Part II. "Bridge Trusses." Single, continuous and draw spans; single and multiple systems; straight and inclined chords. New revised edition (1891). 8vo, cloth $2.50 630 APPENDIX K. Part III. "Arches in Wood, Iron and Stone." For roofs, bridges and wall openings; arched ribs and braced arches; stresses from wind and change of temperature. Third edition. 8vo, cloth $2.50 "So eminently simple as to be exactly fitted for working Architects and Builders." Prof. GEO. L. VOSE. "We can recommend Prof. Greene's book as particularly adapted to students." Engineering News. "An excellent little manual which we can decidedly recom- mend." Engineering (London). GODWIN. Railroad Engineer's Field Book. An explorer's guide, especially adapted to the use of rail- road engineers on location and construction and the needs of the explorer in making exploratory surveys. By H. C. Godwin. Second edition. Morocco flap $2.50 "I have read with considerable care, and do not hesitate to S renounce it few superior to anything now published." Prof. . B. JOHNSON, Washington Univ., Dept. of Engineering, 8t. Louis. HERMANN. Steam Shovels and Steam Shovel Work. E. A. Hermann, M. Am. Soc. C.E. Cloth, Svo, 98 figures. Price $1.00 HOWARD. The Transition Curve Field Book. By Conway R. Howard, C.E. Containing full instructions for adjusting and locating a curve nearly identical with the cubic parabola in transition between any circular rail- road curve and tangent. Simplified in application by the aid of a general table, and illustrated by rules and ex- amples for various problems of location. 12mo, morocco flap $1.50 "The methods indicated in this little work for locating transi- tion curves are really simple, decidedly simpler than some others that have been put out, and the results good. Therefore it will prove a useful book to many engineers." Engineering News. HOWARD, C. R. Earthwork Mensuration on the Basis of the Prismoidal Formulae. Containing simple and labor-saving method of obtaining prismoidal contents directly from end areas. Illustrated by examples and accompanied by plain rules for practical uses. Illustrated. 8vo, cloth $1.50 HOWE. Retaining Walls for Earth. The theory as developed by Prof. Jacob J. Weyrauch, ex- panded and supplemented by practical examples, with notes on later investigations. By Malverd A. Howe, C.E. Third edition, entirely rewritten and enlarged (1896). 12mo, cloth $1.25 "We commend this little volume to all Engineers of Con- struction." Industrial Review. "An addition made in the present edition is a chapter on the supporting power of earth in the case of foundations ; another is a formula for determining the breadth of the base of a re- taining wall. The book is a useful one both for students and for engineers in practice." Railroad and Engineering Journal. APPENDIX K. 637 HUDSON. Tables for Calculating the Cubic Contents of Ex- cavations and Embankments by an Improved Method of Diagonals and Side Triangles. By J. R. Hudson. New edition, with additional tables. 8vo, cloth ........................................ $1.00 "These tables are simple and accurate. The method adopted is illustrated by plain diagrams, and the tables are arranged for nearly every possible width of roadway and slope and cut- tings on fills from zero to 50 feet." Engineering News. HENCK, JOHN B. Field Book for Railroad Engineers. JOHNSON. The Theory and Practice of Surveying. Designed for the use of surveyors and engineers generally, but especially for the use of students in engineering. By J. B. Johnson, C.E., professor of civil engineering, Wash- ington University, etc., etc. Illustrated by upward of 150 engravings,with folding maps, tables, etc., etc. Eleventh edition, revised. 8vo, cloth ........................ $4.00 "On the whole this is the best treatise on Surveying that we know of." Railroad Gazette. "Whatever branch of work the Surveyor is in, he will find this book valuable and exhaustive." American Engineer. JOHNSON. Stadia Reduction Diagram. Sheet, 22^x28% inches .............................. 50c JOHNSON BRYAN TURNEAURE. Theory and Practice In the Designing of Modern Framed Structures. Sixth edition, revised and enlarged. 4to, cloth ---- $10.00 Chapter Part I-- ANALYTICAL. Chapter Part II STRUCTURAL. I. Definitions and Historical Review. XVI. Styles of .Structures .and III. Roof Trusses. XVIII. Details of Joints and Con- IV. Bridge Trusses with Uniform nections. Loads. XIX. Plate Girders, V. Bridge Trusses with Wheel Loads. XX. The Complete Design of a VI. Conventional Methods of Treatitg m R n Tru f; ~ , ' Train Loads. XXL Tne Complete Design of a VII. Lateral Truss Systems. y JSSrSKjStoKalMi of a VIII. Beams (including Continuous Gir- XXIL T H? g hw? Br1d?f ders). XXIII. The Detail Design of a IX. Columns (including a New For- Howe Truss. mula,) XXIV. The Detail Design of a X. Combined Direct and Bending Draw Bridge. Stresses. XXV. Elevated Railway Struc- XI. Suspension Bridges. tures. -X-TT T>riw Rridees XXVI. Timber and Iron Trestles. ^JJ- ??,;,, XXVII. Esthetic Bridge Designing. XIII. Cantilever Bridges. XXVIII. Iron and Steel Tall Build- XIV. Elastic Arch Bridges. ing Construction. XV. Deflection of Framed Structures XXIX Iron and Steel Mill Build- and Distribution of Stresses ing Construction. Over Redundant Members. (A. The Use of Soft Steel in Bridges. B. Processes in the Manufacture and in the Inspection of Iron and Steel Structures. C. American Methods of Erection of Bridges and Struc- tures. 638 APPENDIX K. KINDELAN. The Trackman's Helper. Second edition. A practical guide to the section foreman. By J. Kindelan, Headmaster, Mitchell, S. D. Price. .$1.50 MERRIMAN BROOKS. Hand-Book for Surveyors. A pocket-book for the classroom and the field, including fundamental principles, land surveying, leveling, triangu- lation, and topographic surveying, with tables. By Profs. Mansfield Merriman and John B. Brooks, C.E. Pocket- book form. 12mo, morocco $2.00 "In Issuing this pocket-book the authors undoubtedly meet a demand. Works on surveying were plentiful enough, but none were In shape for handy use in the field. As arranged, this work can be used in the class-rooms of technical schools as well as by surveyors In the field. . . . The methods of testing and comparing Instruments are given more fully than usual in work's of this character. Engineering News. MERRIMAN JACOBY. A Text-Book on Roofs and Bridges. Designed for classes in technical schools and for the use of engineers. By Prof. Mansfield Merriman, of Lehigh University, and Prof. Henry S. Jacoby, of Cornell Univer- sity. In four parts. Part I. "Stresses in Simple Trusses." Fourth edition, revised and enlarged with three new chapters. 8vo, cloth $2.50 "The author gives the most modern practice In determining the stresses due to moving loads, taking actual typical locomotive wheel loads, and reproduces the Phoenix Bridge Co.'s diagram for tabulating wheel movements. The whole treatment Is concise and very clear and elegant." Railroad Gazette. Part II. "Graphic Statics." Third edition, enlarged. With five folding plates. 8vo, cloth $2.50 "The plan of this book Is simple and easily understood ; and aa the treatment of all problems is graphical, mathematics can scarcely be said to enter into its composition. Judging from our own correspondence, it Is a work for which there is a de- cided demand outside of technical schools." Engineering Newa. Part III. "Bridge Design." A manual for students and for bridge draughtsmen. Second edition. 8vo, cloth. $2. 50 "It Is a most useful handbook for the designer, and the photo- graphic reproductions of working drawings in the plates leave nothing to be desired on the score of completeness and clear- ness. ... It can be read with pleasure and profit by every engineer Interested in bridge work." Indian Engineering. "The general processes treated by Professors Merriman and Jacoby have been fairly well written up before, but they cer- tainly have not been so extensively elaborated either as to va- riety of application or as to faithful and painstaking detail." Engineering Record. Part IV. "Cantilever, Continuous, Draw, Suspension and Arch Bridges." March, 1898. 8vo, cloth $2.50 CONTENTS : Continuous Bridges, Draw Bridges, Cantilever Bridges, Suspension Bridges, Three-Hinged Arches, Two-Hinged Arches, Arches without Hinges. APPENDIX K. 639 MERRILL, COL. WM. E. f U. S. A. Iron Truss Bridge* for Railroads. The method of calculating strains in trusses, with a care- ful comparison of the most prominent trusses, in refer- ence to economy in combination, etc. Illustrated. 4to, cloth. Fourth edition $5.00 MORISON. The Memphis Bridge. By George S. Morison. Oblong 4to $10.00 MERRIMAN. Elements of Precise Surveying and Geodesy. By Mansfield Merriman, professor of C.E. in Lehigh Uni- versity. Cloth, 9x6 inches; pp. 261; illustrated $2.50 NAGLE. A Field Manual for Railroad Engineers. By J. C. Nagle, professor of civil engineering in the A. and M. College of Texas. 12mo, morocco $3.00 CONTENTS : Reconnoissance ; Preliminary Surveys ; Loca- tion ; Transition-Curves ; Frogs and Switches ; Construction ; Tables. O8BORN. Osborn's Specifications. General specifications for railway bridges. General spec- ifications for bridge substructure. Specifications for metal highway bridge superstructure. Paper, 8x12 inches. Price of each, 25c PAINE. The New Roadmaster's Assistant (1898 Edition). By George H. Paine. For twenty-five years "The Road- master's Assistant," by Huntington and Latimer, has been known throughout the world. Mr. Paine's new book is its worthy successor. About 300 engravings, practical and up to date in every respect. It is a necessary tool to every roadmaster and section foreman. Price $1.50 PATTON. Practical Treatise on Foundations. By W. M. Patton, C.E. Twenty-one full-page plates, illus- trated, 400 pages. 8vo, cloth $5.00 CONTENTS : Foundation Beds, Foundations, Building Stone, Quarrying, Masonry, Arches, Keystone, Brick, Box Culverts, Ce- ment, M9rtar, Sand, Stability of Piers, Arch Culverts, Cost of Work, Dimensions of Piers, Timber Foundations, Coffer Dams, Open Caisson, Soundings, Borings, Frame Trestles, Timber Piers, Means of Preserving Timber Joints and Fastenings, Timber Piles, Cost of Timber Trestles, Embankment of Earth on Swamps, Deep Foundations, The Open Crib, The Pneumatic Caisson, Con- struction of Pneumatic Caissons, Caisson Sinking. Combined Open Crib and Pneumatic Caisson, All-Iron Piers, Location of Piers. The Poetsch Freezing Process, Quicksand, Foundations for High Buildings. PLYMPTON, PROF. GEO. W. The Aneroid Barometer; It* Construction and Use. Compiled from several sources. Fourth edition. 16mo, boards, illustrated, 50 cents; morocco $1.00 640 APPENDIX K. PAUL, H. Railway Surveys and Resurveys. Pamphlet, 6x9 inches, 13 pages. Price 25c REED. Topographical Drawing and Sketching, Including Pho- tography applied to Surveying. Illustrated with plates, colored and plain. By Lieut. Hen- ry A. Reed. Fourth edition. 4to, cloth $5.00 "This Is decidedly the best work of its class that we have ever met with." Engineering News. "An expert at our elbow says that this Is one of the best works on the subject in the English or any other language." Engineering and Mining Journal. "We can commend without reservation Lt. Reed's work." Franklin Institute. SEARLES. Field Engineering. A hand-book of the theory and practice of railway survey- ing, location and construction, designed for classroom, field and office use, and containing a large number of use- ful tables, original an selected. By Win. H. Searles, C.B., late professor of geodesy at Ren. Polytechnic Insti- tute, Troy. This volume contains many short and unique methods of laying out, locating and constructing com- pound curves, side tracks and railroad lines generally. It is also intended as a text-book for scientific schools. Pocket book form. Sixteenth edition. 12mo, morocco..$3.00 "The book is admirable. The Internal arrangements and an- pearance are excellent. It is an easy work to refer to and la plain and clear. There is no useless lumber in it. Every sen- tence belongs there." Prof. DAVIS, University of Michigan. SEARLES. The Railroad Spiral. The theory of the compound transition curve reduced to practical formulae and rules for application in field work, with complete tables of deflections and ordinates for 500 spirals. By Wm. H. Searles, C.E., author of "Field Engi- neering," member of Amer. Soc. of C. E. Fifth Edition. Pocket-book form. Price $1.50 "It should have a place in the library of every Civil Engineer in the world." Railway Age. SHUNK, W. F. The Field Engineer. A handy book of practice in the survey, location and track work of railroads, containing a large collection of rules and tables, original and selected, applicable to both the standard and narrow gauge, and prepared with special reference to the wants of the young engineer. Tenth edi- tion. Revised and enlarged. 12mo, morocco, tucks. .$2.50 SIMMS, W. F. Practical Tunneling. Fourth edition, revised and greatly extended. With addi- tional chapters illustrating recent practice by D. Kinnear Clark. With thirty-six plates and other illustrations. Im- perial 8vo, cloth $12.00 APPENDIX K. 641 SIMMS, F. W. A Treatise on the Principles and Practice of Leveling. Showing its application to purposes of railway engineer- ing and the construction of roads, etc. Revised and cor- rected, with the addition of Mr. Laws' practical examples for setting out railway curves. Illustrated. 8vo, cloth. .$2.50 SMITH McMILLAN. Manual of Topographical Drawing. By Lieut. R. S. Smith, U. S. A., late assistant professor of drawing in U. S. Military Academy. Revised and enlarged by Chas. McMillan, C.E., professor of civil engineering, college of New Jersey. With twelve folding plates, newly made (three colored), and new wood engravings. Third edition, 8vo, cloth $2.50 "This is a delightfully simple and practical work." Scientific American. "The scope of this work and the author's mode of treatment rise far beyond the ordinary handbooks of the same class." London Engineering. SPALDING. Hydraulic Cement; Its Properties, Testing and Use. By Frederick P. Spalding, assistant professor of civil engi- neering at Cornell University; member of the American Society of Civil Engineers. 12mo, cloth $2.00 CONTENTS : Hydraulic Lime ; Classifications and Constitution of Cement; The Setting and Hardening of Cement; Its Sound- ness; Methods of Testing Cement; Tests for the Strength of Mortar ; Tests for Soundness ; Special Tests ; Cement Mortar and Concrete ; Appendix, containing Specifications for the Re- ception of Cement. "For those who wish to acquire a working knowledge of cement and its treatment, and for those who desire to have in con- venient form a general handbook on this subject, we can recom- mend this little book as worthy." Engineering Record. TORREY. Switch Layouts and Curve Easements. By A. Torrey, Prin. Asst. Eng., Michigan Central railroad. One hundred and twelve diagrams, showing graphically and by figures the leads, offsets and all dimensions for laying out switches for frogs of all numbers and for all combinations in common use, for both split and stub switches. The second part of the manual ("Curve Ease- ments") gives exact and easily used instructions and data for easing transitions from tangent to curve, or be- tween curves of different radii. No similar publication has ever before been made. It is a practical and neces- sary manual for track men. Price $1.00 TRATMAN. Railway Track and Track Work. By E. E. Russell Tratman, Assoc. M. Am. Soc. C. E.; asso- 41 Vol. 13 642 APPENDIX K. ciate editor of Engineering News. 400 pages; over 200 illustrations. Price $3.00 SYNOPSIS OP CONTENTS. PART I. TRACK: Roadbed Ballast Ties Metal Ties Rails Joints Fastenings Frogs and Switches Fences Cross- ings Track Signs Track Tanks Mail Cranes and Car Bump- ers Section Houses Sidetracks Yards and Terminals Track Tools and Supplies. PART II. TRACK WORK : Organization Tracklaying Ballast- ing Ditching Maintenance Work (Surfacing, Lining, Relaying Rails and Ties, Policing, etc.) Grades and .Curves Switch Work Track Inspection Bridge Department Snow Wreck- ing and Emergency Work Records and Accounts. TRAUTWINE. Civil Engineer's Pocketbook. Of mensuration, trigonometry, surveying, hydraulics, hy- drostatics, instruments and their adjustments, strength of materials, masonry, principles of wooden and iron roof and bridge trusses, stone bridges and culverts, trestles, pillars, suspension bridges, dams, railroads, turnouts, turn- ing platforms, water stations, cost of earthwork, founda- tions, retaining walls, etc. In addition to which the elu- cidation of certain important principles of construction is made in a more simple manner than heretofore. By J. C. Trautwine, C.E. 12mo, morocco flaps, gilt edges. Seven- teenth edition, fiftieth thousand, revised and enlarged, with new illustrations. By J. C. Trautwine, Jr., C.E. . $5.00 "It is the best Civil Engineers' Pocketbook in existence." American Engineer. TRAUTWINE. The Field Practice of Laying Out Circular Curves for Railroads. By J. C. Trautwine, civil engineer. Thirteenth edition, re- vised by J. C. Trautwine, Jr. 12mo, limp morocco $2.50 "Probably the most complete and perfect treatise on the single subject of Railroad Curves that is published in the English lan- guage." Engineering News. TRAUTWINE. A Method of Calculating the Cubic Contents of Excavations and Embankments by the Aid of Diagrams. Together with directions for estimating the cost of earth- work. By John C. Trautwine, C.E. Ninth edition, re- vised and enlarged by John C. Trautwine, Jr. 8vo, doth $2.00 TRAUTWINE. Cross-Section Sheet. To be used with "Trautwine's Excavations." Sheet form. Price 25c WELLINGTON, A. M. Piles and Pile Driving. Paper, 4^x7 inches, 150 pages. Illustrated J 1.00 APPENDIX K 643 WELLINGTON. The Economic Theory of the Location of Railways. An analysis of the conditions controlling the laying out of railways to effect the most judicious expenditure of cap- ital. By Arthur M. Wellington. Fifth edition. 8vo. .$5.00 "Mr. Wellington has done great service to the Railroad pro- fession ; more particularly to Engineers, Managers, and Superin- tendents, by bringing together in a single volume such a mass of valuable matter. It should be in every Railway Library." Railway Age. WELLINGTON. Excavation and Embankments. Price $4.00 WHIPPLE, S., C.E. An Elementary and Practical Treatise on Bridge Building. 8vo, cloth. Price $4.00 WRIGHT. The Designing of Draw Spans. Comprising the calculation of stresses, sections required, determination of the most efficient details and the design- ing of operating machinery. With numerous examples from existing bridges. By Charles H. Wright, Edgemoor Bridge works. 8vo, cloth. PART FIRST. Part first deals particularly with Plate Girder Draws; gives tables of strength of Shafts, Gears, etc. Considers Deflection under various conditions of loading and for varying section of girder ; Treats of Friction, Time of Operating and Turning, Latching and Wedging arrangements, etc. Much of the data given applies equally well to other types of Draw Spans. WINSLOW, A. D. Van Nostrand's Science Series. No. 77. "Stadia Surveying." The theory of stadia meas- urements. By Arthur Winslow. 8mo 50c APPENDIX L. BRIDGES AND BUILDINGS RULES, TABLES AND DATA, DETAILED RULES GOVERNING BRIDGES AND CULVERTS.* BRIDGES AND CULVERTS. Inspection. The division engineers will make occasional examinations of the condition of all important bridges and culverts. In an emergency they will, on their own author- ity, report such repairs as they may deem necessary for safety, to the division superintendent for immediate attention. In other cases they will make their reports to the chief engineer, who will decide on the amount and character of the work to be done. Great care must be taken by division engineers and super- visors of bridges and buildings, to whom the security of struct- ures is intrusted, to make such inspections so thorough and the records thereof so complete as to convey definite and pre- cise knowledge of the condition of each and every structure at the time of the last inspection. There will be two regular inspections each year, as follows: 1. In January, by the supervisor of bridges for each division of all truss and large trestle bridges. 2. In September, by the division engineers and supervisors of bridges, of all bridges, culverts, waterways, etc. In addition the supervisors of bridges must at all times make such other inspections as may be necessary to insure safety. The September inspection must be made with special refer- ence to obtaining information for estimating the cost of re- newals and repairs, and for the material required for the ensuing year. *Adopted and in force on the Northern Pacific Railway. (644) APPENDIX L. 645 The supervisors of bridges will forward the report of these inspections, with an impression copy of the same, to the division superintendent for approval. Division superintend- ents will forward both copies to the division engineer. The supervisor of bridges will make such further inspec- tions as he finds necessary to keep thoroughly posted as to the conditions and safety of all bridges and culverts on his division. Division superintendents will arrange to obtain the record of extreme high water at the time of each flood, or extraordi- nary freshet, at all bridges, culverts and openings. Section foremen should be instructed to go over their sec- tions at such times and take the measurement from top of tie to the extreme high-water mark and report such measure- ments, giving the number of the bridge or opening, to the division superintendent. Division superintendents will forward this information to the division engineers, who will retain copy and forward the information to the office of the chief engineer for record. Supervisors of bridges will furnish the division superin- tendent monthly reports of all repairs and renewals of bridges and culverts executed during the month. These reports will be forwarded to the division engineer, who will check same against the inspection requirements, for the purpose of insur- ing compliance with such requirements. At the completion of the work the supervisors of bridges will forward a report to the division superintendent, showing all changes in the class of structure, details of construction and length, height and position of structures; also the cost of labor and material expended. This report will be forwarded to the division engineer, who, after recording same, will send it to the chief engineer for final record. Following the September inspection, estimates of the cost of repairs, renewals and replacements recommended for the ensuing year will be prepared by the division supervisors and division engineers, which will be tabulated and forwarded through the office of the chief engineer. The character and extent of renewals and improvements will be determined from this report. Descriptions and esti- 646 APPENDIX L. mates will be given for permanent -structures, wherever same appear desirable or economical. This report will show the cost of necessary repairs recom- mended for the ensuing year; the average annual cost of such repairs; the total cost of the structure upon which re- pairs are recommended, and also the total cost and annual interest upon permanent structures when such structures are recommended. All changes, additions or expensive renewals of bridges, cul- verts or other important structures shall be made only upon the properly approved plans and estimates of the chief engi- neer, who will make contracts for and superintend the work. Instruction to Inspectors. Note-books of inspection must be filled out at the structure after a careful examination has been made of each of the points itemized in the blanks, using, in cases where there are a number of spans in which defects are observed, a properly noted column for each span. When the spans are all in good condition one column only need be % used, but the number of spans should be noted. Designate the separate spans of a bridge by numbering them in the direction of the bridge numbers on the division, and the separate bents or piers in same manner, com*- mencing with abutment, bank-bent or sill as number one. Designate the truss as the right or left, locating points on it by numbering the panels in the same direction as the spans are numbered. When wooden structures are four years old, such members as by their position are particularly liable to decay must be tested by boring, the holes to be plugged up as soon as the inspection is completed. When making regular inspections the inspectors will take a statement of the results of the last examination relative to such structures as required attention at that time, and in re- porting on these structures, special notes must be made as to whether the repairs and recommendations of the previous examinations have been fully carried out or not,and whether the work is in accordance with the standard plans. Instructions Regarding Inspection Reports. (Numbers and directions in these instructions correspond with numbers and abbreviations on report blanks.) APPENDIX L. 647 1. Does waterway require straightening, cleaning out or enlarging above or below structure? Does structure afford ample waterway? Is rip rap needed to maintain channel or protect roadway? 2. Note line and surface, also condition of rails, joints and fastenings on bridge and approaches. See that rails are braced on curves where necessary, and that track on ap- proaches is firmly bedded, avoiding shock or jolt to train as it passes on to bridge. 3. Note any rotten, split or otherwise defective bridge ties, giving number, size and kind. 4. See if guard rails are in line and bolted or spiked down tight. 5. Note condition of caps and stringers, particularly at points where they bear against other members. 6. Note if plumb and batter posts are crooked, split or de- cayed, and if bents stand plumb. 7. See if trestle towers or bents are properly sway-braced, and all braces longitudinal and transverse are drawn up tight and have sufficient bolts or spikes to hold them properly. 8. Note particularly the condition of piles where they enter the ground or water. See that they stand properly. 9. Examine each pier and abutment as to joints, settlement, imperfect stones, cracks or other defects; note if work needs pointing up, or if cracks have opened since last pointed; make such measurements as will locate position of cracks, and note on sketch on back of report blank. Condition of rip rap, if any. Is rip rap needed to prevent undermining? How much? Condition of pedestal stones, and whether bridge seat is clean and water drained off. 10. Note condition of culvert and retaining walls. See if they are yielding by settlement or bulging from the pressure of the embankment. 11. Condition of ring, or covering stone, of box pr arch culverts. 12. Note condition of paving and rip rap, and that same is so placed that it cannot be undermined by washing. 13. Does pipe drain need head or tail wall to protect em- bankment from washing? And does it clear itself of water? 648 APPENDIX L. 14. Does timber box need to be replaced with masonry, or culvert pipe? If so, give dimensions required to give ample waterway, and give height from bottom of stream to rail. 15. See if bed plates and rollers are clean, and if the latter stand so as to move squarely back and forth with the truss. See if pedestal takes an even bearing on rollers. Examine anchor bolts. 16. Observe particularly the condition of wall plates where bolster rests upon them. Note any appearance of crushing or decay. 17. Note condition of bolsters and corbels. See if holes are bored through them where they cover the spaces between chord sticks, to prevent the collection of water, and if there is any indication of decay where they are in contact with chord. 18. Angle blocks and all cast-iron members such as chord boxes, post shoes, etc., must be examined for cracks and for any indication of displacement by reason of daps splitting or timber crushing. A hole of ^-inch in diameter, if drilled at the end of the crack, will frequently stop its extending farther. 19. Note particularly any appearance of opening of bottom chord joints. Wooden bridges over four years old should have gauge blocks at all joints in the middle half of the span, iflade by fastening two planed and squared blocks 1x2 inches, 6 inches long, to the chord sticks with screws, and scribing a fine line across both. Any movement of joints should be noted, giving location and amount, scribing a new line from the old one on the outside block across the inside block. See if clamp daps are shearing. 20. See that all chord and packing bolts are tight. Nuts on all bolts through guard rails, ties, stringers and floor beams must be secured in place by burring the thread of the bolt at two or three places with a center punch or cape chisel. 21. Note any signs of decay or crushing in packing blocks, and see that clamps and keys are in proper condition. 22. See if gib plates are distorted or crushing into the chords; if they are, give their location and dimensions, num- ber, size and spacing of rods passing through them. Give size of rods over threads. APPENDIX L. 649 23. Note condition of sides and roof of covered bridges, or of chord and end post covering. 24. Notice particularly the connections between stringers and floor beams; see that connecting angles are not split, either in the angle or through in the line of the rivet holes. For wooden stringers, note condition as to soundness and bearings. 25. Notice particularly the connections between floor beams and trusses for evidence of imperfect bearing, or splitting of connecting angles. If suspended, notice if they are up tight against the post feet or free to move. 26. Test equality of tension in tie bars by springing them. Look for any signs of distortion or crookedness in bars of end panels of bottom chords. Howe truss rods, counter lateral and vibration rods must never be allowed to hang loose. They must not be adjusted while a load is on the bridge. They should be tightened enough to give close and even bearings, but must not be overstrained, as unnecessary strains are put on compression members if too much power is used in adjusting tension members. See that the center line of all tension members is the same as the line of strain. 27. Examine carefully, especially at the joints. 28. See if posts, lateral struts and top chords are straight and free from twists. On wooden bridges, see if braces are up in place, taking a square bearing at ends, and note if any warping is evident. Note their condition as to soundness. 29. Examine all lateral connections, and see that lateral tension members are straight. Examine bracing in iron trestles. 30. Make particular examination of all hangers, testing each nut to see that it is tight. A streak of white paint drawn across nut and bearing will indicate any movement. These nuts should be screwed up tight and secured by burring the thread of bolt and nut at two or three points with a center punch or cape chisel. 31. Note any pins which indicate the movement of any of the members coupling on them, or that have loose nuts. All pins and nuts should have a streak of white paint across nut and pin end. 650 APPENDIX L. 32. All field driven rivets in floor beams and stringer con- nections should be lightly sounded to see that they are tight. Also lateral connection rivets in riveted trusses, and any intersection or other rivets which indicate by rust streaks, or otherwise, that there is movement at that point. 33. Note if there are any members, such as closed columns, pedestals, etc., which catch and retain water by reason of not having proper drain holes. 34. Note carefully the line of each truss by the top chord and by points on the floor beams equidistant from the center of the posts. Also note the camber by the top and bottom chords, whether it is true and uniform or irregular. 35. Look for loose rods, hangers, loose braces, unequal- sized timbers and other defects which require adjusting in order that each of the different parts may have proper bear- ings and carry its proper part of the load. 36. Note any undue vibration of the structure under live load. 37. Note excessive deflection of the structure under live load, seeing if the two trusses have the same deflection. 38. See if any rust spots are apparent under the paint. Note if structure needs repainting. Iron bridge work should be scraped and repainted as often as necessary to preserve from rusting. 39. Note such wooden structures as require barrels to add to their safety, giving number required. State condition of such barrels as may be in position. On all bridges of such magnitude as to require a watchman, there should be a foot plank between the rails securely fastened to the ties to facil- itate crossing the bridge quickly in emergencies, such as fire or danger to trains. Note if ladders, either fixed or portable, are required for the safety of the structure or to facilitate inspection. 40. See if material, driftwood, weeds, grass or other rubbish is properly removed and burned, or otherwise disposed of. List of abbreviations for class of structures: W. B. Wooden or timber box cul- P. B. Pile bridge. , vert. P. a Pile culvert. S. B. Stone box culvert. T. B. Trestle bridge. S. A. Stone arch culvert. H. T. Howe truss. ' Tile culvert pipe. C. T. Combination truss. S K-~v St ^ lv< ? rt pipe> L T.-Iron truss. ** --*" md drain - D. S. Draw span. W. C. Wall culvert. p. G. Plate girder. APPENDIX L. 651 ERECTION OF STEEL BRIDGES. General. Engineers, inspectors and contractors are ex- pected to make themselves thoroughly familiar with the general and special specifications governing the work. All material received must be carefully checked, recorded and reported immediately upon receipt of same, in accordance with the rules. Shortages should be reported immediately. Material received should be checked against complete bill of material, and every effort made to avoid delay to the progress of the work, by failure to receive material, including false work, tools, etc., etc. The engineer in charge must cause to be kept an accurate record of the cost of the work, including material and labor, keeping separately each class of work, such as rigging up, un- loading, repairing, raising, fitting, riveting, cleaning, paint- ing, framing, bolting, contractors' pay roll, character of plant, framing and erecting false work, and removal of same. A diary must be kept containing dates of commencing and com- pleting different classes of work, and all other general infor- mation of value. A record, or copies of all orders, or instruc- tions, issued or received during the progress of the work, and the daily force account should also be kept. The engineer in charge must check all distances and eleva- tions on plans, before laying out the work, and will be held responsible for any errors that may arise, through neglect on the part of himself or assistants, properly to verify and re- check, plans, points and elevations, given for the erection of the structure. Distances between centers and elevations of finished tops of masonry are especially important, and should be rechecked as often as may be necessary in order abso- lutely to insure against errors. The sum of the heights of the component parts forming the structure should be care- fully checked against the total finished height, above assumed datum, to base of rail. The sum of all detail lengths must also be checked, with equal care, against the total length from the fixed initial point. Insure that the material shall not be injured, nor dangerous- ly strained during the operation of loading, unloading or handling same. All defects in workmanship or material must be remedied as soon as detected. A thorough inspection must be made for defects in painting, cleaning, reaming, spots of 652 APPENDIX L. shrivelled oil or paint, chips, burrs, sharp edges and black or rusty spot's on steel, scale, cinders and scratches, particularly in joints and around rivet heads, brush hairs, or other foreign matter covered over with paint or oil; all such defects shall be remedied immediately, and noted in detail, to provide full information, is case of claims for extra compensation. Slight bends in members shall not be straightened unless strictly necessary, on account of the danger of overstraining connections and rivets. Connection plates, if slightly bent or twisted, shall be straightened cold; if bent so sharply as to require heating, the whole piece thus heated shall be subse- quently annealed. All shop rivets, or any piece of member thus straightened, shall be properly tested. Particular care will be taken to insure free expansion and contraction, wherever provided for in plans. Any departure in dimensions, amount of camber or otherwise, of material received, from plans and specifications, must be noted and reported immediately. All machine-fitted bolts shall be perfectly tight, and should be burred or otherwise checked to prevent nuts from becoming loose, and no unfilled rivet or bolt holes should be left in any part of the structure. Fitting and Chipping. The material must be assembled in accordance with the match marks, and no interchange of pieces must be made, unless absolutely necessary in order to avoid chipping and fitting, or serious delay. Fitting and riveting of connections (especially angles) in cases where pieces are short or full, must be done in such a manner that the metal is not unduly strained or cracks caused. Dishonest or incompetent workmen frequently fill cracks with paint, putty, cinders, dirt, oil or filings, for the purpose of deception. A close inspection must be made for this. Wooden rams or malls must be used in forcing members to position, in order to protect metal from injury or shocks. Chipping of rivets, angle flanges and edges of plates, must be done without breaking out metal. Chipped edges must be finished off with a file, and all concave corners must be rounded off. Chipping with a sledge will only be permitted in exceptional cases, and must be done without leaving frac- tured edges. APPENDIX L. 653 Riveting. In driving rivets the dolly and die should be placed directly opposite each other, at right angles to the riveted surface, to insure straight driving. Rivets must be driven while at an orange heat, and no burnt rivets should be used. After riveting each rivet must be tapped with a hammer to insure that they are tight, and the heads must be well formed, concentric with center of rivet, and closely fitted against the riveted surface. Defective rivets can usually be detected by their color, or by sound when tapped with a hammer, and all loose or burnt rivets must be immediately cut out and replaced. In cutting out rivets be careful to ascertain that other rivets in proximity have not been loosened. Tightening up, recupping or calking old rivets will not be tolerated, except that occasional recupping of shop rivets do not form part of important connections, or do not directly transmit stresses. Countersunk rivets must be inspected after chipping heads, and no unnecessary chipping should be permitted. Painting. The specifications under the head of cleaning, oiling and painting must be strictly carried out. An accurate account should be kept of the quantities and proportions used, of pigments, oils and other ingredients, and the quantities by weight or fluid measure, of the resulting mixtures, ascertained. A record should be kept of the quan- tity of paint applied, of each coat, and its proportion ascer- tained to area or weight of material covered. Paint should be thoroughly worked in all corners and joints, and narrow openings, covering edges and sealing up all lines of contact between parts. Unless otherwise specified, the ingredients and proportions of the mixture, for the three coats, shall be as follows: First Coat. 30 Ibs. pure lead to 1 gallon pure boiled lin- seed oil, 1-3 pint pure turpentine. Second Coat 25 Ibs. pure lead to 1 gallon pure boiled lin- seed oil, i/4 pint pure turpentine, lampblack, quantity not to exceed 12 ounces. Third Coat. 15 Ibs, dry pigment, Cleveland Ironclad, purple band No. 3, to 1 gallon of pure boiled linseed oil. 654 APPENDIX L. 1 i s&Mn m ! : ii ??:- .2 r .2 1 fl'itt* 1 II l r 2ooSc^Tt.aoOoo. f^ > 71 CM ^ i _O*t T-H*^ a 6s :S I : '- 00 ^ J5 1 00 o : : : ;: 1-1 : : : :5S o : : : : : . . .0 . . : . :"* : . . . . S : : : : : ; : ;;;::: s 3 :ij|;[|Hi: il i : : : : ' -2 Mil& : J:!:[i : !l! X i M = : : .3^a 3 : : :fe : : :2 3- -iirl JU 1 ! vl H APPENDIX L. 655 3 : ljiijfifiHtii.in S. M "rS8;|S/ogr|.|s|olfa||sll^|lglci| s |J 2 ~~ 2 S 03-- * , =g L&Mi;!!l ;!!!!!!! w M ^ ........ 03 w ^ 3 " 2 a i2 ! .2 .' .' 2 , SbS M * :o ' ^fcH^ i > . .1-1 . . i ea le. 20 15 d to Tres 15 to 12 to abo 18 Expo ringer. 2 to 14 to 12 Good f 16 22 o i: : : s ; : : : t^ojn :ooo :s |....^.. II 22 7 to 8 ties a 14tol8 I 1 J . 2 : T\"B R A or THE l/NIVFRSITY INDEX. Abutments 127 Angle Bars, Number Required for One Mile of Track 563 Ashpits 284 Ballast 155, 163 Ballasting 332, 603, 604, 605 Base plates, Number Required for One Mile of Track 563 Bolts, Number Required for One Mile Track 563, 616 " Number of Per Keg 618 " Track , 221 " Weight of Per Thousand 618 Bolting 357, 600 Borrowpits 95, 133 Bridges 2 4, 242 Bridges, Detailed Rules Governing 644 " Maintenance of 455 Bridging Timber 134 Buildings 273, 425 " Detailed Rules Governing 644 Burnt Clay Ballast 168 Buildings, Maintenance of 455 Bumping Posts 241 Camp Party 67 * Cattleguards 294 Cinder Ballast 172 Clearing Right of Way 394 Coaling 267 Commissary Party 67 Construction 90 Accounts 477 Authorities on 629 Detailed Rules Governing 583 Material Used in 597 Standards of 147 Controlling Points 151 Crossings . . . . 389, 608 Crossovers 308 Culverts 123, 133, 254 " Detailed Rules Governing 644 Curves, Elevation of Rails on 601, 626 ** Widening Gauge on 625 Cuts 92, 106, 150 INDEX. 657 Depots 276 Erection of 145 Development of Railway 21 Ditches 154, 869, 607 Drainage 120, 153, 356 Draughtsmen 67 Engineer, Assistant 91 Division 90 Engineers, Locating 47 Embankments 92, 103, 112, 118, 122, 369 Explosives Use of Ill Estimates Monthly , 130 Evolution of Railway 21 Excavation 92, 106 Facilities Effect of on Cost of Operation 524 Fences 291 , 392 Field Supplies 583 Fills 100, 150 Foremen 331 Frogs 227, 303, 376, 603 " Early Forms of 39 Fuel Supply 145 Gauge. 148, 607 Gauges Used in Different Countries 562 Grade Surfacing 129 Gravel Ballast 170 Hand Cars 355 Joint, Ties 189 Joints, Introduction 19, 606 41 Early Forms of 33 Rail 190, 216 Leveling Party 63 Lining. 357 Location 83 " Authorities on 629 " Detailed Rules Governing 565 Locating Party 83 Locating Railways 47, 83 Locomotives, Curves Showing Horse Power of 575 Increase in Weight of 1880 to 1900 564 Locomotive, Invention of 24 Lubricants, Effect of Quality of 499 Maintenance Accounts 477 Authorities on 629 Cost of 480 Fixed Operating Expenses 510 -Force 324 ofWay 322 Relation of Various Classes to Total Cost of . . 560 658 INDEX. Maintenance Rules Governing 328 Things that Affect 530 Material Classification of 131 " Effect of Quality of 495 Old . 427 " Standards of 147 Middle Ordinates, Table of 627 Narrow Gauge Sections 151 Nutlocks 222 " Number Required for One Mile of Track 563 Overhaul 132 Operation Cost of 480, 524 Operating, Cost of Percentage Due to Maintenance of Or- ganization and the Prevention of the Destruction of the Property From Natural Causes 561 Operating Expenses, Fixed 510 Openings Size of , 94 Ordinates Middle, Table of 627 Piles, Life of Different Kinds of 654 Piling 134 Piers 127 Policing : 608 Preliminary Survey 58 Pumps, Capacity of 620 Water 262 Rail Braces 223, 603 Fastenings 216 Expansion Number for Rails per Ton 617 Section 609 Rals 200 Changing 416 Creeping 384 Curving 598 Dimensions of 609, 610 Distributing 598 Early Supports of 28 Early Forms of 22 Effect of Quality of , 495 Elevation of, on Curves 318 Expansion of 387, 619 Filing 418 Jointing 419 Number Required to Lay One Mile of Track 563 Placing in Track 598 Tons Used per Mile and Feet , 616 Unloading 417 Reconnoissance 47 Resistance, Train 580 Retaining Walls 119, 121 INDEX. G59 Right of Way Clearing 95 Roadbed 153, 597, 605 Roundhouses 283 Routes Locating 55 Sand Ballast 173 Sand Houses 284 Scales, Track 296 Scrap 427 Season's Work 412 Shimming , 390 Sidings 607 Signs 389 Signals 287 ' Switch 239 Side Tracks 144 Slag Ballast 166 Snow Fences , 400 Plows 405, 410 " Removing 399 Spikes 215 ' Number Required for One Mile Track 563, 617 Spiking 357, 601 Splice Bars, Number for One Mile Track 616 Stations 425 Coaling 267 " Erection of 145 Stakes, Engineers 1 Care of 420 Stock Pens 281 " Yards 281 Stone Ballast 164 Storehouses 283 Structures 147 Supervisors 328, 330 Supplies, Field 583 Surfacing 144, 359 Survey Preliminary 58 Surveys, Detailed Rules Governing , 583 Switches 225, 303, 370, 603, 607 1 * Early Forms of 39 Data for 623, 625 Switch Stands 235 Switches, Ties Required for 621, 622, 624 Tamping 360, 603 Tanks, T rack 266 Targets 239 Taxes Terminals, Effect of Cost of 500 Ties 174, 598, 605 " Bearing Surface on Ballast 628 11 Effect of Quality of 497 " Metal . 191 660 INDEX. Ties, Number of to Rail 323 Number Required for One Mile of Track 563 Number Required for Switches 621, 622, 624 Renewals of 363 Size of 188 Specifications for 608 Spacing 189 Wood Life of 177 Wood Preservation of 179 Tie Plates 1 96, 602 41 " Number Required for One Mile of Track 563 Timber, Bridging 134 Decay of 176 " Life of Different Kinds of 655 Topographical Party 65 Tools, Track 338< Track, Authorities on 629 " Bolting , 357 Constructing 297 " Construction of Detailed Rules Governing 597 " Drainage 356 Early Method of Constructing 32 11 Expenses, Relation of Various Items to the Whole. . . 559 " Inspecting 431 " Labor, Relation of Various Items to Each Other 559 Tracklaying 134 Machines , 137 Track, Lining 357 * Moving During Week 422 Old Moving , 419 Moving on Sunday 421 Policing 423 Preparing for Sunday Work 420 Train Resistance , 580 Track Scales 296 44 Shimming 390 " Spiking 357 41 Sprinkling 388 " Surfacing , 359 " Tamping 360 Tracks, Team 286 Transit Party 61 Tunnels , ...113, 159 Turntables 270 Velocity Grades, Length of 578 Water Supply , 144 " Supplies 259 Way, Maintenance of . 322 Wrecks 441 Wood for Ties.. . 174 THE SCIENCE OF RAILWAYS BY MARSHALL M. KIRKMAN. SCIENCE OF RAILWAYS" DESCRIBES THE METHODS AND PRINCIPLES CON- NECTED WITH THE ORGANIZATION, LOCATION, CAPITALIZATION, CONSTRUCTION. MAINTENANCE, OPERATION AND ADMINISTRATION OP RAILROADS. IN TWELVE VOLUMES, COMPRISING BOOKS ON Railway Equipment. Fiscal Affairs; Collection of Revenue. Railway Organization. Fiscal Duties of Agents and Cou- F taSS gl ConStmCting and Main ' Principles Governing Collection of Revenue. 1 ram Service. General Fiscal Affairs. Passenger, Baggage, Ex press and Mail General Fiscal Affairs and Sta- Service. tistics. Freight Business and Affairs. Payment of Employes of Rail Disbursements of Railways. Tw2nSUT nP * Economical Purchase, Care and Thp RpTlpf Dpnartmpnt of Rail Use of Material. roads Fiscal Affairs; Expenditures. Origin and Evo^t^ of Transporta- Economic Theory of Rates; Private tion. versus Government Control of Rail- Engineers' and Firemen's Manual- roads. General Index. "Officers and employes of railway companies and the students of this form of transportation owe you much. ..." MARVIN HUGHITT, President Chicago and North-Western Railway. " To railroad men, whose duties so frequently run in a giwve, they afford most useful information that could not otherwise be obtained, and they suggest improved methods that must be highly beneficial to railway manage- ment." C. C. HARVEY, President New Orleans and North-Eastern Railroad. '"The Science of Railways' shows a work of labor and thought. The subject is treated as none but a practical railroad man could treat it. The illustrations showing the modes of transportation from the primitive days to the present time are necessarily quaint and instructive. His delineations of character required to make a good and efficient railway officer are clear and pointed. His reference to the construction of railways, operation, mainte- nance of roadway and rolling stock are discussed with a clear head and hold the reader's attention. It is a work that should be in the hands of every railroad man, young and old. There is something in every volume interest- ing and it is well adapted to the wants of young and ambitious railroad men, and it should be in the hands of those employes whose aim is advancement." JOHN M. TOUCEY, General Manager New York Central and Hudson River Railroad Company. "A curriculum eminently adapted for the employe in any sphere of labor. It is of inestimable value as a book of reference." ROBERT DUDGEON, Super- intendent Minnesota Transfer Railway Company. "I hope your work may be spread wide amongst railroad men as well as investors." J. L. TEN HAVE, Frzn, Capitalist, Amsterdam, Holland. "Written with a grace and facility of diction which fairly entitle them to be received as literature of the first class." Noah's Sunday Time*. "The author's long experience, his great opportunities for acquiring accurate knowledge, his careful and thorough study of railway administra- tion, make his books authoritative, studious, thoughtful and enlightened."-- Chicago Evening Journal. PUBLISHED BY THE WORLD KAIL WAY PUBLISHING COMPANY, CHICAGO, ILL. THE SCIENCE OF RAILWAYS BY MARSHALL M. KIRKMAN. THE SCIENCE OF RAILWAYS" DESCRIBES THE METHODS AND PRINCIPLES CON- NECTED WITH THE ORGANIZATION, LOCATION, CAPITALIZATION. CONSTRUCTION. MAINTENANCE, OPERATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF RAILROADS. IN TWELVE VOLUMES, COMPRISING BOOKS ON rtanway Equipment. Fiscal Affairs ; Collection of Revenue. Railway Organization. F dSctors ^ f AgeutS a " (1 C u " Constructing, Financing and Main- Principles Governing Collection taming. of Revenue. Financing. General Fiscal Affairs. Constructing and Maintaining. General Fiscal Affairs and Sta- Train Service. tistics. Passenger, Baggage and Mail Service. ^oad? 1 f Employes f Kall ~ Freight Business and Affairs. Treasurer's Office. Disbursements of Railways. The Relief Department of Rail- Economical Purchase, Care and roads. Use of Material. Origin and Evolution of Transcorta- Fiscal Affairs; Expenditures. . tion. Economic Theory of Rates. Engineers' and Firemen's Manual- General Index. "The titles of the several volumes will show the extent of the ground cov- ered. The merit of the work will be found in the fact that it is the product of an expert in active railway service." ALDACE F. WALKER, Chairman of Board of Directors, Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway. "I find the books most interesting. It is a work that ought to be in the library of every railroad man. My wonder is, how the author, with all his business, could find time and courage to write and publish such a complete and elaborate work. He is certainly entitled to very great credit for it, as well as the thanks of all practical railroad men." AUSTIN CORBIN, late President, Long Island Railroad Company. "The books are the recognized standard on the subjects treated of in this country." JAMES McCREA, Vice-President, Pennsylvania Company. "These books are of great value to railway employes and to investors and others interested in railway properties. "WILLIAM H. NEWMAN, Vice-President, Great Northern Railway Company. "Of high educational value, because of the interest excited from the out- set in a subject of paramount importance to civilized man. . . . The illus- trations are impressive object lessons. The varied subjects discussed are treated in a most interesting and instructive way, and cannot fail to leave a deep and lasting impression on all thoughtful readers." J. C. WELLING, Vice- President, Illinois Central Railroad. "The work is a remarkable one, very interesting and valuable to railway men, and students generally. It contains information that has not been com- piled heretofore, together with the practical ideas of a practical railway man applied to current operations of railroads. I commend the work most highly." C. G. WARNER, Vice-President, Missouri Pacific Railroad. "No young man in the railroad service, with the intention of pursuing that branch of commerce as a profession, can better equip himself than by a patient and careful reading of these volumes. I think Mr. Kirkman has ren- dered the profession and the public a valuable service by producing this work." J. C. STUBBS, Third Vice-President, Southern Pacific Company. " Should be read by every man who is interested in railway affairs, and by those employes who intend to make railroading their life work, and who are ambitious for advancement therein. Strange as it may seem to some, these books, instead of being dry and tiresome reading, are as interesting as classical works of fiction: yet, at tire same time, the knowledge derived from their perusal is of incalculable value not alone to railroad men, but to all who are studiously inclined." THEO. Low, Superintendent, Norfolk & Western Rail- way. '"It is equally valuable to the general reader and to the railroad man. It is a vast storehouse of information in relation to the history, construction and operation of railroads and the duties and obligations of railroad companies as common carriers." HENRY C. CALDWELL, United States Circuit Judge. 'Mr. Kirkman has won very high distinction as an expert and reliable autnoritv in railway management. "-Report of Government Directors, Union, Pacific Railway. PUBLISHED BY THE WORLD RAILWAY PUBLISHING COMPANY, CHICAGO, ILL. 350) THE SCIENCE OF RAILWAYS BY MARSHALL M. KIRKMAN. THE SCIENCE op RAILWAYS " DESCRIBES THE METHODS AND PRINCIPLES CON- NECTED WITH THE ORGANIZATION, LOCATION, CAPITALIZATION, CONSTRUCTION, MAINTENANCE, OPERATION AND ADMINISTRATION OP RAILROADS. IN TWELVE VOLUMES, COMPRISING BOOKS ON Railway Equipment. Fiscal Affairs; Collection of Revenue. Railway Organization. Principles Governing Collection P lnlnS gf C nSlrUCting and Main ' Fiscal DuSof Agents and Con- ductors. Tram Service. General Fiscal Affairs. Passenger, Baggage, Express and Mail General Fiscal Affairs and Sta- Service. tistics. Freight Business and Affairs. Payment of Employes of Rail- Disbursements of Railways. The ReHef Department of Rail- Fiscal Affairs; Expenditures. Origin aSd Evolution of Transporta- Economic Theory of Rates; Private tion. versus Government Control of Rail- Engineers' and Firemen's Manual- General Index. " Replete with valuable information and suggestions pertaining to the construction, operation and maintenance of railroads. The author's large experience in the service has eminently qualified him for the authorship of these practical and didactic volumes.'' GEORGE W. PARKER, President and General Manager, St. Louis, Alton & Terre Haute Railroad Company. " An able and interesting work. . . . I am not at all surprised at the thoroughness with which the work has been done, coming from the pen of Mr. Kirkman, as it is only in harmony with the completeness manifested in all his efforts and in all he does." A. N. TOWNE, late Vice-President and General Manager, Southern Pacific Railway Company. " It is to be hoped that Mr. Kirkman's works will find not only a place in the library of every railroad man who wishes to be well informed in connec- tion with his business, but will also reach the general public. Mr. Kirkman's long connection with railway service eminently constitutes him an authority on such subjects. I hope 'The Science of Railways' will meet with a wide- spread circulation." J. M. WHITMAN, General Manager, Chicago & North- Western Railway. " The work . . . ought to be in the hands of every progressive young man in the railway service. Each volume treats fully and completely its subject, and the work as a whole is an encyclopedia of railway methods and principles." GEORGE A. COE, Superintendent, Chicago & Erie Railroad. " A great work, clearly and intelligently set forth, with . . . enough elasticity to make it perfectly practicable to be adapted to local surroundings of every railroad. . . . Any man who has practical knowledge sufficient to handle any part of a railroad system can work in harmony with it." . . . A. A. SHARP, Superintendent, Yazoo & Mississippi Valley Railroad. "The author has had forty years' experience as an employe and executive officer of railways, and has been engaged thirty-four years in writing this work. It embraces the literature of the world on the subject, coupled with his own vast experience and research. Railroad men have long recognized the need of such a work. While it treats of specific things, it does not reflect the methods of any particular property or country. It portrays truly and vividly the principles and practices of the great art of transportation, under the gen- eral head of ' The Science of Railways.' Representative railroad men, with- earch and ' Journal . , out distinction, commend the work for its thoroughness, vast research and impartial representation." Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers' Jou PUBLISHED BY THE WOBLD RAILWAY PUBLISHING COMPANY, CHICAGO, ILL. 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. L " W9/ 5 9 RECEIVED OCT 1 4 *F7 -o P I n 0\$]Q Hl*^ RECv r APR 1 1970 FEB 28 197% 1 L*Lf 'W i^rf-^rar IPSr CH FEB 1 7 1 LD 2TA-60*. (H241slO)476B General Library University of California Berkeley YC 13161 ,. 7276