piiiii ilj;;: v:;.,e.'«JA.:■ Willi- SCHOOL CORRECT COMPOSITION THE PRACTICE OF TYPOGRAPHY CORRECT COMPOSITION A TREATISE ON SPELLING ABBREVIATIONS, THE COMPOUNDING AND DIVISION OF WORDS, THE PROPER USE OF FIGURES AND NUMERALS, ITALIC AND CAPITAL LETTERS, NOTES, ETC. WITH OBSERVATIONS ON PUNCTUATION AND PROOF-READING BY THEODORE LOW DE VINNE, A.M. THIRD EDITION NEW YORK THE CENTURY CO. 1910 5-0 UBRARf SCHOCL Copyright, 1901, 1902, by Theodore Low De Vinne Published November, 1901 The De Vinne Press CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE Preface vii I Spelling 5 II Abbreviations 33 III Compound Words 61 IV Figures and Numerals 76 V Italic 9^ VI Capital Letters 168 VII Division of Words 128 VIII Small Capitals 145 IX Extracts and Letters 157 X Notes 171 XI Indention 182 XII Spacing 198 XIII Quotation-marks 209 XIV Subheadings 230 XV Punctuation 241 XVI Proof-reading 294 XVII About Copy 327 XVIII Errors of the Press 345 Appendix 359 Index > 447 -v ^*' ^",-.- X ^ PREFACE UNFORTUNATELY for an American printer, there is no authority beyond appeal for the spelling-, division, and compounding- of words. Neither in America nor in Great Britain is there an institution, like the Academic Fran^aise or the Department of PubHc Instruction of France, which finally determines disputed questions in orthography. We have many dictionaries of the English language, but they do not fully agree with one another as to the spelling of some words. There are more than sixteen hundred variable spellings, as shown in the Appendix to this work, and each form of spelling has had the approval of good writers. There are other irregularities in literary and mechani- cal composition that are even more unfortunate. We have grammars that give us rules for the proper use of capital letters, italic, and the marks of punctuation, but these rules, good as far as they go, are not enough for the guidance of a compositor who has to set types for works much unlike as to form and style. Nor do our high schools thoroughly teach the correct expression of thought in writing. The pupil is taught to be precise in his pronunciation of Latin and Greek as well as of Eng- lish ; to give erroneous accent to a vowel, or improper emphasis to a syllable, stamps him as a vulgar perverter of correct speech ; but with too many pupils the practice 242327 viii Preface of exactness ends with correctness of pronunciation. Amateurs in literary composition soon acquire the bad habit of writing carelessly ; they spell strange names in two or more different ways j they form capital letters, and even the small lower-case letters, so obscurely that one word may be mistaken for another ; they have no clearly defined system, or at least observe none, for the proper placing of capitals, italic, and the marks of punc- tuation. There is a general belief that the correction of these oversights is the duty of the printer, and the writer too often throws this duty largely on the compositor and the proof-reader. During the last fifty years there has been no marked improvement in the average writer's preparation of copy for the printer, but there have been steadily increasing exactions from book-buyers. The printing that passed a tolerant inspection in 1850 does not pass now. The reader insists on more attention to uniformity in mechanical details. He notices blemishes in the composition of types more quickly than lapses or oversights made by the author in written expression. Not every reader assumes to be a critic of style in liter- ature, but the reader of to-day is more or less a critic of style in type-setting. As there is no book of generally accepted authority that lays down a full code of explicit rules for orderly printing, every printing-house that strives for consis- tency as well as accuracy has found it necessary to make its own code for its own work. The code (or style -card, as it is often called) is constantly needed in every house for the guidance of new compositors and the mainte- nance of uniformity. But the Avorks done in different printing-houses are much unlike, and different rules have to be made for different kinds of books, newspa- pers, and trade catalogues. What is correct in one house may be incorrect in another, and rules have to be more or less flexible for special occasions. Yet there Preface ix are rules in all codes upon which all careful printers agree, and this treatise is the result of an attempt to combine and classify them. It should be understood, however, at the outset, that the writer does not propose here a complete system for correct book-making-. The planning of a new book, from the determination of the shape of page and proper width of margin to the selection of the style and size of type in which each of its many parts should be set, is a subject too broad to be fairly treated in a limited space. This treatise must be given up to the consideration of the proprieties of undisplayed text composition, which is reaUy the more important part of typography. It is the correctness and the careful arrangement of text- matter more than any novelty in plan, grace in display, or skill in decoration that give distinction to any book. Next to clearness of expression on the part of the author comes clearness in its reproduction by the printer. An incorrect expression may be overlooked in speech or in letter- writing, but a slovenly arrangement of words in type-setting is rated as a serious offence by the critical reader, who practically requires the printer to be more exact or at least more systematic than the author. It is believed that the methods here advised, although they may differ from those of a few codes, fairly define the fixed practice of the greater number of authors and printers concerning the niceties of type-setting. The writer's experience of more than fifty years as middle- man between the author on the one side and the printer on the other warrants his behef that the methods here advised are those that have been sanctioned by usage, and that they are enough to prevent the common er- rors of book composition. The compositor who heeds these suggestions wiU prevent the wasting of labor in avoidable alterations, and the inexperienced writer who follows directions about acceptable copy will save the expense of changes that must be made in proof. X Preface In making the last revision of this treatise, the writer has doubts as to the propriety of assuming to be its author, for the work done is as much the compilation and rearrangement of notes made by other men as it is the outcome of the writer's own long practice of print- ing. He acknowledges with thanks and the highest appreciation helpful suggestions and contributions made by Mr. Benjamin E. Smith, managing editor of the Century Dictionary and editor of the Century Cyclopedia of Names; Mr. Brander Matthews, professor of Eng- lish Literature in Columbia University, New York ; and Mr. Wendell Phillips Garrison, editor of the Nation. Mr. J. Stearns Cushing and the proof-readers of the Norwood Press have been much interested in the prep- aration of the work, and especially efficient as collabo- rators. Last, but not least, thanks are due to Mr. P. J. Cassidy of the De Vinne Press for general supervision, and for the preparation of a table of the variable spell- ings of the seven leading dictionaries. This last feature should commend the book to every careful writer and proof-reader. August, 1901. From Johusou's Typogriipliia (1824). CORRECT COMPOSITION SPELLING I EVEN large dictionaries of the English language in daily use show that they find approval by editions frequently reprinted : in England and her colo- nies are Stormonth's, the Imperial, and the Oxford; in the United States are Webster's (or, in its latest edition, Webster's International), Worcester's, the Century, and the Standard. They do not agree in the spelling of every word, and scholars who have been taught in boyhood to ac- cept the spelling of a certain dictionary usually adhere to that spelling in manhood and sometimes are intolerant of any other. It follows that there is occasional disagreement between writers and printers about correct spelling. Considering the great number of words that find place in every dictionary, the words of changeable spelling are 6 Variable spellings relatively few. Most noticeable in English dic- tionaries are the retention of u in -our words like honour and colour, and the preference for s in words that all American dictionaries spell with z, as authorize and harmonize. Peculiarities like ax, wagon, program, theater, and the rejection of one of the doubled consonants in words like traveled, are mannerisms of some American dic- tionaries. In the compounding of words the divergences are great and increasing. In the first quarter of the nineteenth century rail road and steam boat were separate words; after a little use the noun and its qualifier were connected by a hyphen; now they are welded together in one word by aU dictionary makers. Other words have undergone or are now undergoing similar changes, which have been made in print, not by the order of any academy or by accepted teachers of language, but by writers who choose to deviate from previous usage. All the changes begin with writers. Dic- tionary makers (Webster excepted) claim that they do not originate changes, and that they record only those that have been generally accepted. To many readers the variations of British and American spelUng and of compounded and sepa- rated words are of slight importance. Tolera- tion is conceded to national mannerisms that have been confirmed by usage and do not confuse the meaning intended. Yet there are changes which Variable compounds 7 seem trivial to the reader that are of importance to the printer. To take out u in colour to please one author, to put u in honor to please another, and to compound or to separate meeting words in the proof when these words were not so written in the copy, are discouraging to the compositor and hindrances to quick performance. The changes sanctioned by dictionaries seem to have been a sufficient warrant for some writers to take other and greater liberties. Books are made here and abroad in which some words are spelled and compounded after one dictionary and other words by another. In compound words editors and proof-readers find opportunity for the exercise of nice critical ability in the making of alterations which they assert are for the sake of consistency, but it is difficult for any one who is not a profes- sional lexicographer to be minutely exact in fol- lowing all the compoundings of any dictionary. It is still more difficult for a proof-reader to aid the author in the establishment of this consis- tency when that author uses or rejects peculiari- ties at his pleasure 5 for, in spite of all dictionary teachings, the author is the only authority beyond appeal in the printing-house for the spelling and division of words. The order of an author to disregard all variable spellings in his copy, and to spell according to a specified dictionary, has to be obeyed in the first stage of the work by compositors who have small 8 Importance of uniformity knowledge of, and often no access to, that author- ity, for not one printing-house in a hundred has more than one dictionary as a book of reference. Prompt obedience is impracticable when British orthography is demanded. The Imperial and Stor- month's dictionaries are known by name only to many American proof-readers, and the great Ox- ford dictionary, still incomplete, is out of reach of the workmen who need it most. In the absence of authority the compositor and the proof-reader have to hazard guesses, based on analogy, at the spelling desired, and some of the guesses are cer- tain to be wrong. Failing to find in the first proof the spelling he prefers, the author does last what he should have done first, and carefully writes out on the proof the spellings which should have been made in his copy. These alterations delay the work and give dissatisfaction to the author because of the added expense.^ There are some niceties in spelling and style that have to be passed with slight notice. The forma- tion of foreign words in the plural number, obso- 1 To remove some of these list may not include every vari- hindrances to acceptable compo- ation, but it does include all in sition tbe writer has prepared ordinary use, and some that the a list of variable spellings com- compositor may never meet, piled from seven dictionaries in Expression of preference for frequent use. (See Appendix the authority of any dictionary A.) The spelling of the Stan- has been avoided. Remarks oc- dard dictionary differs from that casionally made about variable of the Century in comparatively spelling are not intended to be few words, but the exceptions dogmatic or argumentative, but are enough to be noted. The helpful only. Distinctness in ivriting 9 lete or little-used forms of past tenses and parti- ciples, and the use of accents and diacritical marks for words in English, belong to grammar rather than to typography. In the use of these niceties authors and editors have been and will continue to be laws to themselves. For them, and indeed for all who have made the niceties of literature a study, this book was not written. It is intended for the much larger number of compositors and proof-readers who are more or less bewildered by the obscure writing of different authors, especiaUy in words that end in -able and -ible, -ent and -ant, -ise and -ize, -or and -er, and by the con- flict of authorities out of their reach. The com- positor especially needs a book of reference in which different spellings are presented and the spelling preferred by the author is clearly set forth. The right of an educated author to spell as he pleases is not to be questioned, but he should write distinctly. As an additional safeguard, he should note on the first page of his copy the name of the dictionary he desires to be accepted as authority. If he chooses to deviate from that dictionary in some words, he should prepare a list of his spell- ings of these words. This precaution is especially important for his own guidance in geographical and historical names which are differently ren- dered in foreign languages, as Mentz, Mainz, and Mayence. It should not be expected that a com- positor will make any one spelling invariable when 10 Compositors not correctors of copy spellings vary in copy, or that a proof-reader will attempt uniformity without positive instruction. Arabic and Oriental names with many accents, and ordinary names with diacritical marks, need par- ticular attention. The preparation of a proper code of spellings calls for time and trouble on the part of the author, but he is well repaid by cleaner proofs and by largely reduced expense for altera- tions in type. These precautions are observed in their best work by all disciplined writers. Much copy comes into every printing-house from wi'iters who are not illiterate, but who are careless or apparently indifferent about spelling and writ- ing. When they do not give particular directions, and their spelling is not uniform, it is the rule of all printing-houses that the spelling shall be that of the dictionary selected by that house as author- ity. When two or more forms of the same word are presented in that dictionary, preference should be given to the form that has the first place. A debatable form of spelling in copy that may be queried afterward by the proof-reader should not be anticipated and corrected by the compositor. Correction before the reading of proof is always a risk, and in many houses an unpardonable liberty. It is safer to follow copy and to leave all sugges- tions of emendation to the proof-reader. The re- marks on spelling that follow have to be confined to words made uncertain by illegible writing or by carelessness in the preparation of the copy. Formation of plurals 11 THE SPELLING OF NOUNS IN THE PLURAL Changes from the singular to the plural in a proof negligently revised sometimes put upon a composi- tor the duty of making a proper plural. It is usu- ally formed by adding s to the word in the singu- lar number, as bamboo, bamboos ; cameo, cameos ; folio, folios ; octavo, octavos. When the added s makes another syllable (as it does in hiss, hisses ; sash, sashes), and sometimes when it does not (as in buffalo, buffaloes ; potato, potatoes j negro, ne- groes ; hero, heroes), es is added. When the noun ends in y, preceded by a con- sonant, the y is changed in the plural to ies, as in dainty, dainties ; pygmy, pygmies ; spy, spies. Some words ending in f or fe change the f for v in the plural, as half, halves ; shelf, shelves ; knife, knives. Fifes, proofs, and strifes are exceptions. Nouns in common use, derived from foreign lan- guages, usually form their plurals according to the general English rule, as index, indexes; cherub, cherubs ; formula, formulas ; seraph, seraphs ; beau, beaus ; but in scientific writings the plurals should be formed according to the rules of the language from which the words have been derived, as in appendix, appendices index, indices beau, beaux medium, media cherub, cherubim seraph, seraphim formula, formulae vortex, vortices 12 Irregular plurals For the proper plurals of foreign words, and of some others that are accepted as strictly English, the dictionary should be consulted. The formation of the plurals of English words cannot be reduced to a few simple rules : in some words they are of great irregularity, as may be seen in these examples : brother, brethren mongoose, mongooses cayman, caymans mouse, mice child, children Mr., Messrs. foot, feet Mrs., Mesdames goose, geese ox, oxen man, men tooth, teeth While s is sometimes added to the nouns Bedouin, cannon, heathen, to indicate the plural, they are commonly regarded as both singular and plural, and the final s is omitted. On the other hand, some words plural in form, as means (agency or instrumentality), ethics, politics, news, optics, may be used as nominatives with verbs in the singu- lar number ; but wages, pains, aborigines, antipo- des, and literati need a verb in the plural number. Compounded nouns add the s to the principal word, as in courts-martial, sons-in-law, stepsons, major-generals, four-per-cents. The plural of nouns ending in ful, as handful, spoonful, etc., is one of the unsettled spellings. Some make it handsf ul, spoonsful, etc. ; but the preference of most writers is for spelling the words as oftenest pronounced, handfuls, spoonfuls, etc. When to use a or an 13 THE DIGRAPHS OR DIPHTHONGS The digraphs (or diphthongs, as they are com- monly called) 86 and oe are not in as much favor as they have been for the true rendering of Latin and Greek words and their derivatives. Aeneid, Aeschylus, Caesar,^ Oedipus, mediaeval, etc., are so written now by many classical scholars. In early English names like Alfred and Caedmon, and in French words like manoeuvre, the digraph should be retained. A OR AN It is a good general rule to use an before a word beginning with a vowel sound, or in which the ini- tial h is silent, and to use a before a word begin- ning with a consonant or a consonant sound, or with a vowel preceded by a strong aspirate. The few exceptions cannot be classified. a eulogy a European a ewe a ewer a heroic a historical an adder a hope a horse a hospitaP a hoteP a humble a oneness an herb, -al an heir, -loom an honest a unanimous a uniform a union a universal a useful a usurper an honor, -able an hour, -glass 1 The Latin races discard the 2 These are American meth- diphthong in names and words ods. There are English authors derived from Latin or Greek, of eminence who write an hotel, Caesar in French is C^sar. an hospital, an hydraulic. 14 When accents may he used ACCENTS It is one of the many merits of the English lan- guage that words and sentences can be made suf- ficiently intelligible without the aid of accents, which are reserved for dictionaries and educational books. The grave accent for the final syllable -ed occasionally is used in poetry to show that this -ed is a distinct syllable. It rarely appears in prose, but when so marked by an author it should be repeated. All words or proper names distinc- tively foreign should be carefully accented as they appear in their own language. Other foreign words that have been incorporated in the English language, as depot, debut, debris, etc., do not need accents; but when accents have been carefully added by the writer they should so appear in print. O AND OH The forms O and oh are often made interchange- able by some very careful writers; but it seems to be generally conceded that the proper form for an address in the vocative is O, with the exclama- tion-point at the end of the exclamatory phrase, and not immediately after the interjection. Lord, have mercy on us! O my fellow- citizens ! Break on thy cold gray stones, sea ! Blessed art thou, Lord ! Distinction between and oh 15 O is also used as an ejaculation expressive of a wisli or desire, when it is joined to the following clause by the word for or that. for rest and peace ! that I had wings like a dove ! As an interjection expressing surprise, indigna- tion, or regret, O is frequently followed by an implied ellipsis and the word that. [it is sad] that I should live to see this day ! O is common as an exclamation in trivial speech : as, O my ! O dear ! In many Southern States O is the customary beginning of familiar and abrupt address, as John ! O James ! Oh, an ejaculation evoked by pain or woe, or by sudden emotion, as surprise, consternation, or delight, properly takes a lower-case letter (except when beginning a sentence), and is followed by an exclamation-point either directly after the oh or at the end of the exclamatory phrase. But she is in her grave, and oh ! The difference to me ! Oh, how I suffer ! Oh ! my offence is rank, it smells to heaven. Oh is often used, even in the Northern States, as a colloquial introduction to a sentence, as in Oh, James, I am glad to see you. Oh, yes, it is quite satisfactory. 16 Endings in -ihle ENDINGS IN -IBLE AND -ABLE The correct spelling of words that end in -ible or -able is often a puzzle to a compositor when they have been obscurely written. For his guidance the following list of the -ible words is presented. It may be inferred that doubtful words not ap- pearing in this list end in -able.^ accessible admissible appetible apprehensible audible cessible coercible compatible competible comprehensible compressible conceptible contemptible contractible controvertible convertible convincible corrigible corrosible corruptible credible decoctible deducible defeasible defensible descendible destructible digestible discernible distensible divisible docible edible effectible eligible eludible enforcible evincible expansible expressible extendible extensible fallible feasible fencible flexible forcible frangible fusible gullible horrible illegible immiscible impassible J,'^^7) intelligible irascible legible 1 On the use of this suffix, Dr. in -able, etc. (London, Triibner Fitzedward Hall's authoritative & Co., 1877), may be consulted treatise, On English Adjectives with advantage. Endings in -ihle 1' miseible possible reversible negligible producible revertible partible reducible risible passible (seebeiow) reflexible seducible perceptible refrangible sensible permissible remissible tangible persuasible reprehensible terrible pervertible resistible transmissible plausible responsible visible Impassible (incapable of suffering or emotion) should be distinguished from impassable (not passable). This remark applies also to the words passible and passable. CLASSICAL NAMES WITH K To lead to a uniform pronunciation of words con- taining the Greek %, heretofore rendered as c before some vowels and as s before other vowels, some writers in England and many on the Con- tinent write k in classical names and their com- pounds: Thukydides for Thucydides, Kikero for Cicero, Kimmerian for Cimmerian, Mykenae for Mycenae. These new spellings are chosen almost exclusively by teachers of the classics. When the compositor finds either form in the manuscript of an educated writer he should repeat it faithfully without question or remark. The determination of the proper form is outside the province of the compositor or proof-reader. 18 Endings in -or ENDINGS IN -IN OR -INE, -ID OR -IDE The common words canine, feline, marine, divine, clandestine, are always spelled with the final e, and this was the preferred form for chlorin, cholesterin, creatin, fibrin, protein, etc. ; but authors who now write on medicine or therapeutics reject the final e. The old chemical terms chloride, oxide, etc., are now written chlorid, oxid, etc.^ NOUNS ENDING IN -OR Words ending in -or and -er are often especially misleading in illegibly written manuscript. The following lists of these words will be found helpful : appreciator arbitrator assassinator assessor benefactor bettor (one who bets) calculator calumniator captor castor (oil) abbreviator abductor abettor (law) abominator abrogator accelerator acceptor (law) accommodator accumulator actor adjudicator adjutor administrator admonitor adulator adulterator aggravator aggressor agitator amalgamator animator annotator antecessor apparitor coadjutor censor l^^n^^™'"""' 1 The new spellings of chemi- cal words, which appear in the Century and the Standard dic- tionaries, and in the last edition of Gould's Dictionary of Medi- cine, were recommended by the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Endings in -or 19 collector competitor compositor conductor confessor conqueror conservator consignor conspirator constrictor constructor contaminator contemplator continuator contractor contributor corrector councillor counsellor covenantor (law) creator creditor cultivator cunctator debtor decorator delator (law) denominator denunciator depredator depressor deteriorator detractor dictator dilator director dissector disseizor (law) disseminator distributor divisor dominator donor effector elector elevator elucidator emulator enactor equivocator escheator estimator exactor excavator exceptor executor (law) exhibitor expl orator expositor expostulator extensor extirpator extractor fabricator factor flexor fornicator fumigator generator gladiator governor grantor (law) habitator imitator impostor impropriator inaugurator inceptor incisor inheritor initiator innovator insinuator in sti tutor instructor interlocutor interpolator interrogator inventor investor 20 ) Endings in -or juror preceptor sculptor lector precursor sectator legator predecessor selector legislator predictor senator lessor (law) prevaricator separator mediator procrastinator sequestrator modulator procreator servitor monitor procurator solicitor mortgagor (law) professor spectator multiplicator progenitor speculator narrator projector spoliator navigator prolocutor sponsor negotiator promulgator successor nonjuror propagator suitor numerator propitiator supervisor objector proprietor suppressor obligor (law) prosecutor surveyor observator protector survivor operator protractor testator originator purveyor tormentor pacificator recognizor (law) traitor participator recriminator transgressor peculator reflector translator percolator regenerator valuator perforator regulator vendor (law) perpetrator relator (law) venerator persecutor rotator ventilator personator sacrificator vindicator perturbator sailor (seaman) violator possessor scrutator visitor Endings in -er 21 NOUNS ENDING IN -ER^ abetter^ abstracter accepter^ adapter adviser affirmer aider almoner annoyer arbiter assenter asserter bailer^ caster (cruet, roller) censer (vessel) concocter condenser conferrer conjurer consulter continuer contradicter contriver convener conveyer corrupter covenanter debater defender deliberater deserter desolater deviser discontinuer^ disturber entreater exalter exasperater exciter executer^ expecter frequenter granter^ idolater imposer impugner incenser inflicter insulter interceder interrupter interpreter inviter jailer lamenter mortgager^ obliger^ obstructer obtruder perfecter perjurer preventer probationer propeller protester recognizer^ regrater relater- respecter sailer (ship) sorcerer suggester supplanter upholder vender^ 1 Variants ending with -er, betical order under the different -re (center, centre ; niter, nitre ; authorities in Appendix A. scepter, sceptre ; theater, thea- 2 Except in law, where the suf • tre ; etc. ) will be found in alpha- fix -or is preferred. 2 22 Endings in -sion and -Hon NOUNS ENDING IN -SION AND -TION A complete list of these words would be too long for a table of ready reference, but the different endings may be determined by this rule : Words which, in their shortest form, end with -d, -de, -ge, -mit, -rt, -se, or -ss, are usually lengthened by the ending -sion. Other words take the ending -tion. abscind, abscission absterge, abstersion admit, admission condescend, condescension confess, confession confuse, confusion convert, conversion descend, descension emerge, emersion evade, evasion extend, extension impress, impression intrude, intrusion pervert, perversion pretend, pretension protrude, protrusion remit, remission revert, reversion revise, revision seclude, seclusion IRREGULAR FORMS adhesion dissension propulsion assertion distortion recursion attention divulsion repulsion coercion expulsion revulsion cohesion impulsion scansion crucifixion insertion suspicion declension intention tension dimension occasion version Ambiguous terminations 23 WORDS ENDING IN -ANCE OR -ENCE, -ANCY OR -ENCY, -ANT OR -ENT The terminations specified in this heading are often made misleading by careless or illegible writing. The following is a list of many common words ending in -ence, -ency, -ent : abducent concurrence, -ent descendent(adj.) abhorrence, -ent condolence despondency abluent conference despondent absent, -ence confidence, -ent difference absorbent confluence, -ent diffidence, -ent abstergent consentient diffluent abstinence, -ent consequence efficiency, -ent adherence, -ent consequent eminence, -ency advertency, -ent consistence, -ent eminent affluence, -ent consistency excellence, -ency antecedence constituent excellent antecedent continence, -ent existence, -ent apparent convenience, -ent expediency, -ent appertinent corpulence, -ent feculence, -ent appetence, -ency correspondence flocculence, -ent ardent correspondent fluency, -ent bene volence,-ent currency, -ent fraudulence,-ent circumference deference imminence, -ent coexistence delinquency, -ent impatience, -ent coherence, -ent dependence impellent coincidence, -ent dependent (adj.) imprudence, -ent competence, -ent deponent impudence, -ent 24 Ambiguous terminations incipience, -ent permanency resplendent incumbency, -ent permanent respondent independence pertinence, -ent reverence, -ent independent pestilence, -ent sentient indolence, -ent poculent solvency, -ent inference portent somnolency, -ent inherence, -ent potency, -ent subserviency intermittent precedence, -ent subservient iridescence, -ent preference subsidence,-ency lambent prescience, -ent subsistence, -ent latency, -ent presence, -ent succulent leniency, -ent presidency, -ent superintendence magniloquence proficiency, -ent superintendency magniloquent prominence, -ent superintendent malevolence,-ent proponent tendence, -ency mellifluence, -ent providence, -ent transcendence moUient prudence, -ent transcendency obedience, -ent purulence, -ent transcendent occurrence, -ent quintessence transference omniscience,-ent recurrence, -ent transient opulence, -ency reference transparency opulent refluence, -ent transparent patience, -ent repellent transplendency pendent '(adj.) residence, -ency transplendent pendency resident turbulence, -ent penitence, -ent resolvent vicegerency, -ent permanence resplendence virulence, -ent With few exceptions, words not found in the above list should end in -ance, -ancy, or -ant. Proper names frequently misspelled 25 PROPER NAMES Names of persons and places are frequently mis- spelled. The proper names of geography, history, fiction, and mythology are differently rendered in different languages. Two forms of the same name may be written unwittingly by a rapid writer. To decide upon one form is the duty, not of the com- positor (nor yet of the proof-reader, who should query unless authorized to change), but of the author, who should write the name in one form only for the same book. When this duty devolves on the proof-reader he may confidently accept the preferred spelling of the dictionary prescribed. There are, however, many names not to be found in the ordinary dictionary. Indian names, and new places in the United States recently named, will be found in the lists prepared by the Board on Geo- graphic Names at Washington.^ For persons of local celebrity, the proof-reader is advised to record the proper spelling in an indexed memorandum- book. The names here given need special care. Acadia (Nova Scotia) Andersen, Hans C. Arcadia, poetical Apennines Allegheny City Appalachian Allegheny River Bastille, The Alleghany Mountains Biglow Papers 1 Puerto Rico (the form adopted by the Board on Geographic Names) is often spelled Porto Rico. 26 Amhigiioiis proper names Bonheur, Rosa, painter Britannia Brittany Brookline, Mass. Brooklyn, New York Burdette, Robert Jones Carey, Mathew, publicist Car}^, Phoebe, author Caribbean Sea Caribbees Carlisle, J. G. Carlyle, Thomas, author Charleston, S.C. Charlestown, Mass. Chile Colombia (South American republic) Coverley, Sir Roger de Dantzic Davy, Sir Humphry Defoe, Daniel, author De Quincey, Thomas Douglas, Stephen Arnold Douglass, Frederick Eifel River (in Germany) Eiifel Tower Eliot, George, author Elliott, Ebenezer Ericsson, John, inventor Fenelon, ecclesiastic Field, Cyrus W. Fields, James T., author Fiske, John, historian Fribourg, Switzerland Gerome, Jean Leon, artist Gray, Thomas, poet Grey, Lady Jane Greeley, Horace Greely, General A. W. Green, J. R., historian Greene, Robert, dramatist Harte, Francis Bret Hobbes, John Oliver Hobbes, Thomas Humphrey, Duke Hutton, Laurence, author Iviza Johnson, Samuel, author Johnston, Albert Sidney Jonson, Ben, dramatist Leipsic Lenox Library Lichfield, England Litchfield, Connecticut Livingstone, David Luxembourg Gardens Luxembourg Palace Luxemburg, Belgium Magdalen College,Oxf ord Magdalene College,Camb. Distinctively British spellings 27 Mainz Reid, Whitelaw Mitchell, Donald G. Rhead, Louis, artist Mitchill, Samuel L. Rheims Morris, Gouverneur Shakspere,! William Mytilene, island (also Sidney, Sir Philip, author chief city) of Lesbos Smith, Sydney Nuremberg Spencer, Herbert Oliphant, Laurence Spenser, Edmund, poet Philips, Ambrose, author Sterne, Laurence, author Phillips, Wendell Strasburg (Ger., Strass- Poe, Edgar Allan, poet hurg; Fr., Strasbourg) Procter, Adelaide, poet Thompson, Benjamin Pyrenees Thomson, James, poet Read, Thomas B., poet Ward, Mrs. Humphry Reade, Charles, novelist Watt, James, inventor Reed, Thomas B. Watts, Dr. Isaac Reid, Thomas Wiirtemberg DISTINCTIVELY BRITISH SPELLINGS British spelling is occasionally required, and as dictionaries made in England are not accessible to compositors, special lists of some variable words in frequent use are here appended. (See also three columns in Appendix A. ) A general direction to use 1 " Shakspere is scholarly, as other form in the copy of an edu- — The New Shakspere Society." cated writer, that form should (Dr. J. A. H. Murray.) This is be repeated. The preferred ad- the spelling of the Century die- jective suffix is -ian, not -ean tionary, but if the compositor or (i.e. Shaksperian, not Shak- reader finds Shakespeare or any sperean). 28 Distinctively British spellings British spelling is not specific enough. There are differences between the Imperial, Stormonth, and the Oxford ; ^ therefore a request for British spell- ing should name the dictionary to be followed. THE -OUR WORDS The words in British spelling which most perplex the compositor are those ending in -our, as arbour en amour 2 parlour ardour endeavour rancour armour favour rigour behaviour fervour rumour ca,ndour flavour savour clamour glamour 2 splendour clangour harbour succour colour honour tabour contour humour tambour demeanour labour tumour disfavour misbehaviour valour dishonour neighbour vapour dolou^r odour vigour 1 The New English Dictionary of the Philological Society, ed- ited by Dr. J. A. H. Murray, and commonly known as "the Ox- ford," probably will not be fin- ished before the year 1910. For present use Stormonth and the Imperial are the onlj'^ complete and authoritative dictionaries of modern British spellings. A comparative list of different spellings in these dictionaries is given in Appendix A. 2 These spellings are preferred also by the Century, Standard, and Worcester. Webster pre- fers glamour, but omits the u in enamour. Variations of British spellings 29 While the -our words are always seen in British spelling/ the Oxford dictionary does not follow the method of Stormonth, who changes many verbs ending in -ize to -ise, as in civilise, realise, utilise. WORDS ENDING IN -ISE advertise advise affranchise apprise (to in- form) chastise circumcise comprise compromise demise despise devise disfranchise disguise emprise enfranchise enterprise excise exercise franchise improvise incise mainprise manumise merchandise premise reprise revise surmise surprise 1 The u is frequently omitted when the termination -ous is added to any of the -our words, as in clamorous, dolorous, hu- morous, laborious, odorous, ran- corous, rigorous, valorous, vapor- ous, vigorous. In many words derived from nouns ending in -our the u is omitted, as in armory, colorable, honorary, in- vigorate, invigoration. There are a few English authors of authority who prefer clamor, pallor, and tremor, but English usage is largely in favor of the retention of the u. Saviour, as the synonym of Christ, retains the u in all dic- tionaries but that of Webster. *' Aiming to write according to the best usage of the present day, I insert the u in so many of these words as now seem most famiUar to the eye when so written. ... If this book should ever, by any good for- tune, happen to be reprinted, after honour, labour, favour, be- haviour, and endeavour shall have become as unfashionable as authour, errour, terrour, and emperour are now, let the proof- reader strike out the useless letter not only from these words, but from all others which shall bear an equally antiquated ap- pearance." Goold Brown's G^ram- mar of -English Grammars, p. 197. 30 Words ending in -ize WORDS ENDING IN -IZE aggrandize extemporize philosophize agonize familiarize plagiarize anatomize fertilize polarize anglicize fraternize pulverize apologize galvanize realize apostrophize generalize recognize apprize (to ap- gormandize reorganize praise) harmonize revolutionize authorize immortalize satirize baptize jeopardize scandalize brutalize localize scrutinize canonize magnetize secularize catechize memorialize signalize cauterize mesmerize solemnize centralize metamorphize soliloquize characterize methodize spiritualize civilize modernize stigmatize colonize monopolize syllogize criticize moralize symbolize crystallize nationalize sympathize demoralize naturalize tantalize dogmatize neutralize temporize economize organize tranquillize epitomize ostracize tyrannize equalize oxidize universalize eulogize paralyze utilize evangelize particularize vocalize exorcize patronize vulgarize Reformed spelling 31 In the New English (Oxford) Dictionary all the words that end in -ment retain the e in the pre- ceding syllable, as abridgement, acknowledgement, judgement. In other English and in all American dictionaries the e is dropped. Farther is generally restricted to distance : as, ^^thus far, and no farther," or "farther down the river," etc. Further is equivalent to additional, besides, moreover : as, "I have no further use for him," "further consideration of the matter." REFORMED SPELLING^ Reformed spelling, so called, is seldom presented in copy, but when so used by a writer it may be queried by the compositor : if he finds in his copy hav for have, thru for through, fonografy for phonography, and other spellings of like nature, shall he spell the words as written ? When the writer of these spellings orders and pays for the printing, his spelling must be followed without question ; but when this reformed spelling ap- pears in a contribution to a periodical, and the printing is done at the expense of the publisher, that publisher or his editor has the right to deter- mine the spelling. This determination should be 1 The American Philological list of amended spellings. This Association has published (in list is reprinted, with some slight Transactions, 1886, and in the corrections, in the Century die- periodical Spelling of 1887) a tionary (vol. viii). 32 Illiterate spelling made before the copy goes to the compositor, and should be expressed in writing on the first page. ILLITERATE SPELLING It is difficult to draw the line and say when copy should, and when it should not, be faithfully fol- lowed. Properly considered, it is an act of kindness when the compositor throws a mantle of correct composition over a writer's indecent exposure of his bad spelling and writing, but he always does it at a risk. As a rule, the ignorant writer is tena- cious about his spelling and expression of thought. Editors of newspapers frequently take maUcious pleasure in printing a fault-finding communica- tion exactly as it was written, and always to the writer's mortification. There are sent to news- papers communications of such delightful absurdity that it seems unwise and really foolish to attempt betterments that destroy their peculiarities. ^ 1 From Cornwall, England : begs to tell 'ee that I have just " R. G , Surgin, Parish beginned to sell all zorts of sta- Clark and Skule-master, Groser tionary ware, cox, hens, vowls, and Hundertaker, respectably pigs and all other kinds of informs ladys and gentlemen poultiy. I as also laid in a that he drors teeth without wate- large azzortment of trype, dog's ing a minut, applies laches every mate, lolipops, ginger-beer and hour, blisters on the lowest matches, and other pikkels, such terms, and visicks for a penny as hepson salts, hoysters and apece. As times is crul bad I winzer sope." II ABBREVIATIONS ^LIPPED WORDS are as old as writ- ing. They were stamped on coins and medals and cut in stone or pressed on --^. ^ _ bricks long before Genesis was written. ^^^^ Medieval books are full of tliem. The practice began with the copyists who wished to put many words in a small space, as well as to lighten their own labor, but it was carried to such an extent that the books then made were hard to read,i ^nd scholars everywhere complained of their obscurity. Books had to be published to explain their intent. 1 Chevillier (I'Origine de I'im- primerie de Paris, etc., p. HI, 4to, Paris, 1595) specifies an edi- tion of the Logic of Ockham, printed in that city in 1488, in which he found this mysterious statement. He says it was se- lected at hazard : Sic hie e f al sm qd ad simplr a e pducibile a Deo g a e (Sf silr hie a n e g a n e pduci- bile a Deo. These are the abbre- viations for Sicut hie est f allacia secundum quid ad simpliciter. A est producibile h Deo. Ergo A est. Et similiter hie. Anon est. Ergo Anon est producibile k Deo. 34 Abbreviations of the fifteenth century f ubieilu*g"Sps umtl M ar" ia og* po" d?'q) mPti Ifati Sif^idiai iudcos pcepunt i'tpc xpi ,p^ de natiiQliekfli cho"? & gamacle.un Io*dc pricfpib? luf ti cfedrdcrut ia cut, 1^ g? phartfcoi U pfitcbiat nc extra fiaagogai f/cret^ ExpIfciut.qJo* Scot/'Jup qtuofii bris foiaru^ m^'^.Si dc ah*6C|dlibctJ ciuf de.imf Ucy ^18 Venddiae dc Spirit* Lauscf^ From Doctor John Scott's Commentary on the Four Books of Sentences. Part of the last paragraph and colophon. Printed by Windelin of Speyer, Venice, 1475. Oncro.pp^^^d cc$tn an fili^rabdlio pof fit pficcrc ififtf m p pic, D^nue tra cm bic qSnc id.Lfirno.ff.Dc aucm.t.L^d Diam^ $j.e.ti.j6aran.Lp2»t>efaUt.L4te(lamcr^ $.|.t)ercfta;'0crita8 c^ fiU^ cmadpar^pc Lrili^cmacipat^.m f)n.ff.^e fal. fiiiue ac in peace p2t6 no puL^c co.in ^n.ff«eode* 0uero vltimo nu4d fr^f^r po^^^t pficcrc inftfmj) frarrc.'Rfidco fifaramboinptatc ciufdepus no pr t>c req pU qnf.Loc^zio. {n^n.ff.t)cfaL f$ rifucemlapatipot.ar.U tmpuberc.$*;.DcfaU ftnw Iiber plurimo^ t ractarnii larf inil pienruB^rgecine :Sinnot>huTR>xcccpciiu finitM fejcca ferta poft Sartbolomct. From the Modus Tjoj^eudi Abbreviaturas, etc. Two para- graphs and tlie colophon on its last page. Printed by- Martin Flach, Strasbiirg, 1499. Abbreviations of the seventeenth century 35 The facsimiles on the previous page, from two books of the fifteenth century, are fair exhibits of the frequency of early abbreviations. When books in roman type were printed in the sixteenth century for the unschooled reader, the abbreviations were used sparingly, but they were not entirely under ban in descriptive writing even in the eighteenth century. They might have been frequent in print if compositors could have put them in diminutive letters and on a higher line as readily as the writer of the manuscript, but the selection and adjustment of small type in the text made composition more difficult. When the pub- lisher found that this use of small type delayed work and increased cost, abbreviating with small A Letter from Robert Scott, the London Agent of Dr. Thomas Marshall, to Samuel Clarke, concerning Type-metal for the Clarendon Press. These for M' Gierke att his house in Holy Well in Oxford. Octob' 2g'^: 1668. M' Gierke I haue rec* both yo' lett'^ & had sooner giuen you answer : butt y* I was out of towne ; now first for M' Lee, I find hee is willing to Gomply in all y* y® Vniuersity hath desired & will shortley giue mee some letters w*^** shall bee as a Standard for y® mettall, . . . this is all att p'sent from S' Yo' Seru* to Goinand Robert Scott. From Notes on a Century of Typography at the University Press, Oxford, 1693-1794, etc. (Horace Hart, 1900), p. 155. 36 Abbreviations of the eighteenth century Basket the patentee for bible-printing in Eng/. having befides obtained a leafe of their printing-houfe from the Univ. of Ox/, and having alfo as he thought fecured the printing-h. at Edinburgh y immediately levied upon the populace an advance of ^60 p cent, on bibles and comm. pr. books, raifing an enormous tax upon the people for reading \\\q fcriptures, and for learning to ''pray by rote upon the book.'' and this is what is called religion. he impofed upon the fimple folk at his own price books printed on bad paper and worfe letter. — for i id. the duty charged by government on a ream of paper he charged to the people 1 1 j. fo they were taxed this way and that way, yet the affigns of Mofes had no part of the gains. More moderate were The Comp. of Stat, who for the additional \d. charged upon almanacs charged to the people no more than 3^. — fuch are the effefts of charters and patents granted to leeches, and to fuch leaches only be they granted as to Rock and others who are panders for the devil. — but why are the people fuch fools? — comm. prayer dindfcripture they may have for their tythes. — for almanacs they may revive The clogg, — or there is a vagabond Ifraelite who fells ''Perpetual almanacs that lafts for ever.'' From Mores's English Typographical Founders and Founderies (London, 1778), p. 79. type had to give way to the cheaper method of using text type only, and of shortening the word with period or apostrophe. In account-books and epistolary writing abbreviations of w'* for would, w'*' for which, y® for the, hon'^^® for honorable, judgm'* for judgment, and gents, for gentlemen, were common. Although tolerated in some printed books after the year 1800, they are now regarded Proper and improper use of abbreviations 37 as evidences of laziness or illiteracy. The rule is inflexible that words must be in full in all places where space permits.^ In formal legal documents, and even in brief notes or cards printed or written for occasions of ceremony, the number of the year and the day of the month must be spelled out in full. In almanacs, arithmetics, dictionaries, gazet- teers, and technical books of like nature, abbrevia- tions are not a fault but a positive merit where they save needed space. In treatises on botany, chemistry, or algebra and the higher mathematics, signs, symbols, and abbreviations are most helpful to the student. To print words in fuU would be a hindrance, especially so when it would prevent the neat arrangement of figures in columns and tables that makes the subject-matter clear at a glance. PROPER AND IMPROPER USE The compositor finds it perplexing to make or to follow fixed rules for the proper use of abbrevia- tions. The method that is suitable for the foot- notes of a history is not becoming for its text. Contractions permissible and commendable in the narrow columns of tabular work are not allowed in the descriptive text of a book. There must be dissimilar methods for the different forms of com- 1 These remarks apply to de- to foot-notes or narrow columns seriptive writing in the text of a in which abbreviations are some- book or magazine, but not at all times obligatory. 3 38 Permissible abbreviations position frequently required, and the compositor should not be required to determine the method. The line between a proper and an improper use can be most satisfactorily drawn by the author, who should not abbreviate any word in his copy which he intends shall be printed at full length. Even the abbreviations for foot- or for side-notes should also be written exactly as they are to ap- pear in that note. When these notes are extracts from or citations of authors who write in a foreign language, too much care cannot be given to dis- tinctness of writing. The compositor cannot spell out or contract technical words that he does not understand, or put points, italic, and capitals in proper places unless they are so marked in copy. For the ordinary descriptive text the rule to avoid abbreviations is now generally obeyed. No form of carelessness in writing, not even the mis- use of capitals and italic, so plainly indicates the undisciplined writer as the abuse of abbreviations. Cobbett has stigmatized them as plain indications of slovenliness and vulgarity. PERMISSIBLE ABBREVIATIONS Acceptable abbreviations in the text of a book are not numerous. Mr., Mrs., Messrs., Hon., Right Hon., Jr., Sr. (or Jun., Sen.), Esq., Rev., and Right Rev. are tolerated in newspapers and maga- zines, and even in some books, but it is more deco- Abbreviations of time and date 39 rous to spell out all the words in the preceding list except Mr., Mrs., Messrs., Jr., and Sr. Doctor and Professor should always be spelled out. In newspapers Gen., Capt., Col., and Maj. are some- times allowed, but in book-work these titles should be in full, as General, Captain, Colonel, and Major. When the title is double and is connected with a hyphen, as in Major-general or Lieutenant-colonel, the first word takes the capital letter. The same ruling should be applied to Ex-governor or Ex- senator. ABBREVIATIONS OF TIME AND DATE Ante meridiem and post meridiem are frequently presented in the small capitals a.m. and p.m. with- out a separating space, but it is now a commoner practice to make use of lower-case letters for a.m. and p.m., as is here shown. The abbreviations inst., prox., and ult., which are usual in correspondence and commercial work, are entirely improper in the texts of books. The name of the month should be in full. The days of the week and the name of the month may be abbreviated in the narrow columns of a table, but never in any place where there is full space. The names of months and days should always be in full in the text of a standard book. In the nar- row measure of a side-note and elsewhere they may be abbreviated, as is shown on the next page. 40 Abbreviations of names and epochs Jan. Aug. Dec. Wed. Feb. Sept. Sun. Thurs. Mch. Oct. Mon. Fri. Apl. Nov. Tues. Sat. Mch. and Apl. are quite unsightly. June and July cannot be abbreviated with distinctness. When dates are used, 2d or 3d may be allowed in places where 2nd and 3rd are objectionable. (See chapter on Figures and Numerals.) ABBREVIATIONS OF NAMES AND EPOCHS The printed abbreviation of the baptismal proper name is permissible, and indeed obligatory, when used for a signature intended to show autographic peculiarity in the abbreviated form preferred by the signer, as in Jas., Chas., Thos., Wm., etc. ; but when this name appears in the text, and not as a signature, it should be in full. Abbreviation of the baptismal name or names, or the use of the initial letter or letters, is permissible also in all pamphlets where many names have to appear in a narrow column. Some liberties are taken by writers in the con- traction of names like Ja's, Wm, Cha's, and Tho's, but they make unsightly words in print, and fully justify the proof-reader in reminding the writer that Jas., Wm., Chas., and Thos. are forms more approved. Abbreviations for epochs 41 Nicknames and pet names, like Bob, Dick, Jim, Tom, and Joe, do not belong to the class of abbre- viations, for they do not require a full point after the last letter; but Wm., Jas., Chas., and Geo. are rated as abbreviations requiring a full point. The pet names may appear in the text of a book as here printed, but clipped names like Wm. and Geo. should there appear in full as William and George. In all foot- and side-notes the initial or initials only of the baptismal name or names of the author of a cited book may be inserted, but this name should be printed in full in the list of authorities or in the index. Formal abbreviations of anno Domini, anno mundi, anno hejirae, anno urbis conditae, and before Christ are made with A.D., A.M., A.H., A.U.C., and B.C. For this purpose small capitals closely set are preferred. Other abbreviations, like e.g. for exempli gratia, i.e. for id est, q.v. for quod vide, viz. for videlicet or to wit, etc. for et cetera, are frequently put in lower-case, and, when composed of two or more abbreviated words, without any separating space. They have a grudged tolerance in ordinary books, but careful writers avoid them in their texts, even when they make use of them in tables and foot- notes : six o'clock in the morning and for ex- ample will be so written for the text, while 6 a.m. and e.g. will be substituted for the foot- or side-note. ItaUc is frequently but not always wisely used for the common abbreviations q.v., viz., e.g. 42 When the ampersand may he used MARKS OF REFERENCE The seven marks of reference made for foot-notes * t t II § IT Iiy are seldom used in the best books. They have been condemned as too few for many notes on the same page, as well as for their want of regularity. Some are too weak and others are too bold. Superior figures and let- ters ^ are preferred : the figures for the texts of or- dinary books ; the letters for cut-in notes of pocket Bibles, and for other notes when many in number. THE AMPERSAND The ampersand & is proper for the exact rendering of the signature or the authorized business name of a firm of copartners or a corporation, as in R. Hoe & Co. or New York & Harlem Railroad Co. It is in this form that such names are used in news- papers and pamphlets, and even in ordinary books. When many firm names are printed in a column, as in signatures, the & and the Co. should be re- tained as the true copy of each signature.^ 1 The letters are also used as 2 Some publishers and authors signs or symbols in text-books of require that they shall appear in sciences to refer to many differ- a standard book as R. Hoe and ent things. In music and geom- Company and New York and etry, roman capital letters are Harlem Railroad Company. It preferred ; in algebra, lower-case is, however, impossible here to italic letters; in astronomy, draw a line of distinction be- lower-case Greek characters ; in tween the ordinary and the chemistry, capitals, figures, and standard book. The compositor lower-case combined. should follow his copy. Abbreviations of companies and titles 43 The ampersand is occasionally found in the lead- ing line of display in the title-pages of fine English books, but this use of & is rare in America. Why & should be forbidden in the text and allowed in the title-page has never been explained. ABBREVIATIONS OF COMPANIES AND TITLES The abbreviation Co., as in The Century Co., must be so used when it is the company's approved form of imprint and signature. The compositor should not spell out Co. as Company in the official docu- ment of any company without a distinct order to that effect. When the firm name is to be set in all capital letters, the final o in Co. should not be in lower-case, and the same method should be ob- served with Jr. and Sr., or Jun. and Sen. : THE CENTUEY Co. THE CENTURY CO. JOHN BROWN, Jr. JOHN BROWN, JR. PAUL SMITH, Sr. PAUL SMITH, SR. Incorrect Correct The spelling out of abbreviations should be con- fined to all writings that have been carelessly pre- pared, not with intent, but through inadvertence or thoughtlessness. Extracts, quotations, and docu- ments inserted in any text should be faithfully copied, with all their faults. Without special order, the compositor should not try to amend, in the copy of an educated writer, any supposed fault in spell- 44 Abbreviations of companies and titles iug, abbreviation, or pnnctiiatioii, or in the use of italic. Yet the compositor is often requested to amend the grosser faults of an illiterate or care- less writer. It is not possible here to define where the amendment should begin or end. Faults of writing often convey to the reader a clearer notion of the style and mental status of the writer than can be gathered from his words properly rendered. Abbreviations of honorary titles, as a.m., m.d., LL.D., and D.D., are usually put in capitals when they are appended to a name in the text composed almost entirely of lower-case letters. When the abbreviations of many titles are added to the name, as in John Robinson, M.D., F.R.S., K.C.B., the absurdity of capitalizing the abbreviations of titles and making them more prominent than the name becomes painfully conspicuous. Despite the absurdity, this use of capitals for abbreviated titles in the text is made imperative in many offices. When the small capitals of the text letter have a little more prominence than the lower-case letters (which they seldom have), the small capitals will be found a more pleasing substitute. In the title-pages of books a contrary practice prevails. When the name of the author has many letters, and the honorary titles are many, these honorary titles are sometimes made smaller than the name by being put in snudl capitals. This Scientific signs and terminology 45 makes a crooked or unbalanced line of display. When honorary titles are numerous it is the usual practice to put them in one or more lines of small capitals or small lower-case below the name. ABBREVIATIONS THAT CONFUSE Abbreviations may make confusion. The initials A.M. are abbreviations of three distinct phrases : master of arts, in the year of the world, and before noon. Dr. stands for doctor and debtor; P.M., for postmaster and afternoon. As a rule, the con- text prevents misunderstanding, but abbreviations are sometimes used which cannot be explained by the context. What is worse, a short word may be misunderstood as an abbreviation. ^ SCIENTIFIC SIGNS AND TERMINOLOGY The abbreviations oftenest used are to be found in the dictionaries ; but for the abbreviations used in works on chemistry, botany, medicine, mathe- matics, and other sciences, in which they are some- times conjoined with signs, an approved modern text-book of these sciences is the only safe authority. 1 The cataloguer at times puts title of a celebrated picture as the compositor to shame. In an Jupiter and 10. To him the 10 English catalogue appears this was quite a plausible reading of entry of Talfourd's Ion : the lo who was one of Jupiter's Talfourd. One on, a Tragedy, numerous loves. I have seen The reader may here recollect Jupiter and lo rendered in print Saxe's ignoramus, who read the as Jupiter and Jo. 46 Mathematical and astronomical signs MATHEMATICAL SIGNS + plus A triangle — minus D square X multiplied by : and : : signs of geo- i or ^ plus or minus metrical propor- -i- divided by tion, as in = equal to A : B : : C : D > greater than • • minus, the sign of < less than mathematical pro- / difference between portion OC proportioned to :: equal to, in arith- 00 indefinitely more metical proportion indefinitely less .*. therefore Z angle *.• because L right angle ^ root or radical _L perpendicular — vinculum II parallel 1 bar ^ equiangular A finite difference O full circle or 360o o degree of circle o arc of circle ' minute of circle □ rectangle " second of circle ASTRONOMICAL SIGNS PLANETS O Uranus # Sun W Neptune ^ Mercury $ Venus PHASES e Earth # new moon d Mars ^ first quarter U Jupiter ^ Saturn © full moon € last quarter Commercial and apothecaries^ signs 47 ZODIACAL T Aries, the ram « Taurus, the bull n Gemini, the twins ^ Cancer, the crab ^ Leo, the lion ^ Virgo, the virgin — Libra, the scales fll Scorpio, scorpion t Sagittarius, archer V3 Capricornus,goat ox AquariuS,waterman ^ Pisces, the fishes ASPECTS AND NODES 6 conjunction D quadrature Q ascending node Q descending node 8 * A opposition or O quintile sextile trine COMMERCIAL SIGNS II. 34 Volume and page ) Volume and chapter IV. iv. Part, book, and chapter II. iv. 12 Part, canto, and stanza II. iv. 12 . Chapter, section, paragraph .... vii. § 3, tf 4 Volume, part, section, paragraph . I. i. § 2, ^ 6 Book, chapter, section, paragraph . I. i. § 2, ^ 6 58 Abbreviations in foot-notes In an abbreviated reference to the Bible or to the plays of Shakspere, use arable figures instead of roman numerals to specify first, second, or third part of the same epistle, play, or book ; but put these figures before the name of the play or book. Give at least one full syllable to each abbreviation of the book, and where it is possible make the ab- breviation end with a consonant. In making reference to Shakspere's 1 Henry VI, iii. 2. 14, the form here given is the preferred style of the Clarendon Press. Some writers prefer 1 Henry VI, iii. ii. 14. The great objection to small capitals is their too frequent insignificance. From English Past and Present, hy B. C. Trench 1 Guest, Hist, of English Rhythms, vol. I. p. 280. 2 Hooker, Eccles. Pol. i. 3, 5. 3 Craik, On the English of Shakespeare, 2nd edit. p. 97. * Marsh, Manual of the English Language, Engl. edit, p. 278. From Gibbon^ s Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Murray^s edition of 1881 {8 vols. 8vo) 1 Orosius, I. ii. c. 19, p. 143. 2 Heineccius, Antiquitat. Juris Roman, torn, i, p. 96. 3 Jornandes, de Reb. Get. c. 30, p. 654 [p. 87, ed. Lugd. B. 1597]. 4 Ausonius (de Claris Urbibus. p. 257-262 [No. 14]). 5 A. Thierry, Lettres sur I'Histoire de France, p. 90. 6 Procopius, de Bell. Vandal. I. i. c. 7, p. 194 [torn. I. p. 341, ed. Bonn]. Abbreviations in foot-notes 59 From Hume^s History of England, CadelVs edition of 1841 {6 vols. 8vo) 1 Herbert, p. 431, 432. * Burnet, p. 322. 2 Collier, vol. ii. p. 176. 5 34 and 35 Hen. VHI. c. i. 3 Stowe, p. 575. ^ Memoires du Bellay, lib. x. The comma is not inserted after the period in some places where it would be used in the text. When citations are made in the text, the abbre- viations in copy of ch. for the chapter and p. for the page should not be repeated in type, even when the author has made them in his manuscript copy. Spell out chapter and page. The abbreviations ch., p., and pp. may be used in foot-notes. In a lower-case text &c. should not be used ; etc. is better, but it need not be repeated. PS. (not P.S.) for postscript, and MS. for manu- script, are still tolerated in capital or small-capital form, but they are more acceptable as spelled-out words. By-laws are frequently printed with the side- headings ArTo 1 for Article 1, Sec. 2 for Section 2, etc., but it is a better practice to print the word in full in the paragraph where it first appears, and to omit the word in subsequent paragraphs, using the proper figure only, as is customary in verses of the Bible and in hymn-books. The arable figures engraved on illustrations as references to their explanations in the small type below the illustration never have No, before them. 60 Special lists of ahhreviations It is useless to insert No. before the reference fig- ures in the explanation. Figures and letters used as references do not need the abbreviating period. Abbreviations of honorary titles should not be divided by putting one letter in one line and its mate in the following line. These titles, abbreviated with two or more capitals, as in A.M. or LL.D., do not need intervening spaces, for the space is con- fusing in a list of many abbreviated titles. When two or more pages are specified in the text, set them thus : pages 141, 142, 158, and not as pp. 141-2, 158, nor as 141-158. When a reference includes numerous pages, set thus : pages 141 to 150. Compactness is desirable in references, but abbre- viations should not be indefinite or misleading. When a period of time is expressed by the dates of two consecutive years, set them thus : 1895-6. When there is a lapse of a year or more, give each date in full, as : 1895, 1897, 1899. The apostrophe in such cases as ^95, ^97, and ^99 is common, but it makes an unpleasing abbreviation. The careful writer who has to abbreviate in his foot-notes the names of books and periodicals, or scientific terms and foreign or little-used words, should prepare an alphabetical list of abbrevia- tions that will prevent him and the compositor from spelling the same word in different ways. As the compositor is required to follow his copy, he must abbreviate as the writer has done, even when the abbreviations are not always consistent. Ill COMPOUND WOEDS >ORDS of variable spelling are rare in ordinary copy, but words that may be compounded are frequent. When to set up two meeting words as two words, when to consolidate them in one word, when to connect them with a hyphen, are problems that the compositor has to decide almost every hour. He finds it very difficult to get authoritative instruction. There are not many authors who compound words uniformly, and the dictionaries differ, and sometimes are not consis- tent in rendering words or phrases of similar class. Arm chair, arm-chair, armchair, are suitable illustrations. The proof-reader may overrule the teachings of the dictionary provided by the office as an authority, and may correct proof by some system of his own. The author may object to the 62 Compounds needed for clearness rulings of dictionary and proof-reader, and may- insist on his own methods. It follows that there are often wranglings in every printing-house over the propriety of some compounded words.^ VALUE OF COMPOUNDS The subject cannot be set aside as frivolous. The importance of making instantly perceptible the union or the distinctiveness of meeting words that might otherwise convey unintended meanings is fairly presented by Mr. Teall in the three forms iron fence, iron-saw, and ironwood. An iron fence is a fence of iron, which is clearly under- stood when set as two distinct words. Iron-saw, a saw made to cut iron, if not connected with a hyphen would convey the wrong notion that it was a saw made of iron. Ironwood, the accepted name of a kind of hard wood, would not so clearly convey the intended meaning if set as two words or if it were connected with a hyphen. Other illustrations could be presented to show that the neglect to compound or to keep separate meeting words may lead to unforeseen misunderstandings. 1 It is not the purpose of the are interested in greater niceties writer to lay down new rules or are referred to two books by to take part in the controversies Mr. F. Horace Teall : English of opposing systems. For this Compound Words and Phrases work it is enough to present (octavo, New York, 1892), and examples of words and word- The Compounding of English joinings that have met with Words, etc. (duodecimo. New general approval. Readers who York, 1891). Consolidations fixed hy usage 63 THEORY OF COMPOUNDING The theory of compounding is quite intelligibly presented in many English grammars. When two words meet which convey one meaning, with the emphasis of pronunciation upon the first word, the two words should be consolidated or connected with the hyphen, as in laughter-loving. When emphasis is required for the second word, the two words may not be connected with the hyphen.^ This is clear and easily remembered, but to this general rule there are some exceptions not to be classified. The compositor must determine whether the first word in a possible compound is an ordi- nary and removable qualifier which has no need of a hyphen, or whether it is an inseparable adjunct which must have the hyphen or be consolidated with the following word. The consolidation of two words in one, as in iron wood, is still more difiicult to define by rule, for consolidation is governed by usage, as in the words railroad and steamboat, once 1 . . . Is not the pronunciation compound has but one accent- of the words the best guide?— ed syllable in pronunciation, as In the English language, every nighfcap, bed' stead, broad'sword, word of more than one syllable the two words have coalesced is marked by an accent on some completely into one, and no hy- particular syllable. Some very phen should be admitted. On long words indeed admit a sec- the other hand, when each of ondary accent on another syl- the radical words has an accent, lable ; but still this is much in- as Chris' tian-name' , broad'-shouV- f erior, and leaves one leading dered, I think the hyphen should accent prominent : as in expos'- be used. Goold Brown's Gram- tulatory. Accordingly, when a mar of English Grammars, ^.\%%. 64 Dieresis in consolidated ivords separate, but now consolidated, while house-boat and ferry-boat are sometimes hyphened and some- times set as distinct words. Many good writers do not favor the increase of compounds : words once hyphened are now sepa- rated, as common law master printer sister city grand jury minute hand slave trade interest tables palm leaf Sunday school law merchant peasant woman supper table The compounding of very long phrases, as never- enough-to-be-remembered, long-looked-for, coun- sellor-at-law, after the German method of uniting all qualifying words, is not practised by careful writers. Bigelow judiciously says that the hyphen- ing of these words adds nothing toward clearness of expression. Two words should not be connected with the hyphen when separated words will convey the meaning with sufficient distinctness. THE DIERESIS The dieresis, always on the second vowel, may be re- quired in some words like cooperative and preem- inent. When a word carrying this dieresis, like cooperation and preemption, has to be divided on the first syllable at the end of a line, the dieresis should be suppressed. He sought the agent at once, and asked his co- operation in securing for his son the pre- emption of the land. Fractions and numerals 65 When the prefix co- is followed by a consonant it does not always take the hyphen. Usage allows contemporary, copartner, and correspond, as well as co-worker and co-respondent. The dieresis should be preferred where, in words not compound, the vowel o is doubled, forming a separate syllable, as in epizootic, laocoon, zoology, zoophyte. POINTS OF THE COMPASS Useless hyphened words are often made in naming some of the points of the compass, as north-east, north-west, south-east, south-west, which are better as consolidated words (northeast, northwest, etc.). A hyphen is needed only when one of the words is repeated, as in north-northeast, south-southwest. FRACTIONS AND NUMERALS Simple fractions, like one half, two thirds, seven sixteenths, ten thousandths, need no connecting hyphen; they are more clearly expressed when numerator and denominator are kept separate and printed as two disunited words. But two nume- rals may be compounded by the aid of the hyphen when they are needed to qualify a following noun, as in one-half interest, two-third share, seven-six- teenth division. When the fraction is complex, as in three sev- enty-ninths or thirty-eight thousandths, the hyphen 66 Compounds for numerals should be used to connect the numerals more nearly- related. For a similar reason the hyphen should be used in the specification of numbered streets, as in Eighty-second Street or One-hundred-and- twenty-first Street. The hyphen makes the phrase awkward in appearance, but it is of real service, for by dictation the words Eighty-second Street might be misunderstood as Eighty (or 80) Second Street. Two numerals so connected as to express an amount that represents unity and not division, as twenty-seven, should always be compounded. Compounds of half, quarter, eighth, etc., are usually conjoined by the hyphen, as eighth-barrel half-dozen half-witted half -barrel half -holiday quarter-barrel half-crown half -past quarter-day half-dollar half-yearly quarter-section but quartermaster and headquarters are not. Numerals of one syllable used before the suffix -fold, or with the words score, penny, and pence, are consolidated, as in fourfold halfpence twelvepence fourpence halfpenny twofold fourscore sixpence twQpenny but numerals of two syllables are made separate words, as in a hundred fold, twenty score, fifteen pence. When used as an adjective qualifier, as in fifteen-penny tax, the hyphen may be used. Consolidation of 'personal nouns 67 First-rate, second-rate, and other terms signi- fying degrees, are compounded. So are the titles of First-lieutenant, Second-lieutenant, First-mate, Second -mate, when used before the name of the person; but when these titles occur without the name of the person they are made separate words. Numerals combined with adjectives or nouns and used as qualifying adjectives take the hyphen. four-mile run three-legged stool two-hundred- four-story twenty-acre lot dollar note one-sided two-foot rule two-faced APPROVED COMPOUNDS OF KINDRED foster-brother great-grandfa- mother-in-law grand-uncle ther second-cousin great-aunt heir-at-law son-in-law Kinship words in frequent use are consolidated godfather grandfather stepfather godmother grandmother stepmother godson stepdaughter stepson PERSONAL COMPOUNDS Compound nouns ending with man or woman should be consolidated : as, Englishman, French- woman, oysterman, warehouseman, needlewoman, workingman, marketwoman, etc. 68 Civic and military titles While a noun or an adjective made by adding a suffix to a proper name composed of two words may be compounded (as in East-Indian or New- Yorker), qualifying names without a suffix should not be compounded : the East India Company and a New York man are better renderings. The hyphen is needed in many words beginning with self. Exceptions are selfhood, selfsame, and selfish with some derivatives. Words ending with self, as myself, itself, himself, are consolidated. The exception is one's self, which should be made two words, marking the first word in the possessive case. There are a few writers, however, who pre- fer the soUd form oneself. Personal descriptions tersely expressed in two words, as light -haired, long-legged, sharp -nosed, broad-shouldered, blue-eyed, invariably have these words connected with a hyphen. CIVIC AND MILITARY TITLES Accepted compounds are major-general, rear-ad- miral, captain-general, adjutant-general, attorney- general, lieutenant-colonel, governor-general, vice- president, vice-chancellor, but the words viceroy and viceregent are consolidated. They 'always take one capital when they precede the name of the per- son, and sometimes when used as the synonym of that person's name, as in the words Governor-gen- eral, the Rear-admiral, the Vice-president, etc. Compounds of possessive case 69 COMPOUNDS OF -LIKE AND MID- Compoiinds ending- with -like are usually made one word, unless derived from a proper name, or appearing in unusual and unpleasing combination, as they do when two or more similar consonants meet, in which case the hyphen should be used, as it is in shell-like, bell-like, and miniature-like. Childlike, godlike, lifelike, ladylike, businesslike, etc., are always consolidated. Compounds in which the prefix mid- begins the word are frequently written with a hyphen, as in mid-ocean ; but the words in commoner use have become consolidated, as midday, midnight, midway, midsummer, midships, midland, midrib, midwife. COMPOUNDS OF COLOR Expressions like a brownish yellow or a yellowish white, being simple cases of adjective and noun, are not compounded. But where a noun is used with an adjective to specify color the words may take the hyphen : lemon-yellow, silver-gray, olive- green, emerald-green, etc. COMPOUNDS OF POSSESSIVE CASE Compounds formed of nouns in the possessive case with other nouns are not infrequent, as in bird's- eye, death's-head, king's-evil, crow's-nest, bear's- foot, jew's-harp^ etc. The use of a hyphen follow- 5 70 Approved consolidations ing the possessive 's has good authority, but it is of doubtful propriety and is much oftener disre- garded, as in birdseye, jewsharp, ratsbane, bees- wax, and townspeople. When there is reasonable doubt as to their propriety, it will be safer to omit the apostrophe and hyphen and to consolidate. APPROVED CONSOLIDATIONS anybody everybody nobody anything everything nothing anywhere everywhere nowhere cannot forever something evermore forevermore somewhere Any one and everjr one should be kept separate. Meantime, meanwhile, maybe, anywise, nowise, anyway, awhile, when used as adverbs should be consolidated, but the phrases, after a while, by and by, it may be, should be made separate words. bystander freeholder nowadays byways halfway roughhew churchwarden heartache smallpox courtyard highroad snowdrop earthenware highway stockbroker eyebrow knickknack taxpayer eyelash landowner teardrop eyewitness lawgiver thoroughgoing facsimile lookout trademark fireproof newcomer Zionward Prefixes frequently compounded 71 PREFIXES Where the prefix pre- or re- is joined to a word beginning with e, the hyphen, and not the dieresis, may be needed, as pre-exist, re-enter, re-enlist. The hyphen should be used when the prefix comes before a consonant and forms a word similar in form to another of different signification, as in re-create or re-creation, but not in rec'reation, nor in rec'ollection. It may be used in re-form or re-formation, but not in ref formation, for the word with a hyphen conveys a different meaning. The hj^hen is used in pre-historic and pre-raphaelite, but not in predetermine. The prefixes over, under, after, out, cross, and counter are usually consolidated, as in overdone, overestimate, overboard, underclothes, undertaker, underbrush, undergraduate, afterpiece, aftermath, outlook, outpour, crossexamine, crossquestion, countermarch, countercharm. When, however, these prefixes come before nouns or adjectives of two syllables they may take the hyphen, as in under- current, under-master, counter-current, over-issue, over-jealous. In some dictionaries the hyphen is authorized in under -lip, over- anxious, after -age, after-part, cross-piece, county-town, cross-section, counter-influence, but these words are oftener kept apart. Antislavery and antedate, once joined with a hyphen, are now more common as consolidated words. 72 Prefixes frequently consolidated Demi and semi, non, sub, and extra are prefixes usually consolidated with the following word, but when the combination is unusual, as in demi-devil, semi-savage, non-essential, sub-iodide, extra-judi- cial, the hyphen should be used. The same distinction may be made in scientific prefixes like electro, thermo, pseudo, sulpho. Electro - gilding, thermo - electric, pseudo - metallic, and sulpho-cyanide are made clearer by the hyphen. Above, ill, well, so, when they precede a parti- ciple and are used as qualifiers, may be connected to that participle by a hyphen, as in above-mentioned, ill-bred, well -formed, so-called. Adverbs ending in -ly are seldom compounded with the participle that may follow. Nouns or adjectives preceded or followed by a present participle are frequently connected with a hyphen: composing-room, printing-house, dining- table, good-looking, cloud-compelling. In the ear- lier editions of Shakspere and of other English dramatists hyphened compounds of nouns with participles are noticeably frequent. School is consolidated in the following words : schoolboy, schoolmate, schoolmaster, schoolmis- tress; but it is compounded in school-bred and school-teaching when used to qualify a following noun. It is a distinct word in school teacher, school children, school days, school district. Eye is usually consolidated in most of its com- pounds, as eyelash, eyebrow, eyeglass, eyewitness. Prefixes frequently consolidated 73 PREFIXES AND TERMINALS Compounds that end with boat, house, book, room, side, yard, shop, mill, work, maker, holder, keeper, etc., are frequently printed with a hyphen, but when the words that so end are in common use they should be consolidated, as in anteroom bedroom bedside bookbinder bookseller breastworks commonplace daybreak daylight daytime downstairs drawbridge earthworks fireside firewarden foothills framework gamekeeper groundwork handbill handbook headwaters hillside hilltop hotchpot lawsuit lifetime network outhouse quitclaim rainfall roadside sawmill seaside shoemaker steamboat stockholder storehouse storeroom upstairs warehouse watercourse wayfarer wayside workshop It should be noted that most of the prefixes in these examples are words of one syllable. When the prefix consists of two syllables, as in canal- boat, ferry-house, dwelling-house, water-drop, etc., the words are more acceptable when connected with the hyphen. 74 Words that may he compounded PHRASES OF SEPARATE WORDS after a while attorney at law by and by by the bye ever to be remembered good by good morning in any way in any wise in no wise inside out in the meanwhile in the meantime it may be so long looked for (return) some time ago the carrying out the pulling down uncalled for (remarks) upside down waste ground well laid out (grounds) Good day and good night should be made separate words, except when used as qualifiers of a follow- ing noun, as in good-night kiss, good-day greeting. APPROVED COMPOUNDS a-fishing apple-tree arm-chair arm's-length battle-flag bill-holder bird's-eye view book-account bric-a-brac burnt-offering charter-party counting-house church-goer deep-mouthed dining-hall easy-chair evil-doer fancy-free fault-finding fee-simple fellow-student first-born first-fruits fore-leg freight-car glass-house gold-mining good-will ground-floor ground-plan Compounds in capital letters 75 gi'ound-rent harvest-time head-right heaven-high high-priest high-water mark hill-bound hind-leg hind-quarters horse-power house-servant imposing-stone judgment-day knight-errant land-office laughing-stock law-abiding law-writer livery-stable live-stock long-suffering looker-on loop-hole man-of-war many-sided May-pole mill-pond moss-covered night-time old-fashioned out-building party-wall peace-loving pew-owner purchase-money rent-charge rent-service resting-place safe-keeping set-off sewing-machine side-track silver-tongued smart-money snow-bound snow-storm spell-bound star-chamber starting-point steam-engine stock-raising stumbling-block subject-matter table-land terra-cotta text-book text- writer title-page trade-wind water-mark water-proof way-bill way-station well-being wide-spread wrong-doer Compound words often cause over -wide spacing, but the gaps so made may be modified by putting a thin space on each side of the hyphen. A compound word within a line of capital letters should have an en dash to mark the comporand j but when it has to be divided at the end of a line, the hyphen should be used. IV FIGURES AND NUMERALS RABIC FIGURES are not always to be repeated in type as written in the manuscript copy. In the descriptive text of a standard book numbers but occasionally presented are more pleas- ing in words. Figures should be avoided as much as possible for all numbers but those of dates. Yet there are limits to the rule, for many writings com- pel a free use of arable figures. FIGURES PREFERRED IN COMMERCIAL PRINTING When and where to substitute figures for words cannot be determined by an inflexible rule. If the compositor finds this statement in his copy, the height of the statue is 8 ft. 1 1 in., he may put it in type in many ways. If it is to appear in Words preferred in formal writings 11 an auctioneer's catalogue, or in an advertisement where compactness is desired, lie may repeat it exactly as written, using figures and abbreviations for feet and inches. If it is for a more carefully printed trader's pamphlet or circular, he may use figures, but he should spell out the words feet and inclies 5 if it is for the descriptive text of a good book, the words eight feet and eleven inches should be preferred. This substitution of words for figures is a hazard, but the compositor may as- sume, when space is limited and brevity is sought, that figures and abbreviations will be preferred. WORDS PREFERRED IN FORMAL WRITINGS When great precision of statement is desired, as is customary in legal documents and in many other kinds of formal writing, figures and abbreviations should never be used where there is abundance of space. ^ Words should be preferred for the state- ments of whole numbers in simple sentences: The basket held twenty apples. The engine has one hundred horse-power. The steamer's capacity is six thousand tons. In ordinary newspaper and job work numbers of infrequent recurrence should be in words. Even 1 The principal exception to the compactness of figures aids this rule is to be found in the the reader in making a compari- composition of tables in which son of amounts. 78 Uniformity of expression when the numbers are large but not too frequent, words are to be preferred if space will permit. The regiment consisted of ten hundred and forty- eight men. The returns showed twenty-nine killed, forty-four wounded, and twenty-six missing. In ordinary description the expression of numbers by hundreds is preferred to that by thousands: twenty-eight hundred and sixty is a more approved phrase than two thousand eight hundred and sixty. In legal documents a contrary method prevails: dates always appear by thousands, and spelled-out words are obligatory for measurements, values, and their fractions in every form. UNIFORMITY OF EXPRESSION TO BE MAINTAINED When space is limited, and numbers appear in every sentence and are complex, calling for many digits, spelled-out words are a hindrance and of no benefit to the reader. The information intended will be more quickly discerned by figures, which must be regarded as proper when they really help the reader. Yet it is not becoming to put figures in one chapter or paragraph and not in another. Uniformity of style should be maintained through- out. It is better to give slight offence by an ap- parently pedantic precision in one paragraph than to give greater offence by varying the style in dif- ferent paragraphs to the confusion of the reader. Words preferred in legal documents 79 WORDS PREFERRED IN LEGAL DOCUMENTS Words should always be preferred for numbers as well as for dates in legal documents, as in This indenture, made the twenty-seventh day of June, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and ninety-seven. Words should also be used in all legal papers for the statement of moneys paid, as well as for the measurements of land and the expression of values, for figures are specially liable to error, alteration, and misconstruction. For this reason statements of numbers plainly intended to have special dis- tinction should be in words, even when they ap- pear as arabic figures in ordinary writings. Even in compact writing the use of spelled-out words instead of figures is sometimes obligatory. FIGURES SHOULD NOT BEGIN A SENTENCE When the sentence begins with a numerical state- ment, words must be used for the numbers, even if figures are used in other parts of that sentence. Eighteen thousand men enUsted in New York State during the year: 8000 are credited to Manhat- tan, 4000 to Brooklyn, 2000 to Troy, 1000 to Albany, and 3000 elsewhere. A statement like this is permissible in a newspaper or pamphlet, but in a history or in any book in- 80 Figures and tvords in one sentence tended to be formally precise, it is a mucli better practice to put all tlie numbers in words. In a catalogue of books in which the size of the book has to be specified, the terms 4to, 8vo, 12mo, etc., may be used within the sentence, but the words Quarto, Octavo, Twelvemo, Eighteenmo, Thirty- twomo, etc., are better when they begin sentences. FIGURES AND WORDS IN ONE SENTENCE When any paragraph consists largely of numbers that specify quantities, weights, or measurements, immediately followed by rates or values, then the quantities, weights, or measurements should be in words and the rates in figures. This remark ap- plies mainly to the circulars of traders. In market reports, catalogues, inventories, and works of like character in which great compactness is desired, figures may be used throughout for specifications of all numbers. When vulgar fractions have to be used with whole numbers, the selection of arable figures seems unavoidable. Seventy yards of cahco, at 5% cents per yard. Forty-five bushels of oats, at 37^ cents per bushel. Seventeen acres of land, at $12^ per acre. When numerical statements like these are repeated frequently, this restricted use of figures for rates or values makes a proper distinction between quanti- ties and rates, and helps the reader to a better understanding of the subject-matter. Bates best expressed in figures 81 Arabic figures should be selected to express de- grees of heat (as iu Temperature 71o) or specifica- tions of gravity (as in Lead is 11.352), but words are better for degrees of inclination (as in At an angle of forty-five degrees). Records of votes (as in 20 yeas to 41 nays), or of time in a race (as in One mile in 2 minutes 23^ sec- onds), are made clearer by figures. Numerals occasionally employed as qualifiers are neater in words (as in two-foot rule or ten-story building) j but when a noun is frequently repeated on the same page, with different qualifiers, figures make the subject-matter more intelligible (as in 6- point, 24-point, and 60-point type). It is admitted, however, that the combination of figures and words in a compound is not sightly. DATES BEST EXPRESSED IN FIGURES In ordinary writings all dates should be in arabic figures, but when they appear in legal documents words should be used. When the numerical day of the month precedes the month, it should appear as 10th April or 22d April. When it follows the month, the th or d is not required ; it should be April 10 or April 22. When it is spelled out in a document, it should be in full, as the tenth day of April or the twenty-second day of April. Dates should be stated with system in every book. It is a fault to have April 17, 1762, on one page, and 82 Vulgar and decimal fractions 23d August, 1764, on another. The use of 2nd or 3rd, common in England, is not to be commended j 2d or 3d is a more acceptable abbreviation. STATEMENTS OF TIME In formal writing a statement of time should be made in words. Phrases like two o'clock, half -past three, or ten minutes to four are more pleasingly expressed by words than by 2 o'clock, 3.30, or 3.50. Hours are usually separated from minutes by a period, as in 11.30. Sometimes the period is in- verted, as in 11*30, and sometimes a colon is un- wisely used, as in 11:30. The forms o'clk and o'cPk are tolerated in narrow column work only. In rapid writing figures are often used for time when followed by the abbreviations a.m. or p.m. When a.m. and p.m. are not in the copy, which reads, at seven o'clock in the morning, or at twelve o'clock noon, words should be used instead of figures. VULGAR AND DECIMAL FRACTIONS In ordinary description, but not in a legal docu- ment, the expression of money in complex or broken amounts, as $21.76 or £23 7s. 3d., should be in fig- ures. Even amounts of money, like five dollars or three shillings, may be in words, but not if figures are used in the same paragraph for other amounts. In ordinary composition, whole numbers with vul- gar fractions often compel the use of figures. Obscurity of many fractions 83 Analysis showed 13 J^ grains of soda to the pint. John has $76.21, and James has $50.67. An isolated vulgar fraction should be in words: i or sV is insignificant, and is more readably pre- sented as one eighth or one thirty-second. The hyphen is not needed to join the words one eighth, or those of any similar fraction, when they are used alone, but it is needed when the fraction is used as a qualifier, as in one-eighth share. Compounded fractions like eight thirty-seconds take the hyphen for the compounded numeral, be- cause the hyphen is needed to show the closer re- lation of the two numbers to each other, as more clearly appears in forty-seven ninety-sixths. The figures upon the en body provided by type- founders are insignificant in a line of capital let- ters. Newspapers prefer figures on the two-third- em body for their tabular work. \ i i i i i i Vs H h y2 h h % Fractions on the en body are quite indistinct in tabular work, for which fractions on the em body should be preferred. Piece-fractions on two bodies, each one half of the en body of the text type, are often required for vulgar fractions, but they are almost unreadable when cast for the smaller sizes. As these piece-fractions differ in size and cut from the solid fractions of the font, the two forms should not be used in the same table. 84 Figures not mating with letters Decimal fractions are most intelligibly stated in figures, with the decimal point placed on the line of the figure, as it is in .638. The inversion of the decimal point, as in '638, is not an improvement. The decimal point must always precede the decimal figures. If division has to be made between dollars and cents, the point should be before the cents. The ciphers .00 should not be added in paragraph matter to any statement of even dollars : $100 is better than $100.00, which may be confusing. Yet the addition of the ciphers is proper in every table that contains columns separating dollars and cents. When figures of very large amounts, as 23,762 or 5,368,872, are of frequent recurrence, the thou- sands should be separated by a comma ; but it is not necessary to use the comma for four figures only, as 5962, nor should the comma be inserted between figures that express dates, as 1861. Figures in a descriptive text are not pleasing, but they are necessary when the amounts are large and of frequent recurrence. To put the figures in the preceding paragraph in words would require more space, and would not be regarded as an im- provement by the reader. In the texts of formal documents, however, words are preferred to fig- ures, not only for their greater exactness, but for their neater appearance. As figures are ascending letters, occupying two thirds of the height of the body, the bunching of many of them in a para- graph spots the page and produces the effect of Numerical names of streets 85 the overbold display of many capital letters. Yet it often happens that neatness must be subordi- nated to clearness. Figures are more quickly read, are more compact, and are decidedly indispensable for tabular work that is intended to present con- trasts or comparisons of amounts or values. Statistical matter not put in tables often com- pels the use of figures in a descriptive text, as : The warehouse held 950 tons of wheat : 500 prime, 240 ordinary, 210 inferior. The cannon captured were 110 in number: 40 ten- pounders, 50 forty-pounders, 15 sixty-pouuders, 5 hundred-pounders. In all encyclopedias, gazetteers, dictionaries, guide- books, and compact works of similar character, fig- ures are preferred for numerical statements. A similar rule prevails, with occasional exceptions, in some forms of official documents, and exception is rarely made for a short number like 1 or 10. NUMERICAL NAMES OF STREETS The numerical names of city streets are presented best in words when the words are not repeated too frequently in the sanie sentence or paragraph. First Street is better than 1st Street. One-hundred- and-sixty-first Street is a somewhat awkward term, but it should be governed by this rule and be uni- form with other numerical words. 6 86 Numerical names of regiments When the number of the house is placed before the street name, as 65 First Street or 27 One-hun- dred-and-sixty-first Street, figures are needed to emphasize the difference between the number of the house and that of the street.^ When streets and avenues are frequently men- tioned in the same sentence or paragraph, and this treatment is not contrary to that prevailing in other parts of the work, the avenue may take the numerical word and the street the arabic figure or figures, as Fifth Avenue and 125th Street. In directories and other compacted works streets and avenues are necessarily described by figures only. But when a distinction has to be made, the avenue should have the word, the street the figui'e. NUMERICAL NAMES OF REGIMENTS Regiments and corps of the army are easily differ- entiated by similar treatment. When two or more regiments only are specified in a sentence, as the Fortieth and the One-hundred-and-seventh, words are properly selected ; but when in this sentence or paragraph other names occur, as the First Corps, Seventh Corps, etc., then the corps should be spe- cified by numerical words and the regiments by arabic figures. In a newspaper report of a battle or a review the specification of different regiments 1 In England the comma always is pnt after the number of the house. This is correct, but it is not American usage. Arabic figures with capital letters 87 by words would make that report needlessly prolix, and sometimes would confuse the reader. ARABIC FIGURES BAD MATES FOR CAPITALS Arabic figures are now made to line with the lower- case letters, and are of improved symmetrical form, but they continue to be cast upon the en body for convenience in table-work. They are consequently too weak to be used with capital letters that may be nearly twice as wide. For this reason the dates of some book titles, and the numbers of chapters and of other headings of a book in which numbers have to appear in the same line with capitals, are usually put in roman numerals made of capital letters. When a font has full figures of the width of the average capital letter, these broader figures may properly be used with the capitals, but figures on the en body should be used with capital letters only when these capitals are of condensed shape. When arable figures are required in a display line of old-style capitals, the figures selected should be of a larger body— about one half larger— than the regular capitals, and should be justified to line ; but this is possible only in a book title or in very open display. ROMAN NUMERALS The insignificance in a line of capital letters of the arable figures provided for book types compels 88 Numerals made by capital letters the use of roman numerals for an orderl}' rendering of dates in title-pages and chapter headings. The numerals in most use are made from combinations of the seven capitals, I, V, X, L, C, D, M : ■ 1=1 12=XII 30=XXX 500=D 2 II 13 XIII 40 XL 600 DC 3 III 14 XIV 50 L 700 DCC 4 IV 15 XV 60 LX 800 DCCC 5 V 16 XVI 70 LXX 900 CM 6 VI 17 XVII 80 LXXX 1000 M 7 VII 18 XVIII 90 XC 2000 MM 8 VIII 19 XIX 100 C 3000 MMM 9 IX 20 XX 200 CC 4000 MV 10 X 21 XXI 300 CCC 5000 V or 00 11 XI 22 XXII 400 CD 6000 VM When letters that represent numbers of low value follow a letter of high value, the added letters give addition to this high value : XIII stands for 13. When a letter of low value precedes a letter of high value, this preceding letter calls for its sub- traction from the following letter of higher value : MCM = 1900. For some amounts exceeding 2000 the characters 00, X, X, V, and the C inverted as Q, have to be rudely made by the printer, for these characters are not provided in fonts of book type.^ 1 Notation by numerals may When the compositor is required be confusing, tor the use of the to put a date in roman numerals, same letter as an adding or sub- he should prefer the combina- tracting factor allows opportu- tions that requii-e few letters: nity for puzzling combinations. MCM is better than MDCCCC. Ungainliness of early arable figures 89 Roman numerals had to be used by the first printers because they had no arable figures. These figures were first used in 1471 by Ther Hoernen, but they did not obtain a general acceptance for many years after. They were irregular in form and bad mates for the roman capital letters. These unsymmetrical characters were bettered but slowly, still remaining 1 1 z 3 4 4 -^ T € 4 5 5 6 Fifteenth century. A 7 8 8 9 9 I 2 3 4 5 6 Old style. 7 8 9 O I 2 3 4 5 6 Didot style. 7 8 9 o 1 2 3 4 5 6 Modern. 7 8 9 objectionably uncouth at the close of the eighteenth century. The figures i, 2, and o were made small and low, and all other figures were put above or below the line. For table-work all the figures were cast upon the en body. This left them insignificant when they were used in a line of capitals. What mismating of characters can be worse than this ? YEAR 165 OF THE HEJIRA It was the weakness and the uneven alignment of the arable figures made for old-style fonts that com- pelled printers to use bolder-faced roman numerals for aU title-pages, chapter headings, dedications, 90 Numerals for chapter headings inscriptions, and every other part of a book that was required to be composed largely in capital letters.^ NUMERALS FOR CHAPTER HEADINGS, ETC. Roman numerals are often used to specify parts and chapters. The numeral used in a chapter head- ing generally has the word chapter before it, as CHAPTER I CHAPTER III but the continued repetition of the word chapter seems as unnecessary in this position as the word page before paging figures. Some printers sup- press the word chapter (always understood) to give the required prominence to the numeral. Arabic figures following the word chapter should be as broad and as prominent as the letters of the word. Sections, pages, paragraphs, and verses are usu- ally marked with arable figures, but numerals of roman small capitals are preferred for cantos or stanzas of poetry. Numerals in roman lower-case are the rule for the paging of prefaces and some- 1 Old-style arable figures that signs the crooked Greek letters, are clear enough when embedded Old-style figures in all tables set in a lower-case text are not fairly in a broad measure, especially clear when set solid in the col- when the columns of figures are umns of a table, for the figures separated by a broad blank from in different lines are sometimes the words that show their mean- too close and need the separation ing, are too compact; they in- of a lead to give them proper dis- terfere, and confuse the reader, tinctiveness. Sometimes, how- Figures of greater height than ever, irregularity in figures is a the round lower-case letters need merit. It is for unevenness that leads between lines to produce writers on astronomy prefer for the clearness desired. Numerals for magnates and centuries 91 times of introductions. Book titles, dedications, and formal printed pieces which require an occa- sional use of numbers usually present these num- bers in the form of roman numerals, but this is not obligatory. The date line of the title-page of the ordinary book is frequently in arable figures. The numbers of the chapter headings in a table of contents are put in roman numerals, usually in capitals, but sometimes in small capitals. NUMERALS FOR MAGNATES AND CENTURIES The numerical part of the names of magnates is usually put in capital letters, and the name proper is kept in lower-case, as Gregory IX, Henry VIII, etc.; but the large size and the frequent recur- rence of these capitals seriously disfigure a page that has many names of like character. To avoid this blemish, small capitals may be preferred when they are a trifle higher than the round letters of the lower-case and are sufliciently large and distinct. They should not be used when they are not higher and are condensed or compacted. Centuries and dynasties are often specified by numerals in capital letters, as in XlXth century, XXIId dynasty ; but the undue prominence of the roman numerals in a lower-case text is a needless blemish. Small capitals when sufficiently large may be substituted with advantage. Many writers make use of spelled-out words in 92 Numerals and figures for foot-notes place of roman numerals. The phrase nineteenth century is now more common than XIX th cen- tury„ The phrases sixteenth Louis, Gregory the fourth, and twenty-second dynasty may displease some readers by their novelty, but it is probable that they will supplant the older form. It is customary in many printing-houses to put a period after the numerical part of the name. The need of the period in this position has never been satisfactorily explained, for XIX is no more of an abbreviation than 19, but it is unsafe for the compositor to suppress it unless so requested. The period is not used with the numerals employed to page a preface, nor for Part II or Canto IV, nor for [chapter] xx, [page] 375, as in a foot-note. A few old printers did, however, rate figures as ab- breviations.^ Reference figures need not be separated from the text by the marks of parenthesis, as in (1) or 1). The marks so used may be more prominent than old-style figures, and can serve no useful purpose. When the type selected for text and notes is small, a figure of slightly bolder face will be more help- ful to the reader.^ 1 1 have seen old books with figure ; in a broad nneasure the the period hefore and after every em quadrat may be used. In a date, and even after the arable catalogue of books hanging in- flgures selected for the paging dention should be preferred, so of leaves. The period seems a that the figure that denotes the useless nicety in this position. number of each book shall pro- 2 In a narrow measure the en ject into the margin and readily quadrat may come after the be seen by the reader. Figures without points in versification 93 NUMERALS FOR FOOT-NOTES Roman numerals of the capital, small-capital, or lower-case series are sometimes used to specify vol- umes, parts, or chapters in indexes and foot-notes. The word volume or chapter is rarely spelled out in an index or a note, or even abbreviated to vol. or cli., for it is supposed that the size, shape, and position, of the numeral will distinguish it from other abbreviations, as it does in xi, 63, which is intended to express chapter xi, page 63. (See Ab- breviations.) The numerals used for the paging of prefaces and introductions should be of the roman lower-case series. The lower-case and the small- capital letters i, v, x, closely resemble each other, and it is safer to make use of the lower-case letters only for the foot-notes where this treatment is possi- ble. This is one of many reasons why small capitals should be made higher and wider than the round letters of the lower-case and be a proper interme- diate between that series and the series of capitals. FIGURES IN VERSIFICATION When figures are used at the beginning of para- graphs, or to number verses or other subdivisions, the period is not needed after the figure. See the paragraphing of the Bible and the versification of all hymn-books. ITALIC NE line drawn underneath any written word is understood as a direction to put that word in italic. This under- scoring should be done by the writer wherever italic is really needed. A general direction to put in italic a class of words not so marked may not be understood when copy so neglected has to be set by many compositors. In the sixteenth century italic was an approved letter for book texts ; it is now seldom selected for that purpose, although frequently used for sub- headings, running titles, important texts or para- graphs, and sometimes for prefaces. Authors of the eighteenth century made free use of italic not only as an emphasizing letter, but to enforce nice and needless distinctions between different kinds of subject-matter, as may be noticed in the following Improper use of italic 95 extract from Hansard's Typographia (page 373), in which book that author literally quotes this pas- sage from Nelson's Fasts mid Festivals. Q. WTiat was the form of St Andrew's Cross ? A. The Instrument of his Martyrdom is commonly said to have been something peculiar in the Form of the letter X, being a Cross decussate, two Pieces of Timber crossing each other in the Middle : And hence known by the Name of St. Andrewh Cross. It will be seen that there has been no want of method in this arrangement. 1. The Questions to be Italic the answers Roman ; but the Q. and the A. to be reversed, viz. the Q. to be Roman for the Italic, and the A. to be Italic for the Roman. 2. All substantives to be capitaled ; all noun-sub- stantives to be Italic in the Roman part, and Roman in the Italic part, this not to extend to the sign of the genitive case, as the letter s is to be the reverse. Also particular words to be dis- tinguished contrary wise.— The labour to a com- positor, and also the reader, on such a work as this, will be httle short of that required upon a work of which he understands not a single word, and the book, when printed, exhibits a motley appearance of Roman and Italic, capitals and lower-case, till those who are not sufficient judges of typography to know the cause, wonder why the page is so confused and tiresome to the eye. Since 1825 the reading world has outgrown this artificial method of using italic, but it still adheres to other methods that are as illogical. 96 Mismating of italic untJi roman ITALIC IN COPY NOT ALWAYS TO BE REPEATED The free use, or even tlie moderate use, of italic for emphasis in a text is now regarded as an exhi- bition of bad taste on the part of the writer and a needless affront to the intelligence of the reader. For this reason the compositor should not servilely follow copy in its markings for italic. The undis- ciplined writer usually regrets profuse italicizings when he sees their effect in the proof. In case of doubt special instructions either to follow or to change overmarked italic should be obtained from the foreman or the proof-reader. If seven per cent, of the words in a manuscript is marked for italic, its composition cannot be done to advantage on the ordinary type-setting machine. When ten per cent, or more is italicized, the compositor by hand rightfully claims an extra price for the additional labor it imposes. ITALIC NOT ALWAYS A MATE FOR ROMAN Italic was made objectionable to critical readers by its frequent mismating with roman. When a thin italic of light face was made the emphasizing character for a text in a bold-faced roman, the in- congruity of the unlike styles was apparent, and this led to a general dislike of all italics. Type-setting machines constructed without proper provision for the composition of italic have been more effectual Misuse of italic for foreign phrases 97 than any other agency in curtailing its use. Italic is rarely seen in the text of the reading-matter of the ordinary daily newspaper, for experience has proved that it is not needed as much as was sup- posed for emphasis or distinctness of statement. Yet it is not out of fashion in book-work, being used for running titles and subheadings, and to some extent in the text to differentiate words or phrases that might be misunderstood ; but it is not used so freely as it has been to mark the emphatic words and examples of educational books. It has been found that the profuse commingling of an upright and an inclined letter irritates the eye, con- fuses perception, and makes the page hard to read and understand. A light-faced antique of round or slightly compressed form has been found more acceptable than italic for distinctions in the text. FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES Words and phrases in foreign languages are not put in italic so frequently as they were a hundred years ago, but if the compositor finds italic clearly marked in the manuscript of a disciplined writer, he should obey this direction. Yet there are many good book-houses that forbid the use of italic for the short sentences of the following examples : This inscription was on the tablet : Duke et decorum est pro patria mori. 98 German authors dislike italic Caesar wrote : Veni, vidi, vici. Qui vit sans folie rCest pas si sage quHl croit. Most true, you spiteful critic. Sentences like these do not need italic or quota- tion-marks. The selection of the colon, the change from English to a foreign language, the beginning of the quotation with a capital letter, the context, and the occasional but improper use of quotation- marks, are enough to make it apparent that the foreign words are quotations. To set an entire paragraph of the quoted matter of a foreign lan- guage in italic, or even to select it too freely for phrases, practically nullifies its value as a display letter for the subheadings or for any other part of the book in which distinction is really needed. Words and short phrases quoted from Greek or German are usually set in roman between quota- tion-marks ; but if the quoted word or phrase is made the text or subject of fine verbal criticism, it should be put in the proper character of its own language. To the critical German author italic is offensive as it appears in this sentence : The connection with potamos and with posis is equivocal and insufficient. The connection with noza[x6q and with noaiq is equivocal and insufficient. Greek characters, as they are shown in the second example, should be preferred to those of italic. Verses and phrases in italic 99 When an entire paragraph or a long sentence in a foreign language is quoted in full, the quotation- marks are sufficient to show that the quoted matter is not a part of the text. Italic is not needed, but bibliographers who habitually select italic for the citations of books prefer that character for all quo- tations, whether they do or do not make an entire paragraph. The verse that follows is in the style preferred by Pollard^ in his reprint of the colophon of an edition of Bartolus de Saxoferrato on the Di- gests of Justinian, printed by Windelin of Speyer : Si correcta voles digesta evolvere legum, Hec erne, quae nulla carpere parte pates. Perlege : nan parvo sunt emendata labore. Nil nisi correctum vendere Spira jubet One revival of an old fashion in typography is the selection of italic in modern books for bits of verse between paragraphs in the text of roman, but it is not a fashion to be commended. An unusual word or a short phrase in a foreign language, even when it is accompanied by a trans- lation, is sometimes required to be set in italic, as in It was a simple chaise, a due posti, neither new nor neat. The metayer system is not beneficial to the farmer. We had our dejeuner a la fourchette as early as eleven o'clock in the morning. 1 Last Words on the History of the Title Page, etc., p. 11. 100 Words that do not need italic Wliy these words sliould be set in italic, why a due posti would not be equally clear in quotation-marks or in parentheses, why metayer should not be in quotation-marks, are questions not to be answered satisfactorily, but when it is the plain order of the author to set phrases or words like these in italic, that direction must be obeyed. There are foreign words, used for the first time, that need some dis- tinction, and there are others that have no proper equivalents in English. Here follows a sentence in which the use of italic seems to be regarded by the writer as not only admissible but commendable-. He was told that she was very unhappy, pour lui et par lid, and that his attentions had been com- promettant to her prospects as well as destructive to her peace. Pour hii et par lui and comproynettant have satis- factory equivalents in English, but these equiva- lents do not convey the alliteration and the play OIL words intended by the writer. There is increasing resistance to the excessive use of italic. The foreign words and phrases that have been practically incorporated in the English language are now preferably put in roman, as in aide-de-camp alma mater billet-doux addenda anno domini bona fide ad valorem ante-bellum bon-ton alias k propos bravos alibi beau ideal cafe Words that do not need italic 101 cantos carte blanche chapeau chaperon charge d'affaires chiaroscuro cicerone contra corrigenda data debris debut depot diarrhoea dictum dilettante dramatis per- sonae ennui entrepot erratum et cetera facsimile fete finis gratis imprimatur innuendo literati mandamus manoeuvre mignonette naive olla podrida onus paterfamilias patois per annum per capita per cent. per centum per se post-mortem pro rata protege quondam regime rendezvous r61e savants seraglio sobriquet ultimatum verbatim vice vice versa viva voce This list could be largely extended. Any word of foreign origin which appears as an English word in an approved English dictionary, by that adop- tion ceases to be foreign, and should not be set in italic unless it is so ordered by the author. Foreign words that are familiar to all intelligent readers do not need italic. The accents should be repeated when they are so marked in copy, but their omission in words like depot and role when set in roman is a common practice. 7 102 Italic preferred for citations of hooks The following words or phrases usually appear in italic, with their proper accents : ab ovo en passant locum tenens ancien regime fait accompli mise en scene Mte noire grand monde noblesse oblige comme il faut hors de combat raison d^etre de qiioi vivre inter alia sans ceremonie de trop jeud^ esprit tour deforce The phrases prima facie and ex officio, when used to qualify the nouns that follow, are frequently put in roman ; but when used as adverbs they may be set in italic. The compositor may need from the proof-reader special instruction for these cases. Prima-facie evidence. The evidence is, prima facie, convincing. An ex-officio member of the committee. The Speaker is, ex officio, the chairman. Note also that these words may be connected with a hyphen when they are used as qualifiers. In works on bibliography the titles of all books specified in the text are usually put in italic, as : Storia Critica de Nic. Jenson. Lettres d'un Bibliographe. "* Hints on Decorative Printing. This method, approved by all bibliographers, is to be preferred to the commoner practice of setting titles in roman and inclosing them with quotation- Italic for names of periodicals 103 marks. A different method is observed for foot- notes, not only by bibliographers, but by modern historians : the name of the author, the title of the book, and the date and description are always set in roman lower-ease, without the use of small capitals, italic, or quotation-marks. 1 Sardini, Storia Critiea de Nic. Jenson, Lucca, 1796-98 (3 parts), 8vo, p. 19. 2 Madden, Lettres d'lm Bibliographe, Paris, 1886, 8vo, sixieme s^rie, p. 116. 3 Savage, Hints on Decorative Printing, London, 1882, 4to, chap. ii. In the texts of magazines and journals, and in all ordinary book-work, the titles of cited books are frequently and needlessly put in roman lower-case between quotation-marks, as in ^' Introduction to the Classics," vol. ii, p. 555. " Gentleman's Magazine," 1793, p. 91. The full names of magazines and newspapers were formerly always set in italic, but they often appear now in roman lower-case quoted.^ A recent prac- tice is to select italic for the name (but not always the place) of the paper, as London Times or Neiv 1 Some editors still adhere to the specification of the article the old usage, putting the name could be made equally clear by of the book or magazine in italic, using roman lower-case for the and reserving quotation-marks name or title, and beginning each for the heading of any article important word with a capital referred to in the publication, letter, as has been the custom for This is a nice distinction, but the specification of book titles. 104 Italic for characters in plays York Herald} One old tradition is maintained : the paper or magazine that prints its own name in its text does so with small capitals. Names of vessels, as the Kearsarge or the Ala- bama, are frequently put in italic. The intent of the italic is to differentiate the ships from the places. Italic is often selected (too often unwisely) for the names of paintings and statues, and for char- acters in plays, apparently with intent to aid the reader to a better understanding of the subject. In the text of the ordinary book or periodical, Julius Caesar, the man of history, is always set in roman; but Julius Caesar as a personage in a play is usually set in italic. In these attempts to help, profuse italic defeats the purpose of the writer; it spots the text, disfigures the page, and irritates the reader.^ PROPER USE OF ITALIC Although italic often has been misused, it cannot be dispensed with. It can be made a help to good 1 The definite article the, use of Italic for words arbitra- which usually precedes the cita- rily selected, see the extract on tion of a journal, need not be page 36, from Rowe Mores's Ty- capitalized, italicized, or put in pographical Founders and Foun- quotation-marks, "The New deries. The Mechanick Exercises York Herald," "The Evening of Joseph Moxon, frequently Journal," are obsolete fashions cited in this book, is even more of citation. These papers are profuse in display. Excess of oftener cited without quotation- italic in print, like false empha- marks, as the New York Herald sis in oratory and profuse un- or the Evening Journal. derscorings in writing, does not 2 For an exhibit of a needless help but hinders understanding. Italic for credits 105 typography. It may be selected with propriety for running titles, for the headings of tables, for sub- headings, and for a clearer marking of the words and phrases that really need distinction in the text. The signature of each contributor to a magazine is usually set in italic, but it is unwisely used for side-notes, for it has many kerned or projecting letters, which are liable to break and often do break off at the endings of lines in an exposed position. Italic may be selected occasionally to distinguish the words or clauses that serve as verbal texts for an extended comment, but it should not be selected unless there is real need for making a distinction. Small capitals are sometimes used with good effect. In the text of a book or pamphlet, use roman for the name of the writer, but italic for the title of the cited book. In a citation that makes a full paragraph, and in all foot-notes, it is the common practice to put the name of the author as well as of the book in roman lower-case. At the end of a paragraph or foot-note, specification of author and book may be roman for author and italic for book ; book alone, italic. Select roman, without quotation-marks, for the names of papers, magazines, and serials appearing in the body of the text or in a foot-note, but when put at the end of paragraphs as credits, use italic. When an unfamiliar foreign word is used to convey precise description, put it in italic, but use roman for repetitions of that word. 106 Latinized names of science LATINIZED NAMES OF SCIENCE Names of diseases, as angina pectoris, cerebrospi- nal meningitis, and of remedies, as uux vomica, cannabis indica, are not set in italic, nor does the first word begin with a capital letter. Ordinary names in geology, as quartz, horn- blende, gneiss, do not take capitals or italic; but when thej^ are derived from proper names, as De- vonian, Jurassic, a capital is required for the first letter, but the word is set in roman. In botany and zoology the first letter of a name composed of two words usually takes a capital, and each word is set in italic. The first word denotes the genus ; the second, the species, — the generic and specific names together constituting the scientific name of the animal or plant : as, Arvicola ampMh- itis. When the second name is derived from that of a person or place, its first letter may be capitalized, as in DelpMnus Sinensis or Darlingtonia Californica. When the name of a family or an order is mentioned, the first letter of the word is usually capitalized. Of the Castoridae, or beaver family of Kodentia, we have three native species: the water-vole {Arvi- cola amphibius), the field-vole {Arvicolct agrestis), and the bank- vole {Arvicola pratensis). In this illustration the words Casforidae and Boden- tia denote respectively the family and order, and the three species of Arvicola the particular kind of Names of species in italic 107 animal. When first used all the words should be in italic. The words Castoridae or Rodentia when re peated in the same article may be in roman, but the names of species should be in italic, however often repeated. The distinction prevents confusion. Authorities in science differ as to the use of italic and capitals, but the rules here given are enough for the uniformity of negligently prepared copy. If the compositor finds another method in carefully prepared copy, he should observe that method. Italic is frequently used for the words of a run- ning commentary bracketed in the text. The word [sic] is often selected to call attention to bad spell- ing or the improper use of a word. Comments set in roman and put in brackets should not need greater distinction. Italic should be avoided in all lines (as in date- lines and side-notes) in which upright figures are used. The contrast between straight roman and bent italic in the same word is unpleasing. Quotations and extracts that make two or more lines, and really require a special paragraph, may be set in roman with quotation-marks if in the same type as the text, or without them if in smaller type with blank at top and bottom. This arrangement will be more pleasing than a paragraph of italic. In book- work, italic parentheses should not be used for inclosing words in italic. Distinction is sought for the words, not for the points. In dis- played job-work italic parentheses may be used. yi CAPITAL LETTEES ETTERS intended for capitals of full size " are indicated in the manuscript by underscoring them with three parallel lines. The first word of every full sen- tence should begin with a capital letter. For the proper expression of words correctly written in English this rule is invariable, but it should not be applied, when literal exactness is intended, to a reprint of the incorrect writing of an illiterate per- son who does not begin a sentence with a capital.^ Every line or verse of poetry shou.ld begin with a 1 There have been even schol- arly men who did not observe this ruling. The English Typograph- ical Founders and Founderies of E. Rowe Mores shows capitals for proper names only and for the first letter of the first sentence in a paragraph, but not for the first letters of sentences that follow in that paragraph. (See extract on page 36. ) A quotation from the book is not fairly pre- sented if it does not reproduce this mannerism. In setting mat- ter with these peculiarities the copy should be followed. 108 Capitals for the Deity and synonyms 109 capital letter, but this rule does not apply to the turned-over words of a line or a verse of too many syllables for the measure. The early printers of Italy put small capitals at the beginning of lines of poetry, and these small capitals were separated by a wide space from the letters in lower-case that followed. When literal exactness is intended in a quotation this mannerism may be followed. E / p/elfs in medijs latina campis H orrebat mala nauigationes.^ The first letter of every proper noun should have a capital. Here the printer may be puzzled. John Smith and James Brown, America and England, are unmistakably proper nouns, but there are per- sonified abstractions, like Government, Goodness, Heaven, etc., which in some senses need a capital, and in others do not. Rules for giving or withhold- ing the capital may be gathered from the following remarks. THE DEITY, SYNONYMS, AND PRONOUNS The name of the Deity in every person, and in every synonym or attribute, should begin with a capital, as Father, Son, Holy Ghost, God, Lord, Jehovah, Jesus Christ, Holy Spirit, Saviour, Al- mighty, Heaven, Creator, Providence, etc. In the Bible the words God and Lord, when they 1 From an edition of Statins by Aldus, 1502. 110 Capitals for certain pronouns '^ represent the words substituted by Jewish cus- tom for the ineffable Name," ^ are presented in capitals and small capitals, as is here shown; but the gods and lords of the heathen have not this distinction. The pronouns Thee, Thou, and Thy, He, Him, and His, specifying God, always begin with a lower-case letter in the Bible, but in hymn- books and other manuals of devotion it is usual to give to them a capital letter. The pronouns that, which, who, whose, and whom, referring to Deity or divine attributes, do not take a capital letter. The capitalizing of a pronoun is contrary to the general rules of English grammar, but for this purpose capitals have found approval for many years, and when a compositor or proof-reader finds such pronouns consistently capitalized in manu- script he should not make or suggest their altera- tion to lower-case letters. The pronoun I and the interjection O always take a capital letter in English writing, but oh does not, except when it begins a sentence. This rule does not always apply to Latin, in which the de- nouncing or appealing O should appear in the form of a lower-case letter.^ Sometimes the capital O has been used in famous editions of the classics, but this usage is not approved by the best scholars. The compositor should select the lower-case character. 1 Preface to Revised Version, 16mo, p. vi, edition of 1885. 2 Hoccine seclum ! o scelera ! o genera sacrilega ! o hominem inipium ! Terence, Adelphi, III, ii, 6. Adestes o Maria, o Angele, o Patroni castitatis mete. Libellus Precum. Capitals for hooks, plays, and pictures 111 DAYS OF THE WEEK AND MONTH, FESTIVALS AND HISTORIC DAYS The proper names of the days of the week and of the months of the year should always begin with a capital. This rule is amplified to include the days of feasts and fasts, festivals and holidays, whether they are for religious or civic observance, as : Arbor Day Easter Lady Day Ascension Fast Day New Year's Bank Holiday Fourth of July Thanksgiving Christmas Good Friday Whitsunday Decoration Day Labor Day Whitsuntide Appellations attached to historic days, even when they are of merely temporary importance, as Black Friday, must be rated as proper names and should take a capital. Do not capitalize O'Clock in any lower-case text that seems to call for some form of modified dis- play 5 always make it o'clock. This remark applies also to such names as John o' Groat, Tam o' Shan- ter, etc. : in all names so compounded the o' should be small and separated from the following word. TITLES OF BOOKS, PERIODICALS, PLAYS, AND PICTURES The title of every book, periodical, play, or picture that is mentioned in the text should always begin 112 Capitals for hooks and headings with a capital letter, and every important word of the title so described is usually capitalized/ as : Maxwell's Advanced Lessons in English Grammar. the New-York Tribune. Watson's History of the Art of Printing. Blades's How to Tell a Caxton. Sheridan's School for Scandal. Dore's Christ Leaving the Pretorium. In long or complex titles the nouns always may be capitalized ; important verbs, participles, and adjec- tives usually; articles, prepositions, and conjunc- tions rarely or never. This rule is usually applied not only to the titles of books and plays, but of every form of literary or artistic work, large or small, even to the title of a short newspaper article. When the name of a newspaper or periodical is cited in the text, the definite article the should not have a capital, but in the exact citation of a book title this beginning the should be capitalized. According to the Tribune. This appears in the Century. We cannot praise The Revolt of Islam. Capitals are preferred for the composition of all titles a.nd dedications, the headings of parts and chapters, and the headings of many important 1 This is prevailing usage, but another method is presented on page 127 of this work. Capitals for organised corporations 113 minor portions of a book,i but they should never be compacted in composition. As capitals occupy much more of the type body, and have no ascend- ing or descending strokes or lines to break up their monotony, they require a much wider leading and a broader spacing than are given to text letters in lower-case. Where one thin lead is used between the lines of a lower-case text, at least two and sometimes three leads are needed to make consecutive lines of capi- tals sufficiently readable. This method is approved by the publishers of all modern books.^ TITLES OF CORPORATIONS The first word and the leading words of the titles of corporations, and of all organized assemblies or societies, should begin with a capital letter. The Board of Education of the City of New York. The Senate and Assembly of the State of New York. The Society for Improving the Condition of the Poor. When, for the sake of brevity, the full title of a corporate body is not given, but is shortened, as 1 For Capitals express Dignity, ing the fashion of a few of the where - ever they are Set, and early printers, who had not then Space and Distance also implies learned the value of leads, he stateliness. Joseph Moxon, Me- recommended that all words be chanick Exercises, p. 225, close spaced and lines be kept 2 William Morris of the Kelms- close together, making no excep- cott Press held to a different tion for lines of capitals. For an practice, which is accepted by illustration of the two methods, some of his disciples. Follow- see page 203 of this book. 114 Capitals for titles of honor the Senate, the Assembly, the Chamber (of Com- merce), the Company, the Club, and it is clearly intended that tlie word so selected is to apply to a particular organization, the capital letter always should be selected. This rule is to be observed in printing the abbreviated name of every organiza- tion or association when it is intended to specify a particular association, as the Synod, the Conven- tion, the Union, the Typothetae, the Parliament, the State, the Government. These words, and all other words of like nature, need not take a capital when they are not intended to specify one association only. A state, a govern- ment, or a convention is but a common noun and needs no capital. The State, the Government, or the Convention, when used to identify one corpo- rate body only, becomes the synonym of a proper noun and should have the capital. The general rule to be deduced is that corporate bodies defined by the definite article the need a capital, while those that follow the indefinite article a or an should not have a capital. TITLES OF HONOR OR DISTINCTION Titles of distinction that immediately precede the name of a person should begin with a capital let- ter. No change to a lower-case letter should be made when the title has to be applied to an office or official of no conventional dignity. Capitals for titles of honor 115 President Harrison's first pension agent was Corporal James Tanner. A plan sanctioned by President Cleveland. Engineer Roberts Mr. Robinson Janitor Jones Officer Jenkins Messrs. R. Hoe & Co. Queen Victoria When the title of an official follows his name, the capital need not be used in good book-work for the first letter of that title, but it is frequently so used in newspapers and advertising pamphlets as a method of modified display. Copy so capitalized should be followed, but this method of using the capital letters is not recommended. James G. Blaine, secretary of state. Alexis, grand duke and envoy extraordinary. C. B. Farwell, ex-senator from Illinois. William Gedney, first lieutenant. Company I. Frank Wood, roundsman, Broadway squad. A too frequent use of capital letters for titles spots the page and makes the titles much more prominent than the names j yet capitals must be used if so requested by the author. One rule should prevail for all appended titles, but the selection of a capital should not depend upon the relative rank of the person. This rule is too often set aside. In official documents it is common to capitalize the titles of potentates, even when they follow the name. Victoria, by the grace of God, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, Empress of India, Defender of the Faith, etc. 116 Capitals for complimentary salutations In formal and ceremonious letters or addresses to dignitaries, in which neither the name nor the full title of the person addressed is specifically men- tioned, it is customary to capitalize the synonym and its preceding pronoun in the salutation, as : Your Grace Your Honor Your Majesty Your Reverence Your Royal Highness, etc. When only the title of a person is mentioned, pre- ceded by the article the, and the context shows that this title is intended for one person only, it should have a capital, as the Pope, the President, the Sultan, the Czar, the Chief -justice. The capi- tal should not be selected when the context shows that the title is not intended for one person, but may be applied to two or more persons. When complimentary salutations appear, not at the beginning, but within the text, of a sentence or paragraph of dialogue matter, as sir, my lord, madam, your honor, they do not take a capital. A title distinctly intended as the synonym of a particular person thereby becomes a proper noun, and should be capitalized. Good morning, General. Mr. Speaker, I rise to a point of order. He sent his credentials to the President. The Sultan proceeded in state to the mosque. Two capitals are not needed in a compound title, as : Major-general Merritt. Ex-president Cleveland. Chief -justice Fuller. Vice-president Little. Capitals following proper names 117 It is the commoner usage to provide a capital for each title, but one capital should be enough for a compounded title. When two capitals precede the name of a man, they make that name relatively insignificant, but if double capitalizing is syste- matic in copy, the compositor should not alter. Abbreviated titles of honor or of respect imme- diately following a name should have capitals. John Smith, Esq. Robert Southard, D.D. Henry Armitage, LL.D. The observance of this rule gives a very unsightly appearance to a page when the person mentioned has many honorary titles, as in Robert W. Rogers, Ph.D., D.D., LL.D., F.R.G.S. In this example the titles have more prominence than the man, and shabbily spot the page of text. Small capitals are neater, but they should not be used without the permission of the author, pub- lisher, or editor. Jr. and sr. need not take a capi- tal in lower-case text matter, but if an author does so capitalize, follow his copy. In the composition of the leading display line of a book title, the titles of honor put after a name are often an annoyance by their frequent length or undue prominence. Sometimes the honorary titles are put in a small size of the same face and justified in the line. This treatment abates the 118 Capitals for prefixes and nicknames prominence, but puts the line out of balance. A much better method is to put honorary titles, when there are many, in small type in a separate line below the name, and to spell out all the words. A title not clearly intended as the synonym of a specified person should not begin with a capital. He was taken before a judge. Every captain on the staff obtained his brevet. The assembly chamber was soon filled with sena- tors and congressmen, mayors and sheriffs, and other magnates. There is no appeal from the High Court of Chan- cery. Wards may weep, gay captains fume, ser- jeants-at-law protest, but a chancery judge is an oracle with a bench for a tripod, whose decisions oft are bare of sense as the inarticulate mutter- ings of a Delphic pythia. PREFIXES AND NICKNAMES Prepositional words ushering foreign proper names usually begin with a capital, as De or D' in French ; Da, Delia, De, or Di in Italian ; Van in Dutch, or Von in German j^ but there are prefixes that do not begin with a capital, and when the author sys- 1 For French and German se- with capital V is correct when lect the capital when the name is alone, but the capital V should not in full, as De Tocqueville ; not appear in Ludwig van Bee- but when preceded by a title or thoven. In Italian there is more by the baptismal name, the pre- irregularity : Edmondo De Ami- fix should be lower-case, as in M. cis is coiTect, but so are Leonardo de Tocqueville. Van Beethoven da Vinci and Luca della Robbia. Capitals for geographical names 119 tematically makes use of the lower-case letter for any one of them, his usage must be followed. The compositor who changes the de of copy to De in type, fancying that De is always proper, is in fault. Nicknames or disparaging epithets when applied to races or castes are rarely capitalized, as Creole, negro, coolie, quadroon, gipsy. The word devil is sometimes written with a capi- tal when it is obviously intended for the Devil of the Bible and of John Milton. When used in dia- logue matter, or as an expletive in swearing, the capital is never allowed. Other names of the devil, as Satan or Beelzebub, always take the capital. GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES AND QUALIFIERS Names of all geographical zones or sections of the world, when used as proper nouns, take a capital, as the Arctic, the Tropics, the Levant, the Orient. Geographical, national, or personal qualifiers, when used as nouns or before nouns in common use that specify merchandise, do not need a capital. arctic ivory india ink Prussian blue arras India rubber russia (leather) castile soap levant (leather) tropical plants china levantine silks turkey red Chinese blue majolica surah silk delft morocco Wedgwood gobelin oriental rugs (pottery) 120 Capitals for geograpMcal 7iames In the capitalizing of qualifying words we meet with many serious inconsistencies that cannot be defended or explained. We make qualifying words directly derived from proper nouns, as French, English, American, always begin with a capital. Long usage has sanctioned the rule that gives the qualifier more prominence than the noun to which it is subjected, but the rule is illogical. In the catalogues of auctioneers, and sometimes in those of merchants and manufacturers, qualifying words like French, Spanish, German, Italian, sometimes begin with a lower-case letter, and the capital is reserved for the noun. This agrees with French usage, in which language words of this description never take a capital. There are writers of good English who follow the French method in words like anglicized, romanized, frenchified, and ameri- canized. Although not sanctioned by the diction- aries, this method is common. Qualifiers derived from proper names and com- pounded with prefixes or suffixes, as in transat- lantic, cisalpine, hyperborean, tropical or sub- tropical, herculean, plutonian, vulcanized, platonic, etc., should not have a capital. East, West, North, South, and their compounds Northeast, etc., when used to particularize unde- fined geographical sections, should have a capital. When used to specify direction only (or as points of the compass), east, west, north, south, and their compounds should not be capitalized. Capitals for geographical names 121 The West is an empire, poor as compared with the East, but rich in promise of greatness. A representative of the South. I am going west. The house was fifty feet east from the river, and extended twelve feet due north of the building- line. The compass indicated south-southwest. When a geographical or a personal name is used to qualify another descriptive word, like street, avenue, river, road, lake, island, valley, etc., the capi- tal should be put at the beginning of each word, as : Bay of Fundy Lafayette Place Chenango County Long Island Erie Canal Long Island Sound Governor's Island Shenandoah Valley Hudson River Railroad Strait of Dover When place, street, county, river, island, road, etc., are used in a generalized way, and not for specific identification, they do not take capitals ; but when one place is clearly intended and is usually so un- derstood, although the full name of that place is not given, the capital should be used. I purpose making a trip to-morrow on the Sound steamer for Fall River. The man was sent to the Island. When the general name precedes the specific in ordinary book-work, as in county of Westchester, 122 Capitals for religious and political names state of New York, empire of Germany, the capital need not be used for the first name of the phrase ; but in legal documents and in every writing of formality, as well as in all forms of displayed com- position, use the capital for the general as well as for the specific name. HISTORIC, RELIGIOUS, AND POLITICAL NAMES All important epochs or events in history should have a capital for the more prominent words : Civil War the Dark Ages Commencement Day the Elizabethan Age Eocene Period Great Reformation Lord's Day Parliamentary Time Peace of Utrecht Silurian Age the Middle Ages the Renaissance the Deluge the Captivity the Restoration the Advent Thirty Years' War All religious denominations and political parties should have their names capitalized, whether used as nouns or adjectives, as : Catholic Nationalist Christian Parnellite Conservative Populist Democrat Protestant Jew, Jewish Radical Liberal Republican Mohammedan Tory Church (as an entity or organized body, but not always as applying to a build- ing) State (as applying to a system of govern- ment, but not to a condition) Capitals for abstract qualities 123 The capital should not be selected for heathen or pagan, for these words do not sufficiently specify any particular belief or association. Indirect references to the Bible, as in Scriptures, Gospels, Psalms, etc., should begin with a capital The same rule should be applied to important divisions of the Book of Common Prayer, as the Collects, the Litany, etc. The words hell, purgatory, and paradise are now seldom capitalized, but Hades, Walhalla, and other poetical names of a future abode should have the capital always. ABSTRACT QUALITIES PERSONIFIED Abstract qualities, when personified in exclama- tory addresses, always should be capitalized, as : Liberty ! what crimes are committed in thy name ! Fame ! thy smile forebodes a frown. Some writers give a capital to an abstract quality that is not clearly personified and is not at all ex- clamatory, as War, Slavery, Temperance. This is not a wise use of the capital, but it must be copied when the intent of a writer is plain. A youth to Fortune and to Fame unknown. And Scandal at her shot no venom'd shaft. Then Crime ran riot. Let Fate do her worst ! Now comes Peace to bless the land. 124 Capitals as a means of displaij The capital need not be selected when the princi- ple or attribute does not decidedly represent active agency. War, Slavery, Intemperance, and similar words are erroneously capitalized when they are passive or objects of action. The capital should be suppressed when the words are not intended as synonyms of personified forces. CAPITALS IN QUOTATIONS In the text, all quotations that are intended to be emphatic, or that consist of a complete sentence, should always begin with a capital, as : Then Ehjah said, Thou art the man. The officers answered. Never man spake like this A fragmentary quotation needs no capital, but it is the common practice to inclose all short quota- tions in the ordinary quotation-marks, as : The " carriage," so called, was really a wagon. The writer's account was described as " marked by accuracy and fairness." CAPITALS AS A MEANS OF DISPLAY In all job-work and in some newspapers and maga- zines capitals may be used more freely than in good book- work. The writers of advertisements, pamphlets, and circulars use capital letters as a Free use of capitals 125 means of distinction or display in the text, but they are seldom used consistently. It is a part of the duty of the compositor and the proof-reader to try to maintain consistency in the use of capi- tals, but this is difficult when one abandons rules that have proved useful in other work. In cases of doubt the capital may be safely omitted, for the style of an author is seriously vulgarized by an ex- cessive use of capitals. Capitals are largely used in the nomenclature of different sciences, but under rules that differ for each science. The study (not a cursory reading) of authoritative treatises on chemistry, botany, medicine, mineralogy, etc., will be required for an understanding of the different systems of capital- izing and abbreviating adopted in each of these sciences. In job-work, and in many kinds of catalogue and pamphlet work, a free use of capitals is not only permissible but necessary. Precise rules for these kinds of work cannot be given, for they will have to be varied according to the subject-matter and the wishes of the publisher or writer. In serious or standard books capitals should not be used too lavishly for marking emphasis in the text. A projecting capital in a text is like a rock in the current, for it diverts the eye and inter- rupts an even stream of attention. For the same reason, a free use of capitals is of service in mer- cantile blanks or catalogues, when they draw the 126 Capitals for summaries and legends attention to nouns for which notice is desired. When capitals are used freely in a text they must be used with system, and the same words or class of words should always come under the same rule. Compound words in every line of capital letters should be connected with an en dash, and not with the hyphen. Some writers make use of capitals as a modified form of display, or to invite special attention to a particular word or words. The Drive, when it has been justified and fitted to the mould, is known as a Matrix.' In some kinds of descriptive wiiting this use of the capital is permissible, but it is unsafe to capitalize nouns too freely, and thereby make display where display is not needed and is irritating to a reader. Exact writers never make use of this method of marking emphasis in any scientific description. CAPITALS IN SUMMARIES AND LEGENDS Summaries of chapters, running titles, tables of contents, and work of similar nature, including the 1 The words Drive and Matrix one of these methods when it is could be put in italic or in quo- specified for the first time, but tation-marks, but this treatment it is not at all necessary to con- would give them a greater dis- tinue the use of capitals, italic, tinction. A word or phrase se- or quotation-marks in subse- lected for extended comment in quent repetitions of that word the text may be treated by any or phrase. Capital letters unwisely used 127 legend lines of diagrams and illustrations, may be capitalized by the same rules that govern the capi- talization of book titles : capitals to nouns and im- portant verbs always ; to pronouns, adjectives, and participles seldom ; to particles rarely or not at all. This is common usage, but a too free use of capital letters gives an uncouth appearance to long summaries and legend lines that is too suggestive of the startling head-lines of a sensational news- paper, or the hackneyed methods of the writer of beguiling advertisements. " Changing his Plans, He Throws Himself upon the King's Supposed Generosity, Praying that He be Allowed to Reveal His Secret Instructions." '' A Fatal Gift ! What Will He Do with It ? " One may change these capitals in many ways, but every change will be equally unpleasing ; a profu- sion of capitalized verbs or adjectives is always a disfigurement in any book. In recent English and French books of high merit a new method is in favor for the citations of the titles of books, for the legend lines of illustrations, and for all running titles. Capital letters are excluded from all words but those that begin a sentence or are proper names. This simplicity is commendable, but it is not safe for a compositor to follow this style in opposition to copy. VII DIVISION OF WORDS )HREE systems, or attempts at system, for the division of words have been in use for many years, but it does not appear that any one has succeeded in securing the favor of all printers and publishers. The system most approved now au- thorizes the division of a word, when consistent with pronunciation, on the vowel at the end of the syllable. THE VOWEL SYSTEM This system can be applied safely to many long words, but its too rigid observance may lead the unthinking compositor to these unusual breaks : ca-pa-ci-ty lexi-co-gra-pher pro-gno-sti-cate cata-stro-phe pre-fe-rence re-co-gnize 128 Division on emphasised syllables 129 The vowel system has many adherents in America, in spite of occasional uncouth divisions, but it is defective as a system in its inability to make pro- vision for the syllables that end with consonants. DIVISION ON CONSTITUENTS Another system requires the division of consoli- dated words at the junction of their constituents. anim-ad-vert geo-logy pre-judice cata-strophe know-ledge pro-gnos-ticate found-ation lexi-co-grapher pro-position geo-graphy pre-fer-ence typo-graphy This system is logical, or at least etymological, but it is not practicable in the printing-house, for compositors should not be expected to be expert in divining the derivation of words compounded from Greek or Latin. Nor does this system pro- vide for the words that have to be divided but are not made up of two or more consolidated words. DIVISION ON EMPHASIZED SYLLABLES The system which seems to have the most sup- porters in the United States is that which permits the division of a word on the emphasized syllable. an-im advert geog-raphy pref-erence catas-trophe lexi-cog-rapher prog-nos-ticate 130 The system of no division This system is of most service in dividing words of many syllables, yet it frequently happens that a word must be divided on an unemphasized syllable. No system of division known to the writer is so en- tirely satisfactory as to command general obedience. The compositor usually takes for his guide in division the dictionary selected by the office as its authority, but he sometimes finds that this author- ity is rejected by the proof-reader and the author, who say that a word is not always correctly divided when it is hyphened according to the dictionary, for the hyphens are inserted there only as helps to a proper pronunciation. Dictionaries not only differ with one another, but are not always con- sistent with their own practice in making sylla- bles of similar words. THE SYSTEM OF NO DIVISION Fifty years ago the proposition was made by some unknown reformer of typography that all divisions are blemishes. It was then taught that the unequal spacing of words in proximate lines which must follow the application of this rule should be rated as a more tolerable defect. Obeying this teaching, the late Joel Munsell of Albany printed a book of many pages in which no divided word can be seen ; but the spacing between the words was unavoidably irregular, and the general effect of the print was not pleasing. His method had few imitators. Divisions in lines of display 131 It is now admitted bj^ all publishers and printers that it is impracticable to prevent divisions. The narrow measures used for pocket editions of the Bible, for the column headings of table matter, and for side-notes of all forms, compel divisions of one short syllable and sometimes of one letter only. Long words have to be divided occasion- ally even in a very broad measure. Although the divisions are unavoidable, the prejudice still holds that the breaking of a word is a misfortune to be deplored when it is not a fault to be condemned. DIVISIONS IN LINES OF DISPLAY In one kind of composition division is prohibited absolutely : words of bold display in a title-page must never be divided. But there are minor lines of display in smaller capitals (usually subtitles and summaries) in which words are often divided. Nor does the breaking of this old rule end at this point. A new school of typography authorizes the division of capitals in a square-set title, sometimes in the middle of a syllable confessedly indivisible, without the formality of the hyphen, but this is per- missible in eccentric composition only. A subhead- ing of two lines should never have a divided word on the first line when it is possible to turn the full word over into the next line. The shortening of the first line is never a blemish, but a too short second line following a hyphened first line is always a fault. 132 Divisions authorized hy pronunciation WANT OF SYSTEM IN DIVISION To the young compositor these vagaries of practice in division are confusing. The only clear impres- sion left on his mind after a study of the proof- reader's marking is that the divisions should be made at the ends of syllables only. But what are correct syllables 1 One proof-reader may divide a long word on a vowel to show its derivation, and another on the emphasized syllable to indicate its pronunciation. The proof-reader must be obeyed, especially so when his ruling has been approved. Sometimes the proof-reader is overruled by the author, editor, or publisher. In a reading over of the composition of a morning newspaper or of hur- ried job-work the proof-reader refrains from chang- ing any division that is not flagrantly bad. A di- vision of doubtful propriety that could be changed in movable types at moderate expense cannot be changed in the solid lines of linotype composition without a serious loss of time and greatly increased expense. The questionable division is allowed, for it is well understood by the publisher that not one reader in a hundred will find fault with it or will accept any change as a betterment. DIVISION BY PRONUNCIATION A very long word of one sylla])lo like through is indivisible even in a narrow measure, and there Divisions autliorized hy pronunciation 133 are words of but two syllables whicli some proof- readers make indivisible in the ordinary measure. crooked browned given heaven moisten often soiten striven eleven fasten horses listen prayer proved voices verses It should be noted that the alleged indivisibility of these words is controlled by pronunciation, for although of two distinct syllables, they are pro- nounced as words of one syllable, the last e being nearly silent. For this reason it is unusual, and in many printing-houses improper, in a measure of eighteen ems wide to divide a noun of one syl- lable in the plural when this plural is made by the addition of the final s. In very narrow measures this rule cannot be maintained. Divisions of two letters are always to be deplored, and those of one letter only are rated as very unworkmanlike in a measure of eighteen ems or more ; but in pocket edi- tions of the Bible and other classics, divisions like A-men, o-ver, a-ble, a-vow, have to be allowed, for they are unavoidable. The preference of the writer is for the divisions that indicate pronuncia- tion, but the author who insists on dividing a word by another system has the right of choice.^ 1 The best and easiest rule for the derivation of words, or to the dividing the syllables in spell- possible combination of conso- ing is to divide them as they are nants at the beginning of a syl- naturally divided in a right pro- lable. Lowth, Grammar, p. 5, as nunciation, without regard to quoted by Goold Brown, p. 181. 9 134 Divisions on short syUahles Divisions in print as guides to good pronunciation are condemned as needless manglings of language by many teachers who maintain that every word should be divided on syllables according to deriva- tion or structure. Obeying this rule, geography and theology should be divided in the second syllable on the letter o, but in pronunciation these words are correctly emphasized and thereby practically divided on the g and 1. In many dictionaries these words ar^ hyphened geog-raphy and theol-ogy. The rules of the teachers are in opposition to those of dictionaries and to proper pronunciation.^ DIVISIONS ON SHORT SYLLABLES Syllables of two letters have to take a division in a narrow measure, but terminations of words end- ing in -ly and -ed are not good in a broad measure when they appear at the beginning of new lines. Nor are in-, en-, on-, and de- wisely placed at the 1 The usual rules for dividing ster. Improved Grammar, p. 156. [words into] syllables are not Philosophical Grammar, p. 221. only arbitrary but false and ab- Goold Brown adds these notes : surd. They contradict the very "... to show what is the definition of a syllable given by pronunciation of a word, we the authors themselves. ... A must, if possible, divide into syllable in pronunciation is an such syllabic sounds as will ex- indivisible thing ; and strange as actly recompose the word, when it may appear, what is indivisi- put together again ; as, or-thog- hle in utterance, is divided in ra-phy, the-ol-o-gy. This being writing; when the very purpose the most common purpose of of dividing words into syllables syllabication, perhaps it would in writing, is to lead the learner be well to give it a general to a just pronunciation. Web- preference, and adopt it when- Divisions on short syllables 135 end of a line when division can be avoided with- out bad spacing. The terminations -ed and -ing of all verbs and participles may be carried over when unavoidable in a narrow measure, as in bound-ed debat-ed gild-ed rat-ed bound-ing debat-ing gild-ing rat-ing The terminations -er and -est in many adjectives are divisible, but when pronunciation practically makes one syllable only of a word, as in cooked, its division should be avoided when possible. black-er bold-er great-er strong-er blaek-est bold-est great-est strong-est The terminations -ed, -ing, -er, -est, should not be carried over as distinct syllables in words that double the consonants preceding, as : admit-ted hot-ter red-der admit-ting hot-test red-dest ever we can, not only in the same in written, as in spoken composing of spelling-books and language ; otherwise the learner dictionaries, but also in the di- is misguided, and seduced by viding of words at the ends of false representations into inju- lines. . . . rious errors.' (Wilson, Ussay '' The old principle of dividing on Grammar, p. 37.) Through by the eye, and not by the ear, the influence of books in which I have rejected ; and, with it, the words are divided according all but one of the five rules to their sounds, the pronunci- which the old grammarians gave ation of the language is daily be- for the purpose. * The divi- coming more and more uniform, sions of the letters into syllables, . . ." Grammar of English should, unquestionably, be the Grammars, p. 182. 136 Divisions hekveen consonants To divide any word properly, a knowledge of its etymology is of value, but this knowledge is not so generally useful as that of its correct pronunciation. He who pronounces and emphasizes correctly is seldom in error as to the right division of a word. DIVISIONS BETWEEN CONSONANTS When two consonants meet between vowels, and the syllable ends on one consonant, divisions are often properly made between the consonants, as : advan-tage foun-da-tion In-dian plain-tiff appel-lant fur-ther mad-der Rich-mond appel-lee gar-nish mar-ket scur-rilous finan-cier gram-mar mil-lion struc-ture for-tune impor-tant moun-tain Wil-liam The divisions here offered are not always on the radicals ; it is the pronunciation that determines the place of division. This observation concerning pronunciation is of value in deciding the position of the doubled consonant. When three consonants follow a short vowel, the consonants that must be pronounced together should make a separate syl- lable. ac-tress chuc-kle punch-eon breth-ren frus-trate trem-ble butch-er in-struct-or trench-er chil-dren pitch-er twin-kle Division on prefixes 137 The division of similar words should be accommo- dated to suit altered pronunciation, as in amend-able represen-tation syste-matic emen-dation represent-ative system-atize DIVISIONS ON VOWELS Divisions are properly made on the vowel when the emphasis is on the syllable that contains this vowel, and not on its following consonant. busi-ness ma-tron noi-sy pro-gress colo-nel me-moir pa-tron trou-ble dou-ble mo-bile pro-duct wo-man Pro-gress is the proper division for the verb, and prog-ress is permissible but awkward for the noun. Some of these words violate the rule of division on the emphasized syllable, but they are tolerated when they prevent too short final syllables, as in trou-ble. DIVISION ON PREFIXES The word compounded with a prefix should be divided preferably on the prefix, as in dis-inherit, dis-avow, dis-agree, un-able. The terminations -tion, -able, -ive, are most frequent in one sylla- ble, but -sion may be more flexible. In occa-sion, apprehen-sion, ces-sion, and declen-sion the s al- ways appears in the final syllable. As a rule, 138 Good divisions may make had sjjacing these endings should be kept intact, but in a word like division the strong emphasis needed for the s in pronunciation seems to justify divis-ion. BAD SPACING MADE BY INJUDICIOUS DIVISION All proper names and all amounts in figures suffer from division, but this division is unavoidable in narrow measures. When the author objects to an offensive division of words or figures he should be asked to add or cancel or substitute a word or words that will prevent the breakage. The over- running of a long paragraph to evade a strange division of a word often produces the much more unsightly blemish of irregular spacing, and this change is usually accomplished at a serious added cost to that of the first composition. Changes like these would seldom be made if the author or the proof-reader had to pay for the additional altera- tions. These remarks can be applied to manuscript copy only ; in a faithful reprint a change of any kind cannot be allowed. Authors who insist on even spacing always, with sightly divisions always, do not clearly understand the rigidity of types. ^ 1 On this point Drew wisely theories must gracefully yield, says: '* Theories are elastic, — and allow, it may be, a two-letter are expansible and compressi- division even in a wide measure, ble ; but types of metal have set Types are tyrannical, and will dimensions of extension, and, sometimes perpetrate solecisms in some circumstances, absolute- under the plea of necessity." ly refuse to budge, — wherefore Pens and Types, p. 89. Good divisions may make had spacing 139 Assuming that all divisions are blemishes, some printing-houses try to put these rules in practice : avoid divisions in three consecutive lines, in the first and last lines of any paragraph or page, in the proper name of any person or place. A strict compliance with all these rules is impracticable in the ordinary measure without the cooperation of an author who is willing to shorten or lengthen the words in a line by substituting synonymous words or expletives that will prevent the objec- tionable division. There are few authors who will take this trouble. Without doubt, words always appear better unbroken, but the breaking of words may not be so unsightly as the breaking up of a general uniformity of the spacing between words. To avoid divisions that may be offensive, the com- positor may have to hair-space one line and em- quad the next line. He may make a worse division in the lines following that he has to overrun. He may unintentionally produce the irregular upcurv- ing gaps of white across lines, known as hounds'- teeth, which are more offensive to the reader than any strangeness of division. The setting of Wil- at the end of a tight line and of liam McKinley at the beginning of another line is not so sightly as William McKinley in one line, but the attempts of a compositor, without the help of the author, to keep this name in one line may and probably will produce a much greater blemish. More attention is now given to the even spacing 140 Divisions of the Clarendon Press of lines. The old fashion of spacing with two three-to-em spaces, and even with em quadrats, is not tolerated in books, although it is an oddity which seems to be favored by modern advertisers. To avoid the fault of over-wide spacing divisions which were once prohibited are now allowed. DIVISIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY PRESS These divisions are preferred by Horace Hart of the University Press, Oxford, England : abun-dance dimin-ish minis-ter corre-spon- estab-lish-ment pun-ish dence impor-tance respon-dent depen-dent inter-est He disapproves of these divisions : gene-ration imagi-nation origi-nally exal-tation obser-vation star-vation The principle is that the part of the word left at the end of the first line should suggest the part to be carried over to the next line. He advises that the word '^happiness be divided happi-ness, not hap-piness." He prefers Roman-ism, Puritan-ism, Catholi-cism, criti-cism, fanati-cism, tautolo-gism, witti-cism, philo-sophy, atmo-sphere, tele-scope, tele-phone, micro-scope ; but he admits that some of the divisions specified in this paragraph, and Divisions make composition expensive 141 noted as preferable, are not free from objection, and should be avoided when it can be done. Webster allows discrep-ancy ; Worcester prints the word as discre-pancy. English printers divide fa- ther and mo-ther as is here shown, but American printers render the words as fa-ther and moth-er. DIVISIONS MAKE COMPOSITION EXPENSIVE The rule that words must be divided on syllables compels a very great waste of time. At least once every hour (and five or more times an hour if the measure is narrow) the compositor has to pause and think before he decides the question. Shall I divide on this or on that letter? He may decide wrongly, and be required by the proof-reader to divide on another syllable and to overrun many lines. The author may overrule the proof-reader and divide in a third way. The time wasted in overrunning and respacing lines to avoid divisions objected to by proof-reader and author is a serious tax upon the cost of composition — not less in the aggregate than one fifth the cost of type-setting alone. To correct the supposed fault words may have to be spaced wide in one line and close in the next line, to a much greater disfigurement of the composition. Are the rules now in force for dividing words in syllables really needed in printing ? A book is 142 Supposed importance of catcJnvords supposed to be written for the convenience of the reader, and not to illustrate the author's scientific knowledge of the derivation and proper dissection of words derived from foreign languages. The reader is helped to a better understanding of the subject when the division of the word in the first line more clearly suggests the pronunciation (not the derivation) of the part following in the next line. Efforts to help or educate the reader have been made often in a wrong direction. Before typog- raphy had been introduced, and for about twenty years after its invention, all books were written or printed as type- writing is now done, with a ragged outline at the right. This was unavoidable, for the early printers did not have spaces of different widths. There are improvers of typography in our own time who revive this old method, regard- less of its raggedness, and to some extent of the correct division of words. In the chap-book style for the display of title-pages it is permissible to omit the hyphen in a divided word at the end of a full line, and there are other practitioners of this style who divide the word on any letter, regardless of the syllable, and require the reader to join the broken word without the suggestion made by the hyphen. For more than three centuries printers of books appended at the foot of every page the first word or syna))le of the next page. This catchword was supposed to be needed by the reader to make clear Knowledge of theories of value 143 the connection between the two pages; but the catchword is now out of use, and it is not missed. It may be that the reader of the future will have a similar opinion of the present method of divid- ing words on syllables only. A feeble resistance against the tyranny of the rule has already been made by some amateurs in printing. If, to pre- vent bad spacing, it is proper to divide a word like Geo rge on the o (as it here appears) in the large type of the displayed lines of the so-called artistic title-page, why is it not proper to repeat the practice in the small type of the text of the same book? Is a division on two letters, or even on one letter,^ as offensive as a wide spacing of words in one line and their narrow spacing in the line following ! It is not probable that this innovation will find favor with the critical, but it may be mentioned as an exhibit of increasing restiveness at grammatical and typographical shackles which annoy the reader and do not help and do hinder the proper rendering of printed words. Beadnell, Wilson, Bigelow, Drew, and Teall have written on the division of words much that may be read with advantage by every compositor ; but these writers admit that printed words can be, and 1 Not much attention seems to divisions in the preface by Mil- have been paid to a systematic ton : e-specially and o-therwise, division of words even by good and they appear in lines where printers of the eighteenth cen- there was no real need for a di- tury. In BaskerviUe's edition vision of these long words on of Paradise Lost, I find these the single letter. 144 Divisions in foreign languages often must be, arranged in ways that compel the vio- hition of theu' rules. Yet rules cannot be entirely abrogated. The good compositor should under- stand the theory as well as the practice of making syllables; but his acquired knowledge of the ele- mentary principles of etymology and his memo- rizing of fixed rules will not prove so serviceable in every-day work as a knowledge of correct pro- nunciation. Much as the writer dislikes clippings and abbreviations in a text, he would not hesitate to render though as tho' at the end of a line in which it would be impossible to crowd the three following letters of the word. The occasional reprinting in a foreign language of sentences, sometimes in the form of entire para- graphs, calls for the division of words by a com- positor who knows nothing of the structure or the true pronunciation of the words. The remarks in Appendices B, C, and D, prepared by an author who has had the technical education of a printer and long experience as an editor, will be found of material service in the composition of French, Italian, and German. The rules for the division of words in Spanish have been copied, in Appendix E, from Knapp's Spanish Grammar, by permission of the publish- ers, Messrs. Ginn & Co. VIII SMALL CAPITALS WRITER'S desire for small capitals in print is indicated in manuscript by underscoring the specified words with two lines. For purposes of emphasis ^^^__^ _ or display the small capitals have been i^ed as superior to italic, but this superiority is not apparent. In regular fonts the small capitals are no taUer than the round letters of the lower- case, are on a narrower set and usually of a lighter face' and are obscured by more connecting lines. In many fonts they are really the weakest and least distinct of the five correlated series (roman capitals, lower-case, and small capitals, italic capi- tals and lower-case) furnished as a complete font of book type. For this reason small capitals are seldom selected for any division of the book for which more distinctness or emphasis is desired. 145 146 Small capitals following the initial They are freely used for the side-headings of short articles or separate paragraphs, for running titles, and for the catch-lines of title-pages, not so much for the purpose of display as for the making of a change in the monotony of a text of all large capitals or all lower-case. They would be more useful if the characters were taller and wider. Small capitals are often selected for the first word after a blank line and for the first word of a new chapter. H ISTORY recommends itself as the most profitable of all studies. Long quotations of poetry introduced into the text are sometimes treated in a similar manner, but short quotations of poetry or prose seldom begin with small capitals. The medieval practice was to put a very large capital after the initial j then came letters in smaller capitals, and after these the regular text letter. This method is obsolete : the letters of the first word that follow an initial are now set in capitals of uniform size. *T^Umine labia mea y~x g m^' aperies. E Etos JLJ raeum annunciabit laud- meum annunciabit laud Omine labia mea y~xoMiNE labia mea aperies. E Etos JlJ aperies. E Et os When the first word of a chapter has only one or two letters, the characteristics of the small-capital style .are not readily discerned, and it then seems Should truly line with the initial 147 necessary to use small capitals for the second word to make the attempted distinction apparent. So IT came to pass that >^onsolator optime, Aucassin departed. vy Dulcis hospes animae When a chapter begins with the proper name of a person, each part of the name of two or more words must be put in capitals or small capitals. When small capitals have been selected, the first letter of each word in this name should be in larger capi- tals to give the name the required distinction. H ENRY WaDSWORTH LoNGFELLOW, mOSt admired of recent American poets, is When a large initial three or more lines high has been selected for the first letter of a new chap- ter, large capitals are occasionally used, but they sometimes meet with the old objection that they savor too much of the style of the short adver- tisement of newspapers. When this initial is an ordinary two-line letter, it should be selected of a height that gives to it exact alignment with the small capitals of the upper line as well as with the lower line of the text letter. PROVIDENCE made Mendelssohn a hunchback in order to teach the rabble in a very strik- ing manner that men are not to be judged by outer appearance, but by inner worth. Initial of proper height. 148 Small capitals for tables of contents The initial is badly cliosen when it leaves a high gap of white, as appears in the following exhibit. TJeinrich Heine justifies his gay trifling in these words : Life is in reality so ter- ribly serious that it would be insupportable without a union of the pathetic and the comic, as our poets well know. SUMMARIES OF CHAPTERS Summaries of chapters under the regular chapter heading are sometimes set in long paragraphs of small capitals of the text type, but they are not so readable as they would be in lower-case letters on a smaller body. The dull monotony of compact characters without letters ascending above or de- scending below the line becomes wearisome when protracted in three or more lines. The density of the small capital may be made less unpleasing by hair-spacing and wide leading, but these are ex- pedients not practicable in solid and compact com- position. The paragraph of many lines of small capitals on a small body can be made more read- able by the occasional use of large capitals at the beginning of important words, but the change so made is seldom pleasing. Tables of contents, often set as two or more pages of small capitals, may be wide leaded and have full capitals for impor- tant words, when it can be done, to their great improvement. The size selected should be one or Ineffective when used in a mass 149 two sizes smaller than that of the text type. If set in the small capitals of the text letter or larger, the page will have a coarse, job-like appearance. FORMS OF LETTERS — PHENICIAN LETTERS, AND THEIR DERIV- ATIVES— PELASGIC LETTERS, AND THEIR DERIVATIVES- ROMAN LETTERS, AND THOSE DERIVED FROM THEM — SPECIMENS OF ANCIENT ALPHABETS AND WRITING. The old method of setting summaries. This is a fair imita- tion of a summary in Astle's Origin and Progress of Writ- ing, etc. 4to, London, 1803. The small capitals were on a wide set or were hair-spaced. Of the Librarii, Notarii, and Antiquarii — Of Illuminators— Of Paintings and Ornaments — Of Materials for Writing upon — Of Instruments for Writing with — Of Inks. A modern method of setting summaries. A new school of typography requires all the capital letters, except those of proper names, or those that begin a sentence, to be put in lower-case. SUBHEADINGS IN SMALL CAPITALS Subheadings in small capitals produce the best effect when they do not make more than two lines. As small capitals have no ascending or descending letters, the space between the lines of composition seems greater than the space between those of a lower-case text. When it can be done, the effect of uniformity in leading may be made by a change of leads. For three or more lines of a subheading, or for the summary of a chapter, low^er-case is preferable. 10 150 Small capitals for names of authors The signature of the writer or editor, or the credit given to an author at the end of an article or a paragraph, is frequently put in capitals and small capitals. The engagement occurred on August 5, 1864, and lasted four hours. Editor. If thou wilt receive profit, read with humility, sim- plicity, and faith, and seek not the fame of being learned. Thomas a Kempis. A style more approved now is to set these credits at the end of the matter in italic lower-case, and to omit the em dash often used to connect the name of the writer with the remark or quotation. When two or more quotations appear as mottos, the name of the author may be set in small capi- tals, but in a separate line. When small capitals are selected for the author's name, italic may be employed for the name of the book, and a smaller roman type for the specification of the occasion. It appears to us a self-evident truth that, what- ever the gospel is designed to destroy at any period of the world, being contrary to it, ought NOW to be abandoned. William Lloyd Garrison, in the Decla- ration of Sentiments of the Peace Conven- tion at Boston, September 18-20, 1838. In short, I did what I could for the redemption of the human race. William Lloyd Garrison to Henry C. Wright, August 23, 1840. Small capitals for running titles 151 The signatures of numerous persons to a document or memorial, when arranged in cohimns, are often set in capitals and small capitals. Full capitals of the text are always found much too large. DEDICATIONS AND RUNNING TITLES The dedication of a book is generally in small cap- itals only. The usual requirement of the writer that particular words or phrases be set in one line only may compel the unwise selection of too small a size. As the dedication occupies an entire page, it should have wide leading always. Small capitals still find some favor as one of the approved styles for the running titles of pages, but they should not be selected for this use when the words are few. Capitals of full size are more effective. The small capitals of twelve- or four- teen-point body are sufficiently distinct, but those of nine-point and smaller sizes are dense and not easily read. This indistinctness can be ameliorated by a hair-spacing of letters, but this is not always practicable. In their exposed positions as lines at the head of the page they receive too much wear ; their shallow counters are too soon choked with ink. As a safeguard against undue wear, capitals of the monotone or of a light-faced antique are sometimes selected for books frequently reprinted in which the running titles have to endure much wear in a very exposed position. 152 The spacing of small cajntals The new fashion of spacing all running titles with em quads or wider quadrats until they reach the full width of the measure (putting the folio figure at the foot) has a few admirers, but it is too un- couth for long life. Attractive as this oddity may be for an advertising pamphlet, overspaced letters for running titles are a blemish in any serious book. FRENCH SMALL CAPITALS French type-founders are now making for their new faces of roman letter small capitals of greater height and width. Others put their small capitals on a wider set, so that they seem hair-spaced. So treated, the small - capital series is more readable, and can be used more effectively. Capitals and small capitals continue in favor as an approved style of type for side-headings and for subheadings. French printers make good use of their new style of broad small capitals, without the employment of a large capital, for the names of characters in plays. It is a pleasing change. MADAME DE TRANSPOR. — II a des dents de loup, ce petit Fred ! . . . LA DUCH ESSE. — Comment trouves-tu Made- moiselle de Beauval ? . . . From Monsieur Fred, by Gyp. 12mo, Paris, 1891. The em dash at the end of a side-heading or before a signature is an unnecessary addition, for the change Letter headings in small capitals 153 in style of type is enougli to show separation of subject. This needless use of the dash probably began with the copying of a similar dash unthink- ingly put in his copy by the author. LETTER HEADINGS IN SMALL CAPITALS In reprinting letters, the name of the town or city in which the letter was written, and of the person or firm to whom the letter was addressed, as well as the signature of the writer, are often put in capitals and small capitals. The name of the month and the day and date, although oftenest by the side of the place, are put in lower-case of the text letter. This is the rule in the composition of job-work and advertising pamphlets, but it is not a good rule for newspapers or books. In the book- house small capitals should be considered as a letter of modified display, to be used only when demanded by words that need special distinction. The com- plimentary salutation of Dear Sir or Gentlemen does not need small capitals. When the printed heading of a letter is unusually long, as it is in the following examples, lower-case is preferable. Office of Bramhall, Abernethy & Sullivan, No. 140 Independence Square, Philadelphia. Office of the Society for the Improvement of the Condition of the Poor, No. 761 United Charities Building, New York. 154 Needless use of small capitals It is impracticable to strait- jacket these words in separate lines of symmetry, or to try to show the relative value of each clause by alternating lines in plain roman lower-case, italic, and small capitals. The job-printer may do it with his greater variety of styles of type, but the book compositor cannot. The reader is not helped, but is bewildered, by the artificial arrangement and by the mixing of types. OF SMALL VALUE IN LETTER HEADINGS Although the extravagant use of small capitals gives undue distinction to many words, there are readers accustomed to this style who find the more extended use of roman lower-case equally offensive for its alleged monotony and want of display. At- tempt is sometimes made to avoid this presumed fault by the use of small capitals two or three sizes smaller than that of the text, which will allow many words to be put in the desired single line. This method is not an improvement, for it makes a needless feebleness in places where some clear- ness is needed. If the name of the person or firm addressed is composed in small capitals, and the signature of the writer is put in the same style or in italic, the letter should have point enough from the typographical standpoint. All else may be in lower-case with propriety. When there is no spe- cification of name or address, and the complimen- tary salutation is only that of Dear Sir, Gentlemen, Small capitals for proper names 155 or FeUow-citizens, italic lower-case may be used, with a colon (but uo dash) at the end. In double- leaded matter the salutation may be put m a sepa- rate line The distinction sought by the use of the small capitals for any name is weakened when the small capitals are used too freely elsewhere. Small capitals, usually selected for the reprint- ing of formal inscriptions on tablets, are often in- closed in a rule border. Care' should be taken to maintain a good relief of white space between the border line and the type. In the Bible and hymn-books the words Loed and God, when specifying the Almighty, are often set iu capitals and small capitals. FoUowmg this method of showing veneration, many prmters of an earlier period put the names of all magnates, spiritual and temporal, in capitals and small capi- tals Nor is this fashion entirely obsolete. There are journals of our own time that require the names of all persons, even when they are of small distinction, to be so emphasized. This treatment of names is rare in book-work, and should never be attempted without special order. The old custom of putting a list of the names of the members of or subscribers to an association in lined columns of capitals and small capitals is still observed, but the fashion is declining. Itahc lower-case has preference for signatures and plain roman lower-case for lists in the text. Small capitals have been found much too weak 156 Small capitals in hook-ivork for side-headings in dictionaries, catalogues, and educational books. The lighter faces of antique lower-case, of title letter, and other styles of plain tj^pe are now preferred even in books intended to have the severest simplicity. Small capitals are rarely used to indicate the emphatic words of a text. The taste which forbids the too free use of italic is equally severe on small capitals. Type- setting machines of old form, which are without any provision for italic or small capitals, are a still more eifective agency for their suppression. Readers have been slowly and somewhat unwill- ingly taught that the emphasis of italic and the modified display of small capitals are not really needed for the comprehension of printed matter. Yet it is not probable that small capitals or italic will ever go out of use. Of small service for dis- play within a text, they are of real value when used with discretion in differentiating some of the different divisions or features of a book. IX EXTRACTS AND LETTERS )T IS CUSTOMARY for the publisher of a proposed book to determine the length and width of its page and the size and style of its type before he gives the copy to the printer. He decides at that time also whether the text shall be leaded or solid, so that it may occupy a prescribed number of pages. There he often stops. Definite orders are rarely given concerning types for extracts, letters, docu- ments, notes, tables, preface, appendix, and index. It is unwisely assumed that the selection of proper type for these parts of the book may be left to the discretion of the compositors. The running title, chapter headings, and other parts of minor importance, which are set usually by one maker-up, are sure to be uniform in style, but this uniformity cannot be safely predicted concern- 157 158 The need for graduated sizes of type ing the irregular adjuncts before mentioned, that have to be set by many compositors. Without pre- cise instruction, each compositor will set irregular divisions of a new book to suit his own notions of propriety. One may use a larger and another a smaller type, and perhaps they will be of different faces and in different forms of indention. THE DETERMINATION OF SIZE OF TYPE This neglect to provide for uniformity in minor details is damaging to the appearance of a book. To have the relative value of each part easily dis- cerned, the book of many parts should be planned before copy is given to the compositors, so that each part may be set in a proper size of type and with uniformity of style. It is understood by all parties that the text should be set in the larger and the adjuncts in smaller sizes of type, and that the size selected for each different part should be so graduated that the reader can determine at a glance its relative value, and that parts of equal importance should be, for the most part, of similar size and style of type.^ 1 This suggestion should not positor to get them in on that be construed as an insistence on page. There are extracts that absolute uniformity. There are should be set in black-letter, and tables of figures and words which old letters that do not properly must appear on predetermined show old-style mannerisms un- pages, and six-point may be com- less they appear in old-style type, pulsory for one and eight-point with the capitals, italic, and ab- for another to enable the com- breviations of the original. Types should he of the same style 159 Before this selection of face and exact grading of the sizes of type can be properly determined in a book that has to be kept within a prescribed number of pages, some calculation should be made (not of necessity minutely exact) of the space that will be taken up by each part. UNIFORMITY NEEDED IN PAGES OF TYPE The style of type that has been determined for the text should regulate that of all its minor parts. A text in old style should have its extracts and foot- notes in smaller sizes of the same face or family of old style. Extracts in the Elzevir face, or even in the Caslon face, when inserted in a text of modern- ized old style, are as discordant as they would be for a text set in modern-cut letter. Foot-notes in bold-face of modern cut under a page of light-face text make another unpleasing discord. All sub- headings, side-headings, and running titles should also be in agreement with the types of the text. They may be and often must be more conspicuous, as is imperative in the side-headings of diction- aries and gazetteers, but they need not be so dense and black as to make painful contrast. The impropriety of putting together types of radically different styles on the same page is gen- erally acknowledged, but it is not so well under- stood that types of the same style, but of different shape or form (as they are when bold forms oppose 160 Suggestions for graduating sizes light, and condensed forms oppose broad), should not be put in opposition on the same page. Even the uncritical reader will note the discord. Print is most pleasing when types of different size '' hang together," to employ the artist's phrase, and are not of unrelated families. SUGGESTIONS FOR GRADUATING SIZES Extracts, letters, or documents made a part of the page should be so composed that the reader will discern at a glance that they are not a part of the text proper. When the added matter is of high importance and is made the subject of comment, it may be set in the text type and inclosed in the ordinary marks of quotation. This treatment has the disadvantage, in many instances, of unduly increasing the size of the book. It is a commoner practice to set extraneous matter in a type one size smaller than that of the text. When the insert is long and of minor importance, and it is desirable to economize space, a type two sizes smaller is often selected, but the old practice of setting extracts or documents in eight- or seven-point for the text in twelve-point is not in present favor. The reduced size which is proper in the foot-note is not proper at all in the extract, for it cheapens and seriously degrades the workmanship of the page. Authors object to this treatment ; they say that the sub- ject-matter of extracts is often as important as Abuse of marks of quotation 161 that of text-matter, and should have nearly equal prominence. Readers are always better pleased when the printer puts these inserts in a type that is easily readable. The small type for inserts is not always an exhibit of the bad taste of the printer. When the publisher has predetermined that the intended book shall come within a specified number of pages, the use of small type may be unavoidable. WHEN MARKS OF QUOTATION ARE NOT NEEDED When the insert has to be set in a type of smaller body than that of the text, quotation-marks are not needed at the beginning of every paragraph. The change in size of type is enough to show that the insert is not the writing of the author. The too free use of quotation-marks impairs their value in the places where they are actually needed. It is only when the author requires the insert to be set in the type of the text that these quotation-marks are needed. The old method of differentiating the extract from the text was to put double quotation- marks at the beginning of every paragraph. When this treatment did not seem to give distinction enough, double quotes were put before every line, but not to advantage. In a reprinted letter con- taining many short or broken lines a succession of bristles before every line makes a sorry sight, needless as well as irritating, as will be more clearly seen in the reprint on the next page. 162 Extracts identified hy indention ** Philad^ July 5, 1775. ** Mr Straharif ** You are a Member of Parliament, and one **of that Majority which has doomed my Country to de- ** struction, — You have begun to burn our Towns and ** murder our People, — Look upon your Hands! — They "are stained with the Blood of your Relations! — You and **I were long Friends: — You are now my Enemy, — and " I am, <« Yours, " B. Franklin.*' INDENTION AND INITIALS FOR INSERTS The modern method of treating a short extract in the type of the text is to narrow the measure by indenting it one em on each side in every line. So treated, the quotation-marks may be omitted at the beginning and the end of paragraphs: the change of indention should be enough to denote quoted matter. For an extract that fills less than two pages this method of indention is satisfactory, but when the extract exceeds two facing pages the distinction made by special indention is not per- ceptible. Under ordinary conditions, extracts, let- ters, and documents that make more than two pages are most pleasing to author and reader in the appendix. Another method of presenting the extract is to indent it two or more ems at the left, in the style of motto indention, making all lines of full width at the right. This makes the page lopsided. Mannerisms of letter-writers 163 John Baskerville of Birmingham thinks proper to give notice that having now finished his edition of Firgi/ in one Volume, Quarto, it will be published the lat- ter end of next month, price one guinea, in sheets. He therefore desires that such gentlemen who intend to favour him with their names, will be pleased to send them either to himself at Birmingham, or to R. and J. Dodsley in Pall Mall, in order that they may be inserted in the list of his encouragers. [1757-] From Eeed's Old English Letter Foundries, p. 272. A document in the text is made distinguishable and more impressive by setting it in type one size smaller than the text type, beginning it with a plain two-line letter and omitting quotation-marks. BY HIS Excellency. — I order Benjamin Harris to print the Acts and Laws made by the Great and General Court, or Assembly of their Majesties Province of Massachusetts-Bay in New England, that we the People may be informed thereof. Boston, December i6, 1692. William Phipps. Nor do extracts in the form of letters need quo- tation-marks when set in a smaller size of type. It is a needless affectation of precision to insert quotation-marks at the beginning of each separate line or paragraph, when it is unmistakably apparent that the letter is an insertion. MANNERISMS OF LETTER -WRITERS In the reprinting of a letter it has been customary to imitate the letter- writer^s arrangement of words 164 Letter headings do not need display and lines. The name of the society, department, or business firm, and the name of the place, are usually set in capitals and small capitals, as they are more fully exhibited in the following example. The name of the person addressed is often put in small capitals. Other portions of the heading, and sometimes the address, are set in roman or italic lower-case letters of the same body. This method of setting the letter wastes space and makes use- less display of words that do not require display. Department of the Interior, Census Office, Washington, D.C, January 5, 1901. Henry W. Penfield, Philadelphia. Bear Sir : When the heading and the address consist of few words and make short lines, it is not difficult to imitate the style of the letter-writer, but is imita- tion needed? The selection of small capitals for four lines, and of italic for one line, with a gen- erous allowance of space about six broken lines, is of questionable propriety in the narrow columns of a magazine or a duodecimo page. Why should the heading of a note that may be relatively of slight importance have more display and more space than are given to the regular subheadings of the text? Boman loiver-case a preferable suhstitute 165 The difficulty of closely imitating the mannerisms of letter-writers is aggravated when the heading and the address are long and fill many lines. The Hebrew Benevolent and Orphan Asylum Society, Amsterdam Avenue, near 136th Street. Office, 22 Bible House, To the Superintendent of the Clara de Hirsch Home for Working Girls. Dear Madam : To put this heading in type line for line as written or printed, the compositor will have to select a type of smaller size than that of the text of the letter, and this selection may break lines awkwardly or make them insignificant in any narrow measure. Name, location, and date may be unimportant in some letters, but in others they need prominence. AVOIDANCE OF LETTER-WRITERS' METHODS In the narrow columns of a magazine or news- paper, or in any form of compact composition, this imitation of the mannerisms of the penman who writes upon a broad quarto leaf will be found un- sightly even when it is not impracticable. Three distinct series of characters for words that need no display make useless breaks in the harmony of com- position. The matter in the heading above would be presented in a more orderly manner, and be 11 166 Small capitals wasteful of space quite as intelligible, if it were set in a hanging indention after this form ; The Hebrew Benevolent and Orphan Asylum Society, Amsterdam Avenue, near 136th Street. Office, 22 Bible House. New York, December 6, 1900. To the Superintendent of the Clara de Hirsch Home for Working Gh-ls. Dear Madam : SMALL CAPITALS NEEDLESSLY PREFERRED Capitals and small capitals continue to be employed for addresses, date-lines, and signatures, but there is an increasing tendency toward the curtailment of display in ordinary matter that does not require distinction for any part. Readers of daily news- papers are now reconciled to the exclusion of italic and small capitals, and it is possible that readers of books will be equally content with plain roman lower-case characters in all places where display is not of real service. When there are many words in the heading and address of an official letter no attempt should be made to crowd the words in one line or to spread them over many lines, or to arrange them in any arbitrary form for which the types of the text are plainly unfitted. For solid composition the hang- ing and diagonal indentions of the preceding ex- ample will be preferred by all publishers who wish to confine the printed matter within a prescribed Customary methods of setting letters 167 limit. Italic is not advised for the date-line, in which upright figures have to stand side by side with inclined characters. To those who are accustomed to old methods the composition of a letter heading in lower-case, without display and in hanging indention, may not be pleasing, but the simpler treatment is gain- ing in favor and should have a respectful consid- eration. The tendency of modern typography is toward simplicity and the avoidance of all imprac- ticable imitations. Job-printers try no longer to follow the styles of lithographers and copperplate- printers ; they abandon ornamental types, curved lines, and many laborious methods of type-setting. Indeed, they often go too far in the opposite extreme of needless coarseness, but the spirit that recognizes typography as a distinct branch of the graphic arts, not dependent on any other for its models of style, and able to stand on its own feet and origi- nate its own models, is a spirit to be commended. The mannerisms of the modern letter-writer, and those of the medieval copyist, do not deserve imita- tion in ordinary book composition. To those who prefer to continue the old fashions of composing letters these suggestions are offered. CUSTOMARY METHODS OF SETTING LETTERS The full name of the person or society issuing the letters may be in capitals and small capitals of the 168 Customary methods of setting letters text, as is shown in the next ilhistration. The street appears in a centred and separate line of lower-case ; the date (preceded by the name of the city in small capitals), in another line of lower-case at or near the end of the measure. The name of the firm or person addressed begins another line without indention ; the place or office of the person addressed follows in another line with much inden- tion. Never abbreviate an address to save a line ; if it is too long, set it in two lines of unequal length. When it can be done, leave a broad blank at the end of the line or lines of address. The Typothet^ of the City of New York, 106 and 108 Fulton Street, New York, October 12, 1897. Dear Sirs: The committee appointed by this Typothetae to con- fer with a similar committee from Typogi^aphical Union No. 6 concerning the proposed day of nine hours wiU meet, as has been mutually agi'eed, in these rooms on Thursday, October 14, at 4 o'clock p.m. Your punctual attendance is respectfully requested. Yours very truly, E. Parke Coby, Secretary. Messrs. Samuel B. Donnelly, president, , William Ferguson, secretary, and other members of the Committee of Typographical Union No. 6. The complimentary salutation of Dear Sir or Gentlemen, or any other phrase, should be in a The composition of long salutations 169 separate line, if space will allow. When the com- position is solid and more space cannot be allowed, run the salutation in the first paragraph as a side- heading, making it a part of the first line of the letter. Put a colon after the salutation, but never follow it with the dash, which is not needed, for this dash has no value and is but the unthinking mark of a writer who is undecided concerning the point that is proper, and who uses the dash at a venture. This salutation is usually set in italic, although it is never so italicized by the writer, and does not need that distinction in type. The roman lower-case is always to be preferred. HOW TO TREAT LONG SALUTATIONS When the address is very long, as it is in a formal petition to a legislature or a municipality, and is not followed by any complimentary phrase, italic lower-case may be used for all words in the address. When the address makes more than one line, the second and third lines should be in hanging inden- tion. The paragraphs of a letter set solid or sin- gle-leaded in roman or italic are best presented with the ordinary indention of one or two ems. The wide paragraph indention sometimes made by penmen is tolerable only in script or in any character which has the long ascenders and de- scenders that make wide spaces between lines. One signature, set in small capitals, is usually 170 Diagonal indention for addresses indented at its end one em from the right, but it is a better method to use the italic lower-case of the text.i If there are two or more signatures, all of them should be set to line at their beginning. Wlien the address is underwritten at the end of the letter, as is sometimes done in a formal corre- spondence, this address, which frequently consists of two or more lines, may have, if the space will permit, a diagonal indention in this fashion : To Mr. Henry R. Braithwaite, President of the Society for Microscopical Research, New York City. When space has to be filled and attempt is made at an open display of a letter which is addressed to many persons, each name should have a separate line, but all the names should line at the begin- ning, as has been suggested for the composition of signatures. The specification in separate lines of honorary titles or of any other particular should be always in the lower-case of the type of the text. 1 The portions of the printed writer who does not wish to have letter heading that need not be copied a long list of society offi- copied cannot be determined by cials or directors and the num- the compositor. To be a proper bers of the rooms in an office legal exhibit all words should be building, with other irrelevant copied, but there is often in these matter, should have this need- headings an amount of verbiage less matter erased in the copy not required by a reader. The before it goes to the printer. NOTES ,OTES are a hindrance in composition and making-up. When they have to be affixed to a page that has engravings, or when they are many in number or are of unusual length, the maker-up is perplexed.^ A long note may have its reference- mark on the last line of the page, and the follow- ing page or pages may have other notes that can- not be shown complete in the proper place, but 1 One of many excessively an- notated books is the Histoire de I'origine et des premiers progres de I'imprimerie [by Prosper Mar- chand],4to,^LaHaye,1740. The text is set in type of about four- teen-point body; the foot-notes are set in eight- and nine-point, in half -measure ; the notes to notes in six-point, broad mea- sure ; side-notes in seven-point. Italic, parenthetical reference figures and letters of roman and italic, and spaced small capitals are profusely used, with sprink- lings of Greek. Page 10 has but two lines and pages 11, 12, and 13 have but one line of text type, the greater part of each page be- ing filled with notes set in differ- ent measures. The composition and making-up of this matter 171 D E L' I M P R I M E R I E. 23 ' A CETTE premiere Edition, deux habilcj Critiques en joignent one feconde, dont pcrfonne qu'eux nc parle; favoir, une premiere Edition en Cara£lercs mobiles, & fans Date,du Cathohcon J ohan- Nis Januensis (N). Et frondiori , quali boiie MilTalia fo'ent imprmi ( 123 ). cruvius & Werther donnent ccs Carafleres pour fim- plemcnt fa^onncz au Couteau : Wiaerda les donne comme ant^rieurs i laDecouverte dcsPoin(;ons & dcs Matrices par Schoiffer ( 124) ; & le Prefident Coufin prdtend , que cette Edition n'eft faite qu'avcc dcs Planches de Bois gravdcs {125): mais, ils fc trom- pent tous dgalement. Chevillier remarque avcc raifon , que, quoi- gu'il n'y ait plut oucun Etemploire de cette fiible , en doit peiirtant lui occorder le primier Rang eiitre toutet Us Bibles (126)5 & meme cntrc tous les Livrcs im- primef, pouvoit-il ajouter: & Ton peut bicn s'iin.igi' Bcr , qu'une pareille Edition eft d'une Rarctc extre- me. Ccpendant, Mr. d'Uffenbach, Magiftrat dcFraiic- fort fur le Mein , fe flattoit d'en poffcder \in Excm- plairci & voici la Notice qu'il nous en a donniie. Latinorum Bibliorum Editio vetuPiJfiina, duohis conf- tant yotuminibus in folio. Vide T u R tmnium prima , {^ Moguntia ab ipfis Ar- tis Typographic^ Inventoribus Gi;ttembbhgjo Jcili- cet ac Fausto Typis exfcripta. Ouamvis eiii-.n mlla Temporis , Loci , atque Typograpborum Meniio fiat , evin- fit tamen id Typorum in/ignis , noti otnni tnmeii Elcgan- tid carens, Puditas; tf « 'pf qui alTuicnc avoir vQ un magnifiquc Exemplaire dc ccttc Edition rarf & inconnue dans la liibliotheque de I'Abbjie Roialc de Ste Genncvievc dc Paris, I'une dcs plus confide- rablcs & dcs micux fourr.ics dc cette grange V'llle. Altera (12S), difcnt-ils , ex Arte Typographicd turn perfefla , tamcn abfque Numeris , Signaturis , Reclama- tionibus , Anno, Loco, Nomine Tyiotbeta; alf^ue Lit- teiis etiam initiatibus , qua omnes addita (j' piSit : qua Moguntiie prodiijfs conjiciur.t. Exjlnt ejufce Exemplar Parifiis , in Gcnovefnn [Bibliothccd] folii. Charti Regicl (129). ExcEPTF. Clievillicr . qui piroit indiquer cette Edition lingulicre en ces Tcrmes , J' en ai vH une tres ancienne fans Date (130) , ils font i la verity les feuls qui ai'cnt jamais pariii dc cette Edition : mais , ils font fi bons Connoilfeurs en cc Genre, & ils one fi bien & fi judicicufcmcnt drcfie la Hibliothcque de Icur Ordre, que Icur TOmoignagc doit toujours etre de tres grand Poids , a moins qu'il ne fe trouve cx- prciremcju infirmiJ , ou detruic , par dcs Aucoritcz formcllcs & pofitivcs. ' '»' Bien loindc-li: voici de quoi le confirmcr. J'ai moi-inemc une Edition tout-i-fait fcmblable u ccUc qu'ils dccriycnt : & jc la crois d'autant plus rcJelle- nicnt dcs trois premiers Imprimcurs , Guttembcrg, Fuft , & SchoifTcr , que Ic Caraflcrc , a quelque pcu dc GrofTcur pris , en eft tout-.'i-fait femblablo a celiii dc la Bible Lntine imprimce par Fufl {5" Scbciffer en 1462; & que le Papier, fur leqiid elk eft faite, por- tc prOcircinent les ir.cmes Marques que celui fur Icquel touccs IcuTs Editions font imprinK*cs(i3i).Cct Excra- nlalrc a autrefois appartcnu a la Comniunaut^ des Clercs d'EmerJc , a laquclie il avoit i^. 917. Wcrihcr ./■4<. t. VViKrili , f^^. \i. f i«t ) Jour- mi del Savani, ^(4r. iS9',.faf. 114. ( 1 16 ) Chevillier, f^t. 8 & 7(. Molaimi , Caialogi Ciiholicoiuni S. Sceipi. Inie'pitium , fi^.j, fjutimr itU SiiyJende, ovetwinnenile , en iciumpliemifi>l. /•<(. 1(1,- Beughem . Inc.Typojr. • ( v/i ; C- d;\,tri tuirti /in/ Jcult , dtnmm lit mimt It ftimttt Rani * '"" BiHt : & il ifl Uin ttimani ,' ^h, U P. le Long, Biblioih. Sacrz c^^.no \\oi.de Vom ,pag iij ii8.«u I'tn nfait It, Ca,all ) Q.uetif ic Ecli.nd Scdpiotfi Old. Pixdicaioiuro leierfiti. 7«»i. /. ^4^.4ft.iudi.lbl.fi au^ ttm.ad4dfa' . , , ^ «U cit.ficut littcre oe rato mittuiuur indict z ad lieri'ano.flf.co.rtp:ocnr9to:cin.ff.reinratam tabe.ne fartfdatio lie multof ouine Utrerc re liocao2je.SedquareDicupoft lit. eontef.tn^ tiuinir a conirario fenfn.q> ante li. conteJla. ^oiTet renccatio fieri etiam idno:ante nidice veladnenario.z qp necede no fit figntficarc uidtci vel aduerfario.fic ridctur loqm&ecre. e.co.cx mfvinianone in noitra. £x littera lUo mm nun$ colUgttnr cp reuocatio perurnerit fld iudicem velad aduerf'mnm.i:tamen rC" Bocatnrquodfeictnm tuit per iDoe p:ocufa>' to:c0.Scdibifnpplctnr q> reuocatio, venii adaduerrarium.ficergofiipplel^ic ma.time quia Idem ei^ ante \u contefla. z pofl litem, ftc enim multi pofTent'Deapuft fola reuoca' lio pjoairafons'furflccret.rt non oenucictur aduerfariovclindici.qnaudocimcc fiat reno ratio certificandiid ell aduerfartuo: eliasim putet fibt qui l^oc taeuit.argumen.contra.ff. man. ft mandaflein.illud in ncgocije vbi iion Deeipitur vendit02 Ijic oecipttur ad'^ iicrrgriue . z Hdco Ucw . Sed li reuocatio XL jrjTcW. fit miffa p:octtr/itoH ante litem conteAatam i64 « fpfe occulta! t?oc vtderetur 9 piocuratori fttimputandumq'eamnonodendit^ ieU'' tentia quantum ad enm valeat:led n5 quan turn ad Dcminuiquia k Uti obtuUt alune.fr. re ra.l?abe.U raii0 fi tiucrfo icmp6« "i-^'^?^^Hf | curator. apptUartecbcta I'M^'^'f. fcntcntiainifiacaBfaer 'btuiii-l.'U cotourrquocafuocbctco Xdiaa/ftaa minonundarece fcntCH/ fjruo.i fi.fed tia ; appcllationcm tamcn ^poc lozfttan p»fcaui non tcnetur. roilj habere DiBn ^apftuTusriid. iccum cu5 p inmlleindcr^ccltil: curatoiefok afiUafantt.f m ficnmoii ^^l^^^^;^llf^ ctaruj Dcuc. t% (nfinuatione in noftra. ud oic quod u:-' net fententia z imputet tibi o<^nim"6qn< qui Ijoc non infinauit ludicl ret a^"" 'arto vt p:obat l2ec littcra. Item cj: feac Uncra ru detur g» etiam port litem conteilatam mdiflie renterJVreuocaripciruaMc^cauiecosnmo ne. z ideo.contra,ff eo.poft Utero conttrtataj non eft contra : qma Ijic non «?ab£i ocuin quando pzucuratoj conlcntii.fi rer pjoctira to: nollet:oebf t toe fieri caufa cognlia.tamc non p:ocedetur in caufa port rtuocationcm nifi port caufam coghua m z tamcn non oe^ bet audiri p:ocuratoj qui fibt alTumpfit p:o curaiionem vel fe alTcnt p:ocuralo:cm , toe ipfo luipectueert.c Ita fempcr rcmouerctiir ff.ec.que omni .lecue ft l?oc fcicit PJOcin atoi vt finenota fufpcionisremoueatur, vi.Upze dicta que omnia. a C Uel.p:o ^.allas fequerf ttir a contra/^ rio:quod ft ieuocattC» ad altcrum perncnif^' fei: valcrei qTi cueoractd ilTct ic clew: 'z.ff.eodem.ft/ liurramtliaB.^.ipfe quoque, vndc ludei: iulle lecit qm ilium adnufit.mricneimi/ DO? qucin non Wbuit admiitcrc.quw ft Reduced facsimile of a page of the Decretals. 174 Leads needed for notes and text must be split and put in piecemeal on other ad- vanced pages. To take back or to drive out notes heedlessly planned seems equally impracticable.^ SMALL TYPES PREFERRED FOR ALL NOTES To diminish the annoyance made by notes, pub- lishers and printers have agreed on the policy of setting them in small type and crowding them in the smallest space. A text in twelve-point leaded may have its notes in eight- or seven-point solid. So treated, the density of the small type and the openness of the large type are in violent contrast and make a forbidding page. When leading can be permitted it is better practice to lead both text and note, always giving to the text the thicker and to the note the thinner lead. A quarto or an octavo in single-leaded type on twelve-point body may have its notes in eight- or seven-point, with six- to-pica leads for the text and but ten-to-pica for the notes. A duodecimo in ten-point may have notes in six-point, with a similar discrimination in the selection of appropriate leads for each body. must have been an affliction to 1 The reduced facsimile on be avoided by the compositors, page 172 (one of the few which In his preface Marchand apolo- could be intelligibly produced) gizes for its delayed publication, gives but an imperfect presenta- caused by the idleness [?] and tion of the complications met in dissipation of the printers, which the making-up of this book, he says is a fresh confirmation of Immediately following (page anoldcomplaintof men of letters 173) is the facsimile of a page again st the abuses of printing. from the Decretals of Gratianus, References for foot-notes 175 When the inserts put in a text are set in smaller type it is desirable to make clear to the reader, by the use of still smaller type, the relatively inferior value of the notes ; but the inserts and the notes should be of the same face as that of the text (un- less for an attempted facsimile in black-letter or old style), and should further show their mutual re- lationship by a graduated diminution in the thick- ness of leads. To lead notes with the thick lead selected for the text is always a blemish. OLD SIGNS OF REFERENCE DISUSED The signs that were selected for many years to refer to notes, * t t || § and ^, and are still made a part of every font of book type, are now rated as disfigurements to the page. Superior letters or figures are preferred as more sightly and not so obtrusive, but when these references are made by the use of letters or figures upon a body one half that of the text they may be as objectionable by reason of their pettiness as are signs by their ob- trusiveness. The regular superior figures made a book of 1400 pages, printed at been spent in overrunning type Venice in 1498 by Andrew Tore- to adapt notes to text and text sani, the successor or Nicolas to notes than was given to the Jenson, and the father-in-law of first composition. It is another Aldus Manutius, who became, in exhibit of the frequent abbrevia- turn, his successor. Every page tions and narrow measures that of text (some of a few lines only) had to be adopted by early com- is surrounded on each side by positors to keep together the notes. More time must have notes and the text. 176 Notes should he liept apart by the founders for this purpose are more satis- factory, and are most frequently used. 123456789 123456789 Four-point figures. Eegular superior figures. In mathematical work, however, the old signs may be used instead of superior figures to distinguish note references from powers of numbers, letters, etc. NOTES IN BROAD MEASURE When notes are few and short it is customary to set them as regular paragraphs to the full width of the measure, with the same indention as that of paragraphs of text. Wherever it is practicable, the reference-mark should be separated by a space from the first letter of the note. Notes are always unsightly when they consist mainly of abbreviated citations of books, which in many cases overrun one or two words on the second line, thereby mak- ing needless and wasteful gaps of white space. (See page 58.) The old method of closing the gaps by allowing note 2 to follow note 1, and making all the notes one solid paragraph (as appears in the subnotes on page 172 of this book), is no longer allowed. As a rule, the author wants a separate paragraph or line for each note, but separate para- graphs may make unsightly blanks when their last lines have but a few letters. When there is but one note to the page, and that Notes do not need dividing rules 111 note is short and does not fill the line, it may be set in the centre of the line. When there are two or more short notes to the page, thej^ may be pnt in half measure, if each note has enough of white space at the end of every paragraph to make it readily distinguishable as a separate note. (See page 28.) The old-fashioned paragraph indention (which is objectionable in a succession of short notes in full measure that make wide blanks at the ends of the second lines) can be avoided, when there is only one note to the page, by centring the second line. When the only note on a page makes more than one line, and overruns a few words on the second line, centre both lines after this fashion— The second line of this note should be centred and nearly as long as the first line. If there are not words enough to make a fair show- ing of the second line, shorten the first line by equal indention on each side. DIVIDING-RULES OUT OF FAVOR It was an old fashion to separate the note from the text by a hair-line rule that extended the full width of the measure. Some printers used a short rule in the centre or at the left of the measure for the same purpose. These fashions now find few imi- tators, for there is no need of a cross-rule in a book of text and notes only. When extracts in the text 178 Notes in half measure to he preferred are in types but little larger than the note type, a cross-rule may be of service in separating notes from extracts. When notes are in half measure the cross-rule is not needed. The hair-line rule over the note or under the running title is often of thin brass, with its face out to a sharp angle. This face, easily bent or gapped, is electrotyped with difficulty, and it may appear in print with the defects of gaps or crookedness, or thick at one end of the line and thin at the other. It is rare to find in any book hair-line rules printed with perfect uniformity. NOTES IN HALF MEASURE When small type is selected for foot-notes that may be of unequal length, the notes may be put in half measure. The space between the two columns should not be wider than the em quad of the type of the note, and may be still narrower. The half- measure note saves space in turned-over lines, and presents a neater appearance than that made by the straggling lines of the broad measure, with its frequent gaps of white produced by short lines that sometimes contain one syllable only. The note in half measure may broad measure) is not so offen- show an uneven number of lines sive in the half measure, for by in the two parallel columns, but that treatment the blank must the gap of white space at the end be less than that of some over- (sometimes nine tenths of the turns of a broad measure. The use of half measure for notes gives to them a distinction that they do not have when set in a broad measure, and it differentiates them from the Usual widths for side-notes 179 extracts in a much clearer manner. This method will be found of service in giving a neater appear- ance to the page, especially when the notes are mainly made up of short citations, for they can be kept apart much better than when they have been set to appear in broad measure. 1 Note 1 is distinct, for it stands 2 Note 2 is equally distinct ; it apart in its own column, and does stands apart from note 1, and not seem a part of note 2. cannot be confused with it. Half measure should not be used for long lines of poetry, nor for the only note on a page when that note makes but two nearly full lines; but three lines will justify the use of half measure. When long lines of verse are put in a note it is injudicious to break these lines in the middle to accommodate them to the half measure. ^ It is a better practice to use the broad measure ; but when the verse will not be broken, the half measure will be found more acceptable.^ SIDE-NOTES Side-notes, which add to the expense of composi- tion, are not used as much as they were fifty years ago. The widths oftenest selected are one broad quotation (eight ems of six-point) and two narrow quotations (twelve ems of six-point). Types larger than six-point are seldom selected for explanatory matter in these narrow measures. 1 See notes on page 110. 2 See note on page 52. 180 Types used for cut-in notes Italic lower-case, frequently approved by many au- thors, is not a good selection ; for italic has kerns which are easily broken, and its inclined letters contrast badly with the upright arabic figures that have to be used to specify dates, pages, or years. When permitted, use roman for side-notes. CUT-IN NOTES Cut-in notes, more troublesome than side-notes, are usually set in roman lower-case at least three sizes smaller than the type of the text. They need less space than subheadings. When set ^f gooiTform! with a broad and clearly defined white line around each note they have dis- tinction enough to compel the notice of a student. A short square of white space in the text is an unusual form which attracts attention, but it does ^ ^ , ^ , not offend the eye, as does any kind School-book '^ ' , ii noteinUght of bokl jobbing type, which spots the antique type. ^^^^^ YvVq a blot of ink. Request is often made by publishers, who wish to give to cut- in notes the boldness of subheadings, for types of a bolder face, like antique or condensed title-letter. , These bold types are not wisely chosen Advertiser S ^^^, ^^^^ standard book. They may be Cllt-in note. ^^^^^ .^ school-books, but they carry with them the suggestion of the overbold display of the advertising pamphlet. Italic is objection- able not only for its frailty, but for its weaken- Centre- and shoulder-notes 181 ing of the emphasis that may be more needed for the words or phrases of italic in the text. This objection applies with equal force to the selection of italic for side-notes. CENTRE-NOTES Centre-notes are rarely used, although they are un- avoidable in pocket editions of the Scriptures, for which pearl or diamond types are required, with still smaller characters in roman and italic for the signs to indicate the references. For this purpose superior letters are preferred to superior figures. SHOULDER-NOTE is the name given to the note that appears in the upper and outer corner onty of the page. They are used in law work to define sections or chap- ters, or for special purposes of cross-reference, as well as in historical work to specify dates. The words SECTION IV. in the upper right-hand corner of the facsimile from Marchand (page 172) show the position and style of the old-fashioned shoulder- note. 12 XI INDENTION RINTED WORDS need the relief of a surrounding blank as much as figures in a landscape need background or contrast, perspective or atmosphere. Even in a book of solid composition there is invariably more white than black on the page. Much of it may be in the margin, but the amount of white put between the lines and within each letter is greater than is supposed. It is not merely by the selection of suitable types, but by the graduation of blank space about its lines, that a title-page is made attractive or repelling. When these blanks have been removed from a properly spaced title-page, and the lines are huddled, the effect produced will be as unpleasing as that of a squeezed theatrical advertisement in a newspaper. On the coritrary, too much relief of white space 182 Types need relief of blank space 183 may be as unpleasing as too little. If the blanks of the title are too wide, so that the coherence of straggling lines is not apparent at first glance, the effect of good composition is destroyed. What is of value for the title-page is of value also for the page of text. White space is required to make printing comprehensible. A new chapter is identified at once by a larger allowance of blank at the top of that page. A change of importance in the subject-matter of the text, like that of a document, extract, or letter, is more plainly indi- cated by putting a full blank line before and after the insert. A change of minor importance is in- dicated by putting a small square of white, known as the em quadrat, at the beginning of a new para- graph. This petty square of white makes a break in the regular outline of the page which arrests attention almost as plainly and more neatly than was done by the ^ or ^[ which were the para- graph-marks of the early printers.^ Much more might be said about the importance of suitable blanks for title-pages and chapter head- ings, but the relief of white space produced by the quadrats which are most used in the composition of book texts is all that can be considered under this 1 The repetition of these tru- ing methods of huddling words isms may be of small value to which deservedly have been dis- compositors who have had ex- carded for centuries. For an perience in type-setting, but it illustration of the old methods seems to be sorely needed by the of pinching space and huddling amateurs and the young com- words, see facsimiles on pages positors who are servilely imitat- 34 and 173 of this book. 184 Indentions of one em preferred heading. The quadrats are enough to enable the compositor to make the forms of indention known as regular paragraph, hanging, motto, lozenge or diamond, half-diamond, squared, and diagonal. PARAGRAPH INDENTION The one-em indention for the regular paragraph is most frequent, but indention changes with varied forms of composition. For solid matter, one em at the beginning of a paragraph is enough to give the intended distinction of a change of subject. When the matter is wide leaded or white-lined, and the white space between lines is thereby made larger, two- or three-em quadrats are often use d. These wide indentions are striking, but they have disadvantages. If the preceding paragraph ends with a single syllable, it is practically separated from its following paragraph by a full white line of irregular shape, which makes an awkward gap. part of a paragraph ending with the overrun word so. The overrun of the word so and the wide inden- tion practically make an awkward white line be- tween the two paragraphs, where it is not needed. To prevent this disfigurement the closing lines of the first paragraph are often overrun and more widely spaced, so that the last word shall pass beyond the indention of the second paragraph. This hides the blemish of an irregular white line, but it makes objectionably uneven spacing. Deep indentions wasteful of space 185 The very wide indentions made by penmen, who sometimes begin a new paragraph in or near the centre of the sheet, should not be imitated in print. They are unpleasing even in script type. There are some kinds of composition for which the indention of one em only is insufficient. In all dialogue matter of many short paragraphs, some of them beginning with marks of quotation and some without, the indention of one em and two thick spaces is sometimes used for unquoted paragraphs, and of one em only for paragraphs with quotation- marks. As the two quotation-marks and a following thin space (about the thickness of two thick spaces) occupy but a small portion of the type body, and give but little added blackness to the print, they do not apparently diminish the white space pro- duced by the broader indention of the unquoted paragraphs.^ An indention of one em for quoted and of one and two-third ems for unquoted para- graphs keeps the capitals in a vertical line, to the improvement of the composition. When the same indention is made for all paragraphs the capitals will be noticeably out of line. Indentions of three ems or more in a narrow measure are almost as wasteful of space as a full white line. A pleasing appearance can be given to open composition by one-em indention and full white lines between the paragraphs. The object of indention, the leading of the eye to a noticeable 1 See illustrations on page 224. 186 Paragraph indention lad for display white space that indicates a break in the discourse or writing, is defeated when that blank is made too wide, compelling the turning over of too many short lines. The proper adjustment of indention and of breaks at the ends of paragraphs is as im- portant as even leading and even spacing. WHEN PARAGRAPH INDENTION IS NOT NEEDED The first Hue of any new chapter, even when that line does not begin with a large initial letter, or any first line of type following the white line usu- ally put at the end of an extract or insert, needs no indention: the white line above the print is sufiicient indication of a change in subject-matter. Nor is the one-em indention required under a short line of subheading, but if the heading fills the measure the one-em indention is proper. FOR CIRCULAR LETTERS Type-write your letter or circular on a prepared stencil sheet just as you would write it on paper. Then put the sten- cil in THE NEW MULTIGRAPH and print 600 COPIES AN HOUR with ease and accuracy. FOR CIRCULAR LETTERS Type-write your letter or circular on a prepared stencil sheet just as you would write it on paper. Then put the stencil in THE NEW MULTIGRAPH AND PRINT 600 COPIES AN HOUR with ease and accuracy. The regular paragraph indention should never be used for a few lines of text in any form of dis- played composition. These few lines may be set the full width of the measure when the last line fills The hanging indention marks a change 187 that measure, but they can be narrowed or half- diamonded with better effect. Display is damaged when there is much unbalanced irregularity in the blanks. When short lines are centred, displayed lines have the desired prominence, and the compo- sition is made more symmetrical. When two or more sizes of type are used on the same page, the paragraph indention of each size should be of uniform width. Foot-notes may be excepted when they are in half measure. When a foot-note in broad measure is a citation of author- ity not exceeding two lines, the first line may be full or nearly full, but the following line should be cen- tred. The turning over in a separate line of the last syllable or of a few figures should be avoided by thin spacing when it is possible to do so. HANGING INDENTION When the first paragraph in a book is preceded by a summary of its contents or by a long text or motto under the chapter heading, or when a long rule or proposition within the text is followed by extended comment, the types and the indention of this specialized matter should be perceptibly different. A change in style as well as in size of type is needed to show a distinction in subject- matter. For this purpose preference is often given to the hanging indention, which makes the first line the full width of the measure and indents one 188 Hanging indention for summaries or more ems on the left all the lines following. When space will allow, the matter so treated may be preceded and followed by a full white line. For unleaded composition, even in the broadest measure, the one-em indention of the lines follow- ing the first line is enough to give the matter dis- tinction. For leaded matter an indention of one and a half ems is common, and two or more ems may be used for a summary in very small type ; but two ems may be found too much for widely leaded lines of large type. A three-em indention in open matter makes composition lopsided and unsightly. The slight projection of the first line and the slight recession of the following lines are enough to arrest attention. Summaries of contents under a CHAPITRE II. Son s^jour en Italie.— Simon de Villeneuve.— Jean du Bellay. Lan gey.— Amours avec une V6nitienne.— Son talent comme poete latin.— Opinion de Buchanan et de Scaliger k cet €gard. Boulmier, Estienne Dolet. chapter heading, which are usually set in small type, may receive indention of the same width as that used for the regular paragraphs of the text. Indexes, directories, dictionaries, and all similar forms of composition abounding in short para- graphs, each beginning with a word intended to arrest attention, should have the first line of each paragraph the full width of the measure, and all following lines of that paragraph indented. With small type the indention of one en is enough. Usefulness of half-diamond indention 189 paper-mill (pa'per-mil), n. A mill in which paper is manufactured. paper-mulberry (pa'per-muF'ber-i), n. See Broussonetia. paper-muslin (pa'per-muznin), n. A glazed muslin used for dress-linmgs In circulars or advertisements consisting almost entirely of concise paragraphs, often of two and never exceeding three lines, the hanging indention should be preferred. When set in usual paragraph style the projecting syllable of the second line is first seen, while the more important first word of the paragraph is not so noticeable. Composition with projecting second lines that often end with a broad blank always has a ragged and incoherent appearance. Dialogue matter in a book wiU not be improved by the use of hanging indention, for it will be at variance with the regular indention of other para- graphs, and will destroy the uniformity which is of greater importance. The distinction of a hang- ing indention should be given only to a paragraph which has some marked peculiarity in its subject- matter. The bad turnovers that may happen m short paragraphs of dialogue matter do not war- rant the change to a hanging indention. HALF-DIAMOND INDENTION This is a pleasing mannerism of the early printers, who used it not only for the title-pages of books, 190 Good effect of half-diamond indention but for the endings of chapters. The reader was notified by a gradual narrowing of lines that the paragraph so treated was hastening to a point and to its end. The half-diamond form prevented the lopsided appearance always presented when the last line had few words and showed great waste of white space. It was often used with good effect in the title-pages of Pickering, and it has been revived to advantage, not only for title-pages, but for other forms of displayed composition. It gives promi- nence to display lines, whether they are long or short, and symmetrically distributes the relief of white space that is needed for the display of type. C^ftat tl)ou magest tTje sonei antr eafipe?fptre (mofle gentle ?eatie?) eitJ)e? tl)e name af anp pe?fone o? anp otlje? gooli mattie^ contetneli in tl)is boofee, % Ijaue Ije^e atitieli a la?ge anli plame Cable afte^ tlje a^li?e of tlje 3- QB. C,fetouttoiti)ti)enaum^ b^e of tlje leafe, M)t%z tI)0ufl)altfpnlieanp (ucbe tl)png as tl)aulies!p?efl to bane in. Limitations of lozenge indention 191 The half-diamond and the lozenge-shaped inden- tions are unwisely neglected in open display work. Compositors frequently use paragraph indention for sentences of two or three lines, even when the last line ends in a turnover of five letters. It is always a blemish to allow an irregular white line at the end of a line of text and over a line of display. In the title-pages of books half-diamond inden- tion can be used with good effect for all groups of words that do not need special display. It prevents the useless display of many lines, with their space- wasting catch-lines, and makes a pleasing variation in the composition by its systematic irregularity of outline. It is not a favored style for dedications, in which words are seldom found that wiU allow of this treatment without the making of bad spacing or of divisions that are equally offensive. LOZENGE INDENTION This form of indention is troublesome, for it re- quires some preliminary calculation of the number of words to be so treated. The compositor begins the work by setting one word in the centre of the measure, and gradually increases the number of words in each succeeding line until the measure is filled. The indention in all following lines is in- creased until the matter closes in the last line with one word only. The lines may have to be repeat- edly reset and justified before the proper shape is 192 The motto indention rarely used produced. When lozenge indention can be made without uneven spacing or bad divisions, the effect A TREATISE ON THE PROCESSES OF TYPE-MAKING, THE POINT SYSTEM, THE NAMES, SIZES, STYLES, AND PRICES OF PRINTING -TYPES. is pleasing, but it is unwisely attempted within a narrow measure and with capital letters only. MOTTO INDENTION This form of indention is largely used by French printers for the mottos of title-pages and for para- graphs that call for special attention. To make it the compositor fills np one half or more of the measure at the left with quadrats, and sets the motto in small type, so that print shall appear on the right On ne pent se flgurer rimpression produite . . . par In mort du jeune Napoleon . . . J'ai meme vii pleurer de jeimes r^publioains, Henri Hehie. Motto of Rostand's L'Aiglon. half of the title-page. It is a form used in England and America almost exclusively for some forms of law work in which the mannerisms of early Norman copyists are still maintained. It gives a marked prominence to subject-matter, but the composition so treated is always unsymmetrical. Recent methods of indenting matter 193 NO INDENTION A new school of typography disapproves of the old-fashioned method of indenting paragraphs, and advises that the first letter in the first line of a paragraph be set flush with the measure, without the preliminary em quadrat. No objection can be made to this method when this first line has a full white line over it, as is usual at the beginning of a chapter, for the white line is an indication of a new subject as well as of the new paragraph. When matter is set solid, without any white line between paragraphs, the no-indention method is not to be commended. It does not help the reader, and it may confuse him. If the last line of a preceding paragraph fills the measure, as sometimes happens, distinction between that paragraph and the one following is destroyed. Without the needed break of white between, the two paragraphs are made one. SQUARED INDENTION This name is given to the squared and centred com- position of short indented lines (often of capitals only) now in favor for undisplayed parts of a title- page. Every line is set with a wide indention on each side, and with first and last lines always of the full width of the narrowed measure, so that they will take the form of a symmetrical square. This method is one form of rebellion against the old displayed 194 Limitations of the squared indention title-page which separated words in many lines of unequal length, making some absurdly large and others (catch-lines) unduly small, much to the waste of the white space really needed for a proper relief to the few lines of display. The new fashion is as artificial as the old, much more troublesome, and sometimes more unsightly. To make perfect all the lines of a squared paragraph of capital let- ters in a narrow measure, the words in some lines may have to be spaced between the letters j in other OBSERVATIONS CONCERNING SPELLING, ABBREVIATIONS, COMPOUND WORDS, ITALIC, FIGURES, NUMERALS, SMALL- CAPITAL AND CAPITAL LET- TERS, DIVISION OF WORDS, EXTRACTS, LETTERS, NOTES, INDENTION, EVEN SPACING. In this illustration of squaring, the letters are not hair-spaced, but the spaces between the words are objectionably uneven. Judicious hair-spacing is needed to lessen the gaps in the second, third, and eighth lines. lines the words may have to be separated by spaces which are too thick or too thin. When this uneven spacing has been made, the letters in some lines seem to belong to different fonts. The spacing of letters changes the color of the lines ; some words will seem too light and others too dark, and the general effect will be as disagreeable to a critical eye as that which would be produced by double or triple leading between some lines and the entire omission of leads between other lines. Irregular indention for extracts and letters 195 DIAGONAL INDENTION When two or more words intended for display in a poster or an advertisement are of nearl}^ the same length, and are of equal value, but cannot be set in one line properly, and cannot be put in separate and full lines without making a display too bold for the occasion, nor centred without awkwardness of effect, they may be arranged diagonally in this fashion ; COURIER GAZETTE TRIBUNE This can be done with a better effect when there is ample space for the use of leads to separate lines, but the triangular gaps of white do not favor easy composition on the side. Advertisers often fiU the blanks with small type. In a circular of plain and undisplayed type, the diagonal indention is wisely used for the address of corporations or societies which have titles too long to be arranged in one or two lines. It is the proper method for composing type in imitation of the superscription of the address on an envelope. IRREGULAR INDENTION Extracts inserted in the body of the text are often indented evenly with one em or two ems on each 196 System needed in irregular indentions side of the full measure. Another method indents the extracts two or more ems at the left and allows all lines to be flush at the right.^ Date-lines and signature-lines are habitually in- dented one em at the right end of the line. When there are many signatures to a document, each name must begin evenly at an arbitrarily fixed point on the left, regardless of the space made at the ending. An address to a person or corporation at the beginning of a letter needs no indention for its first line, but the formal complimentary salutation of Dear Sir or Gentlemen, which is intended to follow the name of the person or the firm, should be indented one em. The complimentary conclusion of Yours truly and similar phrases should be in a separate line, and indented, when it can be done, so that the last letter of the preceding line shall be at a regular distance from the beginning of the following line. There are other forms of irregular composition for which set rules cannot be given, but this gen- eral rule may be observed : to give needed promi- nence to lines, space should be as evenly distributed as the nature of the work will allow. Nor can arbitrary rules be given for the indention of poetry. It is customary to give similar inden- tion to the lines that rime, but there are authors who insist on their own treatment of indention, 1 See chapters on Small Capitals, Extracts and Letters, and Subheadings for fuller illustration. Irregular indention of poems 197 which is sometimes notably irregular. Reprints of the sonnets of the seventeenth century should preserve the indention of their first editions. Since honour from the honourer proceeds, How well do they deserve, that memorize And leave in books for all posterities The names of worthies and their virtuous deeds; When all their glory else, like water- weeds Without their element, presently dies. And all their greatness quite forgotten hes. And when and how they flourished no man heeds ! How poor remembrances are statues, tombs, And other monuments that men erect To princes, which remain in closed rooms Where but few behold them, in respect Of books, that to the universal eye Show how they lived -, the other where they he I John Florio, 1615, As a collection of poems in different measures must have lines of unequal length, it is impracticable to give rules for absolute uniformity, but care should be taken to regulate the indention so that lines will not turn over unnecessarily. Odes with lines of uneven length must be indented irregularly, to keep the body of the text matter as nearly as possible in the middle of the page. When odes are set in narrow measure, it is better to turn over an occa- sional long line rather than print most of the lines out of centre. 13 XII SPACING COMPOSITION is made more pleasing when the spaces between words seem to be of the same width in all lines on the page. A reader is repelled by print in which words have been separated, as they may be occasionally, by two three-to-em spaces in the first and by five-to-em spaces in the next line. Quite as unsightly are lines that have been thick-spaced at one side and thin-spaced at the other. Spacing of either kind, as is shown in this paragraph, is a disgrace to the printer ; it is a fault for which there is seldom acceptable excuse. Even spacing is not easily secured. Whether the measure is narrow or wide, whether the type is fat or lean, the compositor has to put in type the words as set down in his copy. He must divide words on syllables only ; but some syllables and some words 198 Irregular letters male irregular spacing 199 have many letters and may not be divided at all. He cannot compress the types, or a,bbreviate a long word, as was the prevailing practice in the early days of type-setting. He often faces the dilemma of a bad division to prevent wide spacing in one line and thin spacing in the next line. To avoid either fanlt he may have to overrnn and respace preceding lines so that he can take in or drive out the clumsy word that threatens uneven spacing or wrong division. In an ordinary measure, twenty ems or more wide, the threatened blemish may be prevented by overrunning, but there may be narrow measures in which this expedient is impracticable. Even in a broad measure he will find indivisible words, proper names, and large amounts in arable figures, which are great hindrances to even spacing. It follows that absolute uniformity in spacing is impossible. When we insist upon the division of words on syllables only, we must tolerate some un- evenness in spacing, and be content with approxi- mations to an ideal but unreached standard. LETTERS NEED SPACES OF UNEQUAL WIDTH To make spacing seem even, the spaces between words must not be of the same width. Allowance must be made for some irregularities in the shape of different characters : letters like o and e occupy but one half of the type body ; points like . , — ' much less than one half ; ascending or descending 200 How to vary the spacing oftvords letters, like d, h, g, y, and the capitals, about three fourths ; others, like j and Q, nearly the full height of the type body. Some are upright, like I and H ; others are angled, like A and L, or Y and W. When a word ends with the letter d, and the next word begins with the letter h or H, the space between Qdpse-,'HYMLj them may be wider than it is between a word end- ing with e and the next word beginning with o. On the contrary, a word ending with y when fol- lowed by another word beginning with W should have a thinner space between them. Short let- ters like o, e, s, c, at ends and beginnings of words take thin spaces. Irregular characters, like . , ', that fill but a small portion of the body, and angled characters, like y, w. A, L, Y, V, etc., at the ending and beginning of words, should have the bits of blanks made by their irregularities reckoned as a part of the spacing. It is not practicable to make these distinctions with small types, but a discrim- ination in the selection of spaces is desirable and even necessary with types larger than twelve-point. These niceties are possible in hand composition only. In the work of automatic type-setting and justifying machines a special adjustment of spaces between words in the same line is impossible. In Faults of wide and narrow spacing 201 newspaper work with type on six- or seven-point body, nnevenness in spacing is held of but slight importance, bnt nnevenness is not allowed in good book- work from hand composition with large type. In the display lines of title-pages and even of many subheadings, an intelligent discrimination in the selection of spaces is of great importance. TOO WIDE AND TOO NARROW SPACING For solid composition in ordinary lower-case let- ters of standard width the space most used is the three-to-em space. For wide-leaded matter the en quadrat is frequently substituted, and this is wide enough for most open composition. The "pigeonholing" of matter produced by the use of two thick spaces or of em quadrats between words in wide-leaded matter, as is shown in these lines, was once in fashion, but it is now generally disapproved. Five-to-em- or hair-spacing of lines of text may be passed occasionally in solid composition when ordered on the final revised proof of an author, but it is offensive in leaded matter. It must be tolerated when it prevents the turning over of a syllable in a line of poetry, yet it is unsightly. The hair-spacing of solid composition, sometimes un- avoidable in the final correction of hurried proofs, is shown in two Lines of this sentence, and may be found in good work, but it is always a misfortune. 202 Spacing of fat and lean types Uneven spacing in the same line is without excuse. When three-to-em spaces do not fill the measure they must be supplanted with en quadrats or two five -to -em spaces. When three-to-em spaces are too much they should be changed for four -to -em or flve-to-em spaces. In composition by hand this change of spaces should be evenly done between all words as far as the irregular forms of meeting letters will allow. It is always desirable to have a little blank at the end of a paragraph to show more plainly the ending of the last line of that paragraph, but this last line should not be spaced closer or wider than the preceding line. LEAN AND FAT TYPES NOT SPACED ALIKE A fat letter of fifteen or more ems to the alphabet will bear much wider spacing than a thin letter of twelve ems or less. Condensed letter, on the con- Tliis form of condensed tjpe slioold h spaced willi five-to-eoi spaces For expanded type use en quadrat trary, should be thin-spaced invariably, The proper space between words in any type is fairly indicated by the blanks between the stems of the letters m and n of that type, which will be wide in fat and narrow in lean type, and should be a safe guide for the determination of correct spacing. Capitals need a wider spacing 203 SPACING OF CAPITAL LETTERS The composition of capital letters only, which are generally twice as high and twice as wide as the round letters of the lower-case series, needs spaces twice as wide as those between lower-case words, and leads twice as thick as those between lower- case lines. The en quadrat is the least permissible space between words set in capitals ; two three-to- em spaces are better, but the em quadrat may be allowed in a head-line of two-line letter when it is surrounded by much open space. IN THESE LINES OF CAPITALS THE WORDS IN THE LINES ARE HUDDLED AND HARD TO READ i THE WIDER SPACING AND THE THICKER LEADING OF THESE LINES MAKE EASIER READING Capital letters in all lines of large display often require unequal spacing, for characters like A, Y, L, J, P, V, W are of irregular form, and when two 1 Thin spacing is practised by The em quadrat between sen- several eminent disciples of the tences and the three-to-em space fifteenth-century school of ty- between words are rated as waste pography, apparently on these white space, and are a vexation grounds : As the early printers to one who admires the manner- made exclusive use of one thin isms of medieval copyists. If space, we should use the thin a sentence ends within the hue, space only. It is held that this omit all space after it ; let the thin space is wide enough to sep- capital letter of the new press on arate words and even sentences, the period of the last sentence. 204 Spacing of uprigM letters or more meet in one word, and are preceded by upright regular letters, the irregular letters show too much of white between their stems or thick strokes. The unpleasant contrast between regular and irregular characters can be diminished by put- ting a thin space between all the upright letters. When capitals with upright stems are thin-spaced and meet letters of irregular form not spaced, all will seem to be apart at uniform distance. HEMINGWAY HEMINGWAY When there is much white space on the page or about one or more lines of capital letters printed thereon, single capital letters may be wide-spaced with propriety, providing that the spacing be made apparently uniform in all lines, and will not pro- duce unsightly divisions of some syllables. If sin- gle letters are spaced, the ordinary spacing between words should be proportionately increased. In no case, however, should the space between single let- ters be greater than that between adjacent lines. It is a sad disfigurement to a title-page to have two picas between the letters of a bold display line and but one pica of blank between the proximate lines. SPACING AFFECTED BY PUNCTUATION Quote-marks should have liair-spaces put between them and the quoted matter in every place where Spacing modified hy punctuation 205 they abut or interfere with upright letters. The capital A, with its broad-angled shoulder, does not need this intervening hair-space, nor is it needed in a closing quote that follows a period or comma, but it is needed in every place where the tail of the quote touches the stem of a letter. French printers give more distinctness to the quote-marks by the use of the thick space before and often after all quotations that do not end with points. "These quote-marks are too close to the letters" " These quote-marks set off with proper space." Dashes used as marks of punctuation should be separated from their adjoining text letters by the hair-space or the five-to-em space. When a comma (rarely needed) precedes the dash, the space may be omitted, for the blank above the comma is enough to prevent its interference. In electrotype work the f at the end or the j at the beginning of a line, if kerned, should have that kern kept within the line of the page by a protecting thin space, for the kern may be broken off in moulding. This remark ap- plies to all characters projecting beyond the page. If it is possible to do so without uneven spacing, avoid placing an em dash at the beginning or at the end of a line. The dash makes a gap in the regular outline of the page. Dashes of two ems or more should not be used to mark a break. For an ellipsis make use of three periods two spaces apart. 206 Spacing of hlack-letter and script SPACING OF LETTERS In the narrow measure of eight ems or less, as is usual in side-notes, or in text matter led down the , ., , side of illustrations, there must be some A side-note . t i?i. i, unwisely irregularity of spacing, it otten hap- spaced out. ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^q^^j q^\j g^n be put in a line, and that this word will not fill the measure ; but no attempt should be made to close it entirely , ., , by spacing the letters of that word, for A side-note J ir & ,^ ^ unspaced, this Spacing of letters alters the charac- but proper. ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^f ^^^ composition, and makes a much more unpleasing blemish. The un- avoidability of the short line is apparent, and no attempt need be made to remedy unavoidable fault. SPACING OF BLACK-LETTER AND LOWER-CASE Black-letter should always be thin-spaced between words, and thin-leaded, if leaded at all, but it will be more pleasing when set solid. Its letters should never be spaced, for the spirit of all black-letter forms is based upon their compression and com- pactness, and a widening of the set or of the space between letters destroys the true spirit of the style. aintotse spacing of l)lacfe4etter at ite besJt toten letters; are tms;paceli Script type should never be wide-spaced in any position. When capital letters used as abbrevia- Spacing of lower-case letters 207 tions follow one another, as in N.Y. or S.C, there need be no space between these letters. Lower-case characters, always of irregular shape, filling from one fourth to three fourths of the type body, are made more irregular or more sprawling by putting spaces between the letters. The effect first produced by the spacing of lower-case letters is that of incoherence ; the next is that of a too ap- parent striving after quaintness or eccentricity, The Eve of St, Agnes The Eve of St. Agnes which should be unpleasing to any reader. When the type selected is not large enough to occupy the measure, use type of a larger size. If this cannot be done, leave the letters unspaced.i 1 These suggestions are flatly measure. The space to be put contradicted by the teaching and between letters may be an en the practice of a new school of quadrat or a three-em quadrat, typography, which directs that I have seen the date of 1900 at all lines must fill the measure, the foot of a title-page so widely The order must be enforced for spaced, with six or more em quad- the shortest word in the broadest rats separating the digits, that 208 Even spacing requires watchfulness Leaded poetry ma}^ be spaced with the en quadrat, especially when it is double-leaded or white-lined ; but the en quadrat does not improve the appear- ance of poetry set solid, however wide the measure. Many compound words in one line may make over- wide spacing between words. This blemish can be amended by putting a thin space on each side of the hyphen. Compositors on time, and piece-hands who make alterations on time, have no excuse for the neglect of even spacing. Piece-compositors who have to take back and overrun for more even spacing should claim pay (even before first proof) for the time so spent. The proof-reader who passes uneven spacing is in fault 5 to keep his own reputation he should discipline compositors who are slovens in spacing. its significance was not compre- century who had scant supply of hensible at first glance. This quadrats and had to fudge for new fashion began with the re- needed sorts. Every compositor cent revival of the mannerisms who has had experience in any of medieval illuminators, who, petty printing-house of 1845 may to give the desired prominence recall the expedients he had to to a large and highly ornamented resort to in composing lines of initial letter, ordered the copyists large types destitute of quadrats to sprawl dislocated letters to and spaces. If the first and last fill vacant space by the side of letters of the line to be displayed or over the initial. The proper were placed at the ends of the coherence of letters and words measure, he could fill that line had to be sacrificed ; the blank with spaces or qiiadrats of any space had to be filled whether it smaller body. To a printer who did or did not justify lettering. has had this experience, it is not Another warrant for too wide a little amusing to remark that spacing is to be found in the all these imitations of scamped uncouth title-pages of some Eng- workmanship are now paraded lish printers of the seventeenth as evidences of superior taste. XIII QUOTATION-MARKS ^QOTATION-MARKS of commas only, put in the outer margin, were used by Morel of Paris before 1557. Menage's marks, made a century later, were of ^ ^ this form :(()). They were put in the centre of the type body, so that they could be re- versed and printed in pairs for the beginning and the ending of a quotation. They were not com- mon in books of the eighteenth century. When English printers did decide to mark quotations, they refused the French form, and made a very awkward substitute by inverting two commas for the beginning and using two apostrophes for the ending of the quotation. The quote-marks so sub- stituted " '' are what Moxon calls a makeshift device, for these signs, wrested from their first pur- pose, are not symmetrical mates : the apostrophe 209 210 Hackneyed phrases not to he quoted on the five-to-em body is made thinner than the comma on the four-to-em body, and their knobby endings are not in true line. Unlike other charac- ters in the font, they occupy the upper part of the body, and leave an unsightly blank below, often to the detriment of even spacing. When a mark of quotation has to appear before a two-line letter at the beginning of a chapter, the turned commas used for that purpose should be of the type of the text, and be Justified in at the side or over the head of the two-line letter. It is a seri- ous blemish to any page to select commas to mate with the large initial used in the first paragraph. WHEN QUOTE-MARKS ARE NOT NEEDED The purpose of quote-marks within the text is to inclose the exact words of another writer, so that the reader at a glance can differentiate the words quoted from those of the author. When used with discretion quote-marks are helpful; too lavishly used, they disfigure print and really degrade the style of the writer. There are phrases in the Bible, in Shakspere, Milton, and other famous authors, which b}^ their terseness have become what may be called verbal coins in the English language, and their origin and value should be known to every reader. To fence in with quote-marks phrases like these — not of an age, but for all time ; the knell of parting day ; the observed of all observers j Methods of using quote-marks 211 to the manner born — impHes on the part of the author a low estimate of the reader's knowledge of literature. It is an intimation that he has not read these phrases and knows little or nothing of the writings of good authors. This remark may be applied to all trite proverbs and hackneyed sayings, which do not need quote-marks any more than they need foot-notes citing author, book, and page. No fixed line can be drawn between the proper and the improper use of quote-marks, which may be proper on one occasion and not on another. The author, not the compositor, must avoid the impu- tation of filching the language of another writer by omitting the quote-marks, as well as that of a pedantic precision by inserting them where they are not needed and may be a positive offence. The compositor has no choice ; he must follow copy. When a sentence or a long extract from another writer is incorporated in the type of the text, two turned commas are usually placed at the begin- ning and two apostrophes at the end of the incor- porated matter. If the extract consists of two or more paragraphs, the turned commas should be used at the beginning of every paragraph, but the doubled apostrophes appear only at the end of the quotation. There have been authors who held that quote- marks at the beginning and the end of an extract extending over one or more pages were not em- phatic enough to catch the eye of a casual reader. 212 Insiynlficance of single quotes To prevent any misunderstanding as to the limit of the quotation, doubled commas were inserted at the beginning of every line by many printers of the first half of the nineteenth century.^ Nor is this fashion entirely obsolete ; doubled commas at the beginning of lines are used occasionally in legal documents and in the columns of newspapers, but this style is out of fashion in good book- work. The long quotation or extract is specially indented or is shown in a smaller type, with equal clearness to the reader and with better effect in the print,^ but when double quotes are clearly marked in copy, the compositor must insert them without question. When an author objects to quote-marks at the beginning of every line of a long extract or docu- ment, but insists on its appearance in the type of the text, the distinction desired for this extract may be made by indenting all the lines one em on each side or by a deeper indention on the left. SINGLE QUOTES British printers sometimes use single instead of double quotes, but not with advantage to the print or help to the reader. The single qu^te-mark, a feeble sign at its best, and especially feeble when the tails of the characters are worn, should be re- served for the quote within a quote, as will be shown in following illustrations. 1 See letter on page 162. 2 See extract on page 163. Dialogue intelligihle without quotes 213 When special attention is invited to any word, it is customary to inclose it in single qnote-marks, as : By ^ experiment ' is meant the process of altering the arrangements presented by nature. In this illustration the single quote-mark is the ac- cepted substitute for the old fashion of putting the word experiment in italic or beginning it with a capital. The single quote is of real service when it identifies unmistakably the exact word used by a speaker or writer, but it will prove an irritating precision when it is repeated too often in subse- quent citations of that word. QUOTE-MARKS NOT USED IN THE BIBLE It has been said that the conversation of different speakers would be unintelligible or confused if the words of each speaker were not inclosed in quote- marks. A careful reading of the following dia- logue, as presented in the authorized version of the Bible, will show that quote-marks are not needed as much as is commonly supposed to distinguish the words of different speakers. And he came unto his father, and said, My father : and he said, Here am 1 ; who art thou, my son ? And Jacob said unto his father, I am Esau thy first- bom ; I have done according as thou badest me : arise, I pray thee, sit and eat of my venison, that thy soul may bless me. 14 214 When to use or omit quotes And Isaac said unto his son, How is it that thou hast found it so quickly, my son? And he said. Because the Lord thy God brought it to me. And Isaac said unto Jacob, Come near, I pray thee, that I may feel thee, my son, whether thou he my very son Esau or not. Genesis, xxvii, 18-21. QUOTE-MARKS NOT NEEDED FOR SMALLER TYPE The quotation or extract which is set in smaller type and is made a separate paragraph needs no quote-marks. Change of size is enough to show that it is not a part of the text. When the name of the writer of the extract is given in the text, or in a credit or foot-note, quote-marks are a useless formality.^ General Den vers said: There may have been individual guards who were rude, but rudeness was rare. The officer could scarcely ever visit the prisoners. But when the quotation or extract is made a part of the paragraph, the quote-marks must be used. In his testimony Mr. Wyeth said that '^ two men, for an infringement, were compelled to * mark time ' for more than an hour." As there we stood, on me the Mantuan faced His eyes, and thus he spake : " Both fires, my son. The temporal and the eternal, thou hast seen." Virgirs farewell to Dante. 1 See page 163. When to use or omit quotes 215 When a compositor is uncertain as to the proper use of quotation-marks in copy not systematically prepared, he should use quote-marks for the exact words only of the writer or speaker. This was his written promise to me : " I agree to pay you one hundred dohars on the first day of June, 1896." But there should be no quotation-marks when the statement is worded after this manner: He advised me by letter that he would, on the first day of June, 1896, pay me one hundred dollars. Quotation-marks are frequently used in editorial comment to stigmatize objectionable quoted words. His fondness for the big or unusual words and phrases '^empyrean," ''nadir," " capriccio," ''cui bono," " coup d'etat," shows that he has been to a feast of languages and stolen the scraps. When a compositor finds these marks in his copy he must follow copy, even if he doubts, as does the writer, whether the quote-marks add anything to the force of the comment. When a word or phrase has been made the sub- ject of special and caustic criticism, this word or phrase is usually inclosed in quotes when it first appears in the comment ; but if the quoted word or phrase has to be frequently reprinted, the quota- tion-marks may be suppressed in the repetitions. 216 Proper spacing of quotations PUNCTUATION BEFORE AND AFTER QUOTE-MARKS Quotations of isolated words or phrases, as in the last example, do not need a dash, comma, or colon after the introductory clause. Nor is a point always needed when the quoted words are long enough to make an independent sentence, as in : Cobbett's remark, that ^' the apostrophe ought to be called the mark, not of elision, but of laziness and vulgarity,'''' is as true now as it was then. In this example the flow of thought and expres- sion is continuous ; there is no break in language, and a point is not needed after the word that. When the quotation is long, or when it is intro- duced in a formal manner, it is usually preceded by a colon, as : In describing the influence of a great orator over an audience, Sheridan says : " Notwithstanding the diversity of minds in such a multitude, by the hghtning of eloquence they are melted into one mass; the whole assembly, actuated in one and the same way, become, as it were, but one man, and have but one voice. The universal cry is, Let us march against Philip ! let us fight for our hberties ! let us conquer or die ! " " Quotation-marks should be separated by a thin space from adjacent or abutting letters when they press them too closely. When a closing quote is at the end of a clause or sentence that also ends Quoted matter only to he inclosed 217 with a period or comma, the thin space may be omitted, for the blank over the period or comma is enough to show the separation. When a dash is used to mark broken or interrupted speech, the quote may come close after the dash. When words are purposely omitted in a quota- tion, this omission should be marked by the use of three periods about two spaces apart. There is an old but unwritten rule, fairly ob- served by many compositors, that the closing marks of quotation always should be put after the comma or the period in all places where these points are needed. This practice, proper enough in many in- stances, seems to have warranted the frequent but erroneous insertion of these marks after every point of punctuation and even after a final parenthesis. The proper place of the closing marks of quotation should be determined by the quoted words only; they must inclose these words, and no more ; they may be before or after the points, according to the construction of the sentence. When the quotation makes a complete sentence, put the quotation-marks after the period at the end of that sentence ; when the quotation is at the end of but a portion of this sentence which terminates with a colon, semicolon, or any other point, then put the marks before the point. The mark of punctuation intended to define the construction of the completed sentence should not be made a portion of the fragmentary quoted matter. 218 Quotes tvitliin quotes It was presented as a "substitute" for a previous motion to substitute the minority for the majority- report {i. e. to strike out the majority proposal for '' a brief summary of the reformed faith"). It was the baker's chance, and he took it. ..." I played ' The Heart Bowed Down ' under his win- dow, and he sent word for me to come and play it again in the kitchen. Ah, that is a good song, ' The Heart Bowed Down ' ! " QUOTES WITHIN QUOTES It often happens that a quoted word or phrase in the body of a much longer quotation must be dis- tinguished by another series of quote-marks, as is shown in the example: " If the physician sees you eat anything that is not good for you, he says, ' It is poison ! ' If the divine sees you do anything that is hurtful to your soul, he says, ' It is damnable ! ' " The interior quotation is usually made with one inverted comma and one closing apostrophe, and is known as a single quote. Some printers reverse the order, using the single quote for the long and the double quote for the short quotation. Drew does not object to this practice,^ but it is not com- mon in America. A third series of quote-marks may be ordered by the author to appear within the second series 1 Pens and Types, p. 119. Abuse of quotation-marks 219 as an interior quotation. As this second quotation is usually defined by single quotes, the third quo- tation really requires a new set of signs. Bigelow advises that this third quotation be inclosed with double quotes, as is customary with the first quota- tion, but recommends that the marking of this third quotation be " avoided if possible, especially when the three series of quote-marks come together at the close." ^ If the author insists, the inclosure of a third quotation cannot be avoided, but two in- verted periods might be enough to give the slight distinction demanded. Five series of quote-marks in a row at the end of a sentence, with unavoidable bad spacing, are highly objectionable.^ They do not clarify but really muddle the meaning, as the following example will clearly show. In the Gospel according to John (x, 34) is this verse : Jesus answered them, Is it not written in your law, I said, Ye are gods ? Without any quotation-mark this verse is entirely intelligible. Assuming that it is part of a longer 1 Punctuation, p. 42. As might be supposed, the plac- 2 I have seen a manuscript in ing of quote-marks was not con- which the author had tried to sistent in the manuscript. When use five distinct series of quote- the author saw in the proof of marks. After a descriptive text, the first chapter the bad effect ■which was but a preface, came : of these fivefold markings, he 1 The confession or narration, had to confess that the reader 2 Letters explanatory. would understand the subject 3 Letters within letters. more clearly if the use of quote- 4 Dialogue matter. marks were confined to two se- 5 Quotations within dialogue, ries only. 220 Too many quote-marks confuse sentence from a modern author, and applying to it old rules of punctuation, it should be so rendered : " In the New Testament we have the following words : ' Jesus answered them, '^ Is it not written in your law, ' I said, '' Ye are gods '" r" " Here are five quotations. These absurd repetitions of turned commas and apostrophes are the logical application of an old rule carried much bej^ond its legitimate purpose.^ It is but a step from the sublime to the ridicu- lous, and from clearness to confusion. NEEDLESS USE OF QUOTE-MARKS A notable example of the needless use of single quote-marks may be seen in the English Past and Present of Richard Chenevix Trench.^ There are in every language a vast number of words which are indistinguishable to the ear, but are at once distinguishable to the eye by the spell- ing. I will only mention such as are the same parts of speech ; thus ' sun ' and ' son ; ' ' reign,' ' rain,' and ' rein ; ' ' hair ' and ' hare 5 ' ' plate ' and ' plait ; ' ' moat ' and ' mote ; ' ' pair ' and ' pear ; ' ' air ' and ' heir ; ' ' ark ' and ^ arc ; ' ' mite ' and * might ; ' ' pour ' and ' pore ; ' * veil ' and ' vale ; ' ' knight ' and ' night ; ' ' knave ' and ' nave ; ' ' pier ' 1 Wilson, Punctuation, p. 160. noted that these closing quotes 2 Edition of Redtield, p. 179- are wrongly placed after the Pages 106-1 11 of this book swarm semicolons. They should be be- wlth single quotes. It should be fore them. Quote-marhs divert the eye 221 and ' peer -, ' ' rite ' and ' right ; ' ' site ' and '■ sight ; ' ^ aisle ' and '■ isle ; ' ' concent ' and ' consent ; ' ' sig- net ' and ' cygnet.' If every quote-mark had been omitted the illus- trations would be clearer. The eye is unavoidably diverted from the words to the points ; the mind is confused by the repetition of undesired signs. To read line after line bristling with these points is as irritating as a walk through brier-bushes. The following extract is another exhibit of a needless use of the marks of quotation. If every one had been suppressed the matter would be more easily comprehended. The use of a capital letter for the first word in each title is enough to show its separation from titles preceding and following. Here is a partial list of works, very infrequently heard nowadays, of which I have preserved a record : " Rienzi," " Nero," " The Barber of Bag- dad," '' The Taming of the Shrew," " Hernando Cortez," '' Merhn," *' Mireille," " Masaniello," '' Le Pre aux Clercs," " Dinorah," " L'Etoile du Nord," " Robert le Diable," '' Si j'etais Roi," " Le Postil- ion de Lonjumeau," " Le Voyage en Chine," ^^ Les Dragons de Villars," ''Paul et Virginie," "Die Weisse Dame " ('' La Dame Blanche"), '' Les Contes d'Hoffmann" (Offenbach's only serious opera), "Don Pasquale," "Lucrezia Borgia," "L'Elisir d'Amore," " Crispino e la Comare," " I Puritani," " La Gazza Ladra," " Un Ballo in Maschera," " La Forza del Destino," " I Lombardi," " Luisa Miller," " lone," and " II Guarany." 222 French method for quoted tvords QUOTE-MARKS FOR FOREIGN WORDS Occasional words and phrases in foreign languages are often set in italic j but when these words make one or more sentences of the paragraph they are more frequently put in roman with quote-marks. Quotation-marks are rarely needed to inclose a foreign word, phrase, or sentence in italic. Occa- sions may arise, but these occasions are exception- ally rare. Use one or the other, but do not use the two together unless the two are positively ordered by the author. The compositor must follow copy, but the author should be reminded by the proof- reader that this double emphasizing savors too much of the methods of an advertisement writer. FRENCH METHOD OF USING QUOTE-MARKS The French method of using quote-marks is much simpler than ours, as will be seen in this extract from Le Nahah,^ by Alphonse Daudet. « Vous avez hi ? — C'est epoTivantable. — Croyez-vous la chose possible ? — Je n'en sais rien. En tout cas, j'ai prefer^ ne pas amener ma femme. — J'ai fait comme vous . . . Un homme pent aller partout sans se compromettre . . . — Certainement . . . Tandis qu'une femme ...» 1 Edition of Charpentier, Paris, 1877, 12mo, p. 288. French method makes quotations plainer 223 There are two speakers in this dialogue, but the words of each speaker are sufficiently distinguished by the new paragraph and its forewarning dash. Quote-marks are used at the beginning and at the ending only of the entire dialogue, and are they not enough ? They are sparingly employed in the para- graphs of French dialogue matter even when the speech is broken and explanatory words are added to the sentences of dialogue matter. « Faites, faites .... Au point ou nous en sommes, je puis travailler sans vous. — Oh! oui, dit le docteur, I'oeuvre est a peu pres terminee. » ^ According to American and English usage, closing quotes should be inserted after oui, and beginning quotes before Vmuvre. Are they really demanded ? Can there be a reader so obtuse as to need more quote-marks to show that the words dit le docteur were not spoken by the doctor ? The French quote-marks for the beginning as well as for the ending of the quotation are more distinguishable than ours as to form, and are dis- tinctly set off from the inclosed words by a thick space. So treated, the quote-marks are quickly recognized. Our method huddles the marks too close to the quoted matter, as if they were signs to be ashamed of and to be reduced to insignificance. 1 Ibid., p. 125. 224 Quotations in poetry QUOTE-MARKS IN POETRY Quote-marks disturb the regularity of indention in poetry. Two turned commas and the following space are nearly as wide as the em quadrat of in- dention. Feeble as marks, when reckoned as part of the blank they defeat the purpose of indention. '' And everybody praised the duke Who this great fight did win." '^ But what good came of it at last ? " Quoth little Peterkin. " Why, that I cannot tell," said he j " But 't was a famous victory." The second and fourth lines, made to rime, are in- dented in other stanzas of this poem, and so they are here, yet they do not seem to be indented at all. When quote-marks begin one of two adjacent lines not made to rime, the regular (so-called) in- dention makes decided irregularities. He holds him with his skinny hand. " There was a ship," quoth he. " Hold off, unhand me, grey-beard loon ! " Eftsoons his hand dropt he. Indention could be made apparently .uniform by indenting unevenly to keep the capitals in vertical line, but this method is often forbidden. A sym- metrical arrangement of composition is not possi- ble when quote-marks are rated as integral parts (which they are not) of the sentence. Different methods of giving titles 225 QUOTE-MARKS FOR TITLES OF BOOKS The titles of books and periodicals and of plays and operas are sometimes set in italic and sometimes inclosed in quote-marks.^ Italic is preferred by bookish men, but quote-marks (easily set by the compositor) are more common. Every attempt to enforce the rule of italic only or of quotes only for the names of books will have to encounter many exceptions. No writer thinks it wise to italicize or put in quote-marks the Bible, the Odyssey or the Iliad, the Inferno or Paradise Lost, for it is to be supposed that these books are well known by name. If we do not fence in these titles with quote-marks, should we use them for Hiawatha or Marmion, for the New York Herald or for the Edinburgh Review ? The compositor or the proof-reader who tries to maintain uniformity in specifying titles does not find it easy to direct where the quotes should or should not be used. Bibliographers have not changed the practice of specifying with italic the titles of books men- 1 ** In examining The Atlantic, tion-raarks and four use italics Natioti, Scrihner's Monthly, Ear- in referring to the titles of per^s, Magazine of American His- books; eleven use italics and tory, Lippincotfs, Popular Sci- six use quotation-marks in refer- ence Monthly, International He- ring to magazines and papers." vieiv, New Englander, London W. J. Cocker, Punctuation, p. 45. Quarterly, British Quarterly, (In this list but fifteen periodi- Westminster Bevieiv, Edinburgh cals are specified.) A similar ir- Review, Contemporary Review, regularity of practice may be The Fortnightly Review, we find noted in periodicals of more re- that thirteen of these use quota- cent date. 226 Exactness in citing titles tioned in the text, and their practice is preferable in all books about books. ^ Italic makes the title plainer to the reader, but the quote-marks are more convenient to the printer. When it is supposed that the exact words of the title of a book may not be well known to the general reader, its title, when mentioned in a text, may be quoted, but care should be taken to give with pre- cision the exact words. To cite any printed title from memory is always unsafe ; there is a proba- bility that the writer will add or omit some words. Gibbon's " History of the Roman Empire " is here wrongly quoted ; it should read, " The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." A long title like this need not be put at length in the text; it is better practice to give the f uU title in a foot-note, in which position it does not need italic or quota- tion-marks. A reference to Fronde's History or Parkman's History is a very inexact citation, for Froude and Parkman have written many histories. An early copy of George Kennan's " Siberia and the Exile System " was sent to Emperor William of Germany, at his own request. Sir Noel Paton perhaps profited more by his '^ Pur- suit of Pleasure," which sold for £2000, than by all his early religious paintings. 1 Italic, however, is not often vious pages of tbis work, in any used for the titles of books in extract intended to present the foot-notes, but it should be used, exact words and the style of the as is done in some notes on pre- quoted writer. Quotation-marks for characters 227 CHARACTERS IN PLAYS AND NOVELS In comments on plays, the names of the characters are usually put in italic, and the name of the play in roman inclosed in marks of quotation. The in- tent is to prevent possible confusion in the mind of a reader between the real men of history and the heroes of fiction. Julius Caesar as a character of Shakspere should be in italic ; " Julius Caesar " as a play must have marks of quotation ; Julius Caesar as author or statesman must be in plain roman, and take no special badge for identification. These are nice distinctions, easily made and useful for ordinary cases, but not so easily observed when the proof-reader is expected to particularize with typo- graphic badges the persons of classical history or mythology. Some editors refuse these distinctions, putting only the names of characters in quotation- marks, as in the following example. In *' Othello " Salvini found a part wherein all the passion of his southern blood had free course and was glorified. Though he played "lago" more than once, the cold villainy of that character was less acceptable to his impulsive art than the love and jealous anger of the Moor. There are other editors who will not accept the quotation-marks for the characters in novels, nor are they really needed in the specifications of names in the following paragraphs. 228 Quote-marks for names of vessels Dickens derived his mirth from the old g:iaiits of English fun. Mr. Squeers and Sam Weller, Mrs. Gamp and all the Pickwiekiaus, Dowler and John Browdie, will live while there is a laugh among us. Take the indignation of Alceste, the self-decep- tion of Tartuf e, the blasphemy of Don Juan — who beside Moliere ever combined such humor, such wit, such irrepressible mirth ? NAMES OF VESSELS Quote-marks are used by some writers to inclose the names of vessels, but others put the words in italic. There may be occasions for which it is expe- dient to distinguish the names of vessels from the places that gave them name, to prevent confusion in the mind of the reader, but these occasions are rare. This extract from Bigelow ^ should be enough to show that quote-marks for this purpose are not needed in ordinary descriptions. A collision took place on the Sound on Friday night between the steamers Stonington and Narra- gansett. The Narragansett soon began to sink, and immediately took fire. The steamer City of New York sent boats to their assistance, and took a large number of passengers off the vessel. During Saturday the steamer Relief, of the Coast Wreck- ing Company, arrived at the scene of the disaster. The schooner Report still lies alongside. A metallic life-boat was picked up about five miles from the wreck, containing a number of life-preservers marked *' Narragansett." 1 Puiu'tiiation, aud Other Typographical Matters, p. 41. Modern practice avoids display 229 Why the last word was inclosed in quotes is not to be explained. The desire to make written language clear to the reader is to be respected, but some of the methods now in general use are unsatisfactory and will not stand critical examination. A hundred years ago it was the duty of the printer to begin every noun with a capital letter and to compose in italic every word that needed or seemed to need emphasis. It was hoped that capitals and italic would help the reader to a better comprehension of the subject, but they were used too profusely and really made trouble for the reader. Experience has proved that readers do not need these crutches, and that ordinary matter can be made readable and intelligible without them. It is probable that the next generation will put greater restrictions on the use of quotation-marks. They will never go entirely out of use, for they are of real importance in many forms of literary work, but they will be used with more discretion and only in the places where they are really needed. 15 XIV SUBHEADINGS > APITAL LETTERS of the text type are used with propriety in leaded matter for subheadings of one word or of two or three words that make less than one line, but they will seem bold, coarse, and sprawling in every subheading of words that must occupy two or more lines. As subheadings of the same class should be uniform, a size of capi- tal should be selected that will enable the greater number of words to come in one line. When subheadings are frequent and make more than one line, the small capitals of the text type are preferred for solid and often for leaded matter. If the text type is of small body, the small capitals of that text may be found too compact and relatively insignificant. To give the desired distinction, pub- lishers of school-books sometimes select light-faced 230 Faces preferred for subheadings 231 antiques or gothics of small sizes for subheadings. Judiciously selected, the change in face may be ac- ceptable, but the temptation to make subheadings prominent by the use of large and thick-faced types should be resisted. There are but few occasions in which job type of large size is tolerable in a good book, which is materially degraded when it imitates the typographic mannerisms of a trade pamphlet or a newspaper advertisement. Italic lower-case of the text is preferable as a substitute for job type. It has the merit of com- pactness with clearness, for it will take in more letters to the line than is practicable with ordinary capitals. It is always preferred for the long head- ings of tables and tabular matter. When greater prominence is desired for any special subheading, an italic of larger size than that of the text may be selected with propriety.^ Roman lower-case three sizes smaller than the type of the text is often used for subheadings by- the book-printers of France. The display of large type is purposely avoided as savoring too plainly of advertising methods. It is supposed that the attentive reader will not need large or bold type for a subheading any moi-e than he needs it in a side-note. The following subheading in brevier 1 These remarks can apply to rarely fitted with accuracy and lower-case only. Subheadings symmetry upon the square body, set in italic capitals are seldom Awkward junctions in the com- pleasing, for the inclined and binations of letters are common kerned characters of italic are in many faces of italic. 232 Subheadings need surrounding blanks (over a text in small-pica) is from a book printed at the Imperial Printing House at Paris : ^ § 8 Par qui et en quelle ville furent Imprim^es les Editions anonymes du Speculum. SPACE NEEDED FOR SUBHEADINGS White space is needed more than staring type to give distinction to subheadings. The subheading in small capitals of text type which has a broad blank above it and a narrower one below it al- ways has more prominence and a neater appear- ance than the subheading in bold type forced in a too narrow blank space. The relief of white is required as well at the sides. The heading should be arranged to avoid a crowded appearance when it occupies two or more lines. A first line of full HEADINGS ARE UNPLEASING WHEN TOO FAR ABOVE THE TEXT width and a too short second line violate this rule. Such a subheading may huddle to comparative in- distinctness the words in the first line, and produce ungainly white gaps at each end of the second line, while needlessly separating the text from the sub- heading. When a subheading makes more than one line, it is not needful that its first line should fill the measure. If its second line is made short by I Bernard, De I'origine et des debuts de rimprimerie, tome i, p. 55. Belated words should he kept together 233 the turnover of one word or syllable, the first line should be shortened to turn over more words, so HEADINGS ARE MORE PLEASING WHEN PUT NEARER TO THE TEXT BELOW as more evenly to distribute the blank space. For the reader's convenience (the object most deserving of consideration), it is of no consequence whether the first line is short and the second line long, or vice versa ; but it is of consequence that the words most clearly related in sense should be kept to- gether and that the blank space about the heading should be evenly distributed. A first line should never be full over a second line of one syllable. AN ILLUSTRATION OF A SUBHEADING DIVIDED AWKWARD- LY If two lines of a verbose subheading or legend are of the same length, do not attempt, by a hair- spacing of letters or a wide spacing of the words, to change their position or their length. It is admitted that they produce an unpleasing effect when of the same length, but not so unpleasing as they would if the first line should be full and the second line short, with a needless gap of white space below. Lieutenant James Calhoun, commander of Troop L, one of the officers who died with general custer The white space about an illustration in the text and about headings and subheadings should be 234 Division of ivords to he avoided graduated to some extent by the margins and by the closeness or openness of the text matter. It should be more in leaded and less in solid compo- sition. It is an offensive impropriety to try to save space by the use of solid type and narrow margins, and then to waste that space in useless blanks. A FOOT-BALL, GOLF, HOCKEY, AND OTHER OUTDOOR AMUSEMENTS large margin calls for wide leads and more whites ; a smaller margin for thinner leads and narrower white lines. When the subheading, or the legend line under a woodcut, makes more than one line, put together FOOT-BALL, GOLF, HOCKEY, AND OTHER OUTDOOR AMUSEMENTS in each line, where it can be done with propriety, the words most clearly related in sense. Never divide a word at the end of a subhead line, if the division can be avoided by shortening the line and carrying over the word to the next line. When small capitals are used for running titles or for subheadings, the wide shoulder on the small capitals should be reckoned as a part of the blank. If it is not so reckoned, the blank that follows may seem too wide. On six-point type the shoulder may be too small to be noticed, but on twelve- or four- teen-point the shoulder must be reckoned as a lead. Types selected for legend lines 235 ILLUSTRATIONS AND THEIR LEGENDS The full-page illustration usually has its legend line in larger capitals than those selected for illus- trations in the text. Some publishers prefer mono- tone or light-faced antique or gothic, but the plain roman capital is in the greatest favor. When the legend line is very long, small capitals are often used, but sometimes they are so small that they cannot be clearly printed and easily read. Hair- line gothic in capital or lower-case series is fre- quently selected for its freedom from serifs and its supposedly greater perspicuity; but it is not any clearer, for the absence of serifs makes the letters more compact and quite as hard to read. FRAYSER'S farm-house, from the QUAKER OR CHURCH ROAD, LOOKING TOWARD THE SOUTH. FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY E. S. ANDERSON, 1885. FRAYSER'S FARM-HOUSE. FROM THE QUAKER OR CHURCH ROAD, LOOKING TOWARD THE SOUTH. FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY E. S. ANDERSON, 1885. Small capitals are preferred for the legend lines of illustrations, large or small, because they are not so liable to alteration as lower-case, in which the capitalization of the first letters of words may be changed capriciously by author or editor. Lower- case of plain roman two or three sizes smaller than that of the text type is now selected for the legend line by many prominent printers here and abroad. 236 White space needed for illustrations These legend lines are treated in the same manner as the running title, by using capital letters only for the first letter of the line and for proper names that really require the capital. It is obviously in- tended in this style to avoid the display of picked words, as is common in posters, and to trust to the intelligence of the reader for their entire compre- hension. Italic lower-case is sometimes used for the legend lines, and those lines, instead of being put in the centre, as has been customary, are often put capriciously on one side. General W. H. C. Whiting, C. S. Army. From a photograph by Van Orsdell. General W. H. C. Whiting, C. S. Army. From a photograph by Van Orsdell. The amount of white space to be put around an illustration in the text should be determined to some extent by the openness or closeness of the composition : much in leaded and but little in solid matter. 1 The disciples of the Kelmscott school of typography prefer to have the type very close to all cuts, initials, and borders, but this is not the prevailing practice. It is the general belief that an illustration, especially in leaded matter,ns seriously belittled when it is pressed too closely by type. 1 A similar treatment should presses too closely on the type, be given to borders about pages, the composition has a mean and or to type set in panels of brass pinched appearance, which im- rule. When that border or rule plies a want of forethought. Treatment of explanatory descriptions 237 Legend lines are often followed by explanations, which are usually set in very small type. It is a common practice to inclose these explanations in brackets, but the brackets should be selected only when it is necessary to distinguish the matter so inclosed as an interpolation in the text. [This house was used as General Sumner's headquarters and as a hospital during the battle. The fighting took place from half to three quarters of a mile to the right or westward. Editor.] Without a special order to the contrary, do not use the brackets to inclose the extended description of an illustration, or the office or the name of the writer. The change in the size of type, with the specification of the name or office of the writer at the ending of the paragraph, should be enough to show that the words of the note are not those of the writer of the text matter. Remains of Iguanodon. 1. Right side of lower jaw. 2. a, Two upper molars, external view ; 6, same, internal view ; c, external view of mature lower molar ; d, internal view of same. 3. Fang. 4. Horn. Winterberry {Ilex verticillata). 1, flowering branch of the male plant ; 2, branch of the female plant, with fruit ; a, single fruit on larger scale. Explanatory descriptions in small type, immedi- ately following the legend line of an illustration in the text, when of three lines or over, may be in hanging indention. When they make two short 238 Avoid needless ijoints in descriptions lines only, put them in the centre. Paragraph indention for one paragraph only is not a good choice. The illustrations in many educational works are covered with engraved letters or figures that refer to descriptions in the small type below the legend line. These characters of reference when repeated in type are too often made obscure by inclosure in parentheses, or by the insertion of useless periods and em dashes, which do not help but really be- wilder the reader, as in this example : a. — sclerotic a sclerotic b. — choroid b choroid c. — ciliary nerves c ciliary nerves d. — retina d retina e. — vitreous body e vitreous body f. _ crystalline f crystalline The explanations are quite as clear and the print is more sightly without the points and dashes. It is a good general rule in typography not to use any point or character that does not make the sense clearer or the print more readable. The periods, dashes, and parentheses about marks of reference noticeable in some manuscripts were seldom made to be repeated ; they are really scratches made un- thinkingly by the writer without a foreknowledge of their effect in print. The rule follow copy (rarely to be disobeyed) may be put aside when it is evident to the compositor or proof-reader that the super- fluous signs are a disfigurement to the printed page, and are not at all helpful to the reader. Arrangement of text about initials 239 Take special pains to avoid the use of dashes in legend lines. Do not insert them after Fig. 1, Fig. 2, etc., when they refer to engraved letters in the illustration. The points, and even the word Fig., do not help the reader ; they do disfigure the line. WADY OLLAKEE.— ANCIENT ARAB CASTLE. WADY OLLAKEE. ANCIENT ARAB CASTLE. FIG. 7. — THE FULL MOON. 7 THE FULL MOON. FIG. 8.— GLASS GLOBE, CRACKED. 8 GLASS GLOBE, CRACKED. The word Fig. before and the full point after the numeral are equally superfluous ; the figure alone makes a clearer reference mark. (See remarks on the abuse of the dash, in Chapter xv.) In a close text of solid matter brackets and pa- rentheses are chiefly needed to separate words or clauses that may have been interjected but are not really vital to the sense. In open composition, and in special paragraphs in small type, the brackets and parentheses are not needed. In the composition of pages in two columns, in which a very large initial letter or initial cut com- pels the temporary use of full, broad measure, do not make composition in broad measure extend below the cut or the initial. Return to the use of half measure as soon as you have passed the cut. 240 Types selected for side-headings SIDE-HEADINGS When much matter has to be crowded in a small space, side-headiugs are preferred. In dictionaries and similar books of reference, types of bold face are usually selected. The old-fashioned fat-face or title let ter once had the greatest favor, but it is slowly passing out of use. It does not wear well, and be- comes indistinct when its hair-lines are gapped and serifs blunted. A clean-cut antique of a lighter face is more distinct and gives promise of better service. Gothic lower-case is not a good choice, for the absence of serifs in a condensed type may hud- dle some letters to their confusion. Expanded type of any style does not produce acceptable side-headings. A moderately compressed plain display letter which lines with the roman of the text is more satisfactory. Lower- case forms are always to be preferred. Small capitals of the text are largely nsed for side-headings. In this position the large capitals of a text-type of small size may be selected with pro- priety for the initials of the more important words. Italic lower-case is more generally serviceable for side-headings than any other face of type. Eccentric forms of lettering should never be used for the side-heading. They do not make reading easier, and their peculiarities do annoy the reader. XV PUNCTUATION )N apology may be demanded for a new essay on punctuation. Every English grammar has a chapter on this subject, and there are many books of authority ^^ ^^^ ^^ that treat of punctuation exclusively. Why should any one add to the number? The treatises we now have, written to instruct undisciplined writers in the punctuation of then- own writings, give but little help to the compositor, whose first business it is to copy, and not to write. He is enjoined strictly to follow the copy and never to change the punctuation of any author who is precise and systematic; but he is also required to punctuate the writings of all authors who are not careful, and to make written expression mtelhgible in the proof. When to follow copy, and when not to f oUow, is not taught in any treatise on grammar. 2il 242 Limitations of didactic teaching Compositors who begin the study of grammar to learn a system of punctuation are often repelled at the outset by its scientific phraseology. To under- stand the grammatical rules a compositor should have (which he may not) some previous knowledge of the subject, but he soon finds that there are too many rules and exceptions to be memorized. Nor can the rules of punctuation that he may acquire be adapted to unlike writings. A year's experience at type-setting teaches him that poems and bibli- ographies, sermons and market reports, cannot be punctuated by the same code. Different systems of pointing prevail in differeAt houses : authors, editors, and proof-readers have opinions of their own, and do not always defer to the grammarians, and the compositor has to accept their rulings as final. It follows that compositors are inclined to neglect the study of rules that cannot be generally applied. To write on a subject that has met with continued disregard is hazardous, but the writer believes that the attention of the young composi- tor, who most needs instruction, may be secured by giving to him less of rule and more of example, and by trying to point out wliere he may and where he must not deviate from the punctuation of copy. Even in this restricted field didactic teaching has its limitations. The question of the compositor, Shall I correct the punctuation of my copy, which I consider is faulty ? is rarely answered to the satisfaction of all Imperfect preparation of copy 243 the parties interested. If the copy is neatly pre- pared, obviously the work of a disciplined writer who points with system and is mindful of detail, his pointing should not be altered by any person, even if it does violate the rules of the house. It is the author's right to use his own system, and the com- positor must neither make nor suggest any change. If the proof-reader thinks that the author's system of pointing will confuse the reader, he may (but it requires tact to do so) invite the attention of the author to its vagueness. There his duty ends. He must accept the author's decision. Meddling with an educated author's punctuation is always inju- dicious, and may be regarded as impertinent. Conditions are altered when copy is pointed un- evenly, badly, or not at all. A reader will find more fault with the printer than with the author if the text is confused by bad punctuation, for it is gen- erally understood that punctuation is the duty of the printer. This belief is not always just, but the printer has to conform for the sake of his reputa- tion, and has to require the compositor to give his aid when the copy has been hastily prepared. It is his interest to do so. Copy comes into every printing-house in which the commas and periods are omitted, the colons and semicolons are inter- changed unwisely, and the too handy dash is made to serve as a substitute for the right point. For the compositor to follow copy badly prepared is to postpone an easy correction in the stick for a 244 Close pointing is sometimes needed more troublesome correction on the stone. In all printing-houses it is the duty of the compositor to try to make composition intelligible, so far as it can be done, by the proper use of points. CLOSE AND OPEN PUNCTUATION Two systems of punctuation are in use. One may be called the close or stiff, and the other the open or easy system. For all ordinary descriptive writ- ing the open or easy system, which teaches that points be used sparingly, is in most favor, but the close or stiff system cannot be discarded. It is of importance in the composition of laws, legal and ecclesiastical formularies, and in precise composi- tions of every description. Even the omission of the hyphen in words meant to be compounded may make a serious error. ^ Close pointing is obligatory also in blank verse of inverted construction, and in all kinds of writ- 1 The importance of a hyphen the legislators to use the corn- was clearly shown by its absence pound word fruit-seeds, that in a printed enactment of Con- fruit qualified seeds, and that gress, which enactment specified the seeds only of fruit were free certain articles free of customs of duty. On appeal it was de- duty. In this specification ap- cided that the enactment must peared the words "fruit, seeds," be construed strictly by the of- as they are here printed. Im- ficial print. Fruits as well as porters of fruit claimed that fruit seeds were made free of duty, meant fruit of all kinds, and The thoughtless insertion of a seeds meant seeds of all kinds, comma instead of a hyphen de- But the collector decided that prived the United States of the comma was a typographical duties amounting to many thou- error, that it was the intent of sands of dollars. Points have small elocutionary value 245 ing in which many distinct statements are welded together in one long sentence. Complicated sen- tences are not quickly comprehended, whether they have few or many points, but many authors believe that the understanding will be assisted if points are liberally used. This is a serious mistake, but compositors must conform to the author's wish. The proper use of points is largely governed by construction; points may be scant in direct but must be frequent in indirect statements. Yet this remark does not always hold. To understand and punctuate properly the words of a clear thinker and ready writer who expresses his thoughts curtly may be difficult, even in short sentences of simple construction. A statement too tersely expressed must have points to make it intelligible. Without points the two sentences following are unmeaning : I said and and not or. That that is is that that is not is not. I said and, and not or. That that is, is ; that that is not, is not. The function of points is to make expression in- telligible. Punctuation tries to do this by sepa- rating the words that are not closely related, and by keeping together those that are related. Inciden- tally points justify rules of grammar, but the dem- onstration of these rules is not their first purpose. Points have small elocutionary value. The old teachings that there should be one pause in the 16 246 Relation of punctuation to grammar voice after a comma, two pauses after a semicolon, three pauses after a colon, and four pauses after a period, are now generally condemned. The dash, interrogation, exclamation, and parenthesis are the only points that can be made generally useful as guides for the voice. Before attempting to show prevailing usage con- cerning points, it is well to begin with the admis- sion that punctuation is not included in the exact sciences. It is not even an established system, for the rules of its teachers differ, and so does the practice of scholars taught by the same teacher. Nor can the rules of any system be applied to all books. Points may be omitted or inserted in a directory in a manner that would not be tolerated in the ordinary book. The writings of Pope and Macaulay may be punctuated by rules that are not properly applied to those of Swift or Browning. Punctuation is a system of much flexibility, for its points are made to serve different purposes, as will be shown on following pages. A knowledge of grammar is of great value in enabling a compositor to punctuate properly. He who has been taught to parse and to dissect con- struction should be qualified to separate a complex sentence into its component parts. It is not within the scope of this essay to treat of grammar, but it is proper here to show that the different parts of a complex sentence are not unlike the different parts of a book. Its division into chapters, paragraphs, Component parts of a sentence 247 and sentences shows at a glance the relative value of each part. A broad blank at the ending and at the beginning of each chapter, an occasional white line between two paragraphs, and smaller type for extracts and notes, are other aids. The marks of punctuation serve a similar purpose, for they sub- divide the sentence so that the reader can more quickly catch its meaning. GRAMMATICAL NAMES The grammatical names of the component parts of a long sentence are the particle, the phrase, and the clause or member, which are thus defined in the Century dictionary : Particle, a part of speech that is considered of minor consequence, . . . especially conjunctions, prepositions, and primitive iadverbs. The term is loose and unscientific. Phrase, a brief expression 5 . . . two or more words expressing what is practically a single notion. Member, . . . any unit or division that can be considered separately as part of a total. Clause, one of the lesser sentences which united and modified form a compound or complex sen- tence. A clause differs from a phrase in contain- ing both a subject and its predicate, while a phrase is a group of two or more words not con- taining both these essential elements of a simple sentence. Sentence, a form of words having grammatical completeness j a number of words constituting a whole. 248 Definitions of grammatical names A sentence that makes a direct statement with one subject, one verb, and one object needs no comma. ^ John went to the city. Columbus discovered America. When these simple sentences are ampHfied by added words, one or more commas may be used, as in John, James, and Charles went to the city. If a comma is not put after John the reader may understand John James to be one person. In the example, John and James ivent to the city, the comma is not needed ; but if it is omitted after James, in the third example, the impression may be made that James and Charles were travellers with each other and not fellows with John. The omission of the comma before the word and, in every nominative that specifies three or more per- sons or things, is an error often made by rapid 1 These are Goold Brown's be thirsty, give him water to definitions and illustrations : drink." A Phrase is two or more words The terms clause and member which express some relation of in grammar appear to have been different ideas, but no entire generally used as words sy- proposition ; as, " By the means nonymous ; but some authors appointed." — " To be plain with have thought it convenient to you." — " Having loved his discriminate them, as having own." different senses. Hiley says, A Clause, or Member, is a sub- '* Those parts of a sentence division of a compound sen- which are separated by commas, tence ; and is itself a sentence, are called clauses ; and those sep- either simple or compound : as, arated by semicolons, are called "If thine enemy be hungry, members." Grammar of Eng- give him bread to eat; if he lish Grammars, p. 458. Construction and punctuation 249 writers, but the comma should be inserted by the compositor unless forbidden by the proof-reader. Christopher Columbus, an Italian by birth, dis- covered America. The addition of an Italian hj hirtJi, which breaks the directness of the statement, requires this phrase to be separated by commas. It is said that Christopher Columbus, an ItaHan by birth, discovered America. In this position the preliminary phrase it is said does not break the directness of the statement. When this sentence is expanded by the addition of the following words it becomes a compound sentence, for it makes many statements and needs many points : It is said that Christopher Columbus, an Italian by birth, discovered America, but he saw its out- lying islands only ; the honor of the discovery of the mainland being surrendered to Vespucius, although there is some warrant for the belief that the northern part of America had been visited by Norsemen in the twelfth century. The words on each side of the semicolon make two distinct statements, and are known as mem- bers or clauses of the sentence. The example wiU show that punctuation depends largely on the construction of words. The two members of the sentence in the example could be put properly 250 Components of the long sentence in two sentences, if the word being were changed to the word is. The statements could be put in three sentences, if the word altJioiigh had been omitted, but the use of the words heing and although makes the latter statements dependent on the former. Language can be constructed so that the clause of one sentence will be the phrase in another, and two connected members can be framed as inde- pendent sentences. The preceding example (with others to follow) should be sufficient to define the different parts of a long sentence, and to show the importance of points. From them the compositor should frame these general rules : A sentence makes, or is intended to make, com- plete sense. In ordinary description it begins with a capital and usually ends with a period. A member does not make complete sense for the want of a word or words expressed or implied in a previous or following member. It is defined usually by a semicolon or colon. The phrase, always incomplete as to sense, may be defined by the comma, dash, or parenthesis. The particle, usually one word, limits, enlarges, or qualifies the meaning of a phrase or clause, as : It remains, perhaps, to be said . . . It IS, therefore, an objection . . . In law, and, indeed, in ethics . . The words perhaps, therefore, and, indeed, are par- ticles, which in stiff punctuation are fenced in with Simple and complex sentences 251 commas, but in the easy or open style of punctua- tion the commas are frequently and wisely omitted. Sentences are simple or complex. The simple sentence of direct statement needs no semicolon, but it may need many commas, as in this example : George Washington, elected the first president of the United States of America, was inaugurated at New York, in the presence of the two Houses of Con- gress, on the thirtieth day of April in the year 1789. The compound sentence makes two or more state- ments which could be separated into two or more sentences by a slight change of words. It may con- sist of few words, as in the following illustration : To err is human ; to forgive divine. These statements could be put in two sentences : To err is human. To forgive is divine. But the two statements are more forcibly presented in one sentence. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE In the illustration that follows is a complex sen- tence which could be divided into two or more in- dependent sentences, but the writer believed that his thought could be more clearly expressed in one sentence. The colon, semicolon, quote-marks, and parentheses are really needed to enable the reader 252 Complex sentences need many points to discern the relation of the different parts of the sentence to one another. It is an old and veritable saying that, '' whoever would bring home with him the wealth of the Indies must first take out with him the wealth of the In- dies " j which, as to lexicographers, may be thus par- aphrased : whoever would undertake to reform the orthography of a language (which orthography was acceptable to the masters of the language from the days of Johnson to the day of such reformer), must bring to the task something more than the qualities of a patient, dihgent student.^ In the first illustration, to err is human; to forgive divine, there are two members, one on each side of the semicolon, but no phrase or particle. Accord- ing to old rules, a comma should follow the words err and forgive; but commas are not needed, for the statement can be understood without them. In the illustration above the words before the semicolon constitute one member of the sentence ; the words between semicolon and colon make an- other member ; the words after the colon two more members ; the words inclosed in parentheses are a long parenthetical clause ; it is mi old and veritable saying is a long phrase ; and as to lexicographers is a shorter phrase. These examples should lead to these rules : the semicolon or colon separates the members of the I Gould's Good English, p. 141. His punctuation. Comma as a mark of separation 253 sentence; the comma separates phrases, particles, and sometimes clauses. When a member is long, with quotations or other irregularities, it may be necessary (to prevent the too frequent repetition of the comma) to make occasional use of parentheses. THE COMMA The chief purpose of the comma is to define the particles and minor clauses of a sentence. % Reversed, and often in pairs, commas mark the beginning of a quotation. Used singly and re- versed, the comma marks the abbreviation of Mac in Scotch names, as in McCartney (not M'Cartney). In numerical statements it separates arable figures by triplets in classes of hundreds. In table-work reversed commas badly serve as a sign for ditto. The comma is not needed in the simple sentence with one nominative, one verb, and one object ; but it is needed when its simplicity and directness are broken by the addition or repetition of nouns, verbs, adjectives, or adverbs that do not qualify the words that directly follow. Ulysses was wise, eloquent, cautious, and intrepid, as was requisite in a leader of men. Ease, indulgence, luxury, and sloth are causes of misery. He shot, hanged, imprisoned, or exiled the insur- gents, and offered amnesty to non-combatants. 254 Comma for words in pairs When the words are in pairs, connected by the word and^ or disconnected by the word or, the comma is needed only at the end of each pair. Ulysses was wise and eloquent, cautious and in- trepid, as was requisite in a leader of men. Ease and indulgence, luxury and sloth, are causes of misery. He shot or hanged, imprisoned or exiled, the in- surgents, and offered amnesty to non-combatants. When the words are not in pairs, the comma must be used, even if or frequently intervenes. O'er bog, o'er steep , through strait, rough, dense, or rare, With head, hands, wings, or feet, pursues his way, And swims, or sinks, or wades, or creeps, or flies. An obsolete rule of punctuation ordered that the comma should be used at the slight pauses of the voice usually made in reading aloud, and as a sub- stitute for defective but implied words. From law arises security j from security, inquiry ; from inquiry, knowledge. The modern practice of punctuation retains the two semicolons in this illustration and discards the commas ; but if a compositor finds these commas in copy he should follow that copy. The comma should not be used between words when these words directly qualify other words and the object and immediately precede that object. A lady's enamelled gold hunting watch. Comma a substitute for implied tvords 255 But if the noun begins the sentence, as is usual in catalogues, then the commas are needed. Watch, lady's hunting, enamelled gold. The comma is used as a substitute for defective words in specifying addresses of persons. He lives at Hudson, Columbia County, New York. These commas are practically the substitutes for in Columbia County and in the State of New York. A salutation or an explanatory phrase, not really needed to perfect the meaning, but incorporated in the body of the sentence, should be separated from the context by commas. The correct practice of punctuation, John, is not acquired without thought or study. Go, flatterer, go thy way. Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles, was martyred. I am,' my dear sir, your obedient servant. Hear me, friends, for my cause. The address or explanation is a break in directness, and consequently needs separation. It is practi- cally parenthetical, but is of too slight importance to deserve inclosure in parentheses. Breaks like the following may be short or long, but they are usually separated by the comma. He told me, cordially, that I had his approval. He told me, in the most courteous and compli- mentary manner, that I had his approval. 256 Comma used to separate particles The clause that begins a sentence with a limiting word like if, ivhen, where, whenever, etc., should be kept separate by a comma, even when the state- ment so made may seem to be direct. When English printers did decide to use quote- marks, they refused the French form. In this example the use of the comma is justified by the need of two subjects and two verbs. When two statements, each with its own subject, verb, and object, are put in one sentence, the comma should be used to show their distinctiveness, even when the sentence is very short. John saw William, and William saw Susan. A particle at the beginning of any sentence that implies its relation to a previous sentence should be separated from its context by a comma. Moreover, he called Prince John a villain. Lastly, what lay you to their charge ? When the particle or parenthetical phrase is in the text of the sentence, it is usually but not invariably preceded as well as followed by a comma. You may, perhaps, ask me why I ride. He is, it is said, a man of great learning. The comma is not always needed at the transition point of comparison or antithetical statement, but when it appears in a quotation, as from the Bible or other classic, the comma must be repeated. Comma frequently misused 257 Better is a dinner of herbs where love is, than a stalled ox and hatred therewith. When each clause is a distinct statement with its own verb and implied nominative, use the comma. Damn with faint praise, assent with civil leer, And without sneering teach the rest to sneer ; Willing to wound, and yet afraid to strike j Just hint a fault, and hesitate dislike. As a general rule, the direct statement which con- tains a very long nominative without parenthetical clause need not have a comma to separate it from the verb, but the comma is often used. To be constantly employed in laudable pursuits is characteristic of a good man. That the governor of this great state of Illinois should make this unworthy appeal to the passions and prejudices of the foreign-born citizens of the nation must always be a cause of mortification to every lover of his country. This long sentence does not require a comma, but if the comma appears in copy after the word nation, the compositor should insert it in type. The comma is needlessly used at the beginning of formal resolutions in the phrases Whereas^ It appears . . . Resolved, That . . . Ordered, That . . . If these first words appeared in the middle of any long paragraph they would not have the attached comma or be followed by a capital letter. 258 Involved sentences hard to punctuate When construction is inverted, and the objective precedes the nominative, a comma is much needed. To the good, old age is the time of content. Omit the comma, and good would seem to qualify old age. Whenever it is necessary to prevent con- fusion, the comma should be used between words not directly connected in sense, even when it does separate the verb from the nominative. An involved construction of the sentence always makes punctuation difficult. When three or more distinct statements are welded together in one sen- tence, and each one of its members is loaded with parenthetical phrases which moderate, connect, or explain an apparent discord in other members of that sentence, the commas omitted by the author may have to be inserted in places where they would not be allowed in a sentence of simple construction.^ Phrases like it is said, however this may he, to be can- did, etc. 5 the conjunctions and, hut, or; the rela- tive pronouns which, that; and the ?idverhs perhaps, notwithstanding, moreover, may require a following comma, but this comma is often inserted where it 1 The most important princi- overcome by the multiplication pie for practical use is to avoid of commas. In , the following overburdeningmatter with com- example the superfluous com- mas. Almost inexplicable con- mas are inclosed in parentheses: fusion is sometimes introduced It remains (,) perhaps (,) to be in the attempt to make the said (,) that, if any lesson at meaning of a sentence clear by all (,) as to these delicate mat- pointing off every separable ters (,) is needed (.) in this word or clause. The involved period, it is not so much a les- style of a writer can rarely be son, . . . Teall, Punctuation, p. 11. Study of good editions helpful 259 muddles the sense. The compositor often has to read the sentence twice or thrice before he can dis- cern its meaning. As the compositor has no right to alter the construction, he usually follows the rules that prevail in most printing-houses and in- closes in commas the disjunctive words and quali- fying phrases. Editors of experience put severe restrictions on the use of the comma for particles, marking them out unsparingly in statements like these : He was, indeed, a good man. This, also, was an error. Yet it often happens that the commas marked out by the editor will be reinserted by the author. The most useful rules are those that the com- positor will make for himself after a careful study of punctuation in good editions of good writers. For a study of close pointing, the common version of the Bible, on which many editors and revisers have been lavish of care, is an excellent text-book. Blackstone's Commentaries on Law is equally val- uable for its precision. Shakspere will show the widest range of expression from the stateliest dic- tion to the commonest colloquialisms. Nor should writers so unlike as Dr. Johnson and Sterne, Ma- caulay and Carlyle, be overlooked. Milton is not to be recommended, for the latinized style and the long, involved sentences of his Paradise Lost will confuse more than they will enlighten. 260 Subject-matter must he understood While a study of the punctuation of good books is of great value, the compositor must not overlook that of newspapers, magazines, directories, cata- logues, advertisements, circulars, and other forms of commercial work. Different methods of punc- tuation are required for these different forms of printed work. These methods are not always in- terchangeable, nor can they be formulated by fixed rule. The compositor who hopes for clean proofs must study also the rules of punctuation prevailing in the house in which he is employed. Rules are of value, whether they are found in grammars or are taught by proof-readers, but they can never take the place of an understanding of subject-matter. '' An ounce of understanding is worth a ton of memory," wisely remarked William Cobbett. Here is an illustration— a short sentence which can be made to convey contrary meanings by the insertion or omission of two commas.^ The prisoner said the witness was a convicted thief. The prisoner, said the witness, was a convicted thief. Useful as the comma is as a helper in exact expres- sion, it can be greatly misused. The antiquated teaching that the comma must be used to indicate pauses of the voice in impressive reading aloud is responsible for much of the misuse. The nu^mo- rizing and stolid application of old rules without a proper understanding of the subject-matter is 1 Why we Punctuate, by a Journalist, p. 30. Bean Alford on commas 261 another contributory cause, as may be seen in the following passage from a book by Dean Alford : From speaking of the forms of words, we will come to punctuation, or stopping. I remember when I was young in printing, once correcting the punctua- tion of a proof-sheet, and complaining of the hber- ties which had been taken with my manuscript. The pubhsher quietly answered nie, that punctuation was alwaijs left to the compositors. And a precious mess they make of it. The great enemies to un- derstanding anything printed in our language are the commas. And these are inserted by the com- positors, without the shghtest compunction, on every possible occasion. Many words are by rule always hitched off with two commas 5 one before and one behind ; nursed, as the Omnibus Company would call it. " Too " is one of these words ; " how- ever,''^ another; '' a?so," another; the sense in almost every such case being disturbed, if not destroyed by the process. I remember beginning a sentence with — '' However true this may be." When it came in proof, the inevitable comma was after the " hoivever,^^ thus of course making nonsense of my unfortunate sentence. I have some satisfac- tion in reflecting, that, in the course of editing the Greek text of the New Testament, I believe I have destroyed more than a thousand commas, which prevented the text being properly understood.^ To correct wrongly pointed copy the compositor should cogitate and understand each sentence, and 1 A Plea for the Queen's English, pp. 98, 99. Alford's punctuation. The last comma in this extract is superfluous. 17 262 Uses of the semicolon mentally determine the points needed before he sets the first word. When he has not digested the complete sentence, and puts in commas at the end of each clause as he sets it, without understanding the relation that one clause bears to other clauses, he will point unwisely. Unfortunately, there is a wide-spread belief that it is better to use too many than too few commas.^ Use commas only where they will he of service in unfolding the sense. In case of douht, omit the comma. Points must be selected to aid the reader; they should not be used as practical demonstrations of the rules of grammarians or of elocutionists.^ THE SEMICOLON Semi (half) kolon (colon) distinctly explains the proper function of this point. It prevents the repetition of the comma, and keeps apart 1 This remark is often made period only, and it was after- in the composing-room: ** Put ward used to show a separation in commas enough. Let Smarty between huddled words, or as [the slang name for the proof- the mark of abbreviation. The reader] mark 'em out. It's easier early printers used a period at the to pull out than to put in." This end of sentences, the colon, and is bad advice. It reinforces the sometimes the slanting / for the false teachings of old grammari- comma. The interrogation was ans, who fenced in the adverbs awkwardly made with a reversed and conjunctions of a long sen- semicolon. Wynkin de Worde, tence until it fairly bristled with writing in 1509, says he used five commas. points: the comma, the semico- 2 The marks of punctuation. Ion, the parenthesis, the period, as we use them, are relatively and the "interrogative." The of recent invention. The earli- dash, apostrophe, exclamation, est lettering on stone shows the and quote-marks are of laterdate. Semicolon separates members 263 the more important members of the sentence. It is most used in long sentences, but it may be needed in a short sentence, as in the following example : I eat to live j you live to eat. The semicolon should be used in all sentences that contain two or more members, when each member makes a distinct statement, with some dependence on statements in the other member or members. Wisdom hath builded her house; she hath hewn out her seven pillars ; she hath killed her beasts ; she hath mingled her wine } she hath furnished her table. Some place their bliss in action, some in ease ; Those call it pleasure, and contentment these. In the first example the semicolon is needed be- cause each member of the sentence is nearly com- plete in sense. Remove the words she hath in all members after the first, and they will become clauses or amplifications of statement, which need commas only for their separation ; but the statements so treated would lose much of their force. Sit thou a patient looker-on j Judge not the play before the play be done. Her plot has many changes ; every day Speaks a new scene. The last act crowns the play. As there is no point of an intermediate importance between the semicolon and the comma, the semi- 264 Example showing semicolon colon has to be occasionally used to prevent the too frequent repetition of the comma in the amplified clauses of a long or a complex nominative. This use of the semicolon is most satisfactory when the object of the long nominative is briefly stated. For a nominative and an objective that are very long, each composed of many members, and each apparently requiring the use of a semicolon, the distinction sought may be more clearly made by the occasional use of the dash or the parenthesis.^ It needs no effort of imagination to conceive what the sensations of an isolated set of scholars (almost all either clergymen or professors) must have been, in the presence of this big-boned, black-browed, brawny stranger, with his great flashing eyes, who, having forced his way among them from the plough-tail, at a single stride, manifested in the whole strain of his bearing and conversation, a most thorough conviction that in the society of the most eminent men of his nation, he was exactly where he was entitled to be; hardly deigned to flatter them by exhibiting even an occasional symptom of being flattered by their notice ; by turns calmly measured himself against the most cultivated understanding of his time in discussion ; overpowered the hon mots of the most celebrated convivialists by broad floods of merriment, impreg- nated with all the burning life of genius ; astounded bosoms habitually enveloped in the thrice-piled folds of social reserve, by compelling them to tremble, — nay, to tremble visibly,— beneath the 1 For a too free use of the dash, see the third example on page 271. Example slioiving semicolon 265 fearless touch of natural pathos ; and all this with- out indicating the smallest wilhngness to be ranked among those professional ministers of excitement, 'who are content to be paid in money and smiles for doing what the spectators and auditors would be ashamed of doing in their own persons, even if they had the power of doing it; and last, and probably worst of all, who was known to be in the habit of enlivening societies which they would have scorned to approach, still more frequently than their own, with eloquence no less magnificent ; with wit, in all likelihood still more daring ; often enough, as the superiors whom he fronted without alarm might have guessed from the beginning, and had, ere long, no occasion to guess, with wit pointed at themselves. LocJchart on Burns. India and its inhabitants were ... to him . . . a real country and a real people. The burning sun ; the strange vegetation of the palm and the cocoa-tree; the rice-field and the tank; the huge trees, older than the Mogul Empire, under which the village crowds assemble ; the thatched roof of the peasant's hut, and the rich tracery of the mosque, where the imaum prayed with his face to Mecca ; the drums, and banners, and gaudy idols ; the devotee swinging in the air; the graceful maiden, with the pitcher on her head, descending the steps to the river-side ; the black faces, the long beards, the yellow streaks of sect ; the turbans and the flowing robes ; the spears and the silver maces ; the elephants with their canopies of state ; the gorgeous palanquin of the prince, and the close litter of the noble lady — all those things were to him as the objects amidst which his own life had been passed— as the objects which lay on the road between Beaconsfield and St. James's Street. Macaulay on Burke, • 266 Examples of the need of a colon Unlike most of the other points, the semicolon has this merit : it cannot be perverted to any use but that of a mark of punctuation. THE COLON Nearly every long sentence which consists of many members has its place of transition in construction or statement, for which place the colon is the proper mark. It is the joint or hinge which unites the members of the nominative and the objective, which would seem to be disconnected if the colon were omitted. Art has been to me its own exceeding great reward : it has soothed my afflictions; it has refined my enjoyments ; it has endeared sohtude ; and it has given me the habit of wishing to discover the good and the beautiful in all that surrounds me. I have neither the scholar's melancholy, which is emulation; nor the musician's, which is fantasti- cal; nor the courtier's, which is proud; nor the soldier's, which is ambitious ; nor the lawyer's, which is politic ; nor the lady's, which is nice ; nor the lover's, which is all these : but it is a melancholy of my own, compounded of many simples; ex- tracted from many objects ; and, indeed, the sundry contemplation of ray travels ; which, by often rumi- nation, wraps me in a sweet harmonious sadness. In these examples the sense is incompletely stated by tlio words that precede the colon, and it is this Other uses of the colon 267 incompleteness that calls for its employment. No other point would serve as well. A period in place of the colon would leave the first expression but half defined, and a following new sentence would be too abrupt for want of a connecting particle. A semicolon in place of a colon would confuse the reader, for it would not show the point of transi- tion between the leading members. The dash would indicate a sudden change of thought, and not the logical sequence intended. A quotation incorporated in the text of a sentence is usually preceded by a colon and it may begin with a capital letter. Nothing can be more sophistical than this aphorism from Pope : Whatever is, is right. It is customary to put a colon after the compli- mentary salutation in a letter or an address, as: Dear Sir : Ladies and Gentlemen : The quotation, whether short or long, that does not make complete sense in itself, rarely needs a colon before it, or a beginning capital letter. The colon is used after the particles or phrases that serve as introductory words to another state- ment, as in to wit : viz : for example : The colon has been employed in the imprints on the title-pages of books, as : New York : Harper & Brothers, 1880 268 The period an overworked point This employment of the colou is traditional, and its pertinence in the position cannot be explained. The colon has been selected instead of the period to separate hours from minutes, and in abbrevia- tions of proper names, but this usage is not gener- ally approved. (See chapter on Abbre\dations.) No rule can be laid down for limiting the number of the commas, semicolons, dashes, or even periods (as abbreviating marks) in a long and involved sentence, but there is rarely any necessity for more than one colon in any sentence. Exception may be made for the colon that precedes a long quota- tion in which another colon appears.^ THE PERIOD The period marks the end of a completed sen- tence. It is also employed in abbreviations of ^ proper names and of foreign phrases, as in Mr. J. B. Smith, i.e., q.v., etc. It separates hours from minutes, and whole numbers from their decimal fractions. It is largely employed in frequent repe- tition as a leader line to connect words or figures arranged in separate columns.^ The period is now omitted at the ter^nination of 1 Paradise Lost provides us 2 For additional remarks on with another notable exception, the proper use of the period, see In one sentence only — a sen- chapters on Abbreviations and tence of forty-three lines (book Figures and Numerals, in which vi, lines 219-261, Baskerville edi- many examples are presented of tion) — I count five colons. its manifold application. Objections to the dash as a point 269 displayed lines in title-pages, in running titles and subheadings, and generally at the end of all lines that are followed by blank space. Lists of names set up in columns or in directories, and the endings of paragraphs of index matter, are without final periods. In these forms of composition the period is not needed to indicate the end of the sentence. As it is the feeblest of all the points, and least able to withstand wear, it should not be needlessly placed in any exposed position. THE DASH The dash is sometimes substituted for nearly all the other points. It was once used as the 1^ proper mark to indicate suppressed words. Sometimes it serves as a ditto-mark in catalogue work. It is employed to connect a side-heading with the text that follows, or to connect the end of that text with the name of the writer. Writers who do not clearly know what point is needed always make the dash serve as its acceptable equivalent. It has been so much overworked that one author has called for its abolition. Those who have thought proper, like Mr. Lindley Murray, to place the dash amongst the grammatical points, ought to give us some rule relative to its different longitudinal dimensions in different cases. The inch, the three-quarter-inch, the half-inch, the quarter-inch; these would be something determi- 270 Examples showing need of dashes nate; but, ' the dash,'' without measure, must be a most perilous thing for a young grammarian to handle. In short, ' the dash ' is a cover for igno- rance as to the use of points, and it can answer no other purpose.^ It is practicable to write a grammar, as Cobbett has done, without using the dash, but the dash has been a useful mark of punctuation in Great Britain and America for at least two centuries. That it has been misapplied and made the cover for igno- rance as to the use of points is undeniable, but the assertion that ''it can answer no other purpose" cannot be accepted. Sentences are frequently con- structed which would not be intelligibly expressed, and might be entirely unintelligible, if they were not punctuated with the dash. The dash should be selected wherever there is an abrupt change in a statement, as : Here lies the great — false marble ! where ? Nothing but sordid dust lies here. Thus the plot thickens — but I weary you. " The decision was in your favor, but— " Here the speaker was ordered to stop. The dash is often used to give additional point to language in which there is an anticlimax. Thou, great Anna, whom three States obey, Who sometimes counsel takes — and sometimes tea. 1 Cobbett, Grammar of the English Language, sec. 156. The dash used in amplifications 271 Good people all, with one accord, Lament for Madame Blaize, Who never wanted a good word — From those who spoke her praise. They will steal anything, and call it — purchase. The dash was much used by authors of a century or more ago to express in one sentence great con- trariety of action, as appears in this extract from Sterne, which is a close reprint of his punctuation : Nature instantly ebbed again;— the film returned to its place; — the pulse fluttered,— stopped,— went on,— throbbed,— stopped again,— moved, stopped, Shall I go on ? No. The insertion of the comma before the dash, as appears in the quotation from Sterne, would now, except in rare cases, be regarded as unnecessary. They yield — they break — they fly : The victory is won. Pursue ! they faint — they fall — they die j Oh stay ! the work is done. The dash is also used to separate the repetition or different amplifications of the same statement. The infinite importance of what he has to do — the goading conviction that it must be done — the dreadful combination in his mind of both the neces- sity and the incapacity — the despair of crowding the concerns of an age into a moment — the im- possibility of beginning a repentance which should have been completed — of setting about a peace 272 Bashes for side-headings which should have been concluded — of suing for a pardon which should have been obtained — all these complicated concerns intolerably augment the sufferings of the victims. In this example dashes are used profusely. Semi- colons would be better for all clauses but the last. The dash is often selected to amplify the details of a statement in a clause not parenthetical. But you — that are polluted with your lusts, Stained with the guiltless blood of innocents, Corrupt and tainted with a thousand vices — Because you want the grace that others have, You judge it straight a thing impossible. The dash is much more visible as a mark than the comma or semicolon, and here serves a good pur- pose in guiding the eye of the reader to the unity of the sentence. It is of equal importance in legal pleadings that are prolix and complex, in which the same statement is repeated in many forms and with great elaboration of detail, for commas and semi- colons and sometimes parentheses are so frequently repeated that the relation of the clauses is obscured and the unity of the sentence is temporarily lost. In any long sentence of this description a judicious employment of the dash may unwind an apparent entanglement of words. The dash is generally selected to connect a side- heading with the words of the paragraph, and these Avords with the authority cited at the end. The dash and the parenthesis 273 A Cynical Remark. — In the misfortunes of our best friends we always find something that does not entirely displease u^.— Rochefoucauld, Would not the entire paragraph be as intelligible and more sightly without the two dashes? Dashes are used to specify a period of time by connecting extreme dates, as in 1860-1867. They serve also to define a reference to a passage in the Bible, as in Matt, ix, 1-6, or in the pages of any book, as pp. 17-23. As the dash entirely fills the body sidewise, it should have before and after it a thin space to pre- vent its interference with adjoining characters. Sterne used dashes freely : the em — for a short and the two-em for a long break in narrative. French printers make the dash serve as a par- tial substitute for quotation-marks in a dialogue. For this purpose the quotation-marks are placed only at the beginning and at the end of the dia- logue, even when it is protracted over many pages. The dash that precedes each new paragraph is the only mark that indicates a new speaker. THE PARENTHESIS (The parenthesis, usually shown in pairs, V incloses the words added to a sentence ■ which would be complete as to its sense, ^ although deficient in clearness, without the new words. It is sometimes used singly, as well as 274 Parenthesis a point of value in pairs, to inclose reference figures and letters at the beginning of sentences. The parenthesis is much neglected as a mark of punctuation. As it occupies the full height of the body, and is too often needlessly black and staring, it is frequently rated as too coarse and ungainly a mark for a good book. The dash is preferred by authors and printers, but not always wisely. The dash is the proper point to indicate abruptness, or to inclose clauses containing different phases or expansions of the same statement ; but the paren- thesis is the only proper point to define an inter- polation by the writer in that sentence. The words inclosed in the parentheses usually consist of an explanation that could be constructed in an inde- pendent sentence to convey new information. The Egyptian style of architecture (see Dr. Pocock — not his discourses but his prints) was apparently the mother of the Greek. Know then this truth (enough for man to know) : Virtue alone is happiness below. Left now to himself (malice could not wish him a worse adviser), he resolves on a desperate project. He had two Latin words almost constantly in his mouth (how odd sounds Latin from an oilman's lips), which my better knowledge since has enabled me to correct. An interrogation-point inclosed within parentheses and inserted in a sentence is a mark intended to Parentheses needed for running comments 275 express a doubt of the truth of the statement. In a similar position the exclamation-point expresses surprise or contempt. Parentheses are sometimes freely used in a text to inclose the names as well as the quoted words of authorities. This is not a good method. Cita- tions of the books or authorities appear to a better advantage in foot-notes. The parenthesis is used, sometimes singly but oftener in pairs, to inclose the reference letters or figures that divide and classify precise statements or arguments, as : (a) or a) or (1) or i) When a compositor finds copy so marked he must follow it ; ^but he will wonder, as most readers do, why the reference figure or letter is so small and why the inclosing parentheses are so large. He died leaving four children (John, Charles, Mary, Thomas) inheritors of his estate: John married his cousin Lucy (daughter of James Boyle) and died without issue ; Charles was lost at sea (in the Arctic) ; Mary (dying unmarried) bequeathed her interest to Thomas, who is now sole owner of the estate. These illustrations show the utility of the paren- thesis. When a new statement, not necessary to its unity, is interpolated in a sentence by the writer, that statement should be put in parentheses. 276 Italic parenthesis not approved The curt style compels the use of the parenthesis j the diffuse style the dash. A specification of dates or figures is sometimes inclosed in parentheses. During this year (1816, May 16) peace was con- chided between the two warring nations. Commas are often improperly selected to inclose a phrase that is strictly parenthetical. Parentheses seem to have been avoided because those provided by the type-founder are too prominent. When properly made (as they are for this face of type), they rarely will be found objectionable, and can be made useful in involved sentences as substitutes for the overworked comma and dash. The old-fashioned form of parenthesis, always made too thick, may need a thin space between it and its adjoining character when it is placed too close to any letter that nearly fills the body in height, as in (Hall). The space may not be needed when the proximate character has a shoulder, as in (Art), or when the parenthesis follows a period. Italic punctuation-marks are now provided for all fonts of type. For job-work and full display lines they may be employed with propriety, Jaut the italic form of parenthesis is objectionable in good book- work. Distinction is sought for the word in italic, and not for the parentheses inclosing that word.^ 1 This remark applies to short in italic should make use of any phrases or citations only ; a sen- italic mark of punctuation that tence or paragraph exclusively may be needed. Brackets used hy reporters and editors 211 THE BRACKET [The bracket is also used in pairs within a Tj sentence to mark interjected words of ex- I planation or comment (usually made by I author, reporter, or editor) that seem necessary to a better understanding of the subject. The bracket inclosing many sentences indicates passages of inferior importance that may be omitted, or that need not be made a part of the text. It appears most frequently in newspaper reports of speeches, as in this example : We would have our Union to be a union of hearts, and we would have our Constitution obeyed, not merely because force compels that obedience, but obeyed because the people love the principles of the Constitution [long-continued applause]; and to-day, if I am called to the work to which Abra- ham Lincoln was called sixteen years ago, it is under brighter skies and more favorable auspices. [Applause.] These inclosures in brackets are obviously by the reporter. In every literal reprint of a misspelled or badly worded letter, its most indefensible errors are carefully pointed out by inclosing in brackets the corrections of the faults. I want you to no [know] that I don't think you can't learn [teach] my boys ennythink [anything] about gramer or speling. 18 278 Brackets for too many parentheses Sometimes no attempt is made to correct the bad spelling ; the f anlt is sufficiently noted by putting [sic] or [so] after the faulty word. The bracket is employed in legal or ecclesiastical papers where numerical words have to be changed to suit varying conditions, or where details have to be supplied, as in This is the first [second or third] time of asking. The directors of this society shall be six in number, and shall remain in office [here state the time] , and no longer. One bracket is also used to inclose an ending word of a line of poetry that will not come within the measure, and must be turned over or taken back in the preceding short line. Weary knife-grinder ! little think the proud ones, Who in their coaches roll along the turnpike [and Road, what hard work 't is crying all day, '^ Knives Scissors to grind ! " The bracketing in a previous line of a word too long for the line was common in old printing, but it is justifiable now only when it saves space. Sometimes the bracket is used to prevent the bewilderment of parentheses within .parentheses. Sterne used them freely for this purpose. I know the banker I deal with, or the physician I usually call in — [There is no need, cried Dr. Slop (waking) to call in any physician m this case] — to be neither of them men of much religion. Proper use of the interrogation 279 Compositors are sometimes at a loss when to use the parenthesis and when to use the bracket. This general rule will apply in most instances : Parentheses always inclose remarks apparently made by the writer of the text. Brackets inclose remarks certainly made by the editor or reporter of that text. Reprints of passages in early manuscripts that may be considered spurious, special amendments to statute law while under legislative consideration, or any other portions of a text which need peculiar identification, are usually inclosed in brackets. THE INTERROGATION The interrogation marks the end of a question /-^ that requires answer. It is not needed when the ^ supposed question does not call for answer. • The Cyprians asked me why I wept. This is an assertion, for it does not ask a question. If put in interrogative form, as in the following example, the interrogation is needed. The Cyprians said, Why dost thou weep ? He asked the question. Will you go to-day, and met with refusal. In the second example the words are descriptive, and not questioning. Many writers would put an 280 Interrogation to follow every question interrogation after the word to-day, but it is not needed. In the first example the interrogation is needed, for an answer is invited. Was the prisoner alone when he was arrested? Was he drunk ? Is he known to the police ? Has he any regular business ? What is liis name ? A compositor is sometimes perplexed by sentences that are clearly interrogative in form but exclam- atory in spirit, as in this example : The "passing crowd" is a phrase coined in the spirit of indifference. Yet, to a man of universal sympathies, and even to the plain, ordinary deni- zens of the world, what can be more interesting than the '^ passing crowd " ? This sentence properly closes with an interroga- tion, for a question is plainly asked, although an answer may not be expected. The interrogation should follow each and every separate question, however short these questions may be. It is often needed before the close of the complete sentence. Was the bruise in the flesh? or did it extend to the bone ? Was it on the heel ? or on the toes ? or on the instep ? To divide these questions by commas or dashes would impair their force, and would not improve the appearance of the page. Varying uses of the exclamation 281 THE EXCLAMATION The exclamation marks a word or phrase in- W tended to express great surprise or emotion. ^ What a piece of work is man! how noble in reason ! how infinite in faculties ! in form and moving how express and admirable ! in action how like an angel ! in apprehension how like a god ! the beauty of the world ! the paragon of animals ! Father of light and life ! thou God supreme ! teach me what is good ! teach me thyself ! Look, my lord ! it comes ! Angels and ministers of grace, defend us ! Alas ! poor Yorick. The exclamation may be placed at the end of every exclamatory clause, without regard to the length of the sentence or the number of clauses. Short ejaculations, whether of enthusiasm, as Bravo! Hurrah! Good ! or ot conteurpt, Si8 Get out ! Away! or of sorrow, as Alas! 0! always call for the exclamation. The exclamation is sometimes marked in by edi- tors after a word in a quotation, to express surprise or dissent, or to emphasize an apparent absurdity. The interrogation is similarly employed to express wonder and doubt. When so used, these marks should be inclosed in brackets. The distinction to be observed in the use of the 282 Alivays at end of exclamatory phrase exclamation and the interrogation will be plainly seen in the following example : Whither shall I turn? Wretch that I am! To what place shall I betake myself ? Shall I go to the Capitol ? Alas ! it is overflowed with the blood of my kinsmen ! Or shall I return to my house ? Yet there I behold my brother, plunged in misery, weeping, and despairing ! The clauses framed to elicit answers are the only ones that need interrogations ; all those that are purely exclamatory, and express outbursts of feel- ing, are the ones requiring the exclamation-points. The proper position of the exclamation is some- times a question of doubt, but it should go at the end of the exclamatory phrase or address, which may be at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of the sentence. Alas for his family ! Alas ! and did my Saviour bleed ? Alas, my noble boy ! that thou shouldst die ! Charge, Chester, charge ! Give me liberty, or give me death ! Daughter of Faith ! awake ! arise !, In the first, fourth, and fifth examples the out- burst of feeling is without break, and the exclama- tion should be at the end of the sentence ; in all the other examples, where this outburst of feeling Uses of the apostrophe 283 is broken, the exclamation should be put next to the exclamatory phrase. It is rated an error to put an exclamation after every vocative O. thou invisible spirit of wine ! if thou hast no name to be known by, let us call thee devil. Tremble, man ! whosoever thou art. Oh, indeed ! Oh, yes ! John ! The exclamation-point, properly used, gives force and point to language ; improperly and profusely used, it degrades intended pathos and makes bom- bast. The Book of Job and the Psalms show that this point is most effective when sparingly used. The exclamation-point is sometimes used by job- printers at the end of displayed lines, for no other reason than its convenience in filling up an other- wise short line. This is a practice not to be com- mended ; put spaces between the letters or let the line remain short. THE APOSTROPHE The apostrophe, most used as a sign to mark % the possessive case, as in the word John's, is also used to show the contraction of words and the omission of letters, as in tho' for though, Ja's for James, and the clippings of words in dialect. It is also used in single and double form to mark the close of a quotation. (See Quotation-marks.) 284 When used with possessive The apostrophe for the possessive case should be attached to nouns onl}^, and never be added to pro- nouns like his or hers, ours or theirs. For nouns in the singular number and nouns in the plural that end in any letter but s, the apos- trophe must precede the s, as in president's house dog's kennel man's hat men's meeting child's shoes children's room For all nouns in the plural number that end in s, the apostrophe must follow this s, as in boys' games, horses' harness. For nouns in the singular number that end in s, the possessive must be formed by adding the 's, as in James's book. This rule about the nouns ending in s is not uni- versally accepted, for the addition of another s disagreeably prolongs the hissing sound of the s in Moses's hat James's son Francis's style The princess's birthday When the sound of a second s is given distinctly in correct pronunciation always insert this second s. When it is made silent in speech, as in the phrase for conscience' sake, in which the apostrophe is retained to show the possessive case, th,e s may be omitted in print. Harrison's Landing and Garrison's Ferry need the possessive 's, but when Landing and Ferry are not added, and the places are written as Harrisons or Garrisons, omit the apostrophe. Apostrophes not good for some plurals 285 The apostrophe indicates the omission of letters in dialect, in familiar dialogue, and in poetry, as in I '11 for I will does n't for does not I 've for I have 't was for it was 'em for them ne'er for never When two words are practically made into one syl- lable a thin space may be put before the apostrophe, as in I Ve, I '11. The phrases don't, can't, won't, and shan't are exceptions, and are consolidated. There are many cases in which a separating space is needed to make more apparent the difference between the possessive s and the contraction of is, as in Where truth 's unknown and honor 's dead. Figures expressing dates are sometimes abbrevi- ated, as in The spirit of '76 The Argonauts of '49 These are slipshod forms of expression ; the omit- ted figures of the dates would present a neater ap- pearance than the apostrophes. The apostrophe is sometimes written in copy to make a plural for letters and figures, as in Mind your p's and q's. Cross your t's and dot your i's. Make T's and 3's more distinct. The apostrophe is not a proper mark for the expres- sion of plurality. Its use in print for this purpose is but the repetition of an indefensible colloquialism. 286 Different applications of the hyphen Copy so written must be followed, but the meaning would be clear without the apostrophe and final s. The apostrophe was lavishly used by poets of a bygone period to suppress the sound of e and to shorten the last s^dlable of participles ending in ed. Dropp'd from her nerveless grasp the shatter'd spear, Clos'd her bright eye, and curb'd her high career ; Hope for a season bade the world farewell. And Freedom shriek'd as Kosciusko fell. This use of the apostrophe has been abandoned. It is supposed rightl}^ that every reader does not need the apostrophe as a guide to correct pronun- ciation, but the practice is still maintained of using the grave e for the last syllable of past tenses and participles of verbs when that syllable should be distinctly pronounced. Hence, loathed Melancholy ! For other remarks on the apostrophe, showing where it may be properly used as a mark of con- traction, and where the period is of better service, see chapter on Abbreviations. THE HYPHEN The first function of the hyphen is to mark the division of a too long word at the end ^ of a line, but it serves also to connect com- pounded words, as in round-shouldered. It is also used in repetition as a leader line to connect words The function of the brace 287 or figures in different columns, as is shown in the following table : Weight in ounces of the points furnished by type-founders for a thousand-pound font of roman type , 160 80 ( 10 ; 40 ' 30 [ 10 : 30 ! 10 — 40 . 80 ? 10 40 The period is more in favor as a leader line. A new school of typography rejects all leader lines. The new method is not to be commended, especially so in a table of two or more columns, in which the figures are put too far apart from the words or signs that they are intended to elucidate, and are brought too near to the words or signs in another column with which they have no direct relation. } BRACES f Braces cannot be regarded as marks of J punctuation, but they were largely used ■ by printers of the eighteenth century to L. inclose triple Hues of rime. This prac- tice is no longer maintained ; but the brace is still needed in law- work, table-work, and general job- work to inclose two or more lines to be explained by a word or words at the central point of the brace. They are furnished by type-founders on two- and three-em bodies and in sections of rights, centres, 288 Eleven points are sufficient and lefts; but the sectional braces do not agree with the solid braces in form or color, and the two kinds should never be used together. SUMMARY A Period marks the end of a sentence. A Colon is at the transition point of the sentence.^ A Semicolon separates different statements.^ A Comma separates clauses, phrases, and particles. A Dash marks abruptness or irregularity. An Exclamation marks surprise. An Interrogation asks a question for answer. An Apostrophe marks elisions or possessive case. Quotation-marks define quoted words. Parentheses inclose mterpolations in the sentence. Brackets inclose irregularities in the sentence. Eleven characters should be quite ample to make clear the expression of thought in print; but the late Francis Hart of New York thought otherwise, and had made a minute -mark for a new position to prevent the repetition of the comma in sentences with man}^ consecutive nouns or adjectives, as in Men/ women/ children/ horses/ and cattle were drowned. He was strong/ bold/ tactful/ persevering, yet he failed. The innovation was not approved. The need of a minor point to separate particles in a compound 1 It serves to mark an equation 2 This is the case especially of ideas, equivalent to = ( T I ) in when the statements are in the a mathematical equation. nature of a category. Bejection of points in title-pages 289 nominative or an involved sentence is sometimes painfully apparent ; but a new point for this pur- pose would not lessen but increase the difficulties of punctuation. The only new point or sign that is really needed (and that could not be misused) is a sign or mark for ditto in the catalogue matter of job-printers. The inverted commas now in frequent use serve the purpose badly ; they are out of true line and mis- lead or annoy the eye when they appear in solid composition between words, leaders, or figures. The sign ts used by all penmen is preferable to turned commas or to the abbreviation do. TITLE-PAGES WITHOUT POINTS Book titles are now set without points— a fashion introduced by Pickering of London about 1850. At that time it was customary to make one large display line of the leading words of the title, and to put a comma or a semicolon at its end. Condensed two -line type, then an admired novelty with other printers, was preferred for lines of display. To make short words fill the line, the types of this condensed letter often had to be spaced, with the unavoidable result of throwing the line that ended with a point apparently out of centre and making it lopsided. To prevent this blemish the point at the end of the leading display line was omitted, as had been done for many years by job-printers in 290 Points may he unwisely omitted the display lines of posters and handbills. This rejection of the useless point was accepted as an improvement 5 but the disciples of Pickering and Whittingham, not content with omitting points at the ends of display lines, rejected them in all lines, and in most titles to their benefit typographically, but in some to the confusion of sense. When one line, or even two or three adjacent and correlated lines, in a title-page constitute a distinct member of a sentence, a point is not required at the end of each line. A change of size and style in the types of a following line, and the intervening blank, are indications enough that this new line contains a new clause. There is no need for a period at the end of a line like Illustrated, or Second Edition, or By John Smith, nor for a colon after New York in an imprint. The conditions are altered when abbrevia- tions have to be used to specify the honorary titles that follow the name of the author : to omit the abbreviating periods makes confusion. When the imprint of the publisher particularizes two or more partners, as in Marston, Earl, Searle, & Rivington, the reader cannot know whether these words are or are not the names of two, three, or four persons unless commas have been inserted. About these niceties the compositor is never consulted. When he is directed to compose a title without any points, he must do as he is told, and leave the responsibil- ity of its possible confusion of meaning with the author or publisher who has given the order. The uselessness of double pointing 291 TWO POINTS TOGETHER The doubling of points should be avoided. When an abbreviation precedes a colon, as in the particle viz : the period may be omitted ; when it precedes a comma, the period is often inserted, but the appear- ance of the line is damaged and the sense is not bettered. In many instances the period should be retained and the comma omitted, as in this line : He was there at 6 p.m. but he was too late. There is seldom any need of the comma, semicolon, or colon before the dash, as ,— ;— : — . The dash is the boldest and most striking of the minor points, and the greater should carry the less. The dash after minor points can be safely used only in the sentence that is overstudded with commas, and where it is selected as the equivalent of the parenthesis, for which it is an improper substitute. A comma put before the first parenthesis is rarely needed; it should go after the closing parenthesis if it is used at all. When any complete sentence is inclosed by parentheses, the period should be before the last parenthesis, but when these parentheses inclose a few words at the end of the sentence, the period should be after the last parenthesis. A common fault in double pointing is putting a full point before an apostrophe and the posses- sive s, as in Co.'s. The word Company may be abbreviated to Co. and in the possessive to Co*s 292 Close pointing needed in law work (although this should be tolerated only in a very narrow measure), but Co.'s is superfluous. To some compositors these may seem needless niceties, but those who do not choose to observe them in composition will have to do so in proof, and to learn the art of punctuation, as the author of an old printers' grammar has wisely remarked, " by dint of a bodkin." In the composition of poetry from manuscript the compositor should follow the copy. The cadence of rhythmical words deceives the eye as well as the ear, and it may lead an inexpert to put points at the ends of lines or in other places where they seem to be but are not needed. As a rule, the poet points his writing with nicety, and that compositor is un- wise who alters or suggests alteration. A comparison of the punctuation of early and late editions of English classics will show that the tendency of modern editors is to a more sparing use of points. The precise rules of older times are now set aside : every point that does not really aid the reader to a better understanding of the subject is properly omitted. This remark does not apply to legal documents, some of which fairly bristle with points. There are sentences in legal pleadings or papers that seem to defy all attempts to punctuate. When a single sentence contains more than two Inindred words which are amplifications of the same statement, the The true function of points 293 comma, dash, and parenthesis must be repeated so frequently that they lose their value, and the author may obscure the meaning still more by a reckless use of semicolons and colons. The punctuation of a long extract from another book, or of a letter or document, should never be changed without special order. It may be wrong, but it is an exhibit of the style of the writer or of his time, and the errors, or what seem to be errors, are evidences of the faithfulness of the reprint. A working knowledge of punctuation is not to be acquired merely by learning rules ; the understand- ing of an author's meaning should be the earliest study. Next comes a knowledge of the elements of grammar. Careful reading of standard editions of good authors is always helpful. The compositor should make his own rules, but he cannot do this until he can properly discriminate between the different parts of a sentence. The great object of punctuation is to make clear to the reader the meaning of the author. Rules are of value, but the unfolding of obscured sense is the object of most importance. 19 XVI PEOOF-EEADING )N no branch of printing do methods and performance differ more than in that of proof-reading. In one printing-house one reader and his copy-holder may read for fifteen compositors who are engaged in setting type by hand on a plain reprint ; in an- other, that reader may find it difficult to keep up with the product of six compositors engaged on a troublesome and frequently revised and corrected manuscript. His performance is controlled by the legibility of the copy, the number of proofs, the re-readings of repeatedly corrected author's proofs, and other hindrances caused by correspondence and interviews with the author or publisher. To these delays may be added the time lost in searching or consulting books of reference or authority for a verification of doubted dates and names. 294 Variable cost of proof-reading 295 Ordinary news work, for the most part, receives but one reading. Sometimes the errors marked on the first proof are revised on another proof, but this proof is not always re-read. Sometimes revising is done in the metal. In the cheapest forms of hur- ried auction-catalogue printing the composition is not even proved on paper : the copy-holder reads aloud from the copy while the corrector follows him, reading from the type on the galley and cor- recting, as he proceeds, the grossest errors only. Reading so done is unavoidably imperfect, but the scamped method saves time and largely reduces cost. This is one way to produce cheap composition. Every book of reference or authority should be read on three or more proofs. When the author's proof has to be read by many experts, as is usual, duplicates are taken after each correction of the previous proof, and each duplicated proof receives an entirely new reading. The cost of reading and revising with this care is large, usually about one half as much as that of the first type-setting. Some pages will cost more than the first type-setting. The slighted catalogue reading which costs about one tenth that of type-setting, and the careful dic- tionary reading which costs more than first type- setting, are the extremes of book-work. The cost of the reading of the ordinary novel or descriptive book cannot be fixed at any definite point between the extremes : it is small when it is a strict reprint, large when it is in manuscript and not entirely in 296 System needed in jpr oof-reading the full control of the printing-house. It must be assumed, however, that every thoughtfully treated book calls for three and sometimes four readings, of which one or two are given by the author and two invariably by the printing-house. The manuscript that has been hastily prepared always should have three readings, for it is more liable to error. THE ROUTINE OF BOOK READING It is unsafe to give but one reading to a book, and it is equally unsafe to trust too much to the thor- oughness of the author's reading. The two read- ings of the printing-house are most satisfactory when they have been done by different readers. The clean proof furnished to the second reader gives him a much better opportunity for the detec- tion of errors, and he is or should be better quali- fied for critical reading. The proof-reader should have before him writ- ten instructions defining the proper width and length of the page, the size and face of the type, the thickness of leads, the types to be selected for extracts, notes, chapter headings, and every other peculiarity. These instructions shoi^ld be minute and thorough. Before he begins the reading of a new galley, or of the signature of a new form, he should make and satisfactorily answer these queries concerning the proper connection of old with new matter : Proofs should he properly prepared 297 Is this new composition the immediate continuation of previous matter ? Is the paging of the book or the numbering of the galley consecutive ? Are the running titles, chapter headings, blank spaces at the heads of chapters, type for titles, and the more prominent features of composition according to written instructions and in the same style as the preceding pages? Is the signature at the foot of the first page correct 1 ^ If the proof shows that the new matter is not the proper continuation of matter preceding, or if there is any important departure from the written instructions or from the style of preceding pages, the reader should at once notify the foreman, who will teU him whether he may proceed with the read- ing, or whether he shall order the faults or errors corrected before the reading. It will be safer to have the corrections made before reading, even if this added work causes what seems to be a waste of time. The first proof of book matter is usually taken from the long galley on which the compositor puts his composition. The proof should be on thin and hard paper that wiU take a pen-mark. The print should be in tint more pale than dark, so that the reader can easily discern an imperfect type. Cor- rections written on soft paper with a lead-pencil 1 A book or pamphlet form before the page reading. It is a of more than one sheet should mistake to read matter that has have a proper signature in the not been fully prepared, for one place directed by the publisher neglect leads to another. 298 Reading hy copy and collating are always unsatisfactoiy and may be misleading. No attempt should be made to read a proof that is too pale or that is over-inked, or with margins too scant for the marking of corrections. Corrections should be made in ink, but when the second reader follows the first on the same proof he should use ink of different color. Preferably, the reading should be done aloud by the copy-holder, and not from the proof by the reader. The first reader marks all the errors made by the compositor in spelling, division, italic, points, and capitals, and every deviation from the copy or from the office standard of style. ^^ Outs," or omis- sions from copy, are detected by means of the trained copy-holder who reads aloud from the manuscript while the eye of the reader follows every spoken word as it should appear in the proof. When proper names and foreign or unusual words are met, the copy-holder should spell them out letter by letter. This tedious and painstaking process must be observed to make sure of absolute accu- racy. Some readers dispense with a copy-holder, and collate the proof with the copy by the tedious comparison of word for word and line for line. Collating is a slower and more expensive method, but it should be more accurate than the commoner method of depending on the words spoken by the copy-holder, especially when the copy-holder has not been fully trained. The time to be spent and the care to be given When correction is permissihle 299 to a piece of reading must be determined by its importance. Ordinary composition should be made correct to copy with reasonable despatch, but writ- ings of value should be read thoughtfully, with a view to the discovery of faults more serious than those of spelling or punctuation. When the reader meets with an unmistakable fault made by the writer through lapse of memory or by negligence, he should correct it. He does so, however, at some peril. He must know and not suspect it to be an error, and must be prepared to defend his correction, not by his own belief, but by unquestionable authority. Whenever he feels obliged to query a change in spelling or in state- ment, he must note this change on the author's proof. In every writing of importance the reader should query faulty construction, bad metaphor, inconsistent statement, the misuse of a word, and other errors of similar character : but in no case should he correct these apparent faults when the author will revise what he has read ; he must stop with the query. The spelling, capitals, italicizing, and pointing of a systematic author should not be changed. If these features of correct composition are not consistently maintained in the copy, the reader should try to make them correct accord- ing to what he believes is the author's neglected standard. When copy has been negligently written by an undisciplined writer who cannot revise the reading, 300 First revision of the proof the reader should correct the grosser errors accord- ing to the standard of the editor or of the office, as he may be directed. But they must be indefensible errors. Bad spelling or grammar obviously made through ignorance or carelessness must always be corrected, but this license will not apply to dialect, or to quotations intended to be literally exact. Strange proper names, of places or people, of his- tory or fiction, should be verified by reference to the office dictionary. The reader is always adjudged in fault if he passes any misspelled Avord that can be rightly spelled. The same observation will apply to quotations from the Bible, hackneyed proverbs, phrases in foreign languages, and any of the scien- tific words of dictionaries. While it is desirable to have accurate workman- ship, the reader should not forget that it is his first duty to correct, and not to edit. He must not spend unnecessary time in consulting reference books to make up the deficiencies of a careless writer. Nor should he annoy the author with any emendations that savor of pedantic nicety. When the first proof has been corrected, a new proof of the matter so corrected is taken, which is called the first revise. In most printing-houses the reviser is the copy-holder, who collates the marked proof with the first revise, and makes sure that no correction has been overlooked. When a correc- tion in first proof has compelled the overrunning of two or more lines, the reviser should re-read Two proofs for the author 301 from dictation the entire paragraph. If any errors in first proof have been uncorrected, or if any new errors have been made in this first correction, they are re-marked on the revise and sent back to the compositor for re-correction. The proof to go to the author should be correct to copy in all its features, and have no marks on it but the queries made by the x^roof-reader, which should be trans- ferred from the first proof to the author's proof. In some book-houses the corrected matter is not sent to the author in the shape of a galley proof, but is made up in pages of the prescribed form. Proofs in pages are more readily handled by the author and offer him a generous margin for correc- tions ; but page proofs seriously add to the expense of the work when the author makes much altera- tion, for frequent alterations will compel an over- running and remaking-up of many pages. Pages of type that have been tied up and piled on letter- boards are more liable to be pied, or to suffer from dropped letters at the endings of lines, and conse- quently require additional care in reading. It is a commoner practice to put the first author's proof in the form of a galley slip, and it is to his bene- fit to read on the galley, for his alterations in the proof are more quickly and cheaply made by the compositor on the galley than in the page. Two proofs are usually sent to the author. On the one returned the author marks the changes he desires, and he retains the other for possible future 302 Press proof or foundry proof reference and as a reminder of every correction he ordered. All the corrections desired by the author should be made by him upon his fii'st proof. To postpone any correction for the final proof in page form causes delay and greater added expense, with liability to new errors which are harder to correct on the final than on the first proof. When the author's revise has been returned as corrected, the matter may be made up into pages ; but if there is reason to believe that the author contemplates other serious changes, it is safer to send the next proof from galley. Matter should not be made up in pages when there is a proba- bility that these pages will be overrun, and that the overrunning will be followed by a new make- up and greater delay. The author's first proof, when corrected, should always be returned to him with the second proof, which he should consider as his revise for the veri- fication of previous corrections, and for the making of trivial corrections only. But if many correc- tions are made by the author on this second proof, these corrections, when made, should be followed by a third proof to the author. It is unsafe to send to press or to foundry any page that has not been pronounced entirely correct by the author. The last proof certified as correct by the author is the proof known in the printing-house as the foundry proof or the press proof. It is always read by the second reader for the discovery and Last revision of the proof 303 correction of minor errors that may not have been discerned by the first reader and the author. To do this properly the copy and all previous proofs should be at the second reader's hand. It is a mis- take for the author, when he returns the last proof, to keep back the copy and all the previous proofs, for they usually contain memoranda on the margins that are of importance in the final reading. All errors should have been corrected and all queries answered on the second or final proof of the au- thor ; but if any new question arises that can be answered by the author only, that question should at once be sent to him for his decision. Two readers are desirable for accuracy, but they may not work in concord. The first reader, sup- posed to be properly qualified, should determine the typographic style, and that style should not be changed by the second reader unless the change is of real importance. To remodel the punctuation or the divisions of the first reader in trivial niceties is always a great waste of time. Not one reader in a thousand may recognize that the changes ordered by the second reader are betterments. If the sec- ond reader thinks it is necessary to make serious changes, he should submit the changes proposed to the foreman or manager for his decision. The author should see and approve all the minor changes made by the last reader on the foundry proof before he returns it as approved. As a rule, he does not see them, because each additional proof 304 Corrections in electrotype plates tempts the author to indulge in petty correction, which delays the work and needlessly increases his bill of expense. To keep different kinds of proof distinguishable, in good order, and always accessible requires many proof -hooks and pigeonholes and constant over- sight. Each proof should be properly marked as First office or Second office. First author's or Foundry , and should be dated with a rubber stamp and have the written initials of the reader. A perceptible distinction between the two kinds of proof can be made by using white paper for the author's proof and buff or pale yellow for the office proof. Dated and signed proofs are of value for their dates and as the attests of individual responsibility. At the end of the reading on each book, proof should be put in order, and packed and labelled so that it can be examined readily. All proofs should be kept for one year after the publication of the work. If a serious error be found after the page has been cast, the fault may be remedied by resetting and electrotyping the faulty spot for a patching of the plate. But corrections so made are expensive ; they weaken the plate, and are a great hindrance to good presswork. Trivial corrections do uiore harm than good. The}^ increase the liability to new er- rors ; for perfect types near the faulty ones may be bruised in the process of correction. Patched plates, always disliked by pressmen, are the cause of much bad presswork. For changes that call Limits to a proof-reader'^ s duty 305 for many patchings it is better to reset and make a new plate than to patch the old one. The proof-reader is asked to serve two masters. His employer rightfully asks for a fair day's work as well as exact reading, for it is the printer more than the author who is held responsible by the book reviewer for the book's faults of typographic style, and sometimes for its inconsistencies of statement. But there are fastidious authors who insist upon the strictest adherence to their imperfect copy, and refuse to consider queries made in their own inter- est. To query or correct is to offend these authors ; to leave a possible error unqueried or uncorrected is to invite plain censure for neglect or ignorance. There are other authors who ask, as a matter of right, that the proof-reader verify proper names, dates, and all unusual words, and that he main- tain consistency of statement as well as of style. Some go so far as to ask for the verification of all quotations from standard text-books. They hold that it is the duty of the proof-reader to correct all errors. This last request, based on the assump- tion that the proof-reader has within easy reach a library of reference books, and that he can be allowed time to consult them, is often impossible. Every printer who desires to preserve a reputation for accuracy will be generous in his allowance of time for a careful reading, but he has to keep the reading within a limit of cost. How much or how little time can be allowed for the verification of 306 When suggestions are permissible statements must be determined by each house for itself. The cost of searches is never considered in any estimate of composition, and must be an added expense. When the publisher consents to pay for the extra work, the reader should try to verify all proper names, dates, and foreign words by consult- ing authorities. Quotations from the Bible need special attention, for they are usually inexact when written from memory. When the reader has a rea- sonable doubt of the exactness of any part of the copy, whether in date, spelling, or quotation, and has not the time or the authority at hand to solve that doubt, he should suggest to the author that its verification seems desirable. With that query his responsibility for the error threatened should end. Suggestions to the author concerning the use of an ambiguous or improper word ^ or the faulty con- struction of a sentence are often needed, but the reader- makes them at a risk. He should be rea- sonably sure that the suggestion will be as kindly received as it is intended. In some printing-houses the reader is ordered by the master printer never to pass a split infinitive, as in this sentence : The dog had been trained at a given signal to immediately raise himself on his hind tegs. 1 Reliable has been condemned in -able. In this book he shows by some English critics as an un- that the word has the sanction grammatical Americanism, but of several English writers of its propriety has been defended authority. The word should not by Dr. Fitzedward Hall in his be queried by the proof-reader treatise On English Adjectives when he finds it in copy. Queries should he intelligible 307 The infinitive to raise must be kept together, and immediately may be put before or after the verb, as euphony dictates. The change is needed for good English ; but there are writings in which the author purposely splits the infinitive to show an ordinary colloquialism. The proof-reader must judge whe- ther it is or is not safe to correct without the query. With regard to the loose phrasing of the undisci- plined writer, as in " a gold lady's watch," he need not hesitate to make it read a lady's gold watch. The irregular variations made by some writers in their reproductions of colloquial language often make the proof-reader pause. Don't is preferred over does n't, but if the author persistently uses does n't, do not alter his spelling. Don't, shan't, won't, can't, and words of like form are usually presented as is here done, b}^ putting the apostrophe in the place of the cancelled letters ; but when the word is is clipped, and is presented as 's in he 's or it 's, it is better practice to put a thin space before the apostrophe. (See Abbreviations.) Authors may be annoyed by the unmeaningness of the queries made by some proof-readers. To underscore a word or phrase in proof and to write Qu. or ? in the margin does not specify the nature of the suspected error, which may be in the spell- ing of the word, in its unfitness, or in the construc- tion of the full sentence. The reader should write out in full the change that he suggests, or should specify the authority at variance with a doubtful 308 Proofs should always he accessible statement. Without this specification the query is entii-ely unmeaning. The author may not perceive the error which the reader thinks needs change. A query should be headed Query to author or Query to editor. When this has not been done, the editor or author may regard it as the query of one reader to another reader in the same house, and may give it no attention. When a plain query has not been answered, it is always safe to follow copy. A gross error in copy may be safely corrected when the writer can- not see the last proof and when the printing-house will be held responsible for the error ; otherwise its correction is a risk. It cannot be too frequently impressed upon the author that the proof-reader is not an editor. It is the wiser and safer course for the proof-reader to query all supposed errors by calling the attention of the writer to every appa- rent fault in date or grammar, or to statements that seem to be contradictory on different pages of the same book. It is an unpleasant duty, but it can be done with tact and discretion. Readers should always keep by them in good order a complete file of all work in progress, so that it can be referred to readily. First proof, second proof, author's proof, and author's revise should be kept on separate hooks or in pigeonholes, and be properly marked with the initials of the reader. The author's proof and revise should have on each sheet the office stamp and the date. Readers Qualifications needed in reading 309 should keep a book containing the name and the address of all persons to whom proof is to be sent. They should make themselves familiar with post- office lawSj and make up the packages to be sent by mail in such a manner that the office will not suffer from delay or needless expense in postage. The readers should try to arrange all their work so that proofs can be despatched before the closing of the last mail. The foreman should see that the readers are provided with postage-stamps and en- velopes of graduated sizes, and that all packages are neatly made up and properly addressed. Every paragraph containing an alteration that compels one or more overruns should be re-read by a copy -holder in the same manner that has to be observed for the first proof. When this cannot be done it should be collated carefully, word for word, to the end of the paragraph. The hurried or inconsiderate revision of only the lines that have been marked for alteration is the commonest cause of the most disgraceful errors in a book. QUALIFICATIONS NEEDED IN READING Application is frequently made to printing-houses by educated men and women, and sometimes by those who are not properly educated, for employ- ment as proof-readers. Too often the applicant sup- poses that any person who knows how to spell and punctuate is sufficiently qualified. This is a great 20 310 Readers need training for the work mistake. If the applicant is successful in securing employment, which is rare, he will discover that his knowledge of spelling and punctuation is insuffi- cient even for the simplest forms of commercial printing. To be a useful reader one should know types by their names and understand the technical terms and the methods of a printing-house. There is also much to be learned in the routine of proof- reading which is acquired most thoroughly by the young compositor or copy-holder. There are a few excellent readers who have not been printers or copy-holders, but the readers of most utility are those who have set type or held copy from their youth. A large book-house of New York reports that at different times it had occasion to engage many men as proof-readers who were graduates of colleges and, by virtue of their education, posses- sors of a good knowledge of English as well as of the classics. A few of these graduates ultimately became useful readers, but the majority did not. They could not or did not choose to acquire the knowledge of the petty details and technicalities of the trade that is indispensable. Every master printer who has employed many readers will agree with the writer in the opinion that > the average master of arts is not so successful in detecting de- viations from copy and in maintaining uniformity of typographic style as a regularly trained reader. The extract that follows is the testimony of a British printer. Wrong notions about reading 311 As a specimen of the value, relatively, of scholar- ship and unschooled but practical lynx-eyed ob- servation, I may mention a fact which came under my own notice some few years back. A new edi- tion of a well known lexicon was brought out by a publisher in the Row, the editorship being con- fided to a scholar of high reputation, at an ex- pense, it was said, of five guineas per sheet. The proofs returned by him to the printer, during up- wards of four months, contained an average of sixteen corrections on each sheet. Before going to press they were again carefully read by a young fellow from the north of the island, who possessed but a moderate reading acquaintance with the lan- guage, who spent a day-and-a-half over each sheet, at a cost to the printer of nine or ten shillings, and made additional corrections, averaging through the whole period fifty-three per sheet ! ^ For the proof-reading of books a knowledge of the classics and modern languages is always of value, but much of the work that has to be done by the reader is most distasteful drudgery. The scholarly applicant for a proof-reader's position who goes for the first time to the reader's desk in the belief that he can spend much time in a critical exami- nation of an author's style, with its possible chances for the discovery of errors in copy as well as in the proof which will redound vastly to his credit, is sorely disappointed when he is asked to read a directory, market reports, a series of interest tables, 1 [C. M. Smith,] The Working-man's Way in the World, p. 285. 312 Reading done hy the copy-holder or documents in a foreign language about which he knows very little. For poems and biographies and the commercial printing that are common in all book-houses the amateur reader's knowledge of Latin, Greek, and the higher mathematics cannot be put to practical use. Commercial printing is always drudgery, but it cannot be made easy, nor can it be done properly, by any reader who cannot adapt himself to his situation and will not take a proper pride in the faithful following of his copy. Proof-reading must not be done mechanically or perfunctorily. The reader's wits must be on the alert continually, for in every department of print- ing exists some liability to error and accident, for which the reader may be called to account. Even the reading aloud by a trained copy-holder of the best passages of a good author is a torment when that reading is done in a monotonous drawl, as is usual, without any pause, break, or attempt at emphasis. To insure accuracy, the copy-holder is required to call out every paragraph, mark of punctuation, and italicized word, which he does in a singsong voice, clipping the names of the points in the copy after the following fashion : ^ 1 The extract on the following ligible to the American printer, pages (taken from The Working- the words used in the United man's Way in the World, p. 288) States have been substituted for is a fair illustration of the copy- those used in England, and the holder'sniethod of jumbling the technical names of points have words of the copy with the names also been changed to agree with of the points and breaks in that the American method. To the copy. To make the matter intel- inexpert bystander who listens, Beading done hy the copy -holder 313 [THE ENUNCIATION OF THE COPY-HOLDER] Par quote This ruling passion two ital com the most enduring of all the passions which obtain a mastery over the mind com is described in Pope's single quote Moral Essays close single thus colon Par double and single quote Odious exclam in woollen exclam pos twould a saint provoke com close single were the last words that poor Narcissa spoke sem single quote no exclam let a charming chintz and Brussels lace wrap my cold limbs com and shade my lifeless face colon one would not com sure com be frightful when one pos s dead com dash and com Betty com [Here the reader dips his pen in the ink, and the boy takes the op- portunity to blow like a young grampus for a few seconds, and then resumes :] give this cheek a lit- tle red period close single and double line of points Par double and single quote I give and I devise com close single old Euclio said com and sigh pos d com single quote my lands and tenements to Ned period close single dash single again your money com sir inter close single dash single again my money com sir colon what com all inter why com dash if I must com close single then wept com single quote I give it Paul period close single single again the manor com sir inter close single dash single again the manor exclam hold com close the words of the copy-holder are is no better vocal method for meaningless jargon, and they securing accuracy. A careful are not easily comprehended by collation of every character in the amateur proof-reader, who the proof with every character in learns the copy-holder's coUoqui- the copy (a much slower method) alisms with reluctance and bad is the only alternative. For the grace. Silly as this method of translation of this seeming gib- reading proof may seem, there berish, see page 314. 314 Compositors not qualified readers single he cried com single quote not that com dash I cannot part with that exclam close single dash and died period close double dash Epistle one 1 two four six dash two six naught period ^' This ruling passion, the most enduring of all the passions which obtain a mastery over the mind, is described in Pope's ' Moral Essays ' thus : " ' Odious ! in woollen ! 'twould a saint provoke,' Were the last words that poor Narcissa spoke ; ' No ! let a charming chintz and Brussels lace Wrap my cold limbs, and shade my lifeless face : One would not, sure, be frightful when one's dead, — And, Betty, give this cheek a little red.' " ^' ^ I give and I devise,' old Euclio said, And sigh'd, ' my lands and tenements to Ned.' — ' Your money, sir *? ' — ' My money, sir : what, all ? ' Why, — if I must,' then wept, ' I give it Paul.' ' The manor, sir ? ' — ' The manor ! hold,' he cried, ' Not that, — I cannot part with that ! ' — and died." — Epistle 1, 1. 246-260. It does not follow that the average type-setter is or can be a good reader. His knowledge of names and technicalities is not half enough. If he has not earned an expert's reputation for clean composition, as has been proved by his ability to decipher imper- fect manuscript and to point and capitalize wdth propriety ; if he does not display a genuine fond- ness for books by the knowledge that comes from some stiidy as well as from omnivorous reading ; if he has no more than a passable acquaintance wdth Accuracy of first importance 315 authors and books and men of history and fiction ; if he has not the literary instinct which leads him to value books for mechanical merit— he cannot be a correct reader of books. It is a great risk to trust him with the simplest reading. The reader good in one house may be inefficient in another, for the requirements of printing-houses vary. On the ordinary daily newspaper the broad knowledge required of the reader is the knowledge of to-day, which comes from present observation more than from a study of books. A good memory is also needed. The reader who can recollect the spelling of the baptismal names of public men who respectively spell their names Read, Reid, Rhead, and Reed is of greater value to his employer than the scholarly reader who can read Latin and Greek, but who rarely has occasion to use that knowledge, and who professes some contempt for much of the distasteful work on which he must be engaged. In the composition of advertisements and general job- work, the correct taste on the part of the reader that leads him to mark errors of display, spacing, and make-up is more prized by the employer than any kind of classical information. Accuracy is always of first importance, but the reader or book reviewer, as well as the author or publisher, may want more than this. They may assume that the proof-reader should have some- thing more than a superficial knowledge- of men, books, arts, and languages— enough to prevent the 316 Proof-reading not enviable tvorJc author from stumbling in an error. The correct spelling of a foreign phrase, or of a proper name in history or fiction, adherence to obsolete British spelling/ and the accurate placing of accents in strange languages, are supposed to be as much a part of his duty as the correction of gross faults in English. Few readers can meet this expectation, for they are not allowed the time to deliberate or to consult books of authority, and they dare not correct a fault by trusting to memory only. Sug- gestions to the author can be wisely made only after consulting books of authority. The critical reading desired by publisher and author consumes much time and costs much money. When the reader is compelled at every paragraph to seek au- thority to verify a date or quotation, or the true spelling of rarely used names, he does little work. He could probably read one hundred pages of a reprint in the time that he devotes to ten pages of a manuscript that requires constant verification. The proof-reader's position is not an envial)le one. When he does his best and makes his book 1 Writers who continue to use low the spelling of Webster, and the older forms of British spell- had found it acceptable else- ing make trouble for the proof- where. "Webster!" sbi'ieked reader. Some years ago a Rich- the angered editor. " Never let mond editor sharply rebuked a me hear that name as an author- new proof-reader : "Why do you ity. Webster may spell to suit strike out of my proof the u in a Yankee trader, but not a Vir- honour, and the k in musick, ginia gentleman. Be pleased when I plainly wrote them in hereafter to follow my copy and my copy f " The reader replied Dr. Johnson's dictionary. Let that he had been taught to fol- us hear no more of Webster." Writers often neglect petty details 317 correct he has done no more than his duty. He may correct ninety-nine errors out of a hundred, but if he misses the hundredth he may be sharply reproved by the book reviewer for that negligence. Authors often send to the printing-house type- written copy that is easily readable, but that has not been thoughtfully corrected. Proper names in foreign languages may be spelled in two or more ways; capital letters, italic, quotation-marks, and abbreviations may be written in without system, apparently with small concern about their lack of uniformity. This disregard of attention to trivial details is a common fault. Exactness in spelling and pronunciation is well taught in all our high schools, but exactness of expression in writing for the press is not taught at all. It is the belief now, as it was in the days of Moxon, the first English writer on the technics of printing, that it is the duty of the printer to supplement the negligences of the writer. The reader of the printed book or paper knows little of these irregularities. Now and then he has an inkling of them when the editor of a newspaper avenges himself on a testy adversary by printing the letter of the angry subscriber exactly as it was written, with faults in almost every line, much to the amusement of the reader, and to the mortification of the wiiter. Careless writing is so common that it often passes unnoticed. Every one who chooses to look them up in his correspondence (sometimes 318 Banger of following copy literally in the writings of educated men) will find faults of construction as well as of orthography that would be glaringly offensive if repeated in print. A broader knowledge of the frequency of faults in writing should lead to a better appreciation of the services of the proof-reader ; but this knowledge is rarely acquired out of a printing-house. The undis- ciplined writer who believes that he is careful and exact often resents the suggestion that he can be indebted to the proof-reader for help of any kind. The too rapid and over-confident writer, who may have been provoked by too many queries from the reader (for there are amateurs who can be as irri- tating as mosquitos), may peremptorily order that his copy shall be followed faithfully in every partic- ular. Not a comma nor a capital must be changed. Writers like these put the reader in an unpleasant position. To query a supposed error is an offence to the writer ; to pass an indefensible error is to offend the employer and incur discredit as a com- petent reader. Yet the positive order of ^'Follow copy exactly " may lead to unhappy results when the author cannot see the proof of his writing.^ 1 The editor of a prominent ten. The reader expostulated, daily newspaper in New York but promised obedience. That City, after some angry talk with evening this editor made the one of the proof-readers concern- mistake of tarrying too long in ing that reader's alleged officious festive company over the dinner- meddling with his articles In the table. His half -written article proof, gave the positive order of the morning concerning the that every article written by him war of 1859 in Italy abundantly should be printed as It was writ- proved his knowledge of the sub- Banger of correcting too much 319 Correction can be overdone, for there are amateur readers who unduly magnify their office, and seize every occasion to show to the author their critical knowledge of rhetoric, etymology, and punctuation. Tinkering with points is their favorite amusement. ject and his ability as a writer ; but the conclusion of that arti- cle, written after the dinner, as clearly showed that the writer's brains had been muddled with wine. Compositors and readers were staggered by its incoherent drivel. What could be done ? It was past midnight ; the writer had left the office and could not revise the proof. No one dared correct. Obeying the order last given, the reader authorized the article to go to press, and it was printed, as had been directed, ex- actly as it was written. About the bewilderment of the readers of the paper, and the consterna- tion of the writer when he saw his editorial in print, it is not necessary to say another word. Copies of this editorial are stiU preserved among the curiosities of newspaper literature. The risk a printer has to en- counter when he is positively directed to correct faulty manu- script is quite as great, as will be shown by the following anec- dote. An illiterate man, who wished to be alderman, wrote an address to the public, in which he pro- claimed his worthiness and an- nounced his purpose. Not satis- fied with his work, he asked and received the literary helping of brother illiterates ; but repeated correction had made a tangled and interlined copy, hard to read and harder to understand. He took it to a job-printer, confess- ing his dissatisfaction with aU the work done, as weU as his in- ability to unravel the tangle. He asked the printer to put it in good shape and to make all the changes that were needed. The complaisant printer indiscreetly rewrote the address, and made it intelligible, for rewriting was a lighter task than correction. To do this he had to change bad spelling and grammar, to substi- tute short for ridiculously long and improper words, to put in two or three sentences unrelated statements that had been welded in one. After this treatment it was put in type and printed, for it was in haste, and could not be read in the proof by the person who would claim its authorship. To the printer's confusion, the prospective alderman refused the printed work with indigna- tion. It was not his address. The printer had spoiled it. He had cut out all his fine writing and elegant language, and had made his address as simple as a child's primer! 320 Unwise changes in punctuation wliich they practise on plates whenever they are not fully employed, with little regard to its cost.^ The irritability of an author may be justly pro- voked by the meddling queries of a captious reader who suggests corrections where the corrections are not needed. Even the amiable poet Cowper has put on record his anger at a proof-reader who had tried 1 Many years ago the senior partner of the firm of Harper & Brothers, in his daily round of inspection, stopped before a fin- isher in the stereotype foun- dry, who had before him a large pile of plates and many proofs of the pages of a book which had been reprinted in several editions. The finisher's work was the substitution of commas for semicolons, or the reverse process — obviously a meddle- some and useless work. Mr. Har- per asked the question, "Are these changes the order of the author or of the office ? " He was told that they were ordered by the proof-reader. Then said Mr. Harper: " Please take all proofs back to the reader, and tell him that if he wants to pay for the corrections, you can go on with your work. Harper & Brothers will not pay for them," A reprint advertisement mak- ing a full page of solid nonpareil was once sent to a magazine, and reset with ordinary corrections. It does not appear that there could have been any important error in the punctuation, for it had been satisfactory to the pub- lisher and to the public, but the proof-reader fancied it was his duty to improve it. He claimed to be qualified to punctuate by the Wilson system, which was infallibly correct. Working un- der this system, he thoroughly remodelled the punctuation, at a serious added expense to the office. When the page of type so corrected had been printed, it was wrapped up and put away as dead matter. One year after, the same advertisement, torn out of a copy of the previous year's issue, was again offered to the magazine. The old compo- sition, still intact, was re-proved and sent to the same reader, who had entirely forgotten his pre- vious work upon it. To the fore- man's surprise, this infallible reader remodelled his own punc- tuation as thoroughly as he had remodelled that of the first re- print copy. Theh the foreman took out of the previous year's proof-files the corrections that reader had made for the first issue, and showed him that this year's changes in the points were an unnecessary return to the original punctuation. A tribute hy Charles Dickens 321 to improve his poems ; he accused him of rash and '^ gratuitous emendation," and with being '^ a pre- sumptuous intermeddler." This meddling (rarely done by the trained proof-reader) is common with the amateur at correction. Authors who are most far-seeing in the prepara- tion of copy are generous in their acknowledgment of the efficient service rendered to them by a com- petent proof-reader. Charles Dickens,^ in a speech made by him at London in 1867, gives this testi- mony concerning his indebtedness : I can testify that the duties of a corrector are not mechanical, not mere matters of manipulation and routine, but that they require from those who per- form them much natural intelligence, much super- added cultivation, considerable readiness of refer- ence, quickness of resource, an excellent memory, and a clear understanding. I gratefully acknow- ledge that I have never gone through the sheets of any book that I have written without having had presented to me by the corrector of the press something that I have overlooked, some slight in- consistency into which I have fallen, some little lapse I have made; in short, without having set down in black and white some unquestionable in- dication that I have been closely followed through my work by a patient and trained mind, and not merely by a skilled eye. 1 Robert Browning, Sir Wal- raphy are other men of author- ter Besant, and the editors of ity who have cheerfully testi- the Century dictionary and of fled to the helpfulness of the the Dictionary of National Biog- proof-readers. 322 The marks used hy proof-readers THE PROOF-READER'S SIGNS No 11 No new paragraph. Run in Let there be no break in the reading. ^ Make a new paragraph. \/ \/ y/ Correct uneven spacing of words. ^ Strike out the marked type, word, or sen- tence. 9 Reverse this type. # More space where caret ^ is marked. - — ' Contract the spacing. C^ Take out all spacing. r Move this to the left. "I Move this to the right. ' ' Raise this line or letter. ! , Depress this line or letter. 1 1 Make parallel at the side with other lines. □ Indent line an em. >L Push down a space that blackens the proof. X Change this bruised type. w,f. Change this faulty type of a wrong font. tr. Transpose words or letters underlined. Ix, Put in lower-case, or small letters. sx. Put in small capitals. caps. Put in capitals. \ Z. Insert apostrophe. Superior characters are put over an inverted caret, as ^ ^ ^ ^ , etc. ; for inferior characters the caret is put in its usual position, as in '?. ram. Change from italic to roman. The marks used hy proof-readers 323 ital. Change from roman to italic. O Insert period. 9 1 Insert comma. ; / Insert semicolon. ' / Insert colon. = I Insert hyphen. / — / One-em dash. / / Two-em dash. ^ Take out cancelled character and close up. Qiuov ? Is this right ? See to it. A Insert letter or word marked in margin. I I I I Hair-space letters as marked. Stet Restore crossed-out word or letter. .... Dots put below the crossed word mean : Cancel the correction first made, and let the types stand as they were. ^ Over two or three letters. Change for the diphthong or for a logotype, as ae, ffi. ^^^ Straighten lines. Diagonal lines crossing the text indicate that the composition is out of square. Out, see copy. Here is an omission ; see copy. Corrections or textual improvements suggested to the author should be accompanied by the inter- rogation-point and be inclosed in parentheses or "ringed," as {tr. / f) or (^ / f). Corrections should always be made in the mar- gin, and never in the text ; faults in the types or text to be indicated only by light pen marks. 324 Exhibit of proof-reader'* s markings PROOF BEFORE CORRECTION Cafui l\y P rksidkxt LINCOLNS GETTYSBURG ADDRES.S;^ \^<:^7tZ^ J/.(y. .F our score and seven years ago our father's brought fortli <:^ (^icexyved/ on this continent, a new nation, -G onoorvcd - in /iberty, and CCi^- dedicated to the proi)Osition that all nijAn are created equal.^ W O ^ ^Now we are engaged in a great ^ivil war; testing whether <^ ^ijy, that nation, or any nation so conc^^ed and so dedicated, can ^ long endure. We are met on a great battle^eld of that wai; 'I 4^1^ ^ that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting place for those who (gave\here) their lives Mt/. Mj that that nation might l^ve. It is altogether fitting^that we a/na/ \^ / should do this. - jjJJJJJ / / / / y . But, in a larger senseT'^ve ^ rnn ^not Mledicate — we can /unn/. (^lu/fV /Vtiok^ not I consecrate — we can not haMow — this ground. The C I 1 brave] men, living liLlidj dead, who struggled here have eon- Jy-C/- ^ secratedjit, far_above our poor power to ad d or detract."^ Jl-ou Cllie~worid will little note, nor loyig remember what we 7t// J*/ say here /but it can never forget what they did here^ It is ^ i I I ^for us the living, rather, to be dedicated -h^i^ to the ^ _jiit /U/f^ ht/j A ^ I fished work which they who fought here have (so\far/{hiig) -^ ^juM^^ nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the J2/j no-r^. great task remaining before us — that^from these honored J/ p 1/ y. dead we take increased devotion to that Cause for w hich they // c/. __^ '^^^ gave the last full measure of devotion — that we he re highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain^r^and^ _ that government of the people, by the peopl^ for tf\e peo- J ^_^ pie, shall not perish from the earth. y"^ ^ ' From a fac/simile of the n)ayus(;ript written by Mr. LitHoln f()tth(' Baltiiiiore Fair — the ^ ~ , / <0/tdj, M^ ccrjvu^ Exhibit of the proof after its correction 325 PROOF AFTER CORRECTION PRESIDENT LINCOLN'S GETTYSBURG ADDRESS* Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war ; testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate — we can not consecrate — we can not hallow — this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus ftir so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us — that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full mea- sure of devotion — that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain — that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom — and that govern- ment of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth. ' From a facsimile of the manuscript written by Mr. Lincoln for the Baltimore Fair — the standard version — which appeared in The Century Magazine for February, 1891 21 326 Moxofi's notions about copy In a Jiridfencey a good Compofiter need be no more than an Engiijh Schollerj or indeed fcarce fo much ; for if he knows but his Letters and Characters he Jhall meet with in his Printed or Written Copy, and have otherwife a good natural capacitjy he may be a better Compofiter than another Man zvhofe Education has adorn' d him with Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and other Languages y and f^ all want a good natural Genius : For by the Laws of Print- ing, a Compofiter is Jlri^ly to follow his Copy, vix. to obferve and do juji fo much and no more than his Copy will bear him out for ; fo that his Copy is to be his Rule and Authority : But the carelefnefs offome good Authors y and the ignorance of other Authors y has fore'* d Printers to introduce a Cufomy which among them is look'' d upon as a task and duty incumbent on the Compofiter, viz. to difcern and amend the bad Spelling and Pointing of his Copy, if it be Englijh ; But if it be in any Forrain Language y the Author is wholy left to his own Skill and Judgement in Spelling and Pointing, ^c. his Copy, and Correfting the Prooves, unlefs they be Latine, Greek or Hebrew,/i?r to thofe Languages there is generally a Cor- reftor belongs to the Printing- Houfe : And how well other Forrain Languages are Corre6led by the Author y we may perceive by the Englijh that is Printed in Forrain Coun- tries. Therefore upon confederation of thefe accidental cir- cumftances that attend Copy, // is necejfary that a Com- pofiter be a good Englijh Schollar at leaji ; and that he know the prejent traditional Spelling of all Englijh Words y and that he have Jo much Sence a/id Reajony as to Point his Sentences properly : when to begin a Word with a Capital Letter, when \to render the Sence of the Author more intelligent to the Reader) to Set fome Words or Sentences in Italick or Englilh Letters, ^r.^ 1 Moxon, Mechanick Exercises, pp. 197, 198. XVII ABOUT COPY OXON has defined the compositor's duty as largely but not entirely that of the copyist. The author may tell him to follow copy literally, but the master printer tells him to maintain uniformity. These orders often conflict. How can agreement be had ? When copy has been negligently prepared by a careless writer who sometimes spells incorrectly and capitalizes and italicizes without system, it is the duty of the compositor to correct these faults according to the style prescribed by the office in which he works ; but when copy has been carefully prepared by a disciplined writer, who plainly shows that he has a style of his own, that copy should be followed faithfully, even if it does conflict with the system of the office. It is the author's right to 327 328 Negligence in ^preparation of copy go before the public in his own way ; to show his own notions about italic, punctuation, and capital- izing, and to follow the spelling of Webster, Stor- mouth, or Dr. Johnson. All that the printer asks of the author is that he shall spell uniformly and put his capitals, points, and other peculiarities of style in their proper places, so that there can be no misunderstanding about his intent. If he has not done this thoroughly (even a careful writer cannot be consistent always), he should prepare a written code of his style, plainly indicating the spellings he prefers and making clear his system for the use of italic, points, quotation-marks, refer- ences, compound words, abbreviations, etc. When the master printer has this code put in type, and provides a fair proof of it for every compositor on bhe work, the irregularities of style that deface a first proof and make the alterations expensive are largely prevented. When the writer does not pro- vide this written code, the compositor should try to make the style uniform, according to his under- standing of the author's unexpressed wishes. There the compositor's duty ends, even if he does not cor- rectly guess an unexpressed intent, and does not maintain in all points the author's notions about uniformity. It is not his fault if copy is mislead- ing or if instructions are insufficient. The art of preparing copy for a printer is not taught in schools, and the authors are few who have devised and adhere to systems of their own. Many compositors needed for a hook 329 Much of the copy sent to a printing-house seems to indicate on the part of the author his indiffer- ence to all typographic niceties : a strange proper name may be spelled in two or more ways ; punc- tuation may be excessive in one paragraph and scant in another ; italic may be marked for one quotation, quotation-marks for another, while a third of the same class may have no marks of dis- tinction ; arabic figures and spelled-out words for numbers may appear upon the same page. These are some of the many inconsistencies of the ordi- nary manuscript, which the writer fails to see in his own writing, but they are glaringly offensive when they reappear in the proof. Good copy and bad copy are easily distinguished, and the compositor knows almost at a glance that he must follow the first and correct the last. Between these two ex- tremes is a much larger quantity of copy that may or may not require correction. The common be- lief that the correction of these lapses is the com- positor's duty is based on the assumption that the compositor is a qualified corrector. This is a grave error. If he were a corrector, it is probable that he would have the much better paid position of proof- reader or assistant editor. It is another mistake to assume that the work of composition is always done by one compositor, who can and will correct errors with uniformity. A long manuscript is always set by many com- positors ; if it is required in haste, or even if its 330 Compositors not qualified correctors composition is protracted over many months, it may be set and read by many compositors and readers. In onr present condition of conflicting authority, compositors and proof-readers must have different opinions about correct composition, and it is not reasonable to expect that all the workmen will agree on every point. The uniformity desired by an author should begin with himself in the copy, even if he finds it is necessary to have the copy type-written and approved by a qualified corrector before it is sent to the printer. Too much dependence should not be placed on the corrections that are hoped for in the printing- house. It is unsafe for the master printer to allow the compositor to make a material change in copy without positive authorit3^ He may correct plain faults according to the system provided by the author or by the office, but he must do no more. Even when he finds in the copy what may seem unauthorized errors of spelling or grammar, he is not justified in correcting them without a special order, for the supposed errors may not be errors. In extracts, testimony, or documents intended to be literally exact, faults of grammar or spelling are presumptive evidence of painstaking accuracy. The writer or speaker, not the printer, is respon- sible for the errors. The compositor should have small license for correction ; he is safe only when he literally follows copy, or obeys a distinct order to change. He should not alter properly prepared Selection of;paperfor copy 331 copy without order, for the use or the misuse of capitals, italic, and points indicates the mental status of the writer as plainly as his written words. In legal documents much may depend upon the presence or absence of a comma. Quotations should be put in type as written in copy. Those made from memory only are usually inexact, but the compositor should not correct the fault even when he knows the true rendering. A judicious author will be thankful for the query of a supposed error, but the reader must stop with the query. It cannot be too frequently impressed on him that his first duty is to follow copy. It often happens that the author and the master printer are at variance regarding typographic de- tails. The author has the right to overrule every typographic method that may be suggested by the printer, and when he does so overrule his decision should be obeyed without question, even when the author follows the fashions of advertisers and job- printers, and insists on typography in the worst taste ; but the printer can and should refuse his imprint to all printing done to order in bad form. This is the printer's right ; for it may be assumed by the book reviewer that typographic uncouth- ness in a book is an evidence of the ignorance or the bad taste of the printer. Paper selected for copy should be uniform as to size. When odds and ends of paper have been used for copy, and interleaved with additions on 332 Proper provision for alterations smaller scraps, some with coarse and some with fine writing, it is impracticable to make a correct estimate of the number of pages that the manu- script will occupy in print. Copy so put together gives needless trouble to the workmen ; it is not easily arranged by the copy-holder, and is liable to misplacement and loss. What is worse, it leads to the making of blunders.^ The size commercial note (leaf 5x8 inches) is large enough for those who write with small and neat letters ; sermon paper (leaf 7 x 8.J inches) and letter paper (leaf 8 X 10 inches) are better sizes for those who write with more boldness, and are entirely acceptable to compositors; but foolscap (leaf 7J x 12 inches) and flat cap (leaf 8^ x 14 inches) are inconvenient shapes. Very thin paper that cannot be kept in position on the compositor's case, and very thick paper that may have been marred with creases, are equally objectionable. Manuscripts should be kept flat ; if it is necessary to roll them, let them be rolled with the writing on the convex side. Copy paper should have a wide margin on the left side of the leaf as a provision for possible alter- ations in the manuscript. Alterations in minute writing between the lines are usually obscure and 1 Sharon Turner, author of a copy upon the backs of letters History of the Anglo-Saxons, addressed to hlra. One of his sent much of his copy to the detractors stigmatized him as printer on any stray waif of "the penurious, paper-sparing paper he found at hand. The Pope." The cheapness of paper poet Pope wrote some of his has put an end to this economy. Bad ijractices in penmanship 333 productive of error. When the author does not provide a wide margin at the left of the copy paper, he should leave wide spaces between lines. Copy should be written with ink, and on one side of the leaf. That which has been written on both sides often has to be cut apart in two or three slips and given to different compositors. The reuniting of these slips gives needless trouble, and it may be done badly and lead to very serious error. Pencil writing makes bad copy unless it has been done boldly and with an indelible pencil. Weak hand- writing with a hard pencil on smooth paper always makes indistinct copy. Many of the so-called errors of the press begin with bad arrangement of copy and indistinct writ- ing which compels the compositor to guess (and to guess erroneously sometimes) at the spelling of the obscure words. Some teachers of penmanship are to blame for the bad models they put before their pupils : in some models the n and u are nearly ahke ; in the penmanship of their pupils they are exactly alike. Capital letters are sometimes so overloaded with flourishes that one letter will be mistaken for another. In the angular style of penmanship the small letters are almost as uniform in shape as the teeth of a saw— each tooth and each small letter much like its fellows. The meaning of the words has to be guessed at from an occasional capital or the loops of the ascending or descending letters. Some writers make no easily perceptible distinction 334 Some authors provide good copy between the capitals I and J. When they appear in the name Isaac Jones, the letters that follow the capitals are the real guides to the proper selection of capitals ; but when the first name is abbrevi- ated to I. Jones, it is possible that I will appear as J in print. A similar remark may be made concern- ing the formations of the capitals T, S, and Y as they are put upon paper by some writers. It is not reasonable to suppose that the compositor who works by the piece can afford to waste much time in deciphering the words which the writer has not even tried to make plain. With every desire to aid the author, the compositor can do but little toward helping him in making his words intelligible. There is a wide-spread belief that all authors are illegible writers. The first copy of their writings may be indistinct or illegible, on which hasty pen- scratches were made to preserve a quickly flying thought, and this copy may be afterward obscured with erasures and interlineations ; but this is not the copy that is sent to the printing-house. The last copy of the professional writer, even when it is not type-written, is much neater and is usually much more systematically arranged than that of the man of business or the amateur in^authorship.* 1 The poet Gray rewrote his Allan Poe were models of neat- Elegy nearly twenty times be- ness. The penmanship of some fore he was content with its con- journalists is almost as read- struction. Tennyson was almost able as print. Eugene Field was as fastidious. The writings of a notable example. There are Thomas Hood and of Edgar busy authors who keep in their Illegible writing calls for study 335 What the compositor desires in every manuscript is distinctness and a systematic use of points and capitals. The writer of a crabbed hand may be a preparer of readable copy. Horace Greeley's manu- script was a torment to the inexpert, but the few compositors on the Tribune who had studied its peculiarities said it was fair copy. Capitals and points were correctly used, and were not changed in proof. Mr. Greeley often said that he would not care to read proof if he could be assured that his words would be printed as they had been written.^ Dr. Holland, a better penman and a voluminous employ a special editor to cor- rect and systematize, and a copy- ist to transcribe, their manu- scripts. Charles Dickens's writ- ings were sorevisedbyan editor, who cancelled paragraphs and pages at his pleasure, and re- turned to him the manuscript for addition and improvement. George Bancroft, the historian, had his manuscripts carefully transcribed and put in type, from which two proofs were made. The first setting of the type was then distributed. The two proofs were carefully re- vised at convenience, dates and authorities were verified, verbi- age was cut out, new matter added, and imperfect sentences amended. The new copy so prepared on this proof gave no more trouble to the compositor than ordinary reprint, and the charges for alterations in the proof were consequently trivial. 1 Ability to read bad writing is an inborn faculty, but it can be developed by study. There are compositors, and even copy- holders, whose guesses at ob- scure words are as happy as old-time divination, but their seeming guesses are really the outcome of the study that fol- lows keener perception. As a rule, every penman writes con- sistently ; his style is affected by changes of pen, ink, and paper, by age, haste, or fatigue, but he always retains his own mannerisms, the same letters or combinations of letters being repeated in the same general form. Keeping this in view, the key may be found that will unlock the concealments of bad writing. In a letter to his pub- lisher, Byron said: '' Your com- positor is a worker of miracles. He has done what I cannot do. He has read my bad writing." 336 Bad writing delays performance wi-iter, was a trained preparer of copy ; lie seldom changed a word or point in his proof. Wendell Phillips Garrison and his brother Francis Jackson wrote a book of four octavo volumes with side-notes and a profusion of letters, documents, and extracts ; but the copy was systematically prepared, and the changes made in the proof were insignificant- much smaller than had been made in the printing- house upon any other work of equal size. A generous forbearance must be conceded to the rude and rapid writing of a reporter who has sten- ographically reported an evening speech, and has to rewrite it in longhand so that the compositors can have the copy before midnight. The hurried work of the night editor of a daily newspaper calls for a similar indulgence, but that forbearance is not due to the writer who has ample time to write legibly, or the means to have his illegible writing fairly transcribed or type- written. The needs, and indeed the rights, of the printer deserve more con- sideration than they receive. The composition of ordinary books is always a work of special contract. When the master printer agrees in turn with his compositors at a fixed rate per page, it is supposed that the copy furnished will be easily readable, and that the daily perform- ance of every type-setter will be about five duo- decimo pages of ten -point type or its equivalent. The master printer and the compositor are not paid for time spent on the work ; they are paid for Injustice produced hy had copy 337 actual performance only. If the copy is hard to read and understand, the compositor will set but four or three pages. When it is very obscure he will do no more than two pages, and he may and sometimes does refuse to do work that is so meanly paid. Composition done under these conditions is always done badly, and may be full of obscurities that hinder the proof-reader and bring discredit upon printer and publisher. It frequently happens that the master printer has to return a manuscript to the writer to be legibly rewritten. The injustice of this disregard of the workmen's need is fairly pre- sented by Drew.^ Additions to a manuscript should never be writ- ten on the back of the leaf, where an addition is 1 In all other cases of en- tween man and man, where bad croaching on the time and pa- writing, except in rare and ex- tience of another, — as, for in- treme cases, does not involve stance, our failure to fulfill an pecuniary loss. But when we appointment, or calling at an are writing for the press, our unseasonable hour, or seeking duty to write legibly becomes advice in an affair wholly our imperative ; indeed, a failure in own, — we feel bound to make due this respect trenches so closely apology, nay, sometimes even ac- upon a violation of the eighth knowledge a sense of shame; commandment, that it can sel- but who ever felt regret on hear- dom happen but from a want of ing that he had put someone thought as to the relation be- to the trouble of studying, and tween those who write and those guessing at, a puzzling intricacy who print. . . . of cramped writing ; his victim If one-eighth of the time now being obliged to seek aid from spent in correcting, overrun- dictionaries, gazetteers, direc- ning the matter, and revising, tories, and even experts? We were bestowed upon perfecting never heard of a man's suffering the copy, there would seldom compunction on this score. ... be any delay in a well appointed We say this, referring to ordi- printing-office. nary business transactions be- Pens mid Types, pp. 20, 21, 25. 338 Foreign words need special care liable to be overlooked ; but if such an addition is made, attention should be directed to it by bold markings on the face of the copy. It is a better practice to write out the addition on a separate slip of paper and to paste it on in its proper place, where it will not be overlooked. When an insertion of one leaf or more is to be made in copy, the inserted leaves should be care- fully numbered in order. If, as is usual, it is im- practicable to renumber anew all the leaves of the entire manuscript, the inserts should receive the number of the last folio, with the addition of al- phabetical letters in regular order. If the inserts are to go between folios 22 and 23, these inserts should be marked 22a, 22h, 22c, etc. The foot of page 22 should have this note for the compositor : 22 is followed hy 22a, 221), 22c. A similar practice should be observed in the cancelling of discarded leaves. If pages 41 to 46 must be cancelled, the foot of page 40 should have this note : Pages 41-46 are cancelled. Words in foreign languages, proper names of all kinds, historical or geographical, and little-used terms in science and art should be written with unusual distinctness and with the acceints clearly marked. The compositor is not expected to have the knowledge of these matters that will supple- ment the writer's neglect to wi-ite plainly. Moxon's comments on neglected preparation of copy deserve reprinting in full. Additional observations hy Moxon 339 Although I have in the precedent Exercifes Jhew V the Accomplijhments of a good Compofiter, yet will not a curious Author truft either to his Care or Abilities in Pointing, Italicking, Capitalling, Breaking, &c. Therefore it behoves an Author to examine his Copy very well e're he deliver it to the Printer, and to Point ity and mark it fo as the Compofiter may know what Words to Set in Italick, Englifh, Capitals, &c. If his Copy, or any part of it, be Written in any Foreign Language y he is Jirialy to fpell that Foreign Language right : Becaufe the Compofiter, as I faid in the Preface to this §, takes no notice of any thing therein but the very Letters, Points and Charafters he finds in his Copy. If an Author have not {through hafie in Writing) made Breaks in proper places ; when he comes to perufe his Copy he may find caufe to make feveral Breaks where he made none : In fuch a cafe he makes a Crotchet [ thus, at the Word he would have begin his new Paragraph. Thus in all particulars he takes care to deliver his Copy perfeB : For then he may expea to have his Book perfealy Printed. For by no means he ought to hope to mend it in the Proof, the Compofiter not being obliged to it : And it cannot reafonably be expelled he fipould be fo good Natured to take fo much pains to mend fuch Alterations as the fecond Dilates of an Author may make, unlefs he be very well paid for it over and above what he agreed for with the Mailer- Printer, i The placing of marks of punctuation is usually done by the author when he completes each sentence, but if he remodels the phrasing or construction of that sentence in a subsequent revision, the points 1 MechaBick Exercises, pp. 265, 266. 340 Underscoring s for display should be looked after with care, for those first made will surely be wrong, and will bewilder the compositor. Abbreviations should not be used in the manuscript which the author does not wish to see repeated in that form in print. These are the underscorings used by editors as directions for italic, small capitals, and capitals : italic. = capitals. smaU capitals. := italic capitals. Mr. J. Stearns Gushing of the Norwood Press offers these underscorings for display in school-books : bold-faced bold-faced lower-case. .^^^...^.^-.^..r^.^^ — ^ capital letters. bold-faced spaces between Italic lower- letters. Underscoring for italic or bold display, and the placing of quotation-marks, should not be done during literary composition, for they are sure to be inconsistent. It wdll be prudent to postpone these markings until the writing has been completed, and the author is better prepared to jnake a code that can be applied to all cases. It is desirable to have the punctuation done by the writer ; but he should not over-punctuate, and especially should not make too free use of the dash and quote-marks, which may obscure his meaning. Type-written copy is preferred 341 The leaves of all manuscript copy should be paged systematically from beginning to end. To page each chapter by itself leads to confusion. When two or more chapters are in the hands of different compositors at one time, they cannot be reassem- bled easily and put in the proper place. Page 16 of manuscript, intended for chapter vi, may be trans- posed with page 16 of chapter vii. A foot-note, or a citation of quoted authority, should be written exactly as it should appear in print, and be placed directly under the line of text which contains the reference to that note. When foot-notes are written on separate scraps of paper and are pasted out of place on the copy, it is prob- able that they will be out of place in print. When copy for the text of a book is sent to the printing-house at irregular intervals and in instal- ments of one or two chapters, its composition is done at disadvantage. An inspection at one time of all the copy is needed to determine the uniform- ity in little details which is one of the merits of a well-made book. When the text of any book con- taining irregular parts is set and electrotyped in driblets, it must have inconsistencies of treatment that may cry aloud for expensive changes after the plates have been made. When it is possible to do so, manuscript should be type- written, and carefully revised by the author before it is sent to the printing-house. Even a neat and careful writer will be surprised to find 22 342 Copy has to he revised in proof how much more quickly he can detect an error in type-written copy than in his manuscript. Pub- lishers of experience give all manuscripts accepted by them, whether written well or ill, to the type- writer, and this type-written copy is revised by the author before it goes to the printer. The type- writing of the new copy does not cost so much as the alterations in type that have to be made from manuscript copy. Careful authors approve of this method, for it hastens the getting of a clean proof and lightens the subsequent labor of correction. If the writer of indistinct copy could stand by the case of a compositor, and could note how much he is delayed by obscure writing, what grave errors he makes by reason of this obscurity, how imper- fectly the proof-reader corrects the misunderstand- ings of the compositor, and could foresee the added expense of the alterations and overrunnings that have been caused by hasty writing, but that will have to be made, and that the author will have to pay for— he would not regret the delay or question the economy of type-written copy. The author's work does not end with his revision of copy. He should read proof, and proof-reading will require much more of time and c^re than he in- tended to give. He is sure to find words awkwardly divided, and the subheadings, foot-notes, extracts, tables, and illustrations contrary to the plan of the copy and in unexpected positions. His reference- mark to a foot-note in the manuscript, or his line of The grievance of had writing 343 subheading, may fall on tlie last line of the page of print, where it cannot be put. His indivisible table of figures or engraved illustration may have been placed in the proof, and unavoidably so placed, too far from the explanatory text. He sees that it is not always possible for the printer to follow copy unthinkingly. The types are tyrannous; pages must be of uniform length and width, and words or lines must be made longer or shorter to adapt them to type and page. The maker-up and proof- reader are usually intelligent helpers and discreet advisers to this end, but they cannot rearrange the composition without fresh instruction from the author. If he expects an orderly book, he must cut out or add words to prevent the bad division of a proper name ; he must add or cancel lines before or after a table or an illustration that may stand in the way of a proper make-up. This is drudgery, but it is not to be avoided. It cannot be done by the printer ; it must be done by the author. Bad writing is a very old grievance of printing, but complaint has not led to any improvement, for its practice is as common as ever. Faults found with speech that is hard to understand are seldom applied to letters that are hard to read. We are used to bad writing in correspondence, in the bills of tradesmen, in the receipts of expressmen, in the prescriptions of physicians, and we have to tol- erate it. The haste with which we require some work to be done seems to compel careless writing. 344 Machines must have readable copy The good penman fresh from school who goes into a counting-room is urged to be quick and quicker, and he soon falls into the bad habits of forming letters indistinctly, of making signs and abbrevia- tions. The journalist who works against time is unable to make entirely legible upon the paper the thoughts that crowd too fast for proper expres- sion. There always have been and always will be bad writers, and the compositor must accept some bad copy as one of the conditions of the printing trade against which it seems useless to protest. Yet there is a limit to forbearance. Bad writing and badly arranged copy have to be declined on the type-setting machine. A machine made to quicken tj^pe-setting is of no benefit to any one if the operator has to pause on every line to decipher obscure words. It is not for the tedious disentangling of written puzzles that the master printer pays thirty-four hundred dollars for a new machine and from three and a half to five dollars a day to the operator. The master printer has to insist on copy, preferably type-written, that can be read as quickly as reprint. The writer who care- lessly prepares unreadable copy should not expect to share in any of the advantages that should be had from the use of a quick machine which has been made inefficient by his neglect. XVIII EREORS OF THE PRESS ERRORS of the press is a convenient phrase, for it carries with it a vague notion that there is in the methods or machinery of printing a perverse tendency to the making of mistakes which are due more to the process than to the man. What is meant by the press is not clear: it seems to be a factor apart from the man, for it is seldom any helper of the press confesses that "the mistake is mine." The impression is pro- duced that the complex organization known as the press, which may need a dozen intelligent helpers between the author and the bookbinder, and many unintelligent contributors from the types to the printing-machines, has acquired some measure of independent activity through combination, permit- ting it to wander away in a forbidden path which 315 346 Boas tf Illness of the early printers could not be foreseen or prevented. That no one should be held responsible for some forms of mis- print (another convenient phrase) is a comfortable doctrine for the authors, compositors, and proof- readers who work with haste and negligence, for the press is inanimate and cannot respond. The silent are always wrong. Another belief has been fostered in the mind of the reader: that printing in its early days was done much better than it is now ; that books were printed more accurately when the methods and machinery of the art were simpler, when printers and publishers were men of high scholarship and had more intimate intercourse with the literati of their time. This belief has no good, basis. The demigods of typography are like the demigods of so-called history: the greatest are those who are at the greatest distance. Not much research is needed to show that demigods of all kinds do not belong to history but to fiction, and that errors of the press were, to say the least, quite as common in the early days of typography as they are now. With a few exceptions, the early printers were foolishly boastful. They bragged of the superior beauty of their types and the greater accuracy of their texts. Gutenberg, first and best of all, seems to have been the only one who refused to magnify himself. Printing had been practised less than twenty years when Peter Schoeffer, the surviving member of the triumvirate who developed the art, Errata common in early editions 347 in his edition of the Institutes of Justinian of 1468, reminded his readers that he paid great sums to the wise men who corrected his texts, but he adds that there were even then rival printers who did not take proper precautions against errors of the press. It may be assumed that Gabriel Petrus of Venice was one of the growing number of negli- gent printers, for he published a book in 1478 with two pages of errata. Before the fifteenth century closed, lists of errata were frequent. Sometimes errors were so numerous that the faulty book had to be reprinted. Robert Gaguin of Paris was so disgusted with the mistakes made by a printer of that city in an edition of French legends (1497) that he ordered a second edition from a printer of Lyons, but the change of printer was not happy : the reprinted book was as faulty as the first. Cardinal Bellarmine of Rome had a provoking experience in 1581. He cancelled the first edition of his book printed at Rome, and sent an amended copy to a printer of Venice, hoping to get abso- lutely perfect work, but the new edition was also fuU of errors. A book of Picus Mirandola, printed at Strasburg in 1507, in the real cradle of typography, contains fifteen pages of errata. The fullest list of errata known is that of a book called The Andtomij of the Mass, printed in 1561. This book of one hundred and seventy-two pages is followed by errata covering fifteen pages. In 348 Errors in early editions of the Bible apology, the writer says the errors were caused by the malice of the devil, who had allowed the manu- script to be drenched with water and made almost illegible before it was placed in the hands of the printers. Not content with this, the devil insti- gated the printers to commit a surprising number of inexcusable blunders. Books of authority and reference made in the six- teenth century were quite as full of errors as more unpretentious work. Joseph Scaliger said that he would frequently make a bet that he could find an error on any chance-selected page of the Greeh Lexicon of Robert Constantine, and that he always won the bet. Chevillier adds that Constantine was responsible for as many errors as the printer. In his Memoirs, Baron de Grimm tells of a French author who died in a spasm of anger after he had detected more than three hundred typographical errors in a newly printed copy of his work. The Bible, as a bulky and frequently reprinted book, presents exceptional opportunity for error. An edition of the Vulgate printed in 1590, and said to have been made under the supervision of Pope Sixtus V, has the unenviable distinction of being full of misprints. Barker's edition qt the Bible, printed at London in 1632, and notorious in the trade as the Wicked Bible, gives this rendering of the seventh commandment : Thou shalt commit adultery. For this error, undoubtedly made by a malicious compositor, the printer was fined three Printing was supervised hy censors 349 thousand pounds, and all obtainable copies of the edition were destroyed.^ To prevent error, Parlia- ment forbade all unauthorized printing of the Bible. It was the same spirit of mischief-making that prompted a woman in Germany to steal into her husband's printing-house by night and make an alteration in type that was ready for the press by changing the German word Herr to Narr, thereby perverting the passage in Genesis iii, 16, from '^he shall be thy lord" to ''he shall be thy fool." The story goes that she had to atone for this silly joke with her life. Errors of the press were and are not confined to any nation. Erasmus said that the books printed in Italy were, without exception, full of faults, due largely to the parsimony of publishers who would not pay a proper price for the supervision of the copy. Books were so incorrectly printed in Spain during the sixteenth century that the authorities refused to license their publication before they had been approved by a censor appointed for the duty. He required that aU faults noted by him should be corrected in an appended list of errata. Chevillier says that the printers of Geneva during the sixteenth century used execrable paper and iSometiines errata have been ter's dog." Before the book was purposely made to gratify per- published, Scarron quarrelled sonal malignity. Paul Scarron, with his sister, and ordered this the French poet and writer of erratum to be added: "Make burlesques, wrote a book of po- * Guillemette, my sister's dog ' ems in which were verses dedi- read ' Guillemette, my dog of a cated to "Guillemette, my sis- sister.'" 350 The judgment of early critics made the texts of their books intolerably incorrect. Even the famous Christopher Plantin of Antwerp was not beyond all reproach. One of his eulogists has to admit sorrowfully that he found in Plantin's enormous Polyglot Bible many errors of paging which his scholarly proof-readers had overlooked. The apology of John Froben of Basle for his errata is really pathetic : " I do everything I can to produce correct editions. In this edition of the New Testament in Greek I have doubled my care and my vigilance ; I have spared neither time nor money. I have engaged with difficulty many cor- rectors of the highest ability, among them John Oecolampadius, a professor of three languages. Erasmus himself has done his best to help me." This book was in press for a year, but after all this care it had errata of one and a half pages. Erasmus himself charged one of the workmen of Froben with intended malice in perverting (in another book) his tribute of admiration to Queen Elizabeth of Hungary to a passage of unmention- able obscenity. He declared that he would have given three hundred crowns in gold to have pre- vented the scandalous error. Examples enough have been presenj^ed to show that errors are not always detected by educated printers or by scholarly correctors, but the sum- ming up may be left to earlier writers. Chevillier, writing in 1694, quotes many authors and printers in support of his proposition that a book without Examples of gross modern blunders 351 an error is impossible/ and that early books do not deserve the reputation they have had for superior accui'acy. Prosper Marchand, writing in 1738, says that reader is deceived who thinks that old books are more correct than new books ; on the contrary, they are much more inaccurate. Errors of the press often begin with errors of reporters who have misunderstood spoken words. The rule of follow copy compels the compositor to repeat the exact words written by the reporter, and the following blunders are the result of obedience to this rule. A speaker made this statement : In these days clergymen are expected to have the wisdom and learning of Jeremy Taylor. But the reporter wrote, and the compositor repeated : . . . the wisdom and learning of a journeyman tailor. Another speaker quoted these lines : come, thou goddess fair and free, In heaven yclept Euphrosyne. They were printed as written : come, thou goddess fair and free, In heaven she crept and froze her knee. Another orator quoted this line from Tennyson's Locksley Hall : Better fifty years of Europe than a cycle of Cathay. 1 Whoever thinks a faultless piece to see, Thinks what ne'er was, nor is, nor e'er shall he. Pope. 352 Examples of gross modern hkmders But the quotation was written and printed : Better fifty years of Europe than a circus in Bombay. One of the worst perversions of a hackneyed quo- tation (incorrectly given by the speaker) is this, which seems to be the joint work of the zealous reporter and the equally reckless printer : Amicus Plato, amicus Socrates, sed major Veritas. I may cuss Plato, I may cuss Socrates, said Major Veritas. Here are other illustrations of the great danger of following the sound regardless of the sense : Those lovely eyes bedimmed. Those lovely eyes be damned. Behold the martyr in a sheet of fire ! Behold the martyr in a shirt on fire ! This battle-scarred veteran. This battle-scared veteran.^ A congressman advocated grants of public lands, not to railroad corporations, but to '' actual settlers." The tired translator of the telegraphic report of the speech construed the last words as "cattle stealers." An editor closed his leader concerning some mu- nicipal abuse that he wished to reform with the quoted Latin lament, o temporal o mores! which the compositor transformed to " temperance ! O Moses ! " and it was so printed. A reporter of a trial tried to write that " the jury 1 Pendleton, Newspaper Reporting, pp. 172-183. Examples of gross modern blunders 353 disagreed and were discharged/' but he wrote indis- tinctly, and the compositor construed the writing into " the jury disappeared and were disgraced." A petitioner appealed to a legislature as '' indi- viduals " as well as lawmakers. He wrote illegibly, and the clerk read '^ Indian devils " instead of indi- viduals, much to the indignation of the assembly. Drew 1 attributes these blunders to bad writing : The book Typographical Antiquities was cited as Typographical Ambiguities. In testimony concerning a compound microscope the witness said that its efficiency would vary with the power of the " eye-piece " employed. Eye-piece was too carelessly written, and the compositor ren- dered it as lye-juice. At a public dinner this toast was offered to the President, '' May he live to a green old age." But it was printed, " May he live to a grim old age." The last words of the poorly written sentence, "Alone and isolated, man would become impotent and perish," were not understood by the compositor, and they were printed as " impatient and peevish." A bloody battle was so described in a newspaper : It was fearful to see. The men fell in ranks and marched in pantaloons to their final account. It is probable that the compositor did not know the word platoon, and thought it proper to make 1 Pens and Types, pp. 16-24. 354 Why compositors cannot correct this foolish correction. It must have been a raw compositor of this class who set Dogs of the Seine for Days of the League, and parboiled sceptic for purblind sceptic. ^ These wild guesses at the mean- ing of the writer had to be hazarded when writing was indistinct. Many pages could be filled with illustrations of similar blunders— some silly or unmeaning, others frightful or blasphemous— but in most instances it is evident that the blunders were the outcome of careless or illegible writing. The compositor who is told to follow copy learns to do so mechani- cally, even if his rendering does not '^ make sense." A critical reader may ask why the master printer does not employ compositors of more intelligence who can correctly divine an obscure word after their reading of the context. This expedient is impracticable. Publishers decided long ago that the composition of books is so largely mechanical that it can be done well enough (after its correc- tion by a reader) by men of limited experience and ability, or even by boys or girls. The pay offered is small; the piece-compositor on book- work does not earn, even at the prices authorized by the trade- unions, as much as journeymen mechanics in other trades. Expert compositors refuse to do the piece- work of books ; they seek and find steady employ- ment at fixed wages by the week on job-work or as operators of type-setting machines. It follows that book composition by hand has to be done by Errors sometimes passed hy readers 355 young men and women of limited experience, or by elderly persons who have outgrown all desire to improve the quality of their workmanship or to qualify themselves for better-paid situations. The irresponsibility of the inexpert compositor is largely increased by his consciousness that there is in the house a proof-reader whose business it is to correct all his faults. Compositors of all grades would make fewer mistakes if they had to pay a proper penalty for all wilfully slighted composition. Contrary to prophecies made some years ago, type- setting machines have proved to be aids to correct composition. The operator who makes an error in every other line, as is not uncommon in hand com- position, is soon required to give up his machine. To be advantageous, the machine must be operated by a workman who does not average many errors to a paragraph. Even when exceeding care has been taken in the selection of able compositors and readers, there is liability to error from oversights and unforeseen accidents. Crapelet ^ tells us of the sore distress of his father in discovering the error of Pelenope for Penelope, in a treatise which he had carefully read three times with intent to make it in all points a faultless book. He had read it too often ; he did not have the assistance of a second reader ; and his memory failed when most needed. Even the care- ful reader may pass unobserved the transposition of 1 [Etudes pratiques et litt^raires sur la typographie, p. 233. 356 Errors made in correcting letters or syllables in a proper name. Looking too intently on one object does not always make that object more distinct ; it may produce a temporary obscurity. Proof read and corrected too often by one reader only may have errors in the last proof that did not exist in the first. A page of the ordinary book consists of at least one thousand and sometimes of five thousand dis- tinct pieces of metal. The omission or the trans- position of any one makes a fault which may be serious. Printing-house rules for meddling with type are not sufficiently stringent. No one should be allowed to touch type but the workman in whose charge it is placed. Picking up a type out of a case or the lifting of a line on galley or in a form by a curiosity-seeker should be regarded as a real offence. Gross errors can be easily made in the transposition of letters and lines by unthinking persons who mean to do no mischief. Errors are frequently made by the compositor who corrects a proof : in trying to correct one error he may make another, or he may damage adjacent letters. Whenever he makes any change in type that has not been marked on the proof, he should take another proof and draw a lar^e ring with lead-pencil around the place of change, and the proof-reader should re-read the entire paragraph by copy as if it were new composition. A similar marking should be made by the electrotyper or the pressni:in who has braised letters in a plate, so that Errors due to obscure alterations 357 the proof shall be read again carefully by the office reader. Some provoking errors are unintention- ally made by workmen who think that the formal re-reading of the lines in which the battered let- ters have been changed is a waste of time. The renewal of the solid lines of linotype com- position calls for great vigilance from the reviser. When the fifth faulty line of a paragraph has been reset by the operator, the corrected line may not be put in its proper place. Some meddler may have pushed other lines up or down. It may be inserted in the gap so made and appear in print as the fourth, or the seventh line. To prevent this error the para- graph should be formally re-read. When haste does not warrant a re-reading by copy, the proof that has the fault marked should be carefully folded through the centre and one half of it lapped over the new proof, so that their proper connection will be visible at a glance. Authors who correct the final proof with a lead- pencil provoke the making of new errors. They note an error in phrasing and write down the cor- rection. After re-reading this correction they see that it does not fully convey the meaning intended. The first pencil markings are rubbed out and other words take their place. Sometimes two or three alterations have to be made, and all are written over markings previously made. Repeated rubbing out makes the writing illegible and liable to perver- sion. Sometimes an addition is made to a singular 23 358 A real error of the press nominative which should compel the selection of a plural form of verb or pronoun in the words that precede or follow, but the plural forms may be and often are overlooked. When the press is kept waiting for this final proof, it is possible that the errors corrected will be those only that are marked in the proof. It follows that the author as well as the printer has to suffer the stigma of an inexcus- able violation of plain grammatical rules.^ 1 Here is the story of an error not made by a compositor or reader, pressman or mischief- maker. An author, intent on having an immaculate book, and not content with the official reading of the printing-house, had the last proof revised by another expert reader, vsrho cer- tified that the last reading was without fault. The book was printed, bound, and distributed, and bragged of as a book with- out an error. A year after pub- lication the author, in making a cursory reexamination of the work, discovered this phrase, "his too nasty steps." Filled with anger and alarm, he went to the printing-house and de- manded the reason why this shocking alteration had been made. The last proof was found and it plainly showed that the phrase was "his too hasty steps." It was clear that a change had been made after the final read- ing, and possibly in the electro- type plate. The plate was sent for, and, when closely examined under a magnifying-glass, re- vealed the origin of the error. The solder which fastened the copper shell to the lead base had a minute air-bubble under the top of this letter h, which was unseen and unsuspected by the electrotyper. Some copies of the book (how many could not be ascertained) showed this letter h accurately, but after several perfect copies had been printed, a knot in the paper or a grain of sand or plaster had fallen over the top of this letter h, and had crushed or depressed it in the hollow air-bubble be- low, practically changing it to the letter n. This depression of the letter h was too small a fault to be noticed by the pressman, who could give but a glance at the sheets when the press was printing apparently faultless copies at the rate of fifteen in a minute. APPENDIX Comparative list of variations in spelling compiled from the American dictionaries known as the Century^ Standard, Webster^s International^ and Worcester; and the English dictionaries hiown as StormontWs, the Imperial, and the N'ew English Dictionary on Historical Principles, oftener called the Oxford. The hyphens in words under the heading of Divisions indicate the divisions that are generally acceptable. In most of them, the mark ' which shows the emphasized syllable may be accepted as a substitute for the hyphen, and a proper place for the division of a word ; but it should not be taken as authorizing divisions like ban- dan'a or i'dol-ize when it sets apart a syllable of one letter. For the same reason, the hyphen is omitted and a space is inserted in words hke ar'mor y. Divisions on two letters, and sometimes on one letter, are grudgingly permitted in very narrow measures only. British usage with regard to words ending in -ize is undergoing change. Stormonth prefers -ise, but in tlie new Oxford dictionary Dr. Murray says that, whatever the element to which it is added, "-ize is in its origin the Greek 'i^siv, Latin -izare ; and as the pronunciation is also with z, there is no reason why in Enghsh the special French spelling [-iser] should be followed in opposition to that which is at once etymological and phonetic." A complete list of participles has been found impossible in the restricted space, but the system of par- ticipial formation adopted by each dictionary has been fairly indicated. 362 Comparative list of variable spellings Century abridgment acclimatize accoutre accoutred accoutring accoutrement acknowledgment aggrandize agistor agrarianize aide-de-camp alkalize aluminium amortize amphitheater anabaptize analyze anathematize anatomize anemia anemic anesthetic anesthetize animalize antagonize apodictic apologize apostatize apostem appal arbor ardor Standard abridgment acclimatize accouter accoutered accoutering accouterment acknowledgment aggrandize agistor agrarianize aide-de-camp alkalize aluminum amortize amphitheater anabaptize analyze anathematize anatomize anemia anemic anesthetic anesthetize animalize antagonize apodictic apologize apostatize apostem appal arbor ardor » A spelling more in Webster abridgment acclimatize accouter accoutered accoutering accouterment ackn o wledgment aggrandize agister agrarianize aid-de-camp alkahze aluminium amortize Worcester abridgment acclimatize accoutre accoutred accoutring accoutrement acknowledgment aggrandize agistor agrarianize aide-de-camp alkalize aluminium amortise amphitheater amphitheatre anabaptize anabaptize analyze anathematize anatomize anaemia anaemic ansesthetic anaesthetize animalize antagonize apodeictic apologize apostatize aposteme appall arbor ardor analyze anathematize anatomize anaemia anaemic anaesthetic anaesthetize animalize antagonize apodictic apologize apostatize aposteme appall arbor ardor accordance with English Comparative list of variable spellings 363 Stormonth abridgment acclimatise accoutre accoutred accoutring accoutrement acknowledgment aggrandise agistor agrarianise aide-de-camp alkalise aluminum amortise amphitheatre anabaptise analyse anathematise anatomise anaemia anaemic anaesthetic anaesthetise animalise antagonise apodictic apologise apostatise aposteme appal arbour ardour Imperial abridgment acclimatize accoutre accoutred accoutring accoutrement acknowledgment aggrandize agister agrarianize aide-de-camp alkalize aluminium amortize amphitheatre anabaptize analyse anathematize anatomize anaemia anaemic anaesthetic anaesthetize animaUze antagonize apodeictic apologize apostatize aposteme appal arbour ardour values of letters. Oxford Divisions abridgement^ a bridg'ment acclimatize accoutre accoutred accoutring accoutrement ac-cli'ma-tize ac-cou'tre ac-cou'tred ac-cou'tring ac-cou'tre-ment acknowledgement^ ac-know'ledg-ment aggrandize ag'gran-dize agistor agrarianize aide-de-camp alkalize aluminium amortize a gist'or a gi*a'ri-an-ize al'ka-lize al-u-min'i-um a mor'tize amphitheatre am-phi-the'a-ter anabaptize an-a-bap-tize' an'a-lyze a nath'e-ma-tize a nat'o-mize a ne'mi a a nem'ic an-es-thet'ic an-es'the-tize an'i-mal-ize an-tag'o-nize ap-o-dic'tic a pol'o-gize a pos'ta-tize ap'o-stem ap-pal' ar'bor ar'dor analyse anathematize anatomize anaemia anaemic anaesthetic anaesthetize animalize antagonize apodictic apologize apostatize apostem appal arbour ardour Neiv English Dictionary. 364 Comparative list of variable spellings Century Standard Webster Wwcester armor armor armor armor armory armory armory armory asafetida asafetida asafetida assafoetida asbestos asbestos asbestus asbestos ascendancy ascendency ascendency ascendancy atropin atropin atropine atropine attitudinize attitudinize attitudinize attitudinize authorize authorize authorize authorize avoset avocet avocet avoset ax ax ax axe ay (forever) ay aye aye aye (yes) aye aye ay azotize azotize azotize azotize bakshish bakshish backsheesh biikshish bandana bandanna bandanna bandanna banian (tree) banian banyan banian bannerol banderole banderole bannerol baptize baptize baptize baptize bassinet bassinet bassinet bassinet bastardize bastardize bastardize bastardize bastile ^ bastile bastile bastile baudekin baudekin baudekin baudekin bawbee bawbee bawbee baubee beadsman beadsman beadsman beadsman behavior behavior behavior behavior belabor belabor belabor belabor beveled beveled beveled bevelled beveling beveling beveling beveUing bhang bhang bhang bang biased biased biased biassed bichlorid bichlorid bichloride bichloride For the historical prison of Paris, always Comparative list of variable spellings 365 Stormonth Imperial Oxford Divisions armour armour armour ar'mor armoury armoury armoury ar'mor y asafoetida asafetida asafoetida as-a-fet'i-da asbestos asbestos asbestos as-bes'tos ascendency ascendency ascendancy a scen'dan-cy atropine atropin atropine at'ro-pin attitudinise attitudinize attitudinize at-ti-tu'di-nize authorise authorize authorize au'thor-ize avocet avoset avocet av'o-set axe axe ax ' aye aye ay ay ay aye azotise azotize azotize az'o-tize backshish bakshish baksheesh bak'shish bandana bandana bandanna ban-dan'a banyan banyan banyan ban'ian bandrol banderole bannerol ban'ner-ol baptise baptize baptize bap-tize' bassinette bassinet bassinet bas'si-net bastardise bastardize bastardize bas'tar-dize bastile bastile bastille bas-tile' baudekyn baudekin baudekin bau'de-kin bawbee bawbee bawbee baw-bee' bedesman beads-man beadsman beads'man behaviour behaviour behaviour be-ha'vior belabour belabour belabour be-la'bor bevelled bevelled bevelled bev'el-ed bevelling bevelling bevelling bev'el-ing bangue bhang bhang biassed biassed biased bi'as-ed bichloride bichloride bichloride bi-chlo'rid capitalized and in the French form, BastUle. 366 Comparative list of variable spellings Century Standard Webster Worcester bicolored bicolored bicolored bicolored bisque bisque bisque bisque bogie (coal-wagon ) bogie bogie bogie bogy (goblin) bogy bogey bogie bombazine bombazine bombazine bombazine botanize botanize botanize botanize boulder boulder bowlder boulder Brahman Brahman Brahman Brahmin braize braize braise braise brocatel brocatel brocatel brocatel brusk brusk brusque brusque brutalize brutalize brutalize brutalize bucaneer buccaneer buccaneer buccaneer buncombe buncombe buncombe buncombe burgeon burgeon bourgeon burgeon butyrin butyrin butyrin butyrine caboshed caboched caboched caboshed cacique cacique cazique cazique cacodyl cacodyl cacodyl cacodyl cadaster cadaster cadastre cadastre caddis caddis caddice caddice caffein caffein caffeine caffeine caliber caliber caliber caliber calif calif caliph caliph califate califate caliphate caliphate calligraphy calligraphy calligraphy calligi-aphy callisthenics callisthenics calisthenics cahsthenics cancelation cancelation cancellation cancellation canceler canceler canceler canceller candor candor candor candor cantaliver cantilever cantalever cantilever Comparative list of variable spellings 367 Stormonth Imperial Oxford Divisions bicoloured bicoloured bicoloured bi'col-or-ed bisk bisque bisque bogey bogie bogie bo'gie bogy bogey bogy bo'gy bombasine bombasin bombasine bom-ba-zine' botanise botanize botanize bot'a-nize boulder boulder boulder boul'der Brahman Brahman Brahmin Brah'man braise braise braise brocatel brocatelle broc'a-tel brusque brusk brusque brutalise brutalize brutalize bru'tal-ize buccaneer bucaneer buccaneer buc-a-neer' bunkum bunkum buncombe bun'combe bourgeon bourgeon burgeon bur'geon butyrin butyrin butyrin bu'ty-rin caboched caboched caboched ca-bosh'ed cazique cazique cacique ca-cique' cacodyle kakodyle cacodyl cac'o-dyl cadaster cadastre cadastre ca-das'ter caddis caddice caddis cad'dis caffeine caffeine caffeine caf'fe-in calibre calibre calibre cal'i-ber caliph calif caliph ca'lif caliphate califate caliphate ca'lif-ate caligraphy calligraphy calligraphy cal-lig'ra-phy calisthenics callisthenics callisthenics cal-lis-then'ics cancellation cancellation cancellation can-cel-a'tion canceller canceller canceller can'cel-er candour candour candour can'dor cantalever cantaHver cantilever can'ta-Hv-er 3(38 Comparative list of variable spellings Century Standard Webster Worcester cantillate cantillate cantillate cantilate cantrip cantrip cantrap cantrap capercaillie capercailzie capercailzie capercailzie carbonade carbonado carbonado carbonado caroled caroled caroled carolled cartouche cartouch cartouch cartouch casein casein casein caseine cassava cassava cassava cassava catechize catechize catechise catechise causeway causeway causeway causey cauterize cauterize cauterize cauterize cavezon cavesson cavesson cavesson ca viler caviler caviler caviller celiac celiac coeliac coeliac center center center centre centigram centigram centigram centigramme centiped centiped centiped centiped centralize centralize centraHze centralize cerosin cerosin cerosin cerosine cesura cesura caesura caesura channeled channeled channeled channelled characterize characterize characterize characterize chartographer chartographer cartographer cartographer clietah chetah cheetah clieeta chiaroscuro chiaroscuro chiaroscuro cliiaro-oscuro chlorid chlorid chloride ^ chloride chlorin chlorin chlorine chlorine chlorophyl chlorophyl chlorophyll chlorophyl cithern cithern cittern cittern clamor clamor clamor clamor clangor clangor clangor clangor clarinet clarinet clarinet clarinet Comparative list of variable spellings 369 Stormonth Imperial Oxford Divisions cantillate cantillate cantillate can'til-late cantrip cantrip cantrip can 'trip capercailzie capercailzie capercailye ca-per-cail'lie carbonado carbonade carbonado car-bo-nade' carolled carolled caroled car'ol-ed cartouch cartouch cartouche car-touche' caseine casein casein ca'se-in casava cassava cassava cas-sa'va catechise catechise catechize cat'e-chize causeway causeway causeway cause'way cauterise cauterize cauterize cau'ter-ize cavesson cavezon cavesson cav'e-zon caviller caviller caviller cav'il-er coeliac coeliac coeliac ce'li-ac centre centre centre cen'ter centigramme centigramme centigramme cen'ti-gram centipede centiped centipede cen'ti-ped centralise centralize centralize cen'tral-ize cerosine cerosin cerosin ce-ro'sin caesura caesura caesura ee-su'ra channeled channelled channelled chan'nel-ed characterise characterize characterize char'ac-ter-ize chartographei ' chartographer ' cartographer char-tog'ra-pher cheetah chetah cheetah che'tah chiaro-oscuro chiaroscuro chiaroscuro chia-ros-cu'ro chloride chloride chloride chlo'rid chlorine chlorine chlorine chlo'rin chlorophyll chlorophyll chlorophyll chlo'ro-phyl cithern cittern cithern cith'ern clamour clamour clamour clam'or clangour clangour clangor clan'gor clarionet clarinet clarinet clar'i-net 370 Comparative list of variable spellings Century Standard Webster Worcester clearstory clearstory clearstory clear-story clue clue clew clew cognizance cognizance cognizance cognizance cognizant cognizant cognizant cognizant colonize colonize colonize colonize color color color color complin complin compline compline coolie coolie cooly cooly coraled coraled coraled coralled corbeled corbeled corbeled corbelled corbeling corbeling corbeling corbelling corbie corbie corbie corby coryphaeus corypheus corypheus corypheus cotillion cotillion cotillon cotillon councilor councilor councilor councillor counselor counselor counselor counsellor courtezan courtezan courtesan courtesan cozy cozy cozy cosey rjrenelate crenelate crenelate crenellate creosote creosote creosote creosote criticize criticize criticise criticise erozier erozier crosier crosier crystallize crystallize crystallize crystallize Curasao curaTize martyrize martjTize martyrize marvelous marvelous marvelous marvellous materialize materialize materialize materialize mau§:i"e maugre manger maugre meager meager meager meagre medalist medalist medalist medallist mediatize mediatize mediatize mediatize medieval medieval mediaeval mediaeval medievalize medievalize media3valize mediaevalize memorize memorize memorize memorize mercurialize mercurialize mercurialize mercurialize metaled metaled metaled metalled metaling metaling metaling metalling metallize metalize metallize metallize meter meter meter metre methodize methodize methodize methodize millionaire millionaire millionaire millionnaire millionize milhonize millionize milhonize mineralize mineralize mineralize mineralize minimize minimize minimize minimize miter miter miter mitre mobilize mobilize mobilize mobilize modeled modeled modeled modehed modeler modeler modeler modeller modeling- modeling modeling modelling mold mold mold mould molt molt molt moult monetize monetize monetize monetize monopolize monopolize monopolize monopolize moralize moralize moralize moralize mortalize mortalize mortalize mortalize mustache mustache mustache nnistaclie Comparative list of variable spellings 393 Stormonth martyrise marvellous materialise maugre meagre medallist mediatise mediaeval mediaevalise memorise mercurialise metalled metalling metallise metre methodise millionaire millionise mineralise minimise mitre mobilise modelled modeller modelling mould moult monetise monopolise moralise mortalise moustache Imperial martyrize marvellous materialize maugre meagre medallist mediatize mediaeval mediaevalize memorize mercurialize metalled metalling metallize metre methodize millionaire millionize mineralize minimize mitre mobilise modelled modeller modelling mould moult monetize monopolize moralize mortalize moustache Oxford martyrize marvellous materialize maugre meagre medallist mediatize mediaeval medisevalize memorize mercurialize metalled metalling metallize metre methodize millionaire millionize mineralize minimize mitre mobilize modelled modeller modelling mould moult monetize monopolize moralize mortalize moustache Divisions mar'tyr-ize mar'vel-ous ma-te'ri-al-ize mau'gre mea'ger med'al-ist me'di-a-tize me-di-e'val me-di-e'val-ize mem'o-rize mer-cu'ri-al-ize met'al-ed met'al-ing met'al-lize me'ter meth'od-ize mil-lion-aire' million-ize min'er-al-ize min'i-mize mi'ter mo'bil-ize mod'el-ed mod'el-er mod'el-ing mon'e-tize mo-nop'o-lize mor'al-ize mor'tal-ize mus-tache' 394 Comparative list of variahle spellings Century iiiytholog'ize mythopeic iiaplitbalene iiaplitlialize narcotize narghile nasalize natlieless nathemore nationalize naturalize nebulize nectarize neighbor Nemean neologize nephelin neutralize nilgau niter nitery nitrogenize nitroglycerin nomadize noniinalize normalize novelize nozle nuncheon Standard mythologize mythopeic naphthalene naphthalize narcotize narghile nasalize nathless nathmore nationalize naturalize nebulize nectarize neighbor Nemean neologize nepheline neutralize nilgau niter nitery nitrogenize nitroglycerin nomadize noniinalize normalize novelize nozle nuncheon Webster mythologize mythopceic naphthalene naphthalize narcotize nargile nasalize nathless nathmore nationalize naturalize nebulize nectarize neighbor Nemean neologize nepheline neutralize nylghau niter nitry nitrogenize nitroglycerin nomadize noniinalize normalize novelize nozzle nunchion Worcester mythologize mythopoeic naphthaline naphthalize narcotize nargile nasalize nathless nathmore nationalize naturalize nebuhze nectarize neighbor Nemean neologize nepheline neutralize nylghau nitre nitry nitrogenize nitroglycerine nomadize noniinalize normalize novelize nozle nunchion ob))ligato obbligato obbligato obbligato Comparative list of variable spellings 395 Stor month mythologise mythopoeic naphthaline naphthaUse narcotise nargile nasahse nathless nathemore nationaUse naturahse nebuhse nectarise neighbour Nemsean neologise nepheline neutralise nylgau nitre nitry nitrogenise nitro-glycerin nomadise nominalise normalise novelise nozzle nuncheon Imperial mythologize mythopoeic naphthalene naphthalize narcotize narghile nasalize nathless nathmore nationalize naturalize nebulize nectarize neighbour Nemean neologize nephelin neutralize nylghau nitre nitry nitrogenize iiitro-glycerine nomadize nominalize normalize novelize nozzle nuncheon Oxford mythologize mythopoeic naphthaline naphthalize narcotize narghile nasalize natheless nathemore nationalize naturalize nebulize nectarize neighbour Nemean neologize nepheline neutralize nylghau nitre nitry nitrogenize nitroglycerine nomadize nominalize normalize novelize nozzle nuncheon Divisions my-thol'o-gize myth-o-pe'ic naph'tha-lene naph'tha-lize nar'co-tize nar'ghi-le na'sal-ize na'the-less' na'the-more' na'tion-al-ize nat'u-ral-ize neb'u-lize nec'tar-ize neigh'bor Ne-me'an ne-oFo-gize neph'e-lin neu'tral-ize nil'gau ni'ter ni'ter-y ni'tro-gen-ize ni-tro-gly'cer-iu nom'ad-ize nom'i-nal-ize nor'mal-ize nov'el-ize nozle nun'cheon obligato obbligato obbligato ob-bli-ga'to 396 Comparative list of variahle spellings Century Standard Webster Worcester obelize obelize obehze obelize obi (fetish) obi obi obeah ocher ocher ocher ochre ochery ochery ochery ochrey octastyle octastyle octostyle octostyle odalisk odalisk odalisque odalisk odeum odeon odeon odeon odize odize odize odize odor odor odor odor offense offense offense offence olivil olivil olivil olivile olivin olivin olivin olivine ombre omber omber ombre omelet omelet omelet omelet opalize opalize opalize opalize orang-utan orang-utan orang-outang orang-outang oratorize oratorize oratorize oratorize orcin orcin orcin orcine organize organize organize organize orientalize Orientalize orientalize orientalize oriflamme oriflamme oriflamb oriflamb orillion orillon orillon orillon orpharion orpharion orpharion orpharion orpine orpin orpin orpine orthographize orthographize > orthographize ! orthogi'aphize orthopaedic orthopedic orthopedic orthopedic ostracean ostracean ostracean ^ ostracean ostracize ostracize ostracize ostracize ouzel ouzel ousel ouzel overpassed overpassed overpassed overpast oxid oxid oxide oxide oxidize oxidize oxidize oxidize Comparative list of variahle spellings 397 Stormonth Imperial Oxford Divisions obelise obelize obelize ob'e-lize obeah obeah obeah ochre ochre ochre ochrey ochrey ochry octastyle octastyle octastyle oc'ta-style odalisque odalisk odalisque o'da-lisk odeon odeon odeum o-de'um odise odize odize odour odour odour offence offence offence of-fense' olivile olivil olivil ol'i-vil olivine olivin olivine ol'i-vin ombre ombre ombre om'bre omelette omelet omelet om'e-let opalise opalize opalize o'pal-ize orang-outang orang-outang orang-utan o-rang'u-tan oratorise oratorize oratorize or'a-tor-ize orcin orcine orcin or'cin organise organize organize or'gan-ize orientalise orientalize orientalize o-ri-en'tal-ize oriflamme oriflamme oriflamme or'i-flamme orillon orillon orillion o-ririion orpharion orpharion or-pha'ri-on orpin orpin orpine or'pine orthographise orthographize ) orthographize or-thog'ra-phize orthopaedic orthopaedic or-tho-pae'dic ostraceous ostracean ostracean os-tra'ce-an ostracise ostracize ostracize os'tra-cize ouzel ousel ouzel ou'zel overpassed overpassed o-ver-pass'ed oxide oxide oxide ox' id oxidise oxidize oxidize ox'i-dize 398 Comparative list of variable spellings Century Standard Webster Worcester oxyj2:enize oxygenize oxygenize oxygenize ozocerite ozocerite ozocerite ozocerite ozonize ozonize ozonize ozonize paganize paganize paganize paganize l)ale()gTapliy paleography paleography paleography paleontology paleontology paleontology paleontology Paleozoic Paleozoic Paleozoic Palaeozoic palestra palestra palestra palaestra pamperize pamperize pamperize X)amperize panada panada panada panado pandoor pandour pandour pandoor panegyrize panegyrize panegyrize panegyi-ize paneled paneled paneled panelled paneling paneling paneling panelling papalize papalize papalize papalize papier-mache papier-mache papier-mache papier-mache papoose papoose papoose pappoose paradigmatize paradigmatize paradigmatize paradigmatize paraffin paraffin paraffin paraffine paralipsis paraleipsis paraleipsis paraleipsis paralogize paralogize paralogize paralogize paralyze paralyze paralyze paralyze paravant paravant paravant paravaunt parceled parceled parceled parcelled parceling parceling parceling parcelling parlor parlor parlor parlor parochialize parochialize parochialize parochialize parrakeet parrakeet parrakeet parcxjuet partialize l)Mrtialize partialize partiahze participializc participializc particij)ialize participialize particulariz(3 particularize particularize particularize Comparative list of variahle spellings 399 Stormonth Imperial Oxford Divisions oxyg-enise oxygenize oxygenize ox'y-gen-ize ozokerite ozocerite ozocerite o-zo-ce'rite ozonise ozonize ozonize o'zo-nize paganise paganize paganize pa'gan-ize palaeography palaeography palaeography pa-le-og'ra-phy palaeontology palaeontology palaeontology pa-le-on-tol'o-gy Palaeozoic Palaeozoic Paloiiana prothalamion protoxide proverbialize Comparative list of variable spellings 405 Stormonth pommelled popularise porcelainised poreellanite porphyrise practise, v. premunire praam pratique praecipe pre-eminence pre-emption pre-engage pre-establish pre-exist premiss pretence preterite praetor primogenial prodigalise programme proletariat pronunciamiento propretor proselytise prosopopoeia protlialamium protoxide proverbialise 26 Imperial pommelled popularize porcelainized poreellanite porphyrize postiller practise, v. praemunire pram pratique praecipe pre-eminence pre-emption pre-engage pre-establish pre-exist premise pretence preterit praetor primigenial prodigaUze programme proletariat prologizer pronunciamiento propraetor proselytize prosopopeia protlialamium protoxide proverbiahze Oxford pommelled popularize porcelainized poreellanite porphyrize postiller practise, v. praemunire pram pratique praecipe pre-eminence pre-emption pre-engage pre-establish pre-exist premise pretence preterite praetor primigenial prodigalize program proletariate prologuizer pronunciamento proprietor proselytize prosopopoeia prothalamion protoxide proverbiahze Divisions pom'mel-ed pop'u-lar-ize porce'lain-ized por'ce-lan-ite por'phy-rize pos'til-er prac'tise prae-mu-ni're prat'ique pre'ci-pe pre-em'i-uence pre-emp'tion pre-en-gage' pre-es-tab'hsh pre-ex-ist' premise pre-tense' pret'er-it pre 'tor pri-mi-ge'ni-al prod'i-gal-ize pro'gTam pro-le-ta'ri-ate pro'logu-i-zer pro-nun-ci-a-mien'to pro-pre'tor pros'e-ly-tize pro-so-po-pe'ia pro-tha-la'mi-imi pro-tox'id pro-ver'bi-al-ize 406 Comparative list of variahle spellings Century Standard WeUter Worcester prunella prunella prunella prunello psalmodize psalmodize psalmodize psalmodize pterodactyl pterodactyl pterodactyl pterodactyl ptyalin ptyalin ptyalin ptyaline pulk pulkha pulkha pulkha pulverin pulverin pulverine pulverine pulverize pulverize pulverize pulverize pupilarity pupilarity pupillarity pupillarity puritanize Puritanize puritanize puritanize purlin purlin purlin purlin purpurin purpurin purpurin purpurine putcliuk pachak pachak putchuck pyroxylin pyroxylin pyroxylin pyroxyline quadruman quadruniane quadruniane quadruniane quarreled quarreled quaiTeled quarrelled quarreling quarreling: quarreling quarrelling quatrefoil quarterfoil quarterfoil quarter-foil quercitrin quercitrin quercitrin quercitrine questor questor questor questor quinzain quinzaine quinzaine quinzaine quipu quipu quipu quipo racoon raccoon raccoon raccoon raguly ragule raguled raguled raja raja rajah rajah Rajput Rajput rajpoot Rajpoot rampallian rampallian rampallian rampallian rancor rancor rancor rancor ratan rattan rattan rattan ratany ratany rhatany rhatany rationalizt^ rationalize rationalize rationalize Comparative list of variable spellings 407 Stormonth prunella psalmodise pterodactyle ptyalin pulkha pulverin pulverise pupilarity puritanise purline purpurine putchock pyroxyliue quadrumane quarrelled quarrelling' quarter-foil quercitrine quaestor quinzaine quippa Imperial prunella psalmodize pterodactyl ptyalin pulkha pulverin pulverize pupilarity puritanize purlin purpurin putchock pyroxyline quadruman quarrelled quarrelling quatrefoil quercitrin questor quinzaine quipo Oxford prunella psalmodize pterodactyl ptyalin pulka pulverine pulverize pupillarity puritanize purlin purpurin putchuk pyroxylin! Divisions pru-nella psal'mo-dize pter-o-dac'tyl pty'a-lin pul've-rin pul've-rize pu-pi-lar'i-ty pu'ri-tan-ize pur'lin pur'pu-rin put-chuk' py-rox'y-lin quad'ru-man quar'rel-ed quar'rel-ing qua'tre-foil quer'cit-rin ques'tor quin'zain qui^pu raccoon raguled rajah rajpoot rampallion rancour ratan rhatany rationalise raguly rajah Rajput rampallian rancour rattan ratany rationalize As far as published at date of printiiu ra-coon' rag'u-ly ra'ja Raj -put' ram-pal'lian ran'cor ra-tan' rat'a-ny ra'tion-al-ize 408 Comparative list of variable spell inrjs Century Standard Webster Worcester raveled raveled raveled ravelled Raya raya rayah rayah realize realize reahze realize rebaptize rebaptize rebaptize rebaptize recognize recognize recognize recognize reconnaissance reconnaissance reconnoissance reconnoissance reeonnoiter reeonnoiter reeonnoiter reconnoitre redout redout redoubt redoubt reecho reecho reecho reecho reelect reelect reelect reelect reestablish reestablish reestablish reestablish referable referable referable referi'ible regime regime regime regime regi'ater regi-ator regrater regrator regularize regularize regularize regularize reinforce reenforce reenforce reenforce remold remold remold remould remonetize remonetize remonetize remonetize renovator renovator renovator renovater reorganize reorganize reorganize reorganize republieanize republieanize republieanize repubhcanize reremouse reremouse rearmouse rearmouse reveled reveled reveled revelled reverie reverie reverie revery revetment revetment revetment revetement revolutionize revolutionize revolutionize revolutionize reynard reynard renard reynard rhabarbarin rhabarbarin I'habarbarin rhabarbariue rhapsodize rhapsodize rhapsodize rhapsodize rheometer rheometer rheometer reometer rliopalic rhopalic rhopalic ropalic rigor rigor rigor rigor Comparative list of variable spellings 409 Stormonth Imperial ravelled ravelled rayah rayah realise realize rebaptise rebaptize recognise recognize reconnaissance reconnaissance reconnoitre reconnoitre redoubt redout re-echo re-echo re-elect re-elect re-establish re-establish referrible referrible regime regime regrator regrater regularise regularize reinforce reinforce remould remould remonetise remonetize renovater renovator reorganise reorganize republicanise republicanize reremouse rere-mouse revelled revelled reverie reverie revetment revetment revolutionise revolutionize renard renard rhabarbarin rhabarbarin rhapsodise rhapsodize rheometer rheometer ropalic rhopalic rigour rigour Oxford Divisions rav'el-ed Ra'ya re'al-ize re-bap -tize' rec'og-nize re-con' nais-sance rec-on-noi'ter re-dout' re-ech'o re-e-lect' re-es-tab'lish ref'er-a-ble re-gime' re-gra'ter reg'u-lar-ize re-in-force' re-mold' re-mon'e-tize ren'o-va-tor re-or'gan-ize re-pub'li-can-ize rere 'mouse rev'el-ed rev'e-rie re-vet'ment rev-o-lu'tion-ize rey'nard rha-bar'ba-rin rhap'so-dize rhe-om'e-ter rho-pal'ic rig'or 410 Comparative list of variable spellings Centura/ Standard Webster Worcester rime rime rhyme rhjTue ritornelle ritornelle ritornelle ritornello rivaled rivaled rivaled rivalled rivaling rivaling rivaling rivalling riveled riveled riveled rivelled rondo (music) rondo rondo rondeau rotunda rotunda rotunda rotundo rowan-tree rowan-tree rowan tree rowan-tree roweled roweled roweled rowelled roweling roweling roweling rowelling royalize royalize royalize royalize rubicel rubicel rubicelle rubicelle ruble ruble ruble ruble rumor rumor rumor rumor ruralize ruralize ruralize rurahze russeting russeting russeting russetting saber saber saber sabre sabered sabered sabered sabred sabretash sabretache sabretasche sabretache salaam salaam salam, n. salaam, v. salam salable salable salable salable saleratus saleratus saleratus saleratus salicin salicin salicin sahcine salite salite salite sahlite salmi salmi salmis salmis salmon-peal salmon-peal salmon peel salmon-peel saltier saltier saltire saltier saltpeter saltpeter saltpeter saltpetre samara samara samara samara samson-post samson Samson post Samson's-post sandaled sandaled sandaled sandalled Comparative list of variable spellings 411 Stormonth Imperial Oxford . Divisions rhyme rhyme ritornelle ritornelle ri-tor-nelle' rivalled rivalled ri'val-ed rivalling rivalling ri'val-ing rivelled rivelled riv'el-ed rondeau rondeau ron'do rotunda rotunda ro-tun'da roan-tree rowan-tree row'an-tree rowelled rowelled row'el-ed rowel ling rowelling row'el-ing royalise royalize roy'al-ize rubicelle rubicel ru'bi-cel rouble rouble ru'ble rumour rumour ru'mor ruralise rurahze ru'ral-ize russeting russeting rus'set-ing sabre sabre sa'ber sabred sabred sa'ber-ed sabretasche sabretache sa'bre-tash salam salaam sa-laam' saleable saleable sa'la-ble salseratus saleratus sal-e-ra'tus salicine salicin sal'l-cin sahlite salite sa'lite salmi salmi sal'mi salmon-peel sal'mon-peal saltier saltire sal'tier saltpetre saltpetre salt-pe'ter samar samara sa-ma'ra Samson's post ; Samson's-post sam'son-post sandalled sandalled san'dal-ed 412 Comparative list of variable spellings Century Standard Webster Worcester sanhedrim Sanhedrin Sanhedrin Sanhedrim sanjak sanjak sanjak sanjak Sanskrit Sanskrit Sanskrit Sanscrit santalin santaline santahn santaline santonin santonin santonin santonine sapajou sapajou sapajou sapajo sapodilla sapodilla sapodilla sappodilla saponin saponin saponin saponine sarlak sarlak sarlac sarlyk sarmentose sarmentose sarmentose sarmentose sarsenet sarsenet sarcenet sarcenet sassolin sassolin sassolin sassoline satirize satirize satirize satirize savanna savanna savanna savanna savior i savior savior saviour savor savor savor savor Sawney Sawney Sawney scandalize scandaUze scandalize scandalize scepter scepter scepter sceptre sceptered sceptered sceptered sceptred schematize schematize schematize schematize schismatize schismatize schismatize schismatize scrutinize scrutinize scrutinize scrutinize scurril scurril scurrile scurrile scurry scurry scurry scuny seamstress seamstress seamstress seamstress sectarianize sectarianize sectarianize' sectarianize secularize secularize secularize secularize seizin seizin seizin seisin seleniureted seleniureted seleniureted seleniuretted semiology semeiology semeiology semeiology Semitic Semitic Semitic Shemitic 1 Saviour is more approved as the synonym for Jesus Christ. Comparative list of variable spellings 413 Stormonth Imperial Sanhedrim sanhedrim sangiac sanjak Sanskrit Sanskrit santaline santaline santonine santonin sapajou sapajou sapodilla sapodilla saponine saponine sarlac sarlac sarmentous sarmentose sarcenet sarcenet sassoline sassolin satirise satirize savannah savanna saviour saviour savour savour Sawny Sawney scandalise scandaHze sceptre sceptre sceptred sceptred schematise schematize schismatise schismatize scrutinise scrutinize scurrile scurrile skurry scurry sempstress seamstress sectarianise sectarianize secularise secularize seizin seizin seleniuretted seleniuretted semeiology semeiology Shemitic Semitic Oxford Divisions san'he-drim san'jak San'skrit san'ta-lin san'to-nin sap'a-jou sap-o-dil'la sap'o-nin sar'lak sar-men'tose sarce'net sas'so-lin sat'i-rize sa-van'na sa'vior sa'vor Saw'ney scan'dal-ize scep'ter scep'ter-ed sche'ma-tize schis'ma-tize scru'ti-nize scur'ril scur'ry seam'stress sec-ta'ri-an-ize sec'u-lar-ize sei'zin se-le'niu-ret-ed se-mi-ol'o-gy Se-mit'ic 414 Comparative list of variable S2)ellings Century Standard Webster Worcester semolina semolina semolina semolella sensualize sensualize sensualize sensualize sentimentalize sentimentalize sentimentalize ) sentimentahze sentineled sentineled sentineled sentinelled sepulcher sepulcher sepulcher sepulchre sergeant sergeant sergeant sergeant sermonize sermonize sermonize sermonize seroon seroon ceroon seron sesquioxid sesquioxid sesquioxide sesquioxide sesquisulphid sesquisulfid sesquisulphide sesquisulphide sexualize sexualize sexuaHze sexualize Shaksperian Shakespearian Shakespearean Shakespearian shaster shastra shaster shaster sheldapple sheldapple sheldafle sheldafle shellac shellac shell-lac shellac shelty sheltie sheltie sheltie sherif (Turk.) sherif shereef sherif shinny shinny shinty shinty shoveled shoveled shoveled shovelled shoveler shoveler shoveler shoveller shriveled shriveled shriveled shrivelled sialogogue sialogogue sialogogue sialagogue signaled signaled signaled signalled signaling signaling signaling signalling signalize signalize signalize signalize silica silica silica silica silicious silicious siliceous silicious sillibub silUbub sillabub sillabub simitar simitar scimiter scymitar skean skean skean skain skeptic skeptic skeptic sceptic skilful skilful skillful skilful i Comparative list of variable spellings 415 Stormonth Imperial Oxford Divisions semolina semolina sem-o-h'na sensualise sensuahze sen'su-al-ize sentimentalise sentimentalize sen-ti-men'tal-ize sentinelled sentinelled sen'ti-nel-ed sepulchre sepulchre sep'ul-cher Serjeant sergeant ser'geant sermonise sermonize ser'mon-ize seron seroon se-roon' sesquioxide sesquioxide ses-qui-ox'id sesquisulphide sesquisulphide ses-qui-sul'phid sexualise sexualize sex'u-al-ize Shakespearian Shaksperiau Shak-spe'ri-an sastra shaster shas'ter sheldafle sheldafle shel'dap-ple shellac shell-lac shellac sheltie sheltie shel'ty scherif shereef she-rif ' shinty shinty shin'ny shovelled shovelled shov'el-ed shoveller shoveller shov'el-er shrivelled shrivelled shriv'el-ed sialagogue sialogogue si-al'o-gogue signalled signalled sig'nal-ed signaUing signalling sig'nal-ing signalise signalize sig'nal-ize silex silica sil'i-ca sihceous siliceous si-li'cious sillabub sillabub sHIi-bub cimeter scimitar sim'i-tar skean skean sceptic sceptic skep'tic skilful skilful skil'ful 416 Comparative list of variable spellings Century Standard Webster Worcester Slavonian Slavonian Slavonian Slavonian sluggardize sluggardize sluggardize sluggardize smolder smolder smolder smoulder sniveler sniveler sniveler sniveller soberize soberize soberize soberize soboles sobole soboles soboles socialize socialize socialize sociaUze Socotran Socotran Socotrine Socotrine soke soc soc soc solarization solarization solarization solarization solecize solecize solecize solecize solemnize solemnize solemnize solemnize solemnizing solemnizing solemnizing solemnizing soliloquize soliloquize soliloquize soliloquize solmization solmization solmization solmization somber somber somber sombre sombering sombering sombering sombring somersault somersault somersault somerset sonnetize sonnetize sonnetize sonnetize sorbin sorbin sorbin sorbine sowens sowens sowens sowens spagiric spagyric spagyric spagyric spahee spahi spahi spahee spanceled spanceled spanceled spancelled specialization specialization specialization specialization specter specter specter spectre spense spence spence spence spherulite spherulite spherulite spherulite spicknel spicknel spicknel spignel spiritualize spiritualize spiritualize spiritualize splendor splendor splendor splendor splendorous splendrous splendrous splendrous Comparative list of variable spellings 417 Stormonth Imperial Oxford Divisions Sclavonian Slavonic Sla-vo'ni-an sluggardise sluggardize slug'gar-dize smoulder smoulder smoFder sniveller sniveller sniv'el-er soberise soberize so'ber-ize sobol soboles sob'o-les socialise socialize so'cial-ize Soeotrine Socotran, n. Soeotrine, a. Soc'o-tran soc soc solarisation solarization so-lar-i-za'tion solecise solecize sol'e-cize solemnise solemnize soFem-nize solemnising solemnizmg sol'em-niz-ing soliloquise soliloquize so-lil'o-quize solmisation solmization sol-mi-za'tion sombre sombre som'ber sombring sombring som'ber-ing somersault somersault som'er-sault sonnetise sonnetize son'net-ize sorbin sorbine sor'bin sowans sowens sow'ens spagyric spagyric spa-gir'ic spahi spahee spa'hee spancelled spancelled span'cel-ed specialisation specialization spe-cial-i-za'tion spectre spectre spec'ter spence spence sphserulite spherulite spher'u-lite spignel spignel spick'nel spiritualise spiritualize spir'i-tu-al-ize splendour splendour splen'dor splendrous splen'dor-ous 418 Comparative list of variable spellings Century Standard Webster Worcester splenization splenization splenization splenization spoony spoony spooney spooney spuilzie spulye spulzie spuilzie spurry spurry spurry spurrey spurtle spurtle spurtle spirtle squinny squinny squiny squiny squirearchy squirearchy squirarchy squirarchy stadholder stadholder stadtholder stadtholder staniel staniel stannel stannel stathe staith staith staith steen steen steen stean stenciler stenciler stenciler stenciller sterilize sterilize sterilize sterilize stigmatize stigmatize stigmatize stigmatize stitchwort stitchwort stichwort stitchwort stith stith stith stith stolon stolon stolon stolon stoop (vessel) stoop stoup stoup stoor stoor stour stour strokle strokle strockle strocal strumose strumose strumous strumose strychnine strychnin strychnine strychnia stylar stylar stilar stylar styracin styracin styracin styracine suage suage suage suage subbass subbass sub-bass subbass suberin suberin suberin suberine subfusk subfusk subfuscous subfusc subsidize subsidize subsidize subsidize subsidizing subsidizing subsidizing subsidizing subtilize subtihze suljtilize subtilize subungual subungual subungual subunguial Comparative list of variable spellings 419 Stormonth Imperial splenisation splenization spooney spoony spulye spuilzie spnrry spun-ey spurtle spurtle squiny squiny squirearcliy squirearchy stadtholder stadtholder staniel stannel staith staith stean steen stenciller stenciller sterilise sterilize stigmatise stigmatize stitchwort stitchwort stithe stith stole stolon stoup stoup stour stour strocal strocal strumous strumose strychnine strychnia stilar stylar styracine styracine swage suage sub-base sub-base suberin suberin subfusc subfusk subsidise subsidize subsidising subsidizing subtilise subtilize subungual subungual Oxford lyivisions sple-ni-za'tion spuiFzie spur'ry spur'tle squin'ny squire 'ar-chy stad'hold-er stan'iel sten'cil-er ster'il-ize stig'ma-tize stitch' wort sto'lon stro'kle stru'mose strych'nine sty'lar styr'a-cin sub'bass su'be-rin sub-fusk' sub'si-dize sub'si-diz-ing sub'til-ize sub-un'gual 420 Comparative list of variable spellings Century Standard Webster Worcester succor succor succor succor sufi sufi sufi sofi sulphid sulfid sulphide sulphide sulpliureted sulfureted sulphureted sulphuretted sumac sumac sumac sumach summarize summarize summarize summarize supawn supawn supawQ supawn surquidry surquedry surquedry surquedry suslik soushk suslik souslik sweetbrier sweetbrier sweetbrier sweetbrier swingletree swingletree singletree swingletree syenite syenite syenite sienite syllogize syllogize syllogize syllogize symbolize symbolize symbolize symbolize symmetrize symmetrize symmetrize symmetrize sympathize sympathize sympathize sympathize symphonize symphonize symphonize symphonize synaleplie synalepha synalepha synaloepha synchronize synchronize synchronize synchronize syncopize syncopize syncopize syncopize syneresis syneresis synseresis synaeresis synonym synonym synonym synonyme synonymize synonymize synonymize synonymize synthesize synthesize synthesize synthesize syphilization syphilization s^-philization syphilization syrup sirup sirup ^ sirup systematize systematize systematize systematize tabor tabor tabor tabor taboret ^^' taboret taboret taboret taborine taborine taborine tabourine tachylyte tachylyte tachylyte tachylite Comparative list of variable spellings 421 Stormonth Imperial succour succour sofi sofi sulphide sulphide sulphuretted sulphuretted sumach sumac summarise summarize sepawn supawn surquediy surquedrie suslik sushk sweet-briar sweet-brier swingletree swing-tree syenite syenite syllogise syllogize symbolise symboHze symmetrise symmetrize sympathise sympathize symphonise symphonize synalepha synalepha synchronise synchronize syncopise syncopize synaeresis synaeresis synonym synonym synonymise synonymize synthesise synthesise syphilisation syphilization syrup syrup systematise systematize tabour tabor tabouret taboret tabourine taborine tachyhte tachyhte 27 Oxford Divisions suc'cor su'fi sul'phid sul'phu-ret-ed su'mac sum'ma-rize su-pawn' sur'qui-dry sus'lik sweet 'bri-er swin'gle-tree sy'e-nite syFlo-gize sym'bol-ize sym'me-trize sym'pa-thize sym'pho-nize syn-a-le'phe syn'chro-nize syn'co-pize sy-ner'e-sis syn'o-nym sy-non'y-mize syn'the-size syph-i-H-za'tion syr'up sys'tem-a-tize ta'bor tab'or-et tab'or-ine tach'y-lyte 422 Comparative list of variable spellings Centura/ Standard Webster Worcester taffrail taffrail taffrail taffrail taffy taffy taffy taffy tallage tallage tallage tallage talapoin talapoin talapoin talapin talipes tahpes talipes talipes talukdar talukdar talookdar talookdar tantalize tantalize tantalize tantalize targeteer targeteer targeteer targetler tarpaulin tarpauHn tarpaulin tarpaullng tartarize tartarize tartarize tartarize tasseled tasseled tasseled tasselled Tatar Tatar Tartar Tartar taurocol taurocol taurocol taurocol tautologize tautologize tautologize tautologize teazel, v. teazel teasel teazle teazel, n. teazel teasel teasel teazeled teazeled teaseled teazled tegmen tegmen tegmen tegument tellureted tellureted tellureted telluretted tellurion tellurian tellurian tellurian templet templet templet templet temporize temporize temporize temporize temporizing temporizing temporizing temporizing tenail tenail tenaille tenaille tercel tercel tiercel tiercel terre-plein terreplein terreplein terre-plein territorialize territorialize territoriahze territorialize terrorize terrorize terrorize terrorize tessellate tessellate tessellate tessellate theater theater theater theatre theologize theologize theologize theologize theorize theorize theorize theorize Comparative list of variable spellings 423 Stormonth Imperial Oxford Divisions tafferel taffrail taff'rail toffy taffy taffy tallage tallage tail'age talapoyn talapoin taFa-poin taliped talipes tari-pes talookdar talookdar ta-luk'dar tantalise tantalize tan'tal-ize targeteer targeteer tar-ge-teer' tarpaulin tarpaulin tar-pau'lin tartarise tartarize tar'tar-ize tasselled tasselled tas'sel-ed Tartar Tartar Ta'tar taurocoll taurocoll tau'ro-col tautologise tautologize tau-tol'o-gize teasel teasel tea'zel teasel teasel tea'zel teaseled tea'zel-ed tegmen tegument teg'men telluretted telluretted tel'lu-ret-ed tellurion tellurion tel-lu'ri-on template templet tem'plet temporise temporize tem'po-rize temporising temporizing tem'po-riz-ing tenaille tenail te-nail' tiercel tiercel ter'cel terre-plain terre-plein terre'plein territorialise territorialize ter-ri-to'ri-al-ize terrorise terrorize ter'ror-ize tesselate tes'sel-late theatre theatre the'a-ter theologise theologize the-oFo-gizG theorise theorize the'o-rize 424 Comparative list of variable spellings Century Standard Webster Worcester theosophize theosophize theosophize theosophize Thomism Thomism Thomism Thomaism thorium thorium thorium thorinum threnody threnody threnode threnody tiffing tiffing tiffin tiffin tigerish tigerish tigerish tigrish timbal timbal tymbal tymbal timbreled timbreled timbreled timbrelled tinchel tinchel tinchel tinchell tinseled tinseled tinseled tinselled tinsehng tinseling tinsehng tinselling titbit titbit tidbit tidbit toluene toluene toluene toluole tom-tom tom-tom tam-tam tomtom totalize totalize totahze totalize tourmalin tourmalin tourmaline tourmaline toweling toweling toweling towelling trammeled trammeled trammeled trammelled tranquihze tranquilize tranquilize tranquillize tranship transship transship transship trass trass trass tarras traveled traveled traveled travelled traveler traveler traveler traveller traveling traveling traveling traveUing travertin travertin travertine travertine tribunicial tribunicial tribunitial tribunitial tricolor tricolor tricolor tricolor tridactyl tridactyl tridactyl tridactyl trUith trilith trilithon trilithon trioxid trioxid trioxide trioxide trivet trivet trivet trevet trompe trompe tromp tromp Comparative list of variable spellings 425 Stormonth Imperial theosophise theosophize Thomaism Thomaism thorium thorium threnody threnode threnody tiffin tiffin tigerish tigrish timbal tymbal timbrelled timbrelled tinchel tinchel tinselled tinselled tinselling tinselling tid-bit tidbit ^coluene toluene tam-tam tam-tam totalise totahze tourmaline tourmalin towelling towelling trammelled trammelled tranquiUise tranquillize trans-ship tranship trass trass travelled travelled traveller traveller travelling travelHng travertine travertin tribunitial tribunician tricolour tricolour tridactylous tridactyle trihth trihth trioxide trioxide trevet trivet tromp tromp Oxford Divisions the-os'o-phize Tho'mism tho'ri-um thren'o-dy tiffing ti'ger-ish tim'bal tim'brel-ed tin'chel tin'sel-ed tin'sel-ing tit'bit toFu-ene tom'tom to'tal-ize tour'ma-lin tow'el-ing tram'mel-ed tran'quil-ize tran-ship' trav'el-ed trav'el-er trav'el-ing trav'er-tin trib-u-ni'cial tri'col-or tri-dac'tyl tri'hth tri-ox'id triv'et 426 Comparative list of variable spellings Century Standard Webster Worcester tropologize tropologize tropologize tropologize troweled troweled troweled trowelled trullization trullization trulhzation trullization tsetse tsetse tsetse tzetze tumor tumor tumor tumor tunneled tunneled tunneled tunnelled tunneling tunneling tunneling tunnelling Turkoman Turkoman Turcoman Turkoman turnsol turnsole turnsole turnsole tusser tussur tussah tussah tussock-grass tussock-grass tussock grass tussac-grass tweeze tweeze tweese tweese twibill twibil twibil twibil twyer tuyere tuyere tuyere tympanize tympanize tympanize tympanize tyrannize tyrannize tyrannize tyrannize tyrolite tyrolite tyrolite tyrohte udaler udaler udaler udaller uhlan uhlan uhlan ulan ulmin ulmin ulmin ulmine unappareled unappareled unappareled unapparelled unauthorized unauthorized unauthorized unauthorized unbaptized unbaptized unbaptized unbaptized unbiased unbiased unbiased unbiassed unburden unburden unburden . unburden unclench unclench unclinch unchnch unharbor unharbor unharbor unharbor universalize universalize universalize universalize unkempt unkempt unkempt unkemmed unmold unmold unmold unmould unraveler unraveler unraveler unraveller Comparative list of variable spellings 427 Stormonth Imperial Oxford Divisions tropologise tropologize tro-poFo-gize trowelled trowelled trow'el-ed trullisation trull ization trul-li-za'tion tsetse tsetse tset'se tumour tumour tu'mor tunnelled tunnelled tun'nel-ed tunnelling tunnelling tun'nel-ing Turcoman Turkoman Tur'ko-man turnsol turnsole turn'sol tussur tus'ser tussac-grass tussock-grass tus'sock-grass tweese tweese twibill twibill twi'biU tuyere tuyere twy'er tympanise tympanize tym'pa-nize tyrannise tyrannize tyr'an-nize tirolite tyrolite tyr'o-lite udaller udaller u'dal-er ulan uhlan uhlan ulmin ulmin ul'min unapparelled unapparelled un-ap-par'el-ed unauthorised unauthorized un-au'thor-ized unbaptised unbaptized un-bap-tized' unbiassed unbiassed un-bi'as-ed unburthen unburthen un-bur'den unclinch unclench un-clench' unharbour unharbour un-har'bor universalise universalize u ni-ver'sal-ize unkempt unkempt un-kempt' unmould unmould un-mold' unraveller unraveller un-rav'el-er 428 Comparative list of variable spellings Century Standard Webster Worcester uranography uranography uranography uranography uremia uremia uraemia uraemia utas utas utas utas utilize utilize utilize utilize vagabondize vagabondize vagabondize vagabondize valor valor valor valor vapor vapor vapor vapor vaporization vaporization vaporization vaporization vavasor vavasor vavasor vavasor ventriloquize ventriloquize ventriloquize ventriloquize venue (in fencing ) venue venew veney verbalize verbalize verbalize verbalize versicolor versicolor versicolor versicolor via via via via vial vial vial vial viciosity viciosity vitiosity vitiosity victimize victimize victimize victimize victualer victualer victualer victualler vicugna vicugna vicuna vicuna vigor vigor vigor vigor villain (serf) villain villain villein villainize villainize villanize villainous villainous villainous villanous villainy villainy villainy villany villeinage villenage villanage villeinage villous villous villous villous vise (a tool) vise vise vice visualize visualize visualize visualize vitalize vitalize vitalize vitalize vizir vizier vizier vizier vizor vizor visor visor Comparative list of variable spellings 429 Stormonth Imperial Oxf ord Divisions ouranography uranography u ra-nog'ra-phy ursemia uraemia u re'mi-a utis utis u'tas utilise utilize u'til-ize vagabondise vagabondize vag'a-bond-ize valour valour vaFor vapour vapour va'por vaporisation vaporization va-por-i-za'tion vavasour vavasor vav'a-sor ventriloquise ventriloquize ven-tril'o-quize venew venue ven'ue verbalise verbalize ver'bal-ize versicolour versicolour ver'si-col-or vi^ via phial vial vi'al viciosity viciosity vi'ci-os'i-ty victimise victimize vic'tim-ize victualler victualler vic'tual-er vicugna vicugna vi-cu'gna vigour vigour vig'or villein villain villain villainise villanize vil'lain-ize villainous villainous vil'lain-ous villainy villainy viriain y villeinage villenage villein-age villose villous villous vice vice visualise visualise vi'su-al-ize vitalise vitalize vi'tal-ize vizier vizier vi-zir' visor visor viz'or 430 Comparative list of variable spellings Century Standard Webster Worcester vocalize vocaUze vocalize vocahze voivode waywode waywode voivode volatilize volatilize volatUize volatihze voltzine voltzite voltzite voltzine voweled voweled voweled vowelled vowelize voweHze voweHze vowelize vulcanize vulcanize vulcanize vulcanize vulgarize vulgarize vulgarize vulgarize wadi wadi wady wady wagon wagon wagon wagon Wahabi Wahabi Wahabee Wahabee waiment waiment wayment wayment wainscoting wainscoting wainscoting wainscoting wapenshaw wapenshaw wapinschaw wappinschaw weeviled weeviled weeviled weevilled weir weir weir wear welsher welsher welsher welsher wergild wergild weregild weregild werwolf werwolf werewolf were-wolf wliiffletree whipple-tree whippletree whippletree whimsy whimsy whimsey whimsey whinyard whinyard whinyard whinyard whisky whisky whisky whiskey whizz whiz whiz whiz whopper whopper whapper < whopper wilful wilful wiUful wilful wivem wivern wiver wiver woeful woful woeful woful wold wold wold wold woodruff woodruff woodruff woodroof woolen woolen woolen wooUen Comparative list of variable spellings 431 Stormonth Imperial vocalise vocalize vaivode waywode volatilise volatilize voltzine voltzine vowelled vowelled vowelise vowelize vulcanise vulcanize vulgarise vulgarize wady wady waggon wagon Wahabee Wahabee wayment waiment wainscotting wainscotting wapinschaw wapenshaw weevilled weevilled wear weir welcher welcher weregild wergild werewolf werewolf whiffle-tree whipple-tree whimsey whimsey whinger whin yard whisky whisky whiz whiz whapper whopper wilful wilful wyvern wyvern woful woeful weald wold woodroof woodruff woollen woollen Oxford Divisions vo'cal-ize voi'vode vol'a-til-ize volt'zine vow'el-ed vow'el-ize vul'can-ize vul'gar-ize wag'on Wa-ha'bi wai'ment wain'scot-ing wap'en-shaw wee'vil-ed welsh'er wer'gild wer'wolf whif'fle-tree whim'sy whin'yard whis'ky whop 'per wH'ful wiVern woe'ful wood'ruff wool'en .432 Comparative list of variable spellings Century Standard Webster Worcester worshiped worshiped worshiped worshipped worshiper worshiper worshiper worshipper Wychfite Wychfite WycUfite Wickliffite xanthin xanthin xanthin xanthine xanthophyl xanthophyl xanthophyll xanthophyll xyloidine xyloidin xyloidin xyloidine yernut yer-nut yernut yernut zaffer zaffer zaffer zaffre zemindar zemindar zamindar zemindar zinkiferous zinkiferous zinciferous zinciferous zinkite zincite zincite zincite zoetrope zoetrope zoetrope zoetrope zoology zoology zoology zoology Comparative list of variable spellings 433 Stormonth Imperial Oxford Divisions worshipped worshipped wor'ship-ed worshipper worshipper wor'ship-er Wicklimte Wickliffite Wyc'lif-ite xanthine xanthin xan'thin xanthophyll xanthophyll xan'tho-phyl xyloidine xyloidine xy-loi'dine yar-nut yer-nut yer'nut zaffre zafiEre zaf'fer zemindar zemindar zem'in-dar zinciferous zinciferous zin-kif'er-ous zincite zincite zin'kite zoetrope zoetrope zo'e-trope zoology zoology zo-ol'o-gy B FRENCH DIVISION OF WORDS A. According to G. Daupeley-Gouverneur ("Le Com- positeur et le Correcteur Typographes," Paris, 1880), there are two schools, one favoring division according to etymology, the other according to French spelling. The latter to be preferred. (Hence ins- traction, and not in- struction, since in oral spelling in the schools it is always, for example, m, a, ma, n, u, s, nus, manus, c, r, i, t, crit, raanuscrit.) B. No mute syllable to be carried over, even of four letters, unless under stress of narrow measure. (Not pubU- ques, but pu- bliques.) C. No two-letter syllable to be carried over even if not mute (par- mi, rele- ve, confon- du), nor the pronominal article attached to the verb as its object (prenez- la), nor the demonstrative adverb attached to pronouns (ceux- ci). D. No two-letter ending of the Hne if the letters are thin (il- lettre, li- mace, fl- ligrane), under any circum- stances j the measure may excuse two thick letters (en- fantine, pa- villon). B. No one-letter ending ever admissible (i- mage, a- venir, e- mission), nor in combination with an eli- sion (I'e- legance, I'a- venement, d'a- vance, d'e- pargne, qu'a- vant). F. No division between two vowels (lou- ange, the- atre, situ- ation) [M. Claye, head of the house for which our author was former proof-reader, thinks this an unrea- sonable prejudice], except in case of compounds (extra- ordinaire, archi- episcopal, anti- orleaniste ; preferable to extraor- dinaire, etc.). G. Divide compounds, already hyphened, on the hy- phen by preference (morte- saison, contre- expertise, plus- value), and compounds elided with apostrophe after the 434 French divisions 435 apostrophe (grand'- m^re, a grand'- peine), but not omit- ting the hyphen, as is sometimes done [see Marie Bash- kirtseff's Journal, Paris, 1888, grand' | maman]. H. Divide after a mute syllable in the middle of a word rather than before (courte- pointe, not cour- tepointe, evene- ment, not eve- nement). I. Carry over euphonic t between hyphens (ira- t-il, presente- t-on). J. Never divide on x or y (= cs and ii) -, neither Alex- andre nor Ale- xandre, fix- er nor fl- xer, roy- aliste nor ro- yaliste. K. Never carry over etc. L. No more than three successive hues ending with a hyphen are tolerable. An obsolete rule forbade the first line of a work ending in a hyphen. W. P. G's observations based on Rambaud (R) : Hist, de la Civilisation Contemp. en France, Paris, 1888. Llhomme (L) : Les Femmes Ecrivains, Paris, c. 1892. Daudet (D) : Tartarin sur les Alpes, Paris, 1886. Bashkirtseff (B) : Journal, Paris, 1888. Bacourt (Bt) : Souvenirs d'un Diplomat, Paris, 1882. Flaubert (F) : Correspondance, iii^ serie, Paris, 1891. Taine (T): Origines de la France Contemp., Paris, 1887. (DG) refers to Daupeley-Gouverneur, as above. 1 In general, with compounds of ab- (abs-) circon- com- con- des- ex- in- ob- per- pro- sub- super- trans-, divide on the preposition. But when s impur (s followed by a consonant) succeeds, generally divide on that, es- pecially in the case of in- (compare DG [A]). R (both usages) circon- stance recon- stitua in- struction circons- tance cons- tituer ins- truction L (both usages) circon- stance circons- tance cons- truire pros- cription supers- titieuses 436 French divisions B (both usages) circon- stance cons- cience obs- tacles [obs- cures in ' Rooses: Mus6e Bt (single usage) Plantin-Moretus, 188-] circon- stance in- stitution con- struction ■ con- stitution , F (both usages) in- scription cons- tamment ins- pire nonobs- tant T (both usages) con- struit in- stant sub- stance cons- truire ins- tants subs- tituer ab- straite per- spective 2 Divide on vowel or diphthong before a single con- sonant, or before the digraphs bl cl fl gl pl^ br cr dr gr pr tr vr J eh dh gh ph thj gn. R pu- blique c616- brer rappro- ch^ d^peu- plement d^- cret ca- tholique d'a- [DG tr^rent tel^gra- phique souverai- net^ p6n^- sei- gneur OE- dipe) ou- vrier ) [DG [DG raUi^- rent) sollici- tent ■ [DG B] ) seu- lenient -j H] pugnait ) [DG r6- s' a- vancer d' A- lembert [DG E] ) L qua- drille D I'a- I'ha- d'ho- [DG vait \ bitude ( tel \ E] ) B au- tour m^e D] ) oeu- vres quatuo- riste ai- [DG Bt [Ja- mes fo- reign trou- blesome' Vau- ghan T au- rions d'fi- tat ) bord • E] i [DG D] d'a- au- tre ^ Dl [DG [DG French divisions 437 3 Divide between two consonants (not constituting one of the above digraphs), including Hquid II; or between a consonant and a digi*aph (or trigraph). — No exception in the case of a monosyllable ending in mute e (contrary to DG B).— No consideration paid to effect on nasaliza- tion (to the eye). R sep- tembre caout- chouc misan- thrope pl^bis- cite Philadel- phie pam- phlet expres- sement sim- plement eccl^sias- [DG tiques ? B] \ An- gleterre juil- let res- pecte heur mem- bres> B] ( Nan- tes \ bon- [DG Char- les ( sous- crire mar- [DG hom- che ( B] ) me\ [DG Bl . cj) cope L ten- drement En- ghien horos- sous- traire [st^r^o- scope R] B im- mense Bt im- mediat [bles- sings Fran- Dic- cWinl kens P des- cription manus- crites par-des- [DG susl G] T f bud- l Stend- dhiste des- cendent famil- les hal [DG B] comp- tes2 [DG B] 1 Middle syllable's pronunciation I left ambiguous. 2 p treated as non-existent. 4 Other three- and four-consonant combinations to be divided according to compound, or root and ending : R L D B Bt F fone- tion Augs- burg lors- que aujour- d'hui long- temps gentils- hommes Jung- frau Oelst- nitz comp- tant (perhaps under Riile 3 if p is treated as non- grand'- chose existent). Vitz- nau W. P. G. Jammry, 1896. 28 ITALIAN DIVISION OF WORDS W. p. G's observations based on Barbara (B) : Memorie d'un Editore, Florence, 1883. Carducci (C) : Rime di F. Petrarca, Leghorn, 1876. Cibrario (Ci) : Econ. Polit. del Medio Evo, vol. i., Turin, 1861. Mario (MJ : Scritti, vol. i., Bologna, 1884. Stecchetti (S) ; Postuma Nova, Polemica, Bologna, 1884, 1885. Ricci (R) : First Italian Reading-Book, New York (London make?), 1888. Giannone (G) : Opere Postume, vol. i., Italy (no place, prob- ably under the ban political and ecclesiastical), 1821. lia comparison with Gesualdo (Ge), II Petrarcha, Venice, 1553. Machiavelli (Ma), Discorsi, Venice, 1554. Boccaccio (Bo), Decamerone, Florence, 1573. [See the corresponding paragraphs in French Division.] C. Two letters may be carried over even in a two- syllable word, as, uo- mo, and C has not only co- me but (in narrow measure) co- m*. D. The line may end with two letters, even if thin, as, 11- bera, fl- gliuoli. E. The best practice is now doubtless adverse to ab- solute one-letter endings, which were used ad libitum in Latin books and in the early Italian texts, and are not infrequent in C (o- mai, a- vesse, 'n- chiostro, [e- nim]), and of constant occurrence in Ci (e- sempi, u- dienze). This has commonly no regard to the exigencies of spacing. — There seems to be no rule against one-letter endings in combination with an elision, as, C (I'o- z'iose), Ci (d'l- talia), M (I'a- more), G (I'o- pinione). The oldest works cited are full of instances of both these usages. P. Division may take place betweeh two vowels, as, C (pa- iono). G. Compounds are generally disregarded in favor of the rule to divide on the vowel where possible. But the usage IS mixed here as in the Latin. Thus, B (di- scus- sioni, di- sposti, di- scretaj but also tra- scorsi, tras- Italian divisions 439 cura, tras- porto); C (di- susata, [qui- squis,] tra- sport6, tra- slazione) ; Ci (tra- scrivere and tras- curata, dis- ono- rati, in- stituti); M (di- sposti, di- sgrazia, tra- sformate). — The usage with tra- tras- varies also in the elder texts : Bo (tra- sportarsi), Ge (tra- sfigurato, tras- figuro).— In dissyllabic prefixes, care is not always taken to make the division after the preposition, even when there is room, as, S (so- praindicate, for sopra- indicate). J. The Latin division was uniformly on the vowel preceding x, and is correctly followed in C ([respe- xisset]), M ([ma- xima]). It is regularly observed in Spanish and in Portuguese, where the sound of this consonant has become aspirated. The Itahan alphabet has no x. L. Four successive hyphens occur in B, five in C, six in Ci, five in M, four and five on one page in S (P. N.), four in G, six in Bo and Ge. M. In such locutions as nell' arte, mezz' ore, quell' Arcadia, P altr' ieri, fors' anco, the well-settled practice is to carry over the elided syllable— nel- Parte, Pal- tr'ieri, for- s'anco. But G varies between quel- Pistesso and quell'a- zione, all'o- recchio, as does the older Ge between del- Pappetito and dell'- arco. The latter is also free to end the line with an elision (ch' | egh), as in Bo (co' | va- lenti, e' | giovani, tra' | quaU, se'. | ), and even R (po' I strano, se' | Pabate, pe' | suo'). 1 Divide on vowel or diphthong before a single con- sonant, or before any consonantal combination capable of beginning an Italian word, including sb, sd, and sf, or before vr. (The division, in Latin words, before ct goes back to the days when these letters were cast on a single type-body. Compare no- cte in p. 1 of Fust and Schof- fer's Psalter of 1457. " The modern Portuguese retains this division: e. g., produ-ctoras.) 440 Italian divisions B sa- lute Au- stria de- ne- gne gli do- vrebbe te- sta dispoti- smo di- screta C ma- snade Pa- squati di- susata Gi e- sempi [distri- [Malme- ctionem] sbury] vo- stra tempe- ste dis- onorati (exception) M Ro- smini Sofoni- [Wa- shington] legi- sba slativi mae- stro so- vranita, di- sgrazia tra- sformate G [au- ctoris] giuri- Pre- sdizione sbiteriano [nu- ptiis] Bo A- braam sodi- sfare dov- Tk (solitary exception) Ma u- scire pae- se Ge terremo- to [dile- cti] bias- mo (exception) fre- sea tras- figur5 tra- sflgurato 2 Divide between double consonants; and between a consonant and a practicable initial consonant or combi- nation as above. (Notice the occasional reluctance to divide the k sound, -ck, -cq, in sympathy with the Portu- guese, as in Ja- cques ; the varying usage, also, in Latin words, with pt [the Portuguese permit themselves to carry over this combination].) B pub- blicar viag- gio col- I'amico ciac- chierare [Dun- cker] (exception) [Fran- klin] [Stut- tgart] mar- chigiano men- tre novem- bre che'n- tendendo Italian divisions 441 G [assum- psit] Bo Ma Ge Petrarch- sea [Regen- sburg] [avec- ques] [Stan- sfeld] [Wim- pfen] ta- cque > na- cque ^ (exception) tac- que piac- que ac- que ac- quistare nac- que tac- que piac- que nac- que ac- queta tran- quillo sol- dati par- lamente com- battendo [coem- ptionem [descrip- tionem] [descrip- turn] [volu- ptas] [see- ptrumj [Da- phne] [Ere- chtheo] (exception) w. P. a June, 1896. GERMAN DIVISION OF WORDS W. p. G's observations based on Lankenau and Oelsnitz (L) : Das Heutige Russland, Leipzig, 1881. Baumbach (B) : Sommermarchen, Leipzig, 1885 (Roman letter). Kapp (K) : Geschichte des Deutschen Buchhandels, Leipzig, 1886, and Justus Erich BoUmann, Berlin, 1880. Sicherer (S) : Die Genossenschaftsgesetzgebung in Deutsch- land, Erlangen, 1872. Heppe (H) : Geschichte des Deutschen Volksschulwesens, Gotha, 1858, vol. i. Goethe (G) : Werke, Weimar, 1887, vol. 1, part 3, and Paris, 1836, vol. iii. Hartmann (Ha) : Die Nigritier, Berlin, 1876 (Roman letter). Meyer's Konversations-Lexikon (M), vol. xi, Leipzig, 1888. [See the corresponding paragraphs in French Division.] C. Two letters may be carried over even in a two- syllable word, as, die- se, Bluntsch- li. D. The line may end with two letters, as, ei- nem, ih- nen (and numerous prefixes). B. Single-letter endings are avoided, if not forbidden. F. Division may take place between vowels, as, the- oretisch, and in obedience to the rules for compounds and prefixes, as. Bade- ort, Bau- aufseher. Be- antwor- tung. G. With compounds, division is preferably by com- ponent parts, as, Mittel- alter; but Mit- telalter or Mit- telal- ter is permissible, while Mitte- lalter is not. J. It is proper to divide on a vowel before x, as, Ale- xander. L. Four successive hyphens occur in L, K, Ha; five in M ; six in H ; and seven in S. 1 Divide compounds by component parts preferably ; subdivision, if necessary, should be independent for each part (see [G] above), without regard to Rule 4. (The exception Din- stag below is to be accounted for by the early practice of casting long s and t on one tj'pe-body. ii2 German divisions 443 See its operation in Rule 4.) The same treatment is applicable to compounds of classic origin. Bade- ort Hoch- ebene Auer- ochs Konig- reich wo- nach ein- ander Spra- chengewirr (L) ', Berges- abhang Schlag- entzwei Schweins- leder Miillers- tochter Jabres- tag (B) ; Voll- endung Schreib art Eng- land Manu- skript Mono- graphien Aristo- kratie (K); Gut- achten Bekanntma- chung (S); Sonn- abend Fried- rich vier- eckig Heb- amme [Din- stag] (H) ; Lohnbe- dienten Fels- lagen (G)j Bau- aufseher Physio- gnomien Properi- spomenon (Ha)^ Diet- rich Re- prasentanten atmo- spharisch kontra- stierendes Pro- gnathic epi- seopales Mon- archie Tri- klinium Mikro- scop Manganhydr- oxyd Beet- hoven (M). 2 Divide on prefixes, except in the infrequent case of emp-, where the tendency if not the rule is to join p and f, as, Em- pfindung. (In the case of trans- the s is given to the main word if elision has occurred in consequence of that word beginning with s.) The prefix may be sub- divided, as Un- ternehmen. Ver- ehrung Umher- irrens er- blicken Be- ant wort ung Ge- prage un- interessant (L) ; auf- horen her- unter gegen- iiber Ein- gang pro- phetischen (B) ; Mit- arbeiter dar- iiber beob- achteten Re- skripte Kon- skription inter- essant [in- teresse] Trans- port [tran- scripta] (K); Ex- kursion Em-pfahl inte- ressant (irregular) (G); Ver- unzierungen (Ha). 3 Divide on suffixes beginning with a consonant, as, -bar, -chen, -fach, -haft, -heit, -keit, -hch, -los, -schaft, -zig. (In accordance with Rule 4 or 5, but contrary to the English practice, a consonant is regularly carried over for suffixes beginning with a vowel, as, -end, -ig, -isch, -ung, as well as endings of inflection, declension, comparison, or agency.) 444 German divisions Stadt- chen ekel- haft Vergangen- heit mog- lich weib- lich Leiden- scliaft (L); wunder- bare Selig- keit (B); viel- fach zweck- los (K)j [Lebliaf- tigkeit] {(}); vortreff- lich (Ha). 4 (Rides 1-3 satisfied), divide on a vowel or diph- thong followed by a single consonant, including h and x ; or before bl, gl, kl: br, dr, fr, gr, kr, skr, str, tr, thr: ch, ph, th: sch: tsch: single type ck, st, sz (in Roman letter = ss, divided s- s), tz. Usage fluctuates with pf, as, Ku- pfer Schop- fung dum- pfig; with dr, as, nie- drig nied- rig; with fr, as, schief- rigen; with kl, as, dunk- ler, and st, as, lus- tig. (Here the suffix seems to claim the single consonant.) Finally, we meet with Deut- schen instead of Deu- tschen. Wie-der Belusti- gung heili- gen Ei- lande grii- nen Roma- nen verbunde- nen Eu- ropa Wande- rung gewe- sen bedeu- tend Ale- xander De- klamation Fe- bruar Pa- triarchen Ko- stroma ma- chen Ste- phan ro- then zwi-schen Berdi- tschew Fe- stung Preu- szen drau- szen (L); zei- gend dei- nigen (B); schrei- ben Brie- fen geisti- gen sei- ner spa- nische changie- ren Patrio- tismus [qua- dringentesimo] Ma- trizen unparteyi- schen Exi- stenz Maje- stiit friihe- sten Mini- sterium (K) ; ei- gene ei- nem ih- nen kontra- hiren koo- perative steh- ende (irregular) pu- blizirt nie- driger Indu- strie au- szerdem Gese- tzes (S); mo- gen Ta- ges vorliiufi- gen ge- heu Bib- Hotheken (irregular) mii- szen (H) ; na- her ru- hig beste- hen rii- cken gro- szen (G) ; Entste- hung Zuzie- hungen blii- henden frii- hesten wei- ter beglei- tetes Ni- gritier Katastro- phen geogra- phischer wilde- sten in- du- striosen Zoroa- strichen (Ha) ; Me- xiko eu- ropiiischer Samo- jeden Bi- bliothek Ma- drid Kathe- drale Ro- dri- guez Emi- granten Je- frem Mi- kroscope Bea- trix Deme- trius Di- strikt Lo- thringen Mi- thridatisch Ku- pfer Pondi- tscherri Kau- tschuk Pe- tschenegen (M). German divisions 445 5 Divide between double consonants; between two consonants other than the digraphs and trigraphs enu- merated in Rule 4j or between a consonant or conso- nantal combination and any combination capable of beginning a German word. But note the exceptions indicated under Rule 4. Quel- len bren- nen fes- selnd Wet- ters dunk- ler (irregular) nied- rig (irregular) unschul- dig gegen- den Verbin- dung Drohun- gen mil- den Sep- tember behaup- ten charak- terisirt Bos- porus Lamais- mus mitt- lerer wel- chem son- stige Kon- trast herr- schende Deut- schen (irregular?) Pet- schora (irregular) Kap- tschak (L); weis- sen (Roman letter) Gries- gram schwan- kender erwach- senen leuch- teten Adel- heid dam- pfenden klat- schenden (irregular?) lus- tige (irregular?) (B)j Renais- sance Ok- tober Korrek- toren Dis- putiren Dis- ziplin des- peratem (in disregard of classic prefix) Eras- mus Fis- kal Nachfol- gerin Vol- kern Sach- sens Exem- plar Pamph- leten Fiir- sten Lempertz- schen (K) -, Genos- senschaft verflos- senen zen- tral Bluntsch- li (S); al- len widersin- nig brin- gen sin- gen Schop- f ung letz- terer sach- sisch Drechs- ler (H); nach- stens Em- pfin- dungen kam- pfen Tisch- chen Men- schen (G); mils- sen wis- sen beis- senden (all Roman letter) Auffas- sung dum- pfig schief- rigen (irregular?) Por- trait Alexan- drien hoch- stens Flach- ses deh- nenden Vereh- rung Semitis- mus Skulp- turen agyp- tisch (Ha) ; Es- karpe Is- pahan Geg- ner Ma- gnesia (irregular, as if follow- ing the Greek division) Kep- ler Ian- gern Lan- gres Zwin- ger Mus- kat Dam- pfer Tiibin- gen Weresch- tschagin (M). W. P. G. August, 1898. E SPANISH DIVISION OF WORDS A single consonant between vowels begins a syllable: me-sa, table. la-bor, needle-work. The letters ch, rr, 11, and n, are considered as simple consonants, and follow the same rule : mu-cha-cho, hoy. ni-uo, child. pan-ta-lla, lamp-shade. tie-rra, land. Two separable consonants standing between vowels are divided : puer-ta, door. gus-to, pleasure. Exception. — The letters b, c, ch, d, f, g, j, p, q, t, V, z, followed by 1 or r, cannot be separated, unless they unite compound words : pa-la-bra, icord. ta-bla, hoard. si-glo, century. po-dra, he will he ahle. sub-lu-nar, sub-lunar. Three or four consonants, of which s is the second, divide after the s : eons-tan-te, constmit. trans-eri-bir, to copy. Otherwise compound words are to be resolved into their elements : cor-ta-plu-mas, penknife. ca-ri-lar-go, long-faced. ])VQ-^o-H\-Q,\on, preposition, ad-je-ti-vo, adjective. True diphthongs and triphthongs are indivisible : vie-ne, he comes. bue-no, good. pre-ciais, ye prize. va-cieis,' i/e tnay empty. but lo-Or, praise. le-er, to read. a-ta-ud, coffin. gan-zu-a, false key. Copied, by permission, from Knapp's Grammar of the Modem Spanish Language. Second edition, 12mo, pp. 18, 19. Boston, Ginn & Co., 1900. INDEX INDEX A. See Article Abbreviations, early, 34, 35; in sixteenth-century books for un- schooled readers, 35; in eigh- teenth-century descriptive writ- ing, 35; use of small type for, 35, 36; in account-books and epistolary writing, 36; tolerated in some books after 1800, 36, 37; in technical and scientific works, 37; in foot-notes and narrow columns, 37 {note) ; proper and improper use of, 37, 38 ; permis- sible, 38 et seq. ; use of small capitals and of lower-ease for, 39, 41; of companies and titles, 43-45, 60 ; supposed faults in, 43, 44; in capitals when appended to names in text, 44 ; confusing, 45 (see also note) ; conjoined with signs, 45 ; some not found in any dictionary, 48 ; manuscript book or list of, 48, 60 ; Latin, 49 (see also note) ; of dialect, slang, and colloquialisms, 50 ; troublesome, 51 ; indefensible, 52 (see also note) ; for states and territories, 53, 54; of sizes of books, 54; for citations, 55 et seq. ; use of, in catalogues and advertisements, 76, 77; in legal documents, 77 (see also note) ; dislike of, in text, 144; early use of period with, 262 (note 2), 290; undesired, 340 -able, words ending in, 9, 16 (see also note), 17 Accents, use of, 9, 14 ; names with many, 10; on retention and OTnission of, 101, 102; accurate placing of, 316 Account-books, abbreviations in. Adjectives, treatise on, in -able, 16 (note) ; in -ant, -ent, 23, 24 ; com- pound, 66 et seq. ; capitalizing of certain, 122; in book titles, 127; division of, 135; use of comma with, 253-255 Adverbs, words consolidated as, 70; ending in -ly, 72; use of comma with, 253, 255, 258, 259, 262 {note 1) Advertisements, use of figures and abbreviations in, 76, 77 ; capital letters used by writers of, 124, 125 ; hackneyed methods of, 127 ; style of short, 147 ; squeezed the- atrical, 182 ; hanging indention in, 189 ; typographic mannerisms of, 231 ; study of punctuation of, 260; composition of, 315 Advertisers, old fashion of over- wide spacing favored by modem, 140 Alford, Dean, 261 (see also note) Algebra, abbreviations in treatises on, 37 ; use of letters as symbols in, 42 {note 1) Almanacs, abbreviations in, 37 Amateurs, in printing, 143 ; imita- tion by, 183 (note) ; m proof-read- ing, 318, 319, 320 (see also note), 321 America, use of ampersand in title- pages rare in, 43 ; vowel system of divisions has many adherents in, 129; use of motto indention in, 192; single quotation-marks in, 218 ; dash a useful mark of punctuation in, 270. See United States American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science, new spell- ings recommended by, 18.(»oT)e, 214 ; forming part of paragraphs, 214, 215; punctuation before and after, 216-218; use of, within quo- tations, 218-220; inverted com- mas mark beginning of, 253; the comma in, 256, 257; usually preceded bv colon, 267, 268; verification of, 300, 306. See Ex- tracts re-, use of, 71 Readers, variations in spelling and compounding of slight impor- tance to many, 6, 7; books printed in sixteenth century for un- schooled, 35; reference figures of slightly bold face helpful to, 92 (see also note 2) ; free use of italic for emphasis an affront to intel- ligence of, 96 ; profuse italic irri- tating to, 104 (see also note 2); unnecessary display offensive to, 126; books written for conve- nience of, 141, 142, 233 ; not helped by artificial arrangement and mixing of types, 154; accustomed to restricted use of italic and small capitals, 156; graduation of types for, 158, 160, 161; of newspapers and of books, 166, 175; repelled by bad spacing, 198; too free use of quotation- marks implies lack of knowledge by, 210, 211; italic makes titles plainer to, 226 ; methods of mak- ing language clear to, 229 ; super- fluous marks of punctuation not helpful to, 238, 239 ; correct punc- tuation makes sentences quickly intelligible to, 247 ; points should be selected to aid, 262 Reed, Talbot Baines, 163 Reference-marks, 175, 176; super- fluous punctuation with, 238, 239 Reporters, use of brackets to in- close explanations or comments by, 277, 279 Reports, use of figures in, 80 Reprints, old, 51; faithful, 138; old method of using quotation- marks for, 161, 162; of seven- teentliciMitury sonnets, 197; use of ])nickets in literal, 277, 278; passaiifs considered spurious in, usually inclosed in brackets, 279; evidences of faithfulness of, 293 ; compositors engaged on, 294 Response, symbol of, 48 Revise, taking of first, 300; au- thors, 302, 308 ; distinctive mark- iiig of, 308 Revisers, duty of, 300, 301 ; of lino- type composition, 357 Revising, of ordinary news work, 295; cost of, 295; hurried or in- considerate, 309; of copy, 341, 342; of linotype composition, 357 Roman, abbrcN'iations made for ten-, eleven-, and twelve-point, 49 (see also note) ; italic mismated with, 96 ; use of, between quota- tion-marks, 98, 102, 103, 107; words and phrases preferably put in, 100-102 ; quoted for names of magazines and newspapers, 103 (see also note); in citations, 105 ; for scientific names, 106, 107; contrast between italic and, 107 ; new faces of, 152 ; lower- case of, in letter headings, 164 et seq. ; letters set in, 169 ; pref eiTed for side-notes, 180 ; cut-in notes usually set in, 180 ; for ^charac- ters in novels and plays, 227, 228 ; lower-case of, for subheadings, 231, 232; capitals of, for legend lines, 235; lower-case of, for legend lines, 235 Rules, use of, between text and foot-notes, 177, 178 ; under run- ning titles, 178 Savage, William, 49 (note) Scaliger, Joseph, 348 Scarron, Paul, 349 {note) Schoeffer, Peter, 346 Scholars, differing authorities on spelling preferred by, 5; avoid- ance of diphthongs by classical, 13 (see also note 1) ; complained of obscui-ity of early books, 33 ; use of capital O as interjection in Latin not approved bv best, 110; different methods of punc- tuation practised by, 246 School-books, cut-in notes in, 180; siibheadings in, 230, 231 Sciences, signs or symbols in text- books of, 42 (note 1); abbrevia- tions in works on, 45 ; Latinized names of, 106, 107; capitals largely used in nomenclature of, 125 ; punctuation not included in exact, 246 ; little-used terms in, 338 Index 471 Scott, John, 34 Scott, Robert, 35 Script, indention of, 169; very- wide indention unpleasing even in, 185; spacing of, 206, 207 Scriptures, centre-notes in pocket editions of, 181 Sections, sign used to indicate, 52 (note); shoulder-notes used in law work to define, 181 self, compounds with, 68 Semicolon, use of, with closing marks of quotation, 217; old teaching as to elociitionary value of, 245, 246; in compound sen- tences, 249, 250 : defines member of sentence, 250, 252, 253 ; omis- sion of, in simple sentences, 251 ; use of, in complex sentences, 251- 253 ; in modern practice of punc- tuation, 254 ; early use of, 262 (note 2) ; proper function of, 262, 263, 288 ; no point of intermediate importance between comma and, 263, 264 ; cannot be perverted to other use,- 266 ; seldom used with dash, 291 Sentences, in English, intelligible without accents, 14 ; punctuation of complicated and of short, 245 ; different parts of complex, 246; names of component parts of long, 247, 250 ; definition of, 247, 250 ; omission of comma in direct, 248, 253 ; use of comma in ampli- fied, 248, 249; construction and punctuation of compound, 249, 250; simple and complex or compound, 251-253 ; explanatory phrases incorporated in, 255; proper function of semicolon in, 262, 263 ; period at end of com- pleted, 268; position of interro- gation and of exclamation in, 280-283; faulty construction of, 306 Serials, names of, in roman, 105; in italic, 105 Service-books, symbol of response in, 48 ; symbol of versicle in, 48 Shakspere. William, 56-58, 72, 210, 227, 259 Shoulder-notes, use, position, and style of, 181 Side-headings, small capitals freely used for, 146 ; capitals and small capitals an approved style for, 152; in dictionaries, catalogues, and educational books, 155, 156, 240; should agree with types of text, 159; in letters, 169; types selected for, 240; use of dash with, 269, 272, 273 Side-notes, abbreviations in, 38 et seq. ; italic unwisely used for, 105; divisions in narrow mea- sures of, 131; add to expense of composition, 179; type for, 179- 181; cut-in notes more trouble- some than, 180; spacing of letters in, 206 Signatures, use of ampersand in, 42 (see also note 2); abbrevia- tions in, 43 ; italic for, 105 ; capi- tals and small capitals for, 150, 151, 153, 154, 166, 169 ; indention of, 169, 170, 196 Signs, use of, in scientific treatises and text-books, 37, 42 (note 1); scientific, 45; abbreviations con- joined with, 45; mathematical, 46; astronomical, 46, 47; com- mercial, 47; apothecaries', 47, 48; ecclesiastical, 48; for para- graphs and sections, 52 (note); of reference, 175, 176; used by proof-readers, 322-324 Singular, changes from, to plural, 11, 12 -sion, nouns ending in, 22 Sixtus V, Pope, 348 Slang, abbreviations of, 50 Small capitals, use of, for abbre- viations, 39, 41; abbreviated ti- tles in, 44; numerals of roman, 90, 91; for titles of magnates, centuries, and dynasties, 91, 92; contrasted with lower-case, 91, 93 ; roman numerals of, for foot- notes and indexes, 93; should be proper intermediate between lower-case and capitals, 93; in footnotes, 103; for names of newspapers and magazines, 104 ; at beginning of lines of poetry, 108; particular use of, in Bible, 109, 110 (see also note 1); for titles of honor or distinction, 117; how indicated in copy, 145; rated as superior to italic for emphasis or display, 145 ; no taller than round letters of low- er-case, 145; characteristics of, 145 ; uses of, 145 et seq. ; more useful if taller and wider, 146; how to i-elieve densitv of, 148; used with capitals, 148, 150, 151, 166; French, 152; letter headings and signatures in, 153-155, 164 et seq. ; for reproduction of inscrip- 472 Index tions on tablets, 155; for side- headings in dictionaries, cata- logues, and educational books, 155, 156, 240; rarely used for em- phatic words, 156 ; of value when used with discretion, 156; sub- headings in, 230, 234; for running titles, 234 ; for legend lines, 235 Smith, C. M., 311 (note) Spaces, disuse of, in abbreviations, 39, 41; old fashion of spacing with two three-to-em, 140; of different widths not possessed by early printers, 142; proper and improper use of, 198 et seq. Spacing, over- wide, 75; of capitals, 113 (see also notes), 203, 204; divi- sion of words prevents unequal, 130 ; injudicious division of words a cause of bad, 138, 139; more attention now given to even, 139, 140 ; wide and naiTow, 143 ; den- sity of small capitals relieved by hair-, 148; of running titles, 152; objectionably uneven, 184; im- portance of even, 186; half-dia- mond indention a cause of bad, 191 ; of capitals in squared para- graph of narrow measure, 194; even, 198 et seq. ; of hand com- position, 200-202; how to secure even, 202 ; of lean and fat types, 202 ; thin, 203 (note) ; affected by punctuation, 204, 205, 210; of let- ters, 206, 289; of black-letter, lower-case, and script, 206, 207 ; of poetry, 208; of subheadings, 232 et seq. See Leading Spanish, division of words in, 144 Spanish Grammar, 144 Spelling, seven approved authori- ties on, 5; disagreement of dic- tionaries, writers, and printers with regard to, 5; words of changeable, relatively few in dic- tionaries, 5, 6 ; variations of Brit- ish and American, 6; inconsis- tencies of authors in, 7; decision of author on, final in printing- house, 7; difficultj^ of following different authorities in, 7, 8; importance of unifoi-mity in, 8; variable, 8 (note) ; remarks about variable, 8 (note) ; author should furnish list of woi'ds of peculi;ir, 9; words of variable, in copy, 9, 10, 61; im])ort;(n(*t' of proi)pr<-o(h' of, 10; writers :tpi>;irently indif- ferent about, 10; dt'hatahle forms of, 10; remarks on, 10; correct, of words ending in -ible, -able, 16, 17; of classical names, 17; of proper names, 25-27 (see also note) ; distinctively British, 27- 31 ; reformed, 31 (see also note) ; illiterate, 32 (see also note) ; sup- posed faults in, 43, 44; bad, should be repeated in copies of originals, 51; knowledge of. in- sulficient in proof-reading, 310; obsolete British, 316 (see also note) Standard Dictionary, use of, in United States, 5; spelling of, 8 (note) ; chemical words in, 18 (note) ; prefen-ed spellings of, 28 (note 2), 29 (note), 31 Stanzas, numerals of roman small capitals for, 90 States, Southern, use of O in, 15 ; Northern, use of oh in, 15; usual abbreviations of, 53, 54 Statins, Publius Papinius, 109 (note) Statues, use of italic for names of, 104 Sterne, Laurence, 259, 271, 273, 278 Stone, clipped words cut in, 33 Stormonth, Rev. James, 328 Stormonth's Dictionary, an author- ity in England and colonies, 5; known only by name to many American proof-readers, 8; dif- ferences of spelling in, 28 (see also note 1), 29 (see also noU), 31 ; spelling of, 328 Style, niceties in, 8 ; uniformity of, 78, 157, 158 (see also note), 328; chap-book, 142; characteristics of small-capital, 146, 147; for side-headings and sublieadina;s, 152 ; types radically different m, 159; types identical in, but of differe'nt shape. l.')9. KiO; typo- graphic, 305, 310; written code of , 328. ^ee Mannn-isms Subheadings, division of words in, 131; in small capitals, 149; in lower-case, 149 ; capitals and small capitals an approved style for. 152; should agree with types of text, 159; regular, 164; cut-in notes need less s}»ace tlian, 180 ; indention not needed under sh•?%'