THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA HANDBOOK OF COLLOQUIAL JAPANESE BASIL HALL CHAMBERLAIN F.ran(ris may also be recommended. TABLE OF CONTENTS. (THEORETICAL PART, OR GRAMMAR.) CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. ^ I, ^Method of using this Handbook. — ^ 2, Necessity for much Learning by Heart. — ^ 3, Relationship of Japanese to Other Languages. — ^ 4, Differences between Ancient and Modern Japa- nese, Introduction of Chinese. — ^ 5, Pronunciation of Chinese. — ^ 6. Preference for Chinese Words. — ^ 7, Japanese Writing, the Kana Syllabaries. — ^ 8, Colloquial Literature, — \ 9, Parts of Speech. — ^ 10, Errors into which European Speakers are Apt to Fall Pp. I— II. CHAPTER H. PRONUNCIATION AND LETTER-CHANGES. ^11, Letters. — \ 12 — 13, Vowels, Short and Long. — ^ 14 — 19, Vowel Peculiarities, Quiescent Vowels. — \ 20 — 22, Diphthongs. — \ 23 — 25, Consonants, Simple and Double. — ^ 26, Final Letters. — \ 27, Accent. — ^ 28 — 32, Letter-Changes, the Nigori, Reduplication of Consonants. — \ 33, Change of ^ to ^i in certain Compounds. — \ 34, Japanese Inability to Pronounce certain Combinations of Letters, Changes hence Resulting in Imported European Wordp. — ^ 35, Euphonic Contractions Pp. 12 — 26 Iv TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER III. THE NOUN. •^ 36 — 44, Number and Gender. — ^ 45 — 49, Comix)und Nouns, Synthesis of Contradictories, Difference between Native and Chinese Compounds, Hyphens. — ^ 50, Word-building, Proper Names. — ^ 51, Honorifics in Word-building. — ^ 52, Nouns in sa and ;///. — \ 53 — 54, Koto and Mono. — ^ 55, Names of Shops. — ^ 56, Names of Trees, Rivers, Islands, and Mountains. — *[f 57, Aidoy Hazu, Toki. — ^ 58, Tokoro, Dokoro. — \ 59, Verbs used as Nouns. — \ 60 — 63, Nouns used as Adjectives. — ^ 64, Nouns used as Adverbs Pp. 27 — 45. CHAPTER IV. THE PRONOUN. "^ 65 — 71, Personal Pronouns. — \ 72, Reflexive Pronouns. — \ 73 — 79, Demonstrative, Interrogative, and Indefinite Pronouns and Adverbs (^ 74, Table of Pronouns and Adverbs). — \ 80 — 86, Relative Pronouns, Tokoro no Pp. 46 — 61. CHAPTER V. THE POSTPOSITION. \ 87—135, Postpositions Proper (including \ 88—90, De. — f 91—94, Ga.—\ 95 — 98, Ka. — \ 99—100, Kara. — ^ loi. Made. — \ 102, Mo. — ^ 103, Motte. — \ 104—109, Ni. — \ 110 — 1 14, N'o. — \ 115, Dano.—\ 116, Shi.—^ 117— I2i, To, Toie.—\ 122—125, lVa.—\ 126—128, Difference between Wa and Ga. — \ 129 — 132, Wo. — f 133, Ya.—^ 134, Ye.—\ 135, Yori).—\ 136—140, Postpositions Combined, N'o ni, Woba, To xua. — \ 141 — 145, Quasi-Postposi- tions ... Pp. 62— 100. ' CHAPTER VI. THE NUMERAL. •^ 146—156, Cardinal Numbers (including ^ 147 — 151, Native Nu- merals. — \ 1 5 2^,Chinese Numerals. — \ 153, Letter-Changes of Chinese TABLE OF CONTENTS. V Numerals. — ^ 154 — 156, Sundry Peculiarities of Numerals). — • ^ 157 — 160, Chinese Auxiliary Numerals. — ^ 161, Native Auxiliary Numerals. — ^ 162, Counting of Human Beings. — ^ 163 — 165, Interrogative Numeral Words. — ■[[ [66, Ordinal and Fractional Numbers. — ^ 167 — 172, Counting of Time. — ^ 173 — 174, iNIiscellaneous Numeral Locutions Pp. loi — 119. CHAPTER VII. THE ADJECTIVE. ^ 175 — 185, Primary Inflections in ki, shi, kii (/, o, h). Adjective Stems, Table of Primary Inflections. — ^ 186 — 187, Secondary or Tense and Mood Inflections, Tables of ditto. — ^ 188, Negative Adjec- tive A^ai. — ^ 189, Negative Conjugation of Adjectives. — ^ 190, Ex- amples of Tense and Mood Inflections. ^ 191, Compound Adjec- tives. — ^ 192, Beh. — ^ 193, Desiderative Adjective in Tai. — ^ 194, Rashii, Reduplicated Stems. — \ 195, Garti and Tagarii, Verbs Derived from Adjectives. — ^ 196 — 210, Quasi- Adjectives (including ^ 197, No, Na, Na no, and Emphatic Nan. — ^ 198, So na. — •[ 205 — 207, Verbs used as Adjectives. — ^ 208 — 209, Common Errors of Foreigners. — ^ 210, Diminutives in ko, Augmentatives in o, and Honorifics o, go, etc.). — ^ 211 — 214, Comparison of Adjectives. — ^215 — 219. Miscellaneous Items Pp. 120 — 148. CHAPTER VIII. THE VERB. ^ 220, Fundamental Differences between Japanese and European Verbs.— 1[ 221 — 222, Analysis of Verbal Forms into Root, Stem, Base, and Agglutinated Suffix. — *f 223, Roots. — ^ 224 — 225, Bases. — ^ 226, Verbs how Named. — ^ 227, Introductory Remarks on the Paradigms. — ^ 228—230, Paradigms of the Three Regular Conjugations. — ^ 231 — 233, Paradigms * of the Irregular Verbs Kuril, Sttrti, and Masu. — ^" 234, Verbs for Practice. — If 235 — 237, Peculiarities of First Conjugation (with Table).— ^f 238, Kyoto Peculiarities. — ^ 239, Rationale of Phonetic Changes in Stems ending in s, t, or a Vowel. — ^ 240 — 267, Analysis of the Formation of the Moods and Tenses. — •[ 268 — 272, Irregular Verbs, viz.^ -Vi TABLE OK CONTENTS. An/, Go~'.ini, Irasshani, A'lidasarn, A^isarn, Ossharu, Ikn, and Shinuru. — \ 273 — 291, Remarks on the Use of the Moods and Tenses (including \ 273 — 276, Present, Past, and Future. — ^ 277, Infinitive. — % 278 — 279, Indefinite Form and Negative Gerund. — \ 280—282, Gerund. — \ 283, Gerund of Adjectives. — \ 284, Emphasis- ed Gerund. — % 285, Desiderative Adjective and Adjective of Pi-o- bability. — ^ 286, Form in so, — ^ 287, Conditional Mood, Old Hypothetical Mood, N^araba, Elliptical Idioms Corresponding to English Would, Should, Could, etc. — \ 288 — 289, Concessive Mood and Idioms. — \ 290, Frequentative Fofm. — \ 291, Imperative Mood). — \ 292 — 302, Auxiliary Verbs (including ^ 292, Stems Built up by means of Auxiliaries. — \ 293, Aru. — \ 294, Irii and Oru.-\ 295, Knru, Illative Tenses. — ^ 296, Miru. — f 297, Naraba. — \ 298, Oku. — \ 299, Shimau. — ^ 300, Suru, Itasii. — \ 301, Yarn. — ^ 302, Auxiliaries make the Sentence Lifelike and Picturesque) Pp. 149 — 197. CHAPTER IX. THE VERB (CONCLUDED). ■\ 303, Passive Voice. — ^ 304, Origin of Passive explains Peculia- rities of its Use. — ^ 305 — 308, Curious Examples, Wo in Passive Constructions, Aru. — \ 309, Passive passes into Potential. — \ 310, Dekiru. — ^ 311, Kaiieru.—\ 312, Morau, Itadaku. — \ 313, English Passives expressed by Japanese Intransitives. — \ 314, Aversion of the Japanese Language to the Use of the Passive. — \ 315 — 316, Intransitives in eru. — \ 317 — 318, Difference between Intransitives in eru. Potentials in areru or rareru, and Passives in areru or rareru. — 1[ 319, Second and Third Conjugations how Treated. — ^ 320, Examples of Intransitives. — \ 321 — 323, Tran- sitive and Intransitive Pairs of Verbs. — \ 324, Absence of Reflex- ive Verbs.— ^ 325 — 333, Causative Verbs. — f 334 — 340, Com- pound Verbs. — \ 341 — 349, Equivalents of the Verb "to Be," Aru^ GozarUj Da^ Desu, fru, Oru, Irassharu, Oide jtasaru, ^a, ATaru, Suru.—^ 3SO— 358, Suru (^f 353, Zuru, yiru).—^^ 359— 361, Verbs Liable to be Mistaken for Each Other. (^ 361, Paradigm of Iru, Ireru, and Iru). — ^ 362 — 365, Verbs used as Other Parts of Speech (^ 364, Reduplication of Present Tense) Pp. 198—230. TABLE OF CONTENTS. vii CHAPTER X. THE ADVERB, INTERJECTION, AND CONJUNCTION. SPECIAL PHRASEOLOGY. •^ 366, Absence of True Adverbs. — % 367, Adjective Forms in ht used Adverbially. — % 368 — 370, Nouns used as Adverbs. — % 371, Phonetic Decay. — ^ 372, Gerunds used as Adverbs. — ^ 373, List of Adverbs.— •[[ 374— 376, "Yes" and "No." — f 377, Adverbial Phrases. — ^ 378, Onoraatopoetic Adverbs. — % 379 — 384, Interjec- tions {% 382, Narnhodo. — ^ 383, Nc). — If 385, Bad Language. — \ 386, Baby Language. — % 387, Women's Language. — \ 388, Court Language. — \ 389 — 391, Conjunctions Pp. 231 — 243. CHAPTER XL ttONORIFICS. 'T 392 — 393' General Considerations. — \ 394, Honorifics only Par- tially Replace the Pronouns of other Languages. — \ 395 — 396, O and Go. — \ 397, Sama applied to Things or Acts. — \ 398, Honorifics used Objectively. — I" 399, O Saki. — \ 400, Meaningless Use of Honorifics. — % 401, On, Mi. — ^ 402 — 404, Honorific Periphrases for Verbs, — ^ 405 — ^406, Special Honorific and Hum- ble Verbs. — ^ 407 — 410, Honorific Imperatives. — \ 411, "Please" and "Thank You." — *[[ 412 — 413, Special Honorific and Humble Nouns, Names of Relationship. — % 414, Written Language Forms. — ^ 415, Scantiness of Self-depreciatory Forms. — % 416, Sir, Madam, Mr. — ^ 417, Mrs., Miss. — ^ 418, Women's Names. — ^ 419, Use of the Word "Mr." .Pp. 244—259. CHAPTER Xn. SYNTAX. •*f 420, The Fundamental Rule is that Qualifying Words precede the Words they Qualify. — % 421, Postpositions only an Apparent 11 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Exception. — *[[ 422, Correlation of Sentences. — *{ 423, Subject of Sentence. — ^ 424, Examples of Construction. — ^ 425 — 426, Exam- ples of the Correlation of Clauses by the Indefinite Form and the Gerund. — *[[ 427, General Subjectlessness of Sentences. — ^ 428, Order of the Direct and Indirect Objects of the Verb. — ^ 429, Ellipsis, Final Verb often Omitted. — ^ 430, Syntax of Post- positions. — ^ 431, Inversion. — ^ 432, Negatives mutually Destruc- tive — *f[ 433 — 434, Peculiarity of Japanese Negatives owing to the Absence of Negative Pronouns, Adverbs, and Conjunctions.—^ 435 — 436, Quotation generally Direct. ^ 437, How to Avoid Quota- tions within Quotations, Peculiar Pleonastic Idiom. — ^ 438, Inter- rogation. — ^ 439, Passives. — ^ 440 — 441, Absence of Personifica- tion. — ^ 442 — 444, Extreme Tendency to Synthesis as shown in the Integration of Sentences Pp. 260 — 282. (PRACTICAL PART, OR READER). *|[ 445. Short Phrases in Constant Use Pp. 285—299. ^ 446. Additional Useful Phrases „ 300—306. ^ 447, Easy Questions and Answers „ 307—309. ^ 448. Proverbs „ 310—315- f 449. Fragments of Conversation, including : i, The Post ; 2, An Exhibition ; 3, A Request ; 4, Engaging a Teacher ; 5, Salary ; 6, Meal Hours ; 7, An Enquiry ; 8, Another Enquiry ; 9, Talk- ing to a Child; 10, Talking to a Father; 11, The Telegraph; 12, Speaking Japanese Well ; 13, No Thoroughfare ; 14, Compli- ments on Meeting a Friend ; 15, A Message ; 16, Feeling Unwell ; 17, On Board Ship; 18, A Picnic; 19, A Visitor; 20, Asking the Way; 21, Compliments on First Meeting; 22, Taking I^avc of a TABLE OF CONTENTS. IX Friend ; 23, Thanks for Assistance Received ; 24, New Year Con- gratulations ; 25, An Earthquake ; 26, Hiring a Jinrikisha ; 27, Letters for the Mail ; 28, Nearing Yokohama ; 29, A Christian Church ; 30, A Fire; 31, The Theatre ; 32, Early to Bed ; 33, Difficiolty of the Japanese Language ; 34, Asking the Way ; 35, The Way to the British Embassy ; 33, A Toast; 37, The Telephone; 38, Keeping a Visitor Waiting ; 39, Looking in on an Intimate Friend ; 40, At a Tea-house ; 41, A Meeting Dispersed ; 42, Shopping at Miyano- sliita ; 43, A Logical Child ; 44, Cranks Both of Them ; 45, Keep- ing up the Family Reputation Pp. 316 — 343. ^ 450—3. Anecdotes, including: ^ 450, True Economy; ^451, Thankful Kichibei ; ^ 452, If they Wait, their Ages will Come Right; ^ 453, A Savant's Wedding Pp. 344— 361 ^ 454. A Newspaper Article, entitled " Why ? " „ 362—371 ^ 455. Extract from a Sermon „ 372—377 ^ 456. Mr. Fukuzawa's English Studies „ 378—396 ^ 457. A Debatk in the Diet „ 397 — 445 H 458—9. Two Chaptkrs from the " Boi'AN-DoRO," A Story by Encho Pp. 446 — 483, ^ 460 — 8. A Word about Poetry „ 484— 4S8 ^ 469. Vocabulary of all the Japanese Words occurring in this Work Pp. 489—575 i[ 47c. Index of Subjects ^., „ 576—584, THEORETICAL PART. HANDBOOK OF COLLOQUIAL JAPANESE. CHAPTER I. Introductory Remarks, I. "How can I learn to speak Japanese?" — This question has been so often addressed to the present writer that he has resolved to put his answer into a permanent shape. He is persuaded that no language was ever learnt solely from a grammar, — least of all a language like Japanese, whose structure and idioms arc alien from all that we are accustomed to in Europe. The student is therefore recom- mended only to glance through the Theoretical Part at first, in order to obtain a general idea of the territory he has to concjuer. He can pick up by the ^\•ay such of the examples as strike him, committing them to memory and seeking opportunities for using them to his servants and his native teacher. He should then go on to the Practical Part, and attack the " Fragments of Conversation '' and the " Anecdotes ' as soon as possible, however baffling it may seem to be confronted wiUi such long sentences. After all, as Japanese consists chiefly of long sentences, one cannot too early decide to face them. A little practice will rob them of much of their terror. Every now and then the Theoretical Part should be consulted on difficult points. It should be read 4 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. through carefully, a little at a time, after a diligent study of the Practical Part and the committal of a few pages of the latter to memory shall have caused the student to make some way in the mastery of the language. T 2. The necessity for memorising cannot be too strongly insisted upon. It is the sole means of escape from the pernicious habit of thinking in English, translating every sentence literally from a whispered English original, and therefore beginning and ending by speaking English Japanese instead of Japanese Japanese. It is not only that the words and idioms of Japanese differ from our English words and idioms, but that the same set of circumstances does not always draw from Japanese speakers remarks similar to those which it would draw from European speakers. Japanese thoughts do not run in quite the same channels as ours. To take a very simple instance. If an Englishman wishes to make a [xylite remark to a friend about the latter's sick father, he will probably say, " I hope your father is better to-day."' In French, German, Italian, etc., the phrase would be pretty nearly the same. In each of these languages the same kindly hope would be expressed. In Japanese it is different. The phrase must run thus : OtoUsan wa, do dc guziumasii P Honourable-father-Mr. as-for, how is? or, more politely. Go shimpii loa, ikaga de irasshaimasiL ? August real-father as-for, how deigns-to-be? The idea of hoping or fearing, which to us is so familiar, does not present itself with the same vividness and fre- quency to the less anxious, less high-strung Far-Eastern mind. The characteristic phrase here is rather the ever- recurring fatalistic RELATIONSHIP TO OTHER LANGUAGES. 5 " There is nothing- to s^a mil. "O Shikata ^.. nu, j^^ ^ ,^ "There is Doing-side huvi/i H'Jtl7'(- hitiiicIA is-not. J , , ^ . , 'no help for it. The student should endeavour to place himself from the outset at the Japanese point of view. This he can do only by dint of much learning by heart. 'I'he trouble thus taken ^vill be of infinite advantage to him, even if his ultimate aim be the indoctrination of the Japanese with foreign ideas. It will put liim in sympathy with his hearers. It is true that, since the opening of the country, English idioms have begun to penetrate into the Japanese language. But it is chiefl)' into the language of the lecture-hall and the committee- room. The style of familiar every-ilay s}^)eech remains little affected by this new influence. ^3. It is still doubtful under what flimily of language Japa- nese, with its sister-tongue Luchuan, spoken in a litUe archi- pelago to the south between Kyushu and Formosa, should be classed. There is no relationship between these and Aino, the speech of the hairy aborigines whom the Ja})anese concjuerors have gradually pushed eastwards and northwartls. In structure, though not to any appreciable extent in \'ocabular)', Japanese closel}' resembles Korean ; and both it and K(^rean ma}- possibly be related to Mongol and to Manchu, and may therefore claim to be included in the Altaic group. Be this as it may, Japanese is what is gene- rally termed an agglutinative language, that is to say, it builds up its words and grammatical forms by means of suffixes loosely soldered to the root or stem. It also shows faint traces of the " law of \owel harmony " or " attraction,'' which characterises the Altaic languages. This manifests itself in a tendency to uniformity in the vowels of p INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. successive syllables, as ototoshi, "the year before last," K>r ato to^hi. Similarly in several of the words recently adopted from English, such as viishin, "a (sewing-) machine;" " hotn, " a boat ;" l>id'hi, " a (European) book." ^ 4. I'he earliest Japanese literature that has come down to us dates, in its present form, from the beginning of the eighth century after Christ. The general structure of the language at that time was nearly the same as it is now ; but the changes of detail have been so numerous that a page of eighth century Japanese is unintelligible to a modern native of lokyo without special study. One of the chief factors in the alteration of the language has been the gradual intillralion of Chinese words and phrases, which naturally accompanied the borrowing of Buddhism, Confucianism, and the various arts and sciences of China. Chinese established itself, so to speak, as the Latin and Greek of Japan. It retains this position even at the present day, suppl}'ing names for almost all the new implements, sciences, and ideas, which are being introduced from Europe and America. In this manner, one curious and unexpected result of the Europeanisation of Japan has been the flooding of the language with Chinese terms at a rate never known before. Thus we have : kl-scu, lit. "steam-ship," " a steamer." /as ha, It " steam-vehicle," "a railway train, icisu-do. ») " iron-road," "a railway." sha-shin, >> "copy-truth," '" phv)lograph." min-ken, >> " i:>eople-right," "democracy." ron-ri-gaku, >» ' ' argue- reason-science, ' ' " logic." vm-sen den- "no- wire-lightning- " wireless tele- shin >> message." • graphy."- CHIXESE WORDS. fvi-scf shn- T, f " dislike- world master- ,.^ f " dislike-world master- ) .^ . . ,, lit. \ ... y "pessimism [ - mcaninf^', ) ^ ... . •• ( "set-up-law ^-ov- ) ("constitutional ■^ ' " ( eminent, ) ( go\ernment. yn-s/id rep- i " superior-conquer ] J " the survival of />(//, " ( inferior-lose," j | the fittest." ^ 5. The Japanese do not pronounce Chinese in a manner that would be intelligible to any Chinaman. They have two standards of pronunciation, both of which are corruptions of the Chinese pronunciation of o\er a thousand }'ears ago. One of these is called Go-on, the other Kan-o/i, from the names of certain ancient Chinese kingdoms. Usage decrees that the same word shall be pronounced according to the Go-on in some contexts, and according to the Kan-on in others. Thus the myo of dai-myo, "a feudal noble" (lit. " great name "), is the same as the mei of mei-hutsu, " the chief production of a locality" (lit. "name thing," i.e. "a famous thing "). In this case myo is the Go-on, and mei the Kan-on, of the same Chinese character '^, which in China itself is pronounced ming. The practical student will do best to learn words by rote, without troubling himself as to whether each term, if Chinese, be Go-on or Kan-on. \ 6. The eftect of the steady influx of Chinese words during more than a millennium has been to discredit the nati\e Japanese ecpiixalents even when the}' exist. A foreigner who wishes to be considered an elegant speaker should, therefore, gradually accustom himself to employ Chinese words very * Kn (Jap. itou) is less " to dislike " than " to weary of." Shu-gi, " chief (oi- master) meaning," comes to signify "principle," and serves to render our syllable "ism" in many abstract term^, as " monism," icJii-gcn sJiH-gi ; " socialism," sha-kjoai shu-gi, etc. 8 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS, freely, except when addressing uneducated persons. He should, for instance, prefer CHINESE JAPANESE ?}iyd-chd, "to-morrow morning," to ashita no asa. iai-hoku, " a large tree," to dh' na ki. Wa-sei, "Japanese make," io Niho?i-deki. jin-ryoku(suru), "to endeavour," to chikara wo tsukusu. tochakuisuru), " to arrive," to tsuku. Some thoughtful persons, both Japanese and foreign, regret the fashionable preference for Chinese words. But the fashion exists, and to follow it is considered a mark of refinement ; neither is it possible, even were it desirable, for an outsider to set up a standard of his own, different from that acknowledged by the people themselves. The copious- ness of the Chinese tongue, and the marvellous terseness which generally enables it to express in two or three s}'llables ideas which would require five or six in Japanese and indeed in almost any other language, form an argument in favour of this species of Japanese Johnsonianism. On the other hand, much confusion is caused by the fact that numbers of Chinese words are pronounced alike. The consequence of this is that it is often impossible to know what a term means, without reference to the Chinese characters with which it is written. In any case, whether he speak simply or learnedly, the student should at least avoid speaking vulgarly. Japanese resembles English in being full of slang and vulgarisms of every sort. But what should we say to a young Japanese, who, having been sent to London to learn our language, should return home with the haccejit of ' Jghgate and the diction of the street Arab } Japanese has also many provincial dialects ; but the dialect of Tokyo (itself a slightly modified form of the Kyoto dialect, which was formerly SYSTEM OF WRITING. 9 considered the standard Colloquial) has gained an over- whelming importance as the general medium of polite intercourse throughout the country. Practical students are advised to devote themselves to it alone. If they speak it well, they will be as generally understood as a man who speaks standard English is generally understood in England, that is to say, they will be understood everywhere by all but the peasantry, and in most provinces even by the peasantr)\ *jf 7. Japanese writing consists of the Chinese characters, — ideographs, as they are sometimes styled because represent- ing sense not sound, whole words not individual letters,— mixed with a syllabic writing called the Kajia. Speaking generally, the Chinese characters serve to figure all the principal words of the sentence, such as nouns, adjectives, and \'erbs, while the function of the Kana syllables interspersed throughout the text is to transcribe phonetically such lesser elements as particles and grammatical terminations. We cannot here treat any further of this important subject, — important because Japanese, like every language boasting a long history and extensive literature, may be said to live and move and have its being in its written system. Students desirous of pursuing it will find what they require in the present writer's '' Moji no Shirube'\ or "Practical Introduc- tion to the Study of Japanese Writing." The characters may advantageously be attacked very soon after the Colloquial, say, as soon as oral communication between the student and his teacher has become established in however lame a way. The ideal plan would be never to look at Romanized texts at all. ^8. A peculiarly intricate system of writing is not the sole barrier that divides the Colloquial from the language of books. The Japanese, like other Easterns, still remain at the stage in lO INTROnrCTORY RF.ArARKS. which we were (hiring the JVIicUlle Ages :— the}- do not write as they speak, but use an antiquated and parlU arlKicial (halect whenever they put pen to pa})er. This is the so-called "Written Language." Of late years, it is true, the advantages of assimilating writing to speech ha\e been practically championed by a small minority of authors, who have i)ublished works in the Colloquial, notably novels. From among these, " Tajd Taknn" by Ozaki Koyo, may be singled out as likely to suit foreign readers, owing to the simplicity of its style and the circumstance that it deals with modern, yet thoroughly native, conditions. Tokutomi Roka's '' Omoi-de no lu^' is another story much to be recommended. The " Autobio- graphy " of the philosopher and educationist Fukuzawa Vukichi (" Fukii-o fiden ") is an extremely interesting book of a different cast. Occasionally the newspapers and the / "Transactions " of the Educational, Geographical, and other learned Societies reproduce a lecture exactly as taken down by the short-hand writer from the mouth of the lecturer, and the reports of the debates in the Imperial Diet are given verbatim in the "Official Gazette" {Kwampd). I'he more usual practice, however, is to dress everything up in the Written Style before it is allowed to appear in print. ^9. A word as to the parts of speech in Japanese. Strictl}- speaking, there are but two, the verb and the noun. The particles, or " postpositions " and suffixes, which take the place of our prepositions, conjunctions, and conjugational " terminations, were themselves originall}- fragments of nouns and verbs. The pronoun and the numeral are simply nouns. The true adjective (including the adverb) is a sort of neuter verb. But many words answering to our adjectives and adverbs are nouns in Japanese. I'here is no article. COMMON MISTAKES. II Altogelhcv our grammatical categories do not fit the Japanese language well. They have only been adhered to in this work in so far as they may serve as familiar landmarks, "^ lo. In conclusion, the following warnings concerning errors into which Euro})ean speakers of Japanese arc apt to fall, may be found useful : — Do not confountl long and short vowels. (See ^f 13.) Do not use personal pronouns too freely. (See 1[ 71.) Do not insert the postposition no between a true adjecti\e and the noun to which it belongs. (See ■[[ 208.) Do not apply honorifics to }-ourself. For me to ask an\' one, for instance, to shinjo something to myself, or to haikcn something belonging to myself, would be as if I should sa}' : " Have the honour to give it to me," or " Have the honour to look at this thing belonging to me." As explainetl in Chap. Xr, honorifics can only be applied to other peoi)le, while contrariwise humble terms must be used in s})eaking of oneself. I shinjo (lit. '' respectfully lift up ") something to you ; but I ask }'ou to kudasai (lit. "condescend") something to me. I haikrji (lit. ''adoringl\- look at") something belonging to you; but I ask you to goran nasai (lit. "august-glance deign") something belonging to me. (See ^ 405.) If you hear beggars in the street shouting after you to shinjo a coi)per to them, it is only because, having learnt from experience that foreigners constantly misuse the honorifics, the)' think to ingratiate themseh-es and to be mure easil}' underslv)od by doing likewise. Were the\- addressing a Japanese, they wouUl never dream of sa\ing an^-thing so rude and so absurd. CHAPTER II. Pronunciation and Letter- Changes, PRONUNCIATION. •]" II. Japanese, when written phonetically with the Roman alphabet, according to the phonetic spelling sanctioned by general local usage, requires the same letters as English, with the exception of /, q, v, and x. The letter c occurs only in the combination ch, which is sounded nearly like English ch in " church," but a little more softly, as cha, "tea;" chichi, "milk." A^.B. The simplicity of V>r. Hepburn's system, which practically coincides with that reconnnended }>y the Royal Geographical Society for the transcription of hitherto unx'omanized languages, has brought about its general adoption in Japan not by Anglo-Saxons only, but by Frenchmen, (lermans, and the Japanese themselves. Not a few spellers do, it is true, deviate on minor pohits, cither from inadvertence or in order to satisfy their individual notions of phonetic ]xirfection. Prob- ably no language admits of being written phonetically with absolute precision ; and the 'present writer, for one, gladly sacrifices some minute ]Xirsonal preferences for the sake of what is far more important in such a case, — unity of usage. ^ 12. The vowels are sounded as in Spanish and Italian, but are always short, unless marked with the sign of long quantity. It is imj^xissible to express the values of the Japanese vowels correctly in English ; but, speaking aj)- proximately, we may say that LONG AND SHORT VOWELS. 1 3 a resembles thert; in " father,'' but is shorter. e ,, „ e „ ''men." / „ „ / „ ''machine,'' but is shorter. „ „ „ "for" (not "four"). u ,, „ u „ " bush." o ,, „ ,, " bone," but is a purer o. u „ ,, 00,, "food." % 13. Particular care must be taken to distinguish the short from the long vowels ; for there are many words totally distinct in meaning, but differing, so far as pronunciation is concerned, merely in the quantity of their vowels, thus : (/oz(f, "a mud godown;''* /:o/w, "here;" sa/o, "a village ;" /oru, "to take;" fsuji, " a cross-road ; zu^si^, " [one, etc.] at a time ;" zu^sa, The only long vowels of common occurrence are o and Ft. Long a hardly occurs, excepting in the interjections a ! ma ! na ! and sa! and in the words obasan, "an old lady," "grandmamma," and okkasan (but also okkasan), "mamma." Long e hardly occurs, excepting in the interjection ne. Long / does not occur, because replaced in writing by double ii, as in yoroshii, "good," though in reality the sound is that of / protracted. ^14. When preceded by another vow^el or by ;/, the vowels e, i, and o are pronounced /t', yi, and 2vo respectively. I'hus ue, "above;" kon-in, "marriage;" and shio, "salt," are pro- nounced (and by some transliterators wTitten) uye, konyin, shiwo. * " Godown " is Far-Eastern English for a store-house or warehouse. The word apparently came to us through the Malay from the Tamil or Telugu, dbzo, " please." koko, "filial piety." sato. "sugar." torn. "to pass through. tsuji. "an interpreter." zutsu, " a headache." 14 PRONUNCIATION AND LETTER-CHANGES. /utatsu, " two," hito, " person," zmiakushi, "I," takusan, " much," " many gozat'masu, " there is," shita, ""below," tsuki, " the moon," pronounced | T 15. /and u are often inaudible, or nearly so in the mouths of natives of Tokyo after/*, //, k, s, s/i, and is, as '/taisu, or fiats, hio.* waiakshi. iaxan, gozaimas. shia. isJu. ^ 16. Initial u is silent, and the following m doubled in the pronunciation of the four words tuna, " a horse," umai, " nice," iiwareru, " to be born," time. pronounced //imn. ,, inmai, „ mmarent. mme. " a plum-tree," ,, ^1 17. The quiescent vowels are distinguished in this work l^y the sign of short quantity, as Into, sJiiia, takusa?i, uma. But it should be noted that the Japanese themselves are not conscious of failing to pronounce the f s and ?/s in question, and that these letters often recover their proper power for the sake of clearness or emphasis. They count in prosody, and are sounded even in ordinary conversation by the natives of many provinces. That is why they are allowed to remain in the transliteration, most persons writing them without any diacritical mark. \ 18. The vowel ii, when following 67/ or j, is often mis- pronounced as i by the T6ky5 people, thus : teishi, for icishii, "a husband." The h here has the sound of German ch in ich. PIPHTHO^•GS. 15 They are also apt to mispronounce^/^ as /, thus : iki, {oxyuki, "snow;'" but this is distinctly vulgar. T^ 19. Be very careful to discriminate final e from final /. Englishmen are often unintelligible cnving to their confound- ing such words as sake, " rice-beer,'' and saki, " front,"' " before." take, "a bamboo ;"' ,, iaki, " a waterfoll."' ytime, "a dream;"' „ yumi, "a bow."" \ 20. The diphthongs ac^ ai, ao, au, ci, oi, iii, call for no remark, each vowel retaining its own proper sound, as in Spanish or Italian. Englishmen and Germans must beware of mispronouncing ei as in "eiderdown" or German " klein." Japanese ev" being simply ^ + ^, the second syllable of such a word as kirei, " pretty," sounds nearly like the English word " ray " or the German " Reh," not at all like "rye." Be equally careful not to give to au {a-\-/i) the peculiarly English sound of "awe;"" but pronounce, for instance, /(y?//, "to buy," very nearly like English "cow." In the case of verbs, however, ending in aii, such as kau, "to buy;"" uioraii, "to receive;" shttagau, "to follow," it is optional to pronounce the letter au like a long o. But this is more characteristic of western Japanese than of Tokyo usage. Tf 2 1 . The Tokyo people are apt to say ai for ae, and oi for 06] thus inai, instead of mae, "before;" kui (which means "love ""), instead of /y;(', "voice." They also often contract . Tlie old native philologists knew nothing of tonic accent, and some European investigators have denied its existence, while others have asserted it in confident, but mutually contradictory, terms. Dictionaries do not mark it, it has no influence on prosody, it varies from province to province, and inhabitants of the same province con- tradict, not only each other, but themselves in their usage and in the explanations which they give concerning it. 'J'he researches of Dr. Edwards, tlu- only scientifically trained investigator who has written on the subject, seem to establish the foUowing ]X)ints of Tokyo usage : — I. Words and series of w ords are entirely devoid of stress if all their 20 PRONUNCIATION AM) I^KTTKR-CHANGKS. syllahlcs aic -licit, or all arc I011.4. c^-^^ koiio kalaiia (all short syllahlt-), " this sword ;'' ko in ningyo (all Kjiig*), " a doll of this kind," II. A long vowel among short ones bears a slight accentual stress, e.g. nidshitiiasii, " I say ;" ^inika-donna, " the son of the master of the - house ;" arunasho, " there is perhaps," III. Diphthongs are treated like long vowels, e.g. Eikokii, *' I^ng- land ;" akdi, " red." IV. So is any syllable wherein a vowel is followed by more than one consonant, e.g. akindo, " a merchant." V. So is any" syllable terminating in //, as kafniii, " a portmanteau." VI. When two vowels do not form a diphthong, the second gene- rally receives a slight accent, e.g. iiiicrii, " to appear." VII. ^Vs a rider to Rule I, a short vowel is sometimes " weakened." This weakening still further shortens it, and, by contrast, gives a slight accent to its neighbour. Examples are kakdru, " to hang ;"' kokdro, " the heart." As shown in these uistances, a and o undergo this weakening chiefly when occurring in the first of two similar syllables. E is never Aveakened. In the case of / and //, the weakening may be of two khids, either slight or extreme. Ivitd, "came;" inn, "dog;" aid, " song," are instances of weakening so slight as merely to jilace a little accent on the next syllable. When the weakening is extreme, the / or It in question becomes almost or quite inaudible. These are the very numerous cases mentioned in ^15, and printed i and u through- out this book, as s/iite, " done ;" gozaimasu, " is," etc. In such a case as aritiiasu ka (pronounced arinidska), " is there ?" the uiaudibility of the ic causes an accent to fall on the preceding a, in obedience to Rule IV. VIII. Some si^eakers use a slight tonic accent to distinguish jxiirs of words that are spelt alike in A'ana or Roman. Thus dvii', " rain," but amt', a kind of sweetmeat ; /ids/ii, " chopsticks," but Juishl^ " bridge " (or hdsh'i, with both syllables slightly emphasised, but e([ual) ; kirn, " to cut," but kin'i, "to wear." Other sjxiakers either make no such dis- tinction at all, or make it in other ways. — — ■ ■ — « * In Dr. Pxlwards' terminology, reduplicated c<.)nsonants, as //, kk, etc., are called long. Ng, sounding as it does like a reduplicated n;is;il g, naturally belongs to this category. A "long syllable" therefore signifies in this context one containing either a long vowel or a redui)li- cated consonant. In = yu ; see \ 22. THE MCORI. 2 1 Sum total : — The tonic accent is very slight, variable even within the narrow limits of the city of Tokyo, and altogether of scant impor- tance. The tendency of all I'.uroix'ans, excepting Frenchmen, is lo accentuate Japanese too strongly. New-comers cannot do better than endeavour to acquire a light, even, tripping enunciation, not only of individual words, but of whole sentences. The effect produced in English by emphasising particular words is either obtained in Japanese by turning the sentence some other way, or (much more frequently) it is not sought for at all. LETTER-CHANGES. ^28. Nigori, lit. ''muddling/' is the name given by the Japanese to the substitution of sonant consonants for surds. A^. B. In contradistinction to the sonant letters {d, g, z, etc.), the surd letters (/, X', s, etc.) are said to be sitmi, i.e. " clear." The two categories tc^ether are termed sei-daku by the native gi-ammarians, sei being the Chinese word for " clear," and dakti for " muddled." The consonants affected chansje as follows : — Surds. Sonants. .4 into /* J [_ (anciently ll J probably/) h. " k >5 g- s' ts ' )> z.\ t >> d. * In western Japan, where the rules and analogies of the ancient language have been more faithfully pi-eserved than in the present capital, the nigori of ch is pronounced like English /, and the nigori of sh like the softer French 7 ; thus////'/, "the wistaria" (hard), but Fuji, " Fusiyama" (soft). The Tokyo pronunciation ignores this delicate distinction, and has English j (but just a trifle softer) for both alike. ■f In the western provinces (folloAving ancient usage), the nigori of s is z, while the nigori of ts Ss, dz\ thus niizu, " not seeing," but midzu, " water." In T5kyo these two sounds are confounded, both being alike pronounced as /fe, Conf. the end of ^ 24, pages 17-18. 22 FROXrNCIATLOX AND LF.TTF.R-CUAXCES. The broad law go\erning- the use of the nigori is that the initial surd (ch, s/i, /" //, /-, s, /9, or /) of an in- dependent word — especiall)' of a noun — changes into the .corresponding sonant (y, b, g, z, or (/) when the word is used as the second member of a compound. The law affects, not native words only, but like\\ise those borrowed from the Chinese. Thus : From ?ydn, " cookery," and ch(ry(7, " a tea-house," is formed ryori-jaya, " an eating-house." P'rom sh//;/^7, " an island," repeated, is formed s//iw(7- jiwa, " various islands." From y<7/i(% " a roof," and ftmc, " a vessel,'' is formed yane-loune, *' a house-boat." From h', " fire," and Yiachi, " a j)ot," is formed hi-hachi, " a bi-azier." From the " indefinite forms " of the verbs kirn, " to wear," and ]^aeru, " to change," is formed k/-giir, " a change of clothes." From kaku, "an angle," and S<7A>, "sugar," is formed kaku-'LaU), " loaf-sugar." From is'aki, " moon," " month," and ^ue, " end," is formed isaki-zuc, " the end of the month." From kwcin, a Chinese word signifying a "jar" or " gallipot,"* and the indefinite form of the verb tsiwieru, " to pack," is formed kivan-7:,ume , " tinned , (provisions)," " canned things." * Sir Ernest Satow sugt^ests that this word kwan, though fitted by Japanese ingenuity with a suitable Chijicse ideograph (|£), may, after all, be nothing but the Knglish word " can " itself, whose meaning it serves to convey. THE NIGORI. 23 From oral, " a thoroughfare," and the indefinite form of the verlj toniern, " to stop " (trans.), is formed dn7/'-do7;//% " no thoroughfare." A'. B. Xigori'cii syllables are not limited to compounds. A' a relic of the old pronunciation of // as /. (onf. ^ 28, near end of J). 21, small type in middle of column. *|[ 31. The law regulating the use of the nigori is by no means an absolute one, euphony and sometimes the varying caprice of individuals deciding in each case whether the change shall or shall not be made. Thus 0, " great," and saka, " a hill," compounded to form the name of a large town in Central Japan, may be pronounced either Ozaka or Osaka (never Osdrkur, as Englishmen are apt to say). F and h, however, always change either into b or into p, if the first member of the compound ends in a nasal consonant. Thus it would be inadmissible to say jum-fh {ox jum-pii. It is considered ugly to have many 7iigori'^<\ letters in one word. For instance, as kaze, "■ wind," already has the nigori'ed letter 2, it will, when combined with ka?}ii, " above," make kaza-kami, " windward," not ka^a-^atm, which would sound awkward and thick. Observe, too, that no nigori' ed letter is ever doubled. T 32. As shown by the examples of jum-pu and t em-pen, n changes to m before a labial. To give another instance : '^ teTii-?)ioji-gaku," "astronomy;" from ten, "heaven;" 7)ion, " markings or letters " (not used alone) ; and gakti, " science." — N or m is sometimes inserted corruptly by careless speakers, as shamheri for shaberi, "a chatter- box;" yon-ju for yo-ju (better shi-ju), "forty." They make up for this by dropping ?i where it should be retained, saying, for instance, daiko instead of da ikon, " a radish." •|[ 33. Less important than the nigori affecting initial con- sonants, is a change which affects the final vowels in certain native Japanese words of one syllable and two MIN'OR LETTEK-CHAXCKS. 25 syllables. In this class of words, e final is often strengthened to a in the first member of a compound,"^ thus : From kaze, ''wind," and karni, *' above," we have k(7ZSL-ka//i/', " windward." From /e, "the hand," and w^Av/, " to hold," we have tdLinotsu, " to keep." From //e, " top," and the indefinite form of kiru, " to put on, "to wear," we have //zf-a-^/, '' an over-coat." As an irregular member of the same class may be mentioned s/iira for s/iiro, the stem of the adjective shiroi, " white," in such compounds as shir2L-giku, "a white chrysanthemum." (AVXv/^:" chry- santhemum.'") shir2i-ga, " white hair." {Gu here stands for k>% " hair," — an anomalous change.) ^ 34. All the Japanese consonants do not admit of being sounded before all the five Japanese vowels. J^ only occurs before the vowel u, the other four vowels taking /i instead. ^.S" is replaced by .9-^, and z by j, before the ^•owel /. 7' is replaced by c/i, and d by j, before the vowel i ; t is replaced by ts, and d h\ z, before the vowel w. W occurs only before the vowel a ; y only before the \owels a, 0, and u. The sole exceptions, according to the orthography adopted in this work, are those offered by the postpositions zoo and j^. Compare, however, \ 14. A^. B. The phenomena mentioned in this paragraph seem to be of comparatively modern growth, though they can be traced back- some three centuries. The archaic form of the language probably possessed f (or rather /), .f, and /, but no h, //, sh, J, ck, ts, or {d)z. * Strictly speaking, it is a which is weakened into e, a study of the older language showing that the forms in a are almost certainly the original ones. We state the rule as in the text simply for the sake of practical convenience. 26 PRONUNCIATION AND LETTER-CHANGJ.S. To the i)ractical student the peculiarity above noted is interesting only in so far as it affects the conjugation of verbs. He is therefore referred to Chapter VIII, If 235 ft scq. It ma) , however, be worth while to instance in passing the strange alterations introduced into borrowed European words b}- this inability of the Japanese to pronounce certain consonants before certain vowels, b)' their further inability to pronounce combinations of con- sonants or any final consonant except «, and by the absence from their language of some of the commonest European sounds, such as / and v. Hence such meta- morphoses as kara, "collar;" ramune, " lemonade ;" 5-^^7/5//, ''shirt;" ivanishi, "varnish." vSuch cases 2& penki 2,\i(\ risu- rin, for " paint " and " glycerine," are abnormal. Sometimes a foreign word has two Japanese representatives, one moulded on the spelling, the other on the pronunciation, as hiini or hiya, "beer" ^ 35. Finally certain contractions are brought about by euphony and the desire for speedy elocution. Such are ip-pun for ichi /tin, " one minute ; " jis-so, for Ju so, " ten vessels." For these the student is referred to the Chapter on Numerals, ^ 153, as it is in the case of the numerals that these contractions most frequently occur, and that it is most necessary to commit them to memory. CHAPTER III. The N'oun, NUMBER AND GENDER. \ 36. The noun is indeclinable, distinctions of number and gender being left to be gathered from the context, and case relations being, as in English, indicated by separate words, which are, however, " postpositions," not preposi- tions. Thus Uma 111 noru lit, horse in ride ma}- mean, according to circumstances, to ride on one horse or on se\eral horses, on one mare or on several mares. Htto ga kimashUa lit. person [uoiiiiuativc' particle) has-conie ma}' mean either that one person has come, or that several people have come. Similarly the word yanui may designate one mountain or many mountains, it being properly rather a kind of collective noun, like the (lerman " das Gebirg." \ Zl- I'^ the rare cases in which it is indispensable to mention the sex of an animal, this can be done by the use of the prefixes 0, " male," and vie, " female," the resulting compound being sometimes slightly modified by euphon}-. Thus : ushi, " any bovine animal." o-ushi, " a bull," " an ox." me-nshi, " a cow." lima, " any equine animal." 28 THE xorx omnia, '' a horse." meuuna, " a mare." tori, "a bird," ' ondori, ''acock." ?nendon\ "a hen." a fowl." The words otoko, " man," and osu, " male ; '* onna, " woman," and w^.9//, " female," subserve the same piir}x>se, thus : ko, " a child ;" ofoko no ko, "a boy : '" onna no ko, " a girl." man 's child woman 's child ?nu, " any canine animal ;" Such a phrase as 'osu no inu no inii, ) u 1 " ' ^ " a doer ; osu, ) ^ ' inesu no inu, ] ,, , -^ i - >■ " a bitch. jnu 710 inesu. Osu dcsu ka, mesu desii ka P' ( " Is it a male Male is ? female is ? j " Is it a ma I female } " may mean "Is it a horse or a mare.''" "Is it a gander or a goose.?" "Is it a he or a. she-ass.?" etc., etc., ac- cording to circumstances. The words osu and ?Nesu are never applied to human beings, whereas the words otoko and onna are applied indifferently to human beings and to other living creatures. ^ 38. In some rare cases, chiefly the names of the degrees of relationship, the sexes are distinguished by the use of different words, thus : chichi, " father ; " haha, " mother." otoitsan, "papa;" okkasan, "mamma." ojiisan, " grandpapa," ohasan, " gmndmamma," " an old gentleman ; " " an old lady." oji, " uncle ; " oha, " aunt." GENDER AND NIMBKR. 29 ani, " elder brother ; " ane, " elder si^er."' oioto, " younger brother ; " imofo, " younger sister.' ^ 39. What we call the singular number is occasionally indicated by the use of the word hitotsu or ichi, " one,"' thus : Jhiko lutoisu, " one box." ichi-neti, *' one year."' ^ 40. The idea of plurality, universality, or variety is oc- casionally indicated by doubling the word, thus : hd-bo, " everywhere ; "' from ho, "■ a side."' iro-iro, " all sorts ; " from iro, " a sort" (properly " a colour "). kuni-gun>, " various countries ; " from kuni, " a country." tokoro-dokoro, " many places," " here and there ; ' from tokoro, " a place." As exemplified in these words, the second member of such compounds almost always takes the nigori, when it begins with a consonant capable of so doing. ^[41. Another method of expressing plurality is by agglu- tinating certain particles, viz. gufd, iachi, shu (often pro- nounced .v///), domo, and ra, to the end of the word, thus : okhsama-gala, " my lady." shikiUdu-fachi, o?imi-shu, ()?ina-domo, kuruma-ya-nr, " a jinrikisha-man." The order in which the foregoing particles and examples are given is that of a gradually decreasing politeness. There is, indeed, no great difference between gata and fachi, but ladies " from okilsa/fhi, " a lady," oflficials ; " „ shikwan, " an official." women ; " „ Of ma, " a woman."' women ; " ,, onu:i, " a woman."' " jinriktsha- •men ; "' from " kiiruma-ya^ 30 THE NOUN. both are certainly more polite than the three that Ibllow them. Onna-shu may be used in speaking of the female attendants of another ; ojina-domo is better in speaking of the female attendants in one's own household. The suffix ra is decidedly familiar. ^[42. Numerous as are the above particles, the idea of plurality is not always very clearly expressed even by their help. Thus, whereas ko may mean "children" as well as " child,'' the ostensibly plural form ko-dovio may meaii " child " as well as " children.*' In this particular instance, l)ut scarcely in any other, we may, in order to get an un- doubted plural, superadd one suffix to another, and say ko-domo-ra or ko-domo-shu, " children." ^ 43. We may also (chiefly in vocables borrowed from the Chinese) prefix certain words in order to obtain a sort of plural ; thus : ban-koku, " all countries," " international ; " from diin, " ten thousand," and koku, " a country." sho-kim, " gentlemen ; " from sho, " all," and ku/i, " prince," " Mr." sn-nen, " many years ; " from sFi, " number," antl ne//, " a year." A^.B. None of tlie Chinese words here given — ^uu, kokii, s/io, etc., — can be used alone, but occur only in com[X)unds. Observe the shorten- ing of sh to sn, — not obligatory, but usual. • ^ 44. But though the ways of indicating sex and number are thus various, it cannot be sufficiently borne in mind that they are all more or less exceptional, and are scarcely foimtl except in a limited number of cases which usage has sanctioned. Disdnctions of sex and even of number are not dwelt on at every moment by the Japanese, as they are by the European, mind. COMPOUND NOUNS. COMPOUND NOUNS. ^45. Compound nouns are very numerous, and can be formed at will. They generally consist either of two nouns, or of a noun preceded or followed by the stem of an adjective (conf ^ 183), or by the "indefinite form" (see •[ 221 and ^ 241) of a verb. As the indefinite forms of verbs are themselves constantly used as nouns, two such forms may combine to constitute a compound noun. The following are specimens of the various sorts of compound nouns : — furo-ha, " a bath-room,"' from /'uro, " a bath," and da (used only in compounds), ** a place." ie-bukuro, " gloves ; from /c, " the hand,"' and fbkuro, " a bag."-" Sewiei-hoken-kivaisha, " a life insurance companv " (dirce Chinese words, each itself really a compound). kuro-?nega?ic, " black goggles ; " from kurui, " black,"" and megane, " spectacles." {Megatie is itself a compound of W6', '' eye," and kanc, " metal.") fd-mega?ie, " a telescope ; " from ^oi, " far," and juegane, '' spectacles." /ne-kura, "a blind person," lit. "eye-dark;" from mc, " the eye," and km-ai, " dark." kai-mono, " a purchase," " shopping ; " from kau, " to buy,"" and /fioiio, "a thing." kakc-mono, " a hanging scroll," from kakcru, "to hang" (trans.), and viono, " a thing." yake-do, " a burn ; " from yakeru, " to burn " (intrans.), and fo (for fokoro), " a place." ki-chigai, " a lunatic ; " from kt\ " spirit," and chigau, " to differ," " to be wrong." ^2 • THE NOUN. mono-oki, " an out-house ; " from mono, " a thing,'' and oku, " to put.'' ie-nugui, "a towel;*' from te, "the hand,'' and nuguu, " to wipe." haki-dame, "a dust heap;" from haku, "to sweep," and fanieru, " to collect together '' (trans.) hiki-dashi, " a drawer ; " from h1ku, " to pull," and dasu, " to take out." make-oshimi, " unwillingness to acknowledge oneself beaten " (e. g. the fox in the fable, who said that " the grapes were sour ") ; from makeru, " to be defeated," and oshimu, " to regret." .\^. /?. Observe the tendency of the second member of tlie compound to take the nigori (Conf. ^28). •jf 46. The forms indicating gender and some of those in- dicating number are really compounds, as may be seen by reference to \ Zl "^"^^ If 43- '^^ ^^^ ^he augmentatives formed by prefixing o, the root of bkii, " big," and the diminutives formed by prefixing ko, " child " (very rarely 0, " small "), thus : baka, " a fool ; " d-baka, " a great fool." ishi, " a stone ; '' ko-i'shi, " a i)ebble." nezumi, " a rat ; " d-neztimi, " a large rat ; " ko-nezumiy " a small rat,' " a mouse." .V. B. The names of tlie young of animals are formed by means of ko, either by prefixing it as a i)article, or by using it as a separate word, thus : /'//// no ko, or ko-inu. /it. dog 's child, chill III Ilka dc no ko, ] lit. centipede 's child j" ^ I '-a puppy." a young centi[x;de.' CO-ORDINATED COMPOUNDS. 33 Usage evinces certain preferences in this matter. Thus, thopgh imi no ko and ko-inu are indifferently employed to signify " puppy," one cannot call the young of the centipede ko-mnkade. It is obligatory to say mtikade no ko. ^47. In all the examples of compounds hitherto quoted, one of the two members is subordinated to the other. Sometimes, however, the two members of the compound are co-ordinated, thus : tsuki-hi, " months (and) days." so-inoku, " herbs (and) trees." (This is a Chinese com- pound, the component parts of which are not used alone.) But though they are closely joined in pronunciation, there would be no harm in considering these as separate words, and in so writing them, especially if they are native Japanese terms, thus : ani otolo, "' elder brother (and) younger brother," i.e. " brothers." ane imofo, '' elder sister (and) younger sister," i.e. " sisters." umi kawa, " (the) sea (and the) rivers." isuki hi hoshi, " (the) moon, sun, (and) stars," Co-ordinated compounds are sometimes obtained by ab- breviation, after the manner of the following : Ei-Bei, " England and America," from Ei-koku, " Eng- land," and Bei-koku, " America," by dropping the second half of each. sak-kon, lit. '' yesterday and to-day," " recently," from saku- Jitsu, " yesterday," and kon-nichi, " to-day." This occurs only in words taken from the Chinese language, which esteems nothing so much as brevity. 34 THE NOUN. A', A, The order of such compounds cannot be revered. Bei-Ei or kon-saktt would not be understood. Tf 48. Such co-ordination sometimes assumes a peculiar form, which has been aptly named '' the synthesis of contra- dictories/' because from two terms of opposite signification there results a third abstract term giving the mean of the two, thus : en-kin, " far-n^ar/' i.e. " distance." kan-dan, " cold-heat," i.e. " temperature." nan-nyo, \' man-woman," i.e. " sex." sci-sui, '' prosperity-decline," i.e. " the ups and downs," *' the fortunes," of a family, kingdom, &c. The above are Chinese vocables. As pure Japanese examples, though not nouns, we may take aru-nashi, '' is-isn't," i.e. " (the question of) the existence of a thing." yoshi-ashi, " good-bad," i.e. " degree of excellence," " quality." The use of these convenient expressions, which is borrowed from Chinese grammar, is chiefly confined to persons of education. ^49. The student should note the difference in construction between genuine native compounds and those derived from the Chinese, when one member of the compound is a verb governing the other. In genuine Japanese comj)ounds the verb comes last, as in English, thus : hara-kiri, lit. "belly-cutting," the old form of legalised suicide. vama-nobori, " mountain-climbing." COMPOSITION IN WORD-BUILDING. 35 In Chinese compounds, on the contrary, the verb com^^ first. Take, for instance, the elegant Chinese synonyms for hara-kiri diTidi yama-nobori, which are preferred by cultured speakers, viz. sep-puku, from setsu, " to cut,*' 2iX\d fiiku, " belly,'' to-zafi „ to (here to), "to ascend," and san (zan), " mountain." iV. B. Hyphens need not be used so freely as we, for etymologic;'! purpose?, have here done. A hyphen is, however, indispensable be- tween the two members of such compounds as i^vii-a/i, " the draft of a document," where a final ti is followed by an initial vowel. (Conf. ^ 23, p. 17 under the heading of iV.) Quite a number of compounds are hybrid, that is, partly native, partly Chinese, as omote-?uon, " a front gate "; Nihon- bashi, " Japan bridge " (the name of a bridge in Tokyo), where mon and Ni/ion are Chinese, the other half of each Japanese. COMPOSITION A GREAT FACTOR IN WORD-BUILDING. ^ 50. The student interested in etymology will gradually discover that almost all long Japanese words and many short ones are really compounds, though their composite origin has often been forgotten even by the Japanese them- selves. Thus mic/ii, " a road," is from ;;//, an honorific prefix, and c/ii, the original word for " road." JMikado, " the Imperial Court," hence " the P'mperor," is from the same mi, and kado, " a gate " (compare the " Sublime Porte " of Turkey).* liagami, "a mirror," is from kage, "shadow," * Sir Ernest Satow prefers to derive )itika(lo fiom the archaic inika. " great," and to {ni^ori'ed to (to), " place." 36 THE NOUN. " reflection," and mini, " to see."' Place-namei are almost always compounds which can be easily resolved into their constituent elements, as Yoko-hama, " cross strand ; " E-do (Yedo), " inlet door ; " Ara-Juvwa, " rough river ; " 0-shima, "big island ;" Fuji-san, " Fuji mountain," " Fujiyama" (the etymology of Fuji is obscure, but probably the name is of Aino origin) ; Miya^-Jid^-sJiita^ " below^ of ^ vShinto-shrineV i.e. ** beneath the shrine;" E^-710'^-shima^, "island' of'** inlet\" Similarly in the case of surnames, most of which are of geographical origin, being borrowed from the names of the localities where the persons who first assumed them resided, thus Ko-bayashi, " small forest ; " F-no-^ue^, " above' of ^ (the) welF ; Ta}-naka^, " among^ (the) rice-fields^ ; " Vama- da, "■ mountain rice-field," etc. Men's personal names, answering to our Christian names, are also nearly always compounds. Unfortunately few of these personal names can be translated, founded, as they are, on allusions to texts in the Chinese Classics, to feudal functions now obsolete, to cyclical signs, and to other recondite matters. Such names as Ta-rb, " big male," i.e. " eldest son ; " Ji-ro, " second (lit. next) son ; " Sahuro (for San-ro), " third son," etc., are sufficiently clear. N. B. For women's personal names, sec ^418. All Chinese words of more than one character are com- pounds, e.g. chawan, " a tea-cup," from c/ia, " tea," and zvan, " a bowl ; " sendo, " a boatman," — properly " the master of a junk," — [rom sen, "junk," "vessel," and fo (/ngori'ed to do), "head," "chief;" Tofyo from /o, "east," and tyo, " capital city," etc., etc. ^51. As shown in the foregoing examples of mic/ii, " road," and Mikado, " Emperor," honorific prefixes sometimes enter ABSTRACT XOIXS. 37 into the actual formation of words. Generall}', howe\er, they are felt to be distinct entities, and are therefore written separately, as cha, lit. '' honourable tea," i.e. '' tea." go mottomo, lit. " augustly right," i.e. " you are quite right." mi ashi, lit. *' honourable august feet," i.e. " your feet." For more detailed information concerning the honorifics, which form so important and all-pervading an element of Japanese speech, see Chapter XI. VARIOUS KINDS OF NOUNS. ^52. Abstract nouns, expressing degree as well as quality, are often derived from adjecti\e stems by agglutinating the syllable sa, thus : samiisa, " cold," *' the aistisa, " heat," '' the degree of heat." omoshirosa, " fun," " interest," " the desfree of fun." deofree of cold." shirosa, " whiteness, " the degree of whiteness." A tinge or trace of a quality, hence sometimes the actual quality itself, and even the object possessing the quality, may be denoted by the termination vii agglutinated to an adjective stem, thus : akatni, " a tinge of red." omosmromi, " (a certain amount of) fun." shiromi, " a tinge of white," " the white of an egg." Ainami ga usu \ I thin L '' It \, Sweetness^(;/^w.) thin ^ '« I|- j^n't quitC SWCCt CUOUgh." gozaimasu. 38 THE NOUN. ^53. These nouns in sa and //// nuisl be distinguished from the periphrasis formed b)- means of an atljective or verb and the word ^'o^o, '' (an abstract) thing," " a fact," " an act," " a state," as " the fact of being hot." '' the fact that something is " the fact that somethinsr is a/sm koto, " heat," kitanai koto, " dirtiness," diuy." shiroi koto, " whiteness," white.' machigatta mistook koto, j " a thing i one a mistake," *' the fact that some ///. mistook thing I Qne has made a mistake." shimpo sum koto, j " progress " (the noun) ; also *' to //■/. progress makes thing | progress " (the Verb). on ivo shiranai koto, ) ,, . . , ,, ///. kindness [accus. particle) ignores thing j" mgratltUUe. In speaking of the blade of a fine sword, one might say : Sono kissaki no surudoi koto,\ Its point 's sharp state, sono yaki no uruwashii koto, its tempering's beautiful state, hlto-vie mite mo sugu samusa one-eye seeing even, at-once coldness WO oboeru kurai da. {accus,\ feel amount is. " So sharp is its point, so fine its edge, that the merest glance at it gives }ou a shiver." These periphrases in koto are often used exclamatorily, especially by female speakers, thus : Atsui koto ! " Oh ! how hot it is ! " Kusai koto I " Oh ! what a horrid smell ! " ^54. Parallel to the abstract nouns in koto, are concrete nouns in mono. While koto denotes " a thing of the mind," ** a fact," " an act," mono almost always denotes a tangible, material thing or person, thus : KOTO AXD MONO. 39 nt. co.ning-out thing [ '^ ^'^^^ Pl'^tTC, " ail absCCSS. klisai mono, " a smelly thing." sJiiroi mono, " a white thing." sJiojiki-mono, " an honest fellow." This distinction between ko/o, " an abstract thing," and mom), " a material thing," must be clearly kept in mind, if the student would avoid constant misapprehension. Thus onaji mo?io means " the same thing," " the identical article," whereas onaji koto means " the same sort of thing," — the quality, pattern, etc., being the same, but the actual article a different one. For mono ivo at the end of a sentence, see 1287. Mono ?io, or to wa in nnno no, has a curious use, whose origin is unknown, but which may most easily be parsed b}- assuming no to stand for nagai\i, " while," " whereas :" — " That is all ver}' tine in theory, but it is might}' liard in practice." ' Fool as he is, he is ca- ■^Vpable of making himself useful in minor matters." ULi ma ni ainiasu. \ iiKked, space to conforms. } ^ 55. The names of shops are denoted by the termination ya, *' house," as : hofi-ya, " a book-store ; " from hon, " a l)ook." niku-ya, " a butcher's shop ; " from /ti'ki^, '' flesh." pan-ya, " a bakery," from pan, " bread." Rikutsu ih: 7va ko ill mono '1 h jory by indeed, thiis say thing no. jissai "a I yohodo wheiaas, practice as- f r, very muzukashii. fliJicult {is\ Baka da to WJ ill mo7io Fool is that indee( 1 say thirg 710, sukoshi no yd 7ii while, little ' s b isincss in 40 THE NOUK. Kame-ya, lit. " tortoise house " (or, as we might say, *' At the Sign of the Tortoise "), the name of several ^velI- known shops in Tokyo. Owing to the general Japanese habit of naming persons after places, such words as the above come to denote, not only the " book-store," the " butcher's shop," and the " bakery," but by extension the " bookseller," the "butcher," and the '' baker " themselves. Sometimes indeed the j^erson only, and not the place, is thus designated, as : kuruma-ya, " a jinrikisha-man." shtmbun-ya, " a newspaper man." T" 56. Names of trees and plants often terminate in h', " tree," or in its nigo/i'ed form gi, thus : Mgi, " the lespedeza." susuki, " the eulalia " (a mugi, " wheat, ley." sugt, *' the meria." bar- crypto- susuki, " the eulalia kind of tall grass). tsubaki, " the camellia tree." yanagi, " the willow tree." Names of rivers end in kawa (generally mgori'ed to gazva), " river ; " names of stretches of sea in ?ia{/a ; those of islands in s^ima (often nigori'ed to jimd) ; those of mountains in yama or san {zan), thus : Okawa, lit. " Great River." Sumida-gawa, " the River Sumida." Bungo-nada, the stretch of sea near the province of Bungo, separating the islands of Kyushu and Shikoku. Kojinia, lit. " Small Is- land," a name common to several islands off the Japanese coast. Ogasawara-jima, " the Bonin Islands ; " named after their discoverer, Ogasawara. AIDA, HAZr, TOKr. 4 1 Asdn/ij-\uviia, '' Mount L Bajidai-saTi, "Mount Asama." \ Bandai." ^57. 7'he nouns aida, " interval ; " hazu, " necessit}' ; " foh', " time ;" and toJioro, " place," often assume grammatical functions perplexing to the beginner. AiWa comes to correspond to our conjunction " while/' /lazu to our ^•erbs " ought " or " should," foh' to our conjunction " ^vhen," thus : So suru aida. I '' While we were doinsf So do interval. 1 ^q Mo kuru hazu da. \ " He ought to be here by Already conies necessitj' is. ) this time " Areba, jiki ni kiku' If-there-were. immediately hear. u Jf anything of that kind hazu da g/i.-mada so wL^ happened, I should have necessity is although, still such ( ^^. ' , . , ., . heard oi it. kow wo kikimasen. fact [acctts.) (/)hear not. A^. B. Observe the suppressed negative which hazu almost always implies. Observe, too, that hazu Ls often strengthened by a preceding heki^ "should," "ought," thus: Areha, jiki ni kiku-bcki hazu da ga, etc. (Conf. \ 178 and \ 192.) Nochi ni, yb no nai toki, \ u j ^^.-ji ^^n ^bout Afterwards, b.siness's is-not time. ^ -^ j^^^^^ ^^.^^^^ j ^^^ ^^ hariashimasho. (/^will-p.ola'jly-speak. \ '^ will \ it later, w } leisure." Toki ?ii at the beginning of a sentence is a sort of expletive corresponding more or less to our " by the way." T 58. More difficult than any of the above are the uses of tokoro, w'hich, from the original concrete sense of " place," has come to be used in various abstract meanings. Some- times, like koio, it assumes the signification of " a thing of the mind," " a matter," "■ a subject," '' a quality," as in the following example : 42 THE NOUN. Kyiikin no iokoro iva, tsuki fii W.ige 's matter as-for, month in, j'u -go-en tsukaivashimasho. fifteen-dollars (/) will-probahly-give. "CVmiiiiL;- now to the matter ot" wages, I may sa)- that I will give you fifteen dol- lars a month." A good instance of tokoro, as equivalent to our suffix " ness " used to form abstract substantives,^ occurs at the end of ^ 280. In the middle of a sentence, iokoro, especiall)' when followed b}' ye, is apt to assume the force of some such conjunction as " while," " whereupon," " when," " just as," thus : Chodo deru tokoro ye, kyaku\ Exactly go out when, guest I "A visitor CamC jUSt ga mieia. [as I was going out." [liom.) appeared. / Tokoro ga implies opposition, thus : Ima-jibun irasshtta tokoro ga,\ " Even if you do go Now-time deigned-to-go even-if^ (no^^, you are not likely rimi deshO. j to find him at home." hmourably absent will-probably-be. ' Similarly at the beginning of a sentence, tokoro de means " thereupon " or " and so," while iokoro ga means " ne\er- theless," " still," " all the same," sometimes " it occurs to me that." Another grammatical use of tokoro is that in which it corresponds to some extent to the relative pronouns of European languages, as explained in ^ 86. Tokoro is often, in familiar talk, fiigori'ed to dokoro, and-^ then expresses an almost scornfully strong degree of affirma- tion. For instance, a male visitor hazards the remark that his hostess's baby is old enough to creep along the floor. The fond mother, indignant at having her offspring's powers i-ated so low, retorts : TOKORO. 43 Hail dokoro ja nai ; yo/:u\ u i*^ • c •reep place "^ isn't : well I " It IS HO CaSC of Creeping, 1 can assure }'ou. Wh}' ! he Creep place isn't ; well arukimasu. (//,.) walks. walks beautifully.' Similarly : Yovieru dokoro ka? hlshaku\ "Able to read, indeed! Able-to-read place ? explanation I ,Tr, , , i • i . , ,, fWhy ! he can explain what mo dekimasu. he reads." even forthcomes. ' ^59. Man)' nouns are simpl}' the indefinite forms of ^'erbs used substantivel}', somewhat like our English nouns in " . . . . ing," such as " the beginning," which is properly a part of the verb '' to begin." Here are a few examples : akinai, " trade ; " from aki7iau, " to trade." hori, " a canal ; " „ /loru, " to excavate." - ialami, " a mat ; " „ tatamii, " to pile up." tsurc, " companions ; " „ tsureru, " to take with one." zvarai, " laughter ; " „ warau, " to laugh." yorokoln, "joy;" „ yorokobu, '' to rejoice." NOUNS USED AS ADJECTIVES. ^ 60. The Japanese parts of speech do not exactl}- coincide with ours (see ^ 9), and nouns are much more extensi\el\' used in this language than in English. We shall see in the next chapter that the so-called pronouns are reall}' nouns. True adjectives also are scarce, and are frequently replaced by nouns, just as in English we say " a gold chain," " a sugar-^Xmn," " the Paris fashions," "a thing 0/ beauty." The chief ways in which a noun may do dut}' for an adjective are : T[ 61. I. As first member of a compound, thus : 44 THE NOUN. Amerika-jiu, lit. '' America person," i.e. " an American." (loro-ashi, „ " mud feet," ,, " muddy feet." Ni7io?i-go, „ " Japan words," „" " the Japanese lan- guage." ^ 62. II. Followed by the postposition 720, " of," — the order of the words, it should be noted, being the re\erse of that followed in English, thus : a^an"^ no^ Ms/ioku,^ lit. " scenery^ o(^ neighbourhood^ i.e. " the surrounding scenery." h'njo no tobutsu-ya, lit. " Chinese- thing-shop of vicinity," i.e. " a neighbouring general shop." 7nukashi no hUo, lit. " people of antiquity," i.e. " the ancients." T[ 6-^. III. Followed by the word na (see ^ 197), thus : baka^ na^ yatsu^, " a foolish^ (being-) fellow^." cAoAd na kikai, " a convenient machine." /le^a na e-kaki, " an unskilful painter." jozu na e-kaki, " a skilful painter." kiret na musame, " a pretty girl." odayaka na nami, *' a calm sea " (lit. " calm waves "). Some of these words — kiret, for instance, — are so con- stantly used as adjectives, that their proper sense as nouns tends to pass out of remembrance. In the cases where it is preserved, the word takes no after it when it is used as a noun, and na when it is used as an adjective, thus : heta^ no^ ?iaga^-dafigi*, " the long' speech* of* an unskilful* (speaker)," a proverb signifying that bad speakers are apt to say more than the occasion requires. /le/a^ na^ isha^ sama^, lit. " unskilfuP being* physician'' Mr^" i.e. "an unskilful doctor." {yfmi Jt^ corresponds NOLXS USED AS ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 45 almost literally to the English " a good hand at," and hcia 'Y^ to " a bad hand at.") y. B. Conf. also •[ 197. NOUNS USED AS ADVERBS. 64. When Ibllowed by the postposition ///, " in/" or de, "■ by,' nouns such as those above instanced often correspond to European adverbs, thus : baka ni, " foolishly." gwaikoku ?ii or de, "abroad." (^^'7r?/X'6'/7^:=" outer countries," i.e. " foreign countries.") Jozu fii, "skilfully." Sometimes they are taken adverbially, even though no postposition be suffixed, thus : konnichi, " this day," or " to-day." mukashi, " antiquity," „ " anciently," " formerly." For nouns used as postpositions, see \ 141 c/ scq. CHAPTER IV. The p7^onoUH, PERSONAL PRONOUNS. ^ 65. The Japanese words corresponding to the personal pronouns of European languages are simply nouns whose original significations are quite clear, and which are still often used with those significations. Except for the sake of convenience to foreign students, it would not be necessary to discuss them apart from nouns in general. They belong to the category of such descriptive expressions as " your humble servant," "your ladyship," "His Majesty." Self-depreciatory terms are naturally preferred in speaking of oneself (ist. person), and complimentary terms in speaking to other people (2nd. person), also sometimes in speaking ()f other people (3rd. person). ^ 66. The most usual equivalent for " I " is ivaiakushi, lit. " selfishness." The vulgar often contract it to watashi and ivashi. Other nouns now current in the same sense are boku, " servant," which is much affected by young men in familiarly addressing each other ; scss/ia, " the awkward person ; " s/iosei, " junior." Ore is a very vulgar corrup- tion of zvare, which is the commonest word for " 1 " in the Written Language. Ora, which may often be heard from the mouths of coolies, stands for ore 7va. Tf 67. The following equivalents for " you " are all in com- mon use : — anata, a contraction of ano kata, " that side," " beyond " (which meaning is still retained in poetry, as PERSOxVAL PRONOUNS. 47 kumo no anata, " beyond the clouds "). Anata is a polite expression ; with the addition of sama, " Mr.,"' " Mrs.,'' " Miss," " Lord/' '' Lady,'' it is supremely polite. Omae, lit. '' honourably in front," was formerly polite, but is now only used in addressing inferiors, such as coolies, one's own servants, one's own children, etc. Omae san {san is short for sama) stands half-way between anaia and omae in polite- ness. It is much used by women. Sensei, " senior," is used chiefly in addressing men or women of learning. Danna san, " Mr. Master," is used by a servant in address- ing his master, and by inferiors generally. Ktmi, " prince," is chiefly used by young men in addressing each other familiarly. Besides the above may be mentioned Heika, lit. " beneath the steps of the throne," i.e. " Your Majesty ;" N. B. Reverence naturally restrains loyal subjects from addressing the tlirone itself : — they raise their eyes no higher than the ground below the steps leading up to it. Kakka " beneath the council-chamber," i.e. " Your Ex- cellency ; " sono ho, " that side," the equivalent for " you " employed in the law-courts by legal officers ; khama, an insulting term used in addressing an inferior with whom one is angry. .\'. B. Etymolcnjically kl-saina means " exalted Sir ; " but, like many otiier words, it has fallen from its former high estate. The word teniae, lit. '' before the hand," is remarkable ; for it may be used either as a very humble and therefore polite equivalent for " I," or as an insulting equivalent for " you." In the sense of " you," it formerly had the honorific o ])rcfixed. The rude use of it came in through the dropping of the honorific. *|| 68. Sensei, Danna san, Heika, and Kakka are as appropriate for the third person (" he " or " she '"), when speaking 48 THE PRONOUN. politely, as for the second. Ana/a may also occasionally be heard in that sense. Much in use also for " he " and " she " are a?io htto, " that person," more politely, ano o kata^ lit. " that honourable side ; " ano otoko, " that man ; " ano onna, " that woman ; " ano ojiisan, " that old gentleman ; " ano obas2n, " that old lady," etc. Muko, lit. " the opposite side," i.e. " the other party," not infrequently represents " he," " she," or " they." Are, " that," is also sometimes used for " he " or " she," but it is not at all ix)lite, and more often refers to things, i.e. it means " it." The vague English " you " or " one," which corresponds to French " on " and German '* man," has no equivalent in Japanese. Thus, " to clap one's hands " is simply te wo tafaku, lit. "hands (accus.) clap." "You can't tell " (meaning " one has no means of knowing ") is simply shiremasen, which might equally well stand for " I can't tell." A''. B. The word hUo has been adduced by some as an equivalent of the French impersonal " or." But it is not really so, as it always retains its proper sense of " person," " j^ople," especially " other people." ^69. Like other nouns — indeed more frequently than other nouns — the so-called personal pronouns may take the plural suffixes mentioned on page 29. The following fortns are we. sanctioned by usage : ivalakushi-domo boku-ra sessha-domo sessha-ra oira (for ore-ra, very | vulgar) ano hito-tachi \ ano kata-gaia V' they.' are-ra (rude) ) anata-gata omae-\san-^gata omae- \san-'\ tachi sensei-gata danna-shu danna-gata kimi-tachi khama-tachi temac-i{ii) chi-ra you. PERSONAL . PRONOUNS. 4 9 JV. B. Observe, however, that zoataktishi-domo is often used for the singular, it being slightly humbler than watakushi. Oira, too, may be heard in the singular, the line between singular and plural, as already noticed in f 44, being less sharply drawn in Japanese than in European languages. Note, moreover, that the Japanese never use their words for " we," as we sometimes do ours, to signify " you and I." They only use them to signify " other people and I," or rather " I and my fellows." " We," in the sense of " you and I," may be expressed by such a phrase as anata to watakYishi to ; but more often the meaning is approximately rendered in some other idiomatic way by employing an honorific. See, for instance, ^ 445, No. 115, and ^ 449, No. 16. T "JO. Like other nouns, the so-called personal pronouns may be followed by postpositions. Thus, just as they say ano ko no oya, 1 u ^^e parent of that child," that child of parent, j SO also do they say watakiishi no oya, 1 " the parent of me," I of parent, J 1.6. " my parent, ' ofnae no oya, " the parent of you," i.e. " your parent " (in addressing an inferior) ; ano hito no oya, " the parent of that person," i.e. " his {or her) parent ;" etc. Just as they say Sono ko wo hidoi me ni \ That child (accus.) harsh eyes to I j e. '^ He treated that awasemasKta, [child very badly," caused-to-meet, ] SO also may one say Watakushi wo hidoi me ni ] ,, ^^ . , ,, „ azvasemashita. \ ^^ treated me very, badly. There is, therefore, no such thing as a declension of pro- nouns or any special set of possessive pronouns. ^71. The chief thing to remember in connection with the Japanese nouns answering to our personal pronouns is the 50 THE PRONOUN. extremely rare use that is made of them. Except in cases of special emphasis or antithesis, the information concerning persons which is in European languages conveyed by means of pronouns, is left to be gathered from the context. Thus the single word kaerimashtta will mean " I have come back," or "he, she or they have come back," according to the previous drift of the conversation. Kore harafuro wo tsukaimashoA i-^. ^ " Will now take This from, bath (accus.) will-use, | a bath. naturally means "/will now take my bath;" for it is almost a matter of course that, in such personal things, each individual can speak only for himself. I can only eat my own dinner, probably love only my own country, and work only to support my own wife and children. To be, there- fore, for ever reiterating and harping on the words " I," " me," " my," " you," " he," etc., seems to Japanese ears absurd and tedious tautology. A Japanese will often dis- course for half-an-hour without using a single personal pronoun. The perpetual recurrence of watakushi and anata is one of the surest signs of a clumsy foreign speaker, who translates his own idiom into Japanese, instead of thinking impersonally as the Japanese do. These remarks will lead the intelligent student to observe that most of the examples scattered throughout the present work are susceptible of being variously rendered. Where, for instance, we have put " I," it would often be equally correct to insert " he," "she," or.' "they," in its stead. The use of "you," that is, of the second person, in English generally necessitates some change in the Japanese phrase, especially if an equal or superior be addressed. This point will be elucidated in the Chapter on Honorifics, \ 392 et seq., a chapter which the student would do well to read through in connection I "myself." ' yourself." REFLEXIVE, DEMONSTRATIVE, ETC., PRONOUNS. 5 1 \vith what has here been said on the subject of personal pronouns. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. 'f^ 72. The word ''self" may be expressed by j'idtm (less often by jis/iin), commonly followed by the postposition de, thus : ivatakushi j'ibtm, watakushi Jishin, omae jibun, (not honorific), go Jibuti (honorific), N. B. The above occur only when the idea of "self" has to be emphasised. (Conf. ^ 71, also ^ 324.) Another word for "self" is onore, which is also used as an insulting equivalent for " you." Waga, a Classical form whose proper meaning is "my," may still sometimes be heard in the sense of " my own," " our own," " one's own," thus : ivaga kuni, " my country," " one's country," " la patrie." But its use is chiefly confined to set speeches and lectures. So is that of the phrase zvaga hai, " we," more lit. " my fellows." DEMONSTRATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, AND INDEFINITE PRONOUNS AND ADVERBS. ^ 73. The demonstrative, interrogative, and indefinite pro- nouns, being marked by certain correspondences of sound and formation, may be best studied by means of the table which we give on the next page. The adverbs derived from the same roots are also given there, so that the learner may embrace all the kindred forms in one glance. He should note that Japanese, like Latin, distinguishes a nearer " that " {sore, Latin " iste ") from a further " that " 52 THE PRONOUN. III o i2 2J ll .. IS « « u u '■• rt rt 4) 0) o 13 j: jz M M > is ^ ^ > "« •>! >3 ^S *« J. S S -2 '? ^ >a S C/3 < rt rt *J -u « 5 " 4) 4) rt C «i J5 3 TIT '^ « J5 2 j; ■"" drtSoJo 0) 0)3 £ JC ^ Xi q M j=o J; 3 3-^'?*' y2 < u; .S i£ r^ .^ « IS IS ^ J3 3 M w «J «-i (A 3 I- 03 a) ^« ^^ <" Q < ^ — o Pu. ^ rj O t -2 *-| o w p . . ho ^ he tiT .c U C C (jV _ 0) 3 3 c <-• " c c *^ o d rt in 3 a «5 >^ -^ S « 2 ^ o « ^ « '^ « « « " 5 S S o a ^5 ^: ^-' c ■u O i > >• hi-B c £ ^ ^ ^ s s a a a I DEMONSTRATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 53 (are, Latin " ille "), the former being used of things not very distant and of things connected with the person spoken to, while the latter is applied to things which are distant or have relation to the person spoken of. He must note furthermore that Japanese, like French, distinguishes substantive forms of these pronouns from adjective forms, e.g. kore, " celui-ci," but kono, " ce." ^75. Here are a few examples of the use of the substantive forms kore, "this;" sore, "that" (near); are, "that" (far) ; dore P " which ?" dare P or more politely donaia P " who ?" ; 7ia?n' P " what .?" — Kore wa omoshiroi. \ i.e. " As for this, it is amusing," This as-for. amusing. | g^ viore briefly, " This is fun." Sore wa, na?i desu r* j " What is that (which you have in That as-for. what is {it)? | your hand, etc.) .?" Are wa, dare no tichi desu /^ ( " Whose is that house That as-for, who of house \%[it\? 1 fovcr thcrc) .'*" Dore 7ii shimasho P\ u ^y^ich shall I take.?" Which to shall-do? J Nam 2V0 sum P j " What are you doing.?" What lacctlS.) flo? 1 (Said to an inferior. The polite equivalent ^ would be Nani nasaru ?) Dare p-a kimasHita ? ( " Who has come.?" j " Who ha j {Donata ^ would be mor Who [jioj//.) has-come ? j (Donata ga mairaremasJuta ? ^ would be more polite.) ^ 76. Here are some examples of the adjective forms koiio, "this;" sono, "that" (near); ano, "that" (far); do?io P " which .?" and of the forms in 7ia and iu : — • Kono ncdan. Konna nedan. Sono mama. Sonna koto. So iu koto. Ano takai yama. ::! " This price." "This sort of price." " That way ;" " as it is." That sort of thinof." That high r (over there)." f " That high mountain 54 THE PRONOUN. Anna tohbmonai kake-ne. j " Such an extravagant over- That-like outrageous overcharge, j char2"e aS that " (Said in speaking to a third party. In addressing the shopkeeper who was guilty of the overcharge, one would say sonnn, not anna, lx;cause sotina corres- ponds to the second person, anna to the third.) Do7io tsumori de P ) ,, ,Trvu u . • . .• v» What intention by? | ^^ i^h what intention.? Do iu tsumori de P') ,,.,r.. i ^ i • i r • ^ ..• ->" How say intention by? [•" With what kind of intcntion .? \ ']']' What we have here, for the sake of convenience, termed adjective foniis, are not adjectives properly so called. K0710 was originally two words, viz. ko, " this " (substantive), and 710, " of," so that kono meant " of this." Similarly in the case of sono, ano, and dono /*, which meant respectively " of that " (nearer) or " of him," "of that " (further) or "of him," and " of which .?" They still preserve this their ancient sense in certain contexts, as : sono tame, " (for the) sake of that." S0710 oya, " his (or her) parent." Similarly, kono nedan, translated above by " this price," may also mean on an occasion " the price of this." Kon7ia, " such," is a conti-action of kono yd na, lit. " this manner being,"' i.e. " being in this way," " being thus." Similarly sonna is from so7io yd na, anna from a7io yd 7ta, and don7ia r> from dono yo na P Kd iu, " such," means literally " thus (they) say," i.e. " people call it thus." Sd iu, a iu, and dd iu P have a similar etymology. T 78. Before words of Chinese origin, the adjective pronouns " this " and " that " are often expressed by the syllable td (^), a Chinese vocable properly signifying " the one in question," " the actual one," as : td-nin, " the person in question," " this {or that) person." INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 55 to-^etsu no sue, ) ^^ ^ i r *-i ^i, " thisMT^onth of end. j" the eiid of the month. Some of the adverb.-; given in the paradigm on page 52 will be found exemplified in Chapter X, *([ 2>^'^- ^ 79. The indefinite pronouns are formed from the inter- rogative pronouns by the addition of the interrogative particle ka, of the postix)sition3 nio and de via, ''even," and of the emphatic particle z^. Thus dare'^ dt^ ??io^, "any- body," " everybody," is literally " even^ by^ whom .?^" Here are a few examples of the use of the indefinite pronouns : Omocha ya nani ka. " Toys or something." (The words ya 7iani ka here hnve the same va^ie meaningless application that •' or some- thing " often has in Colloquial English.) Mata donata ka viiemashita. (Polite) i nr^r^-^l'' dare „ mieta. (Familiar) N' Other guests have Again somebody has-appeared. )qrri\-f^rl " Na7i de via yoroshii kara, \ " An)'thing will do. Just Anything (/V;.good because, gjve US Something or other ?ta?ti ka te-garui mono wo Uvhich it will take no trouble something-or-other easy thing (c/rrz/J-.) Uq Q-gj. j-eadv " dash^lie kudasai. °g^jj^ f^^ instance, by a hungry putting-forth condescend. j traveller arriving late at a hotel.) ^ ,. . . J- , ("Which (of the Dochira ga yoroshu goz^mnasho? \^. ^^ ^j^j^j^ Which (tiO))>\ good will-probably-be : J .,/, , •' ... ^ ' ( Will be best .? Sore wa, dochira de mo yoroshii. j " Oh ! {sore iva) either That as-for, cither (/j Donata ka ide ni 1: cither (/.ogood. 1 y^-\[\ (JQ quite well." Somebody-or-other honourable exit to ( .. j^.^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^.^.j^.^^j p., natte orimasu ka ? \ having-become is ? ^ 56 THE PRONOUN. le, donata mo o ide ni natte \ *' No, no orimasen. ) arrived." has (More lit. "Everybody has un- rtrr/z/et/."— Conf. H 433.) Nan^ no^ sewa^ de^ mo^ shtte^ , ^^tt r'li Vi 1 kuremasu', lit. Gives'' doing' V t* J hel p^ of ^ every th i ng . ^ '* ' '^ Dare^ mo^ S(f iimasu^. every way. " Every body ^'^ says* sol" RELATIVE PRONOUNS. \ 80. The Japanese language has neither relative pronouns nor relative words of any sort. Their absence is generally made good by the use of a construction in which the verb is prefixed to the noun attributively, just as an adjective might be. Thus the Japanese not only say '* a good man," " a bad man," etc. ; but they say '' a comes man," " a goes man," " the went man," instead of " a man who comes," " a man who goes," " the man who went." This is illustrated in the following examples : — Kuru hito. Comes person. Kiia hito. Came person. Kind hita Into. Yesterday came person. " The person who comes." {Or " The people who come.") " The person who came." {Or " The people who came.") j " The person (or persons) who came ^esterday." Ana yama no That mountain's ni haete iru on, growing is matsu. pine. Shinakucha As-'"or-not-doing, zetcho summit oki na large " The large pine-tree which grows on the top of that mountain over there." naran\ " It is a thing which it won't do 's-"ot [not to do, i.e. "It is a thing koto desu. (Conf. ^ 348)1 which must be done." thing (/V)is. j RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 57 ^81. As shown in the foregoing examples, the EngHsh relative and \erb are represented in Japanese by a verb alone, which is used participially, or, as it is more usual to say in Japanese grammar, attributively, prefixed to the noun. In English this construction is allowable only in the case of participles, as " the shipivrecked sailors," '' the shrieking women and children." In Japanese it is the actual tense- forms of the verb that are thus employed. Properl}' speaking, all the tenses of the indicative mood are capable of being thus used attributively in relative constructions. In the Book Language they are all constantly so used. But the Colloquial exhibits a strong tendency to limit this way of speaking to the " certain past " and the " certain present or future," the merely " probable " tenses (e.g. kayo, hitaro) being rarely if ever now heard in such contexts, save in a few special idioms, such as : wn^fl^K H'^" ■I'Z''' ["If possible." (Conft348.) Will-probably-be fact if(.7/').is ) ^ ^ II Jt / Aro hazu iva nai. \ " There ought not ( 77/^';V-)will-probably-be necessity as-for, is-not. J ^q bc." Observe that as the Japanese language, generally speaking, abhors the use of the passive, the verbs employed in relative sentences are almost always neuter or active ones, thus : Nansen ni aimashita suifu-ra. j " The shipwrecked Shipwreck to, met sailors. 1 sailorS " Haruka oki ?ii viieni fune. f "The vessel that is to be Afar, offing in, appears vessel. | gggn far away at SCa." Hepburn sensei 7to koshiraeta I *' I'he dictionary w^hich Hepburn senior 's (//^^prepared I ^^.3.(5 Compiled by Dr. Hcp- Jiten. ] burn," i.e. " Dr. Hepburn's dictionary dictionary." person say (hi Arashi to iu mo7io. j uwj\^ *. •. ^„ii^.i « +,,r.u^^^ " r-. w u u- , X f u- u f What IS called a typhoon, /,//*. " the thing {ww«^) of which > . . j ,, i_ " people say (/m) that (A:-) it is a \ I.e. SWlply, a typhOOll. typhoon (arashi.)'' 58 THE PRONOUN. Otokichi to iu awiai no 1110710. J " The guide called Oto- Ut. " the guide (annai no mono, i.e. V kichi," 01' " Otokichi the n of guidance), of whom people \ • Aa. " ti) that (to) he is Otokichi." 1 gWltie. '^5/^/ /^ iu mono. J < " the thing (mono) of which > . pie say (/m) that (to) it is a V /.(?. loon (rtrrt^/t/.)" / ., -r . ' 7 ' ( " The country people call Ame- Amenka to lu kuni. ■{ . ,, . - ^j u \ • " ( rica, I.e. simply, " America. JV. B. This impersonal but active construction with to in and other synonymous verbs, corresponding to the English passive, must be thoroughly mastered, as it is constantly in the mouths of the people. It is often used for making general assertions, such as " Dogs are faithful creatures," or [ Inn to iu mono wa, chugi no arti " The dog IS a faithful creature." | mono desu. Lit. As-for {riva) the thing {mono) of which j^eople say {iu) that {to) it is a dog {iitu), it is {desu) a thing {mono) which is {am) of {no) faithful- ness {chugi). Here our single w^ord " dog " or " dogs " is rendered by the five words inu to iu mono wa. ^82. This use of the active where a European would expect the passive sometimes causes an appearance of ambiguity. Thus shiranii Mio may signify either " a person who does not know^ " or " a person who is not known (to me)," i.e. " a person whom I do not know\" But as a rule the context sufficiently indicates which way the phrase should be taken. For instance, yondt^ shimatta- hon^ cannot possibly mean " the book which has finished reading,'' as such a collocation of words would have no sense. It can only mean " the book' which (I, they, etc.) have finished* readinj\" Sumau^ tochi"^ cannot mean " the locality" which resides ." It must mean " the locality'' in which (so-and-so) resides ." The following arc similar instances : RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 59 Tdchaku sMta toki. ( " The time when (I, they, etc.) Arrival did time. J arrived " Wakaranai koto. Understand-not thing. Te 7ii motteru mono. Hand in is-holding thing j " Something which I don't ( understand." I in h That which he is holdin< his hand. T 83. The example just given oi siimau iochi, signifying "the locaUty in ivhich so and so resides," exempHfies a remarkable Japanese idiom according to which the preposition that frequently accompanies an English relative pronoun is always omitted, thus : Toji no furukii natta hon. Binding of old has-become book. " A book 0/ ivhich the binding has become old." Sore^ iva^ anata^ ga" saku-nerr' 0' tomari' iiastta^ yadoya^ desii^^ ka}'^ ^ P [ "Is''' that^ the hoteP in which yovf staid"'"'^ (lit. honourably 0, deign- ed nasita, to sta}', tomari) last year' ? " le ; waiakushi im tomarimasen No ; me as-for stay-not ga — , saku-nen tomodachi ga whereas — last-year friend inoni.') tomarimashite , taiso ?ii ki ni having-staid, greatly spirit to irimashita yadoya desu. entered hotel is. " No, / did not stay there ; but {ga) it is the hotel i7i ivhich a friend of mine staid last year, and 7vith which he was much pleased." Dono Which hen neighbourhood yama mountain kara kono \ from, this " From which of these meibutsu [mountains come the crys- famous-production WzX'i^for wMch this locality 710 suisho wa de!7iasu kaP 's crystals as-for, issue ^ 1 is noted .? " 6o THE PRONOUN. " He is a servant iv/wm I got by applying to the Grand Hotel at Yoko- hama, andy<9;" whose good behaviour the hotel-keeper is guarantee." Watakushi ga Yokohama no' I (//('/;/.) Yokohama 's ni-jii ban ye tanomimasMtara, twenty number to when-had-applied, achira kara uke-atte there from guaranteeing yokoshimashtta " boy " desii. sent boy is. N. B. The English word " boy " has been largely adopted by the Euroj)eanised Japanese in the sense of " servant." We have even heard anna no boy (!) used to signify a *' maid -servant," Closely similar are such cases as ivarui rikutsu, signifying not " a bad reason," but " the reason 7vhy (so-and-so) is bad." ^ 84. The terseness of the Japanese expression as compared with ours should not occasion any insuperable difficulty to the careful student. iVfter all, we use a somewhat similar idiom in English when we speak of " a shaving-brush," meaning " a brush with which a man helps himself to shave ;" of " a smoking-room," meaning " a room in which people smoke ; " of " a stepping-stone," meaning " a stone on which one may step," &c., &c. T" 85. Several "whos" or " whiches " are often attached in English to the same noun. In such cases the Japanese language uses the gerund (in set speeches the indefinite form) for the verbs of every clause, excepting that im- mediately preceding the noun qualified (see ^f 278 et seq. and ^ 422 ei seq.). An instance of this construction is given in the example on the foregoing page, where tomari- viashite is a gerund and irimashlia a past tense, both qualifying the word yadoya. But this idiom — the referring of several relative clauses to a single noun — is not a favourite one in Colloquial Japanese. The example at the top of this page shows, in the case of the word tanomimashitara, the RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 6 1 avoidance of such a construction. Indeed a great number of relative phrases^even single phrases — are turned in some other way. For instance : Mime^ jio"^ warukti^ nani^ hanashv', " A story ivhich it makes one feel sick to listen to ; " lit. " chest^ 's- bad'^ becoming* story^" Sono meishi 110 kata, "The gentleman who left that card,'"' lit. " the gentleman of that card." Musumc^ giV' fiitori^ atte*, Hani^ to^ moshimasii^ , "He has one daughter zuhose name is O Haru," lit. " Daughter^ one-person^ being,* (people) say^ that® (she is) O Haru^" Kesa} no^ ybsu^ de^ wa^, funi^ ka' to^ omotlara^, siikkarP^ haremashita}^, i.e. " The weather, ivhich looked like rain this morning, has cleared up beautifully ; " more lit. " By* appearance^ of^ this-morning\ when-(I) had-thought^ that^ will-(it) rain.?®'^, quite^" (it) has-cleared"." ^ 86. The words tokoro no, lit. " of place," are sometimes used by the educated classes in relative phrases as a sort of substitude for the relative pronouns " who," " which," and " that." But these words really add nothing to the sense, and only encumber the construction. They owe their origin to the slavish imitation of a Chinese idiom. Thus : Ktiru tokoro no Mto, for Kuril Kito. \ .§ Kind kita tokoro no Mto, ,, Kino kita hito. Shitiakucha naran tokoro ,, Shinakucha naran no koto desii, koto desu. c u M o N. B. The student is recommended to compare the Japanese and English texts of any of the longer pieces given in Part II of this work. Such comparison, carefully carried out, will teach him better than anything else the manner in which Japanese thought moves under circumstances which, in our European idiom, demand the employment of relative pronouns or other relative words. The subject is important enough to reward any amount of trouble taken on its behalf. CHAPTER V. The Postposition^ THE POSTPOSITION PROPER. ^87. Japanese postpositions correspond for the most part to English prepositions, serving like them to indicate those relations of words which Latin, German, and other Aryan languages of the older type denote by the use of case- inflections. There are two kinds of postpositions, viz. postpositions proper and quasi-postpositions (If 141 ei seq.). The postpositions proper, with their most usual significa- tions, are as follows : DE. ^ 88. De has two widely different uses. One is to render the sense of " by," whence also " with," " by means of," less often " in." This its first acceptation offers no difficulty. In its second acceptation, de seems at first sight to mean nothing at all, and thus puzzles the foreign student who is desirous of accounting for its presence in the sentence. De is here etymologically a corruption of itite, itself the gerund of an obsolete substantive verb. Its proper sense is therefore "being." But in most contexts this dc has sunk so completely to the level of a mere grammatical particle as not to need translating into English. It is a moot point whether what was originally one word has branched out into these two significations, or whether two words DE. - 63 originally distinct have coalesced into a single particle. Here are a few examples of de meaning *' by," " with," " in : " Naiva^ dv' shibarii^. " To tie'* by means of- a rope\" Hasami^ de" kinc^. " To cut^ with^ scissors\" hm ivo kusari de Dog i^accus.), chain by, f " Chain lip the dog ' tsunaide oke ! \ {Said to a cooiie.) fastening put ! sail j a ign! I Kore de gaman nasai: ^ . pj^^g^ ^^ contented with this." 1 his with, patience deign Kuno kaiva de, ai ^a \ . . . This river in, trout{,/,7///.) ( " Are thcrc any trout to be isuremash ka? \ caught in this stream ? " are-caichable ? ' Kono vwjio wa, \ This thing as-for, I " What is this Called in Japan- Nihon-go de nan to I ese ? " Japan-language by, what that [ {More lit. " As for this thing, ill moshimasli ka ? Japanese, what do people say that it is ?") say ? ) It will be gathered from these examples that de has its first signification (" by," " with," " in ") chiefly when construed with transitive verbs. De has its second signification, i.e. it properly means "being," in such cases as the following : — I ma 710 kuruma-ya wa, \ " My present jinrikisha- Now 's jinrikisha-man as-far, man is UO gOOd, hc is SO dajakii de yaku ni I indolent." indolent being, usefulness to j {^More lit. "The present jin- tatanaC. I rikisha-man, being indolent, is of no stands-net. j USe.") Yoppodo beppin de \ " She is an uncommonly Very extra-quality being I pj-gj-j-y girl." ani. ^Siiid, e.g. of a singing-girl.) [ {More lit. " She is being a very is. j extra-quality.") 64 THE POSTPOSITION. San-Ji han de gozaimasu. ( " It is (being) half-past Three-hours half being is. 1 thrCC " The first of these phrases illustrates a construction with - what are called " quasi-adjectives," which will be touched on again in ^ 200, and exemplified in Tf 201 (examples 9 and 10). The second and third phrases are much more important, showing, as they do, the most usual manner of expressing our verb "to be," viz. by means of de aru, de arimasu, de gozaimasu (see also ^f 341 ef seq.). De aru is commonly contracted to da, de gozaimasu to desli, less often and somewhat vulgarly to de gozansu, de gesii, or de gasu ; similarly in the other tenses, for instance daifa for de alia, deshtta for de gozaimashita, and so on (see also TIF '^11, 270, 343, and 344). The foregoing examples would therefore generally become Yoppodo beppi7i da, San-Ji han desu. The following is a very common phrase illustrat- ing this idiom : Sayd de gozaimasu. (Polite) ] ^^ „ ^^ Sodesa. (Familiar) | ^ ^at IS SO, i.e. Yes." ^ 89. It happens not infrequently that de, in both its accep- tations, is strengthened by means of the postposition wa, especially in phrases expressing interrogation, negation, or something disagreeable. De iva, in familiar talk, is apt to be contracted \x\\.oja. Thus : Yoppodo beppin de \ - ^ Very extra-quality being I " Isn't she vcry pretty ? " (Or, lua naika? \ Yoppodo beppin ja nai ka .?) is-not ? Kore de wa, bki ni This by indeed greatly komarimasu. am-in-a-quandary. "I am greatly bothered by .this." (Or, Koreja bki ni komari- nfasio.) DE AND GA. 65 ^ 90. When the substantive verb has a quaUfying word or phrase along with it after de, the noun followed by di often corresponds to an English nominative,— not that de has any nominative force properly so called, but because the word which we treat as a nominative is conceived of by the Japanese as the means whereby, or the place in which, the action or state denoted by the verb occurs, for instance, i " Cold water will do perfectly Mizu de takusan. \ well." {i.e. " You need not Cold-water by,(// re;/// ^^)pienty. j troublc to bring hot watcr as \well.") N. B. The Japanese sentence should, properly speaking, have desu, " it is," stuck on to the end of it ; but, as will be further illustrated in ^ 429, the final verb is often omitted when no ambiguity is likely to ensue. Hitotsu de yoroshii. \ a q^^ ^^,jjj \^q One by is-good. I , ,, [yiore -poMtQXy, Httotsu de yoroshiu gozainiasu.) ] ^ Sei/u de o i " The Government has bought Government by, honourable !•, .j lc t.^ \ u \. j . . -^ iit, or " It has been purchased kai-age m narimashda. . ^^, ^^^^ Government." purchase to has-become. GA. Tf 91. The original sense o{ ga is "of," now only preserved in certain names of places and in a few locutions, such as Hoshi-ga-oka , " The Mound of the Stars " (the name of a part of Kamakura) ; ga suki, " fond of," " liking ;" ga kirai, " not fond of," " disliking ; " ga^ hoshii^ "■ desirous of" Watakushi wa, tabako ga\ Me as-for, tobacco of, ,, y r j r i • -v , . ^, . , , ^, \ " I am very fond of smokmg. dai-suki {desic). great-fond (am). ' ■ 66 THE POSTPOSITION. Sake f^a kirai desu. \ ^^ , . r i r ' ^ -Sake" of hating am. | '' I am not foncl o{saRe. Mizu £[a hoshiu mzaimastc. ) ,, ^ ,, Water of, desirous am. j I ^vant somc water. ^92. Ga \?, jiised as a sign of the nominative case, as : Kane ga nai. ( " There is no money ; ' Money(«^„/.)isn't. -j j^Qj^f^^ <' \ have no money." Ame ga futte kimashita. ) ,, ^ 1 • ; Rain {nom.) 'falling has-come. | it has come on to ram. Kono kuruma ga, furukUte This jinrikisha {tiom.\ being-old ikemasen. is-no-go. " This jinrikisha won't do ; it is too old." Isha ni mite morau ga \ *' You had better consult Physician by, seeing to-receive (ww.) | the doCtOr about it." yokaro. {MoreUt. "It may be well to get will-probably-be-good. > (it) seen by the doctor.") c. . . ,v., ( " The teacher has ap- Sensei ga nnemashita: | peared," i.e. has come. Observe that the nominative use has developed out of the genitive. For instance, the etymological signification of Kane ga nai is " The not-being of money ; " that of Sensei ga miemashita is " The having-appeared of the teacher." Originally none of these sentences with ga were predicative. Modern usage alone has made them so, just as — to borrow an apt illustration from Mr. Aston — the incomplete sentences of an English telegram or advertisement convey a predicative sense to the mind of the reader. Observe too, from the example Isha ni mite morau ga yokaro, that postpositions may be suffixed to verbs as readily as to substantives, and that verbs, and indeed whole phrases, may form the subject or object of other verbs. GA. • 67 ^ 93. When found at the end of a clause, ga has an adver- sative force, of which "whereas" is the most literal English equivalent, but which is generally best rendered in practice by prefixing *' yet " or " but '"' to the following clause. Sometimes the adversative force is softened down to a mere intimation of discontinuity between two successive states or actions, and then ga must be translated by " and so '"' or " and." A\ B. The final // of niasYi revives pretty distinctly before gix, for which reason we \\'x\i€ masii in all such examples. Shma wa yoroshiu gozaimasu Article as-for, good is ga,— nedan ga osoroshii takb whereas, price [nom.) frightful high p-ozawiasu. " The article is a good ► one, />w/the price is fright- fully high." A^. B. For such expressions as osoroshii /akai, see the second iV. B. to^iSr. dc hi Yama-michi Mountain-road kuremasHita day tsure cva \ as-for, darkened whereas, companions [no/n.) ozei daita kara, ki-johu crowd were deshtta. because, spirit-sturdy (7CV)^ Watakushi iva kon-do de, Fuji \ Me as-for, this time by, Fujiyama ye to-san wa san-do-me desu ga, — to ascent as-for, third-time is whereas, shi-aivase to itsu mo tejiki-tsugo luckily always weather-circumstances ga yd gozaitnasti. {no/n.) good are. " It got dark while we were on the mountain side ; but, as we were several of us together, we felt no alarm." " I'his is the third time I have made the ascent of Fujiyama, a?td I have each time been lucky enough to have fine wea- ther." T[ 94. vSometimes ga with adversative force is repeated in two consecutive clauses, after the manner of '' either or :" 68 THE POSTPOSITION'. Kokusai-hb ga aro International-law Uwni.) may-exist ga, nani ga arb either, something [fio///.) may-exist ga, — ?nada mada dbri hakari or, still still right only de wa kaisu koto ga action [no»i.) by, conquer dekimasen. forthcomes-not. ' Ikb Perhaps-1-shall-go ga, ivatakiishi no " We may have inter- national law, and \vc may have all sorts of fine things ; hut we are still very far from having arrived at a social state in which right always triumphs." ga, ikumai either, perliaps-I-shan't-go katte da. of convenience is. *' Whether I go, or whether I don't go, is no one's business but my I own." Sometimes ga occurs elliptically at the end of an un- finished sentence. See, for examples, those given about the middle of \ 287. KA. ^95. Ka serves to ask a question, as : Arimasu. Arimasu ka? Furo^ wa' dekimashitd\ '' There is." " Is there? " [ " The bath is ready. ' j {More lit. " As-for^ the bath,* it-hiw- ' forthcome."") Furo wa dekinuishita kaP " Is the bath ready ? " If the sentence already contains some other interrogative word — an interrogative pronoun or adverb, — ka is often omitted, and it is generally best to omit it, thus : Nan-doki ni mairimasho hi? What-hour at shall-come ? or Nan-doki ni niairimashb? " At what o'clock shall I come } " Itsu shiiiimashlta {ka)? When died ? When did he die.'' KA. 69 Do iu -wake ,/r hmm\ „ -^y, . ^,,^ ,.^,^, ,,,, ^^^^.j, \Vhat-son-ot reason hv, such .,, , . -^ '1 • - ■• / o • 7 ' , ksiUy thmors as this .-' {Siitd haka na koto ivo surii.^ \. :,„;„/;.„•,,. \ .,.,,. , ,10 \to an inferior.) foolish things l^accus.) ilo ? j -' '' \ 96. Sometimes ka expresses a merely rhetorical or ironical question, sometimes nothing beyond a mere shade of doubt. In the latter case it corresponds to such English words as " may," " might," '' perhaps : " Aru mofio kaP \ "Who in his senses would ever Exists thing ? j believe that such a thing exists ? " 3Iaia yuki ga furimasho \ ^ Again snow {mvil.) will-probably-fall ( " -L ^ thuig it Will SHOW to omoiinasu. jagam. that think. ' Mata yuki ga fiiri/iias/id \ ^ . . . , Again snow (;;^ distance." ( {Lit. evens till* where. i) N. B. For made ni in the sense " by," see N. B. at end of \ 135. 72 THE POSTPOSITION. T I02. Mo means "even," "also," "and," "too." When repeated, vio 7no means " both ...;.... and : " Jtsu made lit. " Even till when," /. forever." Watakushi mo mairimasu. " I will go too." Kore mo zvasurccha ) " And )'Ou mustn't forget This also, as-for-forgetting, L tj^js either ; " or " Nor must ikemascji. ) youTorget this." is -no-go. Ka mo nomi vio \ " It is a place where there Mosquitoes also, fleas also, L ^re plenty both of mosquitoes oi tokoro desu. land of fleas." numerous place is. ,, . , ^ . ( " It cannot be said that ^a^ koo mo go^^mmsen. ^ ^^ere are none," or simply Not-bemg fact also is-not. j ' f,^ ( " I here are certainly some. (This is a very common idiom.) Construed with a negative verb, 7no mo means " neither nor," thus : Yoku mo waruku vio nai. j " It is neither good nor Good also, bad also is-not. i ba^] '' Mo is sometimes placed after ka, when the latter means " perhaps " (see \ 96). It retains in Japanese something of its proper force of " even," but can hardly be represented in the English translation, thus : . Mata rai-nen kuru ka ) ^^ ^ . ^ Again coming-year come ? (. Perhaps I may comc again mo shireviasen. ) ^^-"^^ X^^^- even cannot-know. N. B. For mo serving to form expressions analogous to the concessive mood, see \ 289. • Not to be confounded with the adverb mo, for which see \ 373. \ MOTTE. T^ MOTTE. \ 103. AlotU', properly the g-erund of the verb nuUsu, •• tu hold,'' is in Written Ja})anese the usual word for " by," "thereby/' In the Colloquial it survives only as a sort of emphatic particle, which is moreover little used except by old-fashioned speakers. Thus hatiahada viottc is the same as hanahada, " very,'' but emphasised ; ima motte ma}- be rendered by " even now," or by the help of some such word as '' very," thus : Midas hi kara ima motte, \ Ancient-time from, now indeed, j "■ It is a shop which haS ai-kawarazu ^r?/^/J carried on a good trade mutually-changing-not well [from old timCS dowU t(~) iirerii misc desii. 1 this 7;p/j day." se\\s[i fit runs.) shop is. / yV. B. Ai, the equivalent of our word " mutually," is often thus prefixed to verbs by pedantic speakers. It is a relic of tlie Book Language, and has little or no meaning now. This sentence is a good example of the apparent ambiguity of relative constructions in Japanese, which was pointed out in ^ 82, The speaker of course means to say that the things in the shop sell 7vell \ but he seems to say that it is the shop itself -which sells reell. When dc is used in the sense of " by " or " with,'' ?nott(' is often suffixed to it by all classes of speakers, thus : mc/w dc {mottr) kirn. \ ^ ^y,, cut with a knife." Kn'te by to-cut. J Nazva di' {motte) shiharu. ) " '[;> tie with a rope." Rope by to-tie. j Kaze de {motte) to ga J " The door keeps slam- wind by, door {nam.) V ming^ on account of the aotte imasu. \ wind." slamming is. For NA and NAN, see ^ 197. 74 THE POSTPOSITION. NI. ^ 104. The original sense of;// is " in," " into," " to :*' Kono hen ni kiji \ " Are there no This neighbourhood in, pheasants L pheasantS in this 7va itnasen ka ? ) neighbourhood ?" as-for, are-not ? N. B. Compare this example with the fifth on p. 63, and note tliat de serves to indicate the place where something is done, ;// the place where something merely is. Kono kamo wo rybri-nin \ " Please hand this This wild-duck {^acciis.), cookery -person L \vild-duck tO the ;// watasKite kudasai. \ cook." to, handing condescend. i" This is the first time , I have had the honour to meet vnn " (A phrase which it Is considered polite to use when introduced to a new acquaintance.) *|[ 105. Ni has many other idiomatic uses, of which the following are the chief, viz. With a passive verb, ni corresponds to " by," thus : Osoroshiku, domo ! ka \ *' Oh ! I ha\e been Frightfully really, mosquitoes (. frightfully StUUg by the 7ii sasaremasHita. J mosquitoes." by have-been-stung. Ame ni furi-komeraremashita. j " We were kept in by Rain by were-kept-in. 1 (^Jjg raill." A kindred idiom is found in the ni corresponding to our " by " or " with," in such phrases as : J "What >- one's eyes, ) one's ears." Me ni iniru mono, mimi\ "What one sees with Eyes by, see things : ears \. one's eVCS, and hcarS with ;// kiku motto. by, hear things. xr. 75 ''Boy 711 SiWdsascma. ^ho. \ 1 06. With a causative verb, ;// denotes the person who is caused to perform the action, thus : f "I will make the boy look I for it." TT 107. Suffixed to the indefinite form of a ^•erb, ///• means " (in order) to," thus : Ueno no sakura ivo ) " 1 want to go to see Ueno 's cherry-blossoms [accrfs.) I the cherrv-blossoms at ?m' ni ikitai. J Ueno." see to want-to-go. A^. B. It is oiily with the indefinite form of the verb that /// lias this meaning. When, as often happens, it follows the present tense used as an infinitive, it preserves its original force, thus : Michi ga loarukutt-, aruku ni ) » q-t i Roads lnovi.\ being-bad, walk in, f , , ^ Vf . ^'O^'l-^ ^ ' >- bad, it IS fear; \ walking. are so fearfully hard hone ga oretnasii. lX)nes [nO//l.) break (/;;/;7;' ;/.(■.). Ma da ncni ni ilhi hayai. \ " It is still too early to Still to sleep to as-for (///>) early, j go to bed." ^108. Ni suffixed to nouns serves to fonn expressions corresponding to European adverbs, as : daiji, " importance," " care ;" daiji ni, '' carefully." /le/a, " a bad hand (at) ;" /ieia ni, "unskilfully." ima, " the present moment," ima ni, "now." Jozu, " a good hand (at) ; " j'dzu ni, "skilfully." rippii, " splendour ;" rippi ni, " splendidly." (See also ^f 64.) ^ 109. When several things are enumerated, ;// often means " besides the foregoing," " and :" IZ//. Besides- beer\ he- sides'* wine^, we-w^ill-go^ carrying" soda-water', i.e. " We will take beer, claret, vand soda-water.*" * Tansan-siii, lit. "carbonic acid water," really differs somewhat from soda-water proper. 76 THE POSTPOSITION. ,) '^Thec ^ X >- flowers, and the warrior the ) chief of iiK zj I o L s i ) "The cherrv is the chief of /li/o^ zva'' hushP. (A proverb.) " ■ ■ men. Lit. As-for- flowers^ (the best is) the cherry -blossoms^ ; and-to-the-foregoing-it-may-be-added-that*, as-for° human- beings'', (the best are) warriors^ NO. ^ no. No means "of," or denotes the possessive case : . • 1 o 7^ .,- -, f " The President' of- the Amenca^ no- DaUoryo\ | United StatesV" Neko^ tur tsume^. " A cat''s- claws^." ArP mr mama\ {Ari 'is'i ,, -^.^ ,, ^y ^^ beino- " the indefinite form of the >■ . " << ," ^ -i. • " "'' , u ^ 1 "\ \ ^'^- I'^ist as It IS. verb aru, " to be. ) ) •' i " Something I have only just Katta hakari no shina. ) bought." {More lit. " An article PK^ught only 's article. ( of quitc rcceiit buying.") We ha\e already noticed, when treating of the })ost- position ga, the genitive origin of many apparent!}' nomi- native expressions in Japanese. The same tendenc)' is exemplified by 710, though less frequently in the Colloquial than in the Written Language, thus : KisJia no tsuko suru toki, senro I " It is dangerous to Train 's passage does time, line WO yokogitcha abunai. laCCltS.) as-for-crossing, (;'.{■) dangerous." (It would be more ix)lite to say ahuno f^ozainiasti.) cross the line when the train is passing." {More lit. " at the time of the passing of the Urain.") T" III. A^ is used in attributive phrases either in lieu of, or suffixed to, the other postpositions, it being a rule that none of the postpositions excepting no can connect two nouns in such phrases. An example or two will make this clearer : NO. 11 (i) Kono lira ni ike ga gozaimasti. ( "There is a pond This back in, iwnd (,;^w.) is. | at the back of this." (2) K(»ii) ura no ike zvj, a so ( " The pond at the back gozaimasa,. \ of this is shallow.'' ( "I have re- (3) Kuiii kani dempb ga kimashita. J ceived a telei^ram Country from, telegram hio/f/.) has-come. j r 1 ,P (4) Kimi kara no dempo. " A telegram from home." In the above predicative phrases (the first and the third), each English preposition is rendered by the Japanese post- position properly corresponding to it. But turn the phrase attributively (the second and fourth), and no either supplants, or is suffixed to, that postposition {no for ni in the second, kara no for kara in the fourth). In this manner no, " of," comes to express almost every idea of relation ; or rather all the various ideas of relation come to be summed up by the Japanese mind under the one idea of " of;" thus : Alami no onsen. " The hot springs at Atami." Fuji no yuki. " The snow on Fuji." '' Nichi-Nichi" no ("A leading article in the shasetsu. t " Daily News.' " Oya no mo, " The mourning/bra parent." Heiwa no dampan. " Deliberations adont peace." Korera-hyo no yobo. " Precautions <7^(^?/;z5/ cholera." Hanashi ?to aite. " Some one to talk to!' Even the idea of apposition finds its place under this heading, for instance : Segare no Taro. " My son Taro." Indeed apposition is often expressed in English itself by a similar idiom with *' of," as when we say " The province of Yamato." Yamafo no kuni. 78 THE POSTPOSITION. ^112. A^* is used substantively with the meaning of the EngHsh word " one " or " ones " (see also ^ 137), thus : Wand no. " A bad one.'"' yo6u 11a no. " A solid one;" -V. B. For the na ol jobti na, see •[197. Kore wa ii jig da. ] " This is a good This as-for, good one is. i One." ( " It is a thing I have Iku tabi mo mita no desu. ) seen any number of How-many times even, saw one is J j.:»^„y " Under this heading, note the following specimens of a curious idiom : Yubin-gitte^ mf fund'^ no*, as lit. as possible, " okP ones* of'-' postage stamps^" i.e. " stamps that are old," hence " some old stamps." Kwashi^ no"^ shinki^ ni* yaiUy' 710^, as lit. as possible, "in* newness^ have-burnt^ one® of" cake^ i.e. "a cake that has been freshly baked," or more simply, "a freshly baked cake." 7'here is just the shadow of a shade of difference in intention between these circumlocutions and the simpler expressions Fund kittc. "Old stamps." Shiftki 711 yaita kivashi. "A freshly baked cake." The circumlocutory form with the two 710s seems to contain a tacit reference to stamps that are not old and cakes that are 7iot freshly baked, — a sort of emphatic dwelling on the ideas of oldness and of freshness respectively. T 113. No often serves to form expressions corresponding to English adjectives, as Nihon 7to, "of Japan," i.e. "Japanese" (see 1[ 62, and ^ 197 ct scq.). Sometimes, in NO. 79 quite familiar talk, it occurs as a final particle with a certain emphatic force, corresponding to that of the Colloquial English phrase "and so there!" or "and what do you think o{ that!" A good example of this occurs towards the end of this Handbook, in Chap. II of the " Bota?i-ddrd," in the convei-sation between O Yone and Shijo, where attention is drawn to it in a foot-note. ^114. At other times, — and this is a very favourite idiom, — no is employed as a kind of equivalent for the word koto meaning " act," " fact." This construction is specially apt to occur in conjunction with the substantive verb da or desu, and is generally best rendered in English by the phrase " it is that," or " is it that ?" For instance, a man has made an appointment, but a note comes from him about the time he is expected to arrive. One of the bystanders, observing this, says : Konai no daro. f " I suppose it is that he Will-not-come fact probably-is. 1 isn't COmino"." N. B. Though the sense is properly that of koto, may not }w, after all, be here derived from the word 7Hono by apocope of the first syllable ? For notwithstanding what has been said in IT 54 concerning the distinction to be drawn between koto and /iiouo, a certain amount of confusion in the use of the two words can scarcely be denied ; and as a matter of fact, one not infrequently, hears such expressions as konai )non\o'\ daro. In such contexts, the word no may be, and in familiar conversation generally is, clipped of its vowel, so that it sinks into the single letter 7i . Thus the above example might equally well be Konai n daro, or more politely Konai n desho (conf \ 343-5)- ■11 n desuP] " What is it that y^ ' fact is? [doing.?" Nam ivo sum n desuP) " What is it that vou are What [aca/s.) do 8o THE POSTPOSITION. ( " Am I to go straight Massugu ni iku n desu kaP )qy\V' more lit. '* Is it that Straight -ly go act is ? ^ j ^^ ^^ ^^ straight on ?" Aru no P ( "Is there?'' 's fact? I " Ij)o you mean to say that there is ?" A'. B. As shown in this last example, no cannot be clipped* of its vowel when standing at the very end of a sentence. The exact force of no preceding the verb da or deslt may be practically exemplified by comparing, say, Nani wo shimasu P " What are you doing ?" with Nani ivo sum n desu ? " What is it that you are doing ?" ^115. The verb da, "is," and the postposition no combine to form the word dano, which serves for purposes of enu- meration. Dano must, like the Latin gue, be repeated after each of the items enumerated, thus : Shishi dano, tora dano, Z4)\ " Lions, tigers, elephants, dano, rakuda dano. \ and camels." There is a difference between dano and 7ii (see \ 109) used enumeratively. Ni is simply copulative, dano conveys the idea of a multiplicity of objects. Thus, when a Japanese says sake dano, sakana dano, kwashi dano, he means to convey to his hearers the idea of a variously assorted feast, including possibly other good things besides the liquor, fish, and cakes enumerated. But when he says sake ni, sakatia ni, kwashi, he speaks of just those three and no more. Observe, moreover, that the word dano s somewhat vulgar. The polite equivalent is de gozaimasli no, but this is less often used. iV!^ sometimes serves as an cnumerative after other than the substantive verbs. Thus : SHI. 8i no, and, ni " Talk of feeling frightened and so forth, •I have had a rough time of it, I can tell YOU." Kimi ga warukatia Mental -feelings [nof/l.), were-bad nan no to, osoroshii f?i8 what and that, fearful eyes aite kita. having-met (/) have-come. (Famil.) ^V. B. No, in its proper sense of " of," is sometimes replaced in formal speech by the Chinese word teki 0^, properly " a target or bull's- eye," but used for " of " in modern Mandarin. Sometimes the two are used together, as seiji-teki kaktiviei, or seiji-teki no kaknmei, lit. " a revolution of politics," i.e. " a political revolution." With ni suffixed, teki corresponds to English adverbs in " ly," as hikakti-tcki ni, " com- paratively." SHI. 1 1 6. Shi, a postposition which is not capable of translation into English, has a sort of enumerative force, and serves as a kind of pause, thus : Kono 7iikai wa, Fuji mo This second-storey as-for, Fujiyama also mieru shi, umi mo mieru shi ; makoto is-visible, sea also is-visible ; truth ni a keshiki desu. in, good view is. " From the second storey here you can see Fujiyama and you can see the sea, — truly a beautiful view." Shi is frequently appended to the verbal form in mai (the " improbable present or future "). Thus, when bandying words with a jinrikisha-man who should attempt to make an overcharge, one might say : Hajimete kwiima zoo' " You don't imagine, do you ? that this is the first time I have hired a jinrikisha, and that I don't know the proper fare ! "' For-the-first-time ianomi ya -for,(/, vehicle {^acciis^, shimai shi, probably-do-not, taigai sbba mo for-the-most-part market-price also shitte irii wa ! knowing am [eniph.) ' Occasionally shi seems to terminate a sentence ; but this is only because the speaker, after finishing the first clause, 82 THE POSTPOSITION. finds himself at a loss concerning the second, and so perforce leaves the sentence unfinished. N. B. Do not confound the postposition shi with shl the " inde- finite form " of the verb sttm, " to do," which appears in such idioms as ;/// vio shi, kiki vio sttru, " one both sees it and hears it." TO, 7 117. To originally had the sense of our demonstrative pronoun " that," but it now has the sense of our conjunction *' that -r Uso da to iimasXi, | " He says that it is a lie." Lie is that says. J •' Hontb da to omoimasu. \ u^ ^u- ^ ^\. ^ ■. - . ^> Truth is that think. J I thmk that It is true. N. B. Originally therefore the sense was : " It is a lie. He says that." "It is truth. I think that." The conversion of the demon- strative pronoun into the conjunction came about gradually in the case of to, as in the case of its English equivalent " that," In the above, and in most similar phrases, English idiom generally prefers to omit the word " that ;" but to cannot so be omitted in Japanese. The following are instances of to meaning literally " that," but not lending itself to expression in idiomatic English : " What is your name V more lit. "As for the name of Mr. you, what [do people] Omae san no na wa, You Mr. 's name as-for, nan to iu ka ? {Said to a com- what that say ? mon person.) '' Tokyo Maru" to "TokySMaru" that mosu fune. say vessel. ,say that it is ?' " A vessel called the * Tokyo Maru,' " more lit. " A vessel [of which people] say that it is the ' Tokyo Maru.' " (Conf. p. 58 for this important idiom.) Similarly in the case of such onomatopoetic adverbs as /latto, kitto, patatto, etc., where the to (strengthened into tto) is, properly speaking, a separate word, thus : TO. 83 IlaUtu- omoimashitcf. i "I started, more lit. 1 ^-^ I hhought^ that- [it is] ha Nochihodo^ kittiP' fjiairitnasii? Pata^tto' ochimasJiita^. " It felP flop^ ( " I will certainly- come^ ( later-on\'' Under this heading, too, comes the idiomatic use of to at the end of a sentence ; for some verb must always be mentally supplied after it. Take, for instance, the common colloquial phrase Nan to P " What did you {or he) say ?" standing for Naii to osshatta ? (polite), or Nan to itta P (famil.) ^118. 7o itte, "saying that;" to oinotte, "thinking that;" to kiite, " asking (lit. hearing) whether," and similar gerundial })hrases, are often contracted to tote (vulgarly tte) : O yu ni ikuy Honourable )iot-water to, (/) go tote, demashita. {sdvifts^) that, went-out ; Tote frequently has a' sort of oppositive force, as in the following examples, where it may be best parsed as standing for to itte mo, " even saying that," i.e. " even supposing that." (Conf. also T" 289.) " He went out saying that he was going to the bath." gakumon study Ikiira How-much tote, even-say ing-that, wariikereha , if-is-bad, narimasen. becomes-not. Zbhei-kyoku Mint itta kara went because haiken 7va adoring-look as-for, shita have-done okonai conduct ( iom.) nanni anyth mo ng " However much a man may study {tnore lit. saying -that a man may study how much), nothing will come of it if he is badly behaved." 7va, as-for. muyami ni recklessly tote, even-saying- that, dekimascn. forthcomes-nut. " You cannot get shown over the Mint simply by going there and asking to see it." 84 THE POSTPOSITION. N. B. Women and the lower classes often end a sentence by tte^ when they should says to iiniasu or to iitnashita. ^ 119. 7 <:> sometimes means "and." When it has this sense, it is, like the Latin que, generally repeated after each noun. Even when not so repeated, it always belongs to the word immediately preceding it, not to the word following it. Europeans often make the mistake of commencing a clause with to, in imitation of the European idiom which introduces • clauses by the conjunction " and." But this sounds ludicrous in Japanese : Ajiata to, ivatakhshi to. " You and I." Fiiratisu to, Doitsu to. " France and Germany." Certain idiomatic uses of to may best be classed under this head, thus : Musii^o to /Mm. ) u 'Y^^,^ counting my son." Son and two-persons. j o y Alio hito to ikimashiia. ) u j -^yent with him." 'Jhat person and (/) went. J Okiru to sugu m. \ u j^^ ^^^^ ^^ j ^ » Rise and immediately, j Xore to wa chigaif?iasii. 1 u j^ jg different from this." This and as-for, (/'/) differs. j Observe also such adverbial phrases as shi-awase to, " luckily." ^ 120. Z<9 sometimes comes to mean "if" or "when." It has this sense only after the present tense of verbs and adjec- tives, thus : So sum to, shikararemash. \ " You will get scolded if So do if, get-scolded. ) yOU do that." Sugu ik(Uiai to\ Immediately go-not if, I " YoU wiU l)e tOO UllC if VOU okuremash. J don't go at once." are-late. WA. 05 S,l moshwiash to, sugti ni \ u ^^yj^^,^ j g^ij g^^ j^^ So said when, immediately ( • 1 • 1. 1 ' "^ Mmmechately gave me a sHikararemasMia. scoldint*' '' got-scolded.. ' '^' ^12 1. Observe the use of to in such phrases as the following, where it is not susceptible of any English rendering : Chiri tsumotte, yama to\ " Dust accumulating be- Dust accumulating, mountain (comCS a mountain." nam. \ (A proverb used to inculcate becomes. the imjwrtance of little things.) Mizu ga dete, nhva^ '' The garden has become Water [no;//.) issuing, garden ga umi to natte shimaima- hlOf/l.) sea has-become a perfect sea through the overflowing " (of the neigh- ^^-^^ J bouring stream, etc.). Observe the strong affirmative force of to (generally followed by mo) at the end of an assertion, thus : I "Are there any? — Of course there are !" or, " I should just think there were !'' To tva or tote sometimes replaces to mo in such strongly affirmative phrases. — For to mo and to wa iedomo in concessive phrases, see T 288 and \ 289. WA. ^122. Pf^z was originally a noun signifying "thing," hence " that which," " he, she, or they who ;" but it is now used as a separative or isolating particle, corresponding in some measure to the French " quant a," or, when repeated anti- thetically, to the Greek ^kv and dk. Perhaps the most perfect idea of the character of a Japanese word or phrase isolated by means of wa is given by such French construc- tions as " Lui, qu'est ce qu'il en dit .'*" " Ces gens qui viennent d'arriver, personne n'en sait rien/' — where the 86 THE POSTPOSITION. words " lui " and " ces gens qui viennent d'arriver " are, as it were, lifted out of the regular current of the sentence and set in a place apart. '' As for," " with regard to," " so far as is concerned," are the most explicit English equivalents of 7va, which has accordingly been rendered by " as for " in most of the literal translations of the examples scattered throughout the present work. But in practice its force is generally sufficiently indicated in an English translation by an emphasis on the equivalent of the word to which zva is suffixed, or b}' placing that word at the beginning of the sentence or clause. A slight pause, which may sometimes be indicatetl by a comma, is usually made after zva : Biido-shu ivo siikoshi atatamete. Wine [accus^ a-little warming, hiiru wa sono mama de beer as-for, that condition in yoroshii. {is) good. " WaiTTi the claret a little ; but so far as the beer is con- cerned, that will do as it is." Konnichi iva, yoi\ " To-day it is fine weather." To-day as-for, good I (/^^^ "Whatever it may have tenki de gozaimasu. [been other davs, to-day at least weather (//) is. ) it is fine.") Oki zva, yohodo nami ga Offing as-for, plentifully waves(w^;;z.) arai yd deslu kara, fune rough appearance is because, vessel iva demasumai. as-for, probably-won't-go-out. *' Out at sea the waves seem pretty rough ; so probably the vessel will not sail." Ima wa te-suki dc gozaimasu. j "Now I am at Now as-for, hand-empty am. i IcisurC." E^ , . [ "This water comes from the Koko no viizu zva, L <. deduct " Here 's water as-for. J ^///.) (/j) good indeed! j OllC, jT do." ^ 124. The peculiar power of wa to separate or limit ideas is well shown in some of the negative phrases given in the Chapter on Syntax, If 433, and also in such favourite verbal idioms as the following : * For tabako zoo iio?nu, some substitute tabako wo situ^ " to inhale (or *' such ") tobacco." 88 THE POSTPOSITION. Aru ni wa arimasu ga, sukimd\ u j^ere are some Is in as-for, is whereas, scarce I . . , , ' ^ , A 1. s . \ ht IS true, but they gozatmasu. (or Aru koto wa, etc.) J ^^^ scarce." Ame wa fuite imasu ka? — Furu ni Rain as-for, falling is ? Falls in wa futte imasu ga, hidoi koto as-for, falling is whereas, intense fact wa gozaimasen. as-for is-not. " Is it raining .? — Yes, it is rain- ing, but it is not raining hard." Kotowatte okimashita. \ « t r i '^ Refusing (/) put. J ^ reiusea. Kotowatte wa oki- j "I refused, but . . . . " (the sentence mashita ga. . . . \ remaining unfinished.) The former of these two phrases states the fact of the refusal, and nothing more. The latter emphasises it ; but the emphasis is the emphasis of hesitation, as if one should say^ " I did indeed refuse, but my refusal was tempered by politeness," or " I left myself a loophole for taking back the refusal," etc., etc. Tsiikai wa kita ga, tonin f ''Oh! yes; a Messenger as-for, came although, person- messenger came. wa ki iva shinai. but the man him- in-question as-for, coming as-for, does-not. self didnt." Very often we hear ki wa shinai (and similar constructions with other verbs), where simple konai, etc., would seem sufficiently clear according to European ideas. But the Japanese prefer the more emphatic form with 7va, whenever any mental reservation or allusion implies the existence some- where or other of contradiction or opposition to the idea which is actually expressed, as illustrated in the two foregoing examples. N. B. When thus suffixed to the indefinite form of a verb [ki is the indefinite form of the irregular verb ktini, " to come "), ica is often pronounced ya ; thus ki ya shinai iov'ki 7oa s/n'jiai. WA. 89 T^ 125. A consideration of the foregoing examples, and indeed of those which any page of Japanese aifords, will convince the student that wa is not, as some European writers have erroneously imagined, a sign of the nominative case. The following example, which is the last we shall quote, illustrates this fact almost to the point of absurdity. It is race-day, let us suppose. You meet a friend walking in the direction of the race-course, and you say to him : Anaia wa, keiba desu ka ? You as-for, horse-race is ? i.e. if interpreted on the hypothesis of wa being a sign of the nominative case, "Are you a horse-race?" (!) The proper meaning of course is "As for you, is it the races (that you are going to) .?" or more simply " Off to the races, eh .?" The utmost that can be said with regard to the so-called nominative force of 7va is that the word followed by wa must, in not a few instances, be rendered by a nominative in English, though it is never properly a nominative in the Japanese construction. The nearest approach made by the Colloquial Japanese Language to the possession of a nominative particle is in the particle ga (see p. 66). But even this, as has been there explained, originally meant "of," that is to say, was a sign of the genitive, not of the nominative. ^126. Europeans often find it hard to decide whether to say iva or ga ; and it is true that two Japanese phrases, one with iva, the other with ga, must often be rendered by the same English words. There is, however, a slight difference of intention. When (if we may so phrase it) a speaker has in his mind a predicate and gives it a subject, he uses ga ; when the subject is uppennost in his mind and he gives it a predicate, he uses iva. As a general empirical 90 THE POSTPOSITION. ^rule, seemingly but not really contradicting the above enunciation of principle, the use of ga necessitates emphasis on the subject in the English translation, whereas the use o^wa necessitates emphasis on the predicate. The Japanese them- selves, as stated in ^ 27, are not much given to the use of such vocal emphasis. They prefer a change in the actual words. To take an example : — if you are expecting your Japanese teacher, the servant will probably inform you of his arrival by saying Sensei wa miemashtta. " The teacher has come " (///. appeared). The etymological sense is, "As for the teacher, he has come." That is to say, the teacher (subject) was in the servant's thoughts as a daily visitant, and now here he is. But should the same personage arrive in the middle of the night or at some other unusual hour, the servant will say Sensei ga miemashita ; i.e. "The teacher has come," — more properly and etymological ly, "The coming of the teacher." In the servant's mind his coming at such an hour (predicate) is the curious and important thing. So too of an unexpected death one would say, for instance, Hayashi san ga shinimashita, " Mr. Hayashi is dead." But if he had long been known to be past recovery, the phrase would be Hayashi sati zva shinimashtta, " Mr. Hayashi is dead." Similarly Kot'e ga ii means " This is good;" whereas |^<9;£' iva ii means "This is good." The distinction flows naturally from the original force of the two particles, Kore ga ii being properly " the goodness of this," while Kore wa ii is properly " as f(Jr this, it is good." In comparative senterxss the rule is quite simple. The subject takes ga, while the word denoting the thing with which the subject is compared is generally separated off by means of wa : thus : ICore yori wa, arc ga ii, " Thai is better than this." wo. 9 1 ^127. The student who has followed this explanation with due regard to the original geniti\-e force of ga, will perceive that there is nothing specially emphatic about ga in the Japanese idiom, though an emphasis on the word preceding- it is its nearest equivalent in English. On the other hand, zva is emphatic and separative in Japanese, though there will generally be no emphasis on the corresponding portion of the phrase in English, when the English noun is a nominative. Wa, however, corresponds to an emphasised word in English whenever that word is not a nominative, as shown by several of the examples given above. ^128. It may be asked : what is the rule in the case of two nominatives in antithetical clauses? The answer is that either ga may be used in both, or else zva may be used in both. Thus the fourth example on p. 87, Kore wa icdsci, are zva hakurai, " This is of nati^•e make, that is an imported article," might be altered to Kore ga zvasei, are ga hakurai. The effect would be to throw the emphasis more strongl}- on the two subjects than on the two predicates. - ^V". B. Sometimes wa, occurring after an adjective in ku, must be rendered by " if," thus : Yoroshikii loa, dekakemashn. ^ " If you are all right, let us Is-good if, will-go-out. (f start." Elegant speakers sometimes prefer to say yorosJakuba, wliich is tlie form employed in the Book language, WO. •J" 129. Wo is the nearest Japanese equivalent to a sign of the * accusative case, thus : Tamago zvo uderu | . ^.^ ^^-^ „ Eggs {acctis^ to-boil. J 00 92 THE POSTPOSITION. Fome wo \ "To receive a bride," /. e. " to marry." Bride {^acciis.) ( (Of course said only of the man. A girl's marry- morau. ing is generally called yonie ni ikii, lit. " to go as a to-receive. > bride.") Sonna kake-ftc wo Such excessive-price laccus.) itcha, komariynasii. as-for-sayinj?, (/)am-hampered. " I don't know what to do if you ask such an exorbitant price," or more simply, "You should not ask such an ex- l.orbitant price." Htto no kuru wo \ Person 's comes {accusM " To await the comiug of matsu. I some one." to-await. ' ^ 130. Originally tvo was nothing more than an interjection serving, as it were, to interrupt the sentence and draw attention to the word to which it was suffixed. We must therefore not be surprised at its absence in many cases where European languages could not dispense with the accusative case. It is not that the ivo has been dropped in such contexts, but that it never was there, thus : Baka iu-na ! (very rude) | .c j^^^y ^ t^ij. nonsense." roily say-not. J Meshi kuu ioki. (famil.) J " When eating rice," Rice eat time. ( i.e. " When dining. Before the verb sum, " to do," wo is mostly absent, as : TT^ J ( " To make a translation," Hon-yaku swu. | « To tmnslate." Satsoku sum. " To do urgency," i.e. " to urge on." T 131. The student will sometimes meet with, and probably be puzzled by, sentences like the following : Dayin-gata wo hajime, \ .^aH the officials were Minister (^.«,..) beginning (/^«„..) L^ere, from the ministers sho-kwan-in made sorotmasmta. \ c ^ \ ^ 1 .«.. all-officials till were-complete. J ^^ State downwaids. YA AND YE. 93 Here the first clause literally means " placing the ministers of state at the beginning."' It is therefore not unnatural that the word Daijin gafa, being what we should .term an accusa- tive, should take ivo. ^132. In the Written Language, ivo is often used adversa- tively at the end of a clause. But this is rare in the Collo- quial, which prefers to use ga for that purpose, as already explained in ^ 93, p. 67. YA. T" 133. Fa is an interrogative and exclamatory particle of constant occurrence in the Written Language, In the Colloquial it is less used, excepting in such contexts as Hani ya! "I say, Haru !'' said when calling a person by name. It also occurs corruptly for wa after the indefinite forms of verbs, as explained in the N. B. on p. 88. Some- times it has the sense of '' and " or " or," thus : Tunari ?w uchi de, inu ya Next-door 's house at, dog and 7icko ga shki to micte, cat of fond that seeming, takitsajt ni kattc onmas,a. quantity in rearing are. " They would seem to be very fond of dogs and cats in the house next door ; for they keep quite a number of them.'' . . .ya iiani ka. J " . . . . or something or ( other." ^ 134. Ye means "to," "towards," hence sometimes "at :" Gakko ye ide desh ka ? \ ''Do you go to School to, honourable exit is ? 1 SChool V^ * Some gootl authorities jirefer the orthography E. In Classical Japanese the word is spelt -'^ {Jw). We follow Hepburn's and Brinkley's dictionaries. 94 THE POSTPOSITION. " I will just look in at the telegraph office on my way to the station.'' Siiiensho ye iki-gakc ni, Station towards going-while denshin-kyoku ye chotto telegraph-office at, just yorimaslh. will-stop. Koko ye oiie oite kudasai. .( " Please ^^ put it Here to putting putting condescend. [ down here." A". B. 'Ihe second oitc is the same verb as the first, but has only the force of an auxiliary (see \ 298). YORl. ^ 135. J^^/7* means "from," "since," "than :" TT ' . • ( " From Kydto " (or its Kamifrata yon. \ . , , , K. ^ ^ ^ ( neighbourhood). X , ... . • ( "Since the dav before Issakujitsu yon, . | yesterday." Naiii yori kekko na o ( "Thanks for your splcn- Anything than, splendid honourable 1 did present." {Mofe lit. shina ivo, arigato gozaimasii: jfor your more-splendid- article (<7^10/!1.) was-not. " I will let it alone," or -" Don't let us think about it any more." " I had never seen it till •now." {Made ni is stronger than made alone would be.) A'. r>. Made )il often corresponds to our word " by " in such ]ihrases as myonichi made ni, " by to-morrow ;" hachi-ji made ni, " by (i.e. not later than) eight o'clock." .The Japanese mind does not clearly apprehend the shade of difference which, with us, separates " by " from " till " in idioms of this class. Compare the N. B. to \ loo for a case of a somewhat similar character. ^6 THE POSTPOSITION. T[ 137, No followed by other post|X)sitions generally has the substantive force of the English word "one" or "ones," already exemplified on p. 78, thus : Motto a no wa an?7iasen ka ? \ " Haven't pu any More good ones as-for, are-not ? i better OneS ? " Aid chitto a 710 wo \ More a-iittie good o"es [accits) I " 1 Icase show me somc niisete kudasai. f rather better ones." showing condescend. ' Okii no ^a hoshii. \ ., ^ ^ i • ?» Big one of (a///) desirous. J " I want a big One. Ko ill no 7710 haya7i77iash Such ones also are-fashionable kaja, go7-a7i nasai. because, august-glance condescend. " This kind too is fashion- able. So please look at them." Motto yasui no ni shiyb. j " I think I will take More cheap one to will probably-do. \ a cheaper One." \ 138. Though the 7io of 7io ni may, as in the last example, be used in the sense of "one" or "ones," it more fre- quently signifies "whereas," "while," "when," It may be known to have this acceptation by observing that a verb (or an adjective equivalent to a verb) precedes it, as in the following sentence : Moto 710 77ia77ia de yokatta Origin 's manner by, was-good 710 ni, naze ju7i wo whereas, why ordtr laccns^ 7uiosKita r have-amended ? "Why have you changed .their order, when it did quite well as it was .'*" [Said e.g. to a senurft/.) As here exemplified, no 7ii occurs chiefly in phrases ex- pressive of censure or regret. Conf. \ 287 for further details concerning this important idiom. 1[ 139. Observe that ivo and iva, when combined, change by euphony into ivoba, which is used to denote a specially QUASI-POSTPOSITIONS. 97 emphatic accusative ; also that de wa is often contracted intoy<7, as has already been incidentally mentioned in ^ 89. ya, owing perhaps to its being a modern corruption, sounds somewhat more familiar than de wa, but the two are always interchangeable : — Kimono ni abura woba kakef?iaskita. j " I have stained Clothes on, oil [acczis.) have-placed. [ my clothcS With Oil." j So de wa nai. \ .. ., . \ 1 Soja nai. j ^ ^"^^ '' « t-u ^ • / ^^ u , . ^ '* 1 hat IS not so ; " no. ^-\ de wa gozainiasen. ^""I ja „ (polite) J Shubiki-gwaiX . ' ^rteppo wo iitsu\ "You mayn't Red-line-beyond in, gun {jctccus,) strike LshoOt OUtsidc koto ga dekimasen. . I treaty limits." act {^norn.) cannot-do. j T[ 140. Occasionally an ellipsis must be supplied. Thus/o wa is sometimes equivalent to to lu mono wa, as in the following sentence : '' As-for* (the-thing-of-which people say) that^ (it is) go^-jd"% what* is' it they talk^ of? i.e. " What is meant by the .term go-jo?" (See Vocabulary.) Gd^-jo^ td^ wa^, nani'" wo^ iu' n^ desiv* ka^""? QUASI-POSTPOSITIONS. T[ 141. What may be termed quasi-postpositions are really nouns preceded by the postposition no, "of," and used in a sense less concrete than that originally belonging to them. Such are, for instance : no hoka, " exterior of," i.e. " besides " (metaph.). no kage, " shade of," „ " behind." fio kawari, " change of," „ " instead of." no mukd, " opposite of," „ " opposite, " beyond." 98 THE POSTPOSITION. tio naka, " interior of/' i.e. " inside, in." no sKita, " lower part of/ „ " below." no soio, "exterior of/' „ "outside/' "beyond." no tame, "sake of/' J " because of." " 1 " in order to." no uchij " interior of/' „ "inside/' "in." no ue, "top of/' „ "on/' "upon." no ushiro, "back of/' „ "behind." no waki, "side of/' „ "beside" (by the side) We thus get such phrases as : le no uchi. Hei no soto. Kura no naka. Omoi no hoka. Hanashi no tsuide. Anoyama no kage. " In (side) the house." " Beyond the fence." ^In (side) the godown." "Outside of thought/' i.e. pectedly." " Occasion of talking/' i.e. course of conversation." " Behind those mountains." unex- in the ^142. When followed by a verb, the quasi-postpositions take ;/i after them (less often j^), except in the case of the substan- tive verb " to be/' which requires de, unless when signifying " there is/' etc. {De aru is generally contracted to da ; de gozaimasii to desu, and so on ; see p. 64). Thus : To-dana no naka ni Cupboard *s inside haitte imasu. entering is. ^\ "It is in the cupboard." (One '[might equally w^ell say Todana no J naka desu.) Tsakiie no ue ni notte imasen\ Table 's top on, riding isn't ka? — Tslikue no ue desio. ? Table 's tc^' (//) is. "[Isn't it on the table? -Yes, it is." QUASI-POSTPOSITIONS. 99 Kono hoka ni, ?nada\ "There are various kinds besides This-of besides, y, still [this One " iro-iro gozaimasii. (For kono^'' of this," see p. 54 ; similarly various-kinds are. for soHo immediately below.) le no soto ye deru. I To go out-of-doors. House 's outside to go-out. J Kama no muko de gozai?7iasii. j " It is on the other River 's opposite h-^ , {it) is. | side of the river." Note also the idiom sojio kawari ni, lit. " change of that," used in the sense of " on the'other hand." |[ 143. When prefixed attributively to a noun, this class of words changes the 7ii into no, in accordance with the rule explainedjn 1[ m, thus : Taiisu no_ naka no kimono. ( "The clothes in the Chest-of-drawers - 's interior _'s clothes. [ chcst of draWCrS." Kono hoka no shina-mono. f '.'The other things This-of exterior 's articles. ] bcsidcS thcSC." Mon no waki no momiji wa, Gate 's side 's maple as-for, rippa ni koyo shimashtia. splendidly red-leaf has-done. ''The leaves of the maple-tree by the gate have become beautifully Ued." ^ 144, When a member of this class of words follows a verb, its force changes slightly, so as to correspond to that of an English adverb or conjunction, thus : Kare kore sum uchi ni\ J^"^^}^ '''^ '''''l ^^^"^ ^" That this do while. 1 this, night camc on. 7 • 7 r^j 1 (Note the idiom hire kore, " that Cay {nam:) darkened. ( ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ „j So sum hoka, shikaia \ So do except, way-of-doing I '' Thcrc is nothing clsc to be ga nai. fdone." («<7W.) isn't. / lOO THE POSTPOSITION. Kim) furimasJiita Yesterday rained ni, kyb wa ii in, to-day as-for, good kawari\ change Whereas it rained yester- Iday {i.e. after yesterday's rain), honourable ^-^-g beautiful weather to-day." ienki {de gozaimas it) . weather (is). ^145. There are also quasi-postpositions formed by ;// and the gerunds of verbs, as ni afatte, " just at," from ataru, " to strike ;" ni shitagatle, " according to," from shitagau, " to conform;" ni yotte, "owing to," {xoim yoru, "to rely;" thus : ("It is rude to say (or do) that to a Anata fii taishite, juoshiwake ga ' You to confronting excuse (nom.) p-azaimasen. I know not how •to excuse 'myself to you." Amari nyiihi wo . kake-suginiasHite, Too-much expense {acciis.\ having-put-exceeded, inia 7ii italte kokwai sJiite imastt. now to reaching, repentance f'oing am. )" I am sorry now for my extravagance." Shinnen ga kimasa ni yotte. New-year («^,/^.) comes to owing. I a ^^ ^y^^ ^^^^, Year is kazari wo I approachino;, we must nonourable decorations {acciis!) f itasanke rebel narimasen. if-we-don't-make. (//jisn't. decorate (the gate).' CHAPTER VI. The Ahcmeral, CARDINAL NUMBERS. ^ 146. In European grammars the numerals are generally disposed of in a few lines, as forming a mere subdivision of the adjective. In Japanese the numeral is rather a species of noun, and -a species of noun ^ with marked peculiarities of its own, necessitating its treatment as a separate part of speech. T" 147. There are two sets of numerals, one of native and the other of Chinese origin. The native set is now obsolete except for the first ten numbers, which are as follows : — SUBSTANTIVE FORM. FORM USED IN COMPOUNDS. ENUMERATIVE FORM. I hitotsu hitoi^-tsiiki) ( I month ) /«• 2 flitatsii /ata{- „ ) ( 2 months) /», 3 mitsu '^ii{- ,> ) ( 3 ,. ) iiii 4 yotsu yoir „ ) ( 4 > ) yd 5 itsXitsu itsu{- „ ) ( 5 , ) iisu 6 inutsii mu{- „ ) ( 6 , ) niu 7 fianatsu naTia{- „ ) ( 7 , ) iiatia 8 yatsu y<- „ ) ( 8 , ) yd 9 kokonotsu kokono{- „ ) ( 9 , ) ko{kd)?io to M- „ ) (10 » / to I02 THE NUMERAL. A^. B. It will assist the memory to notice that the even numbers are formed from the odds of which they arc the doubles by a process of vowel-strengthening, the consonants being originally the same, though slightly disfigured in modern pronunciation, thus : I h'vto (anciently probably /i/o,) 2 /u/a (anciently probably /u/a). 3 wi, 6 7//U. 4 jVo, 8 jj/a. 5 itssx (anciently i/u), lo to. \ 148. The substantive forms of the numerals may either be used quite alone, or they may follow the noun, or lastly they may take the postposition no, " of/' and precede the noun. They very rarely precede a noun without the intervention of no. Thus : — Ikutsu gozaimasii ka P—Hltotsu. j " How many are How-many are ? — One. [ there } — One." 7Ju/sumi m/su, or ] ,. Qne parcel." Hitotsu no tsutsumi. ) ^ Mitsu de iakusan {de gomimasho). j "Three will no Three by, great-deal will-probably-be. | doubt be plenty." Yatsu de tarimasu ka ? \ '' Will eif^ht be enough.?" Eight by, will-suffice ? J ° ° To bakari kudasai. ) u pj^ase give me about ten." Ten about condescend. ) ^ Iki mo, kaeri mo, Going also returning also hitotsu michi. one road. " Taking the same road there and back again." ^149, The form used in compounds always precedes the noun to which it refers, as hito-tshki, "one moviih]' /uta- hako, "two boxfuls ;" mi-ban, " three nights." ^ 150. The enumerative form is used in counting over things, e.g. a bundle of paper money, linen to be sent to the wash, etc. •|f 151. Though the native Japartese numerals above "ten" are now obsolete for ordinary purposes, note that hatachi, CHINESE NUMERALS. IO3 the old native word for " twenty/' is still used in the sense of " twenty years of age, and that chi, " a thousand," and yorozu, " a myriad," or " ten thousand," are still retained in proper names and in a few idioms, e.g. Chi-shima, " the Thousand Isles," i.e. " the Kurile Islands ;" Yorozu-ya, a favourite shop-name, probably originating in the fact of many sorts of articles being exposed for sale. ^152. The set of numerals borrowed from the Chinese is : 1 ichi, rarely itsu 6 roku, rarely riku 2 7ii, rarely y/ 7 sKichi 3 san 8 hachi 4 shi 9 ku^ rarely hyxi 5 go 10 Ju 100 hyaku 1,000 scfi 10,000 ma7i or ban N. B. Ichl ■sX'so means "whole," "all," as ichi-nichi, "one day," but also " all day long." The native Japanese numeral Jiito, " one," has come to have the same secondary sense in certain cases, as Kito-ban, " one night " or " all night." — The word ryo, properly " both," is often substituted for ni. All the Others are formed by combining these, thus : i\ ju-ichi 20 7ii-ju 29 ni-jiL-ku 1 2 ju-ni 2 1 ni-ju-ichi 30 san-ju 1 3 ju-san 2 2 ni-ju-ni 40 shi-ju I ^ jus hi 23 ni-ju-san SO go-ja ^5 J^'go 24 ni-ju-shi 60 roku-jii 1 6 ju-roku 2 5 ni-ju-go 70 sJiichi-jii ij Ju-shlchi 26 ni-ju-f'ohi 80 hachi-ju 1 8 Ja-hachi 2 7 ni-ju-sMchi 90 ku-ja \(^ ju-ku 28 ni-ju-hachi 100 ^V^^/^ or ip-pyaku (for ichi-hyaku) I04 THE NUMERAL. 200 ni-hyaku 300 sam-hyaku 400 shi-hyaku (for safi hyaku) 500 go-hyaku 600 rop-pyaku (for r{?>^« hyaku) 700 shichi-hyaku 800 hap-pyaku (for ^^C/^?* hyaku) 900 ku-hyaku i ,000 5^« or ?>-5-6'« (for ?(C>^/ 5^;/) 10,000 7?ian ov ichi-man 100,000 ju-f?ian 1,000,000 hyaku-man 108 ^^/^« i^<;i^/ 365 sam-byaku roku-ju-go 1907 is-sen ku-hyaku shwhi 43,000,000 shi-sen sam-byaku-vian There is a term o>^« meaning 100,000,000. Multiples of man serve for lesser numbers, as in the last examples given. ^153. The Chinese numerals are not often used indepen- dently. It is customary to make them precede a noun, with which they form a- sort of compound, as ichi-nen, " one year ;" is-sun (for ichi sun), '' one inch." In forming such combinations, note the category of letter-changes of which the following are examples : ch it-cho for ichi cho " one chb^ " hat-chb „ hachi cho " eight cho " jit-chb „ ju cho " ten cho " ya.nd h ip-pun „ ichi fun " one minute " ip-pen „ ichi hen " once " sam-pun\ „ sanfun " three minutes " sam-ben „ san hen " thrice " rop-pun „ rokufun " six minutes " rop-pen „ roku hen " six times " * A measure of distance equivalent to'about 120 yards English, f Some words change /, not into /, but into fi ; thus] sam-fiuh/, three scrolls," from san and /uku. LETTER-CHANGES. 105 jip-pun for ju fun " ten minutes " jip-pen „ ju hen " ten times " {hyap-puii^ ,, hyaku j'un '' a hundred minutes ") hyap-pen „ hyaku hen " a hundred times " {sem-bun^ „ sen fun '' a thousand minutes ") sem-ben ,, sen-hen " a thousand times " k ik-kin ,, ichi kin " one pound " sa?i-gin „ san kin " three pounds " rok-kin „ roku kin '' six pounds " jik-kin ,, ju klTl '' ten pounds " hyak-kin „ hyaku kin " a hundred pounds " sen-gin „ sen kin " a thousand pounds " m sam-mai „ san mai " three (flat things) " sem-mai „ sen mai " a thousand „ s is-so „ ichi so " one (vessel) " san-w\ ,, san so " three (vessels) " has-so „ hachi so " eight vessels " Jis-so „ ju so " ten vessels " sen-Z(l „ sen-si) " a thousand vessels " sh is-shakii ,, ichi shaku '' one foot " has-shaku , , hachi shaku " eight feet " {jis-shakii^ ,, ju shaku " ten feet ") t it-teki „ ichi teki " one drop " hat-teki „ hachi teki " eight drops " jit-teki „ ju teki " ten drops " N'. B, Though the difficulty of making these letter-changes coi-rectly will strike the beginner chiefly in the case of numeral combinations, the same euphonic rules aj pply to all other Chinese compounds, thus : ket-cJuiku, from ketsii chaku, " decision," " final resolve," tem-po, „ ten ho. (See Vocabulary.) * Not in use. f Some words in s do not change the s into z, thus san-satsu, " three volumes," not san-zatsti. Nip-pPii., from nichi /ion, ak-ko. „ aku ko. avi-via. „ an ma. mes-so. „ mctsu so. zas-s/ii. „ zatsn ski. bct-td. „ hetsu to. lo6 ' THE NUMERAL. ' Japan." ' l)a(l language." ' a shamix)oer," ' extravagant." ' a magazine," " a review." ' a groom." (In practice the hyphen is generally omitted in such words.) \ 154. The Japanese numerals, as far as they go, are mostly employed with Japanese nouns, and the Chinese numerals with Chinese nouns. But there are numerous exceptions to this rule, for instance : it-toki (but also hito toki), " one hour." fuia-fufu, " two married couples." mi-ban, "■ three nights." yo-nen, " four years." After " ten," beyond which the Japanese numerals no longer run, the Chinese numerals are perforce employed with Japanese as well as with Chinese words, thus : jh-ni hako, " twelve boxfuls." hyaku kimii, " a hundred sets." T 155. Usage plays various freaks with the numerals. Thus the Chinese numeral shi, " four," which is considered unlucky because homonymous with shi, " death," is in many contexts replaced by the equivalent Japanese numeral yo, for instance : yo-nin, " four persons." {Shi-nin means " a corpse.") ni-ja-yo-ban, " No. 24." N. B. Colloquialism sometimes goes a step further, corrupting the yo \xiio yon. Thus people may say yon-jti, instead of shi-jii, " forty." Chinese sJiichi, " seven," is sometimes replaced by Japanese nana. This is done for clearness' sake, as shichi is easily AUXILIARY NUMERALS. lOJ confounded with s/n\ " four." Thus tradesmen and ac- countants will often say 7ia}hj-Jis-sc?i, instead of shichi-jis-sni, " seventy cents." ^156. Usage likewise establishes a shade of difference in the sense of certain expressions which would at first sight appear to be synonj'mous, thus : Jiito-hako, " one boxful ;" hako Jiitotsu, " one box." Mto-tsliki, " one month ;" ichi-getsu, " the first month," i.e. ''January;" ik-ka-getsu, "one month." (For ka see \ 159, middle of p. 109.) hlto-bajt, "■ one night ;" ichi-haii, " number one." futa-han, " two nights ;" ni-ban, " number two." A''. B. Both these bans are of Chinese origin ; but they are different words written with diffei'ent characters. AUXILIARY NUMERALS. ^157. In English we do not say " one bread," " two beers," but '' one loaf of bread," " two glasses of beer." Similarly we say " ten sheets of paper," " a hundred head of cattle," " so many rubbers of whist." Compare also the Pidj in- English " piecey," in such expressions as " one piecey man," '•' two piecey house," etc. Words of this kind are, in Japanese grammar, termed " auxiliary numerals." " Auxiliaries to the numerals " would be more strictly correct. The term '' classifier " has also been proposed ; but " auxiliary numeral " is that which has obtained the widest currency. The auxiliary numerals constitute a highly important class of words. For whereas in English such expressions as those just mentioned are somewhat ex- ceptional, they are the rule in Japanese. ^158. In some cases, indeed, the numeral is prefixed directly to the noun, forming with it a sort of compound, e.g. ichi- I08 THE NUMERAL. nichi, *'one day;" ichi-7iin, "one person;" ichi-rt, "one league." But usage ordinarily demands the insertion of an auxiliary numeral, as : tera ik-ken, " temple one eaves," i.e. " one Buddhist temple." faton sam-mai, "quilt three flat-things," i.e. "three-quilts." onna roku-nin, " woman six persons," i.e. " six women." N". B. One may also say ik-ken no tera, sam-mai no futon, etc. T^ 159. The choice of the auxiliary numeral appropriate to each class of words is fixed by custom, a mistake in this matter producing the same absurd effect as does a wrong gender in French or German. The Japanese auxiliary numerals are, however, easier to remember than the French and German genders, since they are generally more or less founded on reason, as will be be seen by the following list of those most in use. As the auxiliary numerals are always employed, not independently, but in combination with the numerals proper, we give them here preceded in each case by ichi, " one," and ni, " two." The student should care- fully notice the phonetic changes caused in many instances by the presence of ichi, and should refer to the table of changes on pp. 104 — 105. The presence of ni causes no such changes. An auxiliary numeral may therefore always be seen in its original shape when following that word. The chief auxiliary numerals are : • {ichf-bu, 7u, etc.-)Su, " a class ;" for copies of a book. {it-choy ni-)chd, "a handle ;" for things with handles, such as muskets, jinrikishas, and many kinds of tools. {icht-dai, ni-)dai, " a stand ;" for carriages and jinrikishas. {ip-puku, 7ii-)/uku, (various meanings ;) for scrolls, sips cf tea, whiffs of tobacco, and doses of medicine. AUXILIARY NUMERALS. IO9 {^ip-pai, in-)/iai, " a wine-cup ;'" for cupfuls and glassfuls of any liquid ; also for loaded junks or steamers. A^. B. Ip-pai also means " full." {ip-piki ni-yiiki, " a fellow ;" for most living creatures, excepting human beings and birds ; also for certain quan- tities of cloth and sums of money. {ip-pon, ni-)hon, " a stem ;" for cylindrical things, such as sticks, trees, fans, pens, bottles, newspapers rolled up to be posted, etc. {ichi-jo, ni-)Jo, " a mat ;" for mats. {ik-ka, ni-)ka, sometimes ko, " the culm of the bamboo ;'' for a few things that have no other auxiliary numeral appropriated to them, more, however, in the bookish style than in genuine Colloquial. {ik-ken, ?ii-)ken, " eaves ;" for buildings generally. {ichi-T?iai, ?ii-)mai, " a shrub ;" for flat things, such as sheets of paper, coins, plates, coats, shirts, rugs, etc. {ichi-mei 7ii-)mei, " a name ;" for human beings. This word inei is somewhat bookish ; 7iin is more genuinely Colloquial. {ichi-nin, 7ii-)nin, " a person ;" for human beings. {is-safstc, 7ii-)saisu, " a volume ;" for volumes of a book. Do not confound saisu with bu, which latter refers to complete copies of a work, irrespective of the number of volumes contained in it. {is-shu, ?ii-)shu, " a head ;" for poems. » {is-so, 7ii-)sd, "a l:)oat ]" for vessels of every description. {is-soku, 7ti-)soku, " a foot ;" for pairs of socks, clogs, boots, etc. (it-id, ni-)id, '' a head ;" for horses and cattle ; but Jiiki may also be used. no THE NUMERAL. {ichi-wa^ ni-)wa, " a feather ;" for birds, also for hares. This word suffers irregular phonetic changes, thus : 3 sam-ba, 4 shi-wa 5 go-wa 6 rop-pa 7 sJiichi-iva, 8 hachi-tva 9 ku-wa \o jip-pa \ 160. EXAMPLES OF THE USE OF THE AUXILIARY NUMERALS. TT 1' ■ 1' • \ "One sheet of (a certain Hattsni ichi-niai. \ i • ^ r\ " ( common kind of) paper. Uta is-shu. " One (Japanese) poem." Ko-gatana ni-cho. " Two pen-knives." Fude sam-ho7i. " Three pens." Waraji is-soku. " One pair of straw sandals." TT . ( " Five volumes." (Hon= Hon go-satsti. | ,, ^^^^y^ Rok-ka-sho. j ,, c^^^ places " Six-piecey-place. | ^^^ piaCCS. Gunkanjis-so. " Ten war-vessels." Ushi hyap-piki. ( ., ^ ^^^j^^j ^^^ ^f ^^^,^_., Ushi hyaku-to. { c. I ( '' A thousand sparrows " (in Suzume sem-ba, {nature). or ( " A thousand sparrows " (in Ciem-oa suzume. ■{ ^\ { art). ( ''A jinrikisha wil I man." Ichi-nim-biki no kuruma. ( '' A jinrikisha with one One -person-pull 's vehicle. A^. B. This Hki (the mgori'ed form of /lUi, the " uidefinite form " of /iiku, " to pull") is of course quite a different word from the auxiliary numeral kiki in ip-piki, sam-biki, etc. Ichi-nin-nori no kurunia. j "A jinrikisha capable of One-person-ride 's vehicle. | holding onc person Only." Ni-ttin-non no kuruma. j "A jinrikisha capable of Two-person-ride 's vehicle. | holding tWO JXirSOUS." JSi-to-biki no basha. j "A carriage m ith two Two-head -pull '« carriage. 1 horSCS." AUXILIARY NUMERALS. Cha ivo ip-pai. Tea (a ecus.) one-cupful. Mtikb san-gen, ryo-donari. Opposite three-eaves, both-next-door. ;'//, roku-jo and, six-mat gozai??iasu. {there) are. san-ji goro three-hour about ni, I one of ten mats, one of and, [ six, and one of four and a half." 7ll\ sore that ( [Bring me] a cup of ( tea. r " The three houses J opposite and the one on ( either side." Kochira iva hachi-jo, tsiigi 7io^ Here as-for eight-mat ; next of j " This TOOm haS eight ma wa ju-ni-jo. ^o;^^? mats, the next twelve, space as-for, twelve-mat. That | Besides these, there is hoka, Ju-jo besides, ten-mat yo-jb-Jian mo four-mat-half also Gogo no Noon-after of de7'u kara, go-out because, ni nim-hiki no two-person-pull shitaku preparation kudasai. condescend. Dogu-ya de bybbu Utensil-house at, screen kakemono ni-fuku hanging-scroll two-border oita kara, kozukai placed because, coolie ni yatte kudasai. to sending condescend. ^ i6i. It will be noticed that all the examples hitherto given of auxiliary numerals are Chinese.* The auxiliary numberals of native Japanese origin are far less numerous. The only ones worth mentioning here are : — made ni till in, jinriki ichi-dai of jinrikisha one-stand saseie oite causing-to-do placing is-so to, one-pair and, katte having-bought IVO tori {aeei/s.) fetch " I am going out at about three o'clock. So please see that a jinriki- sha with two men is ready for me by then." " Please send a coolie to fetch a pair of screens and two kakemonos, which I have just purchased at the curio-dealer's." * Wa (p. no) indeed is Japanese. But we have classed it under the Chinese t auxiliary numerals, because it is always used in conjunction with the Cliinesc numerals ichi, ni, etc. 112 THE NUMERAL. (,hif(h) hashira, " a post ;" for vShinto divinities. „ kabu, " a stump ;"for shrubs, plants, and (business) shares. (/itfo-) kumi, " a company ;" for sets of things or persons, such as toys consisting of more than one part, tea-sets, nests of boxes that fit into each other, pairs of gloves, parties of tourists, etc. (hifo-) ma, " space ;" for rooms. „ mune, ''the ridge of a roof;" for houses and any groups of buildings included under one roof. {hiio-) soroi, " a match ;" for sets of things of like nature, such as suits of clothes. {Juto-^ sujt, " a line ;" for towels and for rope-like things. „ iomai, "■ a hut thatched with matting ;" for godowns. The native auxiliary numerals take the Japanese numerals before them up to '' ten " inclusive, thus : futa-kumi, mi-ma, mu-iomai. After " ten " they perforce take the Chinese numerals (conf. \ 154), thus : ja-ni-kumi, ni-jii-ma, shi-jii- hachi-tomai. No euphonic changes take place. N. B. Things having no special auxiliary numeral appropriate to them are counted by means of the native Japanese numerals hitotsu, futatsu, etc. ; thus tamago httotsu " one egg ;" morno to bakari, " about ten peaches." Even things provided with a special auxiliary numeral sometimes replace the latter by httotsu, futatsu, etc., in slipshod talk. Purists, too, sometimes employ bookish auxiliary numerals now scarcely intelligible to the uneducated, as kagami ichi-men, "one mirror" (lit. mirror one surface), isti ik-kyaku, " one chair " (lit. chair one leg), where ordinary speakers would simply say kagami httotsu, isu httotsu. T 162. In Classical Japanese, human beings are counted by means of the native numerals, with the unexplained suffix iari attached. Of these words the Colloquial language has retained only the following : INTERROGATIVENUMERAL WORDS. II3 hitori {{or hito-tari), "one person;" fidari {{oxfula-tari), " two persons ;" yottari {^ox yo-tari) , " four persons ;" which are used concurrently with, but oftener than, their Chinese synonyms tc/ii-nin, ni-nin 2,ni\ yo-tiin.^ ^ 163. Questions respecting number and quantity are asked by means of the word iku^ which is, however, not used alone, but always in combination, thus : ikii-ra ? how much?, ///. ''about how much?", ra being the particle of vagueness already mentioned on pp. 29 — 30 as helping to form certain plurals ; iku-tabi ? " how often ?" iku-tsu ? " how many ?" iku-nin? ) ^ ^ ^ ^g^.^^ ^j. j^^^^^^^ beings) ; ikh-tari P ) iku-77iai ? , , , , (said of flat things) ; iku-hon P , , , , (said of cylindrical things) ; and so on with all the auxiliary numerals, no phonetic changes taking place in the latter. ^164. Ikii may be replaced by nani, usually shortened to 7ian in such contexts. Nani, though itself Japanese, is chiefly found before words of Chinese origin, thus : nan-ji P " what o'clock ?" nan-nen P " how many years ?" nan-nin P " how many persons ?" nan-ri P " how many leagues ?" Very often the word hodo, " about, " is added, thus : nan-nen hodo P nan-ri hodo P '^ See T[ 155, p. 106, for the substitution, even before Chinese auxiliary numerals, of Japanese jydd» is-sd, " a pair of screens." JuDiatate it-isiti, " „ „ „ flower- vases." /lashi ichi-zen, " „ „ „ chopsticks." tori hito-tsttgai. fowls, etc. ORDINAL NUMBERS. II5 ORDINAL, FRACTIONAL, ETC., NUMBERS. ^ 166. What we term ordinal numbers are sometimes marked by suffixing the word me ("eye") to the Japanese, or /5 zuisu, etc. ) " in the second i " in the third place," dai san ni, < place," " secondly," ( " thirdly." " two or three." " four or five days." " fifteen or sixteen persons." ) " eight or nine out of ten," ^erice ["tent to one," " probably." |- " every other one, alternate.' every other day." CHAPTER VIL The Adjective, PRIMARY INFLECTIONS. ^175. The salient points of the primary inflections of adjec- tives in the Tokyo Colloquial may be compendiously de- scribed as follows : — I. Adjectives have a form in /, which is both attributive and predicative, that is to say, which may be used either prefixed to a noun, or else at the end of a sentence with the English verb '' to be " understood, thus : Takai yama, " A high Varna ga takai^ " The moun- mountain." tain is high." Samui kaze, "■ A cold Kaze ga samui, " The wind wind." is cold." N. B. Ga must not be mistaken for the equivalent of the English word " is." It is a postposition serving approximately to denote the nominative case. (See p. 66.) II. Adjectives have a form, in or u, which is used instead of the form in i when gozaimasu, the polite verb for "to be," is expressed. Thus : Yama ga taho gozaimasa. " The mdlmtain is high." Kaze ga samu gozaimasho. " The wind is probably cold." III. Adjectives have a form in ku, which is used when a verb other than gozaimasa follows, and which often, though not always, corresponds to an English ach'erb in " ly ; " thus : STANDARD CLASSICAL FORMS. 121 Yama ga takaku viieniasliA "The mountain looks Mountain («6>w.) high looks. ( hifh." Hayaku kite kudasai. ) " Please come quickly." Quickly coming condescend. K \ 176. But in order to attain to a full and satisfactory intelligence even of these Colloquial forms, it is necessary to dig deeper, and to see how matters stand in the Classical language, from which the Colloquial forms are still in the act of being evolved. Observe at' the outset that the inflec- tions of Japanese adjectives have no reference whatever to such European grammatical categories as number, gender, or the degrees of comparison. Their object is partly to distinguish the attributive from the predicative relation, partly to distinguish the end of a mere clause from the end of a complete sentence. ^177. The Classical termination of adjectives when used attributively is ki. Their termination when used predica- tively at the end of a sentence is shi. Hence this latter is technically called the '* conclusive form," thus : ATTRIBUTIVE. CONCLUSIVE. Takaki yama, "A \i\^{Yama takashi, "The moun- mountain." 1 tain is high." Samuki kazc, "A co\<\( Kaze samushi, "The wind wind." I is cold. ^ 178. It is from these two Classical forms in ki and shi that the single Colloquial form in i has originated, by the drop- ping of the distinctive consonants k and sh. In set speeches and in the conversation of pedantic speak- ers, the " attributive form " in ki may still not infrequently be heard. It is employed exclusively in the case of the words gotoki, " like," " similar," and beki, a sort of verbal adjective 122 THE ADJECTIVE. corresponding to our termination " .... ble," or to our auxiliary verbs " ought " or " should," thus : shinzu-heki, " credible," " ought to be believed ;" osonibcki, " terrible." (Conf. ^ 192.) N. 3. The corresponding conclusive form beshi is no longer em- ployed by educated speakers ; but the bei perpetually heard at the end of sentences from the lips of the lowest classes in Eastern and Northern Japan, and signifying " shall," " will," " must," is a corruption of it. For instance, So dam-bet, ", That is probably so," "No doubt you are right," represents an older So de aru-beshi, and is equivalent to the standard Colloquial Sd de gozaimashd. •|[ 179. The "conclusive form" in shi is still used in the words nashi, "non-existent," "is not," 2ind. yoshi, "good," concurrently with the commoner forms 7iai 2indL yoi, thus : AW »w» wasfc- (elegant) I ." Everything'-'^ (is) non- Nannimonai. (familiar) exlstent^ t.e. "Ihere is vnothmg. VosM, yoshi! " All right !" It is also still to be heard in such emphatic locutions as ^ , . f " It is cold," or, " It 7vas Samusa wa samushu \^^„ . j^ j^ ^^jj ^^,.^j^ ^ Coldness as-for, (it is\ cold ' ' V vengeance. Kurasa wa kurashi. " It is dark," etc. T 180. The third Classical termination of adjectives is kii. It corresponds to the indefinite form of verbs (conf T[ 278 and \ 425), and its original function is that of predicate at the end of every clause of a sentence excepting the last, which alone takes the conclusive termination shi. Thus : Yama takaku, kiko saniuku, jinka sXikunashi. ' " The mountains (of a certain country) are high, the 'climate is cold, and the human dwellings there ^are few." ADJECTIVES IN CORRELATED CLAUSES. 1 23 This construction is now rarel}' heard except in set s})eech- es, genuine Colloquial usage preferring either to end each clause by the form in / (sometimes followed by the expletive shi, as in the last example but two on p. 127), or, oftener still, to turn the sentence some other wav, thus : • Taiyo wa okit, atsui, akarui\ Sun as-for, big, hot, light tama de, sojio gururi too ball being, its around (^Tf^/'J.) yusei to iu sekai planets that {tjicy) say worlds ga niaivatte iru, {noni.) circling are. " The sun is a great, hot, shining ball, around which circle other worlds called planets." Okii chiisai no arasoi. \ ''An arsfument about Big small 's dispute. Shina mo yoroshtkereba, ( whereas-is-eood. the size (of a thing)." Article also whereas-is-good, 1 " The article is a nedan mo yasui. 1 good and cheap one. price r-lso {^is\ cheap. % A''. B. For the conditional [tx.'s, yoroshtkereba above) thus used, see \ 300. The following example shows it and the ku form in harness together : ChusJiaku mo nnkereba \ Commentary also as-there-is-not, jibiki mo naku, kyoshi dictionary ^so not-being, teacher mo nai to iu yd na also is-not that say manner being ivake de, jitstt ni go-ri reason by, truly five-miles muchu de arimasluta. fog-inside was. " Truly great were my perplexities, being, as I was, ^•without a commentary, with- out a dictionary, and without a teacher. Tf 181. What the Colloquial has retained in full vigour is a secondary use of the form in ku, prefixed to verbs ; and it has become rather usual, having regard to this use alone, to call the form in question the " adverbial form," because the European equivalents of Japanese adjectives in ku are often, though not invariably, adverbs, thus : 124 THE ADJECTIVE. Omoshiroku kikoemasU " It sounds amusing." Osokti kacrimasMta. '' I came home late." Koku dekita. " It is well clone." Okikii narimasJiita koto ! *' How big he has become ! " A^. B. For koto thus used, see top of p. 38. Naru-take hayaku As.... as possible quickly, honourable ide nasai. exit deign. "■ Please come as quickly as possible." N. B. Just as vulgar speakers often omit the termination " ly " of English adverbs, so also, in familiar Japanese style, and not from the uneducated alone, do we hear such expressions as osoroshii icarui, " dreadful (ly) bad," where osoroshiku ivarui would better accord with the old traditions of the language. ^182. The verb "to be" is no exception to the rule where- by all verbs must be preceded by the adverbial or indefinite form in ku. It is therefore correct to say, for instance : Anoyama wa takaku gozaimasu. " That mountain is high." Kaze ga samuku gozaimasho. " The wind will probably be cold." But Colloquial usage prefers to drop the k of the termi- nation in such contexts. Moreover, after the k has been dropped, a crasis of the remaining vowels of the termination ' ensues. By this series of changes, * . (Stems in a) takaku passes through takau to tako. ( >> >> i) yoroshiku ,, ,, yoroshiu „yoroshiu. ( ,, „ 0) shiroku ,, „ shir on „ shiro. ( „ „ ti) samuku „ „ samuu ,, samu. N. B. The genuine motlern Colloquial possesses no stems ending in e. In earlier times, however, and in the semi-Colloquial of certain books we find such series as shigeku, shigeu, shigyo. beku, beu, hyd. ADJECTIVE STEMS. I 25 Hence it is usual to say : Anoyama lua takb gozaimasli ; Kaze ga samu gozaimasho ; etc. M. B. The Kyoto dialect goes a step further even than that of T6ky5, and prefers to make use of these abbreviated forms before all verbs whatsoever. The same usage. is found in the more or less artificial Colloquial alluded to just above, as sometimes making its way into print. — Foreigners are apt to say Anoyama 7ua takal de gozahnasu, etc. The use of such expressions, though not absolutely forbidden, should be avoided . If addressing an inferior, say Ano yama wa takai. If addres- sing an equal or superior, say Ano yama wa takd gozaimasu. ^ 183. It will be noticed that all the inflections of adjectives are added to a stem which terminates in one of the vowels. This stem is occasionally employed as an independent word. Thus Aka, Kuro^ Shiro, " Brownie," " Blackie," and " Whitie," serve as names for dogs. The phrase naga no toshi tshki means ** long months and years " (lit. " years and months "). But by far the commonest use of the stem is to form compound words, thus : aka-gane, " copper ;" from akai, " red," and kane, " metal." hoso-imgai, " slender ;" from hosui, " narrow," and 7tagai " long." kurushi-magire, " wildness caused by pain ;" from kiinishii, " painful," and niagireru^ " to be confused." shiro-kane, " silver ;" from shiroi, " white," and kane, " metal." yasu-domari, "a cheap lodging;" {xom. yasui, "cheap," and tomaru, " to stay." yo-sugiru, "to be too good ;" from yoi, " good," and sugiru, " to exceed." 126 THE ADJECTIVE. A^. B. There is a slight difference of signification, or at least of intention, between such expressions as takal yama, " a high mountain," and taka-yama, "a high-mountain," similar to that which we feel in English between " high land " and " the Highlands," or " a black bird " and " a blackbird." The compound form is more idiomatic, it tends to assume a specific meaning irrespective of the original signification of its constituent parts (e.g. futa-go, " twins," from futa, " two," and ko, " child "), and it is that preferred in proper names. Thus there are several places called Takaya/na, but none called Takai yanui. \ 184. From the foregoing remarks, we may proceed to construct a table of the primary inflections of adjectives, as used in ordinary conversation. We take as specimens the adjectives takai, " high ;" yoroshii, *' good," shiroi, '' white ;" and samiii, "cold ;" i. e. one for each of the four vowels a, i, o, u, with which Japanese adjective stems almost invari- ably terminate : ^^High." '*Good." ** White." '' Cold." Stem taka yoroshi shiro samu Attribut. Conclus. takai yoroshii shiroi saniui Adverbial Indefinite ^'} takaku yoroshlkii shiroku samiiku Predic. with) verb " to be " r tako expressed J yoroshiu shiro sanm TV. B. Onaji, " same," is irregular, as its attributive (conclusive) form coincides in Colloquial with the stem. The adverbial form onajiku is still often heard ; but with the verb " to be," more speakers say onaji de than onajiu. \ 185. The following are a few examples of the use of the primary inflections of adjectives : EXAMPLES OF PRIMARY INFLECTIONS. 1 27 O hayo gozaimasa. " Good morning." Honourably early (//) is. It is fine weather.' Yoi tenki de Good honourable weather gozaimasii. (//) is. Zosa ga nai. ) " There is no difficulty." Difficuhy [no/n.) is-not. ] [Gozaimajen would be more polite than nai.) Yakamashii ! shabetcha ) <, -p- , , ^ ( You) are-noisy ! as-for-chattering, I \jOW t Chatter anCl ikenai. jmake such a row !" it-is-no-go. ' Yoku wakarimasen. \ '' ^ don't quite un- Well understand-not. l dcrstand." Wand no da. ( " It is a bad one." Bad one is 1 (For «^, see IT 1 1 2.) Tsui ni naku narimashitaA " He is dead at last." Finally non-existent has-become. ( Kanfi wo hayaku dokat u ^^^^^ b.^^ ^1,^ Bill UCCIIS.) quickly please) • i i ^^ \ J ' j^ {Said to a hotel-kccpcr.) {condescend). V ^ ^ ' Am wakai kirei na hlto.i " That handsome young That young pretty P<^'SO"-| fclloW." Shma mo yoi shi, 7tedan mo yasui.\ " It is both good and Article also (/j-)good, price also (/j) *^^^*P- J chcap." Takai to yasui to iva, I " The cheap ones Dear and cheap and as-for,Uo ^Ot WCar SO WCll aS tamochi-kata ga chigaii. the dear ones " durability {nom.) differs. l"'^ '^^^^ *-*"^^- Ai-niku no ame.\ ''A rainy day coming just when Meet-odious 'of rain. | it ig not Wanted." N. B. Observe the stem-form nikii with no suffixed, here used ex- ceptionally for the attributive form nikui. The nickname Arlgata no Kichibcl, in one of the stories in the Practical Part (IT 451), is a similar case. 128 THE ADJECTIVE. SECONDARY INFLECTIONS. ^ 1 86. Besides the primary inflections of adjectives, as set forth above, there is a series of secondary inflections which C o o IS Q W W w o P < < S Q CT) ^ 'A n O w ^ > o c ^ o .S 2 go 8 £ -i cu ra rj Qj •^ ^ ^ ^ — ."t! O •■7! d ri S °^ .— ' -^ O oj +:< tM ^ ^ U M lh <;fciH <^ < "?: ►5: • C u g ^ o « U pH u o ^ § 2 Ui Oh ^ o ■>s i § "^ V) as oi p^ as < 1-1 Hi pa Qj f^ O o oi i2- NEGATIVE ADJECTIVE NAI. I 29 are employed to indicate tense and mood. Most of these secondary inflections are obtained by agglutinating parts of the verb aru, " to be," to the adverbial or indefinite form in ku, euphony producing certain slight changes, as will be seen by comparing the table on the opposite page with the paradigm of the first conjugation, to which aru belongs. The use of the various moods and tenses will be found explained in \ 273 ct seq. We have omitted from the table such imperative forms as yoroshikare, " be good ! " and warukare, " be bad ! " because they rarely if ever occur in practice, save in a few such idiomatic phrases as osokare hayakare^ " sooner or later." \ 188. One of the most useful adjectives is what is called the " negative adjective " nai. Its proper meaning is '■'■ non-existent ;" but it commonly replaces the negative conjugation of the verb am, "to be," and also sometimes corresponds to our preposition ''without." Its inflections are as follows : >^ (Attributive nai. S j Conclusive nai, rarely nashi. f^ ^Adverbial naku. N. B. The conti-acted form no is not in common use. (^Certain Present ] . f is not or will not or Future j ' | be. Improbable Pre- ] , _ f probably is not or sent or r uture j ' ( will not be. Certain Past nakatta, was not. Improbable Past nakattaro, probably was not. And so on, tlirough all the forms given in the paradigm of adjectives on p. 128. \ 189. Nai, added to the adverbial form of adjectives, serves to form their negative conjugation, thus : 30 THE ADJECTIVE. Certain Present or ] yorosJiiku ( is or will not be Future \ nai, \ good. Improbable Present ) yorosHiku \ probably is not or or iFuture | tiakarb, \ will not be good. Certain Past {^'ZMta, \ ^"^ "°' ^'^'^■ I.pK,babIeP.t j>-f^«^. jprobabjywasnot And so on through the other moods and tenses. N. B. In polite parlance, this negative conjugation in nai is mostly replaced by one with the verb gozawiasen, " not to be," thus : Certain Present or \yoroshiu gozai- \ is or will not be Future \ masen, \ good. Improbable Present ^j^r^j/z/w gozai- (probably is not or or Future i viasumai, \ will not be good. And so on through the other moods and tenses. Nai itself is not susceptible of the negative conjugation. There is no such expression as naku nai, " not non-existent." N. B. Positive adjectives happening to end in nai, as, for example, kitattai, " dirty," must not be confounded with adjectives in the negative form. The negative of kitanai is kitanaku nai^ following the paradigm given in the above table. Similarly with abtinai, " dangerous;" sukunai, " scarce," etc. ^ 190. EXAMPLES OF THE TENSE AND MOOD INFLECTIONS OF ADJECTIVES. Ko siiru to yokatta ga. . .. f "I ought to have done it Thus do if. was-good although.. | j^ this Way." (Conf. ^ 287.) Af kowakaita! j "Oh! what a fright I Ah ! was-afraid. | JiaVC had ! " Are ga yokarb \ "That (w^/«.)'will-probably-be-good" I "I think that that onC to omoimasii. \ will probably do." that (/) think. Itakattarb. \ " How painful it must ) have been ! " EXAMPLES OF THE TENSE AND MOOD INFLECTIONS. I3I Saku-ba,i, inu qa hode, I "I couldn't sleep last Last-night. clogs {noni.) i)arking,J night, on account ot the sdzos/nkiiie neraremasen ^/c'^Vz/Az.] noise the dogs made bark- being-noisy, could-not-sleep (//) was. ^ino"." Kono hen iva, hai\ u i. ■ This neighbourhood as-fur. flies It IS qillte tireSOme, ga okute urus-o gozaimasu\'''^^. """^^er of flies in this (//^///.) being-many, tiresome is. J neighbOUrnOOG. Go tsugb ga August convenience {^notn.) honourably ivarukereba, o yosJuV, '' Please don't do it, if if-is-bad, honourably cease [ it is inCOnvenient tO yOU." nascmnashi. condescend. Kono goro no tenki wa, This period 's weather as-for. I u j|^g weather is SO yokattari warukattari (changeable just How, that being-somet.mes-good being-sometimes-bad f^^ ^^^^ ^^j^ ^^^^ .^^„ skite, ate ni narimasen. doing, reliance to becomes-not. ;. }, Trifle even difficult is-not. J difficult." MuzukasMkii nakereba, yaUe\ Difficult if-is-not, sending I " If it is not difficult, I at It. mimasho. (Conf. ^ 296.) will try my hand will-see. ' Nakiicha ftaranai motio. 1 "A thing one cannot do As-for-not-being, becomes-not thing. iwithout." / "■ The greatest beauty in Tenka ni nai bijin. J the land." Empire in, non-existent belle. j ^'^OXQ lit. " A belle with whom there is none to compare \ beneath \k(i\ the sky \tc'}i\y) COMPOUND AND DERIVATIVE ADJECTIVES. 191. Compound adjectives are numerous, and offer no difficulty. They sometimes consist of two adjectives, more frequently of a noun or verb followed by an adjective, thus : 132 THE ADJECTIVE. usu-akai, " light red," " pink ;" from usui, " thin," " Hght-coloured," and akai, " red." tisu-gurai, "dusk," " ahnost dark;" from usui, " Hght- coloured," and kurai, " dark." kokoro-yasui, " intimate ;" from kokoro, " heart," and yasui, " easy." yondokoro-nai, "unavoidable;" from yoru, "to rely," tokoro, " place," and nai, the negative adjective. kiki-gurushii, " ugly (to hear) ;" from kiku^ " to hear," and kurushii, " painful." mi-gurushii, " ugly (to look at) ;" from miru, " to see," and kurushii, " painful." wakari-nikui, " difficult (to understand) ;" from wakaru, " to understand," and nikui, " odious." wakari-yasui, " easy (to understand) ;" from wakaru, " to understand," 2Lnd yasui, " easy." T 192. There are various classes of derivative adjectives. Of these the chief are : — I. Those in deki, corresponding to our phrases with "must" or "should," or to our adjective in "....ble," and already noticed on pp. 12 1-2 as being now used only in attributive constructions. It is to verbs that ^eki is suffixed, — in the first conjugation to the present tense, as aru-beki, " should be," " necessary ;" in the second and third con- jugations to the indefinite form, as iabe-beki, " eatable ;" deki- beki, " possible ;" not taberu-beki, dekiru-beki. In the Written Language, beki is suffixed to what is termed the " conclu- sive form " of the present tense of the second and third conjugations, i.e. a short form ending in u without a fol- lowing ru, thus : iabu-beki, {i)dcku-beki ; and this use may still sometimes be heard in the Colloquial. A like rule COMPOUND AND DERIVATIVE ADJECTIVES. 1 33 obtains in the case of the irregular verbs kuru and siiru, which always make ku-hcki and su-beki. The verb miru is peculiar, making either niiru-heki or mi-beki. Su-beki koto. " A thing to be done." ' Do-must thing. Shinzu-heki koto. " A credible thing." Believe-must thing. Kono hen iii viiruA ^^ Are there no places This neighbourhood in, see- I .i • , • ^i.* h worth Q-omcr to see m this beki tokoro wa gozaimasen '^^^ neighbourhood?' should places as-for are-not ? ^ Omae no kamau-beki koto\ You of meddle-should thing I " It is nOUe of yOUr de nai. (familiar) [business." is-not. ' Kore wa rtiuko ye yarn-'' This as-for, opposite to send- I "■ This is a thiuff which beki mo7io desu. [must be sent there." must thing is. N. B. Observe how our English passive idioms are replaced by active idioms in Japanese, following a general tendency of the language commented on in W 81 — 82, ^ 427, and \ 439. *|f 193. II. The so-called " desiderative adjectives " in tai, as tabetai, " desirous of eating," " hungry ; " ikitai, " desirous of going." These will be treated of when we come to speak of the verb, 1[ 242 and 1[ 285. ^ 194. III. A noticeable class of derivative adjectives is form- ed by agglutinating to nouns the termination rashii, which corresponds to the English terminations " ish " and " ly," and occasionally to some such phrase as " said to be," or " I think," thus : baka-rashii, " foolish ;" from baka, " a fool." kodomo-rashii, " childish ;" from kodomo, " children." 134 THE ADJECTIVE. jozu-rashii, \ Ug^^t-ir i ." [^vom jdzti, "skilful." koiinichi-rashii, -j , ,. ^ \, j- from Xw/wzby^/, " to-day." A much smaller class is obtained by reduplicating an adjective stem and agglutinating the suffix shii, thus : ara- arashii, " rude and rough ;" td-doshii, " lengthy ;" tito- uioshii, " cold " (metaph.), " estranged." T[ 195. It may be well to notice, in connection with these classes of derivative adjectives, two classes of verbs derived from adjectives. One of these is obtained by suffixing to the stem the suffix garu, a contraction of ge aru, — ge or ke \%^ being an old word signifying " spirit," " air." When added to the desiderative adjective in tai, the resulting compound suffix is tagaru : — kowagaru, " to think fearful ;" i.e. " to be frightened," from koivai, " fearful." mezurashigaru, "■ to think strange ;" from mezurashii, " strange." ikitagaru, " to want to go ;" from ikitai, " wanting to go," — itself the desiderative adjective of t'ku, " to go." N. B. Observe that garti occasionally serves to verbalise nouns, thus : zannengaru, " to regret," from zamten, " regret ;" iyagani, " to dislike," from iya, " nay ! " " repugnance." Also that the termination tagaru often means " to be apt to " rather than " to want to " Of the second class of adjective-verbs the following specimens will give an idea : hiromeru, " to spread " (trans) ; hiromaru, " to spread " (intrans.), from hiroi, " wide." 'jjiaromeru, " to make round," from viariii, " round." N'. B. Both these classes of verbs are, like verbs in general, suscep- tible of the passive and causative forms (conf. Chap. IX), thus QUASI- ADJECTIVES. I 35 Mezurashigararcrtt., " to be thought strange," " to be lionised." Urayaniashigararerii, " to be regarded with envy," from tirayama- shigant, " to regard with envy," itself derived from urayamashii'- " enviable." Ureshigarasej'u, " to cause to feel joyful," i.e. " to make happy ;" from tweshigani, "to feel joyful," itself derived iroxma'cs/iii, "joyful." Hiromesaseru, " to cause to spread." QUASI-ADJECTIVES. ^196. There are large numbers of words in common use, such as nama, "raw;" shizuka, " i\met'," yaseta, "thin;" koraerarenai, " unendurable/' which at first sight appear to be adjectives, and which must be translated into English by adjectives, but which are not true adjectives in Japanese, either as regards origin or grammatical treatment. Some of them are nouns, some are verbs, some are phrases formed from various parts of speech. They may be best understood by being classed under the following five headings : — T[ 197. I. Nouns followed by no; as Amerika no, "of America," i.e. "American." Such are : gwaikoku, " foreign countries ;" gwaikoku no, "foreign." kin, " gold ;" kin fio, " golden." konaida, " a short while ago ;" konaida no, " recent." II. Nouns followed hy/na,^ a corruption of the Classical * It has been stated in ^ 112 (p. 78) that the postposition no often assumes the signification of the English word " one " or " ones," used substantively. Thus from the adjective nagai " long," one can form the phrase nagai no, " a long one," and similarly from such quasi- adjectives as sJidjiki and kirei one can form the phrases shdjiki na no, " an honest one ;" kirei na no, " a pretty one," etc. This idiom must not be confounded with another nearly alike in sound containing the word nan, which it is difficult to explain in English except by the help of examples, and whose origin is obscure. The following sentences containing it may be taken as representative of its use : 136 THE ADJECTIVE. verb iiani, "to be " (not ** to become ") ; as shojiki " honest." Such are : - niendo, " a bother ;" mendb na, viuda, " uselessness ;" ??mda na, rambo, " disorderly ramho 7ia, conduct;" " quiet " (subst.); shizuka 71a, to be confounded with nam, na, lit. *' honesty being," i.e. bothersome." useless." disorderly." shizuka, quiet " (adj.). A^. B. No mostly follows concrete nouns, na abstract nouns. Indeed the same noun will take no or na, according as it is viewed from the concrete or the abstract point of view. For instance, baka no hanashi means " a fool's story," " the story of a fool," whereas haka na hanashi means " a foolish story." Very fine- Kore desJio ka ? — A ! , •. ( "Is this it ?— Ah ! yes sore nan aesii. ■{ . v . • •. „ ^ \ that IS it. Ano otoko wa, ddmo akip- \ " He is a very fickle fellow. — ^\'^es in- poi. — S5 sa ! Meztirashii ^ i. xu * n , . - , ^ J y\\\ the even ins:. But the truth wa, asa taiyo ga dern no de wa ' - . ^ . . . • nakute, taiyo no derti no ga asa nan desti. not that the sun rises in the mor- ning, but that the sun's rising is the morning." Of the various authorities, both Japanese and foreign, whom the present writer has consulted on the subject of this idiom, some pro- nounce it to be " relative," others " relative, elliptical, and reflective(!)." Some say that it is a corruption of naru, " to be." Others would trace it back to the word twtii ? " what ?" used as a kind of expletive indicat- ing vagueness, like " thingummy " or " what-d'ye-call-'em " in vulgar English. Others again assert that the phrase means nothing at all. We ourselves incline to see in it a survival of the Classical particle nan (archaic na mo), which served to emphasise the word to which it was suffixed. Observe, however, that whereas Classical nan may occur before any verb, this Colloquial nan survives only before the verb " to be," as in all three examples given above. QUASI-ADJECTIVES IN NA AND SO NA. 1 37 drawn distinctions are sometimes produced in this way. Thus inariii kao no htto means " a man with a round face," the concrete idea of " face " being here prominent. But inarii-gao na htto means " a round- faced man," the abstract quality of round -facedness being uppermost in the speaker's mind. This particular phrase might be turned in yet a third way, viz. kao no marui hiio, " a man round of face." Such idioms as this last are dealt with in *[[ 202. In some few cases no and na may be used almost indiscriminately. Thus we may say miigakii no htto or nmgakzi na htto equally well. But na is more common. •|[ 198. To the class formed by means of na belongs a numerous body of words obtained b}' adding so, " appear- ance," to the stem of adjectives proper or to the indefinite form of verbs, thus : omoshiroi, " amusing ;" omoshiroso na, " likely to be amusing," " amusing-looking." umai, " nice to eat ;" umaso na, ** appetising." fiiru, "to rain;" furisotia, '* likely to rain." kikoeru, " to be audible ;" M^*^^^ /?«, "audible, one would suppose." The forms yosaso na, " apparently good," and nasasd na, " not likely to exist," are derived irregularly from the adjectives }^oi, " good," and nai, " non-existent," by the insertion of an epenthetic sellable sa. Compounds of //reciatijtg a gift made by oneself.) ''One would think he would hear, after being called so often." isJiita. f was. ) "He seemed fellow." good ^ 202. III. Phrases composed of nouns (including indefinite verbal forms used as nouns) followed by no, " of," and an adjective proper, as genki'^ no""- yoi^, lit. good'' of" spirits', i.e. " spirited," " lively." Such are : short-sighted." vie^ no" chikai^, " neai-^ of^ eyeV' i.e. mimi no toi, " far of ear," „ . " hard of hearing." wakari no hayai, "quick of understanding," i.e. "sharp- witted." \ 203. Great numbers of quasi-adjectives belonging to this Class III are formed by means of the words yoi, " good " (often corrupted by the Tokyo people to ii), ivarui, " bad," and 7iai, the negative adjective. Such are : I40 THE ADJECTIVE, benri no yoi, "good of convenience," i.e. ''convenient." befiri no warui, ''bad of convenience," ,, "inconvenient." shi-kata no nai, " no way to do," „ "unavoidable." Such quasi-adjectives in nai as that last instanced corres- pond to English adjectives with the prefix " un " or " in," or with the suffix " less," as tsumi no nai, " innocent ;" kagiri no nai, " unbounded." ^ 204. The above examples are all attributive in form. When the quasi-adjectives of class III are used predicatively, the postposition ?io changes to ga ; thus : Mimi ga toi. " He is hard of hearing." Shi-kata ga nai. " There is no help for it." Ano ko wa, ivakaj-i ga hayai. " That child is sharp." These examples are in the style used between intimates. It is always more polite to add the word gozaimasu, except when addressing an inferior. Of course with gozai?nasu the / form of the adjective is exchanged for that with the long final vowel (see pp. 120 and 124). Thus the preceding examples would, in more polite parlance, become : Mimi ga to gozaimasu. Shi-kata ga gozaimasen {no gozaimasu is not used). A?io ko iva, wakari ga hay o gozaimasu. ^205. IV. Various tenses of verbs ; also phrases formed from such verbs, as : mieru, "to appear;" hence "visible." futotta, " has become fat ;" „ " fat." , , . . ( "forthcomes not :" ) ,, . -t 1 >> dekinat, |u cannot;" | " " ^"^ Possible. yomeru, "reads;" (intrans.) „ "legible." shtrefa, " was knowable ;" „ "self-evident." VERBS USED /VS ADJECTIVES. 141 fiakereba} na- j " won't-do* if-there-is- ] hence " indispens- ranai ', [ tame^ nr na- rii\ ki^ 111" iru\ ki ni iranai, ki^ no^ kiitcf, not';" [ " becomes'' to^ sake\-" enters'' to^ spirit^-" enters-not to spirit ; was-efficacious^ of" spirit^;' tsumi^ no" ani^, " is^ of" guilt\'" emyd^ suru", '' does^ diffidence^-" tai'^ sHita", choito^ sKita} did" great^-" gaten^ tio^ ikari^ able." " beneficial." " agreeable." " distasteful." , " quick-witted." , " guilty." , " diffident." , " important." , " slight." " incomprehen- ' sible." ms. Most of them '' did^ slightly^•" ( " goes-not^ of* com- ) ( prehension^;" ] ^ 206. The above are the attributive for serve also to express the predicative relation at the end of a sentence. Observe, however, that no must then be re- placed by ga, and the simple past tense in ta by the con- tinuative present tense in. . . ./6' iru (•[[ 294), thus : Ano ojiisan wa^^ That old-gentleman as-for, " That old s^entleman is futotie iru. ■fat." fat is. Afio jochii wa, kl That maid as-for. spirit " That maid-servant is nam \ bel kiite ne-efficacious iru. is. "quick-witted." Of course the simple verb may in all cases be replaced by the polite inflection in niasu. It is almost always so re- placed in predicative constructions, except when an inferior is addressed. Thus the above examples would become in ordinary polite parlance : Ano ojiisan zva,futotte imasu (or orimasu). Anojochu zva, ki ga kiite imasu (or orimasu). 142 THE ADJECTIVE. N. B. Quasi-adjectives of Class iv ending in shit a ^ ;is tai s/ilta, c hoi to shita, are never used predicalively. ^ 207. When employed predicalively at the end, not of a sentence but of a clause, most of the words of this Class IV turn into gerunds, thus : miete,/utotte, dekinakule, etc. But sometimes a periphrasis with de is used instead, as : ki ni iranai de. \ 208. Foreigners speaking a little Japanese constantly say yoroshii no cha, shiroi fio uma, okii ?to neko, etc., etc. But this is mere " pidjin." It should be yoroshii cha, " good tea ;" shiroi uma, '* a white horse ;" okii neko or oki na ?ieko, " a large cat." {Yoroshii and shiroi are always true adjec- tives, whereas we may either use okii as a true adjective, or oki na as a quasi-adjective.) The mistake arises partly from a confusion between no and 71a, partly from the fact that nouns followed by no often correspond to the adjectives of European languages, e.g. Nihon^ no" kotob / o \ 209. Do not confound such Chinese quasi-adjectives as kirei, "pretty;" viumei, "anonymous," with real adjec- tives, simply because they happen to end in /*. One can- not say kirei onna, " a pretty woman ; " one must say kirei ?ia onna. Similarly miimei ?io kafana, " a sword without the maker's name inscribed on it." n /;• •■ ^ jr - f "Which Zfocht ga u ?-Kuroi no. | ^^^ ^^^^^ ^, . \ wo katte kiniashita. I Um na ^Oj^^^^^^^^ having-boughl have-come. f< DIMINUTIVES, AUGMENTATIVES, AND HOxNORIFICS. 1 43 ^210. V. The words Xy; forming diminutives and ^> forming aiigmentatives, together with the honorific prefixes r>,* "honourable;" go, "august;" ki, "exalted;" and ??ii, "honourable," are quasi-adjectives, as in the following examples : ko-hin, " a small bottle." o-hin, " a large bottle." tera, " an honourable Buddhist temple," i.e. simply " a Buddhist temple." go ho?i, " the august book," i.e. "your book." ki-koku, " the exalted country, i.e. " your country." mi ashi, lit. "august honourable feet," i.e. generally " your feet." N. B. and ko frequently cause the nigori'mg of the word to which they are prefixed, as o-c/era, " big temple ;" ko-dera, " small temple ;" ko-ji??ia, " small island " (but o-shinia, without the nigorit " big island"). Such comjxjunds as these are extremely common in place-names, the whole Japanese coast being lined with Oshimas and Kojimas. To express the idea " a big island," " a small island," the longer equivalents oki na shinia, chiisa na shima, would sound more natural, and similarly in most other cases. The honorifics o and go are also used adverbially, thus : O^ yasumP nasai^, lit. "honourably^ deign^ to rest,^" i.e. " good night." Go yururi to, " augustly quietly that," i.e. " Don't injure yourself by overdoing it (in walking, etc.)." A noticeable peculiarity of this fifth class of quasi-adjec- tives is that they only occur prefixed to other w^ords. They cannot be used predicatively at the end of a clause or sentence. If, for instance, we want to predicate smallness of a thing, we cannot say that it is ko. We must use a to- * Carefully distinguish long 0, " large," from short o, " honourable," 144 THE ADJECTIVE. tally distinct word, such as chiisai. (For further details concerning the honorifics o, go, etc., see Chap XI, ^ 395 ei seq.) COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. T" 2 1 1 . Comparison in Japanese is more often implicit than explicit. Thus, when referring to the relative height of Fujiyama and Asama-yama, a Japanese will not say as we should, " Fujiyama is the higher," but simply " Fujiyama is high " {Fuji ga takai, or Fuji no ho^ ga takai), that is, it is high as estimated from the standpoint of the other mountain mentioned. Similarly, when pricing various goods, a Japanese will not say " Which is the cheapest.?" but simply ** Which is cheap.?" {Dochira ga yasui P) i.e. by implica- tion, cheap as compared with all the rest. Indeed, even in English the so-called positive is not infrequently a comparative by implication. When, for instance, we talk of a lake as large, what do we mean but that it is larger than most other lakes in the country or in the world.? When we say that such and such a man is old, what interpretation can be put on our words, except that the man in question is older than the majority of people.? This is a consideration which will hardly occur to such as are familiar with European languages only ; but it may well engage our attention for a moment as a curious, though simple, instance of the different channels in which Eastern and Western thought runs. The only disagreement between English and Japanese usage is that the Japanese employ * Ho means literally " side," hence " one," " ones," as Kono ho ga katai, " This one is hard." In phrases like that in the text, it has no English equivalent. Similarly in such contexts — and they are of frequent recurrence — as toshi 710 7vakai ho, " the younger of the two." COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. M5 ttiese " comparatives and superlatives by implication " in nine cases out of ten, whereas with us they are somewhat exceptional. [2 12. Comparison may, however, be rendered explicit by using the postposition yori, " than," properly " from," as : Asama yori, Fuji ga takai, or (more frequently) Asama yori, Fuji no ho ga takai, i.e. " (Viewed) from (the stand-point of) Asama-yama, Fujiyama is high." de Uniibe de sodatta hito wa, Sea-shoro at grew-up people as-for, rikugun yori kaigun tio heishi ni\ army than, navy 's troops k'khhiniasii. suit. Muda na hanashi ivo suru yori \ Useless talk {accilS?^ do than wa, da ma tie iru ho ga " A sea-side popu- lation makes better "sailors than it does soldiers." I better .ide («^.//.) chatter.' consider silence than useless as-for, silent being /'/ to omoiniasii. (/j-)good that (/)think. At bottom, the idiom is the same as that explained in the last paragraph, only more circumstantial. In negative phrases yori is replaced by hodo, which means " quantity," " amount," " about," e.g. Asama wa, Fuji hodo takaku nai, lit. '* As for Asama, (it) is not Fuji('s) amount high," i.e. "■ Asama-yama is less high than Fujiyama." ^213. The idea of the superlative may be rendered explicit by the use of the word ichi-ban, " number one," *' first," for instance : ' " That will probably be number one amusin.o: " That will Sore That wa, as-for. ichi-ban one-number omoshiro amusing gozaimasho. will-probably-be. I.e. doubt be the amusing of all." no most 146 THE ADJECTIVE. Fuji WO mini Fuji-yania (acciis.) see Olome-toge ga " Maiden pass " {tiom.) yoroshm gozaimasu. good is. Ichi-ban kisha. One-number train. ni wa^ for, ichi-ban one-number '' The Otome-toge pass is the best place to see Fuji from." j mo The first train in the morning." There are various other periphrases employed for the same purpose. Specially noticeable is one with the word uchi, " inside," " in," or its Chinese equivalent chii {nigori'ed toj'u ; conf. T 28) ; thus : Sono That na mono. being thing. uchi inside no yosaso 's apparently-good " Whichever may seem to be the best of the lot." Nihon-jTi de fio yushi. Japan-inside by brave. J " The bravest man in ( Japan." ^214. After all, the chief thing the student should bear in mind with regard to the Japanese equivalents for our comparative and superlative, is not to have recourse to them, but to accustom himself from the beginning to use the simple positive instead, which alone, in nine cases out of ten, is idiomatic. *|[ 215. "Still" with the comparative is rendered by one of the adverbs ?7iotto or nao ; thus : Alotto chojo made noborimasho. \ c.y^^ , ^ .^ .1 „ ^^ More sumiit till will-probably-ascend. i f^^thcr, Up tO the VCry ( top. A'ono ho 7va, nao yorosh/u' This side as-for, still good I " I IllS 1." gozaimash. ll)cllcr (•nc. a still mini hodo, rippa " The longer I look at look amount splendid it, the more splendid it appears." MISCELLANEOUS LOCUTIONS. I47 ^216. "The" with the comparative repeated is rendered by hodo, lit. " amount," thus : Mireha As-IIook, desu. (//)is. Takai iokofo hodo, kaze ivo \ ,,-^1 , . , ,, High place amount, wind (^rr«^.) I ^ he higher thesitu- atemash, | ation, the windier it is." applies. '' \ 2\^. " Very " (comparatively little used) is expressed by such words as hanahada, itatie, or taiso {ni), takiisan. The word taihen (ni) resembles the "awfully" of English Colloquial parlance, and is in perpetual requisition. The following are a few examples : Taiso 7ii kirei. " Very pretty." liaiie miizukashii fnon{o) ) " It is an extremely dif- da. (Or more politely, dcsn.) ) ficult thing." Hanahada o kinodoka \ u j ^^^ extremely sorry." Very honourably sorrow ,j^^^^,^, ^.^^ ,, j^ .^ honourable soma {de gommasa). ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ -^ Mr. (/..). Taihen 7ii oinoshiw gozai- ) 7nasHita. | "It was awfully jolly.' ^218. Another favourite phrase answering to our Colloquial " awfully " is the gerund of the adjective or verb, followed by the words shi-yo ga nai or sM-kata ga nai, which signify literally " there is nothing to be done," " there is no help for it," thus : Aisukuli' s/n'-yo ;->/ //(//. " It is awfully hot." " I am awfully tired," or Kuhdiiicte sJii-yo ga nai. -^ " I am so tired I don't know what to do." uS THE ADJKCTIVE. Taikutsii (h', sJii-kata ga fiat. " I am awfully bored." iV. B. Observe de in this last instance, where it replaces the gerund because taikiitsu is not an adjective, but in reality a noun here used as a quasi-adjective. The following expressions may serve to exemplify a kindred idiom answering to our " so " or " too : " KurakMe viienai. " It is so dark, I can't see ;" too dark to see." ( " It is I or '' It is *' It was so far, we couldn't , ..cv.k the ( to walk.' Tbkute arukemasen \ 11. i ?> ut«- ♦ c , ,^^ - walk there : ^r " It was too far (ksnita. Am Hito iva, baka de, \ .^He is such a fool that That person as-for. fcx.1 being. .^ .^ .^^^^^.^^^ ^^ ^^j^^ tsukai-michi ga nai. ^^^ ^f ^^j^ " employ-way [jiom.) isn't. ^219. " Not very " is expressed by amari, ''excess," " too," or yokei {ni) "superfluity," with a negative verb, thus : Amari omoshiroku nai. (familiar) ) " It is not very Amari omoshiroku gozaimasen. (polite) j amusing." Yokei gozaimasen. Yokei fii mokarimasen. Superfluously gains-not. There is not very much.' j " There are not very many," \or "1 i " There is not much money made." ^1 CHAPTER VIII. The IWb, GENERAL COxNSIDERATIONS. T 2 20. The nature and functions of the Japanese verb differ CDnsiderably from those of the verbs of European languages. Conformably with the absence of number in the noun and of true personal pronouns, the Japanese verb entirely dis- regards all considerations of person and of number. " I am," " thou art," " he is," " she is," " it is," '' we are," " you are," " they are," are all expressed by the same word da (familiar) or desh (polite). Similarly all the persons of the past tense (" I was," " thou wast," etc.) are expressed by the same word datta or desNita ; all the persons of the probable present or future (" I probably am, or probably shall be," " thou probably art, or probably wilt be," etc.) by the same word dard or desk'). The present and past indicative can be used as adjectives (see ^ 81 and ^ 205), and even as nouns (see ^ 45). Many of the moods are different from anything that exists in Europe. There are negative, potential, and causative ccnjugation^, etc., etc. In fact, the whole verbal conception has been worked out in an alien manner. ^221. Most of the Japanese verbal forms occurring in actual practice consist of four elements, viz., the root, the stem, the inflections or " base," and the agglutinated suffix or suffixes. Take, for instance, the word komarimisJiiti, which 150 THE VERB. is so often heard in conversation, and which sig-nifies " (I) was in trouble," " was at a loss," " didn't know what to do." 'J'he root is kom, which we meet with in the small group of related verbs komu, " to stuff into," " to crowd into," " to inclose," " to confine ;" komeru, synonymous or nearl}- so w ith koniu ; komoru, an intransitive verb signifying " to be in a state of confinement," '' to be shut up." From the root ko?n is formed the stem komar by the agglutination of ar{u), " to be." To this is added the unexplained suffix /, which gives the " indefinite form " of the verb, a sort of participle or gerund (see ^^ 278 — 281 and ^[^ 422 — 426;, which can also be used as a '' base " or foundation form, to which certain suffixes are agglutinated.* In this case the agglu- tinated suffixes are mashi, which originally signified " to be," and ia, the index of the past tense, itself shown, by reference to the Classical form of the language, to be a corruption of the gerundial suffix te and of am, " to be." The single word koinarimasMta therefore contains the verb " to be " three times over. * It seems almost incredible that serious grammarians should ever have thought of applying the name of " root " to the indefinite form of the verb, which is as much an inflection of the stem (probably an ultimate analysis w-ould prove the inflection to be an agglutinated form obtained from the stem) as any other. There is no more reason for calling komari a " root " than koviaru or komarc. But the unfor- tunate precedent set by Rodriguez, and followed by Hoffinann, has l)een constantly adhered to by writers who have not taken thcj trouble to think out the subject for themselves. Hence we are treated'to^such sesqui^xidalian "roots" as arascrarc (really the indefinite form ol (Ik- potential of the causative conjugation of am, " to be "), and we are toKl that such is the form from which all the other principal parts of the verb are derived ! It would lie about as reasonable to call "disregarding" the root of the verb " to disregard," and to say that " disregardi.'st," " disregard eth," etc., are derived from it. THEORY OF THE VERB. 151 ^222. Again take saniasanai, " (I) do not cool " (transitive). The root is saf?i or sab, which we find in samcrii, " to cool " (intransitive), " to fade," " to wake ;" in scwiui, "cold;" and in samushii or sahishii, "lonesome." The stem is samas, formed from the root sa?)i and the verb sum, " to do," the second a apparently owing its existence to the " attraction " of the first (see ^ 3). The third a is the in- flection constituting the " negative base " siimasa, to which is agglutinated the negative adjective nai, " non-existent," in order to form the certain present tense of the negative con- jugation. In some cases — for instance }n sameru, "to cool" (intransitive) — the stem (sam) is not a lengthened form of the root, but simply the root itself In others again there is no agglutinated suffix, the base itself being used as an independent word. Of this the imperative of verbs of the first conjugation offers a good example. ^223. Japanese roots form an obscure subject, and one into which it is not necessary for the beginner to plunge, as it has scarcely any practical utility. For practical purposes the stem (whether identical with the root, or a lengthened form of the root) may be accepted as an ultimate fact, — not indeed as a complete word, but as the unit to which the bases are attached. The stem itself should, theoretically speaking, always remain absolutely invariable. But we shall see later on how phonetic decay has caused all verbs of the first conjugation to depart from this standard in the modern Colloquial speech. ^ 224. The "bases " are formed from the stem by the addi- tion of one or more letters, whose origin is too obscure to discuss here. The bases are four in number, and all the other conjugational forms are obtained by agglutinating certain suffixes to them. Their names are the Certain 152 THE ^-ERB. Present, the Indefinite Form, the Conditional Base, and the Negative Base.* The Negative Base is never used as an independent word. The Conditional Base is, in the first conjugation, identical with the imperative. In the other conjugations' it is not used as an independent word. The Bases are not always formed in the same manner, nor are the suffixes always attached to them in quite the same manner. Hence the distribution of verbs into different conjugations. Of these there are in the Written Language four, but in the Colloquial only three, as the third and fourth have coalesced. ^225. EXAMPLES OF THE BASES IN THE THREE REGULAR CONJUGATIONS OF VERBS. {The stem is Italicised.) 1st. Conj. 2nd. Conj. 3rd Conj. to sell to put to sleep to eat to fall to see Present I ^'^^ ^^^ nQxn tabQXW och\Y\x\ wiru Indefinite ur'i ok\ ne tdbe. och'i ??i\ ^Base^^^i ^'^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^'^ Base I ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ tabQYQ ochuQ wire Observe how the letter r never enters into the formation of the bases of verbs of the ist. conjugation, but always enters into the formation of those of the 2nd. and 3rd. conjugations. Of course r may appear in the stem of any verb, as it does in that of tim, *' to sell," ist. conj. * For the Certain Present, see ^^ 273 and 240 ; for the Indefinite Form, see W 278 and 241 ; for the Conditional Base, see ^ 252 ; and for the Negative Base, see ^ 256. f The stem — indeed the root — is really of, as in the active verb otosu, *' to drop" (ist. conj.). But the consonant / changes cuphonically to €h before the vowel i (see p. 25). THEORY OF THE VERB. 1 53 Tf 226. Before proceeding to the more important matter of verbal paradigms, we may. just mention in passing that, when 7iami7ig Japanese verbs, it is usual to mention the present tense as in Greek, not the infinitive as in English, Latin, and most other European languages. Thus uru, " to sell ;" yorokobu, " to be glad ;" ?ieni, " to sleep ;" koshi- raeni, '' to prepare ;' ochiru, " to fall ;" kini, " to wear." But uru has not the infinitive signification of " to sell ;" at least it has not generally or properly that signification. It means " I {or you, they, etc.) sell." Similarly in the case of all other verbs. The Japanese language has no form exactly answering in signification to our infinitive. The usual makeshift for an infinitive will be found men- tioned in •]" 277. T[ 227. The following paradigms of the three regular conju- gations and of the three most important irregular verbs, viz. kuru, " to come ;" siiru, "to do;" and masli, for which English has no equivalent, will serve to show how the various Japanese moods and tenses are formed by ag- glutinating suffixes to the bases. The memory will be assisted by noticing that almost all the tenses of the Positive Voice are obtained from the Indefinite Form and the Conditional Base, while those of the Negative Voice are obtained from the Negative Base and the Certain Present. Note further that the only difference between the second and third conjugation is that while the vowel e characterises the former, the vowel i characterises the latter. This fact has caused some European grammarians to class them together as a single conjugation (the second). They are thus classed in Mr. Aston's Grammar and in Dr. Imbrie's " Handbook of English-Japanese Etymology." 154 THE VERB. "3 &H >. 3 rt ^ "rt bi) . •? 1 rii; .5 til c« J. (y 1— 1 c »— 1 3 3 > -7^ ^' a, §. ^ t 1 "5 % 1 i3 1 ^ a C 'I 11 It (have) put. probably ( I had put. lOUgh I (ha ? 3 3 t :z; t— l" 1— ( 1— 1 rC HH W its i! S ^ ^S ^ l_< o HH .^ H ^ - '■ < § w •HD3ads ujapoui UI o ^ CJ V sosuai asam ui poddojp ^ ,o SI uiajs am JO y aq j. -~ 1^ f^ > ^- ,_ 1— 1 p 5i 2 ►5 ■'1 ••^ icha ita itaro itara{baY{ itaredo[mo) 1 t 1 ■1 1 ••i ^ ^ u od "3 c (5 s c I— ( 1 1 1 1 t 5 (L) 1 1. do. Emphasised Certain Past Probable Past Conditional Past Concessive Past 1 C u u ^ 2 - CO V FIRST CONJUGATION. ^ o o '^ o2 >>-§ 1^ r-! IT -m' "3 o +r Ph >, cr -M O T3 tX ^ '^ 9 ^ ^ ^ 2 '?• 'r^ ? § "? S - ^ .^ 1 >s S 8 S S St s s J^ - ? "S « « ^ "^ "^ "^ <^ .^ ^ ►*^ ^ ^ ^ ^ c 'C.g &,+. o o- -»-'!S l^'o'-i Ci "-Ik—I c •- b c 1=- ^ . . S , . -^ ^ ^ ^ '^ O o O rt o M-l '^ "5 o S g ^ ^ g -2 -2 -^ -^ ? i^ g^ s § g ^ -• 5 fe u u u I O w o ^ > -g - « . c « •»i -Ki » g S^ ^ « ? '^ 3 a Ij ?2 5: )8 •^ <<; ►ti <<; S S S S ^ ^ 5 ^ S "§ ^ "^ -I -^ -^ g o .^ W pt, >::< 'T3 '^ O d O tin h5 o d o aJ u u u o ^^ !3 "^ .0 t£ > OJ w »; 2 .^ S ^ .11 THE VERB. ^•^ rt' fc^ k C5 o probably (do not c shall probably n eat. o S ;- — . — • u Sd ^ 'F ^•^ '— - fc > ■2| #_^ ■5.5 E 1 •0 'i katta kattard kattari karo kereba 2 ¥ < 11 1 1 ■^1 (A O; ibena bena bena. bena bena bena •i p ^ ■S ^ s;.> ' ^ -S ^ -2 -S ^ -2 -S -S^ <: M S rt " — . — ' ;z; ^ fe rl S C 1i ^ UGATION. ' " (stem tab). > 1 1— ( 1— 1 1^ Certain Present or Future Certain Past Improbable Past Frequentative For Improbable" Prese or Future Conditional Presei Conditional Past Concessive Preseni Gerund H-i H O O ^* ■^ ■rr ^ u r t ^ ti o C/2 1 73 ?. 15 <£ -M rJ U O ij J; >^ ri (i f) 11 s ^1 t— ( "rt t— 1 is IT ^ 1 hi 1 late. I probabl if I had e though I sometime eat (thou] SI 11 w c u 2 6 "rt « ?> >s * s; <5> w «2 g >S it • — • i ? '1 J i tabecha tabeta tabetara tabetara tabetare tabetari tabero ! ^ 11 '5" 1 1. phasised t 1st Past Past ive Form 1 c -g 1 >-< aj Ir^ ^ -^ > OS 2' p ^ ^ -rt « t; P 1 rt o M 1£ 5 ^.Si.r.'S •r. do. El Certain P Probable Condition Concessiv Frequent; Imperativ o -1 .-5 t 0) ■gfe 1^ tS 1 5J 1 1^ -•* n' C^ u U o o u > rt '- ^ n ;— 1 B 4i ^. J c/; ^-^ C3 2 3 o ^ ,£ -C o n S =3 t+-> ^ 9 rt p Is -III 111 II "5- ■<; "^ -^^ -^ -?; 2 I D •TJ « ^ T3 '^ 'o '^ C G < PM 2 ° O ^ O -^ ^ o S ly t^ O U Ph U ill pq ^ (^ o .2 So 0) (D 58 THE VERB. o W -a o .1 w /5 CJ o B c -M ^ OS ^ c &.0 iS. ow HH O S . 6 rt 0.' != " £ rt X o ^ 3 «-» H-( Si 1. t: o 0-5 ^. ^P o •^ -1 -^ .5 -^ -^ -5 U &i U U tin .« -^ "^ -H t/. o o ^ IRREGL'LAR CONJUGATIONS. !I1 4 ^ 5 d d d'^ a) rt S • HI •4 o II ■II ^ o d o o rt t-H o o d § 1 o X3 o ll 11 111 lis o -5 1— H HH t— 1 -o^ 1— 1 H- 1 »— i 1— 1 ^ ^ c c c c w 1n W s.h *^ *__^ U ife ^ "s" ^HH ■ E -^ *J S k « ^ ^ ►»■ o n > i:: 1 si jq C oj 1 g 1 1 1 II a s •to "is. 1 1 .i i ■2 <-5 1 v.»-v-«.' -'-^^- --»-v-«-' 5 .;^ > s O 6 ll o i 1 6 u ll S o .2 .5 o U 1 > s S W . HN N ■4 M ^ ^' < o d 4 d •2 o d •T3 ■-3 3 si -d ||5 111 (/) ^ o O ^O 5-, ^. 6 w 1— i "? - t— 1 ^^ rt '^ f „ ^ :: g ^ p^ (—1 1 ! 1 o 1— 1 rt (U O rt ^ ^~^ "rt * H o <5 *^ S *_^ •t" > •7^ "►^ '5 ^ ■■5 ^5^ r , w vS- ^ >s '? T^ •~. ^ ^. '^ *" > 1— I ^ 5 1^ s ■^ -5 '^ 5 '?■ ^ 1 1 H j^ •^ >'v. '.v. •^ w v^ '^^ •i^ b jj <^ -^v <5; H ^ CO 1"^ ^3 5 -M -'1 11 o o .2 V o rt oj o -^ o o rt <5 ^ G < PM o u A U U Ph fi: HH U U ^ M m' CO rt- THE VERB. H ^ j§ ^ 8 " aJ « u II ^ ^ biO^-, c o M-i ,^ Cfl o rt =^ S o o ^4 o G 3 J? 5 "S s 5 d ^ 5B +j o G o £ ' = 3 o ^-^ -^ d r3 O O P^ t^ >^ >^ en O o oj '3 <^ i?^ (1) rS3 ^ o C) o TS a' i> <4-l <+-! pfl 5 O o 6 >s -^ ^ 5 ^ « « § s 8 8 8 & 3 s 11^ c ^ ga-2s 3 o U 1^ hi4 U -U tn cfi 3 t:; bjo o tc o -o •r! O .S ?„ d'^ i^d rt !U ;;^ o o rt~2. ;^ .:. SPECIMEN VERBS FOR PRACTICE. l6l ^ 234. It will be found good practice to conjugate, accord- ing to the paradigms of the three regular conjugations, a few of the verbs in commonest use. Such are : butsu, dasu, isogu, kiku, ._^ idem, _^ \ koshiraeni^ ^ \khtabireni, Iabiru, dekiru, karirti. " to beat." " to take out.' ( " to make I haste." " to hear." " to go out." " to prepare." " to get tired." " to bathe." " to be able." " to borrow." komaru, nomu, omou, yobti, makeru, neru, s liter u, kirn, nirti, tariru. j '' to be in^ I trouble." '* to drink. •0,2 =1 0.0 _ " to think," '' to call. , " to be beaten." (in war, etc.) " to sleep." "to throw away." " to wear." " to boil." " to be enough." ^235. As may be seen by the paradigms, the Japanese verbal forms are not numerous in comparison with those of French, Latin, and most other European tongues. But a peculiar difficulty arises from the fact that all verbs of the first conjugation are more or less anomalous. In the Classical language each suffix w^as simply aggluti- nated to one of the bases, without any letter-changes oc- curring, e.g. gerund oki-fe, " having put ;" ari-le, " having been ;" tsugi-te, "■ having joined." But in modern usage phonetic decay has obliterated this pristine simplicity, and has given us oite, atte, isuide, — forms in which the stem loses its final consonant, and other letter-changes are apt to take place. The nature of the irregularity thus caused depends in every case upon the last letter of the * Vulgarly contracted to kosaeru. 164 THE VERB. of Eastern Japan. A similar case is offered by the verbs kan'tii, " to borrow ;"' iaririi, " to suffice," and one or two others, which the genuine usage of Tokyo inflects according to the third conjugation, but ^vhich pubHc si^eakers somc- - times make of the first conjugation {karu, iaru, etc.), in imitation of the Kyoto dialect and of old Classical rules. ^ 239. In the case of stems ending in .v, the change of 5 into sh in the indefinite form is caused by the inability of the modern Japanese to sound an i^ before the vowel /. Ori- ginally 7hjshi was probably nasi, and so in other cases. The changes in the / series have their origin in a similar modern inability to pronounce that consonant before the vowels / and u. It is probable that, some centuries ago, people consistently said PRESENT IXDEF. FORM CONDIT. BASE NEC. BASE matu, inati, mate, mafa, " to wait ;" and the conditional and negative bases still retain the pronunciation which theoretical unity postulates, while the other two bases — ma/u and mati — have slid respectively into maisu and viachi. All that we know for certain on this point is that the modern pronunciation was already estab- lished at the close of the sixteenth century, from which time the first Jesuit works on the language date. The insertion of a w in the negative base of verbs ending in vowel stems {shimawa, iwa, omowa, nuwa) has its origin in a cuROus phonetic change which took place many centuries ago. Originally the stem of all such verbs ended in an/", thus : PRESENT INDEF. FORM CONDIT. BASE NEG. BASE shimaiu shmaU. shimale shimaia. PECULIARITIES OF THE FIRST CON'JUGATIOX. 1 63 237. It ^viIl be observed that most of the above letter- changes have ease of pronunciation for their sole efficient cause. Some, however, may appear strange ; for instance, that affecting the stems in ^, when d and j replace / and c/i in the terminations. The reason of this is that when the w'gori'ed letter ,^* dropped out, there remained a feeling that the iiigori should be marked in some other way. It was therefore carried on to the next syllable, converting plain / and ch into ftigori'Q<\ d and /. Had this not been done, many forms of such pairs of verbs as tsugic and hahi would have become indistinguishable, — a disaster which has actually overtaken verbs with stems ending in h and w, and also those ending in a vowel, in /", and in /. Thus it is only by the context that we can tell whether yondc is to be understood as the gerund of yohu, " to call,'"' or of yoniu, "to read;" whether 7m tie is the gerund of ;/////, " to sew," or of 7iuru, " to lacquer ;*' whether uife is the gerund of iiru, " to sell," or of utsu, " to strike." 2'^'^. The Kyoto people, together with the people of Central and Western Japan generally, say shimote, shinwia, etc., for shimatte, shimaita, etc. iuie, iuta, „ „ I'/fe, itta, ,, - ombte, omota, ,, ,, omotte, omotta, ,, 7iuie, 7mta, ,, „ 7iti{te, 7iutta, ,, and the educated in Tokyo sometimes follow their example, especially when speaking in public. But this sounds some- what pedantic. The habit has arisen from the fact that in former days, when the Court resided at Kyoto, the dialect of that place was naturally esteemed above the vernacular * See ^ 28. 164 THE VERB. of Eastern Japan. A similar case is offered by the verbs karirit, " to borrow ;" tarirti, " to suffice," and one or two others, which the genuine usage of Tokyo inflects according to the third conjugation, but which pubHc speakers some- times make of the first conjugation {karii, iaru, etc.), in imitation of the Kyoto dialect and of old Classical rules. T 239. In the case of stems ending in s, the change of 5 into sh in the indefinite form is caused by the inability of the modern Japanese to sound an s before the vowel /. Ori- ginally 7hjshi was probably nasi, and so in other cases. The changes in the / series have their origin in a similar modern inability to pronounce that consonant before the vowels / and u. It is probable that, some centuries ago, people consistently said PRESENT INDEF. FORM CONDIT. BASE NEC. BASE niatu, rnati, mate, mata, " to wait ;" and the conditional and negative bases still retain the pronunciation which theoretical unity postulates, while the other two bases — inahi and viati — have slid respectively into viatsii and machi. All that we know for certain on this point is that the modern pronunciation was already estab- lished at the close of the sixteenth century, from which time the first Jesuit works on the language date. The insertion of a 7v in the negative base of verbs ending in vowel stems {shimawa, iwa, omowa, uuwa) has its origin in a curious phonetic change which took place many centuries ago. Originally the stem of all such verbs ended in an/*, thus : PRESENT INDEF. FORM CONDIT. BASE NEG. BASE shima{u shi?na[i. shima{e shimaia. FORMATION OF THE VARIOUS MOODS AND TENSES. 1 65 But according to a rule which permeates the whole vocabular\' of the modern hmguage, the /' has been dropped before //, /, and e, and has been converted into a w before a, thus giving shimau, shimai, shimac, shi??iazLki. ANALYSIS OF THE FORMATION OF THE VARIOUS MOODS AND TENSES IN THE REGULAR VERBS. T 240. Certain Present or Future (the ist. base) : Xo the stem add u for the ist. conjugation, cni for the 2nd., and iru for the 3rtl. The origin of these terminations is unknown. j\'. B. In the Written I^anguage, both cm and ?;•// are replaced by //;■//, a jx'culiarity to be heard also from the lips of some speakers. T[ 241. Indefinite Form (the 2nd. base) : to the stem add i for the ist. and 3rd. conjugations, and e for the 2nd. The origin of these terminations is unknown. T 242. Desiderative Adjective: to the indefinite form add /(//. 7\ji is an adjective originally identical with /'/(//, *' painful," and is capable of conjugation like other ad- jectives, according to the paradigms on pp. 126, 128, and 1 30, thus : okitaku, okito gozaimasli, okitakefcba, okitaku nai, etc. T" 243. Adjective of Probability : to the indefinite form add so na (see p. 137). T[ 244. Polite Certain Present or Future : to the in- definite form add 7nasa, which can itself be conjugated through most of the moods and tenses, thus : okimasNita, okimasho, etc. (see p. 160). ^245. Gerund (by some called the Past Participle) : to the indefinite form add tc, observing the rules of phonetic change in the 1st. conjugation (see p. 162). Te is supposed by the native grammarians to be a fragment of the verb 1 66 THE VERB. haieru, " to finish." If this view is correct, oi/c, for instance, literally means " having finished putting/* or " finishing putting." The next six tenses in the paradigm are all obtained by agglutinating other suffixes to the /e of this one. % 2\fi. Gerund Emphasised: to the indefinite form add cha, observing the rules of phonetic change in the ist. conjugation (see p. 162). Cha is a corruption of te zva, which latter original form is still mostly preferred by cultured speakers. Wa is the postposition treated of in p. 85 ct seq. Tf 247. Certain Past : to the indefinite form add ta, observ- ing the rules of phonetic change in the ist. conjugation (see p. 162). Ta is a corruption of the Classical past tari, itself derived from tc ari {art is the Classical " conclusive present " o{ am, " to be"). 0/Az therefore etymologically means " am having finished putting." T 248. Probable Past : to the indefinite form add taw, observing the rules of phonetic change in the ist. conjuga- tion (see p. 162). Taro stands for te aro, lit. "probably shall be having finished." T 249. Conditional Past : to the indefinite form add taraha or tara, observing the rules of phonetic change in the ist. conjugation (see p. 162). Taraha stands for te araha, lit. "if am having finished," rtr^j-^? being a Classical form — the so-called " hypothetical mood " — o{ am, " to be " (see \ 287, p. 184). \ 250. Concessive Past : to the indefinite form add taredomo or taredo, observing the rules of phonetic change in the 1st. conjugation (see p. 162). Taredomo stands for te aredomo, lit. " though am having finished." Aredo?no, the concessive present o{ am, " to be," is itself comj^x^unded of the conditional base are and the postpositions to and mo. FORMATION OF THE VARIOUS MOODS AND TENSES. l^J 1[ 251. Frequentative Form: to the indefinite form add iari, observing the rules of phonetic change in the ist. conjugation (see p. 162). Tari would seem to stand for te ari, in which case its original meaning is the same as that of the past indicative tense. •|f 252. Conditional Base (the 3rd. base) : to the stem add e for the ist. conjugation, ere for the 2nd., and ire for the 3rd. The origin of these terminations is unknown. The name of "conditional base" was given to this form by Mr. Aston from one of its functions, that of serving as the basis on which the present conditional tense is built up. From it is also formed the concessive present. ^ 253. Imperative: in the 1st. conjugation it is identical with the conditional base ; in the 2nd and 3rd. conjugations it is formed by adding to the indefinite form the syllable ro, which seems to be a corruption of yo, an exclamation resembling our word "oh ! '* A\ B. Some speakers drop the termination. — A familiar impei^ative, often used by members of the same household in addressing each other, is obtained by adding na to the indefinite form, as yobi-na ! " call !" shi-na ! " do !" It is uncei-tain whether this lui be simply an interjection, or a corruption of the word uasai, " please." The former view is, however, the more probable. ^ 254. Conditional Present: to the conditional base add ba, which is an irregularly uigori'^d form of the postposition •jf 255. Concessive Present: to the conditional base add domo or do. Do is the /u'gori'ed form of the postposition fo, and mo is also one of the postpositions. If 256. Negative Base (the 4th. base) : in the ist. con- jugation adtl a to the stem ; in the 2nd. and 3rd. conjuga- tions the negative base is identical with the indefinite form. 1 68 THE VERB. The name of " negative base " was given to this form by Mr. Aston with reference to one of its functions, that of serving as the basis on which most of the tenses of the negative voice are built up. Note, however, that it Hkewise helps to form the probable present or future of the positive. voice, together with all passives, potentials, and causatives. The name is, therefore, not a completely adequate one, though there is no harm in retaining it, provided the nature of the form itself be always borne in mind. Tf 257. Probable Present or Future : in the ist. conjuga- tion add u to the negative base, and then contract the diphthong au thus obtained into 0. The termination u is a corruption of the unexplained Classical w. The steps of the process therefore are okan (the Classical probable present or future of oku)^ okau, oko. Rapid speakers sometimes go further still, and, shortening the 0, say oko (retaining an emphasis on the final syllable). In the 2nd. and 3rd. con- jugations the Classical language also simply adds n, thus : taben, " I shall probably eat ;" ochin, " I shall probably fall " (not to be confounded with the negative present tabenh and ochinu). Some of the Colloquial dialects of the \N'estern provinces vocalise this n into u exactly as in the 1st. conjugation, and say tabeu, ochiu. The T6k)'o forms in yd, as iabeyb, ochiyo, are built on a false analogy suggested by the sound of the future in the ist. conjugation. ^258. Negative Imperative : to the present indicati\e add fta, which is probably a fragment of tiakare, the Classical imperative of the " negative adjective" 7jai. {Ahkare=naku^ are^, be* not-being^) T[ 259. Negative Probable Present or Future, also called Improbable Present: in the 1st. conjugation add FORMATION OF THE VARIOUS MOODS AND TENSES. 1 69 inai to the present indicative, in the 2nd. and 3rd. conjuga- tions add it to the negative base. Mai is a corruption oimaji, majiki, ?fiajiku, a Classical adjecti\e expressing doubt or prohibition. In the Colloquial it has ceased to be conjugated. T[ 260. Negative Certain Present or Future : to the negati\-e base add ;/, which here and throughout the negative tenses is probably a corruption of the Classical negative particle ani, which exists likewise in Korean. The ;/ should properly be followed b}' //, but this latter is now generally omitted in pronunciation. ^261. Negative Certain Past: to the negative base add ?ia?ida, a termination of unknown origin.* ^262. Negative Probable Past i.e. Improbable Past : to the negative base add nandaro, formed from the negative certain past on the model of the same tense of the j)ositive voice. \ 2()T,. Negative Frequentative Form : to the negative add nandari, formed from the negative certain past on the model of the same tense of the positive voice. 7 264. Negative Conditional Present: to the negative base add ncha. Ne is really a sort of negati\e conditional base formed on the analogy of the conditional base of the positi\e voice, and ha is the postposition wa with the fiigori. ^265. Negative Concessive Present : to the negative base add nedorno or ncdo. For 7ie see the preceding paragraph. Do (for id) aud mo are postpositions. *[f 266. Negative Gerund : to the negative base add zii, a termination of doubtful origin. The postposition ;// is often added to this form without affecting its signification, as tabezii ni for tabezu, " not eating," " without eating." * See, however, the present v/riter's " Essay in Aid of a Grammar of Luchuan," IT 124. lyO THE VERB. T 267. Second Form of the Negative Voice : to the negative base add the " negative adjective " ^/^/z* (seep. 129) in one or other of its conjugational forms. A^. B. In order to avoid tedious repetition, we leave the student to analyse for himself on the above model the conjugation of adjectives given on p. 128. A curious little item for him to notice is the occasional substitution of the Chinese negative prefixyw or hti for the negative Japanese negative suffixes. The use of this idiom implies, not simple negation, but the additional idea of badness, dereliction of duty, etc. Thus,y«-f/;^...7.. (certainty) ^ ''He will come im- mediately."' Kimasho \ (....re probability) | " He will probably Aimasii desho. ) I come. Kwiasiunai. /P^obabUity ofx | " I don't think he will V a negation J Icome. / "It snows;" "it is Vuki ga /urimasii. I snowing." Snow(wc;w.) falls. j " It will Certainly Unow." Fuki ga/urunasho. " It will probably snow." Mymiichi shuttaisu shimasli. J "I (shall) start to- I'omorrow start do 1 morrOW. " r "I think of starting I to-morrow." "As I have caught cold, I think I won't take any ,bath to-day." In this last case there is little difference in English between " I think I won't," and plain " I won't." The former is less abrupt ; that is all. Similarly in Japanese, Mydnichi shutiaisu shimasho. Kaze li'o hiita kara, Wind {^(7CCUS.) have-drawn because, yii 7 CO yoshimas/io. hol-waicr {^(jcius.) (/) will-probably-forbear 174 THE VERB. where consequently the merely probable present or future tense sometimes comes in a roundabout way to correspond exactly to our real future. Thus : Isolde iko. \ " I will go quickly," or Having-hastened, will-probably-go. f" I will make haste and (More politely,/jv/rti' /X'/wrt;j//<7) Jo-q." But it would do equally well to use the present, and to say Isolde IklmasXi. — See also ^291. *| 273. A. The essence of the probable present or future in Japanese being uncertainty with a strong tinge of probability, this tense is often used to express a supposition, such as English idiom generally conveys by means of the word " may," in certain cases " must." Thus, Fukuzawa, in his " Autobiography," after mentioning that he has never been in debt, adds : So7io ybsu wo mlie,\ That appearance {(xccus.) seeing, " Korya ! nan de mo katiemochl " This-fndeed ! anyhow money-owner da" to sulryo sum hlto is " that, supposition do people mo arlmashb. Toko jo ga, also probably-are. Nevertheless, watakushl wa 7nata sofio me as-for, also those siilryb-sha ga arb to supposers {my/u.) perhaps-are that, fiakafb to, sono sulsoku perhaps-are-not that, those suppositions ga atarb to UlO)il.\ perhaps-hit-[the-mark] that, atanimal to, siikoshl perhaps-don't-hit-[the-mark] that, a-little mo tonjaku iiashl nl, even concern without, al-kawarazu yuya to shite unchangeably quietly doing Imasu. (/) am. Sazo go fu-jly^ Indeed august inconvenience de gozalmashb. probably is. vS(^me persons, seeing my manner of life, may well suppose me rich. Meanwhile I, for my part, continue to go my own quiet way, perfectly indifferent as to whether there may or may not be any such people, and as to whether their suppositions may or may not accord with fact. )" You must find it very inconvenient." PRESENT AND PAST TENSP:S. I 7 -^ .V. B. Needless to say that this idiom cannot be used to express our very difterent " must " denoting necessity. Tlie " must " oi necessity is rendered by a double negative, thus : nanni'a}iakcrcba ]iariniasen. ) " It won't do not to pay," i.e. If-pay-not, \von't-be. ) " You Vlltst pay." English speakers knowing a little Japanese are apt to use this double negative too freely, because in English we habitually scatter musts broadcast, even where no real necessity is implied, as, when rising to take leave, we say " I am afraid I must be going." A Japanese would say Mo o itonia itas/iit/iasu, lit. " Already I \\\\\ do honourable leave." ^ 273. B. Both the certain and the probable .present must, in many cases, be translated by our conditional mood, thus : — Mayoimasib ne! | " Indeed I shouldn't Am-in-quandary indeed ! | ]^no^y ^^.J^at tO do." Tokyo no Jiito 7m, nani " ^^'^^^ would lokyo Tokyo 's person as-for, what) pcople say, I wonder .? {e.g. to iimashb ? yf told of the dearness of that wiii-probabiy-say ? \livi71g ill America?/' Kimo 7V0 tsiihushimasa. | " They would be perfectly Liver (,rrr//.v.) (///^j)willburst. jastOUnded." N. B. " I wonder," in the second of these instances, is intended to represent the shade of uncertainty inherent in the probable present iimashd. Japanese possesses no actual equivalent of our useful verb " to wonder." \ 274. The difference between the certain past and the probable past is precisely analogous to that between the certain present or future and the probable present or future : — Kimo wo isuhushimash1ta.\ " He was astounded." Liver [iicciis.) {he) burst. j rr- V 7 7 • lyi - \ "He must have been Kimo iC'O tsubusfnmashitaro . \ , i j ;> j astounded. 176 THE VERB. It is unnecessary to dwell further on this point after the copious illustrations in the preceding paragraph. The student will be more perplexed by certain anomalous uses of the certain past itself. Thus this tense is sometimes used where English idiom would prefer the present, for instance : Anmashtta (lit. "has been"), "Here it is!" said when one finds something which had been lost ; Wakarimashita, " I have understood," i.e. " I understand ;" Gozen ga dekiniasKita (lit. "dinner has forthcome^'), "Dinner is ready;" Nodo ga kaimkinuishila (lit. " throat has dried "), " My throat is dry," i.e. " I am thirsty." Contrariwise the Japanese often use the present — especially the present of the negative — where strict logic demands the past, thus : Wataklishi ga Amerika Me Inoni.) America oru aida. dwell while. " While I was in America." Narawanai kara, dekimaseiiA " I can't do it, because Learn-not because, forthcomes-not. 1 J havCn't leamt how " Tf 275. In such an example as the following, the Japanese may seem illogical in using the past tense. But the English are equally illogical in using the present, seeing that the time referred to is future : . Smtaku 110 dekita ioki,\ " Let me know when Preparation 's has-forthcome time. L^.^ryt^ing is ready." shuashite kim7iasai. {Said to an inferior .) informing honourably give deign. 1 ^ -^ ' In the following example (and many similar ones might be quoted) the two languages play still more strangely at cross purjKJses, English using the past where Japanese has the future, and the present infinitive where Japanese has the past : PRESENT AND PAST TENSES. I 77 Ko shita ho ga \ u You had probably better do Thus have-done side (m?;/i.)\-. • ,i • ,, /. t ^i • i , . - ^ 'ht m this way, or " I think you will-pr^bablyie-goo 1. ) 0"ght tO do it like this." ^V. B. Observe the phrase... 7/^; ga yoi equivalent to our " should," " ought," " had better," and compare the foot-note to p. 144. Somewhat similar are instances like the following, where the past tense (especially the past tense of adjectives) has the sense of our conditional : Massiigu ga chikakatta. ( "It would haye been Straight {jiom.) was-near. | shortCr tO gO Straight On." So sum to yokatta. _( " It would ^ haye been So do if, was-good. \^ better to do so.'' N^. B. If we were to use the bookish English idiom " it Jmd been shorter," " it had been better," we should obtain a close approximation to the Japanese expression. Compare also last part of H 287. T 276. Notwithstanding the occasional appearance of such cases as those hitherto exemplified, the use of the present and past generally giyes no trouble, thus : Tsune ni iu koto desu ka?S " Is it a thing people Generally say thing is ? | generally Say V A no hito wa ki-yo da That person as-for, handy is kara, nan de mo shimasu. because, anything-whatever does. " He is so handy, he can do anything." ( Be careful to pronounce ki-yo as two syllables. Kyd, as one syllable, means " to-day.") Uchi no sha/u wa, House 's jinrikisha-man as-for, ashi 7V0 itajnemashita kara, I "As the house jinrikisha- foot {acciis.) has-hurt {trans.) because, I man haS hurt his foOt, kawari no otoko wo [I haye called another exchange "s man (rt-rr^^J.) j instead." yonde mairimashita . liaving-called have-come. 178 THE VERB. Senkoku kiki fii yatta Former-hour hear to seni ga, — mada henji g whereas, still answer hioni gozaimasen. is-not. " I sent to enquire a little while ago; but there is no answer yet." T 277. The certain present and certain past, sometimes followed by the word koto, "thing," "act," "fact," to some extent replace the infinitive, a mood for which the Japanese language lacks a special form. Thus oku koto, " to put " in general ; oita koto, " to have put " in the past : — MabushtkutCy mini koto gal Being-dazzling, - lo-see {twin.)] " The light is SO daz- dekimasen. jzling that I can't see." forthcomes-not. ^ Mita koto ga nai. I u t u -^ ^ ■ , , , . • f " 1 have never seen it. lo-nave-seen hio/;i.) is-not. j ^278. Indefinite For?n, Gerund, and Emphasised Gertmd.— The indefinite form of Japanese verbs is one to which there is nothing that exactly corresponds in our Western tongues. It is by itself of no tense and mood, but may denote any tense or mood according to the context. The rule regarding its use in the Written Language is as follows : — When several clauses are correlated, that is to say, follow each other and express the same tense or mood, then only the verb or adjective of the last of such correlated clauses takes the termination which indicates the tense or mood intended by the speaker, the verbs or adjectives of all the foregoing clauses being put in the indefinite form. One thus has to wait till the end of the last clause before one can tell whether the writer intends to refer to the past, present, or future, to the indicative, conditional, imperative, etc. The final verb or adjective, so to sixjak, focuses and clinches INDEFINITE FORM. 179 all thai went before. Thus the Shinto theologian Hirata, ^vhen insisting on the inscrutableness of the divine nature, savs : Kami no mi lie iva,\ Gods of august surface as-for, midari ni hakari-iii-heki mono rashly calculate-say-should thing de iva nai. Tada sono iattoki is-not. Simply their venerableness UH) tattobi, kasMkoki ivo {a ecus.) to- venerate. awfiilness {accilS.) kashikoini, osoni-heki wo to-reverence, fearfulness [iXCCUS.^ osoreru hoka nashi. to-fear besides is-not. ' " The nature of the gods is not a thing which men should rashly speculate and talk about. ) There is nothing else for us to do but to honour their greatness, to rever- ence their majesty, and to fear their power."' In this passage tatiohi and kashikomi, the indefinite forms of the verbs tattobu and kashikomu, must be rendered by our infinitive mood, because they are correlated with osoreru, which is in the certain present tense, here corres- ponding to what we term the infinitive (conf. ^ 277). Note also the use of the bookish form in ki (see ^[^ 177 and 178) of the attributive adjectives tattoki and kashikoki (for tattoi and kashlkoi), here — as generally in the higher style — employed in preference to the abstract substantives in sa, such as tattosa, kasJiikosa. \ 279. In the negative voice, the place of the indefinite form is supplied by the negative gerund, thus : Sekai no kutii-guni no\ World 's countries of uchi ni wa, somokii middle in as-for, herbs-trees f?io haezu, jimhutsu also grow-not, luiman-beings nai fokoro ^'^" *=^' ^ fy'^*= sometimes-lying-down sometimes-getting -up j ^} time uetween .9^/76^ orimasu. 5^"^^^ ^P. ^",^ ^^"^"^ doing am. l^down agam. [291. The Imperative occurs in miHtary words of command, such as tomare / "halt !'' ^iw^yasjime f "stand at ease !*' But in social intercourse, even with the lowest classes, it sounds rude, and is therefore rarely employed except in the case of a few honorific verbs, for instance asobase, " be pleased to do," An honorific periphrasis is mostly preferred, even when addressing an inferior, as will be explained in ^ 409. It is to that paragraph that the student should devote his attention. A''. B. Observe, howevei-, the idiomatic use of the imperative in such phrases as iVani shiro, or na>ii Hase, " do what you may," " act as one will," Conf. also end of •[ 186. A noteworthy idiom, by means of which the English first person plural of the imperative (" let us . . . ,"*) may generally be rendered, is shown in the following examples : — Kd shiyo ja nai ha? \ " Let us do it in this way." Thus will-do isn't ? I (faniiliar) Ha?ta-?m ni iko ja\ u j^^^ us go and sec the ITower-seeing to will-go , , "=". , , , , ncherrv, etc.) blossoms. ariniasen ka? (polite)' is-not ? ' 1 90 THE VERB. Or else the future alone (without ja nai ka, etc) may l)e employed. For instance, Isolde iko may signify, not only " I will make haste to be off," but " Let us make haste to be off." AUXILIARY VERBS. \ 292. Properly s|)eaking, several of the suffixes helping to form the moods and tenses are auxiliary verbs which were once independent, some of which are indeed still independent in other positions. Thus, when we make use of the common phrase yoku netnashita, " I have slept well," the polite suffix 7?iasM originally meant " to be," and the past termination fa (for fe ani) means " am having finished," as explained in T 247 and T[ 245. The w-hole word neniashtta, resolved into its constituent parts, therefore signifies " am baving finished being asleep." Many verbal stems, too, have been built up by means of the verbs aru, " to "be," and eru, " to get " as : aisihnani, "to collect" (intr.) ; atsumeru, "to collect" (trans.) ; smvaru, "to squat;" siierti, "to set." N". B. Uneducated persons use such forms in aru unnecessarily wlien they say, for instance, narabaru, " to be in a row ;" ahatte imasti^ " it is open." The simpler forms naralm and aite imasit are the correct ones. \ 293. More modern, and still felt to be separate and independent words, are the following auxiliaries : ~ . ■ Arti^ " to be," which is often construed with the gerund of an active verb, to give a sense which we should render by a passive idiom, thus : Jfuzukashiku kaite ani Difiicultly writing is kara, 7vatakhshi-domo ni Ijecause, us to wa^ yomemasen. as-for, is-unreadable. " Jt is written in too difficult a hand for me to be able to read it." {More lit. "It is in such difficult writing that to me and my sort it is unreadable.") THE AUXILIARIES ARU, IRU, AND ORU. I9I Furoshiki 111 tstdsunde \ ''l\, ^^ wrapped up in a Cloth-wrappt r in having-wrapped [cloth. {More lit. " It is ill a arimasii [state of wrapped -up-ness in a is. * ) cloth.") ^V, B. The corresponding active phrases " is writing," " is wrapping up," etc., would be rendered by kaite iru or oru, tsutstmde irii or oni, as explained in \ 294. Notice, moreover, that these quasi-passive idioms with am always denote something which is done already^ not something which is being done, that is to say that they are never what English grammarians term " continuative tenses." They are also rather intransitive in intention than properly passive. 'J'he most frequent use of aru as an auxilian- is to form compound equivalents for the probable present or future, and for several of the tenses of the negative voice, thus : Kuril de aiv or kuru daro, for koyo, " will probably come."' Konai de atta or konaidatta, for konakafta, *' did not come.*' Konai de attar o or konai daitaro, for konakattard, " has probably not come." For daro, datta, etc., may be substituted their polite ecjuivalents desJ^o, des/iita, etc., already mentioned on p. 171, thus: kuru desho, konai desHita, konai deshitarb. Notice that the compound future expresses a somewhat stronger shade of doubt than the simple future. Aru is also replaced by the politer gozaru in such phrases as naorimasMte gozaimash, for naorimasKita, " He has got well again." The lower classes, too, when addressing their superiors, frequently use the periphrasis gozaimasen de gozainmsh in lieu of simple gozdinmscn, "there is not." ^294. Iru and oru, *' to be," construed with the gerund, form continuative tenses corresponding to such English expressions as '' I am reading," " I was writing," " I shall be working," etc., thus : 192 THE VERB. Nam wo shite imasaP 1 .. what is he doin What [accus.) doing is? j Mada nete orimasit. 1 ' " He is still sleeping:." Still sleep-n? is. ) ^ ^ Necha mas'tmai. 1 "He is not likely to be Sleeping-as-for, prabably-is-not. )slceping." (emphatic gerund.) Kesa kara kumotie Th;s-mornin_; since, clouding I " It has been cloudin orimasMta ga, toto ame ml over {or cloudy) since the had-been whereas, finally rain toj rnoming, and nOW at laSt it naite kimashita. \ has come on to rain." having-become has-come. Igirisu no ichi-ri to, Nihon\ England 's one-mile and, Japanese! ttti ■ i i • i • . 7. . , ,7- "Which do you think is no icni-ri to, dochira ga I,, , u r u -i 's one-league and, which inom.)^^^ \0X\%^X, an Knglish mile nobite imasho? or a Japanese r/.?" extending probably-is? / Kite ormash. - ( " He is having come." Having-come is. [i.e. " He has come." In such an instance as the last, the simple past kimashita would be less clear ; for it might only mean that the man had come and had gone away again, whereas kite orimasu can only mean that he has come and is still there. Sometimes we must translate such sentences by the I'^nglish passive, Japanese idiom almost invariably preferring the neuter, thus : Jfada dekite imasen ka?) " Isn't it finished yet.?*' Still forthcoming is-not ? ( Very often the word iru, " to be,'" loses its initial /' after the gerund, especially in the present tense, and we hear neteru for nete iru, "is sleeping;" kaiteru for kaite iru, "is writing," etc. This is a good example of the tendency of the Japanese language to turn independent words into agglu- THE AUXILIARIES KURU AND MIRU. 1 93 tinated suffixes. In very vulgar parlance the particle wa, used with an exclamatory force, often coalesces with a preceding iru. Thus naite ira ! "oh ! he is crying." Such expressions are to be carefully avoided. N", B. Observe, too, that ini is often politely replaced by irass/iani. ^ 295. Kiiru, " to come," construed with the gerund, forms what grammarians of certain other East Asiatic languages have termed '' illative " tenses, — " illative " because they superadd to the main idea the subsidiary idea of motion t&wards the speaker or the person addressed, thus : Kippu Ticket kimasko. ivo katte {accus.) having-bought *' I will go and buy a ticket." will-come. ) Yonde Having-called kimasho ka?{ ''Shall I go and call shall (/)come • \ ^jj^ ?" Omoshii Amusing kita. has-come. ■oi koto WO itte " thing i^acctlS.') saying " He has told us a funny story." N". B. Observe how English sometimes exactly reverses the Japanese idiom, using " to go " where Japanese has " to come." In other cases, as in the last of the above examples, the word " come " must simply be omitted in English as superfluous. T[ 296. Miru, " to see," construed with the gerund, shows that an action is to be attempted, but without any very great effort, — that it is to be, as the slang phrase has it, just taken a shot at : Tatie mimasko. (^°"'y'"-M '.' I.^^'H^st try my hand V to send."/ \ at it. Kiite miru ga 'ii. \ " You had better Asking to-see [nom.) is-good. J enquire." 194 THE VERB. Nete mite mo neraremascn\ Sleeping trying even, could-not-sleep I ' 1 triCCl tO takC A. (Jeshlta. I nap, but couldn't.'' (//)was. ) \ 297. Naya{bd), " if it be," serves to form a compound conditional (see p. 185). ^ 298. Oku, " to put,' construed with the gerund, indicates the full and complete settling of a matter, thus : Kippu wo katte ) t 1 Ticket {accus.) having-bought { "1 have got mv tickct okimashtta. Wl right." have-put. ' Kangaete oite kudasai. f " Please think the matter Reflecting putting condescend. \zvell OVet' " Techo 71 i tsukete \ "I think I will put it Note-book in having-fixed I Jq^^.^ jj-, j-^y notC-book {so 0/iimastm ^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^^.^ ^^ remember it)." will-probably-put. / ' . Sore, inade no koto ni shite' That till 's thing to doing oku hoka, shi-kata ga to-put besides, way-to-do (;/f;//.) fiai. is-not. Atsuraete oita. ] - i have ordered it (at a Having-ordered have-put. i vVirM-» \'' ' (More politely, ^/(7wr?j/^?/rt.) jsnop.; N^. B. The word oita in tliis last example shows that the si^eaker thinks that the order will be satisfactorily executed. Atsuraete kit a woukl mean that one had/z/j/ come from leavhig the order with the shopman. Oku suffixed often causes e final of the preceding gerund to be clipped in hurried speech, — atsuraete oita, for instance, becoming atsuraef oita. \ 299. Shimau, " to finish," construed with the gerund, expresses the completion of an action, thus : " There is nothing for it but to let the matter rest there." THE AUXILIARIES SHIMAU AND SURU. 195 Shinde shiniatta. (familiar)) " He is dead and gone. Having die 1 has-fin'shed. J Isha sama ni Pliysician Mr. to shiniaimasKiia . has-finished. Motte Having-carried shimaifuashlta . has-finished. naite \ '^ He has become a h iving-become UQctOf W^'^*' havuig had sci'- \eral other professions in rvVri-)." lite hivine g;ne "He has carried it off." Utchatte shiniainiashoA "I think I will throw it Throwing-away (/)-wiIl-finish. 1 ^j-^^i^y '' Toto honi-buri ni naite At-last main-falling to having-become shimaimasJiita. has-finished. "It has ettded by turning into a regular wet day. ' N, B. " Maiu-fallint:;," in this last example, having been supposed by some students of the first edition to be a misprint for " rain-falling," it may be well to point out that hon, " main (ram)," is here antithetical to " occasional (rain)," or what we should call " a shower," Jap. yudachi. Beginners might easily be led into misapprehension by attributing to shiniau an independent force^ instead of look- ing on it as a simple auxiliary to the verb which precedes it. This point requires attention. Thus nete sMmaita does not mean " He has finished sleeping," but rather " He has finished by sleeping," or more simpl}^ " He has gone to sleep." Deie shimaimashita does not mean " He has finished going out," but " He has gone out." \ 300. The negative present of siiru or iiasu, " to do," con- strued with the indefinite form of any verb and the postposition iva, forms an emphatic equivalent for the negative present of that verb. In such contexts iva is generally pronoimced ja in familiar intercourse (conf. p. 88) : 196 THE VERB. An wa shimasen. (polite) ) . „ I • A- • /f. :i;,..\ r 1 here /67/ / any. An ya shinai. (familiar) J Sonfia koto tva, ii \ Such thing as-for, saying! '' \ shotlld Jitter diecim of ya itashimasen. | saying such a thing." asTr, (/) do-not-do. J Mo ki ya ifashimasenA "I am sure he won't Again coming as-ftr, (//t')will not-do.(come again." When two such clauses are co-ordinated, mo replaces wa in both, thus ; Mi mo shinai, kiki mo\ ^ Seeing even do-not, hearing even I ^ nCltner SaW nor shinai. (familiar) j heard anything." The first of two clauses thus co-ordinated is often put in the conditional, strange as such a construction may seem to European ideas. Thus the last example might equally well read thus : J// mo shifiakereba, kiki mo shinai. Indeed this last would be the most strictly grammatical manner of expressing the idea ; for the two clauses would then be con-elated syntactically, according to the rule explained in ^^ 278 — 279 (pp. 178-9), sezu being the negative gerund o^ sum, " to do." ^301. Varu, '* to send," "to give," construed with the gerund, often helps to form a periphrasis for the simple verb when that verb is a transitive one, the periphrasis always retaining something of the idea of " giving," as in the following examples : DasKite yam, or dasu. ** To put outside." Butte yarimasho. " I will give him a beat- ing." {Buchimasho would be .simply " I will beat him.") YARU AND OTHER AUXILIARIES. 1 97 J ... . V. f " I am i>-oinf>- to q-ive Dog (,„v//..) l<>..s,.ning will-give. 1^1^^ clog hlS liberty {fy \ untying htni), [Inn 7(>o lokiiiiasYi would be simply " I am sroiiig to untie the dog.") Daiku ni koshiracsai^eti Carpenter by, causiiig-to-prepare yarimasho. ( /)\vill-prol)al)ly-give. " I think I will let the carpenter make one." (Either in order to gi%'e hiiu work, or in order to bciwftt .some poor person.) There are a few more auxiliary verbs ; but as their force is purely honorific, the student is referred to ^ 402 ct srq., where the subject of honorific verbs is discu.s.sed at length. 302. The Japanese have a great fondness for rounding oft' their sentences by one of the equivalents for " to be," or by kurn, okn, shinian, or yarn. The plain \erb, without one or other of the.se auxiliaries, is apt to sound bald. We do not mean to say that the auxiliaries are meaningless ex- pletives. Far from it. They always retain in the mind of the Japanese speaker a portion of their original force. But whereas English idiom for the most part simply states the occurrence of an action, Japanese idiom delights in describing more particularly the manner of the action's occurrence with reference to the subsidiary ideas of " coming," " finishing," etc., which the auxiliaries express. For instance, an English maid-servant, speaking of a piece of dirty linen, will .say "I will have it washed, Sir." Her Japanese sister would say Araivashlte okiniashd, lit. " Having caused (some one) to wash (it, I) will put (it)," that is to say, "I will have it washed, and there it 7vill he." The simple verb merely states a dry fact. The addition of the auxiliary makes the action seem to pass vividly before you. The sentence becomes lifelike and picturesque. CHAPTER IX. The Verb (conchtded). PASSIVE AND POTENTIAL VERBS. T 303. The Japanese language has no special conjugation for the passive voice. All passi\e verbs belong to the second (active) conjugation, the paradigm of which has been given on p. 156. They are derived from the corresponding active or neuter verbs according to the following rule : — In verbs "of the 1st conjugation add rent, in verbs of the 2nd and 3rd conjugations add rarcru, to the negative base, thus : "So 'matsu, okii, warau, \yohi{, " to. wait ;'" " to put ;" '' to laugh ;' " to call ;" matareru, okareru, warawarcru, yobareru, "to be {viore lit. to get) waited for." " to be put." " to be laughed at." " to be called." 1. c keru, taberu, *' to kick ;" '' to eat ;" kerareru, taberareru, " to be kicked." " to be eaten." 8 1^''''' " to shoot ;' " to look ;" irareru, mi rarer u, " to be shot." " to be looked at." f^ The i rregular \erbs kuru, " to come :" s/iinuru, " to die ;" and suru, " to do," have the passives korareru, shimircru, and serareru respectively. The polite termination masu is not susceptible of the passive form. NATURE OF THE SO-CALLED PASSIVE. 1 99 ^ 304. A glance at the origin of the Japanese passive will furnish the student with a key to all the difficulties con- nected with it. Properly speaking, the so-called passive is not a passive at all, but an active in disguise. Such a form as Hfnn'ru, for instance, is etymological ly uchi'^ ari- cru-' as literally as possible '* to get'' being' beating^'' i.e. " to get a beating," " to get beaten." hence " to be beaten." Similarly irarrni is from the stem /, a euphonic r, and an' cru, i.e. " to get being shooting," " to get a shooting," " to get shot." Hence the place of all passive verbs in the second conjugation along with the verb eru, " to get." Hence, too, the fact that intransitive verbs are susceptible of passive forms, such as furarmi, " to get rained upon," " to have it rain," from ////v/. "to rain;" ^liitmrcru, "to have some one die." ^ 305. This curious idiom may be better illustrated by some complete sentences, thus : ( " Oh ! vou will have Otottsan ni okonirrni z^,,. ^-^^i^gj p.-^p^ ^^^, Papa l.y f iw/) will-l)e-i;ot-an£cry, P . , ' ^,^^ ^,r, - ' Vwitli you; /?iorc hi. ■^^,' "Vou will be got angry ' [with] by papa." (" A man doesn't know what to do, when he has Ketting-come. jSUCh gUCStS aS thoSC COmC tO the house ;" more lit. " when he is come [to] by such guests." Or take from the opening sentence of the second chapter of the " Botan Donl " in the Practical Part of this work, the words Anna Such 'Hwakii kyaku ni guests l)y shimasYi. -plexity dees. Go shimpu sania ni 7i'a naku Aug! St roal-faih r Mr. by a^-fcr. n-in-e^isttnt narare. ... getting I econie 200 THE VERB. Parsed literally, they signify ''Being died by his father;" but they simply mean " Having had his father die," or, as we should generally express it, " Having lost his father." N". B. As shown in the above instances, the preposition " by " of English passive constructions is expressed by the postposition iij. Some further examples will be found in ^ 105. ^ 306. The following examples are of a somewhat different nature : A710 htto wa, dare 7iv I'hat person as-for, who by de mo homerarete imasu. even, getting-praised is. " He is praised by body." ever}'- Kono ifiu wa, inuyami ni This dog as-fcr, recklessly hoeru kara, htto ni barks because, people by lyagararemasu. gets-disliked. '' This dog gets ^disliked, because it ever barking." itself is for Kubi wo hanerareta. Head [accns^ got-struck off. " He got his head cut off," less lit. "His head was cut off." Ashi wo inu I-eg {ace us.) dog kui-tsukaremasJuta. (/) have-got-bitten. Oshii koto ni iva, yiikyo ?ti Regrettable fact as-for, pleasure by, kokoro wo uhawafcfuasliite, heart ^arctis.) having-got-stolen, gyo ga orosoka ni business \jiom.') remissness to narimashita. has-become. ' N. B. The phraseology of this understood by the lower classes. " I have had my leg bitten by a dog ;" less lit. I have been bitten in the leg by a dog ;" still less lit. My leg has been bitten by a dog." " I am sorry to say that he has become engrossed in (///. has got his heart stolen by) pleasure, and has become remiss in his work." last example would liardly be PASSIVES AXD POTENTIALS. 20I ^ ^oy. The presence of rco in such examples as the last three is apt to puzzle the beginner. But there is nothing really illogical about it. The word accompanied by tvo actually is in the accusative in Japanese, as shown by the literal translations we have given. It is not in any way the subject of the sentence. That its English equivalent in a free translation may happen to be the indirect object of the verb, or even a nominative, only shows how necessary it is for those who would speak idiomatically to get into the habit of looking at ideas from the Japanese point of \iew. The real nominative here, as in sentences of every kind, is \-er}' rarely expressed in Japanese. (Conf 131, p. 92.) ^ 308. It is important for the student, when occupied with Japanese passive constructions proper, to compare what has been said in ^ 293 (p. 190) concerning an intransitive itliom with aru, " to be," by which the English passive is frequentlv expressed. To that paragraph he is accordingly referred. ^ 309. The passive often passes into a potential sense. Thus, okareru may mean either " to be put," or " to be able to put;" korareru may mean either ''to have some one else come to one " (" to be corned "), or " to be able to come." This peculiarity of modern Colloquial Japanese seems, like certain others, to be traceable to Chinese influence, the Chinese auxiliary \erb :f:^ (rendered bv em in Japanese) having the two significations " get ' and '" can." A'. B. The single form (vnouuirc'ni, from o;?ioif, " to think," is somewhat exceptional. When taken potentially, it does not mean " to be able to think," but " to venture to think," " I am inclined to think." -A'. B. For the natural transition of these passive-potential forms to an honorific sense, see ^ 403. 202 THE VERB. Ano h1to 111 wd, sake iva i *' He cannot drink .m/v." That person by as-for. liquor as-for | (MoFC lit. " Sake doeS nOt nomarciiai. does-not-get-drunk. Gozen ga iaberaremisen. Rice {)ioi)i.\ gets-not -eaten. MairareinasXi. Ikarcso mo nai. l.ikely-to-lie-able-to-go even am-not. (or more politely gozai//iasrn.) Mazukute taJierarcmasen. Being-nasty, cannot-eat. get drunk by him.") I " I can't ta.ste a morsel. '' One can go." ] " I am not likely to be lable to t;0." It i.s too na.stv to eat." Today 's heat as-for. cannot- [ The hcat tO-day I.S unbearable.' raremasen. hear. ^310. Potentiality is often otherwise expressed by means of the verb dekiru, a corruption of the Classical {i)de-kuru, " to come out," '' to forthcome." Dekiru has assumed the signification of " to eventuate," " to take jjlace," " to be ready," " to be done," " possible," but must often be rendered in English bv the active "can," "can do," thus : " As I cannot ^o to you, I can only see you if you will be so kind as to come to me." Watakushi wa agaru koto ga^ Me as-for, go-up i^cthioni.) dekimascn kara, anata ga forthcomes-not because, you {^nO))l.\ o ide kuddsani koto ga honourable exit condescend fact [iioiil.) dekimasii jiara, rn.' ni forthcomes if, h.'.nourable eyes on kakarimasho. J will-probably-hang. The original intransitive meaning of dekiru sudiciently explains wh}- this veri) is construed with the nominative POTENTIAL AND PASSIVE IDIOMS. 203 particle ^^-a, and not with the accusati\e particle ivo, — a point which foreigners often fail to grasp. ^321. Impossibility is sometimes expressed by means of the \Q\h kaneni, "to be unable," " cannot,'* which is siiflixed to the indefinite form, thus : Sekkakii no o sasoi \ " j ^m soit)' I Special-pa.-ns of honourable invitation I ^nnot ^avail' mVSClf ^a ga— konmcJu 7va\^^ ^.^^^^ exceedincrly i-i althougli. to-dav 1 • 1 • •. .• r' ... ^ kind mvitation lor inain-kanemastii. \ j^.,]..,. "•• go-cannot. / ' - * Makoio ni moshi-kan07nash1ta\ ^^ \ hardh' like to ask you for it, but Truth in say-could-not f:^'— ^f^^„ , '''" 'P-P!''' Iw^uU'i vou' kindh' although, umbrella ((7tr/<'j'. ) nne-piecey , , ,. , , . ,^ I lentl me an um- kas/n kiiaasaimas/u. honourably lending condescend. brella This idiom, which is inherited from the Written Lan- guage, is now heard only from the lips of the educated. ^312. The verb viorau, " to receive " (mi)i-c politely, itadaku, " to put on the head,'' in allusion to the Japanese custom of raising a present to the forehead), construed with the gerund, helps to form an idiom which closely resembles the so-called passi\e both in formation and meaning, thus : Shimhiin 7 yomh- morau, Newspaper {^aCittS.') readins; to-nceive, i.e. " to. receive [somebod}' else's] reading of the newspaper," or, as we should generally say, " to have the newspaper read aloud to one.'' Monde morau. j "To have ^ one- Rubbing to-receive. | SClf shailipOOed." 204 THE VERB. Asa Jiayaku okosJute \ « j ^^.jg|j 1^, l^^^. Morning early, r«,sing \^^^^^ ^. j^^ ^j^.^ moraita,. morninir." uish-to-receive. ' "^ Doka go shusen ivn sJiite\ ' ^ \\\^\\ you Please august assistance {^acciis.) doing (wOuUl be SO \ery itiiiJaklto gozaimasn. [kind as to help me." wishing-to-receive am. ) {vcry poUte) N. B. These last two examples show liow wishing is expressed in the passive voice, the desiderative adjective of passive verbs not being in colloquial use. One may even say Morattc moraiiai, '' I shoiikl like him [to do me the flivour] to take it." ^313. Many English passiv^e verbs must be rendered by Japanese intransitives. This happens when the idea is one which does not necessarily imply the action of an outer agent, as in kutahireru, " to be tired ;" odoroku, " to be astonished;" tasukaru, "to be saved" (not by another person, which would be the passive tasukerareru, but rather " to be safe owing to having escaped from danger "); yoro- kohu, " to be pleased ;" hase.Ji^ ni^ aw, " to be shipwrecked," lit. " to meet^ witlr shipwreck.^ " After all, " to be tired," *' to be astonished," " to be pleased," are not necessarily passive ideas even in English, as may be seen by comparing them with such synonyms as "to be weary," "to wonder," " to rejoice." N'. B. Many of the verbs here spoken of are inchoative, i.e. they mark the beginning of a condition. For instance, kYitahircru means jiroperly " to bccovieWx^iX ; " nurcni is " io gi^'t wet ; " kawakii is " iogi't dry." " I avi tired " is expressed by Jaitahirelc ini, or by the past icwfc kutalfiremas/nla. Similarly : AAtrcte imasji, or KuremasJuta. " I am (i.e. liave become) wet." f" Your clothes are dry (i.e. have become dry after having been wet)." PASSIVES REPLACED BY 1NTRAXSITIVP:S. 205 ^314. The aversion of the Japanese language to the use of passive constructions is strongly marked. In nine cases out of ten, the English passive must be replaced either by one of the intransitive verbs just mentioned, or by an active though subjectless construction, thus : Risuke^ Ur m^ ufoko*, " A man called Risuke ;'' ///. "A man* (of whom people) say'^ that" (he is) Risuke\'' Kyo-ncn^ tatcta" uchi'\ "A house built last year," ///. " A house'' (which some one) built" last-year.^ " Atc^ ni' tiarimasen^, " It is not to be depended upon," ///. " (It) becomes-not'' to"-^ reliance^" YosJiita> hu^ ga' yokaro*, " It had better be given up," ///. " The forbore^ side" will-probably-be-good'*." Korc^ 7ua' nanr^ Jii* tsukaimasu* ? " What is this used for? ///. " As-for- this\ (people) use^^ (it) for* what^ ?" Kore^ zva", narf de^ dekitc' orunasu^ ? " What is this made of? " ///. " As-for" this\ whaf by* forthcoming'* is*' ?" Konna} tansii" zvd^, doko^ de^ kacmasu^? " Where are such cabinets as this to be bought? " ///. " As-for^ such^ cabinets^ where* at^ are-buyable^?" These examples, together with those given on pp. 57 — 8 and in ^ 439, besides others scattered throughout the volume, may serve to show the student how passive idioms are avoided. He could hardly do better than forbid himself the use of them altogether during the first six months of his battle with the language. ON CERTAIN INTRANSITIVE VERBS. 1[ 3^5- Japanese has a large class of verbs which it is generally convenient to translate by P2nglish passive or potential idioms, Init which in Japanese itself are, properly speaking, intransitive. Even in English we feel a difference between 206 THE VERB. two such assertions as " The gold is melting in the furnace," and " The gold is being melted in the furnace." In the first case the melting appears as a spontaneous event ; in the second case it is explicitly declared to be the work of some outer agent. The \erb of the fornier corresponds to the Japanese tokeru, " to melt " (intransitive) ; that of the latter to tokareru, " to get melted " (i)assive derived from the transitive iokii, " to melt "). There are thus numbers of intransitive verbs of the second conjugation, formed from transitives of the first conjugation by changing the termination ti into eru : — TRANSITIVE INTRANSITIVE kaku, kakeru, " to write." kin/, kt'reru, " to cut." foku, tokeru, " to melt." torn, tor cm, " to take," uru, Jireru, " to sell." yomu, yomeru, " to read." ^316. The transitives kiru, uru, yomu, etc., are used in translating such phrases as " to cut a slab of stone," " to sell goods," " to read a sentence." The intransitives kircru, ureru, yomeru, are used in translating such phrases as " This stone cuts easily," " These goods sell cheaply," " This sentence does not read well." The Japanese construction is less closely followed, but practical convenience often best served, by employing the word " can," thus : " You can cut this stone easily." ** These goods can be sold cheaply." More esi)ecially is this the case when the original verb is itself intransitive according to English ideas, thus : iku, " to go ;" tkeru, " (I) can go." But there is never any reference to " 1 " or " can " in the mind of the Japanese speaker. INTRAXSITIVES. 207 ^ 317. The difference between the intransitives in cm and the true potentials in arcni and rareru is that the latter tend to express moral ability — "may" rather than "can/'"^ — ■ iKxause the moral ability to perform an action depends on I he sanction of a law outside the agent ; whereas the forms in . The verb iiitasJiiiiwrii, "to warn," i-^ an intcrestini^ example of this method of formation. I'or thout;!! now current as a transitive verb, it is evidently nothintij mire tlian tlie old causative of //////, "to shun." When you warn a man of a thin<^, you naturally cause him to shun it. ^327. All causalives are conjugated according to the paradigm of the second conjugation (j). 156) and are, like other verbs, susceptible of the passive voice, thus : s/iirascrareru, " to be caused to know," i.e. "■ to be informed." tdhesascrarcni, "to be caused to eat," i.e. " to be fed." ahisaserarcni, "to be caused to bathe." In practice, however, these complicated forms are rarel}' employed. ^328. The Japanese causative includes several shades of meaning. Thus koshiraesaseru, the causative of koshiraeru " to prepare," must be rendered sometimes by " to cause to prepare" or "to make. .. .prepare," sometimes by "to allow to prepare" or "to let. .. .prepare." The funda- mental idea of the causative is that while the action is actually performed by one person, the question as to whether it shall be performed at all is in some way or other decided by another person. A''. B. In a few exceptional cases the causation is purely imaginary. For instance, you hojDC it will not rain to-morrow, and you say Myonic/ii fttrasctaht nai, lit. " (I) do not wish to cause (it) to rain to-morrow." ^329. In causative constructions, the noun standing for the person who is made to perform the action is marked by the postposition ;//, and the noun standing for the person or thing the action is performed upon is marked by the postposition 7vo. 214 THE VERB. Kiku 700 ueki-ya in Chrysaiuhemums {accilS.'), gardener by, sugu ni huesasitc kudasai. iinmecliattly rcavising-t-plant condescend. " Please make the gardener plant out the chr}\santhemums at vonce." Daiku Carpenter fuisiigd ?ia inconvenient naosaseru to-cause-to-r( pair ivo yonde, \ {(UCns.) having-called, I " It will be aS Well tO tokorn wo (send for the carpenter, place (rtrrw.c) [ and get him to repair ga it. the broken places." {iiont.) {is) good. J Ima kozukai Now coolie nkva no soji 711 li-isukeie, to commanding, 7V0 saserii garden 's cleansing [accilS.) to-cause-to-do ga a. [ilOf/i.) [is) g//c/// shows the manner of action of the second member korosii. In some few cases, however, the signification of the two members of the compound is co-ordinated, for instance in iki-kaeni, " to go and come back again." ^ 340. The Japanese language makes such lavish use of compound verbs that it is essential for him who would s[)eak idiomatically to get into the habit of employing them in preference to simple verbs wherever i)ossible. Here are a few examples of their use : — Fuio omoi-dashimasluta. \ " It has just occurred Suddenly think-have-put-out. )\.0 mC." A! kaki-soko7iaimash1ta. \ " Oh ! I have made a Ah! write-have-mistaken. J mistake (in W'riting)." Kiki-sokonai desii. \ " You ha\e heard Hoar-mistake {jt\ is. Chbdo watakushi i^a Just I [jwm.)[ '\\ ^vas de-kakcru iokoro deshifa. go-out place was. Tsukai ga iki-chimii .. Messengers (WW.) go-differ to ( I he tWO meSSCngerS 7ianmasHita. j crossed each other." became. ' Kotw uchi kara, ii iw\ » i ^vill select the This inside from, g<»d ones N . r WO cn-dashimasho. H^est _ from amon.u {accus.) choose-wiii-put-out. / tnese. EQUIVALENTS OF THE VERB *' TO BE. 22 1 Fiai-das/ufe kiia \ Fall-hegiiiiiiiii; has-ojiue hard, r/rvv/ no luo liccaiise, going-out aclion {.acciis\ mi-aukisemashd. sce-will-proJjably-cause-to-ir.eet. Mo Jiitotsu ii-tsukeru koto\ Still one say-fix tiling i^a am kara, inia no (no///.) is because, now 's fstikai i(U) yobi-kayaslute messenger {accllS^ call-having-given-back kiidasai. conilescenil. "As it has come on to rain, I think I will put off my walk." " I have another order to give to the messenger who has just started off; so please call him back." .\' 7). With ivsj;ar(l to tlie j^cruiid kayasliite in tliis last example, obscrv'c tliat tlic vcrl) is prt>[x^rly kacsn (compare /cacnt, " to robably-is. EQUIVALENTS OF 11 IK VERB " TO BE." 223 Tbkaido kara nhrakittc Ufa ho Tokaido by, turning went side ga kaettc tokii daru. (//t7;//.)contrariwise profit will-probahly-be. (Politely, dc gozaiinashd.) " Though you mightn't think so, it will probably be shorter to go round by the Tokaido." ^ 344. Dcsii, dcs/uta, and dcs/io have the same signification respectively as d<' goZiUfuusa, dc gozai/uashlfa, and de gozai- /uas/io, of which they are contractions. Thus the second and third examples in the preceding paragraph might equally well read thus : Cso dcsho. tokaido kara inaicalfc itta ho ga ka:tfc toku dcslin. \ 345. Iru (3rd. conj., stem /) and oru (ist. conj,, stem ori) signify properly " to dwell," hence " to live," " to be " (in a certain place). Their chief use is as auxiliaries (see ^ 294), in which function they are now often employed in speaking of inanimate things, notwithstanding their original signification, which would seem to limit their application to living creatures. .V. B. The use of ini for ;iiiiinate l3ein<(s and ant for inanini.ite still, however, maintains itself in many idioms. Notice, for instance, the difference between iniasu or orimasii, " he is there " {or here), " antl (iriuiasH, " it is there "' [or here), " there is some."' •jj 346. I/assharu and o ide uasaru are honorific s\'nonyms of //■//, " to be," and of several other verbs, as will l)c shown in T 405. 1 347- y^^} ^^ '^ verb, is not heard from the lips of Tokyo speakers. But in the Colloquial of Kyoto, in the language of the stage, and frequently in printed Colloquial (so-called), it takes the place of da. It must not be confounded with Ja, the Tokyo contracted form of the two ^postpositions dc cva, as in Ts^ore Ja nai for Korc dc wa nai, " It is not this." (Conf. 1[ 89, p. 64.) 224 THL VERB. ^ 348. Xaru, " to be," not to be confounded with ;ian/, " to become," belongs almost entirely to the Written Language. We still find, however, in common use the form naraba explained on p. 185, and such expressions as isogatiakereba^ ' narimaseiil^ lit. " it-is-not- (i.e. it won't do) if-one-hurries- not^" i.e. " you must make haste ;" also occasionally the " conclusive present*" nari, used to separate the various items of an enumeration, and hence coming to, correspond to our conjunction " or :" Toka luihi, hatsuka nari. " Ten or twenty days ;" „, , . . . , • \less lit. "ten days or a len-days is, twenty-days is. r • i v V fortnight. \ 349. Siini, properly " to do," sometimes passes over into the sense of " to be." See W 356 and 357. THE VERB Sunt. T 350. No verb recurs more constantly in Japanese than the irregular verb sum, the paradigm of which has been given on p. 159, and whose primary signification is "to do," " to make," the French /aire. Sometimes it stands inde- jxindently in its proper sense of doing or making, the noun governed by it taking the accusative postposition ivo, as usual with transitive verbs, thus ; Ikusa ivo sum. " To make war." Shitaku wo sum. " To make preparations." J^ydri uv sum. " To cook " {/aire la cuisine). ( " To make obstruction," i.e. \ " to be in the way." (" To make imitation," *' to imitate," also simply "to do " (something bad). * One form oi the present tense is so termed in tlie Written Langua<;c. Conf. ^ 177, p. 121. yam a ivo sum. SURU. 225 f- j^, ( '' Havini? done so:" "and ( then. Ojiiae do shimasYi r " What will you do ?" (famil.) Compare also such adjectival and adverbial expressions as c/iafi^ to^ sktta^, lit. " did"* thaf^ quiet\" i.e. simply '' quiet ;" suhe-siihe^ shite-, lit. " having-done^ smooth^" i.e. simply " smoothly.'' {Chan and sube-siibe are onomatopes.) ^351. More often sunt sinks into benig a mere suffix serving to verbalise nouns. Of verbs thus formed, the modern language contains an enormous number. The following are a few specimens : aisuru, " to love ;" from ai, " love." chakYisuru, '' to ^YY\\e ;" „ chaku, "arrival." hisuru,' " to compare ;" „ hi, ''comparison jisuni, " to refuse ;" ,, ji, " refusal." kessuru, " to decide ;" ,, ketsic, " decision." sdssuru, "to guess;" „ sa/sti, " a guess." / ^| iDishin sunt, " to feel at ease ;" from anshiii, \ , f " choai sum, " to love ;" „ choai, "love." , ., ( " to be(come) ) a •^. ( " civilisa- kaikiva sum, \ • n- a " r j> kaikiva, \ . ,, ' ( civilised ; j " ' ( tion. kenkiva sum, " to quarrel ;" ,, ketikiva, "a quarrel." T : ( " to die on the ) ( sen, " battle," and shi, ,e„shi suru, -^ battle-field;" ) "| "death." tochaku sum, " to arrive ;" ,, tochaku, " arrival." X. B. It seems to liave become usual among transliterators to attach sunt to the preceding noun (e.g. aisuru, chakiisuru) when this noun consists of a single Chinese character, and to write it separately (e.g. anshin stint, cJwai sum) when the noun consists of two Chinese characters. There is nothing to object to in this practically convenient distinction. M (b •/> 2 26 THE VERB. ^352. \\'hen the noun is a monosyllable, the verb formed from it by means of suru is sometimes treated as if it belonged to the first regular conjugation, thus jisanai, " he does not refuse '" (as if from j'lsii), instead of jishinai. But ■ this is incorrect and somewhat vulgar. IF 353- When the noun is a monosyllable ending in «, suru generally changes to zuru in the Written Language, and thence to jiru in Colloquial speech, this jiru being con- jugated regularly according to the paradigm of the third conjugation. The same thing sometimes hapj:)ens even when the final letter is not n, thus : j^ anjiru, " to be anxious ;" from a/i, " opinion.' o/iru, " to accord ;" ,,■(', ''accordance.'') 5 % ronjiru, '' to argue ;" „ ron, "argument." sonjiru, " to be injured ;" „ so/!, " injury." ^ 354. The examples given in T[T[ 351 — 3 are all Chinese words. Suru is less frequentl)- attached to words of native Japanese origin. The following and se\eral others are, however, in common use : agari-sagari suru, "to go up and tlown ;'' from the indefinite forms (used substantivel}) of agaru, "■ to "ascend," and sagaru, " to descend.'' ne-age suru, "to raise a price;" from nc, " i)ricc," and ageru, " to raise." kega suru, " to be wounded ;" from kcgii, " a wound." ^355. There are a few instances of suru or jiru (for suru) being agglutinated to an adjective stem, as : karonjiru, " to think lightly of;" from karui* " light." * Karoki^ karosJn m the Written r.an;^ua;;^e, w hence tlie o of karonjini. SURU. 227 oniinijini, " to esteem ;" from owe*/, '"heavy," But these words sound bookish, and are not much used in genuine Colloquial. 356. just as in French the expression /I?/;y' chaud does not mean " to make hot," but "to be hot," so also in Japan- ese the verb resulting from the combination of siiru with a noun is not necessarily a transitive \erb. It ma}' in- deed be transitive ; but sometimes it is intransitive, and sometimes it corresponds to an English passi\e, as \ariousl}' illustrated in the examples given in the preceding paragraphs. In a few cases, e.g., shbjini (for shosiuu), " to produce " or " to be produced/' it has a double acceptation. Usage is the sole arbiter in each instance. When usage sanctions the transiti\e use, then the corresponding passive is obtained by substituting for sum its passive serarcrn or sarern, thus : aisuni, " to love ; " aiserareni. • to be loved." clmcliakii siiru, " to thrash ; ., cliorhakii sera- \ ' rcru, ( • t( > get a thrashing." omoiijini, " to esteem ; onioiijirareni, - "' to be es- teemed." If 357- ^^ometimes si/ni, when used independently, takes ga instead oiico. It then signifies " to be," as in Oto ga suru, " There is a noise." Zutsu ga suru, " There is a headache," i.e. "I have a headache." ^358. Construed with the particle io, suru means "to be about to," thus : Ikf) to s/iitc, " Being about to go." Construed with the particle ;//, sum forms an idiom which the following sentence may ser\e to illustrate : K'xetic hara no koto ni shiyb. \ " I will leave it till Having-returned after s" tliirg to will-do. "i after mv rCtUm." 228 THE VERB. VERBS LIABLE TO BE MISTAKEN FOR EACH OTHER. ^359. Foreign students of Japanese are often naturally per- plexed by the fact that the stems of many verbs of the ist conjugation end in r, while two of the " bases " (the cer- - tain present and the conditional base) of verbs of the 2nd and 3rd. conjugations always contain an r. For instance, is shaberu, "to chatter," of the ist. conjugation or of the 2nd.,? It is of the ist., because the stem is shaber, iho, indefinite form shaberi, and the. negative base shabera. On the other hand, tsiimeru, " to pack," is of the 2nd. con- jugation, the letter r belonging in this case, not to the stem, but to the termination. Similarly chir-ii, "to be scattered," is of the ist. conjugation, while ni-ru, "to boil," is of the 3rd. Especially perplexing are such pairs of verbs as her-ti (ist. conj.), " to diminish," and he-ru (2nd. conj.), " to pass through;" kir-ii (ist. conj.), " to cut," and ki-ru (3rd. conj.), " to wear." Neither is it easy at first sight to distinguish correctly all the forms of, say, todomar-ic, the intransitive verb " to stop," from those of iodo7?ie-ru, the corresponding transitive verb " to stop." Practice and the dictionary are the only guides in this matter. T[ 360. The comparative paradigm on the opposite page will serve to illustrate the differences obtaining, in the various moods and tenses, between pairs or sets of like-sounding verbs, such as those above-mentioned. The three verbs given are all in daily Colloquial use. They are : inc, ist. conj., stem ir ; " to go in," used chiefly in the sense of " to be useful," and in the phrase ki ni int, " to go into one's mind," i.e. " to be agreeable to one." ireru, 2nd. conj., stem ir ; " to put in." iru, 3rd. conj., stem i ; "to dwell," "to be." VERBS LIABLE TO BE COXFOIXDKD. 229 Iru, "to go in," and ircru, "to put in," are related to each other as respectively the intransitive and transitive forms of the same verb. The resemblance of these two to ini, "to be," is merelv fortuitous. ="0 -r O o C -1 _ 7; - - >: 5 c s: S ti « « « c;-^-.^-.s;::-i:>:>i V > >^ A > *< S^ V 5^ i' > .S^ J -5 V § 5; t, « S^ r -i. a in ^ u - -J z ^ < =H o .H o '7 = « o -3: 05 X^ Z ^ OJuOOl-EOOi: o - rt_d s s ^ c .2 .2 230 THE VERB. VERBS USED AS OTHER PARTS OF SPEECH. Tf 362. Some few verbs, mostly in the gerundial form, are used as postpositions, e.g. tfioite, "with," "by means of;" from moisti, " to hold." ni yotie, "owing to; " fromj^6>/7/, "to rely." TI '^^Z- Others correspond to English ad\erbs, adverbial phrases, or conjunctions, thus : mnari, "too (much) ; " indef. form of a wan/, "to exceed." hajiinete, "for the first time," | gerund of hajimeru, "to " never before ;" j begin " (trans.). kactfe, " contrary to what one might expect ; " gerund of kaeru, " to return " (intrans.). ki'ri (vulg. kkiri), used as a suffix meaning " only," e.g. sore-kiri, " only that ; " indef form of kiru, " to cut." Jiokorazu, "without excep- ) negative gerund of nokoni^ tion," "all ;" j " to remain." sayonara, "good-bye," lit. '' \f i\\?i\.) 7Mra{ha), conditional be so (we must part)." \ of 7iaru, " to be." semeie, " at least," " at most ; " gerund of sefueru, to " treat with rigour." shiiie, " urgently ; " gerund of shiini, " to urge." subcte, " altogether," " all ;" \ Semn.l oisuhern, " to unite ' ^ . ' ' ( m one. iatoeha, •" for instance ; " condit. of tatoeru, " to compare." ^364. The present tense is in some few cases doubled and used adverbially, thus : kaesu-gaesu, "over and over again;" from kaesu, "to send back." ^365. It has already been shown in pp. 140 — i how Japanese verbs, and phrases formed from verbs, frequently replace the adjectives of European languages. CHAPTER X. THE ADVERB, INTERJECTION, AND CONJUNCTION. SPECIAL PHRASEOLOGY. ^ 366. Japanese has few if any true adverbs. Almost all the words corresponding to our adverbs prove, on examination, to be stragglers from the other parts of speech. It will, however, afford some insight into the nature of the language, and be practically useful to students, to glance at the various expedients by which the necessity for adverbs is obviated. ^ 367. The indefinite forms in ku of adjectives are used adverbially, and correspond for the most part to English adverbs in " ly," although, as has been explained in ^[^ 180 — 181 (pp. 122 — 4), such is not their original iorce, nor indeed their invariable force even at the present day : — Zosa naku dekimasii. J " It can easily be Difficulty not-being, (//)forthcomes. J (|Qj-jg '' AtayasJnku tsYikurimashita. \ "It has been newly NeA\]y have-made. ( built." KiianarasJiikii^ miemasii^. " It looks"" dirt(il)y^." X. B. Some few adjectives are no longer used colloquially, except in the ktt form corresponding to our adverl^s, e.g. kotogotokii, " altogether ;" niattahi, " quite." ^ 368. Japanese nuuns often corre.sj)ond to European adverbs, e.g. kott-uicki, lit. " this day,"' i.e. " to-day ;"' Ju-bun, lit. 232 ' THE ADVERB. " ten parts," i.e. " plenty,'" " quite ; " o-kata, lit. " great side," i.e. " mostly ;" /('^-/('^, lit. "this'" (ist. ho), "place" (2nd. ko), i.e. "here." (Conf. \ 64, p. 45.) Words of this class retain their substantive character so completely that the equivalents of such particles as "of," "at," "from," etc., — in fact the postpositions, — can be construed with them as readily as with any other substantives, thus : Doko made o ide ?ii\ Where till, honourable exit to I " HoW far arC yt)U narimasu ? | going .i^" becomes ? ' Asuko kara saki wa, \ u j^ ^^ ^^ distance on There from. front -for,L-^.^^^ ^^^^.^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ . J'^l , '^''''- place." immediately is. ^ , ■ ,. , ...I "My ordinary clothes Itsumo no kimo?io de yorosnii. hyjii Jq -' Always of, clothes by (/j-) Rood, "j , a ■'■, . , ,. ^ ' \ [Said io one s irti>H ScTVivi/ .) A to de koko wo soji \ " Please clean this After by, here (rt'<:<:wj.) cleaning LoQjn after wards." sMte kudasai. « f {Said to the se'rvanl at a doing condescend. iJwtcl.) Sonna ni sawaija So as-for-making-a-row. ikenai yo ! is-no-go, oh ! " I say ! you mustn't make such a row." Tf 369. Some nouns receive an adverbial tinge by means of reduplication, as : hb-bb, " everywhere ;" from hb, " side," " direction." ?iaka-7iaka, "very," "more than you might think ;" from 7iaka, " inside." iabi-tabi, " often ;" from labi, " a time " {unefois). ioki-doki, " sometimes ;" from toki\ " time " {Ic temps), tokoro-dokoro, " here and there ;" from tokoro, " a ])]acc." :\HS(^F,LLANE()US RKMAKKS OX ADVERBS. 233 1; 370. There are also many words which are nouns etymplogically speaking, but which are always or almost always used as adverbs, and which mostly take the post- position ;//, as jiki or jiki ni, " immediately ;" sude ni, " already ;" siigii or sugu Jti, " directly." ^371. Phonetic decay has considerably altered some of these words in their passage from other parts of speech to the state of adverbs. Thus do P " how } '' is a corruption o{ (hno yn P ''what manner?" Similiarlv so ox say d, "in that way;" and a, "in that way," arc derived from so7to yd, Siwd ano yo respectively, while /y7, " in this way," "thus," is from Classical kaku. ^ 372. Many words which we are obliged to translate by ad\er1)s or adverbial phrases are the gerunds of verbs, as explained in ^^ 362 — 3 (p. 230). How truly words of this class retain their verbal force e\en at the present day, may be seen from the use of such phrases as lutori^ vur 7iokorazii\ " all without exception," lit. " even^ one-person* remaining-not' (behind).' ' If 373- "I'h^ following are some of the chief Japanese words corresponding to our adverbs, not already mentioned in this chapter. More will be found in the paradigm on p. 52. itsiukmo, " always ;" 7<'//// a ?i('i^ative vcrl), " never." bakari, " about," " only.' 6W,] "a little," c/iofk), choito. sliofhtlv, (fake, " only," " about," "as ... as." JiiuiaJuuIa, " very." ikaga P " how ?" iku Inifi ka, " rather," " more or less." ~ tiv:' verb, " not vet ma, " (piite " (alwa}'s com- binecl with the following adjective, whose initial consonant is doubled, as ?nakkurai, " pitch-dark," from ku?-ai, " dark"). /i/ada, " still ;" ivith a ncga- 234 THE ADVERB. inata. again. mazH, " in the first place," " well ! " (In this sense often abbrev. to 7fia.) mo, " already ;" zf/M a negative verb, " no more." motto, " more " (adverb). /Kiru-take, "as.... as j^xjssi- ble ;"' " if possible." fiaze P "■ why ?" sate, "well V sukoshi, " a little."' tada (vulgarly and empha- tically tatta), " merely," " nothing but." tadaima, " immediately " (from tada "only," and ivia, " now.") taiso, " much," " very." takiisan, plenty, much. tokoro de, "thereupon," " and so." ' tokoro ga, "nevertheless," ", still." yahari (emphatically yap- pari), " also." yohodo (emphatically yop- podo), " very." zehi, " positively " (from Chinese ze, "good," and hi "bad," like our phrase " for better for worse "). zuil)un, " a good deal," " pretty " (as in " pretty tired "). N'. B. Avoid, as niucli as possible, the Japanese equivalents for " very," " a little," " rather," as the Japanese rarely employ them. T[ 374. It may seem strange that the foregoing list should contain no equivalent for our adverbs of affirmation and negation, "yes" and "no." The reason is that there are no words exactly corresponding to our " yes " and " no " in Japanese. There exists, it is true, a word ie which means "no;" but it is litde used, except when the denial is emphatic. The word he/ hei ! or hai ! which may sometimes be translated by " yes," is })roperly an interjection used to show that one has heard and understood what has been said to one. It does not generally imply assent to a statement. Thus, when a tea-house girl is called, she will cry out hei ! simply to show that she is coming. Instead of " yes," the Japanese say " that^ is'' so^" ,sf? da-, more politely w desu, still more politely sayo de gozai- masYi. Similarly for "no" they say " that is not so," sv"> /> "yes"' and " \o."' . 235 ?/(?/, jx)litely siryo dc gozaii)ias(')i. Or else they repeat the verb of the question, thus : O - wakari ni 7iar{-\ Honourable understanding to has- I " Do VOU undci'- masJuta ka ?( t^or use of past tense \ stand ? '* become? Uiere, COllf. •[ 274, p. 176./^ '" Yes.'' Wakari masJiita. Havc-unflerstood. Wakariifiast'Ji. UnderNtood-not. No.-" ide m narimasu ka t } Mshecomm-?'' lourable exit to becomes ? j ^ " Yes." Sayi) de i^ozaimasii. So ' (//) Fs. N^. B. Ill familiar intercourse, sayo di' i^azai iiutsYi is often al)breviated to the single word sayd. — Some speakers use the word ikaniuio for "yes ;" hut this is decidedly old-fashioned. I H 375- '1 ^^^ Japanese have a habit, which generally proves irritatini^- to foreigners, of answering one question by another, especial I \- in cases where a European would simp!)' say that lie did not know. Thus : O kacri ni nariniasHita ka ? \ " Have they come Honourable return to has-become ? J l)Qii-^g ?" Ikaga de go::aimasu Jia r I " How is it ? " i.e. f^o^^ '-^ ■■ ( " I don't know." ^ Zl^^' Jitp^nese idiom differs from ours with respect to the answer given to a negative interrogation. The following examples will serve to illustrate the difference, which must be constantly borne in mind if grave misunder- standings are to be avoided : — . " Isn't he coming .^ " Kiniascn J. X. B. The persona! }^xo\\o\m.anata, " you," is sometimes intercalated in a sentence with a certain interject ional or expletive force, chiefly by members of the lower classes. Banzai, a noun signiflying lit. " a myriad years," has lately come into common interjectional use as an equivalent for "long live !" "hurrah !" BAD LANGUAGE. T[ 385. Japanese is honourably distinguished from most languages of the world by being totally devoid of oaths. Where, for instance, a European driver would probably swear at his unmanageable steed, a Japanese will only em- phatically exclaim korc ! lit. " this ! " or sore ! " that ! " Ko- fya I and sorya ! (for korc iva, and sore wa) are used much in 240 BABY L.\NGUA(;E. the same way, as scolding expletives. The words haka ! " fool ; " beiabo-vie ! " scoundrel ; '' chikusho ! " beast ; " etc., are common terms of abuse. The me of beraho-ine is a sort of particle of contempt, which may be suffixed to any noun, as a?io iiiu-me, " that brute of a dog." BABY LANGUAGE, ETC. T[ 386. In Japanese, as in English, there are numerous special words and corruptions of words which are used by young children, and also by adults in addressing young children. Such are : ahayo, " good-bye '' (—baby Englis'h " ta ! "). ati-yo, from ashi, " the feet," hence " to walk." baya, froni-obasafi, "an old lady," " granny." bebe, " clothes." botchan,^ " a little boy." chmi, from sa7i, "Mr.," " Mrs., " " Miss." cnko, "to sit." mmne, from sleep." nennei, from doll." tefe, " the hands , repeated. iimain7na\ " food." iva?t-\Dan, " a dog " (pro perly " bow-wow"). neru, to jiingyo, " a from te Most of these words are also used in addressing pet animals. Thus a pet dog's forefeet are tcte, its hind feet an-yo, its little " tummy " pon-po7i. 387. There are also some few words which are almost entirely confined to the fair sex. Such is, for instance, hiya, "cold water" (lit. "honourably fresh"), which men call mizu. * Derived from bosan, " a Buddhist priest," Japanese children resem- ])ling Buddhist priests in haying shaven pates. t Not to be confounded with the term o manitna, " rice," " food," used by adulte. t^mamma is probably ww^j'/, " good to eat," t\\ ice repcatitl. (01 KT i.an(;uagp:, 241 ^ ^8S. A number of objects and actions receive peculiar designations in the mouths of members of the Imperial Family, and of those privileged to atldress them. Although ordinary mortals can have no use for this exalted phraseology, a few specimens of it will doubtless not fail to interest the student. Some of the Court words are survivals from Classical times ; some are euphemisms (e.g. ase, " perspira- tion,"" used to signify " blood ") ; some, as kachin and kabe, belong also to the language of women, while others are of uncertain orisfin : — ORDINARY KXPRESSIO COURT languagp: KNGLISH (iriiku, T . . /lit. honourablyX '^ ^"''"'^ \ picking up ) " walking." chi, tlSC, (lit. perspiration) " blood." (/rrn, juban. i\/ii-is/ii, • /lit. honourablvN '^ '^^''^ ( becoming ') hiyo, "a dumpling.' "going out." " a shirt." kai/ii, gushi, (Classical) " hair." kauf, fakara, (lit. treasure) " money." konw, youc, (Classical) " rice." ?nis(), " ""-"'■> ('"•ster^r"'") " bean-sauce." inizu, •' '"yr, ('"eo.T™''*'0 " cold water." ??iochi, kachin, " rice-cake." sakiuia, sake, mi koshi, /conf. Colloquial mana-^ /na;ia,l Jta, a board for \ cleaning fish on ) kukon, '* sleeping." Y fish " (food). '' rice-beer." to/u, kabe. " bean-curd." Notice, too, that the Court, having resided at Kyoto for over a thousand years, retains a preference for Kyoto pronun- 242 CON-JUNCTIONS. ciations, e.g. gozarimasfi for gozaifiidsu, nas'irc for >i'isai, fuufasarc for kudasai, etc. CONJUNCTIONS. ^389. Conjunctions, can scarcely be said to exist in Japanese as an independent part of speech, their place being taken, partly by conjugational forms of the verb and adjective, partly by postpositions, partly b}' nouns. With regard to the word " and," which is in Western languages the most con- stantly recurring of all conjunctions, the necessity for it between verbs or clauses is almost completely obviated in Japanese In the construction with the indefinite form or the gerund, ex- plained in T^ 278 — 281. Between nouns, "and" is some- times represented by ni 01 to, as explained in *|[ 109 and ^\ ii(), or by mo, see ^ 102, or by dano, ^ 80, or by ya, If 133. But more often the two nouns are simply placed side by side, as Kazusa Boshu, " Kazusa and Boshu " (the names of two pro- vinces on the ocean side of Tdkyo Bay). Occasionally " and '" is represented between verbs — never between nouns — by the phrase so shite (pedantically shikd shite or shika shite), lit. *' having done so." But this idiom, imitated from the Chin- ese, must not be used too freely. "But" is sometimes represented by sMkashi ; hnt uQ\i\\Qr must this Japanese word be repeated nearly as often as " but " is in English. " Or " is sometimes expressed by means of the word miri, as explained in ^ 348. " Provided " is represented by such constructions as m sae sureba. \ " Provided one goes." Uomg even if-do. J ^ " While " is sometimes represented by the word ?iagara agglutinated to the indefinite verbal form, as aruki-nagara, " while walking ;" sometimes by tokoro, as explained in T 58. KQl [VALKNTS OF f:XGLISH CONJUN'CTIOXS. 243 The following references to sections of this work, in which words or constructions corresponding to the chief English conjunctions are treated of, may be found useful : '^although," see % 288. " since," see t 99*-^ ^11- ''and," , „ 389. " than," „ 135 &212. as, , , ,, 99 & 287. " that," „ 117-' "because," , M 99- " though," „ „ 288. " but," "either, .or," , " neither. . ) nor," j' ' , „ 288 & 389. - M 97, 133, '^ - 348. , ,, 102. " when," ■' whereas,'" ,, " whereupon," " whether," „ 57, 5^, 120, & 287. „ 58, k 93. „ 58. „ 97- "if/' , „ 120, 128, k 287. "while," „ 57, 5^, -^ 389- '*[[ 390. " A>, " ni waning " in the same manner as," is expressed by the noun tori, lit. " way,"' " road," thus : Kono tori no mono. \ u ^^^^^^ ^^^■. ^ . ^j^j^ •' Ihis way 's thintrs. j ° Watakus/ii no iu tori ni nasai. \ " Please do as I of say way in deign, j" \ tg^ you." '^ 391. Details concerning the best manner of translating the English conjunctions into Japanese in various contexts be- long not so much to grammar as to the dictionary. The student is accordingly referred to Hampden and Parlett's " English- Japanese Dictionary of the Spoken Language," where the words in question are amply illustrated. CHAPTER XL HONORIFICS. ^392. No language in the world is more saturated with honorific idioms than Japanese. These idioms affect, not only the vocabulary, but the very grammar itself. Therefore, although scattered references have been made to tjie subject of honorifics in former chapters, it seems advisable to gather together under one heading all the leading mani- festations of a habit of speech, without a proper mastery of which it is impossible to speak Japanese with any approach to correctness. H 393- J^ he use of honorifics is guided by four main consi- derations, namely : i. Honorific forms are used in speaking of the actions or possessions of the person addressed, while depreciatory or humble forms are used in speaking of oneself. In other words, what we should style the first person is self-deprecia- tory, and the second person complimentary. ii. In speaking pothers (what we should call the third person), honorifics are used only if the person spoken of is superior in rank to the person spoken to, or if he is present and, though not a superior, at least an equal, or assumed to be such for courtesy's sake. iii. There are gradations in the use of honorifics, accord- ing to the greater or less respect meant to be paid to the person spoken to or of. PRINCIPLES GUIDIXIJ THVAR USE. 245 iv. Honorific^ have a tendenc}' to lose their original signification, and to sink into mere marks of a courteous style of speech. Sometimes they become absolutely meaningless. ^ 394. It has been asserted by some that the use of honorifics in Japanese replaces that of the personal pronouns of European languages. This is not strictl}- correct. The expression go hon, for instance, means " the august book," not onl}- etymologically, but also in the mind and intention of ever}' Japanese speaker who makes use of it. It is only because " }'Ou " are an august person, that the words go hon come, in man}' contexts, to correspond prett}' closely to our more precise phrase " your book." The corresiX)n- dence is still only approximate ; for verv often go hon may mean the book of some other august lady or gentleman different from }ou, i.e. it may mean " her book " or '•' his book." In some circumstances it may denote the book of the most august of all persons, namely the Emperor, and this is indeed the more primitive signification of the Chinese character with which the \\q>x^ go is. written. Similarly ^'o^^, "august business," may be either "your business," "his business, " or "Government business." Like considerations apply to other honorific phrases. ^ 395. Descending from general considerations to particulai-s, the student should remember the following leading facts : — In addressing an equal or superior, the word o, " ho- nourable," or go, "august" (conf, \ 210, p. 143), is prefixed to most of the nouns denoting objects belonging to or connected with him in any way. Even adjectives and ad\erbs sometimes take one or other of the honorific prefixes. O, being of Japanese origin, is mostly employed 246 HOXORIFICS, with native Japanese words, while ^i^o, whicli is of Chinese origin, is mostly employed with words borrowed from the Chinese. But usage admits of numerous exceptions to this rule. — O and go are applied to the third person, subject to the limitations mentioned in ^ 393. ^ 396. Here are a few familiar instances of the use of these honorific prefixes : kodojno-shu. f "Your (his, her, etc.) ( children."' O taku. *' Your (or his) house." takii desu ka t " Is he at home .?" O rusu. " Your (or his) absence.'*' O rusu desu. '' He is out." Go shochi. ''Your (or his) consent." Go shinrui. " Your (or his) relations." ( " Your (or his) loss " (/;/ <-"">"■ [money, etc.). kega. " Your (or his) wound." O kage de. j " By your (or his) kind ( influence " (///. shade). Yohodo kirei desu. f " It is very pretty " (e.g. Very honourably pretty is. | this garden o'i yOUfs). Danna iva \ Master as-for, honourably I ,, j^j^, ^^^^^^^^ -^ ^^^^^ „ isogashiu gozamiasYi. })usy is. / Go moitomo de gozaimasu. j . " ^p" ^'"^ perfectly August very is. [ Hgllt. ' Go iaikutsu de gozaimasliitaw. j " You must ha\e felt August tedium probably-was. [ borcd." IF 397* Occasionally the word sama, " Mr."" is added,- in order to make the expression still more polite, thus : CURIOUS HONORIFIC IDIOMS. 247 Go kuro soma. } " (Thanks for) your August trouble Mr. ^ trouble."' i" You have had a long time to wait ;" or " Excuse me for keeping you waiting .so long." O kbwdoku sama. ( "I am^^ sorry for Honourable poison-of-the-spirit Mr. \^ yOUr Sake." N. B. Regret on one's own account is expressed by the word zamit-n, never by kinodokii. ^ 398. Examples such as these introduce us to the use of kaiiuasu. | opportunity of letting me wishing-to-receive ;uu. vSCC it. ' HONORIFIC AND HUMBLE VERBS. 251 ^ 405. There are, moreover, several constantly recurring ideas, for which separate verbs are employed according as the expression is meant to be honorific or humble. The chief of these are : PLAIN VEKHS au, " to meet I'ku, " to go ; " //-// or / oru ) iu, kan'ni, kiku, kuru, " to be ; " " to say ; " " to borrow ; " to hear ; " " to come; ' HONORIFIC ai ?iasaru, oide fiasaru* irasshani, j oide tiasaru, \ irasshani, ossharu, kari nasaru, o kiki tiasaru. HUMBLE me ni kakaru. ) inairu. (iL^aru, \ niakarii. iru, oru. { oide i I irass nasaru, haru. ?}uru, ?}iiseru, ' suru, } i/asu, I taheru, ukeru, yaru, to see ; to show ; ' • to do ; " to eat ; " to receive to give ; " mbshi-ageru. haishaku suru. uketamawaru. ( mairu,' agaru, I makaru. haiken sum. o jue ni kakeru. t tsukaiiiaisuru. ) {meshi-)agaru, -j o uke nasaru. :hodai goran tiasaru, o niise nasaru, \ nasaru, \ aso/jasu, itadaku, ci suru. j itadaku, chodai \ suru. kudasaru, ) ageru, kureru,i^]ess polite) \ shinjd suru. iV. B. The slightly irregulai- verb irassharu (see % 270, p. 171), which is used to express so many shades of meaning, is a corruption of iraserarerti, the ]^x)tential of the causative of Irii, " to enter." Ossharu, the honorific equivalent of in, " to say," is a corruption of oserareru, the potential of the little-used verb dserii, " to say." T[ 406. Of course the honorific verbs can only be employed in speaking to or of others, while the humble verbs are Or aide ni nant. Similarly in the instances given below, 252 HOXORIFICS. applied only to the speaker himself, or to some one in- timately connected with him, for instance, his own child or servant. The following are a few examples of their use : O vie ni kaketc via \ Honourable eyes in putting even, I ** j\Iay I show it tO yd gozatmasfi ka r • J you ? " good is ? O viisc nasaimascn ka ?\ Honourably show deign-not ? I " PleaSC WOll't yOU or Misete kudasaimasen /^f? /* show it to me ? " Showing condescend-not ? Haiken ga dekimasu ka ?) a i\jg^y j j^qJ^ ^j. j|. ? '• Adoring-look (nom.) can ? J Kd in hanashi wo o \ u j^^^.^ ^eard this Such story (accus.) honourably ^ / . i_ • • r ^ fstorv {or this piece of kiki fjasaimashiia ka r news)?" hear have-deigned ? / / • Mada uketamaivarunaseti. \ u ^ . ^ •• Still (/) have-not-heard. J ' > • So osshatte kudasai. \ n Please say so." So saying condescend. J ' , Uso wo moshi-agemasen. \ "^^.^"^ "^^ deceiving Lie (accus.) (/) say -lift not-up. JyOU, Sir." Doko ye irasshani ? \ '' Where are vou iroing?" Where to deign-to-go ? o" Gakko ye mairi??iasTt. School to go. ) school. O daiji ni asobase. \ " Mind you take care Honourable care to be-pleased-to-do. t of 3'OUl"Self.'' T[ 407. The treatment of the impemtive mood calls for special notice. I'he honorific verbs mentioned in \ 405 make use of their imperatives, thus : HONORIFIC IMPERATIVES, 253 (iso/'dsc " be pleased to do ! '*' gonifi nasai / " deign to look ! " irasshai ! or irasshai-\ mashl ! L " deign to go ! {or come, or be) " ide nasai ! ) kudasai f " condescend to give ! " nieshi-agare ! " deign to eat {or drink) !" tiasai / " deign to do ! " osshaiviashi ! " deign to say ! " N. B. Oide nasai is often familiarly abbreviated to aide ; goran nasai to goran. *|[ 408. But except occasionally in addressing coolie§ or one's own 'servants, and in the naval and militar}- words of com- mand, the imperadve mood of other verbs can scarcely be said to be in use (conf ^ 291, p. 189). Such a style of address would sound too rude and abrupt. The following examples will serve to illustrate the honorific periphrases by which the imperative is habitually replaced : kaki'^ nasai^, lit. " honourably^ deign^ to write^." ■^.E :\.. 1^; kaki kudasai, „ "honourably condescend to write," kaiie ktidasai, ,, „ " writing condescend." ■ u. 2 ?mse nasai. Sfc"i"i1^ w/'s^(? kudasai, \ "please show me." misete kudasai. JV. B. Defining the dift'erence between nasai and kudasai perhaps a little too trenchantly, we might say that the former is essentially a command, though so polite as to have its imperative force disguised, whereas kudasai is a request. Therefore kudasai should be employed when we want a friend to do something for us. — A [xylite imperative very common in the Written I.anguage is obtained by means of the verb taniau, " to deign," thus : kaki-tamae, mise-tamae. It is nowadays chiefly to Ije heard from the lips of members of the student class. 254 HONORIFICS. T 409. The above forms are those generally used in address- ing equals or superiors. In speaking to the latter, the degree of politeness may be increased b}- lengthening the periphrasis, thus : o^ kakP nastte^ kw/asui* (" honourabl}'^ ■ condescend* deigning^ to write^ "), ?iiise nastte kudasai. In addressing inferiors one may say kaite kurei (" writing gi\c "), misete kurei, or kaite kun nasai, (" writing honourabl}' giving deign "), misete kun nasai, and similarly with all other verbs. {Kufi is a corruption of kure, the indefinite form of kureru, " to give," of which kurei is the imperative (see p. 171). These latter forms are those to be preferred in speak- ing to* one's own servants, to coolies, and to the servants at small inns and tea-houses. They would be too familiar as a mode of address to one's friend's servants, or to the servants at a first-class hotel. Such must always be treated to a fair amount of the honorifics illustrated in the preceding para- graphs. The same remark applies a fortiori to teachers, ofiice- writers, respectable shopkeepers, etc. In fact, from the point of view of the proper use of honorifics, the term " inferiors " includes few but coolies, peasants, and the speak- er's own children and servants. Other people may, as a matter of fact, be his social inferiors ; but politeness forbids his reminding them of this by a rude mode of address. Even animals are often treated to honorifics, as w^hen one says to a dog oide ! instead oikoi ! " come here ! " tachi ! instead oitate ! " sit up !" But this is semi-jocular. ^410. It is rather common, in slipshod talk addressed to inferiors, to omit the honorific imperative, thus : Cha wo irete. \ " Make (lit. put in) some tea." Tea (accus.) putting-in. J (for CAa wa irete o kun nasai.) The sentence thus appears to end in a gerund ; but the ellipsis must always be mentally supplied. Observe also the PLEASE, THANK YOU. 255 phrase. . .//v ga I'i, "it will be good to...," "you had better. .," which frequently replaces the imperative, thus : Kd shtia hd ga ii. ) " Vou had better do Thus did side Inom.) is good. j it like this.' .\'. B. For ho conf. p. 144, foot-note ; for the past shita in a context Avliere the pi-esent would better suit European ideas, see 1[ 275, pp. 176—7. ^411. Dbzo and dbka, which the dictionaries give as equiva- lents of our word " please," are comparatively little used. The honorific equivalents of the imperative amply make good their absence. Properl}' speaking, both dbzo and dbka mean, not so much " please," as " somehow or other," " if possible," '' by hook or by crook," " managing to do a thing," as in the following example : Dbka watakXishi no ' .. , . . . ... Somehow-or-other I ot ^ ^^l^ll it COuld be nron ivo Into ^a managed so that others contention {acciis.) people («.;/;/.) J ^VOuld SUpport 111}' ^VICW safisei sJiite kurereha ii approval doing if-give. (/j-) good ga.. . but .... of the matter." i^But I hardly dare hope that they will) Arigatb, " thank you," is likewise used less profusely than its luiropean equivalents. It must never be employed to mean " no, thank you." This Jlatter phrase finds polite Japanese counterparts in yoroshiu gozmniasTi, " it is all right (without it)," ■^Xidiyoshimashb, " I think I will desist." ^412. The use of special honorific and humble words is occasionally exemplified in nouns as well as in verbs. Thus, whereas the general term for " head " is alama, the polite one is tsumuri. But the honorific tendency comes into peculiar prominence in the case of nouns indicative of the degrees of relationship, of which we give the chief : 256 HOXORIFICS. PLAIN NOUN am, chichi, haha, 7nusJiko, mtisXime, oto/o, otto. elder brother/' ' father,'' • mother," son," daughter," '' younger brother, HOXORIKIC o ani sama, iotottsaii, go shimpti, go rojin, okkasan, go shhoku, josan, go rciiei, husband," go teishii, (generally pronounced' go teishi) HUMBLE ani{ki). oyaji. haha. offikuro. st'gare. • mus^tme. shatei. (yado, uchi, takii, (all lit. = " house") ; or else the na cor- responding to our Christian name may *be used. tsuma, nyobo, N. B. wife. journey to 1 My husband is absent, gozaimasu. [ ^^^^^"^ ^^^^^ on a journey." iokamisan (lower class) ' go shinzo, (middle class) sai, saikufi, „ kaiiai. oklisama^ (upper class) ^ The humble words for " husband," y'\z.yacL\ itchi, and taku, generally take de wa instead of 7ua, thus : Yado de wa, tabi ye] Husband as-for, dete, rusu de having-gone, absent ^413. The words otottsan and okkasan well exemplify the remark made on p. 245, to the effect that Japanese hono- rifics do not replace the pronouns of other languages, though they often serve a somewhat analogous purpose. Being honorific words, otottsan and okkasan naturally * Okusama is also used in the closely related sense of " a lady," " my lady." The term comes from okti, " interior," " recess ; " and sama^ "Mr." or " Mrs." (referring to the retirement in which Jajxinese la^Jng con- sai. descend. Kono isugi tio shXiku This next of post-town viade, nan ri hodo till, what leagues about arimasho? probably- is ? know- 1 '' ^ person whom I have long known well." Please lake care." " How many miles may it be to the next town .?" Goku gokii tsugo Extremely extremely convenience ga ivarid. {>W/n.) is-bad. Taz'so ni Nihon-go Greatly Japan-language zvo yoku hanashimasfi. (rt';i.) altogether freeze-sticking shiviatte, do s/itte mo having-finished, how doing even. shiyb ga arimasen deshita. doing-way {iio;;i.) is-not was, Sonna koto tvo osshai- Such things {acctts.) deigning-not- masezu ni, sekkaku motte to-say, toilsomely having-carried kita mon{p) desYi kara, dozo have-come thing (//)is because, please totte kudasai. taking condescend. Or take the following ditty : yd?o no makoto to, tamago no Courtesan 's truth and, egg 's shi-kaku, areba ?uisoka four-sides, — if(///t'J"c')are, last-day-of-the- ni tsXiki ga deru. month on, moon hio;;i.) will-come-out. I " When winter comes, ( the roads in that neigh- -bourhood are so bad with the thaw, that it is impossible to walk." \ " No, indeed ! when I got up, I couldn't wash my hands. The basin was entirely frozen over, and all my efforts to -break the ice were in vain." (Afore lit. " It was a fact (deshita) that I cannot wash my hands. . ; it was a fact that my efforts are vain," etc.) " Please do nOt feel any such delicacy about it, but oblige me by ac- ^cepting it, as I have taken the trouble to bring it." • {Said to one 7,'Jw hesitates I to accept a gift.) " When you find a truthful courtesan or a square egg, then will the moon come out on the last night of the month." .V. Jy. According to the old Japanese calendar, which went by real " moon?," not by artificial " months," it would have been a miracle for the mo<^>n to come out on the la?t nii^^lit of the month, i.e. on tlie night before new moon. 264 SYNTAX. ^ 425. Now for a slightly more formal example, specially illustrating the use of the indefinite form in correlated clauses. It is taken from a modern Buddhist sermon : — A' whereas, — ze-hi right-wrong wakatsu Vina ni viiikatte " Horse to confronting. '' Koko ivo istikuse f" '' Filial-piety {^acctlS.) exhaust !" bkami ?ti mukatte " Chugi wolf to confronting, " Loyaltj' WO tsfikuse f" nado to {^acciiS.\ exhaust !" etcetera, that itta tokoro ga, dekiru said place although, forthcomes koto de wa gozaimasen fact indeed is-not S'd. — htto iva person as-for, zen-aku wo good-evil [occus.) chie ga discern intelligence inoni.\ atte, kimi ni chu ivo being, lord to loyalty {^acctlS.) tsukushi, oya ni exhausting, parent to ko WO tsiikushi, filial-piety {^accus.) exhausting. kybdai wa naka brethren as-for, intercourse yoku, fufu wa being-good, spouses as-for, mutsumashiku, hoyu ni being-harmonious, friends to wa shitashiku, makoto as-for, being-intimate, sincerity wo mottc maji'wat- {CUCUS.\ taking, having-inter- te koso, hajif?ietc shift course indeed, firstly truth 710 hito to iwaremasti. 's person that gets said. " Supposing you were to tell a horse to practise filial piet}', or a wolf to practise loyalty, those animals would not be able to do what you required of them. But man has the intelligence wherewith to ' discern right from wrong, good from evil ; and he 'can only then first be said to be truly man, when he practises loyalty towards his master and filial piety towards his parents, when he is affectionate towards his brethren, when he lives harmoniously with his wife, when he is amiable towards his friends, and acts sincerely in all his .social intercourse." / CORRELATION' OF CLAL'SES. 26- Here the two tsiikushis^yoku, mutsumasHiku, and sJiitashiku — five indefinite forms — must all be rendered by the gerund, because majvivatte, the verb of the next clause, with which they are all correlated, is a gerund. ^426, Next we give another passage from the same sermon, illustrating the use of the gerund in correlated clauses, and also, in one instance {sukunakii), that of the indefinite form. Sukunaku is rendered by the present " are few," because the verb omoimasii at the end of the sentence is in the present tense : — Ko)io goro }ii itarimashite," This period at having-arrived, Bukkyo to mbsii mo?to Buddhism that Ithey) say thing wa, tada kato-jimmin no as-for, merely low-class-people 's shinzuru fokoro to natte, believing place that having-become, chuto ijo de wa middle-class thence-upwards in as-for, S0710 dori 7Vo irakiniiw/eni its reason [aifus.) discerning-are /nto ga sukunaku ; shumon persons {ii07}l.\ are-few ; religion to leba, sds/iiki ?io toki that if-one-says. funeral-rite 's time hakari ui mochiini koto ?io only in employ thing 's yd ni omoimasu. manner in itJiev') think. Again take the following : Hito ka to omoeba, \ " Person ? /nto de mo person also is-not ; ghost '. to omoeba, yurei de " At the present day Buddhism has sunk into being the belief of the lower classes onl}'. Few persons in the middle J and upixjr classes under- stand its doctrines, most of them that religion is a which comes into play onlv at funeral services." fancying thing "One might have taken . , , them for human beings ; but naku : yiirei ka\ ^ . , . ■ - I they were not humaa bemgs. Or else one might have taken that if-one-thinks. that if-one-thinks. ghost mo nai. also is-not. them for ghosts ; but neither were they ghosts." 266 SYNTAX. Here the indefinite form naku has exactly the same sense as the final nai ; but it is preferred to ftai in the first instance, because it merely ends a clause and does not complete a sentence. For further examples of the correlation of sentences by means of the indefinite form and of the gerund, see pp. 178 — 182, and also the stories and extracts in the Practical Part passhn. ^427. Of all the peculiarities of Japanese syntax, the most puzzling to the foreign student is the already mentioned fact that most sentences are subjectless. It is not that the subject is dropped but still " understood,'' as so fre- quently happens in Latin, but that it does not exist at all in the mind of the Japanese speaker. The best way of getting behind this difliculty is to consider the case of passive constructions in our own language. We may say, for instance, " A house in European style has recently been built next door to mine." Now by whom has it been built .? The sentence gives no information on this point. The action is affirmed, but no mention is made of any agent. In Japanese it is just the same, with this difference, that the verb used is an active instead of a passive one. English people say "■ A house has been built {by P). The Japanese say " (P) has built a house." In strict reason the two assertions are identical ; for it is only the grammatical clothing of the thought, not the thought itself, that varies. Thus the example in question, translated into Japanese, would run as follows : Konaida ivatakiishi no fonari ni seiyn-zltkuri Recently I of iiext-. " There ar£? some," Not-is fact as-for, ts-not. I ,, J or " There are some. ( '' It won't do not to do thus," Kb shinakereha tiariniasen] ■ Thus if-do-not, is-not. V'^' Wav. It ?nust be done in this A\ B. The fondness for such mutually destructive negatives seems to have been borrowed from the Chinese, passing first into the Written Language and thence into the Colloquial. Occasionally the Japanese employ a negative where we should employ a positive construction, for instance in such phrases as Ana Jiito no konai mae, lit. " Before that person's not coming," but signifying simply " Before he comes " {or came). The train of thought here seems to be that, before a man comes, he of course cannot have come yet, and similarly in other cases. 272 SYNTAX. T 433- Japanese has no negative pronouns, adverbs, or con- junctions, such as the English words " nobody," " nothing," "none," " never," " nowhere," " neither. . . .nor," etc. Their absence is suppHed by the negative voice of the - verb or adjective, combined with positive pronouns and other positive words. Thus, for the English "■ 1 know nothing," a Japanese will say Na{n)nP mo^ shiranai^, " (I) know-not^ anything^'^," — more literally (so far as the grammatical ex- pression is concerned), " I ignore everything." For " There are none to be had anywhere," he will say Doko^ ni^ mo^ gozatmasen*, " Everywhere^'^'^ {f?iore lit. even^ in^ where^) are- non-existenf*. The following examples will serve to illustrate the manner in which the various kinds of English negative and quasi-negative assertions, and other kindred idioms, are expressed in Japanese : — Dare mo shiranai. (familiar) \ Everybody knows-not. ^i,e. ignores.) ( " Nobody DoTiata mo go zonji ga nai. (polite) | knows." Everybody august knowledge [jiovi^ is-not. ] " There are some per- sons who know not," i.e. " Everybody doesn't know." Shiiteru mto mo gozamasa. ) u ^^^ j^ know." Knowing-are persons also \jjiere) are. j r r Shiiteru Mto mo areba, Knowing-are persons also whereas(-there)-are, shiranai hito mo gozaimasu. ignore persons also [there) are. S hitter u hito wa sHkund\ ''There are few who Knowing-are persons as-for, few U^^ . „ ^^ ,, p^^^ ^^^^^ gozaimasa. know." are. ' Mattaku zonjimasen. \ - \ ^i^n'i know at all/ Completely know-not. Shiranai hito Ignore persons also '' Some people know, "and some don't." NEGATIVES. ^1^ Kuwasfiikii cva zonjimasen Minutely as-for, know-not. I don't quite know." Maitahi tsiimi ga nai. ( " He has not committed Completely crime {nom.) is-not. | ^^g smallest Crime." Ant) Mto iva, ichi-do 7no That person as-for, one-time even kiia koto ga gozaimasen. came act {^noifi.) is-not. Konai toki mo gozaimasu. Comes-not time also is. Kurti toki mo areba, Comes time also whereas-there-is, ko7iai toki mo gozaimasu. comes-not time also is. ^ " He has never (once) come." " There are times when he doesn't come," i.e. " He doesn't always come." " Sometimes he comes, and sometimes he doesn't." Kuru koto wa sukuno gozaitnasu.\ u j^^ rarely comes' Comes act as-for, few are. J Konai koto wa gozaimasen Comes-not act as-for, is-not. Sukoshi mo konaku narimashita. A-little even coming-not has-become. Are kara ijirimasen. That from (/\meddle-not. Doko ye mo ikimasen. Everywhere go-not. Sappari wakarimasen. Quite (/)understand-not. Sukoshi mo ivakarimasen. A-little even understand-not. Yokii wakarimasen. Well understand-not. Yoku wa wakarimasen. Well as-for, understand-not. i "■ There is no such thing * -< as his not coming," i.e. I " He does come." joffc I- -^ ( It sm( He has quite left have never touched since then." ( "I don't go anywhere," \ or '' I go nowhere." I don't understand it at all. {'' I don't quite under- .stand it." j "I don't quite under- ( stand it." HoUmdo nai kurai desu. Almost exists-not degree is. 274 SYNTAX. Mina miemasen. f "I can' I see any of All appear-not. i them." Mina wa mieniasen. ) ,, ^ , , ,, „ All as-for. appear-not. \ ' I Can t see them all. A\ B. Observe the radical difference of signification effected by the limiting power of iva in such instances as the last. Tonto kikimaseii. ) ,. t 1 1 j 1 • y. Quite (/) hear not. | I ^avc heard nothing. Amari kikimasen. ( "I have not heard Too much hear-not. 1 mUCh." I "There is hardly any ;" or " There is little if any ;" more lit. "It is almost to the pitch of there being none." Alio Kito to kyodai desu \ That person with, brothers are " It is impossible that kara, shiranai to iu wake V}^ shouldn't know about because, ignores that say reason | it, Seeing he is the fellow's ni wa mairimaseii. I brother.' to goes-not. / Tf 434, The difficulty of using negative constructions correctly will vanish as soon as the learner clearly grasps the fact that in Japanese the negative and the verb are not conceived of as two separate ideas, as is mostly the case in European languages, but are fused into a single idea. Even in European languages, however, there is no lack of parallels to this Japanese idiom. Thus " to disapprove," for " not to approve ;" " to disregard," for "not to regard;" "impossible," for "not possible," etc., etc. iV. B. Custom limits the use of the word sukuttai (vulg. sukcmii), " few," to predicative constructions, as instanced in two or three of the examples in the preceding section. Thus we can only render the phrase *' Few people know " by Shitteru liito 70a sukunai (more politely sukuno gozaimasu), lit. " The knowing j^eople are few," newr hy Suktniai Into To-day "va, as-for. kisha train ni in, many kara, because yoJwdo !. plentifull shimashiti did. T. QUOTATION. 275 tva shittcru. The same remark applies to the kmdred adjective oi, " many." The sole case in which the words sukunai and oi can be used attributively is in relative clauses, for instance : Nan de mo, shina no sukiniai\ Anything-whatever, articles 's scarce I " Every kind of article is toki wa, m ga tako gozaimasu. jexpensive when it is scarce." time as-for, price (;/(?/;/. )dear is. ) nori-te ga \ r\A&cs[iiom.) J " There was a great bustle honzatsu I at the train to-day, because confusion [there were such a lot of 1 travellers." It may perhaps be thought that as toki means " when," and kara means " because," the construction is not an attributive one even here. It is so, however, from the Japanese point of view, toki being even now apprehended as a noun signifying " time," and kara also having almost certainly been a noun in the archaic period of the language. \ 435. In Japanese almost all quotation, whether of the words of others or of the speaker's own thoughts, is direct. The manifold shiftings of person, mood, and tense, which are brought about in European languages by the use of indirect quotation, are consequentl}' unknown. Thus a Japanese, when mentioning the plans of an absent friend, does not say " He said he would be back by Sunday ;" but he repeats his friend's exact words, and says : " He said that : ' I shall be back by Sunday.' " In Japanese the phrase would run as follows : made ni kaeru," to iimashita. ''Sunday till to (/) will-return," that (Z/^") said. N._ B The word to, " that," cannot be omitted in such contexts. Com'pare also to, \ 117, p. 82. One alteration does, however, commonly occur in quota- tions, — an alteration affecting the honorifics. For instance, you say to me (9' ide- nasa?, lit. " Deign^ honourable* 276 SYNTAX. exit-," i.e. " Please come." Now, if 1 am repeating this remark of yours to a third person, my modesty naturally prevents me from applying honorifics to myself, even within quotation marks. I therefore express the idea " He asked . me to come " thus : Wataktishi ni " Koi!" to nmashtta, or WatakXishi ni kuru yd ni iimashtta (conf. next ^), employing the corresponding non-honorific verb /^//r«, " to come," in lieu of the honorific aide tiasaru. So persistently inherent in the Japanese habit of speech is the tendency to give honour to others, and to abase self. 7 436. The sole kind of indirect quotation ever employed by the Japanese is a locution with the present tense and the words JO* ni^, lit. " in^ the manner^" thus : Kttto kuru yd ni to \ "Go and tell him to be Positively come manner in that, | gure tO COme " .sy; lite ROt. (Said to on inferior in speak- so having-said come. J {^g of another inferior.) Kuru yo ni to itta Come manner in that(/)said ga^ — muko de do shite though, — opposite at, how doing mo koraretmi to iimasU. even, cannot-come that says. " I told him to come ; but ■he said it was absolutely im- possible for him to do so." .V. B. To may be omitted after yd ni. — Notice the word t/ntko in the last example, and consult p. 48, Hne 6 for it. The phraseology of the above examples is not polite. That of the next is extremely so : Daiji ni nasaru yd \ Carefully deign-to-do manner ,, pj^^^ ^ ^^ j^.^^j ^^ ^^ m yoku osshatte XW^-Ldl him to take great care of in, well deigning-to-say con- I, , ,_,, *-' ,w himself. saimashi. \ descend. / QUOTATION'. 277 Somewhat similar in character to the above are such phrases as Yosaso fii omoimasM. \^ "I think it looks as if it Good-appearance in (/) think. ^ WOllld do." ^437. Notwithstandmg the example given at the beginning of the preceding paragraph {Kitto kuni yd ni to so itte koi), the Japanese generall}- avoid such phrases containing one com- mand within another. Thus, rather than say " Tell O Haru to come here," they will mostly prefer the simpler expression " Call O Haru," viz. O Haru wo yonde koi ! O-Haru {accus.") having-called come ! or more politely O Haru wo yonde kudasai ! O-Haru [accus.) calling condescend ! Rather than say " Tell Jiro to get the jinrikisha ready for me at twelve o'clock," they will use the causative and say : yu-ni-ji ni deru kara, yiro ni kuruma no Twelve-o'clock at, go-out because. Jiro to, jinrikisha 's sHitaku wo sashiie oku ga a. preparations [accus.) having-c aused-to-do to-place {iioni.) is-gocd. I.e. as literall}' as may be, '' As I am going out at twelve o'clock, it will be well to cause Jiro to make preparations for the jinrikisha." — Similarly, " Tell him to wait " becomes "Cause him to wait," Matashite kudasai. In still more complicated cases, the difficulty is often turned by omitting one whole clause. Thus, where an English servant would say '* My master told me to tell you. Sir, that he particularly wishes to see you," a Japanese servant will more briefly say " My master said that he par- ticularly wishes to see you." In Japanese the sentence would run thus : 278 Shujin ga zehi ai-mmhitai to Master (nof//.) "Positively honourably (/) wish-to-meet " that tnbshimasHiia. said. N. B. Do not misinterpret the word moshitai as signifying " wants to say." O ai-moshttai is simply a very polite equivalent for aitai^ the (lesiderative adjective of ait, " to meet." See ^ 402, p. 249. On the other hand, Japanese constructions with quota- tions are often pleonastic, some such formula as "he said" being used both before and after the words quoted, instead of once only, as is the case in English : ■ Doitsu no tetsugaMisha Schopefi-\ Germany 's philosopher Schopen- hauer to iu Mio no itta kotoba hauer that say person 's said words ni, " Shukyb zva hotaru no in, "Religion indeed firefly 's yb 7ia mono. Kurai fashion being thing(?j'). Dark tokoro de nakereba^ hikaru koto ga place if-is-not, shine act(//^/;/,) dekinai" to mbshimashita. forthcomes-not " that {//^) said. j The German phi- losopher Schopenhauer .has said : " Religion is like a . firefly. It can shine only in dark places" [is what he said]. \ 438. Interrogation is not denoted, as in European languages, by an inversion of the usual construction. The construction remains the same, but the interrogative particle ka is generally added. (See p. 68.) ^ 439. Passive constructions are very sparingly used, and when used, their grammar is p'eculiar (seep. 198 et seq ; also pp. 57 — 58, 204, and 216). The passive is almost always replaced by the subjectless active constriiction explained in pp. 266 — 267, or else by an intransitive construction, as explained in pp. 204 — 5 and pp. 190 — i. Thus, to give ABSENCE OF PERSONIFICATION. 79 one or two additional examples, a Japanese will not say " As has already been explained." He will say " As (I) have already explained," Sude ni toki-akashimashita tori. Already //) have-explained way. He will not say " It has been notified by the Department," but " A notification has issued from the Department," Yakusho kara lass hi ga demashita. Office from, notification hiof/l.) has-come-out. ^ 440. Inanimate objects are rarely personified. Not only does Japanese idiom eschew all such fanciful anthropomorphic expressions as " the hand of Time," " old Father Christmas," " the spoilt child of Fortune," " Nature's abhorrence of a vacuum," etc., etc. ; but it goes so far as almost to prohibit the use of the name of any inanimate thing as the subject of a transitive verb. For instance, a Japanese will not say " The lain delayed me," thus appearing to attribute action to those inanimate things, the drops of rain ; but he will turn the phrase intransitively, thus : Ame no fame ni bi ni osoku 7iariniasMta. Rain 's sake in, greatly late //\ have-become. I.e. " I am very late on account of the rain." Similarly it will not come into his head to employ such a phrase as " His diligence surprises me." He will say : Ano hito no benkyb ni iva kanshin shimasu. That person 's diligence at, admiring-astonishment (/) do. I.e. " I feel astonishment at his diligence." The chief exceptions to the above general rule are offered by certain proverbial expressions, wherein brevity perhaps has been the mother of picturesqueness.* For instance, * We are indebted to the scholarship of Mr. Walter Dening for this limitation of the too sweeping statement made in former editions. 28o SYNTAX. Mini ga toreba, dnri ] " When folly passes by, reason hikkormi. \ draws back." ^441. For the reason stated in the preceding paragraph, Japanese, Hke the Far-Eastern languages generally, does not ' naturally lend itself to the imaginative and mythopoeic faculty. When a European speaks, for instance, of " the strife between Religion and Science," he very likely spells these names with a capital R and a capital S, and uncon- sciously slides into regarding them as being, in some sort, actual things, even individualities capable of aspirations, aims, and conquests, of teaching and sustaining their devotees, of revenging themselves on those who slight them, etc., etc. Such mythology (for mythology it is, albeit those who have been reared under the exclusive influence of European modes of expression may not recognise it as such) is alien to the matter-of-fact Far-Eastern mind. During the last few decades, the study of English, and the translation into Japanese of great numbers of English and other European books, have indeed resulted in the occasional adoption by public speakers of such expressions as Rekishi ga watakXishi-domo ni ivo oshieru, a literal rendering -of our phrase " History teaches us that " But such " Europeanisms " are unidiomatic. The same is the case with such picturesque phrases as " the Open Door," " the Yellow Peril," etc., etc., for which now- adays literal Japanese, or rather Chinese, translations are at once coined by the newspapers, but which do not grow spon- taneously in this soil. T 442. Languages difter greatly in the degree of integration of their sentences. For instance, Chinese and Pidjin- English simply put assertions side by side, like stones without cement, as " He had man. My no like he." Our tnore INTERGATION OF SENTKNCES. 28 1 synthetic English would generally subordinate one assertion to the other, coupling them thus : " / dont like him, BECAUSE he is a bad many Now one of the most essential characteristics of the Japanese language is the extreme degree to which it pushes the synthetic tendency in the structure of sentences. Japanese always tries to incorporate the whole of a statement, however complex it may be and however numerous its parts, within the limits of a single sentence, whose members are all mutually interdependent. In fact the normal Japanese sentence is a paragraph, or (so to say) an organism, as much more complicated than the typical English sentence just quoted, as the English sentence is more complicated than the Chinese or the Pidjin-English. As an illustration, let us take the following anecdote, the first paragraph of which forms but one sentence in Japanese, though it may be conveniently broken up into four or five in English : — ^ 443. HEMPO-GAESHI.' TIT FOR TAT. Ani^ ' h^ito ga 7iaga-yd^ \ A-certain person (no//i.) block-of-houses /lo 7nae wo tdri?nasfi toki, ishi of front [^accus.") passes time. stone ni tsu?nazukit?iashitareba* , 7iaga-ya when-he-had-stumbled, block-of-houses 710 uchi 710 hito ga baka Tti of inside of person («(?;// \ fool to sHite^, " Aitaia^ /" to koe making, " Ah !-how-painfuI !" that voice " A certain man, passing one day in front of a block of houses, tripped against a stone. Thereupon, some one inside the block of houses made fun of I. Henipd is a Chinese expression meaning "requital -^ gaeshi is the }ngori^di form of kaeshi, the indefinite form of kaesu, " to return " (trans.). — 2. Am, " to be," sometimes has the sense of " a certain." — 3, A^aga-ya, lit. " long house," is a building divided up into rows or sets of rooms, which are let out to poor families or as shops. — 4. Tsumaztiki- mashltara would be the more strictly Collociuial form of this word ; but see p. 184. — 5. Hlto zvo baka ni suru means " to make a fool of a person ;" but here of course Jiito ga is the subject of the verb, and the object is left unexpressed.— 6. Ait at a .' is the same as ait a ! at the top SYNTAX. 2V0 kakemasHita kara, tsumazuiia (acC2ts.\ placed because, (///) painful. 24. Hayaku I hayaku ! Quickly ! Quickly ! 25. Hltotsu ikura .^ One how-much ? 26. Hoka de mo Other-thing even ga .... although nai isn't What }-oii say is very true ; still ... . Go slowly. {^A polite plirasc frequently addressed to one starting off on a lealk.) You probabl}- know- that As }'ou know. I don't clearly un- derstand. I will speak to him about it. I've got a stomach- ache. Hurry up ! huri}^ up ! How much for one ? What I \\ant to sa}' is simply this : — . . . . 19 and 20. Zonji is the indefinite form, used substantively, of zonjirn, '• to know," Ga has here but little meaning. Similarly in No. 26. For tori, see p. 243. — 21. For to see p. 82. — 22. For niirti auxiliary, see p. 193 — 23. The predicative adjective includes the meaning of the verb " to be." But if it is desired to make the phrase polite, itai must be changed to ito gozaimasii conf. p. 140, ■[[ 204. — 24, Supply the imperative koi ! " come !" or hashire ! " run !" — 25. More grammatically Hitotsu ica ikura de gozaimasu ? The numeral Mtotsii ^^ill vary according to the article alluded to : — if a fan, substitute ip-pon ; if a ticket, substitute ichi-mai, etc. ; see ^ 157 ^^ seq., especially pp. 108 — no. SHORT PHRASES IN CONSTANT USE. 27. Jchi-nichi rusu desa. One-day absent is. 28. Ikemii koto shimashita. Can't-go thing have-done. 29. Jkura mo gozaimase How-much even is-not. 30. Itsu no koto desHita ? When 's fact was? 3 1 . lya desu, yo ! Disagreeable [it) is, oh ! 32. Kagen ga warii gozai- Bodily-state {nom.) bad is. '^'^. KcLie kore tarimashb. That, this, will-probably-suffice. 34. Kaze wo JtikimasKita. Wind [accus.) (/) have-drawn 35. Kazoete mireba.... Counting when (/) see. He is {or will be) away all day. I've gone and done a Stupid thing. There . is .scarcely any more. When did it happen .? No, I won't; or Get along with you ! or None of your impudence ! I feel poorly. I think it will be about enough. I have caught cold. On counting them over, I found that 27. Ichi-nichi means indififerently " one day ; " or " all day ; " see N. B. to \ 152, p. 103. — 28. Ikenai is lit. "cannot go " = "no go," " won't do ; " conf. \ 317. — 29. This idiom may be ex{dained thus : " There is not even enough to make it worth asking how much there is." — 30. For the construction itsu no^ conf. ^ 363. — 31. A phrase used chiefly by women of the lower class. — 32. Kagen is originally one of the " syntheses of contradictories " noticed on p. 34, ka meaning " increa.se " (of bodily well-being), and gen " decrease." — 33. Kare kore is an idiom expressive ot approximation, like our " more or less," " pretty well," — 34. The English word " a cold " cannot be translated more literally into Japanese. — 35. Mini, " to see," here has rather its proper signification, than the auxiliary use explained on p, 193. Moreover the conditional here has the sense of " when... ; " see p, 184. SHORT PHRASES IN CONSTANT USE. 289 36. Kiite kurii Having-heard to- come //. ( familiar) {is) good. {no III.) You had better go and ask. 'i,']. KikasJiite kudasai. Causing-to-hear condescend. Please tell me. 38. Kind ga warui. (familiar) Feelings {iiwm.) [are) bad. It quite makes me shudder. 39. Kochira ye fori Here to honourably to-pass nasai. Please come in here. ( The fornmla used to invite deign. a guest in,) 40. Kokoro-mochi ga wand. Bodily-feelings {jwm.) {are) bad. I feel unwell. 41. Komatta koto desu. Was-bothered fact is. It is a nuisance. 4 2 . Kombaii iva ! This-night as-for ! Good evening ! 43. Kondate :co Kill-of-fare [w^j-//./m gozainiasu.) 78. Nan desti{ka)r What is (/V) ? 79. A^;-'/ to osshairnasu r What that deign-to-say ? 80. Nanzo omoshiroi Something-or-other amusing ha7iashi ga gozainiasen ka ? talk {noni.) is-not ? 81. A6>rf(9 ^rt kaivakiniashJta . Throat {nom.) has-dried. 82. O hayo {gozaimasu). Honourably early is. 83. O itoma vibshimasho. Honourable leave "will-probably-say. 84. o Honourable shade Mr. by. kagc sania de . . . . ^ Please go down a little more in your price. There is so77ie ; or There is some. He won't hear of it. Anything- will do. What is it .? or What is the matter .? or What did you say .? What do you sa}- } Can't you tell us some- thing amusing } I feel thirsty. Good morning ! I think I must l>e going. Thanks to your kind in- fluence. 74. Makeru is literally " to lose " (a battle or a game), hence " to come down in price."— 75. For the syntax of double negatives, see p. 271. — 77. Nan de mo, though representing the English word " anything," is not the subject of the sentence. The sentence is subjectless, and nan de vio is an indirect object corresponding to the Latin ablative denoting causation or instrumentality. — 82. It is of course absurd to use this phrase, as foreigners sometimes do, in the afternoon. 294 SHORT PHRASES IN CONSTANT USE. 85- O Honourable /:age shade sama, Mr., siikkari quite naorimashiie gozaimasu. recovered am. %(). O kangae 710 ue, iiia Honourable reflection 's top, nay ya 710 go he7itd 1 's august reply masu. enquire. ^1. o Honourable de s^ozaiTfiasu. wo ukagai- [accvs.) (/) will- kinodoku poison-of-spirit O machi-db sa7na. Honourably long-waiting Mr. 89. matase-7?ioshi- having-caused-to- ;// ai-sumi- in, mutually- {nom.) suki- has- o Honourably DiasMie, makoio wait, truth 77iase7i. is-not-proper. 90. O 7iaka Honourable inside 7)iashita. (familiar) Income-empty. 91. O tomo itashi- HoQOurable companion will- tuasho. probably-do. 92. O toshi nwse. Honourably let-through say. I am quite well again, thanks to you. {Afore lit. " Tlnxjiks to yotir inflnencey) Kindly think the matter over, and let me have an answer one way or the other. I am sorry for it on your account. Excuse me for keeping you waiting so long. Really I know not what excuse to offer for having kept you waiting so long. I feel hungry. I should like to go with you. Show the guest in. 85. After sama one may insert the word de, " by," which strict logic and grammar would require. NaorimasKite gozaimasu is more polite than simple naorimashita would be. — 86. " Reflection's top " is, after all, not so very different from our phrase " on reflection." Instead of saying " an answer yes or no," the Japanese phrase mentions the nega- tive only. — 89. Still more polite than the preceding number. For viosu as a humble auxiliary, see p. 249. — 90. For o uaka, see p. 248. SHORT PHRASES IN CONSTANT USE. 295 93. Honourable isiiide 710 setsu. occasion's opportunity. 94. o Honourably {-?nash7). yasumi tc-rest nasai deign 95. Okashlkute Being-funny, tamaranai. 1 1) endure-not. 96. Oki ni sewa sama Greatly honourable help Mr. ?ii narimashita. to ll\ have-become. 97. Oki ni osoku narimasJrita. Greatly late have-become. 98. 0-saivagi deshita. Great-uproar (/7) was. 99. Oshii Regrettable koto thing 1 00. Osor oshii Frightful desli, is, domo really ne ! eh? michi road ga 7varui. (familiar) (no/j/.) {is) bad. 1 01. Osor oshii takai man da. Frightful 02. 0-zvarai Great-laughter dear thing is. (familiar) shimashita. (TiV) did. Whenever it happens to suit your convenience. Good night ! It is really too funny. I am much indebted to you for your kind assistance. Excuse me for being so late. All was bustle and confusion. Oh ! what a pity ! How frightfully bad the road is ! It is frightfully dear. We had a good laugh over it. 92. The use of viose here shows that a person who is your inferior is to do something for one politely considered yovir superior. — 93. I.e. " Don't take trouble about it ; but, should the occasion offer... etc." — 94. It is optional to omit the termination masM in all such cases. — 95. Conf. ^218. — 96. As if one should say, " I have come in for a great deal of your help." Oki ni means " gi-eatly ; " dkiku means " big(ly)." — 100. In strict grammar we should have osorosMkn, not osor oshii ; but see first N. II on p. 1 24. As shown by this example and the last, the Japa- nese turn in quite a different manner- our exclamatory phrases be- ginniii«j with " what '" ami '■ liow." — loi. Mon' is familiar for »iono. 296 I03 SHORT PHRASES IN CONSTANT USE. wa, as-for. yoppite all-night Sakuban Last-night 7ierareniasen desHita. cannot-sleep (//) was. 104. Sayu (le gozaimasu. (]X)lite) So desu or So da. (familiar.) 105. SeJiJitsu Former-day gozaimashita. wa, IS -for. arigato thankful ;o6. Sliikata ga «a/.\(More po- Doing-side (m?W.)'sn't. I Htely ^a nai [gozaima- Shiyb ga na\ Doing-way {jiom.) isn' 107 sen.) Shitsuiei itashmiashtta . Rudeness have-done. 108. So desk ka r So is ? So ka mo shireinasen. ' even is-unknowable. ka to omoeba, ? that if-one-thinks, 109. ^0 So no. So So kaette . . contrariwise. III. So So sHicha ikenai. as-for-doing, cannot-go. (More politely ikemasen.) 112. Sdja gozatmasen.(po\itG) I couldn't sleep all last night. That is so ; or Yes. Many thanks for your kind entertainment the other day. Always said onjirst again meet-\ ing the giver (^ a recent ^rty. There is nothing to be done ; or It can't be helped. Excuse mv rudeness. Is that so? or indeed ! Oh! Possibly it may be so. One is tempted to think so, and yet on the other hand .... You mustn't do that. That is not so ; or Oh! no. 103. Deshita might be omitted without mutilating either the sense or the grammar ; but the Japanese like thus to round off the sentence with an auxiliary verb, if possible ; conf. p. 197. — 104. Conf. pp. 234-5. — 109. More literally " One cannot know whether it is so." In vulgar parlance the phrase often runs thus : So ka shira (for shiran). — I lo. See bottom of p. 265 for a similar construction. — 1 1 1. More lit. " It won't do, if you do that." — 112. Or So dc s^ozaimasi'ti. 114. Soiinara, If-that-is-so. shi nasai. sist deign. SHORT PHR.VSES IN CONSTANT USE. 297 That is just about it. Well then, don't do 113. Son I Id mon di'sv Such thing is. o yo- honourably to-de- 115. Sono That go, liisasliikii after, lengthily mc 7ii kukari?nasen. honouralile eyes in (/) hang-not. Itsu ' MO go soken de . . . . Always augustly robust being.... 116. Sono Im wa 6 That side as-for, numerous 117. Sore wa so dc gozai- That as-for, so is. viash: Sore wa so desii ga . . . . That as-for, so is whereas.... 119. Slide ni inoshi-agemashtta Already tell-lifted-up tori. way. 120. Sidioshi mate, (familiar). A-little wait. machi honourable to-wait 12 1. Sfikos/ii A-little ?iasai. (polite) deijn. 12 2. Taigai ivakariniashlta. Mostly have-understood. It. It is some time since we last met. I am de- lighted to see you look- ing so well. There are more of that kind than of the others. That is so ; or Yes, no doubt. « Yes, but .... As I have already had the honour to in- form you. Wait a minute. Please be so kind as to wait a minute. I understand most of it. 115, Supply at the end some such phrase as o medetd gozai masu, " it is a subject for congratulation." — 116. See p. 144. — 122. The past tense here idiomatically replaces the present ; conf. ^r 274, p. 176, 298 SHORT PHRASES IN CONSTANT USE. 123. Taisb Very zaimasJuta. was. 7iigiyaka tie go- iively It was very lively. 124. Te Hands ( kimashb. >\ill-probably-come. IVO ICCtlS.) aiatte having-w ashed, I think I'll go and wa.sh my hands. 125. ran glance To 7110 That even 7iasai. deign. kaku , thus 7)10, gO- even, august- At any rate please just look at it. 126. Totemo Anyhow ike7?iase7i. cannot-go. It won't do at all. 127. kofo. thing. Wake Reason 710 of waka7a7iai understand-not Something I can't at all make out. 128. • ka ? 9 Wasure-mono Forget- thing (familiar) iva 7iai as-for, isn't Are you sure you have forgotten nothing .? 129. {noni. Wataklishi 711 Me to, 7iai. (familiar) 1 isn't. kwaiikei connection It has nothing to do with me. 130, Yb gozai/iiash to i7io ! Good ' is that even ! or course it will do quite well. •31- Yohodo Very a kiiyb desh. good countenance is. She is very pretty in- deed. >32. Yoi arnbai Good condition 7U. . . . in ... . It is fortunate that .... 125. To mo kaku mo is an idiom meaning " at any rate," " in any •case." — 127. A good example of the ambiguous rel.ative phrases discussed in ^ 82, p. 58. It is not the thing that does not understaml, hut I who cannot understand the thing. — 130. To ;//'^/^ = " clothes." Sore de nakii mo, " even without that," Furokku-koto is the nearest approach to " frock-coat," of which Japanese organs are capable. — 10. Meshi-mono is a very polite term for clothes, used chiefly by servants in addressing their masters. Yoi ^7 = " the good one," or " a better one," " my best one." Observe the simple non-honorific kaeyo, used by the master in addressing his servant. Between friends it would be kaemasho ; and the servant in the question uses the still more honorific periphrasis o ki-kae nasaimasu. — 1 1. (Answer) It is the rule to use some such depreciatory phrase as this in speaking of a present made by oneself to another. The self-depreciation does not sound at all excessive to Japanese ears. For the de in somatsu na mono de, see p. 138, •[ 2co et set]. This method of correlating sentences must be carefully studied. — 12, When there is no bell, as in all old-fashioned Japanese houses, the visitor cries out O land moshimasn as in No. 14. The servant here says simply taku^ rather than o taku, in order to avoid applying honorifics to any one connected with the family he himself belongs to, even though it be the lady of the house herself. EASY QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 309 12. (Visitor rings the bell, and servant appears.) Ifasshaimashl ! Okiisama iva, o uchi de gozaimasu kar^ He ! taku de gozai/uasYi. 13. Rusu-chu ni donata mo oide iva iiakatta ka ? He ! senkoku kono meishi no kaia ga irasshaimasKite , kaeri 711 iiattara, " Yoroshlku " to vibsaremashiia . (This last clause is a polite phrase in\ constant use. / 14. O tano(/ni) mbshiniasii ! / This is the formula used \vhen\ \there is no house-bell. / IrasshaimasJii ! Go shujin wa, taku de gozaimasu ka? Tadaima rusit d>' gozai- masu. So desii ka? Sore de zva, kaeri ni Jiarimashitara, " Smith gd mairimashite ^ " Yoroshikii m'oshimasJiiia " to itte kudasai. W'elcome ! Is Mrs.* * * at home ? Ves, Sir. Did anv one call while I was out a gentleman Yes, Sir, called and left this card ; and he desired his com- pliments to }'ou when you came home. I beg to ask ! Welcome ! Is your master at home ? I No, Sir, he has gone out. Indeed .^ Then please tell him, when he comes home, that Mr. Smith called and desired his compli- ments to him. 13. More lit. "Did no one call?" the Japanese usually prefeiTing to turn such questions negatively. The ix)tential mo save ma shit a at the end is more polite than plain mdsii would be ; see \ 403, p. 250. — 14. The mi oitanotni is often dropped for brevity's sake. Persons who are not scrupulous about politeness cry out simply " Tanojuu." These little dialogues instance the use of so many honorific idioms, that it might be well to read through the Chapter on Honorific?, p. 244 et seq., in connection with them. 11448. A FEW PROVERBS. I. Ame futie, \ After rain the ground gets Rain having-fallen. hard. ji katamaru. (" Good comes out of evil.") earth hardens. 2. Awase-mono wa, That which has been Joined-thing as-for. artificially joined together is handre-mono. easily separated. separable-th;ng(/j). /Said of a husband and wife who\ Vdisagree. / 3. Bb hodo Bludgeon amount negai- having- To ask for a bludgeon's ie, hart hodo worth, and to get a needle's requested, needle amount worth. kanau. corresponds. 4. Dorobb ni oi- Spending money on the Thief to, pursue- pursuit of a thief se7i. money. / "Throwing good money after\ 5. Go ni itte ^ When you enter a district, District into having- conform to its customs. wa, go ni shlta- / " When you are in Rome, do as\ vRome does." / entered, district to con- gae! form ! 6. Haki-dame ni isuru. A Stork on a dust-heap. Sweep-mound on,. stork. ("A jewel in a dunghill.") 2. Supply da, " is," after haftare-mono. — 4. Supply 7co isuiyastt at the end. — 5. This itte is the gerund of ini, " to enter." PROVERBS. 311 7. Hari hodo Needle amount no koto ! To talk of a thing as small 's thing as a needle as if it were as ZVO hb hodo ;// big as a bludgeon. (accus.) bludgeon amount to / "To make mountains out of\ Vmole-bills." ; I'u. to-say. 8. Nyto no iiivasa mo, ^ Gossip only lasts seventy- People 's rumour even. five days. sJiichi-ju-go-nichi. / The scandal will blow over like\ V" a nine days' wonder." / seventy-five-days (/.?]. 9. H^tO ZVO noroeba, ^ Curse a man, and there Person \accus.\ if-one- curses. will be two graves. ana j utatsu. (A curse strikes not only him against holes Wio {eventuate). whom it is pronounced, but also him who pronounces it.) 10. Hiza to mo, dan- Consult any one, even if Knees with even. con- it be only your own knees. g^>'^ /•'In multitude of counsellors\ V there is safety." / sulfation [do). II, Hoto/ie no tiao mo, i- Even a Buddha's face can Buddha 's face even. only be tickled thrice. san-do. (" The crushed worm will turn.") three- times. 12. / 7U) uchi no tuvdvazu. s Like a frog in a well. Well ''^ inside '^ frog. ( Knowing nothing of the world.) 13. IcJii zuo tdite To know all by hearing One (accus.) having -heard. a part. ju ZVO shim. (Said of mental acuteness.) ten {accus.) to-know. 1 4 . Inu tii \ If you become a dog, at iiatte /no, least be the dog of a great Dog to becoming even. house. d-dotio Ji'i inn ni nare I (If you must needs be a flunkey, serve a rich master,— good worldly large-place 's dog to become ! advice.) 8. Supply da, " Supply some such ' — 9. Supply ^a flTc-^/r//. — 10. Supply shiro ! — II. orcls as shika'^ nader, cannot-stroke^ but*- r(three-times)." — 12. The complete saying is I no uchi no kaioazti daikai^ tvo^ shirazu^ (" knows-uot^ the ocean^"). S/nrazu here and in No. 30 is a relic of the Book Language, the " conclusive negative present." 312 PROVERBS. Iri-nuunc Parched-peas on, 6. mo, also. yigoku no Hell 's kafie shidai. money according (a^f) hana. blossoms. sata decisions 1 7. Kai-i?iu 111 Keeping-dog by, WO kamareru. {acais.) to-get-bitten. 18. Kawaii ko ni Dear child to tabi ivo sase ! journej' (accus.) cause-to-do ! hand zva 19. Kowashi, (/s-;afraid ; mitashi. wants-to-see. 20. Kyodai wa Brethren as-for, nin no hajimari. people of beginning {are). ta- other- 2 1 . Mekura sefi-nifi, Blind fthousand-persons, ine-aki sen-?un. I eyes-open thousand-persons (are). 2 2. Mitsu-go no tamashii Three-child's soul hyaku hundred made. till (changes not). Blossoms on parched peas. (" Grapes on thorns and figs on\ thistles." ; ^ Even hell's judgments may be swayed by mone}'. (" Money is the key that opens all\ doors." / To get one's hand bitten by one's own pet dog. C Nursing a viper in one's bosom.") ^ A pet child made to travel. ("Spare the rod. child." should be and >poil the\ Afraid, and yet itching to peep. Brotherhood is the first step towards estrangement. (So self-centred are men that even brothers, despite their near kinship, are to a certain degree strangers.) For every thousand blind there are a thousand who can see. (The world's opinion is so evenly balanced, that there is little use in striving after unusual and often un- appreciated excellence. ) ^ A three-year-old child's soul will remain the same till he is a hundred. (" ITie boy is father to the man.") 16. Supply da. — 18. Sasc .' = sasero ! imperative, second conj. — 19. A good example of the survival of the conclusive form of adjectives, each word being here grammatically a complete sentence ; see pp. 12 1-2. — 20. Supply da. — 21. Supply am. — 22. Supply kaivaranai . PROVERBS. 3^3 23. Naina-hyoho Crude-tactics 0-kizu no great-wound 's 24. Neko Cat as-for, wa, as-for, uwto. origin i^arc). kohan. i?oId-coin. 2 5 . Nikko N ikko iichi witViin to hi-na ! that say-not. 2(>, O Tail tsukeru. ro-aflfix. IVO {accus.) niinai see-not kekko " ■' magnificent " \ Crude tactics cause grave wounds. / 'A little learnin Vthinir." is a dangerous \ ^ Gold coins to a cat. ('Casting pearls before swine.") Do not use the ''magnificent" until have seen Nikko. word you Hi icv u To add tail to tail. ^^ '^'' (^?r6//.f.) I j'j-y exaggerate and amplify.) 27. Odazvara hybgi. Odawara conference. Like the Odawara confer- ence. (Endless talk resulting in nothing.) 28. Omoi-tatta Resolved nichi. (lay (/,). (//< kichi- lucky- The best day to execute a resolve is the day on which you form it. (" Procrastination is the thief of \ time." ) 23. Supjily da. — 24. Koban is a specific name, not a general one ; but the oval gold coin which it denotes is no longer current. — 25. Nikko is famed both for its mountain scenery, and for the splendour of its tombs and temples dedicated to the first and third Shoguns of the Tokuga\\a dynasty. — 27. In the year 1590, when the castle of Oda- wara, belonging to the Hojo family, was besieged by the Taiko Hide- yoshi, the generals commanding the besieged force could not come to an agreement as to whether it were best to await the onslaught of the enemy, or to sally forth themselves and offer battle. While they ■were still discussing this question, Hideyoshi made a sudden onslaught, and captured the castle by a coup de main. — 28. Supply da. 314 PROVERBS. 29. Oni no rusu ni Demon 's absence in, N^ Doing the washing when the demons are absent. sentaku. washing {Jo do). / "When the cat's away, the mice\ Uill play." ; -^o. " Roftgo "Analects " Rongo" " Analects " " yomi no " reading 's shirazu. '• knows-not. To have read the " Ana- lects," and not to know them. / •' If ye know these things, happy\ Vara ye if ye do them." / 31. San-7iin Three-person ba, Monju together, Monjii s no '.s yore- if-come- chie. wisdom. •^ When three people con- sult together, there results wisdom worthy of Monju. {^•Two heads are better than one.") 32. Sawaran Not-touch ?iashi. kami ni tatari god in curse A god with whom one has nothing to do will inflict no evil on one. is-not. (•'Let sleeping dogs lie.") '^■^. Shaka Buddha ni to. seppiK sermon. Preaching to Buddha. / "Teaching your grandmother to\ Vsuck eggs." / 34, Shin da Died ko child' no toshi s years N To reckon up a dead child's age. zvo kazoeru. {accus.) to-count. 1 (•• Crying over spilt milk.") 29. Supply -ioo suru. Sentaku is believed to be a corruption of tfutaku, " changing house." If so, the original meaning of the proverb was " To change house when the demons are not by to see." — 30. The Confucian " Analects " is one of the most venerated of the Chinese Classics, and a committal of it to memory was formerly an essential part of every Japanese gentleman's education. The proverb applies to the failure to put principles into practice, not, as might be supix)sed, to the npn-comprehension of texts. Yomi the indefinite form oi yomu^ "to read," is here equivalent io yomu htto. For shirazu see p. 311, note to No. 12. — 31. Monju (Sanskrit Manjusri) is the personification of wisdom in the Buddhist mythology. — 32. Notice the booki.sh "^conclusive " nashi for Coll.'o in. % 449. ^ FRAGMENTS OF C O N V E R S A T I O N . I. YuBiN. — Kesa^yuhin iva kimasen ka ? He ! mairimasen. Hate-7ia! Kino 7io asa Hama ye dashita heiiji ga mo kuru ivake da ga , 2. Hakurankwai.— 7}>;/^^2 7no Ueno ni hakurankwai ga anmashdk€L2 Ikaga desho ka ? Tonto uivasa wo kikimaseii. 3. O Negai. — Dekiru nara, kyo-jft ?ii kore wo titsiisJiite kudasai. • Dbmo ! so wa iklmasen. 4. Kyoshi Vatoi-ire. — Dozo yoi kyoshi wo sagashUe kudasai. Mi-atari skidai, tsurete mairimasho. 5. Kyuryo. — Hito-tsfiki no kyuryo wa, dono kiirai yattara yokaro ? Mil ! ju-shi-go-eti de jubim de gomimasfut. I . For " yes," where " no " would seem more natural, see \ 376, pp. 235-6. Hama is a familiar abbreviation for Yokohama. The last line of tlie Japanese text is extremely concise : — Hama ye dashita henji may be best construed by expanding it to Hama yc dashVa ti'gami 110 FREE ENGLISH TRANSLATION. 1. The Post. — Have no letters come this morning .? No, none have come. I can't make it out ! Why, there ought to be an answer to the letter I sent to Yokohama yesterday morning. 2. Ax Exhibition. — Is there to be an exhibition at Ueno this year also ? I don't know. I have not heard the slightest rumour on the subject. 3. A Request. — If you can manage it, do please copy this by to-night. O ! really, that is quite impossible. 4. Engaging a Teacher. — Please look out for a good teacher for me' As soon as I find one, I will bring him to you. 5. Salary. — How much salary should 1 give a month (e.g., to a teacher or clerk) ? Well, I should say that 14 or isy^n would be ample. Jicnji. The sentence is incomplete ; but such incomplete sentences ending in ga are of frequent occurrence, the speaker not knowing ex- actly what to add ; conf. p. 186. — 2. Ikaga desJw ka ? is more or less equivalent to " I don't know ;" see •[ 375, p. 235. 3l8 FRAG M KM S OF CONVERSATION. 6. Shokuji no Jikan. — Kochira de wa, gozen no jikoku iva, nan-ji to nan-ji desu ka ? He ! O hirti wa ju-ni-ji han de, o yashoku ga sKichi-ji han de gozaimasu. Sore de wa, asa-han iva ? He! asa wa, kimari ga gozaimaseii. Anata no go tsugo shidai. 7. O Tazune. — Moshi ! uke-tsuke iva, kochira desu ka P Hei! koko wo massugu ni oide ni 7iaru to, sugu soko desu. 8. Mo HTtotsu O Tazune. — Koko kara Fuji ga mieru to wa, honto desti ka ? Ma ! mieru to mosii koto de gozaimasu. 9. KoDOMO TO Hanashi. — ScL, botchan ! koko ye o kake nasai. O otonashii koto ! O ikutsti desit ka P Yatsu. Taiso okii koto ! Gakko ye kayoi desu, ka ? He! mainichi ikimasti ga, — kyb wa, doyobi desh kara, o hiru-mae-giri deshita. 10. Oya to Hanashi. — Kono ko wa, afiata ?io go shisoku de gozaimasu ka ? He ! watakushi no soryb de gozaimasu. Sore iva, taiso rippa na go shisoku wo mochi nasai- mashtte, sazo tanoshimi de gozaimasho. le ! domo, wampaku de komarimasu. 6. Ju-ni-ji han de^ notice how de^ used predicatively, correlates this clause with the next ; conf. \ 200, p. 138, and the fourth and fifth examples on p. 139. After asa-han wa, supply itsu de gozaimasu? After shidai, supply dc gozaimasu. — 7. For koko wo, conf. p. 232. — 8. To 7(>a stands for to iu koto wa, " the assertion that Fuji can," etc. — FRAGMENTS OF CONVERSATION. 319 6. Meal Hours. — What are the hours for meals here ? Luncheon is at half past twelve, and dinner at half past seven. Then what about breakfast ? Breakfast ? There is no fixed time for it, Sir. You can have it whenever convenient to yourself. 7. An Enquiry. — Please, is this the enquiry office ? No; but you will come to it in a minute, if you go straight on. 8. Another Enquiry. — Is it true that Fuji can be seen irom here ? Well, it is supposed to be. 9. Talking to a Child. — Here, my little man ! sit down here. What a good boy you are ! How old are you ? Eight. How big you are for your age ! Do you go to school ? Yes, I go there every day. But to-day we only had lessons till noon, because it is Saturday. 10. Talking to a Father. — Is this little boy your son ? Yes, he is my eldest. Indeed, you have a fine fellow for an eldest son. What a source of happiness he must be to you ! Oh I no, indeed ! He is so naughty, I don't know what to do. 9. For botchan, see p. 240. Koto in taiso dkii koto ! is used excla- matorily ; see p. 38, The o oi o hiru-mae-girl is meaningless ; see p. 248. — 10. Such complimentary and self- depreciatory speeches are customary, quite irrespective of facts, and must not be understood too literally. - 320- FRAGMENTS OF CONVERSATION. ] II. Denshin. — Kokoe-ra wa, hempi da hara, deusJiin ga nakute , fujiyu desd, ?ie ! Sayo de gozaimaswu. Oi-oi dckimasYi de gozaif/msho. 12. NiHON-GO GA JoZU. Aftatd 7CkI, yokii XihoH-go ga ivakari ni narimasti. To7ida koto osshaimasa. Do shite/ Naka-naka mazu gozaimasii. lya ! do itashimashite ! Honto ni rippa de gozainiash. 13. Orai-dome. — Ano hashi wa ftishin-chu de, orai-dome da so da. Don de, koko ni kari-bashi ga kakatte imash. 14. TocHu no Aisatsu. — Konaida iva tochu de hana- hada shikkei. ■) le ! do itashimashite/ zvatakashi koso. Sh/kashi, are kara dochira ye irasshaimashita ? 15. TsuKAi. — Sakki no tshkai zaa, mada kaette konai ka ? Nani 7V0 shite iru ka ? Taiso tenia ga toreru. Okata saki sama ga o rusu de, matte de mo orimasu )i de gozaimasho. U ' ^ 12. Lit. " As for you, Japan language becomes well to honourable understanding." — 13. Dc, see \ 200. Da so is the " adjective of pro- bability" oida, "to be." Z>Jr7' rt't'zs" being reasonable," here "that is why." — 14. These and similar complimentary speeches are in constant use, and do not sound absurd in Japanese, though the faults apologised for on l)oth sides are generally quite imaginary. After s/iikkn supply itasJiiviaaJfUa. After hoso sujiply sJiikkri itasJii niasJuta. Apropos the FRAGMENTS OF COVERSATION. 32 1 1 1 . The Telegraph. — It is inconvenient — isn't it ? — there being no telegraph in this part of the country, on account of its being so out-of-the-way. Yes. But I suppose we shall have it in time. 12. Speaking Japanese Well. — You speak Japanese beautifully. Nonsense ! How can you say such a thing ? My Japanese is very poor indeed. Not a bit of it. How can you say so ? You really speak splendidly. 13. No Thoroughfare, — It seems that the thorough- fare is closed, because the bridge over there is undergoing repairs. Ah yes ! That is why they have put up a tempomry bridge here. 14. Compliments on ]\Ieeting a Friend. — I beg your pardon for having been so rude to you in the street the other day. Oh ! no, not at all ! It was I who was rude. Where did you go after we parted ! 15. A Message. — Hasn't the messenger whom I sent some time ago, come back yet ? What is he doing } He is a tremendous time about it. Probably it is because the gentleman you sent him to is out, so that he is kept waiting. sentence beginning Shlkashi^ notice that such questions as to where one has been or is about to go are not considered indiscreet by the Japanese, but are, on the contrary, used in the best society. — 15. Sakki is emphatic for saki ; conf. ^25, p. 18, Toreru is the intransitive corresponding to the transitive verb torn, " to take ; " conf. p. 206. Saki saiiia " the gentleman in front," i.e. " the gentleman over there." For «' see bottom of p. 79. n 322 FRAGMENTS OF CONVERSATION. 16. Fu-KAGEN. — Kyb 110 shukivai ni wa, irasshaimasen desHita ka ? He ! kyb wa, nan da ka, kokoro-mochi ga ivarukule ikemasen kara, kotowariwo itte yarimashita. v^ 'i 7. Senchu. — Kyo wa, yoi nagi de gozaimasu, ne ! So de gozaimasu. Go dbyb ni shi-awase de gozai?nasu. Anafa wa, Kobe ye aide de gozaimasii ka ? Je. Nagasaki made mairimasu. Ikaga de gozaimasu P Kitsuen-shitsu de ip-puku itashimasho ka ? Sa ! to7no itashimasho. 18. YusAN. — Kyb wa, ii hiyori da kara, undb kata-gata Ojigoku wo mite kimasu kara, nani ka mi-tsukurotte, bento wo san-nin-mae isoide koshiraete kudasai. He ! shbchi itashimashita. Go shu wa, nani-nani wo motasemashb ? Sake wa, biiru ip-pon to, whisky ip-pon ni, Hirano-sui ni-hon de yoroshii. He ! kashikomari?nashita. 19. Kyakurai. — Ima mieta kyaku wa, mada gozen-mae da sb da kara, nan de mo ari-awase-mono de gohan ivo dashite kudasai. He ! shochi itashimashita. 16. IVarukute ikemasen, fairly lit. " being so bad, that it is no go ; " more simply " it is too bad." Similarly tokute ikemasen, " it is tod far ; " kutabirete ikemasen, " I am too tired," etc.; conf. ^ 218, pp. 147-8. — 17. For the objective honor ifics in go doyo and o tomo, see p. 247 — 18. Ojigoku {" Big Hell ") is the name of a valley near Miyanoshita containing some boiling sulphur springs. It is also called Ouuiki-dani, FRAGMENTS OF CONVERSATION'. 323 t6. Feeling Unwell. — Didn't you go to the meeting to-day ? No, I don't know what it is, but I feel unwell ; so I sent an excuse. <» 17. On Board Ship. — It is beautifully calm to-day, isn't it.? Yes, indeed ! It is lucky for all of us. Are you going to Kobe ? No. I am going on to Nagasaki. What do you say to our] going and having a pipe in the smoking-room ? All right, come along ! 18. A Picnic. — As it is fine weather to-day, we are going to Ojigoku for the sake of a little exercise. So please make haste, and put up something or other as limcheon for three. All right, Sir. What liquors shall I send ? Liquors ? — A bottle of beer, a bottle of whisky, and two bottles of Hirano water, will be enough. All right, Sir. 19. A Visitor. — It would seem that the visitor who has just arrived has not dined yet. So please give him something to eat. Anything that happens to be ready will do. All right. Sir. \ i.e. " the Valley of the Great Boiling." Undo katagata, more lit. " at the same time as exercise." Mite kimasu ; conf. kiiru, p. 193. Go shti is Chinese for the Japanese o sake^ and sounds more polite. Hirano is the name of a favourite Japanese table-water. Kashikomarimashita , or shdchi itashiniasJnta, as immediately above, is the usual term by which an inferior expresses that he has understood the orders of a superior. 324 FRAGMENTS OF CONVERSATION. 20. MiCHi WO KiKU. — Moshi! Hakubutsu-kivan wa, dono hen desu ka ? Sayb de gozainiasu. Sore wa, koko wo ??mssugu ni ikii to,, migi no Jib ga koban de, hidari no ho ga Haktibutsu-kwan desu. - Mon 711 " Hakubutm-kwan " to kaiia gaku ga agete arimasu kara,jikt shiremasu. Kore iva, dbmo ! arigatb zonjimasu. 2 1. Sho-taimen no Aisatsu. — Hajimemashtte {0 me ni kakarimaslh). WatakHshi wa Tanaka Tsunemasa to f?idshi?)iasu.- Nanibun yoroshtku negaimasu. Sayb de gozainiasu ka P Kanete somniei wa uketamawatte orimashita ga Watakushi wa Smith to mbsu mono de, igo kokoro-yasH 22. Itoma-goi. — 7aisb chbza ivo itashimashtta. Konnichi 7va ?nb itoma (ni) itashimashb. Ma ! Yoi de wa gozaimasen ka ? Mb shbshb hanashi nastte irasshaimashi. Arigatb gozaimasu ga, — konnichi wa chito tori-isogiviasu kara, izure mata sono uchi ukagaimasU. Sayb de gozaimasu ka P Kore wa taisb shitsurei bakari mbshi-agemashita. Sonnara, mata chikai uchi ni zehi tachi- yori wo 20. For the active past tense kaita, " wrote," where English idiom requires the passive past participle ♦' written," see ^ 293, pp. 190- 1. Similarly in the case oigakii ga agete arimasu, lit. " a tablet is raising." — 21. The complimentary phrases in this and the next three numbers should be carefully committed to memory, as they are in constant re<}uisition however queer and stilted the English translations may FRAGMENTS OF CONVERSATION. 325 20. Asking the Way. — Please, Sir ! would you tell me the way to the Museum ? Let me see ! Yes ! If you go straight on, you will find a police-station to your right, and the building on the left is the Museum. You will know it at once, for there is a tablet over the gate, with the word " Museum " written on it. Oh ! very many thinks, Sir. 21. Compliments on First Meeting. — This is the first time I have had the honour to meet you. Sir. My name is Tanaka Tsunemasa. I beg for your kind friend- ship. Oh ! indeed ! I have had the honour to hear of you before ; although (we have never, met). My name is Smith, Henceforward I hope you will honour me with }^our intimacy. 22. Taking Leave of a Friend. — I have paid you an unconscionably long visit, and must now be taking my leave. Oh ! Why hurry so ? Do please chat a little longer. Many thanks, but I am rather pressed for time to-day. I will call again soon. Must you really go ? Well, pra)- excuse the shortcomings of my imperfect hospitality, and remember that I count upon your visiting me again very soon. sound. After uketamaxuatte oriniashtta ga, must be supplied some clause such as has here been rendered in English by " we have never met." After o kokoro yasu supply negahnasu. — 22. Yo would, be more strictly grammatical than yoi de iva, but the latter is often used ; conf. N.B. on p. 125. For the tori oi tori-isogiinasu, see p. 219. At the end supply negaimasit. 326 FRAGMENTS OF CONVERSATION. 23. Sevva ni natta Rei.— *9^/^, dan-dmi kono tabi wa go shfisen kudasaimashtte, arigatb gozaimasti. Je f iki-iodokimasen de, makoto ni Shtkashi mazii medeto gozaimash. 24. Shinnen no Aisatsu. — Mozu akemashtte, o f?iedetd gozaimasU. medeto gozaimasa. KyTito iva iro-iro sewa sama ni naritnashite, arigato zonjimasfi. Nao tonen mo ai-kaimrazu negaimasu. 25. JiSHiN. — Ana/a saki-hodo jishin ga gozaimashita 710 wo go zonji desiL, ka ? le ! Sfikoshi mo zonjimasen deshiia. He-he ! Yohodo hido gozaimashite, ano tokonoma no hana-ike ga yureie, sunde no koto ni taoresb ni naru hodo ^deshita. Sore iva, naka-naka bki 71a jishn de gozaimashita, net Nan-ji goro deshita ? Sono toki, tokei zvo 7ni7tiashitara, ichi-ji ni-jip-ptm sugi deshita ? Naruhodo 1 ha-ha ! Sore de wa, shiranai wake desU. Waiakfishi iva, ichi-ji 7ii TsYikiji wo demashite, kuruma de mairimashita kara, bkata sono iochu de gozaifnashi- tarb. m 23. Sate — '-*' well ! " Dan-dan, " gradually," which serves to show how long-continued your favours have been, is a word constantly thus used in polite speeches. After makoto ni must be supplied some such clause as that which we have translated by " I am ashamed of myself." " Result " is not actually in the original expression ; but the idea is more or less pointed at. — 24. AkemasKite refers to the " open- FRAGMENTS OF CONVERSATION. 327 2^. Thanks for Assistance Received. — I am very much indebted to you for all your kind assistance on this occasion. Not at all ! I am really ashamed of myself for having done so little. Anyhow, I congratulate you on the result. 24. New Year Congratulations. — I beg to offer you my congratulations on the New Year. The same to you. I trust that you will continue to me throughout the present year those favours by which I have profited in so many ways during the year that has just closed. 25. An Earthquake. — Did you feel the earthquake a few hours ago ? No, I didn't feel it at all. Indeed ? It was very violent. It was such that the flower-vase there in the alcove shook so that it seemed likely to fall. Then it must indeed have been a severe earthquake. About what o'clock did it take place ? I looked at my watch at the time, and it was twenty minutes past one. Ah ! I see. In that case I was bound not to feel it. As I left Tsukiji at one o'clock, and came in a jinrikisha, it doubdess took place while I was on the road. ing " of the New Year. Ayze^d is lit. " old winter " in Chinese, hence " last year." — 25. Smide no koto ni = ^'- just about to." Shiranai luake^ not " a reason which does not know," but " a reason why / should not know ; " conf. p. 58. Tsiakiji is the name of a quarter in Tokyo. For so}io="' of that," see p. 54. 328 FRAGMENTS OF CONVERSATION. 26. KuRUMA WO Ianomu. — Kyaku. — Oi ! kiiruma-yaf Ueno 710 Hakubutsti-kwan ye tite, nc ! — sore kara AsakUsa no koenchi wo kembutsii shite, kaeri ni Ginza de kai-inono shiie, mata ko7io " staiioti " made kaeni "11 da ga, — ikura de iku ka ? Shafu. — He! hidokii iema ga, toreviasho ka ? Kyaku. — lya ! so terna iva toremai, — yukata made ni kaeru tsumori da kara. Shafu. — He ! Sore de wa, danna ! sHichi-ju-go-sen Tiegai- io gozai?Jiasfi. Kyaku. — H'm ! sfikoshi iakaku wa nai ka ? Shafu. — le ! Yohodo michi-nori mo gozaimasu kara, kes- shite takai koto wa mbshi-agemasen. Kyaku. — Somiara, sore dake yaru kara, kaeri jii Teikoku Hoteru ye choito yotte kurei, — tazwieru hito ga aru kara. SHikashi, kore iva tema wa iorefiai. Shafu. — He! Yoroshiu gozaimasu. O meshi nasai- mashi. z'-j. YuBiN NI DASU Tegami. — Moski ! O Haru San! Dare ka ni kono tegami wo ytibin-kyoku ye motasete, — Nihon- ji de kaiie aru ho iva, kakitome ni sasete, uke-tori wo torana- kereba naran ga,—yoko~mojt ?io ho wa, gwaikoku-yuki da kara, jis-sen no kitte 7Vo hatte, tada sashi-ire-guchi ye irete kureba yoroshii. He ! kashik(^gia?-imashita. ^ 26. Ueno and Asakusa are districts in Tokyo, Ginza is a street,' and the " Imperial " a large hotel in European style. Notice the correlation of clauses in the first sentence by means of the gerund repeated several times. ITie clause tazimeru Into ga aru kara is inverted ; it should properly precede the words kaeri ni immediately above. — 27. Tx^arn this example thoroughly by heart, parse it, and FRAGMENTS OF CONVERSATION. 329 26. Hiring a Jixrikisha. — Fare. I say, jinrikisha-man ! I want to go to the Museum at Ueno, you know,— from there on to see the Public Garden at Asakusa, then to make some purchases in Ginza on the way back, and to return again here to the station. How much will you go for ? Jinrikisha-man. Shall }'ou be long about it. Sir ? Fare. No, probabl}- not ; for I intend to be back by dusk. Jinrikisha-vian. Well then. Sir, I must ask seventy-five sen. Fare. H'm. Isn't that rather dear ? yinrikisha-man. No, Sir ; I haven't named at all a high price, for the distance is very great. Fare. All right, then ; I will give you that much. So just look in at the Imperial Hotel on the way back, as I have some one to call on there. But that won't take long. yinrikisha-man. All right, Sir. Please step in. 27. Letters for the Mail. — I say, O Haru ! tell some one to carry these letters to the post-office. The messenger must ha\e the one which is addressed in Japanese characters registered, and must get a receipt for it ; but in the case of those written in Roman letters, it will be enough if he sticks a ten sen stamp on each, and just drops them into the post-box, as they are to go abroad. All right. Sir. analyse it, and you will have laid the foundation of a practical mastery of that most difficult portion of Japanese grammar, the integration of sentence, which is treated of at tlie end of tlie Chapter on Syntax, pp. 280-2. 330 FRAGMENTS OF CONVERSATION. 28. Yokohama Kogwai no Senchu. — Ano oki ni daihu shima ga miemasu ga, — are zva, na7i to lu shima de gozaimasti ? Are ga Izu no Shlchi-to de gozaimasfi. Mae no ga shima to iimasXi. He ! are de mo, hito ga siinde imasti ka shira. E! Sunde iru dokoro de wa arimasen. Koko kara miru to, chiiso gozaimasu ga, — Oshima nazo ni wa, mannaka ni fiinkwazan ga atte, sono maivari ni mura-kazu ga rok-ka-son fno arimasfi. Ato no s'hima-jima ni mo taigai — mottomo munin-to mo arimasfi keredo, — h7to ga sunde imasfi. He ! Sayb de gozaimasTi ka P 29. KiRisiJTO Kyokvvai. — Kono shfikii ni zva, Kirisuio-kyb no shinja ga 5i to iu koto desti, net He! so de gozaimasti. Kono hen zva, moppara Yaso zvo shiftkb itashimaslfi. Kzvaidb ga tatte orimasfi ka ? He ! Kore made zva, soncho san no hettaku zvo kari ni kzvaida 7ii tnochiiie orimashita ga, — iezema ni tsuite, kondo shiuki ni wakiye tatete arimasfi. Bokushi zva, seiyo-jift desfi ka ? So de goz-aimasu. Xichiyo-goto ni shusseki shite, sekkya itasaremasfi. Kono goro de wa, senrei zvo uketa hito ga yohodo /uemashita so desfi. So desfi ka ? Sore zva, naka-7iaka sakan 7ia koto desfi, 7ie ! 28. Shira is familiar abbreviation of shiran. For dokoro see p. 43. A'd'c^;, properly "etcetera," usually tones down a little the force of the preceding word. We have tried to represent this by the term "for instance " in the English version. ATura (" village ") has for its auxiliary numeral the word so7i, which is but the Chinese synonym of the word mura ; hence rok-ka-son = " six villages." FKAGMF.NTS OF CONVERSATION 33 1 28. Nearin(; Yokohama. — I see quite a number of islands out there. What islands are they .? They are the Seven Isles of Izu. The one in front is called Oshima (" Vries Island "). Indeed ! I wonder whether there are any people living on it ? People living on it ? I should just think there were ! Why ! Small as it looks from here, Vries Island has a volcano in the middle, round the base of which cluster no less than six villages. The other islands, too, though doubtless some are uninhabited, mostly have people living on them. Dear me ! You don't say so ! 29. A Christian Church. — There is said to be a large number of (Protestant) Christians in this town, — isn't there ? Yes. INIost of the people in this neighbourhood are Christians. Is there a church ? Well, hitherto the mayor's villa had done duty as a church. But it was too small, and so they have erected a new building on another site. Is the pastor a foreigner ? Yes ; he comes and preaches every Sunday. It is said that great numbers of people have been baptised recently. Indeed ! Then Christianity is in a very fair wa}- here. 29. If Catholics are intended, the term TcnsJm-kyo should be used instead of Kirisuto-kyd^ and Tenshii-dd for kiuaidd. The zenia in tezema is the stem form of the adjective seinai, " narrow." One might omit sakan in the concluding sentence of p. 330, as naha-naka ua koto by itself signifies " a considerable thing." 332 FRAGMENTS OF CONVERSATION. ^o. KwAji. — ()ya ! kzvaji to luietf, hansho wo utteru ga : — shirase bakari da kara, daijohu da ga, — hogaku wa, dochira ni atatte iru ka mite kudasai. He! tadaima soto kara viaitta mono no inoshimasXi ni wa, sappari miemisen so desTi. Tabun kinzai de gozaimasho. 31. Shibai. — Chikagoro Kabuki-za ga aita so desu ga, — gedai wa, nan de gozaimasti ka ? He ! Kino waki de kikimashitara, kotido wa " Chitshin- gura " no toshi da so de, de-kata mo daibu kao-zoroi da so desfi. So desti ka ? Sore ja, kyogen ga ii kara, kit to ataru 4eshd. 32. O Saki ye Go Men. — Hanahada shitsurei de gozaimasu ^a, — wataktishi wa, go men kbmuriniasKite , /tiserimasti, — myocho wa, yohodo hayaku shuttatsu sum tsumori des^ kara. Dozo ivafakfishi-domo ni kamai naku yasumi nasaimashi. Koinban wa, zehi kono kaki-mono ivo shi-agete shimaimasen- kereba ?iarimasen yue, yo ga ftikemasJm to omoimasfi kara, myocho wa, shikkei nagara, me ni kakarimasen ka mo shiremasen ga, zuibtm to go kigen yd. 30. The " intimation " [^shirase\ of a distant fire, that is, one not in the same district of the city, consists of two strokes of the fire-belL Aloshitnasu ni 76'^ = " he says." The words sappari tnietnasen are a quotation from the other man, and so desii nearly = '' he says,"— the Japanese construction thus being pleonastic, as it contains the equivalent of " he says " both before and after the words quoted ; conf. latter part of ^ 437, p. 278. — 31. Kabuki-za is the name of the chief theatre in Tokyo. Gi'dai, " title," is said to be a corruption oi '^eidiU, lit. " list of FRAGMENTS OF CONVERSATION. 335. ^o. A Fire. — Halloo ! there would seem to be a fire ; they are ringing the fire-bell. However, as it is only the " notice-bell/' it is all right. Still, please go and see in what direction the fire is. Well, Sir ! a man who came in a minute ago says there is nothing to be seen. Probably it is in one of the suburbs. 31. The Theatre. — I hear that the Kabuki-za Theatre has recently re-opened. What is being acted there ? On enquiring yesterday at a friend's house, I learnt that it was T/ie Forty-seven Ronins, — the entire play, — and that most of the best actors are taking part in it. Indeed? That is a good piece. Doubtless it will be 32. Early to Bed. — Although it is very rude of me to do so, I must ask you to excuse me if I go to bed, as I intend to start very early to-morrow morning. Oh ! pray retire without paying attention to me. I must positively finish this writing to-night. So probably I shall not get to bed till late, and therefore please excuse me if I wish you a prosperous journey now, as I don't know whether I shall have the honour to see you in the accomplishments." For the story of the Forty-seven Ronins, a little epic of loyalty and revenge, see Mitford's " Tales of Old Japan." Its Japanese title, — Chu-shin-gura, — well describes it ; for the tale is indeed a " store " of the feelings and deeds of " loyal retainers." — 32. The first sentence is inverted ; the clause beginning with mydchd 7va should, properly speaking, come first. The last sentence lacks some such final verb as oide nasaimasht. The plirase go kigen yd is often thus used where we should say '* good-bye." 334 FRAGMENTS OF CONVERSATION. ^^. NiHON-GO NO KoNNAN. — Ddtiio ! Nihoti no kotoha wa, taihen 7ii iri-kunda mojio de, — domo ! koshi no magaru made 7nanande mo, shosen ohoe-tstikusemastimai. le ! masaka sono yd 7ia muzukashii mono de mo gozaimasen. Befikyo sae stireba, nan de mo nai koto desfi. 34. MiCHi wo KiKU. — Chotto michiwo ukagaimasti. Kore kara san-cho saki no tokoro ni hidari ye magaru yoko-cho ga am ga, — soko ye haitte, sore kara mata migi ye viagatte, massugu ni iku n desti. Sonnara, kono tori to narande orimasiU, ne ! 35. Ei-KOKU Taishi-Kwan no Michi. — Chotto mono wo iazune moshimasli. Igirisu taisHikivan ye iva, do mairi- masKitara yoroshiU gozaimasti ka ? He! Sore wa, kono Shimbaski-demae no yoko-dbri wo hidari ye sfikoshi itte, densha ni sbte massugu ni oide ni narimasti to, Hibiya Koen ni demasti. Sore kara kden wo migi ni shite, massugu ni doko made mo oide ni narimasti to, Sakurada Mitsfike to iu mon no viae ye tsliki-atarimasfi. Sore wo Jiairazu ni, hori ni tsuite hidari ye doko made mo irasshaimasU to, muko 7ii Eikoku taishikivan no hata ga miemasfi kara, jiki shiremasti. Domo, arigato zonjimasti. O jama wo itashimashita. 36. Shuku-hai. — Aruji, shampan wo tsiiida koppu wo mochi-nagara, za wo tatte : Shokun wa, yoku komba7i wa ide kudastte, makoto rU watakfishi wa kinki ni taemasen. Nao ai-kawarazu shimmitsu 7iaru go kosai ivo negaimasU. 35. Shimbashi, lit. " New Bridge," has given its name to the quarter of Tokyo in which the principal railway terminus is situated. — 36. This example is in the stiff style, bordering on the Written Lan- guage, which is usual on such occasions Shampan luo tsuiJa koppu. FRAGMENTS OF CONVERSATION. 335 ^^. Difficulty of the Japanese Language. — Really, Japanese is a terribly complicated language. Even if one were to study till one's back became bent with age, one could not learn it thoroughly. Oh ! no [ it is hardly so difficult a thing as that. It is a mere nothing if only you set yourself to it. 34. Asking the Way. — Please tell me the way. About three hundred and sixty yards further on, there is a turning to the left. You must turn down it, and then turn again to the right, after which you go straight on. Then it is parallel with this street, isn't it ? 35. The Way to the British Embassy. — Excuse my asking you ; but would you kindly tell me the way to the British Embassy ? Certainly. Look here ! If you follow this street branching off to the left in front of Shimbashi Bridge for a short way, and then skirt the electric tram line, you will get to Hibiya Park. Keep this on your right and walk straight on, till you come to a gate called the Sakurada Gate. Don't go through it, but turn to the left along the moat, and go straight on, and you will at once know which is the British Embassy by seeing the flag ahead. Very many thanks. Excuse me for having trespassed on your valuable time. 36. A Toast. — T^e host, taking a glass of champagne in his hami, rises and says : Gentlemen ! I am really overwhelmed by your kindness in coming here to-night, and I trust that you will ever continue to favour me with your friendship. lit. " a glass (into which some one) has poured champagne." Kinki ni taemasen lit. = " (I) camiot endure the delight." A^ao ai-kazvai-azu, etc., lit. = "I request intimate intercourse still mutually changing not." Nam is bookish for na ; conf. ^197. 336 FRAGMENTS OF CONVERSATION. \ 37. Denwa. — Moshi! vioshi! WatakUshi iva Bancho yfi- go-bati desu ga, Shimlxishi shlchi-hyahi nana-jTi kyu-ban ye kakete kudasai. Hanashi-chu desti kata, chotto machi kudasai. 38. Kyaku wo Mataseru. — Hanahada shikkei deshiia, Shi-kaketa yd ga atte, matase vidshimashita. Do iiashimashite ! Jifsu wa, sensei ni negai ga atte deta n desu ga, — isogashii tokoro zvo, — hanahada sumimasen. 39. ShIN-YU H5M0N, Kyaku. Konnichi wa ! O takii desu ka r Aruji. Dare ka kita. Dete mi-tia ! Ny5bo. Hai! oya! ma! kochira ye. Kyaku. Kyi) wa vib doko ye ka aide desfi ka P Nyobo. le, ormasfi. Ma I tori asobase . . Anata ! Xakayoshi San ga irasshaimasMta yo ! Aruji. So ka ? . . Sal kochira ye. Kyaku. Sensei uchi datta, ne ! Aruji. Yoku hayaku de-kake deshita. Kyaku. Hayaku vio nai. Mi) ku-ji sugi da. Aruji. Naruhodo ! Kyaku. Kyi) wa " Sunday " da kara, mo o riisu ka to omotta. Aruji. " Sunday " de mo, betsudan ate-hameta yd ga nai shi, sf^koshi kibun ga warui kara, doko ye mo detnasefi deshtta. 38. Near the end, viz. after tokoro zvo, a sentence is left unfinished. Hanahada su7nimasen = '-^ \t is very improper" (for me to have in- truded on you). — 39. Observe how in Japan it is the hxisband who orders his wife about, and not zncc versa. The word nyodo is non- honorific. For the na of dete mi-iui, see p. 167, N.B.— Male speakers should avoid such strings of exclamations as If at ! oya ! ma ! also the yo ! in the good lady's next remarks. After kochira ye fra(;ments of convkksaiiox. 337 37. Yhe 'JKLEPHONE. — Hallo ! I am No. 15, Bancho. Please connect me with No. 779, Shimbashi. The hne is enga^^ed : so please wait a few- minutes. ^S. Keeping a Visitor Waiting. — Kindly excuse my rudeness in keeping you waiting ; but I was occupied with something which I could not leave half-finished. Oh ! pray don't mention it ! To tell the truth, what I have come for is to ask you a favour. But I must apologise for intruding on you when you are so busy. 39. r.OOKING IN ON AN InTIMATE FrIEND. J7si/<)r. {A/ the door) Good day ! Are you at home .? Host. {To hisun/e) Somebody has come. Go and see who it is. Wife. All right. — {To the visitor) Oh ! is it you.? Please come in ! Visitor. Has your husband already gone out to-day 'i Wife. No, he is at home. Please come in ! — {To her husband) Here is Mr. Nakayoshi. Host. Indeed ! — {To the visitor) Oh ! Please come in ! Visitor. And so you are at home, I see ! Host. You are on the move very early. Visitor. Not at all. It's past nine o'clock. Host. You don't say so. Visitor. To-day being Sunday, I thought you might have gone out. Host. True, it's Sunday. But I had no special reason for going out, besides which I am feelin^o- rather unwell. So I was stopping at home. supply o tori nasal. The English word " Sunday " is paraded by the speakers to show their erudition. Japanese nicJiiyobi would do just as well. Betsudan ate-jiatjuta yd, lit. " specially allotted (but active, not passive verb) business." For sJii see p. 81. Observe the scantiness of honorifics in this little colloquy, arising from the intimacy of the two men. ^^S FRAGMENTS OF CONVERSATION. 40. O Chaya. Jochu. Irasshaimashi ! Makoto ni o atsu gozaimasft. Kyaku. Zuihiin atsiii, fief Motto suzushii tokoro iva arimasen ka ? Jochu. Mina san ga so osshairnasu ga, — hmo tori /'fisa- gaite orwiashite, makoto 7ii kinodokU sama desti. Sono uchi yoi tokoro ga akimasYi kara, doka koko ni negainias^i. Kyaku. Si) ka ? Shlkata ga nai. 41. Enzetsu-kvvai Kaisan. — Kono aida chotto o taku ye ukagaimashitara, anata wa go fuzai de gozaiinashitc , okusan no osshaimashita ni wa, Kinki-kwaii ye enzetsu ivo o kiki ni oide no yd ni uketamawarimashita ga, — nani ka mezurashii enzetsu de mo gozaimashita ka ? Of Sono setsu zva, chodo orimasen de, shiisiirci iiasfd- mashtia. Ano hi wa, ai-niku deshite, ne f—r-niottomo chito osoku de-kakemasfiita ga, — Kiftfd-kwaji ?to mae made ikimasli to, doya-doya Hito ga dete kimastc kara, naze ka to omotte kikimashitara, ni-bam-me Jto enzetsu-chu nani ka sXikoshi jorei jiifureta koto ga atta to ka de, keisatsu-kwan ga chushi wo meijita tame, sude ni kaisan 7ii natta toko deshite, Jitsii ni zannen desJiita. Sore wa, oshii koto wo nasaimashita. 42. MiYANOSHiTA DE Kaimono. — Kyaku. — Go men nasaif Akindo. — He f irasshai f Chito kake nasaimasJii f Natii ka goran kudasaimase f Mada hoka ni iro-iro gozaimasft. 40. Observe how the waitress uses honorifics to the guest, but not the guest to the waitress. There >\'ould, however, be no harm in his doing so. Kaito tori, " this way," is often equivalent to our phrase " as you see." The words " I cannot accommodate you with one yet " have to be added \\\ the English version, to complete the sense. Sono nclii, lit. "meanwhile," hence "soon." — ^41. Go fuzai is a highly cultivated expression. The common jieople prefer o i-um. Oide no yd ni is fragments of conversation. 339 40, At a Tea-house. Udi//css. Welcome ! It is a very hot day, Sir. Qjicsf. Ver}' hot, isn't it ? Haven't \'Ou an}' cooler room ^ Waitress. All our guests ask for cooler rooms. But we are, as you see, so full that I am sorry to say I cannot accommodate you with one yet. Please sit down here, Sir, until a better room becomes vacant. Gucsf. Oh ! then there's no help for it. 41. A ^Meeting Dispersed. — When I looked in at your house the other day, you were absent, and your wife said that you had gone to listen to some speeches at the Kinki Hall. Were they at all interesting ? Oh ! it was very rude of me to happen to be out just then. On that day it was unfortunate, you know. To -begin with, I was rather late in starting ; and then, when I got as far as the Hall, I found the people all pouring out in confusion. And on enquiring the reason of this, I was told that in the second speech there had occurred some re- jnarks which slightly infringed the government regulations, or something of that kind, and that the police had ordered the proceedings to be stopped. So when I arrived, the meeting had already broken up, which was a pity. Oh ! I am sorry for your disappointment. 42. Shopping at Miyanoshita. — Customer. — Excuse me. Dealer. — Oh ! pray come in. Sir. Please sit down a moment. Please inspect my wares. I have others besides, of various descriptions. an example of indii-ect quotation. The direct would be oidc da to ; conf. pp. 275-6. Toko neai- the end is for tokoro. 340 I'RACiMENTS OF CONVERSATION. Kyaku. — Oftiocha wo sMoshi misete kudasai Akindo. — He ! kashikomarimashlta. Kono A'* no mono de 2va ikaga de gozamaslfi ? Kyaku. — Naruhodo ! ko?io nchi kara, ini dake no mono ivo yorimasko. Akindo. — Damta ! kore iva ikaga de gozai?nasti ? Tabi- makura to moshimashite, — naka kara, kono tori, andon ga dema- sH. Koko ga satsu-ire. Hiki-dashi ga /fitatsu arimasXi. Soroban, ydji~ire, kagami, iro-iro sJu-konde arimasfi. Mada koko ni ko iu mitsu-ire-ko no o bento ga arimasti. Kore ga fude- sas;hi, kore iva tabako-ire. Mina daijobu ni dekite orimasti. Kyaku. — Mazu sonna mono wa yoroshiij\ Oku wa, kodomo no miyage ni sum n da kara, koko ye yori-dashita omocha ga kore dake to, undo-dama ga mitsu, mukb ni mieru shiian-iro no hon ga ni-mai to, kono shashin-basami ga flitatsu. Kore dake de, ikura ni narimashb ? Akindo. — He I arigato zonjimasli. Atari-?nae wa, ni-en roku-ju-go-sen ni negaimasu\ ga, — ni-en go-jis-sen ni o jnake- moshtte okimasho. Kyaku. — Sore wa taiso takai. Sonna ni kake-ne wo itcha ikenai. Zutto o make nasai. Akintlo.— /^ / do itashimashtte I Kesshite o takai koto iva mbshi-agemasen. Dono kurai made nara, negawaremashoX ka ? 42. • The meanings of te, properly " hand," are almost endless. Here it signifies" sort," " kind." FRAGMENTS OF CONVERSATION. 341 Customer, — Please show me some toys. Dealer. — All right, Sir! How would this kind of article suit you ? Customer. ^^^\. me see ! I will set aside from among these the ones that I want. Dealer. — Sir! how would this suit, you .^ It is called a travelling pillow. A lamp comes out of it, like this ; also this pui-se for paper-money. It has two drawers. There are all sorts of other things inside it, — an abacus, a toothpick- holder, and a looking-glass. Here again is a luncheon-box in three parts, which all fit into one. This is a pen-stand, this is a tobacco- jx)uch. They are all quite solidly made. Customer. — Well, I don't want that sort of thing. Most of the things I want are intended as presents to take home to the children. Here they are : — the toys which I have set aside here, besides three cups-and-balls, two of those sandal- wood-coloured trays over there, and those two photograph- frames. How much will the whole lot come to ? Dealer. — Oh ! man) thanks, Sir. The usual price would l^e two yen sixty-fi\-e sen ; but I will let you haxe them for two fift} . Customer. — That is awfully dear. You mustn't put on such fancy prices as that. You must go down a great deal. Dealer. — -Reall}-, Sir, how could you expect me to ^ The things are not at all dear. What would be }'Our idea as to the price. Sir .^ •f For somia mono wa yoroshii, conf, p. 292, No. 72, and footnote. \ Negan, " to beg," is often used by the lower classes when addressinjij their superiors, to signify " to say," " to do," even " to scU." 342 FRAGMENTS OF CONVERSATION'. Kyakii. — So sal ne ! Ichi-en go-jis-sen nara, kaimashb. Akindo. — Sore de iva, danna ! go mtiri dc gozaimasU.. Sonna ni kake-ne iva moshimasen. Dozo go jodan osshaimasen de, mo sMoshi o kai kudasai,* Kyaku. — Sore de wa, ni-en made ni kaif?iashd. Akindo. — Sayo de gozaimasti ka ? O yash gozaiviasu ga, — fnaia negawanakereha\ narimasen kara, o make-mosJiite oktmasfi. Zehi Ywie-aivase wo.% 43. RiKUTSU-zuKi NO KoDOMO. — Chiclii. — Itagaki Haku 7va, Kwazoku wa ichidai 7ii kagirti no iken wo hapfyo sKita. Segare. — Otottsan mo himhb wa ichi-dai ni kagiru no iken ivo happyo shimasen ka P 44. IzuRE MO Kawari-mono. — Kimuia Fujin. — Ha/ Ki- miiia wa futsu ?to htto to wa chigau iokoro ga aru yd ni omotia kara, watakXishi mo tsui ni kekkon shiia no yo ! O Ume Jo. — Watashi mo so darb to omotte yo ! Kiinura sanga aetata wo morai nastta to iu koto wo kiita toki, sugu so omotte yo I 45. Oya no Na wo Hazukashimezu. — Yabu-i Jun-an no musuko wa, yahari oyaji no ato ivo tsugu, ne ! So ka e ? Ano musuko ?no, isha ni natta ka e ? Chitio mo shiranakatta. Unnya! Isha ja nai yo ! Sbgi-gwaisha no shihai-nin ivo yatteru kara sa ! * " Deigii to buy (it) a little more (dearly)," i. e. " Please give me a little more for it." * t See footnote to preceding page, and also ^f 403, p. 250. X Supply some such final verb as negaimasu. We have expanded the idea of this phrase in the English translation. Vmc-awaseru is lit. " to fill in " (a hole with earth). 43. This and the following numbers are not fragments of real con- versation, but what the Japanese call otoshi-hanashi, that is, catches, FKAGMKN'IS OF CONVERSATION. 343 Customer, — Well, let me see ! Ill take them, if you will let me have them for owo. yen fifty. Dealer. — Oh I Sir, that is unreasonable. 1 don't put on such fancy prices as you seem to suppose. Please don't joke in this way, Sir, but give me a little more for things. Customer. — Well, then, I'll give you \.\\o yen. Dealer. — Only two yeyi } That is cheap, Sir. However, as I hope for your custom, I will go down to that price. But do, please. Sir, igive me the chance of recouping this alanning sacrifice by buying of me again. 43. A Logical Child. — Father. — Couut Itagaki has pro- l)o.sed that nobility should not be allowed to be hereditary. Son. — And you, papa, won't you propose that poverty shouldn't be allowed to be hereditary ? 44. Cranks Both of Them.— J/;-5. Khnura. — Oh ! it was because I saw that Kimura wasn't altogether like other men that I ended by marrying him. Miss Plum. — That's just what I thought. It came into my mind the moment I heard that Mr. Kimura had married you. 45. Keepinc; up the Family Reputation. — So it seems that Dr. Quack's son is inheriting, his father's business after all. Indeed } Has the lad become a doctor tcx) } I had no notion of that. Humph ! He's no doctor. What I mean is that he has become manager of a finn of undertakers. quibbles, more like what we term anecdotes. More lit. " As for nobles. Count Itagaki has promulgated an opinion limiting them to one genera- tion." — 44. Omotta, lit. " thought," but best rendered by " saw " in many cases. — 45. More lit. "not disgracing his parent's (father's) name." Yalnt-i, " a quack," lit. " a bamboo thicket doctor," whence the appropriateness of the name yun, " bamboo sprout," an, " a smaU villa " such as retired priests, doctors,' poets, etc., inhabit. Yatfi'rn kara sa ! more lit . " oh ! it is becau?e he is doing manager, etc." ANECDOTES 1[ 450. MAKOTO NO SEKKEN. TRUTH 'S ECONOMY. Kenclio-goro^ no koto de, Kamakura} shikkcn ni Kencho-period 's fact being. Kamakura Regent to tsukaeta Aoto Saemon Fujitsuna to in yakunin ga, served Aoto Saemon Fujitsuna that say official [nom.) aril yo Nanieri-gaiva wo watarn toki ni, kerai a-certaiii night Nameri-river {acais.) crosses time in. retainer ga ayamattc zeni ju-mon ivo kawa ye otoshiniasMta no {nom.) erring coin ten-cash (flccus.) river to dropped {trans.) act wd^, — Fujitsuna iva, kyu ni Iiito tvo yatoi,* whereas, — Fujitsuna as-for, suddenly people (accus.) having-hired, taimatsu ivo tsukete, kotogotoku hiromasete torches {accus.) having-lighted. completely having-caused-to-pick-up, kaeraremashita. '' deigned -to-return. I^ono koto zvo, aru futo ga ivaratte, This act (accus.) certain people (notn.) laughing-at, " Wazuka ju-vion no zeni wo oshifuie, taimatsu wo "Trifle ten-cash 's coin {accus.) grudging, torches {acais.) I. For the use of nengo or "year-names," see p. 116. The best book of reference on the subject of Japanese chronology is Bramsen's "Japanese Chronological Tables," — 2. Kamakura, now two hours' journey by train from the more modern city of Yedo or T6k\ o. w a-^, during the Middle Ages, the capital of the feudal rulers of J.iiiaii. The Hojo family of S/nkken, or " Regents," occupied this position during the thirteenth and a {wrtion of the fourteenth century, and Aoto I'ujitsuna held high judicial oftke uiidii- llu- fifth ruler of their line. \m(.. is the surnaiiH-, l'"u)il^uiia tlu- |X'i-oii;il (c(iuivalt,-nl to our - Cliii-tian ■') ANECDOTES. TRUE ECONOMY. The following incident happened about the period styled Kencho (A. D. 1249 — 1256). When Aoto Saemon Fiiji- tsuna, an official in the service of the Regent of Kamakura, was crossing the River Nameri one night, a retainer of his let ten cash fall by mistake into the river, where- upon Fujitsuna hastily hired some men, and made them light torches and pick all the money out of the water. Some one is reported to have laughed at this, and to have said : " Through grudging the ten cash, name, and Saemon a kind of title, wliich has, however, ahtiost come to foi-m part of the actual name itself. The Nameri-gawa is a small stream near Kamakura. — 3. The whole sentence down to here forms a sort of accusative to the following clause relating Fujitsuna's action upon what had happened. "Thereupon" or " whereas " is the nearest approach to a literal English rendering. — 4. The indefinite form yatoi is here equivalent to a gerund, because correlated with the gerund tsukiic immediately below ; conf. p. 178, ^ 278, and p. 264. — 5. Observe ho^\ the sentence Is rounded off by kaeraretnashita (honorific potential for kacriniashtta ; conf. \ 403, p. 250. Further examples of such honorific potentials are offered below by kikarcmasJnta^ iwarcmas/nta, and mosaremashita). Hiro- 7vascta alone would sound bald to Japanese ears, which generally expect to have the \vhole action related down to its very entl ; conf. ^ 302, p. 197. 346 ANEC])OTES. kaitari, htto luo now-buying, people (accus.) taiso kakattarb. great-deal has-probably-cost. no hyaku shirazu 's hundred iarnores yatottari now -hiring Kore koso This indeed da " to it la is" that said shtie, fiyuhi ga doing, expense {nom.) Ichi-mon oshimi one-cash grudging SO desXi. appearance is. Sore That 7V0, rujttsuna (accus.) Fnjitsuna omou mono mo aro think persons also may-be tsuyb shite iru kara, circulation doing is because, ga^ — kawa no soko ye whereas, — river 's bottom to hirowaneba, tenka no if-do-not-pick-up, world 's da^ " to iivaremashita. ga kikaremashite, " So {tiom.) having-deigned-to-hear, " So ga, — tsuiyashita zeni zva, although, — spent coin as-for, inuyo ni iva naran uselessness to as-for becomes-not >hizunda ten-c takara zvo ushinau kara snizunaa ju-mon iva, ima sank ten -cash as-for, now (accus.) lose because that deigned-to-say. Kore-ra ga, niakoto no sekken to iu mono desti. Such-as-this (/ww?.), truth 's economy that say thing is. Oku Mostly okonau practise ira. iva as-for, lame ni sake for, -sore~ra n hereas, — such-like lori-chigaete, taking-and-mistaking, rinshoku ni nam parsimony to become /iito to people with. wa as-for. nanmasen. becomes-not. idjitsu ame-day sekken economy mono persons also no wo {accus.) mo an'masu an; ron. ni discussion in Shikashi, loji no Nevertheless, ])rc:sent-linie 's keizai-gakXisha political-economists no setsu of opinion itashitara, ikaga mosaremashb ka ? if-one-made, how w ill-they-probably-deign-to-say ? 6. In this proverb oshimi — oshimu Into, " a grudging person.'" S/n- razi4 is not the negative gerund of shiru, but its Classical " conclusive ANECDOTES. 34/ Fujitsuna must have been put to great expense, what Avith buying torches and hiring men. This indeed is to be "Penny -^ = " being." — 4. A humble term; see top of p. 49. Ware-7uare, a little lower down, is humble too. 359 A SAVANTS WEDDING. At Heidelberg, a town in Germany, there is a univer- sity, where lives an old professor now eighty-six or seven years of age. He is a hale old man, and his name is Bunsen. He and I are colleagues, in the sense that we are both specialists in the same field. But the difference of our respective ages and of our talents makes of me his very humble follower. Well, this old gentleman, in . his younger days, had engaged himself to a beautiful girl. It had been settled that the wedding should take place at the church at about eleven o'clock in the morning of a certain day in a certain month. So the bride, anxious not to be late, reached the church about ten in brilliant array, to find, however, that Bunsen had not yet arrived. Eleven o'clock came, twelve o'clock came, three o'clock, four o'clock, — still no sign of the Professor. A The lecturer and Dr. Bunsen are both chemist?. — 5. CAd-yo = "- old young;" hence "age." Ta-s/id = ^^ much little," hence "amount;" conf. *[ 48, p. 34, for the " synthesis of contradictories," which these terms exemplify. — 6. This word is used half-jokingly. Indeed there is a touch of raillery in all this passage, especially in the bride's words " Osoht nam to ikenai," — 7. A somewhat slangy substitute for the proper verb, which would here be dete or miete. Conf. yarakas/ute, so often used by the lowest classes as a substitute for all sorts of verbs. The yntte just below has its usual sense of " sending." 360 ANECDOTES. uchi ye Jiito ivo yatte ukagawaseru to, sensei wa doko ye itta kaP inai to iu no de,^ fujin no ho de wa, taiso hara wo tatete, siigu uchi ni kaette shimatta to iu koto.^ Sate BunseJi sefisei wa, sono hi no asa kara Jikken-shitsu de chiisa na sHiken wo hajimete ita ga, — sono shaken ni omoshiromi ga tsuite, Jikafi no sugiru 710 ni mo kokorozukazu, yagate tokei wo miru to, gogo no roku-ji de atta kara, ki ga tsuite, odoroite, tera ye itte miru to, fujin no ho wa, okotte kaette shimatta ato de arimasJiita. Soko de, Bunsen sensei no iwaku^^ : " Kon-in to iu mono wa, mendo-kusai mono da '' to, — sore-giri sono go wa kon-i7i wo sezu ?ii, kojuiichi de mo kivakushaku taru rojm de, musai de orimasTi. ^^Kore wo ?nite mo, gakiimon no kenkyu no omoshiroi koto wa wakari ni narimashb. 8. Thei-e is not any intention of quoting words actually used. Iu has here little signification. To iu no de = " it being the fact that..." — 9. Koto is here a sort of expletive. To iu^ "it is said that," does not requii-e to be represented in the English transla- A''.j9. Apropos of this extract, we take the opportunity to re- mind students of the fundamental difference between English and Japanese in the matter of the length and complication of sentences, brought about by that system of syntactical " integration," which we have explained in ^ 442 — ^4, p. 280 ft seq. No foreigner will ANECDOTES. 36 1 messenger was sent to the house to make enquiries. Where was he ? Nowhere to be seen ! Thereupon, home went the bride in a fury. The fact was that the Professor had instituted some small experiment in his laboratory on the morning of the day in question, and had become so deeply interested in it as to fail to notice the flight of the hours. By and by, on looking at his watch and finding that it was six o'clock in the after- noon, he recollected the situation with dismay, and hurried off to the church to see what could be done. But the bride had already departed in her wrath. Thereupon, the Professor came to the conclusion that matrimony was a bother. So he remained unmarried from that day forward, and he still lives on as a hale old man, but wifeless. This example may suffice to show you the attraction which scientific investigation is capable of exercising. tion. — 10. N'o iioaku^ lit. " the speech of," is a Classical equivalent for the Colloquial ga iiviashlta. — ii. The original wording of this last paragraph has been slightly altered, to suit the purposes of the pi-esent work. attain to a good Japanese style, unless he learns \\o\\- to concatenate his thoughts into long and complicated periods, just as no Japanese will express himself clearly in English unless he learns to be short and simple. The English translation of the above extract has no less than eighteen sentences. The Japanese original has but five. Tf 454- N A Z E?^ Eigo no " why," sTmaivachi naze to hi koto wa, hanahada taisetsu de aru no ni, Shina ya Nihon no mukashino Mto-hifo iva metia ni kono kotoba tvo tsukaivazti^, '"* Koshi 7io setsii da'' to ka, " Moshi no jiron da'' to ka iu toki wa, mohaya betsu ni sono rikutsu ivo sensakn sum koto vio naku, tada gaien sJiite shimau no ga tsurei de ari ; soko de motte, " Utagai wa bummei shimpo no ichi dai-gen-in da" to iu ron mo dekita wake de, ima iva yaya mo sureba Seiyb-jin iva " Utagai wa taisetsu 7ia mono da ; bummei shinipo ?io gen-in da. Sono shbko ni wa, Shina-jin ya Nihon-jin ivg., mono-goto wo utagau to iu koto ivo shinai 7ii yotte, itsu made tatte mo shimpo shinai de zva nai ka ?" to ronji-tateru koto de aru ga, — ko iu rei nado ni hikareru to iu wa, o tagai sama ni^ amari zotto itasan shidai to iwanakereba narimasen. Utagai to wa, tori mo naosazu naze to iu kotoba no hitsuyb ni fiatte kuru gen-in de, — tatoeba, kodomo no jibun, " Uso itte wa, ikenaiyo I" to obasan nado ni ii-kikasareru de arb. Sono toki I. This piece is a leading article taken from the columns of an extinct Tokyo newspaper, the Kaishin Shivilmn. It has been retained in this edition, though its point of view is somewhat antiquated, because of its representatively idiomatic style. Speak thus, and you will be intelligible to any audience, however uncultivated. W H Y? What is termed ivhy in English and naze in our language, is a veiy important thing. Nevertheless, the Chinese and Japanese of olden times hardly ever used the word. When told perhaps that such and such was the doctrine of Confucius or the opinion advocated by Mencius, they habitually ac- quiesced without further enquiry into_ the rights of the question. Now, therefore, when the theory has arisen that doubt is one of the greatest sources of enlightenment and progress, and when, consequently, Europeans are apt to assert the importance of doubt and its services to the cause of civilisation, and to prove this their assertion by pointing to the Chinese and Japanese as instances of nations forever un progressive, owing to their neglect to subject all things to the scrutiny of doubt, — when we hear such opinions ventilated, and find ourselves quoted in such a connection, we all must agree that it is by no means a pleasant state of affairs. It is exactly this thing called doubt that causes the word zvhy to become an indispensable one. Take a child, for instance. Probably its grandmother or somebody says to it : " Mind you mustn't tell stories ! " Then let the 2. The word naze is little used even now, except in anger. The circumlocution do iti wake de ? " for what reason ? " is generally pre- ferred . 3. O tagai sama tii, " mutually," " for you and me," the honorific o giving a half- polite, half-comical tinge to the expression. 364 ^'AZE ? ni, " Naze uso wo itte wa, ivarui ?io de gozaiinasii ka ? to utagaiwo ii-dasMte goranjiro ! — " ' Naze ' da tie /* Sonna kotoha wo kaesu mono de wa arimasen} Ningen iva, uso wo itte wa, - warui mono ni kimatte orimasu " to atama-kahuse^ ni ii-tsuke- rareru ga tsurei de aro. Naruhodo ! ningen iva, uso wo itte wa, warui ni kimatte o?'u ni chigai nai ga, — sojio warui rikutsu' wo shitte gaten suru no to, tada bon-yari to gaten suru no to de wa onaji gaten suru no de mo, gaten no wake ga taisb chigau de aro to zonJi?nasu. Naze ni kuni ni wa seifu to iu mono ga aru no ka ? Naze ni jimmin wa sozei wo osameru mono ka P Mazu utagai wo okoshite, sono rikutsu wo sensaku shite koso, hajimetejiyu-seido-ron mo okotte kuru to iu mo?io de, — tada rikutsu nashi ni, '^ Kuni ni wa seifu ga aru mono^, jimmin wa sozei wo osameru mono " to gaten shite ite wa, shidai ni hikutsu ni 7ia?'u bakari de, kesshite shimpo suru koto wa arimasen. Naze no hitsuyb na no wa, hitori dbtoku ya seiji nomi ni kagirazu, sono ta, sekai ni arayuru^ 7nono-goto ni wa, donna sasai no ten ni itaru made mo, subete hitsuyb ?ta koto de, — yoku seken no hito-bito ga " Gakumon ga taisetsu da, taisetsu da " to iu ga, — tsumari nan no gakumon mo, utagai wo mote 4. Datte is from da to itte, " saying that ; " but it has become a sort of interjection, 5. De iva ariviasen, lit. " is not," is occasionally thus used in the sense of " must not." 6. Atama-kabuse «/ = "with a snub." The kindred expression atanta kara kogoto 700 iu is a common phrase for " unreasonable WHY ? 365 following doubt be expressed in reply. " Why is it wrong to tell stories ? " and it will generally happen that the enquirer will be snubbed with a '' Why ? ' indeed ! None of your pert retorts for me ! Every one agrees that it is wrong for people to tell stories." Yes, indeed ! no doubt every one agrees that it is wrong to tell stories ; and to acquiesce in this principle with a know- ledge of the reasons why story-telling is wrong, or to acquiesce in it unintelligently, is equally to acquiesce. But surely there is a great difference between the two modes of acquiescence. Why is it that there is what is termed a government in the country ? Why do the people have to pay taxes ? It is only by raising such questions and searching for reasons, that liberal political opinions get started. When people simply go on unreasoningly, accepting as ultimate facts the existence of government and the obligation to pay the taxes, they merely sink deeper and deeper into servility, and never make any progress. Doubt is indispensable, not in morals and in politics only. It is indispensable in other things also, in every single thing in the world, down to the very smallest. People often say and repeat that learning is important. But after all, in no branch of learning is there any fruitful course to be pursued, unless we make doubt the foundation, and, with a perpetual scolding." 7. IVariii rikiUsit does not mean " a bad reason," but "the reason why it is bad ; " conf. p. 60. 8. Supply da, " it is (a fact that there is a government, etc.)." 9. Arayiiru is an exceptional verbal form derived from artt, " to be," and meaning " all that there are." 366 NAZE ^ 7ii shiy naze naze de motte oku no oku made rikutsu wo sensaku siiru to iu koto ni hoka wa nai. Shi-sho Go-kyb^^ ni kaite am mono-goto ni kessKite viachigai wa nai to, tada ' rikutsu nashi ni gaten shite shimatte ita^^ hi ?ii wa, yo no naka wa Shi-sho Go-kyo inai no yo no naka de owaru no de, itsti made tatte mo susumu kizukai wa fiai ga, — motto?no " Sore dake de, takusan da'' to iu ki naraba, suman koto mo arumdi keredomo, naze wo mochiite, rikutsu wo sensaku shita^' hi ni wa, rikutsu kara rikutsu to, shidai ni rikutsu ni hana ga saki, mi ga nari, kwairaku no shurui ga oku mo okiku mo naru to ivakari-kitte iru to shite mirehd^^, naze iva mochiite viitai mono de wa 7iai ka ? Ningen ga hikutsu no kyokutan ni tassureba, zuibun omoi 7710 yoran fuzoku nado ga shojiru 77iono de, — mugaku 7io kyokutan, sunawachi mono-goto 7io rikutsu wo shiran to iu koto no kyokutan mo, zuibun 771yd 71a mono de, — ni-Jis-seiki no ko7inichi de mo, yaba7i no shakwai ni iri-konde 77ii/u to, ki-o 710 senzo 7io koto ya, mirai no shison no koto 7iado iva, sukoshi mo 077iowazu ; tada ichi-dai-kiri ni owaru to iu yd na jinshu ga naka ni wa arimasu. Lia /** ki-b no se7izo ya 77iirai no shison wa, iu made 7710 7iashi. Hanahadashii no 10. Shi-sJio Go-kyo, " the Four Books and the Five Canons," is the name given to the sacred Classics of China, \\'hich form the basis, of the Chinese polity and of the Confucian morality. 11. Substitute the present tense iru, "to be," for the past /Va in order to understand this passage. Strange as it may appear, Japanese idiom always employs the past in such contexts ; conf. \ 275, p. 176. WHY ? 367 why, search for reasons in the innermost recesses of the subject. So long as folks simply acquiesce, without reasoning, in the infallibility of every word that stands written in the Chinese Classics, the world will remain a Chinese Classic world, without a chance of progressing, however many centuries may roll by. Of course, too, it may be quite possible for those to get on thus, whose spirit is satisfied with such a state of things. But when people have once come to a clear understanding of how, if they use the word why and search for reasons, they will ^o on from reason to reason, so that the reasons will first bear blossoms and then fruit, and that more numerous and more intense kinds of happiness will be attained to, will not why then become a thing which they will like to try their hand at using ? When human beings reach the iie plus ultra of ser- \ility, somewhat unexpected manners and customs are the result. Somewhat strange, too, are the results of the 7ie plus ultra of ignorance, — in other words, of a lack of knowledge of the reasons of things. Penetrate into savage societies at this very day, in this tw^entieth century of ours, and you will find among them races that show an utter disregard both for departed ancestors and for un- born descendants, — races that live for their own genera- tion only. Nay ! what need to talk of departed ancestors and of unborn descendants ? Why ! when you get to the 12. Similar remark to the preceding : substitute the present sum for the past shita in order to understand the clause, 13. To sJiitc uiireba — da ni yotte, " in consequence of which." 14. A Classical word for " nay," used emphatically by contemporary writers in imitation of English idiom. 368 NAZE ? ni naiie wa, genzai no oya-ko kybdai no aida-gara 7ii sukoshi mo kwankei wo tsukeie, shin-ai sum fio, nan no^'^, to iu yd na koto mo naku, tada jibun is-shin ga do ni ka ko ni ka romei wo tsiinagu koto ga dekireba, sore de manzoku shite iru to iujinshu mo md}^ niwa arimasu. Shokun! ijw wo 7?ii-tamae, — inu ivd^~ El Ikaga de goza- ru ? Oya-ko-rashiku omowareru wa, chichi wo nomu aida, wazuka bakari no koto dc, — chi-banare wo sum to, mohaya tanin, — otto /^^ mattaku taken^^ 7ii natte shimau de wa nai ka ? Shikaraba, ima iu tokoro no yaban-jinshu ?to gotoki wa, iwayurur^ ' * Kin-ju wo saru koto tokarazu "-^ no renju de aro. Oya-ko kybdai yori shite, shidai ni shin-ai ivo rinjin ni oyoboshi, ichi-gun ni oyoboshi, is-shu ni oyobosu 710 ga aikoku- shin no genso da keredomo, — genzai no oya-ko de sae betsu ni shin-ai sen to iu yd de wa, totemo aikoku-shin nado no arb hazu wa 7iai. Shtkashi Nihon-jin fiado iva, shi-awase to s)re hodo mugaku de mo ttaku ; shitagatte sob ni aikoktt-shin 7no aru n da ga, — sude 7ii aikoku-shin ga aru naraba^ kbno naze wa iyo-iyo 15. Yor no thus used enumeratively or to indicate a sort of pause, see ^ 115, p. Zo. S/iin-ai sunt no, nan 7to is, as literally as possible, " loving or anything-(else-) ing." 16. Ma ni wa = tama ni loa "occasionally," Ma originally meant *' space," " room." 1 7. The emphatic repetition of the accusative after the verb is rather common, especially in the mouths of the lower classes. 18. Otto is an interjection, which we have very freely rendered by *• excuse me." WHY ? 369 very lowest races of men, some there are who pay not the sHghtest heed to the ties of kindred, who show^ no trace of family affection or of anything of that sort, but who are quite contented if, by hook or by crook, they can, each on his own account, scrape together a livelihood. Gentlemen ! just look at the way dogs live. What is it like, let me ask ? Is it not true that the fondness be- tween the parent and her young endures but for a brief season, while the puppies are sucking.^ Wean them, and at once they become strangers — excuse me, strange curs — to one another. This being so, I take it that such creatures as the savage races just referred to belong to the category described as " not far removed from the birds and beasts." To begin by parental, filial, and frater- nal love, gradually to extend such kindly feelings to neighbours, then to all the people of a district, and next to those of a province is the origin of patriotism.^ But there can never be any such thing as patriotism in the absence of even the love between li\ing parents and children. However, we Japanese are fortunately not so ignorant as all that, and accordingly we have a fair share of the patriotic spirit. But having this patriotic spirit, the why of which I have spoken becomes all the more indispens- 19. TcDi'ui and taken, lit. "other-person" (or "stranger") and " other-dog," make a sort of pun, which we have endeavoured to render in the English version by " strangers " and " strange curs " (!) 20. An exceptional verbal form meaning " what is called," and derived from hi, " to say," like arayiiru from ani (sec foot-note 9, P- 365). 21. This quotation is in the Written Language, where tdka/a\n is the " negative conclusive present " of the adjective toi, " far," and i^^ equivalent to the Colloquial toht nai. 370 NAZE? hiisuyo ni natle kuru shidai de^ — Shi-sho Go-kyo ivo 7'ikiUsu nashi ni gaten shiie, Shi-sho Go-kyu inai no yo no naka de oivaro to onioite mo, kochira iva korc de vianzokii shite ??io, 0-Bei shoshu wa viatizoku sezu ; shidai ni naze wo 77iochi- ite, shin-kwairaku ivo shojiru to sweba-^', yushb-reppai shizen no ikioi de, hetsu ni 0-Bei-jin ni Nihon ivo horoboso to in kokorozashi nashi to sum mo, hitori-de ni horobite shimau kara, shiyo ga 7iai. Nihon baka7-i, hoka 7ii kuni wa nai to in koto 7ia/'aba, go chTwi07i-dbri^'^ Shi-sho Go-kyo inai no yo no 7taka de itsu 7)iade 7710 i7'a7'e7-u keredo77io, hoka 7ii ku7ii ga taktisan atte zva, so wa ikazu ; 77iendd-k^isake7-edomo, naze wo 77iochiite, m07io-goto no se7isaku wo se7ieba 7ia7imasen. 22. To sM-el>a = ''^ ii it should come to pass that." 23. Go cJiumoji-ddri, lit. " according to (your) august orders," here used half-jokingly in the sense of " if you please." This half-polite WHY ? 371 able. E\-en should we, acquiescing unreasoningl}- in the dicta of the Chinese Classics, think to live on in a Chinese Classic world, the satisfaction with such a state of things would be for ourselves alone. None of the nations of Europe and America will be satisfied with it. They will go on using the word why, they will go on inventing new sources of happiness. This granted, there will be no help for it but that Japan must perish natural- ly, without the necessity for assuming any special inten- tion on the part of foreign nations to destroy her, but by the mere working of the law of the survival of the fittest. If Japan were the only country in the world, then, gentle- men ! you might continue forever to please yourselves by living on in a Chinese Classic world. But this plan will not do when there are so many other countries besides ours. Troublesome though it be, we are bound to use the word ivhy, and to search to the root of everything. half-joking use of the honorifics is by no means uncommon, and is used to give many a sly tap under cover of an apparently polite style of address. * ^ 455. - SHINREI-JO NO KYOGU; (YOKOI TOKIO SHI NO SEKKYO NO UCHI.) Chikagoro Seiyb ni shinkiva-ron ga sakan ni okolte, kono ienchi bamhuisu ga deki, kono yo no ttaka ga deki-agaitaru hb-hb ivo ioki-akashimasiiru. Sono selsu ni yotte inh-eba, kono sekai ni iva hajune iva shigoku ianjun nam seibuisu shlka arimasenanda ga, — sore ga tekitb no kybgu no hataiaki ivo tike, ima no fJikuzatsu nam kono iimwasJitki sekai wo tsukuii- dashiviasJiita. Kotio iekiib ?io kybgu to wa, s^mawachi shizen- ibiajano", shiyli-ibta jano io lu mono ga arimasu. Yushb-reppai, iektshu-seizon io iu koto ga arimasu. Subete kore-ra seibuisu no haiialsu, shinkwa ni iekiib nam kybgu io iu koto ivj komaka ni seisumei shtiaj-u mono^ de arimasYi. Ima kono kybgu no haiaraki wa, iada db-shoku-buisu no nikYdai no ue n )mi narazu, maia ivatakYishi-domo no chishiki no ue ni ioiie X mgaeie mo, I. Written with the Chinese characters i^^ g Ji (?) i^ ^. This sermon was printed in a Christian magazine (now extinct) entitled " Hankyo" or " The Echo." It somewhat approaches the Written Language in its style. Thus we find : in line 2, agattarn for agatta ; lines 4 and 6, naru for na ; line 6, uniivasitiki for tn-tnoasiiii ; line 6 of P- 374» scsJiimeta for saseta, etc. ; furthermore the constantly recurring use of the indefinite form at the end of clauses, as deki in line 2, co- related with dcki-agattarii in the next clause. Here are (for the benefit of the student's Japanese teacher) the Chhiesc characters with which the most difficult words in this sermon are written : — s/iinkiiuj-ron, ^ \]^ %^], "the doctrine of evolution •" fukuzatsii, ^j|^, "complicated ;" s/;izr;/- SPIRITUAL ENVIRONMENT. (EXTRACT FROM A SERMON BY THE REV. YOKOI TOKIO.) Of late years wide credence has been given in Western countries to the doctrine of evolution, which explains the method whereby heaven and earth and all that there- in is arose, — the way in which the world was finished. According to this theory, the world at first contained none but the simplest types of life, which, thanks to the action of a suitable environment, resulted in the formation of our present complicated and beautiful world. The suitable environment in question includes such things as natural selection and sexual selection, such facts as the struggle for existence and the sur^dval of the fittest. The theory explains in detail the conditions of environ- ment which are favourable to the development and evolu- tion of living beings. Now, this action of the environ- ment is exercised not only on the bodily frames of animals and plants. It is as clearly to be traced in the develop- tota, g ^ ^ xi;, " natural selection ;" shiyu-toia, Stf| ^ j^ j^^, " sexual selection ;" yushp-reppai , @ ^ ^ ^, " the struggle for existence " (in- cluding the idea of the survival of the fittest) ; tekishu-seizoii, jl^li^i^, "the survival of the fittest ;" and, close to the end, Jika-doc/iakit, g^ @§, " self-confutation." — 2. jfatio is the Kyoto equivalent of the dano explained on p. 80. — 3. Mono in this - sentence is equivalent to koto in the next. The author was ]Derhaps led to this somewhat exceptional use of mono by an instinctive dislike to the repetition of too many koto in succession. — 4. This mono denotes the doctrine of evolution. — ■ 5. Short for dohUsu shokubtitsu. 374 A SERMON. hanahada akiraka ni tvakarimasu. Gakiisha to gujin ga dekini no 7)10, sono kybgu ikan ni yoiie bi ni sadamani koto de, ima koko ni onaji saichi, ojiaji rikiryb luo inoiie oru kodomo wo ioiie, Jiitori iva goku inaka no shimhun ivo mini koto mo nai chihb ni oki ; maia Kiiori lua, kore ivo ioiie^, biimmei no chushin to in Tbkyb ni oki, isui ni^daigakii ni ireie shugakii seshimeia naraha, go-neri ka roku-nen no nochi ni wa, kofto/fitari no chisMki-jb holondo ien-chi no chigai ga dekirii kolo de arimasu. {Chii- ryakti\) Vo no naka 710 Mto ga 77ibshimasu7'u ni, ivalakushi iva yoi kolo wo sHiiai to iu kangae gajuhun a7'i ; waiakushi ni wa zen wo nashiiai to in negai ga jubu7i a7'i ; ivaiakiishi 710 oko7iai ivo 77iiie 7710, wa/akfishi 7va kakubeisti iva7'ui koto zvo shite 0711 to W2 077ioimase7i, Sude 7ii wataktishi 7io koko7 7ii 7ybshi7i ga atte, zvatakYishi 7ii zen zvo susiime, aku zvo imashi77iemasti kara, S071) iybshi7i 710 sashizu zvo 77iotte ikeha, hetsu 7ii Seisho zvo yo77iazu, betsu 7ii i7i07i zvo s/miaktite mo yo7-oshii to in is-shu no kangae ga gozai77iast{. Sate ko7io ka/igae zva, Niho7i 7i077ii ni okonazva7-ete o/'u chiisai 7710710 ka to iu 7ii, Seiyb 7io motto7nn bu77i7nei na7u Doitsu, Igi7-isu 7ii oite 7710 okonozva7U7'u iolioi no 7710710 de a7H. Shukyb zva ii-anai, sekkyb zvo kiku koto zvi i7-anai, Seisho zvo yo77iu koto zva i7a7iai, tada waiakfishi 710 koko 70 de zvarui koto zvo shinake7'eba yo70shii to mbshi77iasYi. Db dt a7-i777ashb ka ? Koko 7ii goku chiisai htto-tsubu no shii-7io-7ni ga dete kite 77ibsu ni, " Wataktishi zva, zvatakfishi 710 uchi 7ii ka7io kbdai 7ia7u so7a 7ii sobiywu shii-710-ki to 7ia7U 710 chika7'a wo motte 07i, kore to 7ia7U keikzvaku zvo sonaete 07U gayue 7ii, 6. Lit. "as for again one, having taken him " [l^orc). — 7. This word is A SERMON. 375 ment of our intelligence. The environment it is, which chiefly determines whether a man shall be learned or ignorant.- Take two children of equal intelligence and ability. Set down one of them in some remote spot where there is not even a newspaper to be seen. Take the other, and set him in Tokyo, the centre of enlightenment ; let him finish his studies at the university, and in five or six }ears there will result, in the intellects of these two youths, a difference almost as great as that which divides heaven from earth People declare themselves to be full of good resolves, full of yearnings after virtue, and incapable, on self- examination, of discovering anything particularly repre- hensible in their actions. Their hearts, sa\" they, have a good conscience, which recommends virtue to them and restrains them from vice, — a conscience which, if they follow its dictates, obviates all special need of reading the Bible and engaging in prayer. Nor is such a way of thinking an insignificant exception confined to Japan. It is to be found in the most civilised countries of the West, — ^in Germany and in England. There, too, men are apt to say that there is no use in religion, no use in hearing sennons preached, no use in reading the Bible, and that nothing is required beyond good intentions. Now, my brethren, how would it strike you, if a tiny acorn were to come and tell you that it contained in itself the capacity for growing into one of those gigantic oaks which rear their heads to the skies, and that, as its design was to become such a one, it had no special need of used, as a row of stars or dots is with us, to show that a passage has been omitted. It signifies literally "abbreviating" (i. e. dispensing with), ryaku ; " the middle," chu. 376 A SERMON. betsu 111 iaiyb ni ierasarenai ds vio yoroshii, ame ni awazu to mo yoroshii, isYichi 110 naka ni ne ivo hahikorasenai de mo yoroshii'' to iwah.j, mina savia iva kore wo motte ika nani koto to ?iasaruj'u ka ? Sadamete " Kbman ni mo hodo ga aru. Negau dake de iva, mokXiieki wa tasserarenai" to bseranini fii chigai ?iai. Oyoso hito wa, ika ?iaru hito nite mo, toki to shite zen wo nashitai to iu negai wo okosan mono iva arimaseji. Atto Ishikawa Goemon^ mo, issho no uchi 7ii wa, kafiarazu zen ivo fiashitai to iu ncn wo okoshita koto ga am ni chigai nai. Shikashi kanji ga okotta kar'a to itte^ zentiin to wa mbsaremasen. Ware-ware mo, toki to shite wa, hijb fii shinkb- shin ga okori, Seisho ivo yomazu ni oraren koto ga arimaslc ; shinja no hito to majiwarazu fii oraren to iu koto ga arimasYt. Shikashi kanJi ga okotta kara to itte^, rippa nam Kami no shinja to wa mbsaremasen. Tada ni kokorozashi dake de wa yaku ni iva tatan ; kanji dake de wa piokYiteki wa tasseraren. Kore woybsei shi, kore wo hattatsu seshimuru ni tekitb naru kybgH ga hanahada hitsuyb de arimasXi. Shitkyb wa iranai, Seisho wa iranai to iu hito-bito iva, dare ka to iu ni, — sono hito ga mottomo shinkiva-ron wo tonaete, yoki kybgu ga fiakereba dbbutsu mo, shokubutsu mo, Jiingen mo dekifiai to iu hito de, gakkb wo omonji, shomotsu zvo omonzuru tokoro no hito de arimasti. Kare-ra wa tada dbtoku-jb, shinkb-jb no koto ?ii kagiri, zenryb naru kybgu wa irafiai to iimasYi. Fb no naka ni jika-dbchaku to iu koto ga bku arimasu ga, — kore yori hanahadashlki osorosJiiki jika-dbchaku wa arumai to omoimasti. 8. A notorious highwayman of the latter part of the sixteenth century. He suffered the penalty of his innumerable crimes by being boiled to death in a cauldron of oil. The scene of the execution was A SERMON. 377 being shone on by the sun, no need of being moistened by the rain, no need of spreading its roots into the soil ? \\'hat would you think of this ? Most assuredly you would say that even conceit has its limits, and that the forming of a wish by no means entails reaching the goal. There are none among the sons of men who do not occasionally form virtuous resolves. Doubtless Ishikawa Goemon himself formed virtuous resolves some time during the course of his life. But good impulses cannot be said to constitute a virtuous man. We ourselves occasionally ex- perience an extraordinary ardour of belief, an extraordinary craving to read the Bible, an irresistible attraction towards the society of believers. But such good impulses cannot be said to constitute us exemplary Christians. A mere intention is of no use. A mere intention will not make us attain to the goal. It is essential that we should be placed in an environment calculated to foster our good intentions and develope them. Who are the men who say that religion and the Bible are useless ? They are those self-same ones, who, holding firmly to the doctrine of evolution, and asserting that neither animals, plants, nor human beings can develope without a favourable environment, lay the greatest stress on schools and on book- learning. It is only in matters of faith and morals that they assert the uselessness of a virtuous environment. Numerous as are the instances which the world affords of self-confutation, surely there ne\-er was a more extreme, a more terrible instance of self-confutation than this. the dry bed of the river Kamo at Kyoto.— 9. For this idiom see ^ 118, p. 83. ^ 456. FUKUZAWA O NO EIGO BENKYO. (" FUKU-Qi JIDEN " YORI BASSUI.) WatakYishi ga luio ni kita sono yokunen — stinawachi Ansci' rokii-7ien — go-koku joyaku to iu moTio ga happii ni natta no de^ Yokohama wa masashiku hiraketa hakari no tokoro, soko de watakfishi 7va Yokohama ni kembiitsu 7ii itta. Sono toki no Yokohama to iu mo7io loa, gwaikoku-Jin ga chira-hora kite ini dakc de, hori-fate-goya mita yo na uchi ga shoho ?ii choi-choi dekite, givaikoku-jin ga soko ni sunde, mise ivo dasfiite ini. Soko ye itte inita^ tokoro ga, chotto mo kotoba ga tsujijiai. Kotchi no iu koto mo ivakaranakereba, atchi no, iu koto mo mochirofi ivakaranai ; mise no kamban mo yomenakereba, bin no hari-gami mo wakarajt. Xani zvo mite fno, zvatakiishi no shitte ini moji to iu mo7io iva 7iai. Eigo da ka, Futsugo da ka, ikko ivaka7-anai. Kyo7yuchi zvo haa-biwa a7uku uchi ni, Doitsu-ji7i de Ki7iijyu7-u to iu shd7ii7i 710 7iiise 7ii buchi-atatta . So 710 shd7tin zva Doitsu-ji7i de koso a7-e,^ Ra7igo, Ra77ibu7i ga cuaka7u. Kotchi 710 kotoba zva 7oku 7ii zvaka7a7iai ke7-edo77io, Ra77ibun zvo kakeba dbka i/7ii ga tsTizwu;' to iu 710 de, soko de i7'0-i70 7ia ha7tashi zvo shita7i, chotto kai/7i07io zvo shita/i shite, Edo 7ii kaette kita. Go huo 71a ha7iashi de.^ So7e 7710 yashiki 7ii 77ionge7i' ga aiu 710 de, 77iae 710 ba7i 710 Ju-ni-Ji ka7-a itte, I. As if we should write "old [Mr.] F." Such abbreviations are elegant in the Written Style, see p. 33. — 2. The "year name" Ansei lasted from 1854 to i860. — 3. IlU' /////« = " went," "visited." — 4. For koso and its " government," see Vocabulary, s. z^.-— 5. Book form for tsTijini. — 6. Honorific applied to himself, and sentence incomplete, — both idiomatic. — 7. Lit. "gate limit." Fukuzawa was living in the mansion Mr. FUKUZAWA'S ENGLISH STUDIES. (AX EXTRACT FROM " FUKUZAWA'S AU TOBIOGRAPIIV. •) A year after my arrival in Yedo (from Osaka), in the year 1859, ^^^ Treaties made with five Western Powers were pubhshed ; so Yokohama had only then just been opened. It was then that I went down from Yedo to have a look at the new settlement. Very few foreigners had arrived there at that time. Their dwellings, which were little better than log huts, were dotted about here and there. In these houses they opened shops. On visiting these plac^ I was greatly embarrassed, as I had no means of communication with the foreigners who kept the shops. They did not under- stand my Japanese, and of course I could not make out what they said. I could neither read the shop signs nor under- stand the labels on bottles. Among all the letters that met my eye there was not one that was familiar to me. Was it English that was written, or was it French ? I did not know^ at all. In wandering through the foreign settlement, I came across a shop owned by a German named Kniffler. This man, though a German, understood written and spoken Dutch. He didn't know much Japanese, but he said that if I wrote in Dutch he could manage somehow or other to understand me. So I carried on a good deal of conversation with him in this way ; and, after making a few purchases, went back to Yedo. The whole thing had proved to be a very toilsome affair. In those times leave of absence from the mansion of of his feudal lord, the Daimyo of Nakatsu in Kyushu, and the outer gate always closed at a certain hour. 380 FLKUZAWA 6 NO EIGO BENKYO. sono ban no Jfi-fti-Ji ni kaetta kara, chodo it-chuya aruiic ita wake da. Yokohama kara kacffe, ivataktishi iva ashi no tsMarc de iva nai ; jitsu ni rakuian sh1ie shimatta, Korc iva P kore 7ra / doino ! shikata ga nai. Ima ?nade su-nen no aida shini-mono- gurui 7ii natte, Oranda no sho ivo yomii koio wo benkyb sHita. Sono benkyo shita mo7io ga ima iva nan ni mo Jiaranai. Shobai-tiin ?io kambari wo mite mo, yomu koio ga dckinai. Sari to iva, makoto ni tsumaran koto wo shita wai^ to, Jitstc ni rak^tan shite shimatta. Keredomo, kesshite raktitan shite irarei'u baai de nai. Astiko ni okonaivarete iru kptoha, kaite am moji wa, Eigo ka Futsugo tti soi nai. Tokoro de, ima sekai ?n Eigo gafutsu ni okonawarete iru to in koto wa kanete shitte iru. Nan de mo, are iva Eigo ni chigai nai. Ima waga kuni wj, joyakti wo musimde, hirake-kakatte int. Sasureba, kono go wa Eigo ga hitsuyo ni nam ni chigai nai. Yogaku-sha to shite, Eigo ivo shiranakereba, tote mo nani 7ii mo tsuzuru koto ga dekinai. Kono go wa, Eigo wo yomu yori hoka ni shikata ga nai to^^ Yokohama kara kaetta yokujitsu da,^^ — ichi-do wa rakUtan shita ga, dbji ni mata arata ni kokoro-zashi ivo hasshite, sore kara irai wa, issai banji Eigo to kakugo wo kimete ; — sate sotio Eigo wo ma?tabu to iu koto ni 8. Here equiv. to " alas !" — 9. See Vocabulary. IVai is current colloquially only in Kyoto and the provinces to the west, but may be heard in Tokyo on the stage. Fukuzawa's speech bewrays his western origin in several places, e.g. kayote iox kayotte. Conf. p. 163, \ 238.— 10. A new paiagraph here in the English version, though the original has but a comma, illustrates what has been said in \^ 442-4 <'ibout Japanese long sentences. — ii. The sentence will be better understood and parsed, if da be omitted. MR. FUKUZAWA S ENGLISH STUDIES. 3b I the lord one served was limited to a certain number of hours. I started one night at 12 o'clock and returned at the same hour the following night. So it meant that I had been on the tramp for no less than 24 hours. But when I got back from Yokohama what I felt most was not the fatigue of the journey but bitter disappointment at the results of my \isit. Alas ! alas ! How hard indeed was my lot ! There had I been working myself to death for a series of years in order to be able to understand. Dutch books, and now all my study had turned out to be quite useless. It did not enable me to decipher even the shop signs which I had seen. " This being so," said I to myself, " I have indeed done a stupid thing.'' For a while I was quite despondent. But it was no time for despondency. It appeared to me that the language^ spoken and written in Yokohama must be either English or French. Now it happened that prior to this I had heard that English was in general use in various countries. So I said to myself: — " The language used in Yokohama is certainly English. This country is now making treaties with Western Powers and is in the process of being opened up. This being the case, hence- forth a knowledge of English will certainly become necessary. A Japanese who professes to be versed in Western learning and yet who knows no English, do what he may, will not be able to understand anything at all. There is no other course for me to follow hereafter but to master written English." It was the day after I got back from Yokohama when for a while I gave way to a fit of despair. But on that very day a new resolve sprang up in my mind, — I determined that thenceforth the study of English should be the one great purpose of my life, and that all things should be made to give 382 FUKUZAWA 6 NO EIGO BENKYO. tsuite, do shite ii ka tori-isMi-ha ga nai. Edo-ju ni, doko de Eigo 700 oshiete iru to iu tokoro no aro wake mo nai. Kercdomo dan-dan kiiie mini to, sono toki ni joyaku ivo musiihii to iu ga tame ni, Nagasaki no isHji no Moriyania Takichiro to iu hi to ga Edo ni kite, Bakfifu^- no go yo^^ wo ts'iitomete iru. Sojio Jiito ga Eigo ivo shitte iru to iu tauasa ivo kiki-dashita kara, soko de Moriyama no uchi ni itte, narai- mashu to ko omote, sono Moriya??ia to iu hito wa, KoisMkawa no Suido-chb ni jukyo shite ita kara, sassoku sono uchi ni itte, Eigo kyoju no koto ivo tanomi-iru to, Moriyama no iu ni, " Sakkon go yd ga bkute, taihen ni isogashii keredomo, sekkaku narab to iu fiaraba, oshiete shinzeyo}^ Tsuite tva, mainichi shukkin-7nae asa hayaku koi" to iu koto ni natte, sono toki ivataklUshi wa, Teppozu ni sumatte ite, Teppdzu kara Koishikawa made y agate ni-j-i yo mo arimasho. Mai-asa hayaku okite yuku. Tokoro ga, " Kyo wa mo shukkin-??iae da kara, 7nata mybcho kite kure." Akuru asa hayaku yuku to, " Hito ga kite ite, ikenai" to iu. Db shite mo, oshiete kureru hima ga nai. Sore zva, Moriyama no fU-shinsetsu to iu ivake de wa nai. Jbyaku wo musuhb to iu toki da kara, naka-fiaka isogashikute, jissai ni oshieru hima ga ari zva shinai. So sum to, "■ Konna ni maichb kite, nani mo oshieru koto ga dekin de wa, kinodoku da. Ban ni kite kuren ka." " Sore Ja, ban 7ii mairimashb" to itte, kondo wa higure kara de-kakete yuku. 12. Baku-fu means the "Shogun's government," the term being derived from the tent {baku, better maku) from which that militai-y ruler may have originally issued his orders and fu, " court." ^ogi, used on p. 386, was an alternative name for it. — 13. Not ^^ your business, honorific go here pointing to the Shogun's government, just as nowadays it would point to the Emperor. — 14. A mongi-el form, half Book I^anguage, equiv. to Colloq. agcmasho. MR. FUKUZAWa's ENGLISH STUDIES. ^S$ way to it. But the question was, how was I going to begin ? At that time there were no facihties for commencing such a stud}-. There was of course no place anywhere in Yedo where Enghsh was taught. But after a while by inquiry I found out that a Nagasaki interpreter called Moriyama Takichiro was in Yedo, in the employ of the Government, in connection with the drawing up of the new treaties, and it was said that he knew English. So I thought I would go to his house and get him to teach me. He was living then in Suido-cho, Koishi- kawa. I at once applied to him. This is what he said : — " At present, having a great deal of official business in hand, I am \ery busy ; but since you say you are bent on learning English, I am willing to teach you. But you must come early ever}' morning befere I go to office." Thus the affair was arranged. At that time I was living in Teppozu, which is, I should say more than five miles distant from Koishikawa. Well, I went to Mr. Moriyama's house every morning. But I did not get what I wanted. One morning he said : — " It is now near the time for my starting for office ; so please come to-morrow morning." The next morning when I got there earlier, I was again put off. " Somebody has come to see me this morning," said Mr. Moriyama ; " so it is no go." It was quite evident that he had no time to teach me. His refusal to do so was not because he was unobliging. As the treaties had to be got ready for signing then, of course he was very busy and had no time to give to teaching me English. But after making the above remark, he added :— " I can't bear to see you coming like this every morning and going away without my being able to teach you anything. Won't you come at night ?" " 1 will do so," was my reply. So after that I started for his house after dark. 384 FUKUZAWA O NO EIGO BENKYO. Ano oral zva chbdo ima no Kcmda-bashi HVotsu-hashi-soto no Koto Shogyb Gakko no arte atari de, moio GojUn-ga-hara to iu oki na inatsu no ki 7iado ga oi-shigeite irii, osoroshii, sabishii tokoro de, oi-hagi de mo deso na tokoro da. Soko ivo KoisJiikaiva kara kaeri-michi ni yo no ju-ichi-ji ju-ni-ji goro torn toki no koivasa to in mono zva, ima de mo yoku ohoete int. Tokoro ga, kono yo-geiko mo yahari o?iaJi koto de, " Komban wa kyaku ga aru," iya " Kyu ni Gwaikoku-gata {Givaimushof'^ kara y obi ni kita kara, dete yukanakereba naran" to iu yd na wake de, tonto shikata ga nai. Oyoso soko ni futa-tstiki ka mi-tsuki kaybta}^ keredomo, do ni mo hima ga nai. Tote mo konna koto de zva, nani mo oboerii koto ?fio dekinai. Kiavdrii ?ii, Moriyama to iu sensei mo, nani mo Eigo zvo taisb shitte iru hito de zva nai. Ybyaku stikoshi hatsuon zvo kokoroete iru to iu gurai^'^ Tote mo kore zva shikata ga fiai to, yogi- nakii dannen. Sono mae ni ivatak^ishi ga Yokohama ni itta toki 7ii, Kiniffuru no misc de usui Ran-Ei kivaizva-sho ivo fii-satsu katte kita Sore zvo hitori de yomu to shita tokoro de, jisho ga nai. Ei-Ra?i taiyaJui no jisho ga areba, sensei nashi de jibun hitori de gesuru koto ga dekiru kara, dbka jisho zvo hoshii mo7io da to itta toJioro de, Yokohama ?ii jisho nado zvo uru tokoro zca nai. Nan to 7710 shikata ga 7iai. Tokoro ga, so7io toki 7ii Kuda7i-s]iita 15. Ciuaimushd alone is now used. — 16. Western Jap. for kayotta (Similarly above ojnote for omotte, and further on iiegota for vcgatta.) Just below, do ni mo is Western for do sJdtc mo. — 17. After gura sujjply dt'sJuta ; after daimcn supply sJnta. MR. FUKUZAWA's ENGLISH STUDIES. 385 On my way there I had to cross a plain that was then called Gojiin-ga-hara. It was situated beyond Kanda-bashi and Hitotsu-bashi, not far from where the High Com- mercial School now stands. At that time this plain was thickly wooded with huge pines and other trees, so that at night it was a fearfully lonely, uncanny spot where one feared that a highwayman might come bouncing out on one at any moment. I have a vivid recollection even to-day of the terror which I felt when passing along through the trees at eleven or twelve o'clock at night on my way home. The end of it all was that my nightly visits w^ere as fruitless as my morning ones had been. I was put off with one excuse or another. At one time I was told that Mr. Moriyama had visitors, at another that he had been summoned to the Foreign Office and had to go there at once. The thing was hopeless. I kept up my visits to his house for two or three months, but I saw that, do what he would, he could not find time to teach me. It was plain that I could never learn English by going on in this way. Moreover, I found out that Mr. Moriyama was not at all well acquainted with English ; that he had got no further than knowing a little about pronunciation. So I was forced to the conclusion that there was nothing for it but to try some other way. Now it happened that when in Yokohama I had bought of Mr. Kniffler two little Dutch-English colloquial phi-ase-books. I intended to study these by myself, but I had no dictionary. I thought that if I only possessed an English-Dutch dictionary, I could interpret English without the aid of a teacher ; and so I enquired for a dictionary, but was told that in Yokohama there was no shop where such books were sold. So here I was stumped again. But I did not give up hope. At that time, at the foot of the Kudan Hill there was a Government 386 FUKUZAWA 5 NO EIGO BENKYO. ni Bansho-shirabe-jd^^ to iu BakUfu no Yo-gakko ga aru. Soko ni iva iro-u'o na jisho ga am to iu koto zvo kiki dasHita kara, do ka sJiite sono Jisho wo kariiai mono da. Kaiiru ni wa nyumon shinakereba naran. Keredomo haiishi ga dashi-nukc ni Kbgi {BakYi/u) no shirabe-Jo ni nyumon shitai to itte mo, yurusti mono de nai. Hanshi no nyumon-negai ni wa, so?io Han no rusu-i to iu mono ga gwansho ni oku-in wo shite, shikaru nochi ni'^^ nyumon wo yurusu to iu. Sore kara Han no rusu-i no tokoro ni itte, oku-iti no koto wo tanomi, watakXishi wa kami-shimo ivo kite, Bansho-shirabe-jo ni itte, nyumon wo negota. Sono toki ni wa Mits^kuri Rinshb no ojii-san no MitsMuri Gempo to iu hito ga shirabe-Jo no tbdori de, sassoku nyumon wo yurushite kurete ; nyumon sureba Jisho wo kariru koto ga dekiru. Sugu ni haishaku wo negbte, Ei-Ran taiyaku no Jisho wo te ni uke-totte, tsugaku-sei no iru heya ga aru kara, soko de shibaraku mite, sore kara kwaichu no furoshiki wo dashite, sono Jisho wo tsutsunde kaerb to suru to, " Sore wa naran. Koko de miru naraba, yurushite kurushiku nai ga, uchi ni mochi-kaeru koto wa dekimasen " to sono kakari no mono ga iu. Koryal^^ shikata ga nai. Teppozu kara Kudan-zaka-shita made, mainichi Jibiki wo hiki ni yuku to iu koto wa, tote 7no ma ni awan hanashi da. Sore mo ybyaku nyumon shite, tatta ichi-nichi itta-giri de dannen. Sate, do shitara yokaro ka to kangaeta tokoro de, dan-dan-^ Yokohama niyuku shbnin ga aru. Nani ka Ei-Ran taiyaku 710 18. Lit. " place for examining barbarian writinirs," a designation showing in what low esteem the Foreign Language School was then held. — 19. Shikaru nochi {ni}, a Book term, " and then," " only then." — 20. Half-way between original meaning {" this indeed ") and the ex clamation ** alas !" — 21. Dan-dan, properly "gradually," comes to mean *'variou?," "occasionally," and sometimes is nearly meaningless : dan-dan arigato gozaimasu, " thanks for your many favours." MR. FUKUZAWA's ENGLISH STUDIES. 387 school for the study of foreign languages called Bansho- shirabe-jo. I heard that there were all sorts of diction- aries in use in the school. So I thought that I would try and 'get the one I wanted there. But in order to make use of the school books, it was necessary to become a pupil. Now an ordinary samurai in the service of a daimy5 could not enter a Government school for the mere asking. (Certain formalities had to be gone through.) A samurai who wished to enter such a school was obliged to get his application en- dorsed by the officer in charge of his daimy5's mansion during his lord's absence prior to receiving permission to enter the school. I got this done, and then, donning my ceremonial dress, I proceeded to the Bansho-shirabe-jo and made my application. At that time Mitsukuri Gempo, the grandfather of Mitsukuri Rinsho, was in charge of the school. He granted my application at once, so I was able to borrow the dictionary. This I did immediately. Carrying it to the room set apart for the use of day-scholars, I spent some time in examining it. After this, taking out a cloth that I had brought with me (lit., taking a cloth out of my bosom), I wrapped the book up in it and was about to take it home with me, when I was stopped by one of the officers of the school. " That is not allowed," said he. " There is no objection to your looking at the book here, but you can't take it home with you.'' " This will never do," I exclaimed to myself " To be trudg- ing all the way from Teppozu to the foot of the Kudan Hill every day just to look at a dictionary would not pay me at all." So it happened that, after taking all the trouble to enter the school, I spent no more than one day there. I decided never to visit it again. On trying to hit on a way of procuring a dictionary, after a while, I remembered that a man whom I knew was in the habit of going to Yokohama on business. Him I asked to inquire in Yokohama whether there was an English-Dutch 388 FUKUZAWA 6 NO EIGO BENKYO. jisho wa nai ka to tan&nde oita tokoro ga, Honitoppu^^ to iu Ei-Ran taiyaku, hatsuon-tsuki, no jisho ichi-bii ni-satsu mono ga aru. Makoto ni chiisa na jibiki da keredomo, atai go-ryQ to iu. Sore kara ivataktishi wa Okudaira no han ni tangwan shite, kai-totte moratte, "Sal mo kore de yoroshii! Kono jibiki sae areba, mo senseiwa iranai" to ; jiriki ke?ikyu no nen wo kataku shite tada sono jibiki to kubippiki^^ de, mainichi, maiyo, hitori- benkyo ; mata aruiwa Ei-bun no sho wo Ran-go ni hon-yaku shite mite, Ei-bun ni nareru koto bakari kokoro-gakete imashita. Soko de jibu7i no is shin wa so kifueta tokoro de, kore wa do sJiitemo hoyu ga nakute wa naran. Watakttshi ga jibun de fubenri wo kanzuru^^ tori ni, ima no Ran-gaktisha wa koto- gotokufuben wo kanjite iru ni chigai nai. Tote mo i?fia made mananda no wayaku ni tatanai. Nan de mo hoyu ni sodan wo shite miyb to ko omota ga, kono koto mo naka-naka yasMu nai, — to iu no wa, sono toki 7to Ran-gakXisha zentai no kangae wa, tvatakdshi ivo hajime to shite, mina su-nen no aida kokku benkyo shiia Ran-gaku ga yaku ni tatanai kara, maru de kore wo stitete shimatte, Ei-gaku ?ii utsurb to sureba, arata ni moto no tori no kurushimi wo mo ichi-do shinakereba naran. Makoto ni nasakenai tsurai hanashi de aru. Tatoeba, go-Jien mo san-nen mo suirefi wo benkyo shite, ybyaku oyogu koto ga dekiru yd 7ii natta tokoro de, sono suiren zvo yamete, kondo wa ki-nobori wo hajimeyo to iu no to onaji koto de, izen fio benkyo gamaru de ku ni naru to, — ko kangaeta mono da kara, ikani mo ketsudan ga muzukashii. 22. The Kana spelling of Fukuzawa's text obscures the Dutch original, — perhaps Voltop or Voortop. — 23. See Hepburn for the proper meaning ; here, " with might and main." — 24. Book form for kanjiru, "to feel." MR. FUKUZAWa's ENGLISH STUDIES. 389 dictionary to be had. This he did and subsequently informed me that there was such a book compiled by Voltop(?) complete in 2 volumes, with the pronunciation of words given. Though it was indeed a very small work, its price was 5 lyu. With much entreaty I put my case before Lord Okudaira and got him to buy the book for me, " There T I exclaimed. " Now I am set up. With this dictionary in my possession, I can do without a teacher." So, resolving to rely more and more on my own power of application, day after day and night after night, I studied alone, poring intently over the dictionary or trying my hand at translating from English into Dutch. Thus did I set my whole mind on the learning of English. But notwithstanding that I had resolved to study in this way, I began to feel a desire to find others bent on the same course. It seemed to me that the inconvenience of which I had been so conscious must certainly have been felt by all my fellow-countrymen who had studied Dutch. For what they had learnt could be of no earthly use to them now. If there were such scholars, I thought I should like to consult with them. But to find men who, like myself, had resolved to give up Dutch and take to the study of English proved to be no easy task. The reason of this was that all the Japanese who up to that time had studied Dutch were of opinion that if they gave up Dutch in favour of English, the many years of hard toil they had devoted to learning it would be lost and that, in order to master English, they would have to spend an equal number of years in arduous application. To expect them to do this seemed to them like expecting a man who has spent some three years or even five years in learning how to swim to give up swimming and take to tree-climbing. The whole thing appeared to them to involve labour thrown away. 390 FUKUZAWA O NO EIGO BENKY5. Soko de, gakuyil no Kanda Kohei ni menkivai shiie, do shite mo Eigo wo yard ja nai ka to sodan wo kakeru to, Kanda ?io iu ni, '' lya vio, boku 7no to kara kangaete lie, jitsu wa stikoshi kokoromita. Kokoromita ga ikani mo tori-tsYiki~ha ga nai. Doko kara tori-tsuite ii ka, jitsu ni wake ga wakaranai. Shikashi nengeisu wo fureba^'' nani ka Eisho woyomu to iu koguchi ga tatsu ni chigai ?tai ga, ima no tokoro de wa nan to mo shtkata ga nai. Ma ! kimi-tachi lua genki ga ii kara, yatte kure, — taitei hogaku ga tstiku to, boku mo kitto yaru kara. Da ga, ima no tokoro de wa nanibun jibun de yard to omowanai" to iu. Sore kara Bancho no Murata Zoroku {nochi ni Omura Masujiro) no tokoro ye itte, sono tori ni susumeta tokoro ga, kore wa do shtte mo yaran to iu kangae de, Ka?tda to iva maru de setsu ga chigau. " Mueki na koto wo suru-na I Boku wa sonna mono iva yoman. Irazaru^^ koto da. Nani mo sonna konnan na Eisho wo shinku shite yojuu ga mono wa nai ja nai ka P Hitsuyb na sho wa mina Oranda-jin ga hon-yaku suru kara, sono hon- yaku-sho wo yomeba, sore de takttsan ja nai ka P" to iu. " Naruhodo ! sore mo issetsu da ga, — keredomo, Oranda-jin ga nani mo ka mo ichi-ichi hon-yaku suru mono ja nai. Boku wa senkoro Yokohama ni itte, akirete shimatta. Kono ambai de wa, tote mo Ran-gaku wa yaku ni tatan. Zehi Eisho 25. Book form for Jiereba, from Jteru, "to pass." — 26. Book form for iranai. MR. FUKUZAWAS ENGLISH STUDIES. 39 1 They found it very hard to resolve on the adoption of such a course. (In order to find out what he thought on the subject,) I paid a visit to Mr. Kanda Kohei, a fellow- student of mine. " Let us take to the study of English/' said I, to draw him out. ''No;" he replied; "I have been thinking over this subject a long time, and have even gone so far as to have a try at the study. But the result was that I failed to discover any way of setting to work. It was all so much Greek to me ; where to begin I did not know. No doubt if one spent years over the study, one would find some method or other whereby to understand English books, but at present the thing seems hopeless. But, there ! young fellows like you are full of energy, so fire away at it. When you have some notion of how the thing can be done, I'll certainly take up the study. But at present really I have no intention of doing so." After that I went to see Murata Zoroku (after- wards called Omura Masujiro) and in the same way urged him to take up the study of English. He said he would not do so. But his ideas on the subject were quite different from those entertained by Kanda. This is what he said : — " Don't waste time to no purpose. I don't want to read English books. There is no need for it. What is the use of puzzling one's brains over difficult English works when all the English books one needs to know about are translated into Dutch. Isn't it quite enough to read the translations ?" " To be sure!" I answered ; "there is something in that. But still the Dutch don't translate everything published in English by any means. When I went to Yokohama a little time ago, I was astounded at my inability to read what I saw there. With things as they are now, a knowledge of Dutch is of no use. Don't you think that it 392 FUKUZAWA O NO EIGO BENKYO. ivo yornanakuie wa naran de iva ?iai ka P" io susumuredoino^'^ Muraia wa naka-7iaha doi sezu. '^ Jyaf yoman. Baku wa issai yoman. Yaru nara, kimi-iachi iva yaritamae. Boku wa, hitsuyo ga areba, Ran-jin no hon-yaku sKita no wo yoniii kara kamawari " io ibalte iru. Kore wa iole mo shikaia ga nai to ill no de, kondo wa Koishikawa ni iru Harada Keisaku ni sono hanashi wo sum io, Harada wa goku nesshin de, " Nan de mo yard. Dare ga do iuie mo, kafnaivan. Zehi yard " io iu kara, " So ka ? Sore wa omoshiroi. Sonnara, ftdari de yard. Donna koio ga atie mo, yari-iogeyd de wa nai ka /*" io iu no de, Harada io wa goku seisu ga bie^^ iyo-iyo Ei-sho wo yomu io iu. Toki ni Nagasaki kara Iziie iia kodomo ga aiie, sono kodomo ga Ei-go wo shiite iru io iu no de, sonna kodomo wo yonde kiie, haisuon wo narbiari, maia aruiwa hybryu-jin de orifushi kaeru mono ga aru. — Nagaku aichi ye hybryti shiie iia mono ga, kaikoku ni ftaiie, fune no bin ga aru m07io da kara, orifushi kaeru mono ga aru kara, so7ina hybryu- Jin ga istiku io, sono yadoya ni iazuneie Hie, kiita koio mo aru. Sono ioki ni Eigaku de ichiban muzukashii io iu no wa haisuon de, waiakUshi-domo iva fiani mo sono imi wo manabb 27. Book form for susumeredomo. — 28. Western for atte. Simflarly, a little further on, narotari for narattari. MR. FUKUZAWa's ENGLISH STUDIES. 393 is absolutely necessary that we should study English V But, urge him as I might, he would not give in. " No '," said he, " I won't study English. — Fll have nothing to do with it. If you are for undertaking it, then do so, but as for me, should necessity call for it, I'll read the Dutch translations of English books. So the matter does not concern me at all." Seeing how self-sufficient he was, I concluded that there was nothing to be done with him (so I determined to try elsewhere). I next went to the house of Harada Keisaku, who lived in Koishikawa and sounded him on the subject. He took the thing up very earnestly and said : — " By all means let us do it. No matter what any- body says, most decidedly we'll undertake it." " Is that how you feel ? I am delighted," I exclaimed. " In that case we'll study together. And, come what will, let us carry the thing through." So as Harada and I were of one mind about the matter, we decided to read English books together in real earnestness. (To get the pronunciation, we made use of several devices.) There was a child living near us who had come from Nagasaki and who was reported to know English. So we got it to come to us and teach us how to pronounce. In those days occasionally Japanese sailors whose vessels had drifted out to sea and who had been picked up and carried off to America or elsewhere, or had been wrecked on the Pacific coast, after remaining a long time abroad, came back to Yedo. This the running of regular mail ships after the opening of the country enabled them to do. No sooner did we hear of their arrival than we made our way to their stopping-places and put questions to them about the pronunciation of English. For in learning English at that time the most difficult thing of all was to get the pronunciation. Seeing that we did not want to have the 394 FUKUZAWA O NO EIGO BENKYO. io iu no de wa nai. Tada sUperuringu^^ wo manabu no de aril kara, kodomo de mo yokereba, hydryu-jin de mo kamawan. So iu mono wo sagashi-mawatte wa, manatide ijiiasJiita. Hajime wa, mazu Eibun wo Rambun ni hon-yaku sum koto wo kokoromi, ichi-ji ichi-ji ji wo hiile, sore wo Rambun ni kaki- naoseba, chanio Rambun ni natle, bunshb no imi wo toru koto ni kuro wa nai. Tada sono Eibun no goin wo tadashiku suru no ni kurushinda ga, kore mo shidai ni itoguchi ga hirakete kureba, sore hodo no nanju de mo nashi. Tsumaru tokoro wa, saisho ivaiakXishi-domo ga Rangaku wo sutete. Eigaku ni utsuro to suru toki ni, shinjiisu no Rangaku wo stitete shimai, su-ne^i benkyo no kekkwa wo munashU^^ shite, shogai ni-do no kannan shinku to omoishi wa, o-machigai no hanashi de, jissai mireba, Ran to ii, Ei to iu mo,^^ hitoshiku obun ni shite, sono bumpo mo hobo ai-onajikereba^^ Rafisho wo yomu chikara wa onozukara Eisho ni mo tekiyo shite, kesshite mueki de nai. Mizu wo oyogu to, ki ni noboru to, mattaku hetsu no yd ni kangaeta no wa, ichi-ji no mayoi de aita to iu koto wo hatsumei shimashita. 29. Jap. corruption of our word "spelling." — 30. Yov munashiku ; conf. ^ 182. Omoishi, just below, is Book language for omotta. — 31. The words no hanashi are little more than expletive. — ^32. Lit. " whether one say Dutch, or whether one say English," i.e. both Dutch and English. — 33. For expletive prefix ai (a Book form), see p, 73. MR. FUKUZAWAS ENGLISH STUDIES. 395 meaning explained to us, but only to be taught how to spell out the words, children or shipwrecked sailors served our purpose well enough. So we went hither and thither in search of teachers of this kind, from whom we learnt how to pronounce. In studying books the way we proceeded was first to translate the English into Dutch. This involved our looking up every separate English word in the dictionary. When we had written out the meaning of the original in Dutch, we had no difficulty in understanding anything. But at first we did find it hard to know how to pronounce all the words we came across. But since subsequently we found a means of getting over even that difficulty, our way became easy. The long and short of it is that we were quite wrong in thinking that if we took to the study of English we should thereby render all our knowledge of Dutch useless, that all the toil of years spent in acquiring that language would prove to be fruitless, and that we should have to go through the same painful process a second time. The fact is that both Dutch and English are European languages which have many similarities and whose gram- matical rules are in many respects alike. Hence the power of reading and understanding Dutch is by no means useless, as it is capable of being applied to the study of English. We discovered that our notion that the learning of Dutch and the learning of English were as different as swimming and tree-climbing was no more than a temporary delusion under which we had laboured. % 457' GIKWAI NO TORON/ (KEIHO KAISEI AN.) Gicho (Sugita Tei-ichi Kun). — Dai ni-shb, dai ku-jo ivo gidai io itashimasu. — Hanai Takuzo Kun ! (Hanai Takuzo Kun todan.) Hanai Takuzo Kun. — Shokiin ! Dai ku-jo ni gozaimastiru ^^ shikei" to iu ni-ji wo kezuritai to' iu shusei-an de arimasYi. Shikei haishi no ron wa, hatasMie honkwai ni cite go saiyo 7ii nam ya ina ya wa, aruiwa gimon de aru ka mo zonjimasen. Shikashinagara, watakXishi wa su-jitsu zen no seigwan i-in-kwai ni oite shikei haishi no seigwan ga zenkwai-itchi wo motte kakeisu scraremashitaru no hodo tti sesshimashite , kanarazu seigwan i-in-kwai no keisugi dori ni konnichi wa inukaeraru- beki mono de aru io shinzuru mono de aj'imasXi. Saiwai ni go sando wo eru koto ga dekimashita naraha, kono sakujo no hitotsu dake de keiho kaisei no memhoku to iu mono wa taisu mono de aru to watakushi wa shinzuru mono de aru, Shikei haishi io ieba, aruiwa waga kuni no jitsujo ni kangamimashite, nao hayashi to iu setsu wo idaku hito ga aruiwa aru ka mo shire??iasen. Hantai suru ronsha iva, tare mo 7iao hayashi to iu hantai ni hoka naran fio de aru. Shikei wo sonchi su-beki kakudan naru riyu 7io aru-beki hazu wa nai no de aritnasti. Watakushi wa go shochi no gotoku I. This debate, which took place on the 14th March, 1907, is extracted from the stenographic report in the " Kivampo " (" Official Gazette ") of the succeeding day. Comparing the style of these representatives of New Japan with the genuinely native and Colloquial speech of " A^aze " and the " Botan Doro" the student should notice the constant " Europeanism," which, permeatmg the whole thought, has naturally affected the language also. It begins on the very first Tf 457. A DEBATE IN THE DIET. (A BILL FOR THE REVISION OF THE PENAL CODE.) The President of the House of Rep7-esefttatives (Mr. Sugi'ia Tei-ichi). The ninth article of the second chapter of the Penal Code will now be discussed — Mr. Hanai Takuzo ! {Mr. Hanai Takuzo ascends the rostrum^ Mr. Hanai TTz/^z/^o. ^Gentlemen ! The Bill before the House has for its object the erasure of the words "capital punishment " in the ninth article. This is the amendment proposed. I am perfectly well aware that it is question- able whether the House will approve of the arguments we bring forward in favour of the abolition of capital punish- ment. But it is my duty to report to you that some days ago the Petitions' Committee, when considering this matter before you, without a single dissentient voice, voted in favour of the petition for the abolition of capital punishment, and I take this occasion for expressing my belief that the House ought certainly to welcome the decision which has been reached by the Petitions' Committee. If we can obtain your consent to the one erasure which I have mentioned, it is my opinion that all will have been done that needs to be done to render our revision of the Penal Code worthy of our position as legislators. When I speak of abolishing capital punishment, there may be some who will say that, in view of existing conditions in this country, it is still too early to adopt such a course. Those who oppose the abolition of capital punish- ment, without exception, bring forward this argument ; for the simple reason that it is the only plausible argument they have against abolition. They can urge no special reasons for the retention of this form of punishment. As you your- selves know, I am by no means a highly cultured man, hence page with the phrase gimon de aru ka mo zonjimasen, a literal translation of " I am aware that it may be questionable," goes on to shinzurzt used like our " I believe," i.e. " I think," to setsu wo idakn, " to embrace an opinion," and so on throughout. The traces of the Book Language are similarly too frequent to enumerate. 398 GIKWAI NO TORON. makoio ni hi-hummei no ningen de gozaimasuru kara shite, amari ni biimmei de am to ka, fiisshin geppo de aru to iu koto wo niosu no wa yorokohan no de aru. Shttiashi ?iagara, kuni no taimen wo kazaru tokoro no daihyb to mo fnosubeki keihoten no gotoki wa, yahari bummei no choryu wo owana- kereba naran. Mata, nisshin geppo no ketsei no riron to iu mono wo owanakereba naran to shinzuru no de aru. Tqfuku no kara ya, kimono wa nisshin geppo ya bummei nado wa nakute mo yd gozaimasu ga, kokka shin-un no daihyo-butsu to miru-beki horitsu dake wa sono kiun ni mukawashimetai to watak^shi wa shinzuru no de arimasYi. Shikoshite shikei haishi no ron wa konnichi izure no kuni ni okimashite mo, giron to shite, jijitsu to shite, nampito mo kore wo hitei suru mono wa gozaimasen. Makoto ni keisei kaktishin no kiun wa jissai no riheiwo kokyu itashimashite, ima ya shikei no sonzai wo yurusu-bekarazu to ronketsu wo ataete iru no de arimasXi. Shokun ! shikei to mbsu mojio wa, moshi-ageru made mo naku, itsu no keibatsu de aru. Hito no seimei wo tatsu no keibatsu de aru. Kokka ga keibatsu-ken wo jikko suru ni atatte Hito no seimei wo tatsu ni arazareba, sono kiso kakuritsu sezu to itashita naraba, amari ni keibatsu no ishin to iu mono ga usuku tva gozaimasen ka ? Shukyo, dotoku no kankwa wa, nan-ra no kenryoku mo naku, nan-ra no seisai mo gozaimasen keredomo, yoku zaiaku wo mizen nifusegi, matayoku zaishU wo senzen kaikwa no michi ni michibiki-eraruru no de aru. Shikaru ni kokka wa, keibatsu no ken-i wo karite, chi wo miru no sanjo A DEBATE IN THE DIET. 399 it is not for me in recommending this measure to try and represent myself as more enlightened and more progressive than others. (I urge this reform on other grounds.) Though some of us may be behind the age, it is my opinion that it is our duty as legislators to see that our Penal Code, which represents to the world the country's status, should follow the tide of modern enlightenment and keep pace with the perpetual new developments in the principles of systems of penal law. Even if we do get behind the world in respect of that ever changing so-called outward mark of civilisation, fashion, it does not matter. Though the cut of our clothes may be out of date and our collars not the right shape, we must keep our laws up to the level of the most forward countries, for these laws are no other than the symbol of national progress. Now, no one can deny that the abolition of capital punishment is something that has been discussed in every country and that in some countries it has actually been carried out. The tendency of the reform of penal law is towards the conclusion that an examination of the actual advantages and disadvantages attending it undoubtedly shows that capital punishment ought to be abolished. Gentlemen ! You do not need to be told that the death penalty is a punishment — a punishment that deprives a man of his existence. If a State cannot show in an adequate manner that its right to administer punishment is firmly established without taking away a man's life, surely the authority w^hich it wields is very slender. Religion and morality, without employing any of the authority or the restraints employed by the State are often able to prevent crime or lead prisoners back to the paths of virtue by means of other influences. It seems to me that when it is maintained that in the exercise of its power to punish, the State must resort to the cruelty of 400 GIKWAI NO TORON. 7V0 enzuru ni arazareba, Kiio no kuhi wo kiru 7ii arazareba, seimei wo tatsu ni arazareba, keibatsu no hongi to iu mono wo siiiko shi-atawazu to iiashimashtta naraba, kokka no kenryoku wa shukyo dotoku no kankwa-ryoku ni mo oyoban to III koto wo shbmei sum mono to watak^shi wa shinzuru no de am. Dodo taru kokka ga yowaki zaishu to tatakatte, sono zatshu wo satsuriku sum ni arazareba, seizon-bdei no ue ni oite konnan dc am to iu naraba, kore tori mo naosazu, kokka wa zaishu wo motte — hanzai-nin wo motte — onore no it-teki-goku to nasu ?nono de am. Hannin to kokka to no chikara no doitsu de am to iu koto wo jihaku suru mono de aru to iwanakereba naran no de am. WataMishi wa kaku no gotoki ken-i naki keibatsu aru wo hosshinai. Keibatsu ken-i arite, hajimete ko wo sbsuru no de aru. Ken-i naki keibatsu wo kokka mizukara kore wo mochiiru ni arazareba, keibatsu no mokuteki wo tasshi- atawazu to iu ga gotoki, makoto ni keiho no ken-i naki koto wo kokuhaku shi, mizukara shikei nam keibatsu wo sonchi suru 7'iyu wo hitei suru mono de aru. Shikashi nagara, naruhodo ! sonchi no ron mo aru. " Shikei ni kayu-beki yoki kei ga nai kara, yamu wo enai no de am." Ko iu setsu ga gozaimashita naraba, wataklUshi iva yorokonde kikitai no de aru. Watak^shi no shinzuru tokoro ni yoreba, shikei igwai kore ni kawaru-beki yoki keibatsu wa aru no de aru. Hori, horitsu ga gen ni kybkun wo tarete iru no ni omoi-iiarimashita naraba, hantai-ronsha no go ron to iu mono wa nan-ra no atai wo mo ytisen koto ni naru de aro to omou A DEBATE IN THE DIET. 4OI shedding blood, must insist on cutting off people's heads, must deprive men of their lives, in order to thoroughly vindicate its right to wield authority, this is equivalent to confessing that the power of the State is able to effect less than is effected by religious and moral influences. If it be affirmed that the State, despite all its pretended greatness, in self-defence, is obliged to match itself against poor weak prisoners, is compelled to put them to death, this is nothing else but elevating these prisoners to the rank of a hostile country with which the State without loss of dignity might go to war. It is an implied confession that the power of the State and the power of the criminal are so equal that the destruction of the latter is necessary to the safety of the former. Punishment that has so little to back it as this I would feign see abolished. No punishment can be effective unless it is backed by real power. To say that punishment which in itself has no power must be enforced by the State in order to realize the main object of punishment, is to confess that penal law is without any inherent power of its own to effect anything. This is equivalent to denying that there is any reason for the retention of that form of punishment known as the death penalty. But, according to some, there are reasons for its retention. It is alleged that there is no suitable form of punishment to take its place and therefore its retention is unavoidable. I should be pleased to hear an objection of this sort brought forward, because I think I can meet it. I am of opinion that there is a form of punishment that may suitably take the place of capital punishment. If we come to consider the lessons taught us by the principles of law, we shall see that the arguments of our opponents against abolition are quite worthless, I will not venture to trouble you with a number 402 GIKWAI NO TORON. fio de aru. Aete enkaku-jo no koto wa chbchoshiku iva moshi- agemasen. SJiikashi nagara shiket to iu keibatsu wa viattaku kyuseiki no ibiitsu de gozaimashite, iwayiiru gomon wo saiyo itashlte orimashita keiji-sosho-ho to rybritsu suheki keiho no kyu-shiso de aru. Furuki shiso de aru. Hari-tsMe de aru to ka, gokumon de aru to ka, aruiwa Jii-aburi de aru to ka, aruiwa nokogiri-biki de aru to ka to iu gotoki, viakoto tiiyaban naru keibatsu no arishi jidai ni oite saiyo sareta tokoro no keimei de arimasYi. ('' No/ No! So de nai," to yobu mono ari.) Sayo de gozaimasen to iu setsu iva ato de haichb itashimas^. To ni kaku, yaban-koku ni oiteyabanjin ni taisuru keibatsu de aru to iu koto wa roft wo matan no de arimasXi. Yue ni, hari-tsMe, hi-aburi, nokogiri-biki nado to iu aku-keibatsu no seido ga keibatsu no hongi ni arazu to shite, jogzvai serare- taru konnichi ni oite wa, kore to dbji ni dbitsu no kekkwa wo shbzu-beki shikei to iu mono mo onajiku sonritsu wo yurusu- beki suji no mono de nai to wataktishi wa shinzuru. WatakYishi wa shikei wo sonsuru to iu koto wo motte jitsu ni kokka 710 ichi-dai-chijoku to shite, keibatsu kwannen no kiso wo kuzusu mono to wataktishi wa datigen itasu no de arimasXt. SKika nominarazu, kono shikei naru mono ga jijitsu no ue ni oite shimesu tokoro no kekkwa iva ikaga de gozaimashb ka P Tokubetsu yobb to shite, ikubaku no kbken ari ya ? Ippanyobb to shite, ikubaku no kbken ari ya P Kore ivo tbkei, narabi ni, jijitsu ni chbshimashtta naraba, keiji seisaku no ue yori ronkyu A DEBATE IN THE DIET. 403 of tedious historical details. I would only remind you that the punishment known as the death penalty is a relic of antiquity. It belongs to that old system of legal thought which resorted to torture in the conduct of criminal prosecu- tions. It belongs to a system of thought that is out of date. It is a form of punishment that was adopted in an uncivilised age — in an age when men were condemned to be crucified, to have their heads exposed after death, to be burnt alive, to have their bodies sawn in pieces, and the like. (A cry " No, no ! that isn't so.") To the gentleman who says it is not so I will reply later on. One thing is certain, and that is that capital punishment was a form of punishment which originated in uncivilized countries and was first administered to barbarians. Hence, when to-day we have discarded crucifixion, death by burning and by sawing as belonging to a wicked system of punishment, our retention of capital punishment, which produces the same results as the forms of punishment we have given up, appears to me most unreason- able. I have no hesitation in affirming that the existence of capital punishment to-day is to be regarded as a great dis- grace to the State and as calculated to destroy the very basis of the idea of punishment. But this is not all. We may well ask what fruits this form of punishment has borne when put into practice. How much efficacy has it as a special preventive of crime ? How much has it as a general preventive ? Were we to appeal to statistics and to facts, or to test the question by inquiring how far it is in accordance with a sound policy in dealing with criminal cases, it would be easy to make it clear that the retention of capital punishment is not at all necessary. 404 GIKWAI NO TORON. itashimashite mo, shikei sonchi no hitsuyb naki koiogara wa khvamete vieihaku de aru no de gozaitnas^i. Shokun ! shikei to iu mono wa, shijin no zaiaku wo korasan ga tame, kokka mizukara zaiaku zvo okasu mono de aru no de gozarimasYi. Hito wo korosu wa mudo na koto de am. Goku-aku naru hafizai de aru. Koko ni cite kokka wa keihd naru mono wo tsfikuri-tatete, shimmift ni oshie wo tarete iru. Sono oshie wo tareshi keihd ga sono hannin wo korasu ni atatte wa, aeie mizukara sono hamiin to natte — kokka mizukara ha?tnin to natte — ko7io goku-aku naru hanzai wo okasu no de aru. ^^ Okasu nakare!" to oshietaru jfiono ga mizukara sore wo okasu to sureba, keibatsu-ken no ishin ga ika ni shite tamotsu koto ga dekimasho ka ? Satsujin no kbi wo bassen ga tame ?ii horitsu jishin ga satsujin no kbi wo nasu to iu no iva, kore wa shikei ni oite shikari to nasu no de aru. {'' Soko ivo saikb shiftakereba naran. Sore ga machigai no moto da," to yobu mono ari.) Shokun ! keihb wa mizukara shisuru, stinawachi jisatsu suru to iu koto sae mo, kore wo kinjite iru ?to de aru. Mizukara ga niizukara zvo korosu to iu kotogara wo horitsu wo motte kinjite oki-nagara, shikbshite kokka mizukara wa tasatsu ivo aete suru to iu koto wa, ika fii mo ivatakttshi wa keibatsu-ken no kwafinen to shite inujun de aru to shinzuru no de arimasti. Sore kara mata ichi-men yori kangaete miniasureba, shikei 7taru mono wa keibatsu no kwannen wo f^kushu ni totte iru mono de gozaiinasYi. Korera no setsu wa moto yori furuku yori tsutawatte iru 7to de ariftiasu kara, wataklushi iva fueji shinai. Fuen shinai keredomo, kokka iva stmawachi kokka de aru. Oyake no kilwan de aru. Is-shijin ni kaivatte, is-shijin taru higaisha 7io ka7ijb shifu7i to iu 7110720 wo yawa7agu-beki seishitsu no mono de iva nai 7io de aru. Hbiitsu wa is-shijin 710 dairi-7ii7i to 7iatte, fuhishu kbi wo nasubcki kennb 7)10 hitsuyb 7710 yushtte oran 710 de ari7nas^i. Kore mo yahari 7juie to 07iaji koto de, kokka ga ftikushu wo hnjite, 7nizukara iva /Tdushu 710 daii'i-nin wo 7iasu to iu kotogara 7ii naru 710 de a7i7iiasu. Jitsu ni wataMishi wa ko7io ten 7ii okiniashite , shikei S07ichi 710 shugi to iu 7710710, risb to iu 7710710 7ii oite^ A DEBATE IN THE DIET. 4O5 Gentlemen ! Capital punishment amounts to this, that the State, in order to make a private individual suffer for his or her crime, commits a crime itself. It is quite inhuman to put people to death. It is a crime of the deepest dye. Here we have a State framing a Penal Code, with the idea of teaching people what is right, while itself is guilty of crime when it punishes the transgressors of penal law. The State itself becomes the criminal. It is guilty of the most heinous crime. If the State while saying, " Do not commit crime" is itself guilty of committing it, how is it possible for it to maintain that it has a right to exercise authority in punishing crime ? In order to punish the act of murder committed by another, the State commits the same act itself — that is just what capital punishment amounts to. {A cry of " You must think more about that ! That's what has led you astray !") Gentlemen ! Our Penal Law forbids people to die by their own hands, prohibits suicide. But the State, while forbidding people to take their own lives, assumes the right to kill them itself This I cannot regard as anything but contradictory to the fundamental notion of punitive authority. Then, to consider another aspect of the question, in the death penalty the notion adopted is that punishment is revenge. This theory, which came down to us from ancient times, I do not propose to discuss minutely. But I will say this much, the notion is contrary to the essential character of the State, which is a public organ, and is not of the nature of an instrument for appeasing the feelings and anger of individuals by acting as their proxy in the execution of vengeance. There is no need and no authority for endowing the law with the function of redressing the wrongs of individuals by executing vengeance in their stead. Here again the State is acting inconsistently. While con- demning acts of vengeance in private individuals, it commits these very acts as their substitute. When considering this point I am compelled to affirm that both in principle and 406 GIKWAI NO TORON. tomo ni iomo ni niujim no kekkiva wo motarashi-kitatle iru mono io dantei sezaru wo en no de gozarimasti. Mata, shikei naru mono wa desti^^ keibatsu no kwannen ni motiomo hitsuyo de aru iokoro no Jiito ivo shite isuku no nen wo idakashimenai mono de aru. Maia, kaikiva senzen no michi wo saegiru mono de aru. Keibatsu no ??iokuteki wa tsUku no uchi ni desti, tsuku no uchi ni ayamachi wo aratame, zen ni utsuru no michi wo hiraku ni atte, sonsuru ?to de arimasti. SHikaru ni ichi-do shikei no senkoku wo uketaru tokoro no mono ga, iwayuru shi wo kakugo shite tsumi wo okashi taru mono ga aru to itashimashita naraba — kore wo kokuji-han to itashimashita naraba, " teikwaku amaki koto nao a??ie no gotoshi"^ to ieru ga gotoki kakugo wo yusuru mono wa tsUku wo kanzezu, mata ??iizukara shinjite yoki koto wo nashitari to suru mono nareba, kaikwa senzen no michi mo nai hazu de aru. Hokwa, issui, satsujin nado no shikei ni gaitb su-beki hanzai ni tsuite mo, chosa wo iiashite mimasureba, izure mo mina/undo de aru to ka, enkon de aru to ka, aruiwa chijo de aru to ka, shitto de aru to ka iu yd na kwankei ni kizasarete okoru-beki hanzai de atte, karera wa kono hanzai wo okasu tdji ni arimashite wa, shinshi jukuryo wo nasu no itoma naku, kono tsumi wo okasMla naraba, ika naru kigai ga shakwai ni okori, onore wa ika-naru keibatsu ni shoseraruru mono de aru ka, to iu kotogara nado ni toftjaku wa itasanai no de aru. Fundo no mukau tokoro, enkon no mukau tokoro, shitto chijo no hashiru tokoro, shirazu, shirazu ni tsumi wo okasu no de gozaimasu kara shite, mo to yori kare-ra 7ii mukatte shikei no senkoku wo itashimashita tokoro de, karera wa nan no tsuku 7710 kanji7iai. Mizukara kakugo wo tmshite oko7iaitaru shigoto de gozaimasti kara shite, kore ga Juzen 7ia/'i, ayamachi 2. Desu is here superfluous. — 3. Tei and kivaku are Classical Chinese names for different sorts of cauldrons formerly used to boil criminals alive in. A DEBATE IN tHE DIET. 407 idea the retention of capital punishment necessarily involves contradiction. Again, what is involved in the death penalty? It fails to realize the chief object of punishment ; which is more important than anything, namely, making criminals suffer for their crimes. It closes for ever the road to repentance and reform. The object of punishment is only realized when the transgressor suffers. It is for the purpose of giving a man an opportunity to repent of his crimes, mend his ways and become virtuous that it exists at all. But capital punishment does not allow this to take place. The man who is condemned to death commits a crime knowing that it will cost him his life, in the case of grave political offences — high treason and the like — the guilty person does not really suffer, as the saying is, " Even death by boiling is as sweet as starch-sugar " to the palate of such a man, since he expected thus to die. Repentance and reform are in his case out of the question. On examining the evidence elicited in the trials of persons who have been condemned to death for arson, for causing floods or for murder, we find that in every instance the crime had its origin in a fit of anger, or was prompted by hatred, envy or some foolish feeling of this kind. The criminals when they committed these acts had no time for deep reflection. They disregarded altogether the danger to society and the fearful punishment which the crime contemplated must in- volve. When carried away by anger, hatred, envy or any other foolish feeling, a man commits a crime before he knows what he is about. When condemned to death for his crime he does not think his lot to be a hard one. In committing the act he was prepared to take the consequences. He does not regard the act as wrong on account of the severity of the 40^ GIKWAI NO TORON*. 7iari, to wa shmj'mai. Shitagaite kaikwa sc?ize?i no inichi wo saziiken to hossliite, kare 7va kohande kore wo irefiai dc aro. SJukashi nagara, moshi kore wo shakwai to rikaku shite, hint nao liwaki gokuchu ni iswtagi, Jiatei wo JuiJiare, shakwai wo hanare, saishi art to iedojuo mamiyuru wo ezu, shinseki art to iedomo, mamiyuru wo ezu to iu kybgu ni oife, nisseki ni tessa no moto kuyaku ni shitagawashimeie, kare jishin ga zange stiru tokoro no Iwe ivo kikeyo I Issui-zai ?io bi naru koto, hokwa-zai no bi naru koto, satsujin-zai no bi naru koto wo hansei shite, naruhodo, enkon no amari, /undo no amari, itehb no ayamachi ni hashitte, kayb na hanzai wa shita mono no, sate, kayb 7ia tsuku no seikwatsu wo shite mireba ika ni mbaku nariL mofio to iedomo, honzen tio zen 7ii kaeru-beki ichijo no kbmei to iu mono wo nozomazaru mono iva, watakfishi wa arumai to omoimas^i. Katei ni wa kacritai, shakwai ni mo kaeritai, fuho ni mo aitai, saishi ni mo aitai to iu nenjb wa, tsuku no uchi ni shirazu shirazu kare fio shinteki kanjb to iu mono ivo yawaragete, honzen no ze?i ni kaeru-beki — hansei no nen ivo okosu ni sbi nai no de aru. Shikbshite kore wa shikei igwai no aru keibaisu 7ii oite tamolaruru no de arimasti. WataMishi wa shikei wo haishite kore ni kaivaru-beki chbki no jiyu-kei wo motte sen to sunt motto de ariniasti. Kaku sureba, tsuku no uchi ni kaikwa senzen no michi wo hiraku to iu keibaisu no rigi wo keihb 7io tie tii hyb7nei stiru tii oite, makoto ni ik-kyo ryb-toku de aru to watakTtshi wa shinztiru mono de arittiasti. A DEBATE IN THE DIET. 409 sentence passed on him. If it were suggested to him immediately after the commission of the crime that he ought to repent and reform himself and that an opportunity to do this would be afforded to him, he would probably refuse to accept such an offer. But separate such a man from the community in which he has lived, let him pass his days in close confinement in a dark prison cell, away from his home, cut off from the world, with wife and children that he can never see, with relations with whom he can hold no intercourse, shackled day and night, and condemned to hard labour, and see what a change will come over him and how penitent he will become. He will then acknowledge how heinous are such crimes as causing floods, starting fires and taking life. Let a man but see that he is passing his days in misery solely because in a moment when hatred or anger was too much for him he lost control of himself and committed a serious crime, and no matter how ferocious he may be, it seems to me that the feeling that he can go back to his old self and become virtuous once more will come to him as a welcome ray of light. The desire to go back to his home, and to the world, the desire to see his parents or his wife and children is a feeling that will grow on him in the midst of his suffer- ings, that will soften his whole heart and awaken within him that penitent state of mind which leads a man back to the forsaken path of virtue. But this is something that can only be secured by means of punishment other than execution. I am in favour of substituting a lengthy period of confine ment for capital punishment. In adopting this policy we should realize two desirable objects : we should open a way for the reform of criminals by chastisement, and we should embody in our new code in a conspicuous manner the fun- damental principle of punishment (namely the benefiting of the persons punished). 4IO GIKWAI NO TORON. Hantai-ronsha wa aruiwa kono ten ni kwanskite adakamo zainin to iu mono wo motte kataki ha, ada ka no gotoku ni kokoroete, kare-ra wa doko made mo bokumetsu seshimu-heki mono de aru. Tsuku no uchi ni kaikwa senze?t no komei wo sazukeru nado wayokei na hanashide aru to iu ron wo sei'aruru kata ga aru ka zonjimasen keredomo, sore wa hanahada boron de aru. Keibatsu no kwannen ivo maru de bokkyaku shitaru ron de aru to watakXishi wa shinzuru no de arimasJi. Mata shikei sonchi no ronsha ga shiba-shiba shodo itashi- masuru, watakXishimoboto nioite mdshiagemashitaru, stinawachi, ippanyobo narabi ni tokubetsu yobo to shite, jakkan no kbken wo arawasu ya to iu ten ni kwanshimashite wa, akiraka ni rei wo Yoroppa ni toru woyosezu, waga kuni ni oite rippa najitsurei ga shimesareie iru no de arimas'ti. Kangoku ni juji suru hito-bito no dantai ni oite hakkb seraruru tokoro no zasshi wo yonde mimasu to iu to, kore-ra no jirei wa iku-ju, iku-hyaku no oki wo kasanete iru no de aru. SXinawachi Kyoto no kangoku no kokoku-rashtki itsu no rombun ivo ^^ Kangoku Kyokwai Zasshi" ni oite mimashita. Ichi-nin no rbba ga gozaimashite, shinrui mo nakereba, enja vio nai, oya mo nakereba, kodomo mo nai. Koko ni oite hi wo tsuketa naraba, kanarazu koroshite moraeru ni chigai nai. Tetsudo djo mo iya de aru. Mi wo nageru no mo iya de aru. Doka koshudai-jo ni oite koroshite moraitai to iu itsu no kangae wo okoshtta. Toraerarete saiban ni fUserareta tokoro ga, jojo no kumu-beki tokoro ga aru to iu no de, muki tokei ni shoserarete, gokuchU ni oite nichi-nichi gokuri ni uttaeru tokoro no mono wa, nan de aru ka to ieba, gwanrai wataktishi wa shinitai ga yue ni isumi wo okashita no de aru. KdzaitU A DEBATE IN THE DIET. 4II It may be that the anti-abolitionists in considering this point regard a criminal as an adversary or foe who should be wiped out of existence and think that it is quite superfluous to talk about granting to such a creature the privilege of being able to repent and become virtuous. But this seems to me an outrageously irrational view to adopt, and it can only be held by persons who ignore altogether the fundamental notion of punishment. Again, to come to a point already mentioned by me, which the advocates of the retention of capital punishment are always emphasizing, the actual amount of efficacy possessed by this form of punishment as a preventive of crime generally and of murders especially, it is plain that it is not necessary to cull examples from European annals on this subject, since we have in our own country all ready to hand striking instances of the working of the existing law. Such instances are recorded by the hundred in the pages of a magazine published by a Society consisting of Prison officials. In the Kangoku Kyokwai Zasshi we find an article that seems to be a sort of report published by the Kyoto Prison. It gives an account of a certain old woman confined in that gaol. According to her tale, being parentless and childless, having no relations and no ties of any kind, she grew tired of life, and the idea came into her head that if she started a fire she would certainly be executed. To throw herself under a train or to drown herself was repulsive to her. To die on the scaffold was, she thought, far better than this. So she committed arson and was arrested. When she was tried, extenuating circumstances were brought to light, so that she was only condemned to imprisonment for life with hard labour. This displeased her so much that day after day she poured forth her complaint to the goaler thus : " I committed a crime for the sole reason that I wished to 412 GIKWAI NO TOROX. shbshite moraitai ga tame ni tsumi wo okasHita no de aru. SKikarii ni shi itto wo genzerarete, kono kiitsh ivo shinuru made sazukerarele, ivare no inohiteM ivo iassuru koto ga dekinaku natta. Kisha iijo wo shiyo to omotta no mo yaine, mi wo nageyo to omotta no mo yame, kokka no keiten de hi wo isukereba korosu to kaite am kara, koro shite morao to omotte, hbkwa sJiite mo, koroshite moraen 7io wa ikan de aru " to in kujbivo 7iohetaru itsu no jijitsii ga kakagerareie am, Watakushi iva bkii no giron wo itasJiimasen. Shikei nam mono wa iwayum tokiihetsu yobb to shite dore hodo no kbnb ga am P Narahi ni ippan yobb to shite dore hodo no kbnb ga am ? Shi wo kakiigo shite nasii haiinin ni taisliite nan-ra no kbyb wo nasii ka to in koto wa, kono ittan ni oite shiri-eramm ?io de arimas^i. Tokubetsu yobb, ippan yobb ?io ron wo sum hito wa shikei nado to iu mono wa keihb no ue ni kaite oite, tada ikaku wo sum dbgu ni mochiiru dake no koto de aru. Kesshite kore wo okonau shui de wa nai keredomo, shikei ga sonzai itashite otta naraba, hito-bito ai-imashimete, kanarazu kono shikei ni gaiib su-beki tsumi wo okasanai de arb. Kimen hito wo odosu no hbhb de, kamban no tame ni kakagete oku no da to iu koto wo gakusha mo ionaete im mo7io ga aru no de arimasu. Shikashi nagara kore wa kimen de aru. Oni no men de aru. Odosu tame ni tstikurareta oni no men de aru to iu koto wo hayaku sude ni hito ga shitta naraba, kimen tsui ni kirn c it ni arazu, ikkb ikaku no yb wo nasa/i de wa arimasen ka P xVo?ni narazu, okonawanai de ?no kamban ni sonsuru to iu ga gotoki kotogara wa, keisei hiisubatsu no genri wo mushi sum A DEBATE IN THE DIET. 4I3 die. In order to get you to hang me, I started a fire. But by lightening the sentence a degree and condemning me to suffer thus to the end of my days, you have made it im- possible for me to accomplish my purpose. I gave up the idea of throwing myself under a train or jumping into the water and drowning myself because I expected the authorities to execute me, seeing that according to the Law persons guilty of arson must be so dealt with. Think then how grieved I am to find that the crime I committed was not the means of bringing me the death I so desired ! " This is one of the facts given in the" magazine referred to abo\e. I do not purpose enlarging on this point much further. But this one case enables us to answer the question whether capital punishment has the effect of preventing the commis- sion of general crime or of a particular kind of crime, whether it has any influence in the minds of persons who commit offences with their eyes open, resolved to bear the death penalty. According to the explanation of this matter given by those who contend that capital punishment is a preventive of crime, capital punishment need not be actually enforced ; it is enough if it be prescribed only in the letter of the Law, so that it can be used as a scare. They say that as long as men know that by committing certain crimes the}' will render themselves liable to capital punishment, they will certainly refrain from committing them. So the Law puts on the fierce looks of an avenging demon, merely for effect, and this is justified by certain legal experts. But the Law only puts o?i fiendish looks. Directly it gets to be known that the demoniac looks are only assumed for effect, that the whole thing is a subterfuge, that behind the mask there is no real demon, people will cease to be scared by it. But more than this, to keep laws in the statute book for mere show is to utterly disregard the fundamental principle of the 414 GIKWAI NO TORON. no hanahadasKiki mono de anmasiti. Kei wa okonau-beki ga tame ni sonsuru no de aru. Sonsuru ijd wa kanarazu okonau no de aru. Okonote shikosfiite nochi ika nam kokwa wo shozurii ka to leba, nan-ra no rieki wo mo, hiisuyb wo mo shbji-kiiaran to m kotogara wa, tadaima made moshi-ageia tori de aru. (Isobe Shiro Kun " Mada takusan arimasti ka P " to yobu.) 3fata kore mo jijitsu no rofi de gozaimasti ga, shikei to iu mono wa gohan wo kwai/uku suru ni michi naki keibaisu de arimasXi. Osoraku wa, Isobe Kun atari no yoso seraretaru no mo kono ten de aro to omo. Bakuron no go jumbi ni narimashiia no mo, kono ten de aro to omou. Kore wa mukashi kara Isobe Kun ?io sohai suru Furansu no gaktcsha mo so itte ori?nasYi. Shikei wa kwai/uku suru koto no dekinai akkei de aru. Htio tare ka ayamachi nakaran ? Saibankwan mo hito de aru. Soreyue ni moshi iitan ayamatta naraba, do suru? Yumei tokoro wo koto ni shite wa, ningenkaino saibansho wa Emma no chb ni viade kbshb suru ucake ni wa ikan kara shite, kanarazu kono godan to iti kotogara wo osorete, godan to iu kotogara wo ureite, shikei to iu mono wo zenzen haishi shinakereba naran to iu 7io wa, kore wa goku furui setsu de atte, mottomo mata seiryoku aru setsu na no de aru. A DEBATE IN THE DIET. 4I5 penal system of law, which in all cases insists on the carrying out of punishment. Penalties exist in order to be put into execution. As long as they are prescribed by the Law they must be carried out. If we come to inquire whether capital punishment when carried out has shown any particular efficacy, we find that it has conferred no benefit on anybody and has failed to furnish a single reason for its existence. This I have already made plain to you. (Mr. Isohe Shiro calls out " Have you got much more to say ? ") My next argument in favour of the abolition of capital punishment, like the preceding ones, is based on facts. This form of punishment makes it quite impossible to repair the damage done by wrong verdicts. Unless I am mistaken people like Mr. Isobe must have already given some attention to this point. He and other anti-abolitionists no doubt have their arguments all ready for confuting us in respect to this. What I am going to say on this aspect of the question was said long ago by the French scholars whom Mr. Isobe venerates so much. According to them the death penalty is a bad form of punishment because it leaves no room for redress. What man is there that does not make mistakes.? Judges are human and therefore liable to err. Supposing that they wrongly condemn a man to death, what can they do to set the thing right .? This world and the land of Shades are cut off from each other and there is no means of establishing a connection between our earthly courts and the tribunal set up by the King of Hades. It is because they fear misjudg- ments, because they mourn over the wrong verdicts which have been given by judges, that for a very long time certain scholars have maintained that capital punishment ought to be totally abolished. This is one of the oldest and strongest arguments that have been advanced in favour of abolition. 4l6 GIKWAI NO TORON. Saihansho ga godan zvo sKiie Mto wo koroshtfe sekinin nasJii to m kotogara iva yiiyushiki daiji de arimasu. Kore vio wata- kushi wa ronjite viitai no de gozaimasu kcredomo, mdshitaitva 77ioshitai no de gozariviasYi keredomo, koko ni iva ryaku shtte okmias/iite, waga kimi 7ii okerii jiisujo iii tsidte Mtotsu o hanashi zvo shitai to omou. Keiho-an no shinsa ni fuserareru ni atarimashite, seifii wa ware-ware ni itsu ?io hyd wo shimesareta. Meiji san-ju-san neti yori Meiji san-ju-hachi nen ni itaru, rokti-7ien kan no hyd de gozaimasu, Kono hyd ni yotte mimasiirXi to in to, ko7io roku-7ien kan 7ii oite shikei 7io se7ikoku wo nkeia7U mo7io wa hyaku-ju-hachi ken de gozai77iasYi. Hyaku-ju-hachi ken roku- nen ka7i ni shikei no senkoku wo ukeia mono ga gozatTuasYi. Shika7-u tokoro, kono hyaku-ju-hachi ken 710 shikei to iu 7nono ga ika ni goda7i wo itashlte i7-u ka to in kotoga7a wo tsugi 710 hyd ga shirfiesliiie i7u. Hyahi-ju-hachi nm 7to hikoku-7tin wa komo-gonio fufiiku de 77iotie Joso wo iiashita tokoro ga, dai is-shi7i ni oite ii-watashita shikei 710 saihan wa wa/ui no de a7'u, kore wa muzai tii 7iatte yo7'Oshii 710 de aru, kore wa ki7iko 7ii natie yoroshii no de aru, kore wa vienso*" ni 7iatte ii no de aru, mosJiikuwa, so7io ta 710 yuki-kei ni shite yoroshii mono de a7-u " to iu koto de ; to ni kaku shikei wo hitei serareta7'u ken ga hachi-ju-shichi ken aru. Roku- nen 710 aida 7ii hyaku-ju-hachi ke7i 710 shikei 710 ii-watashi wo shite, tadachi 7ii hachi-ju-shichi ken dake wa godan de a7'u to iu koto wo hyd ga shi77ie shite iru 710 de aru. Wazuka ni sa7i-ju-ik-ken to iu mono ga tashika 7ii shikei de aru to iu kotoga7-a wo hyd ga shimeshite 07'i7nasuru keredomo, kore 71W yaha7-i C7tsei-kwa7t wo 77iotte Kydto 710 oha sa7t 710 7ei zvo oimashita na7'aba, a7-uiwa gokuchu ni oite mizukara shi/iurti ga ii to iu kakugo zvo shite, kono saiba7i 7ii 77ianzoku shila mono ga iku-7tin aru ka shir en. Shi7i 7ti shikei 7ti gaitd su7-u mo7W wa aruiwa go-ken ka rok-ken ka 7710 shire7iai to omou. Sore 4. Lit. " letting off prosecuting." In the present case it is the Public Procurator who is let off. This occurs usually through some legal technicality, — sometimes owing to the fixed time for the production of evidence or the punishment of crime having passed. A DEBATE IN THE DIET. 417 To maintain that a Court of Law has no responsibihty when it sends a man to his death by mistake would be out- rageous. I should like to discuss this point somewhat fully, but I will not do so. I will confine myself to noticing a fact that illustrates clearly the state of affairs in our country to-day. When the draft of the Penal Code was submitted to us for investigation, the Government furnished us with tables that give an account of the sentences passed between the 33rd year and the 38th year of Meiji (a.d. 1900-1905) — a period of six years. According to this table, during that time 118 persons were sentenced to death. Another table supplies information on the subject of misjudgments. Every one of these 118 persons expressed dissatisfaction with the decisions of the Courts of First Instance and appealed against them. In no less than 87 of these cases the death sentences were annulled and the decisions of the Lower Courts shown to be quite wrong. Some of the prisoners were declared not guilty ; the sentences of others were commuted to imprisonment for longer or shorter periods, and in other cases circumstances occurred which freed the Public Procurator from the obligation to carry the prose- cution any further or commence a new prosecution. We see then that in the short space of six years in 11 8 cases no less than 87 persons were wrongly condemned to death. This is made quite clear by the table. Among the 31 remaining cases in which the original sentences were confirmed by the Higher Court, how many criminals were there, we wonder, who, entertaining the same pessimistic notion as the old woman in the Kyoto gaol, were satisfied with their sentences ? It is not improbable that there were not more than five or six cases in which the criminals were rightly sentenced to capital punishment (///. which rightly come under the heading 4l8 GIKWAI NO TORON. wa amari stikunai to itashimasJiila ioko7'o ga, lo ni kaku, koku- min no seimei wo hyaku-Ju-hachi nin dake wa shimeie yoroshii to iu saiban ivo shile, hacbi-ju-sJiichi ken dake wa machigatia to iu koto wo hyd ga shirnesfiiie iru ijo wa, iashika fii shikei to iu mono wa godan kyusai su-bekarazaru mono de aru kara sKile tsiUsushimanakereba naratiai to iu jitsurei ga shimesarete iru to wataktishi wa kangaeru. Hitoshiku keibatsu de gozaimasuru iJo wa, watakUshi wa^ horitsu no sazuketaru kenri, rieki wa moto yori kin-itsu ni shinakereba narumai. Ippan no keiji hannin to iu mono wa tsuku no uchi ni kaikwa senzen no michi wo hiraite yaru to iu horitsu no moto ni shihai serarete iru. Shikaru ?ii shikei hannin ni kagitte kono keibatsu kwannen ni jogwai wo suru to iu kotogara wa, kuni no hannin taigii ni oite ni-sha kotonareru mono to rontei sezaru wo emasen. Kotonareri to rontei sera- 7'uru yori mo, keibatsu kwannen ni ftitatsu no kotonaru i- shugi aru mono to iu koto wo hydmei suru mono to rondan shifiakereba narumai to wataJitishi wa omoimasXi. Go-shochi no gotoku, saiban no godan to iu mono wa, httori shikei bakari de arimasen. Ippan jiyH-kei ni okimashlte mo, zaisan-kei ni oile mo tsutsushimanakereba naran. Sore yue ni horitsu wa godan kyusai no michi wo sazukete iru. Aruiwa hijo jokoku,^ saishin, aruiwa kari-shutsugoku seido to iu mono wo mokemishile, tashika ni shikei igwai no jiyu-kei to zaisan-kei to ni taishite, godan kyusai ?io kivalsuro wo sazukete iru. Shikaru ni ittan shikei ni shoserarete shikko wo oeta mono wa, nochi ?u hijo jokoku no riyU aru koto wo hakken suru mo, saishin no riyu aru koto wo hakken suru mo, mata, kari-shutsugoku no onten ni yokushi-u-beki jifi wo hakken suru mo, shishitaru mono 5. This zuatakushi wa has no verb ; supply omou. — 6. A technical term signifying permission to appeal even after the date specified for lodging a notice of appeal has passed. A DEBATE IN THE DIET. 4I9 of capital punishment). Even supposing that my calculation is under the mark, and that there were more cases in which the sentence passed was a suitable one, we can't get over the fact that, according to the statistics given, the Lower Courts decided to hang no less than Sj subjects of the empire unjustly ; and this, it seems to me, should make us extremely cautious in sanctioning a form of punishment which after being carried out admits of no redress. Regarding all forms of punishment as on a level, in ad- ministering them the rights and benefits conferred by law- should not be given to one offender and withheld from another. All ordinary criminals are benefited by that provision of law which allows of reformation by means of suffering. When the State makes an exception of persons condemned to death, according to them different treatment, we can only conclude that in administering punishment, instead of acting on one principle, it is acting on two, and these two contradict each other. This appears to me quite plain. As you know very well, it is not only in cases of capital punishment that wrong verdicts are given. In imposing penalties affecting a man's liberty or his property mistakes have been made that show the need of caution. Therefore it is that the Law provides means for redress in the form of special appeals, new trials and the temporary release of prisoners on bail. In all ordinary instances that involve the loss of personal liberty or property in meting out punishments, the Law has provided easily applicable means for redress in case of misjudgment. But when once the death sentence has been carried out there is no way back. After a man's execution, reasons for a special appeal or for a new trial may be discovered, or circumstances may be brought to light which warrant a prisoner's being favoured with release on bail, but the dead man can't be 420 GIKWAI NO TORON. wa ftitaiahi sosezu, than to mo subekarazaru mono de arimasXi. HttosJiiku kore keiho no sazukelaru onlen rieki de aru ijo wa mata, Kiioshiku sono hannin de am ijo wa, shikei hannin ni nomi kore ivo sazukezii shile, sono ia no hannin ni sazukeru, shikei hannin ni usuku, sono ta no hannin fii aisui to iu koto way keibatsu ga kempo narabi ni gyosei-ho no onten ni yotle sazuku-beki rieki to iu mono ni tosa wo tsukeru to iu koto ni ai-narimasYi, Kore mo rigi ikkwan sezaru ron to ivataktishi iva shinzuru no de arimasti, Daitai no shuchd no ronshi wa tadaiitia no tori. Sono ia shikei wo sonchi su-beki riyu to shite, shikei haishi ni hantai naru ronkyo to iu mono no aru wo hakken itashimasen. SMkardba nanji no iwayuru shikei ni kawaru-beki ryokei to wa nan zoya r' to iu o tazune ni taishite o kotae su-beki sekinin ga watakXishi ni wa aru no de gozarimasXi. Kore wa watakXishi xm shikei ni kayuru ni san-ju-?ien no yuki-kei wo motte sum mono de gozarimasti. Naruhodo san-ju-nen to iu nengen wa h1to ni yorimashite wa shikei doyo ni ai-naru ka mo shirenai. Shikashi nagara, koko ni san-jH-nen to iu nengen wo fusJiite oku koto wa, tashika ni tsiiku no uchi ni kaikwa, senzen ni michibiku to iu rigi ni kanau no de aru. Mata, hijb-jbkoku, saishin, kari-shutsugoku to no ojiten rieki to ni yokusehime- u-beki yochiwo mo sonsJiite iru no de aru. Godan — ayamari- iaru saiban — wo kyusai sU-eraru-heki rieki mo aru no de aru. A DEBATE IN THE DIET. 421 brought to life again, and so nothing can bs done to rectify matters. Considering that the Penal Law which confers benefits and favours on criminals condemned to death and on other classes of criminals is one and the same Penal Law, and considering that transgressors of the Law are on an equality, when we find that while from the former class of offenders certain benefits and favours are withheld, they are granted to the latter class, when we find the Law favouring one class of criminals hardly at all and another class a great deal, we come to the conclusion that in the benefits which are con- ferred, in the administration of Penal Law, in the exercise of the authority given to it by the Constitution and the Executive, there is inequality (unjust discrimination). This, I take it, is sufl[icient to show that our Penal Code is not permeated by one principle and one law of right. I have in a general way made the position I hold on this question clear to you. There are no arguments that I know of either in favour of the retention of capital punishment or against its abolition that I have not touched on. But it will no doubt be asked what suitable form of punishment I propose to substitute for the death sentence? I am of course bound to reply to this inquiry. Well, the substitute I propose is 30 years' imprisonment. Some may think that such a term of incarceration would be as bad as execution. But my fix- ing the limit to 30 years is done on the presumption that the misery of such a long imprisonment would certainly make a new man of the criminal. This period, too, would leave room for participation on the part of accused persons in the favours and benefits granted by the Law, such as special appeals, new trials or release on bail ; and Courts of Justice, on their part, would also obtain benefit from the arrangement, as they would be able to rectify their mistaken verdicts. 422 GIKWAI NO TORON. Shikoshite kono san-ju-nen to iu ron iva, watakUshi wa yahari genko keiho — ina ! kaisei keiko-an yori ami-taietaru ron de arimasti. Walakiishi wo shtte iwashimemashita naraba, shikei ni kayiiru ni san-ju-nen no yuki-kei wo inotte suru to iu koto wa kaisei keiho-an ni meibun ga aru to iitai kurai de aru. Sore wa Jiko' no kitei de aru. Shikei ni shoseraretaru mojid^ wa san-ju-nen wo keikiva shitaru toki wa jiko ga kwa?tsei suru to kaite aru. Hito wo koroshite shikei ni shoseraru- beki mono ga san-ju-nen no aida nigete, nige-oseta naraba, kokka wa, ibo no gensoku ni motozuite, sono tsumi wo towanai no de aru. Torae wo nogarete, ato wo ku?'amashtte, san-jH-nen kakureie iru to, shikei hannin to iedomo, ibo wo suisoku serarete kokka ga wasureru naraba, rikaku shitaru kangoku, — sekai wo chijimete kurushiku tsunagarete iru, shaba no ningen to wa kotsu wo maru de taite iru no de gozarimasU kara shite, san-jii-nen mo oita naraba, yahari yo no naka ni arawarete mo, kakurete iru mono to onaji yd ni, ibo no gensoku wo oyo shi, kokka ga wasurete yoroshii de wa gozarimasen ka ? Iwanya, jo no ue kara ieba, tor aer arete iru mono to toraerarete inai mono to, kutsu no do-ai, kokka keibatsu-ken 710 oyobitaru kwankei to no chdwa ivo kangaemashita ftaraba, 7. A technical term signifying "the effect of time on the fate of prisoners." — 8. The speaker has in mind a man who escapes after having been condemned to death, — an exceptional, but not impossible, occurrence A DEBATE IN THE DIET. 423 It seems to me that an argument in favour of fixing the 30 year period of imprisonment as the Hmit of punishment can be deduced from (or based on) the Penal Law now in operation, or, rather I should say, the Revised Penal Law. Were I asked to state my opinion on this subject I would go as far as to affirm that the wording and provisions of the Revised Code of Penal Law favour the substitution of the 30 years' im- prisonment for capital punishment. I refer to the provision of the Law respecting time efficacy. It is recorded in the Statute book that at the expiration of 30 years a criminal condemned to death shall be considered to have completed the term required for the expiation of his crime. Supposing a man who has committed murder and rendered himself liable to be condemned to death escapes and succeeds in avoiding re-arrest for 30 years, the State acts on a principle of (apparent) forgetfulness and takes no further steps to inquire into his crime. If the crime of the murderer who has escaped and concealed himself during 30 years is passed over by the State on the ground of legal forgetfulness, cannot the State afford to apply the same principle to the man who has been cut off from his fellow-men, whose only world is a narrow cell, who pines in shackles year after year, and who is as far removed from the outside world as though he had been concealing himself in some obscure corner of the earth for ^o years ? Surely at the end of this period the State can forget the crime of such a murderer. That it should do so ought to be still plainer to us if we allow our feelings to influence us in this matter; for surely when we consider the two cases, that of the man who has escaped and that of the man who has been shut up in prison, we must see that the latter, by the degree to which he has suffered and the way in which the State's authority to punish crime has been fully vindicated in 424 GIKWAI NO TORON. tasJiika ni san-ju-nen no yuki-kei wo toru io iu kotogara wa rigi ni kanau no de aru. WaiakYishi wa kore wo motie kayii- beki ryokei to shinzuru no de aru. Shikashi nagara muki-kei nado to iu kei ga sono aida ni wadakamaite iru kara, kore wo motte kaen io shucho suru mono de nai. Muki-kei wa shikei yori mo akkei nari io shucho suru mono de arimasXi kara^ san-ju-tien no yuki-kei wo motte shik e ni kaen koto wo shodo suru mono de arimasYi. Shikei haishi no rigai iokushitsu wa sude ni kenkyu shi- isukusarete, amasu toko r a wa arimasen. Shikashi nagara wataktishi wa konnichi made shikei sonchi no tekito naru riyu to iu mono wo haicho ilashiia koto ga gozaimasen. Gwaikoku no hosei wo niimashite mo, konnichi shikei to iu mono no sonzai serareie iru kuni iva, makoto ni wazuka na mono de gozarimasYi. Hotondo sekai no zentai ni watatte, shikei to iu mono wa haishi ni kishite iru to iu kotogara ga tadachi ni dangen ga dekiru no de aru. Oi naru kuni de, tatoeba Eikoku no gotoki, sonchi wa shite aru ga, chikaki ni-ju-nen rai jijitsu-j'o kore wo kekko shinai no de aru. Berugii mata shikari de, Furansu wa saku-neti naikaku kakugi de kore wo haisuru koto ?ti kettei shi, tabun honnen no gikwai ni wa hoan ga deru daro to kiite iru. Amasu tokoro wa Doitsu de aru ga, Doitsu ni cite wa, shikei haishi-an wa nari-tatanakatta keredomo, sono gikwai no keikwa wo mimasureba, ika ni Doitsu zentai no keisei kakushin no kiun ga shikei haishi wo kibo shite iru ka to iu koto no ippan wo shim ni taru no de gozaimasHi. Go shbchi no goioku, A DEBATE IN THE DIET. 425 his case, is in justice far more entitled to be let off at the end of 30 years than the man who has remained free during this period. It is on the above grounds that I am in favour of substituting this form of punishment for execution. But the question of life imprisonment is mixed up with the discussion of substitutionary punishment for the death penalty ; so I had better say at once that I do not advocate any such measure. To me it seems that life imprisonment is even worse than capital punishment ; hence I maintain that imprisonment for ^o years is the best substitute for capital punishment. I think I have gone most exhaustively into everything that has been said for and against the abolition of capital punish- ment, into every advantage and disadvantage that might attend its discontinuance. I have yet to hear a single adequate reason for retaining it. iWe find on examining foreign systems of law that the countries where it exists are extremely few. So that it is true to affirm that in almost every country of the world the conclusion to which men have come amounts to abolition. In big countries like England, for instance, though capital punishment exists, during the past twenty years, as a matter of fact, it has not been carried out. This is the case with Belgium also. In France it was decided at a Cabinet Council held last year that it should be abolished and it is said that it is probable that a bill for its abolition will be submitted to the Chamber of Deputies this year. One country that I have not mentioned is Germany. Well, it is true that the Bill for abolition did not finally pass the Reichstag ; but what happened when this Bill was under discussion in the German Diet abundantly showed how fervent was the desire for its abolition as a part of the revision of the whole of Germany's Penal Code. As is well known to you, when the Penal Code Bill came before the Fedei-al Parliament, notwith- 426 GIKWAI NO TORON. keiho soan ga Rempo Gikwai ni fuseraruru Jii atatte, tekkeisu saishd Bisumaruku no gekirelsu nam ronso arishi ni kakawara- zu, Gikwai wa sono Ni-dokkzvai ni oiie hachi-ju-ni ni iaisiiru hyaku-hachi-ju-shtchi no dai-iasu wo moUe shikei wo haishi shita no de aru. Shikoshtte San-dokkwai ni ilatle, " Moshi mo shikei wo Giin ga hiiei sum naraba, keiho zembu wo hitei shile mo yoi Aruiwa Gikwai ni iaisum Seifu no kodo wa ippen sum ka mo shir en " to iu kybhaku-ieki no dai-enzetsu wo Bisumaruku ga shtta kekkzva, hyaku-ju-ku ni iaisuru hyaku-ni- Jii-shtchi, sUnawachi, wazuka ni hachi-hyb no sa wo inoiie shikei wa sonchi suru koto ni naiia to iu keikwa de aru. Ni-dokkwai ni oite, holondo dai-lasu wo violle haishi shite shikbshile San-dokkwai ni itatte, arayuru shudan seiryaku wo motte shite mo, wazuka ni hachi-hyb no shbsii ni suginakatta. Kore fii yori karbjite keihb-chu. ni shikei wo sonchi sum koto ?ii natla no de aru. Kayb no shidaiyue, iivayuru konnichi no bummei hbkoku no keiho no ue ni oite, shikei wa hbbun no ue ni sonsuru mono hanahada sukunaku, iatoi sonsuru jnono mo, jijitsu ni kore ivo okonau mono naku, tama-tama Doitsu no gotoki kore ari to iedomo, Giin wo tsukwa shita mono sae mo, sono keikwa ima no gotoku awarena mono de aru to iu koto ni kangamita naraba, kono shikei sae kezutta naraba, muki-kei sae kezutta Tiaraba, sekai dai-ichi no keiho hbten taru-beki hon-an ga, kono/titatsu wo A DEBATE IN THE DIET. 427 Standing the violent opposition of the Chancellor, that " man of blood and iron," Count Bismarck, at its Second Reading, the abolition clause of the Bill commanded 187 votes against 82, and so passed by a big majority. When the Bill came to its Third Reading Count Bismarck in the course of a long opposition speech gave utterance to the following threat : — " If the House refuses to retain capital punishment, it may as well reject the whole of the Revised Penal Code. And in that case it is not unlikely that the attitude of the Govern- ment to the House would undergo a radical change" (the House would be dissolved). Yet the after history of the Bill was this, that, despite the Chancellor's long oration, with its threat, the original Bill in which capital punishment was retained only passed the Third Reading by a majority of 8 votes, the ayes numbering 127, and the noes 1 1 9. Thus we see that at the Second Reading of the Bill capital punishment was abolished by almost an overwhelming majori- ty and at the Third Reading, as the result of the employment of every conceivable device, the Government only succeeded in defeating the measure by a majority of 8 votes. Thus did capital punishment barely manage to retain its position as part of Germany's Penal Code. This shows the state of feeling on the subject in civilised countries. In very few of the Statute books of these countries is there to be found a law sanctioning capital punishment. But even in countries where the law is still unexpunged, it is a dead letter and never carried into practice. If there are countries where it has been sanctioned by the National Assembly, it has been done in some such pitiable way as was witnessed in Germany. Taking all this into consideration, it seems to me that all that is required to render our Penal Code the first in the world is the abrogation of capital punishment and imprisonment for life. As long as clauses sanctioning these two forms of 428 GIKWAI NO TO RON. nokosu ta?}ie ni sekkaku no kabe ni o-kizii wo nuru koto ni nari wa sen ka to wyoru no de aru. Jitsu ni kondo dasareta keiho wa, kore wo genko-ho ni his/iite hyaku-dan no masareru tokoro ga aru. Kyu-soan ni hishite go-ju-dan no masareru tokoro ga aru. Kore ni muki-kei shikei wo haishita naraba, watakXishi wa sekai-ju no viohan keiho ni naru to kakushin suru no de aru. Negawaku wa mando shokun no doi wo emasMte, shikoshite toku ni keihb-gaku ni oite tanen no unchiku aru Isobe Kun no doi wo emas/itie, sYmawachi, kono shUsei-an wa manjo itchi wo moite tsukwa suru koto wo nozomimasfi. Makoto ni keibatsu wa seiri kodo no ybkyu suru tokoro wo kiso to shi, shakwai no chitsujo wo tamochi, hannin no kwaizen wo hosu to iu koto igwai ni wa nan-ra no mokuteki wo mo yusanai kara, do ka shikei haishi to iu hon-in no shusei-setsu ni doi ivo hydsarcn koto wo kibo itashimasii. Morita Tokuji Kun, — Gichof Iken ga arimasu. {" Ha?itai ka ? " to yobu mono ari.) Hantai de mo, sansei de mo yoroshii. Iken ga arimasfi Gicho (Sugita Tei-ichi Kun). Hantai de mo sansei de mo nai. Nan desXi ? Morita Tokuji Kun. — Wataktishi no iken wo nobetai no desti. A DEBATE IN THE DIET. 429 punishment remain, we cannot but deeply regret that a code on which so much labour htis been bestowed should be spoiled disfigurements of this kind (///. should be like a newly finished wall that has been badly disfigured by dirt smeared on it in large patches). The draft of the Penal Code sent to the Diet certainly ranks a hundred grades higher than the Law now in operation, but it is true to say that the revised draft prepared by our Committee is fifty times better than the original draft ; and if we can only secure the two erasures I have mentioned (capital punishment and imprison- ment for life), it is my confident belief that our Penal Code will be worthy of being considered as a model for the world's imitation. I earnestly desire that the whole House may signify its approval of this measure, and especially that it will be supported by Mr. Isobe, whose rich stores of learning on the subject of Penal Law are known to us all. I trust that the Amended Bill may pass without one dissentient voice. It is because punishment more than anything else ought to ful- fil to the utmost the dictates of righteousness and humanity, because by it the order of society is maintained, because by it the reform of criminals is secured and because apart from it no worthy objects whatever can be realized, that I ask you to express your approval of the recommendation of the Revising Committee respecting the abolition of capital punishment. Mr. Morita Tohiji. — President ! I have an opinion to ex- press. {Somebody calls out : " Are you an opponent ? ") Never mind whether I am an opponent or a supporter. I have an opinion to express. T/ie President {Mr. Sugita Tei-ichi). If you are neither for nor against the measure proposed, what is it you want to say } Mr. Morita Tokiiji. — I want to express my opinion. 430 GIKWAI NO TORON. Gicho (Sugita Tei-ichi Kun). Sore iva tsuhoku ga arimasti. — Isohe Shiro Kun t Isobe Shiro Kun todan. Isobe Shiro Kun. Wataktushi wa shikei haishi ni tsuki- masJuie wa viatiaku Hanai Kun ni hantai de gozmmasXi. Sono haniai ni tstikimashite Hanai Kun yori arakajime, hantaisha wa ko iu giron wo torn de aro^ a iu giron wo nasu de aro to, kochira no iu-beki tokoro wo sozo sarete, yogen sare- mashtta ga, watakushi iva so iu ron iva iiasan no de arimasti. (Shosei okoru.) Wataktishi wa Hanai Kun no go giron to shite, shikei wa iitai koku na kei de aru to iware, givanrai keiho wa kokka wo daihyo shite iku-beki tokoro no taisetsu na mono de, nani ka shtkiri ni shUkyo ni mo makete wa ikan, dotoku ni mo makete wa ikan to iu rompo de shikei haishi ivo go ronji ni narimasKita ga, watakushi no kangae de iva sude ni keiho zempan ga yondokoro naku sonzai suru no de, moshi yiiki wo dashtte iu naraba, keiho naku shite osamareba, kono kurai kekkb na koto wa naku,jitsu ni ware-ware no mottomo kibo suru tokoro de aru. Hanai Kun no shucho saruru Yoroppa shokoku de mo, kuni ni keiho aru wa kuni 7io yowami de happyo shite iru ni chigai nai. Kuni ni keiho naku shtte konnichi shakwai no chitsujo wo tamotte ikeru naraba, konna mendo-kusai mono wo koshirae, kangokuhi to shite kuni ga nen-nen roppyaku-man-en zutsu mo tsuiyashi, takusan no saibankwan wo oku koto mo iranakereba, muyo no bengoshi mo takusan hitsuyb ga nai no de aru. (Shosei okoru. °) Keredomo, doshtte mo kono keiho wo motte isshu no reigwai-butsu wo kosoku shite iku hoho wo sofiae- nakereba, shakwai no chitsujo wo tamo ten no de aru. Yue ni 9. The point of the joke is that both Mr. Isobe and Mr. Hanai are themselves barristers. A DEBATE IN THE DIET. 43 1 The President. (This would not be in order.) Notice has been given of a speech to be delivered. Mr. Isobe Shiro ! Mr. Isobe ascends the rostrum. Mr. Isobe Shiro. On the question of abolishing capital punishment I quite disagree with Mr. Hanai. Respecting my opposition to his views Mr. Hanai has tried to anticipate my arguments. He has allowed his imagination to carry him away and has confidently predicted that opposition speakers will say this and say that, but he has not managed to hit off what I purpose saying. (Laughter.) As I understand Mr. Hanai's argument, he contends that capital punishment is cruel, and that while in its very nature a Penal Code occupies an important place as representing State authority, it is outdone by religion and outdone by morality. This he regrets, and so, to right matters, he would abolish capital punishment. Now, according to my ideas, the existence of Penal Law at all is an absolute necessity. If I were to speak out my mind unreservedly, I should say that nothing could be better than our getting on without any Penal Law at all. This is something that I should immensely like to see effected. The existence of Penal Law even in the European countries of which Mr. Hanai has spoken so approvingly is an unmistakable display of weakness. If countries could maintain order and get along without it, they would never draw up such a trouble- some thing as a Penal Code. With no penal law to ad- minister, we should be able to save about six million yen a year — the money now spent on prisons — we should not need to employ judges, and the many useless barristers who now exist could well be dispensed with. {Laughter.) But the fact is that without providing means for restraining a class of persons who are unlike their fellow-men (given to violence) such as is furnished by Penal Law, public order could not be 432 GIKWAI NO TORON. Kitori shikci nomi narazu, keiho zenfai ga sude ni yondokoro nai horitsu de, makoto ni kitanai mono de aru to in koto ivo wataktishi wa yotei itashimasu. Sds/iite kono shikei wa ittai kore wo sonsuru riyzi ga 7iai to ho mosaremasu ga, watakXishi wa keiho no gensoku to sKite shikei hodo ri ni kanatte iru mono wa nai to iu ron de aru. (Shosei okoru.) Stikoshi mo okashiku nai shidai wo setsumei itashimastt. (Shosei okoru.) Stinawachi Hanai Kun no in gotoku, gwanrai keiho wa fukushu ni okotte iru mono de. Kore wa rikutsu de wa 7tai, jijitsu de aru. Izure no kuni de mo watakushi no fukushu ga dyake no fukushu. ni henjita no wa keihoka wo matte ronzuru made ??io nai tokoro de. Kore ga fukushu no okonaenai mono ga aru. Yoku giron no deru koto de aru ga, stinawachi, dokushin no tiito ga tanin no isuma to kan-in shita toki ni wa, kore wa jissai ni fukushu wa okonawarenai. (Shosei okoru.) Mata bimbbnin ga doroho shita toki ni sono kin-in wo hisho shtta baai iva, iku-bai no bakkin wo motomeie mo, jissai kore wo choshu suru koto ga dekinai. Sunawachi fukushu shugi hodo rippa na kei wa arimasen ga, aite ni yotte fukushu ivo shi-togeru koto ga dekinai kara, sore de shuju zatta no kei to iu mono wo mokete, kore ni shakwai ga kawatte fukushu shi-kitatte, sore de, higaisha no ikari wo dan-dan nadamete itta to iu koto ga jijitsu de aru kara, kore ga rikutsu ni ataru ka ataran ka to iu koto wa shuju zatta A DEBATE IN THE DIET. 433 maintained. Therefore not only capital punishment but the whole of Penal Law has become an absolute necessity, dis- figuring to society as the whole thing is. That much I am prepared to grant. But we are told that as far as capital punishment is con- cerned, the truth is there is no reason for retaining it. It seems to me, however, that as a principle of penal law there is nothing in closer accordance with reason than capital punish- ment. {^Laughter.) There is nothing to laugh at in that, as I will show you presently. {More laughter^ It is as Mr. Hanai has said, penal law at the outset had its source in the idea of revenge (righting wrongs). This is not an argument merely, but a fact. It is not necessary to con- sult an expert in criminal law in order to get to know that penal law originated in the substitution of public vengeance for private vengeance. But there are cases where vengeance can't be carried out. These cases have given rise to a good deal of discussion. Take, for instance, the case of a bachelor who has committed adultery with another man's wife, here vengeance, in the strict sense of the word, is impracticable. {Laughter^ When a poor man steals money and spends what he has stolen, you may impose as many fines on him as you please, but you can't get blood out of a stone. Pay- ing people back in their own coin, punishing them in the precise way they have punished others — this no doubt is ideal punishment, but in many cases this form of punishment can't be carried out ; and this has given rise to the inventing of all manner of substitutes, and by the application of these the State, acting as proxy for private individuals, has managed to appease by degrees the wrath of aggrieved persons. These are the facts. As to whether the punishments specified are reasonable or unreasonable — this has furnished abundant 434 GIKWAI NO TORON. 7ta gakXisha ga dete, shuju na rikutsu wo tsukemasti keredomo, konnichi de mo htto wo korosJiita mono ga yo no naka wo heiki de orai shile, kore wo shakwai ga shibari vio nani mo sezu ni oita naraba, kanarazu higaisha no chii ni aru tokoro no mono wa wataktishi nifukiishu wo okonau de arb to omou no de aru. Sore de Nihon no Yamato-damxishii ga sttkunaku ftatta no de mo, nan de mo, arimasen ga, stinawachi keiho no shobiin to in motto ga iki-todoite ichi-kagaisha ga areba shitagatte kei wo kwaseraruru to iu koto ni nam kara, fiikushu to iu mono ga okonawaremasen keredomo, keiho no tekiyo mattaki ivo ezu shite, saiwai ni kei wo manukareru mono ga yo no naka ni takusan hahikotte oreba, itsu de nio ftikushu to iu mono ga kao wo dashite kuru no de arimasu. De arimasti kara, Hanai Kun mo mbsareru tori, fukushu wa shigoku warui ?nono de aru. Warui mono de aru kara, kojin no fukushu ni kawatte shakwai ga fukushu suru no de aru kara, sore de, kojin no kitanai fukushu wa satte, kokka no heian ivo iji shite iku no de aru kara, sore ga stinawachi wataklUshi wa keiho no genri darb to omou. Shuju na koto wo itte, shakwai no hitsuyb to ka, yare meirei to ka, gakusha ga yatsu mo kokonotsu mo itte iru ga, httotsu mo kampuku suru mono wa nai. Watakushi no kampuku suru keibatsu-ken no kiso wa fukushu. yori hoka ni nai. Tokoro ga fukushu no jijitsujb okonawaren mono ga aru kara, shikata ga nai. Shikbshtte Kito wo korosKiia mono ga shi ni alaru to iu koto iva sukoshi mo okashikunai koto de aru. A DEBATE IN THE DIET. 435 material for academic discussion among scholars of all sorts ; but the common-sense view to take, it seems to me, is this, that if murderers were allowed by society to go about the world in an ordinary way like other people, if no attempt were made to arrest them, the persons who had suffered at their hands would certainly take the law into their own hands and execute vengeance on the offenders. It is not because the old national spirit is dying out, or growing less that there are nowadays no cases of the execution of vengeance by pri- vate individuals, but because the administration of penal law has become so effective as to be able to mete out punishment to every offender. Were the application of the law less perfect than it is and were the criminals who escaped its meshes to become plentiful, cases of private vengeance would constantly be popping up among us. This is why the State has to execute vengeance. As Mr. Hanai says, vengeance is un- doubtedly a very bad thing, that is, is liable to lead to great abuses. Because of this it is the State does not allow private persons to carry it out. It takes it in hand itself. And as a result of this we get rid of all the ugly features of private vengeance and are able to pass our lives in peace under State protection. This principle of the State's redressing private wrongs constitutes, it appears to me, the basis of penal law. Attempts have been made by scholars to find other sanctions for penal authority. They say it is a necessity of society or that it is one of its decrees, and what not, but none of these arguments commend themselves to me (impress me). I see no other satisfactory basis for the authority which the Law wields but vengeance. The fact that this cannot always be carried out is something we cannot help. But whenever it is possible to carry it out, it should be done, and so to sentence a murderer to death is a natural course to take. 436 GIKWAI NO TORON. Sore kara, mo hitoisu wa, shikei ni tsuite wa kutsu wo kanjinai. Kore wa Hanai Kun ga go keiken ga gozaimasYi ka shiritnasen, keredomo shikei ni shoserarete minakute wa shinu made do iu kutsu ivo kanzuru ka, kono koto ni tsuite wa Hanai Kun to iedomo, go keiken wa arumai to kangaeru. Uketamawaru tokoro ni yoreba, dono kurai hinku no uchi ni kurashite mo, dono kurai omo-ni wo showasarete mo, ichi-mei wo tasukaritai. Kono ichi-mei wo toraruru to iu koto wa kono ue mo naki kurushii mono de aru to iu kotogara wa, omoi byonin ni uketamawatte orimasXi. Domo kore wa honto de aro to kangaeru. Sore kara mo hitotsu wa keiho wa stinawachi chokai shugi de aru. Ko iu go giron de aru. Shikaru ni shikei ni mukatte wa chokai no michi ga nai. Ika ni mo go mottomo shigoku de gozaimasu, Koroshite shimatia ijo wa, shakwai ni yd no nai ningen de gozaimasu kara, aete chokai no hitsuyb mo nakereba, mata shikei ni shosuru Kito wo chokai shita tokoro ga, eki mo gozaimasumai. Sari nagara hatasKite keiho no shui wa chokai bakari de gozaimasho ka ? Chokai shugi to iu koto 7ii narimasti naraba, osoraku wa kokujihan to ka, arurwa subeie ko iu seiji-teki no zainin ni tsuite wa, hoiondo chokai shugi to iu mono wa okonawarete inai. Mata, osorakuwa konnichi shakwai ni hanko suru Kito ga atte, rb ni iorawarete otia tokoro ga, asu kara bozu no sekkyo wo kiite, irai wa yasashii Kito ninalte, sJiakwai ni hanko suru koto wayamemashb to iuyb na koto gajissai areba kei wa gensoku ni oiie chokai de aru to ka, kanzen de aru to ka iu koto ga arimasU keredomo, kekkvua ni oiie sono kb wo sbsuru koto wa dekinai A DEBATE IN THE DIET. 437 Mr. Hanai says that persons condemned to death do not suffer as much as they ought. Has Mr. Hanai any experience to go on in this matter, I wonder ? Without being condemned to death and seeing how it feels, one is not in a position to judge how much mental suffering there may be. It seems to me that Mr. Hanai himself (much as he knows) has nothing to guide him here. According to what I have been told, there is nothing that causes people more mental distress than the feel- ing that they must die. In the midst of the most abject poverty or when bowed down by other heavy burdens, the desire to remain alive is sufficient to sustain the mind, but ac- cording to the accounts of persons suffering from fatal diseases, there is no form of suffering more painful than the knowledge that death is near. This, I think, is certainly true. Then another contention of Mr. Hanai's was that penal law is essentially disciplinary in principle — the object of punish- ment is the reform of criminals, and he said that in the case of persons condemned to death there is no way of realizing this object. This is undoubtedly true. Those who are condemned to death are persons for whom society has no further use. With them disciplinary punishment is uncalled for ; even were they subjected to it, it is unlikely that any good would result. But is punishment merely disciplinary in aim ? Penal Law to-day is certainly not administered on this principle, as may be seen by the way it deals with persons guilty of treason or other grave political offences. Were it a fact that persons who have committed offences against society and have been imprisoned on this account have been so changed by listening to Buddhist preaching as to become inoffensive members of society and have consequently ceased to act violently, then it might be affirmed that disciplinary chastisement with a view to reform is the underlying principle of punishment. But we 438 GIKWAI NO TORON. kara, kono setsu wa shakwai mizukara ga sotto jakuien wo jishu shite I'ru mono to hvanakereba 7iarimasen. Naze fiareba, tanhi j'lyu-kei no gotoki iva, ro ni ireru to zvarui koto wo osowatte kuru kara, shikko yuyo wo shila ho ga yokarb to iu koto de, hotondo chokai-shugi no hantai ivo hyb shite iru mono de aru. Gakuri to shite wa nobu-beki de arimasXi keredomo, kesshlte keihb wa chbkai no ts-shuda?t wo motte mokuteki to shite wa orimasen. Mb hliotsu go giro7i to shite demashlta no wa gohan ga aru to iu koto ga saishu no ten de, gohan ga atte ayamari ga atta hi ni wa mbshiwake ga ?iai shidai de aru. Hanai Kun ni watakXishi iva uketamawaritai. Moshi ta no kei ni shoserareta ningen ga, tennen no ju wo motte shinda nochi ni, nao sono ningen ga zainin de nakatta to iu koto ga ivakaru to, kinodokuna wake de, kei ni shoserareta haai ni cite kono gohan ni tsuite shakwai wa ika naru mbshiwake wo suru koto ga dekimashb P Hanai Kun wa san-jH-nen kan ni kakaru gohan ga kanarazu arawaruru mono to da?itei serareta wake de arimashb ka ? Wataktishi no kangae fii itashimasureba, tatoi shikei no kei de shinde mo, muki no kei de shinde mo, itsu-ka de mo, tb-ka de mo, konnichi shakwai ga muzai no ningen wo basshlta to iu naraba, kore wa shasanakereba 7iaran. Shasuru no michi wa sono ningen no ikite iru toki iva shasuru koto ga dekimashb. Shlkashi kono ningen wa tenju de aru kara shirenai. Tenju wo motte oeta motio to shlta tokoro ga, sono gohan de atta to iu koto wa shigo ni shasuru no michi nashi to iu koto iva, kei no shikei taru to ina to wo ton no hitsuyo wa nai. Moshi mata kei wo ayamatte wa ikan to iu okubyb-kaze ni sasowarete, keihb wo tekiyb suru koto ga dekinai to iu oboshi- A DEBATE IN THE DlET. 439 see no such results, hence it is true to say that society has found out for itself that no trust can be placed in this argu- ment. For it not infrequently occurs that men grow worse instead of better in prison, from association with persons more wicked than themselves. In such cases the opinion that the law acts as a corrective is show^n by facts to be untenable. In theory it would seem as if punishments ought to be delayed, but since disciplinary chastisement is not the sole object of penal law, the carrying out of this theory is undesirable. The last point to which Mr. Hanai drew attention was the existence of misjudgments. With capital punishment, he said, there is no means of redress in these cases. Now the question I desire to put to Mr. Hanai is this : Is there any means of redress in other cases of undeserved punishment.? Supposing that after undergoing punishment and dying a natural death, it is discovered that the victim of the law was wrongly accused and wrongly punished, can anything be done to right matters ? Can Mr. Hanai guarantee to us that the miscarriage of justice is sure to come to light in the course of ^o years ! He cannot do. so. As I regard the matter, society is always under an obligation to make amends to persons who have been unjustly punished. The death of these persons interferes with that being done. Whether men die on the scaffold, or whether they die while undergoing life imprisonment, whether they die after five days of punishment or after ten, the obligation of society to redress the wrong that has been done to them is the same. When death will come to such persons nobody can tell, and once dead, no amends can be made to them. This applies to all forms of punishment, and not to the death penalty only. If Mr. Hanai and his fellow-thinkers in a fit of timidity, fear to put the penal law into operation lest mistakes should 440 GIKWAI NO TORON. meshi ga atta naraba, hanzai-nin wo jud mujin ni doko de mo anikasMte, keiho ivo yamenakereha naranai. " Kore mo gohan de arumai ka P Are 7no gohan de wa arumai ka ? Kennon na hanashi de aru kara, kei wo tekiyb sum koto wa yosMte, kare no sum koto wo minakereha naran," to iu no de, keiho zempai-ron wo mochi-dasu ga sotb de, hitori sono ichi-buhun no shikei-haishi wo mochi-dasu to iu koto wa, hanahada sono to wo ayamatte iru to kangaemasti. Sore kara ima hitotsu wa, Ei-koku aruiwa Furansu, riiosMku wa Berugii ni oite wa, shikei ivo shikkb sezu fti, tada ikaku-teki ni sonzai shite oku to iwareru no wa, go mottomo de arimasXi keredomo, watakXishi no uketamawatte iru tokoro de wa, so iu koto wa nai. Shikei wa moto yori tekiyb suru. Sari-nagara tekiyb su-beki zainin ga dele konai no de aru. Aihon ni okimashtte mo, kono shikei wo sonchi seshimete oite, shikei ni shosu-beki zainin ga denakereba, makoto ni kekko na koto de wa arimasen ka ? Shikei ga sonsuru kara tote, muri ni hito no kubi wo kiranakereba naran to iu yb na gakusha nio ?iakereba, saiban-kwan mo nai no de aru kara, stinaivachi, go-ju-nen mo, shichi-jH-nen mo, shikei wo sonzai shile oite,jissai tekiyb suru hitsuyb ni sbgii shinai 7to wa, watakttshi ?io mottomo kibb suru tokoro de aru. Keredomo ikan sen ! ichi-ryb-nen irai, shikei wo fUtatsu ino mitsu 7710 karadaga aru 7iaraba okonatte yaritai to iu yb na zainin ga,/ukb ni shite, dete kimasifi kara, kofio aida ni tbtei shikei wo haisuru to iu koto ni itari77iasen nomi narazu, itsu made 7no A DEBATE IN THE DIET. 44 1 be made, then we had better get rid of the Law altogether and let criminals go about by the hundred wherever they please. It is like saying : — " The application of criminal law is attended with so much risk of repeated misjudgments that it would be better to cease to use it and wait and see how criminals would act." It seems to me that people who hold Mr. Hanai's views should argue in favour of the total abolition of criminal law. Their contending for the dis- continuance of capital punishment only is a wrong course for them to pursue. Let me refer to one point more dwelt on by Mr. Hanai. He said that in England, France, and Belgium capital punishment was not carried out and is only kept in the statute books as a scare to prevent people from committing murder. This sounds plausible, but, according to information that has reached me, it does not represent the true state of affairs. The capital punishment law in these countries exists for use, but of late there have been no criminals of the kind that call for its application. In Japan, too, it would be a happy state of things if the existing law were never put into operation from lack of the right kind of criminals. It does not follow because the law exists that either legal experts or judges will advocate wholesale execution. There is nothing that I should like better than to see the law existing for 60 or 70 years even without there occuring a single occasion for putting it into practice. But alas ! we are far from this state of things, for during the last two or three years, unfortunately criminals have appeared whose wickedness has made one wish that they possessed two or three bodies, so that they might be executed several times over. This then is not the time to be talking about the abolition of capital punishment. I am for retaining it for an indefinite length of time for use in case of necessity. This will not prevent us from trying 442 ' GIKWAI NO TORON. sonsKite oite, shakwai ga ta no hoho ni yotte dan-dan kairyo serarete, shikei wo tekiyo sum no hitsuyo no nakunaru ho ni juhm kokoro wo kaiamukerarete, so shite, shikei ga atte mo naki ga goioku, kono yo ?io tiaka ga osamatte ikeha kotio kurai kekko na koto wa arimasen ga, koko ichi-ryo-nen no shakwai fw arisama wo 7niru to, shikei ni shosu-heki zainin no zoku-zoku dete kuru no wo makoto ni ikan ni omou 7to de aru kara, kono hen no tokoro de, taitei shokun ni oite mo, shikei no sonchi 7ii sansei atte yoroshikaro. Watakfishi wa shikei no kotogara ni tsuite, shbso-ron wa tonaeniasen. Gwanrai rikutsu ni oite yoi to kimatta mono wa konnichi mo yokereha, myonichi mo yoi, myonen mo yoi. Yoi to kimatta mono iva hyaku-nen mo, ni-hyaku-nen mo sonchi seshimete yoi to omou. Shikei no gotoki wa, keiho no sonzai suru kagiri, is-shakwai ni oite sono sonchi wo yosuru itsu no gokkei de aru to shinjimasXi kara, kore ni tsuite shoso-ron wa kesshite tonaeniasen. Mata gohan ni tsuite no go giron mo gozaimasti. Kore wa go mottomo shigoku de arimasu ga, sono kawari Nihon ni okimashite wa, sakihodo go in-yb ni narimashita ibkei-hyo de arimastt. STitiawachi, kore wa Nihon ni oite gohan wo shozeshimenai shoko de arimasiti. Dai is-shin ni oite machigaita koto wo yareha, dai ni-shin ga ari ; dai ni-shin ga machigatta koto wo sureha, Dai-Shin-In ni oite sono tekiyo yoroshiki wo eseshimeru to iu no de, jitsu ni shikei ni tsuite iva tekiyo- jo chui wo kuwaele aru kara kono ten ni tsuite iva hotondo go anshin de aro. Shtkashi man^ichi attara, do suru ? Man ga A DEBATE IN THE DIET. 443 all sorts of ways for so improving society that the necessity for resort to this form of punishment will cease to exist. When the country can be governed without capital punish- ment, its existence in the statute book will no longer be of any consequence, as it will not be put into practice. Nothing more gratifying than this could take place. But I grieve to say that during the last year or two cases calling for the death penalty have been most frequent. In consideration of this you, gentlemen ! will not be far wrong in signifying your desire to retain this form of punishment. I do not care to argue in favour of the retention of capital punishment on the ground that it would be premature to abolish it now. With me it is not a question of abolishing at one time or another time. I hold that it should not be abolished at all. That which can be logically shown to be right will be as right to-morrow or next year as it is to-day — will be as right loo or 200 years hence as it is now. Capital punish- ment is a thing of this sort. It is my belief that as long as criminal law exists capital punishment will need to be retained by society as an extreme penalty, and hence the argument against abolition based on prematurity is not one that I can use. Mr. Hanai said much about misjudgments that was perfect- ly correct, but there is another way of looking at this subject. The statistics to which Mr. Hanai referred tend to show that as far as Japan is concerned no very bad results can come from misjudgments, as they are subsequently reversed. If the first court makes a mistake, there exists a second court to appeal to, and if this court too should err, means are provided in the Court of Cassation for applying the law in a suitable manner ; so that, as far as capital punishment is concerned, there really need not be much anxiety, so great is the care exercised in administering the law. If I am asked to say 444 GIKWAI NO TORON. ichi ni aru gohan wo motte keihd zentai wo haisuru wake ni ikan ijo ni wa, shikei wo sonzai shiie okanakereba naran to zonjwiastt kara, sumiyaka ni do ka shikei sonchi no koto 7ii manjo no go sa?idd aran koto wo nozomimasYi. (Hakushu okoru.) Ogawa Gen-ichi Kun. Gichb! Gicho! Gicho (Sugita Tei-ichi Kun). Nan desti ? Ogawa Gen-ichi Kun. Enzetsu desfi. (" Tbron shuketsu ! " to yobu mono ari. Sanseif " Sansei/" no koe okoru.) Gicho (Sugita Tei-ichi Kun Toron shuketsu no dogi ni teiki no sansei ga arirfiasXi ka ? (" Sansei! Safiseif no koe okoru.) (Ogawa Gen-ichi Kun). '' Konna dai-mondai wo sonna fii hayaku katazukeru to iu ho wa nai" to yobu.) Gicho (Sugita Tei-ichi Kun). 7 or on shuketsu 7ii teiki no sansei ga aru to mi-tomemasti. Toron shuketsu ni go doi no shokun no kiritsu wo negaimasYi. (Kiritsu-sha tasu.) Gicho (Sugita Tei-ichi Kun). Dai-tasu de arimasTt. Toron wa shake tsu shi??iashita. — Saiketsu ivo itashimasYi. Stinawachi Hanai Kun ?io shusei wa, dai ku-jo no " shikei " no ni-jiwo kezuru, ko iu shUsei de ariynasU. Stinawachi, shikei wo haisuru to iu no de arimasti. Kono Hanai Kun no shusei ni go doi no shokun no kiritsu wo negaimasti. (Kiritsu-sha shosu.) Gicho (Sugita Tei-ichi Kun). Shosu de arimasU. Hiketsu saremashita. Gen-an ni go igi wa arimasen ka ? (*' Igi nashi" to yobu mono ari.) Gicho (Sugita Tei-ichi Kun). Gen-an ni go igi wa nai to nd-tomemasXi. Gen-an no tori ni kaketsu ni ?iarimashita. A DEBATE IN THE DIET. 445 what is to be done if by any chance a mistake should be made, my reply is that unless we are in favour of abolishing the whole Penal Code for fear of mistakes being made in its application, we had better risk the mistakes and keep capital punishment. Because this is my opinion I ask the whole House to signify its approval of the retention of capital punishment. {Applause.) Mr. Ogaiva Gen-ichi. President ! President ! The President {Mr. Sugita Tei-tchi). What is it.^ Mr. Ogawa Gen-ichi. I want to make a speech. {Some- body called out ''The Closure!" Others, "I second! I second !") The President {Mr. Sugita Tei-ichi). Are there the requisite number of supporters for a motion to apply the closure? {Cries of " I'll support it ! I'll support it !") Mr. Ogawa Gen-ichi. Surely there is no adequate reason for settling an important question like this in such a hurry. The President {Mr. Sugita Tei-ichi). There seems to be a sufficient number of supporters for moving the application of the closure. Those who are in favour of the closure will please stand up. {A majority of members stood up.) The President {Mr. Sugita Tei-ichi). There is a big majority. The debate is closed. I will now proceed to take the decision of the House on Mr. Hanai's Amendment in favour of omitting from the Penal Code the two words " capital punishment." This amendment has for its object the abolition of capital punishment. Those in favour of it will please stand up. {Those who stood up were in the minority.) The President {Mr. Sugita Tei-ichi). You are in the minority. The Amendment Bill is lost. Has any one any objection to offer to the passing of the original bill ? (" No objection!" called out.) The President {Mr. Sugita Tei-ichi). I conclude that you have no objection to the original Bill. It has therefore passed the House. {The House has decided in favour of that Bill. ) 446 BOTAN-DORO, CHAP. I. 1[ 458. BOTAN-DORO/ DAI IK-KWAI. Kwampb" san-nen no shi-gwatsu ju-ichi-nichi, mada Tokyo wo Edo to moshimashita koro, Yushima Tenjitt^ no yashiro de Shbtoku Taishi^ no go sairei wo okonai- masJnte, sono foki taiso sankei no hito ga dete, gunju iiashimashita. Koko ni, Hongo San-cho-me ?u Fujimura-ya Shim- bei^ to iu katana-ya ga gozaimashite, sono mise-saki ni wa yoi shiromono ga narabete aru tokoro wOy — ibri-kakarimasJiita hitori no samurai wa, ioshi 710 koro ni-ju-ichi-ni gurai de, iro no shiroi, vie-moto no kiririUo shila, stikoshi kanshaku-mochi to miete, bin no ke wo gutto agete yuwase, rippa na haori ni kekko na hakama wo tstike, setta wo haite, saki ni tachi ; ushiro, kara asagi no happi ni bonten-obi wo shimete, shinchu-zukuri no bokXito wo sashiteru chtigen ga tstiki-sotte, kono Fuji- Shin no viise-saki ye tachi-yorimashite, koshi wo kake, narabete aru katana wo hito-tori nagamete, — Notes. — i. This extract consists of the first two chapters of a story called '* Botan-Doro" slightly edited in order to make them more genuinely Colloquial, and to remove a few unpleasant expressions. The title alludes to an incident in a later portion of the story, which it would take too long to relate here. Placed after the up-to-date pieces just studied, this one may serve to introduce the student to the world of " Old Japan," a world which lives on in the affections of the people, and offers an inexhaustible storehouse to the dramatist, the novelist, and the professional story-teller. Encho, author of the " Botan- Doro" was the king of such story-tellers. lie died in 1900. BOTAN-DORO, CHAP. I. 447 THE PEONY LANTERN. CHAPTER I. On the 4th May, 1743, in the days when Tokyo was still called Yedo, the festival of Prince Shotoku was celebrated at the Shinto temple of Tenjin. in Yushima, and the worshippers assembled in great crowds on the occasion. Now in Third Street, Hongo, there was a sword-shop known as Fujimura-ya Shimbei, the fine articles exposed for sale in which were seen by a samurai who happened to pass by. He appeared to be about one or two-and-twenty years of age, had a fair complexion, a vivacious expression in his eyes, and a cue tightly bound up, — indicative of slight quickness of temper. He wore a splendid coat, a beautiful pair of trowsers, and sandals soled with leather. Behind him, as he strode along in front, there followed a servant in a blue coat and striped sash, with a wooden sword having brass fastenings. The samurai looked in at the shop, sat down, and, glancing round at all the swords that lay there, said : 2. Kzvanipo is the nengo, or " year-name," which lasted from A.D. 1 741 to 1744; conf. p. 116. 3. Tenjin is the posthumous name, under which the famous and unfortunate com-t noble, Sugawara Michizane (died A.D. 903), is worshipped as the god or patron saint of letters, 4. Shdtokti Taishi, the great imperial pati'on of Buddhism in Japan, lived from A.D. 572 to 621. 5. Strictly speaking, FuJimura-ya is the name of the shop, and Shimbei the personal ("Christian") name of the shopkeeper. But Japanese idiom does not clearly distinguish between a shop and its owner. Conf. T[ 55, p. 40. 448 . BOTAN-DORO, CHAP. I. Sajnurai : " Teishu ya ! Soko no kuro-iio da ka, kon-ito da ka shir en ga, — ano kuroi iro no tsuka ni nani- ban-tetsu no isuba no tsuita katana wa, viakoto ni yosaso na shina da ga, chotto mise." Teishu : " Hei, hei ! — Korya ! O cha wo sashi-age-na ! Kyb zva, Tenjin no go sairei de, taiso hito ga demashita kara, sadameshi orai wa hokori de, sazo komari aso- bashimashiiaro " to, — katana no chiri wo harai-?iagara, " He ! goran asobashimase " to sashi-dasu no wo, — samu- rai wa te ni totte, mimashite, — Samurai : " Tonda yosaso na mono. Sessha no kantei sum tokoro de wa, Bizen-mono^ no yd ni omoivareru ga, — do da, na ? " Teishu : " Heif Voi mekiki de irasshaimasuru. Osore-irimashtta. Ose no tori, watakXishi-domo nakama no mono mo, Tensho Stikesadd' de arb to no hyoban de gozaimasu ga, — oshii koto ni wa, nanibun mumei de, zannen de gozaimaslU." Samurai : " Go teishu ya I Kore wa dono kurai suru, na?'' Teishu : " Hei! Arigato gozaimasti. kake-ne wa moshi-agemasen ga, — tadaima mo ?ndshi-agemashtta tori, mei sae gozaimasureba, tabun no ne-uchi mo gozaimasu ga, — mumei no tokoro de, kin ju-mai de gozai- masTi." 6. Bizen is the name of a province in Central Japan, famous for its swords. B0TAN-D5RO, CHAP. I. 449 ** Mine host ! That sword over there with the iron r guard to the dark-coloured hilt, — I don't know whether the braid is black or dark blue, — looks like a good one. Just let me have a look at it." "All right, Sir,'' said the shopkeeper. {Then aside to the shop-boy •) " Here ! you offer the gentleman some tea!" {Theft again to the samurai-) "To-day, owing to the crowds gone out to see the festival, the roads are sure to have been dusty, which must have been a great nuisance to Your Honour." Then, dusting the sword, he said : " Here ! pray look at it. Sir ! " With these words, he handed it to the samurai, who, taking it up and in- specting it, said : "It's an awfully good one. So far as I can judge, I should incline to consider it a Bizen." " Ah ! " replied the shopkeeper. " Your Honour is a real connoisseur. I am overpowered with admiration. It is just as you say. The other dealers in the trade believe it to be the handiwork of Sukesada in the sixteenth century. But unfortunately it bears no maker's name, which is a great pity." " Mine host ! What is the price of it, eh ? " " You are very kind. Sir. I ask no fancy prices ; and, as I have just had the honour to tell you, the sword would be an extremely valuable one, if only it had the maker's name engraved on it. But as it is anonymous, the price is ten dollars." 7. Sukesada was a famous swordsmith of the Tensho period, A.D. 1573-1592. 450 BOTAN-DORO, CHAP. I. . Samurai : ^' Nam P Ju-ryo to ka ? Chitto takai yb da ga, shichi-mai han ni wa ?nakara?i ka, e ? Teishu : ''Do itashiinashite ! Nanibun, sore de wa son ga viairimasfnte^ hei! Naka-naka mochimasKite , hei! " to, — sMkiri ni samurai to teishu to katana no nedan no kake-hiki wo itashite orimasU to, ushiro no ho de tori-gakari 7io yopparai ga kajto samurai ?io chugen wo toraete, — Yopparai : ''Fail Nani wo shiyagaru ?" to ii-nagara, hyoro-hyoro to yorokete, patatto shiri-mochi wo tsMi, yb- yaku oki-agatte, hitai de 7tirami, iki-nari genkotsu wo furui, cho-cho to buchimashita ga, — Chugen wa, " Sake no toga da" to kannin shite, sakarawazu ni daichi ni te wo tsYiki, atama wo sagete, shtkiri ni wabite mo, yopparai wa mimi ni mo kakezu, nao mo chugen wo nagutte imasYi tokoro wo, — samurai . wa, ftito mimasu to, kerai no TosYike da kara, odoroki- mashtte, yopparai ni mukatte eshaku wo shite, — Samurai : " Nani wo kerai-me ga buchohb wo itashi- mashita ka zonji??iasen ga, tbnin ni nari-kawatie, watakXishi ga wabi ivo ??idshi-age?nasti. Dozo go kamben wo." Yopparai : ''Nani! Koitsu wa, sono-ho no kerai da to P Keshikaran burei na yatsu. Bushi ?io tomo wo sum nara, shujin no soba ni chiisaku natte iru ga tozen. Sore ni, nan da P Tensui-oke^ kara san-jaku mo brat ye de-shabatte, 8, This sentence is incomplete ; the next also, the worthy tradesman being too much excited to speak grammatically. MochimasKitc is polite for mottc^ the postposition. BOTAN-DORO, CHAP. I. 45 1 " What ? you say ten dollars ? That's rather too dear. But I suppose you'll go down to seven and a half, — won't you ? " "Oh! really," said the shopkeeper; "why! I should lose at that rate. Indeed, indeed I can't." So, while the samurai and the sword-dealer went on bargaining about the price of the sword, a drunkard, who happened to pass by at the back, caught hold of the samu- rai's servant, and, calling out " Hey ! what are you up to ? " staggered, and came dow^n plump in a sitting posture. Then, managing to get up again, he glared at the fellow sideways, shook his fist at him without more ado, and began to pommel him. The servant, laying the fault on the liquor, took the beating patiently, and, without offering any resistance, put his hands on the ground, and apologised over and over again with downcast head. But the drunk- ard w^ould not so much as give ear to his apologies, and only thrashed him the more. The samurai suddenly hap- pened to look round ; and, as the fellow being thrashed was his own retainer Tosuke, he was taken aback, and made excuse to the drunkard, saying : " I know not of what rude act that man of mine may have been guilty towards Your Honour; but I myself beg to apologise to you for him. Pray be so kind as to pardon him." " What ? " said the drunkard, " you say that this creature is your servant, this outrageously rude fellow ? If he goes out as a gentleman's retainer, it would be but proper for him to keep himself in the background near his master. But no ! what does he do ? He sprawls out into the road 9. Rain-tubs or water-buckets stand in certain places along the streets in Tokyo, as a provision against fire. 452 B0TAN-DOR5, CHAP. I. isuho no samatage wo shtie, sessha wo tsUki-ataraseta kara, yamu wo ezu chochaku itashila." Samurai : " Nani mo wakimaen mono de gozaimasti kara, httoe ni go kamhen wo. Temae 7iari-kawatte o wabi wo mbshi-agemasti." Yopparai : " Ima kono iokoro de temae ga yoroketa tokoro wo tonto tstiki-atatta kara, inu de mo oru ka to omoeba, kono gerb-me ga ite, jibeta ye hizu wo tstikasete, mi-nasaru tori, kore ! kono yd ni irui wo doro-darake ni iiashita. Burei na yatsu da kara, chochaku shita ga, — do shita ? Sessha no zombun ?ii itasti kara, koko ye o dashi nasai." Samurai : " Kono tori, nani mo wake no wakaran mono, inu dbyo no mono de gozaimasXi kara, dbzo go kamben kudasaimashi." Yopparai: '^ Korya omoshiroi ! Hajimete uketamawatta ! Samurai ga inu no tomo wo meshi-tsurete aruku to iu hb wa arumai. Inu dbyb no mono ?tara, temae mbshi-ukete kaeri, machin de mo kuwashite yarb. Db wabite mo, rybken wa narimasen. Kore! kerai no buchbhb wo shujin ga ivabiru nara, daichi ye ryb-te zvo tstiki, ^ Ju-ju osore-itta' to, kbbe zvo tsfichi ni tataki-tstikete, wabi wo suru no ga atarimae. Nan da P Kata-te ni kaiana no koi- guchi wo kitte i-nagara^ ivabi ivo suru nado to wa, samwai 710 hb de arumai. Nan da P Temae iva sessha wo kiru ki ka P "'' lo. Observe the extreme rudeness of the style of address, — the insult- ing pronoun temae, " thou," and the absence of all honor ifics. The commonest courtesy would require ki desu ka for ki ka. The sober samurai answers politely, the verb viakarti three lines lower down being I^eculiarly courteous. BOTAN-DORO, CHAP. I. 453 a good three feet beyond the water-barrel, and prevents people from passing, and so made me stumble up against him. That's why I couldn't help giving him a thrashing." " He is a thoughtless fellow," replied the samurai, "whom I earnestly entreat Your Honour to pardon. I beg to apologise for him to you myself" "Just now," continued the drunkard, "as something came bang up against me when I staggered, I thought that perhaps there was a dog there. But no ! it was this ruffian, and he made my knee hit the ground. Here, just look ! he has made my clothes all muddy like this. I gave him a thrashing, because he was an insolent fellow. What do you think of that ? I'm going to do what I want with him ; so be good enough to hand him over to me." "You see, Sir," replied the samurai, "that he is too stupid to know what he is doing. He is no better than a dog. So do pray be kind enough to pardon him." " Well ! that's good ! " retorted the drunkard. " I never heard of that sort of thing before. Is it etiquette for a samurai to go out walking with a dog for a retainer.? If he is no better than a dog, I'll take charge of him and poison him with strychnine. You may apologise as you like, I won't take your apologies. Gracious goodness ! If a master wanted to apologise for his servant's insolence, the natural thing for him to do would be to put both hands on the ground, and to express his regret over and over again, apologising and striking the earth with his head. But what do you do.? While you are apologising, you are busy with one hand loosening your sword for use, — pretty manners indeed for a samurai ! What do you mean? Is it your intention to kill me, you low knave ? " 4 54 BOTAN-DORO, CHAP. I. Samurai : " lya ! kore wa, teniae ga kono kaiana-ya de kai-toro to zonjimash'iie, tadaima kanagii wo mite ima- sJiita tokoro ye, kono sawagi ni tori-aezu makari-demasliita no de . . . , " Yopparai : " "^// sore wa, kau to mo kawan to mo, attata no go katte da}^ " to nonoshiru no wo, — samurai wa shtkiri ni sono suikyo wo nadamete iru to, — Orai no htto-bito wa, " Sorya ! kenkwa da ! abunai zof" — " Nani /> kenkwa da to, e ? "-— " So sa ! aite wa samurai da." — " Sore iva kennon da ! " to iu to, — mala hitori ga : " Nan de gesu, ne P " — " Sayo sa / katana wo kau to ka, kawanai to ka no machigai daso desti. Ano yopparatte iru samurai ga hajime ni katana ni ne wo tsuketa ga, takakUte kawarenai de iru tokoro ye, — kotchi no wakai samurai ga maia sojio katana ni ne wo tsuketa tokoro kara, yopparai wa okori-dashtte, ' Ore ga kao to shita mono wo, ore ni busata de ne wo tsuketa ' to ka, nan to ka no machigai- rashii" to ieba, — mata hitori: " A^ani sal so Ja atimaseji yo ! Are wa inn no machigai da, ne I ' Ore no uchi no inu ni machi7i wo kuwaseta kara, sono kawari no inu wo watase. Maia machin wo kuwasete koroso ' to ka iu no desu ga, — inu no machigai wa, mukashi kara yoku II. Observe the incorporation into one gigantic sentence of this paragraph, of all the various dialogues of the bystanders, and on from here to the end of the second paragraph on p. 458 ; conf. also W 442-4. BOTAN-DORO, CHAP. I. 455 " By no means," replied the samurai. " It is only that I had thought of purchasing this sword of the dealer here, and was just inspecting the metal-work, when all of a sudden I got in for this row, and " " Oh ! " laughed the drunkard, *' whether you buy the sword or don't buy the sword, that's your affair ; " — where- upon, as the samurai continued to endeavour to appease his drunken frenzy, the passers-by put in their word, saying : " Look out ! there's a quarrel ! take care ! " " What ? you say there's a quarrel ? " " Yes ; the parties to it are samurai." " That's a bad look out." Then, as another asked what it was, somebody replied : "Well, you see, it appears it's a misunderstanding about the purchase of a sword. That drunken samurai there first priced the sword, and was just refusing to buy it on account of its being too dear, when the younger samurai here came up and also priced it. This angered the drunkard, who found fault with him for pricing, without reference to him, an article which he himself had been intending to buy. That's more or less w^hat the misunderstanding sprang from." But another broke in, saying, " Oh dear no ! that's not it at all. The misunderstanding is about a dog. One of the two said to the other : ' As you killed my dog with strychnine, you must give me yours in return, and let me poison it with strychnine too. Disputes about dogs have always been common ; for you know how, in Shirai^^ 12. Here the drunkard uses honorifics, but ironically. 13. The touching story of Shirai Gompachi and of his lady-love, Komurasaki, is to be found in Mitford's " Tales of Old Japan," Vol. I., p. 35 c^ scq. 4$^- BOTAN-DORO, CHAP. 1. arimasu yo ! Shirai Gompachi nado mo, yahari inn no kenkwa kara anfta sodo ni natta fio desii kaj-a, ne / " to ill to, — niata soha ni iru hito ga : '^ Nani sal sonna wake ja nai. Ano futari wa oji oi no aida-gara de, ano makka ni yopparatte iru 7to iva oji san de, wakai kirei na Jiilo ga oi daso da. Oi ga oji ni kozukai-zeni wo kurenai to iu tokoro kara no kenkwa da'' to ieba, — maia soha ni i?'u hito wa : ^^ Nani ! are wa kinchaklU-kiri da," nado to, — orai no hito-hito wa iro-iro no hybban wo shite iru uchi ni, Hitori no otoko ga moshimasYi ni wa : " Ano yopparai wa, Maruyama Hommyoji naka-yashzki'^^ ni sumu hito de, vioto wa Koide Sama 710 go kerai de atta ga, — mimochi ga warukute, shu-skoku ni fiUkeri, ori-ori wa suppa-nuki nado shite hito wo odokashi, rambo wo hataraite shichii wo ogyb shi, aru toki iva ryori-ya ye agari-kotni, jiibuii sake, sakana de hara ivo fXikurasMta ageku ni, * Kanjo wa, Hommyoji naka-yashiki ye tori ni koif to, ohei ni kui-taoshi, nomi-taoshite aruku Kurokawa Kozo to iu waru-zamurai desu kara, toshi no wakai ho wa mi-komarete, isumari sake de mo kawaserareru no desho yo." — " So desti ka ? Nami- taitei no mono nara, kitte shimaimasu ga, — ano wakai 14. Each of the larger Daimyos usually possessed three mansions in Yedo, respectively distinguished by the titles of kami or " upper," naka or *' middle," and shlmo or " lower." BOTAN-DORO, CHAP. I. 457 Gompachi's case, too, it was a quarrel about a dog which grew into all that trouble." " Oh dear no ! " said another onlooker at the side of him who had just been speaking, "■ that's not it in the least. It seems that the two samurai are relations, — one the uncle, the other his nephew. It is the drunkard with the scarlet face that is the uncle, and the handsome young fellow that is the nephew. The quarrel between them arose from the nephew's refusing to give his uncle some pocket-money." But another man standing by said, " Oh ! no, he's a pickpocket." And then, among the various comments which were made by the passers-by, one man delivered himself of the information that the drunkard was a swashbuckler of a samurai called Kurokawa Kozo, who was living in the middle mansion of Hommyoji at Maruyama, and who had originally been a retainer of my lord Koide, but who, being ill-behaved, had sunk into debauchery, used often to frighten folks by drawing his sword at random, and used to roam through the streets in a violent and disorderly manner, sometimes forcing his way into eating-houses, and then, when he had had his fill of victuals and drink, telling the eating-house- keeper to come for payment to the middle mansion of Hommyoji, thus ruining people by his violence and riotous living, so that the present row would doubt- less end in the younger samurai getting bullied into treating him to liquor. " Oh ! is that it.?" said a voice. " Any average man would cut the ruffian down. But I suppose the young samurai won't be able to do so, — will he .? — for he looks weakly." ^S BOTAN-DORO, CHAP. I. ^ zva, domo dyos^in no yd da kara^ kiremai, ne!" — " Nanif Are zva, kenjutsu wo shiranai no daro. Samurai ga kenjutsu wo shiranakereba, koshi-nuke da," nado to sasayaku koe ga chira-chira wakai samurai no mimi ni hairu kara, gutto komi-age, kampeki ni sawarimashita to miete, kao ga makka ni nari, ao-suji wo tatete, tsume-yori, Samurai : " Kore hodo made ni o wahi wo mbshite mo, go kamben nasaimasen ka ?'' Yopparai : " Kudoi / Mireba, rippa na o samurai, — go jiJdsan ka, izure no go hanchU ka wa shiranai ga, — o-ha uchi-karashita I'bnin to anadori, shitsurei shi- goku ! lyo-iyo kamben ga naranakereba, do suru ka ? " to itte, katto tan wo zvaka-zamurai no kao ni haki-tsukemashita kara, sasuga ni kamben-zuyoi waka-zamurai mo, korae- kirenaku narimashita to miete, " Onore ! shtta kara dereba tsuke-agari, masu-masu tsunoru ba?'i boko, bushi taru mono 710 kao 7ii tan wo haki-tsukeru to zva, fu-todoki na yatsu l^'" Kamben ga dekinakereba, ko suru " to ii-nagara, ima katajia- ya de mite ita Bizen-mono no tstika ni te wo kakeru ga hayai ka, surari to Jiiki-nuki, yopparai no hana no saki ye pikatto dashtta kara, kembutsu wa odoroki-awate, yowdso na otoko da kara, niada hikko-nuki wa shimai to omotta no ni, pika-pika to shtta kara, " Soraf tiuital" to, ko no ha ga kaze ni chiru yd ni, shi-ho hap-pd fii bara-bara to 15. A subjectless and highly irregular sentence, lit. " You ! when I come out from underneath (i.e., am conciliating), you are puffed up with pride; — abuse and violence accumulating more and more;- BOTAN-DORO, CHAP. I. 459 " Don't you believe it ! " whispered another. " It must be because he doesn't know how to use a sword. A samurai who doesn't know how to use a sword is a coward." And the buzz of these whispered insinuations found its way to the young samurai's ears, and he flared up, and, evidently flying into a passion, his face became scarlet, .and the blue* veins stood out on his forehead, and he drew close to the drunken wretch, and said : ''Will you not excuse my retainer, even after all the apologies I have offered } " '' You wordy idiot 1 " laughed the other. " To look at you, you are a mighty fine gentleman, of whom one might suppose that he either was one of the Shogun's immediate vassals, or else belonged to one of the clans. But you are the rudest of fellows thus to scorn me as a shabby vagrant. Suppose I don't excuse you, what will you do .? " and with these words he spat in the young samurai's face. This was too much for the patience even of one so long-suffering as the younger man. '' Impudent wretch that you are!" cried he, "to presume thus upon my forbearance, to continue getting more and more abusive and violent, and actually to spit in a gentleman's face ! As you won't accept apologies, here's what I'll do to you ! And with these words, and almost before he could be seen to have placed his hand on the hilt of the sword which he had just been inspecting in the shop, he out with it and flashed it in the drunkard's face. Thereupon the by- standers took fright. " Oh ! he has drawn his sword ! " cried they, as they saw it flash in the hands of him whom for your spitting phlegm into the face of a person who is {tarn, for to aru) a warrior, what an impudent fellow I " 460 BOTAN-DORO, CHAP. I. nigemashtle, machi-machi no kido ivo ioji, roji wo shime- kiri, akindo wa mina to wo shimeru sawagi de, machi-naka iva hissori to narimasMta ga, — Fuji-Shin no teishu hiiori wa nige-ha wo ushinai, tstikunen to shite, mise-saki ni stcwatte orimashita. Sate Kurokaiva Kozo wa, yopparatte wa orimasuredo, Nama-yoi honsho tagawazu^® de, ano waka-zamurai no kemmaku ni osoremashite, hyorotsuki-nagara ni-ju-ashi bakari nige-dasu no wo, — samurai wa : " Onore kuchi hodo de mo nai. Bushi no aite ni ushiro wo miseru to wa, htkyo na yatsu! Kaere ! kaeref" to, setta-baki de ato wo okkake- ma^i to, — Rozo wa mohaya kanawan to omoimashiie, hyoro- tsuku as hi wo fwni-shimete, katana no tstika ni te wo kakete, konata wo furi-muku tokoro wo, — waka-zamurai wa ''Eif to htto-koe, kata-saki fukaku buttsuri to kiri-komu to, — kirarete, Kozo wa, " A ! " //(?" sakebi, kata-hiza wo tsuku tokoro wo noshi-kakatte, '' Eil " to hidari no kata yori ?nuna- moto ye kiri-tsuke?nashita kara, hasu ni mitsu ni kirarete shimaitJiashita. Waka-zafuurai wa sugu to rippa ni todome wo sashtte, chi-gatana wo furui-nagara, Fuji- Shin 710 mise- saki ye tachi-kaerimashita ga, — T?ioto yori kiri-korosu ryoken de gozaimashtta kara, chitto mo do suru kesKiki mo naku, waga gero ni mukatte : Samurai: '^ Kore f Tostike ! so no tensui-oke no ?mzu wo kono katana ni kakero I" to ii-tsMemasU to, — 16. A proverb. Oi3Ji&\Q2i}itaga'wazii^Q,(^o(\. chigaxvanai. 17. Pronounce atto as a single word, tto standing by emphasis for to, the postposition ; conf. bottom p. 82. BOTAN-DORO, CHAP. I. 46 1 they had taken for a weakHng, and had not imagined would draw it so quickly. And then, like leaves scattered by the wind, off they fled helter-skelter in every direction ; and the ward-doors were made fast, and the barriers of every lane were closed, and the shop-keepers all shut up their shops, so that the whole street was deserted, the old sword-dealer alone continuing to sit listlessly in his shop-front, simply because he was too much dazed to run away. Well, drunk as Kurokawa Koz5 was, he, — on the principle that 'a tipsy man follows his natural bent,' — scared at the rage that was painted on the young samurai's face, tried to escape, and had gone some twenty paces with a stag- gering gait, when his antagonist pursued him with his sandals on and cried out, " Wretch ! your conduct does not bear out your insolent words. You are a coward, you are for showing your back to a gentleman whom you are disputing with. Come back ! come back ! " Then Kozo seeing it was no longer any good, steadied himself on his staggering legs, put his hand on the hilt of his sword, and was turning to face the young samurai, when the latter, with the single exclamation " Ha I " slashed deep into his shoulder, cutting him down, so that the man fell on to one knee with a cry, when his opponent, springing on him again, cut at him from the left shoulder down to the chest in such wise that he fell sliced obliquely into three pieces. The young samurai then dexterously gave him the coup-de-grdce^ and returned to the sword-shop, shaking the blood from off his blade. As he had from the beginning intended to cut the swashbuckler down, he was not flurried in the slightest, but turned to his servant, and said : " Here, Tosiike ! pour some water on this sword from 462 BOTAN-DORO, CHAP. I. Saizen yori furuete ot'imashita Tosuke wa : ^^ Hei / ion- demonai koto ni narimashtta. Moshi kono koto kara Otono Sama no namae de ??io demastt yd 7ia koto ga gozaimashite iva, ai-sumimasen. Moto wa, rnina wataktishi kara hajimatta koto. Do itashitara, yoroshiii gozaimasho ? " Samurai : " Jya ! Sayo ni shimpai sum 7ii iva oyohan. Shtchu wo sawagasu rambo-nin, kiri-sMete mo kurusMkunai yatsu da}^ Shimpai suru-na ! " to, gero wo nagusame-nagara, yiiyu to shtle, akke ni iorarete iru Fuji-Shin no teishu wo yobi : " Korya ! Go teishu ya ! Kono katana zva, kore hodo kireyo to zva omoi?nasen datta ga, naka-naka kiremasli' Yohodo yoku kireru " to iu to, — Teishu wa, furue-nagara : " lya ! Anata sama 7io te ga saete oru kara de gozaimasu." Samurai : " Jya ! iya ! Mattaku hamono ga yoi. Do da, na P Shichi-ryo ni-bu ni makete mo yokaro " to iu kara,' Fuji- Shin wa kakari-ai wo osorete, " Yoroshiu gozaimasu !' Sa??iurai : *' Iya ! Omae no ??iise ni zva, kesshtte mei- waku wa kakemasen. Tomokaku kono koto wo sugu ni jishimban ni todokenakereba naran. Nafuda wo kaku kara, chotto suzuri-bako wo kashite kurero ! " to iwdrete mo, teishu wa Jibuti no soba ni suzuri-bako no aru no mo me ni tsfikazu ni, furue-goe de, 18. This sentence excellently illustrates the manner in which Japan- ese sentences sometimes fail to hang together logically. The first BOTAN-DORO, CHAP. I. 463 that water-tub ; " — whereupon Tosuke, who had been trembling all the while, exclaimed : "Oh! Sir, it has come to a pretty pass. It will be dreadful if our master, your father, gets talked about because of this. And I was the cause of it all. What shall I do .? " "Nay," said the samurai, to comfort him, "you need not fret like that. A disorderly fellow who goes about disturbing all the town ! there is no harm in cutting down a creature of that sort. Don't fret about it." — And with these words, he called out nonchalantly to the terror- stricken shop-keeper : " Ha ! ha ! mine host ! I never thought this sword of yours would cut as well as that. But it does cut. It cuts first-rate."' To which the shop-keeper, trembling the while, made answer : " Nay ! it was because Your Honour's arm is skilful." "Not at all," replied the samurai. "The blade is really a good one. And how now? I hope you'll go down to seven dollars and a half." So the sword-dealer, anxious not to get implicated in the affair, said that it was all right. "And mind," continued the samurai, "that in no case will I allow your establishment to be put to any in- convenience on account of what has happened. Of course I must report the matter at once to the warden of the ward. Just let me use your writing-box a minute to write a card." clause is, so to speak, suspended in the air, as if followed by %oa : — " (As for) a disorderly person who disturbs the town-middle, he is a person whom even cutting down is not bad." 464. BOTAN-DORO, CHAP. I. ^^ Kozd yal Suzuri-hako ivo niotte koi ! "' to yonde mo, — kanai no mono wa, sakki 710 sazvagi ni doko ye ka nigeie shtmai, hiiori ??w oriniasen kara, hissori to slnte, henji ga nai. kara, Samurai : " Go teishu ! Omae iva sasuga ni go shbbai- gara dake aite, kofio mise wo chiito mo ugokazu ni gozaru iva, kanshin na mono da, na / " Teishu : '^ lye, nanif O home de osore-irimasu. Saki- hodo kara haya-goshi ga nukete^^ iatenai no de . . . . " Samurai : " Suzuri-bako wa, omae no waki ni am ja nai ka P" to iwarete,ydyo kokoro-zuite, suzuri-bako wo samurai no mae ni sashi-dashimasti to, — samurai wa suzuri-bako no fUta wo hiraite, fude wo tori, sura-sura to namae wo " lijima Heitaro " to kaki-owari, jishimban ni todokete oki, Ushigome no yashiki ye kaeri ni narimashtta. Kono shimatsu wo go shimpu lijima Heizaemon Sama ni hanashi zvo ??idshi-agemasu to, Heizaemon Sama wa ^' Yoku kitta" to ose ga atte, sore kara sugu ni kashira no Kobayashi Gondayu Dono^^ ye todoke ni narimashita ga, — sashitaru 6 togame mo naku, kiri-doku kirare-zon to narimashita. 19. We have freely rendered this clause by " unable to stir through fright." But the popular Japanese idea on the subject is that one of the bones actually gets put out of joint through fright. 20. Gondayu, here rendered as part of this personage's name, was originally a title indicative of a certain rank ; but it came to be used more or less at will among the samurai class. It is to be supposed that this Kobayashi Gondayu was an official entrusted with certaui BOTAN-DORO, CHAP. I. 465 But the shop-keeper, never noticing that the writing- box was close beside him, called out in a tremulous voice : " Boy ! bring the writing-box ! " — a command to which nothing but silence responded ; for all the people in the house had fled, none knew w^hither, when the row began, and there was no one present. So the samurai exclaimed : *' Mine host ] I really admire your courage, — the courage proper in the owner of a sword-rshop, — sitting here in your shop without moving an inch, notwithstanding this affray." " Nay ! Sir," gasped the tradesman. *' Your praise covers me with confusion. I have been unable to stir through fright ever since the beginning of it, and . . . . " " Why ! " said the samurai, " isn't the writing-box there at your side ? " These words at last brought the shopman to his senses, and he pushed the writing-box towards the samurai, who, lifting off the lid, took up a pen and quietly wrote his name, " Iijima Heitaro," then reported the matter to the warden of the ward, and went home to his lord's mansion at Ushigome. On his relating the whole affair to his father, Iijima Heizaemon, the latter praised him for his manly deed ; nor was the young man specially blamed when the report was sent in to their superior, Kobayashi Gondayu. It all simply ended by being so much the better for the slayer, and so much the worse for the slain. affairs of the clan to which the lijimas belonged, and who happened to be their immediate superior. The title of Dono, " Mr.," though still often used in writing, is rarely if ever heard in actual speech. 466 BOTAN-DORO, CHAP. II. 11 459. DAI NI-KWAI. Sate lijima Heiiaro Sama wa, iosht m-ju-m no iohi ni waru-mono wo hri-horosMtey chitto mo osoreru keshiki mo naku, kisho na kaia de gozatmashtta kara, — ioshi wo ioru ni bjiiey masu-masu cJne ga siisumimashite, sono nochi go shinipu sama m naku narareiCy go katoku wo tsugi asobashi, Heizaemon to 7ta wo araiame^ SuiB-bafa* no Mtyahe Sama to vibshimasu o haiamoio^ kara ok^sama wo o mukae ni narimashiie^ — kodo naku go shusshd no nyoshi wo O Tsuyu Sama to mbshi-age, sukoburu yot go kiryb miwa,^ (5) Itowanedo, — (7) Ato ni nokorishi'^ (5) Tsu7?ia ya ko wa, (7) Do shiie tslUki-hi wo (5) Okuru yara^ ? \ I care not for myself, who am sent across the Genkai Sea over which even the birds do not pass. But the wife and children who have remained behind, — how will they spend the months and days,? 3. In the little book from which this verse is taken, there is, opposite the lines, a picture of a girl weeping and stretching out imploring hands to a man who is turning his back on her. — 4. Lit. " positively break not ! " kataku being equivalent to kesshite. — 5. Equivalent to shikata ga nai. — 6. This line has eight syllables instead of seven, by a poetical license. — 7. NokorisJd is Classical for nokotta. — 8. Yara comes from Classical ya aran, which is equivalent to the Colloquial de ard ka ? 469. VOCABULARY OF ALL THE JAPANESE WORDS OCCURRING IN THIS WORK, {All verbs are of the 1st. conjugatltn, unless marked 2^ j>, or irregular. Ciuz- pound verbs are g'ven under their first member^ as mi-sokonau under miru. When several references to pages are given, the most important reference is placed first.) A AKA §, like that, in that way : a iti, that kind of, such as that. a I or aa I ah ! abayo, good-bye (in baby lan- guage). abiru {3), to. bathe. abu, a horsefly. abunai, dangerous. abura, a general name for all oil, grease, and fat. achi or acbira, there. adakamo, as if, just as, as it were. ada, an enemy. aete, venturing (the present aeru is not in use) ; but sometimes a mere expletive belonging to the Written Style. agari, ascent, produce : ogari- sagari siirti, to go up and down. agaru, to rise ; to get clear (said of the weather) ; also to take, to eat or drink (honor.): agari-komu, to force one's way up into. For agani honorific, see pp. 251, 202. ageku ni, as a final result, at last. ageru (2), to raise, hence to give to a superior. For honorific use of agerti, see pp. 250-1. ai, a verbal prefix ; see p. 73. ai, indigo, dark blue. ai (properly ayu), a kind of trout. aida, an interval, time, while (see p. 41) : aida-gara, connection, relationship: aida ga ori-aimasen, do not get on well together. ai-kawarazu, without change, the same as heretofore. aikoku(shin), patriotism. ai-niku, inopportune. aisatsu, salutation, acknowledg- ment, response, answer ; aisatsu sum, to salute, to answer. aisuru (irreg.), to love. aita ! or aitata I oh ! how pain- ful ! see p. 237. aite, a party (to a transaction), an antagonist (at a game), a com- panion. ajiwai, taste, flavour. akagane, copper. AKA [ 490 ] JAPANESE — ENGLISH VOCABULARY. ANN akai) red, brown. amaru, to exceed, to remain akambo, a baby. over. akami, a tinge of red. amasu, to leave or have over. akari, a light. ambai, way, manner, bodily akarui, light (not dark). feelings : ambai ga ivarui, I feel ake-gata, dawn. unwell ; do iu ambai ? how ? akeru (2), to open (trans.) ; to kono ambai de %va, thus ; yoi am- begin (intrans.), — said of the New- bai ni, fortunately. Year. ame, rain ; atne ga furu, to rain ; aki, autumn. ame ni nam, to come on to rain. aki-mekura, one who is blind, ante, a kind of sweetmeat made of but has his eyes open. fermented grain. akinai, trade, commerce. Amerika, America, the United akinau, to trade. States : Amerika-ji^i, an Ame- akindo, a merchant, a dealer. rican ; Amerika no, American. akippoi, easily wearied, fickle. ami, a net : ami wo utsu, to net akiraka (na\ clear, evident : (fish). akiraka ni, clearly. amma, a shampooer. akireru (2), to be astounded. amu, to weave, braid, compile: akiru (3\ to be satiated. ami-tateru, ditto. akke ni torareru (2), to be an, an opinion, a case, a point, amazed, thunder-struck. a draft, a bill. akko, bad language, abuse. an, a hermitage. aku, evil, vice. ana, a hole, a cave, a tunnel. aku, to open (intrans.), to become anadoru, to jeer, to revile. vacant : aite iru, to be open, to anata, you ; see pp. 46-8, 239. be unoccupied, not used. andon, a lamp (of the old-fashioned aku-hei, vicious habits. Japanese style with paper sides). akuru, Class, form of akeru, to ane, an elder sister. open, used Colloq. in such expres- ani, less often aniki, an clder sions as akuru hi, the next day. brother ; ^onf. p. 256. akuto, a villain. ani, a negative particle ; see p. 169. ama, a (Buddhist) nun. anjiru (3), to be anxious. amai, sweet. anna, that kind of, such as that. amami, a tinge of sweetness. annai, guidance, knowing one's amari, too much, too ; (with a way about, a guide : annai sum. negative) not very, see p. 148. to guide. ANO [ 491 ] JAPANESE — ENGLISH VOCABULARY, ASO ano, that (adj.) : ano hUo, he, she ; ajto lie ! see p. 239. anshin, mental ease : anshin sum, to feel at ease. an-yo, the feet, to walk (in baby- language). aoi, green, blue. aoru, to slam backwards and for- wards (intrans.) ; — said of a door. ao-suji, blue lines, e. g., on the forehead. ara ! see p. 237. arai, rough : ara-araskii, ditto. arakajime, beforehand. araserareru (2), to be, hence to go (very honorific) ; conf. p. 150. arashi, a storm, a typhoon. J arasoi, a dispute. I arasou, to dispute. arata ni, anew. aratamaru, to be renewed, over- hauled, altered, rectified. aratameru (2), to renew, over- haul, examine, alter, rectify. arau, to wash. arawareru (2), to show or reveal oneself, to appear. arawasu, to show, to reveal. arayuru, see p. 365, note 9. are, that (subst.) ; it, he, she, see pp. 53, 48 : are hodo, as much as that ; are kara, after that. ari-awase-mono, anything that there may happen to be. ari-gachi, apt to be. arigatai, thankful (said both of the person who feels thankful, and of the thing for which he is thankful) ; hence sometimes beneficent : arigato {gozaimasu), thank you ; conf. p. 255. arimasu, see pp. 221-2. arisama, a state, a condition. ari-tei, the facts of a case. aru, (irreg.) to be; see pp. 170, 190-1, 221, 129, 210, 223 : de aril, see p. 222 : aru nashi, see p. 34 ; arino mama, see p. 76. Some- times arte means a certain, some, as in aril toki, on a certain oc- casion, sometimes. aruiwa, or else. aruji, the master of a house, a I host. aruku, to walk. asa, the morning : asa-gao, the morning glory, or convolvulus ; asa-han, breakfast. asagi, light blue, light green. asai, shallow. asatte, the day after to-morrow. ase, perspiration : ase ga deru, to perspire ; ase ni nam, to get into a perspiration. ashi, the foot, the leg ; as/ii no I yid)i, the toes ; mi ashi, see p. 249. ashita, to-morrow ; ashita no asa, to-morrow morning. asobasu, an honorific equiv. ot the verb sum, to do ; see p. 25 1 . asobi, a game. I asobu or asubu, to play, to amuse oneself. ASU r. 492 ] JAPANESE ENGLISH VOCABULARY BAK asuko, there : asuko kara, thence ; asuko ye, thither. asiikoera, thereabouts. ataeru (2), to give, to grant. atai, price, value. atama, the head : atavia-kabuse, and alama kara kogoto wo in, see p. 364, note 6. atarashii, new, fresh, atari, neighbourhood, hence near, on or about. atari-mae, ordinary, generally : ata?'imac no, usual, proper. ataru, to hit the mark, also to be near, as /;/ tn ataru, to sit near the fire : 7ti atatte, just at ; dochira iii atatte ? where ? atatameru (2), to warm (trans.), atclii, vulgar for achi, there. ate, reliance : ate ni naru, to be reliable ; ate ni sum, to rely on. ateru (2), to apply one thing to, or use it for, another ; to hit : ate- hameru, to allot, to assign ; kaze 1V0 ateru, to have it windy. ato, traces, effects, a sign, behind, afterwards, the rest : ato de, or sono ato, afterwards ; ato no^ the< remaining, other ; ato-saki, the context, circumstances. atsui, hot. atsui, thick (said of solids). atsukau, to manage, to under- take. atsuxnani, to collect (intrans.). atsumeru (2), to collect (trans.). atsuraeru (2), to order (e, g. things at a shop). atsiisa, heat, the degree of heat. atsiisa, thickness, the degree of thickness. au, to meet, to agree, to suit ; see also p. 251 : ame ni au, to get rained upon ; hidoi me ni au, to experience cruel ti-eatment : hidoi me ni awaseru, to treat cruelly. aware (na), poor, pitiable. awase-mono, something artifi- cially joined together. awaseru (2), to cause to meet, hence to add, to join. awatadashii, flurried. awateru (2), to be flurried, — especially from fright. ayamaclii, a fault. ayamatsu, to make a mistake. ayu, a species of trout. azana, a nickname. B ba, a place ; — ^used only in com- position, as furo-ba, a bathroom. ba, (auxil. numeral), see p. 1 10. ba, (conditional suffix), see p. 167. ba-ai, case, occasion. baba, an old woman (rude). bai, double ; see also p. 118. baka, a fool : baka na, or baka- rashii, foolish, absurd ; baka ni, foolishly ; hito ivo baka ni suru^ to make a fool of a person. bakari, about, only, just. 'BAK [ 493 ] JAPANESE ENGLISH VOCABULARY. BIM bakemono or o hake, any super- natural and uncanny creature, a ghost, a goblin. \ bakkin, a fine. i* bakiiclii, gambling. Bakiif u, the Sh5gun's government. bakuron, confutation. bambutsu, all things, nature. bamme, a word used to form ordinal numbers ; see p. 115. bam-meslii, supper, (late) dinner. ban, ten thousand, a myriad ; also used as a pluralising prefix, as l>an-ji, all things : bankoku^ all countries, international. ban, an evening, a night. ban, number (so-and-so) ; see p. lis- ban, watch, guard : bati 700 siwii, to keep watch. bancbi, the number (of a house in a street). bant 6, a head clerk or manager. banzai, hurrah, see p. 239. banzuke, a programme. bara, a thorny bush, a rose-bush. bara-bara, helter-skelter. bari, insult, abusive language : bari surtt, to revile, to slander. basba, a carriage. basho, a place. bassui, an extract. bassuru (irreg.), to punish. bata, butter (fi-om English). baya, an old lady, grandmamma (in baby language). bebe, clothes (in baby language). bei (vulg. for beshi), see p. 122. Beikoku, America, the United States. beki, see pp. 12 1-2, 124, 132. bekko, tortoise-shell. bemmei, elucidation, explanation: bemmei suru, to elucidate. bengosbi, a barrister, benjiru {3), to discuss. benjo, a water-closet. benko, eloquence : benko no yoi, eloquent, glib. benkyo, diligence, study. benri, convenience : benri no yoi or benri {na), convenient, benri no warui, inconvenient. bento, food carried with one, e. g. luncheon for a picnic. beppin, lit. another quality ; hence a superior article, (hence metaph.) a pretty girl. berab6(-nie), a scoundrel. Berugii, Belgium. besbi, see p. 122. besso, a villa. betsu, a difference ; belsu ni, differently, specially ; betsu no, different, other ; betsu-ztimai, living apart. betsudan (no), special. bettaku, a valla, betto, a groom. biiru, beer (fi-om English). bijin, a belle. bijutsu, the fine arts. bikko, lame. bimbo, poverty : bimbd na, poor. BIN [ 494 ] JAPANESE ENGLISH VOCABULARY. BYO bin, opportunity, convenience. bin, a bottle. bin, the Japanese cue. bo, a bludgeon, a stick. boei, defence. buji, no accident, safe and sound. buki, a weapon. Bukkyo, Buddhism. bummei, enlightenment, civi- lisation : btimmel jta, civilised, boeki, trade. cultured. bokkyaku sum (irreg.), to destroy. boko, violent conduct. bumpai, distribution. bumpo, grammar. bun, a part, see pp. 118-9. boku, a servant, hence I. bokumetsu, destruction. bun (sbo), a written composition. Buppo, Buddhism. bokusbi, a pastor, a clergyman, bokuto, a mock sword made of bura-bura, in a sauntering man- ner. wood. burei, rudeness ; burei na, rude. bon, a tray. bonten-obi, a cheap striped belt worn by coolies and servants. impertinent ; go burei, see p. 247. buri, a suffix signifying gait, de- meanour. bon-yari, an onomatope for obscurity, tedium, dullness : bon- yari shita dull, dazed, obscure. busata, failure to give notice, re- missness in paying a visit : go busata, see p. 247 ; ivatakushi ni bSron, an absurd opinion. 'bosan, a Buddhist priest. busata de, without letting me know. bosbi, a hat, a cap. busbi, a warrior. botan, a peony. botcban, a little boy ; see p. 240. boto, a boat ; conf. p. 6. busho (na\ indolent, slovenly, lazy. butsu, to beat, to strike: buchi- boto, a preamble. boy, a house-servant, a valet ataru, to knock up against ; buchi-korosu, to beat to death ; (from English). buchi-taosu, to knock down. bozu, a Buddhist priest (rude). bu, a negative prefix : bu-ashirai, butsu, a thing (in compounds). buttsukeru (2), (for buchi-tsuke- discourteous, inhospitable ; bucho- hd, awkwardness. bu, a copy of a book. bu or bubun, a part, see pp. 1 18- ru) to bump. buttsuri to, slashingly. byoki, a disease : byoki (na), ill, sick. 119. budo, grapes : budd-shu^ wine. byonin, an invalid, a patient. byoshin, a weakling. CHA [ 495 ] JAPANESE — ENGLISH VOCABULARY. CHO clia, tea ; c/ia-noml-Jawan, a tea- cup ; cha zoo ireru, to make tea. cha, (termin. of the emphasised gerund), see pp. i66, 182. chakiisuru (irreg.), to arrive. chan, baby language for San^ Mr., Mrs., or Miss. clianto, correctly : chant o sJiita^ correct. chawan, a tea-cup, a bowl. chaya, a tea-house. chi, blood : chi ga deni, to bleed (intrans.) ; chi-gatana^ a blood- stained sword. eh.!, a thousand (in compounds). chi-banare, weaning (of an in- fant). chichi, a father ; but see p. 256. chichi, the breasts, hence milk. chie, intelligence, wisdom. chigai, a difference, a mistake : chigai 7iai, there is no doubt. chigau, to differ, hence to be mis- taken, to be the wrong one. chiho, a direction, a locality. chii, position. chiisai, or chiisa na, small : chiisaku nam, to crouch. chiji, a prefect. chijimeru (2), to shrink (trans.). chijo, blind love. chijoku, shame. chikagoro, recently. chikai, near : chikai iichi, soon. chikara, strength : chikara wo tsiihisu, to do one's best, to endeavour. chikazuki, friendship, an ul- timate fi-iend. chikuba, a sort of toy stick on which children ride-a-cock-horse: chiktiba no tomo, a friend from childhood upwards. chikusho, a brute animal, a beast. chimba, lame. chin, a Japanese pug. v^'^g^ ^^^ not included under the generic term inn dog.) chira-chira, flutteringly. chira-hora, scattered, here and there. chirasu, to scatter (as the wind does dead leaves). chiri, dust. chiru, to be scattered, chishiki, talent, wisdom. chiso, (generally with the honor- ific go prefixed) a feast. chi(t)to, see choito. chitsujo, order. cho, an auxil. num. ; see p. 108. cho, a butterfly. cho, a measure of distance equiva- lent to about 120 yards English. There are 36 cJio in the official ri or league. CJio also means street or ward : ni-cho-me, the second ward (of such and such a street). cho, government office. choai, love : cJidai sum, to love. CHO [496] JAPANESE ENGLISH VOCABULARY. DAI chobatsu, punishment : chdhatsu siinc, to punish. ch.och.aku suru (irreg.), to give a thrashing, to beat. chochin, a lantern. chocho, a butterfly. cho-cho, an onomatope for the sound of beating or chattering, chodai sum (irreg.), to receive respectfully ; conf. p. 251. chodo, just, exactly. choho, convenience : chd/td tta, convenient, useful. choi choi (to), little by little, just a little. choito, choto, chotto, chito, or chitto, just a little, a trifle : choito shita, slight, trifling ; chotto, is also used to signify about, as in cJiotto ichi-nen, just about a year. chojo, the summit of a mountain. chokai, disciplinary punishment. choki, a long period, choryu, tide, current, chosa, investigation. Chosen, Korea. choshu suru (irreg.), to levy. chosuru (irreg.), to refer to, to corroborate by. cho(t)to, see choito. chowa, unification, conciliation. choyo, age ; see p. 359, note 5. choza, sitting long, paying an interminable visit : choza suru, to pay too long a visit * chSzu, water to wash the hands with : cJidzii-ba, a water-closet ; chozu-bachi, a washhand-basin (porcelain); c/iozu-darai, ditto (metal). chu, in ; conf. p. 146. chu or chugi, loyalty (to a su- perior) : chu wo tsukiisu, to be- have with perfect loyalty. chugen, a samurai's retainer of the lower sort. chui, attention, care : chui sum, to pay attention. chumon, an order (e. g. at a shop) : chumon ddri, as ordered. churyaku, see p. 374, note 7. chu(shaku), commentary. chushi, cessation, stoppage. chushin, the centre. chushin, a loyal retainer. chuto, second class, middling. chu-ya, day and night. da, see pp. 64, 222 : da ga, but. dai, great, big, very. Used in compounds, as dai-kirai, greatly disliking : dai-suki, very fond. dai, a word used to form ordinal numbers, see p. 115 ; dai-ichi ni, in the first place ; dai-is-shin, a Court of First Instance. dai, a table. dai, a reign, a generation. dai) the auxiliary numeral for vehicles ; see p. 108. daibu, a good deal. DAI [ 497 ] JAPANESE ENGLISH VOCABULARY. DEK a university. daichi, the ground. dai-dokoro, a kitchen. daigakko, daigaku, daihyo suru (irreg.), to represent. daiji, importance : daiji na, im- portant ; daiji ni suru, to take great care of. daijin, a minister of state. daijobu (na), all right, safe and sound. daikai, the ocean. daiku, a carpenter. daimyo, a feudal lord ; conf. p. 7. dairi, a substitute. daishin-in, the Court of Cassa- tion. daitai, the general character of a thing, its main features. daitoryo, a President, — of the United States, etc. dajaku (na), indolent. dake, only, about, as as. damaru, to keep silence. damasu, to cheat, dampan, negotiation. dan, a step, degree: dan-dan, grad- ually ; see also p. 326, note 23. dang-en suru (irreg.), to assert. dangi, a speech, a sermon, advice. dango, a kind of dumpling. dango, consultation : dangd sunt, to take counsel. danjiru (3), to consult. danna, a, master : danna san some- times means you or he, see p. 47. dannen suru (irreg.), to cease thinking of. — ■ dano, a postposition ; see p. 80. danshi, a male child, a man. dantai, a group or set of men. dantei suru (irreg.), to assert, conclude. darake, a suffix meaning smeared or covered with, as chi-darake, blood-smeared ; doro-darake, all covered with mud. dare ? who ? — dare ka, dare mo, dare de mo, see p. 52 ; dare -dake? exactly who? daro, see p. 222. daslii-nuke, unawares, suddenly. dasu, to take out, to put outside ; see also p. 218. datta, see p. 222. datte ! see p. 364, note 4. de, a postposition ; see p. 62 : de am, de arimasu, and de gozai- masu, see p. 222 ; de gozaimasu no, see p. 80 ; de mo, see pp. 55, 95-187 ; de motte, see p. 'J'iy ; de wa, see pp. 64, 97. de-guchi, an exit, the way out. de-iri, the entree to a house : de- iri no is ha, a family physician. de-kakeru (2), to start off. de-kata, a troupe of actors. deki, workmanship, produce; o deki or dekimono, anything which comes out on the skin, as a boil, a sore. dekiru (3), to come out, etc.; see p. 202 : deki-agaru, to be finished, ready. DEM [498 ] JAPANESE — ENGLISH VOCABULARY, DON dempata, landed property. dempo, a telegram. densembyo, an infectious disease. denslia, an electric tram. densllin, telegiaphy : denshin- kyoku, a telegraph-office. denwa, the telephone. deru (2), to come out of, to issue forth, to go out : de-ati, to meet out of doors, to encounter ; de- kakerii, to go out. de-shabaru, to stick out, to ob- trude (in trans.). deshi, a pupil, a disciple. deshita, see pp. 171, 223. desho, see p. 223. desu, see pp. 64, 171, 223: desu ga, see p. 286. do (concessive suffix), see p. 167. do, Vit\me{unefois)'. ichi-do, once. do, same (in compounds) : dojitsu, the same day ; ddyd, the same manner. do ? how ? — do de mo, anyhow ; do itashimashXte or do tsuka- matsurunasKite, see p. 285, No. 3 ; do iu ? what kind of ? what like ? dd {ni) ka, ko {ni) ka, see p. 301, No. 7 ; do sum f w hat shall you do ? do shite ? how ? do shite mo, do what you will, in any case; dd sMta mon' da? see bottom of p. 301. do-ai, degree, amount. dobutsu, an animal. dochiP or dochira, where? sometimes which ? — for this word with ka mo, or de mo added, see P- 52. dodo taru, mighty. dodoitsu, a kind of popular song ; see p. 487. dog^u, a utensil, tool ; dogu-ya, a furniture shop. doi, the same opinion : ddl sunt, to agree. Doitsu, Germany ; Doitsu-jiii, a German ; Doitsu no, German. d5itsu (no), identical, equal. doka, somehow or other, hence please ; but see pp. 52 and 255. dokkoisbo ! see p. 237. doko ? where ? doko ka, doko mo, doko de mo, see p. 52 ; doko kara ? whence ? doko made ? how far ? doko made mo, see p. 7 1 • dokoera? whereabouts? dokoro, see p. 42. doku, poison : doku ni nam, to be unwholesome. dokus]iiii(-iiiono), a bachelor, a spinster. doxno, a plural ising suffix ; sec p. 29. do(iiio), (concessive suffix), p. 167. domo ! see pp. 52 and 237. don, bang : don to, with a banging noise. donata ? who ? — donata ka, donata mo, donata de tfio, see p. 52. donna? what kind of? what like? donna ni ...mo, however much. dono ? which ? (adj.) : do no kurai ? how muth ? DON [ 499 I JAPANESE — ENGLISH VOCABULARY. FUD dono, Mr. (in Book Language). endan, a rostrum. dore? which? (subst.) : dore-dake ? eng-awa, a verandah. what amount ? dore ka^ dore mo. engiimi, marriage. dore de mo, see p. 52 ; dore hodo ? enja, kinsfolk. how much? enkaku, changes, development. dori, reason. en-kin, distance, how far ? doro, mud : doro-ashi, muddy enkon, enmity. feet ; doro-darake, all muddy ; ennichi, a festival day ; hence a doro-michi, a muddy road. fair. dorobo, a thief. enryo, diffident : enryo stiru, to be dosuru (irreg.), to be agitated. diffident. dote, an embankment, a bank. ensei-kwan or ensei-sliugi, datoku, morality. pessimism. doya-doya, tumultuously. ensoku, an excursion, a picnic. doyobi, Saturday. enzetsu, a lecture, a speech : eti~ dozo, a mud god own, conf. p. 13. zctsu sum, to lecture. dozo, please, but see pp. 52 and enzuru (iireg.), to play, to do. 255. erabu, to choose. E erai, wonderful, able, very. eri, a collar. el eh! eh? eru (2), to get ; conf. p. 199. e, a picture. eru, to choose : eri-dasu, to select eda, a branch of a tree, river, etc. from among several. eg-aku, to paint (pictures). • eshaku, an apology, a bow : ei! ah! oh! esJiakii 700 sun/, to bow, to Ei(koku), England : Eigo, the apologise. English language. £zo, the island of Yezo. e-kaki, a painter. eki, profit. F embi-fuku, a swallow-tail coat. Emma, the Buddhist Rhadaman- thus. empitsu, a pencil. empo, a long way off. en, a yen or Japanese dpllar = about fifty cents of American money, or two shillings English. fu, a negative prefix. fQ, two (in enumeration). fu-annai, ignorant of, unac- quainted with, fuben or fubenri, inconvenience. fubo, father and mother. fuda, a ticket. FUD [ 500 ] JAPANESE ENGLISH VOCABULARY. FUR fudan, the ordinary routine: /tufa n fukushu, revenge. no, usual, common. fukuzatsu, a medley, a complica- fude, a pen : fude-sashi, a pen- tion : fukuzatsu na, disorderly. stand. complicated. fu-deki, badly made. fumbetsu, discrimination. fuen suru (irreg.), to enlarge upon. fu-mimochi, vice, immorality. fueru (2), to increase (intrans.). fumu, to tread (on) : fumi-hazusu. fufu, husband and wife. to stumble ; fumi-shlmeru, to fufuku, discontent. tread firmly. fuhai, putrefaction '. fu/iai'suru, to fun, a fraction, a tenth part, a rot. minute : ju-go-ftm, a quarter of fu-ikitodoki, negligent an hour. fuji, the wistaria plant. fundo, anger. fujin, a lady. fune, any kind of boat or ship : Fuji(-saii), Fujiyama. fune ni you, to be sea-sick. fujiyu, inconyenience, discomfort: fu-ninjo, unkindness. ftijiyu na, inconvenient. funkwa-zan, a volcano. fu-kagen, unwellness. Furansu, France : Furansufin, fukai, deep. a Frenchman ; Furansu no, fukeiki, hard times, depression of French. trade. fureru (2), to touch ; hence to in- fukeru (2), properly to deepen :yo fringe. ga fukeru, to become late at furi, a fall (of rain or snow). night ; toshi ga fttkeru, to grow furi, airs, gait, pretence. old. Also to be steeped in (e.g. furo, a bath : furo-ba, a bath-place. in vice). furokku-koto, a frock-coat (from fuko, a misfortune. the English word). faku, an auxiliary numeral ; see p. furosMki, a cloth used to wrap 108. up parcels. fuku, to blow (e.g. the w'mdy.fuki- furu, to fall,— said only of rain. mawasu, to blow round. snow, hail, etc. : furi-dasu, to fuku, to wipe. come on to rain, etc. ; furi-kome- fukumu, to contain, to include. rareru, to be kept indoors by fukurasu, to distend, to swell rain or snow ; furi-komu, to come (trans.). into the house (said of rain, etc.). fukuro, a bag: ofukttro, a mother. furu, to brandish, to wave : furi- but see p. 256. mukii, to turn and face. FUR [ 501 ] JAPANESE ENGLISH VOCABULARY, GAK furue-goe, a quivering voice. futoru, to grow fat ; fufotta, fat. furueru (2), to quiver, to tremble. futsu (no), usual, general. furui, old (said only of things) : Futsu, French (in compounds, as) fitru-ddgu, an old utensil or curio. Futsu-go, the French language. furuu, to shake (trans.). futsugd, inconvenience. fusagaru, to be obstructed, to be futsuka, two days, the second quite full. day of the month : ftitsuka-me. fiiseru (2), to lie down, to go to the second day ; fiitsiika-yoi , the bed. day after a carousal. fusetsu, rumour, report. fuyasu, to increase (trans.). fu-shi-awase, misfortune. fuyn, winter. fushig-i, a strange thing, a mir- fuzai, not at home, absent. acle : fusJiigi na, strange. fuzen, evil, wrong. fushin, doubt : fushin ni omou, to fuzoku, manners, customs. consider suspicious, to doubt. fushin, building : fushin-chu. G while building, while undergoing repairs. ga, a }X)stix>sition ; see pp. 65, 89- fd-shinsetsu (na), unkind. 91, 140-1. fusliochi, dissent, objection : fu- gaito suru (irreg.), to be liable. shdcJil 7U0 /?«', to object. conformable. fiisuru (irreg.), to submit (trans.). g-ake, a talus, a precipice. to hand over. gake, while, during, as kacri-gake, futa, a lid. while returning, on the way futago, twins. back. fiitari, two persons : fnfari-mne. gakkari, a sort of onomatope for portions for two. bodily exhaustion. futa(tsu), two : futatsn-mc. gakko, a school. second ; futatsic mitsu, two or gakkwa, a subject, or line of three ; futatsu oki, every third study. (lit. leaving out two). gaku, science, learning. futo, suddenly, accidentally. gaku, a tablet, a picture (oblong futodoki (na), insolent. and hard). futokoro, properly the bosom of a gakumon, study, learning. dress, but used to signify a breast gakuri, theory. pocket. gakusha, a learned man. futon, a bed-quilt. gakuyu, a fellow-student. GAM [ 502 ] JAPANESE — ENGLISH VOCABULARY. GOG gaman, patience : gaman sum, genron, speech, discussion. to be patient. genso, an essence, an element. gara, a suffix ; see p. 302, foot- a factor, an atom. note 18. gensoku, principle. garasu, glass (from the Dutch), genzai, the present time. garu, a verbal suffix ; see p. gero, a (low-class) man-servant. 134- gesu, {for gozaimasu) see p. 64. Gasshukoku, the United States. gesuru (irreg.), to understand. gasu, (for gozaimasu) see p. 64. getsu, a month ;— used only in gata, a pluralising particle ; see compounds, as ik-ka-getsu, one p. 29. month. gaten, comprehension, acquies- getsuyobi, Monday. cence : gaten suru, to compre- gi, duty, signification, «ffaiiv hend, to acquiesce ; gaten no ' gic]i5, a chairman, a president. ikan, incomprehensible. gidai, a subject of discussion. gatera, while, as, by way of. gi-in, one of the Houses (of the gedai, the title (of a drama); conf. Diet). p. 332, foot-note 31. gi-in, a member of an assembly. gehin (na), vulgar, base. gikwai, a public assembly, the gei, an accomplishment, a trick. Imperial Diet. geji-geji, a myriapo 97 : j^ ««2 ^^, see pp. 64, it-tan, one case. 189 ; at the beginning of a sen- itto, first class, one degree. tence, well then. it-toki, one hour, once. ja, to be ; see p. 223. iu, to say, see pp. 185, 251: jakkan, (how) much, (how) to itte, see p. 83 ; to iti, see pp. many. 58, 69, 82 ; to ka ill, see p. 69 ; jakuten, a weak point. to ittc mo, see p. 187 ; to 7va jama, obstruction, impediment : iedo mo, see p. 187 ; ii-dasii. Jama 7vo sum, to be in the way ; to say, to express, to enounce ; Jama, see pp. 247, 290 (No. ii-kakeru, to address, to speak 49). to ; ii-kikaseru, to tell ; ii- jano, the Ky5to equiv. of dano. tsukerti, to order ; iti ?nade mo ji, earth, ground. nai, needless to remark. ji, time, hour, as in nanji? what iwa, a rock. o'clock? rohi-Ji han, half-past iwaba, see p. 185. six o'clock. iwaku, a Classical form of hi, to ji, a written character or word. say ; see p. 361, note 10. specifically a Chinese ideograph : iwanya, how much more. Ji too hiku, to look out a word. iwayuru, see p. 369, note 20. jibiki, a dictionary. iya ! nay ! no ! (rarely) or else : jibun, a time, a season. iya na, objectionable ; iya desu jibun, sqM: Jibun no, one's own. yo! seep. 288, No. 31. jidai, epoch, time. iyag-aru, to dislike. jiden, an autobiography. iyasMku-mo, even if, supposing jigi (generally with c), a bow— of that. the head and body. iyo-iyo, more and more. jigoku, heU. izen, previously ; izen no, previ- jihaku, confession : /7//rtr/v^ sum ous. to confess, to own. iziimi, a spring, a fountain. jijitsu, a fact. izure ? which ? in any case ; but jijo, circumstances, reason. JIK [ 514] JAPANESE ENGLISH VOCABULARY. JOI) jikan, a period of time, hour, j i ka-dochaku, self-confutation. jiki (ni), immediately. jikisan, a vassal of sufficiently high rank to be allowed personal access to the Shogun. jikken-shitsu, a laboratory. jikko sum (irreg.), to execute, to practice. jiko, temperature, the state of the weather. jiko, effect of time. jikoku, an hour, time, period. jimbutsu, people, figures (as opposed to scenery), etc. jimen, a plot of ground. jimmin, the people (of a country). jimusho, an office. jin, a person, a man. jinja, a Shinto temple. jinka, a human habitation, a house. jiiiriki(sha), a jinrikisha, i.e., a species of bath-chair pulled by a man. jinryoku sum (irreg.), to en- deavour, to do one's very best. jinsliu, a race of men. jirei, an example. jiriki, one's own strength. jiro-jiro, furtively, by snatches. Jiro, a man's name ; see p. 36. jiron, an opinion, a contention. jisan suru (irreg.), to bring (respectful). jisatsu, suicide : Jisnfsti sum, to commit suicide. jisetsu, a season, a time. jishin, self. jishin, an earthquake. jishimban, a ward-office, a warden, — a kind of police-office and of policemen, under the Tokugawa regime. jisho, a dictionary. jisliu, voluntary confession of jissai, practice (as opposed to theory), fact. jisuru (irreg.), to refuse. jiten, a dictionary. jitensha, a bicycle. jitsu, truth : Jitsii no, true. jitsu-getsu, the sun and moon. jitsujo, real state. jitsurei, an actual instance. jiyu, freedom, liberty : jiyli-kci, confinement ; jiyu na^ free ; Jiyu- seido^ a free government ; jiyu- seido-ron, radical opinions. jizai, freedom,— rather in private than in political matters. j6, passion, tenderness. j6, a lock : jo wo orosu, to lock. j6, the auxiliary numeral for mat?. jo, on, with regard to, in the matter of, from the standpoint of, as gakumon-jo, from the stand - ix)int of erudition. jo, an article, a line. jobu (na), sturdy, solid, strong. jobukuro, an envelope. jocbu, a maid-servant. jodan, a joke : jddan 7i'(> ///, to JOG [51S ] JAPANESE — ENGLISH VOCABULARY, JUS joke ; jodan-inajiri ni, half-jok- chi, eighteen days, the eighteenth ingly. day of the month. jogwai suru (irreg.), to exclude, ju-ichi, eleven : jh-ichl-nichi. abolish. eleven days, the eleventh day j5jo, circumstances : jdjd -wo kumu. of the month. to take circumstances into ac- ju-ichi-gwatsu, November. count. juji suru (irreg.), to engage in. j5ki, steam. ju-ju, over and over again. jokoku, an appeal. ju-ku, mx\^\.e.^x\\ju-ku-nichi, nine- jorei, an official regulation. teen days, the nineteenth day of j5riku sum (irreg.), to land the month. (intrans.). jukuryo, serious reflection. joro [Joro), a courtesan. jukyo, residence ; jukyo sum, to josama (generally with pre- reside. fixed), a young lady, Miss, a jumbi, preparations. daughter (honorific). jumoku, a tree. j5so, an appeal. jumpu, a fair wind. joto, first-class ; jotd-shakivai. jun, the regular order or turn. aristocratic society. ju-ni, twelve : ju-ni-nichi, twelve joyaku, an agreement, a treaty : days, the twelfth day of the juyakii 7('o musiibu, to make a month. treaty. ju-ni-gwatsu, December. jozu (na), a gcx>d hand at, skilful. junjo, order, sequence, turn. ju, age, longevity. junsa, a policeman. ju, the nigori^d form of c/iu ; see juo, lengthwise and crosswise, to p. 146. and fro. ju, ten : jii-man, a hundred thou- jurai, hitherto. sand ; Ju ni hak-ku, (lit. eight or ju-roku, sixteen : ju-roku-nichi. nine out of ten), ten to one. sixteen days, the sixteenth day of juban, a shirt. the month. jubun, plenty, ample, quite. ju-san, thirteen : ju-san-nichi. ju-go, fifteen : ju-go-nichi, fifteen thirteen days, the thirteenth day days, the fifteenth day of the of the month. month : ju-go-rokti, fifteen or ju-shi, fom-teen. sixteen. ju-sbichi, seventeen: ju-shichi- ju-gwatsu, October. nichi^ seventeen days, the seven- ju-hachi, eighteen ; ju-hachi-ni- teenth day of the month. KA [516] JAPANESE— ENGLISH VOCABULARY. KAJ K ka, a mosquito. ka, an auxil. numeral ; see p. 109. ka ? an interrogative postposition ; see pp. 68, 55 : ka mo, see p. 72 ; ka mo shiren, perhaps. ka (in compounds) ; house, oftener a person. kaban, a portmanteau, a leather bag. kabe, a mud wall. kabu, a stump, used as the auxi- liary numeral for shrubs. kabu, stock, shares : kabu-nushi, a shareholder. kabuki, a dramatic performance. kabuseru (2), to put on to an- other's head, to impute. kado, a corner. kado, a gate, sometimes an item. kaeri, the way back ; kaeri-gake ni, on the way back, kaeru, to return (intrans.), hence to go away : kaeri-michl, the way back. kaeru (2), to change (trans.), to exchange, to substitute. kaesu, to give back, to send back, to return (trans.). kaesu -gaesu, over and over again. kaette, contrary to what one might have expected, rather. kag^aisba, an aggressor, offender. kagami, a mirror. kage, shade, shadow, reflection, hence influence: no kagc ni, in the shadow of, behind : o kagc sama, see p. 293, No. 84-5. kag-en, amount, hence flavour, also the bodily feelings ; conf. p. 288, No. 32, foot-note. kagi, a key. kagiri, a limit, as long as : kagiri ■ no nai, boundless. kagiru, to limit, to be limited :... ni kagirazu, is not restricted to ..., not only. kago, a kind of palanquin. kaifuku suru (irreg.), to restore, repair. kaigun, the navy. kaihen, the sea-shore, kai-inu, a pet dog. kaijo, the surface of the sea : kai- jo-hokcn, marine insurance. kaiko, a silkworm. kaikoku suru (irreg.), to open a country (to foreign trade, etc.). kaikwa, civilisation : kaikiva su- rn, to become civilised. kaikwa, repentance. kaimono, a purchase, shopping : kaimono xvo suru, to shop. kairyo, improvement. kaisan, dispersion, adjournment. kaisei, amendment, revision : kaisei sunt, to revise, kalsbiin, reform : kais/iin sitrii, to reform. kaji, a rudder. KAJ [517] JAPANESE — ENGLISH VOCABULARY. KAM kaji, household affairs : kaji-mu- ki, the state of a household. kakag-eru (2), to raise, to publish. kakari, having to do with, as in kakari no mono, the person in charge ; kakari-ai, implication, — e.g. in a crime. kakaru, to hang (intrans.), to be in place, e.g. a bridge; see also p. 218: o vie ni kakartt, see p. 74. Sometimes kakaru means to cost, also to take time. kakawarazu, in spite of. kake, a broken fragment, a bit. kake-au, to discuss, to bargain, to arrange about. kake-hiki, bargaining. kakemono, a hanging scroll. kakene, an overcharge : kakene wo in, to make an overcharge. kakeau (2) to run. kakeru (2), to be flawed or nick- ed, to wane. kakeru (2), to hang (trans.), to put ; see also p. 219, kakeru (2), to be able to write ; conf. p. 206. kaketsu, adopting, passing, — as a motion. kaki-mono, a document. kaki-tsiike, a note, a memo- randum, a bill. Kakka, Your or His Excellency. kakkoku, all countries, foreign countries in general. kaku, an angle : kakti-zatd, loaf- sugar, kaku, each (in compounds). kaku, thus : kaku- no gotoki, such ; kahi made, to such an extent. kaku, to scratch, to write ; kaki- 7iaosu, to write out fair ; kaki- ozoarii, to finish writing ; kaki- sokonau, to make a mistake in writing ; kaki-tomerii, to register; kaki-tsukeru, to jot down. kakubetsu (no or na), differ- ent, special. kakudan (na), special, kakug-i, a cabinet council. kakug-o, determination, readiness, kakujitsu, every other day, kakumei, a revolution (in go- vernment, etc.). kakureru (2), to hide (intrans.). kakuritsu suru (irreg.), to stand firm, to establish firmly. kakushin, reform. kakusu, to hide (trans.). kamau, to have to do with, to meddle with, to matter: kamai- masen, it doesn't matter. kamban, a signboard. kamben, forbearance, forgive- ness : kamhen-ziiyoi, patient. kame, a tortoise : katne-no-ko, ditto in Tokyo Colloquial. kami, above, upper : o kami, the government ; kami sa?t, see okafnisan. kami, a Shinto god or goddess. KAM [ 51S J JAPANESE— ENGLISH VOCABULARY, KAN Most of the Protestant mis- sionaries use this term to denote the Christian God. kami (no ke), the hair of the head : kami-yui, a hair-dresser. kami, paper : kami-ire, a pocket- book. Kamigata, a general designa- tion for the old capital Kyoto and its neighbourhood. kaminari, thunder. kami-shimo, above ami below, hence a samurai's ceremonial coat and a divided skirt. kamo, a wild-duck. kampan, the deck of a vessel. kampeki, the temper (of a per- son) : ka7npeki ni sawarn^ to irritate one's temper. kampuku, see kanskin. kamu, to bite. kan, interval ; see p. 118. kan, heating : kan ivo tsukerzi, to heat sake. Kana, the Japanese syllabic writing ; sec p. 9. kanag^u, metal work, metal fast- enings. kanai, inside a house, all the members of a household ; hence a humble word for wife. kanarazu, jxjsitively, certainly. kanau, to correspond, to agree with, to eventuate, to succeed. kan-dan, cold and heat, tempera- ture. kandankei, a thermometer. kane, metal, money : kan^-i/c. u purse ; kane-viochi^ a rich maii. kane, a bell. kaneru (2), to be unable : see p. 203. kanete, beforehand, together. kang^ae, consideration, reflection, a thought, an intention : kangae 100 okosu, to have an idea come into one's head ; kangae gun ^a -ivarui^ to feel unwell. kichigai (no), mad. kichi-nichi, a lucky day. kido, a small door, a wicket. kifu, a disposition of the mind. ki-gae, a change of clothes. kigai, danger, harm. kigen, the bodily feelings : go kigen yd, I wish you good heaUh; ^e also p. 333, foot-note 32. ki-iroi, yellow. kiji, a pheasant. ki-jobu, of good cheer, not alarmed. kikai, a machine, kikaseru (2), to inform. kikidasu, to hear of. kiki-me, efficacy, acting (as a drug). kiko, climate, temperature. kikoeru (2), to be audible, to be able to hear. kikoku, (your) august country. kiku, a chrysanthemum. kiku, to hear, to listen ; (conf. p. 251); hence to ask, to enquire, as kiki ni yarUy to send to en- quire ; less often to have an effect, to act (e.g. as a drug) : kiki- giirushii, unpleasant (to hear) ; Hki-sokonau, to fail to hear ; kiki-tsukeru, to happen to hear, to notice. kikwan, an organ. kimari, a fixed arrangement : kimari ga 7iai, there is no rule. kimaru, to be fixed : ".oaruj ni kimatte oni, there is no doubt of its wrongfulness. kimen, a bugbear. khneru (2), to decide, to fix. kiitii, a prince, a sovereign : hence you. kimi, feelings : kiwi ga -i(>anti, to feel frightened. kimo, the liver : kimo 7i>o tnibusJti- viashita, lit. burst the liver, i.e. I Mas astounded. kimono, clothes, specifically the long upper robe worn by the Japanese : kimono wo kini, to dress ; kimono 7vo nitgu, to un- dress. kimpen, a neighbourhood. kin, gold, money. kin, a pound (in weight). kinchaku, a purse: kinc'ial-Ti- kiri, a pickpocket. kingyo, a goldfish. kinin, a sum of money. kin-itsu, equal, similar, kinjiru (3), to forbid. kinjitsu, a few days hence. kinjo, neighbourhood. kinju, birds and beasts. kinki, joy : kinki ni taezu, to be overcome with joy. kinko, confinement (penal). kino, yesterday. kinodoku (lit. poison of the KIX [ 523 ] JAPANESE — ENGLISH VOCABULARY, KO spirit), regret or concern felt for (jther^ : kinodoku sama, see p. 247. kinsen, j kinsu, j kinu, silk. kinzai, a suburb, the countiy near a town. ki-o (no), past, f..>rnuT. kippu, a ticket. kirai, averse to ; see p. 65. kirare-zon, see eno kuramasu, to destroy all kudakeru (2), to break into pieces trace. (intrans.). kurasa, darkness. KUR [528] JAPANESE ENGLISH VOCABULARY^ KWA kuraslii, a livelihood ; kurasJd 700 tateni, to gain a liveliliood. kurasu, to spend time, to live, kure-gata, twilight (evening). kureru (2), to give ; see pp. 171, 254- kureru (2), to grow dark ; hi ga kureru, the daylight is waning, it is getting dark. kuri, an empty fancy, a mere hy- pothesis. kuro, trouble, pains ; go kuro sama, see p. 247. kuroi, black. kuro-megane, black goggles. kuru (ii-reg.), to come ; see pp. 158, 193 ; 133? 198, 212 : ki-kaka- ru^ to happen to come ; motte kurti, to bring ; totte kurti, to fetch ; konakti nam, to leave off coming. kuruma, a wheel, anything moved by a wheel, specifically ajinriki- sha : kunima-ya, a jinrikisha man. kurusliii, painful, in pain : kurti- shi-magire, distraction caused by pain, terrible throes; mo kurus/ukti nai, there is no harm in, may kurusliinii, distress, toil. kurushimu, to be distressed. kusa, a plant, a herb. kilsai, stinking. kusari, a chain. kusaru, to rot. kiise, a bad habit or trick. kushi, a comb. kusuri, medicine : kusnri ni naru, to be good for one's health. kiitabireru (2), to get tired : kutabirete iru, to be tired ; conf. p. 204. kutsu, a boot, a shoe : kiitsu- ya, a bootmaker's shop, hence a bootmaker. kutsu, pain, suffering. kuttsuku, to stick close to. kuu, to eat : kui-taosu, to cause loss (e.g. to an innkeeper) by eating food and not paying for it ; kui-tsiiku, to bite (as a dog, etc.). kuwaeru (2), to add. Sometimes pronounced kuzuoru ; kuivorii ni, moreover. kuwashii, minute, exact. kuyaku, hard labour. kuyashigaru, to feel sorry. kuzureru (2), to crumble, to break to pieces (inti-ans.). kuzusu, to smash. kwai, an association, a society, a meeting, a church (metaph.). kwai, a chapter. kwaicliu, in the bosom or pocket. kwaido, a meeting-house, a church, a chapel. kwai-in, a member (of a society, etc.). kwairaku, joy, pleasure. kwaisha, a company, kwaiwa, conversation : kivaiwa- s/io, a conversation book. kwaizen, moral reformation. KWA [ 529 ] JAPANESE ENGLISH VOCABULARY. KYU kwaji, a conflagration, a fire. brothers and sisters: kyodai -ttaka. kwakushaku, see p. 358, note the terms on which brothers 3- stand. Kwampo, the " Official Gazette." kyogen, a play, a drama. kwan, a can ; conf. p. 22 : kivan- kyogu, environment, surrounding ztiDie, tinned (provisions). circumstances. kwan-in, an official. kyohaku suru (ineg.), to kwankei, connection, » . relation, threaten. having to do with something kyoju, instruction : kyoju suru, to else : kwankei sum, to be re- teach. lated ; kivankei wo tsuke?'H, to kyoiku, education. get into relations. kyoka, a species of comic poem ; kwankoba, an industrial bazaar. conf. p. 486. kwannen, an idea. kyoku, a bureau or subdivision of kwansei, completion. a government department, an kwashi, any sweetmeat, such as office. a bonbon, cake, or pudding. kyokun, instruction : kyokun wo kwasuru (irreg.), to impose, inflict. tareru, to impart instruction. kwasai, calamity caused by fire : kyokutan, the acme, ne plus kiuasai-hoken, fire insurance. ultra. kwatsuro, a means (especially of kyokwai, an association. livelihood). kyokwai, a church (metaph.). kwayobi, Tuesday. kyokwaido, a chmxh, a chapel, kwazan, a volcano. a meeting-house. kwazoku, a nobleman. kyonen, last year. kyaku, a guest, a customer, a kyoryuchi, land set apart for fare : kyakttrai, the advent of foreigners to reside in. guests, a visit, a party ; kyakuma. kyoshi, a teacher. a drawing-room. kyu, old, ancient. kyaku, the auxiliary numeral for kyu, rare for ku, nine. chairs and tables. kyu (na), sudden. kyan-kyan, the sound which kyuji, waiting at table, a waiter : dogs make in yelping. kyuji zvo suru, to wait at table. kyo, to-day : kyo-Ju, during to- kyujitsu, a holiday. day, by to-night. kyukin, wages. kyo, a sutra. kyuryo, salary. kyodai, brothers; henec sometimes kyusai, help, relief. KYU [ 530 ] JAPANESE ENGLISH VOCABULARY. MAK kyuto, last year ; see p. 327, foot- note. kyuyo, urgent business. M ma, quite ; see p. 233. ma, in the first place ; see p. 233. ma, space, interval, hence a room : ma ga warui, to be a bad op- portunity for doing something, to feel awkward ; ma ni au^ to be ill time, to do well enough (al- though not precisely what is required). m.a ! see bottom of p. 237. mabusliii, dazzling. machi, a town, a street : machi- naka, the whole street (or town). m.achi-doi, long to wait, tediously long in coming : o machidd sama, see p. 247. m.ac]iigai, a mistake, misunder- standing: macJiigai naku, without fail ; machigai-rashii^ apparently a mistake. m.achigau, to make a mistake, to mistake. machin, nux vomica, strychnine. mada, still ; (with a negative) not yet. made, a postposition, see p. 71 : made ni, see p. 95 ; sore made no koto, see p. 95. mado, a window : /nado-kakc, a window-curtain. mae, front, before : mae /cara, beforehand; Intori-mae, a portion for one ; san-nin-mae, portions for tliree. magaru, to bend (intrans.) : ma- gatte iru, to be bent, crooked. mageru (2), to bend (ti-ans.). magirakasu, to confuse, to mystify. mago, a gi-andchikl. mai, an auxiliary numeral ; sec p. 109. m.ai, a verbal termination (neg. future), see p. 168-9, 81. m.ai, each, every, as in mai-do, each time, always ; mai-nic/ii, every day. mainai, a bribe. m.airu, to come, to go ; conf. p. 251. m.aji, majiki, m.ajiku, see p. 169. majiri, a suffix meaning partly, half. majiwaru, to mix with, to associate. makaru, to go, to come (hum- ble) : makari-dt'ni, ditto, also to meet with. makaru, to go down in price (intrans.). make-oshimi, unwillingness to give way ; see also p. 32. makeru (2), to lose, to be beaten (in war or at a game), to yield : to lower a price : o make ni, into the bargain. makka (for ma-aka)^ very red. MAK [531 J JAPANESE ENGLISH VOCABULARY. ME makoto, truth : makoto no, true ; m.aru de, quite. niakoto ni, really. marui, round. maku, to wind. masaka (with a negative), hardly. makura, a pillow. surely not. mama, way, manner : sono mama masaru, to be superior. 111 shite oku, to leave in slain quo. m.asashiku, truly, just then. mame, beans. ma-seba, insufficient space. mam-ieru (2), to have an inter- m.assao, perfectly green, livid. view. m.assug'u (na), straight. mamma, (generally with honor- m.asu (irreg.), an honorific verbal ific 0), rice, food. suffix ; see pp. 160, 170, 249 ; also mamoru, to guard, to keep, to 18, 67, 198, 212. watch. m.asu, to increase (trans.). m.an, ten thousand, a myriad. masu-masu, more and more. manabu, to practise, to study. m.asuru, see p. 160. m.ana-ita, a board for cleaning miata, again ; (with a negative), fish on. no more. mando, a whole assembly. m.atsu, a pine-tree. raiaiie, imitation : mane 700 sum. matsu, to wait. to imitate, hence sometimes to do matsuri, a festival. (in a bad sense). mattaku, quite. maneku, to invite. m.awaru, to turn (intrans.). man-ichi, ht. myriad to one, if ma,wasu, to turn (trans.). per chance. mayoi, a delusion. manjo, a whole assembly. m.ayou, to stray, to be in a mannaka, the middle. quandary. manukareru (2), to escape. m.azaru, to be mixed. m.aiizoku, contentment : vianzoku mazeru (2), to mix (trans.). sum, to be content. mazu, in the first place, ^\•cll, mappira, quite; only used in anyhow, at all events. such apologetic phrases as that mazui, nasty to eat, bad. in p. 291, No. 57. me, the eyes, a mesh, an open mari, a ball (for throwing, etc.). space : me ga sameru, to wake marom.eru (2), to make round. (intrans.) ; me ni kakaru, to maru, an obscure word helping to have the honour to meet you ; form the names of merchant me ni kakem, to have the honour ships, as " Tokyo Afam." to show you ; hidol me ni an, to ME [532] JAPANESE— ENGLISH VOCABULARY. MES be harshly treated ; hidoi me ni azuaseni, to treat harshly ; me no chikai, short-sighted ; me-moto, the part of the face near the eyes ; me ni tsukanai, not to notice ; me no iama, the eye- balls ; 7ne wo mawasn., to faint. Me is also used to form ordinal numbers, see pp. 115, 119. me, a feminine prefix, see p. 27. me, a contemptuous suffix ; see p. 240. me-aki, one who can see, not blind. medetai, auspicious : o medetd gozaimasu, I beg to congratulate you. megane, spectacles. meguru, to go round : meguri-ati, to come across after many adventures. mei, a niece. m.ei, a name, an inscription ; see also p. 109. mei, life (in compounds). meibun, clear expression. meibutsu, the production for which a locality is specially noted. mteigin, a celebrated song or poem. meihaku (na), clear, evident. Meiji, see p. 116. meijiru (3), to command. meirei, a command. meishi, a visiting card. xneisho, a celebrated place. meiwaku, perplexity, trouble : meiumkii sum, to be in perplexity or trouble ; {hito ni) meiwaJm wo kakeru, to bring (some one) into trouble. mekata, weight. mekiki, connoisseurship. mekki, plated, — e.g. with gold. mekura, blind. memboku, the countenance (metaph.) : memboku ga nai, to feel ashamed ; memboku ga tatsji, reputation is intact. m.emm.a, a mare. m.en (generally go men), permis- sion, excuse. men, a surface, a face, mask ; conf. p. 112. mendo, trouble : mendo-kilsa i , troublesome ; mendo na, ditto. mendori, a hen bird. menjo, a diploma, a passix)rt. menso, the dismissal of a law case. menkwai, an interview : menkivai siirii, to meet. mesbi, boiled rice, a meal. m.eshi-mono, clothes (honorific). m.eshi-tsukai, a servant. raiesso (na), exti-avagant. mesu (no), female. mesu, to employ (honorific) ; — used very widely, e.g. for putting on clothes, getting into a jinriki- sha : meshi-agaru, to eat or drink (honorific); meshi-tsuteru, to take with one (e.g. a retainer). MET [ 533 ] JAPANESE ENGLISH VOCABULARY, MIS metta ni (with a negative), rarely, Mikado, see p. 35. hardly ever. mikka, three days, the third day mezurashig-aru, to think strange, of the month. to lionise. m.im.i, the ears : mimi ni mo mezurasliii, strange, wonderful. kakenai, won't listen to it ; mimi mi, three. no toi, hard of hearing. mi, an honorific prefix ; see pp. mimoclii, conduct, morals (good H3, 249- or bad). m.i, a fruit (generally ^i no mi). mina, all : mina ni nari??iashila. mi, oneself, body : w/ loo nageni. see p. 292, No. 66 ; mina san, all to drown oneself. of you, all your people. mi, a suffix used to form nouns ; minami, south. see p. 37. minato, a harbour, a port. m.ic]ii, a road, a way : 7?iichi-norl, minken, popular rights, de- mileage, distance. mocracy. miichibiku, to lead. mirai, the future, — lit. [that which michiru (3), to grow full, — e.g. is] not yet come : mi?-iii no. the moon, or the tide at flood. future. midari (ni), in confusion ; hence m.iru (3), to see, to look, some- rashly, unduly. times to try, also to consider as midasu, to tliiow into confusion, (conf. pp. 193, 251 ; 133) : mi- to deprave. ataru, to find ; mi-aiuaserit, to raiidori, a lightish green. put oft' ; mi-dasn, to discover : m.ieru (2), to be visible, to appear, mi-komii, to see into or through. to seem ; hence sometimes to to estimate : mi-mazvarn, to look come : mienahi 7iaru, to dis- round ; mi-nogasti, to let out of appear ; to TJiiete, see p. 304, sight ; mi-olosti, to overlook ; mi- foot-note 37. sokonan, to fail to see ; mi-tarirti. m.igaku, to polish, to brush (boots). to see enough of; mi-tomerti, to mig-i, the right (side) : iiiigi-{t)te, notice, to consider ; mi-toreni, to the right hand. be captivated ; mi-tsukern, to mig-oto (na), beautiful. notice ; mi-tsnknrou, to look out m-igurushii, ugly (to look at). for and get (something suitable) : mi-harashi, a view (down or mi-ukern, to observe. over), a prospect. misaki, a cape. mihon, a sample. mise, a shop : mise-sa/ci, a shop- mijikai, short. window. MIS [ 534 1 JAPANESE ENGLISH VOCABULARY. MON miseru (2), to show ; conf. p. 251. niishin, a sewing machine ; see p. 6. miso, a kind of bean sauce. misoka, the last day of the month, whether the 30th or 31st. ini(tsu), three : mitsu-go, a three- year-old child; mitsu-ire-kOy three boxes fitting into each other. mitsiike, a castle-gate. miya, a Shinto temple, but see p. 249. miyage, a present, especially one brought by a person returning from a journey. miyako, a capital city. mizen, beforehand. mizu, water ; specifically cold water as opposed to hot, and fresh water as opposed to salt : viizu-gwashi , fruit ; fnizu-umi, a fresh-water lake ; mizti ga derti, water overflowing, to inundate. mizukara, of my (his, etc.) own accord : oneself, personally. mo, a postposition ; see pp. 72, 166, 196, 270 ; de mo, see p. 55, 95- mo, mourning. m.0, already, still, yet, more : (with a negative verb) no more ; mo hUotsti, one more ; 7/10 sukos/ii de, nearly ; mo yoroshii, sec p. 292, No. 72. m.oaku(na), ferocious, cruel. mochi, a kind of rice-cake, mochiiru (3), to employ. mochi-kaeru, to take home. m.ocliiinasliite, polite for viof/,\ both as gerund of motsu and as postposition. mocliim.ono, property, posses- sions. mochi-nuslii, an owner, pos- sessor. mochiron, of course, c<^rtainly. m.odosu, to give or send back, to vomit. m.oliaya, same as md. m.oji, or m.onji, a written character, specifically a Chinese ideograph. m.oji-m.oji sum (irreg.), to be nervous. mohan, a model. mokaru, to be earned, or made, . — said of money. m.6ke, profit, gains. mokeru (2), to make (money), to establish. m.okuroku, a list. mokuteki, an object, a motive. m.okuyobi, Thursday. momiji, the maple-tree, — cele- brated for its red leaves in autumn. mom.m6 (na), ignorant, mom.o, a peach : momo-iro {/to), pink-coloured. momu, to rub, to knead, to shampoo. m.on, a " cash " (a small copper coin). mon, a gate ; mongen, the hour at which a gate is closed. MON [ 535 ] JAPANESE ENGLISH VOCABULARY, MUK mon', short for mono, a thing. niondai, a problem, a question. mono, a (concrete) thing, — not to be confounded with koto, an (abstract) thing, see pp. 38-9 : i/ion[o) desu kara, see p. 70 ; j/iono-goto ni, each thing (in its turn) ; mono iu, to speak ; ?nono no, see p. 39; mono tvo, see p. 186; viono-oki, an out-house. moppara, chiefly. morau, to have given one, to receive ; see also p. 203. mori, a wood, a forest. moslii, if; also used as an initial exclamation answering to our " excuse me " or " hallo ! " Per- haps it comes from mos/iimasu, I say. Moshi, Mencius. moshiku wa, or else. ni5su, to say (see also pp. 249, 278) : 7nflshi-ageru, to say to a superior; mosJii-age-kanern, not to venture to say ; mdshi-a'isjaseru, to arrange beforehand (e.g. a meet- ing) ; moshi-lmn, an objection ; moshi-kaneru, not to venture to say ; moshi-ukcni, to receive, to take in charge ; vwshi-ivake, an excuse, an apology ; moslii - ivatasn, to deliver judgment. motarasu, to cause to carry, to bring. moto, bottom, origin, originally, cause ; no vioto to naru, to cause ; moto yori, of course. motode, capital (a fund of money). motomeru (2), to search for, to ask for, to get. motozuku, to originate in, be founded on. motsu, to hold, (hence) to have, also intransitively to last, to wear : mochi-ageru, to lift ; mochi-dasii, to take out, produce. motte,- a postposition : see p. T}) • 7)iotte ikn, to carry away ; motte kuru, to bring (things). motto, still, more ; conf. p. 146. mottomo, quite, very, (hence) quite right or reasonable, of course ; go mottomo de gozai- masii, see p. 246. moyo, a pattern. m.u or mu, six ; see p. loi. muchu, (as) in a dream. muda (na), useless. mudo (na), heinous. mueki (na), useless. mugaku, ignorance : miigakii na or no, ignorant. mugi, a general name for wheat and barley. muika, six days, the sixth day of the month. mujin (no), inexhaustible, a lot- tery. mukade, a centipede. mukaeru [i)^ to send for, to welcome, to marry (a wife). mukashi, antiquity, old days. mukatte (preceded by ni), turn- ing to, towards, to. MUK [536] JAPANESE ENGLISH VOCABULARY, NAD xnukau, to be opposite to ; ni mttkatte, confronting, towards, to. muki, an indefinite time. muko, a bridegroom, a son-in-law. muko, the opposite side, opposite, the other party, he, she, they, there : no muko ni, on the other side, opposite, beyond. muku, pure, soUd, unalloyed, — said of metals. mumei (no), anonymous. munashii, useless, fruitless. mune, the chest : mune ga wartti, to feel sick at the stomach ; muna- moto, the chest, mune, a roof-ridge ; see also p. 112. munin-to, an uninhabited island. mura, a village. murasaki, lilac, purple, muri, unreason : go nmri desti, what you say is unreasonable ; muri ?ta, unreasonable. muryo, incalculable, infinite. musai (no), wifeless, a bachelor. musen-denshin, wireless tele- graphy. mushi, an insect, any small creature that is neither bird, quadruped, nor fish. mushi suru (irreg.), to set at naught. musubu, to tie. musuko, a boy, a son ; but see p. 256. musume, a girl, a daughter ; but sec p. 256. niu(tsu), six. mutsumasliii, triendly, on good terms. muyami (na), reckless, helter- skelter : ?nuyami ?ii, recklessly. muyo (no), useless. muzai, not guilty. muzukashii, difficult. myaku, the pulse : 7nyakii wo toru, to feel the pulse. myoclio, to-morrow morning. myo, next (in compounds): myogo- nichi, the day after to-morrow ; myonichi, to-morrow. myo (na), wonderful, strange. myoji, a family name. N n*, short for no, of; see p. 79. na, a name, specifically the per- sonal name which corresponds to our " Christian name :" na wo tsukerii, to give a name. na, termination of the positive imperative ; see p. 167. na, termination of the negative imperative ; see p. 168. na, a particle used to form quasi- adjectives ; see pp. 135-8 ; 44, 142 : na no, 78, 135, 142. na ! an interjection ; see p. 238. nada, a reach or stretch of sea along a limited portion of the coast. nadakai, famous. nadameru (2), to pacify. NAD t 537 ] JAPANESE— ENGLISH VOCABULARY, NAN naderu (2), to stroke. nado, properly etcetera, but often used at the end of an enumera- tion as a sort of expletive. Sometimes it may be rendered by such as, or like. nafuda, a visiting card. nagai, long : naga-iki, long life. nagameru {2), to gaze. nagara, while ; see pp. 242, 39. nagare, a flow. nagareru, (2), to flow. nag-asa, length. naga-ya, see p. 281, foot-note. nageru (2), to throw. nagi, a calm. naguru, to beat, to tlirash. nagusameru (2), to console, to cheer. nai, the " negative adjective ;" see pp. 129, 137, 139, 140: nai koto IV a nai, see p. 271 ; nakereba naran, indispensable. nai-nai, private, seciet. naikaku, a ministry, the cabinet. naisho (no), secret, private. naka, inside ; hence the relations (friendly or otherwise) existing between people : no naka jii, inside ; o naka, a person's inside ; o 7iaka ga suku, to be hungry. Sometimes naka means all, whole, as machi-fiaka, the whole street. nakagai, a broker. nakagoro, a middle or inter- mediate time, nakama, a mate, a comrade. naka-naka, very, more than you might think : naka-naka do mo, see p. 237. nakanzaku, more particularly, of all others. nakare, see bottom of p. 168. naka-yasliiki, see p. 456, foot- note 14. nakereba narimasen, must ; see N.B. at top of p. 1 75. nakodo, a middleman, a match- maker. naku, to cry, to sing. naku naru, to disappear, to die (lit. to become non-existent). nama, raw, crude : nama-byolw, see p. 313, No. 23 ; nama-yoi, half- tipsy. namae, a (person's) name. nama-iki (na), conceited, vain. namakeru (2), to behave idly : 7iamakete irii, to be idle. namban-tetsu, a particular kind of iron, so called because brought to Japan by the " south- ern barbarians " [naffiban), i.e., the Portuguese or Dutch, nami, a wave. nami (no), ordinary, average : nami-taitei, ditto. namida, tears :■ naniida tco kobo- su, to shed tears. nampito mo, anybody. nan ? abbrev. of tiani ? what ? nan da ka, somehow or other ; nan de mo, anything ; nan de mo ka[n) de mo, anyth in an NAN [538 J JAPANESE ENGLISH VOCABULARY. NAK everything (see also p. 350, note 7) ; nan-doJci ? or nan-ji ? what o'clock ? nan-nen ? nan-ri ? see p. 113; uan-ra no, any, whatever ; uan to ka, something or other ; nan to nakii, without any assign- able cause. nan, emphatic, see foot-note to p. 136. nana{tsu), seven. nanda, nandai, nandaro, neg. verbal sufhxes, see p. 169. nando, same as nado. nani ? what ? nani-bun, somehow, please, indeed, but often a mere expletive ; nani-gashi, such and such a person, so and so ; nan no nanigashi, Mr. so and so ; nani- hodo? what amount? nani ka, nan{n)t mo, nan{i) de mo, see p. 52, and with a neg., not at all ; nani mo ka mo, everything, all ; ftani-nani, such and such, so and so, nani shiro or nan ni itase, see p. 189 ; nani yori, more than anything. nanju, distress, difficulty. Nankin, China (vulg.). nanni, popular for nani ; nanni mo ^nai, there is nothing at all. nan-nyo, men and women, sex. nanoka, vulgar for nanuka. nansen, a shipwreck : nansen ni ail, to be shipwrecked. nanuka, seven days, the seventh day of the month. nanzo, something, how ? what ? also used for nado and for naze. nao, still more ; see p. 146 : nao- sara, ditto. naoru, to get well, to recover (intrans.) : naori-kakant, to be on the road to recovery. naosu, to amend, to rectify, to cure, to change. naraba, if; but sec p. 185. naraberu (2), to place in a row. narabi ni, and also, besides. narabu, to be in a row, to be parallel. narai, a habit, a usage. narasu, to ring (trans.). narau, to learn. nareru (2), to get accustomed : naretc iru, to be accustomed. nari, or ; see p. 224. nari (with prefix o), see p. 241. narimasen, see p. 224. naro koto nara, if possible. nam, to ring (intrans.). naru, to be, see pp. 224, 136, 175, 185 \...ni nam, p. 249. nara, to become, sometimes to ripen. For such phrases as o ianomi ni naru, see p. 249 : nari- kawaru, to replace ; nari-tatsn, to come to existence. naruhodo ! see p. 238. narutake, as as possible, if ix)ssible. XAS C 539 ] JAPANESE — ENGLISH VOCA BULARY NI nasai or nasare, imperative of iiasani; see pp. 171, 242, 253. nasakenai, cruel. nasaru, see pp. 160, 171, 249. nasareru (2), see p. 171. nasaso na, apparently non-exis- tent. nashi, (there) is not; see pp, 122, 129. nashi, a pear. nasu, to do. natsu, summer. nawa, a rope. naze ? why ? naze naraha or naze to he to, because, but see p. 351, foot-note; 8. nazo or nanzo, same as nado. ne, a root. ne, price ; ne 100 tsukeru, to price ; ne-age sum, to raise a price. ne or ne I an important interjec- tion ; see p. 238. neba, termination of the negative condit. present ; see p. 169. nedai, a (European) bed. nedan, a price. nedo(mo), termination of the negative concessive present ; see p. 169. neg-ai, a request, a desire. negau, to request, to beg; some- times (in the mouth of the lower classes) to have to do with, to sell to : negawaku iva, please. negiru, to bargain. nejiru, to twist (trans.). neko, a cat. nembutsu, a kind of Buddhist pi-ayer or litany. nemui, sleepy. nen, a year ; — used only in com- pounds, as tdnen, this year ; nen- jien, year by year. nen, a thought, a wish, heed paid : nen wo okosu, to have a thought enter one's mind. nengen, a term of years. nengetsu, (years and months), time, nengetsii li'o hem, to spend time. nengo, a " year-name ;" see p. 116. nenjo, feelings. nenne, to sleep (in baby language). nennei, a doll (in baby language). nenrei, age, years. neru (2), to go to bed, to lie down, to sleep : nete irti, to be asleep ; netsukit^ to get to sleep. nesan, lit. Miss elder sister [ane san), and hence used as a half-polite half-familiar style of address in talking to girls. nessbin, zeal. netsu, fever. ne-ucbi, value, price. nezumi, a rat : jiezumi-iro, grey. ni, a postposition ; see pp. 74 ; 45,^ 80, 94, 98, 99, 100, 169, 213 ; ni ilatte, ni itasJnte, ni yotte, see p. 100 ; ni sum, see p. 227 ; ;// wa, see pp. 88, 94 ; 7ii oite, in. ni, two : ni-hai, double ; ni-baii, number two ; ni-bamne, the NI [ 540 ] JAPANESE ENGLISH VOCABULARY. NOB second ; ni-do, twice ; ni-do-me, the second time ; ni-wari, twenty per cent ; ni-wari go-bu, twenty- five per cent. ni, a burden, luggage. nielli, a day (in compounds), as nichi-nichi, daily. nicliiyo(bi), Sunday. nigai, bitter. nige-lia, the power of flight. nigeru (2), to run away ; nige-dasn, to begin to run away. nigiru, to grasp. nigiyaka (na), lively. nigori, see pp. 21, 29, 32, 143, 163. ni-gwatsu, February. Nihoii, (less elegantly Nippon), Japan : Ni/ion-go, the Japanese language; Nihon-jin, a Japanese; Nihon-koku, Japan ; Nihon no, Japanese (adj.). niji, a rainbow. ni-ju, twenty. ni-ju-yokka, twenty-four days, the twenty-fourth day of the month. nikai, a second storey, upstairs. niku, flesh, meat : niku-sashi, a fork ; nikntai, the flesh (religi- ously speaking, as opposed to the spirit) ; niku-ya, a butcher's shop, hence a butcher. ni(-motsu), luggage, cargo. nin, a person ; — used only in com- jx)unds, as go-niji, five people. ningen, a human being : ningen- kai, human society. ningyo, a doll. ni-nim-biki, pulled by two men. ni-nin-nori, accommodating two persons ; — said of a jinrikisha. ninsoku, a coolie. nioi, a smell. Nippon, see Nihon. niramu, to glare at with the eyes. niru (3), to boil (food, not water) : ni-tatte iru, to be at boiling point. nisbi, west; nishi-kita, north- west ; n'ishi-minami, south-west. nishiki, brocade. nisseki, day and night. nisshin geppo, continual pro- gress. nite, the Classical form of the postposition de, see p. 62. ni-to-biki, pulled by two horses. niwa, a courtyard, a garden : nkua-guchi, the entrance to a garden. ni-zukuri, packing : m-zukuri wo surti, to pack. no, a moor : no-Aara, ditto. no, a postposition ; see pp. 76, 96, 97j 99> 102, 142, e^ pass. ; no nt, pp. 96, 186 ; for 910 followed by other postpositions, see p. 96 ; no nan no, see p. 81. no I an interjection : see p. 238. nobasu, to stretch (trans.), to put oft". noberu, (2), to narrate, to express opinion. NOB [ 541 ] JAPANESE — ENGLISH VOCABULARY. OBI nobiru (3), to stretch (in trans.), to nozomu, to look forward to, to be long. expect. noboru, to go up, to climb. nugu, to take off. noboseru (2), to rush to the head nug-uu, to wipe. (said of blood) ; see p. 216. nuimono, needlework. nochi, after, afterwards : nochl- nukeru (2), to slip out, to get hodo, afterwards, by and by : pulled out, to get out of joint. nocki-zoi, a second wife. nuku, to pull out (e.g. a cork). nodo, the neck, the throat : iiodo nureru (2), to get wet : mirete ga kawaku, to be thirsty. iru, to be wet ; conf. p. 204. nog-areru (2), to escape. nurimono, lacquer-ware. nokogiri-biki, death by sawing. nuru, to smear, lacquer, paint. nokorazu, without exception, all ; nurui, lukewarm. conf. pp. 230, 233. nusumu, to steal. nokori, a remainder. nuu, to sew. nokoru, to remain over, to be left. nyobo, a wife. nokosu, to leave behind. nyosbi, a girl. nomi, only : noini narazti, not nyubi, or nyuyo, expenses : only. 7jyuhl 700 kakeni, to spend money. nomu, to drink : itoml-taosu, to nyumon suru (irreg.), to enter a cause loss to a wine-dealer by school (lit. a gate). drinking his liquor and not pay- ing for it ; tabako zco nomu, to smoke. norLOsbiru, to revile. 0, a tail. nori-te, one who rides (on a 0, an honorific prefix ; see pp. 143, horse, in a carriage, etc.). 245-9, 259. norou, to curse. 0, a masculine prefix ; see p. 27. noru, to ride — on a horse, in a 0, a king. vehicle, in a boat, etc. : nori-oku- 0, an old man. reru, to be too late (for the ti-ain. 0, an augmentative prefix (see p. steamer, etc.) Notte iru some- 143), as o-afarl, a great hit. times means simply to be on. oba, an aunt. nosbi-kakaru, to spring upon. obasan, an old lady, granny. nozoku, to peep. 0-Bei, Europe and America. nozomi, a wish : nozomi-ddri, obi, a sash, a belt. according to one's wish. obiyakasu, to frighten. OBO [ 542 ] JAPANESE — ENGLISH VOCABULARY. OKO oboeru (2), to remember, to feel, to learn : ohoe-tsukusu, to learn thoroughly. oboshi-meshi, thought, intention. Obun, a European written com- position. ocliakxi (na), villainous, ochahi- viono, a rascal. ocbiru (3), to fall ; see pp. 157, 152. odayaka (na), calm, quiet. odokasu, to frighten. 6-doko, a large place. odoroku, to be astonished, to be afraid : odoroki-atvaterti, to rush into a panic. odoru, to dance. Odosu, to frighten. oeru (2), to finish. ofuku, going and returning : dfuku-gippu, a return ticket. 6gi, a fan (of the opening and shutting kind). Ogyo suru (irreg.), to stalk along through, to traverse insolently. o-ha uchi-karasu, lit. to wither one's tail and wing, i.e. to come down in the world and have nothing left but rags, to be shabby. ohayo (better o hayo)^ good morn- ing ; conf. p. 293, No. 82 and foot-note. o-bei, insolence, arrogance. oi, a nephew. 6i, plentiful ; see p. 275 : di ni, very, chiefly. oide (properly ide, i.e. honour- able exit), conf. pp. 251, 223. oi-bagi, a highwayman. oi-oi, gradually. oira, a very vulgar word for we. oisbii, nice to eat, tasty. oite, in (bookish word). oi-yaru, to drive away. oji, an uncle. ojiisan, an old gentleman, grand- papa. djiru (3), to accord, answer, suit. 6j6, going to the other world. ojosan, a young lady. Miss. oka, land (as opposed to water). oka, a hillock, land. okami, a wolf. okamisan, a married woman of the lower or lower middle class, Mrs. okashii or okasbi na, laugh- able, absurd. okasu, to violate : tsiiini wo okasii, to commit a crime. okata, for the most part, probably. oki, the offing, out at sea. oki, alternately, see p. 119. okii or oki na, large, conf. pp. 138, 142 : oki ni, very. okiru (3), to rise, to get up ; oki- agaru, to rise up (e.g. from the ground). okisa, size. okkakeru (2), to pursue. okkasan or okkasan, mamma, a mother ; see pp. 256-7. okonai, conduct, behaviour. OKO [ 543] JAPANESE —ENGLISH VOCABULARY. ORA okonau, to practise (e.g. virtue). okoru, to arise, to take place. okoru, to get angry : okori-dasu, to begin to get angry. okosu, to rouse, to raise : ncgai 700 okosu, to begin to feel a desire. oku, to put, sometimes to lay aside ; ni olte or ni okimasJiite, in, conf. pp. 154, 152, 194. oku, a hundred millions. oku, the inner part or recesses, e.g. of a mountain range. oku, much, for the most part. okubyo, cowardice. okuin, sealing as witness or endorser. okureru (2), to be too late, not to be in time. okuri-mono, a present. okuru, to send, give, accompany, see off ; also to spend (time). okusama, okusan, a married woman of the upper class, my lady, I^ady, Mrs. ; conf. p. 256. omae, you ; see p. 47. omba, a wet-nurse. o-misoka, the last day of the year. omma, a stallion. omocha, a toy. omoi, heavy, grave, important. omoi, thought, (hence) affection : omoi no koka, miexpectedly, oiuoi- de, recollection. omoi-gake-nai, unexpected. omonjiru (3), to esteem greatly. omosliiroi, amusing, interest- ing. omosliiroini, (a certain amount of) fun, or interest. omosliirosa, amusement, fun, interest, the amount or degree of amusement. omotai, heavy. omote, the front, out-of-doors : omote-mon, a front gate ; oniote- nniki, outwardly, official. omou, to think : omoi-dasit, to call to mind ; onioi-itani, to come to think of ; omoi-kiru, to make up one's mind ; o/noi mo yoran, unexpected ; omoi-tatsii, to re- solve ; onioi-yaru, to sympathise. omowareru (2), to venture to thmk, conf. p. 201. on, kindness : on wo s/iiranai, to be ungrateful. on, the Book language form of the honorific prefix o. onaji, the same ; see p. 126. ondori, a cock bird. oni, a devil, a goblin. onna, a woman : onna no ko, a httle girl. onore, self ; also you (insulting). onozukara, spontaneously, na- turally. onsen, a hot spring. onten, grace, favour. ora, I, but see p. 46. oral, going and coming, hence a thoroughfare : orai-domt', no thoroughfare : conf. p. 23. ORA [ 544 ] JAPANESE— ENGLISH VOCABULARY. OYA Oranda, Holland : Oranda-jin, a osowaru, to be taught, to learn. Dutchman. ossliaru, to say (honorific), see ore, see p. 46. pp. 171,251. oreru (2), to break (intrans.). osu (no), male. ori, an occasion, a time ; ori-orl. osu, to push. from time to time. Oto, a sound, a noise : oto ga sum. ori-au, to agree, to be on good there is a noise. terms. otoko, a man : otoko-buri, looks orifuslii, on a certain occasion, (said only of men) ; otoko no ko. sometimes, just then. a boy. oriru (3), to descend. otona, a grown-up person. orosoka (na), remiss. otonashii, good (of a child), quiet orosu, to lower, hence to launch. in behaviour. oru, to be ; see pp. 191, 223, 251 : otono, the Mikado's palace, a ...ni orarenai, cannot do without. feudal lord. oru, to break (trans.), to pluck. Otoroeru (2), to decline (intrans.), osamaru, to be peaceful, governed. to grow feeble. osameru (2), to pacify, hence to otoshi-banaslii, see pp. 342-3. govern, to guide ; also to put Otosu, to let fall. away. ototo, a younger brother. o-sawag-i, confusion, a hubbub. ototoi, the day before yesterday. ose, something said (honor.). ototoshi, the year before last. oseru, to complete, accomplish. otottsan, papa, a father ; conf. oserareru (irreg.), honorific for pp. 256-7. to say, see pp. 171, 251. otto, a husband ; but see p. 256. OsMe, instruction, doctrine, a re- OU, to grow : oishigeru, to grow hgion. luxuriantly. osliieru (2), to teach. OU, to pursue, to follow. OsMi, regrettable : os/iii koto desii 6-warai, a good laugh. ne ! what a pity ! owari, the end. oshimu, to regret, to grudge. owaru, to end (intrans. and trans.). osoi, late. oya, a parent, generally a father : osoraku wa, probably. oya-ko, parents and children: osoreru (2), to fear ; osore-iru, to oya-ko-rashii , like or suitable to be filled with dread, often an parents and children. almost meaningless polite phrase. oyaji, a father ; see p. 256. osoroshii, frightful, fearful. oya(-oya) ! an interjection ; see OYA [ 545 ] JAPANESE — ENGLISH VOCABULARY. RIK P- 239- oyake (na), public. oyo suru (irreg.), to apply. oyobosu, to cause to reach, to extend to (trans.). oyobu, to reach (intrans.) : sore ni iva oyobiniasen, there is no need to do that. oyogu, to swim. oyoso, or oyoso, altogether, on the whole, in the main. ozel, a crowd. pan, bread, conf. N. B. to p. 236 : pan-ya, a bakery, hence a baker. pata(t)to, flop, bang. penki, paint ; conf. p. 26. pika-pika, 1 with a flash, glit- pikatto, I teringly . R ra, a particle of vagueness or plu- rality ; see pp. 29, 52. rai, thunder. rai, next (in compounds), as rai- nen, next year ; also since. raida (na), lazy. rakuda, a camel. rakutan, discouragement : raku- tan suru, to be discouraged. rambo, disorderly conduct : ram- ho na, wild, riotous ; rixmhd-nin, a turbulent fellow. rampu, a lamp (from the English word) : rampic wo isukeru, to light a lamp. ramune, lemonade (from the English word). Han, short for Oranda, " Holland," in compounds : Ratnbun, Dutch writing ; Rango, Dutch language. rasb^, woollen cloth. rasbii, a suffix ; see p. 133. rei, ceremonies, politeness, thanks : o rei wo in, to thank. rei, a precedent, an example. reifuku, full dress, dress clothes. reigwai, an exception. reisbu, cold sake. reitei (with honor, prefix go), your younger brother. rekishi, history. reng-wa, a brick. renjii, a company, associates. rempo, federated states. ressba, a railway train. ri, a Japanese league of nearly 2 J miles English. ri, reason. rieki, profit, advantage. rigai, advantage and drawback. rigi, principle. ribei, advantage and disadvantage, interests. rikaku suru (irreg.), to separate. rikiryo, degree of strength, abi- lity. rikken-seiji, constitutional go- vernment. riko (na), cute, intelligent. RIK L 546 ] JAPANESE ENGLISH VOCABULARY. RYO riku, land ; riku-age st4ru, to land romei, lit. dew life, hence a scanty (trans.). livelihood : romel ivo tsunagu, to rikugun, an army. eke out a subsistence. rikutsu, a reason ; arguing (often rompo, (method of) argument. in a bad sense) : rikntm 700 in. ron, argument, opinion : ron wo to quibble. mat an, indisputable. ringo, an apple. rondan, a conclusion (in argu- rinjin, a neighbour. ment). rinshoku, stinginess. Rongo, the Confucian Analects. rippa (na), splendid. ronin, a wandering samurai who rippo, legislating. served no particular lord. rippuku, anger : rippiiku sum, ronjiru (3), to argue: ronji -later 11, to get angry. to start an idea. riron, theory. ronkyo, the basis of an argument. riso, an ideal. ronketsu, a conclusion (in argu- risU) the number of miles. ment). risurin, glycerine (from the Eng- ronkyu suru (in-eg.), to examine lish word). minutely. riyu, reason. ronrigaku, logic. ro, an imperative termination ; see ronsha, a disputant. p. 167. ronslii, a point (in argument). ro, an upper storey with a gallery, ronso, contention. a large hall. rontei, a conclusion (in argument). ro, a prison. rosoku, a candle. ro, trouble. r6(ya), prison. roba, an old woman. rusu, absent : rusu-ban or ritsn-i. roji, an alley. a care-taker ; rusu-chu, while rojin, an old man : go rdjin, your absent. father. ryakusuru (ineg.), to abbreviate, roka, a passage (in a house), a hence to omit. corridor. ryo, a dragon. roku, six. ryo, both, as in ryo-fw, both roku ni, easily. (sides) ; ryd-nin, both persons ; roku-gwatsu, June. ryo-te, both hands. roku-ju, sixty. Ryo, an old gold coin, approx. one Romaji, the Roman alphabet. dollar. rombun, an essay, ryo, good (in compounds). RYO [ 547 ] JAPANESE ENGLISH VOCABULARY. SAK ryoken, judgment, opinion, in- tention, sometimes excuse, ryoko, journey : {ryokd-)menjd, a passport ; jyoko siiru, to travel. ryoku, power (in compounds). ryori, cooking : ryori-Jaya, an eating-house ; ryori -nin, a cook ; ryori-ya, a restaurant ; ryori wo sunt, to cook. ryoritsu suru (irreg.), to coexist. ryoshin, conscience. ryoshin, both parents. ryuko, prevalence, fashion: ryuko- hyd, an epidemic disease ; ryuko suru, to be in fashion, to prevail. Ryukyu, the Luchu Islands. sa, a suffix used to form absti"act nouns ; see p. 37. sa ! or si. ! an interjection ; p. 239. sa, a difterence. sabaki, a judicial decision. sabaku, to manage, to decide the merits of. sabi, rust. sabish.ii, lonely, dull. Saburo, a man's name, see p. 36. sadamaru, to be fixed, settled. sadameru (2), to fix, to settle. sadameshi, or sadamete, posi- tively, surely. sae, even (adverb), if only. saegiru, to hinder. saeru (2), to be clear and cold, hence calm and skilful. sag'aru, to descend, hence to go away. sag-as u, to seek, to look for. sag-eru (2), to lower, to hang down (trans.). sai, a humble word for wife : sai- shi, wife and children. saiban, judgment, trial : saihan- kivan, a judge ; saiban-sho, a court of justice. sai-cbi, inteUigence. saiketsu, decision, verdict : sai- ketsu suru, to take a vote. saikosuru (ii-reg.), to think twice. saiku, workmanship, a ware. saikun, an honorific word for wife, conf. p. 256. sairei, a religious festival. saisbin, a second investigation (legal). saisbo, the beginning. saisbo, prime minister. saisbu, the last, final. saisoku, urging on : saisoku suru, to urge on, to hui-ry up (ti-ans.). saiyo, acceptance, employment. saizen, the very beginning, before. saji, a spoon : saji wo tortt, to practise as a physician, conf. p. 468, note 6. saka, the hilly part of a road, an ascent : saka-michi, ditto. sakan (na), prosperous : sakan ni, greatly. sakana, anything taken with sake, hence more especially fish. sakarau, to resist. sakasama, upside down. SAK L 548 ] JAPANESE—ENGLISH VOCABULARY. SAS. sakate, a tip (to a servant, etc.). saka-ya, a grog-shop. sakazuki, a sake cup. sake, rice-beer, also alcoholic liquors in general : sake-zuki, fondness for strong drink, a toper ; sake ni yoti, to get tipsy. sakebu, to yell. saki, front, before, on ahead, further, a cape : saki-hodo, a short while ago ; saki, see p. 248 ; saki sama, the gentleman at the other end. sakki, emph. for saki. sakkon, these days, latterly. saku, to blossom. saku, to tear (trans.). saku, last (in compounds), as sakuban, last night ; sakujitsu, yesterday ; saknnen, last year. sakujo, erasure. sakura, a cherry-tree. saxna, way, fashion ; also Mr., Mrs., Miss ; see pp. 246-7, 258 : sania-zavia, all sorts. samasu, to cool (trans.). saxnatag'e, a hindrance: saviatage -iVo sunt, to hinder. samatageru (2), to hinder. sam-bai, treble. sain-bu(n) no icbi, one third. saxneru (2), to cool (intrans.), to fade : vie ga sameru, to wake. samui, cold ; — said only of the weather or of one's own feelings. samurai, a gentleman of the military caste under the feudal system, a warrior. samusa, coldness, the degree of cold. samushii, lonely, dull. san, thi-ee : sam-hu, three per cent ; san-do, thrice ; san-do-me, the third time ; san-nin-fime, portions for three ; satt-tvari, thirty per cent ; san-wari go-bu, thirty-five per cent. san, short for sama ; see p. 258. san, a mountain (in compounds),. as Fiiji-san, Mount Fuji. sando, support, agreement. san-gwatsu, March, sanjo, pitiful state. san-ju, thirty. sankaku, a triangle. sankei suru (irreg.), to go to a temple for worship. sansei, approval, seconding (a motion) : sansei sunt, to support, to second; sansei- sha, a seconder, a supporter. sappari, quite ; (with a negative^ not at all. sari (for sa ari)^ it is thus : sari- nagara^ nevertheless, sari to wa, this being the case, saru, to leave (a place), hence ta be distant from. sasai, a trifle : sasai na (or no)y trifling. sasayaku, to whisper, saseru (2), to cause to do, to let. sasbitaru, a Class, word meaning special, particular. SAS [ 549 ] JAPANESE — ENGLISH VOCABULARY. SEI sashizu, a command, dictate, sawaru, to strike or clash against. information. to touch. sasou, to take along with one, to say 6 (a contraction of so no yd. invite : sasoi-dasu, ditto. that way), so : sayo de gozaintasu sasshiru, or sassuru (irreg.), (p. 64), that is so, yes ; sayo de to guc^?. gozaimasen, no ; sayo j^-, oh ! yes. sassoku, immediately. of course. sasu, to thrust, to sting ; to carry sayonara, good-bye ; conf. p. 230. (e.g. a sword) : sashi-agerti, to sazo, indeed, surely, doubtless. present (to a superior) ; sashi- sazukeru (2), to bestow. dasv, to present ; sashi-ire-gucki. seg-are, a humble word for son ; the opening (of a post-box, etc.). conf. p. 256. sasuga (ni), even so, even such. sei, a family name. howsoever. sei, cause, effect. sasureba, it being so. sei, statm-e : sei no htkui, short (of sata, an order, a decision, infor- stature) ; sei no takai, tall. mation. sei, pure (used chiefly in com- sate, well ! (at the beginning of a pounds). sentence). sei, make, manufacture : sei sum. sato, a village. to manufacture. sato, sugar. seibutsu, a living being. satori, comprehension, discern- sei-daku, surds and sonants ; see ment of (religious) truth : satori p. 21, N.B. 7i'o hiraku, to come to a know- seido, government, political forms- ledge of the truth (Buddh.). or regulations. satsu, a volume. seifu, a government. satsu, paper-money : satsn-irc, a seigen, a limit : seigen sunt, to pocket-book. Hmit, satsu j in, man-slaughter, murder. seigwan, a jDctition. SatsuTna-imo, a sweet potato. seiji, government, politics. so-called because first introduced seijin, a sage, a philosopher. from Luchu into the province of seiki, a centui-y. Satsuma. seikwatsu, living, livelihood. satsuriku, slaughter. seimei, life. sawagasu, to disturb, to make seinen, the prime of life, youth. turbulent. seiri, righteousness. sawag-i, a fuss, a yo\\\ seiryaku, policy. SEI [ 550 ] JAPANESE ENGLISH VOCABULARY. SEP seiryoku, strength, jMwer. semeru (2), to treat with rigour. seisai, restriction. to press upon. seisaku, measures, policy. semmon, a specialty (in learning). seish.in, the stars (and constella- sempo, the other party, they. tions). he. sei-shitsu, character, nature. sen, a thousand. Seisho, the Holy Scriptures. sen, a cent, =.\ Anier. cent or i sei-sui, see p. 34. farthing. Seiyo, Western or European senaka, the back (of the body). countries generally, Europe, senchu, on board ship. America : Seiyd-Jin, a European, Sendai-bushi, a kind of poem. an American ; Seiyo-zukuri, see p. 488. foreign-built. Sendo, the master of a junk, hence seizo, manufacturing : seizo siirn, a l)oatman. to manufacture. senjitsu, the other day. seizon, existence : seizon stiru, to senkoku, a sentence (penal). exist. senkoku, a little while ago. seji, flattery. senkoro, lately. sekai, [the world : seken narete senkyoshi, a clergyman, a mis- seken, j /;//, to be used to the sionary. ways of the \\orld. senrei, baptism : scurci ivo tikeru. seki, a cough : seki ga dcrit, to to be baptised. cough. senro, a line of railway. seki, a barrier : scki-niori, a guard sensaku, research : sensaku sunt. at a barrier. to make researches. sekinin, responsibility. sensei, an elder, a teacher, hence sekitan, coal. you, he ; see p. 47. sekkaku, special pains, signal senshi, dying in battle. kindness, on purpose. sensu, a fan, see ogi. sekken, thrift, economy : sekken sentaku, the washing of clothes : wo okonau^ to be tlirifty. sentakii-ya, a washerman : sen- sekkyo, a sermon : sekkyo sinu. taku suru, to wash (clothes). to preach. senzen, restoration to virtue. semai, narrow, small. senzo, an ancestor. sexuete, at any rate, at seppo, a sermon. least, at most ; conf. p. seppuku, the same as /im-n-kiri, 230. see p. 35. SEK [ 551 1 JAPANESE — ENGLISH VOCABULARY. SHI seri-uri, an auction. seshimeru (2), to cause to do, see p. 212. sessha, T, lit. the awkward person. sessuru (irreg.), to be in contact, to receive. setomono, porcelain. setsu, an occasion, a time. setsu, an opinion : setsu ga ait, to be of the same opinion. setsu, awkward ; conf. 257. setsumei, an explanation : set sh- in t'i sum, to explain. setta, sandals soled with leather : sctta-haki, wearing such sandals. settaku, my house ; see p. 257. sewa, help, trouble : sc7oa ni ftartt, to be helped by ; se^va ga yakeru, to be busy and anxious ; si'^ca wo sjirit (or yakit'), to help ; o serua sama, see p. 295, No. 96. sha, a company, a society, a firm. sha, a person (in compounds). shaba, this world, henre out oi prison. shaberi, chatter, a chatter- box. shaberu, to chatter. shafu, a jinrikisha-man. Sbaka Sama, the Buddha Sakya Muni. shakkin, a debt. shaku, a foot (measurement). sbakwai, society : shakivai-shu- gi, socialism ; also used in such phrases as gakusha s/iahvai, the learned world. shampan, champagne (from the Fi-ench). sharei, a fee, a salary. sbasetsu, a leading article. sbashin, a photograph ; sJuisJiin- hasatni, a photogi-aph-holder or frame; shashin-ya, a photo- grapher. shasuru (irreg.), to thank, apolo- gise. sbatei, a younger l^rothcr (hum- ble). shatsu, a shirt (from the English). sbi, death : ski sunt, to die. sbi, four. shl, a Chinese poem. shi, Mr. shi, a |K>stix)sition ; see p. 81. shi, a Classical termination of adjectives ; see pp. 12 1-2. shi, the indefinite form of sunt, to do. sbi-ageru, to finish doing. sbi-awase, good fortune, lucky. shiba, turf, grass. shibaraku, some time (whether short or long) : niakoto iii shi- hai'aku, see p. 269. shibaru, to tie. shibashi, a short while. shiba-shiba, often. shibomu, to wither. sh.i-bu(n) no ichi, a quarter (i). shi-bu(n) no san, three-quarters. shichi, seven, shichi-g-watsu, July. shichi-ju, seventy. SHI t 552 ] JAPANESE- — ENGLISH VOCABULARY. SHI sliichu, (the middle of) the streets. or town. shidai, arrangements, state, reason why, (hence) according to : shidai ni, according to, gradually. sliifun, anger for personal injury. shigai, a corpse. shigei, dense (see p. 124). shigo, after death, posthumous. shigoku, extremely, very. shigoto, work : shigoto 7vo sum, to do one's work. shi-gwatsu, April. shihai-nin, the manager of a commercial house. sM-ho 3iap-p5, all (lit. four and eight) sides. sliilion, capital (a fund of money). shii (no ki), a species of live oak : shii-jio-vd, an acorn. sliii, an adjective suffix, see p. 128. shiiru (3), to urge, to try, to force, shiite, urgently, with violence. shijin, a private individual. sMju, constantly. shi-ju, forty. shika (with a neg.), nothing but, only. Some pronounce shikya. shika, a deer, a stag. shika, thus : shika nomi narazu, not only so ; shikasJnte, and. shikaku (na or no), square. shikaru, to be .so : shikaru m\ thereupon, but ; shikaraba, if (or as) that is so, then. shikaru, to scold, shikashi, but (see pp. 242-3) ; shikashi-imgara, but, neverthe- less. shikata, a way of doing : shikata ga nai, there is nothing to be done, no help for it ; conf. p. 147, shikei, capital punishment. shiken, an examination, an ex- periment : shiken 7vo nkeru, to be subjected to an examination. shiki, a ceremony. shikiri (ni), i)erpetuaUy. shi-kitari, a custom that has been handed down. shikkari, firm, tight : shikkari shita, firm. shikkei, rudeness : shikkei na, ■ rude, impolite. shikken, a regent (in mediaeval times) ; see p. 344, note 2. shikko sum (ii-reg.), to execute. shi-komu, to put into, to arrange inside. shikwan, an officer. shikya, see shika (i). shima, an island. shimai, the end : nw shimai, see p. 292, No. 69. shimatsu, the beginning and end, the whole of any affair. shimau, to finish ; see p. 194. shimbun, news, a newspaper : shim/mn-shi, newspaper ; shim- bun-ya, a journalist ; a newspaper office. shimem, a causative suffix, see p. 212. shimeru (2), to fasten, close. SHI L 553 ] JAPANESE ENGLISH VOCABULARY. SHI strangle, hence to put or have on round the waist ; shifiie-kini, to close up, to shut up. shimizu, pure (spring) water. shimesu, to manifest, show. shimmin, the subjects (of a state). shimmitsu (na), intimate. shimo, (hoar-)frost ; shimo-doke, thaw ; shimo ga ftint, there is hoarfrost. shimo, below. sliiinpai, anxiety, sorrow ; shiiii- pai sttni, to be anxious or ti-ou- bled ; sJiimpal iii nam, to be- come anxious. sMmpo, progress : sJiiuipo siirii, to progress. shimpu, (with go) a father (honor.). sliin, new (in compounds), as s/iinnen, the new year. sMn, the heart ; hence the wick of a lamp. sMu (no), true, real : s/ii>i ni, really. shina, a kmd, hence more frequently an article, goods : sJiina-inono, ditto. Shina, China : S/iina-Jin, a China- man. shin-ai, aftection, love. sliincliu, brass : shine hu-zukuri, arranged or fastened with brass. shini-mono-gurui, desperation. sMnja, a believer. shinjiru (3), to believe, to think. shinjitsu, truth. sMnjo sum (irreg.), to present respectfully to a superior ; see pp. II, 251 : shinjo-juono, a present. sMnki (na), new. shinko, belief: shiuko st/ni, to believe. shinku suru (irreg.), to suffer hardship. shinkwa, evolution : shinkxva- ron, the doctrine of evolution. shinnen, the New Year. shinrei, the soul. sh.inri, truth. sMnrui, a relation, a kinsman. sMnsa, investigation. shinsei, sacredness : s/iiiisci tia., sacred . sMnseki, kinsfolk. sliinsetsu, kindness : shinsetstt na, kind. sMnshi, a gentleman. shinshi, deep thought. shintai, a new shape. shin-teki, mental. Shinto, the name of the aboriginal religion of the Japanese prior to the introduction of Buddhism. It means " the way of the gods." shin-un, progress. shinuru (irreg.), to die; see pp. 172, 198, 212 : shini-sokonau, barely to escape death. shin-yo suru (irreg.), to believe in, to trust. shin-yu, an intimate friend. shinzo, properly a girl, but with SHI [ 554 ] JAPANESE— ENGLISH VOCABULARY. SHO honorific go prefixed now used in the sense of a married woman of the lower middle class, Mrs. shinzu-lDeki, credible. shio, salt, salt water, the tide. sliira, familiar for shiran, don't know. shiraberu (2), to investigate, to examine, shira-ga, white hair ; conf. p. 25. shirase, an intimation, an an- nouncement. shiraseru (2), to inform. shireta, self-evident. shirimochi wo tsuku, to fall down in a sitting position. shirizoku, to withdraw (intrans.). | sliiro, a castle. shiro, Imper. of suru^ to do : uaiii shiro, see p. 189. shiroi, white : shiro -kane, silver. shiromi, a tinge of whiteness. shiromono, merchandise. shirosa, whiteness, the degree of whiteness. shiru, to know: sMrenai ,cM\'itc\\. shirube, a sign, an indication. shirushi, a sign, a mark. shishi, a lion. Shi-sho, see p. 366, note 10. sbiso, a thought. shisoku, (with honorific prefix go) your son ; conf. p. 256. shison, a descendant. shita, the under or lower part of anything, downstairs : 110 shtta ni, below, underneath ; s/iita no /lo, the bottom, beneath. shita, the tongue : sJilta-ucJii sw'H, to lick one's chops. shitag^au, to follow, to obey : ni s/utngatti', according to. shitagi, under-clothing. shitaku, preparations : sJntakn 7U0 sun/, to prepare. shitau, sandal- wood. shitashii, intimate, friendly. shitsu, a room, a cabin. shitsurei, rudeness, impertinence: shitstirei na, rude, impolite. shitto, jealousy. shiyag-aru, equivalent to sunt, yagani being a contemptuous and vulgar suffix, and a (for a) adding to the lowness of the expression, shiyo, a way of doing : shiyo ga nai, there is no help for it, no- thing to be done ; see also pp. 147, 182. shi-yu, female and male : shiyn- tota, sexual selection (Darwin), sb.izen, spontaneity : shizen no, spontaneous, natural ; shizen- tofa, natural selection. shizuka (na), quiet. shizumaru, to quiet down (in- trans.). shizumu, to sink (intrans,). sho, many, all ; — in comiX)unds, as sho/io, every direction ; shonin^ people in general ; s/ios/iTi, all countries. sho, a place (in compound'^). SHO [ 555 ] JAPANESE ENGLISH VOCABULARY, SHU sho, a book. slid, a chapter. shobai, trade, business : shohai- giira, the nature of a trade, appropriate to a certain trade ; s/idl>ai-nin, a tradesman. shobun, treatment, punishment. shocb.!, consent, assent, com- prehension : sJiochi sunt, to consent, etc. sbodo suru (irreg.), to assert. shogfun, the title (meaning literal- ly generalissimo) of the de facto military rulers of Japan from the end of the twelfth century to A.D. 1868. shog-wai, one's whole life. sbo-gwatsu, January. sbogyo, trade. shoji, tlie wood and paper or glass slides which enclose a Japanese room. shoji suru (ii*reg.), to possess. sbojiki, honesty : sJiojiki na, honest. sbojiru (3), to produce, to be produced, to arise. sboken, reading (books) : shaken suru, to read. shoko, a proof : s/idko-ui)i, a witness. shokubutsu, a plant. shokuji, food. shokumotsu, food. shokun, gentlemen, Sirs, all of you. sbomin, all men, every one. shomei suru (irreg.), to prove. shomotsu, a book. sbonin, a merchant, a dealer. sbori, a victory. shosei, a student. sbosei, T, lit. junior. sbosei, (the sound of) laugliter. shosen, after all, at last. sbosetsu, a novel. shosbo, a little. shoso (na), premature. sbosu, a small number, minority. shosuru (irreg.), to dispose of, to condemn. sho-taimen, a first interview. sbote, the beginning. shou, to carry on the back. shu, the auxiliary numeral for poems. sbu, Chin, for sake', strong liquor. sbu, rarely shu, also shi, a pluralising suffix ; see p. 29. shUj a sort, species (in compounds), s/iu-Jn, all sorts. shu, a province, a country. shubiki, a boundary line on a map : s/iuMki-g7vai\ outside " treaty limits ;" shuhiki-iiai . in- side treaty limits. shucho, assei-tion, contention. shudan, a means. shugaku suru (irreg.), to study. shugi, a principle, conf. p. 7. shui, intention, meaning, purport. shujin, the master of a house- hold. shuketsu, termination, closure. SHU [ 556 ] JAPANESE — ENGLISH VOCABULARY, SOK shukkin, going to official work ; to go to office. shuku, a post-town. shuku-liai, a toast. shukwai, a meeting. shukyo, religion, a, sect. shumon, a sect, a religion. shurui, a sort. shusei suru (irreg.), to amend (as a bill). shusen, assistance : shusen -lOo suni, to assist. shushi, purport, intention, aim. shu-shoku, wine and lust. shusseki, attendance, — as at a party or a meeting : shusseki sum, to attend, to go. shussho, birth. shutsugoku, coming out of prison. shuttatsu, starting, departure : shuttatsu suru, to start. SO, rough, coarse ; see p. 257. SO (a contraction of sayd, itself a contraction of souo yo)^ like that, in that way, so : so da or so desu, that is so, yes ; so desii ka ? is that so ? indeed ! so ja nai or -so ja gozaimasen, that is not so, no ; so iu, that kind of, such as that ; so ka mo, so ka to, see p. 296, Nos. 109 arid 1 10 ; so ko, this, that, and the other ; so sa ! yes indeed ; so shite, see p. 242 ; so lua ikan, that won't do. so, a pair (of screens). SO, the auxiliary numeral for boats and ships. so (na), a termination of quasi- adjectives, see pp. 137 and 183 ; also used separately, as " it would seem that " (see pp. 183 — 4). so sMte^ having done so, and then ; conf. pp. 242, 225. soan, a draft, — e.g. of a bill. soba, alongside. soba, the market price, the current rate. sobieru (2}, to stretch up, to reach up (intrans.). socba, inferior tea. sochi, or socbira, there. sodan, consultation : sodan suru, to hold a consultation, sodan 7uo kakeru, to suggest. sodateru (2), to bring up. sodatsu, to be brought up, to grow up. sodo, a row, a tumult. sog^i, funeral rites. SOgu suru (irreg.), to meet with. sohai, worship. soban, see p. 257. sobo, both sides. soi, difference, discordance : soi nai, there is no doubt. soji, cleansing : soji 700 suru, to cleanse. soken (na), healthy, vigorous. soko, there : soko de, thereupon. soko, the bottom (e.g. of a lake) : soko'bie, an internal chill. sokoera, thereabouts. SOM [ 557 ] JAPANESE ENGLISH VOCABULARY. SUB soku, the auxiliary numeral for all sorts of foot-gear. somatsu, coarseness : soinatsii im, coarse, rude. someru (2), to dye. sommei, (your) august name. somoku, herbs and trees, vege- tation. son, loss, especially pecuniary loss. son, lit. a village, — the auxiliary numeral for mura, village. sonaeru {2), to provide ; (some- times) to be provided with, sonata, you. sonclii, retention. soncho, a (village) mayor. sonjiru (3), to spoil (trans, and intrans,). sonna, that kind of, such as that : son?ja ni, so (much). sonnara (for so nam), if that is so, well then. sono, that (adj.) : so no /lo, you (in legal parlance). sonritsu, existence. sonshitsu, pecuniary loss. sonsuru (irreg.), to exist, to pre- serve. « sonzai, existence. s66, suitability, a fair amount : sod na, fit, proper. SOra, the sky : sora-iro, sky-blue. SOra ! (for sore wd), there ! sore, that (subst.), see pp. 51 — 3 : sore de wa, that being so, then ; sore kara, after that, and then, next ; sore made no koto, see p. 194. For the interjectional use of sore, see p. 239. soroban, an abacus. soroi, a match, a set : see also p. 112. soroeru (2), to put in order, to arrange, soro-soro, leisurely, slowly. sorou, to be in order, to be all in their places. soru, to shave, sorya ! there now ! see p. 239, soryo, an eldest son, soshiki, a funeral, soshiru, to blame, to revile. soso (also corruptly sosd), coarse- ness : o soso sama, excuse the coarseness of my poor entertain- ment, sosuru (irreg.), to come to life again, sosuru (irreg,), to report to the Emperor, to accomplish. sotai (no), whole. sotaka, the total amount. sote, alongside, skirting. soto, the exterior, out-of-doors : no soto ni, outside of. soto (na), suitable, proper, sotto, gently : also used for chotto. sozei, taxes, imposts. sozo, fancy, imagination. sozoshii, noisy. su, a number. subarashii, splendid, very. sube-sube shita, smooth. subete, altogether, all. SUI) [ 55« ] JAPANESE— ENGLISH VOCABULARY. SUi< sude ni, already. sue, the end or tip of a thiiiij. sueru (2), to set, to place. sugi, past, after. sugi, the cryptomeria tree. sugiru (3), to exceed, ..ni sugi-r Diascn, it is no more than. Suffixed to an adjective or verb, sugiru may be rendered by too or too much, as yo-sugiru, to be too good ; no/ni-sugiru, to drink too much. sugu (ni or to), immediately. sui, water (in compounds) : suido, an aqueduct, water-works; suifu, a seaman, a common sailor. suiko sum (irreg.), to execute, euikyo, intoxication. suimono, a kind of soup. suiren, practising swimming. suiryo, a conjecture : sui?yd suru, to suppose. suisho, a crystal. suisoku, a conjecture. suiyobi, Wednesday, suji, a line, a vein, reason ; see also p. 112. s\iki, fond ; sec p. 65 : suki-zuki, various tastes. Bukima, a chink : sTikit?i(i-kazt\ a draught (of air). sukkari, quite, completely ; (with a negative) not at all. silkoburu, very. sukoshi, a little, a bit. silku, to be empty. stikunai, few, scarce ; see p. 274. sumai, a residence. sumasu, to conclude (trans.). sumau, to reside. sumi, charcoal, Indian ink. suiniyaka(ni), speedily. sumo, wrestling : sutjio rvo loru^ to wrestle. sumu, to dwell. sumu, to come to an end. The neg. suman sometimes means to be improper, unpardonable. sumu, to be clear. sun, an inch. suna, sand. sunawachi, namely, forthwith. sunde no koto ni, just about to. su-nen or su-nen, many years. suppa-nuku, to draw one's sword at random, hence to expose abruptly. suppai, sour. sura, even, if only. surari to, | smoothly, \\ith- sura-sura to, J out more ado. suribi, a match (for striking). suru (irreg.), to do, to make ; see esjjecially pp. 159, 224; also pp. 92, 133, 151, 195, 198^210,211, 212, 251 ; sht-kakeru, to begin to do ; shi-togeru, to accom- plish ; sum to, at the beginning of a sentence, see p. 352, note 10; sIiUc miru to, see p. 353, note \^\to sureha, see p. 370, note 22. suru, to rub ; used also incor- rectly for soru, to shave, a? higc 700 soru or suru, to shave. ^UR [ 559 ] JAPANESE — ENGLISH VOCABULARY. TAI surudoi, sharp. tabi, a journey ; tabi yc dcru, to susugi-sentaku, the washing ot go on a journey. clothes. tabi-bito, a traveller. susug-u, to rinse, to cleanse. tabun, a good deal, most ; hence susumeru (2), to urge, to ofier, probably. to recommend. tachi, a pluralising suffix ; see p. susumu, to advance, to progress 29. (intrans.). tada, only, simply. -sutensho, a railw ay station (from tadachi ni, forthw ith. the English word). tadaima, immediately. suteru (2), to throw a\\ay. tadashii, correct, just. «uu, to suck, to inhale. tadasu, to rectify, to examine suwaru, to squat (in Japanese into, to warn. fashion). taeru (2), to endure. suzu, tin. tagai (ni), mutually : tagai suzume, a sparrow. {sama) ni, see p. 363, foot-note 3. suzuri-bako, an ink-box. tagaru, a verbal suffix ; see p. 134. suzushii, cool, fresh. tai, big ; tai s/ata, important. tai, a termination of desiderative T adjectives; see pp. 133, 165, 183. taiboku, a large tree. ta, a sufifix denoting past time ; taigai, for the most part, pro- see pp. 150, 166. bably. ta, other, different : sono fa, besides taigu, treatment. that. taihen, lit. a great change, hence ta, a rice-field. very, awfully, see p. 147. tabako, tobacco (£i-om the taiko, a drum : taiko-islia, a European word) : tabako-ire, a quack physician. tobacco-pouch ; tabako ivo nomu. Taiko, a title of honour,— rarely to smoke. applied to any but the Taiko taberu (2), to eat ; conf. pp. 156, Hideyoshi, the military ruler of 251- Japan at the end of the sixteenth tabemono, food, victuals. century. tabi, a time [tmefois) : tabi-tabi. taikutsu, tedium, ennui ; taikiitsii often ; ikt4. tabi ? how many sum, to feel bored. times ? iku tabi mo, any number taimatsu, a torch. of times, however often. taimen, honour, reputation. TAI [ 5<3o ] JAPANESE—ENGLISH VOCABULARY. TAN taira (na), flat. tamaru (intrans.), to collect (as taisetsu, impox-tance ; taisetsii tin. water in a puddle). important. taxuaru (intrans.), to endure; taishi, an ambassador : tais/ii- tamaranai sometimes means too. kivan, an embassy. conf. p. 295, No. 95. taishite, see taisiiru. tamashii, the soul. taisho, loud laughter. tama-tama, rarely, occasionally. taiso, greatly, much, very. tamau, to deign ; conf. p. 253. taisuru (irreg.), to be opposite to ; tame, sake : no tame ni, for the ni taishite, vis-a-vLs, to. sake of, because of, in order to. taitei, for the most part, generally. by ; tai/ie ni nam, to be profit- taiyaku, original and translation able. together, as in a l^ilingual dic- tameru (2), to collect (ti-ans.). tionary. tamesu, to try, to taste. taiyo, the sun. - tamochi-kata, the degiee of taka, a quantity. wear in an article. takai, high : hence dear (in tamotsu, to keep (tians.). price), loud. tan, phlegm. takara, a treasure : takara-mono. tana, a shelf. something very precious. tane, a seed, the material for the take, a bamboo. formation of anything projected, take, a mountain peak. a subject, the wherewithal. take, length, stature. tangwan, an earnest entreaty. taki, a waterfall. tan-haki, a spittoon. tako, a kite (toy). tani, a valley. taku, a house, hence a humble tanin, another j^erson, a stranger. term for husband (see p. 256) : tanjun (na), simple. taku (ie, at home. tanki, a short period. taku, to light (the fire), to cook tanomu, to rely on, to apply to, (rice). to ask, hence sometimes to hire, takusan, much, many, plenty: to engage : tanomi-iru, to lodge mo takusan or sore de takusan. a request, see also p. 249 ; that is plenty, I don't want any tano{mi) indshimasu, see p. 309, more ; conf. p. 65. No. 14. tama, a ball, a bead, a jewel. tanoshimi, joy, pleasure. tainago, an egg : tamago-yaki, an tansan, carbonic acid ; tansan- omelet. sui, the name of an effervescing TAN [ 561 ] JAPANESE — ENGLISH VOCABULARY. TE water. tasiikaru, to be saved ; but conf. tansu, a cabinet, a chest of p. 204. drawers. tasu, a great number, majority. taoreru (2), to fall over. tasukeru (2), to save, to help. tara(ba), termination of the con- tatakau, to fight. ditional past, see pp. 166, 184. tataku, to knock : tafaki-tsMcni, tare, same as dare. to knock on. tared.o(nio), termination of the tatami, a mat. concessive past, see pp. 166, 187. tatamu, to pile up. tareru (2), to hang down (trans.), tatari, a divine judgment or curse. hence to leave, to give. tate-fuda, a notice-board. tari, termination of the frequen- tateru (2), to set up, to build. tative form, see pp. 167, 189. tateru (2), to be able to stand tari, an auxiliary numeral ; see pp. (intrans.). 1 12-3. tatoe, a comparison, a metaphor. tariru (3), to suffice, to be tatoeba, for instance. enough, conf. p. 164: ;// faran. totoeru (2), to compare. is not worth. tatsu, to stand up, to rise, to taro, the termination of the prob- depart : iachi-kaerii, to go back ; able past, see p. 166. tachi-yont, to look in at. Taro, a man's name, see p. 36. tatsu, to cut off. taru, a cask. tatta, vulgar and emphatic for taru, a Classical particle con- tada. tracted form fo i7f'u = is (that), tattobu, to honour, to venerate. as ; /^i(s//i furu mono, one who tattoi, venerable, worshipful. is a warrior. tattosa, venerableness. taru, same as tariru. tayori, something to rely on : tasatsu, manslaughter, murder. tayori ni siiru, to rely on. tasMka (na), certain, sure : tazuneru (2), to ask, to enquire. tashlka m\ certainly. to visit. tashikameru (2), to ascertain. te, the termination of the gerund. to verify. see p. 165 : te irii, sec pp. tash.6, more or less, hence amount. 155, 192, 141 ; te 7)10, see p. degree, see p. 359, note 5. 187. tasshi, a notification. te, the hand, the arm, hence tasshiru (3), to attain to, to handwriting. Sometimes in reach. compounds it means person, as TEA [ 562 ] JAPANESE— ENGLISH VOCABULARY. TER in nori-te, lit. riders, i.e., the name," which lasted from A. 1). passengers in an omnibus, rail- 1830 to 1844. way carriage, etc. ; see also p. ten, a point. 340, foot-note ; te-lmkuro, a glove. ten, the sky, heaven. te-arai, violent, rough. ten-chi, heaven and earth. techo, a note-book. tengu, a kind of goblin with a tefuda, a visiting card. long nose. tegami, a letter. tenjo, a ceiling. teg-arui, easy, slight. tenju, natural term of life. tei, a state {of things). tenka, the world, the empii-e (of teiki (no), requisite. Japan). teikoku, an empire, si>ecifically tenki, the wcutlier ; tenki, ditto. Japan. also specifically fine weather ; teikwaku, see foot-note, p. 406. teuki-tsugo, the state of the teinei (na), polite. weather. teishi, incorrect for tcishu, the tenkoku, the kingdom of master of a house, a husband ; heaven. conf. p. 256. tennen (no), natural. teki, an enemy (public). tennento, small-pox. teki, a drop. Tenno, the Mikado. teki, of; seep. 81. Tenshi, the Mikado ; sec p. teki sum (irreg.), to be appro- 258. priate. Tensho, see p. 369, foot-note. tekishu-seizon, the survival of Tenshu, God (of Roman Catho- the fittest. lics) : Ti-nsliu-dd, a Catholic tekito (na), fit, suitable. church ; Ti-us/iii-kyd, Roman tekiyo sum (irreg.), to apply. Catholicism. tekketsu, iron and blood, war- tensui-oke, a rain-tub. like. tentaku, changing house : icn- tema, trouble : tc-ma ga toreru, to taku sunt, to change house. take time and trouble (intrans.). tento (t' tento sama)^ the sun temadoru, to take time and (vulg.). trouble (inti-ans.). tenugui, a towel. temae, fi-ont, this side of; you, teppo, a gun : tcppo 7vo ufsu, to also I, conf. p. 47. fire a gun. tempen, a sign in the heavens. tera, a Buddhist temple. Tempo, a m-ngd or "year- terasu, to shine upon, illumine. TER [ 563 ] JAPANESE ENGLISH VOCABULARY. TOH teru, to shine. teru, a contraction of the termin. te irii, see p. 1 92. tessa, ii-on chains. tesuki, leisure, nothing to do. tete, the hands (in baby language). tetsu, iron : tetsitbin, a kettle : ictsitdd, a railway. tetsugaku, philosophy ; tctsit- gakusha, a philosopher. te-tsuzuki, a process, a way of arranging matters. te-zema, the state of being crowded. tezuma, jugglery, a trick : tczuma- isiikai, a conjuror. to, a door, to, ten (in compounds). to, a postposition : see pp. 82, 166, 275 ; to ill, see pp. 58, 82, 97 ; to in 1)10)10 wa, see p. 58 ; ditto at beginning of sentence = what I mean is...; to 'ka, see p. 69; to itte, see p. 83 ; to vio, see pp. 85, 187 ; to itte mo, see p. 187 ; to mo kakii mo, see p. 298 ; to sin-u, see p. 227 ; to wa ie or to lua icdo, see p. 187 ; to wa iu mono no, while, whereas, see p. 39. to, a pagoda. to, ten. to, that, the, proper ; see p. 54. to, an auxiliary numeral for horses and cattle. to, etcetera. to, in to ni or to kai'o, long ago, already. tobu, to jump, to fly : tobi-agarti, to fly up ; tobi-komtt, to jump or fly in ; tobi-kosit, to jump across. tobutsu-ya, a general shop for foreign goods. tocliaku, arrival : tocJiaku sio'ii, to arrive. tochi, a locality, a place, soil. tocbu, on the road, by the way. todai, a lamp-stand, a light- house. todan, ascending the pulpit or rostrum, todana, a cupboard. todoke, a report. todokeru (2), to send to destina- tion, to give notice, to report. todoku, to reach (intrans.), todomaru, to stop, -to stay (intrans.), todome, a stop, a pause, the coup dc grace : tado»u' ico sastt, to give the coup de grace, todomeru (2), to stop (trans,), todori, a manager, a president. tofu, a city, tofu, bean-curd : tdfu-yo, a shop for or seller of bean-curd, toga, fault, blame, togame, blame, togameru (2), to blame. togarashi, cayenne pepper, togeru (2), to do thoroughly, toge, a mountain pass, togetsu, this month, togire, temporary cessation, tohomonai, outiageous, ex- TOI [ 564 ] JAPANESE — ENGLISH VOCABULARY. TOR tortionate. « toku, profit, advantage, efficacy. toi, far, distant. tokubetsu (na), special. toji, the binding of a book. tokuhon, a reading book. toji, the present time, at that time. tokui, a customer. tojiru (3), to close (trans.), to bind tokuri, a bottle. (a book). tokushitsu, gain and loss. toka, ten days, the tenth day of tomai, an auxil. numeral, see p. the month. 112. tokaku, same as to mo kakti mo ; tomaru, to stop, to stay (intrans.). see under to. tombo, a dragon-fly. tokei, a clock, a watch. tome-bar i, a pin. tokei, imprisonment with hard to-megane, a telescope. labour. tomeru (2), to stop (trans.). tokei, statistics. tomo, a companion, a follower : tokeru (2), to loosen, to melt (in- tomo stn-u, to accompany. trans.). tomodachi, a companion, a toki, time, hence when (conjunc- friend. tion), see pp. 41, 184, 275 : toki- tomurai, a funeral. doki, often; toki-ori, occasionally; tonaeru (2), to recite, to pro- toki ni, see p. 41 ; toki to shite. claim (e.g. opinions). sometimes. tonari, next door. toki, porcelain. tonda, f absurd, awful, tondemonai, ^ excessive. tok-kai, the reading (of a bill). toko, an abbreviation of tokoro. tonen, this year. place. tonin, the person in question. tokonoma, an alcove. tonjaku, concern (always with tokoro, a place, but see pp. 41-2, neg.) : tonjaku sum (irreg.), to 180 ; tokoro de, see p. 42 ; tokoro be concerned. ga, tokoro ye, see p, 42; for tokoro tonogo, a man, a gentleman, a no used as a kind of relative husband. pronoun, see p. 61 ; tokoro-dokoro , tonto (mo), (with negative) not at here and there, in many places. all. Tonto sometimes means with tokoro-gaki, an address (writ- a thud. ten). tora, a tiger. toku, to loosen, to melt (trans,), toraeru (2), to seize, to arrest. to unfasten, to explain : toki- toreru (2), to take (intrans.), to akasii, to explain. be able to take. TOR [ 565 ] JAPANESE ENGLISH VOCABULARY. TSU tori, a bird, especially the barn- door fowl. tori, a thoroughfare, a street, a way, as ; see p. 243. tori mo naosazu, neither more nor less than, just, exactly. tori-aezu, forthwith. tori-maki wo sum, (irreg.), to keep the ball of conversation rolling, to entertain skilfully. tori-tsuki-lia, something to hold on by, facilities. toro, a stationary (e.g. a stone) lantern. toron, a discussion, debate. torn, to take, but sometimes rnerely expletive in compounds : tori ni ikti, to go for ; tori ni htrti, to come for ; tori ni yarii^ to send for ; tori-atsiikau, to un- dertake, to manage ; tori-chigae- ru, to confuse ; tori-ireru, to gather in ; tori-isogu, to be in a hurry ; tori-kaeni, to exchange ; tori-kakomu, to surround, to be- siege ; tori-jHotsu, to arrange ; tori-shiraberu, to investigate ; tori-tsuku, to catch hold of; ;// totte, with regard to. toru, to pass through, to pass by : tori-kakarii, to happen to pass by. tosan, the ascent of a mountain : tosaji surif, to ascend a moun- tain. toshi, a year, hence age :' toshi wo toru, to grow old; toshi no yotta, elderly, aged. tosM, the act of doing something right through. toshiyori (no), old (said only of people). tosu, to put or let thi-ough, to admit (e.g. a guest) : o tdshi mose, see bottom of p. 294. tot a, selection. tote, a postposition ; see p. 83. totei, (with a neg.) by no means. totemo, anyhow, in any case ; (generally with a neg.) not at all, by no means. toto, at last. tou, to ask. tozan, same as yama-nobori, see P-35- tozen, right, pro^Dcr. tsuba, the guard of a sword. tsuben, interpretation, an hiter- preter : tsuben 7i7 J Japanese — English vocabulary. UE tsuiiiaran(ai), worthless, trifling. tsumari, in short, in the long run : tsutnarn iokoro. ditto. tsumazuku, to stumble. tsume, a finger or the nail, a claw. tsumeru (2), to stuff, pack, or squeeze into : isunic-yont, to draw near. tsumetai, cold (to the touch). tsumi, a sin, a crime : fsiiml sunt, to punish. tsumori, an intention : tsianori- .^'v/X'/, a written estimate. tsumoru, to he heaped up. tsumuri, the head. tsunagu, to fasten, to tie up. tsune (ni), generally : fsiint- no, usual, ordinary. tsunoru, to collect (trans.), to levy, to increase or grow violent. tsurai, disagreeable, unsym- pathetic. tsure, a companion. XigorieiS. and used as a suffix, it means together, :i?,fufic-ziirr, a husband and wife together. tsure- datsu, to go together. tsureru (2), to take with one : tsitrete kurn, to bring (a person). tsurei, the general precedent, the usual plan. tsuri (often with honorific o), change, small money, tsuru, a stork. tsiiru, to hang (e.g. a mosquito- net) ; tsuri-ogeru, to hang up. tsuru, to angle, to catch fish with a line and hook. tsurube, a well-bucket. tsutawaru, to be handed down. tsutomeru (2), to attend, to be occupied with. tsutsunii(-inono), a parcel. tsutsumu, to wrap up. tsuyo, circulation : tsuyo sum, to circulate (as money). tsuyoi, strong. tsuyu, dew : isuyu, soup. tsuzoku, colloquial, common. tte, see pp. 83 — 4. tto, see bottom of p. 82. U uba, a wet-nurse. ubau, to take by force, to rob, uchi, the inside, hence a house home, hence a humble term for husband (see p. 256), taken from, an extract ; no uchi ni, inside, in ; sono ui/ii, meanwhile, soon ; o uchi dt\ at home, Uchi ni sometimes means while. For uchi helping to form superlatives, see p, 146. ucbiki, retiring, bashful. uderu (2), to boil,— e.g. an egg. ue, the top of anything ; conf. p. 260 : uo uc ni, above, on, after. Sometimes ue means circum- stances or nature, as kanii no mi ue, the nature of the gods ; also a point of view, with regard to. UEK [ 568] JAPANESE ENGLISH VOCABULARY. USU ueki, a garden plant : neki-ya, a gardener, ueru (2), to plant. ugokasu, to move (trans.). ugoku, to move (intrans.). uguisu, a nightingale. uji, a surname, hence Mr. ukagau, to enquire, to ask, to listen to, to visit, ukeru (2), to receive : conf. p. 251 : nke-au, to guarantee ; tike- toru, to take delivery, to receive, uketamawaru, a humble word for to hear ; conf. p, 251. uketori, a receipt, uketoru, to receive, uke-tsiike, a sort of enquiry office, superior in dignity to a mere porter's lodge, where cards are received, information given, etc. There is one at the entrance to every public department and other large establishments in Japan. uma, a horse. ilmai, nice to eat, tasty, umamma, food (in baby lan- guage) ; conf, p, 240, footnote. umareru (2), to be born. tiinare-tsuki, by birth ; hence the character or disposition. time, a plum-tree : nme-nii, going to see the plum-blossoms. iiineru (2), to fill up with earth, to bury : utne-azoaseru, to make up (metaph.), see pp. 342 — 3. lixni, the sea : iimi-be, the sea- shore, umu, to give birth to, to bear : umi-dasu, ditto. un, luck : tm no yoi, lucky ; nn no warui, unlucky, unazuku, to nod. undo, bodily exercise : undd-dama , cup-and-ball ; tmdd sum, to take exercise, unnya ! humph ! ura, the back or reverse side of anything, urayamu, )to envy (not urayamashig-aru, ) in a bad sense) ; also to wish to be like, urayamashii, enviable. ureeru (2) or ureiru (3), to grieve, ureru (2), to sell (intrans,), to be able to sell ; conf. p. 206. ureshigaru, to feel joyful, ureshii, joyful, uru, to sell (trans,) : tiri-sabaku, to sell off, urusagaru, to find troublesome. urusai, troublesome, a bother. uruslii, lacquer, varnish, uruwashii, beautiful, lovely, uslii, a cow, a bull, an ox, beef, ushinau, to lose, usliiro, the back or hinder part of anything : no nshiro ni, at the back of, behind. uso, a lie, a falsehood : uso wo iu, to lie ; uso'tsuki, a liar. Usui, light, thin (in colour or con- sistence), insufficient : usn-akai, UTA [569 ] JAPANESE ENGLISH VOCABULARY. WAK pink ; usn-gtirai, dusk. ■wa, an irregular auxiliary numeral, uta, a Japanese (as opposed to a see p. 1 10. Chinese) poem, a song. wabi, an apology. uta^ai, a doubt : titagal luo wabiru (3), to lament, to apolo- okostf, to raise a question. gise. utau, to sing. waboku, peace. utcharu, to throw away, to dis- wadakamaru, to be coiled. regard : utchatte oku, ditto. waga, my own, one's own, see p. utoi, estranged : uto-tdoshii, ditto. 5 1 : %aaga mi, myself ; 7vaga hai. utsu, to strike, to hit. It is some- we. times used as a meaningless and wai, an exclamatory and emphatic omittable prefix in compound particle. verbs, as {tichi-)tsure-datsif, to go waka-danna, the son of the along together. master of the house. iitsiikushii, beautiful. wakai, young. utsuru, to remove (intrans.), to go wakareru (2), to part with, to be over to. separated. utsusu, to remove (trans.), to copy. wakari, understanding : 7vakari uttaeru (2), to go to law about, to ni nam, to understand (honor- appeal. ific) ; UHxkarl no hayai, quick- uttosliii, cloudy, dull. witted, sharp ; ivakari-niktci. uwa-gaki, an address (on an en- hard to understand ; ivakari- velope, etc.). yasiii, easy to understand. uwagi, a coat. wakaru, to understand : 7oakari- uwasa, gossip, rumour : lacasa 700 kitte irii, to come to a clear un- surti, to talk about. derstanding. UWO, a fish : tnao tao tsi/ru, to fisli wakasu, to boil (trans.) ; said of with a rod and line. water. uyamau, to reverence. wakatsu, to discern. uya-uyashii, awe-inspiring. wake, a reason, a cause : do in 7uake de ? why .'* sd iu wake ni wa W ikimasen, it can't be managed in that way. Twa, a separative particle ; see p. wakeru (2), to divide, to share : 85 ; also pp. 94, 166, 193, 195, wake-ataeru, to distribute in ap- 238, 260, 274. For its use as an propriate shares. interjection, see p. 87. wakete, specially. WAK [ 570 ] JAPANESE— ENGLISH VOCABULARY. YAK waki, the side of anything, some- times elsewhere : 710 loaki m\ at the side of, beside ; 7i. 96. ya, a termination signifying house, see p. 39. ya, a postposition ; see pp. 93, 88 (N.B.), 195 : ya naiii ka, p. 55. ya and ya, eight ; see p. loi. yaban, a barbarian : yahan no or 11a, barbarous. yabo, a boor, a dolt. yabu, a bamboo thicket : ya/>it-i , a quack doctor. yabuku, to tear (trans.). yado, a dwelling-place, a hotel ; hence a humble word for hus- band (see p. 256); yado-ya, a hotel. yagate, forthwith, by and bye, almost, perhaps. yag-u, bed-clothes. yahari, also. yai ! halloa ! yakamashii, noisy, hence given to fault-finding, fussy. yakedo, a burn. YAK [ 571 ] JAPANESE ENGLISH VOCABULARY, YO yakeru (2), to burn (intrans.). yaki, burning, roasting, tempering (a blade). yakkai, assistance ; see also p. 290, No. 54, and conf, p. 247. yaku, to burn (trans.), to roast, to toast, to bake. yaku, usefulness, service : yakii ni tatsii, to be of use. yakunin, an official. yakusha, an actor. yakuslio, a public office. yakusoku, an agreement, a pro- mise : yakusoku suru, to promise. yakwai, an evening party. yama, a mountain, a hill, some- times dishonest speculation : yania-niic/ii, a mountain path. yamai, a disease. yama-nobori, see p. 34. Yamato, one of the provinces of Japan, hence Japan itself : Yania- to-damashii, Japanese spirit, ideal, patriotism. yameru (2), to put a stop to. yamu wo ezu, unavoidably. yanagi, a willow-tree. yane, a roof (see p. 36). yappari, emphatic iox yahari . yara, see p. 488, foot-note 8. yarakasu (vulg.), to do ; hence to perform almost any action, e.g. drinking, eating, working. yare I (an exclamation of encour- agement derived from yaru^ to give), go on ! halloa \ sometimes, or else. yaru, to send, to give, conf. pp. 196, 25 1 : yattc viiru, to try (one's hand at) ; yatte shimaii, to give away ; yaru is sometimes used instead of sun/, to do. yasasliii, easy, gentle. yaseru (2), to grow thin ; yasdi- iru, to be thin ; yaseta, thin. yasliiki, a nobleman's mansion, also a " compound." yashiiro, a Shinto temple. yashoku, supper, (late) dinner. Yaso, Jesus : Yaso-kyd or Yaso- shu, (Protestant) Christianity. yasui, cheap, easy : yasu-domari, a cheap lodging. yasumu, to rest, to go to bed : o yasuml nasai, good-night. yatou, to hire, to engage. yatsu, a (low) fellow ; rarely a thing. ya(tsu), eight. yawarageru (2), to soften (trans.). yawarakai or yawaraka na, soft. yaya, more or less, somewhat : yaya mo sureba, apt to, liable to. ye, a postposition ; see p. 93. yen, see en. yo ! an interjection, see pp. 239, 167. yo, the night : yo-geiko, studyijig at night ; yo-naka, midnight ; yo ni ■ iru, to become dark. yo, the world : yo no naka, ditto ; yo wo okuru, to spend one's life, to make a living. vo [ 572 J JAPANESE— ENGLISH VOCABULARY. YOR yo, surpluss. side glance ; yoko-jnoji, European yo and yo, four ; see p. loi. written characters. yd, business, use ; yd 7vo nasu, to yokogiru, to cross. be of use. yokosu, to send hither. yo, appearance, way, kind : yd iii, yoku, well, hence often. to, so that ; see p. 276, yoku, next, as in yoku-jitsu, next yo-ake, dawn. day. yobo, a precaution. yoku suru (irreg.), lit. to bathe, yobu, to call : yobi-dasu, to sum- hence to avail of. mon ; yobi-kaesu, to call back. yokyu, a demand. yochi, space, room. yome, a bride, a daughter-in-law : yofaku, European clothes. yome ni iku, to get married (said yogaku, European learning : of a girl) ; yome ni yarn, to give ydgaku-sha, one versed therein. (a girl) in marriage ; yome wo yoginai, unavoidable. vwrau, to marry (a wife). yohodo, plenty, a lot, very. yomeru (2), to read (intrans.). yoi, good, (hence) handsome ; see can read ; conf, p, 2c6. also pp. 137, 139. yomu, to read (trans.) : tit a ivo yo-i (na), easy. yomu, to compose (Jap.) poetry. yoji, a tooth-brush, less correctly yomuki, business, affairs. a tooth-pick (ko-ydji) : yoji-ire, a yondokoronai, inevitable. tooth-pick holder. yo-naka, midnight. yo-jo-baii, (a room) four mats yone, hulled rice. and a half (in size). yo (no naka), the world. yoka, eight days, the eighth day of yopparai, a drunkard. the month. yopparau, to get tipsy. yokan, a kind of sweetmeat made yoppodo, emphatic ior yohodo. of beans and sugar. yoppite, all night long. yokei, superfluity ; (with a nega- yori, a postposition ; see pp, 94, tive) not very, not much ; see p. 145, 260, 148. yorokeru (2), to reel. yoki, the weather. yorokobi, joy. yokka, four days, the fourth day yorokobu, to rejoice. of the month. Yoroppa, Europe. yoko, cross, athwart : yoko-cho or yoroshii, good, conf, pp. 128, 130, yoko-dori, a side street (whether 255 : mo yoroshii, all right, no cross or parallel) ; yoko-me, a more required ; ...de yoroshii, .. YOR [ 573 ] JAPANESE ENGLISH VOCABULARY VUR will do w ell enough ; yoroshikii yoyaku, | barely, at last, with moshifJiasu, see p. 309 ; yoroshi- yoyo, i difficulty. ku negaimasu, see pp. 324 — 5, yu, hot water, a hot bath : yu 7i 90, 91, 97, 118, 122, 169, 195, 165, 189, 275, 276, 371. 237— 9> 268. „ (meaningless), 245, 248. Emphatic Particles, 73, 79, 136. „ (used objectively), 247. English Influence, 5, 6, 22, 26, 60. Hours (counting of), 118. Enumeration, 75, 80, 81, loi, 102, Humble Phraseology, 46, 249—257, 224. Hyphens, 35, 106. Epenthetic Letters, 18, 24, 106, 199. Hypothetical Mood, 184 ; 166. Equals (how addressed), 244 — 257. "If" (how rendered), 84, 91, Errors (common), 11, 50, 125, 142. 186—6. Euphony, 23, 26, 105, 129, 152. Illative Tenses, 193. Europeanisms, 5, 26, 236, 280, 367, Imperative Mood, 167, 189, 252—4, 396. 277 ; also 129, 151, Exclamatory Particles, 85, 87, 93, 152. 237, 239. „ (honorific), 252 — 4, Expletives, 237 — 240. (negative), 168. F (letter), 16, 2=5, 164-5. Impersonality, 50. Feminme, 27, 28. Impossibility (how expressed), 202 Frequentative Form, 167, 188 ; 128, — 3- 154 — 160. Improbable Past, 169. „ (of negative), 169. „ (Present or Future), Future Tense, 165, 168, 172, 190. 168 ;8r. „ (compound), 191, " In order to " (how rendered), 75. G (letter), 16, 21, 162 — 3. Indefinite Form, 165, 178, 264 — 6 ; Gendei-, 27, 28, 30, 32, 121. also3i,43,6o, 75,88,93, no, r22, Genitive, 66, 76, 260. 132, 137, 150, 152, 153, 154—160, Gerund, 165, 178, 180,265 ; also 60, 195, 203, 220, 249, 261, 70, 100, 147, 190, 191, Indicative Mood, 154—160, 172 ; 192, 193, 194, 196, 203, also 57. 214,230,233,261, 269. Infinitive Mood, 178 ; 153, 179. „ (emphasised), 166, 182 ; Inflections (of adjectives), 120. 154 — 160. „ (of verbs), 149. Gerund (of adjectives), 128, 181. Integration of Sentences, 280 — 2. „ (negative), 169, 179. Interjections, 236 ; 87, 92, 234. " Get " (how rendered), 198 — 200. Interrogation, 278; 51, 52, 68, 87, 580 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 93, "3- Inten-ogation, (negative), 235. Inversion, 270; 118. Irregular Verb?, 158-160, etc. (see Verbs). Isolating Particle, 85. " It would seem that " (how render- ed), 183. J (letter), 21, 25, 163. "Just as" (how rendered), 42. K (letter), 21, 162. Korean Language, 5, 169. Kyoto Dialect, 8, 125, 163, 164, 223, 241. " Let " (how rendered), 213, 215. Letter-changes, 20, 104, 161 — 5, i68, 171. " Let us " (how rendered), 189. Literature, 6, 9, 10, 484. Long Sentences, 280 ; 3, 269. Luchuan Language, Pref., 5, 36, 169, 172. M (letter), 24, 162 — 3. Masculine, 27, 28. "May " (how rendered), 69, 174, . 188, 207. Memorising (necessity for), 4, 5, " Might " (how rendered), 69. Military Words of Command, 189, ' 253. Montlis (names of the), 116, 117, Mood (in adjectives), 128, 130, 178. „ (in verbs), 154 — 160, 165, 172, 178. Mr., Mrs., Miss, 258 — 9. "Must" (how rendered), 174 — 5; 122, 132, 183. i " Must not " (how rendered), 183. N (letter), 17, 18, 23, 24, 25. .162, 168, 169. Names (family), 36, 259. „ (men's), 36, 259. „ (of dogs), 125. ,. (of places), 36, 40, 41, 126. „ (of shops), 40. „ (of trees), 40. „ (personal), 36, 256, 259. „ (women's), 259. " Need not " (how rendered), 188. Negative (syntax of), 271 — 4. „ (adjective Nai), 129, 130, 168, 171. (base), 152, 154—160, 167; also, 153, 198, 212. „ (conjugations), 129, 130, 155—160. „ (question how answered), 235. „ (tenses how formed), 167 —170; 153- (voice), 153, 155—160, 168, 179, 219, 272. " Neither... nor" (how rendered), 72. Ng (sound of), 16. Nominative, 66, 89 ; 76, 86, 91, 201 Nouns, 27 ; also 97, 101, 260, 269. „ (abstract), 37, 38, 136. Nouns (collective), 27. „ (compound), 31, 137. „ (how verbalised), 225, „ (humble), 256. „ ( in ki and gi), 40. „ (in mi), 38. „ (in sa\ 37, 38, 179- INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 5S1 Nouns {inyn), 40. „ (plain and honorific), 256 — 7- „ (used as adjectives), 44, 135 —140, 142. „ (used as adverbs), 45, 231 3. „ (used as postpositions), 97. „ (verbal), 43 ; 31- Number, 27, 29, 30, 32, 121, 149. Numerals, 10 1. „ (auxiliary), 107. „ (cardinal), loi, 115, 116. (Chinese), 103 — 7; iii, 112, 113, 115, 116. (fractional), 118 ; 115. „ (multiplicative), 118. „ (ordinal), 115, 116. Object (of verb), 260, 268, " One" or " ones " (how rendered), 78,96, 135, 144, Onomatopes, 236 ; 82, 240, ■"Or" (how rendered), 6g, 93, 224. "Ought" (how rendered), 41, 57, 177, P (letter), 21, 22, 23, 25, 236. *' Pair " (various words for), 1 14. Paradigms, 52, 126, 128 — 130, 154 — 160, 162, 229. Participle, 165. Particles, see Postpositions. Parts of Speech, 10, 239, 231, 242. Passive, 198, etc ; see Verbs. Past Participle, 165. „ (tenses), 166, 175, 184, 186; also 141. Person, 46, 149, 244 — 6, 249. Personification, 279. Phonetic Decay, 22, 151, 161, 166, 168, 202, 233. Place-names, 36, 143, Pleonastic Constructions, 278. Plural, 27, 29, 30, 48, 49. Poetry, 484 ; 472. Politeness (influence on grammar), 244 ; 46 — 7, 160. Positive Voice, 153, 154, 156 — 160. Possessive, 76. Postpositions, 62 ; 10, 27, 49, 230, 232, 260, 269, 270. „ (combined), 94 ; 76, 77, Potential Verbs, see Verbs. Predicative Constructions, 66, 77, 89,90,91, 121, 122, 138, 140, 141, 142, 143. 260, 274. Prefixes, 27, 30, 37. ^7o. Present Tense, see Certain Present. Probable Past, 166, 175. „ (of negative ) , 1 69 , present or future, 168. „ „ (of negative), 168, Pronouns, 46, 257. (demonstrative), 51, 82. (indefinite), 51, 52, 55, 142. „ (interrogative), 51. Pronouns (personal), 46, 245, 257, 267. „ (possessive), 49. „ (reflexive), 51. (relative), 56. „ (substantive and adjec- tK'e forms), 53. 582 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. Pronunciation, 12 ; Pref., 7. " Since " (how rendered), 70, 94. Prosody, 484. Singular, 27, 29, 49. " Provided " (how rendered), 1 42. " Sir " (no equivalent for), 258. Quantity (vowel), 12—13, 484. Slang, 8. Quasi-adjectives, 135. " So " (how rendered), 148. „ (in shtta), 142 ; 14 I. Special Phraseology, 240—2. „ (in so na), 137. Stems (of adjectives), 124— 7, '134, Quasi-postpositions, 97. 226. Question and Answer, 235. „ (of verbs), 149-152, 190, 210, Quotation, 275. 214, 228. R (letter), 17, 152, 162, 163. „ (reduplicated), 134. Reduplication of Consonants, 18, " Still more " (how rendered), 146. 23, 24. Subject (of sentence), 261, 266^ (of stems), 134. 89, 90, 91, 201, 279. „ (of words), 29, 230, Suffixes, 5, 10, 29, 30, 38, 48, 120 — 232, 240. 2, 133, 134, 149, 150, 153, 161, Reflexive (pronouns), 51. 165 — 170, 190, 193,210,219,222, (verbs), 211. 225, 226, 261. Relation (ideas of), 27, 62, 77. Superiors (how addressed), 244 — Relation to Other Languages, 5 . 257. Relationship (degree of), 28, Superlatives, 145, 146. 256—7. Supposition (how expressed), 184 — Relative Constructions, 56. 8. Romanisation, 12. Surds and Sonants, 20. Roots of Verbs, 149— 151, 209, 210. Surnames, 36, 259. S (letter), 17, 21, 25, 162, 164. Syntax, 260. " Self" (how rendered), 51, 211 Synthesis of Contradictories, 34. Self-depreciatory Terms, 46, 244, T (letter), 25, 162, 163, 164. 250—1, 255—7. Tense (anomalous use of), 1 76, Semi-colloquial, 124, 125. „ (compound continuative), Sentence (structure of), 260. 155, 191 ; 141. Servants (how addressed), 47, „ (illative), 193. 252-4. (in adjectives), 128, 130, 177, Sh (sound), 25 ; 21, 162, 164. 178. " Should " (how rendered), 41, 132, „ (in verbs), 154—160, 165, 177, 186. 172; also 57, 149, 178, 191. Silent Vowels, 14. „ (negative),i67— 170, 191,195. INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 583 " Than " (how rendered), 94, 145. Verbs (in .mri{), 225. " That" (conjunction), 82. „ (in tagaru), 134. " There is," etc. (how rendered), (inchoative), 204, 218. 221, 222 ; 98. „ (inflections of), 149 — 152. " They say that" (how rendered), (intransitive), 205, 208 ; 191, 58, 183. 199, 204, 211, 227, 278. " Though " (how rendered), 186. „ (irregular), 158 — 160, 170 ; Titles, 258. also 133, 198, 212. Toky5 Dialect, 8, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, (liable to be confounded), 20, 21, 23, 128, 163, 164, 168, 223. 228. Tones, 19. (may take postpositions). " Too " |how rendered), 148. 66. Transitive and Intransitive Pairs of „ (nature of Japanese), 149. Verbs, 208, 228. „ (passive), 198, 203 — 5, 278 ; TransUteration, 12, 225. also 57, 58, 75. 133' 134, Ts (sound), 25 ; 2f, 164. 190, 191, 207, 208, 213, Unfinished Sentences, 268 ; 82, 83, 216. 219, 227, 266, 237, 253. „ (periphrasis with), 191 — 7. Verbalisation of Nouns, 225. „ (plain and honorific), 249, Verbs, 149 ; 260, 261. 251. „ (auxiliary), 190; 155, 223. „ (ix)tential), 2or, 207, 219, „ (bases of), 151 ; 149—152, 250. 154—160, 161, 165, 167. (prepositional), how rendered. „ (cannot be omitted), 71. 217. „ (causative), 212; 75, 134, 219. (reflexive), 211. (compound), 217. „ (stems of), 149 — 152, 190. „ (conclusive form), 132. „ (substantive), see Verb- " to „ (final omitted), 268. Be." „ (formed from adjectives), 1 34, (" to Be "), 221 ; also 62—5, 226—7. 71, 9'<, 120, 124, 126, 128, -,, (honorific), 249—254 ; 160, 129, 136, 138, 190, 191, 171, 189. 197. „ (humble), 251 ; 249, 250. (" to Do"), 224 ; 195. „ (in aru), 190, 210. „ (" to Have "), 221 ; 203, 216. (in eru), 190, 210. „ (transitive), 206, 208, 214, {in gam), 134. 215,227,279. „ (in //>«), 226. „ (used as adjectives), 135, 140, 584 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 149. Verbs (used as nouns), 31, 43, 149. „ (used as other parts of speech), 230. „ (with sd suffixed), 137, 183. „ (with stems in j), 210, 214. " Very " (how rendered), 147, 148. Vowels, 12, 25. „ (crasis of), 15, 124. „ (harmony of), 5. „ (long and short), 13, 168. „ (quiescent), 14, 18, 19. „ (stems), 124, 162, 163, 164. „ (strengthening of), 24, 102. Vulgarisms, 8, 15, 18, 19, 46, 48, 64, 83, 107, 122, 124, 161. W (letter), 17, 25, 164—5. Western Peculiarities, 15, 17, 21, 163, 168, 380, 384, 392. "When" (how rendered), 41, 42, 84—184. " Whether " (how rendered), 69. "While" (how rendered), 41, 42, 242—3. " Without " (how rendered), 129, 188. Women (words peculiar to), 47, 238—241. Women's names, 259. " Wonder " (how rendered), 175. Word-building, 35. " Would " (how rendered), 186. Writing (system of), 9 ; Pref. Written Language, 9, 10 ; also 46,. 51,52,57,60,73,76,91,93, 112, 118, 121, 122, 124, 132, 135, 136, 161, 164, 165, 166, 168, 169, 178, 180, 184, 185, 202, 203, 212, 224, 226, 239, 241, 257. Y (letter), 17, 25. Year-names, 116. " Yes " and " no," 234. Z (letter), i8, 21, 25. [THE END] BY THE SAME AUTHOR. A Practical Introduction to the Study of Japanese Writing {Moji no Shirube), i Vol., 4to, 2nd Edit. Things Japanese, i Vol., crown 8vo., 5th Edit. Essay in Aid of a Grammar and Dictionary of the Luchuan Language. (Published as Supplement to Vol. XXIII of the " Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan.") The Language, Mythology, and Geographical No- menclature of Japa?i, Viezued in the Light of Aino Studies, I Vol. (Published as a Memoir of the Litera- ture College of the Imperial University of Japan.) A Translation of the '• Kojiki,'' or '• Records of Ancient Matters^' with Introduction and Commentary, I Vol. (Published as Supplement to Vol. X of the " Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan.") In Collaboration with W. B. Mason, Fsq. Murray's Handbook for Japan, i Vol., crown 8vo., 8th Edit. Printed dv the ShUeisha, Tokyo. m 9 TfT t! fk.irflkjlkjl!kjrf!faLjd!^ W W x9. T ^^1 JK ^ rfi ^ g Jli IS r 5 ^ ft? ' 2 la T ^ m a ^ ± pj p^ pj! m m m m Hzm + -[^-55: + H H ;! H B H n (zg ra H B ^/j m m Ep En w fill) SI] so ?T BiJ fi ff ^f ^ 3f. RETURN EAST ASIATIC LIBRARY TO— i^ 208 Durant Hall 642-2556 LOAN PERIOD 1 1 MONTH 2 3 4 5 6 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS DUE AS STAMPED BELOW ^A/V 03 1985 REC'D RECD APR 5 200 ? IlLC_UUaM EAL lAU QE£.l 5 1987 REC'B DEC 1 6 1987 FAL ^^mi ^iyTt) APR 12003 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY FORM NO. DD9, 38m, 477 BERKELEY, CA 94720 ®$ D.^^x-J ».^ T ^^ ir