c^V. .^4tcr^ii}^ Cr^^iyAs^?!^ CORNELL UNIVERSITY. SYLLABUS OF A COURSE OF TWENTY=FOUR LECTURES I ON THE HISTORY OF EUROPE DUR|NQ THE NINETEENTH CENTURY BY H. nORSE STEPHENS. ITHACA : ANDRUS & CHURCH. HKMRY MORSE STEPHEMS 5151 15 TABLE OF CONTENTS. LECTURES : Page. I. The Consulate in France and the Re-constitdtion of Ger- many, I II. The Power of Napoleon at its Height, 4 III. Europe during the Ascendency of Napol-eon,, 8 IV. Overthrow of the Power of Napoleon, ii V. The Congress of Vienna, 15 VI. The Holy Alliance, 19 VII. The Eastern Question and the Independence of Greece, 23 VIII. The Revolution of 1830 in France, 27 IX. The Belgian Insurrection, 30 X. Insurrection and Civil War in Spain and Portugal, ... 33 XI. Europe during the Reign of Louis Philippe, 36 XII. The Revolution of 1848 in France, 41 XIII. The Revolution of 1848 in Italy, 45 XIV. The Revolution of 1848 in Austria, 49 XV. The Revolution of 1848 in Germany, 53 XVI. Europe after the Revolutions of 1848, . 57 XVII. The Crimean War, 61 XVIII. The Unity of Italy, 64 XIX. The Overthrow of Austria, 68 XX. The Re-constitution of Germany and Austria, 72 XXI. The Franco-German War, 77 XXII. The German Empire, 81 XXIII. Russians Attempt to Solve the Eastern Question, .... 85 XXIV. The Triple Alliance, 89 Appendices: 91-101 i. The Rulers of Europe from 1801 to 1895. The Great Powers. ii. The Rulers of Europe from 1801 to 1895. The Lesser Powers, iii. The Rulers of Europe from 1801 to 1895. Italy, iv. The Rulers of Europe from 1801 to 1895. Germany. MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY, (nineteenth century.) IvECTURB L THB CONSULATE IN FRANCE AND THE RE-CONSTITUTION OF GERMANY. The government of the Consulate ; its policy of reconcilia- tion ; many e77tigrh permitted to return ; complete pacifica- tion of Ira Vendee by the Treaty of Montlu9on ; suppression of brigandage ; restoration of internal peace. The financial policy of the Consulate ; the work of Gau- din ; taxes fairly levied and collected ; corruption punished ; foundation of the Bank of France. The Consulate and legal reform ; commissions appointed to draw up codes. The Consulate and the Catholic Church ; Bonaparte's ne- gotiations with the Papacy ; end of the schism which had lasted since the civil constitution was proclaimed in 1790 ; terms of the Concordat signed by Pope Pius VII and the First Consul Bonaparte (15 July, 1801) and promulgated (18 Apr., 1802). The Consulate and education ; Bonaparte's attempt to es- tablish a scheme of national education. The Consulate and the internal administration of France ; formation of the Prefectures ; the left bank of the Rhine or- ganized as part of France. The Consulate and the colonies of France ; Bonaparte de- sires to restore the power of France in America ; he obtains I^ouisiana from Spain and an extension of French Guiana from Portugal ; he re-occupies Guadeloupe and Martinique by the Treaty of Amiens ; he attacks San Domingo ; resis- tance of Toussaint L'Oiiverture. Constitutional changes made during the Consulate ; effect of the Conspiracy of the Infernal Machine (24 Sept., 1800) ; Bonaparte declared, after an appeal to the Primary Assem- blies, First Consul for life ; he is enabled to nominate a suc- cessor. The Constitutional authorities of the Consulate ; the part played by the Counsil of State, the Senate, the Tribunate, and the lyCgislative Body ; the National I^ist suppressed and replaced by Electoral Colleges. The ministers of the Consulate ; Talleyrand, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Gaudin, of Finance, Regnier, of Justice, Chaptal, of the Interior, Berthier, of War, Decres, of the Ma- rine, and Fouche, of Police. The re-constitution of Germany ; the new arrangements made necessary by the cession to France of the left bank of the Rhine and by the proofs that had been given during the war of the intrinsic weaknCvSs of the political system of the Empire ; the new arrangements accepted by the Imperial Diet (25 Feb., 1803) ; the Holy Roman Empire, as estab- lished by the Treaties of Westphalia, practically ceases to ex- ist. Changes made in the Colleges of the Imperial Diet ; ( i ) the College of Electors increased from eight electors, three ecclesiastical and five lay, to ten electors, one ecclesiastical and nine lay ; the archbishops of Cologne and Treves lost their electoral dignity owing to their dominions being ab- sorbed into France ; the Archbishop of Mayence continued as an elector and received as his dominions the bishopric of Ratisbon, the principality of Aschaffenburg and the county of Wetzlar ; the nine lay electors were the five who had for- merly held that dignity, Bohemia, Brandenburg, Saxony, Bavaria, and Hanover, w4th four new electors, the Margrave of Baden, the Duke of Wurtemberg, the lyandgrave of Hesse- Cassel and the Grand Duke Ferdinand, formerly Grand Duke of Tuscany, who was made Elector of Salzburg ; (2) College of Princes ; owing to the secularization of the Catholic bish- oprics and monasteries this college was greatly reduced in — 3 — numbers and consisted mainly of Protestant princes ; (3) College of Free Cities ; this college would have been entirely abolished but for the intervention of France ; as it was, only six free cities were maintained out of fifty-two, namely, Augs- burg, Bremen, Frank fort-on- the- Main, Hamburg, lyiibeck and Nuremberg ; these changes in the Imperial Diet deprived the Catholics, and Austria, the chief Catholic power, of their predominance. The secularization of the ecclesiastical states ; this step, which had been suggested by France at Basle and by Bona- parte at I^eoben, was nominally undertaken to compensate those princes of the Empire who had lost territory by the cession of the left bank of the Rhine to France ; the princes who profited most were, however, those who were already powerful ; thus Prussia, Bavaria, Baden, Wurtemberg, and Hanover all received important accessions of territory making them compact and populous states ; Austria received only two small bishoprics, Brixen and Trent, but two Austrian princes, the Grand Duke Ferdinand and the Duke of Modena received the German states of Salzburg and the Breisgau in compensation for the loss of their Italian principalities ; the Prince of Orange, formerly Stadtholder of the United Nether- lands, received the bishopric of Fulda. Effect of these sweeping changes destroying the Holy Roman Empire, and building up .strong German states, upon the policy and condition of Germany. The re-constitution of Switzerland ; Bonaparte interferes in Swiss politics ; by the Act of Mediation (19 Feb., 1803), he restores federal government but maintains the abolition of feudalism and other reforms made by the Helvetian Repub- lic ; to the thirteen old cantons — six democratic, Appenzell, Glarus, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Uri, and Zug, and seven oligarchical — Basle, Berne, Freiburg, lyucerne, Schaffhausen, Soleure, and Zurich, he added six new cantons — Vaud, Aar- gau, Thurgau, Ticino, Saint-Gall, and the Grisons ; he reg- ulated the relations between the federal and cantonal govern- ments, and was declared Mediator of the Confederation of Switzerland. — 4 — Authorities : A brief account of the Consulate and of the re con- stitution of Germany in Switzerland is given in Morse Stephens, Eu- ropean History, 1789-1815, chap. vii. For the Consulate, see Thiers, Histoire du Consulat et de 1' Empire ; Thibaudeatif Mimones sur le Consulat and, Le Consulat et I'Empire, and for the policy of Napo- leon, the various lives and histories, particularly Lanfrey and Taine. The Memoirs most valuable for the subjects treated in this lecture are those of Chaptal, Lucien Bofiaparte, Talleyrand, and Gaudin ; for the Concordat consult the valuable work of D' Haussonville, Documents in^dits sur le Concordat. For the re-constitution of Germany, see ^Rarnbaiid, Les Fran^ais sur le Rhin, Hdusser, Deutsche Geschichte vom Tode Friedrichs des Grossen, Oncken, Das Zeitalter der Revolu- tion, des Kaiserreichs und der Befreiungskriege, Beer, Zehn JahreCEs- terreichischer Politik, 1801-1810, and Heigel, Deutsche Geschichte vom Tode Friedrichs des Grossen. I.ECTURE II. THE POWER OF NAPOLEON AT ITS HEIGHT. Recommencement of war between France and England, (18 May, 1803) ; causes of the war ; the points left unsettled by the Treaty of Amiens ; the question of Malta, which the English refused to surrender ; the interference of the First Consul in Switzerland and his annexation of Piedmont (11 Sept., 1802) regarded as evidences of the desire of France further to disturb the peace of Europe ; Bonaparte's wrath at the libels published upon him in England ; the trial of Peltier ; the embassy of Whitworth to Paris ; the English seize French ships and Bonaparte in reprisal arrests all Englishmen travelling in France and occupies Hanover. Formation of the Grande Armee ; Bonaparte's genius for military organization ; he forms the camp of Boulogne and prepares to invade England. Difficulties of Bonaparte's position ; the plot of Pichegru, Georges Cadoudal, and others against his life ; arrest and CuUA^et.lfoL de. Co^hJi^^^e-uz^ trtUtt. ^h^fdU "uLvC^rs LL^-i'fi< oU i-j^i ^ iJ^'i — 5 — execution of the Due d'Enghien (21 March, 1804) ; Bona- parte offered the title of Emperor of the French by the Senate (18 May, 1804) ; the offer ratified by the French peo- ple in their primary assemblies ; coronation of Bonaparte as the Emperor Napoleon (2 Dec, 1804) ; also crowned King of Italy at Milan (20 May, 1805). The institutions of the Empire ; the Imperial Court ; in- creased importance of the Senate and Council of State ; highly centralized form of administration established under the Empire. In the year in which Napoleon became Emperor of the French the Emperor Francis II declared the Austrian do- minions an hereditary empire (11 Aug., 1804), and takes the title of Emperor of Austria (7 Dec). Position of affairs in England at the recommencement of war w^ith France ; Addington , who had made the Treaty of Amiens, succeeded as prime minister by Pitt, who advocates a vigorous foreign policy (1804). Pitt's endeavors to form a third continental coalition against Napoleon ; Frederick William III persists in main- taining the strict neutrality, by which Prussia had gained so much ; the Tsar Alexander I of Russia personally admired Napoleon, but his court and people pressed him to side with England ; the execution of d'Enghien and Napoleon's treat- ment of his ambassador further impelled Alexander to join the coalition against France ; the Emperor Francis gladly entered the coalition ; Spain was the close ally of Napoleon, while of smaller countries, Sweden, under Gustavus IV, the Two Sicilies, and Portugal w^ere favorable to the coalition, and DennTark, to Napoleon. The campaign of 1805 ; Napoleon unable to attempt the invasion of England because the French fleet cannot com- mand the Channel ; the scheme of Napoleon frustrated by the conduct of Admiral Villeneuve ; Nelson in command of the Channel ; Sir Robert Calder's action with the French fleet (25 July) ; the Austrians under Mack before the de- claration of war occupy Ulm (Sept.); Napoleon despairing of invading England breaks up his camp at Boulogne and in- vades Germany; Mack surrenders at Ulm (20 Oct.); vic- tory of Trafalgar won by Nelson over the French and Spanish fleets (21 Oct.); Napoleon occupies Vienna; a Russian army joins the Austrians ; Napoleon defeats the Austrians and Russians at Austerlitz (2 Dec). The results of AusteVlitz ; by the Treaty of Pressburg (26 Dec.) Austria cedes Venice to the Kingdom of Italy, Istria and Dalmatia to Napoleon, who governs them under Marmont as the Illyrian Provinces, and the Tyrol to Bava- ria ; the Electors of Bavaria and Wurtemberg given the title of King, and the Elector of Baden that of Grand Duke ; formation of the Confederation of the Rhine ; death of Pitt (23 Jan., 1806). The campaign of 1806 ; the attitude of Prussia to Napoleon, and of Napoleon to Prussia ; influence of Queen Louisa upon Frederick William III ; the Prussians prepare for war ; the Prussians defeated by Napoleon at Jena and by Davout at Auerstadt (14 Oct.) ; Napoleon occupies Berlin (25 Oct.) ; the French invade Poland, occupy Warsaw (15 Dec.) and go into winter quarters on the Russian frontier. The campaign of 1807 ; battle of Eylau (8 Feb.) ; close alliance formed between the Tsar Alexander and Frederick William III of Prussia by the Treaty of Bartenstein (April); surrender of Dantzig to the French (24 May) ; Napoleon defeats the Russians at Friedland (14 June). Interview between Napoleon and Alexander at Tilsit (25 June, 1807), followed by the Peace of Tilsit (7 July, 1807) ; by this treaty Russia ceded the Ionian Islands to France ; Napoleon promised not to restore the independence of Poland, but created the part of Poland which Prussia had received in the different partitions into the Grand Duchy of Warsaw with the Elector of Saxony, to whom he gave the title of king, as Grand Duke ; Napoleon suggested to Alex- ander the resurrection of the Empires of the East and the West and advised him to extend his dominions at the cost of Sweden and Turkey. — 7 — After much hesitation, Napoleon makes peace with Prus- sia after depriving Frederick WilHam III of Polish Prussia and of all Prussian territory to the west of the Elbe. After the Peace of Tilsit, Napoleon recognizes that his sole remaining enemy is England ; progress of the war with England after the battle of Trafalgar ; complete triumph of the English fleet and blockade of the French coasts ; the English occupy Sicily, to which island Ferdinand IV had fled before a French army in 1805, and defeat General Rey- nier at Maida (3 July, 1806) ; the English re-occupy the Cape of Good Hope which had been surrendered to the Dutch by the Treaty of Amiens. Napoleon, being unable to attack England directly, re- solves to ruin English commerce ; he issues the Berlin De- cree (21 Nov., 1806) declaring the British Islands in a state of blockade, followed by the Milan Decree, declaring any ship touching at a British port lawful prize ; by the Treaty of Tilsit, Russia agrees to the continental blockade ; effect of the blockade on English commerce. The Treaty of Tilsit marks the zenith of Napoleon's power, but his splendour is most apparent during the Con- gress of Erfurt (Sept., 1808). Authorities : For the history of the Empire, see Morse Stephens, Thiers, Thibaudeau, and Lanfrey cited under Lecture I ; for the personality of Napoleon, Taine Napoleon, Ltvy Napoleon intime, Masson Napoleon et les Veva.xn^s,'^ Bourrienne Memoirs, ^Meneval Napoleon i*'"'; for the outbreak of war with England, see Oscar Browning , Despatches of Lord Whitworth ; for the relations between Napoleon and the Tsar Alexander, s^e Vandal, Alexander i^"^ et Napo- leon, dnd Tatischeff, Napoleon et le Tsar Alexandre d'apr^s des Docu- ments inedits ; for the campaigns of Austerlitz, Jena, and Friedland, see the elaborate works oi Jo mini, and Mathieu Dumas, with Mar- bot, Memoirs, 2i\\(rThiebaidt, Souvenirs, and the numerous lives of the marshals and generals of Napoleon ; for the Imperial Court, see ^ Madame de Rhmisat, Memoirs ; and, as the primary authority for the whole period, the Correspondence of Napoleon. IvKCTURB III. EUROPE DURING THE ASCENDENCY OF NAPOIvEON. Napoleon after the Treaty of Tilsit sweeps away the last relics of the Holy Roman Empire and re-organizes Germany ; under his system the Confederation of the Rhine, of which he was entitled the Protector, became the chief power of Germany ; it consisted of thirty-two reigning princes ; its population of 20,000,000 of Germans was bound to contri- bute 150,000 soldiers to the army of Napoleon ; and its policy was conducted by a Diet sitting at Frankfort, composed of two colleges, the College of Kings, and the College of Princes. The four kingdoms in the Confederation of the Rhine were Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Westphalia, and Saxony ; the Kings of Bavaria and Wurtemberg ally their families with that of Napoleon and receive their reward in extension of territory ; the King of Saxony is made Grand Duke of War- saw, and is included in the Confederation from the import- ance of his geographical position between Austria, Prussia and Russia ; the kingdom of Westphalia created by Napo- leon from the dominions of Prussia to the west of the Elbe, with Hesse-Cassel, Brunswick, part of Hanover, etc., was conferred on Napoleon's youngest brother, Jerome Bonaparte. The College of Princes consisted of the five Grand Duchies of Baden, of Hesse- Darmstadt, of Berg, created by Napoleon and conferred by him on his brother-in-law, Joachim Murat, of Frankfort, conferred on Dalberg, formerl}^ Archbishop Elector of Mayence, and of Wiirtzburg, con- ferred on the Grand Duke Ferdinand, formerly ruler of Tus- cany, and of twenty-three princes whose principalities were of moderate extent. Effect of the new organization in Germany ; the French system of centralized administration and of military con- scription everywhere introduced ; serfdom, and other feudal abuses abolished ; the codified law of France introduced into Westphalia and Berg ; the Knights of the Empire deprived of their sovereign rights ; the petty dukes, counts, and princes, whose territories lay within those of the reigning princes were mediatized, that is to say, lost their immediate sovereignty while retaining their titles and rank as a class of privileged aristocracy. Effect of these measures ; Germany becomes a confedera- tion of more or less powerful states instead of a collection of petty feudal principalities. Napoleon's Italian policy ; he appoints his step-son, Eugene de Beauharnais, viceroy of the kingdom of Italy, which com- prised the former Cisalpine Republic with the addition, after the Treaty of Pressburg, of Venice ; Napoleon kept Pied- mont as part of the French dominions, and annexed the Ligurian Republic, Parma, Etruria or Tuscany, and event- ually in 18.10, Rome, directl}^ to France, giving^ his sister Elisa the title of Grand Duchess of Tuscany and Duchess of Lucca, and his sister Pauline that of Duchess of Guastalla ; the relations of Napoleon with the Pope ; arrest of Pius VII (6 July, 1809) ; the kingdom of Naples conferred upon Na- poleon's brother, Joseph Bonaparte, in i8a6 and on Muratin 1808; great reforms accomplished in Italy, but failure of Napoleon to recognize the principle of nationality. Napoleon and Holland ; changes in the character of the Batavian Republic ; lyouis Bonaparte made King of Holland in 1 806 ; dislike of the Dutch for the continental blockade ; Napoleon annexes Holland to his dominions in 18 10. Denmark during the ascendency of Napoleon; Napoleon's scheme for seizing the Danish fleet ; the English, hearing of this scheme, bombard Copenhagen and seize the Danish fleet themselves (Sept. 1807) ; friendship of Frederick VI of Denmark for Napoleon. Sweden during the ascendency of Napoleon ; Gustavus IV, the sworn enemy of Napoleon and ally of England ; after the Treaty of Tilsit the French under Brune occupy Swedish Pomerania ; the Tsar Alexander conquers Finland (1808); insanity of Gustavus IV; he attacks Denmark; he is dethroned (29 March) and his uncle, the former regent* lO — made king (lo May, 1809) ; Bernadotte, one of Napoleon's marshals, elected Prince Royal of Sweden and heir to the throne (5 Nov., 18 10). The Turks during the ascendency of Napoleon ; the Sul- tan Selim III refused to enter Pitt's coalition against Napoleon (1805), and an English expedition under Duck- worth was sent against him (1807) ; overthrow and assassination of Selim (21 July, 1807) ; after an interval. Mahmud II becomes Sultan (July, 1808) ; his vigor and ability ; he is inclined to the side of France, but dislikes the establishment of the French in the lUyrian provinces ; the Tsar Alexander attacks the Turks (1809); the Russians occupy Moldavia and Wallachia (18 10), and cross the Danube (1811). The greatest extension of Napoleon's empire attained by the annexation of the districts along the northern coasts of Germany from the borders of Holland to the mouth of the Weser, including Bremen, Hamburg, and Liibeck, (13 Dec, 18 10) ; this annexation caused by the difficulty of main- taining the continental blockade ; at this time the French dominions were divided into 130 departments extending from Rome to lytibeck ; the organization and administration of these departments. Napoleon's administration w^hen at the height of his power ; excellence of his civil service ; his ministers and the Council of State; suppression of the Tribunate (1808) ; growing importance of the police department ; organization of the army, and services of Clarke, Minister of War ; Napoleon's legal reforms ; the codes ; his financial reforms ; his reforms in education ; the formation of the University of France (1811). Napoleon's belief in the hereditary principle ; his new nobility ; his desire for an heir ; he resolves to divorce his wife, the Empress Josephine. Failure of Napoleon to appreciate the forces working against him at the height of his power ; he had failed to ruin England in spite of all his efforts ; he had roused the rw^.. Wfj<^ i'?>V/^'?J 5e^itun^^/^i'^; 5Bi K^-Tu'^ ^ Ui^ite^i^ u^^,^ Ud- ' lu^ U Ufvi lit- ^-^ !i^^/,AUe.. II national spirit, which had made France so great, against him in Spain and in Germany ; the Grande Armee, which had won his victories, was being destroyed, and the vacancies in its ranks filled by foreigners and young French conscripts. Authorities : See the books cited under Lecture II, with Rambaud, La Domination fran^aise en All eniagn efBea ulieu-Margon n ay, Karl_ von Dalberg und seine Zeit, Kleinsch midt, Gescliichte des Konig- reichs Westfalen, DuCasse, Memoires et correspondance du Roi Je- rome, and Goecke, Das GrossherzogthumBergunter Joachim Murat, etc, J^Jh ^ UU^. I.ECTURK IV OVERTHROW OF THE POWER OF NAPOLEON. The struggle between England and Napoleon ; the policies represented by Castlereagh and Canning, the former 'desiring to raise national insurrections against Napoleon, the 4-atter to form coalitions and to act directly against the French with an English army ; duel between Castlereagh and Canning (1809) ; lyord Wellesley becomes director of English foreign policy (1809-18 12) ; the English take the remaining coloni- al possessions of France and Holland, Martinique and the Mauritius (1809), Guadeloupe (1810), and Java (181 1). Napoleon resolves to attack Portugal, because the Prince- Regent declined to join in the continental blockade ; by the Treaty of Fontainebleau with Spain (29 Oct., 1807) he ar- ranges for the division of Portugal ; a French army under Junot invades Portugal ; the Prince- Regent escapes to Brazil ; Junot enters Lisbon (20 Nov., 1807), occupies the whole of Portugal, and declares that the House of Braganza has ceased to reign ( I Feb., 1808 J. Napoleon's interference in the affairs in Spain ; the people of Madrid attack Godoy, the Queen's lover, and support Prince Ferdinand, the heir to the throne ; the royal family of Spain appeals to Napoleon and proceeds to France ; Charles IV cedes his throne to Napoleon who proclaims his brother Joseph king- of Spain (6 June, 1806) ; a French army enters Spain to support Joseph and occupies Madrid ; the Spaniards rise in insurrection ; 18,000 French soldiers surrender to the Spaniards at Baylen (20 July, 1808) ; the English ministry supports the Spanish insurgents with money and arms. The Portuguese rise in insurrection against the French * the Knglish ministry send an army to their help under Sir Arthur Wellesley, who wins the battles of Roriga and Vimei- ro (17-21 Aug., 1808) ; by the Convention of Cintra (30 Aug.) the French under Junot agree to evacuate Portugal. Napoleon in person invades Spain, and occupies Madrid (13 Dec, 1808) ; Sir John Moore, with the Enghsh Army from Portugal advances to Salamanca to save Andalusia ; re- treat of Sir John Moore to Corunna ; battle of Corunna (16 Jan., 1809). The difficulties of Napoleon in the Peninsula, and the promise of support from England cause the Emperor Francis to believe the time propitious for a fresh war ; unpopularity of the French in Germany ; Napoleon's contempt for the popular feeling against him ; Stadion, who had become State- ChancMlor of Austria in 1806, desired to make Austria the representative of this German national feeling ; the services of Gentz ; re-organization of the Austrian army by the Arch- duke Charles. Campaign of 1809 ; the Archduke Charles invades Bava- ria, and the Archduke John, Italy ; Napoleon enters Ger- many, defeats the Archduke Charles at Abensberg and Eck- miihl (20-22 Apr.) and occupies Vienna (12 May) ; the bat- tle of Aspern or Essling (21-22 May) ; Napoleon shut up in the island of Lobau ; the Tyrolese rise in insurrection under Hofer ; Napoleon, joined by reinforcements, defeats the Aus- trians at Wagram (6 July). By the Treaty of Vienna (14 Oct., 1809) Austria ceded Trieste, Carniola, and part of Croatia to Napoleon, who added these districts to the Illyrian provinces; Austria also ceded — 13 — Salzburg to Bavaria, and Western Galicia to the Grand Duchy of Warsaw ; causes of the failure of Austria to arouse German national feeling ; Stadion succeeded by Metternich ; Napoleon marries the Archduchess Maria Louisa, daughter of the Emperor Francis (2 Apr., 18 10). The English ministry resolves to pursue the war vigorous- ly on land against Napoleon ; failure of the expedition to Walcheren (Aug., 1809) ; successes in the war in the Penin- sula ; gallant defence of Saragossa by the Spaniards ; though the Spanish armies were defeated, their guerilla warfare re- duces the power of the French ; Arthur Wellesley, after- wards Eord Wellington, placed in command of the English army in the Peninsula ; he wins the battle of Talavera (28 July, 1809) ; Wellington holds the Hnes of Torres Vedras and repulses a French invasion of Portugal under Massena (1810-1811) ; Wellington takes Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz and defeats Marmont at Salamanca (22 July, 1 8 1 2 ) ; Joseph Bonaparte evacuates Madrid ; the English forced to retreat from Burgos, and Joseph recovers Madrid for the last time. The growth of the national spirit in Germany ; the Germans look to Prussia to lead them ; the Tugenbund. The re- organization of Prussia ; the ministry of Stein ; he abolishes serfdom and introduces other reforms ; the war ministry of Scharnhorst ; he passes the youth of Prussia through the army, and in the place of conscription adopts universal military service ; Napoleon demands the dismissal of Stein (1808) and of Scharnhorst (1810) ; the ministry of Hardenberg ; he completes the work of Stein by making the former serfs absolute owners of their holdings ; founda- tion of the University of Berlin ; assistance rendered by William von Humboldt ; Frederick William III forced to sign an offensive and defensive alliance with Napoleon (24 Feb., 1812). Growing disagreement between Napoleon and the Tsar Alexander ; its causes ; Napoleon resolves to invade Russia ; Castlereagh, who came into office Jan., 18 12, offers to aid — 14 — Russia ; through English mediation Russia makes peace with the Turks at Bucharest (28 May, 18 12) ; Russia signs the Treaty of Abo with Sweden (24, Mch. 18 12) by which Bernadotte promises to aid Russia against Napoleon and to cede Finland in exchange for Norway. Campaign of 1812 ; Napoleon invades Russia (May) ; retreat of the Russians; battle of Borodino (7 Sept.); Napoleon occupies Moscow (14 Sept.) ; the retreat from Moscow ; almost complete destruction of the French army. Campaign of 1813 ; during the retreat from Moscow the Prussian contingent under Yorck abandons the French army (30 Dec, 18 12) ; Prussia declares war against France (16 Mch., 18 13) ; Napoleon rallies his army and wins the battles "of I^utzen (2 May) and Bautzen (20 May) ; Austria signs the Convention of Reichenbach (17 June), and promises to join the allies if Napoleon refuses the terms offered to him ; Congress of Prague ; Austria declares war against Napoleon (12 Aug.) ; the French under Oudinot and Macdonald defeated by Bernadotte and Bliicher at Gross- Beeren and the Katzbach (23-25 Aug.); Napoleon defeats the Austrians at Dresden (26-27 Aug.); surrender of Vandamme to the Russians at Kulm (30 Aug.); the Treaty of Toplitz (19 Sept., ; Bavaria and Wurtemberg desert Napoleon; great defeat of the French at I^eipzig (16-19 Oct.) ; battle of Hanau (30 Oct.) ; Napoleon leaves Germany ; general rising of the Germans against the French. Campaign of 18 13 in the Peninsula ; Wellington defeats the French at Vittoria (2 1 June) and invades France. The allied armies reach the Rhine ; negotiations with Napo- leon ; position taken up by the Tsar Alexander, Metternich and Castlereagh. Campaign of 18 14 in France, the allies invade France ; Napoleon's victories ; the Congress of Chatillon (Feb- Mch. ) ; Frederick VI of Denmark cedes Norway to Sweden by the Treaty of Kiel (14 Jan.) ; the Dutch rise in insur- rection ; Carnot's defence of Antwerp ; the position in Italy ; Eugene de Beauharnais remains faithful, but Murat —■15 — negotiates with the allies ; the English occupy Genoa ; atti- tude of France towards Napoleon ; the country refuses to rise to support him ; the allies sign the Treaty of Chaumont (i Mch.) ; Napoleon's last battles ; the allies occupy Paris (31 Mch.) ; abdication of Napoleon at Fontainebleau (6 Apr.) Causes of the fall of Napoleon. Authorities: On Napoleon's interference in Spain and Portugal and on the history of the Peninsular War, see Dii Casse, Memoires et Correspondance du Roi Joseph, Wellington, Despatches, Napier^ History of the Peninsular War, and Gomez y Arteche, Guerra della Independencia ; for the campaign of Wagram, see Pelet, Memoires sur la Guerre de 1809; for the reorganization of Prussia, see Seeley, Life of Stein, Pertz, Das L^ in France is treated at length in the first chapters of the following general histories of the reign of lyOuis Philippe : Thu re an- Dang in, Histoire de laMoiiarchie de Juillet. Louis Blanc, Histoire de dix Ans, Capefigue, L'Europedepuis I'avene- ment du Roi lyOuis Philippe, D' Haussonvilley Histoire deja^politi^e exterieure du Gouvernement Franjais [\%io-^^^'^\^V j — 35 — Rivalry of England and France in the affairs of the Pen- insula ; personal rivalry between Palmerston and lyouis Philippe ; both countries prevented by jealousy of each other from openly assisting the Christinists, though they both 'as constitutional monarchies desire her success over the Car- lists ; legions of volunteers were however raised both in France and in England for the support of the Christinists ; services of Sir De Lacy Evans. Perilous position of the Christinists ; the military revolt of La Granja (13 Aug., 1836); Christina summons a Cortes, which promulgates the liberal constitution of 1837 ; vigorous prosecution of the war against the Carlists ; victories of Espartero ; defeat and flight of Don Carlos (1839). Espartero forces Christina to leave Spain (1840) and rules the country as regent for three years ; his strong government and endeavor to put down brigandage and restore the pros- perity of Spain. Narvaez overthrows Espartero (1843), recalls Christina, and declares the young queen Isabella of age. The rivalry between England and France for influence in Spain becomes more pronounced ; the policy of lyouis Philippe ; the question of the Spanish marriages ; Queen Isabella married to her cousin Don Francisco d'Assisi, Duke of Cadiz, and her sister and heiress to the Due de Mont- pensier, fifth son of Louis Philippe (1846). Condition of Spain during the reign of Queen Isabella ; constant changes in the ministry between Narvaez, Espartero and O'Donnell; backwardness of Spain in material and in- tellectual progress. Characteristics of the history of the Peninsula during the period succeeding the overthrow of Napoleon ; unfitness of the Spanish and Portuguese for representative government ; the meaning and effect of the pronunciamentos and civil wars. Authorities : Upon the civil wars in Portugal and the establishment of representative government there, see i^(9rj^ Stephens The Story of Portuaul, S in it h . Memoirs of the Duke of Saldanha, Luz Soriano, -36- Historia da Guerra civil e do Estabelecimento do Governo Parlanientar em Portugal, Freire de Carvalho, Memorias para a historia do tempo que duron a Usurpacao de Doni Miji^uel, Gomes de Barros e Cunha, Historia da Iviberdade em Portugal, si\\(\\Bollaert, The Wars of Suc- cession in Spain and Portugal ; upon the same period in Spain, see "^Hubbard, Histoire contettiporaine de I'Kspagne, Los Valles, Don Car- los^Bollaert, and Duncan The English in Spain, or the War of Suc- cession between 1834 and 1840. LECTURE XI. EUROPE DURING THE REIGN OF LOUIS PHILIPPE. The characteristics of the Monarchy of July ; its fouiidervS model their ideas on the English parliamentary system, in- cluding the responsibility of ministers, the annual voting of supplies, and the selection of ministers from the legislature, but the upper House consisted of life and not of hereditary peers, and the popular House was elected by a very restricted franchise consisting only of large taxpayers and members of the learned professions, allowing votes only to about three hundred thousand persons. The difficulties of the position of lyouis Philippe ; he is opposed on the one side by the L h.iAii^r^iA 'KM^-tnA^ ^A/sei '^wr^ i/\ "U mT>\ A^4 ''^^%^fU Utfdu^iU, Uoh'^ vr. t'^i^i^ ^ do^t^UZt^iteutA^ — 41 — preparations for revolution ; the persistence of liberal and national ideas. Authorities : In addition to the works on the reign of Louis Philippe by Thureau-Dangin, Capefigue, VHaussonville, Hillebrand and Louis Blanc, cited under Lecture VIII, see, for the later part of his reign and for other points touched on in this XecixxYQ^'Duvergier de Hauranne, Histoire du gouvernement parlementaire en Franc^ T^^g- l^^^-^^,'o^, nault, Histoire de huit ans (1840-48), Guizot, Memoires pour servir a riiistoire de mon temps, Odilon Barrot, Memoires, Mazade, Monsieur Thiers, Thiers, Discours parlementaires, Berryer, Discours parlenien- taires, Due de Broglie, Souvenirs, Talleyrand, Memoires, Rousset, Conquete de I'Algerie, and Ideville, Le Marechal Bugeaud. For the history of English foreign policy see^(? Strange, Correspondence of IvU^, Lord Grey and the Princess Lievei^j; Balling and Ashley, Life of Lord Palmerston, Torrens, Life of Lord Melbourne, Walpole, Life of Lord John Russell, Gordon, Lord Aberdeen, Greville, Memoirs, Stockmar, Memoirs and Martin, Life of the Prince Consort. For the history and development of the Zollverein see Treitschke, Deutsche Geschichte im neunzehnten Jahrhundert, Weber, Der Deutsche Zollverein; Geschichte seiner Bntstehung und Kntwickelung, and Festenberg-Packisch, Geschichte des ZoUvereins ; for the early years of the reign of Frede- rick William IV of Prussia, Ranke, Aus dem Briefwechsel Friedrich Wilhelms IV mit Bunsen and Friedrich Wilhelm IV (in his Werke, Vols. 50-52), Wagener, Die Politik Friedrich Wilhelms IV and Biedermann, Dreissig Jahre Deutsche Geschichte ; and for the war with the Sonderbund, Adams, The Swiss Confederation, Cretineau- Joly, Histoire du Sonderbund, Ddndliker, Geschichte der Schweiz, and Vulliemin, Histoire de la Confederation Suisse. LECTURE XII. THE REVOLUTION OF 1848 IN FRANCE. Growing unpopularity of the Monarchy of July during the administration of Guizot ; the government alienates moder- ate liberals by refusing to grant the smallest measure of electoral reform ; while its rigidly Bourgeois and Capitalist sympathies exasperated the Democratic and I^abor parties. — 42 — The growth of democratic and socialist ideas among the working classes of France ; the influence of Saint-Simon, Fourier, Prudhon, etc. The movement for parliamentary reform and democratic revolution in 1847 5 the banquets and toasts to liberty, equality and fraternity ; Odilon Barrot and Ledru-Rollin, The Revolution of February, 1848; riots in Paris (22 Feb.); resignation of Guizot (23 Feb., 1848) ; appointment of Bugeaud as commandant of Paris ; barricades erected in the streets ; I^ouis Philippe forbids Bugeaud to act ; he abdicates the throne (24 Feb.) and leaves France. Significance of the Revolution of February ; overthrow of the Bourgeois Monarchy. The mob of Paris bursts into the Chambers and the Hotel de Ville ; proclamation of the Republic ; rejection of the idea of the regency to be held by the Duchess of Orleans during the minority of her son, the Comte de Paris ; formation of the Provisional Government, consisting of six leading re- publican deputies, three journalists and a working man, e.g., Dupont de I'Kure, Arago, I^amartine, Ledru-Rollin, Cremieux,' and Marie, deputies, Marrast, lyouis Blanc, and Flofon, journalists, and Albert; Garnier- Pages installed as Mayor of Paris. Importance and conduct of Lamartine as provisional minis- ter of foreign affairs, and of lyedru-Rollin as provisional minister of the interior ; Lamartine assures Europe that the revolution in Paris was not intended to encourage revolution elsewhere, while Ledru-Rollin imitated the extreme policy of the Convention, attempted to appoint pro-consuls and established public workshops. The extreme republican party in Paris endeavors to influ- ence the elections, which were taking place over France, in favor of the radicals by constant riots ; the riot of 16 April, 1848 ; General Changarnier placed in command of the garri- son and National Guard of Paris ; he defeats the insurgents. Meeting of the Constituent Assembly (27 April, 1848) ; the moderate character and antecedents of the majority of its — 43 — members ; it declares that France is a Republic and prepares to draw up a republican constitution on conservative lines ; it maintains the Provisional Government in office ; riot of 15 May in Paris, and attempt of the democratic party to overthrow the Constituent Assembly ; suppression of the riot and flight of lyouis Blanc. Critical position in Paris ; the working classes of the Fau- bourg Saint Antoine prepare for insurrection ; the moderate republicans resolve to resist ; General Cavaignac appointed provisional War Minister ; he concentrates regular troops in Paris. Severe fighting in Paris (23-26 June) ; storming of the barricades by the troops ; Paris declared in a state of siege ; supreme executive authority entrusted to Cavaignac ; sup- pression of the radical party in Paris. The Constituent Assembly, now that peace was restored, proceeds to draw up a republican constitution ; the Constitu- tion' of 1848 places the supreme executive authority in the hands of a president of the republic, elected directly by the people, and the legislative authority in the hands of a single Chamber. lyouis NapoleOn, son of lyouis Bonaparte king of Holland and Hortense de Beauharnais, and nephew of the first Napoleon, is elected President of the Republic (10 Dec, 1848) ; he receives 5,562,834 votes, Cavaignac 1,469,166 votes, ly^dru-RoUin 377,236 votes, Raspail 37,106, and I^amartine 21,000. Character and previous career of Louis Napoleon ; diffi- culties of his position ; he is distrusted by the Constituent Assembly, and both feared and hated by the extreme republicans. Foreign policy of the Prince President ; he sends a French army under Oudinot to Rome, which after a repulse (20 April) occupies Rome (3 July), overthrows the Roman Republic and reestablishes the authority of the Pope. Dissolution of the Constituent Assembly, and instalment of the Legislative Assembly (28 May, 1849); the position of — 44 — parties in the new Assembly ; the majority were moderates, in favor of parliamentary government after the English sys- tem, believers in limited monarchy, and very suspicious of the Prince President, whom they suspected of planning to restore the Empire ; the minority called itself the Mountain, and, under the leadership of Ledru-Rollin, hoped to .establish a democratic republic. The deputies of the Mountain appeal to the people of Paris; insurrection of 13 June, 1849; arrest of the deputies of the Mountain ; they are expelled from the AvSsembly ; escape of Ledru-Rollin. The majority of the Legislative Assembly becomes frankly reactionar}'-, and endeavors to establish a bourgeois republic ; influence of Thiers, Berry er, Mole, Montalembert, and De Broglie ; by the law of 31 May, 1850, the suffrage is re- stricted to three years' residents in a commune or canton, practically disenfranchising the working classes ; declaration of Thiers on this subject. The Legislative Assembly on adjourning left a permanent commission of deputies to watch the proceedings of the government ; disgust of the Prince President at this action ; he resolves to appeal to France ; his first provincial tour. The political position in 185 1 ; the incurable distrust reigning between the Prince President and the Assembl> ; constant struggle between the executive and legislative" authority, and frequent changes of ministry. The Prince President, having made himself popular in France by provincial tours, declares himself in favor of uni- versal suffrage and the sovereignty of the people ; his ex- planation of the ideas of the Empire ; he demands that the Assembly should repeal the law of 31 May, 1850 (4 Nov., 1851). The Coup d'fitat of 2 Dec, 1851 ; the Prince President declares the Legislative Assembly dissolved, universal suf- frage reestablished, and Paris in a state of siege ; the ad- visers of Louis Napoleon, and his agents ; his half brother, the Due de Morny, General de Saint Arnaud, Minister of — 45 — ft War, and M. de Maupas, Prefect of Police ; arrest of the leading members of the Legislative Assembly ; the troops shoot down opponents of the Coup d'fitat in Paris. The Prince President submits a new Constitution to a plebiscite of the people, establishing a strong executive, and institutions resembling those of the Consulate and the Em- pire ; the Constitution accepted (21 Dec.) by 7,481,231 votes out of 8,165,630 votes, and promulgated 14 Jan., 1852. The Prince President's provincial tour of 1852 ; his recep- tion ; enthusiasm in the army ; he declares at Bordeaux (9 Oct.) " ly' Empire, c'est lapaix" ; the Senate votes the re- establishment of the Empire (7 Nov.); it is voted by a plebiscite (22 Nov.), and the Prince President declares him- self Napoleon III, Emperor of the French (i Dec, 1852.) Authorities: On the history of the second French_ Republ ic, see p j, ^Gamier- Pag h, Histoire de la Revolution de \'6^CTIpuis Blan c, His^ toire de la Revolution de 1 848,/^Z^rtwmr?z«?7T5istoire de la Revolution "^^ de 1848, Pierre, Histoire de la Republique de 1848, with Normanby, A Year of Revolution, Odilon Barrot, Menioires, Falloux, Memoires d'un Royaliste, Berryer, Discours Parlementaires, Thiers, Discours Parlenientaires, and Veron, Memoires d'un Bourgeois ; for the coup d'etat of 1851, see Maupas, Memoires sur le Second Empire, Kinglake^ The invasion of the Crimea, Victor Hugo, Histoire d'un Crime, Thiot^ Le Coup d'Ktat, Jerrold, Life of Napoleon III, Delord, Histoire du Second Empire, and Viel Castel^ Memoires. LECTURE XIII. THE REVOLUTION OF 1848 IN ITALY. The condition of Italy from the suppression of the insur- rectionary movement of 1830 by Austria, to the outbreak of the revolutions of 1848 ; the work of the Carbonari and of other secret societies ; constant attempts made upon the lives of the Italian princes, and repeated outbreaks in different cities and country districts. -46- Double tendency to b? perceived in the popular movements in Italy ; with regard to government the middle classes de- siired representative constitutions and limited monarchy, while the secret societies advocated pure democracy ; with regard to the unity of Italy, one section desired a federal govern- ment either monarchical or republican, while the other fa- vored an Italy, one and indivisible, either monarchical or republican ; these diiferent tendencies prevented partisans of the national spirit and of political revolution from acting harmoiously together ; the most influential writer and thinker was Mazzini, but his advanced republican ideas made him obnoxious to moderate men. Condition of the different Itatlan states at the outbreak of the revolutionary movement iu 1848 ; the severe and arbi- trary government of Naples and Sicily under Ferdinand II, afterwards called King Bomba ; unpopularity of the Aus- trian government in Lombardy and Venetia ; Parma and Modena, ruled by the Empress Marie lyouise and Duke Francis V, were entirely under Austrian influence ; death of Marie lyouise (18 Dec, 1847), and accession of Charles II, formerly Duke of Lucca ; the government of Leopold II, Grand Duke of Tuscany ; he annexes Lucca ( 1 845 ) , and grants a constitution (1847) ; Charles Albert, King of Sar- dinia, was desirous of setting himself at the head of the national Italian movement, but he was afraid of the republi- cans and the Carbonari ; he favored parliamentary govern- ment and granted a constitution to his kingdom in 1846. The worst governed provinces of Italy were those of the States of the Church, in which Pope Gregory XVI ruled in the most arbitrary manner with cardinals, priests and bishops as his only ministers and administrators ; yet it was in the States of the Church that the first impulsion was given to the revolutionary movement of 1 848 ; death of Gregory XVI , (i June, 1846). Election of Pope Pius IX — Mastai-Ferretti — (16 June, 1846); his known liberal and national ideas ; his reforms in internal administration ; he reorganizes the tribunals, estab- — 47 — lishes munincipal government, permits the raising of civic guards, and allows a measure of liberty to the press ; he pro- poses a Customs Union between the States of the Church, Tuscany and Sardinia ; he calls an assembly for the organiza- tion of a new government ; Metternich protests against the reforming policy of Pius IX ; but the people of Rome ac- cuse him of not going far enough. Outbreak of insurrection at Palermo (12 Jan., 1848) which spreads through the whole of vSicily. Effect of the Revolution of February in Italy ; the people of Milan rise in insurrection and expd the Austrian garrison (11-15 Mch., 1848 ); formation of a provisional government which appoints Garibaldi commandant of its troops ; similar movement in Venice (16-22 Mch.), where Daniel Manin is elected Dictator ; Francis V driven from Modena ; Charles II driven from Parma (9 Apr.). Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, summoned by all North- ern Italy, sets himself at the head of the National move- ment ; he enters Milan (26 Mch.); concentration of the Aus- trian troops under Radetzky ; the Austrians defeated at Goito (8 Apr.); lycopold of Tuscany compelled by his peo- ple to send troops to assist Charles Albert ; Ferdinand II, King of the Two Sicilies, forced to grant a constitution to Naples, and to send a fleet to assist Venice and an army under F^e to join Charles Albert ; the papal troops, under Durand'o, join the Sardinians ; Charles Albert takes Pes- chiera ; desperate position of Radetzky, who asks for re- inforcements. Desperate position of the Austrians in Italy ; terms offered to Charles Albert ; he declines the intervention of England and France. Ferdinand II withdraws his constitution and dissolves the Neapolitan parliament (15 May); he vigorously pursues the war with the Sicilian insurgents, and calls back his fleet from Venice, and his army ; nevertheless, Pepe with 3,000 men throws himself into Venice, of which he takes military com- mand. -48- Pope Pius IX disavows the action of General Durando ; he issues a Fundamental Statute for the goverment of his states, establishing lay government and ministerial responsi- bility (14 Mch.); Mamiani appointed Minister of the Inter- ior (4 May). Radetzky, joined by Nugent, defeats Charles Albert at Custozza (25 July) and occupies Milan (6 Aug.) ; armistice proclaimed between Sardinia and Austria (9 Aug.) ; gallant defence of Venice. The Austrian victories encourage the other monarchs of Italy; the Pope dismisses Mamiani (14 Sept.) ; appoint- ment of Rossi, who desires to form an Italian Federation ; assassination of Rossi (15 Nov.) ; the Pope escapes to Gaeta (24 Nov.) ; provisional government appointed in Rome under the triumvirate of MazziTir,~'^Gioberti and Cernuschi- (11 Dec. ) ; meeting of the Roman Constituent Assembly ; proclamation of the Roman Republic (9 Feb., 1849) ; the triumvirs appoint Garibaldi commander-in-chief ; Pius IX solemnly appeals to the Catholic rulers of Austria, France, Spain, and Naples for help (18 Feb. 1849). Progress of the revolution in Sicily ; England recognizes the revolutionary government of Palermo (6 Sept., 1848); the Sicilians offer the throne to the second son of Charles Albert. . Progress of the revolution in Tuscany ; Montanelli ap- pointed chief minister (26 Oct.) ; a liberal constitution granted ; flight of the Grand Duke I^eopold II to Gaeta ; the Florentine Republic proclaimed under the triumvirate of Montanelli, Guerrazzi, and Mazzoni. Difficult position of Charles Albert ; he is forced to form a radical ministry under Rattazzi (15 Dec, 1848); he de- clares the armistice at an end and appeals to united Italy (12 Mch., 1849) ; Radetzky utterly defeats Charles Albert at Novara (23 Mch., 1849) ; Charles Albert abdicates in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel ; favorable terms of peace granted to the Sardinians (6 Aug., 1849). Triumphant progress of the Austrians ; they restore Fran- dt\ rVvvf. M^c. Uvi^^'a* il7«"i^ "fc ^^'^* ^:*»^a<.;»A^;^^zW^«r, Histoire diplo- matique de r Europe, and Viel-Castel, Memoirs ; for the Second Em- pire, Delord, Histoire du Second Empire, Jerrold, Life of Napoleon III, Harcourt, Les quatre ministeres de M. Drouyu de Lhuys, Maicgny, Souvenirs of the Second Empire, Falloux . Memoirs d'nn royaliste, and Thiers, Discours parlementaires ; for Germany, see Berger, Felix, Fiirst von Schv^arzenberg, Bunsen, Memoirs, Beiist, Memoirs, Lowe, Life of Prince Bismarck, Bismarck, Gesammelte Werke, and Politische Reden, Hahn, Fiirst Bismarck, Kohl, Fiirst Bismarck, and Simon, Histoire du Prince de Bismarck ; and for English foreign policy Mar- tin, Life of the Prince Consort, Balling and Ashley, Lil'e of Lord Palmerston, Walpole, Life of Lord John Russell, and Malmesbury, Memoirs of an ex-Minister. — 6i — LECTURE XVII. THE CRIMEAN WAR. The history of the Eastern Question from the settlement of the crisis in 1841. England and France protest against the pressure placed upon the Turks by Russia and Austria to surrender Polish and Hungarian fugitives ; an English fleet enters the Dardanelles (1849). England's interest in the preservation of the independence of Turkey ; the Tsar Nicholas proposes to divide the territories of the " Sick Man " with England. The attitude of the Tsar Nicholas towards the Turks ; consistency of his policy since the Treaties of Adrianople and Unkiar Skelessi ; he occupies the Danubian Provinces in 1848, but at the request of the powers withdraws behind the Preuth (185 1 ). The Tsar Nicholas believes the time propitious for the final overthrow of the Turks ; Francis Joseph of Austria is bound to him by gratitude for his assistance in 1849, and almost dependent on him ; Frederick William IV of Prussia is his brother-in-law and desirous of obtaining his help to establish his power in Germany ; England cannot fight without allies and may be induced to share the spoil, while Napoleon III is distrusted by the European powers, and the strength of his position in France doubtful. The condition of Turkey ; reforms attempted by the Sultan Abdul Med j id. Disputed questions likely to lead to war ; the difficulty about Montenegro ; the quarrel with France about the holy places in Palestine ; Conversations of Nicholas with the English ambassador. Sir George Hamilton Seymour. Mission of Menshikov to Constantinople in 1853 ; Nicholas demands to be recognized as official protector of the Greek Christians in the Turkish dominions ; the Russian ultimatums of 5 May and 31 May ; Nicholas' Note to the — 62 — powers (ii June) ; the Russians occupy the Danubian Provinces (July) ; the English and French fleets enter the Dardanelles (Sept.). The Turks declare war against Russia (4 Oct.); destruc- tion of the Turkish fleet at Sinope (30 Nov.) ; the English and French fleets undertake the protection of Constantinople (27 Dec). England and France sign a treaty of alliance with Turkey (13 Mar., 1854) and declare war against Russia; alliance vsigned between England and France (10 Apr.). The attitude of the German powers ; tortuous policy of Austria and Prussia. Gallant defence of SilivStria by the Turks (May, 1854) ; the Russians evacuate the Danubian Provinces ; English and French armies under Raglan and Saint-Arnaud land at Varna. Austria occupies the Danubian Provinces ; the difficulty felt by the Allies in efl^ectively attacking iCussia while Austria refuses to declare war ; indignation of the Tsar Nicholas and of the Allies at the conduct of Austria ; Francis Joseph kept in check by the attitude of Prussia and the German Con- federation ; the Vienna Notes (8 Aug.). The campaign in the Crimea ; battles of the Alma (20 Sept.), Balaklava (25 Oct.), and Inkerman (5 Nov.); siege of Sevastopol ; defence of the city by Todtleben ; sufferings of the allied armies during the siege. The EnglivSh and French fleets in the Baltic under Sir Charles Napier and Parseval-Deschenes ; capture of Bomar- sund (16 Aug.). Continued vacillation of Austria. Death of the Tsar Nicholas (2 Mar., 1855) ; accession of Alexander II. Campaign of 1855 before Sevastopol ; attack on the Redan and the Mamelon (7 June) and failure to capture the Malakov ; death of Lord Raglan (28 June) ; Victor Emmanuel, King of Sardinia, joins the Allies (26 June), and sends an army under Ea Marmora to the Crimea ; battle of the Chernaia (16 Aug.) ; capture of the Malakov (8 Sept.). -63- Campalgn of 1855 in the Baltic ; the KngHsh and French bombard Sveaborg and Helsingfors (7-1 1 Aug.). Campaign of 1855 In Armenia ; gallant defence of Kars ; its surrender (28 Nov.)- The Tsar Alexander II negotiates for peace ; exhaustion of Russia. Congress of Paris for the settlement of terms of peace ; meeting of the Congress (25 Feb., 856) ; plenipotentiaries present were : for France, Walewski and Bourqueney, for England, Clarendon and Cowley, for Russia, Orlov and Brunnow, for Austria, Buol and Hiibner, for Sardinia, Cavour and Vallamarina, and for Turkey, Ali Pacha and Djeniil Eifendi ; the Prussian representatives, Manteuffel and Hatzfeldt, not admitted till 18 March. By the Treaty of Paris (30 Mar.) the independence and territorial integrity of Turkey was recognized, the Black Sea neutralized, and the Danube declared a free river ; the Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia were kept separate but given entire local self-government under their own princes, with national armies and free constitutions guaranteed by the powers, but under the suzerainty of Turkey ; Servia receives the same advantages but a Turkish garrison is maintained in Belgrade and in three other cities. By the Declaration of Paris (16 Apr.) privateering is forbidden, neutral goods, even when carried in the ships of belligerents, are protected, and blockades are recognized only when effective. Before the Congress broke up Cavour brought forw^ard the condition of Italy, and the proceedings of Ferdinand II, King of the Two Sicilies, against his subjects were con- demned. The most conspicuous results of the Congress of Paris were the isolation of Austria and the favorable attitude of the powers towards Sardinia. Authorities : Kinglake, The Invasion of the Crimea, its Origin and account of its Progress to the death of Lord Raglan, Hamley, The Story of the campaign of Sebastopol, Russell, The British Expedition -64 — to the Crimea, Sandwith, Narrative of the siege of Kars, Forgade, Histoire des causes de la guerre d'Orient, Rousset, Histoire de la guerre de Crim^e, Rothan^ I^a Prusse et son ^oi pendant la guerre de Crim^e, and Gejfcken, Zur Geschichte des Orientalischen Krieges. LECTURE XVIII. THE UNITY OF ITAI.Y. Condition of Italy after the revolutionary movement of 1848 ; cruel government of Ferdinand II, King of the Two Sicilies ; reactionary government of Pope Pius IX, the Grand Duke I/eopold II of Tuscany, Dtike Francis V of Modena, and Duke Charles III of Parma ; assassination of Charles III of Parma (26 Mch., 1834), and accession of Robert I; arbitrary military government of the Austrians in lyom- bardy and Venetia. The only constitutional, parliamentary and moderate gov- ernment in Italy was that of Sardinia ; character of Victor Emmanuel I ; Cavour becomes chief minister of Sardinia ; his sagacious policy ; Victor Emmanuel and Cavour hope to accomplish the unity of Italy under the constitutional gov- ernment of the House of Savoy. Progress of the revolutionary movement in Italy ; it is mainly republican and democratic, and looks to the forma- tion of an Italian Republic ; opposite points of view of Cavour and Mazzini ; the former wishes to accomplish the unity of Italy by policy, with the countenance and assistance of Europe, the latter by means of popular insurrection ; Mazzini's attempt to raise an insurrection in Genoa (June, 1857). The Austrians continue to occupy Parma, Modena and the lyCgations, while the French occupy Rome since 1849. PoHtical effect obtained by Cavour in joining the Anglo- l/*t)3^a4«, 17»» icUi'dt Si'Ft<^a*l^ e^il/^di^t^ ki^eA/lo/iS'l-i -65- French alliance against Russia in 1855, and in sending an army to the Crimea ; he thus obtains the right to be present at the Congress of Paris, and to lay the claims of Italy be- fore the great powers. Interest taken in England and in France in the cause of Italian unity ; indignation at the cruelties of King Bomba ; conspiracies formed, and money obtained ; the work of the secret societies and spread of democratic and unitary principles. Napoleon III takes into consideration the possibility of assisting the Italian cause-; his sympathy with the idea of nationality ; his scheme for the creation of an Italian con- federation of the Italian Princes under the leadership of the Pope and the King of Sardinia ; attempt of Orsini on the life of Napoleon (14 Jan., 1858). The condition of affairs in Europe in 1858 favors the policy of Napoleon III and Cavour .; in Prussia Prince William had been declared regent owing to the insanity of Frederick William IV (Oct., 1857).; the new regent hates Austria and is ready to be on friendly terms with France ; the Tsar Alexander II is also friendly with France; which seconds his ideas with regard to the Danubian principalities; Charles Cousa elected Prince of Moldavia (7 Jan., 1859), and of Wallachia (5 Feb.).; Milosch Obrenovitch overthrows Alexander Karageorgevitch, and becomes Prince of Servia (12 Jan., 1859); England, though less friendly with France than during the Crimean War, is too much occupied with the suppression of Sepoy Mutiny in India to wish to interfere in the affairs of Europe ; Austria, the power most opposed to Italian reform and unity, is therefore isolated. Napoleon III and Cavour agree at Plombieres (20 July, 1858), that Sardinia shall cede Savoy and Nice to France in return for assistance against Austria in Italy. The relations between Sardinia and Austria,; Austria de- clares war (26 Apr., 1859); Napoleon III declares his inten- tion of aiding Sardinia. The campaign of 1859 in Italy ; the French defeat the — 66 — Austrians at Montebello (20 May) and at Magenta (4 June); Napoleon III and Victor Emmanuel enter Milan (8 June); Napoleon appeals to the Italians to unite for the freedom of their country. General insurrection in Italy ; the Grand Duke lycopold is driven from Florence (April); Duke Robert I from Parma (May); and Duke Francis'V from Modena (June); Francis II succeeds as King of the Two Sicilies (22 May), and is prevented from aiding the Austrians by insurrections ; the Austrians withdraw from the Legations ; provisional govern- ments formed at Florence, Modena and Bologna ; Cavour resigns in order to be more free to persuade the Italian in- surgents to unite with Sardinia (13 July). The French defeat the Austrians at Solferino (24 June); Napoleon III startled at the spread of the revolutionary movement in Italy, and afraid of the establishment of a strongly unified monarchy, instead of an Italian Federation makes an armistice with Austria (8 July). By the treaty of Villafranca (12 July), Austria makes peace with France and cedes Lombardy, but not Venetia to Napoleon III; eventually (24 Mch., i860,) Napoleon III cedes Lombardy to Victor Emmanuel in exchange for Savoy and Nice. Causes of the treaty of Villafranca ; both Austria and France are afraid of the Prince Regent of Prussia who mo- bilizes the Prussian army. Progress of the movement for amalgamation with Sar- dinia in Italy ; Tuscany, the Legations, Romagna, and the Duchies of Parma and Modena vote for union with Sardinia (Aug. Sept.); Buoncampagni's government of Tuscany ; the central Italian provinces elect the Prince of Carignan as regent (7 Nov.); Garibaldi resigns the command of their army. Napoleon III appeals for a conference of the great powers to settle the affairs of Italy ; England formally opposes ; Palmerston, who had become prime minister in June, de- clares for non-intervention and that the central Italian states "- 67 - had a right to decide on their own government, and demands that the French should evacuate Rome. Victor Emmanuel accepts the union of Tuscany and the Legations with the kingdom of Sardinia (22 Mch., i860). Garibaldi lands in Sicily with a body of followers (5 Apr. , i860); his movement is entirely independent; he dislikes Cavour, and is an adherent of republicanism rather than of the House of Savoy ; Garibaldi conquers all Sicily by the end of June ; Francis II, King of the Two Sicilies re-issues the constitution which his father had granted in 1848, and afterwards had withdrawn (30 June); Garibaldi crosses to the mainland, conquers Calabria and occupies Naples (7 Sept.); Francis II escapes to Gaeta ; Mazzini joins Gari- baldi, and projects the establishment of an Italian Republic. Action of Victor Emmanuel and Cavour at this juncture ; they represent themselves as forced by circumstances to in- tervene in the affairs of vsouthern Italy ; they are encouraged by England ; wrath of the Pope, who excommunicates Vic- tor Emmanuel ; Cialdini, with a Sardinian army, defeats the Papal troops at Castelfiardo ( 18 Sept.), occupies Ancona and the Marches, avoids the Patrimony of St. Peter and enters Neapolitan territory. The Parliament of Turin, consisting of deputies from all northern Italy authorize Victor Emmanuel to unite the Marches, Naples and Sicily with the Sardinian dominions (2 Oct.); Victor Emmanuel proceeds to Naples ; patriotic conduct of Garibaldi ; the Marches, Naples and Sicily vote for union with northern Italy (21 Oct., i860). Surrender of Gaeta (13 Feb., 1861). Meeting of the first Italian Parliament at Turin (18 Feb.); Victor Emmanuel declared King of Italy. Italy thus formed into a United Kingdom within eighteen months of the outbreak of war, the only districts not ruled by the House of Savoy being Venetia, occupied by the Aus- trians, and Rome, with the Patrimony of St. Peter, garri- soned by French troops. Causes of this startling success ; the ability of Cavour ; — 68 — formation of Italy into a limited monarchy under the House of Savoy. Death of Cavour (6 June, 1861). Authorities : Cantu, Delia Indipendenza Italiana, Ideville. journaf d'un Diplomat en Italie 1859-1862, Mazade, Le Comte de Cavour, Bi- anchiy Storia documentata della diplomazia Europeain Italia, Rattazzi, Rattazzi et son temps, Zeller, Pie IX et Victor Emmanuel. Garibaldi, Memoirs, Mazzini, Works, Godkin, Life of Victor Kmnianud ,/;^W /£r7j^-A^^^^ "JicftiA Correspondence of Cavour with Madame de Circourt,'-t!'^fz^^/Ir7 Discorsi parlamentari, {ito4 Lettere, D' Azeglio, Souvenirs, ^Biancki, La poli- tique du Comte CaniUlje^e Cavour^ Mario, Garibaldi e i suoi Tempi, and Bazancou^^r'^JAStoire de la guei-re d' Italie. I^BCTURB XIX. THE OVERTHROW OF AUSTRIA. Position of the great powers towards each other after the formation of the kingdom of Italy. The restless policy of Napoleon III ; continuance of the alliance with England but on less cordial terms ; the joint expedition to China (i860); French interference in Syria (i860) ; the French expedition to Mexico (1862) ; election of the Archduke Maximilian as Emperor of Mexico (1864) ; disastrous result of the French interference in Mexico ( 1866) . Development of the Eastern Question ; friendship between Napoleon III and Alexander II ; union of the provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia into the Principality of Roumania (1861) ; death of Sultan Abdul Medjid and accession of Abdul Aziz (25 June, 1861) ; overthrow of Prince Charles Couza (1865) ; election of Prince Charles of Hohenzollern as Prince of Roumania (25 Mar., 1866). Revolution in Greece; overthrow of King Otho (Oct., 1862) ; election of Prince George of Denmark as King of the Hellenes (30 Mar., 1863) ; England cedes the Ionian Islands to the kingdom of Greece. S&itcJUc .-ii^l'irC^ ^ ^ tii^rti^Jx'^ cU /Sh e^ Si'c'Cc — 69 — The position in Italy ; the ministries of Ricasoli and Rattazzi ; longing of the Italians for Rome and Venice ; negotiations with France for the withdrawal of the French garrison from Rome ; Garibaldi makes an attempt on Rome ; he is defeated at Aspromonte (29 Aug., 1862) ; ministry of Litj>i^ i^ M'l^CL lUi^vMnc ..eiitvc:^ I'Wi'^^h^'^'v^/^'^^]'' -- 77 — et sa politique exterieure en 1867, Thiers, Discours parlenientaires, Gramont (pseud. Memor.), La France et la Prusse avaut la guerre, Ollivier, Menioires, and lye 19 Janvier; papiers et correspondance de la famille imperiale, Beust, Memo'ws^Benedetti, Ma Mission en Prusse. Hahfi, Der Krieg Deutschlands gegen Frankreich und die Griindung des Deutscben Kaiserreiclis, Sorel, Histoire diplomatique de la guerre franco-alleniande, Poujade, L,a diploniatie du Second Empire et celle du quatre Septembre 1870, Hubbard. Histoire contemporaine d'Espagne, Mazade, Les revolutions de TEspagne contemporaine, ^Laveleye, La Prusse et TAutricbe depuis Sadowa, Loftus, Diploma- tic Reminiscences, and many of the books cited under Lecture XIX' including those on Bismarck. }\lt.LihM^ LECTURE XXI. THE FRANCO-GERM \N WAR. Attitude of the powers of Europe at the outbreak of the Fran CO -Germ an War ; England declares neutrality (19 July, 1870), and English public opinion is roused against France by the publication of Napoleon Ill's propositions to Bis- marck for seizing Belgium ; Russia declares neutrality (23 July), and threatens to attack Austria if that power should join France ; Austria therefore remains neutral ; Italy re- fuses to join France because of the French occupation of Rome ; Denmark alone prepares to aid Napoleon if the French armies won some immediate success ; formation of the League of Neutrals (Aug.). Enthusiasm for the war in Germany ; the Crown Prince of Prussia takes command of the contingents of the South German states. Excitement in Paris ; the Emperor Napoleon III leaves to take command of the army (28 July). Rapid mobilization of the German army ; Moltke's plan of campaign ; inferiority of the French military administra- tion ; change in the French plan of campaign owing to the adhesion of the South German states to Prussia. -78- First campaign of 1870; the skirmish at Saarbriick (2 Aug.); battle of Wissembourg (4 Aug.) ; the Crown Prince of Panssia utterly defeats Mac Mahon at Worth, or Froschwiller, and Prince Frederick Charles defeats Frossard at Spicheren, or Forbach (6 Aug.); Moltke, having thus broken the French line forms the siege of Strasbourg and advances against the main French army under Bazaine ; Bazaine defeated at Horny (14 Aug.), at Mars-La-Tour, orVionville (16 Aug. , and at Gravelotte, or Saint-Privat (18 Aug. ); Bazaine's army shut up in Metz and besieged by Prince Frederick Charles. Excitement caused in Paris by the news of the French de- feats ; the Empress Eugenie, who had been appointed regent, dismisses Ollivier, and appoints a new ministry under Mon- tauban, Comte de Palikao. The caQipaign of Sedan ; the Army of Chalons under Mac Mahon, and accompanied by the Emperor marches to relieve Metz ; it is utterly defeated by the main German army at Sedan (i Sept.); the French army capitulates (2 Sept.), and the Emperor Napoleon III is sent a prisoner into Germany. Revolution of 4 September in Paris ; the Imperial Govern- ment is overthrown ; the deputies for Paris in the I^egislative Body, with the exception of Thiers, form themselves into the Government of National Defence, with General Trochu, Commandant of Paris, as their president ; this provisional government forms a ministry consisting of Jules Favre, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Gambetta, Minister of the In- terior, General Ee Flo, Admiral Fourichon, Cremieux, Ernest Picard, Jules Simon, Dorian, and Magnan ; the other mem- bers of the National Defence were, Emmanuel Arago, Jules Ferry, Garnier-Pages, Eugene Pelletan, Glas-Bizoin and Henri Rochefort. The first measures of the new French government ; its mistakes ; it does not immediately summon a constituent as- sembly ; it persists in remaining in Paris ; it sends Thiers to endeavor to obtain allies. Thiers' journey ; his reception in England, Russia, Aus- tria and Italy ; the French garrison withdrawn from Rome ; — 79 — the Italians take Rome, (20 Sept.), and declare it the capi- tal of the Kingdom of Italy. Continued success of the German armies in France ; the siege of Paris formed (19 Sept.); surrender of Toul (23 Sept.), and of Strasbourg (28 Sept.); the Germans advance south and take Orleans (11 Oct.); Bismarck's negotiations with Bazaine ; his attitude towards the Government of Na- tional Defence ; surrender of Bazaine and of Metz (27 Oct.). Gambetta leaves Paris and organizes a branch of the gov- ernment at Tours ; his extraordinary energy and success in calling France to arms ; he advocates war a outrance ; he organizes the Army of the Loire ; French success at Coulmiers (9 Nov.); the Germans evacuate Orleans ; the Army of the Loire advances to the relief of Paris ; critical position of the German besieging army ; sortie of Trochu from Paris and battle of Villiers-Champigny. Prince Frederick Charles breaks the Army of the Loire in two, and reoccupies Orleans ; the branch government retires from Tours to Bordeaux (9 Dec); surrender of Verdun (8 Nov.); Thionville (14 Nov.), and Montmedy (14 Dec); bril- liant defence of Belfort. Effect of the German victories upon German popular opinion ; the South German States enter the North German Confederation (15-25 Nov.); the Reichstag offers the king of Prussia the title of Emperor ; he declines to accept it until it is offered to him by the German Princes ; this is done and William I of Prussia is proclaimed German Emperor at Versailles (18 Jan., 1871). Russia takes advantage of the war and of the existence of a pacific ministry in England to declare the abrogation of the terms of the Treaty of Paris of 1856 ; conference of the powers upon this subject at London (17 Jan.); the Treaty of Paris modified so as to permit Russia to maintain a fleet in the Black Sea (13 Mar.); causes of PVance not being present at the conference ; the policy of Bismarck with regard to the Government of National Defence. Final campaign of 1871 ; the Germans commence the bom- — lio — bardment of Paris (5 Jan.); operations of the Army of the North under Faidherbe ; battle of Pont de Noyelles (23 Dec. , 1870); Faidherbe' s success at Bapaume (3 Jan., 1871); sur- render of Mezieres (2 Jan.) ; and of Peronne (10 Jan.); Faidherbe utterly defeated by Von Gob en at Saint Quentin (19 Jan.); operations of the Second Army of the lyoire under Chanzy ; he is defeated by Prince Frederick Charles at Le Mans (14-16 Jan.); operations of the Army of the East under Bourbaki ; he is defeated at Hericourt (17 Jan.),. and driven into Switzerland ; last sorti from Paris under Ducrot; battle qf Buzenval (19 Jan.); Paris forced to surrender (28 Jan.). The armistice of 28 Jan., 187 1 ; its terms ; its blunders ; conduct of Jules Favre ; tactical mistakes of the Govern- ment of National Defence ; Gambetta resigns his authority in the provinces .; elections held for the meeting of a con- stituent assembly. Meeting of the Constituent Assembly at Bordeaux (12 Feb.) ; Thiers is elected chief of the executive power ; he signs preliminaries of peace with Germany (22 Feb.) ; the treaty accepted by the Assembly (3 March) ; by it France cedes Alsace and part of lyorraine, including Metz, to Ger- many, and promises to pay a w^ar indemnity of five milliards of francs ; a definitive treaty signed at Frankfort (10 May, 1871). The Constituent Assembly declares the overthrow of the Empire and • the proclamation of the third French Republic (i March, 1871). Formation of the Government of the Commune (18 March, 187 1); its leaders and their doctrines ; Thiers concentrates an army against the Commune ; the government of the Com- mune resists and shoots the Archbishop of Paris and other hostages : the war with the Commune ; MacMahon conquers the Commune and occupies Paris (21-28 May) ; burning of the Tuileries and of the Hotel de Ville. The most important results of the Franco-German war were, the completion of the unity of Germany and the over- — 8i — throw of the second empire in France ; but the cession of Alsace and lyorraine. more than the result of the war, raised inextinguishable hatred between the two nations. Authorities : Sorel, Histoire diplomatique de la guerre Franco- Alleniande, Angeberg, Recueils des Trait^s, conventions, etc., con- ceruant la guerre Franco- Alleniande, Halui, Der Krieg Deutschlands gegen Frankreich und die Griindung des Deutsclien Kaiserreichs, Meding^ De Sadowa a Sedan, Washburne, Correspondence relating to the Franco-German War, and Recollections of a Minister to France (1869-77), Daily News, War Correspondence, Forbes, My experience of the Franco-German war, Russell, My diary during the last great war, Rustow, The war for the Rhine frontier in 1870, Borbstadl^ The Franco German War, Hooper, The Campaign of Sedan, Labou. chere, Diary of the besieged resident in Paris, Bingham, Journal of the Siege of Paris, Bo-zaine, L'Arm^e du l^\\\wiyjarras, Souvenirs, Mazade, La guerre de France, and, Monsieur Thiers, Trochu, 1' Em- pire et la defense de Paris, Chanzy, Memoires, Ducrot, La defense de Paris, Rothan, I'AUemagne et I'ltalie, 1870-71, Hippeau, Histoire di- plomatique de la troisieme republique Francaise, Andldu, Metz, Jules Favre, Le gouvernement de la Defense nationale, Jules Simon, Me- moires, Souvenirs du 4 septembre, and Le gouvernement de M, Thiers, Glas-Bizoin, Dictature de cinq mois, Valjrey, Histoire de la diplo- matic du gouvernement de la Defense national, Maquest, La France et I'Europe pendant le siege de Paris, Buret, Histoire de quatre ans, Busch, Our Chancellor, and Conversations of Prince Bismarck during the Franco- German war, Moltke, Geschichte des Deutsch-Franzosischen Krieges von 1870-71, Hanneken, Bazaine und die Kapitulation von Metz, Blunie, Operations of the German armies in France, Von Syb^l, Der Frieden von 1871^ 2A\^Lissagaray„ ;Histoite de la Commune. LECTURE XXII.. THE GERMAN EMPIRE. Condition of Germany after the successful conclusion of the Franco- Prussian War ; enthusiasm felt for a union achieved on the field of battle ; important effect of the war indemnity paid by France ; creation of a national German — 82 -- coinage ; the reconstitution of the North German Confedera- tion as the German Empire ; the Bundesrath increased by six voices for Bavaria, four for Wurtemberg, two for Baden, and two for Hesse- Darmstadt ; the Reichstag increased by the additional representatives of the South German states, chosen in the ratio of one deputy to each one hundred thousand population. In spite of the triumph of national unity, particularism makes itself felt in the Reichstag ; though the German princes remain true to the Empire, the Polish, Schleswig, and Hanoverian deputies form separate and irreconcilable parties, while Alsace-Lorraine refuses to elect any deputies at all. The administration of Alsace-Lorraine as a Reichsland, or territory of the Empire. Increased power given to the Catholic Church in German by the absorption of the South German states into the Em- pire ; Bismarck's dislike of Ultramontanism, which he re- gards as impairing the spirit of national unity ; owing to the strength of the Ultramontane party in the Reichstag, Bis- marck attacks the Roman Catholic Church in Prussia only, where the Protestants have a majority in the Landtag ; the Kulturkampf ; the May Laws (1872), restraining the power of the Catholic Church ; expulsion of the Jesuits from Prussia (June, 1872); attitude of Pope Pius IX ; the South German states, and especially Bavaria, protest against Bis- marck's anti-Catholic policy. The reorganization of France ; by the policy of Thiers and the financial skill of Pouyer-Quertier, the war indemnity is paid and France finally evacuated by the German army (March, 1873). The Constituent Assembly at Versailles ; the position of parties ; the majority consivSts of monarchists and ultra- montanes ; deliberate tardiness shown in drawing up a new constitution for France ; the presidency of Thiers renewed until the constitution shall have been completed (Aug. , 187 1 ) . The majority of the Assembly, which favored monarchy, -83 — divided into Legitimist, Orleanist, and Bonapartist parties, and therefore unable to agree upon a king or emperor ; meanwhile the republican minority, led by Gambetta, makes way in France. The monarchical majority in the Assembly forces Thiers to resign (24 May, 1873), and elects MacMahon to the temporary presidency- of the Republic ; the administration of the Due de Broglie ; he prepares the way for the restora- tion of monarchy by appointing anti-republican prefects and officials ; fusion of the Legitimist and Orleanist parties ; the Comte de Paris recognizes the Comte de Chambord as the legitimate king ; regarding himself as next heir to the throne as the representative of hereditary, not of parliamentary, monarchy (Aug., 1873) ; the impracticable character of the Comte de Chambord ; he refuses to abandon the white flag or to make any recognition of parliamentary institutions (27 Oct.) ; the Due de Broglie and the parliamentary mon- archists abandon the support of Comte de Chambord ; elec- tion of MacMahon as President of the French Republic for seven years. Completion of the French Constitution (25 Feb., 1875) ; its conservative nature ; the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies ; the presidency to be held for seven years and the president to be elected not by popular vote, but by the joint ballot of the two chambers ; the working of parliamentary government in France ; frequent changes of ministry, the result of the existence of parliamentary groups instead of well-defined parties. Condition of Spain ; election of Amadeus, second son of Victor Emanuel to be King of Spain ; assasination of Marshal Prim (30 Dec, 1870); Amadeus commences his reign (2 Jan;, 1871); Don Carlos, grandson of the first Don Carlos, raises a rebellion in the northern provinces (1872 ) ; the Carlist War not discouraged in the southern provinces of France, owing to the monarchical character of the Constituent As- sembly and its desire to please the Comte de Chambord ; difficult position of Amadeus ; he resigns the throne of Spain. — 84 - Proclamation of a Spanish Republic ; Emilio Castelar elected President ; General Pavia dissolves the Cortes by armed force (3 Jan., 1874) ; Serrano assumes the presidency ; insurrection at Cartagena. Pronunciamento of Martinez Campos (30 Dec, 1874) ; overthrow of Serrano ; Alfonso XII, only son of Queen Isabella, recognized as King of Spain ; suppression of the Carlist rebellion. The foreign policy of Bismarck ; he aims to prevent France from obtaining any allies in Europe ; he remains on friendly terms with Russia, whose Tsar, Alexander II, was the nephew and friend of the Emperor William, but suspects the Russian Chancellor, Gorchakov ; being unwilling to trust entirely to Russia, he looks for other allies ; England under Gladstone (1868-74) refuses to interfere in continental poli- tics ; he therefore enters into close relations with Austria. The position of Austria ; discontent of the Slavs with the Dual Constitution ; they look to Russia for assistance ; there- fore, in spite of the memory of Sadowa, the Emperor Fran- cis Joseph is ready to enter into alliance with the Emperor William ; dismissal of Beust, the enemy of Prussia, and ap- pointment of Andrassy as Austrian Chancellor (14 Nov., 1871). Formation of the Dreikaiserbund, or Alliance of the Three Emperors, of Germany, Russia, and Austria (Sept., 1872) ; comparison between the Dreikaiserbund and the Holy Alli- ance ; its aims : ( i ) to maintain the status quo in Europe, (2) to act in harmony on the Eastern Question, (3) to op- pose the progress of revolutionary, socialist, and nihilist movements. Triumphant position of Bismarck ; he becomes the Dicta- tor of Europe as Metternich formerly had been ; characteris- tics of his diplomacy. Authorities : Muller, Kaiser Wilhelin, Hahn, Wilhelm, der erste Kaiser des neuen Deutscheii Reiclis, ►S"/w£>«, L'Knipereur Guillaume et son regne, Forbes, WilHam of Oermany, Heigel, Kouig I^udwig II, vou Bayern, Lowe, L,ife of Bismarck, Busch, Our Chancellor, Hahn, (Jte'i/H.o^ (c^^'^v ^ I a I c, K o. CO CO u (U O VU s On a OJ IJ S > o oT ^ en ^ '^'^ P^ - C «! ?^, O CQ ^1 •■§1 & Si u O . CO o o o o CO GO CO 00 05 o (U O o It' . '^ ill ^ lOvO CO O -I - >-i 1- C< (N CO CO '50 CO CO ^ i t-i c »— • "-I c3 «5 w (^ Ci <$ ^a i>> ^ ^ ^ ^ 8 m o .t::^ s» s> 5 S «s > c 3 (LI u .« "^ .52 «^ i2 ^ o ^ o s z O ^ 0^ N n- irj t-^ CO ON o CO 00 00 00 CO 00 OO rO fO fO fO OO 00 OO OO lO^ t^ O M ro^ r>.00 o ^ ^ CO OO CCOO oocooooooo oooooo 00 00 1 < House of Hohenzol- lern; Kings of Prus- sia, and after 1851 also German Emp. (William, Regent.) Hohenzollern. William I. Bism,arck. 1 ^ 5 ^ 1 1 Narvaez. O'DoJinell. Narvaez. Provisional Gov't. — Serrano, Prim and Topete. (Serrano, Regent.) Amadeus I. Castelar, President. Serrano, President. Alfonso XII. 1 -Si 1 1 j 1 1 • •V, 1 1 It '1 1 1 1 « 1 1 1 1 i Government of Nat, Defence, (Sept.) Thiers, President. MacMahon, Pres't House of Hapsburg ; Holy Roman Emperors to 1805 ; aft. 1 80s, Emperors of Austria. CO M 5VO 5 I/- 00 CO 1 CO 1 w ^ CO 1 - u- 5VO 1 r^oc 00 CO CO i 00 00 (A >k > O .50 b«6 a Os O ^ n lovo t^OO CO CO CO 20 CO 00 CO CO CO CO t^CO O (^ "^ 10 CO CO On 0^ 0> On CO 00 00 CO CO 00 \ G O P. o ►4 ^ bjo (A ^ sis VD t>.00 0^ O a5 c^ a5 CO 00 a CO 00 00 CO CO M ro O O "^OO (S rO ro rO rt -^ -rf CO CO CO CO CO 00 CO o a o > n3 a ON rO O M ro lO (S VO ON O Tf lo »OVO vo vD t~^ t^ 00 a CO CO 00 00 CO 00 00 00 00 00 ^ i5 0) U i V bo a 3 § o y 1-1 d CO s s CO , — v:^ ^ CO r- jj CO VO 'S ™ CO S - J3 « ^ s o fl a W (uco S coW 3a3S a CO oT lis (U r2 - C» M rj M cv) CO ro GO 00 CO 00 CO CO oc u o biO a 3 .Si =s ^^ "^ lO »o 00 CO 00 00 CO M 00 CO 00 Landgraves, after 1806 Grand Dukes, of Hesse- Darmstadt. •II 3' t— t 1 Landgraves, after 1803 Electors, after 18 14 Grand Dukes, of Hesse-Cassel. William IX (since 1785) after 1814 William I. Merged in Kingd'm of Westphalia. William I, restored. William II. (Frederick Wm., Regent. ) Margraves, after 1803 Electors, after 1809 Grand Dukes, of Baden. II u '3 D -a U h-5 i ■ -4 en Dukes, after 1803 Electors, after 1806 Kings, of Wurtemberg. Frederick II (since 1797) after 1806 King Frederick I g Electors, after 1814 Kings, of Hanover. George III (King of Great Britain) f since 1760.) Merged in Kingd'm of Westphalia. 1