c^V. .^4tcr^ii}^ Cr^^iyAs^?!^ 
 
CORNELL UNIVERSITY. 
 
 SYLLABUS 
 
 OF A 
 
 COURSE OF TWENTY=FOUR LECTURES 
 
 I ON THE 
 
 HISTORY OF EUROPE DUR|NQ THE 
 NINETEENTH CENTURY 
 
 BY 
 
 H. nORSE STEPHENS. 
 
 ITHACA : 
 ANDRUS & CHURCH. 
 

 HKMRY MORSE STEPHEMS 
 
5151 15 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 LECTURES : Page. 
 
 I. The Consulate in France and the Re-constitdtion of Ger- 
 many, I 
 
 II. The Power of Napoleon at its Height, 4 
 
 III. Europe during the Ascendency of Napol-eon,, 8 
 
 IV. Overthrow of the Power of Napoleon, ii 
 
 V. The Congress of Vienna, 15 
 
 VI. The Holy Alliance, 19 
 
 VII. The Eastern Question and the Independence of Greece, 23 
 
 VIII. The Revolution of 1830 in France, 27 
 
 IX. The Belgian Insurrection, 30 
 
 X. Insurrection and Civil War in Spain and Portugal, ... 33 
 
 XI. Europe during the Reign of Louis Philippe, 36 
 
 XII. The Revolution of 1848 in France, 41 
 
 XIII. The Revolution of 1848 in Italy, 45 
 
 XIV. The Revolution of 1848 in Austria, 49 
 
 XV. The Revolution of 1848 in Germany, 53 
 
 XVI. Europe after the Revolutions of 1848, . 57 
 
 XVII. The Crimean War, 61 
 
 XVIII. The Unity of Italy, 64 
 
 XIX. The Overthrow of Austria, 68 
 
 XX. The Re-constitution of Germany and Austria, 72 
 
 XXI. The Franco-German War, 77 
 
 XXII. The German Empire, 81 
 
 XXIII. Russians Attempt to Solve the Eastern Question, .... 85 
 
 XXIV. The Triple Alliance, 89 
 
 Appendices: 91-101 
 
 i. The Rulers of Europe from 1801 to 1895. The Great 
 Powers. 
 
 ii. The Rulers of Europe from 1801 to 1895. The Lesser 
 
 Powers, 
 
 iii. The Rulers of Europe from 1801 to 1895. Italy, 
 
 iv. The Rulers of Europe from 1801 to 1895. Germany. 
 
MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY, 
 
 (nineteenth century.) 
 
 IvECTURB L 
 
 THB CONSULATE IN FRANCE AND THE RE-CONSTITUTION 
 OF GERMANY. 
 
 The government of the Consulate ; its policy of reconcilia- 
 tion ; many e77tigrh permitted to return ; complete pacifica- 
 tion of Ira Vendee by the Treaty of Montlu9on ; suppression 
 of brigandage ; restoration of internal peace. 
 
 The financial policy of the Consulate ; the work of Gau- 
 din ; taxes fairly levied and collected ; corruption punished ; 
 foundation of the Bank of France. 
 
 The Consulate and legal reform ; commissions appointed 
 to draw up codes. 
 
 The Consulate and the Catholic Church ; Bonaparte's ne- 
 gotiations with the Papacy ; end of the schism which had 
 lasted since the civil constitution was proclaimed in 1790 ; 
 terms of the Concordat signed by Pope Pius VII and the First 
 Consul Bonaparte (15 July, 1801) and promulgated (18 Apr., 
 1802). 
 
 The Consulate and education ; Bonaparte's attempt to es- 
 tablish a scheme of national education. 
 
 The Consulate and the internal administration of France ; 
 formation of the Prefectures ; the left bank of the Rhine or- 
 ganized as part of France. 
 
 The Consulate and the colonies of France ; Bonaparte de- 
 sires to restore the power of France in America ; he obtains 
 I^ouisiana from Spain and an extension of French Guiana 
 from Portugal ; he re-occupies Guadeloupe and Martinique 
 by the Treaty of Amiens ; he attacks San Domingo ; resis- 
 tance of Toussaint L'Oiiverture. 
 
Constitutional changes made during the Consulate ; effect 
 of the Conspiracy of the Infernal Machine (24 Sept., 1800) ; 
 Bonaparte declared, after an appeal to the Primary Assem- 
 blies, First Consul for life ; he is enabled to nominate a suc- 
 cessor. 
 
 The Constitutional authorities of the Consulate ; the part 
 played by the Counsil of State, the Senate, the Tribunate, 
 and the lyCgislative Body ; the National I^ist suppressed and 
 replaced by Electoral Colleges. 
 
 The ministers of the Consulate ; Talleyrand, Minister of 
 Foreign Affairs, Gaudin, of Finance, Regnier, of Justice, 
 Chaptal, of the Interior, Berthier, of War, Decres, of the Ma- 
 rine, and Fouche, of Police. 
 
 The re-constitution of Germany ; the new arrangements 
 made necessary by the cession to France of the left bank of 
 the Rhine and by the proofs that had been given during the 
 war of the intrinsic weaknCvSs of the political system of the 
 Empire ; the new arrangements accepted by the Imperial 
 Diet (25 Feb., 1803) ; the Holy Roman Empire, as estab- 
 lished by the Treaties of Westphalia, practically ceases to ex- 
 ist. 
 
 Changes made in the Colleges of the Imperial Diet ; ( i ) 
 the College of Electors increased from eight electors, three 
 ecclesiastical and five lay, to ten electors, one ecclesiastical 
 and nine lay ; the archbishops of Cologne and Treves lost 
 their electoral dignity owing to their dominions being ab- 
 sorbed into France ; the Archbishop of Mayence continued as 
 an elector and received as his dominions the bishopric of 
 Ratisbon, the principality of Aschaffenburg and the county 
 of Wetzlar ; the nine lay electors were the five who had for- 
 merly held that dignity, Bohemia, Brandenburg, Saxony, 
 Bavaria, and Hanover, w4th four new electors, the Margrave of 
 Baden, the Duke of Wurtemberg, the lyandgrave of Hesse- 
 Cassel and the Grand Duke Ferdinand, formerly Grand Duke 
 of Tuscany, who was made Elector of Salzburg ; (2) College 
 of Princes ; owing to the secularization of the Catholic bish- 
 oprics and monasteries this college was greatly reduced in 
 
— 3 — 
 
 numbers and consisted mainly of Protestant princes ; (3) 
 College of Free Cities ; this college would have been entirely 
 abolished but for the intervention of France ; as it was, only 
 six free cities were maintained out of fifty-two, namely, Augs- 
 burg, Bremen, Frank fort-on- the- Main, Hamburg, lyiibeck 
 and Nuremberg ; these changes in the Imperial Diet deprived 
 the Catholics, and Austria, the chief Catholic power, of their 
 predominance. 
 
 The secularization of the ecclesiastical states ; this step, 
 which had been suggested by France at Basle and by Bona- 
 parte at I^eoben, was nominally undertaken to compensate 
 those princes of the Empire who had lost territory by the 
 cession of the left bank of the Rhine to France ; the princes 
 who profited most were, however, those who were already 
 powerful ; thus Prussia, Bavaria, Baden, Wurtemberg, and 
 Hanover all received important accessions of territory making 
 them compact and populous states ; Austria received only 
 two small bishoprics, Brixen and Trent, but two Austrian 
 princes, the Grand Duke Ferdinand and the Duke of Modena 
 received the German states of Salzburg and the Breisgau in 
 compensation for the loss of their Italian principalities ; the 
 Prince of Orange, formerly Stadtholder of the United Nether- 
 lands, received the bishopric of Fulda. 
 
 Effect of these sweeping changes destroying the Holy 
 Roman Empire, and building up .strong German states, upon 
 the policy and condition of Germany. 
 
 The re-constitution of Switzerland ; Bonaparte interferes 
 in Swiss politics ; by the Act of Mediation (19 Feb., 1803), 
 he restores federal government but maintains the abolition of 
 feudalism and other reforms made by the Helvetian Repub- 
 lic ; to the thirteen old cantons — six democratic, Appenzell, 
 Glarus, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Uri, and Zug, and seven 
 oligarchical — Basle, Berne, Freiburg, lyucerne, Schaffhausen, 
 Soleure, and Zurich, he added six new cantons — Vaud, Aar- 
 gau, Thurgau, Ticino, Saint-Gall, and the Grisons ; he reg- 
 ulated the relations between the federal and cantonal govern- 
 ments, and was declared Mediator of the Confederation of 
 Switzerland. 
 
— 4 — 
 
 Authorities : A brief account of the Consulate and of the re con- 
 stitution of Germany in Switzerland is given in Morse Stephens, Eu- 
 ropean History, 1789-1815, chap. vii. For the Consulate, see Thiers, 
 Histoire du Consulat et de 1' Empire ; Thibaudeatif Mimones sur le 
 Consulat and, Le Consulat et I'Empire, and for the policy of Napo- 
 leon, the various lives and histories, particularly Lanfrey and Taine. 
 The Memoirs most valuable for the subjects treated in this lecture are 
 those of Chaptal, Lucien Bofiaparte, Talleyrand, and Gaudin ; for the 
 Concordat consult the valuable work of D' Haussonville, Documents 
 in^dits sur le Concordat. For the re-constitution of Germany, see 
 ^Rarnbaiid, Les Fran^ais sur le Rhin, Hdusser, Deutsche Geschichte 
 vom Tode Friedrichs des Grossen, Oncken, Das Zeitalter der Revolu- 
 tion, des Kaiserreichs und der Befreiungskriege, Beer, Zehn JahreCEs- 
 terreichischer Politik, 1801-1810, and Heigel, Deutsche Geschichte 
 vom Tode Friedrichs des Grossen. 
 
 I.ECTURE II. 
 
 THE POWER OF NAPOLEON AT ITS HEIGHT. 
 
 Recommencement of war between France and England, 
 (18 May, 1803) ; causes of the war ; the points left unsettled 
 by the Treaty of Amiens ; the question of Malta, which the 
 English refused to surrender ; the interference of the First 
 Consul in Switzerland and his annexation of Piedmont 
 (11 Sept., 1802) regarded as evidences of the desire of 
 France further to disturb the peace of Europe ; Bonaparte's 
 wrath at the libels published upon him in England ; the 
 trial of Peltier ; the embassy of Whitworth to Paris ; the 
 English seize French ships and Bonaparte in reprisal arrests 
 all Englishmen travelling in France and occupies Hanover. 
 
 Formation of the Grande Armee ; Bonaparte's genius for 
 military organization ; he forms the camp of Boulogne and 
 prepares to invade England. 
 
 Difficulties of Bonaparte's position ; the plot of Pichegru, 
 Georges Cadoudal, and others against his life ; arrest and 
 
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 trtUtt. ^h^fdU "uLvC^rs LL^-i'fi< oU i-j^i ^ iJ^'i 
 
— 5 — 
 
 execution of the Due d'Enghien (21 March, 1804) ; Bona- 
 parte offered the title of Emperor of the French by the 
 Senate (18 May, 1804) ; the offer ratified by the French peo- 
 ple in their primary assemblies ; coronation of Bonaparte as 
 the Emperor Napoleon (2 Dec, 1804) ; also crowned King 
 of Italy at Milan (20 May, 1805). 
 
 The institutions of the Empire ; the Imperial Court ; in- 
 creased importance of the Senate and Council of State ; 
 highly centralized form of administration established under 
 the Empire. 
 
 In the year in which Napoleon became Emperor of the 
 French the Emperor Francis II declared the Austrian do- 
 minions an hereditary empire (11 Aug., 1804), and takes the 
 title of Emperor of Austria (7 Dec). 
 
 Position of affairs in England at the recommencement of 
 war w^ith France ; Addington , who had made the Treaty of 
 Amiens, succeeded as prime minister by Pitt, who advocates 
 a vigorous foreign policy (1804). 
 
 Pitt's endeavors to form a third continental coalition 
 against Napoleon ; Frederick William III persists in main- 
 taining the strict neutrality, by which Prussia had gained so 
 much ; the Tsar Alexander I of Russia personally admired 
 Napoleon, but his court and people pressed him to side with 
 England ; the execution of d'Enghien and Napoleon's treat- 
 ment of his ambassador further impelled Alexander to join 
 the coalition against France ; the Emperor Francis gladly 
 entered the coalition ; Spain was the close ally of Napoleon, 
 while of smaller countries, Sweden, under Gustavus IV, the 
 Two Sicilies, and Portugal w^ere favorable to the coalition, 
 and DennTark, to Napoleon. 
 
 The campaign of 1805 ; Napoleon unable to attempt the 
 invasion of England because the French fleet cannot com- 
 mand the Channel ; the scheme of Napoleon frustrated by 
 the conduct of Admiral Villeneuve ; Nelson in command of 
 the Channel ; Sir Robert Calder's action with the French 
 fleet (25 July) ; the Austrians under Mack before the de- 
 claration of war occupy Ulm (Sept.); Napoleon despairing 
 
of invading England breaks up his camp at Boulogne and in- 
 vades Germany; Mack surrenders at Ulm (20 Oct.); vic- 
 tory of Trafalgar won by Nelson over the French and 
 Spanish fleets (21 Oct.); Napoleon occupies Vienna; a 
 Russian army joins the Austrians ; Napoleon defeats the 
 Austrians and Russians at Austerlitz (2 Dec). 
 
 The results of AusteVlitz ; by the Treaty of Pressburg 
 (26 Dec.) Austria cedes Venice to the Kingdom of Italy, 
 Istria and Dalmatia to Napoleon, who governs them under 
 Marmont as the Illyrian Provinces, and the Tyrol to Bava- 
 ria ; the Electors of Bavaria and Wurtemberg given the title 
 of King, and the Elector of Baden that of Grand Duke ; 
 formation of the Confederation of the Rhine ; death of Pitt 
 (23 Jan., 1806). 
 
 The campaign of 1806 ; the attitude of Prussia to Napoleon, 
 and of Napoleon to Prussia ; influence of Queen Louisa upon 
 Frederick William III ; the Prussians prepare for war ; the 
 Prussians defeated by Napoleon at Jena and by Davout at 
 Auerstadt (14 Oct.) ; Napoleon occupies Berlin (25 Oct.) ; 
 the French invade Poland, occupy Warsaw (15 Dec.) and 
 go into winter quarters on the Russian frontier. 
 
 The campaign of 1807 ; battle of Eylau (8 Feb.) ; close 
 alliance formed between the Tsar Alexander and Frederick 
 William III of Prussia by the Treaty of Bartenstein (April); 
 surrender of Dantzig to the French (24 May) ; Napoleon 
 defeats the Russians at Friedland (14 June). 
 
 Interview between Napoleon and Alexander at Tilsit 
 (25 June, 1807), followed by the Peace of Tilsit (7 July, 
 1807) ; by this treaty Russia ceded the Ionian Islands to 
 France ; Napoleon promised not to restore the independence 
 of Poland, but created the part of Poland which Prussia had 
 received in the different partitions into the Grand Duchy of 
 Warsaw with the Elector of Saxony, to whom he gave the 
 title of king, as Grand Duke ; Napoleon suggested to Alex- 
 ander the resurrection of the Empires of the East and the 
 West and advised him to extend his dominions at the cost of 
 Sweden and Turkey. 
 
— 7 — 
 
 After much hesitation, Napoleon makes peace with Prus- 
 sia after depriving Frederick WilHam III of Polish Prussia 
 and of all Prussian territory to the west of the Elbe. 
 
 After the Peace of Tilsit, Napoleon recognizes that his 
 sole remaining enemy is England ; progress of the war with 
 England after the battle of Trafalgar ; complete triumph of 
 the English fleet and blockade of the French coasts ; the 
 English occupy Sicily, to which island Ferdinand IV had 
 fled before a French army in 1805, and defeat General Rey- 
 nier at Maida (3 July, 1806) ; the English re-occupy the 
 Cape of Good Hope which had been surrendered to the 
 Dutch by the Treaty of Amiens. 
 
 Napoleon, being unable to attack England directly, re- 
 solves to ruin English commerce ; he issues the Berlin De- 
 cree (21 Nov., 1806) declaring the British Islands in a state 
 of blockade, followed by the Milan Decree, declaring any 
 ship touching at a British port lawful prize ; by the Treaty 
 of Tilsit, Russia agrees to the continental blockade ; effect of 
 the blockade on English commerce. 
 
 The Treaty of Tilsit marks the zenith of Napoleon's 
 power, but his splendour is most apparent during the Con- 
 gress of Erfurt (Sept., 1808). 
 
 Authorities : For the history of the Empire, see Morse Stephens, 
 Thiers, Thibaudeau, and Lanfrey cited under Lecture I ; for the 
 personality of Napoleon, Taine Napoleon, Ltvy Napoleon intime, 
 Masson Napoleon et les Veva.xn^s,'^ Bourrienne Memoirs, ^Meneval 
 Napoleon i*'"'; for the outbreak of war with England, see Oscar 
 Browning , Despatches of Lord Whitworth ; for the relations between 
 Napoleon and the Tsar Alexander, s^e Vandal, Alexander i^"^ et Napo- 
 leon, dnd Tatischeff, Napoleon et le Tsar Alexandre d'apr^s des Docu- 
 ments inedits ; for the campaigns of Austerlitz, Jena, and Friedland, 
 see the elaborate works oi Jo mini, and Mathieu Dumas, with Mar- 
 bot, Memoirs, 2i\\(rThiebaidt, Souvenirs, and the numerous lives of the 
 marshals and generals of Napoleon ; for the Imperial Court, see 
 ^ Madame de Rhmisat, Memoirs ; and, as the primary authority for the 
 whole period, the Correspondence of Napoleon. 
 
IvKCTURB III. 
 
 EUROPE DURING THE ASCENDENCY OF NAPOIvEON. 
 
 Napoleon after the Treaty of Tilsit sweeps away the last 
 relics of the Holy Roman Empire and re-organizes Germany ; 
 under his system the Confederation of the Rhine, of which 
 he was entitled the Protector, became the chief power of 
 Germany ; it consisted of thirty-two reigning princes ; its 
 population of 20,000,000 of Germans was bound to contri- 
 bute 150,000 soldiers to the army of Napoleon ; and its policy 
 was conducted by a Diet sitting at Frankfort, composed of two 
 colleges, the College of Kings, and the College of Princes. 
 
 The four kingdoms in the Confederation of the Rhine 
 were Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Westphalia, and Saxony ; the 
 Kings of Bavaria and Wurtemberg ally their families with 
 that of Napoleon and receive their reward in extension of 
 territory ; the King of Saxony is made Grand Duke of War- 
 saw, and is included in the Confederation from the import- 
 ance of his geographical position between Austria, Prussia 
 and Russia ; the kingdom of Westphalia created by Napo- 
 leon from the dominions of Prussia to the west of the Elbe, 
 with Hesse-Cassel, Brunswick, part of Hanover, etc., was 
 conferred on Napoleon's youngest brother, Jerome Bonaparte. 
 
 The College of Princes consisted of the five Grand 
 Duchies of Baden, of Hesse- Darmstadt, of Berg, created by 
 Napoleon and conferred by him on his brother-in-law, 
 Joachim Murat, of Frankfort, conferred on Dalberg, formerl}^ 
 Archbishop Elector of Mayence, and of Wiirtzburg, con- 
 ferred on the Grand Duke Ferdinand, formerly ruler of Tus- 
 cany, and of twenty-three princes whose principalities were 
 of moderate extent. 
 
 Effect of the new organization in Germany ; the French 
 system of centralized administration and of military con- 
 scription everywhere introduced ; serfdom, and other feudal 
 abuses abolished ; the codified law of France introduced into 
 Westphalia and Berg ; the Knights of the Empire deprived 
 
of their sovereign rights ; the petty dukes, counts, and 
 princes, whose territories lay within those of the reigning 
 princes were mediatized, that is to say, lost their immediate 
 sovereignty while retaining their titles and rank as a class of 
 privileged aristocracy. 
 
 Effect of these measures ; Germany becomes a confedera- 
 tion of more or less powerful states instead of a collection of 
 petty feudal principalities. 
 
 Napoleon's Italian policy ; he appoints his step-son, Eugene 
 de Beauharnais, viceroy of the kingdom of Italy, which com- 
 prised the former Cisalpine Republic with the addition, after 
 the Treaty of Pressburg, of Venice ; Napoleon kept Pied- 
 mont as part of the French dominions, and annexed the 
 Ligurian Republic, Parma, Etruria or Tuscany, and event- 
 ually in 18.10, Rome, directl}^ to France, giving^ his sister 
 Elisa the title of Grand Duchess of Tuscany and Duchess of 
 Lucca, and his sister Pauline that of Duchess of Guastalla ; 
 the relations of Napoleon with the Pope ; arrest of Pius VII 
 (6 July, 1809) ; the kingdom of Naples conferred upon Na- 
 poleon's brother, Joseph Bonaparte, in i8a6 and on Muratin 
 1808; great reforms accomplished in Italy, but failure of 
 Napoleon to recognize the principle of nationality. 
 
 Napoleon and Holland ; changes in the character of the 
 Batavian Republic ; lyouis Bonaparte made King of Holland 
 in 1 806 ; dislike of the Dutch for the continental blockade ; 
 Napoleon annexes Holland to his dominions in 18 10. 
 
 Denmark during the ascendency of Napoleon; Napoleon's 
 scheme for seizing the Danish fleet ; the English, hearing of 
 this scheme, bombard Copenhagen and seize the Danish fleet 
 themselves (Sept. 1807) ; friendship of Frederick VI of 
 Denmark for Napoleon. 
 
 Sweden during the ascendency of Napoleon ; Gustavus 
 IV, the sworn enemy of Napoleon and ally of England ; 
 after the Treaty of Tilsit the French under Brune occupy 
 Swedish Pomerania ; the Tsar Alexander conquers Finland 
 (1808); insanity of Gustavus IV; he attacks Denmark; 
 he is dethroned (29 March) and his uncle, the former regent* 
 
lO — 
 
 made king (lo May, 1809) ; Bernadotte, one of Napoleon's 
 marshals, elected Prince Royal of Sweden and heir to the 
 throne (5 Nov., 18 10). 
 
 The Turks during the ascendency of Napoleon ; the Sul- 
 tan Selim III refused to enter Pitt's coalition against 
 Napoleon (1805), and an English expedition under Duck- 
 worth was sent against him (1807) ; overthrow and 
 assassination of Selim (21 July, 1807) ; after an interval. 
 Mahmud II becomes Sultan (July, 1808) ; his vigor and 
 ability ; he is inclined to the side of France, but dislikes the 
 establishment of the French in the lUyrian provinces ; the 
 Tsar Alexander attacks the Turks (1809); the Russians 
 occupy Moldavia and Wallachia (18 10), and cross the 
 Danube (1811). 
 
 The greatest extension of Napoleon's empire attained by 
 the annexation of the districts along the northern coasts of 
 Germany from the borders of Holland to the mouth of the 
 Weser, including Bremen, Hamburg, and Liibeck, (13 Dec, 
 18 10) ; this annexation caused by the difficulty of main- 
 taining the continental blockade ; at this time the French 
 dominions were divided into 130 departments extending 
 from Rome to lytibeck ; the organization and administration 
 of these departments. 
 
 Napoleon's administration w^hen at the height of his 
 power ; excellence of his civil service ; his ministers and the 
 Council of State; suppression of the Tribunate (1808) ; 
 growing importance of the police department ; organization 
 of the army, and services of Clarke, Minister of War ; 
 Napoleon's legal reforms ; the codes ; his financial reforms ; 
 his reforms in education ; the formation of the University 
 of France (1811). 
 
 Napoleon's belief in the hereditary principle ; his new 
 nobility ; his desire for an heir ; he resolves to divorce his 
 wife, the Empress Josephine. 
 
 Failure of Napoleon to appreciate the forces working 
 against him at the height of his power ; he had failed to 
 ruin England in spite of all his efforts ; he had roused the 
 
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II 
 
 national spirit, which had made France so great, against him 
 in Spain and in Germany ; the Grande Armee, which had 
 won his victories, was being destroyed, and the vacancies in 
 its ranks filled by foreigners and young French conscripts. 
 
 Authorities : See the books cited under Lecture II, with Rambaud, 
 La Domination fran^aise en All eniagn efBea ulieu-Margon n ay, Karl_ 
 von Dalberg und seine Zeit, Kleinsch midt, Gescliichte des Konig- 
 reichs Westfalen, DuCasse, Memoires et correspondance du Roi Je- 
 rome, and Goecke, Das GrossherzogthumBergunter Joachim Murat, etc, 
 
 J^Jh ^ UU^. 
 
 I.ECTURK IV 
 
 OVERTHROW OF THE POWER OF NAPOLEON. 
 
 The struggle between England and Napoleon ; the policies 
 represented by Castlereagh and Canning, the former 'desiring 
 to raise national insurrections against Napoleon, the 4-atter to 
 form coalitions and to act directly against the French with an 
 English army ; duel between Castlereagh and Canning 
 (1809) ; lyord Wellesley becomes director of English foreign 
 policy (1809-18 12) ; the English take the remaining coloni- 
 al possessions of France and Holland, Martinique and the 
 Mauritius (1809), Guadeloupe (1810), and Java (181 1). 
 
 Napoleon resolves to attack Portugal, because the Prince- 
 Regent declined to join in the continental blockade ; by the 
 Treaty of Fontainebleau with Spain (29 Oct., 1807) he ar- 
 ranges for the division of Portugal ; a French army under 
 Junot invades Portugal ; the Prince- Regent escapes to Brazil ; 
 Junot enters Lisbon (20 Nov., 1807), occupies the whole of 
 Portugal, and declares that the House of Braganza has ceased 
 to reign ( I Feb., 1808 J. 
 
 Napoleon's interference in the affairs in Spain ; the people 
 of Madrid attack Godoy, the Queen's lover, and support 
 Prince Ferdinand, the heir to the throne ; the royal family of 
 
Spain appeals to Napoleon and proceeds to France ; Charles 
 IV cedes his throne to Napoleon who proclaims his brother 
 Joseph king- of Spain (6 June, 1806) ; a French army enters 
 Spain to support Joseph and occupies Madrid ; the Spaniards 
 rise in insurrection ; 18,000 French soldiers surrender to the 
 Spaniards at Baylen (20 July, 1808) ; the English ministry 
 supports the Spanish insurgents with money and arms. 
 
 The Portuguese rise in insurrection against the French * 
 the Knglish ministry send an army to their help under Sir 
 Arthur Wellesley, who wins the battles of Roriga and Vimei- 
 ro (17-21 Aug., 1808) ; by the Convention of Cintra (30 
 Aug.) the French under Junot agree to evacuate Portugal. 
 
 Napoleon in person invades Spain, and occupies Madrid 
 (13 Dec, 1808) ; Sir John Moore, with the Enghsh Army 
 from Portugal advances to Salamanca to save Andalusia ; re- 
 treat of Sir John Moore to Corunna ; battle of Corunna (16 
 Jan., 1809). 
 
 The difficulties of Napoleon in the Peninsula, and the 
 promise of support from England cause the Emperor Francis 
 to believe the time propitious for a fresh war ; unpopularity 
 of the French in Germany ; Napoleon's contempt for the 
 popular feeling against him ; Stadion, who had become State- 
 ChancMlor of Austria in 1806, desired to make Austria the 
 representative of this German national feeling ; the services 
 of Gentz ; re-organization of the Austrian army by the Arch- 
 duke Charles. 
 
 Campaign of 1809 ; the Archduke Charles invades Bava- 
 ria, and the Archduke John, Italy ; Napoleon enters Ger- 
 many, defeats the Archduke Charles at Abensberg and Eck- 
 miihl (20-22 Apr.) and occupies Vienna (12 May) ; the bat- 
 tle of Aspern or Essling (21-22 May) ; Napoleon shut up in 
 the island of Lobau ; the Tyrolese rise in insurrection under 
 Hofer ; Napoleon, joined by reinforcements, defeats the Aus- 
 trians at Wagram (6 July). 
 
 By the Treaty of Vienna (14 Oct., 1809) Austria ceded 
 Trieste, Carniola, and part of Croatia to Napoleon, who added 
 these districts to the Illyrian provinces; Austria also ceded 
 
— 13 — 
 
 Salzburg to Bavaria, and Western Galicia to the Grand 
 Duchy of Warsaw ; causes of the failure of Austria to arouse 
 German national feeling ; Stadion succeeded by Metternich ; 
 Napoleon marries the Archduchess Maria Louisa, daughter 
 of the Emperor Francis (2 Apr., 18 10). 
 
 The English ministry resolves to pursue the war vigorous- 
 ly on land against Napoleon ; failure of the expedition to 
 Walcheren (Aug., 1809) ; successes in the war in the Penin- 
 sula ; gallant defence of Saragossa by the Spaniards ; though 
 the Spanish armies were defeated, their guerilla warfare re- 
 duces the power of the French ; Arthur Wellesley, after- 
 wards Eord Wellington, placed in command of the English 
 army in the Peninsula ; he wins the battle of Talavera 
 (28 July, 1809) ; Wellington holds the Hnes of Torres 
 Vedras and repulses a French invasion of Portugal under 
 Massena (1810-1811) ; Wellington takes Ciudad Rodrigo 
 and Badajoz and defeats Marmont at Salamanca (22 July, 
 1 8 1 2 ) ; Joseph Bonaparte evacuates Madrid ; the English 
 forced to retreat from Burgos, and Joseph recovers Madrid 
 for the last time. 
 
 The growth of the national spirit in Germany ; the 
 Germans look to Prussia to lead them ; the Tugenbund. 
 
 The re- organization of Prussia ; the ministry of Stein ; 
 he abolishes serfdom and introduces other reforms ; the war 
 ministry of Scharnhorst ; he passes the youth of Prussia 
 through the army, and in the place of conscription adopts 
 universal military service ; Napoleon demands the dismissal 
 of Stein (1808) and of Scharnhorst (1810) ; the ministry 
 of Hardenberg ; he completes the work of Stein by making 
 the former serfs absolute owners of their holdings ; founda- 
 tion of the University of Berlin ; assistance rendered by 
 William von Humboldt ; Frederick William III forced to 
 sign an offensive and defensive alliance with Napoleon (24 
 Feb., 1812). 
 
 Growing disagreement between Napoleon and the Tsar 
 Alexander ; its causes ; Napoleon resolves to invade Russia ; 
 Castlereagh, who came into office Jan., 18 12, offers to aid 
 
— 14 — 
 
 Russia ; through English mediation Russia makes peace 
 with the Turks at Bucharest (28 May, 18 12) ; Russia signs 
 the Treaty of Abo with Sweden (24, Mch. 18 12) by which 
 Bernadotte promises to aid Russia against Napoleon and to 
 cede Finland in exchange for Norway. 
 
 Campaign of 1812 ; Napoleon invades Russia (May) ; 
 retreat of the Russians; battle of Borodino (7 Sept.); 
 Napoleon occupies Moscow (14 Sept.) ; the retreat from 
 Moscow ; almost complete destruction of the French army. 
 
 Campaign of 1813 ; during the retreat from Moscow the 
 Prussian contingent under Yorck abandons the French army 
 (30 Dec, 18 12) ; Prussia declares war against France (16 
 Mch., 18 13) ; Napoleon rallies his army and wins the battles 
 "of I^utzen (2 May) and Bautzen (20 May) ; Austria signs 
 the Convention of Reichenbach (17 June), and promises 
 to join the allies if Napoleon refuses the terms offered to 
 him ; Congress of Prague ; Austria declares war against 
 Napoleon (12 Aug.) ; the French under Oudinot and 
 Macdonald defeated by Bernadotte and Bliicher at Gross- 
 Beeren and the Katzbach (23-25 Aug.); Napoleon defeats 
 the Austrians at Dresden (26-27 Aug.); surrender of 
 Vandamme to the Russians at Kulm (30 Aug.); the Treaty 
 of Toplitz (19 Sept., ; Bavaria and Wurtemberg desert 
 Napoleon; great defeat of the French at I^eipzig (16-19 
 Oct.) ; battle of Hanau (30 Oct.) ; Napoleon leaves 
 Germany ; general rising of the Germans against the French. 
 
 Campaign of 18 13 in the Peninsula ; Wellington defeats 
 the French at Vittoria (2 1 June) and invades France. 
 
 The allied armies reach the Rhine ; negotiations with Napo- 
 leon ; position taken up by the Tsar Alexander, Metternich and 
 Castlereagh. 
 
 Campaign of 18 14 in France, the allies invade France ; 
 Napoleon's victories ; the Congress of Chatillon (Feb- 
 Mch. ) ; Frederick VI of Denmark cedes Norway to Sweden 
 by the Treaty of Kiel (14 Jan.) ; the Dutch rise in insur- 
 rection ; Carnot's defence of Antwerp ; the position in 
 Italy ; Eugene de Beauharnais remains faithful, but Murat 
 

 
—■15 — 
 
 negotiates with the allies ; the English occupy Genoa ; atti- 
 tude of France towards Napoleon ; the country refuses to 
 rise to support him ; the allies sign the Treaty of Chaumont 
 (i Mch.) ; Napoleon's last battles ; the allies occupy Paris 
 (31 Mch.) ; abdication of Napoleon at Fontainebleau 
 (6 Apr.) 
 
 Causes of the fall of Napoleon. 
 
 Authorities: On Napoleon's interference in Spain and Portugal 
 and on the history of the Peninsular War, see Dii Casse, Memoires et 
 Correspondance du Roi Joseph, Wellington, Despatches, Napier^ 
 History of the Peninsular War, and Gomez y Arteche, Guerra della 
 Independencia ; for the campaign of Wagram, see Pelet, Memoires 
 sur la Guerre de 1809; for the reorganization of Prussia, see Seeley, 
 Life of Stein, Pertz, Das L<eben des Ministers Freiherrn vom Stein, 
 Ranke, Denkwiirdigkeiten des Fiirsten von Hardenbreg, Stern, 
 Abhandlungen und Aktenstiicke zur Geschichte der Preussischen Re- 
 formzeit, and Lehmann, Scharnhorst ; for Napoleon's campaign in 
 Russia, see Skgur, Histoire de Napoleon et de la Grande Armee pen- 
 dant I'Annee 1812; for the campaign in Germany of 1813, and the 
 rising of Germany against Napoleon, see Droysen, Das Lebd^i des 
 Grafen Yorck von Wartenburg,'^/<?r/5', Das Leben des '^rafeii^NeiF"-'^^^*^'^*^ 
 liardt von Gneisenau,'(9/?<:/t^w, CEsterreich und Preussen im Befreiungs- 
 kriege, Droysen, Vorlesungen iiber die Freiheitskriege ; for the de- 
 fensive campaign of 1814 in France, see Houssaye, 1814, and for the 
 diplomatic proceedings of the period, ''w/wc«, Lives of Lord Castlereagh 
 and Sir Charles Stewart^the ]Vfei2ioit»-««d ^rrespondence of Castle- 
 reagh, anaVitrolles, Memoires, 
 
 LECTURE V 
 
 The CONGRESS OF VIENNA. 
 
 The abdication of Napoleon was followed by the pro- 
 visional Treaty of Paris (11 April) assigning to him the 
 island of Elba and an income, and to the Empress Marie 
 Eouise the duchies of Parma and Piacenza. 
 
 The provisional government of France under the guidance 
 
— i6 — 
 
 of Talleyrand accepted Louis XVIII as king ; on his arrival 
 he issued the Declaration of Saint- Ouen (2 May) promising 
 representative government, liberty of worship and of the press, 
 responsibility of ministers, guarantee of property acquired 
 during the Revolution, etc., which were afterwards embodied 
 in the Charter (4 June, 18 14). 
 
 By the First Treaty of Paris (30 May, 18 14) France was 
 reduced to the limits of 1792, with the addition of Avignon, 
 and other districts within these limits, and of part of Savoy ; 
 she received back all her colonies except the Mauritius, 
 Saint lyucia and Tobago, which were ceded to England. 
 
 It was agreed that a congress of representatives of the 
 states of Europe should be held at Vienna to dispose of the 
 territories on the left bank of the Rhine, taken from France, 
 and in general to settle the affairs of Europe. 
 
 The Congress of Vienna met on i Nov., 18 14 ; it was at- 
 tended by most of the sovereigns of Europe, and those who 
 were^iot present sent special envoys. 
 
 The most important ambassadors were Metternich for Aus- 
 tria, Hardenberg for Prussia, Castlereagh for England, and 
 Razumovski and Nesselrode for Russia ; these representa- 
 tives of the four victorious powers arrogated to themselves 
 the right to arrange the decisions of the Congress. 
 
 Arrival of Talleyrand as the representative of France ; his 
 great diplomatic campaign ; he stands forth as the advocate 
 of legitimacy, and as the defender of the smaller powers ; he 
 adroitly makes use of the dissensions between the four great 
 powers. 
 
 The chief political questions at issue ; ( i ) the Tsar Alex- 
 ander desired the whole of Poland and Frederick William III 
 of Prussia the whole of Saxony, whose king had remained 
 faithful to Napoleon; (2) the disposition of the territories 
 on the left bank of the Rhine ; (3) the treatment of Italy, 
 especiall}^ of Murat, who had abandoned Napoleon ; Talley- 
 rand's attitude upon these questions. 
 
 In order to oppose the claims of Russia and Prussia, Aus- 
 tria, England and France sign a secret treaty of alliance 
 (3 Jan., 1815). . 
 
— 17 — 
 
 Eventually it is settled that Prussia shall receive Lusatia, 
 being about two-fifth of the kingdom of Saxon 5', and Russia 
 the greater part of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, including 
 the city of Warsaw ; Prussia retained her gains in the first 
 and second partitions of Poland, with the additions of Posen, 
 Thorn and Dantzig, while ^Austria retained Eastern Galicia, 
 and Cracow was made a free state. 
 
 In order to establish strong powers upon the Rhine to 
 curb France, Holland and Belgium are united as the King- 
 dom of the Netherlands and granted to the Prince of Orange, 
 who is also made Grand Duke of lyUxemburg ; the districts 
 comprising the former electorates of Treves and Cologne, 
 etc. , w^ere granted to Prussia ; the districts further south to 
 Bavaria, in compensation for the loss of Salzburg and the 
 Tyrol, and the fortress of Mayence to Hesse- Darmstadt, to be 
 garrisoned by the Germanic Confederation. 
 
 The re-arrangement of Italy ; lyombardy and Venetia 
 were given to Austria, Genoa was added to the kingdom of 
 Sardinia in which the succession was fixed in the Carignan 
 line, Tuscany and Modena were restored to their former 
 rulers, both Austrian princes, Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla 
 were given to the Empress Marie lyouise for her life, with 
 succession to the rightful heir who was for the time made 
 Grand Duke of I^ucca, the States of the Church restored to 
 the Pope and the question of retaining Murat on the throne 
 of Naples remained unsettled until he defied Austria and en- 
 deavored to summon Italy to arms ; after the defeat of 
 Murat at Tolentino (3 May, 18 15) Naples was restored to 
 Ferdinand IV, King of the Two Sicilies. 
 
 In the North, Sweden was confirmed in the possession of 
 Norway, ceded to her by Denmark by the Treaty of Kiel, 
 but Denmark lost Swedish Pomerania and received instead 
 the Duchy of I^auenburg. 
 
 In Germany, Prussia regained her acquisitions of 1803 
 with Swedish Pomerania, the greater part of the kingdom of 
 Westphalia, and Rhenish Prussia ; Hanover received East 
 Friesland and other districts, and the mediatization of the 
 petty states of Germany was maintained. 
 
— i8 — 
 
 England, in addition to the colonial gains made by the 
 Treaty of Amiens, retained the Cape of Good Hope, the 
 Mauritius, Malta, Heligoland, and the Ionian Islands, but 
 restored Martinique to the French and Java to the Dutch ; 
 Castlereagh's chief preoccupation at Vienna was, however, to 
 secure the abolition of the negro slave trade. 
 
 Before these arrangements were finally completed, the 
 congress was startled by the news that Napoleon had left 
 Elba and was again master of France ; it therefore hurried 
 through the rest of its work by reorganizing Germany and 
 Switzerland. 
 
 The Germanic Confederation took the place of the Con- 
 federation of the Rhine ; it consisted of thirty-eight states, 
 in addition to Austria and Prussia, namely ; the four 
 kingdoms of Bavaria, Hanover, Saxony and Wurtemberg, 
 the eight grand duchies of Baden, Hesse-Cassel, Hesse- 
 Darmstadt, Luxemburg, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklen- 
 burg-Strelitz, Oldenburg, and Saxe- Weimar, eleven duchies, 
 eleven principalities, and the four free cities of Bremen, 
 Frankfort, Hamburg and lyiibeck ; the affairs of the Con- 
 federation were entrusted to a Diet presided over by Austria 
 and consisting of an Ordinary Assembly of seventeen and a 
 General Assembly of sixty-nine members. 
 
 The Swiss Confederation was guaranteed neutrality by 
 the powers of Europe ; three new cantons, Geneva, 
 Neufchatel and the Valais were added ; entire independence 
 was given to the individual cantons and the presidency of 
 the federal diet was reserved to Zurich, Berne and Lucerne 
 in turn. 
 
 Importance of the work of the • Congress of Vienna ; it 
 shows a reaction to i8th century ideas in trampling on the 
 ideas of nationality and of the sovereignty of the people. 
 
 The story of . the Hundred Days ; unpopularity and 
 unwise conduct of Louis XVIII ; Napoleon escapes from 
 Elba and lands in France (i Mch., 1815) ; he reaches Paris 
 (20 Mch.); flight of Louis XVIII; Napoleon promises 
 to establish representative institutions ; the Additional Act 
 
iU^c^^^ hU^.^iUi f:^ ^^<^ 
 
— 19 — 
 
 (23 Apr.) ; he endeavors to raise France against the allies ; 
 he is defeated by the English and Prussians at Waterloo 
 (i8 June) ; surrender of Napoleon to Captain Maitland 
 (15 July) ; he is sent to St. Helena; the allied armies occupy 
 Paris ; restoration of lyouis XVIII. 
 
 By the Second Treaty of Paris (20 Nov., 1815) France 
 loses the part of Savoy granted her in 18 14 and other ratifi- 
 cations of her frontier ; she has to restore the works of art 
 accumulated in Paris to their former owners ; she is forced 
 to pay a war contribution of 700,000,000 francs and to 
 maintain an army of 150,000 troops of the allies in possession 
 of her eastern fortresses for five years. 
 
 Authorities : For the history and acts of t he Cong resg."f Vienna. 
 see^Flassan, Histoire du Congr^s de ViennefT^luder, Akten der Wie- 
 ner Congresses, Angeberg, Le Congres de Vienne et les Traites de 1815, 
 ^ De Pradt, JtLCongres de Vienne, Schoell, Recueil de Pieces Officielles 
 relatives au Congres de Vienne, Talleyrand, M^nioires, Pallain, Cor- 
 respondance in^dite du Prince de Talleyrand et du Roi Louis XVIII 
 pendant le Congres de Vienne, Metternich, Memoirs, Alison, Lives of 
 Lord Casllereagh and Sir Charles Stewart, Casllereagh, Correspond- 
 ence, Wellington, Supplementary Despatches, Ranke, Hardenberg. 
 For the Hundred Days, see the books on Napoleon already cited, 
 Hoiissaye, 18 15, Constant, Memoires sur les Cent Jours, Vitrolles, M^- 
 moires, and Rochechouart, Souvenirs ; and for the campaign of Water- 
 loo, Siborne, History of the War in France and Belgium in 1815, Ropes, 
 History of the Waterloo Campaign, Gardner, Waterloo, Chesney, Wa- 
 terloo Lectures, and Charras, Histoire de la campagne de 18 15. 
 
 JutU 
 
 ^ 
 
 IvECTURB VI. 
 
 THE HOLY ALLIANCE. 
 
 After the signature of the Second Treaty of Paris, the 
 Tsar Alexander of Russia, influenced by Madame de Krii- 
 dener, proposes the formation of a Holy Alliance declaring 
 the obligations of monarchs to the Christian religion ; it is 
 
'--- 20 — 
 
 Signed by the E^niperor Francis of Austria and King Fred- 
 erick William III of Prussia, (26 Sept., 1815), but not by 
 England ; the objects and aims, secret and avowed, of the 
 Holy Alliance. 
 
 Metternich recognized as the leading statesman of the 
 Holy Alliance ; his fear of democratic principles greater 
 than his attachment to religion ; his intimacy with Castle- 
 reagh ; he proposes to preserve the peace of Europe and the 
 force of government by frequent congresses of representa- 
 tives of the great powers, which should consult and act to- 
 gether. 
 
 Metternich' s Austrian policy the reverse of that of Joseph 
 II ; he believes in maintaining authority by preserving the 
 diversity of language and law in the different provinces of 
 the Austrian empire. 
 
 The internal policy of the Tsar Alexander I ; his attempt 
 to establish constitutional government in Poland ; his friend- 
 ship with Adam Czartoryski and other Polish patriots ; his 
 interest in the Eastern Question, and dcvsire to overthrow the 
 power of the Turks ; he encourages the Greeks, especially 
 through Capo d'Istria, in their desire for independence. 
 
 The government of Eouis XVIII in France ; the system 
 of the Charter ; representative government in two chambers ; 
 the two parties, Royalists and Constitutionalists ; suppression 
 of the liberty of the press ; repression of the partisans of 
 the Revolution ; the White Terror ; the administration of 
 the Due de Richelieu, (1815-1818). 
 
 The Congress of Aix la Chapelle ; the allies agree to evac- 
 uate France (9 Oct., 18 18). 
 
 The spread of constitutional principles in Germany ; in- 
 dignation of the young German party at the refusal of the 
 Congress of Vienna to recognize the principle of nationality 
 or the establishment of representative government ; the 
 spirit of the universities ; the Burschenschaft. 
 
 Certain German rulers, notably the Kings of Bavaria and 
 Wurtemberg and the Grand Dukes of Baden and Saxe- Wei- 
 mar, grant representative constitutions to their states ; Fred- 
 
21 
 
 erick William III of Prussia had promised a constitution in 
 1815 and took steps in that direction in 1818 ; the work of 
 William von Humboldt ; Metternich's opposition to the lib- 
 eral movement in Germany. 
 
 The murder of Kotzebue (23 Mch., 1819) ; its effect on 
 Germany ; Frederick William III dismisses Humboldt and 
 delays his promised constitution ; riots in Germany ; Metter- 
 nich takes advantage of these risings to oppose liberal ideas ;, 
 the Congress of Carlsbad (Aug. 1819) ; the Final Act of the 
 Congress of Vienna (15 May, 1820), strengthening the power 
 of the Diet of the Germanic Confederation against the 
 different states ; measures taken against German liberalism. 
 
 The demand for representative government and for the 
 establishment in different degrees of liberal principles 
 stigmatized by Metternich as Jacobinism ; he induces the 
 Holy Alliance, including the Tsar Alexander, to declare 
 against liberalism. 
 
 The supporters of liberal principles form secret societies 
 all over Europe in relation with each other ; in Germany 
 and in Italy their cause is associated with the spirit of 
 nationality. 
 
 General revolution in Spain (1820) caus:^d by the 
 reactionary government of Ferdinand VII ; the Spanish 
 colonies in Central and South America fight for their inde- 
 pendence ; San Martin, Francia, Bolivar and Iturbide ; the 
 Spaniards demand the Constitution of 1812 ; Ferdinand VII 
 appears to yield, but appeals for help against his people to 
 the Holy Alliance ; Catalonia and Navarre oppose the re- 
 forms of the Cortes. 
 
 The Carbonari in Italy ; the movement for reform, both 
 democratic and national ; Pepe seize Naples (1820) and 
 forces Ferdinand IV to adopt a liberal constitution ; demo- 
 cratic rising in Turin. 
 
 Metternich lays the question of the liberal movement in 
 Italy before a congress of the powers at Troppau (Oct., 
 Dec, 1820) and at Lay bach (Jan. -Mch., 182 1) ; Austria 
 authorized to interfere ; Austrian troops suppress the liberal 
 movements in Naples and Piedmont. 
 
22 — 
 
 Suicide of Castlereagh (12 Aug., 1822) ; Canning 
 becomes English foreign minister ; his liberal ideas and dis- 
 like of Metternich ; Castlereagh 's death the first blow at the 
 solidarity of the great powers in the system of governing 
 Europe by Congress. 
 
 Attitude of France towards the other powers ; policy of 
 Louis XVIII ; administration of Decazas (1818-20) and of 
 Richelieu (1820-21) ; formation of an ultra- Royalist 
 ministry under Villele (1821). 
 
 Meeting of the Congress of Verona (Oct., 1822), sum- 
 moned to deal with the revolutionary movement in Spain ; 
 attitude taken by Canning, who declares the intention of 
 England to recognize the independence of the South Ameri- 
 can republics and warns the allies not to interfere in 
 Portugal ; the Congress requests France to re-establish the 
 authority of Ferdinand VII. 
 
 A French army invades Spain, occupies Madrid, and 
 suppresses the Constitutional party in Spain ; unpopularity 
 of this action among French liberals ; plots formed against 
 the Bourbons. 
 
 Death of Louis XVIII (16 Sept., 1824) ; accession of the 
 Comte d'Artois as Charles X ; his ultra- Royalist ideas ; he 
 retains Villele in power. 
 
 Death of the Tsar Alexander I (i Dec, 1825) : the 
 character of his influence on European politics since the 
 Congress of Vienna ; his death breaks up the Holy Alliance ; 
 his successor, Nicholas I, resolves to carry out his own policy 
 without consulting the other powers ; Metternich remains 
 the director of the policy of Austria and Russia, but 
 England, owing to the death of Castlereagh, and Russia, 
 owing to the death of Alexander, no longer submit to his 
 leadership. 
 
 Authorities: For the diDlotnatic history of this period, see Debi- 
 dour, Histoire Diplomatique de L,' Europe, Metternich, Memoirs, Cas- 
 tlereagh, Correspondence, Pozzo dl Borgo, Correspondance diploma- 
 tique, and Ranke, Hardenberg ; for special Congresses, see'w^ Pradt, 
 ^'Europe apres le Congres d'Aix-£a -Chapelle, and Le Congres de 
 Carlsbad, Bignon, I^e Congres de Troppau, and Chateaubriand, Le 
 
«yc. '^lU^t "fhlyu-^T^c h^\c^ e^- c^xtfjtr^^n^ct. eiili^cvh^i 
 

 
— 23 — 
 
 Congres de Verone ; for the history of the Restoration in France, see 
 Viel-Castel, Histoire de la Restau ration, Rochechouart, Souvenirs, 
 Hyde de Neuville, Memoires, Marcellus^ Souvenirs diplomatiques, 
 and Villele, Metnoires ; for Germany, see Gervinus, Geschichte des 
 Neunzehuten Jahrhunderts, Treitschke, Deutsche Geschichte im 
 Neunzehnten Jahrhundert, owSPfister, Konig Friedrich von Wiirttem- 
 berg und seine Zeit ; on Italy, see Colletta, Istoria di Reame di Napoli, 
 ^Pepe, Memoirs, and^t?^/« de Beauregard^ La Jeunesse du Roi Charles 
 Albert ; for Spain, Hubbard, Histoire Contemporaine de I'Espagne, 
 and Martignac, Essai historique sur la Revolution 4!^^^SH^J_A-4J^ 
 the Tsar Alexander^'/^<?r</,<^Ma^3anre cIe~TCfudener, La Correspondance 
 enlre le Tsar Alexandre et le Prince Adam Czartoryski, and Schnitzler, 
 Histoire intime de la Russie sous les Empereurs Alexandre et Nicolas. 
 
 LECTURE VII. 
 
 THE EASTERN QUESTION AND THE INDEPENDENCE OF 
 
 GREECE. 
 
 The importance of the Eastern question in the history of 
 Europe during the 19th century ; owing to the extinction of 
 Poland, it becomes practically a Turkish question ; England 
 and Austria devote themselves to checking the disruption of 
 the Turkish Empire which it was the traditional policy of 
 Russia to promote. 
 
 The position of the Turks at the time of the Congress of 
 Vienna ; loss of the old Muhammadan fanaticism and 
 energy ; the government of the Sultan Mahmud II ; 
 quasi-independence of Egypt attained by Mehemet Ali by his 
 destruction of the Mamelukes (1811) ; discontented and in- 
 dependent spirit of the Christian populations under Turkish 
 rule, of the inhabitants of the Danubian provinces of Wal- 
 lachia and Moldavia, of the Slavs of Servia, and of the 
 Greeks. 
 
 The insurrection of the Servians under Kara George 
 (1804) ; recognition of Servian independence by the Treaty 
 
— 24 — 
 
 of Bucharest (1812) ; the Turks nevertheless reconquer 
 Servia and expel Kara George ; second Servian insurrection 
 under Milosch Obrenovitch (1815) ; he is for a time rec- 
 ognized as quasi-independent ( 1 8 1 7 ) . 
 
 Position of the Danubian provinces under the Treaty of 
 Bucharest ; Russia reaches the Danube. 
 
 The Greeks rise in insurrection (1821) ; they are encour- 
 aged, but not openly, by the Tsar Alexander I ; his friend- 
 ship for Capo d'Istria ; failure of the first rising under 
 Ypsilanti ; gallantry of the Greek insurgents ; Metternich 
 declares against assisting them ; Alexander therefore, dis- 
 misses Capo d'Istria from oihce ; strong feeling among the 
 educated classes in England and France in favor of the 
 Greeks ; many volunteers, including Byron, go to their as- 
 sistance ; large loans raised for them in England. 
 
 Change caused in the attitude of Russia to the Eastern 
 Question by the accession of Nicholas ; he resolves to pro- 
 mote RuSvSian interests in Turkey without consulting other 
 powers ; Nicholas agrees with Canning that the Turks shall 
 be forced to recognize the independence of Greece (4 Apr. , 
 
 1826) ; by the Treaty of Ackerman (7 Oct., 1826) the Turks 
 make concessions to Russia, and the Sultan promises to ap- 
 point local boyars or nobles elected by the local divans for 
 seven years as Hospodars or princes of the two Danubian 
 provinces and to establish quasi-independence in Servia. 
 
 Canning becomes prime minister of England (10 April, 
 
 1827) ; Russia, England and France come to an agreement 
 for securing absolute independence for Greece (6 July, 
 1827) ; the Turks encouraged by Metternich, refused to 
 yield; death of Canning (8 Aug.,); destruction of the 
 Turkish fleet by the allies at Navarino (20 Oct., 1827) ; 
 Capo d'Istria elected President of the Greek state. 
 
 Position of the Sultan Mahmud II ; by the massacre of 
 
 the Janissaries (15 June, 1826) he had destroyed his army ; 
 
 the battle of Navarino had destroyed his fleet ; nevertheless, 
 
 he refused to consent to the independence of Greece. 
 
 . The Tsar Nicholas, in the name of the Triple Alliance, 
 
— 25 — 
 
 attacked the Turks and a Russian army crossed the Pruth 
 (7 May, 1828) ; changes of ministry in England and France 
 caused England under Wellington to be less eager, and 
 France under Martignac to be more eager to support the 
 cause of the Greeks ; a French force under Maison occupies 
 the Morea, which is evacuated by the Egyptian troops of 
 Mehemet Ali ; the Russians repulsed from Shumla and Silis- 
 tria ; successful campaign of Paskievitch in Armenia. 
 
 By an agreement between England, France and Russia, 
 the limits of Greece are fixed, and it is resolved that some 
 prince not belonging to the Royal Houses of these countries 
 shall be placed upon the throne of Greece (22 Mch., 1829) ; 
 candidature of lycopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. 
 
 Campaign of 1829 ; Diebitch reaches Adrianople ; terror 
 of the Sultan Mahmud ; by the Treaty of Adrianople (14 
 Sept., 1829) the Treaty of Ackerman is renewed with the 
 exception that the Hospodars of the Danubian provinces are 
 to be appointed for life, the independence of Greece is 
 recognized and the Russians are permitted to occupy the 
 fortresses upon the Danube as a guarantee of the payment 
 of a large indemnity by the Turks. 
 
 Conclusion of the Greek question ; Leopold refuses the 
 throne; murder of Capo d'Istria (9 Oct., 1831) ; Otho of 
 Bavaria made King of the Hellenes (7 May, 1832) ; the 
 French evacuate the Morea. 
 
 The Tsar Nicholas I and Poland ; the government of the 
 Grand Duke Constantine ; indignation of the Poles at the re- 
 fusal of self-government ; the feeling of nationality main- 
 tained by secret societies ; the Poles, who served under Na- 
 poleon, look for help to France in regaining their independ- 
 ence. 
 
 Effect of the Revolution of Feb., 1830, in France upon 
 Poland; an insurrection breaks out at Warsaw (29 Nov., 
 1830) ; the Russians are driven from Poland ; Chlopicki dic- 
 tator of Poland (5 Dec, 1830 — 15 Jan., 1831) ; the Poles de- 
 feat the Russians at Waver (20 Feb., 1831), and elsewhere ; 
 Europe refuses to help the Poles ; the Austrians and Prus- 
 
— 26 — 
 
 sians mass troops upon their frontiers, fearing that the insur- 
 rection will reach Austrian and Prussian Poland ; Louis 
 Philippe of France is not firm enough on his throne to inter- 
 fere ; the Poles defeated at Ostrolenka (26 May, 1831) ; 
 Warsaw besieged and taken by Paskievitch (7 Sept., 183 1) ; 
 cruel punishment of the Polish insurgents ; rigorous govern- 
 ment of the Tsar Nicholas. 
 
 Policy of Nicholas towards the Turks ; by his occupation 
 of the Danubian fortresses he keeps them at his mercy ; the 
 character and career of Mehemet Ali, Pasha of Egypt ; he in- 
 vades Syria, with the intention of marching on Constanti- 
 nople ; England and France intervene to stop Mehemet Ali ; 
 the Sultan Mahmud calls in the help of Russia and signs an 
 offensive and defensive treaty wth Nicholas at Unkiar 
 Skelessi (12 July, 1833) ; the Russians evacuate the Danu- 
 bian fortresses and provinses (1834). 
 
 Russia's advance into Central Asia ; conquest of the Cen- 
 tral Asian tribes one of the national aims of the Russian peo- 
 ple ; importance and value of the work to Europe ; the cam- 
 paign of the Russians for the possession of the Caucasus 
 and the conquest of Circassia and Georgia ; Russian wars 
 with Persia; by the Treaty of Gulistan (18 13) Fateh Ali 
 Shah cedes Daghestan to Russia, and by the Treaty of Turk- 
 omanchai (1828) Russian influence becomes predominant in 
 Persia. 
 
 The settlement of the Eastern question presents difficult 
 problems to England, France and Austria, which all have an 
 interest in restraining Russia. 
 
 Authorities: For the history of the Eastern Question, reference 
 may be male to the sketch contained in Debidour, Histoire Diplo- 
 matique de I'Burope, to several of the other works cited under Lect- 
 ure VI, to Balleydier, Histoire de PEmpereur Nicolas, to Gentz, De- 
 peches inedits aux Hospodars de Valachie, and to Ranke, History of 
 Servia ; for the War of Greek Independence, the best authorities are 
 Finlay, History of the Greek Revolution, Gordoji, History of the 
 Greek Revolution, Soutzo, Histoire de la' Revolution Grecque, and 
 Tricoupis' history written in modern Greek ; for the policy of Can- 
 ning, see his political life by Stapleton, and his official correspondence 
 
— 27 — 
 
 edited by Stapleton ; for the war between Russia and Turkey, see 
 -^Chesney, The Russo-Turkish Campaigns of 1828-29, and iJ/(9//'>^<?, Jour- 
 nal of the War between Russia and Turkey ; and, for the advance of 
 Russia into Central Asia, Hellwald, The Russians in Central Asia. 
 
 LECTURE VIII 
 
 THE REVOLUTION OF 1830 IN FRANCE. 
 
 The position of parties under the Restoration ; in the 
 Chambers appeared only ultra- Royalists, and Constitution- 
 alists, who desire to interpret the charter of 18 14 according 
 to the principles of 1789 ; in the army and in military circles 
 were many Bonapartists ; and in the cities the Democratic 
 and Republican party was very strong. 
 
 Character of the ultra- Royalist administration of Villele 
 (1821-28) during the latter years of Louis XVIII and the 
 first years of Charles X ; severe repression of Bonapartist 
 plots and city riots ; the Royalists endeavor to make the Con- 
 stitutional party responsible for Bonapartist and Democratic 
 excesses ; the bourgeois, and educated classes of France, 
 support the Constitutionalists ; Royalism is confined to a 
 small party of the nobility ; growing importance of jour- 
 nalism ; the work of Armand Carrel, Courier, Thiers, and 
 Guizot. 
 
 The character and policy of Charles X ; he hopes by a 
 vigorous foreign policy, as shown in the expedition to the 
 Morea in 1828 and in the expedition to Algiers in 1830, to 
 turn the minds of the people from internal politics, and by a 
 closa alliance with the absolutist powers, especially Russia, 
 to get assistance from abroad in case of insurrection at home. 
 
 The elections of 1827 give a large majority in the Cham- 
 bers to the Constitutionalists ; Villele succeeded in office by 
 Martignac (4 Jan. 1828) ; the new ministry satisfies neither 
 
— 28 — 
 
 the King nor the Chambers, and is succeeded by the ultra- 
 Ro3^aHst ministry of Polignac (8 Aug., 1829) ; the king and 
 ministry being unable to get a majority for their measures 
 resolve to alter the Charter in favor of increasing the royal 
 power. 
 
 Proclamation of the Ordinances submitting the press to 
 severe censure and modifying the electoral laws (25 July, 
 1830). 
 
 The insurrection of July 1830 in Paris; the erection of 
 barricades and commencement of street fighting (27, 28 
 July) ; the failure of the troops to suppress the insurrection; 
 Charles X, when too late, withdraws the Ordinances (29 July) ; 
 he resolves to leave France with his family (31 July) ; he ap- 
 points the Duke of Orleans Lieutenant-General of the king- 
 dom, (i Aug.) and abdicates (2 Aug.); he reaches England 
 (17 Aug.) 
 
 Surprise of the Constitutionalists at their sudden and com- 
 plete victory ; the part played by Lafayette ; ihe Constitu- 
 tionalists resolve that although the victory had been won by 
 the democrats of Paris it shall result in the formation of a 
 Constitutional monarchy ; the Chambers revise the Charter 
 from the liberal point of view, and (7 Aug.) elect the Duke 
 of Orleans as King of the French under the title of Louis 
 Philippe. 
 
 Character, career and disposition of Louis Philippe ; diffi- 
 culties of his position at the commencement of his reign ; 
 he represented the ideas and wishes of the bourgeois and not 
 of the whole people of France, which weakened him at home, 
 while abroad, he is regarded as the creation of a new French 
 Revolution not less dangerous to the monarchical system of 
 Europe than the first French Revolution. 
 
 The foreign policy of Louis Philippe ; importance of the 
 services rendered at this time by Talleyrand, who goes as 
 ambassador to London ; the Monarchy of July recognized by 
 Wellington, as prime minister of England, and cordially sup- 
 ported by the Reform Ministry of Lord Grey, which suc- 
 ceeded to power in Nov. 1830 ; the recognition of England 
 

 'AmX 
 
 ^^^^ Ls cU'v^^ c^uhlt^ cU U^f^t^ 
 
— 29 — 
 
 was followed by that of Austria and Prussia, Mettertiich and 
 Frederick William III bsing afraid to attack France by 
 themselves ; the Tsar Nicholas was too much occupied with 
 putting- down ths Polish insurrection to interfere in France, 
 and did not desire to do so after lyouis Philippe refused to as- 
 sist the Poles. 
 
 The insurrections in Belgium and elsewhere which followed 
 the Revolution in France made the position of the king very 
 difficult because France was held responsible for the other 
 risings ; skill shown by lyOuis Philippe and Talleyrand. 
 
 Internal policy of Louis Philippe ; doubtfulness of his 
 title as a legitimate or a revolutionary monarch ; he re-estab- 
 lishes the tricolor flag ; I^afayette appointed Commandant 
 General of the National Guards of France ; the first minis- 
 try of lyOUis Philippe containing members of both the Con- 
 stitutional and advanced lyiberal parties ; Laffitte, the leader 
 of the advanced party, made chief minister (2 Nov., 1830) ; 
 changes made in the Constitution. 
 
 The ministry of Casimir Perier (1831-32); his strong 
 government at home and his strong foreign policy ; abolition 
 of the hereditary peerage and appointment of an upper- 
 chamber of life peers. 
 
 Significance of the Revolution of 1830 in France; the 
 bourgeois at last have an opportunity ol putting into effect 
 the principles of 1789; results of their experiment. 
 
 Authorities : The Revolution of 183 > in France is treated at length 
 in the first chapters of the following general histories of the reign of 
 lyOuis Philippe : Thu re an- Dang in, Histoire de laMoiiarchie de Juillet. 
 Louis Blanc, Histoire de dix Ans, Capefigue, L'Europedepuis I'avene- 
 ment du Roi lyOuis Philippe, D' Haussonvilley Histoire deja^politi^e 
 exterieure du Gouvernement Franjais [\%io-^^^'^\<?rTiiilebra7id, Ge- 
 schichte Frankreichs; of special value are Talleyrand, Menioires, vols, 
 iv and v, containing his correspondence with Louis Philippe from 1830 
 to 1834, and refei-ence may be made to Guizot, Memoires pour servir 
 a I'histoire de mon temps, Lafayette, Memoires, Salva?idy, Seize Mois, 
 Laffitte, Memoires, and the Due de Broglie, Souvenirs. 
 
 IsA^, 
 
— 30 — 
 LECTURE IX. 
 
 THE BELGIAN INSURRECTION. 
 
 The mistake made by the Congress of Vienna in uniting 
 the Protestant and CathoHc Netherlands under one monarch; 
 the hereditary antagonism of the Dutch and the Belgians ; 
 in 1815 Belgium had been for more than twenty years under 
 French government and resented the government of the 
 Dutch. 
 
 The government of William I, King of the Netherlands ; 
 he declares Dutch the official language of the country and 
 favors his Dutch over his Belgian subjects. 
 
 The Belgians, excited by the news of the Revolution of 
 July, 1830, in Paris, and hoping for help from the new gov- 
 ernment of France, break into insurrection (25 Aug., 1830); 
 a Dutch attack on Brussels is repulsed (30 Aug.), a pro- 
 visional government formed, and a national assembly sum- 
 moned. 
 
 The National Assembly of Belgium meets (10 Nov.), 
 solemnly proclaims the independence of Belgium (18 Nov.), 
 and that Belgium should be like France a constitutional 
 monarchy and not a republic. 
 
 William I appeals to the great powers for assistance, on 
 the ground that the independence of Belgium was contrary 
 to the decisions of the Congress of Vienna ; but the Tsar 
 Nicholas was engaged in Poland, Metternich's attention was 
 fixed on Italy, England, under the Reform Ministry of Eord 
 Grey, was inclined to S3anpathize with the Belgian insurgents 
 and only Prussia was prepared to assist him. 
 
 The difficult position of lyouis Philippe ; as the king made 
 by the Revolution of 1830 in Paris, he is looked on as re- 
 sponsible for the Belgian Revolution by Europe and appealed 
 to for help by the Belgians ; England was the only great 
 "power which cared much about Belgium, and it thought 
 more of keeping Belgium separate from France than subject 
 to Holland; Talleyrand, as French ambassador in London, 
 
agreed to act with England in settling the fate of the Bel- 
 gians ; a conference of the powers summoned for this pur- 
 pose in lyondon. 
 
 The Conference of lyondon recognized the independence 
 of Belgium ( 20 Dec. ) and direct an armistice to be made 
 (9 Jan., 1831) ; it fixed the boundaries of the new Belgian 
 State (20 Jan.), excluding from it Luxemburg, Maestricht 
 and the right bank of the Scheldt ; discontent of the Bel- 
 gians with these frontiers, which were eventually slightly 
 modified. 
 
 The Due de Nemours, second son of lyouis Philippe, 
 elected King of the Belgians over the Duke of I^euchten- 
 berg and the Archduke Charles ; he refuses the throne (17 
 Feb., 1 831) ; the regency of Surlet de Chokier; Leopold of 
 Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, the English candidate, elected King of 
 the Belgians (4 June) ; he accepts the throne under certain 
 conditions ; the Conference of London, under the influence 
 of the English foreign minister Palmerston, declares Belgium 
 neutral under the guarantee of the Powers. 
 
 William I suddenly breaks the armistice and invades Bel- 
 gium (i Aug., 1 831); Leopold appeals for aid to France; 
 vigorous action of the Casimir Perier ministry ; a French 
 army under Gerard occupies Brussels (12 Aug., 1831); the 
 Belgians accept the terms fixed by the Conference of Lon- 
 don (15 Nov., 1831); the states of Europe generally recog- 
 nize Leopold. 
 
 William I remains obdurate ; the English and French 
 fleets blockade Holland ; and Gerard's army is directed to 
 take the citadel of Antwerp, the only Dutch fortress remain- 
 ing in Belgium ; capture of Antwerp (23 Dec, 1832). 
 
 From that time the independence of Belgium was assured, 
 though William I still tried to make difficulties. 
 
 The nature and character of the Belgian constitution. 
 
 The effect of the Revolutions of 1830 in Paris and Bel- 
 gium in Germany ; riots aud risings in Rhenish Prussia 
 where the Catholics are alarmed at the Protestant legislation 
 of Frederick William III, and where the idea of self-govern- 
 
— 32 — 
 
 meiit is especially strong ; insurrections and demands for 
 self-government in other German states, notably in Hanover, 
 Hesse-Cassel and Saxony ; expulsion of the Duke of Bruns- 
 wick by his people. 
 
 Resurrection of the young German movement for nation- 
 ality and self-government ; revival of the Tugenbund, the 
 Burschenschaft, etc. 
 
 Metternich attributes these political risings to the growth 
 of revolutionary ideas, and attacks constitutional govern- 
 ment as a form of republicanism and as essentially revolu- 
 tionary. 
 
 Metternich 's ascendency over the mind of Frederick 
 William III ; after 1830 he appeals to the Tsar Nicholas 
 and hopes to revive the Holy Alliance. 
 
 The Conferences of Toplitz and Munchen-Gratz (1832); 
 the three powers guarantee each other's rights in Poland and 
 take measures for crushing the idea of Polish nationality : 
 thc3^ also resolve against the doctrine of non-intervention 
 and declare the right of any monarch whose position is as- 
 sailed by internal rebellion to appeal for aid to other monarchs. 
 
 With regard to Germany, Metternich gets a law passed in 
 the Federal Diet that, in case of disagreement between a Ger- 
 man ruler and his people, the Confederation could interfere 
 to restore the power of the ruler, and it was declared that no 
 constitution granted by himself could limit the right of a 
 ruler to collect taxes. 
 
 The effect of the Revolution of 1830 in Italy; the Car- 
 bonari force a series of insurrections ; the Empress Marie 
 lyouise is driven from Parma, and Duke Francis IV from 
 Modena (Feb., 1831); more general insurrections in the 
 States of the Church; the attitude of Pope Gregory XVI— Cap- 
 ellari ; provisional government formed for the lyCgations at 
 Bologna. 
 
 Metternich sends Austrian troops to restore order in Parma, 
 Modena, and the States of the Church; the Italian insurgents 
 look foi- help to France ; the attitude taken by I^ouis Philippe 
 and Casimir Perier ; the French occupy Ancona (22 Feb., 
 
— 33 — 
 
 1832) which they assert their right to hold as long as the 
 Austrians occupy the lyegations ; the French evacuate An- 
 cona when the Austrians withdraw (Dec. 1838). 
 Significance of the movement of 1830 in Europe. 
 
 Authorities : On the Belgian Revolution see Nothomh Essai his- 
 torique et politique sur la revolution de Belgique, Jtiste La revolution 
 de la Belgique, 1830, and Le Roi Leopold, and Bavay Histoire de la 
 revolution beige de 1830 ; on the revolutionary movement in Germany 
 in 1830 see Gervinus and Treitschke, cited under Lecture VI, Bulle, 
 Gescbichte der neuesten ZeMf^ Deventer Cinquante ann^es de T his- 
 toire fed^rale de I'Allemagne, and Biedetmann, 1815-1840 ; Fiinf 
 und zwanzig Jahre Deutscher Geschichte ; and in Italy Thayer Tire 
 revolutionary movement in Italy from 1815 to 1848, Tivaroni Istoria 
 della dorainazione Austriaco in Italia, and Mazzini \45erks. 
 
 I.ECTURE -X. 
 
 INSURRECTION AND CIVIL WAR IN SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. 
 
 The condition of Portugal after the Peninsular War ; ex- 
 tent of English influence in the regency and the army ; the 
 Portuguese expel the English (1820) and draw up a demo- 
 cratic constitution (1822). 
 
 John VI returns to Portugal, when Brazil declares its in- 
 dependence under the Emperor Pedro I (1823) ; on the death 
 of John VI the Emperor Pedro issues the Charter of 1826 
 establishing moderate parliamentary government and then 
 addicates the throne of Portugal in favor of his daughter 
 Maria da Gloria ; Canning sends an English force to 
 Portugal to maintain order which is withdrawn in 1827. 
 
 Dom Miguel, younger brother of the Emperor Pedro, who 
 was appointed regent in 1827, seizes the throne (1828); he 
 declares himself an absolute monarch, and persecutes both 
 the moderate adherents to the Charter of 1826, and the more 
 radical supporters of the Constitution of 1822* 
 
— 34 — 
 
 The reign of Dom Miguel ; both Chartists and Constitu- 
 tionahsts rise in rebelHon (1829) and declare in favor of 
 Maria da Gloria ; the Emperor Pedro resigns the throne of 
 Brazil (1831) and comes to the support of his daughter's 
 cause ; attitude of the powers of Europe to the civil wars in 
 Portugal ; many English officers enter the Queen's service ; 
 the siege of Oporto ; Napier destroys Miguel's fleet off Cape 
 St. Vincent (5 July, 1833); the Pedroites occupy lyisbon 
 (24 July). 
 
 England, France and Spain recognize Maria da Gloria and 
 form the Quadruple Alliance ; Dom Miguel surrenders to a 
 Spanish and Portuguese army at Evora Monte (26 May, 
 1834); by the Convention of Evora Monte he is forever ex- 
 pelled from Portugal. 
 
 Death of the ex -Emperor Pedro (24 Sept., 1834); troubled 
 reign of Maria da Gloria (1834-53); constant outbreaks of 
 civil war and frequency of military pronunciamentos in 
 favor of the Charter of 1826 and the Constitution of 1822 ; 
 revision of the Charter (1852). 
 
 Revival of national feeling in Portugal ; rejection of 
 Iberianist ideas. 
 
 The latter years of the reign of F'erdinand' VII of Spain 
 after his restoration to absolute power by the French in 1823 ', 
 the question of the succession to the throne ; Ferdinand VII, 
 by a Pragmatic Sanction, declares his elder daughter, 
 Isabella, to be the heir ; opposition of Don Carlos, his 
 brother, who claims the succession as male heir. 
 
 Death of Ferdinand VII (29 Sept., 1833); Isabella, a 
 child of three years old, recognized as Queen by the greater 
 part of Spain, under the regency of her mother Christina, a 
 daughter of Ferdinand IV, King of the Two Sicilies ; char- 
 acter of Christina ; the regency is recognized by England 
 and France. 
 
 Don Carlos opposes the regency and declares himself king ; 
 his cause is favored by the clericals and by the mountaineers 
 of Northern Spain ; outbreak of civil war ; victories of the 
 CarlistSj- ^^c- : 3 V^ t>^V j 
 
— 35 — 
 
 Rivalry of England and France in the affairs of the Pen- 
 insula ; personal rivalry between Palmerston and lyouis 
 Philippe ; both countries prevented by jealousy of each other 
 from openly assisting the Christinists, though they both 'as 
 constitutional monarchies desire her success over the Car- 
 lists ; legions of volunteers were however raised both in 
 France and in England for the support of the Christinists ; 
 services of Sir De Lacy Evans. 
 
 Perilous position of the Christinists ; the military revolt of 
 La Granja (13 Aug., 1836); Christina summons a Cortes, 
 which promulgates the liberal constitution of 1837 ; vigorous 
 prosecution of the war against the Carlists ; victories of 
 Espartero ; defeat and flight of Don Carlos (1839). 
 
 Espartero forces Christina to leave Spain (1840) and rules 
 the country as regent for three years ; his strong government 
 and endeavor to put down brigandage and restore the pros- 
 perity of Spain. 
 
 Narvaez overthrows Espartero (1843), recalls Christina, 
 and declares the young queen Isabella of age. 
 
 The rivalry between England and France for influence in 
 Spain becomes more pronounced ; the policy of lyouis 
 Philippe ; the question of the Spanish marriages ; Queen 
 Isabella married to her cousin Don Francisco d'Assisi, Duke 
 of Cadiz, and her sister and heiress to the Due de Mont- 
 pensier, fifth son of Louis Philippe (1846). 
 
 Condition of Spain during the reign of Queen Isabella ; 
 constant changes in the ministry between Narvaez, Espartero 
 and O'Donnell; backwardness of Spain in material and in- 
 tellectual progress. 
 
 Characteristics of the history of the Peninsula during the 
 period succeeding the overthrow of Napoleon ; unfitness of 
 the Spanish and Portuguese for representative government ; 
 the meaning and effect of the pronunciamentos and civil 
 wars. 
 
 Authorities : Upon the civil wars in Portugal and the establishment 
 of representative government there, see i^(9rj^ Stephens The Story of 
 Portuaul, S in it h . Memoirs of the Duke of Saldanha, Luz Soriano, 
 
-36- 
 
 Historia da Guerra civil e do Estabelecimento do Governo Parlanientar 
 em Portugal, Freire de Carvalho, Memorias para a historia do tempo 
 que duron a Usurpacao de Doni Miji^uel, Gomes de Barros e Cunha, 
 Historia da Iviberdade em Portugal, si\\(\\Bollaert, The Wars of Suc- 
 cession in Spain and Portugal ; upon the same period in Spain, see 
 "^Hubbard, Histoire contettiporaine de I'Kspagne, Los Valles, Don Car- 
 los^Bollaert, and Duncan The English in Spain, or the War of Suc- 
 cession between 1834 and 1840. 
 
 LECTURE XI. 
 
 EUROPE DURING THE REIGN OF LOUIS PHILIPPE. 
 
 The characteristics of the Monarchy of July ; its fouiidervS 
 model their ideas on the English parliamentary system, in- 
 cluding the responsibility of ministers, the annual voting of 
 supplies, and the selection of ministers from the legislature, 
 but the upper House consisted of life and not of hereditary 
 peers, and the popular House was elected by a very restricted 
 franchise consisting only of large taxpayers and members of 
 the learned professions, allowing votes only to about three 
 hundred thousand persons. 
 
 The difficulties of the position of lyouis Philippe ; he is 
 opposed on the one side by the L<egitimists, who caused dis- 
 turbances in the south, and on the other by the Republicans, 
 who rise in insurrection in the great industrial cities, and 
 especially in L^yons. 
 
 Effect of the foreign policy of lyouis Philippe' and of his* 
 refusal to help the insurgent Belgians, Poles and Italians upon 
 his position at home. 
 
 Death of Casimir Perier (16 May, 1832). 
 
 Repression of a Republican rising in Paris (6 June), and 
 arrest of the Duchess of Berry (7 Nov.), who had en- 
 deavored to raise I^a Vendee for the Legitimists. 
 
 Commencement of parliamentary government ; formation 
 
— 37 — 
 
 of the Soult administration ; difficulties in the way of es- 
 tabHshing regular parliamentary government in France ; 
 absence of definite parliamentary parties ; the chief parlia- 
 mentary leaders, Thiers, Guizot, the Due de Broglie, Mole, 
 Berry er, and Odilon Bar rot. 
 
 Numerous industrial and democratic insurrections in 
 France ; Fieschi's attempt on the king's life (28 July, 1835); 
 attempt of lyouis Napoleon upon Strasbourg (3 Oct., 1836) ; 
 constant ministerial changes. 
 
 The foreign policy of Ivouis Philippe ; his intimate re- 
 lations with England (1830-34) ; the cause of this close alli- 
 ance to be found in the distrust of him felt by the other 
 great powers ; gradual weakening of the alliance ; Palmer- 
 ston, the English foreign minister, endeavors to keep France 
 from interfering in the affairs of Spain and Portugal ; I^ouis 
 Philippe then weakens in his attachment for England, and 
 negotiates with Austria, endeavoring to obtain an Austrian 
 archduchess as wife for his eldest son ; France and England 
 come into collision on Colonial, South American, Asiatic and 
 African questions. 
 
 The occupation and gradual conquest of Algeria by 
 France ; the resistance of Abd-el-Kader ; the campaigns of 
 Bugeaud. 
 
 A fresh crisis arises in the Eastern Question, which 
 nearly causes war between France and England ; the Sultan 
 Mahmud II had not forgiven Mehemet AH, the Pasha of 
 Egypt, who had conquered Syria in 1832, and had only been 
 prevented from overthrowing the Ottoman Empire by the 
 intervention of Russia and the great powers ; the Turks in- 
 vade Syria, but are defeated by the Egyptians near Aleppo 
 (20 June, 1839) ; death of Mahmud II (30 June), and ac- 
 cession of Abdul Medjid. 
 
 The French sympathize with Mehemet Ali, but England is 
 afraid that his success will overthrow the Turkish Empire, 
 and therefore agrees with Russia, Prussia and Austria to in- 
 tervene on behalf of the Turks ; Palmerston resolves to 
 break the Anglo-French alliance and by the Treaty of I^on- 
 
— 38- 
 
 don (15 July, 1840) agrees with the other three great powers 
 to act without France ; Napier and Stopford bombard Bey- 
 rout (12 Sept.) and Acre (2 Nov.); the Egyptians retire 
 from Sj^ria ; and eventually Mehemet AH is forced to accept 
 an hereditary title to Egypt- under certain conditions, and to 
 abandon all other claims ; the great powers guarantee the 
 neutrality of the Dardanelles under Turkish sovereignty. 
 
 Indignation felt in France against England ; war averted 
 with difficulty ; formation of the Guizot administration 
 (29 Oct., 1840), which remained in office till the end of the 
 reign of Eouis Philippe. 
 
 Growth of the Napoleonic legend in France ; attempt of 
 lyouis Napoleon on Boulogne (5 Aug., 1840) ; the remains of 
 the first Napoleon brought to France and interred at Paris 
 (15 Dec-, 1840). 
 
 Changes brought about in the political attitude and con- 
 ditions of England during the reign of Eouis Philippe ; the 
 passing of the Reform Bill (1832) transfers political power 
 from the aristocracy to the middle classes, and subsequent 
 reforms make the administration more democratic ; the acces- 
 sion of Victoria (1837) finally separates English from con- 
 tinental interests, for the Kingdom of Hanover passes to 
 her uncle, the Duke of Cumberland, who ascends the throne 
 as Ernest I ; importance of this event. 
 
 Marriage of Victoria to Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha ; 
 his character, and interest in foreign politics ; the Queen's 
 first ministers, Melbourne and Palmerston ; influence of 
 Wellington ; Sir Robert Peel comes into power (1841) ; his 
 endeavors for peace. 
 
 The question of Spanish marriages ; Louis Philippe tricks 
 the English ministry, and after preventing the marriage of 
 Queen Isabella of Spain to the English candidate, Prince 
 Ivcopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, he secures the marriage of 
 the young Queen to her cousin Don Francisco and of her 
 only sister to his own fifth son, the Due de Montpensier 
 
 (1845). 
 Indignation of the English court and ministry at the 
 
— 39 — 
 
 Spanish marriages ; lyord John Russell comes into office 
 with Palmerston as foreign minister (1846), resolved to iso- 
 late Louis Philippe ; the new government refuses to discour- 
 age the revolutionary movements on the point of breaking 
 out all over Europe. 
 
 Position of Austria during the reign of Louis Philippe ; 
 the death of the Emperor Francis and the accession of the 
 Emperor Ferdinand I (1835) strengthens the position of 
 Metternich ; his close relations with the Tsar Nicholas ; 
 occupation of Cracow (1836-41) by Austria ; annexation of 
 Cracow by Austria (1846) ; Metternich's continued efforts 
 to repress all movements for parliamentary reform or national 
 independence in Italy and Germany ; Metternich's friend- 
 ship with Russia grows warmer as his influence over Prussia 
 decreases after the accession of Frederick William IV. 
 
 Insignificent part played by Prussia during the latter years 
 of the reign of Frederick William III in European politics ; 
 the king's fidelity to the ideas of the Holy Alliance and to 
 the settlement reached by the Congress of Vienna ; he re- 
 fuses to grant to the Prussians the constitution he had 
 promised ; under Metternich's influence he opposed liberal 
 and parliamentary ideas all over Germany ; discontent caused 
 in Rhenish Prussia by his Protestant sympathies ; death of 
 Frederick William III (7 June, 1840). 
 
 In spite of this opposition to liberal ideas Prussia was re- 
 garded as the one power which could unite Germany ; this 
 doctrine held especiall}^ in Northern Germany, fostered by 
 the universities, and encouraged by Prussian statesmen and 
 administrators ; excellence of the Prussian administrative 
 and military system ^ maintenance of the system of Scharn- 
 horst ; Prussia becomes especially the guardian of the smaller 
 states of Germany ; she takes the first step towards hegemo- 
 ny by the formation of the ZoUverein. 
 
 The history of the ZoUverein or Customs-union ; the ideas 
 and arguments of List ; the Federal Diet of the Germanic 
 Confederation refuses to establish a Customs-union ; forma- 
 tion of the ZoUverein (1833) ; its chief members Prussia, 
 
-- 40 — 
 
 Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Saxony, Hesse-Cassel, Hesse-Darm- 
 stadt, and the petty states of the Thuringian Union ; joined 
 by Baden, Nassau, and Hesse- Hombnrg (1835), Frankfort 
 (1836), Brunswick (184 1 ) and Luxemburg (1842) ; opposed 
 to it was the Steuerverein, consisting of Hanover, Oldenburg 
 and Schaumburg-I/ippe, as well as to the tw^o Mecklenburgs, 
 and the free cities of Hamburg, Bremen and lyiibeck ; 
 commercial and political importance of the Zollverein. 
 
 Accession of Frederick William IV as King of Prussia 
 (1840) ; his character; his hatred for France; his liberal 
 ideas ; he places Eichhorn and Boy en in office, allows exiled 
 liberals to return, patronizes German literature and gives a 
 measure of liberty to the press ; he forms a States- General 
 out of the Provincial States with taxing and consultative 
 powers only (3 Feb., 1847). 
 
 Civil war in Switzerland ; the desire of the majority of 
 the Swiss Cantons for a stronger federal bond than that 
 devised by the Congress of Vienna ; changes in the constitu- 
 tion of individual cantons ; introduction, especially since 
 1830, of democratic ideas ; cantonal revolutions ; formation 
 of the Sonderbund, by which the seven Catholic cantons of 
 Lucerne, Schwytz, Uri, Unterwalden, Glarus, Zug, Fribourg, 
 and Valais made an armed union to resist centralization and 
 defend the Jesuits ; the majority in the Federal Diet, presided 
 over by Ochsenbein, decrees the dissolution of the Sonder- 
 bund (20 July, 1847) and the expulsion of the Jesuits; 
 attitude of the great powers ; mutual apprehensions of 
 Louis Philippe and Metternich ; they deny the right of the 
 Swiss to alter the constitution laid down by the Congress of 
 Vienna ; the Sonderbund declares its intention to resist 
 (29 Oct.,); the Federal Diet declares war (6 Nov.,); 
 General Dufour defeats the troops of the Sonderbund and 
 occupies their cantons, which submit (29 Nov.) ; declara- 
 tion of the new Federal constitution, giving greater strength 
 to the Federal power and organizing a Swiss army, but recog- 
 nizing cantonal rights in internal administration. 
 
 General apprehension of democratic risings felt in 1847 ; 
 
r: tM^it> h.iAii^r^iA 'KM^-tnA^ ^A/sei '^wr^ i/\ "U mT>\ A^4 ''^^%^fU Utfdu^iU, Uoh'^ vr. 
 
 t'^i^i^ ^ do^t^UZt^iteutA^ 
 
— 41 — 
 
 preparations for revolution ; the persistence of liberal and 
 national ideas. 
 
 Authorities : In addition to the works on the reign of Louis 
 Philippe by Thureau-Dangin, Capefigue, VHaussonville, Hillebrand 
 and Louis Blanc, cited under Lecture VIII, see, for the later part of 
 his reign and for other points touched on in this XecixxYQ^'Duvergier de 
 Hauranne, Histoire du gouvernement parlementaire en Franc^ T^^g- l^^^-^^,'o^, 
 nault, Histoire de huit ans (1840-48), Guizot, Memoires pour servir a 
 riiistoire de mon temps, Odilon Barrot, Memoires, Mazade, Monsieur 
 Thiers, Thiers, Discours parlementaires, Berryer, Discours parlenien- 
 taires, Due de Broglie, Souvenirs, Talleyrand, Memoires, Rousset, 
 Conquete de I'Algerie, and Ideville, Le Marechal Bugeaud. For the 
 history of English foreign policy see^(? Strange, Correspondence of 
 IvU^, Lord Grey and the Princess Lievei^j; Balling and Ashley, Life of Lord 
 Palmerston, Torrens, Life of Lord Melbourne, Walpole, Life of Lord 
 John Russell, Gordon, Lord Aberdeen, Greville, Memoirs, Stockmar, 
 Memoirs and Martin, Life of the Prince Consort. For the history and 
 development of the Zollverein see Treitschke, Deutsche Geschichte im 
 neunzehnten Jahrhundert, Weber, Der Deutsche Zollverein; Geschichte 
 seiner Bntstehung und Kntwickelung, and Festenberg-Packisch, 
 Geschichte des ZoUvereins ; for the early years of the reign of Frede- 
 rick William IV of Prussia, Ranke, Aus dem Briefwechsel Friedrich 
 Wilhelms IV mit Bunsen and Friedrich Wilhelm IV (in his Werke, 
 Vols. 50-52), Wagener, Die Politik Friedrich Wilhelms IV and 
 Biedermann, Dreissig Jahre Deutsche Geschichte ; and for the war 
 with the Sonderbund, Adams, The Swiss Confederation, Cretineau- 
 Joly, Histoire du Sonderbund, Ddndliker, Geschichte der Schweiz, and 
 Vulliemin, Histoire de la Confederation Suisse. 
 
 LECTURE XII. 
 
 THE REVOLUTION OF 1848 IN FRANCE. 
 
 Growing unpopularity of the Monarchy of July during the 
 administration of Guizot ; the government alienates moder- 
 ate liberals by refusing to grant the smallest measure of 
 electoral reform ; while its rigidly Bourgeois and Capitalist 
 sympathies exasperated the Democratic and I^abor parties. 
 
— 42 — 
 
 The growth of democratic and socialist ideas among the 
 working classes of France ; the influence of Saint-Simon, 
 Fourier, Prudhon, etc. 
 
 The movement for parliamentary reform and democratic 
 revolution in 1847 5 the banquets and toasts to liberty, 
 equality and fraternity ; Odilon Barrot and Ledru-Rollin, 
 
 The Revolution of February, 1848; riots in Paris (22 Feb.); 
 resignation of Guizot (23 Feb., 1848) ; appointment of 
 Bugeaud as commandant of Paris ; barricades erected in the 
 streets ; I^ouis Philippe forbids Bugeaud to act ; he abdicates 
 the throne (24 Feb.) and leaves France. 
 
 Significance of the Revolution of February ; overthrow of 
 the Bourgeois Monarchy. 
 
 The mob of Paris bursts into the Chambers and the Hotel 
 de Ville ; proclamation of the Republic ; rejection of the idea 
 of the regency to be held by the Duchess of Orleans during 
 the minority of her son, the Comte de Paris ; formation of 
 the Provisional Government, consisting of six leading re- 
 publican deputies, three journalists and a working man, 
 e.g., Dupont de I'Kure, Arago, I^amartine, Ledru-Rollin, 
 Cremieux,' and Marie, deputies, Marrast, lyouis Blanc, and 
 Flofon, journalists, and Albert; Garnier- Pages installed as 
 Mayor of Paris. 
 
 Importance and conduct of Lamartine as provisional minis- 
 ter of foreign affairs, and of lyedru-Rollin as provisional 
 minister of the interior ; Lamartine assures Europe that the 
 revolution in Paris was not intended to encourage revolution 
 elsewhere, while Ledru-Rollin imitated the extreme policy 
 of the Convention, attempted to appoint pro-consuls and 
 established public workshops. 
 
 The extreme republican party in Paris endeavors to influ- 
 ence the elections, which were taking place over France, in 
 favor of the radicals by constant riots ; the riot of 16 April, 
 1848 ; General Changarnier placed in command of the garri- 
 son and National Guard of Paris ; he defeats the insurgents. 
 
 Meeting of the Constituent Assembly (27 April, 1848) ; 
 the moderate character and antecedents of the majority of its 
 
— 43 — 
 
 members ; it declares that France is a Republic and prepares 
 to draw up a republican constitution on conservative lines ; 
 it maintains the Provisional Government in office ; riot of 
 15 May in Paris, and attempt of the democratic party to 
 overthrow the Constituent Assembly ; suppression of the 
 riot and flight of lyouis Blanc. 
 
 Critical position in Paris ; the working classes of the Fau- 
 bourg Saint Antoine prepare for insurrection ; the moderate 
 republicans resolve to resist ; General Cavaignac appointed 
 provisional War Minister ; he concentrates regular troops in 
 Paris. 
 
 Severe fighting in Paris (23-26 June) ; storming of the 
 barricades by the troops ; Paris declared in a state of siege ; 
 supreme executive authority entrusted to Cavaignac ; sup- 
 pression of the radical party in Paris. 
 
 The Constituent Assembly, now that peace was restored, 
 proceeds to draw up a republican constitution ; the Constitu- 
 tion' of 1848 places the supreme executive authority in the 
 hands of a president of the republic, elected directly by the 
 people, and the legislative authority in the hands of a single 
 Chamber. 
 
 lyouis NapoleOn, son of lyouis Bonaparte king of Holland 
 and Hortense de Beauharnais, and nephew of the first 
 Napoleon, is elected President of the Republic (10 Dec, 
 1848) ; he receives 5,562,834 votes, Cavaignac 1,469,166 
 votes, ly^dru-RoUin 377,236 votes, Raspail 37,106, and 
 I^amartine 21,000. 
 
 Character and previous career of Louis Napoleon ; diffi- 
 culties of his position ; he is distrusted by the Constituent 
 Assembly, and both feared and hated by the extreme 
 republicans. 
 
 Foreign policy of the Prince President ; he sends a French 
 army under Oudinot to Rome, which after a repulse 
 (20 April) occupies Rome (3 July), overthrows the Roman 
 Republic and reestablishes the authority of the Pope. 
 
 Dissolution of the Constituent Assembly, and instalment 
 of the Legislative Assembly (28 May, 1849); the position of 
 
— 44 — 
 
 parties in the new Assembly ; the majority were moderates, 
 in favor of parliamentary government after the English sys- 
 tem, believers in limited monarchy, and very suspicious of 
 the Prince President, whom they suspected of planning to 
 restore the Empire ; the minority called itself the Mountain, 
 and, under the leadership of Ledru-Rollin, hoped to .establish 
 a democratic republic. 
 
 The deputies of the Mountain appeal to the people of 
 Paris; insurrection of 13 June, 1849; arrest of the deputies 
 of the Mountain ; they are expelled from the AvSsembly ; 
 escape of Ledru-Rollin. 
 
 The majority of the Legislative Assembly becomes frankly 
 reactionar}'-, and endeavors to establish a bourgeois republic ; 
 influence of Thiers, Berry er, Mole, Montalembert, and De 
 Broglie ; by the law of 31 May, 1850, the suffrage is re- 
 stricted to three years' residents in a commune or canton, 
 practically disenfranchising the working classes ; declaration 
 of Thiers on this subject. 
 
 The Legislative Assembly on adjourning left a permanent 
 commission of deputies to watch the proceedings of the 
 government ; disgust of the Prince President at this action ; 
 he resolves to appeal to France ; his first provincial tour. 
 
 The political position in 185 1 ; the incurable distrust 
 reigning between the Prince President and the Assembl> ; 
 constant struggle between the executive and legislative" 
 authority, and frequent changes of ministry. 
 
 The Prince President, having made himself popular in 
 France by provincial tours, declares himself in favor of uni- 
 versal suffrage and the sovereignty of the people ; his ex- 
 planation of the ideas of the Empire ; he demands that the 
 Assembly should repeal the law of 31 May, 1850 (4 Nov., 
 1851). 
 
 The Coup d'fitat of 2 Dec, 1851 ; the Prince President 
 declares the Legislative Assembly dissolved, universal suf- 
 frage reestablished, and Paris in a state of siege ; the ad- 
 visers of Louis Napoleon, and his agents ; his half brother, 
 the Due de Morny, General de Saint Arnaud, Minister of 
 
— 45 — 
 
 ft 
 
 War, and M. de Maupas, Prefect of Police ; arrest of the 
 
 leading members of the Legislative Assembly ; the troops 
 shoot down opponents of the Coup d'fitat in Paris. 
 
 The Prince President submits a new Constitution to a 
 plebiscite of the people, establishing a strong executive, and 
 institutions resembling those of the Consulate and the Em- 
 pire ; the Constitution accepted (21 Dec.) by 7,481,231 votes 
 out of 8,165,630 votes, and promulgated 14 Jan., 1852. 
 
 The Prince President's provincial tour of 1852 ; his recep- 
 tion ; enthusiasm in the army ; he declares at Bordeaux 
 (9 Oct.) " ly' Empire, c'est lapaix" ; the Senate votes the 
 re- establishment of the Empire (7 Nov.); it is voted by a 
 plebiscite (22 Nov.), and the Prince President declares him- 
 self Napoleon III, Emperor of the French (i Dec, 1852.) 
 
 Authorities: On the history of the second French_ Republ ic, see p j, 
 ^Gamier- Pag h, Histoire de la Revolution de \'6^CTIpuis Blan c, His^ 
 toire de la Revolution de 1 848,/^Z^rtwmr?z«?7T5istoire de la Revolution "^^ 
 de 1848, Pierre, Histoire de la Republique de 1848, with Normanby, 
 A Year of Revolution, Odilon Barrot, Menioires, Falloux, Memoires 
 d'un Royaliste, Berryer, Discours Parlementaires, Thiers, Discours 
 Parlenientaires, and Veron, Memoires d'un Bourgeois ; for the coup 
 d'etat of 1851, see Maupas, Memoires sur le Second Empire, Kinglake^ 
 The invasion of the Crimea, Victor Hugo, Histoire d'un Crime, Thiot^ 
 Le Coup d'Ktat, Jerrold, Life of Napoleon III, Delord, Histoire du 
 Second Empire, and Viel Castel^ Memoires. 
 
 LECTURE XIII. 
 
 THE REVOLUTION OF 1848 IN ITALY. 
 
 The condition of Italy from the suppression of the insur- 
 rectionary movement of 1830 by Austria, to the outbreak of 
 the revolutions of 1848 ; the work of the Carbonari and of 
 other secret societies ; constant attempts made upon the lives 
 of the Italian princes, and repeated outbreaks in different 
 cities and country districts. 
 
-46- 
 
 Double tendency to b? perceived in the popular movements 
 in Italy ; with regard to government the middle classes de- 
 siired representative constitutions and limited monarchy, while 
 the secret societies advocated pure democracy ; with regard 
 to the unity of Italy, one section desired a federal govern- 
 ment either monarchical or republican, while the other fa- 
 vored an Italy, one and indivisible, either monarchical or 
 republican ; these diiferent tendencies prevented partisans of 
 the national spirit and of political revolution from acting 
 harmoiously together ; the most influential writer and thinker 
 was Mazzini, but his advanced republican ideas made him 
 obnoxious to moderate men. 
 
 Condition of the different Itatlan states at the outbreak of 
 the revolutionary movement iu 1848 ; the severe and arbi- 
 trary government of Naples and Sicily under Ferdinand II, 
 afterwards called King Bomba ; unpopularity of the Aus- 
 trian government in Lombardy and Venetia ; Parma and 
 Modena, ruled by the Empress Marie lyouise and Duke 
 Francis V, were entirely under Austrian influence ; death of 
 Marie lyouise (18 Dec, 1847), and accession of Charles II, 
 formerly Duke of Lucca ; the government of Leopold II, 
 Grand Duke of Tuscany ; he annexes Lucca ( 1 845 ) , and 
 grants a constitution (1847) ; Charles Albert, King of Sar- 
 dinia, was desirous of setting himself at the head of the 
 national Italian movement, but he was afraid of the republi- 
 cans and the Carbonari ; he favored parliamentary govern- 
 ment and granted a constitution to his kingdom in 1846. 
 
 The worst governed provinces of Italy were those of the 
 States of the Church, in which Pope Gregory XVI ruled in 
 the most arbitrary manner with cardinals, priests and bishops 
 as his only ministers and administrators ; yet it was in the 
 States of the Church that the first impulsion was given to 
 the revolutionary movement of 1 848 ; death of Gregory XVI , 
 (i June, 1846). 
 
 Election of Pope Pius IX — Mastai-Ferretti — (16 June, 
 1846); his known liberal and national ideas ; his reforms in 
 internal administration ; he reorganizes the tribunals, estab- 
 
— 47 — 
 
 lishes munincipal government, permits the raising of civic 
 guards, and allows a measure of liberty to the press ; he pro- 
 poses a Customs Union between the States of the Church, 
 Tuscany and Sardinia ; he calls an assembly for the organiza- 
 tion of a new government ; Metternich protests against the 
 reforming policy of Pius IX ; but the people of Rome ac- 
 cuse him of not going far enough. 
 
 Outbreak of insurrection at Palermo (12 Jan., 1848) which 
 spreads through the whole of vSicily. 
 
 Effect of the Revolution of February in Italy ; the people 
 of Milan rise in insurrection and expd the Austrian garrison 
 (11-15 Mch., 1848 ); formation of a provisional government 
 which appoints Garibaldi commandant of its troops ; similar 
 movement in Venice (16-22 Mch.), where Daniel Manin is 
 elected Dictator ; Francis V driven from Modena ; Charles II 
 driven from Parma (9 Apr.). 
 
 Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, summoned by all North- 
 ern Italy, sets himself at the head of the National move- 
 ment ; he enters Milan (26 Mch.); concentration of the Aus- 
 trian troops under Radetzky ; the Austrians defeated at 
 Goito (8 Apr.); lycopold of Tuscany compelled by his peo- 
 ple to send troops to assist Charles Albert ; Ferdinand II, 
 King of the Two Sicilies, forced to grant a constitution to 
 Naples, and to send a fleet to assist Venice and an army 
 under F^e to join Charles Albert ; the papal troops, under 
 Durand'o, join the Sardinians ; Charles Albert takes Pes- 
 chiera ; desperate position of Radetzky, who asks for re- 
 inforcements. 
 
 Desperate position of the Austrians in Italy ; terms offered 
 to Charles Albert ; he declines the intervention of England 
 and France. 
 
 Ferdinand II withdraws his constitution and dissolves the 
 Neapolitan parliament (15 May); he vigorously pursues the 
 war with the Sicilian insurgents, and calls back his fleet from 
 Venice, and his army ; nevertheless, Pepe with 3,000 men 
 throws himself into Venice, of which he takes military com- 
 mand. 
 

 -48- 
 
 Pope Pius IX disavows the action of General Durando ; 
 he issues a Fundamental Statute for the goverment of his 
 states, establishing lay government and ministerial responsi- 
 bility (14 Mch.); Mamiani appointed Minister of the Inter- 
 ior (4 May). 
 
 Radetzky, joined by Nugent, defeats Charles Albert at 
 Custozza (25 July) and occupies Milan (6 Aug.) ; armistice 
 proclaimed between Sardinia and Austria (9 Aug.) ; gallant 
 defence of Venice. 
 
 The Austrian victories encourage the other monarchs of 
 Italy; the Pope dismisses Mamiani (14 Sept.) ; appoint- 
 ment of Rossi, who desires to form an Italian Federation ; 
 assassination of Rossi (15 Nov.) ; the Pope escapes to Gaeta 
 (24 Nov.) ; provisional government appointed in Rome 
 under the triumvirate of MazziTir,~'^Gioberti and Cernuschi- 
 (11 Dec. ) ; meeting of the Roman Constituent Assembly ; 
 proclamation of the Roman Republic (9 Feb., 1849) ; the 
 triumvirs appoint Garibaldi commander-in-chief ; Pius IX 
 solemnly appeals to the Catholic rulers of Austria, France, 
 Spain, and Naples for help (18 Feb. 1849). 
 
 Progress of the revolution in Sicily ; England recognizes 
 the revolutionary government of Palermo (6 Sept., 1848); 
 the Sicilians offer the throne to the second son of Charles 
 Albert. 
 
 . Progress of the revolution in Tuscany ; Montanelli ap- 
 pointed chief minister (26 Oct.) ; a liberal constitution 
 granted ; flight of the Grand Duke I^eopold II to Gaeta ; 
 the Florentine Republic proclaimed under the triumvirate of 
 Montanelli, Guerrazzi, and Mazzoni. 
 
 Difficult position of Charles Albert ; he is forced to form 
 a radical ministry under Rattazzi (15 Dec, 1848); he de- 
 clares the armistice at an end and appeals to united Italy 
 (12 Mch., 1849) ; Radetzky utterly defeats Charles Albert 
 at Novara (23 Mch., 1849) ; Charles Albert abdicates in 
 favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel ; favorable terms of 
 peace granted to the Sardinians (6 Aug., 1849). 
 
 Triumphant progress of the Austrians ; they restore Fran- 
 
dt\ rVvvf. M^c. Uvi^^'a* il7«"i^ "fc ^^'^* ^:*»^a<.;»A^;<A< di£jWa^^X,^'c^,/j'i,6-^f,3i^^ 
 
^ 49 — 
 
 cis V to Modeiia and Charles III to Parma ; they overthrow 
 the Florentine Republic and re-establish the Grand Duke 
 lycopold II (28 July), who withdraws the constitution he 
 had granted; capitulation of Venice to the Austrians (24 
 
 Aug.). 
 
 Ferdinand II cruelly suppresses the Sicilian insurrection. 
 
 The Prince President of the French Republic, afraid of 
 allowing Austria too much predominance in Italy, sends a 
 French army under Oudinot to Rome ; repulse of the French 
 (30 Apr.); the siege of Rome; the French capture Rome 
 (3 July) ; Garibaldi withdraws to the mountains where his 
 troops are cut up by the Austrians ; Pius IX returns to 
 Rome (12 Apr., 1850) and re-establishes the Papal govern- 
 ment under the charge of Cardinal Antonelli ; a French 
 garrison retained in Rome. 
 
 Causes of the entire and disastrous failure of the Italian 
 revolutions in 1848 ; Victor Emmanuel alone maintains par- 
 liamentary government in his dominions. 
 
 Authorities : On the ItaUau insurrection, see Can^u, Delia Indi- 
 pendenza Italiana, Ricciardiy Histoire de la Revolution d'ltalie, Ulloa^ 
 Guerre de I'lndependance Italienne, Perrens, Deux Ans de Revolution 
 en Italie, Pepe^ Memoirs and Histoire des Revolutions et des Guerres 
 d'ltalie en 1847, 1848, et 1849, Balleydier, Histoire de la Revolution de 
 Rome, Bianchi, Storia documentata della diplomazia Europea in 
 Ix.sXxQ.f'Costa de Beauregard, lyes dernieres annees du Roi Charles Al- 
 bert, Rattazzi, Ratazzi et son Temps, Mazzini, Works, Martin, Dan- 
 iel Msin'm, Montanellt, Memoir^fVantu, Storia ragionata e documentata 
 della rivoluzione Lombarda, CaUaneo, ly'insurrection de Milan en 
 1848, Garibaldi, Memoirs, Mario, Garibaldi e i suoi tempi, Sirao 
 Storia della revoluzioni d' Italia dal 1846 al 1866, and Hiibfier, Une 
 Anuee de ma Vie. „ , . 
 
 I^KCTURE XIV 
 
 THE REVOIvUTlON OF 1848 IN AUSTRIA. 
 
 Internal condition of the Austrian dominions during the 
 reign of the Emperor Ferdinand I ; the home policy of 
 Metternich ; he encourages the national spirit in the different 
 
— 50 — 
 
 provinces of the Empire in order to play off one province 
 against another, but he sternly represses all aspirations to 
 self -go vern ment . 
 
 The growth of national spirit was specially perceptible in 
 Hungary and Bohemia, but it was also to be found in smaller 
 districts, such as Transylvania, Croatia and Galicia ; condi- 
 tion of the German provinces ; the diverse nationalities of 
 which the Empire was composed, prevented any tendency 
 towards union, and encouraged schemes of federation or of 
 entire independence. 
 
 The national spirit in Hungary ; the amount of local self- 
 government allowed to the Magyars ; the growth of Magyar 
 literature and of attachment to the Magyar language ; the 
 national spirit in Hungary becomes, under the guidance of 
 its men of letters, also democratic ; the Diet of 1833 abolishes 
 serfdom ; attitude of the Magyars to other nationalities 
 within the limits of Hungary ; influence of Szechenyi, Kos- 
 suth, Deak and Petofi. 
 
 The national spirit in Bohemia ; revival of the Czech 
 language and literature ; the Czechs desire to place them- 
 selves at the head of the Austrian Slavs ; in Bohemia as in 
 Hungary the national spirit becomes also democratic, and de- 
 mands are made not only for national but also for popular 
 government ; influence "of Dobrouski, Kollar and Polacky. 
 
 The German spirit concentrated in Vienna, where demo- 
 cratic ideas, resembling those in vogue among the working 
 classes in Paris and Berlin take deep root. 
 
 Effect of the news of the Revolution of February in 
 Austria ; insurrection of 13 March in Vienna ; the Emperor 
 Ferdinand dismisses Metternich from office ; the disgraced 
 minister escapes to England ; Ficquelmont appointed min- 
 ister ; the Emperor promises a representative constitution. 
 
 Effect of the fall of Metternich upon the Austrian prov- 
 vinces ; general demands for liberty and popular government ; 
 insurrections in Croatia, Bohemia and Galicia. 
 
 The Hungarian Diet seizes the opportunity to demand the 
 formation of a responsible Hungarian ministry with entire 
 
— 51 - 
 
 self-government ; the Emperor yields (17 Mch.) and appoints 
 lyouis Batthyany prime minister, with Kossuth as Minister of 
 the Interior ; delight of the Magyars at this success ; a Con- 
 stituent Diet is summoned to draw up a constitution for Hun- 
 gary. 
 
 The Emperor further promises constitutions and self-gov- 
 ernment to the Slavonic Provinces (28 Mch. — 8 Apr.); 
 the Czechs summon a Pan-Slavonic assembly to meet at 
 Prague on 31 May. 
 
 Dissatisfaction of the people of Vienna at the prospect of 
 the Austrian Empire being split into autonomous provinces ; 
 disgust of the working classes at the non-recognition of dem- 
 ocratic principles ; second popular insurrection in Vienna 
 (15 May); dismissal of Ficquelmont, and convocation of a 
 Constituent Assembly for the whole Austrian Empire to 
 meet in Vienna ; the Emperor Ferdinand escapes to Inns- 
 bruck, and throws himself upon the fidelity of the Tyrolese. 
 
 Desperate position of the Austrian monarchy ; seeming 
 approach of disintegration ; the strength of the opposition to 
 Austria in Italy, Hungary and Bohemia ; attitude of the 
 Parliament of Frankfort to the Hapsburgs ; desire expressed 
 to keep Austria out of re-constituted Germany. 
 
 From the diversity of aims of the different revolutions, 
 the Austrian monarchy iinds safety ; the Emperor Ferdinand 
 to please the Germans, resolves to act vigorously against the 
 Slavs ; Prince Windischgratz bombards Prague (12-14 June) 
 and breaks up the Pan -Slavonic Congress ; reduction of 
 Bohemia to obedience. 
 
 Despatch of an Austrian army under Nugent to re-enforce 
 Radetzky in Italy ; Jellachich, the newly appointed Ban of 
 Croatia instructed to raise the Croatians against the Magyars. 
 
 Progress of the revolution in Hungary ; meeting of the 
 Constituent Diet (5 July); the new Hungarian Constitution ; 
 influence of Kossuth ; the Magyars issue oppressive decrees 
 against the Slavs and Roumanians in Croatia, Slavonia, the 
 Banat of Temesvar and Transylvania ; insurrections in these 
 districts against the Magyars ; at the demand of the Diet the 
 
— 52 — 
 
 Emperor disgraces Jellachich ; the Emperor enters into 
 negotiations with the Tsar Nicholas, who occupies the Dan- 
 ubian provinces. 
 
 After the news of the victory of Custozza, the Emperor 
 resolves to act more firmly against Hungary ; Jellachich re- 
 instated as Ban of Croatia (3 Sept.); the Diet prepares to 
 resist ; the Palatine of Hungary, the Archduke Stephen, re- 
 fuses to obey the Diet and escapes to Vienna ; murder of 
 I^amberg at Pesth (27 Sept.); the Emperor declares the 
 Hungarian Constituent Diet dissolved, and orders Jellachich 
 to invade Hungary ; Kossuth appointed Dictator of Hungary. 
 
 Proceedings of the Constituent Assembly at Vienna ; dis- 
 may felt at the advance of the Hungarian army ; third in- 
 surrection m Vienna (6 Oct. ) ; the Emperor directs the mem- 
 bers of the Constituent Assembly to leave Vienna and to 
 assemble at Kremsier ; only the Slavs deputies obey ; the Oer- 
 man deputies remain in Vienna to form a provisional govern- 
 ment ; they negotiate with the German parliament at Frank- 
 fort, which recognizes them, and sends Robert Blum and two 
 other deputies to their assistance ; Windischgratz bombards 
 Vienna (31 Aug.) conquers the city, establishes martial 
 law and shoots Robert Blum ; wrath of the Parliament of 
 Frankfort. 
 
 Schwarzenberg appointed minister (21 Nov.); abdication 
 of the Emperor Ferdinand in favor of his nephew Francis 
 Joseph (2 Dec.) 
 
 Vigorous policy of Schwarzenberg ; Windischgratz and 
 Jellachich occupy Pesth (5 Jan., 1849); Kossuth and the 
 Diet withdraw ; formation of Hungarian armies, placed 
 under the command of Dombrovski, Bem, and Gorgei ; the 
 Hungarian armies re-occupy Pesth. 
 
 Schwarzenberg dissolves the Diet of Kremsier (4 Mch.), 
 and promises a Unitary Constitution to the Austrian Empire ; 
 Kossuth and the Diet declare the independence of Hungary 
 (14 Apr.). 
 
 The Emperor Francis Joseph requests the assistance of the 
 Tsar Nicholas ; a Russian army under Paskevitch enters 
 
i^tr,j- Cft^-^:^k\ dco u^i-A\:^U% jMi^d<A4'i'K(^e4jS'0i^<i , 
 
— 53 — 
 
 Hungary (May) ; the armies under Paskevitch, Haynaw, 
 Nugent and Jellachich defeat the Hungarians and drive them 
 towards the Turkish frontier ; resignation of Kossuth, who 
 escapes into Turkey (ii Aug.); capitulation of Gorgei (13 
 Aug.); surrender of Klapka at Komorn (2 Oct.); end of the 
 armed resistance of the Hinigarians. 
 
 The German pohcy of Schwarzenberg ; his attitude to- 
 wards the ParHament of Frankfort ; he prevents Frederick 
 William IV of Prussia from accepting the Imperial throne 
 offered to him by the Parliament ; he claims the right of 
 Austria to be treated as a constituent part of Germany. 
 
 Authorities : Balleydier, Histoire des Revolutions de rEmpire de 
 I'Autriche, Maurice, The Revolutionary Movement of 1848-49 in Italy, 
 Austria and Hungary, Pillersdorf, Riickblick auf die Politische Be- 
 wegung in QBsterreicb in den Jahren 1848 und 1849, Ficgiielmont, 
 Aufklarungen uber die Zeit voni 20 Marz bis zuni 4 Mai 1848, Frobel, 
 Briefe iiber die Wiener Oktober-Revolution niit Notizen iiber die 
 Ivetzten Tage Robert Blums, Auerbach, Tagebuch aus Wien, Hubner, 
 Une Annee de ma Vie, Hetfert, Geschichte Q^slerreich vom Ausgange 
 des Wiener Oktober-Aufstandes, Berger, Felix Fiirst zu Schwarzen- 
 berg, Windischgrdiz, Einer Lebens-vSkizze ; aus den Papieren eines 
 Zeit-genossen der Siurmjahre 1848 und 1849, Vranyi and Chassin, 
 Histoire Politique de la Revolution de Hongrie en 1847-49, Bury, Sou- 
 venirs et Recits des Campagnes d'Autriche, Martm, Guerre de Hon- 
 grie en 1848 et 1849, Gorgei, Mein Leben und Wirken in Ungarn, 
 Klapka, Der Nalionalkreig in Ungarn und Siebenbergen, of which 
 there is an English translation, and Kossuth, Memoirs, 
 
 LKCTURE XV. 
 
 THE REVOLUTION OF 1! 
 
 IN GERMANY. 
 
 Effect of the Revolution of February in Germany ; general 
 development of the desire for popular government in 
 Western Germany ; the states upon the Rhine and in the 
 former kingdom of Westphalia were especially forward in 
 
— 54 — 
 
 this direction ; there had been numerous riots in Rhenish 
 Prussia, Hesse- Cassel and Brunswick ; as in Italj^ the 
 national spirit and the democratic movement were sometimes 
 in harmony and sometimes opposed to each other ; one 
 section of advocates of German unity looked to Prussia to 
 lead them ; the other, which was more democratic hoped for 
 an independent and possibly republican German nation. 
 
 Both the national and the democratic spirit were most 
 evident in the smaller states and in Rhenish Prussia ; but 
 they were also developed to some extent in the South Ger- 
 man states of Bavaria, under King Louis I, of Wurtemberg, 
 under King William I, and of Baden, under the Grand 
 Duke Charles Leopold, while in Hanover, under Ernest I, 
 they were especially developed. 
 
 The share of the German Universities in promoting the 
 national and liberal spirit ; the dismissal of Gervinus, 
 Dahlmann, Ewald and the two Grimms, from their chairs at 
 Gottingen, for protesting against the abolition of the Han- 
 overian constitution by Ernest I, in 1837. 
 
 The first effect of the Revolution of February was seen in 
 risings in the great cities, similar to those which occurred in 
 Paris and in Vienna ; the most important of the risings were 
 in Berlin and in Munich. 
 
 The first insurrection in Berlin (15-19 Mch.) ; Frederick 
 William IV gives way before the popular feeling, sends his 
 brother and heir, Prince William, who was suspected of opposi- 
 tion to popular wishes, away to England, convokes the States- 
 General, and summons a Constituent Assembly to draw up 
 a constitution for Prussia. 
 
 Insurrection in Munich against King Louis I, who is 
 accused of showing too much favor to his mistress, Lola 
 Montes ; he abdicates the throne (20 Mch.) in favor of his 
 son Maximilian Joseph II, w^ho promises reforms. 
 
 A group of German patriots and unionists meet at Heidel- 
 berg (5 Mch. ) and summon a Vor-Parlament, which assembles 
 at Frankfort (31 Mch. ) ; this Assembly convokes a Constituent 
 Parliament, to be elected by universal suffrage by the whole 
 
I 
 
55 — 
 
 of Germany, which should organize a federal German 
 •government under a monarch ; it was resolved that the 
 decisions of this Constituent Parliament should be soveriegn, 
 and not subjected to the control of the Federal Diet. 
 
 The Federal Diet, as established by the Congress of 
 Vienna, withdraws its decrees of 1832- 1834 controlling state 
 representative governments and then ceases to oppose the 
 new movement. 
 
 In the face of the strength of the revolutionary movement, 
 the German Princes permit the elections to the new Parlia- 
 ment. 
 
 Meeting of the Parliament of Frankfort (18 May) ; 
 it elects Heinrich von Gagern as its president ; it elects 
 the Archduke John of Austria as Vicar of the Em- 
 pire (28 June) ; he takes office (12 July), dissolves the 
 Federal Diet, and appoints Schmerling his chief minister ; 
 the Parliament of Frankfort, with long debates, draws up a 
 German Constitution ; the un-democratic nature of this Con- 
 stitution causes republican risings in many of the cities of 
 Germany and general uneasiness. 
 
 The position in Prussia ; Frederick William IV takes ad- 
 vantage of the condition of affairs in Denmark to stand for- 
 ward as the defender of German interests. 
 
 Death of Christian VIII of Denmark and accession of 
 Frederick VII (20 Jan. 1848) ; insurrection in Denmark 
 (18 Mch.) ; the king promises to summon the Consiituent 
 Assembly by universal suffrage to draw up a Constitution 
 which should unify Denmark and the Duchies of Schleswig 
 and Holstein in spite of the latter being parts of the German 
 Confederation ; wrath in Germany at this news ; the Duke 
 of Augustenburg sets himself at the head of the opposition 
 in the two duchies ; Prussia with the sanction of the Parlia- 
 ment of Frankfort, invades the duchies (6 Apr.) and had al- 
 most conquered the whole of Denmark when the great powers 
 intervened and insist on the signature of the armistice of Mal- 
 moe (26 Aug.). 
 
 Frederick William IV of Prussia though he showed him- 
 
- 56 — 
 
 self by his conduct in Denmark in favor of German interests, 
 also showed himself the enemy of democracy ; at the re- 
 quest of the Parliament of Frankfort, he sent Prussian troops 
 to that city to put down a republican insurrection (i8 Sept.) 
 and then, also at their request, put down democratic risings 
 throughout the Rhenish territories. 
 
 Second insurrection in Berlin (Nov., 1848); the king dis- 
 solves the Prussian Constituent Assembly which had shown 
 in the Junker party a strong minority opposed to democratic 
 ideas, he declares Berlin in a state of siege, appoints Bran- 
 denberg and Manteuffel his ministers, and issues of his own 
 authority a new constitution for Prussia giving a moderate 
 amount of representative government (5 Dec, 1848). 
 
 Ivater history of the Parliament of Frankfort ; Gagern 
 succeeds Schmerling as chief minister (Dec, 1848) ; comple- 
 tion of the new German Constitution with two chambers, 
 the Volkhaus elected by universal suffrage, and the Staaten- 
 haus chosen by the parliaments of the different states, recog- 
 nizing no direct representation of the German princes, 
 establishing parliamentary government, and only giving to 
 the supreme executive authority a suspensive veto. 
 
 The question of the admission of Austria with her non- 
 German populations, as part of the new German Empire ; 
 it is resolved that Austria shall be completely excluded (14 
 Jan., 1849); it is decided to offer the imperial crown to 
 Frederick William IV of Prussia (28 Mar.); he declines to 
 accept unless invited by the princes of Germany, and eventu- 
 ally, under the influence of Schwarzenberg, refuses uncon- 
 ditionally. • 
 
 Indignation of Schwarzenberg at the Decree of 14 Jan- 
 uary ; he withdraws the Austrian deputies from the Parlia- 
 ment of Frankfort. 
 
 Last days of the Parliament of Frankfort ; Gagern resigns 
 office (8 May), and with his followers forms a secession par- 
 liament ; Prussia withdraws its deputies ; the Parliament, re- 
 duced to 105 members, is forced to leave Frankfort (30 May) ; 
 it meets at Stuttgart and is eventually broken up by the King 
 of Wurtemberg (19 June). 
 
Ccc^iS^ ^ /V^ OU' f *^-*^ Ix^ciC^i ^ f^f^H 
 
— 57 — 
 
 Frederick William IV of Prussia lends troops to the Kings 
 of Saxony and Hanover to establish order in their dominions ; 
 under the command of Prince William of Prussia order is 
 also reestablished by Prussian soldiers irt Baden and along 
 the Rhine. 
 
 Continuation of the Danish war ; Frederick VII of Den- 
 mark grants a liberal constitution (5 June, 1849) ; the 
 Danes make a gallant struggle against the Prussians ; con- 
 clusion of peace (2 July, 1850); it is eventually arranged that 
 the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein shall be garrisoned 
 by a joint force of Austrians and Prussians, and that their 
 fate shall be decided b}^ a conference of the great powers. 
 
 Result of the revolutionary movement of 1848 in Germa- 
 ny ; entire failure both of the democratic party and of the 
 supporters of the parliamentary system ; postponement of 
 the unity of Germany. 
 
 Authorities : There are several reports of the proceedings of the Par- 
 liament of Frankfort, of which the most complete is Wigard; S\.&vlo- 
 graphischen Bericht, 9 vols, ; see also Duncker, Zur Geschichte der 
 Deutschen Reichsversammlung in Frankfort, Raumer, Briefe aus 
 Frankfurt und Paris, Biedermann, Erinnerungen aus der Paulskirche» 
 Ranke, Politische Denkschriften aus den Jahren 1848-1851, in his 
 Werke, vols. xLix-i,, Deym, Graf Deym und die Oesterreischische 
 Frage in der Paulskirche, Becker, Die Reaktion in Deutschland gegen 
 die Revolution von Y^^^'^von Sybel, Die Begriindung des Deutschen 
 Reiches, vols, i, 11, von Moltke, Geschichte des Krieges'gegen Dane- 
 mark, 1848-49, Bunsen, Memoirs, Malet, Journal, and Bismarck, 
 Reden. 
 
 LECTURE XVI 
 
 EUROPE AFTER THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848. 
 
 The institutions of the Second Empire in France ; relations 
 of the government to the Council of State, the Senate and the 
 Legislative Body ; while granting the widest extension of the 
 franchise for electing the Legislative Body, the administration 
 
— 58 — 
 
 systematically interferes to promote the election of govern- 
 ment candidates. 
 
 Napoleon III and his ministers ; the Bonapartists and 
 some of the partisans of the Monarchy of July rallied to him, 
 but he has to face the opposition of the Legitimists and the 
 Republicans ; he is unfortunate in the selection of ministers 
 and has to make use of men of doubtful honesty in the work 
 of administration ; the influence of the Due de Morny, 
 Persigny, Rouher, and Maupas. 
 
 Parliamentary opposition during the Second Empire ; 
 Thiers ; exile or deportation of the leading Republicans. 
 
 Internal policy of Napoleon III ; he professes, owing to 
 his selection by plebiscite, to represent the sovereignty of the 
 people, and stands forth as the opponent of bourgeois or 
 middle class politics ; he exploits the wealth of France in ex- 
 travagant buildings and public works ; Haussmann rebuilds 
 Paris ; corruption of the administration ; Napoleon III at- 
 tempts to blind the people by a successful and vigorous for- 
 eign policy. 
 
 Foreign policy of Napoleon III ; though he declares the 
 Empire to mean peace, he really desired war, in order to es- 
 tablish himself firmly at home and abroad ; excellence of the 
 army, trained in the Algerian wars ; Napoleon's attachment 
 to the idea of nationality ; his views with regard to Italy. 
 
 Attitude of the Great Powers towards the Second Empire : 
 England, hoping for the assistance of France in the settle- 
 ment of the Eastern Question, at once recognizes him as Em- 
 peror ; the Tsar Nicholas recognizes him in an insulting 
 fashion, and is followed by Austria and Prussia ; Napoleon's 
 first foreign ministers ; Drouyn de lyhuys and Walewski. 
 
 Being unable to obtain the hand of a foreign princess, 
 Napoleon III marries Eugenie de Montijo, Comtess^ de Teba, 
 (29 Jan., 1853). 
 
 Influence exercised by Prussia in Germany after her sup- 
 pression of the revolutionary movement ; Frederick William 
 IV hopes to exclude Austria and to be chosen Emperor by 
 the princes of Germany ; the League of the Three Kings — 
 

 — 59 — 
 
 Prussia, Saxony, and Hanover ; scheme of a Restricted 
 Union ; Pj'ussia prepares a vScheme for a united Germany 
 under her leadership to be submitted to a revived German 
 ParHament at Erfurt and to the German princes ; only the 
 petty princes accept the Prussian scheme. 
 
 Austria, having put down all rebellion and supported by 
 Russia, resolves to intervene ; the Archduke John resigns 
 his authority as Vicar of the Empire to a committee of four, 
 appointed half by Austria and half by Prussia (20 Dec. , 1849). 
 
 Beust's scheme of a Middle Germany ; treaty of alliance 
 made between Saxony, Bavaria, and Wurtemberg, (27 Feb., 
 1850). 
 
 The Parliament of Erfurt (29 Mar. -29 Apr. 1850); it is 
 only attended by Prussia and representatives of the petty 
 princes ; part played by Bismarck ; the Parliament refuses to 
 accept the Prussian scheme ; and so does the College of 
 Princes, which met at Berlin (10 May). 
 
 Growing influence of Austria in German affairs under the 
 ministry of Schwarzenberg ; ad interim revival of the Diet 
 of the Germanic Confederation or Bundestag, which under- 
 takes the settlement of the disturbances in Schleswig-Hols- 
 tein and Hesse- Cassel ; opposition of Prussia ; approach of 
 war ; the Prussian and the German federal troops supported 
 by Austria face each other in Hesse- Cassel ; the Tsar Nicho- 
 las intervenes and threatens to attack whichever side begins 
 war. 
 
 Frederick William IV gives way ; Manteuffel appointed 
 chief Prussian Minister ; the Convention of Olmutz (29 
 Nov., 1850) ; Prussia apologises; restoration of the Bun- 
 destag (15 May, 1 851) ; Bismarck appointed Prussian rep- 
 resentative at Frankfort. 
 
 Negotiations for the renewal of the Zollverein ; Austria 
 endeavors to enter the Union ; opposition of Prussia ; the 
 Steuerverein declares its readiness to enter the Zollverein (7 
 Sept., 1851); reconstitution of the Zollverein on this basis 
 with Austria excluded (10 Mar., 1853). 
 
 General reaction in Germany ; most of the German princes 
 
— 6o — 
 
 withdraw or modify the Constitutions they had granted in 
 1848 ; the Bundestag repudiates the Grundrechte decreed 
 b}^ the ParHament of Frankfort (23 Aug., 1851). 
 
 The reaction in Prussia ; repressive administration of Man- 
 teuffel ; Prince WilHam commences to reorganize the army. 
 
 The reaction in Austria ; the Emperor Francis Joseph with- 
 draws the Constitution of 4 March, 1849, (31 Dec, 1851); 
 death of Schwarzenburg (5 April, 1852); appointment of 
 Buol-Schauenstein as chief Austrian minister. 
 
 Settlement of the Schleswig-Holstein question ; Frederick 
 VII of Denmark issues a unitary constitution for all his do- 
 minions ; Prince Christian of Gliicksburg recognized as heir to 
 the throne of Denmark by the Conference of London (8 
 May, 1852). 
 
 The revolutionary movement of 1848 in Holland ; the 
 reign of William II (1840-49); he is succeeded by William 
 III (17 Mar., 1849); the parliamentary Constitution is re- 
 modeled in a more liberal sense ; administration of Thor- 
 becke. 
 
 The revolutionary movement of 1848 in Belgium ; excite- 
 ment caused by the news of the revolution of February ; 
 Leopold I evades a republican movement by skilful policy ; 
 his ability as a parliamentary sovereign. 
 
 The revolutionary movement of 1848 in England ; the 
 Chartists ; results of the abolition of the Corn-laws. 
 
 Authorities : For the general history of this period see Rothan. 
 Iv'Europe etravenement du Second Empire, Z>^^zW^«r, Histoire diplo- 
 matique de r Europe, and Viel-Castel, Memoirs ; for the Second Em- 
 pire, Delord, Histoire du Second Empire, Jerrold, Life of Napoleon 
 III, Harcourt, Les quatre ministeres de M. Drouyu de Lhuys, Maicgny, 
 Souvenirs of the Second Empire, Falloux . Memoirs d'nn royaliste, and 
 Thiers, Discours parlementaires ; for Germany, see Berger, Felix, 
 Fiirst von Schv^arzenberg, Bunsen, Memoirs, Beiist, Memoirs, Lowe, 
 Life of Prince Bismarck, Bismarck, Gesammelte Werke, and Politische 
 Reden, Hahn, Fiirst Bismarck, Kohl, Fiirst Bismarck, and Simon, 
 Histoire du Prince de Bismarck ; and for English foreign policy Mar- 
 tin, Life of the Prince Consort, Balling and Ashley, Lil'e of Lord 
 Palmerston, Walpole, Life of Lord John Russell, and Malmesbury, 
 Memoirs of an ex-Minister. 
 

— 6i — 
 LECTURE XVII. 
 
 THE CRIMEAN WAR. 
 
 The history of the Eastern Question from the settlement 
 of the crisis in 1841. 
 
 England and France protest against the pressure placed 
 upon the Turks by Russia and Austria to surrender Polish 
 and Hungarian fugitives ; an English fleet enters the 
 Dardanelles (1849). 
 
 England's interest in the preservation of the independence 
 of Turkey ; the Tsar Nicholas proposes to divide the 
 territories of the " Sick Man " with England. 
 
 The attitude of the Tsar Nicholas towards the Turks ; 
 consistency of his policy since the Treaties of Adrianople 
 and Unkiar Skelessi ; he occupies the Danubian Provinces in 
 1848, but at the request of the powers withdraws behind the 
 Preuth (185 1 ). 
 
 The Tsar Nicholas believes the time propitious for the 
 final overthrow of the Turks ; Francis Joseph of Austria is 
 bound to him by gratitude for his assistance in 1849, and 
 almost dependent on him ; Frederick William IV of Prussia 
 is his brother-in-law and desirous of obtaining his help to 
 establish his power in Germany ; England cannot fight 
 without allies and may be induced to share the spoil, while 
 Napoleon III is distrusted by the European powers, and 
 the strength of his position in France doubtful. 
 
 The condition of Turkey ; reforms attempted by the 
 Sultan Abdul Med j id. 
 
 Disputed questions likely to lead to war ; the difficulty 
 about Montenegro ; the quarrel with France about the holy 
 places in Palestine ; Conversations of Nicholas with the 
 English ambassador. Sir George Hamilton Seymour. 
 
 Mission of Menshikov to Constantinople in 1853 ; 
 Nicholas demands to be recognized as official protector of 
 the Greek Christians in the Turkish dominions ; the Russian 
 ultimatums of 5 May and 31 May ; Nicholas' Note to the 
 
— 62 — 
 
 powers (ii June) ; the Russians occupy the Danubian 
 Provinces (July) ; the English and French fleets enter the 
 Dardanelles (Sept.). 
 
 The Turks declare war against Russia (4 Oct.); destruc- 
 tion of the Turkish fleet at Sinope (30 Nov.) ; the English 
 and French fleets undertake the protection of Constantinople 
 (27 Dec). 
 
 England and France sign a treaty of alliance with Turkey 
 (13 Mar., 1854) and declare war against Russia; alliance 
 vsigned between England and France (10 Apr.). 
 
 The attitude of the German powers ; tortuous policy of 
 Austria and Prussia. 
 
 Gallant defence of SilivStria by the Turks (May, 1854) ; 
 the Russians evacuate the Danubian Provinces ; English and 
 French armies under Raglan and Saint-Arnaud land at 
 Varna. 
 
 Austria occupies the Danubian Provinces ; the difficulty felt 
 by the Allies in efl^ectively attacking iCussia while Austria 
 refuses to declare war ; indignation of the Tsar Nicholas and 
 of the Allies at the conduct of Austria ; Francis Joseph kept 
 in check by the attitude of Prussia and the German Con- 
 federation ; the Vienna Notes (8 Aug.). 
 
 The campaign in the Crimea ; battles of the Alma 
 (20 Sept.), Balaklava (25 Oct.), and Inkerman (5 Nov.); 
 siege of Sevastopol ; defence of the city by Todtleben ; 
 sufferings of the allied armies during the siege. 
 
 The EnglivSh and French fleets in the Baltic under Sir 
 Charles Napier and Parseval-Deschenes ; capture of Bomar- 
 sund (16 Aug.). 
 
 Continued vacillation of Austria. 
 
 Death of the Tsar Nicholas (2 Mar., 1855) ; accession of 
 Alexander II. 
 
 Campaign of 1855 before Sevastopol ; attack on the Redan 
 and the Mamelon (7 June) and failure to capture the 
 Malakov ; death of Lord Raglan (28 June) ; Victor 
 Emmanuel, King of Sardinia, joins the Allies (26 June), and 
 sends an army under Ea Marmora to the Crimea ; battle of 
 the Chernaia (16 Aug.) ; capture of the Malakov (8 Sept.). 
 
-63- 
 
 Campalgn of 1855 in the Baltic ; the KngHsh and French 
 bombard Sveaborg and Helsingfors (7-1 1 Aug.). 
 
 Campaign of 1855 In Armenia ; gallant defence of Kars ; 
 its surrender (28 Nov.)- 
 
 The Tsar Alexander II negotiates for peace ; exhaustion 
 of Russia. 
 
 Congress of Paris for the settlement of terms of peace ; 
 meeting of the Congress (25 Feb., 856) ; plenipotentiaries 
 present were : for France, Walewski and Bourqueney, for 
 England, Clarendon and Cowley, for Russia, Orlov and 
 Brunnow, for Austria, Buol and Hiibner, for Sardinia, 
 Cavour and Vallamarina, and for Turkey, Ali Pacha and 
 Djeniil Eifendi ; the Prussian representatives, Manteuffel 
 and Hatzfeldt, not admitted till 18 March. 
 
 By the Treaty of Paris (30 Mar.) the independence and 
 territorial integrity of Turkey was recognized, the Black Sea 
 neutralized, and the Danube declared a free river ; the 
 Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia were 
 kept separate but given entire local self-government under 
 their own princes, with national armies and free constitutions 
 guaranteed by the powers, but under the suzerainty of 
 Turkey ; Servia receives the same advantages but a Turkish 
 garrison is maintained in Belgrade and in three other cities. 
 
 By the Declaration of Paris (16 Apr.) privateering is 
 forbidden, neutral goods, even when carried in the ships of 
 belligerents, are protected, and blockades are recognized only 
 when effective. 
 
 Before the Congress broke up Cavour brought forw^ard the 
 condition of Italy, and the proceedings of Ferdinand II, 
 King of the Two Sicilies, against his subjects were con- 
 demned. 
 
 The most conspicuous results of the Congress of Paris 
 were the isolation of Austria and the favorable attitude of 
 the powers towards Sardinia. 
 
 Authorities : Kinglake, The Invasion of the Crimea, its Origin and 
 account of its Progress to the death of Lord Raglan, Hamley, The 
 Story of the campaign of Sebastopol, Russell, The British Expedition 
 
-64 — 
 
 to the Crimea, Sandwith, Narrative of the siege of Kars, Forgade, 
 Histoire des causes de la guerre d'Orient, Rousset, Histoire de la 
 guerre de Crim^e, Rothan^ I^a Prusse et son ^oi pendant la guerre de 
 Crim^e, and Gejfcken, Zur Geschichte des Orientalischen Krieges. 
 
 LECTURE XVIII. 
 
 THE UNITY OF ITAI.Y. 
 
 Condition of Italy after the revolutionary movement of 
 1848 ; cruel government of Ferdinand II, King of the Two 
 Sicilies ; reactionary government of Pope Pius IX, the Grand 
 Duke I/eopold II of Tuscany, Dtike Francis V of Modena, 
 and Duke Charles III of Parma ; assassination of Charles 
 III of Parma (26 Mch., 1834), and accession of Robert I; 
 arbitrary military government of the Austrians in lyom- 
 bardy and Venetia. 
 
 The only constitutional, parliamentary and moderate gov- 
 ernment in Italy was that of Sardinia ; character of Victor 
 Emmanuel I ; Cavour becomes chief minister of Sardinia ; 
 his sagacious policy ; Victor Emmanuel and Cavour hope to 
 accomplish the unity of Italy under the constitutional gov- 
 ernment of the House of Savoy. 
 
 Progress of the revolutionary movement in Italy ; it is 
 mainly republican and democratic, and looks to the forma- 
 tion of an Italian Republic ; opposite points of view of 
 Cavour and Mazzini ; the former wishes to accomplish the 
 unity of Italy by policy, with the countenance and assistance 
 of Europe, the latter by means of popular insurrection ; 
 Mazzini's attempt to raise an insurrection in Genoa (June, 
 
 1857). 
 
 The Austrians continue to occupy Parma, Modena and the 
 lyCgations, while the French occupy Rome since 1849. 
 
 PoHtical effect obtained by Cavour in joining the Anglo- 
 
l/*t)3^a4«, 17»» icUi'dt Si'Ft<^a*l^ e^il/^di^t^ ki^eA/lo/iS'l-i 
 
-65- 
 
 French alliance against Russia in 1855, and in sending an 
 army to the Crimea ; he thus obtains the right to be present 
 at the Congress of Paris, and to lay the claims of Italy be- 
 fore the great powers. 
 
 Interest taken in England and in France in the cause of 
 Italian unity ; indignation at the cruelties of King Bomba ; 
 conspiracies formed, and money obtained ; the work of the 
 secret societies and spread of democratic and unitary 
 principles. 
 
 Napoleon III takes into consideration the possibility of 
 assisting the Italian cause-; his sympathy with the idea of 
 nationality ; his scheme for the creation of an Italian con- 
 federation of the Italian Princes under the leadership of the 
 Pope and the King of Sardinia ; attempt of Orsini on the 
 life of Napoleon (14 Jan., 1858). 
 
 The condition of affairs in Europe in 1858 favors the policy 
 of Napoleon III and Cavour .; in Prussia Prince William had 
 been declared regent owing to the insanity of Frederick 
 William IV (Oct., 1857).; the new regent hates Austria and 
 is ready to be on friendly terms with France ; the Tsar 
 Alexander II is also friendly with France; which seconds 
 his ideas with regard to the Danubian principalities; 
 Charles Cousa elected Prince of Moldavia (7 Jan., 1859), and 
 of Wallachia (5 Feb.).; Milosch Obrenovitch overthrows 
 Alexander Karageorgevitch, and becomes Prince of Servia 
 (12 Jan., 1859); England, though less friendly with France 
 than during the Crimean War, is too much occupied with the 
 suppression of Sepoy Mutiny in India to wish to interfere 
 in the affairs of Europe ; Austria, the power most opposed 
 to Italian reform and unity, is therefore isolated. 
 
 Napoleon III and Cavour agree at Plombieres (20 July, 
 1858), that Sardinia shall cede Savoy and Nice to France in 
 return for assistance against Austria in Italy. 
 
 The relations between Sardinia and Austria,; Austria de- 
 clares war (26 Apr., 1859); Napoleon III declares his inten- 
 tion of aiding Sardinia. 
 
 The campaign of 1859 in Italy ; the French defeat the 
 
— 66 — 
 
 Austrians at Montebello (20 May) and at Magenta (4 June); 
 Napoleon III and Victor Emmanuel enter Milan (8 June); 
 Napoleon appeals to the Italians to unite for the freedom of 
 their country. 
 
 General insurrection in Italy ; the Grand Duke lycopold is 
 driven from Florence (April); Duke Robert I from Parma 
 (May); and Duke Francis'V from Modena (June); Francis 
 II succeeds as King of the Two Sicilies (22 May), and is 
 prevented from aiding the Austrians by insurrections ; the 
 Austrians withdraw from the Legations ; provisional govern- 
 ments formed at Florence, Modena and Bologna ; Cavour 
 resigns in order to be more free to persuade the Italian in- 
 surgents to unite with Sardinia (13 July). 
 
 The French defeat the Austrians at Solferino (24 June); 
 Napoleon III startled at the spread of the revolutionary 
 movement in Italy, and afraid of the establishment of a 
 strongly unified monarchy, instead of an Italian Federation 
 makes an armistice with Austria (8 July). 
 
 By the treaty of Villafranca (12 July), Austria makes 
 peace with France and cedes Lombardy, but not Venetia to 
 Napoleon III; eventually (24 Mch., i860,) Napoleon III 
 cedes Lombardy to Victor Emmanuel in exchange for Savoy 
 and Nice. 
 
 Causes of the treaty of Villafranca ; both Austria and 
 France are afraid of the Prince Regent of Prussia who mo- 
 bilizes the Prussian army. 
 
 Progress of the movement for amalgamation with Sar- 
 dinia in Italy ; Tuscany, the Legations, Romagna, and the 
 Duchies of Parma and Modena vote for union with Sardinia 
 (Aug. Sept.); Buoncampagni's government of Tuscany ; 
 the central Italian provinces elect the Prince of Carignan as 
 regent (7 Nov.); Garibaldi resigns the command of their 
 army. 
 
 Napoleon III appeals for a conference of the great powers 
 to settle the affairs of Italy ; England formally opposes ; 
 Palmerston, who had become prime minister in June, de- 
 clares for non-intervention and that the central Italian states 
 
"- 67 - 
 
 had a right to decide on their own government, and demands 
 that the French should evacuate Rome. 
 
 Victor Emmanuel accepts the union of Tuscany and the 
 Legations with the kingdom of Sardinia (22 Mch., i860). 
 
 Garibaldi lands in Sicily with a body of followers (5 Apr. , 
 i860); his movement is entirely independent; he dislikes 
 Cavour, and is an adherent of republicanism rather than of 
 the House of Savoy ; Garibaldi conquers all Sicily by the 
 end of June ; Francis II, King of the Two Sicilies re-issues 
 the constitution which his father had granted in 1848, and 
 afterwards had withdrawn (30 June); Garibaldi crosses to 
 the mainland, conquers Calabria and occupies Naples (7 
 Sept.); Francis II escapes to Gaeta ; Mazzini joins Gari- 
 baldi, and projects the establishment of an Italian Republic. 
 
 Action of Victor Emmanuel and Cavour at this juncture ; 
 they represent themselves as forced by circumstances to in- 
 tervene in the affairs of vsouthern Italy ; they are encouraged 
 by England ; wrath of the Pope, who excommunicates Vic- 
 tor Emmanuel ; Cialdini, with a Sardinian army, defeats the 
 Papal troops at Castelfiardo ( 18 Sept.), occupies Ancona and 
 the Marches, avoids the Patrimony of St. Peter and enters 
 Neapolitan territory. 
 
 The Parliament of Turin, consisting of deputies from all 
 northern Italy authorize Victor Emmanuel to unite the 
 Marches, Naples and Sicily with the Sardinian dominions 
 (2 Oct.); Victor Emmanuel proceeds to Naples ; patriotic 
 conduct of Garibaldi ; the Marches, Naples and Sicily vote 
 for union with northern Italy (21 Oct., i860). 
 
 Surrender of Gaeta (13 Feb., 1861). 
 
 Meeting of the first Italian Parliament at Turin (18 Feb.); 
 Victor Emmanuel declared King of Italy. 
 
 Italy thus formed into a United Kingdom within eighteen 
 months of the outbreak of war, the only districts not ruled 
 by the House of Savoy being Venetia, occupied by the Aus- 
 trians, and Rome, with the Patrimony of St. Peter, garri- 
 soned by French troops. 
 
 Causes of this startling success ; the ability of Cavour ; 
 
— 68 — 
 
 formation of Italy into a limited monarchy under the House 
 of Savoy. 
 
 Death of Cavour (6 June, 1861). 
 
 Authorities : Cantu, Delia Indipendenza Italiana, Ideville. journaf 
 d'un Diplomat en Italie 1859-1862, Mazade, Le Comte de Cavour, Bi- 
 anchiy Storia documentata della diplomazia Europeain Italia, Rattazzi, 
 Rattazzi et son temps, Zeller, Pie IX et Victor Emmanuel. Garibaldi, 
 Memoirs, Mazzini, Works, Godkin, Life of Victor Kmnianud ,/;^W /£r7j^-A^^^^ 
 "JicftiA Correspondence of Cavour with Madame de Circourt,'-t!'^fz^^/Ir7 Discorsi 
 parlamentari, {ito4 Lettere, D' Azeglio, Souvenirs, ^Biancki, La poli- 
 tique du Comte CaniUlje^e Cavour^ Mario, Garibaldi e i suoi Tempi, 
 and Bazancou^^r'^JAStoire de la guei-re d' Italie. 
 
 I^BCTURB XIX. 
 
 THE OVERTHROW OF AUSTRIA. 
 
 Position of the great powers towards each other after the 
 formation of the kingdom of Italy. 
 
 The restless policy of Napoleon III ; continuance of the 
 alliance with England but on less cordial terms ; the joint 
 expedition to China (i860); French interference in Syria 
 (i860) ; the French expedition to Mexico (1862) ; election 
 of the Archduke Maximilian as Emperor of Mexico (1864) ; 
 disastrous result of the French interference in Mexico ( 1866) . 
 
 Development of the Eastern Question ; friendship between 
 Napoleon III and Alexander II ; union of the provinces of 
 Moldavia and Wallachia into the Principality of Roumania 
 (1861) ; death of Sultan Abdul Medjid and accession of 
 Abdul Aziz (25 June, 1861) ; overthrow of Prince Charles 
 Couza (1865) ; election of Prince Charles of Hohenzollern 
 as Prince of Roumania (25 Mar., 1866). 
 
 Revolution in Greece; overthrow of King Otho (Oct., 
 1862) ; election of Prince George of Denmark as King of 
 the Hellenes (30 Mar., 1863) ; England cedes the Ionian 
 Islands to the kingdom of Greece. 
 
S&itcJUc .-ii^l'irC^ ^ ^ tii^rti^Jx'^ cU /Sh e^ Si'c'Cc 
 
— 69 — 
 
 The position in Italy ; the ministries of Ricasoli and 
 Rattazzi ; longing of the Italians for Rome and Venice ; 
 negotiations with France for the withdrawal of the French 
 garrison from Rome ; Garibaldi makes an attempt on Rome ; 
 he is defeated at Aspromonte (29 Aug., 1862) ; ministry of 
 L<i Marmora (1864) ; he negotiates with Prussia. 
 
 The policy of Tsar Alexander II ; he emancipates the 
 Russian serfs (5 Mar., 1861) ; outbreak of insurrection in 
 Russian Poland (15 Jan., 1863) ; England, Austria, and 
 France make a joint representation in favor of the Poles 
 (17 Jan., 1863) ; indignation of the Tsar ; Prussia offers to 
 assist Russia in suppressing the insurrection ; gratitude of 
 Alexander. 
 
 The internal policy of Austria ; the ministry of Rechberg ; 
 the Emperor Francis Joseph promulgates a unitary constitu- 
 tion (20 Oct., i860) ; the Hungarians and Venetians refuse 
 to send deputies to the new parliament. 
 
 Growing strength of Prussia ; accession of William I 
 (2 Jan., 1861); his character and previous career; his 
 military instincts ; reorganization of the Prussian army by 
 von Roon and of the general staff by von Moltke ; King 
 William's belief in the unity of Germany and in the mission 
 of Prussia to dominate Germany. 
 
 Position of parties in the Prussian I^andtag ; Bismarck 
 appointed chief minister (24 Sept., 1862); he is unable to 
 obtain a parliamentary majority, but raises taxes and governs 
 without it ; character of Bismarck's policy ; he works for 
 the isolation of 'Austria and the destruction of her influence 
 in Germany as the first step towards German unity. 
 
 The weakness of the Bundestag, or Federal Diet ; the 
 schemes of the middle states, headed by Saxon 3'-, Hanover, 
 Bavaria, for independence of both Austria and Prussia. 
 
 The Schleswig-PIolstein question ; its position at the death 
 of Frederick VII of Denmark (15 Nov., 1863); the Duke 
 of Augustenburg puts forward His claim to the duchies ; at 
 the request of the Bundestag, Hanover and Saxony occupy 
 Holstein and Lauenburg (21 Dec, 1863), and Prussia and 
 
— 70 — 
 
 Austria occupy Schleswig (i Feb., 1864); resistance of the 
 Danes ; battles of Duppel ; England makes useless representa- 
 tions ; Christian IX of Denmark forced to yield ; by the 
 treaty of i August, confirmed 30 October, 1864, he sur- 
 renders the duchies to Prussia and Austria. 
 
 The Bundestag, led by Bavaria and Saxony, demands that 
 the duchies should be given up to the Duke of Augusten- 
 burg ; Bismarck scornfully refuses ; by the Convention of 
 Gastein (14 Aug., 1865) Prussia and Austria agree to a con- 
 dominium in the duchies ; Austria occupies Holstein, while 
 Prussia occupies Schleswig and purchases lyauenburg. 
 
 Bismarck prepares for war with Austria ; the friendliness 
 of Russia towards the Prussian schemes ; Bismarck's nego- 
 tiations with Napoleon III to whom he offers Belgium and 
 lyuxemburg in return for neutrality. 
 
 Bismarck signs an offensive and defensive treaty with Ital}^ 
 (8 Apr., 1866), and promises to attack Austria within three 
 months. 
 
 Bismarck refuses to submit tlie question of the duchies to 
 the Bundestag (9 Apr., 1866), and attacks Austria's admin- 
 istration of Holstein as favoring the pretentions of the Duke 
 of Augustenburg. 
 
 Outbreak of the Seven Weeks' War ; a Prussian army 
 under Manteuff el attacks the Austrians in Holstein (8 June). 
 
 Bismarck proposes to the Bundestag that a German parlia- 
 ment shall be elected by universal suffrage, that Austria vshall 
 be excluded from Germany, and that the forces of Germany 
 shall be divided into two armies, of which the northern shall 
 be conmianded by the King of Prussia and the southern, by 
 the King of Bavaria. 
 
 Bismarck declares the Pact of Federation broken (14 
 June) ; Prussian troops occupy Saxony, Hanover, and Hesse- 
 Cassel ; Manteuffel prevents the South German states from 
 lending effective aid to Austria. 
 
 The Campaign of 1866 in Italy ; the Italian army invades 
 Venetia and is defeated by the Archduke Albert at Custozza 
 (24 June); the Italian fleet defeated by Tegetthoff at I^issa 
 
k 
 
— 71 — 
 
 (2o July); preliminaries of peace signed between Austria 
 and Italy (lo Aug.), and definitive peace (3 Oct.), by which 
 Austria cedes Venetia to Italy. 
 
 The Campaign of 1866 in Bohemia ; von Moltke's strate- 
 gical combinations ; junction of the armies of the Crown 
 Prince of Prussia and Prince Frederick Charles ; the Aus- 
 trians under Benedek utterly defeated at Sadowa, or Konig- 
 gratz (3 July); armistice signed 22 July, followed by the 
 Preliminaries of Nikolsberg (26 July), and the Treaty of 
 Prague (23 Aug.). 
 
 By this treaty Austria loses no territory except Venetia, 
 but she agrees to the dissolution of the Germanic Confedera- 
 tion, and promises to make no opposition to a new constitu- 
 tion of Germany in which she shall have no part. 
 
 Prussia's chief advantages from the war were not gained 
 from Austria but by the annexation of the following states ; 
 Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Hesse- Homburg, Nassau, the city of 
 Frankfort, and Schleswig-Holstein, which gave her an un- 
 contested superiority in Germany ; she makes favorable 
 treaties of peace with Saxony, Bavaria, Wurtemberg, and 
 Hesse- Darmstadt . 
 
 When the great blow had been struck and it was too late 
 for him to interfere effectively, Napoleon III, by his ambassa- 
 dor Benedetti, asks for Rhenish Bavaria and Rhenish Hesse, 
 as his reward for non-interference ; William I and Bismarck 
 refuse and by making known the request rouse German feel- 
 ing against France. 
 
 Results of the Seven Weeks' War on the position of 
 European politics. 
 
 Authorities : Debidoiir, Histoire diplomatique de I'Burope, 1814-78, 
 Lefevre, Histoire de rinterventioii fran9aise au Mexique, Masseras, 
 Un Essai d'Empire au Mexique, Gaiclot, L' Empire de Maximilien, 
 Zeller, Pie IX et Victor Emmanuel, Garibaldi, Memoirs, Martin, 
 Pologue et Muscovie, Batsch, La Question polonaise dans la Russie 
 occideutale, Araminski, Histoire de la Revolution polonaise,'^Z^r(9jv- 
 Beaulieu, Un Homme d'etat russe, Nicholas Milutiue, Von Sybel, Die 
 Begriindung des Deutscheu Reiches durch Willielui I, Denkwiirdig- 
 keiten aus dem Ivcben des Grafen von Roon, vo?t Moltke, Gesammelte 
 
Schriften und Deukwiirdigkeiten, Muller, Graf Moltke, Hahn, Furst 
 Bismarck, Kohl, Fiirst Bismarck, Busch, Our Chancellor, Lowe, Life of 
 Bismarck, Simon, Histoire du prince de Bismarck, Bismarck, Gesam- 
 melte Werke, Briefe, Politiscbe Briefe, and Politisclien Reden, Beust, 
 Memoirs, Vitzthuinf'St. Petersburg and London, 1852-64, and London, 
 //"i^/.^/j Gastein und S&(\.oviSi^Lo/tus, Diplomatic Reminiscences, Hansen, K 
 travers la diplomatic, 1864-67, Renouf, Les coulisses de la diplomatic, 
 Rothan, La politique frangaise en 1866, Benedetti, Ma mission en 
 Prusse, Klaczko, Les preliminaires de Sadowa, and Two Chancellors, 
 Bismarck and Gortchakoff, Viel-Castel, Memoirs, Gramont, (pseud. 
 Memor. ), L'Allemagne nouvelle. La Marmora, Un peu plus de lumiere 
 sur les evdnements militaires et politiques de I'annee 1S66, Bonghi, 
 L'allianza prussiana e I'acquisto del Veneto, Harcourt, Les quatre 
 ministeres de M. de Drouyn de IMviy^^Hahn, Zwei Jalire preussisch- 
 deutschej^Politik, 1866-67, Treitschke , Zehn Jahre Deutscher Kampfe 
 1865-74, Hozier, The Seven Weeks' War, Lecomte, Guerre de la Prusse 
 et de ritalie contre I'Autriche et la Confederation germanique, Borb- 
 stddt, Preussens Feldziige gegen Oesterreich,^y?w^/cw, Der Krieg von 
 1866 in Deutschland und Italien, Fontane, Der deutsclie Krieg von 
 1866, and the official accounts of the War of 1866 by the German 
 and Austrian general staffs. 
 
 ^kJtiL:!n 
 
 ^ 
 
 LECTURE XX. 
 
 THE RE-CONSTlTUnON OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA. 
 
 After the signature of the Treat}^ of Prague, Prussia pro- 
 pounded a new organization for Northern Germany ; the 
 victories of her armies and the great preponderance she had 
 obtained over the other states by the annexation of Hanover, 
 etc., caused Bismarck's plan to be promptly accepted by the 
 Northern States (8 Feb., 1867). 
 
 Germany, north of the Main, was formed into the North 
 German Confederation, which consisted of the two king- 
 doms of Prussia and Saxony, the four grand duchies of 
 Mecklenburg-Schwerin , Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Saxe- Wei- 
 mar, and Oldenburg, five duchies, seven principalities, and 
 the three free cities of Hamburg, Bremen, and Liibeck. 
 
I 
 
 ? 9ifW 2iv^ jiAe '}^4-tM£icU-jtUx fi^^'^k 
 
— 73 — 
 
 The federal power extending over foreign affairs, the 
 army, coinage, and all matters not strictly provincial, was 
 entrusted to the King of Prussia as President of the Confed- 
 eration, whose executive minister was the chancellor ap- 
 pointed by himself ; the King of Prussia was also comman- 
 der-in-chief of the army and navy ; Bismarck appointed 
 chancellor. 
 
 The federal legislative authority was to be administered 
 by the Federal Parliament or Reichstag, elected by universal 
 suffrage in proportion to population. 
 
 Between the President and the Reichstag was established 
 the Federal Council or Bundesrath, consisting of forty-three 
 members appoitited by the governments of the different 
 states, Prussia nominating seventeen. 
 
 This constitution was accepted by the Constituent Reich- 
 stag (17 April, 1867), which voted taxes for the mainte- 
 nance of the army for four years. 
 
 Von Roon applies the military organization of Prussia to 
 the whole of the North German Confederation. 
 
 The South German states, Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Baden, 
 and Hesse-Darmstadt, maintained their independence, but 
 the Zollverein, or Customs-Union, was renewed between 
 them and the North German Confederation , its affairs being 
 regulated by a Zollparlament. 
 
 The condition of the Austrian empire after the Treaty of 
 Prague; failure of the constitution granted in 1861, owing 
 to the abstention of Hungarian deputies ; the struggle 
 between the federalists, including the different Slavonic 
 provinces, and the dualists, headed by Hungary ; the 
 Emperor Francis Joseph resolves on a dual constitution ; 
 Beust appointed Austrian chancellor. 
 
 The Constitution of 8 February, 1867 ; the empire split 
 into two parts, Austria and Hungary, each having separate 
 parliaments, ministries, budgets, and complete internal au- 
 tonomy ; imperial foreign policy, finance, and military ad- 
 ministration carried on by an imperial ministry responsible 
 to a Reichstag, consisting of delegations from the Austrian 
 and Hungarian parliaments. 
 
— 74 — 
 
 Delight of the Magyars at the Dual Constitution, which 
 was mainly the work of Deak ; their attitude towards sub- 
 ject populations and compromise with Croatia. 
 
 Wrath of the Slavonic populations at the Dual Constitu- 
 tion ; the Slavs of the north, headed by the Czechs, being 
 thus separated from the Slovaks, Slavonians, Croatians, and 
 Servians in the south. 
 
 Russia encourages the Pan-Slavist idea ; and the Slavs of 
 Austria look to Russia for help. 
 
 The condition of Russia ; liberal policy of the Tsar Alex- 
 ander and his ministers, except with regard to Poland. 
 
 Russia's advance in Central Asia ; conquest of Samarcand 
 (1866), and Bokhara (1868). 
 
 Condition of the Eastern Question ; growth of Roumanian 
 claims for independence under Prince Charles ; the Turks 
 withdraw their garrisons from Belgrade and the other Ser- 
 vian fortresses (18 April, 1867) ; assassination of Michael 
 Obrenovich (10 June, 1868), and accession of Milan as 
 Prince of Servia ; insurrection in Crete (1866-68). 
 
 Italian affairs after the Treaty of Prague ; the Italians de- 
 mand from France the evacuation of Rome, which has a 
 French garrison; the garrison withdrawn (Dec, 1866); 
 Garibaldi attacks Rome (25 Oct., 1867); a French army 
 under De Failly arrives in Rome to defend the Pope (30 Oct. ) ; 
 defeat of Garibaldi at Mentana (3 'Nov.). 
 
 Negotiations of Napoleon III with Bismarck ; his schemes 
 on Belgium ; his schemes on Luxemburg, which was ruled 
 by the King of the Netherlands as a German state, but had 
 not joined the North German Confederation ; equivocal posi- 
 tion of Luxemburg which is garrisoned b}^ Prussia ; William 
 III of the Netherlands ready to sell Luxemburg to France, 
 but unwilling to do so without the consent of Prussia. 
 
 Napoleon III appeals to Europe on the question of Lux- 
 emburg ; a conference of the great powers by the Treat^^ of 
 London (11 Ma}^ 1867) direct that the province shall be 
 evacuated by Prussia, that the fortress shall be dismantled, 
 and that its neutrality shall be guaranteed by Europe. 
 
— 75 — 
 
 Growing weakness and unpopularity of the Second Empire 
 in France ; effect of the final failure of the Mexican expedi- 
 tion (1867); strength of the parliamentary opposition under 
 Thiers ; Napoleon III resolves to rule more in harmony with 
 popular feeling ; he grants a measure of liberty to the press 
 (May, 1868), and the right of public meeting (June, 1868), 
 and eventually establishes real parliamentary government 
 (8 Sept., 1869). 
 
 Napoleon's concessions taken as a confession of weakness ; 
 general hatred and contempt expressed for the Empire in 
 France ; the republican party grows in strength and threatens 
 revolution ; Gambetta, elected deputy for Paris in 1869, 
 comes into prominence ; influence of the " International," a 
 democratic society of workingmen directed by Mazzini, 
 Kossuth, and Ledru-Rollin. 
 
 Napoleon regards a successful war as the only means 
 practicable for restoring the authority of the Empire ; he is 
 falsely told that the army is efficient ; he resolves on war 
 with Prussia because Bismarck had foiled his designs on 
 lyUxemburg and he could promise the French people a restor- 
 ation of the natural limits of France ; he endeavors to ob- 
 tain allies ; Austria is afraid to join him from fear of Russia 
 and Italy declines because of the French occupation of 
 Rome. 
 
 William I and Bismarck also desire war with France ; they 
 wish to incorporate the South German states and to complete 
 German unity by a great national triumph. 
 
 Napoleon III forms a liberal ministry under Emile Ollivier 
 (4 Jan., 1870); he appeals to a plebiscite and by 7,836,434 
 votes to 1,560,709 France declares herself satisfied with the 
 Empire (8 May, 1870). 
 
 The pretext for war derived from the situation in Spain. 
 
 Recent history of Spain ; unpopularity of Queen Isabella 
 II ; domination of the army and frequency of military pro- 
 nunciamentos ; the second Carlist war (1854-56). 
 
 Repeated changes of ministry and alternation of power be- 
 tween Espartero, Narvaez and O'Donnell; frequent wars, 
 
~76- 
 
 with Morocco (1859-60), with Peru (1864-66), wath San 
 Domingo (1864-65); state of insurrection in Cuba. 
 
 After the deaths of Narvaez and O'Donnell, Isabella is 
 abandoned; insurrection of September, 1868 ; Isabella escapes 
 to France ; formation of a provisional government under 
 Serrano, Prim, and Topete. 
 
 Meeting of a constituent assembly at Madrid (Feb. , 1869) ; 
 it elects Serrano regent and declares in favor of constitutional 
 monarchy ; candidates for the throne of Spain, Don Carlos, 
 the Due de Montpensier, and Prince Ferdinand of Saxe- 
 Coburg-Gotha ; Prim suggests the candidature of a prince of 
 the house of HohenzoUern ; King William I of Prussia gives 
 permission for the candidature of his relative Prince Leopold 
 of HohenzoUern (May, 1870). 
 
 Napoleon III resolves to make out of this candidature a 
 casus belli with Prussia ; Benedetti sent to Ems to demand 
 an explanation of King William ; his interviews with the 
 King (9-1 1 July); candidature of Prince lycopold for the 
 throne of Spain withdrawn (12 July); Benedetti 's instruc- 
 tions to demand yet more from the King of Prussia ; the 
 King leaves Ems (13 July;; Bismarck prepares for war; 
 mobilization of the German annies. 
 
 Excitement in Germany at the behavior of France ; the 
 South German states prepare to assist the North German 
 Confederation ; enthusiasm felt at the prospect of war with 
 France. 
 
 England endeavors to mediate but Napoleon is bent upon 
 war; France declares war (17 July); European public 
 opinion regards the war as wanton and sympathises with 
 Prussia. 
 
 Authorities -f^'Von Sybel, Die Begriindung des Deutscheii Reiches 
 durch Wilhelm I, Maurenbrecher , Griindung des Deutschen Reiches, 
 Oncken, Das Zeitalter des Kaisers Wilhelm, William /, Polilische Cor. 
 respondenz, Treitschke , Zehn Jahre Deutscher Kampfe, and Deutsche 
 Geschichte im 19^^" Jahrhundert, Bindiiig, Die Griindung des Nord- 
 deutschen Bundes, Bulle, Geschichte deszweiten Kaiserreiches und des 
 Konigreiches Italien, Delord, Histoire du Second Empire, Rothan, La 
 politique fran5aise en 1866, L'AfFaire de lyuxembourg, and La France 
 
U\cU^ in^ki iOdJ^i -<^Mv^f*^, he^H^n^^lii^ 
 
 VWv Hyhw di CH^tpi >itj>i^ i^ M'l^CL lUi^vMnc 
 
..eiitvc:^ I'Wi'^^h^'^'v^/^'^^]'' 
 
-- 77 — 
 
 et sa politique exterieure en 1867, Thiers, Discours parlenientaires, 
 Gramont (pseud. Memor.), La France et la Prusse avaut la guerre, 
 Ollivier, Menioires, and lye 19 Janvier; papiers et correspondance de 
 la famille imperiale, Beust, Memo'ws^Benedetti, Ma Mission en Prusse. 
 Hahfi, Der Krieg Deutschlands gegen Frankreich und die Griindung 
 des Deutscben Kaiserreiclis, Sorel, Histoire diplomatique de la guerre 
 franco-alleniande, Poujade, L,a diploniatie du Second Empire et celle 
 du quatre Septembre 1870, Hubbard. Histoire contemporaine 
 d'Espagne, Mazade, Les revolutions de TEspagne contemporaine, 
 ^Laveleye, La Prusse et TAutricbe depuis Sadowa, Loftus, Diploma- 
 tic Reminiscences, and many of the books cited under Lecture XIX' 
 including those on Bismarck. 
 
 }\lt.LihM^ 
 
 LECTURE XXI. 
 
 THE FRANCO-GERM \N WAR. 
 
 Attitude of the powers of Europe at the outbreak of the 
 Fran CO -Germ an War ; England declares neutrality (19 July, 
 1870), and English public opinion is roused against France 
 by the publication of Napoleon Ill's propositions to Bis- 
 marck for seizing Belgium ; Russia declares neutrality (23 
 July), and threatens to attack Austria if that power should 
 join France ; Austria therefore remains neutral ; Italy re- 
 fuses to join France because of the French occupation of 
 Rome ; Denmark alone prepares to aid Napoleon if the 
 French armies won some immediate success ; formation of 
 the League of Neutrals (Aug.). 
 
 Enthusiasm for the war in Germany ; the Crown Prince 
 of Prussia takes command of the contingents of the South 
 German states. 
 
 Excitement in Paris ; the Emperor Napoleon III leaves to 
 take command of the army (28 July). 
 
 Rapid mobilization of the German army ; Moltke's plan 
 of campaign ; inferiority of the French military administra- 
 tion ; change in the French plan of campaign owing to the 
 adhesion of the South German states to Prussia. 
 
-78- 
 
 First campaign of 1870; the skirmish at Saarbriick (2 Aug.); 
 battle of Wissembourg (4 Aug.) ; the Crown Prince of Panssia 
 utterly defeats Mac Mahon at Worth, or Froschwiller, and 
 Prince Frederick Charles defeats Frossard at Spicheren, or 
 Forbach (6 Aug.); Moltke, having thus broken the French 
 line forms the siege of Strasbourg and advances against the 
 main French army under Bazaine ; Bazaine defeated at 
 Horny (14 Aug.), at Mars-La-Tour, orVionville (16 Aug. , 
 and at Gravelotte, or Saint-Privat (18 Aug. ); Bazaine's army 
 shut up in Metz and besieged by Prince Frederick Charles. 
 
 Excitement caused in Paris by the news of the French de- 
 feats ; the Empress Eugenie, who had been appointed regent, 
 dismisses Ollivier, and appoints a new ministry under Mon- 
 tauban, Comte de Palikao. 
 
 The caQipaign of Sedan ; the Army of Chalons under Mac 
 Mahon, and accompanied by the Emperor marches to relieve 
 Metz ; it is utterly defeated by the main German army at 
 Sedan (i Sept.); the French army capitulates (2 Sept.), and 
 the Emperor Napoleon III is sent a prisoner into Germany. 
 
 Revolution of 4 September in Paris ; the Imperial Govern- 
 ment is overthrown ; the deputies for Paris in the I^egislative 
 Body, with the exception of Thiers, form themselves into 
 the Government of National Defence, with General Trochu, 
 Commandant of Paris, as their president ; this provisional 
 government forms a ministry consisting of Jules Favre, 
 Minister of Foreign Affairs, Gambetta, Minister of the In- 
 terior, General Ee Flo, Admiral Fourichon, Cremieux, Ernest 
 Picard, Jules Simon, Dorian, and Magnan ; the other mem- 
 bers of the National Defence were, Emmanuel Arago, Jules 
 Ferry, Garnier-Pages, Eugene Pelletan, Glas-Bizoin and 
 Henri Rochefort. 
 
 The first measures of the new French government ; its 
 mistakes ; it does not immediately summon a constituent as- 
 sembly ; it persists in remaining in Paris ; it sends Thiers to 
 endeavor to obtain allies. 
 
 Thiers' journey ; his reception in England, Russia, Aus- 
 tria and Italy ; the French garrison withdrawn from Rome ; 
 
— 79 — 
 
 the Italians take Rome, (20 Sept.), and declare it the capi- 
 tal of the Kingdom of Italy. 
 
 Continued success of the German armies in France ; the 
 siege of Paris formed (19 Sept.); surrender of Toul (23 
 Sept.), and of Strasbourg (28 Sept.); the Germans advance 
 south and take Orleans (11 Oct.); Bismarck's negotiations 
 with Bazaine ; his attitude towards the Government of Na- 
 tional Defence ; surrender of Bazaine and of Metz (27 Oct.). 
 
 Gambetta leaves Paris and organizes a branch of the gov- 
 ernment at Tours ; his extraordinary energy and success in 
 calling France to arms ; he advocates war a outrance ; he 
 organizes the Army of the Loire ; French success at Coulmiers 
 (9 Nov.); the Germans evacuate Orleans ; the Army of the 
 Loire advances to the relief of Paris ; critical position of the 
 German besieging army ; sortie of Trochu from Paris and 
 battle of Villiers-Champigny. 
 
 Prince Frederick Charles breaks the Army of the Loire in 
 two, and reoccupies Orleans ; the branch government retires 
 from Tours to Bordeaux (9 Dec); surrender of Verdun (8 
 Nov.); Thionville (14 Nov.), and Montmedy (14 Dec); bril- 
 liant defence of Belfort. 
 
 Effect of the German victories upon German popular 
 opinion ; the South German States enter the North German 
 Confederation (15-25 Nov.); the Reichstag offers the king 
 of Prussia the title of Emperor ; he declines to accept it 
 until it is offered to him by the German Princes ; this is done 
 and William I of Prussia is proclaimed German Emperor at 
 Versailles (18 Jan., 1871). 
 
 Russia takes advantage of the war and of the existence of 
 a pacific ministry in England to declare the abrogation of 
 the terms of the Treaty of Paris of 1856 ; conference of the 
 powers upon this subject at London (17 Jan.); the Treaty of 
 Paris modified so as to permit Russia to maintain a fleet in 
 the Black Sea (13 Mar.); causes of PVance not being present 
 at the conference ; the policy of Bismarck with regard to the 
 Government of National Defence. 
 
 Final campaign of 1871 ; the Germans commence the bom- 
 
— lio — 
 
 bardment of Paris (5 Jan.); operations of the Army of the 
 North under Faidherbe ; battle of Pont de Noyelles (23 Dec. , 
 1870); Faidherbe' s success at Bapaume (3 Jan., 1871); sur- 
 render of Mezieres (2 Jan.) ; and of Peronne (10 Jan.); 
 Faidherbe utterly defeated by Von Gob en at Saint Quentin 
 (19 Jan.); operations of the Second Army of the lyoire under 
 Chanzy ; he is defeated by Prince Frederick Charles at Le 
 Mans (14-16 Jan.); operations of the Army of the East 
 under Bourbaki ; he is defeated at Hericourt (17 Jan.),. and 
 driven into Switzerland ; last sorti from Paris under Ducrot; 
 battle qf Buzenval (19 Jan.); Paris forced to surrender (28 
 Jan.). 
 
 The armistice of 28 Jan., 187 1 ; its terms ; its blunders ; 
 conduct of Jules Favre ; tactical mistakes of the Govern- 
 ment of National Defence ; Gambetta resigns his authority 
 in the provinces .; elections held for the meeting of a con- 
 stituent assembly. 
 
 Meeting of the Constituent Assembly at Bordeaux (12 
 Feb.) ; Thiers is elected chief of the executive power ; he 
 signs preliminaries of peace with Germany (22 Feb.) ; the 
 treaty accepted by the Assembly (3 March) ; by it France 
 cedes Alsace and part of lyorraine, including Metz, to Ger- 
 many, and promises to pay a w^ar indemnity of five milliards 
 of francs ; a definitive treaty signed at Frankfort (10 May, 
 
 1871). 
 
 The Constituent Assembly declares the overthrow of the 
 Empire and • the proclamation of the third French Republic 
 (i March, 1871). 
 
 Formation of the Government of the Commune (18 March, 
 187 1); its leaders and their doctrines ; Thiers concentrates an 
 army against the Commune ; the government of the Com- 
 mune resists and shoots the Archbishop of Paris and other 
 hostages : the war with the Commune ; MacMahon conquers 
 the Commune and occupies Paris (21-28 May) ; burning of 
 the Tuileries and of the Hotel de Ville. 
 
 The most important results of the Franco-German war 
 were, the completion of the unity of Germany and the over- 
 

— 8i — 
 
 throw of the second empire in France ; but the cession of 
 Alsace and lyorraine. more than the result of the war, raised 
 inextinguishable hatred between the two nations. 
 
 Authorities : Sorel, Histoire diplomatique de la guerre Franco- 
 Alleniande, Angeberg, Recueils des Trait^s, conventions, etc., con- 
 ceruant la guerre Franco- Alleniande, Halui, Der Krieg Deutschlands 
 gegen Frankreich und die Griindung des Deutsclien Kaiserreichs, 
 Meding^ De Sadowa a Sedan, Washburne, Correspondence relating to 
 the Franco-German War, and Recollections of a Minister to France 
 (1869-77), Daily News, War Correspondence, Forbes, My experience 
 of the Franco-German war, Russell, My diary during the last great 
 war, Rustow, The war for the Rhine frontier in 1870, Borbstadl^ The 
 Franco German War, Hooper, The Campaign of Sedan, Labou. 
 chere, Diary of the besieged resident in Paris, Bingham, Journal of 
 the Siege of Paris, Bo-zaine, L'Arm^e du l^\\\wiyjarras, Souvenirs, 
 Mazade, La guerre de France, and, Monsieur Thiers, Trochu, 1' Em- 
 pire et la defense de Paris, Chanzy, Memoires, Ducrot, La defense de 
 Paris, Rothan, I'AUemagne et I'ltalie, 1870-71, Hippeau, Histoire di- 
 plomatique de la troisieme republique Francaise, Andldu, Metz, Jules 
 Favre, Le gouvernement de la Defense nationale, Jules Simon, Me- 
 moires, Souvenirs du 4 septembre, and Le gouvernement de M, Thiers, 
 Glas-Bizoin, Dictature de cinq mois, Valjrey, Histoire de la diplo- 
 matic du gouvernement de la Defense national, Maquest, La France et 
 I'Europe pendant le siege de Paris, Buret, Histoire de quatre ans, 
 Busch, Our Chancellor, and Conversations of Prince Bismarck during 
 the Franco- German war, Moltke, Geschichte des Deutsch-Franzosischen 
 Krieges von 1870-71, Hanneken, Bazaine und die Kapitulation von 
 Metz, Blunie, Operations of the German armies in France, Von Syb^l, 
 Der Frieden von 1871^ 2A\^Lissagaray„ ;Histoite de la Commune. 
 
 LECTURE XXII.. 
 
 THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 Condition of Germany after the successful conclusion of 
 the Franco- Prussian War ; enthusiasm felt for a union 
 achieved on the field of battle ; important effect of the war 
 indemnity paid by France ; creation of a national German 
 
— 82 -- 
 
 coinage ; the reconstitution of the North German Confedera- 
 tion as the German Empire ; the Bundesrath increased by 
 six voices for Bavaria, four for Wurtemberg, two for Baden, 
 and two for Hesse- Darmstadt ; the Reichstag increased by 
 the additional representatives of the South German states, 
 chosen in the ratio of one deputy to each one hundred 
 thousand population. 
 
 In spite of the triumph of national unity, particularism 
 makes itself felt in the Reichstag ; though the German 
 princes remain true to the Empire, the Polish, Schleswig, 
 and Hanoverian deputies form separate and irreconcilable 
 parties, while Alsace-Lorraine refuses to elect any deputies 
 at all. 
 
 The administration of Alsace-Lorraine as a Reichsland, or 
 territory of the Empire. 
 
 Increased power given to the Catholic Church in German 
 by the absorption of the South German states into the Em- 
 pire ; Bismarck's dislike of Ultramontanism, which he re- 
 gards as impairing the spirit of national unity ; owing to the 
 strength of the Ultramontane party in the Reichstag, Bis- 
 marck attacks the Roman Catholic Church in Prussia only, 
 where the Protestants have a majority in the Landtag ; the 
 Kulturkampf ; the May Laws (1872), restraining the power 
 of the Catholic Church ; expulsion of the Jesuits from 
 Prussia (June, 1872); attitude of Pope Pius IX ; the South 
 German states, and especially Bavaria, protest against Bis- 
 marck's anti-Catholic policy. 
 
 The reorganization of France ; by the policy of Thiers 
 and the financial skill of Pouyer-Quertier, the war indemnity 
 is paid and France finally evacuated by the German army 
 (March, 1873). 
 
 The Constituent Assembly at Versailles ; the position of 
 parties ; the majority consivSts of monarchists and ultra- 
 montanes ; deliberate tardiness shown in drawing up a new 
 constitution for France ; the presidency of Thiers renewed 
 until the constitution shall have been completed (Aug. , 187 1 ) . 
 
 The majority of the Assembly, which favored monarchy, 
 
-83 — 
 
 divided into Legitimist, Orleanist, and Bonapartist parties, 
 and therefore unable to agree upon a king or emperor ; 
 meanwhile the republican minority, led by Gambetta, makes 
 way in France. 
 
 The monarchical majority in the Assembly forces Thiers 
 to resign (24 May, 1873), and elects MacMahon to the 
 temporary presidency- of the Republic ; the administration 
 of the Due de Broglie ; he prepares the way for the restora- 
 tion of monarchy by appointing anti-republican prefects and 
 officials ; fusion of the Legitimist and Orleanist parties ; the 
 Comte de Paris recognizes the Comte de Chambord as the 
 legitimate king ; regarding himself as next heir to the throne 
 as the representative of hereditary, not of parliamentary, 
 monarchy (Aug., 1873) ; the impracticable character of the 
 Comte de Chambord ; he refuses to abandon the white flag 
 or to make any recognition of parliamentary institutions 
 (27 Oct.) ; the Due de Broglie and the parliamentary mon- 
 archists abandon the support of Comte de Chambord ; elec- 
 tion of MacMahon as President of the French Republic for 
 seven years. 
 
 Completion of the French Constitution (25 Feb., 1875) ; 
 its conservative nature ; the Senate and the Chamber of 
 Deputies ; the presidency to be held for seven years and the 
 president to be elected not by popular vote, but by the joint 
 ballot of the two chambers ; the working of parliamentary 
 government in France ; frequent changes of ministry, the 
 result of the existence of parliamentary groups instead of 
 well-defined parties. 
 
 Condition of Spain ; election of Amadeus, second son of 
 Victor Emanuel to be King of Spain ; assasination of Marshal 
 Prim (30 Dec, 1870); Amadeus commences his reign (2 
 Jan;, 1871); Don Carlos, grandson of the first Don Carlos, 
 raises a rebellion in the northern provinces (1872 ) ; the Carlist 
 War not discouraged in the southern provinces of France, 
 owing to the monarchical character of the Constituent As- 
 sembly and its desire to please the Comte de Chambord ; 
 difficult position of Amadeus ; he resigns the throne of 
 Spain. 
 
— 84 - 
 
 Proclamation of a Spanish Republic ; Emilio Castelar 
 elected President ; General Pavia dissolves the Cortes by 
 armed force (3 Jan., 1874) ; Serrano assumes the presidency ; 
 insurrection at Cartagena. 
 
 Pronunciamento of Martinez Campos (30 Dec, 1874) ; 
 overthrow of Serrano ; Alfonso XII, only son of Queen 
 Isabella, recognized as King of Spain ; suppression of the 
 Carlist rebellion. 
 
 The foreign policy of Bismarck ; he aims to prevent France 
 from obtaining any allies in Europe ; he remains on friendly 
 terms with Russia, whose Tsar, Alexander II, was the 
 nephew and friend of the Emperor William, but suspects the 
 Russian Chancellor, Gorchakov ; being unwilling to trust 
 entirely to Russia, he looks for other allies ; England under 
 Gladstone (1868-74) refuses to interfere in continental poli- 
 tics ; he therefore enters into close relations with Austria. 
 
 The position of Austria ; discontent of the Slavs with the 
 Dual Constitution ; they look to Russia for assistance ; there- 
 fore, in spite of the memory of Sadowa, the Emperor Fran- 
 cis Joseph is ready to enter into alliance with the Emperor 
 William ; dismissal of Beust, the enemy of Prussia, and ap- 
 pointment of Andrassy as Austrian Chancellor (14 Nov., 
 1871). 
 
 Formation of the Dreikaiserbund, or Alliance of the Three 
 Emperors, of Germany, Russia, and Austria (Sept., 1872) ; 
 comparison between the Dreikaiserbund and the Holy Alli- 
 ance ; its aims : ( i ) to maintain the status quo in Europe, 
 (2) to act in harmony on the Eastern Question, (3) to op- 
 pose the progress of revolutionary, socialist, and nihilist 
 movements. 
 
 Triumphant position of Bismarck ; he becomes the Dicta- 
 tor of Europe as Metternich formerly had been ; characteris- 
 tics of his diplomacy. 
 
 Authorities : Muller, Kaiser Wilhelin, Hahn, Wilhelm, der erste 
 Kaiser des neuen Deutscheii Reiclis, ►S"/w£>«, L'Knipereur Guillaume 
 et son regne, Forbes, WilHam of Oermany, Heigel, Kouig I^udwig II, 
 vou Bayern, Lowe, L,ife of Bismarck, Busch, Our Chancellor, Hahn, 
 
(Jte'i/H.o^ (c^^'^v <L KJt^k^^l^- 
 
— 85 — 
 
 Fiirst Bismarck, Kohl, Fiirst Bismarck, Midler, Reicliskanzler Fiirst 
 Bismarck, Sifnon, Histoire du prince de Bismarck, Klaczko, The Two 
 Chancellors, Mohl, Das Deutsche Staatsrecht, Whitman, Germany, 
 Hahn, Geschichte des Kulturkampfesin Preussen, ►SrA?^//^, Geschichte 
 des Kulturkampfes in Preussen, Pressense, La pojlitigue^religieuse de 
 la Vxw^^Q^Vhon, Histoire de P Allemagne depuisfeadowa, Jules Simon, ^^ ^''a^((l At 
 Le Gouvernement de M. Thiers, Mazade, Monsieur Thiers, Hippeau, 
 Histoire diplomatique de la troisieme republique, Chaudordy, La 
 France et la suite de la guerre de 1870-71, Gambetta, Discours, Beust, 
 Memoirs, Houghton, Origin of the Restoration of the Bourbons in 
 Spain, Valras Don Carlos VII et I'Kspagne Carliste, and Gallenga, 
 Iberian Reminiscences. 
 
 LECTURE XXIII. 
 
 RUSSIA'S ATTEMPT TO SOLVE THE EASTERN QUEvSTION. 
 
 Condition of the Turkish Empire during the latter years of 
 the Sultan Abdul Aziz ; growing weakness of the civil and 
 financial administration ; the pledges given after the Crimean 
 war for the more tolerant government of the Christians brok- 
 en ; relying on the protection of the Western powers, all 
 reforms are refused. 
 
 Attitude of the Sultan towards Egypt ; increased impor- 
 tance of that country to England after the completion of the 
 Suez Canal (1869) ; in 1867 the Khedive of Egypt is given 
 authority to govern without reference to Constantinople, and 
 to negotiate with foreign powers ; in 1872 succession by 
 primogeniture in the family of Mehemet Ali is established. 
 
 Continued interest taken by Russia in the Eastern Ques- 
 tion ; the Tsar Alexander II, having freed himself from the 
 humiliating restrictions of the Treaty of Paris in 187 1, desires 
 to intervene on behalf of the Christian subjects of Turkey ; 
 by pursuing vigorously the classic policy of Russia he hopes 
 to counteract the growth of Nihilism. 
 
 The progress of Russia in Central Asia ; conquest of Khiva 
 (1871) and Khokand (1876) ; Russia's intrigues in Afkan- 
 istan ; her gradual approach to the frontiers of India. 
 
— 86 — 
 
 Growth of the Panslavic idea in Russia ; influence of 
 Katkov. 
 
 Character and policy of Gorchakov. 
 
 Attitude of Europe towards the Eastern Question ; Eng- 
 land, where Disraeli succeeded Gladstone (1874), is appre- 
 hensive of Russia's advance on India and Constantinople ; 
 purchase of the Khedive's Suez Canal shares : Austria's jeal- 
 ousy of Russia's interference of South Eastern Europe, and 
 dislike of the Panslavic propaganda ; France is too much oc- 
 cupied with internal disputes to interfere ; Bismarck declares 
 the Eastern Question ' ' not worth the bones of a Pomeranian 
 grenadier. ' ' 
 
 Outbreak of insurrection among the Christians of Bosnia 
 and Herzegovina (July, 1875) ; encouraged by Servia and 
 Montenegro ; the great powers present a joint note to the 
 Sultan (30 Jan., 1876), demanding reforms and religious 
 liberty for the people of Bosnia and Herzegovina. 
 
 Russia forbids the Turks to attack Servia or Montenegro ; 
 the Dreikaiserbund threatens the Turks with punishment if 
 reforms are not granted (11 May, 1876) ; England refuses 
 to act with the other powers. 
 
 Excitement among the Muhammadan population of Tur- 
 key ; policy of Midhat Pasha ; palace, revolution (30 May, 
 1876) ; overthrow and subsequent murder of Abdul Aziz ; 
 Murad V proclaimed Sultan. 
 
 Prince Milan of Servia declares war against the Turks 
 (30 June, 1876) ; the Servian army is organized and com- 
 manded by Russian officers under Chernaiev ; Prince Nicho- 
 las of Montenegro declares war against the Turks (2 July) ; 
 Bosnia and Herzegovina annex themselves to Servia and 
 Montenegro. 
 
 Excitement in Turkey ; defeat of the Servians ; the Bul- 
 garian massacres ; the great powers intervene in the name of 
 humanity. 
 
 Deposition of Murad V, and accession of Abdul Hamid II 
 (31 Aug.) ; the Turks promise reform, and the creation of 
 a Turkish parliament ; illusory nature of this step ; Ignatiev 
 
~ 87 — 
 
 presents an ultimatum to the Sultan demanding the effective 
 protection of the Christians in Turkey. 
 
 Conference of the great powers at Constantinople (Dec, 
 1876) ; the Turks refuse the demands made of them ; over- 
 throw of Midhat Pasha (5 Jan., 1877). 
 
 Both Russia and Turkey prepare for war ; military enthusi- 
 asm in both countries ; peace signed between Servia and 
 Turkey (i Mch., 1877). 
 
 Russia declares war against the Turks (24 Apr., 1877). 
 
 The campaign of 1877 ; Loris Melikov advances into 
 Armenia and the main Russian army under the Tzar crosses 
 the Danube and invades Bulgaria ; successes of the Turks ; 
 lyoris Melikov retreats, and the main Russian army is 
 checked by Osman Pasha at Plevna ; reinforcement of the 
 Russian armies; Loris Melikov takes Kars (Nov.), and 
 Todtleben storms Plevna (10 Dec, 1877) ; the Russians ad- 
 vance on Constantinople ; an English fleet enters the Darda- 
 nelles ; Convention of Adrianople (30 Jan., 1878) ; conclusion 
 of an armistice ; the English fleet anchors before Constan- 
 tinople. 
 
 Treaty of San Stefano (3 Mch., 1878) between Russia 
 and Turkey ; the Turks agree to a great increase of Rou- 
 mania, Servia, and Montenegro, and to the creation of a 
 principality of Bulgaria ; Russia receives Kars and Batoum 
 and the retrocession of Bessarabia from Roumania ; by this 
 treaty the power of the Turks in Europe was destroyed. 
 
 General alarm in Europe ; Austria protests against the in- 
 crease of the authority of Russia ; England, where Salisbury 
 succeeds Derby as Foreign Minister (2 Apr., 1878), demands 
 that the Treaty of San Stefano shall be submitted to a Con- 
 gress of the Powers ; England makes a secret convention 
 with the Turks (4 June) by which she receives Cyprus and 
 the charge of defending the dominions of Turkey in Asia ; 
 Bismarck declares himself ' ' an honest broker. ' ' 
 
 The Congress of Berlin (13 June-13 July, 1878); the 
 representatives present were, for Germany, Bismarck, Wer- 
 ther and Hohenlohe, for Austria, Andrassy, Karolyi and Hay- 
 
— 88 — 
 
 merle, for Russia, Gorchakov, Schuvalov and Oubril, for 
 England Beaconsfield, Salisbury, and Odo Russell, for 
 France, Waddington, Saint-Vallier and Desprez, for Italy, 
 Corti and Da I<aunay, and for Turkey, Caratheodori Pasha, 
 SaduUali Bey and Mehmet Ali Pasha. 
 
 By the Congress of Berlin, the Treaty of San Stefano was 
 profoundly modified ; Russia retained the accessions of terri- 
 tory she had received ; Ssrvia and Roumania were made in- 
 dependent kingdoms and received small additions of terri- 
 tory ; Austria received Bosnia and Herzegovina ; a small 
 principality of Bulgaria was created, and a semi-independent 
 administration established for Eastern Roumelia ; Greece re- 
 ceived a small extension of frontier. 
 
 Disgust of Alexander II and Gorchakov at the proceedings 
 of the Congress of Berlin, but Russia was too weak to under- 
 take actual opposition ; particular resentment felt by Alex- 
 ander and Gorchakov towards Bismarck, whom they declared 
 wanting in gratitude for the services Russia had rendered to 
 Germany in 1866 and 1870; practical dissolution of the 
 Dreikaiserbund, or Alliance of the Three Emperors. 
 
 Authorities : Most of the books cited under lyecture XXII deal also 
 with the period of the Russo-Turkish war ; but see also Gallenga, Two 
 Years of the Eastern Question, Holland, The European Concert on 
 the Eastern Question. Vambery, Central Asia and the Anglo-Russian 
 Frontier Question, and The Coming Struggle for India, Hellwald, The 
 Russians in Central Asia, Raivlinson, England and Russia in the East, 
 Popowski, Rival Powers in Central Asia, Wyroiiboff, I/a Question 
 d'Orient et le Traite de Berlin, Le Faure, Histoire de la guerre d'Ori- 
 ent, 1877-78, Farcy, La guerre sur le Danube, 1877-78, Green, The 
 Russo-Turkish War, Baker, The War in Bulgaria, Williams, The Ar- 
 menian Campaign, Daily Neivs, War Correspondence, 1877-78, Gay, 
 Plevna, the Sultan aad the Porte, and Brunswick, Le Traite de Berlin. 
 
Tit (L,t^^ TuJii^ Uc^^ ii^ . 
 
— 89 — 
 LECTURE XXIV. 
 
 THE TRIPLE ALLIANCE. 
 
 Germany having to fear the resentment of RiiSvSia, Bis- 
 marck draws closer to Austria, and signs an offensive and 
 defensive alUance with the Emperor Francis Joseph (15 Oct., 
 1879) ; this aUiance is joined in 1882 by Italy, and becomes 
 the Triple Alliance, which agreed to check the desire of 
 France to recover Alsace and Lorraine and the ambitions of 
 Russia in the East. 
 
 Internal policy of Bismarck ; after the death of Pope Pius 
 IX and the election of Pope Leo XIII, Bismarck softens the 
 application of the May Laws and enters into negotiations 
 with the Papacy ; end of the Kulturkampf (1881). 
 
 Bismarck and Socialism^ ; his legislation against the Social- 
 ists ; after the murder of the Tsar Alexander II ( 1 88 1 ) by 
 the Nihilists, he forms once more friendly relations with 
 Russia ; the attitude of the new Tsar, Alexander III ; Gor- 
 chakov succeeded by De Giers (1883). 
 
 Until the end of the administration of Bismarck the Triple 
 Alliance is on more or less friendly terms with Russia and 
 dominates Europe and keeps the peace. 
 
 The situation in France ; the Due de Broglie forms a gov- 
 ernment (16 May, 1877), and makes another effort for the 
 re- establishment of the monarchy; he is overthrown (14 
 Oct. ), and from that time the government of France becomes 
 frankly republican; resignation of MacMahon (30 Jan., 
 1879) ; Jules Grevy elected President of the French Repub- 
 lic ; influence of Gambetta ; commencement of a struggle 
 with the Catholic Church not unlike Bismarck's Kulturkampf 
 (1879-81) ; material prosperity of France, but increasing 
 discredit of parliamentary government. 
 
 Position in Italy; death of Victor Emmanuel (6 Jan., 
 1878) and of Pope Pius IX (7 Feb., 1878) ; accession of 
 King Humbert and election of Pope Leo XIII ; financial 
 distress of Italy. 
 
 Rivalry of England and France in the Mediterranean ; 
 
* — 90 — 
 
 dual control established over the government of Egypt, 
 which was practically bankrupt (1878); deposition of the 
 Khedive Ismail (1879) ; France establishes a protectorate 
 over Tunis (12 May, 1881) ; Arabi Pasha raises an insurrec- 
 tion against the Khedive Tewfik (1881) ; England intervenes, 
 bombards Alexandria, overthrows Arabi Pasha in the battle 
 of Tel-el-Kebir (13 Sept., 1882) and maintains a garrison in 
 Egypt ; England defends Egypt against the Mahdi ; expedi- 
 tion up the Nile, and death of Gordon Pasha (1885) ; cam- 
 paign in the Sudan (1886). 
 
 The condition of Russia ; assassination of the Tsar Alex- 
 ander II by the Nihilists (13 March, 1881) ; nature of the 
 government of the Tsar Alexander III ; progress of Russia 
 in Central Asia ; the Russians take Merv (1884) ; the affair 
 of Penjdeh (30 March, 1885) ; war averted between England 
 and Russia ; the progress of Nihilism. 
 
 The Eastern Question ; Alexander of Battenberg elected 
 Prince of Bulgaria (1879) ; union of Bulgaria and Eastern 
 Roumelia (18 Sept., 1885); war between Servia and Bul- 
 garia; victory of the Bulgarians at SHvnitza (Nov., 1885) ; 
 anger of Russia ; Alexander of Battenberg deposed and re- 
 moved from Bulgaria (6 Sept., 1886) ; election of Ferdinand 
 of Saxe-Coburg as Prince of Bulgaria (Aug., 1887); King 
 Milan of Servia abdicates (May, 1889) in favor of his son 
 Alexander. 
 
 Death of the Emperor William I (9 March, i'888) ; death 
 of his successor, the Emperor Frederick (15 June, 1888) ; 
 accession of the Emperor William II ; his character and 
 policy ; he maintains the Triple Alliance, and endeavors to 
 remain on friendly terms with Russia. 
 
 Dismissal of Bismarck (1890) ; retrospect of his twenty 
 years' dictatorship over Europe. 
 
 Attempt to form a Franco- Russian alliance to counter 
 balance the Triple Alliance. 
 
 Authorities : It is not possible to give an adequate list of authorities 
 on the latest phase of Modern European History ; reference may be 
 made to several of the books already cited, and a general view can be 
 found in Dilke, The Present Position of European Politics, published 
 in 1887. 
 
APPENDICES. • 
 

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