e- LIBRARY OF THK UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. OK Received fJ, ,1896' Accession No. /An 3 3 (&T Class No. ' ^ ft i- ^ 1 1 i^y- 7 stC 1 * 1 1 / ^ r HARPERS LANGUAGE -SERIES. PROGRESSIVE GRAMMAR ENGLISH TONGUE: BASED ON THE EESULTS OF MODERN PHILOLOGY. Br PEOF. WILLIAM SWINTON, A.M., AUTHOB OB- "LANGUAGE PBIMEE," "LANGUAGE LESSONS," "SCHOOL COMPOSITION," ETC. ETYMOLOGY HISTORICALLY TREATED. PRACTICAL SYNTAX. ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. ENGLISH COMPOSITION. REVISED EDITION. NEW YORK. HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, FRANKLIN SQUARE, 1874. BY PROFESSOR SWINTON. LANGUAGE PRIMER. 102 pp., 40 cents. LANGUAGE LESSONS. 176 pp., 50 cents. SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 120 pp., 50 cents. PROGRESSIVE ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 208 pp., 75 cents. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1872, by HARPER BROTHERS, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. PREFACE. THE present work on English Grammar forms a part of Harper's Language-Series. While it is the most advanced book of that series, it at the same time furnishes by itself a complete grammatical course for ungraded and for private schools. Learning our mother tongue ought to be the most inter- esting of school studies ; and yet, for nearly a century, countless numbers of technical grammars, all modeled aft- er Lindley Murray, have been, by turns, the object of aver- sion to successive generations of school children. This is not to be wondered at. The traditional rules of syntax, and the time -honored nomenclature of etymology, have come down to us a heritage from the elder grammarians, who, writing before philology became a science, put forth all their strength in a too successful endeavor to subject our simple and peculiar English speech to the vassalage of Latin forms. The introduction, some thirty years ago, of the method IV PREFACE. of Sentential ANALYSIS, devised by the German philologist Becker, and adapted to American school use in the meri- torious works of Professor Greene and others, marks the only considerable innovation, in this country, on the Mur- ray system. The new doctrine excited great interest, and soon ran into a wide currency. When we consider, how- ever, that Analysis is the syntax of English to no greater a degree than it is the syntax of any other speech ; that it is, in point of fact, general or universal syntax, it is not strange that it failed to realize the brilliant results claimed for it by its early champions, and that of late it is falling out of favor with judicious teachers, who find that Analysis, while a curious and interesting study, and not without its value as a means of mental discipline, fails to accomplish the pro- fessed design of English grammar, which design now is, and always has been, to teach " the art of speaking and writing the English language with propriety." In the mean time, in the results of modern linguis- tic study and research, materials have been rapidly accu- mulating, from which methods of treatment ought to be developed very different from the complications of Anglo- Latin syntax on the one hand, and from the abstractions of Analysis on the other. If the present work shall be found to possess any merit, that merit will be due to the fact that modern philology has made English grammar possible by showing us what the English speech really is. In this text-book, of the f our mediaeval " branches" of grammar, two have been lopped off to wit, Orthography and Prosody. These do not properly belong to English grammar, and, indeed, they oame into the grammatical horn-books at a period when the awful mysteries of "gram- mairie" were ranked with the black arts. This exclusion PREFACE. leaves for treatment the two proper departments of gram- mar Etymology and Syntax ; to which have been added Analysis and Construction, and English Composition. In the treatment of ETYMOLOGY three prominent points will be noticed : 1. A graduated method of unfolding the parts of speech, which are shown upon three successive and ascending planes. The parts of speech are first taken up and defined merely. Then all the parts of speech are again taken up, and their subdivisions set forth. Lastly, all the parts of speech are taken up for the third time, and their inflections (if they possess any) are exhibited. The superiority of this plan of gradual approach over the old way of crowding evesy thing in a confused mass of bewildering nomencla- ture upon the child must be evident on even a cursory ex- amination. 2. The brief, simple, and practical Definitions of the parts of speech and of grammatical terms in general. Gramma- rians, it is true, have been in the habit of magnifying the importance of abstract logical definitions, constructed with all the subtlety of the schoolmen. But is it not manifest that in an art like grammar the sole end of definition is to teacli uses f Now it is believed that the school-boy, by the aid of such simple (though, it is true, empirical) definitions as NOUNS NAME THINGS, VERBS MAKE STATEMENTS, will learn to detect nouns and verbs much sooner than he possibly could, were he ever so cunning in the repetition of wire- drawn definitions that, may, indeed, be theoretically ex- haustive, but that are practically unintelligible. 3. The historical treatment of English inflections. The V PREFACE. modern study of Anglo-Saxon has thrown a flood of light on the forms and idioms of the English tongue. We ob- tain a satisfactory knowledge of our few fragments of English inflection only by learning how those .inflections arose. And here, again, grammarians are chargeable with having misapplied a great deal of ingenuity in trying to explain d priori (by pure reasoning and logic) facts that can be explained solely by the history of our speech. In the present text-book the aim has been to introduce the more illustrative points of English philology stripped of their scientific dress. II. The treatment of Syntax in this text-book is probably what will most challenge attention. In this division of the subject a marked departure irom the old methods was found absolutely indispensable. The time-honored twenty-six rules of Murray's Grammar are an incongruous assemblage of mixed definitions and abstrac- tions, imitated from Latin syntax, and having as their chief end to teach grammatical parsing, which is simply grammar run to seed. How many a thoughtful teacher has been rudely disenchanted by discovering that a boy may glibly parse Young's Night Thoughts, or Pollock's Course of Time, strictly in accordance with the twenty-six rules, and yet be profoundly ignorant of practical English ! The author bases his treatment of English syntax on the theory that the object of the school study of grammar is to furnish school-boys and school-girls with such an avail- able outfit of knowledge in applied syntax as shall give them a fair mastery of the USE of English in speaking and in writing. Accordingly, he found it needful to go through PREFACE. Vii syntax, and carefully to separate the abstract maxims used in disposing of words from those principles that are of prime importance, because they may be violated in the actual forms of words. This separation is marked by dividing the syntax of each part of speech into 1. How to dispose of the part of speech. 2. Its practical syntax. Of the latter PRACTICAL SYNTAX the treatment has been made quite full, the author feeling that he could not conscientiously avoid fairly meeting the numerous difficul- ties that arise in writing modern English. At the same time, as the principles are developed inductively, from co- pious illustrations very fully explained, it is believed that they will find firm lodgment in the intelligence, and, by consequence, in the memory of the pupil. III. A clear system of Sentential Analysis, freed from need- less complications and refinements, has been reduced to its appropriate place and space in the grammatical course. Moreover, side by side with the principles of Analysis will be found the application of those principles to Synthesis, or Construction. The method of sentence - building here given has stood the test of the class-room, and the exer- cises will be found both to make Analysis itself intelligible and to lay the foundation for Composition. IV. As one of the professed objects of English Grammar is to teach the art of writing good English, the last division of the book comprises practical exercises in Composition- Vlll PREFACE. writing. Here an effort has been made to bring the di- rections and the exercises down to the average capacity of the children in the public schools. The attention of teachers is particularly called to this part of the book. There seems to be a general desire among thinking teach- ers for a clearer, simpler, and more objective method of teaching English than that in common use for a book more in harmony with modern English philology. It will be for the great body of professional men and women, whose plaint at the fruitlessness of old-time grammar has filled the educational journals during the last decade, to say whether this text-book supplies the desideratum ; but the author at least ventures to bespeak for it the favorable presumption that attaches to the newest treatment of a pro- gressive science. "WILLIAM S WINTON. The acknowledgments of the author are especially due to the following works : Dalgleish's English Grammar : Edinburgh. [The simple method of de- fining the Parts of Speech found in this work has been, in the main, followed in the present text-book.] Ernest Adams's Elements of the English Language : London. Angus's Hand-book of English : London. Morrell's Grammar and Analysis: London. Higginson's English Grammar : London. Collier's Grammar of the English Language : Edinburgh. Chambers's English Grammar : Edinburgh. Bain's English Grammar : London. Marsh's Lectures : New York. CONTENTS. EXPLANATORY 1 PAET I. ETYMOLOGY. CHAPTER L Classification 5 CHAPTER II. Subdivisions of the Parts of Speech n 1. THE NOUN 11 2. THE PRONOUN 13 3. THE ADJECTIVE 17 4. THE VERB 20 5. THE ADVERB 23 6. THE PREPOSITION 26 7. THE CONJUNCTION 27 CHAPTER III. Inflection so 1. THE NOUN 30 I. Number 30 II. Case 34 III. Gender 37 2. THE PRONOUN 39 I. Personal Pronouns 39 II. Relative Pronouns 41 III. Demonstrative Pronouns 41 3. THE ADJECTIVE 42 4. THE ADVERB 44 5. THE VERB 45 I. Tense 45 II. Person and Number 46 III. Mood 47 IV. Voice 51 V. Conjugation 51 VI. Forms of the Tenses 56 VII. Irregular Verbs 60 X CONTENTS. PAKT II. SYNTAX. Pape 1. Syntax of the Verb 74 I. How to Parse the Verb 74 II. Practical Syntax of the Verb 76 2. Syntax of the Noun 84 I. How to Dispose of Nouns 84 II. Practical Syntax of the Noun 88 3. Syntax of the Pronoun 91 I. How to Dispose of Pronouns 91 II. Practical Syntax of the Pronoun 91 4. Syntax of Adjectives 104 I. How to Parse Adjectives 104 II. Practical Syntax of the Adjective 105 5. Syntax of the Adverb 108 I. How to Parse Adverbs 108 II. Practical Syntax of the Adverb 109 6. Syntax of Prepositions us I. How to Parse Prepositions 115 II. Practical Syntax of the Preposition 116 7. Syntax of the Conjunction 1 19 I. How to Parse Conjunctions 119 II. Practical Syntax of the Conjunction 120 8. Syntax of Moods and Tenses 124 PART III. ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. CHAPTER I. Sentences 134 Elements of a Sentence 1 36 What the Subject may be 137 What the Predicate may be 138 How the Subject may be enlarged 1 39 Expansion of the Subject 140 How the Predicate may be enlarged 141 Expansion of the Predicate 142 CHAPTER II. Analysis of Sentences 143 1 . The Simple Sentence analyzed 143 2. Sentence-Building the Simple Sentence 145 CONTENTS. Xi CHAPTER III. P af , a The Complex Sentence 149 1. The Complex Sentence analyzed 149 2. Sentence-Building the Complex Sentence 156 CHAPTER IV. The Compound Sentence IGO 1. The Compound Sentence analyzed 160 2. Sentence-Building the Compound Sentence 165 PAET IY. ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 1. Suggestions for Teachers 179 2. Suggestions for Pupils 180 3. Review of Capitalizing and Punctuation 182 4. Exercises in Composition- Writing 184 5. Abstracts from Memory 188 6. Letter- Writing 190 7. Turning Poetry into Prose 193 APPENDIX. Conjugation of a Regular Verb 199 Synopsis of the Verb Love 201 Synopsis of a Verb conjugated 202 Anglo-Saxon Paradigms 203 Saxon Verb 205 Comparative Table of Tenses in English, Latin, French, and German. . 206 The Infinitive or Verbal in -ing 207 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. NOTE FOR TEACHERS. It is not intended that this grammar should be uniformly got by rote. Some parts, of course, must be so learned ; but grammar in general is to be learned by mind. 1. The English language is called our mother tongue be- cause it is our native speech. We begin to learn it as soon as we begin to talk. 2. We gain our first knowledge of our language by hear- ing those around us speak it. This may be called natural knowledge of our language. 3. The pupils who begin to study this book already know a good deal about English. They have a stock of words, and know how to put these words together into sentences. But they can not be sure that they are using words prop- erly and framing sentences correctly unless they know the rules of the English language. A knowledge based on these rules may be called a grammatical knowledge of our tongue. 4. The study that teaches the correct use of the English language in speaking and in writing is called English Gram- mar. 5. All language is composed of sentences, and all sen- tences are made up of words. Hence arise the two grand divisions of English Grammar : I. Etymology treating of words by themselves. II. Syntax treating of words combined in sentences. NOTE. The old division of English Grammar was into " orthography, etymology, syntax, and prosody." But orthography, which is a matter rather of rote than of rule, belongs to the speller and the dictionary, while prosody is pronerly a part of English composition. A 2 EXPLANATORY. 6. Etymology treats of I. The arrangement of words in classes; and II. The changes that words undergo to express different relations. The first may be called classification; the second, inflec- tion. It should be distinctly understood that etymology treats of the gram- matical changes of words, and of no other kind of change. It has nothing to do with the derivation of words : that belongs to historical etymology, in contradistinction to grammatical etymology. Thus the change from * sweet' to * sweeter' is a matter of grammatical etymology ; the change from ' farm' to ' farmer' is a matter of historical etymology. 7. Words are arranged in classes, according to their use in sentences. Thus All words used to make statements are put in one class. All words used to name things, in another. All words used to describe things, in a third. 8. The several classes of words are called Parts of Speech. 9. Now, let us see what is meant by inflection. Take the naming word river and the asserting word flows, and you may make the sentence ' The river flows.' But suppose you wish to denote more than one river, you change the form of the word to rivers. The sentence now becomes 'The rivers flow.' And here, again, you have changed the form of the wordj#oi0s by leaving off s. 10. Suppose you wish to state, not that the river is now flowing, but that it was flowing at some time in the past : you say 'The river flowed.' Here you have changed the form of flow by adding ed. 11. Take the describing word deep and the naming word river. Now suppose you wish to state that a certain other river had greater depth than one just named : you will say ; A deeper river.' Here you have changed the form of the word ' deep' by adding er. These are examples of the kind of changes in words that etymology treats of, and these changes are called inflections. 12. Syntax treats of the structure of sentences, with ref- erence to the agreement, government, and arrangement of words. EXPLANATORY. 3 ILLUSTRATION OF AGREEMENT. (1.) If we say 'The mountains is high,' wo speak un- grammatically ; that is, we violate syntax, because for a reason which the pupil will learn hereafter the form of the word ' is' does not agree with the word l mountains.' ILLUSTRATION OF GOVERNMENT. (2.) Take the two sentences, * They were led on by Mam- mon;' 'Mammon led them on.' The word them in the second sentence is a change of form of the word they. Why does it take this form ? Because for a reason to be learn- ed hereafter the word * led' compels it to take that form, governs it in that form. ILLUSTRATION OF ARRANGEMENT. (3.) The sentence, ' Wanted, a young man to take care of horses of a Christian disposition,' is an absurdity, be- cause the faulty placing of the words ' of a Christian dis- position' makes them qualify horses instead of man, which they were meant to qualify. The arrangement is wrong. 13. Whenever we express a thought we use a sentence. Every sentence must have a subject and a predicate. 'Beautiful flowers in the garden/ These words do not make a, sen- tence, because they do not express a thought. But when we say l Beau- tiful flowers bloom in the garden' we express a thought, and the assemblage of words used to express it is a sentence. 14. The Predicate is the particular part of a sentence that makes a statement. The Subject is that about which a statement is made. 1 Haste makes waste' is a sentence. ' Haste' is the subject ; l makes waste' is the predicate. 15. Sometimes a great many words are used in expressing the subject and the predicate, but there will always be some one term that represents the thing which we are speaking about, and some other term that makes the statement. SUBJECT. PREDICATE. The young and gallant Sydney died on the field of battle at Zutphen. The person we are speaking about in this sentence is marked by the term or name * Sydney,' but several other words, the, young, gallant, are used along with that term to describe it. What we say about * Sydney* is mainly expressed by the term * died, 'but other words are connected with it to show where he died. 4 EXPLANATOEY. 16. The particular term that forms the subject will always be what is called a noun, or something having the force of a noun ; the particular term forming the predicate will always be what is called a verb. 17. The noun and the verb are the two principal Parts of Speech. They make the frame-work of every sentence. 18. The various sorts of words used with the subject and with the predicate make up the other Parts of Speech, and these are fully explained in the next chapter, on Classifica- tion. The English Language has been growing for more than a thousand years. It is called 'English' from the word Angles, the name of a tribe of Germans who, with the Saxons and other German tribes, settled in Britain about the 5th century A.D. The language that was spoken by this people is called Anglo-Saxon. It was quite unlike our present English, but it is the basis of our speeeh, furnishing the larger part (nearly three quarters, perhaps) of our customary words, and the grammatical frame-work of the whole lan- guage. Anglo-Saxon was largely influenced by the French language, spoken by the Normans, who conquered England in the llth century. In the 15th and 16th centuries it received a very great number of words from Latin and from Greek, and subsequently from other sources. Thus we see that the English language is a combination of many tongues. By the time of Shakspeare, in the 16th century, it had grown into nearly its present form. English is a noble language. It is now spoken by nearly one hundred mil- lions of people. It is the language of the United States and of British Amer- ica, of Great Britain and Ireland, of Australia and New Zealand, and it is spoken in South Africa, in India, and elsewhere. To have a free and accu- rate use of it is one of the finest of accomplishments, and such a use the study of Grammar should give. PART I. ETYMOLOGY. 19. Etymology treats of words individually considered, and consists of two parts classification and inflection. CHAPTER I. CLASSIFICATION.. THE PARTS OF SPEECH DEFINED. 20. Words are arranged in classes, according to the func- tions they perform, or the work they do, in sentences. The English Language is made up of a stock of words called its vocab- ulary. A complete English dictionary contains upward of 100,000 words ; nevertheless, it is found that the whole stock of English words can be as- sorted into a very few kinds. Thus all words used to assert are put in one class , all words used to name things, in another ; all words used to describe things, in a third, etc. 21. There are eight of these classes of words, and they arc called The Parts of Speech. 22. The Parts of Speech are: 1. THE NOUN. 5. THE ADVERB. 2. THE PRONOUN. 6. THE PREPOSITION. 3. THE ADJECTIVE. 7. THE CONJUNCTION. 4. THE VERB. 8. THE INTERJECTION. 23. DEFINITION I. Nouns name things; as, A violet 'neath a mossy stone. Noun, from the Latin nomen, a name, is the name of any thing that we can perceive by means of (1) the senses or of (2) the understanding. Ev- ery thing we think about or speak about person, place, object, action, or thought must have a name, and every name is a NOUN. Exercise 1. Pick out the NOUNS. 1. The snow was deep on the hills last week. 2. The sun rises in the morning and sets in the evening. 3. The battle of Gettysburg was fought in Pennsylvania. 4. Wellington defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. 5. Skating on the ice is fine fan for boys. 6. Warren was noted for the sweetness of his disposition. 7. Knowledge is power. 6 ETYMOLOGY. 24. DEFINITION II. Pronouns stand for Nouns; as, Charles went to Paris with his mother, and he came back without her. (a) The word Pronoun (Latin pro and nomen) means for or instead of a, noun. The use of pronouns is to prevent the repetition of nouns, and to make speaking and writing more rapid and less encumbered with words. (6) The principal pronouns are : /, Ybw, He, She, It, We, They, My, Your, His, Her, Its, Him, Our, Us, Their, Them, Who, Whose, Whom, Which, That, What. Exercise 2. A. Pick out the PEONOUNS, and say for what Nouns they stand. I . The Arabs are able to catch the ostrich only when they have tired it some days by constant chase. 2. Men find plants where they least expect them. 3. A boy who is always grumbling will lose the friends that he has. 4. I hope you will come to see us soon. 5. Who goes there ? B. Write PRONOUNS for the NOUNS printed in Italics. ' 1. The master told the two brothers to tell the two brothers 1 father that the father must get the two brothers new books. 2. The king took the hand of the king's earliest friend, and pressed the hand to the king's heart. 3. Philip's mother said to Philip, ' Philip must keep Philip's clothes in better order.' 5. When the ostrich's pursuer approaches the ostrich, the ostrich sticks the ostrich's head in the sand. 25. DEFINITION HI. Adjectives describe or limit things; as, The early primrose, The distant hills, The three swans, The open country. The literal meaning of Adjective (Latin adjectus, thrown, placed, or put to) is placed alongside of. Adjectives are placed alongside of nouns for the purpose of describing or qualifying them, or of showing the extent of their signification. Exercise 3. Pick out the ADJECTIVES, and name the things they describe or limit. 1. Silk-worms are curious and industrious little creatures. 2. Good books deserve a careful perusal. 3. They called him a true friend and a noble foe. 4. Many ships were lost in the storm. 5. There are seven days in a week. 6. The long, long, weary days are past. 7. The way was long, the wind was cold, The minstrel was infirm and old. 26. DEFINITION IV. Verbs make statements ; as, The wild cataract leaps in glory ; The revolution of the earth on its axis causes the succession of day and night. THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 7 (a) The essential idea of the Verb is that of asserting or telling. The term Verb (Latin verbum, a word) means word, and this part of speech is so called because it is the word, the word which gives life to a sentence ; in fact, no group of words can make a sentence unless one of the words is a verb. (b) The definition of Verb may be expanded thus; "A verb is a word by means of which we assert (1) what any thing does; (2) what is done-to it ; or (3) in what state it exists." Exercise 4. A. Pick out the YEEBS, and tell their SUBJECTS. My father left me a considerable estate, the best part of which I spent in debauchery during my youth. But I perceived my error, and reflected that riches are perishable, and are quickly consumed by such ill managers as my- self. I further considered that by my irregular way of living I wretchedly misspent my time, which is the most valuable thing in the world. I remem- bered the saying of the great Solomon, which I had frequently heard from my father, " that death is more tolerable than poverty." Being struck with these reflections, I collected the remains of my furniture, and sold all my patrimony by public auction to the highest bidder. Then I entered into a contract with some merchants who traded by sea ; I took the advice of such as I thought most capable to give it to me, and, resolving to improve what money I had, I went to Balsora, and embarked with several merchants on board a ship which we jointly fitted out. Arabian Nights. B. The red light shone through the open door, From the round, declining sun, And fantastic shadows all about On the dusty floor were thrown, As the factory clock tolled the hour of five, And the school was almost done. The mingled hum of the busy town Rose faint from the lower plain, And we saw the steeple over the trees, With its motionless golden vane, And heard the cattle's musical low, And the rustle of standing grain. 27. DEFINITION V. Adverbs describe actions and qualities; as, I have often climbed very steep hills. (a) The literal meaning of Adverb is added to a verb, because the Ad- verb is most frequently the adjunct of a verb. (6) Adverbs describe actions by showing how, when, or where they are done. For this purpose they are joined to verbs. (c) Adverbs describe qualities by showing how much of them is possessed. For this purpose they are joined to adjectives ; as, Very little money. (d) Adverbs also limit adverbial descriptions by snowing how much of them is applicable. For this purpose they are joined to other adverbs ; as, He speaks most fluently, and writes very correctly. 8 ETYMOLOGY. Exercise 5. Pick out the ADVEKBS, and tell what words they describe. Softly, peacefully lay her to rest, Place the turf lightly on her young breast , Gently, solemnly bend o'er the bed Where ye have pillowed thus softly her head. When I was a little advanced into the island I saw an old man, who ap- peared very weak and feeble. He sat upon the bank of a stream, and at first I took him to be one who had been shipwrecked like myself. I quickly went towards him, and respectfully saluted him, but he only bowed his head. I asked him what he did there, but instead of answering me he made a sign for me to take him up on my back and carry him over the brook. I believed him really to stand in need of my help, so I took him up on my back, and, having soon carried him over, I bid him get down ; but, instead of that (which I laugh at heartily every time I think of it), the old man clasped his legs nimbly about my neck, and held my throat so tightly that I really thought he would* have strangled me. Arabian Nights. 28. DEFINITION VI. Prepositions link Nouns and Pronouns to other words. She is far jfrom the land where her young hero sleeps, And lovers are round her sighing $ But coldly she turns from their gaze and weeps, For her heart in his grave is lying. (a) The preposition from links the noun land to the adverb /ar ; round links the pronoun her to sighing ; from links the noun gaze to turns ; in links the noun grave to is lying. (I)} The word Preposition means a placing before (Latin pre and positio), and is so called because it is placed before a noun or a pronoun. (c) Prepositions may be known by observing that they are closely at- tached to their nouns, and can not be removed from one part of the sen- tence to another except in connection with their nouns. Exercise 6. Pick out the PEEPOSITIONS, and tell what words they link. I. Indian corn, when ripe in October, is gathered in the field by men who go from hill to hill with baskets into which they put the corn. 2. The creak- ing of the masts was frightful. 3. Vie gazed with inexpressible pleasure on those happy islands. 4. It happened one day, when going towards my boat, I was exceedingly surprised with the print of a man's naked foot on the shore. 5. Who is she that comes clothed in a robe of green ? 6. Heaven from all creatures hides the book of fate. 29. DEFINITION VII. Conjunctions connect words or state- ments; as, Cheerful he seemed, and gentleness he loved ; He chid their wanderings, but relieved their pain. (a) Conjunctions often seem to join only two words when the connection is really between statements. Thus, in the sentence, Charles and Mary THE PAETS OF SPEECH. 9 survived William, two statements are implied Charles survived William, and, Mary survived William. In such a sentence as 4 three and two is five,' the and has not the function of a conjunction} it is here used as a preposition, and is equivalent to with. (6) Conjunction means a joining together (Latin con and junctio). Exercise 7. Pick out the CONJUNCTIONS, and say what words or state- ments they connect. 1. Hamilton and Jefferson were distinguished statesmen. 2. Greene was a courageous officer, but Washington was the greater general of the two. 3. You will succeed if you persevere. 4. We read the newspapers because they give us the news. 5. I have not received the letter, though I expect it every hour. 30. DEFINITION VIII. Interjections express sudden feeling; as, Alas ! how changed ! The literal meaning of Interjection (Latin inter and jecft'o) is a throwing between. This part of speech is so called because it has no grammatical connection with the other words in the sentence, but is thrown in to express sudden emotion. Exercise 8. Pick out the INTERJECTIONS. 1. Alas! poor Yorick. 2. Hurrah! the work is done. 3. Lo, the poor Indian! 4. Hush! he sleeps forever. 5. Ah! where is he now? 6. Pshaw J it is nothing. REVIEW OF THE PAETS OP SPEECH. 1. NOUNS name things. 2. PRONOUNS stand for nouns. 3. ADJECTIVES '. . . describe or limit things. 4. VERBS make statements. 5. ADVERBS describe actions and qualities. 6. PREPOSITIONS link words. 7. CONJUNCTIONS connect words or statements. 8. INTERJECTIONS express sudden feeling. Exercise 9. Tell the PART OP SPEECH to. which each word belongs: 1. The liberty of the press is the highest safeguard to all free government. 2. Ours could not exist without it. 3. It is like a great, exulting, and abound- ing river. 4. It is fed by the dews of heaven, which distill their sweetest drops to form it. 5. It gushes from the rill, as it breaks from the deep cav- erns of the earth. 6. It is augmented by a thousand affluents, that dash from the mountain top to separate again into a thousand bounteous and irri- gating streams around. 7. On its broad bosom it bears a thousand barks. 8. There genius spreads its purpling sail. 9. There poetry dips its silver oar A2 ^10 ETYMOLOGY. 10. There art, invention, discovery, science, morality, religion, may safely and securely float. 11. It wanders through every land. 12. It is a' genial, cor- dial source of thought and inspiration wherever it touches, whatever it sur- rounds. 13. Upon its borders there grows every flower of grace and every fruit of truth. 14. Sir, I am not here to deny that that river sometimes over- steps its bounds. 15. 1 am not here to deny that that stream sometimes be- comes a dangerous torrent, and destroys towns and cities upon its bank. 16. But I am here to say that without it, civilization, humanity, government, all that makes society itself, would disappear, and the world would return to its ancient barbarism. E. I). Baker. &2T For additional pieces to be used in Parsing, the teacher is referred to any School Reader. Reference Table of Extended Definitions. 31. ANoun is the name of any thing that can be perceived by means of the senses or of the understanding. 32. A Pronoun is a word that expresses a thing not by its own name, but by a reference to something else. 33. An Adjective is a word joined to a noun to increase its meaning and limit its extent. 34. A Verb is a word by means of which we assert (1) what any thing does ; (2) what is done to it ; or (3) in what state it exists. 35. An Adverb is a word used to limit or qualify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. 36. A Preposition is a word of relation joined with a noun or pronoun to form a qualifying phrase. 37. A Conjunction is a word that connects two sentences, or like parts of a sentence. 38. An Interjection is a word that can neither form the part of a proposition, nor connect two different propositions, but is thrown in to express some sudden thought or emotion of the mind. LINDLEY MURRAY'S DEFINITIONS. ( A Substantive, or Noun, is the name of any Noun: \ thing that exists, or of which we have any notion ; ( as, London, man, virtue. SUBDIVISIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 11 ( A Pronoun 13 a word used instead of a noun, p t ) to avoid the too frequent repetition of the same in ' ) word ; as, ' The man is happy ; he is benevolent ; ( he is useful.' [An Adjective is a word added to a substan- tive, to express its quality ; as, ' An industrious man ;' ' a virtuous woman.' A Verb is a word which signifies to BE, to DO, or to SUFFER ; as, ' I am /' ' I rule /' ' I am ruled? An Adverb is a part of speech joined to a i verb, an adjective, and sometimes to another ad- verb, to express some quality or circumstance re- Ispecting it; as, 'He reads wdlf 'a truly good man ;' * he writes very correctly* Prepositions serve to connect words with one I another, and to show the relation between them; | as, 'He went from London to York;' 'she is above ^ disguise;' 'they are supported by industry.' A Conjunction is a part of speech that is chiefly used to connect sentences, so as out of two or more sentences to make but one. It sometimes connects only words ; as, 'Thou and he are happy, because you are good ;' 'Two and three are five.' Interjections are words thrown in between the parts of a sentence, to express the passions or emotions of the speaker ; as, ' O virtue ! how amiable thou art !' Adjec- tive: Verb: Adverb: Preposi- tion : Conjunc- tion: Interjec- tion: CHAPTER II. SUBDIVISIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 1. The Noun. 39. Nouns are of two kinds I. Common. II. Proper. Common Nouns are names of class-objects ; as, boy, king, man, city. Proper Nouns are such as denote individual objects ; as, John, Charlemagne, Thompson, San Francisco. 12 ETYMOLOGY. (a) Proper (Noun) is derived from the Latin proprius, peculiar ; that ig, a name peculiar to an individual. To be sure, many persons have the name * James,' and there is a 'Boston' in England as well as in the United States ; but James and Boston are nevertheless Proper Nouns, for the reason that the former is not common to the cfoss-name man, nor the latter to the class-name city. Man and city are Common Nouns, because they name all the individuals belonging to the class. (6) Proper Nouns are always written with initial capital letters. 40. A Proper Noun becomes a Common Noun when it represents a class; that is, when it has the use of a Common Noun. Thus Swift, Nero, are Proper Nouns ; but when we speak of the ' wit of a Swift? c the cruelty of a Nero* ' Swift' and 'Nero' are Common Nouns, because they are used to represent classes of men. 41. In like manner, a Common Noun becomes a Proper Noun when it is used to represent an individual object. Thus park is a Common Noun, but The Park is a Proper Noun. Nouns are sometimes further subdivided into Abstract nouns, Participial nouns, and Collective nouns. The subdivision is not a sound one. Ab- stract nouns are simply common nouns, and no more require to be specially distinguished than do Concrete nouns. Certain nouns that appear to be participial nouns that is, that end in ing are not necessarily participles at all ; many of them come from Saxon nouns in ung, as rising, morning, etc. ; and, for the rest, any participle that has the use of a noun is a noun. The proper treatment of Collective nouns is under the inflection of number (see Syntax of the Noun). Exercise 10. Assign each Noux to its CLASS. MODEL. The Cotter's Saturday Night, composed by Robert Burns, is a charming poem. Cotter's Saturday Night is a proper noun, because it denotes an indi- vidual object. Robert Burns is a proper noun, because it denotes an indi- vidual object. Poem is a common noun, because it is the name of a class-object. 1 . France has not seen such another king as Henry the Fourth. 2. Hope is as strong an incentive to action as fear. 3. David and Jonathan loved each other tenderly. 4. The * Tempest' was the last tragedy written by Shakspeare. 5. Men and women used to make pilgrimages to Canterbury. 6. Chaucer wrote the Canterbury Tales. 7. The Channel is noted for its rough weather. 8. Milton is the Homer of English literature. 9. Thou hast all seasons for thine own, Death. SUBDIVISIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 13 10. Many a frozen, many a fiery Alp appeared. 1 1 . The Times gave an account of Palmerston's death. 12. O Justice, thou art fled to brutish beasts ! Exercise 11. Give a COMMON Noun for each group of PPVOPEE Nouns. 1 . Shakspeare, Milton, Homer were poets. 2. Hudson, Mississippi, Rhine are 3. London, New York, San Francisco are 4. Washington, Adams, Jefferson were 5. The United States, Switzerland, Mexico are ? 6. Webster, Clay, Calhoun were ? 2. The Pronoun. 42. Pronouns are of three kinds I. Personal. II. Demonstrative. III. Relative. I. PERSONAL PEONOUNS. 43. The Personal Pronouns are: I, you^he, she, it; ice, you, they. 44. I and ice denote the person speaking, and are said to be of the First Person. 45. You denotes the person spoken to, and is said to be of the Second Person. Thou was anciently used instead of you : it is found in the English trans- lation of the Bible ; but it is now used only in prayer or on ether solemn occasions, and in poetry. 46. He, she, it, and they denote the person or the thing spoken of, and are said to be of the Third Person. (a) Note that the personal pronoun of the third person is the only one having distinctive words to denote the sexes he for the male, she for the female, and it for sexless objects. The personal pronouns of the first and of the second person have no gender, because, there being an actual speak- er and an actual hearer, the one is supposed to know the other's gender as a matter of course. (6) There is an important difference between the personal pronouns of the first and of the second person, and the personal pronoun of the third person. 'He/ 'she,' and 'it' come fully up to the definition of the pro- noun that is, they stand for Nouns. But for what nouns do 'I,' 'we,' and ' you' stand ? Properly speaking, they do not stand for nouns at all, but are remarkable little words used to express what there is no other term to express, namely, the personality of the speaker and of the person spoken to. The radical difference between the pronouns of the first and of the second person, and the pronoun of the third person, has led the most 14 ETYMOLOGT. advanced modern grammarians to confine the name Personal Pronouns to the former, and to class he, she, it with Demonstratives ; but the old no- menclature does not lead to any mistakes of practice, and hence it has not been changed in this text-book. II. DEMONSTRATIVE PKONOUNS. 47. The term Demonstratives is applied to a small class of peculiar representative words that can stand by themselves, and hence that deserve to be called Pronouns. 48. The principal Demonstrative Pronouns are : This and that In this 'tis God designs ; in that 'tis man. These and thOS8 Some place their bliss in action, some in ease ; those call it pleasure, and contentment these. Each Each seemed the centre of his own fair world. Either and Neither. .1 will take either, but you shall have neither. One and Other The one puts his sickle into the ether's harvest. Some Some fell by the wayside. All ^.//consented to the plan. Both Here is an apple and an orange: you may have both. Many and few Many are called, butfetv are chosen. None None knew him but to love him ; none named him but to praise. Such If you are a man, show yourself such. So We think our fathers fools, so wise we grow ; our wiser sons, no doubt, will think us so. Each Other and One) Little children, love one another. Richard andThom- another | as esteem each other. Another But never either found another to free the hollow heart from paining. Any Who's here so base that he would be a bondman ? If any, speak. Ones My wife and little ones. Others Some said it was true, others denied it. Much Though much is taken, much remains. Former and Latter . .Adams and Jefferson were distinguished statesmen : the former was born in Massachusetts ; the latter, in Virginia. One One is seldom at a loss what to do with one's money. They They say that the emperor is ill. It It was impossible to recognize him. There There came to the beach a poor exile of Erin. SUBDIVISIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 15 NOTES ON THE DEMONSTRATIVES. NOTE I. The above Demonstratives are all Pronouns, for the reason that they have the power of representing NOUNS. They are named Demon- strative Pronouns because their use is to point out. The following deserve particular notice : It The Pronoun // is classed as one of the Personal Pronouns, and right- ly so in its ordinary use. Thus, if we say, 'This is a large house ; it is built of brick,' it is a Personal Pronoun. But there is a pe- culiar idiomatic use of it, as in the sentence, '/ was impossible to .recognize him.' When thus employed, the word it is a Demon- strative, and serves to introduce the real subject, which in this con- struction comes after the verb. l lt was impossible to recognize him' = 4 to recognize him was impossible.' This may be called the idiomatic It. There. The word there has sometimes the function of a Pronoun, as in the example, There came to the beach a poor exile of Erin = A poor exile came, etc. There, thus employed, is sometimes called an introductory particle. One. ..There is a peculiar use of the word one, as in the sentence, One can not but think that all the planets are inhabited. In this use, its force is to make indefinite reference. Note that the Pronoun 'one' is etymologically.a different word from the adjective 'one.' The latter is from the Anglo-Saxon ane, meaning a or one. The former is from the French on, as in on dit literally one says, that is, they say. The French on is a contraction of homme, man. Com- pare the German, Man sagt=man says, that is, one says. They. The plural Personal Pronoun They has an idiomatic use, as in the sentence, ' They say [that is, people say, or it is said~\ that the Em- peror is ill.' When so employed, it is to be ranked as a Demonstra- tive. Its use is the same as ' one' above ; that is, it makes indefi- nite reference. NOTE II. The class Demonstratives is sometimes subdivided as follows: INDEFINITE PRONOUNS Any, Many, Few, One, They, Some, Other, All, None, Another, and Much. DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS Each, Both, Either, Neither. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS This, That, Such, So, Former, Latter. RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS Each Other, One Another. IDIOMATIC OR INTRODUCTORY PRONOUNS It, There. ^ The derivation of most of these Demonstratives is given in the list of Demonstrative Adjectives [^f GO], where most of them recur. ITT. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 49. The Relative Pronouns are who, which, that, and what. They are called relatives because they relate, or carry bacJc (from re, back, and latus, carried) our thoughts to some other 16 ETYMOLOGY. word that goes before them in the sentence. The word that the pronoun represents is called the Antecedent. 50. Who relates to persons. Which relates to the lower animals and to lifeless things. That may take the place of either who or which. [For the special rules governing the use of that, see Syntax of the Pronoun.] 51. The peculiarity of the relative is, that it makes one sentence of what would otherwise be two sentences, serving the purpose of a connective as well as of a pronoun, and mak- ing one of the sentences more prominent, while the other is subordinate. 'The mountain which I climbed is very high.' The thing principally asserted is that the mountain is very high ; that / climbed it is a subordi- nate fact in the sentence, and it is connected with the main statement by the relative which. The sentence = The mountain is very high, and I climbed it. 52. The pronoun what is equivalent to which thing, or that which. What appears to include in itself both the antecedent and the relative, and hence is usually called a compound pronoun. It is, however, simply the neuter of who with its antecedent omitted. The antecedent of who may also be omitted. There is really no difference of function between who and what in the sentences, ''Who steals my purse steals trash-,' and ''What is done can not be undone.' 53. The word as has the force of a relative when its ante- cedent is qualified by the adjective such ; as, - We are such stuff as dreams are made of. 54. But is sometimes a negative relative, and its anteced- ent is always a negative ; as, There is 720 fireside, howsoe'er defended, 13ut has [==tkat has not] one vacant chair. 55. The Pronouns who, which, and what, when used in ask- ing a question, are called Interrogative Pronouns. For who to dumb forgetfulness a prey This pleasing, anxious being e'er resigned ? Exercise 12. A. Assign each Puoxoux to its proper Class. 1. I hope you will give me the book that I lent you. 2. The prince left liis own carriage, and entered that of the general. 3. One can not always be SUBDIVISIONS OF THE PARTS OP SPEECH. 17 sure of one's friends. 4. As he entered the field, there sprang up, about three yards from him, a large hare. 5. It is an ill wind that blows nobody good. 6. What did the prisoner say ? 7. Tell me what the prisoner said. 8. Blessed be the Lord, who hath not given us as a prey to their teeth. 9. The men whom I spoke to made no answer. 10. The king, who is the head of the state, may withhold his consent from a measure which has passed both houses of Parliament. 11. Ours are as good as yours. 12. They say that the Secre- tary will resign, which will break up the cabinet. B. 1. Who was the thane lives yet. Shakspeare. 2. There is no flock, however watched and tended, But one dead lamb is there. Longfellow. 3. There's a divinity that shapes our ends, Rough-hew them how we will. Shakspeare. 4. What in me is dark, Illumine- what is low, raise and support. Milton. 5. I dare do all that may become a man ; Who dares do more is none. Shakspeare. 6. The old man told him that he worshiped the fire only, and acknowl- edged no other God. At which answer Abraham grew so zealously angry that he thrust the old man out of his tent. Jeremy Taylor. 7. ? Tis the mind that makes the body rich. Shakspeare. 8. I have seen him buy such bargains as would amaze one. Goldsmith. 9. Breathes there a man with soul so dead, Who never to himself hath said, This is my own, my native land ? Scott. 10. We have fished up very little gold that I can learn ; nor do we furnish the world with herrings, as was expected. Goldsmith. 11. Whenever Antonio met Shylock on the Kialto, he used to reproach him with his usuries and hard dealings ; which the Jew would hear with seeming patience, while he secretly meditated revenge. Lamb. 3. The Adjective. 56. Adjectives are subdivided into three classes 1. COMMON ADJECTIVES; 2. ARTICLES; 3. DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES. 57. Common Adjectives describe things by name or quality. (a) Under Common Adjectives is included the Participle whenever it has the office of an adjective, as, The running water. Under the same head are also included what are sometimes called proper adjectives name- ly, those derived from proper names as, 'English,' 'American.' (6) Such compounds as silver-robed, rose-colored, are sometimes called compound adjectives ; but the simple term, Adjective, sufficiently desig- nates them. 1 8 ETYMOLOGY. 58. The Articles are The, called the definite article, and An or A, called the indefinite article. (a) The points out a particular individual, or a group of individuals, of a certain class ; as, the apple a particular apple already referred to or to be referred to. (6) An or a points out a class to which a thing belongs ; as an apple = any one of the class called apple. A n is from the same Saxon root as the word any. Different languages are variously supplied with Articles. The Greek and the Hebrew have only the definite article, the Latin has no ar- ticle at all , most of the modern languages, as Italian, French, German, and Spanish, have both articles. The name Article literally means a small joint. It seems merely to express that they are small words. They are really adjectives in their use, and hence are classed as such in this book. 59. A is used before words beginning with a consonant sound ; as, a man, a house, a wonder, a year, a use, a unit, a European. An is used before words beginning with a vowel sound ; as, an art, an end, an heir, an hour, an urn. (a) The learner must particularly note that the use of a or an depends, not on whether the initial letter of the succeeding word is a vowel or a con- sonant, but a vowel sound or a consonant sound. Thus ' use' and ' urn' both begin with the vowel u ; but in the first instance u has a consonant sound, in the second a vowel sound. W and y, beginning words, are con- sonants, and words commencing with these letters, or the sounds of these letters, take a. Words beginning with the sounded h take a; as, a history; those beginning with h silent take an; as, an honor. The people of En- gland ' drop their h's,' in many instances, where we sound them, and hence use an where we use a : thus they say an historian. American usage Bounds the A, and consequently joins a ; thus, a historian. (6) The n in an is a part of the root (as in Latin unus, French uri). Hence it is not a that becomes an before a vowel or a silent h, according to the common rule, but an which loses its final letter before a consonant. 60. Demonstrative Adjectives point out specific objects. The following are the principal demonstrative adjectives : This and these used to point out objects near the speaker. This pencil take, she said, whose colors clear Richly paint the vernal year. Gray. That and those used to indicate objects distant from the speaker And first review that long, extended plain, And those wide groves, already passed with pain. Collins. NOTE. "When two objects are named, this represents the latter, that the former. Such means like this. Such harmony is in immortal souls. Shakspeare. Such is derived from the Anglo-Saxon swi-lc, and is made up of the words swi, meaning this, and lie, like ; hence this like such. SUBDIVISIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 19 3 i s frequently used as a demonstrative adjective. Republican spir- it can only be combated by a spirit of tjie same nature. Bur fee. Each denotes every individual of a certain class viewed separately : Each ivied arch and pillar lone Pleads haughtily for glories gone. Byron. Each is derived from the Anglo-Saxon ce-lc, which is made up of ae, meaning 'one,' and lie, like; hence one like = each. Every refers to individuals taken collectively=each and all. A storm of universal fire blasted every field, consumed every house, de- stroyed every temple. Burke. Either.. ..means literally whichever of the two you please. Sometimes either has the sense of both. On either side is level fen = on both sides. Neither, .is either with the negative prefix ne, not. Both means two taken together. Both is derived from two Saxon words meaning two-two, that is, two taken together. Many implies number, but does not specify a number. Many men of many minds. Many may be joined with a singular noun pre- ceded by an or a; as many a flower is born to blush unseen. The explanation of this may be that a is here a corruption of of: the noun was originally plural, many ofjtowers. Any means one of a certain number, without stating which among the number. No a contraction of none; as no man liveth for himself. There Is an idiomatic use of not with the indefinite article a ; as in the sen- tence, Not a drum was heard, etc. This is the same as no drum was heard. Some means certain, and denotes number or quantity indefinitely. Some pious drops the closing eye requires. Gray. Few means not many. Few persons can bear prosperity. All includes universally. All men are mortal. No excludes universally. No men are satisfied. NOTE. In the above list are included various pronouns that are some- times classed in distinct groups. It seems needless to make the fine dis- tinctions that are drawn, as the term Demonstrative sufficiently denotes these adjectives. The following is a common classification of this group of Adjectives : DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES : This, That, These, Those, Same. DISTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES : Each, Every, Either, Neither. INDEFINITE ADJECTIVES : Many, Much, Several, Few, All, No, Other -, Such, Whole. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES: One, Two, Three; First, Second, Third, etc. 22 ETYMOLOGY. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. Mary was beautiful [adjective-complement of the neuter verb was]. 2. Elizabeth was queen [noun-complement of was]. 3. It is 7", be not afraid [pronoun-complement of is]. 4. A boy becomes a man [noun-complement of neuter verb becomes']. 5. Cheerful he seemed, and gentleness he loved [cheerful, adjective-complement of the neuter verb seemed]. 6. Macbeth looked pale [pale, adjective-complement of the neuter verb looked]. 7. Henry VIII. appeared every inch a king {king, noun- complement of the neuter verb appeared\. 8. The rose smells sweet [sweet, adjective-complement of smells =zihe scent of the rose is sweet]. NOTES ON THE VERB. NOTE I. It is important to note carefully the class to which a verb be- longs to observe whether it is Incomplete (i. e. transitive or neuter) or Complete. We tell to which class a verb belongs by inspection ; that is, by studying its sense. Such inspection is necessary because (1) The same word is sometimes used as an Incomplete and some- times as a Complete verb : Heat melts ice ; Ice melts the first Incom- plete and transitive, the second Complete. 'She reads a book;' 'She reads well' the first transitive, the second Complete. (2) A verb usu- ally Complete may become Incomplete. Thus march is a Complete verb ; yet we can say he marched his armies ; that is, he caused them to march. Water/reezes ; cold freezes water. NOTE II. There are some verbs of this kind : 'To take care of,' ' to lay hold of. ' Take care of is one verb, and lay hold of is one verb. These, and others like them, are idiomatic forms ; and in speaking of the verb, the words are not to be separated. NOTE III. Some Complete verbs are followed by an object of similar meaning to themselves, as I dreamed a sad dream. He sleeps the sleep of death. Some Complete verbs are, properly speaking, reflexive, that is, the agent acts upon himself; but we have almost ceased to repeat the pro- noun, and so the verb seems complete without an object. I wash [my- self], the cow feeds [herself], he awakes [himself], are used intransitively; but I wash the floor, you feed the cattle, he awoke me, are used transitively. NOTE IV. Certain Complete verbs, when followed by particular prepo- * sitions, become transitive, and require an object. Thus, The baby laughs [Complete] ; We laughed at the clown [transitive, with clown as object]. The ragged rascal ran; Farragut ran-down the Atlanta. Exercise 14. Assign each VERB to its proper Class. 1. Lives of great men all remind us, We can make our lives sufolime. SUBDIVISIONS OF THE PAETS OF SPEECH. 2. Chill penury repressed their noble rage, And froze the genial current of the soul. 3. Some murmur when their sky is clear. 4. Sir Christopher Wren built St. Paul's. 5. Virtue is its own reward. 6. He was a man, take him for all in all, I shall not look upon his like again. 7. Where heaves the turf in many a mouldering heap. 8. And there upon the ground I sit, I sit and sing to them. 9. The gas burns brightly this evening. 10. Whatever is is right. 11. Mohammedans wash three times a day. 12. Full well they laughed with counterfeited glee At all his jokes, for many a joke had he. 5. The Adverb. 67. Adverbs are divided into those of 1. Time. 2. Place. 3. Manner. 4. Cause. 68. I. Adverbs of Time express when, how often, or how long an action is done ; now, seldom, always, to-morrow. 69. II. Adverbs of Place express where, whither, or whence an action proceeds ; here, whence, aloft, below. 70. III. Adverbs of Manner express how an action is done, or how a quality is possessed ; well, softly, so. This class includes the numerous adverbs derived from adjectives of quality by adding ly. (a.) Care must be taken to distinguish adverbs of manner in -ly from ad- jectives in ly, like kindly, daily. The latter are made generally from nouns. (6.) The suffix /?/, which forms so many hundreds of adverbs, is the An- glo-Saxon word lie like: thus boldly =l)old-like; only=one-#e. 71. IV. Adverbs of Cause express why a thing is done; therefore, whence, thence, why. 72. There are certain adverbs belonging to each of the four classes which are used only as connectives. These are called RELATIVE ADVERBS. They are 1. Relative Adverbs of Time; when, whenever, and while. 2. Relative Adverbs of Place; where, whither, and whence. 3. Relative Adverbs of Manner ; how and as. 4. Relative Adverbs of Cause ; why and wherefore. 24 ETYMOLOGY. ILLUSTKATIONS. Shall I be frighted when a madman stares ? Shakspeare. The world was all before them where to choose Their place of rest, and Providence their guide'. Milton. 73. These adverbs, unlike all other adverbs, have no inde- pendent meaning in themselves. Thus, in the expression, * He came while? the sense is suspended till some other words are supplied, as ' he came while I icas speaking? Here while connects * I was speaking' with ' he came.' NOTES ON THE ADVERB. NOTE I. The relative adverbs are derived from the same Anglo-Saxon root as the relative pronouns who and which. Hence they may generally be resolved into an antecedent and a relative phrase. Thus, 'He arrived when we left' may be resolved into, ' He arrived at the time [antecedent] at which we left' [relative clause]. NOTE II. Adverbial phrases are expressions made up of two or more adverbs connected by conjunctions, or they are expressions consisting of a preposition with a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. EXAMPLES : By and by, up and down, in and out ; one by one, from below, at length, at all, by far, as yet, to-day, to-morrow. NOTE III. The word the in such expressions as l the sooner the better* is not to be parsed by itself; ' the sooner' and 'the better' should be parsed as adverbial phrases. NOTE IV. Yes and No, which are usually called adverbs of certainty, being incapable of standing beside a verb, must be considered as peculiar words, rather adverbs than any thing else, and yet not adverbs in the strict sense of the term. These words come from verb-roots. Yes means liter- ally let it indeed be. No, the term of denial, comes down to us from thou- sands of years ago. In parsing, call them Independent Adverbs. NOTE V. A number of compound adverbs, such as" herein, whereby, withal, hereto, etc., are now, except in legal documents, solemn language, or poetry, out of date. To these we may add Needs ; as / must needs go : needs is really the possessive case of need^I must of need go. Fain ; as / would fain tell you. Erst= superlative of ere, formerly. Whilom formerly, Belike ) 1. It is likely. Peradventure > =perhaps 2. By chance. Mayhap ) 3. It may happen. Anon ^presently. EkQ=also. Exercise 15. A. Pick out the ADVERBS. 1. And now a bubble bursts and now a world. 2. Night's already gone. 3. She weeps not, but often and deeply she sighs. 4. Again thy fires began SUBDIVISIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 25 to burn. 5. Oft she rejects, but never once offends. 6. 777 fared it then with lioderick Dhu. 7. I am not at all surprised. 8. This mine is by no means so good as the other. 8. And ever and anon he beat the doubling drum. 10." When once we drink, our name is heard no more. 1 1 . Every one ran hither and thither. 12. The lad went away directly after dinner. B. Pick out the ADVEKBS. Tell which are RELATIVE ADVERBS^ and what they CONNECT. 1. Where'er she turns the Graces homage pay. 2. I was much alarmed when I saw him in so wretched a condition. 3. The buffaloes go southward as soon as winter approaches. 4. The battle was soon ended. 5. And when above the surges They saw his crest appear, All Rome sent forth a rapturous cry, And even the ranks of Tuscany Could scarce forbear to cheer. C. [Some expressions of an adverbial nature can be replaced by single-word Adverbs; thus, with fragrance fragrantly. In the following, change the expressions in italics into Ad- verbs :] 1 . Every thing was done with prudence and wisdom. 2. The bird builds its nest with great skill. 3. John did his task in a great hurry. 4. With slow- ness and sadness we laid him down. 5. Lift her up with tenderness. 6. The Preposition. 74. The English language contains about fifty PREPOSI- TIONS. They are all used to show the relation of a Noun or of a Pronoun to some other word. 75. The following are among the most important Preposi- tions : Of The most common use of of is to denote possession ; as, the book of the scholar = the scholars book. Of expresses many relations, all connected with the original meaning of the word, which is proceeding from. (1) Of is used to refer the pari of any thing to the whole ; as ' the walls of a town.' This may be called the partitive meaning. (2) 0/is used to connect an abstract property with the concrete ; as, the lightness o/*air. This may be called the attributive meaning. (3) Of may serve to specify a subject or to make a reference; as, the Book of Proverbs. (4) The Preposition of, with its noun, has often the force of an adjective ; as a crown of gold a golden crown. This may be called the adjective meaning. (5) Nouns in apposition are sometimes connected by o/J as * the city of Amsterdam. ' B 28 ETYMOLOGY. To this class belong Relative Pronouns used as connectives, Relative Adverbs, and such Conjunctions as Doubting..... Granting ....... Though, although. Reason ......... Because, or, for, since. Time ........... Before, after, until. *ST It will be seen afterward that a knowledge of the structure of sen- tences depends greatly upon the clear understanding of the Con- junction and its uses. 85. Some Conjunctions are attended by others which go before, and assist either to join or to disjoin in meaning. These may be called Correlative Conjunctions. And has loth..< . . . .Both Louis and Charley came. Or either ..... Either Ella or Willie did it. Nor neither. . ..Neither the horse nor the carriage was injured. As as ......... Her eyes are as bright as diamonds. As so ......... He is not so bad as he seems. That so ......... She was so tired that she fell asleep. Or whether. . . Whether I go or stay. Though ' yet ........ Though his heart bled, yet he kept a cheerful countenance. NOTES ON THE CONJUNCTION. AND, the principal Copulative Conjunction, is derived from an Anglo-Saxon verb andan, to add. It means add; as, Bread and butter = bread add butter. OR, the principal Disjunctive Conjunction, marks an alternative ; as, Will you have an apple or an orange ? Or is also used to join two nouns, of which the second is explan- atory of the first ; as, the bed, or channel, of the river = the bed, that is to say, the channel. In this use the first noun is followed by a comma. IF is a shortened form of gif, from the Anglo-Saxon verb gifian, to give. It means give or grant ; as, I shall go t/you let mQ=grant that you let me. BECAUSE is compounded of by and cause. A number of words that, taken together, have the power of join- ing, form a Conjunctional Phrase ; as, inasmuch as, as well as, as if, etc. Under the general term Connectives are included not only Con- junctions, but Relative Pronouns and Relative Adverb** Exercise 17. State whether the CONJUNCTIONS are CO-ORDINATE, SUBORDI- NATE, or CORRELATIVE. 1. Take heed lest ye fall. 2. I have cut my finger, therefore I can not write. 3. 1 fear I shall fail, but I shall make the attempt. 4. 1 shall make SUBDIVISIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 29 the attempt, though I fear that I shall fail. 5. He speaks so low that he can not be heard. 6. Kemain where you are till I return. 7. lie will neither come, nor send an apology. 8. It is as cold as Iceland. 9. I know not whether to go or to remain. ] 0. Ask James if he is ready ; and if he is ready, tell him to follow as quickly as he can. 11. He did not deserve to succeed ; for he made no effort, and showed no interest. 12. I shall not go unless you call me, nor will I remain if I can avoid it. 13. Whether he was combined With those of Norway ; or did line the rebel With hidden help and vantage ; or that with both He labor 'd in his country's wrack, I know not. Shakspeare. 14. I can wonder at nothing more than how a man can be idle ; but of all others a scholar. Hall. 15. Some murmur when their sky is clear, And wholly bright to view, If one small speck of dark appear In their great heaven of blue. Trench. 16. The precise era of the invention and application of gunpowder is in- volved in doubtful traditions and equivocal language; yet we may clearly discern that it was known before the middle of the fourteenth century ; and that, before the end of the same, the use of artillery in battles and sieges, by sea and land, was familiar to the states of Germany, Italy, Spain, France, and England. Gibbon. 86. In the following Exercise, the pupil is required to name not only the part of speech, but the subdivision (if any) to which each word belongs. The paths of glory lead but to the grave. The The definite article, limiting paths. paths. . .A common noun. of A preposition, linking glory to paths : adjective relation. glory. . , A common noun. lead A complete verb. but An adverb of manner ( ow/y), modifying the adverbial expression 'to the grave.' to A preposition, linking grave to lead: adverbial relation. the The definite article, limiting grave. grave. . .A common noun. Exercise IS. A. f- Proceed as in the Model: 1. Then shrieked the timid. Byron. 2. The grave is the ordeal of true affection. W. Irving. 8. So hard a winter had not been known for years. Milman. 4. Wlien that the poor have cried, Ca3sar hath wept. Shakspeare. 5. Each thought on the woman who loved him best. Kingsley. 26 ETYMOLOGY. To The primary idea of to is motion towards ; as, he went to the house. To is pointedly contrasted with from, as in the phrase l to and fro.' Among the more remote applications of to are to be found such phrases as 4 pleasant to the taste,' ' to one's hand,' ' ten to one,' ' they marched to the tune.' Even in these examples, when motion in the direction of is not di- rectly stated, nearness, which is the natural result, is indicated. From. . . . means beginning from, proceeding from. Any thing that indicates source, origin, or commencement, may be preceded by from. It is also applied to time ; as, l from morn to dewy eve.' 'It is inferior from what I expected' should be to what I expected. 'Dif- ferent to that' should be different from that. By the primary meaning of by seems to be alongside of; that is, proxim- ity. He sat by the river. Hard by the oracles of God. The other meanings grow naturally out of this. Thus, defense of ' stand by me;' instrumentality 'eaten by wolves.' Words of measuring take by after them, from the circumstance that the things measured have to be put side by side, as ' greater by half, ' ' sold by the ounce.' So also of time. By this time they are far away = along side of, or at this time. With. . . .the radical notion involved in with is joining or uniting. It comes from the same root as the noun withe, meaning a twig used to bind or unite a bundle of hay. From the radical idea comes that of company or companionship ; as, he traveled with me for some days. Possession is readily implied in the idea of union, as in ' with the hope of. ' From union comes the idea of instru- mentality, as ' fed with the same food. ' Finally, the use of ' with 1 to de- note opposition (as ' to differ with a person') comes from the fact that an- tagonists must join in a struggle. 76. A Prepositional Phrase is a group of words that, taken together, have the power of a Preposition ; as, /or the sake of, apart from, etc. 77. The Preposition and the Adverb are closely allied, and most of the Simple Prepositions may be used as Adverbs ; thus Prepositions. Adverbs. He fell down stairs. He moved down. I have a pain in the head. Go in, and see him. He passed through the town. He passed through. 78. The Relations expressed by Prepositions are I. Adjective. II. Adverbial. 79. A preposition expresses the Adjective relation when it unites its object to a noun or to a pronoun ; as, a man of taste; she with the black eyes. 80. A preposition expresses the Adverbial relation when it SUBDIVISIONS OF THE PAETS OF SPEECH. 27 unites its object to a verb, an adjective, or another adverb; as, he came in haste / go with rapidity. Exercise 16. Say what RELATION each PEEPOSITION expresses. 1. The man with the gray coat fell from the top of the wall. 2. We rise at seven o'clock in the winter, and in summer at six. 3. James VI., of Scot- land, was the great-grand-nephew of Henry VII. of England, the first of the Tudor line. 4. There are many proofs of the roundness of the earth. 5. The head of the gang listened in silence to the remonstrances of his subordi- nates. 6. His head had not been five seconds under water, when he rose to the surface, and swam towards the bank. 7. He of the rueful countenance answered without delay. 8. As we walked across the bridge, we saw a num- ber of fish in the pool beneath us. 9. With patience, you may succeed. 10. I have not seen him since Monday, but I expect him within an hour. 11. A brilliant meteor shot athwart the sky, and was lost behind the hill. 12. The poor bird took refuge in a hole in the oak, and died of fright. 7. The Conjunction. 81. Conjunctions are of two great kinds : I. Co-ordinate Conjunctions. II. Subordinate Conjunctions. 82. Co-ordinate Conjunctions serve to join statements of equal importance, keeping the connected members on a level with each other ; as, The snow was deep, and the wind was cold. He has either forgotten his appointment or he has missed the train. 83. Co-ordinate Conjunctions may be subdivided thus: 1. Copulative that is, connecting both the statements and their meaning ; as, and, also, therefore. 2. Disjunctive connecting the statement, but express- ing separation as to their meaning ; as, or, nor, but, yet. 3. Comparative used after Adjectives, to join the two sides of a comparison ; than, as. Than (derived from then) is a Conjunction after which the verb is gen- erally left out ; as, My brother works harder than you [work]. Some au- thors of eminence, however, use such expressions as, Mary, than whom a more beautiful woman never wore a crown. In this case than is used as a preposition, and governs the objective. 84. Subordinate Conjunctions serve to connect dependent with principal statements ; as, The barons met in armor, b& cause they were resolved to assert their rights. 28 ETYMOLOGY. To this class belong Relative Pronouns used as connectives, Relative Adverbs, and such Conjunctions as Doubting..... Granting ....... Though, although. Reason ......... Because, or, for, since. Time ........... Before, after, until. *ST It will be seen afterward that a knowledge of the structure of sen- tences depends greatly upon the clear understanding of the Con- junction and its uses. 85. Some Conjunctions are attended by others which go before, and assist either to join or to disjoin in meaning. These may be called Correlative Conjunctions. And has both.., ____ Both Louis and Charley came. Or either ..... Either Ella or Willie did it. Nor neither. . ..Neither the horse nor the carriage was injured. As as ......... Her eyes are as bright as diamonds. As so ......... He is not so bad as he seems. That so ......... She was so tired that she fell asleep. Or whether. . . Whether I go or stay. Though yet ........ Though his heart bled, yet he kept a cheerful countenance. NOTES ON THE CONJUNCTION. AND, the principal Copulative Conjunction, is derived from an Anglo-Saxon verb andan, to add. It means add; as, Bread and butter = bread add butter. OR, the principal Disjunctive Conjunction, marks an alternative ; as, Will you have an apple or an orange ? Or is also used to join two nouns, of which the second is explan- atory of the first ; as, the bed, or channel, of the river = the bed, that is to say, the channel. In this use the first noun is followed by a comma. IF is a shortened form of gif, from the Anglo-Saxon verb gifian, to give. It means give or grant ; as, I shall go z/* you let me= grant that you let me. BECAUSE is compounded of by and cause. A number of words that, taken together, have the power of join- ing, form a Conjunctional Phrase ; as, inasmuch as, as well as, as if, etc. Under the general term Connectives are included not only Con- junctions, but Relative Pronouns and Relative Adverb*. Exercise 17. State whether the CONJUNCTIONS are CO-ORDINATE, SUBORDI- NATE, or CORRELATIVE. 1. Take heed lest ye fall. 2. I have cut my finger, therefore I can not write. 3. 1 fear I shall fail, but I shall make the attempt. 4. 1 shall make SUBDIVISIONS OF THE PARTS OP SPEECH. 29 the attempt, though I fear that I shall fail. 5. He speaks so low that he can not be heard. 6. Kemaiu where you are till I return. 7. He will neither come, nor send an apology. 8. It is as cold as Iceland. 9. I know not whether to go or to remain. 1 0. Ask James if he is ready ; and if he is ready, tell him to follow as quickly as he can. 11. He did not deserve to succeed ; for he made no effort, and showed no interest. 12. I shall not go unless you call me, nor will I remain if I can avoid it. 13. Whether he was combined With those of Norway ; or did line the rebel With hidden help and vantage ; or that with both He labor'd in his country's wrack, I know not. ShaJcspeare. 14. I can wonder at nothing more than how a man can be idle; but of all others a scholar. Hall. 15. Some murmur when their sky is clear, And wholly bright to view, If one small speck of dark appear In their great heaven of blue. Trench. 16. The precise era of the invention and application of gunpowder is in- volved in doubtful traditions and equivocal language; yet we may clearly discern that it was known before the middle of the fourteenth century ; and that, before the end of the same, the use of artillery in battles and sieges, by sea and land, was familiar to the states of Germany, Italy, Spain, France, and England. Gibbon. 86. In the following Exercise, the pupil is required to name not only the part of speech, but the subdivision (if any) to which each word belongs. The paths of glory lead but to the grave. The The definite article, limiting p a ths. paths. . .A common noun. of A preposition, linking glory to paths : adjective relation. glory. . .A common noun, lead. . . . A complete verb. but An adverb of manner (=only), modifying the adverbial expression * to the grave.' to A preposition, linking grave to lead: adverbial relation. the The definite article, limiting grave. grave. . .A common noun. Exercise 13. A. f_ Proceed as in the Model: 1. Then shrieked the timid. Byron. 2. The grave is the ordeal of true affection. W. Irving. 8. So hard a winter had not been known for years. Milman. 4. When that the poor have cried, Ca3sar hath wept. Shakspeare. 5. Each thought on the woman who loved him best. King sky. 30 ETYMOLOGY. 6. The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave, Await alike the inevitable hour. Gray. 7. We can show you where he lies. Scott. 8. Surely, said I, man is but a shadow, and life a dream. Addison. 9. "What did he achieve and suffer in the world? Carlyle. 10. When my time was expired, I worked my passage home ; and glad I was to see Old England again, because I loved my country. Goldsmith. CHAPTER III. INFLECTION. 87. Inflection treats of the changes made in words to ex- press various relations and uses. 88. We can say boy, and boy's, and boys. We can say man, and man's, and men. We can say sweet, and sweeter, and sweetest. We can say walk, and walk/m?, and walked. We can say he, and we can say his, and him. These are some illustrations of changes in the forms of words. Inflection enumerates and explains all the possible forms of each part of speech ; Syntax directs which form it is proper to use in each particular 89. Inflections generally consist of an addition at the end; as &o?/-'s, lion-ess, swim-s. Sometimes, however, the change is made within the word itself; as man, men; rise, rose. 90. Of the eight classes of words, three the Conjunction, the Preposition, and the Interjection are uninflected. In these there is, therefore, no liability to use a wrong form. The inflected Parts of Speech are five, namely, the Noun, the Pronoun, the Adjective, the Verb, and the Adverb. I. The Noun. 91. Nouns are inflected to express differences of-flfawfor, of Case, and of Gender. I. NUMBER. 92. There are two Numbers, the Singular Number and the Plural Number. A noun is Singular when it names one thing, as book ; Plural when it names more than one, as books. INFLECTION. 31 93. RULE I. The Plural is generally formed by adding s to the Singular ; as book, book-s. There were various modes of forming the plural of Anglo-Saxon Nouns; as in an (steor, a star, steorran) and in a (gifa, gifts, plural of gifu). An- other class of Anglo-Saxon Nouns formed their plural in -as, which in later English became -es, and ultimately -s. This form of the plural-ending be- came the main one probably on account of its similarity to the Norman- French plural ending s. 94. RULE II. Nouns ending in sounds that do not easily combine with s form their plural by adding es ; as Ioss-es 9 fish-es, church-es. (a) The sounds that do not easily combine with s are ch soft, s//, ss, s, and x. (6) Nouns ending in o or i after a consonant form the plural by adding es ; as, hero, heroes; alkali, alkalies. The reason of this is that the regu- lar plural would give the short sound of o and t=heros, alkalis. 95. RULE III. Nouns ending in ?/, following a consonant, change the y for e, and add es for the plural ; as duty, duties; glory, glories. A reason for this irregularity may be found in the fact that, formerly, such words as ' duty,' 'glory,' were written dutie, glorie, and the plural was regularly formed by adding s. 96. RULE IV. Nouns ending in/or/6 make the plural by changing f or fe into v, and adding cs sounded like z; as wolf, wolves ; wife, wives. (a) The reason of this irregularity is that, in Anglo-Saxon, the singular of these nouns ended in ve. (6) Some few nouns ending in ff, oof, rf, and/e, follow the general rule, and add merely s; as hoof, turf, sLuff',jife, strife, reef. (c) Wharf has two plurals, wharfs and wharves. 97. SAXON NOUNS. A few nouns of Saxon origin form their plural by changing the vowel sound of the singular. They are man, men; woman, women; foot, feet; goose, geese; tooth, teeth ; mouse, mice ; louse, lice. A few old Saxon nouns form their plurals in en ; as, ox, oxen; brother, brethren. Children, the plural of child, has a peculiar double termination. It is thus accounted for : The Scandinavian plural ending er would make the word childer (still to be heard in Ireland) ; the English plural would be childen. Our plural is a compound of both. $ 98. FOREIGN NOUNS. Most foreign nouns retain their for- eign plurals. 1 . Pure Latin nouns adopted into our language generally retain their Latin endings : 32 ETYMOLOGY. Nouns in us form the plural in i ; as, focus, foci. " " urn " " " " ; as, datum, data. "a " " " a; as, nebula, nebula. "ex "ices; as, vortex, vortices. " us (neuter gender) " era; as, genus, genera. 2. Pure Greek nouns adopted into our language retain the Greek end- ings in the plural ; thus Nouns in is form the plural in es; as, crisis, crises. " on " " " a; as, phenomenon, phenomena. 3. Some words adopted from other sources retain their original plurals. Thus Hebrew. Cherub becomes cherubim. French. Beau " beaux. Italian. Virtuoso " virtuosi. 99. DOUBLE PLUKALS. Certain nouns have two forms of the plural, one regular, the other irregular. These distinc- tive forms have usually different meanings. Thus Sing. Plur. Brother brothers (by birth) brethren (of a community). Cloth cloth (kinds of cloth). clothes (garments). Die dies (stamps for coining), .dice (for play). Genius geniuses (men of talent). . .genii (spirits). Index indexes (contents) indices (algebraic signs). Pea peas (regular) pease (collective). Penny pennies (regular) pence (collective). Staff staves (common use) staffs (military term). Shot shot (balls) shots (number of rounds). Fish fish (collective) fishes (individuals). 100. Nouns with two meanings in the plural : Sing. . 1st Plural 2d Plural. Pain pains (sufferings) pains (troubles). Custom customs (habits) customs (revenue duties). Letter letters (of the alphabet). . .letters (literature). 101. Compound nouns generally form their plural by in- flecting the principal noun ; as, sons-in-law ; courts-martial ; maid-servants. (a) When the words are so closely joined in sense that the meaning is not complete till the whole is known, the s is added at the end ; as, pail- fuls, cup-fuls, forget-me nots. (6) We may say either 'the Misses Brown,' or 'the Miss Browns,' or even ' the Misses Browns. ' (c) A firm of Browns is named in England 'the Messrs. Brown,' but we say ' Brown Brothers. ' 102. The following peculiarities are to be noted: INFLECTION. 33 1. Nouns used only in the Plural: Aborigines. Entrails. Scissors. Annals. Hustings. Shears. Antipodes. Lees. Summons. Archives. Matins. Thanks. Banns. Measles. Tidings. Bellows. News. Tongs. Billiards. Nuptials. Trowsers. Breeches. Oats. Vespers. Calends. Obsequies. Victuals. Credentials. Odds. Vitals. Dregs. Pincers. Pantaloons. seems to be plural, but it is really singular, being de- rived from the French richesse. Riches profit not should be riches profits not. in old English was plural. It is now uniformly singu- lar ; as, ill news runs apace. is to be used in the singular when the signification is singular, and in th.e plural when the signification 13 plural. We may say, this means or those means. SumiHOHo has a regular, derived plural, summonses. Alms is plural in form, but is really singular, being derived from the Anglo-Saxon celmesse. Politics > Ethics / represent Greek plurals, but are now treated as singu- PhysicS \ lar. Mathematics is un improving study. Optics is OptlCS ( the science of light. Mathematics.... J 2. Nouns the same in both Numbers : Deer. Salmon. Cannon. Grouse. Sheep. Perch. Pish. Swine. Pike. Trout. Heathen. Fowl. Some of these words have also regular plurals, with a distributive mean-> ing ; as, fishes, cannons, pikes. 3. Nouns with a different meaning in the Plural : Compass compasses. Corn corns. Iron irons. Salt salts. Domino dominoes. Good goods. Exerciso 19. A. Give the PLURAL of the following Nouns: I.Pen; desk; book; knife; fox; ox; foot; foot-man. 2. Candle; map; cage; calf; class; hat; sky; toy. B2 34 ETYMOLOGY. 3. Cargo ; church ; monarch ; muff ; tyro ; focus ; basis. 4. Story ; dictum ; beau ; potato ; cherub ; log ; nebula. 5. Chimey; automatum ; genus; proof; axis. 6. Criterion; child; woman; wife; kiss; staff. B. Review Questions: 1. Give the two plurals of die, with the meaning of each ; also of brother, cloth, and penny. 2. Mention three other nouns that have two plurals differing in meaning. 3. Give three nouns used only in the plural, one signifying a pair of things. 4. What is peculiar in alms, politics, salts, and pains? 6. How many meanings has the word letter in the singular ? How many in the plural ? 6. Mention six nouns that have the same form in both numbers. II. CASE. 103. A suffix is frequently" added to a Noun to mark the relation in which that noun stands to other words. Thus, in the sun's rays, the 's shows the relation existing between the sun and its rays namely, that the rays proceed from the sun. 104. The simple word and the suffix are together called a Case. (a) The old grammarians illustrated the changes of Case by the follo\Y- ing diagram : Ac The perpendicular line represented the Nominative (rectus). If this line, moving on a hinge at X, were to fall or be bent downward, it would assume the various oblique positions marked G, D, etc., to express the six Latin cases, the Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Accusative, Vocative, and Ablative. The diagram gives origin to the following grammatical terms : Case, derived from the Latin cado, I fall, each change being denoted by a falling of the perpendicular line. INFLECTION. 35 Oblique case, meaning any case except the Nominative ; the other cases being denoted by the slanting lines. Decline, declension, derived from de, down, and clino, I bend ; the up- right line being bent downward. Inflect, inflection, derived from in, into, tiudjlecto, I bend. (//) In certain languages, many inflections are used to mark the several relations of Nouns, and each inflection makes a distinct Case.' Thus the Latin language had a change of form to express the relation of proceeding from a thing our 'possessive:' this was called the genitive; as, man^ homo; man's, or of a man ^homnWs. But ' to a man' was also marked by an inflection homin-t ; the object of a transitive verb was marked by a peculiar inflection homin-em ; and by or with a man had its own inflec- tion homm-e. 105. Our language, in its original form of Anglo-Saxon, had various inflections of Case which English has now lost. TEACHER'S NOTE. The following Comparative Table will show the in- flections of the Noun ' man' in Latin, Saxon, and English : Latin. Singular. Nominative Case . .Homo, Genitive Homin-zs, Dative Homin-t, Accusative Homin-ewz, Ablative Homin-e, Latin. Plural. Nominative Homin-es, Genitive Homin-wm, Dative Homin-ibvs, Accusative Homin-es, Ablative Homm-ibus, Saxon. English. Singular. Singular. Man, Man. Mann-es, Man's. Men, (to a) Man. Man, Man (object). Men, (with or by) Man. Saxon. English. Plural. Plural. Men, Men. Mann-a, Men's. Mann-urn, (to) Men. Men, Men (object). Mann-am, (with or by) Men. EXPLANATION. It will be seen from this table that, while the Anglo- Saxon had a much less elaborate apparatus of Case-endings than tho Latin, modern English has still fewer inflections than the Saxon had. In fact, we have lost all the Case forms except the Genitive (Possessive), formed by adding 's. 106. There is now but one inflection of case in English nouns. This is the addition of an apostrophe with the letter 8 ('s) to the regular form of the noun. Thus, river, riverV. This is called the Possessive Case. If the pupil will look at the Saxon word man in the table, he will see that the possessive (or genitive) case was mannes: so the possessive of bird was birdes. It is in this Saxon inflection of the genitive that our pos- sessive originates. The apostrophe marks merely the omission of the e. The scholar will understand from this how absurd is the notion of some grammarians and others, who think that 's is a contraction of his; as, John's book = John his book. 36 ETYMOLOGY. 107. The unchanged noun, standing as the chief word in the subject of a sentence, is called the Nominative or naming case; as, The President of the United States is elected every four years. 108. The noun used as object of a verb or of a preposition is usually called the Objective case; but as its form is the same as that of the nominative, it can not be regarded as a real case. (a) Except for the pronouns, the distinction of nominative and objective would not be kept up, as the form of the noun can never show whether it is nominative or objective. These names have a meaning only in construc- tion with verbs, the one (the nominative) corresponding to the subject of the sentence, the other (the objective) to the object of the sentence. (b) Some consider our poverty of case-forms one of the disadvantages of English, as it prevents us from freely changing the position of our nouns. In Latin, if we say Brutus killed Ccesar, it does not matter in what order we place these three words, as the endings of the nouns tell us which is he and which is him. We can say either Brutus Ccesarem occidit or CcBsarem Brutus occidit, because the form * Cscsarem' always denotes ->tt, and the form ' Brutus,' Brutus-Ae. 109. A noun is said to be ' declined' when we name its three cases. Declension of a Noun. Singular Number. Plural Number. Nominative Case : Man ............... Men. Possessive Case : Man's .............. Men's. Objective Case : Man ............... Men. GENERAL EULE FOR THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 110. Possessive Singular. The Possessive Case singular is formed by writing apostrophe s ('s) after the singular noun ; as, neighbor, neighbor's. 111. Possessive Plural. The Possessive Case plural is formed by writing the apostrophe after the s of plural nouns ; as, neighbors, neighbors'. But when the plural does not end in s, the 's is added ; as, men, men's. (a) When the nominative singular ends in such a way that the derived possessive is difficult of pronunciation, it has been usual to mark the pos- sessive singular by writing merely the apostrophe ; as, Socrates' wife ; con- science' sake. But it is better in all cases to form the possessive singular by writing the apostrophe s ('s). It is better to write Moses's law than Moses' law ; Charles's book than Charles' book. Whether it shall be pro- nounced or not is a matter of euphony. Many persons, especially sign- painters, make frequent mistakes in the management of the possessive. INFLECTION. 37 Such errors as * ladle's shoes,' * gentlemen^ furnishing store,' may be seen on the signs in any city. (b} The apostrophe placed after the nominative plural of nouns to form their possessive marks a contraction of es, the old English inflection of the possessive plural. In irregular plurals, such as men's, we retain the s, and mark the omission of the e by the apostrophe. 112. In Compound Nouns, the possessive suffix is attached to the last word; as, heir-at-law's; the Queen of England's. Exercise 20. A. Give the, POSSESSIVE, singular and plural, of the following Nouns : 1. Child; prince; woman; king; cable; tutor. 2. Peril; mercy; father; Henry; aunt; cat. 3. Charles ; gardener ; brother ; poetess ; author ; painter. 4. Sculptor ; engraver ; sister ; Socrates ; princess ; bridge. 5. House; Peter; righteousness; ox; thief; sheep. B. Write the following- changing the nouns with prepositions into POSSESSIVE nouns : 1. A cap of a boy. 2. The mother of Moses. 3. The dresses of the ladies. 4. The son of the princess. 5. The pain-killer of Davis. 6. The wrath of Achilles. 1. The work of the men. 8. The wool of the sheep. 9. The hat of Mr. Jacob. 10. The house of Mr.. Jacobs. 11. The store of the Messrs. Woods. 12. The banking-house of Brown Brothers. 13. The houses of my sons-in-law. III. GENDEK. 113. The English speech is the simplest of all languages in its rules for gender. We know the gender of any noun by its sense. If it denotes a living being, it is Masculine or it is Feminine, according to the sex of the being. If not the name of a living being, the noun is said to be Neuter / that is, nei- ther Masculine nor Feminine. (a) In many languages, as Latin, Greek, etc., a poetical or figurative process of personifying things without life was in extensive operation ; by this the distinction of gender was extended to nouns generally, and this without distinction of sex the termination of the noun deciding its gen- der. This may be called grammatical gender ; but we have in English no guch thing. On this account our language is free from one of the main difficulties of French gender, namely, the difficulty of determining the gender of any noun, which determination must be made before an article or an adjective can be used with it. Thus the good sugar is k le bon sucre' (' sucre/ masculine), but the good pen is l la bonne plume' ('plume,' femi- nine). (b) The term Common gender is applied to Nouns that may be either masculine or feminine ; as, parent, child. 38 ETYMOLOGY. 114. In English, Sex is usually denoted by the use of dis- tinctive words to name the Male and the Female; as, father, mother; brother, sister; gander, goose; boy, girl. 115. There are certain suffixes used to turn Masculine Nouns into Feminines. (1.) The most common Feminine suffix is ESS ; as, actor, actress ; giant, giantess; heir, heiress; lion, lioness ; poet, poetess. (2.) The suffix ix is a feminine inflection used in a few Latin derivatives, as, administrator, administrator/ executor, executor. (3.) The suffix ine is a feminine inflection in a few words, as, hero, heroine; Joseph, Joseph^/ Paul, Pauline. NOTES ON PECULIARITIES OF GENDER. (a) The suffix ster was the most common Old English feminine inflec- tion ; thus webere meant a male weaver, and webster meant a female weaver. But ster is now a masculine termination. This suffix is now used as a feminine only in the word spinster; seamstress = seam +str-f ess is redundant, containing both the Saxon inflection ster and the French ess. So with songstress. (b) The word vixen contains the suffix ine. It is really fox-tne=a sho- fox, and hence is applied to a cross, snarling woman. (c) WIDOWER. Widow was in Old English both masculine and femi- nine. Afterwards it came to be used as feminine only ; then the suffix er was added to denote the masculine. (c?) BRIDEGROOM. The masculine of bride is bridegroom. The word groom is a corruption of Anglo-Saxon guma, man. (e) WOMAN, the feminine of man, is composed of ivif (from the same root as * weave') and man (which meant a human being of either sex). The literal meaning, therefore, is she that weaves, that is, the weaver. The pro- nunciation of the plural of woman preserves the old root wif. (y) LADY. The word lord comes from the Anglo-Saxon hlaf-ord=ibe loaf-giver. The y in lady is a feminine suffix, and the word means literal- ly the female loaf-giver. (y) BEAU and BELLE (masculine and feminine of the French adjective meaning beautiful) are not correlatives. Beau means either a male sweet- heart or a dandy, while belle means, not a female sweetheart, but a pre- eminently beautiful woman. (A) In our English poverty of inflection, we sometimes resort to the plan of prefixing certain sex-words, as sAe-bear, waiW-servant, Aen-sparrow, etc. 116. When an inanimate object is represented as a living person, it is said to be personified. Thus word's of the neuter gender become masculine or feminine : For Winter came : the wind was his whip. One choppy finger was on his lip : ' lie had torn the cataracts from the hills, And they clanked at his girdle like manactes. INFLECTION. 39 In the same way the sailor speaks of his ship, and the hunter of his gun, as she. We speak of the sun as he, and of the moon as she; but our An- glo-Saxon forefathers spoke of the moou as he and the sun as she. Exercise 21. Tell the GENDER of the following Words : 1. Cow. Lass. Mistress. Poet. Gander. 2. Widower. Aunt. Uncle. Priestess. Goddess. 3. Lamb. Horse. Cattle. Hogs. Pigs. Chickens. 4. Pauline. Bridegroom. Ship. Sun. Moon. 5. Husband. Wife. Steer. Heifer. Gentleman. Lady. Answer the following Questions : 1. Gender in English is what ? 2. How many sexes are there? How many Genders in English Gram- mar? 3. How many ways are there of distinguishing sex ? 4. What is peculiar in seamstress and songstress ? 5. What is the most common termination for the feminine ? G. Mention two nouns which have formed the masculine from the femi- nine. 2. The Pronoun. ^i I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 117. The English Personal Pronouns are JTfor the first per- son ; You for the second person ; lie, she, and it for the third person. 118. The Pronouns of the First and of the Second Person are inflected to express Number and Case ; the Pronoun of the Third Person is inflected to denote Number, Case, and Gender. 119. The First Personal Pronoun is I, in the nominative case. Its possessive case is my or mine. Its objective is me. The nominative plural of jTisTFey the possessive plural is our or ours ; the objective plural is us. 120. The Second Personal Pronoun is You, in the nomina- tive case. Its possessive case is your or yours. Its object- ive case is You, the same as the nominative case. The old English Personal Pronoun of the Second person singular was thou (Anglo-Saxon thu, Latin tu), but this form is now obsolete except in the solemn style. The plural of You is you ; the possessive, your or yours; and the objective, you, the same as the singular. 40 ETYMOLOGY. The old English second person plural was ye (Anglo-Saxon ge), but you has taken its place in common use, just as you has succeeded thou in the singular. 121. The Third Personal Pronoun is he for the masculine gender, nominative case. Its possessive case is his. Its ob- jective case is Mm. The Third Personal Pronoun, in the nominative case, is she for the feminine gender. Its possessive case is her or hers. Its objective case is her. The Third Personal Pronoun is it for the neuter gender, nominative case. Its possessive case is its. Its objective case is it. They is the nominative plural of he, of she, and of it. The possessive plural of these pronouns is their or theirs; their objective plural is them. INFLECTIONS OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. BINGULAK. PLURAL. Nom. Poss. Obj. Nom. Poss. Obj First Person, I, my or mine, me. We, our or ours, us. Second, You, your or yours, you. You, your or yours, you. (Mas. He, his, him.') Third, -4 Fern. She, her or hers, her. > They, their or theirs, them. (Neut. It, its, it. ) Solemn style. Thou, thy or thine, thee. | Ye, your or yours, you. NOTES ON THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. (a) The Teacher will find in the Appendix a table of the declension of the Anglo-Saxon Personal Pronouns. It throws much light on the present forms of our English Pronoun. (b) The Pronouns of the First and of the Second Person have two forms of the Possessive Case : my, mine ; your, yours ; our, ours ; also the Third feminine has her, hers. The former of each pair is used attributively, that is, when the Noun qualified follows it ; the latter is used predicatively, that is, when the Noun is omitted. Thus (my 1 /"mine. } j her ( \ hers, f This is < our > house. But, This house is < ours. ^ 1 your I j yours. 1 ( their J ( theirs. ) The former set may be called Adjective Possessives ; the latter, Predicate Possessives. Be careful never to write the Predicate Possessives with an apostrophe before the s ; that is, never write our's, their's, etc. (c) In such sentences as * Give me [him, her, you, us] a book' the Pro- nouns are really Anglo-Saxon datives, and hence equivalent to to me, to him, etc. (d} It is a remarkable fact that the word its did not exist in English un- til about 250 years ago. It is not found in our English Bible (translated INFLECTION. 41 1611). The place of its was filled by his, which was the possessive case of hit (it) just as much as of he. The use of its arose from a feeling of clum- siness in employing the same word (his) for the possessive of both the mas- culine and the neuter pronouns. N. B. Never write its with the apostrophe (it's) when the possessive pronoun is intended. (e) A reflexive form is obtained for the personal pronouns, in the nomi- native and in the objective case, by adding self or selves to the possessives of the first and of the second person, and to the objectives of the third person. BINGTTLAR. PLTJKAL. 1. Myself, Ourselves. *$&} ** (Herself, ) 8. *? Himself, V Themselves, (itself. ) The word self is originally an adjective, or attribute of emphasis. Its use is twofold : Is?, To express emphasis ; as, Himself must strike the blow. The compound pronoun is in like manner added to the simple ; as, I my- self wrote the letter. 2d, To form Reflexive Pronouns, by means of which we express that the object and the doer of an action are the same person or thing ; as, He killed himself. (/) The word own joined to the Adjective Possessives both adds empha- sis and has a reflexive meaning ; as, This is my own, my native land. IT. RELATIVE PKONOUNS. 122. Of the Relative Pronouns, who, which, what, and that, 'who' is the only one that has inflections. Who is thus de- clined : Norn. Poss. Obj. Sing, and Plur. Who, whose, whom. 123. 'Whose' is sometimes employed as the possessive of ' which.' 124. Compound Relative Pronouns are formed by adding to the simple pronouns the affixes so, ever, and soever; as, who-so, which-ever^ what-soever. The general force of these affixes is to imply a universal correlative ; as, * Who-so-ever hateth his brother is a murderer' ~ Every man without ex- ception that hateth, etc. III. DEMONSTRATIVE PKONOUNS. 125. The only Demonstrative Pronouns that have any in- flections are < this' and ' that.' The former has these for the plural 5 the latter, those. 42 ETYMOLOGY. Exercise 22. Tell the KIND, NUMBER, GENDER, and CASE of each PRONOUN. 1. She; whose; them; its; our; me. 2. Their; us; he; hers; they; I. 3. Me ; whom ; mine ; yours ; who. 4. They ; thee ; my ; him ; ye ; which. 5. Ours ; yours ; that ; her ; theirs. 6. We ; you ; his ; it ; what ; her. 7. Her father gave her a book. 8. The flower that you brought me is dead. 9. Whom call we gay? 1 0. He shall not touch us. 11. These are our horses ; those are theirs. 12. My brother gave me that book a year ago. 3. The Adjective. 126. Common Adjectives have but one inflection, the change to express differences in degree of quality. The inflection of adjectives is called Comparison. In many languages, adjectives are inflected to mark gender, number, and case, and in these respects they are made to agree with their nouns. A Latin adjective like bonus, good, followed through all its inflections, as- sumes nearly forty different shapes. In Anglo-Saxon there were several such inflections. Thus, in Anglo-Saxon, the adjective 'good,' used with a masculine noun, was goda, with a feminine noun gode, and with a neuter noun gode ; and the nominative plural was godcfn. Our language gains in simplicity by discarding these adjective inflections, and loses only a cer- tain power of varying the order of words. 127. The degrees of comparison are the Positive, the Com- parative, and the Superlative. 128. I. The Positive is the adjective in its simple form; as, a tall man. 129. II. The Comparative is formed by sufiixing er to the positive ; as, taller, shorter. It is used when two objects are compared, and indicates that the one possesses the quality in a greater degree than the other. 130. The Superlative is formed by adding est to the posi- tive ; as, tallest, shortest It is used when more than two ob- jects are compared, and shows that one possesses the quality in a greater degree than all the rest. 131. When the positive has more than two syllables, the adjective is not compared by inflection, but the Comparative is formed by the auxiliary more and the Superlative by the auxiliary most. This is to prevent forming many-syllabled adjectives. Thus more beautiful sounds better than beauti- fuller. (a) If euphony allows, long adjectives may be compared with er and est. And, on the other hand, even a monosyllabic adjective may be compared by more or most, if the ear be satisfied. INFLECTION. 43 (6) A comparative and a superlative of diminution are formed by means of less and least ; as, less grateful, least grateful. (c) The Teacher will call the pupil's attention to such modifications of spelling as take place on the addition of the suffixes er and est. (d} The auxiliary mode of comparison is derived from the Norman- French ; the inflected mode is old Saxon. 132. The following are Irregular Comparisons: POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. Good, Better, Best. Well, Better, Best. Evil, Worse, Worst. Bad, Worse, Worst. Little, Less, Least. Many, More, Most. Much, More, Most. Far, Farther, further, Farthest, furthest. Near, Nearer, Nearest or next. Late, Later or latter, Latest or last. Old, Older or elder, Oldest or eldest. Hind, Hinder, Hindmost. Up, Upper, Upmost. Out, Utter or outer, Utmost. NOTES ON THE IRREGULAR COMPARISONS. (1.) Good: Better and best [bet-est] are the comparative and the superla- tive of the obsolete Anglo-Saxon bet, a synonym of good. (2.) Bad : Worse and worst are the comparative and superlative of the ob- solete Anglo-Saxon weor, a synonym of bad. (3.) Old: The regular comparative and superlative are used when old is contrasted with new ; the irregular forms when it is contrasted \\iihyoung; as, the older house belongs to the elder brother. But older and oldest are often applied to animate beings ; elder and eldest never to inanimate. (4.) Late: The regular forms later and latest are opposed to 'earlier' and 4 earliest ;' the irregular forms latter and last are opposed to * for- mer' and ' first.' Last is a compression of late-est. 0>0 Farther, further : Farmer, from far, means more distant, and is op- posed to nearer ; as, I prefer the farther house to the nearer one. Further, from forth, means more advanced or additional; as, I shall mention a further reason. (6.) Inner, inmost, have no positive: down, downmost, and top, topmost, have no comparative; nether, nethermost, are the comparative and superlative of neath. ^IT The suffix most, in these superla- tives, is not the adverb 'most.' It is really a double superlative ending, compounded of the two Anglo-Saxon endings ma and ost, \)0th=est. Hence foremost = f ore + ma + ost. (7.) Certain comparatives in ior, derived from the Latin, as 'interior,' 'ex- terior,' 'superior,' 'inferior,' 'anterior,' 'posterior,' 'prior,' 'ulte- rior,' 'senior,' 'junior,' 'major,' 'minor,' are not proper English comparatives. They have not the English ending ; nor are they 44 ETYMOLOGY. followed by than' in composition, but by 'to;' thus we do not say 'senior than his brother,' but 'senior to his brother.' They share this peculiarity with a few adjectives of Anglo-Saxon or- igin ; SLS, former, elder, latter, hinder, under, inner, etc. (8.) Adjectives expressing qualities that do not admit of change of degree are not compared. EXAMPLES: 'Certain,' 'dead,' 'empty,' 'extreme,' 'false,' 'full,' 'infinite,' 'perfect,' 'complete,' 'su- preme,' 'universal,' 'round,' 'straight,' 'square,' 'lend,' 'cor- rect.' Many of these Adjectives are compared in colloquial use and even by good writers, and such comparison is allowable on the theory that these adjectives are not used in their strict sense. However, we can generally avoid such comparisons. In place of saying 'more perfect,' say 'more nearly perfect;' in place of saying 'more complete,' say 'more copious;' in place of saying ' rounder, ' say ' more nearly round. ' Exercise 23. Give the COMPARATIVE and the SUPERLATIVE forms of the following ADJECTIVES : 1. Great ; good ; wise ; ill ; little ; short ; bad ; late. 2. Near ; fore ; much ; old ; frugal ; few ; valuable ; many. 3. Patient ; amiable ; high ; low ; pretty ; black ; rich ; heavy. 4. Hot ; dangerous ; fair ; far ; gentle ; bright ; bitter ; green. 5. Calm ; gay ; hard ; useful ; red ; light ; truthful ; swift. 6. Large ; soft ; gentle ; tall ; modest ; merry ; rough ; dark. 4. The Adverb. 133. Some ADVERBS are inflected to express degrees of comparison ; as, He calls oftener than he writes. 134. The comparison of Adverbs follows the same rules as that of Adjectives ; as, soon, sooner, soonest; pleasantly, more pleasantly, most pleasantly. Many Adverbs, from the nature of their meaning, can not be compared ; as, then, now, yesterday. 135. The following Adverbs, like the Adjectives with which they correspond, are irregularly compared : well, ill, badly, much, little, far, forth. The Adverb rather is the comparative of an Old English Adjective rathe, meaning early ; thus The rathe primrose which forsaken dies. Milton. ' Bather' means earlier or sooner : I should rather read than write that is, sooner read than write. Exercise 24. A. Give the COMPARATIVE and the SUPERLATIVE forms of the following ADVERBS : 1. Largely; plainly; badly; wholly; brightly. 2. Completely; little; possibly; sweetly; far; well. INFLECTION. 45 B. Distinguish between ADJECTIVES and ADVERBS, remembering that Adjectives limit Nouns, and that Adverbs limit Verbs, Adjectives, and other Adverbs. 1. I have seen better faces. 2. He likes this better. 3. The more mildly I spoke, the more insolently he answered, and there- fore the more punishment he deserves. 4. I have long wished to see her. 5. I have a long letter from her. 6. Much fruit. I love him much. 5. The Verb. 136. The VERB is the most highly inflected of all the Parts of Speech. This comes from the fact that the Verb makes statements; and that the action stated may be done by dif- ferent persons, at various times, and under several conditions. We may say he strikes or they strike; I strike or I struck; strike, but hear ; We shall strike, etc. 137. The Inflections of the Verb are to express Time, Per- son, Number, and Manner. Verbs are said to have also Voice, and this is explained farther on (see *[" 172-176). I. TENSE. 138. TENSE (from the Latin tempus, c time') is a change in the form of the Verb to express the time of an action. 139. There are three natural divisions of time the present, the past, and the future. There are, therefore, three primary Tenses the Present Tense, the Past Tense, and the Future Tense. 140. The Present Tense is the simple form of the Verb, and expresses what is or is doing when the statement is made ; as, I walk, I write. 141. The Past Tense is formed from the present; it ex- presses what was or was done before the statement is made ; as, I walked, I wrote. 142. Verbs generally form their Past Tense from the Pres- ent Tense by suffixing ed ; as, walk, walked. Some old En- glish verbs form the Past Tense by a change of the root-vow- el; as, write, wrote. 46 ETYMOLOGY. 143. The first class are called Regular Verbs, the second class Irregular, old, or strong Verbs. (a) Of the four thousand verbs in the English language, all but about one hundred and fifty form their past tense according to the general rule, that is, by suffixing -ed. and hence are regular. (5) The suffix -ed, which is the inflection of the Past Tense, is a con- traction of the word did. Thus, loved is *I love-did,' or, as we still say, 144. The Future Tense expresses what is to be or is to be done after the statement is made ; as, I shall walk, You will write. 145. The Future Tense in English is formed, not by inflec- tion, or a change of the word, but by^ the use of a helping word called an auxiliary. This word is shall or will. (a) Many languages form their future by inflections : thus the Latin for ' I shall love' is amabo (from amo, I love). Our mode of marking future time is derived from the Anglo-Saxon, which used sceal and wille, ' shall 1 and 'will/ thus: *ic sceal niman,' or *ic wille niman,' which literally means, I owe to take, I will to take. (6) Shall implies obligation or duty its original signification being to owe. Will implies wish or pleasure the exercise of will. There are. many nice points about the use of shall and will with pronouns of the dif- ferent persons. These points are explained under Syntax. 146. There are three Secondary Tenses the Present Per- feet, the Past Perfect, and the Future Perfect. These tenses are formed, not by inflections, but by the use of auxiliaries. The auxiliary have is used to form the Present Perfect, I have walked ; the auxiliary had to form the Past Perfect, I had walked ; and the auxiliary shall have to form the Future Perfect, I shall have walked. II. PERSON AND NUMBER. 147. As there is a Personal Pronoun for each of the three persons 1st Person, I ; 2d Person, You ; 3d Person, He (She, It) ; and as each Pronoun has a Plural number 1 st Pers. PL , We ; 2d Pers. PL , You ; 3d Pers. PL, They BO any Verb is said to be of the First Person, Second Person, or Third Person,&nd. of the Singular or of the Plural Number, according as it is used with one or another of these Pronouns. INFLECTION. 47 148. Thus: The Verb walk in I walk is said to be in the 1st Person Singular. -You walk " " " 2d He (she, it) walks. " " " 3d " " We walk " " " 1st Person Plural. You walk " " " 2d They walk " " 3d (a) Take notice that the only inflection or change in the Verbs as thus given (present tense, indicative mood) is in the Third Person, singular, which takes *. (6) In many languages the Verb itself is inflected, that is, it changes its termination in every person and in both numbers. Thus in Latin : I love was Ego amo. Thou lovest " Tu amas. He loves " Ille ama. We love ' 1 Nos Kmamus. You love " Vos amafr's. They love " Illi sonant. Six inflections in Latin ; two inflections in English. The old Saxon verb had more inflections than our English verb now has. Thus in Saxon : I love was Ic lufige. Thou lovest " Thu Infast. He loves " He lufath. We love " WelufiaM. You love " GeMiath. They love " Hi lufiath. Four inflections in Saxon ; two in English. (c) The common form of our second person singular is You love, and of our third person singular, He loves : but we retain from Old English the forms thou lovest, he loveth. These are used in poetry and prayer, and are called the solemn or ancient style. The inflections est and eth are re- mains of the Saxon inflections ast [2dpers. sing.] and ath [3d pers. ting.]. III. MOOD. 149. When we say He writes, we make a statement in a very different manner from when we say, jf/he write, I will answer ; and very different also from saying We may write to-morrow ; and very different also from Write me a letter ; and different from Scholars learn to write verbs by practice. 48 ETYMOLOGY. 150. These different ways of making a statement are called Moods. Hence Mood (from the Latin modus, manner) is a grammatical term meaning the manner of making a state- ment. We count Jive Moods in English. 151. INDICATIVE MOOD. The statement of a fact, or of a matter taken as a fact, is called the Indicative Mood; as, You write. This mood is also used in asking questions. 152. When this Mood is introduced by the conditional con- junctions if, though, unless, etc., it may be called the condi- tional form of the Indicative ; as, If he wrote, I did not re- ceive his letter; Though old age copies upon us, we need not be unhappy. NOTE. Do not fall into the mistake of thinking that the little words if, though, etc., necessarily make a verb some other mood than the Indica- tive (namely, the Subjunctive). A verb is Indicative when it states a fact real or conditional, and this whether used alone or with some conditional conjunction. Sometimes, indeed, a verb with if or though before it is not in the indicative, but in the so-called subjunctive ; and this is explained in f 157-161. 153. The Indicative Mood is used in all the six tenses. 154. POTENTIAL MOOD. The Potential Mood is a way of making a statement by means of the auxiliary verbs may, can, must, might, could, would, and should ; as, * You must study this lesson ;' ' We may be happy yet. 5 It expresses power, contingency, duty, and some other relations that will be better understood when we take up the full verb. Some languages express the potential mood by inflection. Thus, Latin, Amo, I love; Amem, I may love. We form it with the auxiliaries may, can, etc. These were complete verbs in Anglo-Saxon, but they have now lost all their forms except as auxiliaries. The literal meaning of the form 'I may love' is I may to love, i. e., I am able to love. Can is from the Anglo-Saxon cunnan, to be able. I can walk = I am able to walk. 155. A conditional form of the Potential Mood is obtained by the use of one of the conditional conjunctions (if, though, etc.) with the verb; thus, If I may love; if you may write. 156. The Potential Mood is used in four tenses present, past, present perfect, past perfect. 157. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. The Subjunctive Mood is a mode of making a statement as a condition subjoined to a princi- pal statement. 158. The only difference between the Subjunctive Mood and INFLECTION. 49 the Indicative Mood is in the third person singular of two of the tenses, tliQ present and the present perfect. Thus Indicative Present. Subjunctive Present. (If, though, etc.), he loves. (If, though, etc.), he love. Indicative Pres. Perfect. Subjunctive Pres. Perfect. (If or though) he has loved. (If or though) he have loved. 159. The explanation of these differences is, that in what is called the Subjunctive Mood there is an auxiliary left out either the word will, or the words may, can, should. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. If he see the signal, he will come, is the same as, If he shall see the signal, etc. 2. Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him, is the same as, Though he may slay me. 160. Hence we see that the Subjunctive Mood is really an abbreviated form, either of the Indicative Mood (if SHALL is the word omitted) or of the Potential Mood (if MAY, CAN, SHOULD, is understood). 161. In modern English but little regard is paid to the nice distinctions formerly made between such forms as c if he loves' and 'if he love.' In fact, the Subjunctive Mood is rapidly disappearing from our language. (a) It is hoped that the foregoing explanation may serve to make plain a matter which has been darkened by many words. There is really no such thing, in modern English, as a ' subjunctive mood' the so-called sub- junctives being mere elliptical expressions. A sensible way of parsing the Subjunctive Mood when it occurs would be to call it either the * Conditional form of the indicative' (if will be understood), or the conditional form of the potential (if may, can, might, could be understood). (6) Were it not for the verb to be (which has a genuine subjunctive form, owing to its being made up of two different Saxon verbs), even the name * subjunctive' would not be worth keeping up. 162. IMPEKATIVE MOOD. The Imperative Mood of a verb is its use in commanding ; as, Go to bed ; Rise early ; Charge, Chester, charge ! 163. The Imperative Mood has but one tense, the Present. 164. The Infinitive Mood is the name of the action, un- limited (from Latin in, not, &K& finis, a limit) by Number or Person. It is generally preceded by the sign to, but not al- ways ; as, I like to sing ; we saw him run. The Infinitive is really a Noun. C 50 ETYMOLOGY. 165. The Infinitive is said to have two teases the Present and the Perfect. (a) Strictly speaking, the Infinitive is not a Mood at all. This form of the verb has no limitations of number, person, or time. It can not make a statement. Its chief use is as the subject or as the object in a sentence and whatever is subject or object must be essentially a noun. (6) The Anglo-Saxon Infinitive had two terminations, an and anne. Bo- fore the latter form to was used ; as, baernaw; (to) baern-ane, about to burn. (c) The ROOT, or simplest form of a verb, is the infinitive without to. ? 166. VERBAL IN -ING. To walk is the form usually given as the Infinitive ; but the form walking often fulfills the same function; as, ^Walking is better than running ==i To walk is better than to run; 'Apples are good for eating / 'And oft in dying called upon your name.' This form may be called the 'infinitive in -ing? 167. The * infinitive in -ing' differs from the participle of the same form in being, like a noun, the subject or the object of a sentence. It may be qualified by an adjective, especially a possessive adjective : * Your walking is as fast as my running.' While governed by a preposition (like a noun), it may in turn take a noun object (like a verb} 5 as ; ' In writing a letter, atten- tion should be paid to punctuation.' 168. PAETICIPLES. Participles are verbal adjectives, which as verbs may require an object, and as adjectives may qual- ify nouns ; as, Trees darkening the water on each side ; Man is a cooking animal ; A burnt child dreads the fire. 169. There are two Participles the Present or incomplete participle, as, walking, drawing ; and the Past, or complete participle, as, walked, drawn. NOTE. The auxiliary having, joined with the Past Participle, forms the Perfect Participle of the Active Voice, and having been, joined with the Past Participle, forms the Perfect Participle of the Passive Voice. 170. The Present Participle in all verbs is made by suifix- ing -ing to the root ; as, walk-ing. 171. The Past Participle of all Regular Verbs (see f 143) is formed by suffixing edto the root; as, walk-ed. The Past Participle of Irregular Verbs is formed in some other way ; as, struck, taken, cut. (See list of Irregular Verbs, ^[ 183.) 172. In Transitive verbs, the Present Participle is active dragging, pushing; while the Past Participle is passive INFLECTION. 51 dragged, pushed. In Intransitive verbs the only difference of meaning is that of incomplete and complete. IV. VOICE. 173. Voice expresses the relation of the subject of the verb to the action of the verb, as done or received ; as, John strikes; John is struck. 174. All Transitive verbs may be put in two forms. In the first form the name of the doer of the act is made the subject ; in the second form, what was before the object of the verb becomes its subject. Thus : First form. Watt [subject] invented the steam-engine [object]. Second form. The steam-engine [previous object, now subject] was in- vented by Watt. 175. The first form is usually called the Active Voice; the second form, the Passive Voice. The Active Voice represents the subject as doing something ; the Passive Voice represents something done-to the subject. 176. The Passive Voice is formed by means of the helping verb .Be and the Past Participle (see Conjugation of a Pas- sive Verb, page 59). (a) No Complete verb can be made Passive for the reason that such a verb can have no object, and only the object of an incomplete verb can become the subject of the Passive Voice. The sun shines is shone by the sun. What ' is shone ?' You see there is nothing to become the subject. Com- pare this with 'Watt invented the steam-engine,' 'The steam-engine was invented by Watt,' and you will see that, shines being a Complete verb, there is nothing to become its subject in the Passive. (6) With the exception of a small class, all verbs in the Passive Voico are Complete verbs. Thus, Howard was loved; Nero was hated. Tho small exceptional class embraces such verbs as call, think, choose, elect, name, consider, and the like. Thus, Newton was called \ a philosopher [complement] ; Columbus was thought \ a madman [complement]. V. CONJUGATION. 177. Conjugating a Verb is stating all its forms, so as to show its tenses, persons, numbers, moods, and voices. Tho Conjugation of English Verbs is exceedingly simple as compared with the conjugation of the verbs in many other languages. 52 ETYMOLOGY. 178. The Principal Parts of a Verb are, I. Present Indicative ; II. Past Indicative ; III. Past Par- ticiple. MODEL OF CONJUGATION OF ALL REGULAR VERBS IN THE ACTIVE VOICE. To Love. PRINCIPAL PARTS. Love; Loved; Loved. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. They] He loves. Present Perfect. I ) ^ I have loved. They j He has loved. Past Tense. Future Tense. You / You He > loved. He > shall [or will] love. We We They) They J 1 Past Perfect. Future Perfect. You / He > had loved. We I You ) We | 1 shall [or will] have loved. They J They 1 CONDITIONAL FORM. The Conjugation of this Mood in the conditional form is made by preceding the above by a Con- ditional Conjunction, such as if or though ; thus, 'If I love,' 4 If I loved,' 'If I shall love,' etc. Present Tense. I You He V may love. We ' They POTENTIAL MOOD. Past Tense. U might love. We They SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Pres. Perf. Tense. Past Perf. Tense. I ) I ) You / ma r haye You might * $e f loved. He V We 1 have loved. They] They J The Subjunctive Mood is usually conjugated in four tenses the Present, the Past, the Present Perfect, and the Past Perfect. In these tenses the Subjunctive has the same forms as the Indicative Mood, except in the third person singular of the Present and of the Present Perfect Tense. Present (If) he love. Present Perf ect (If) he have loved. INFLECTION. 53 IMPERATIVE MOOD. Second Person, Singular and Plural Love. NOTE. Love thou and love ye are the ancient forms of the second per- son, sing, and plural. Let him love, let us love, etc. , are sometimes used to mark the Imperative Mood in the third and in the first person respect- ively. INFINITIVES. Present : To love. Present: loving. Perfect : To have loved. PARTICIPLES. Perfect : having loved. MODEL OF A GENERAL SYNOPSIS OF ALL REGULAR VERBS IN THE ACTIVE VOICE, SHOWING INFLECTIONS AND FORMATION OF TENSES. Indicative Mood. Present Tense : love, or loves. Past Tense: loved. Future Tense : shall love, or will love. Present Perfect : have loved, or has loved. Past Perfect : had loved. Future Perfect : shall have loved, or will have loved. Potential Mood. Present Tense : may, can, or must love. Past Tense : might, could, would, or should love. Present Perfect : may have, can have, or must have loved. Past Perfect: might have, could have, would have, or should have loved. Subjunctive Mood. Present Tense: love. Present Perfect : have loved. Imperative Mood. Present Tense: love. Infinitives : to love, to have loved. Participles: loving, having loved. NOTES ON THE TENSES. I. PRESENT INDICATIVE. (1.) The present tense has sometimes a future meaning; as, Duncan comes here to-night. Shakspeare. I go to my Father. Bible. 54 ETYMOLOGY. (2.) The present tense must always be used when expressing a fact univer- sally true ; as, the Greeks did not know that the earth is round. (3.) The historic present is used when we wish to describe vividly a past event as taking place in present time. (4.) The progressive present is formed by joining the present tense of the verb be with the present participle of any verb ; as, / am writing ; he is talking. It denotes that the act is in progress at the present time. (5.) The emphatic present is formed by joining the verb cfo, as an auxiliary, to the root ; as, I do write ; he does sing. Do is employed to remove any possibility of doubt. II. PAST INDICATIVE. (1.) The past tense states something which stands as an isolated fact in the past. At Athens, the poets sang and the sages talked. (2.) The past progressive states a continuous past active; as, I was musing; he was speaking. (3.) The emphatic past is formed by joining the auxiliary did with the root of any verb ; as, I did say that Ca3sar crossed the Kubicon. III. FUTURE INDICATIVE. (1.) Shall is used in the first person to express intention ; thus, I shall write a letter, means I intend to write a letter. To express in- tention in the second and third persons, will is used ; as, you or he will write a letter, i. e., intend to write a letter. Will, in the first person, denotes determination ; as, I will go to New York, means I am determined to go to New York. Determination, in the second and third persons, is expressed by shall ; as, you shall go home. [For a fuller explanation of ' shall' and * will,' see Syntax.] IV. PRESENT PERFECT INDICATIVE. (1.) The present perfect tense represents a past action with reference tc present time. I have eaten my dinner means that I, at the present moment, am in the condition of having eaten my dinner. Hence, when there is any reference of a past action to past time, the past tense, and not the present perfect, should be used. This tense implies double time, that is, the auxiliary expresses present time, and the participle denotes the finishing o*f the act. V. PAST PERFECT INDICATIVE. The past perfect tense represents a past event with reference to past time ; as, I had eaten my dinner before he arrived. This tense may be called a correlative, because it is used only in connection with modifying statement. INFLECTION. 55 x- \ VI. FUTURE PERFECT INDICATIVE. The future perfect tense denotes an action that will happen before some other future action ; as, Dear brother, I shall have gone to Eu- rope before you reach home. This tense, also, is correlative. Of these six Tenses of the Indicative, three express simple, time, and three denote two kinds or points of time. SIMPLE TIME. Names. Forms. Present; as I write. Past; " I wrote. Future; " I shall write. TWO KINDS OR POINTS OF TIME. Names. Forms. Present Perfect I have written. Past Perfect I had written. Future Perfect I shall have written. The three Compound Tenses all involve a double notion of time, and are therefore correlative tenses. The Present Perfect means that an ac- tion begun in Past time is finished at the Present time. The Past Per- fect is used when we are thinking of two points of Past time. The Future Perfect is used when we are thinking of two points of Future time. VII. POTENTIAL PRESENT (1.) The present potential asserts chiefly power or leave to do something. It also implies a notion of futurity; as, I may go to town. This comes from the literal meaning of the old verb from which may is derived, and which means to have the power. I may go to town literally signifies that I have the power of going to town (and, impliedly, the inference is that I shall go). (2.) The auxiliary must (from the same root as may} also conveys the no- tion of force or power, but it is force outside of me. I must go to town= here is/ores that compels me to go ; hence the idea of duty. VIII. POTENTIAL PAST. Miyht is originally the past tense of may ; could of can; would of will; and should of shall. (1 .) Observe that when a sentence contains a verb in the past potential, it will always have a conditional clause introduced by a conditional conjunction, and the conditional clause will always be in the past tense. (2.) In the conditional form of the past potential, it often happens that the conjunction if, etc., is omitted ; thus, Should I go to town=if I should go to town. Note that in this construction the subject , (pronoun or noun) comes after the verb. 56 'ETYMOLOGY. (3.) The past potential frequently implies futurity ; thus, I should return next week if I were to leave to-day. IX. POTENTIAL PAST PERFECT. There is a peculiar construction by which the past perfect of the indica- tive serves to convey the sense of the past perfect potential; thus, If thou hadst been here my brother had not died (that is, would not have died). VI. VARIOUS FOEMS OF A TENSE. Besides the simple forms of the verb, many of the Tenses assume other forms Progressive, Emphatic or Expletive, In- terrogative, Negative. 1. The Progressive Forms, which express the action as go. ing on, are made by putting the Present Participle Active after the parts of the Verb Be; as, I am striking; he has been striking, etc. 2. The Emphatic Form, which is confined to the Tenses without auxiliaries, is made by putting do or did before the Infinitive; as, I do strike ; He did go. We make the other Tenses emphatic by laying stress on the auxiliary; as, We may see him; He might have come. 3. The Interrogative Form is twofold : (a) The older and more formal question in the Present and Past Indicative simply places the Verb before the Nominative ; as, Lovest thou me ? Ask we for flocks these shingles dry? (b) The common way of asking a question, if there be no auxiliary, places do or did before the Nominative ; as, Do I look pale ? Did you see him ? If there be an auxiliary, it is simply placed first ; as, Am I looking pale ? Will you take this ? 4. The Negative Form is also twofold : (a) The older and more formal way, when there is no auxiliary, places not after the Verb ; as, I saw not; lie opened not his eyes. (b) The common way of denying, if there be no auxiliary, uses do or did, with not after it, between the Nomi- native and the Verb ; as, I do not know him. If there be an auxiliary already in the Tense, not is in- serted after it ; as, I shall not see him. 1^ For the conjugation in all these forms, see Appendix. INFLECTION. 57 VII. NEW AND SIMPLE WAY OF CONJUGATING. NOTE FOR THE TEACHER. The author has preferred not to depart from what is in the United States the most commonly received mode of conjugating the English verb ; however, for the sake of young and progressive teachers, he here adds a very simple mode of treating the verb. This method of con- jugation rests on the principle that The real moods and tenses are such only as are formed by inflection ; and, consequently, that compound forms made up of a verb (so-called aux- iliary) and an infinitive, or of a verb (so-called auxiliary) and a participle, are better treated as separate verbs. Now it is well known that, for example, in our so-called future tense, as, I shall love, he will love, 'I shall 1 is by itself a verb, equivalent to I owe; that * love' is a real infinitive, and that the compound form is neither more nor less than I owe to love ; so he will love is he wills to love. In like manner, the so-called subjunctive, as, If he slay, is really If he shall slay. And, finally, tenses compounded of the auxiliary and the participle may readily be resolved into their component parts. Thus / have written a letter is just I have or possess a letter written. By this method all the verbs in the English language can be parsed by the aid of Two TENSES and THREE MOODS, with the exception of the verb To Be, which has a true subjunctive mood. To Learn. Learn; Learned; Learned. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Past Tense. I ) I You [. You We f learn ' He V learned. They j We He.... learns. Theyj IMPERATIVE MOOD : Learn. INFINITIVE MOOD : To learn. PARTICIPLES. Present: learning. Past: learned. MODEL OF PAUSING ON THE ABRIDGED PLAN. They may have been there. May Auxiliary verb, third plural, present indicative. Have A verb in the infinitive, the sign to being understood after may. Been The past participle of the verb to be. He shall be called John. Shall Auxiliary verb, third singular, present tense. Be A verb in the infinitive, the sign to being omitted. Called. . . . The past participle of the verb to call. C 2 58 ETYMOLOGY. CONJUGATION OF THE YEEB To BE. NOTE. The conjugation of the verb ' To Be' is given at this point, because Be is the auxiliary by means of which the passive voice of all transitive verbs is formed. PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres. Ind. : Am. Past Ind. : Was. Past Part. : Been. Present Tense. I am. He is. We ) You > are. They) Present Perfect. We* i They ) He has been. INDICATIVE MOOD. Past Tense. Future Tense. I You shall or will be. 1 was. I He We ) You J- were. They) Past Perfect. You He > had been. We They] POTENTIAL MOOD. Present Tense. Past Tense. Present Perfect. I ) I } \ You You MM' Y U ( ma ? or He l mav01 ; He > lave We r can be. They) We They) should be. r ^ J ( SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Past Tense. Ifl } Ifl ) If you If he >be. If you / If he > were. If we I If we If they] If they] IMPERATIVE MOOD. Be. Future Perfect. > shall or will have been. Past Perfect. might, could, would, or should have been. I You He We They Present Perfect. Ifl ) If you If he > have been. If we If they] Present: To be. Present: being. INFINITIVES. Past : To have been. PARTICIPLES. Past: been. NOTES ON THE VERB TO BE. 1. In the solemn style, Thou art is used in the second person ; and in the past tense, Thou wast. 2. The Old English conjugation of the Present Tense was as follows : I, he, we, you, they be; Thou beest; and in the Past Tenses, Thou wert. There be many wide counties in Ireland, Spenser. If thou beest he. Milton. Thou, Stella, wert no longer young. Swift. Before the heavens Thou wert. Milton. INFLECTION. 59 3. The forms of the Verb to be are derived from at least two sources : am, was, were, etc., are from Anglo-Saxon wesan, to be. Be, been, etc., are from Anglo-Saxon beon, to be. The Plural are is of Danish origin, replacing the Saxon Plural form in synd. 4. The conjugation of the Verb to be, in the solemn style, differs from the common only in the second person singular, as follows : Ind. Mood : Thou art, wast, hast been, hadst been, shalt or wilt be, shalt or wilt have been. Potential : Thou mayest be, mightst be, mayst have been, mightst have been. Subjunctive : If thou be. MODEL FOK THE CONJUGATION OP ALL VEEBS IN THE PAS- SIVE VOICE. 179. The Passive Voice is that form of the Verb which ex- presses something done-to the subject. 180. The Passive Voice of a Verb is formed by joining its Past Participle with each of the forms of the verb to be. NOTE. As the subject of a Passive was once the object of an Active Verb, Passives can be formed only from Transitive Verbs. To be Loved. INDICATIVE MOOD. Past Tense. I was ") He was / We were > loved. You were I They were J Past Perfect. I ] You / had He > been We I loved. They) NOTE. The conditional form of the Indicative is conjugated by putting one of the conditional conjunctions, such as if, though, unless, before the sev- eral parts given above ; as, If I am loved ; unless he had been loved, etc. POTENTIAL MOOD. Past Tense. Present Perfect. Present Tense. I am He is We are > loved. You are They are Present Perfect. i ) You ( have been We ( loved. They) He has been loved. shall be loved. Future Tense. I You He We They , Future Perfect. 1 } ]j u ( shall or will y? | have been loved. They ) Present Tense. I ) You ( may or He > can be We loved. They) Ifl ^ If you / If he > be loved. If we \ Ifthevx 1 might, could, or > would be i loved. I You He We They SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Ifl If you If he V were loved. If we If they may or can have been loved. Past Perfect. I N | might, You I could, He > would, or We I should have They ) been loved. have been loved. 60 ETYMOLOGY. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Be loved. INFINITIVES. Present : To be loved. Perfect : To have been loved. PARTICIPLES. Present: being loved. Past: loved. Perfect: having been loved. YIL IRREGULAR, or Strong Verbs. 181. All Verbs that do not form their principal parts ac- cording to the Regular Model (see T 178) are called Irregu- lar Verbs. Modern grammarians style this class of Verbs Strong Verbs, as they make their parts by a powerful internal change, and thus stand contrasted with the verbs in the -ed inflection, which are styled Weak Verbs. Strong verbs are all a heritage from the early Saxon. 182. Irregular Verbs number less than 200, but they belong to the very groundwork of modern English. MODEL FOR THE CONJUGATION OF IRREGULAR OR STRONG VERBS. To Write. PRINCIPAL PARTS. Write; Wrote; Written. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Past Tense. Future Tense, I ] I \ I You ( You You 1 We j > write. He } wrote. He shall (will) write. They] 1 We I We 1 He... .writes. They ) They. Present Perfect. Past Perfect. Future Perfect. You 1 We | \ } have written, I You He I had written. You He \ > shall (will) have written They' 1 We We He... . has written. They ) They J POTENTIAL MOOD. Present Perfect Past Perfect Present Tense. Past Tense. Tense. Tense. I j I ) I \ I \ You He We > may write. You | He We might write. You He We ( may have C written. You He We I might have ( written. They I They . ) They ) They ) INFLECTION. 61 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. The subjunctive mood has the same form as the indicative, except in the third person singular of the present, and of the present perfect tense. Present : (If) he write. Present Perfect : (If) he have written. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Write. INFINITIVES. Present : To write. Perfect : To have written. PARTICIPLES. Present: writing. Perfect: having written. LIST OF IRREGULAR, OK STRONG VERBS. 183. The following list contains most of the Strong Verbs in English, grouped according to the nature of their internal changes : I. Root-vowel modified for Past, and -en or -n added for PARTI- CIPLE. Present Tense. Past Tense. Past Part. Bid bade (bad) bidden (bid) Forbid* Bite bit bitten (bit) Break broke broken (broke) Speak Bear (carry) bore borne Forbear Bear (give birth) bore (bare) born Wear, swear, tear Blow blew blown Fly, grow, throw, know Chide chid chidden (chid) Hide Choose chose chosen Drive drove driven Strive, thrive Draw drew drawn Eat at or ate eaten Fall fell fallen Freeze froze frozen Get Forget, beget got got (gotten) Give gave given Forgive Hold held held (holden) Lie lay lain * The Verbs indented are conjugated like those which they immediately follow. 62 ETYMOLOGY. Present Tense. Eide Stride Else Arise Shake Take, forsake Shrink Smite Write Steal Strike Slay Tread Weave Past Tense. rode rose shook shrank (shrunk) smote stole struck slew trod wove II. Past Part. ridden risen shaken shrunk (shrunken) smitten (smit) stolen struck (stricken) slain trodden woven (wove) Hoot-vowel modified for Past Tense, and no suffix in Participle* Present Tense. Past Tense. Past Part. Abide abode abode Awake* awoke awoke Wake Begin began (begun) begun Spin (no a) Behold beheld beheld Bind bound bound Wind, grind, find Bleed bled bled Lead, feed, breed Cling clung clung Wring, swing, string, sting, sling, fling Come came come Dig dug dug Drink drank (drunk) drunk Slink (no a), stink, sink Fight fought fought Meet met met Read rSad rSad Ring rang (rang) rung Spring, sing Shine shone shone Shoot shot shot Sit sat sat Spit Slide slid slid Stand stood stood Stick stuck stuck Win won won Hang* hung hung Light* lit lit * Those marked with an asterisk are also iceak. INFLECTION. 63 m. Hoot-vowel modified, and -t or -d added for Past Tense and Past Participle. Present Tense. Past Tense. Past Part. Bereave* bereft bereft Keave, leave, cleave (split) Beseech besought besought Work,* think, seek, buy, bring Catch caught caught Teach Creep crept crept Weep, sweep, sleep, keep Deal dealt dealt Mean, leap,* dream* Feel felt felt Kneel* Flee fled fled Hear hgard heard Lose lost lost Say said said Sell sold sold Tell Shoe shod shod IV. Weak in Past Tense; strong in Past Participle. Present Tense. Past Tense. Past Part. Heave (to throw) heaved hoven (heaved) Lade laded laden Mow # * * *mowed mown Sew, show, sow, strew, strow* Saw* sawed sawn Straw Rive rived riven Wax waxed waxed (waxen) Grave graved graved (graven) Swell swelled swelled (swollen) Seethe seethed seethed (sodden) V. No Inflections. Present Tense. Past Tense. Past Part. Bid (offer to buy). bid. bid. Bet,* burst, cast, cut, durst, hit, hurt, knit,* let, put, rid, set, shed, shred, shut, slit, spread, thrust, wed,* beat (past part, also beaten). * Those marked with an asterisk are also weak. G4 ETYMOLOGY. VI. SOME PECULIAR IRREGULAR VERBS. Present I?idicative. Past. Past. Part. 1. Go, went, gone, r* The past indicative went is not formed from the root go : it is really a contraction of wended, the past tense of the Saxon verb wendan, to wend or go ; thus, he went his way = he wended his way. 2. Have, had, had. The past tense had is a contraction of haved (Anglo-Saxon haefde). 3. Do, did, done. With other verbs, do is used (1 ) to express emphasis ; as, I do believe. (2) In negation; as, I do not think so. (3) In interrogation; as, Do you travel by rail ? Do, as used in the expression, How do you do ? is a totally different verb : this 'do' comes from the Anglo-Saxon verb dugan,to profit or pros- per. Hence, How do you do ? means How do you prosper T 4. Make, made, made. The past tense ' made' is a contraction of the Anglo-Saxon macode, that is, maked. 184. All Verbs of recent introduction into the language are of the weak Conjugation ; indeed, the present tendency of the language is to convert strong verbs into weak. VII. Defective Verbs. 185. Verbs that are deficient in any of their simple forms are called Defective Verbs ; as, Infinitive. Present Tense. Past Tense. Past Part. 1. shall should 2. will would 3. may might 4. must 5. can could 6. Wit wot wist 7. Owe owe ought 8. (me)-thinks (me)-thought 9. List list 10. Weather-verbs, such as it freezes, snows, hails, rains, thunders, etc., may be called * unipersonal verbs, ' because they are used in only the third person singular. The subject, tV, is very indefinite, being merely a term used to introduce the statement. INFLECTION. C5 NOTES ON THE DEFECTIVE VERBS. 1. Shall: This verb is found only in the present and in the past tense. Its original meaning was to owe ; thus we use should in the sense of ought : he should do so =he ought to do so. Hence shall, as an auxiliary, implies obliga- tion or necessity, as opposed to free-will or determination expressed by will. Should, in the conditional, expresses contingent futurity; in the Subjunctive, a future condition. 2. Will: This verb has two separate meanings and uses : (1) As an auxili- ary, it expresses future determination ; (2) As a principal verb, it denotes the exercise of will; as, I will, be thou clean. (1) As an auxiliary, it is found only in the present and past; as, willy would. (2) As a principal verb, it is regular and weak : I will, I willed, willed, to will, willing. Would, in the conditional, expresses contingent determination. 3. May : This verb is found only in the present and past ; 2d pers. , mayst, and mightest or mightst ; 3d pers., sing., present, may. In conjunction with another verb, may expresses (1) permission; as, 'you may go;' (2) concession; as, he may slay me, but I will trust in him ; (3) with the subject transposed, desire ; as, may they be happy. 4. Must : Only one form of this verb is used ; it is the past tense ; but it is also used with a present and a future signification ; as, I must yield now ; I must go to-morrow. Under various modifications, must expresses the general idea of necessity; as, he must go. With the first person this often implies de- termination ; I must advance (I am so situated that I am determined to ad- vance). When it relates to a fact, it implies certainty ; as, It must be so : Plato, thou reasonest well. Addison. 5. Can : Like shall and may, is found only in the present and in the past tense. The / is inserted in could in imitation of would and should, but it is a false analogy; The old form is coude. Can, with another verb, expresses ability ; I can draw=I am able to draw. 6. Wit, means to know (A.S. ivit-an). It is used in the infinitive, to wit = namely. The present, wot, is found repeatedly in the English Bible, in both numbers and in all persons : I wot that he whom thou blessest is blessed. My master wotteth not what is with me in the house. And in Shakspeare, More water glidetli by the mill than wots the miller of. The past, wist, is also found in the English Bible ; as, Moses wist not that his face shone. And in Shakspeare, And if I wist, he did ; but let it rest. 7. Owe : The earlier meaning of this word is to own, to have ; as, To throw away the dearest thing he owed. Shakspeare. Like have, it is also used in the sense of get ; as, Say from whence You owe this strange intelligence. Shakspeare. But what we have got from another we are indebted for ; hence arises the modern sense of the word to be indebted ; as, W T hat we shall say we have, and what we owe. Shakspeare. Ought is the proper past tense of owe ; but ' I ought' has come to be used 60 ETYMOLOGY. as an independent verb (like must, without distinctions of person, number, or tense) with the meaning, it is my duty (what is due by me). The ordi- nary past of owe is owed. 8. Methinks : The prefix me is the dative of the pronoun. The subject of thinks is the clause following it. This word thinks means seems (A. S. thine- an, to seem). 9. List means to please ; The wind bloweth where it listeth. It is found only in the present tense. Exercise 25. A. Write a SYNOPSIS of the following Verbs in the 3d Person, Singular Number ', Active Voice, Indicative Mood: Speak ; think ; eat ; laugh ; sit ; sleep ; cry. Dress; rise; sit. B. Write the PRINCIPAL PARTS of the following Verbs: Fall ; loose ; sing ; work ; shine ; tell. Ride; put; steal; catch; mean; wear, Hurt ; come ; go ; play ; tear ; set ; fly ; hear. C. Pitt the following Sentences first into PAST, and secondly into FUTURE Tenses: 1. The sun gradually sinks below the horizon. 2. The grain is ready to be harvested. 3. The steam-ship is sailing across the Pacific Ocean. 4. I have come to say good-by to my friends. i>. It thunders and lightens terribly in the valley of the Platte River. D. Write a SYNOPSIS of the following Verbs in the Indicative Mood, od Person, Singular Number, Passive Voice : Strike ; eat ; laugh at ; speak to ; stand up. Laid down ; pet ; let off; get up ; think of. E. In the following Sentences, transform the INDICATIVE Moods into POTENTIAL Moods : 1. No one becomes a scholar without hard study. 2. Worth makes the man, and want of it the fellow. 3. We are going to Yokohama in the great steam-ship Colorado. 4. I shall go to school to-morrow. 5. Right whale are not able to cross the line of the equator. 6. It was impossible for me to go. 7. By the death of his father, it was made impossible for him to remain at school. INFLECTION. 67 F. Change the following Verbs from the ACTIVE to the^ PASSIVE voice, making the object of the active voice the subject of the passive, and preserving the full sense : 1. Dr. Livingstone has explored a large part of Africa. 2. Paul Revere carried to Lexington the news of the intended attack by the British. 3. The first fresh dawn awoke us. 4. The people of Lynn manufacture great quantities of shoes. 5. No one has yet reached the North Pole. G. Tdl the MOOD of each Verb. 1. I hear thee speak of the better land. Hemans. 2. I hear a knocking at the south entry. Shakspeare. 3. Get on your nightgown, lest occasion call us And show us to be watchers. Shakspeare. 4. If my standard-bearer fall .... Press where ye see my white plume shine. Macaulay. 5. Where shall poverty reside, To 'scape the pressure of contiguous pride? Goldsmith. 6. Thy kingdom come, Thy will be done, English Bible. 7. They that be whole need not a physician, but they that are sick. En- glish Bible. 8. He made his final sally forth upon the world, hoping all things, believ- ing all things, little anticipating the checkered ills in store for him. Irving. 9. Would I describe a preacher, such as Paul Were he on earth would hear, approve, and own, Paul should himself direct me. Cowper. 10. Part we in friendship from your land, And, noble earl, receive my hand. Scott. H. Tell the MOODS and the TENSES in the following Sentences: 1 . The general had taken his departure before the mail arrived. 2. If nothing unforeseen occur, I shall leave home to-morrow. 3. I have heard you say that we shall see and know our friends in heaven. 4. Had any thing unforeseen occurred, he would have written. 5. Let all the ends thou aimest at be thy God's, thy country's. 6. To be or not to be, that is the question. VIII. UNINFLECTED PARTS OF SPEECH. 186. The Preposition, the Conjunction, and the Interjection have no inflections. (a) The Preposition and the Conjunction express relations which do not admit of their being modified. 68 ETYMOLOGY. (6) The Interjection, from its nature as a mere outcry, is free from all grammatical restraints. REVIEW OF THE INFLECTIONS. 187. The review of this part of the subject shows that words may undergo seven kinds of inflection the inflection of Gender, Number, Case, Person, Comparison, Tense, and Mood. (1.) THE NOUN has changes to express Gender, Number, and Case. THE PRONOUN " " " Gender, Number, Case, and Person. THE ADJECTIVE " " " Comparison. THE ADVERB " " " Comparison. THE VERB " " " Number, Person, Tense, Mood. (2.) GENDER applies to the Noun and Pronoun. NUMBER PERSON CASE COMPARISON TENSE MOOD Noun, Pronoun, and Verb. Pronoun and Verb. Noun and Pronoun. Adjective and Adverb. Verb. Verb. Parsing Exercise. NOTE. In Parsing, the pupil is required to state the full etymology of each part of speech ; that is, to name the part of speech, to give the sub- division to which it belongs, and to name its inflections (if any). The fol- lowing table will guide the pupil as to the order of statement in each part of speech. 1. THE 1. KIND ..... Common or Proper. 2. NUMBEE . .Singular or Plural. 3. OFFICE . . .Subject, Possessive, or Object. (1) If subject, say to what. (2) If possessive, limiting what (3) If object, complement of what, or linked by what preposition. 2. THE PKONOUN. KIND. . . .Personal, Relative, or Demonstrative. Then, if personal, its (1 (2 (3 Person (1st, 2d, or 3d), and Number. Case (nominative, possessive, or objective). Gender (masculine, feminine, or neuter, if a 3d per- sonal pronoun). (4) The represented noun. INFLECTION. 69 If relative, its (1) Number (which will be the same as that of its an- tecedent). (2) Case (nominative, possessive, or objective, accord- ing to its function in the sentence). (3) Antecedent. If demonstrative, tell what it represents. 3. THE ADJECTIVE. 1. KIND .... Common, Demonstrative, or an Article. 2. DEGREE. .(If comparative or if superlative, say so; it is not necessary to mention the degree if positive.) 3. OFFICE.. .Limits what. 4. THE ADVERB. 1. KIND Simple or Relative. 2. DEGREE (If comparative or superlative). 3. OFFICE Describes what. 5. THE PREPOSITION. OFFICE Links what noun or pronoun to what other word ? 6. THE CONJUNCTION. KIND .... Co-ordinate, subordinate, or correlative. OFFICE . .Connects what words or statements. 7. THE INTERJECTION. Simply name it as an Interjection. 8. THE VERB. 1. KIND Complete or Incomplete. If incomplete, whether Transitive or Neuter. 2. PERSON 1st, 2d, or 3d. 3. NUMBER Singular or Plural. 4. TENSE Present, Past, Future ; Present Per- fect, Past Perfect, Future Perfect. 5. MOOD. Indicative, Potential, Subjunctive, or Imperative. 6. VOICE If Passive, say so. 7. PRINCIPAL PARTS . .Present Indicative, Past Indicative, Past Participle. 70 ETYMOLOGY. 8. CONJUGATION Regular or Irregular (or else Weak or Strong). 0. SUBJECT A Xoun or its equivalent. If an Infinitive, give Its principal parts. Its conjugation. Its tense present, past. If a Participle, say if Present, or past. 188. Syntactical parsing takes up the word where Etymo- logical parsing leaves it, and gives the function of the word in the sentence. The syntactical parsing of each part of speech, in all its relations, will be found in Part II., SYNTAX. 189. The pupil has already been told that the way in which a word is used fixes the class to which it ought to belong. As the same word may be used in different ways, it must get a different name according to each separate use. This sub- ject is so important in parsing that a few additional exam- ples are here added. 190. Take the word calm. It may be used, 1. As a Noun a great calm fell on the sea. 2. An Adjective it was a calm, bright day. 3. As a Verb I did it to calm his fears. 191. There is considerable interchange of words among the three kinds Adverb, Preposition, and Conjunction. But is originally a Preposition, derived from the Impera- tive phrase be-out that is, take out, or' except. It is also used as an Adverb and a Conjunction; as, Prep. All but him had f(cd=except. Adverb. I have but three left = cmft/. Conj. He heard it, but he heeded not. For and Since are also Prepositions, Conjunctions, or Ad- verbs, according to their use. Adv. I was called for. I told him long since. Prep. Is that/br me? Since his arrival. Conj. He went,/br he was ready. Since you are here, stay. Above. Adverb. He lay above. Prep. He was ranked above me. NOTE. The use of above as an Adjective, as, the above remarks, though condemned by grammarians, seems to be firmly established. INFLECTION. 71 In. Prep. I shall call in an hour. Adv. He could not hold in his horse. Off. Adv. or Prep. He fell off (his horse). Adj. The q^" leader strained his leg. No. Adj. I have no silver. Adv. In the answer no=not / He is no better. As. Conj. You may stay, as it is raining. Adv. My book is as clean as (conjunction) yours. Only. Adj. An only son. ^Icftj. I have only two. Very. -4$". The very thing. Adv. You are very late. Then. ^.dfo. I saw him then. Conj. Am I then to stay ? Yet. Conj. Though he slay me, yet will I trust him. Adv. Are you sleeping yet f With. Prep. Charles came with John. Conj. The side A 9 with two others, make a triangle. Neither /Strictly adjectives of dual meaning, these Both i wor * s are use( ^ as Assistant Conjunctions. However. ) These Adverbs are frequently used as Con- Meanwhile. > junctions to introduce a new sentence or Moreover. ) paragraph. EXAMPLE OF PARSING BY MODEL III. I chanced to rise very early one particular morning this summer, and took a walk into the country to divert myself among the fields and meadows, while the green was new and the flowers (were) in their bloom. I Personal pronoun, first person singular ; nominative, subject to verb chanced. chanced An incomplete verb, first person singular, past indicative; prin- cipal parts chance, chanced, chanced; regular conjugation ; its subject is /. to rise An infinitive; principal parts rise, rose, risen ; irregular conju- gation ; present tense ; complement of the incomplete verb chanced. very Adverb, limiting early. early Adverb, limiting rise. one Demonstrative adjective, limiting morning. particular. .Adjective, limiting morning. morning.. . .Common noun, singular number, linked by preposition on (under- stood) to rise. 72 ETYMOLOGY. this Demonstrative adjective, singular number, limits summer. summer. . . .Common noun, singular number, linked by preposition during (un- derstood) to morning. and Co-ordinate conjunction ; connects the statements ' I chanced to rise very early,' (I) 'took a walk,' etc., by joining the verbs chanced and took. took Incomplete verb, transitive ; first person, singular, past tense, in- dicative; principal parts take, took , taken ; irregular conjuga- tion ; its subject is / (understood). a The indefinite article, limiting walk. walk Common noun, singular, objective case, complement of took. into Preposition ; links country to walk. the The definite article, limiting country. country Common noun, linked by into to walk. to divert... An infinitive; principal parts divert, diverted, diverted; regular conjugation. myself Compound personal pronoun, first person singular, objective case, complement of divert. among Preposition ; lioksjields to divert. the The definite article, limiting fields. fields Common noun, plural number, linked by among to divert. and Co-ordinate conjunction ; connects the statements ' I took a walk among the fields' and 'I took, etc., among the meadows' by joining the words Jields and meadows. meadows. ..Common noun, plural number, linked by among (understood) to divert. while Relative adverb ; joins the statements 'the green was new' and 'I took a walk into the country,' etc. the The definite article, limiting green. green Common noun (used for greenness), singular number, subject of ivas. was Incomplete verb, third person singular, past indicative ; principal parts am, was, been ; irregular ; its subject is green. new Common adjective ; complement of was ; limits green. and Co-ordinate conjunction ; joins statements before and after. the Definite article, \iimtingjlowers. flowers. Common noun, plural number, subject of were (understood). in Preposition ; links bloom to were (understood). their Personal pronoun, third person plural; neuter ; possessive case, describing bloom and representing flowers. bloom Common noun, singular ; linked by in to were (understood). Exercise 28. Sentences for PAESING. A. 1. Holy and heavenly thoughts shall counsel her. Shakspeare. 2. Then rose- from sea to sky the wild farewell. Byron. 3. The better part of valor is discretion. Shakspeare. 4. The boy stood on the burning deck, Whence all but him had fled. Remans, INFLECTION. 73 5. The steed along the drawbridge files. Scott. G. I could hear my friend chide him for not finding out some work, but at the same time saw him put his hand in his pocket and give him sixpence. Spectator. 7. I long for a repose which ever is the same. Wordsworth. 8. Thou knowest my praise of nature most sincere, " And that my raptures are not conjured up To serve occasions of poetic pomp, But genuine, and art partner of them all. Cowper. 9. There were two fathers in this ghastly crew. Byron. 10. When he read the note from the two ladies, he shook his head, and observed that an affair of this sort demanded the utmost circumspec- tion. Goldsmith. 11. What matter where, if I be still the same, And what I should be, all but less than he Whom thunder hath made greater. Milton. 12. Whilst I was thus musing, I cast my eyes towards the summit of a rock that was not far from me, where I discovered one in the habit of a shepherd, with a little musical instrument in his hand. Ad" dison. B. 1. The gushing flood the tartans dyed. Scott. 2. None but the brave deserves the fair. Dry den. 3. The nurse sleeps sweetly, hired to watch the sick Whom snoring she disturbs. Cowper. r 4. Forth in the pleasing spring thy beauty walks. Thomson. 5. Not to know me argues yourself unknown. Milton. C. The night had closed in before the conflict on the boom began. Macaulay. 7. When kindness had his wants supplied, And the old man was gratified, Began to rise his minstrel pride. Scott. 8. At every draught more large and large they grow, A bloated mass of rank, unwieldy woe ; Till sapp'd their strength, and every part unsound, Down, down they sink, and spread a ruin round. Macaulay. 9. The friends thou hast and their adoption tried, Grapple them to thy soul with hooks of steel ; But do not dull thy palm with entertainment Of each new-hatch'd unfledged comrade. Shakspeare. 10. His spear, to equal which the tallest pine Hewn on Norwegian hills to be the mast Of some great ammiral were but a wand, ^^^ He walked with, to support uneasy steps Over the burning marie. Milton. D PART, II. SYNTAX. 192. Syntax (from Greek su?i, together, and taxis, a putting in order) treats of the Agreement, Government, and Arrange- ment of words in sentences. NOTE. In this text-book, PARSING, which is the theoretical part of Syntax, is carefully separated from PRACTICAL SYNTAX, or those rules and principles that are of real application, since they may be violated in the actual forms of words. The syntax of each part'of speech is taken up un- der two heads : 1st. How to Parse the Part of Speech ; 2d. The Practical Syntax of the Part of Speech. It is believed that this separation of what is purely formal from those rules that admit of being violated in the inflec- tions of words will, by concentrating the attention of the learner on the practical part, be a powerful aid in learning to ' speak and write English correctly' the professed design of English Grammar. 1. Syntax of the Verb. I. How TO PAESE VERBS. 193. A verb in a sentence is parsed by the following for- mula : It makes a statement about its subject [naming it], and agrees with that subject in number and person. 194. The subject of a verb may be (1.) A noun: England [noun-subject] was conquered by the Normans ; Water consists of oxygen and hy- drogen. (2.) A pronoun: They [pronoun-subject] study gram- mar; The emperor Napoleon [noun -subject of verb died\ who [pronoun-subject] was banished to St. Helena, died in 1820. (3.) An expi'ession: To reach the Indies [phrase-subject] was the object of Columbus; Where De Soto was buried [clause -subject] can not be determined; That you have wronged me [clause-subject] doth appear in this. Expressions like * to reach the Indies' are called phrases. ' Where De Soto was buried,' * that you have wronged me,' are called clauses [for a full explanation of phrases and clauses, see f 357 and 364]. Such expressions are parsed as in the third person, singular number. HOW TO PAUSE VEKBS. 75 195. An Infinitive is parsed by saying It depends on the word [naming it]. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. Alexander tried to conquer [dependent on c tried'] the whole world. Here the infinitive depends on another VERB. 2. Washington was too truthful to lie [dependent on { truth- ful']. Here the infinitive depends on an ADJECTIVE. 3. Howard sought opportunities to benefit [dependent on opportunities] prisoners. Here the infinitive depends on a NOUN. 4. I was not such a coward as to run [dependent on the expression ' such a coward as']. Here the infinitive depends on an expression as a whole ; and this is often the case. NOTE. Observe that when an infinitive is used as the subject of a verb, it performs the office of a NOUN, and is to be parsed as such. EXAMPLE : To delay is daugQYO\is= Delay is dangerous. 196. A Participle is parsed by saying It belongs to the Noun or the Pronoun [naming it]. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. A Peri, standing at heaven's gate, was sad. The participle * standing' belongs to the noun 'Peri.' 2. Charles, having seen me, ran into the house. The participle ' having seen' belongs to the noun * Charles.' 196. A Participle is frequently used purely as a noun or as an adjective. In such cases it is to be parsed as NOUN or ADJECTIVE. [For the mode of parsing nouns, see If 217-223 ; adjectives, see ^f 285-287.] 1. Talking is easier than acting talk is easier than action to talk is easier than to act. The wown-use of the participle is here evident. 2. The running water was cold and clear. The adjective-usQ of the participle is here evident. Exercise 27. Parse the VERBS in the following Sentences : iSiT Previously to the syntactical parsing, the Teacher may have the scholar go through the forms of etymological parsing according to ModeJ III., p. G8. 76 1. Pleasantly rose next morning the sun on the village of Grand-Pre'. 2. Shell-fish cast their shell once a year. 3. English style begins, at the earliest, only about the middle of the four- teenth century. 4. The eagle and the stork on cliffs and cedar-tops their eyries build. 5. The air gets slowly changed in inhabited rooms. 6. In the present day, the binding of a book illustrates the power of ma- chinery. 7. One morn a Peri at the gate of heaven stood disconsolate. 8. The preparations for the trial proceeded rapidly. 9. On either side the river lie long fields of barley and rye, 1 0. Over the joyous feast the sudden darkness descended. 1 1 . The green trees whispered low and mild. 12. In the market-place of Bruges stands the belfry, old and brown Thrice consumed, and thrice rebuilded, still it watches o'er the town. II. PKACTICAL SYNTAX OP THE VERB. 197. GENEEAL RULE. A Verb must be in the proper form required by its subject; and, in particular, it must be put in the Singular Number when its subject is Singular, in the Plural Number when its subject is Plural. NOTE. The rule given above has usually been stated thus : "A verb must agree with its subject nominative in number and person." The prin- ciple in either form is a frame-work much too large for what it is designed to fit. From the paucity of inflections in the English verb, it is not easy to make a verb disagree with its subject. Leaving out the second person singular (never used in ordinary communication), it is hardly possible for a verb to disagree with its subject in person. And even in regard to num- ber, it is in but a few instances (named in the next paragraph) that a verb can be wrong. It is probable that the rule was made in order to cover the verb To Be, which has numerous changes, or inflections, to denote number and person. In this text-book the verb To Be is treated by itself. (See T 207.) The rule is thus greatly simplified, and it is believed that the pu- pil will in this way gain a much more practical knowledge of the syntax of the verb than he is likely to gain when mystified by the abstractions of the. oretical i number and person.' Inflections cf the English Verb. ^F Note this table carefully ; it shows you the few and sole instances in which you can make mistakes in the Number of a Verb. Indicative Mood. Present Tense has one change of form s in the third person singular: thus, l he loves;' but [I, you, we, they] love. Present Perfect Tense- -being formed by means of the verb 'have, 'pre- sents one peculiarity namely, has for the third person singular ; thus, l he has loved ;' but [I, you, we, they] have loved. PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 77 Subjunctive Mood. Present Tense H as on3 peculiarity of form the s (the sign of the third singular present indicative) is absent in the subjunctive ; thus, ' if he love,' not ' if he loves. ' Present Perfect Toeing formed by the auxiliary l have, ' takes the subjunctive form of the third singular ; thus, 'if he have loved,' not 'if he has loved.' Illustrations of the General Rule. 1. John likes good books. EXPLANATION. 'Likes' is in the proper form to accompany 'John.' Noun-subjects are considered as being in the third person, and ' likes' is the form of the verb peculiar to the third person singular, in the present tense. It would be wrong to say John like good books, because ' like' is not the form peculiar to the third person singular. 2. Hike good books. EXPLANATION. * Like' is in the proper form required by its subject 'I :' it agrees with ' I' in number and person. I likes good books would be in- correct, because ' likes' is the form peculiar to the third person, singular number. 3. Peter saw the play of Hamlet. I saw it also. We liked the performance. EXPLANATION. We say that l saw' agrees with Peter ; that ' saw' agrees with * I,' and that ' liked' agrees with * we.' These verbs, being in the past tense, could not, however, disagree with their subjects, for the past tense has no peculiarities of form for the several numbers and persons. 4. I walked to town. He walked to town. We walked to town. You walked to town. They walked to town. EXPLANATION. These verbs are parsed each as " agreeing with its sub- ject in number and person." But how could they disagree ? 5. Columbus has earned immortal renown. They have de- served well of their country. EXPLANATION. ' Has earned' is in the proper form required by the sin- gular noun-subject ' Columbus ;' that is, the auxiliary ' has 1 is in the third person, singular number. They has deserved well would not be correct, be- cause ' has' is the auxiliary of the singular ; but ' they' is plural, hence the auxiliary should be ' have. ' 6. Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. EXPLANATION. * Slay' agrees with 'be ;' that is, it is in the form prop- er to accompany the third person, singular number. It is not slays, because the verb is in the subjunctive mood, and the third singular present sub- junctive takes no s. Tne Principle, how Violated. 198. The principle that a verb agrees with its subject is seldom violated in short sentences, except by very careless 78 SYNTAX. people. We sees ; The shops is not open, are mistakes of very ignorant persons only. But in long sentences the verb may not be referred to its real subject, and then violations of the Rule occur. Hence the following application of the Rule : The adjuncts of a subject have nothing to do with the num- ber of the subject; hence the verb must agree with its subject without reference to the adjuncts of the subject. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. The union of two great rivers produces the Mississippi. EXPLANATION. Here the verb 'produces' is rightly in the singular number, because the subject of the verb is 'union,' which is singular. It matters not that the subject is followed by the phrase ' of two great rivers,' for that is a mere adjunct. 2. His reputation was great, and somewhat more durable than that of similar poets have generally been. EXPLANATION. Here the verb have is in the wrong number. Its sub- ject is the pronoun ' that,' which is singular, whereas ' have' is plural. The cause of the mistake is that the verb ' have' is attracted into the same num- ber as 'poets ;' but as the phrase 'of similar poets' is a mere adjunct of ' that,' it can have no influence on the number of the verb. 199. Correct the following ', so as to make the Verbs agree with their real subjects: 1. The condition of the crops show that the country has suffered from drouth. 2. The trend of the Rocky Mountains are toward the South. The Subject a Collective Noun, 200. When the subject is a collective noun, the verb is singu- lar or plural according as the sense conveyed is of one collective mass or of many individuals. NOTE. A collective noun will always be singular in form ; but the num- ber to be attributed to it, and, consequently, the number in which the verb is to be put, will depend on the notion whether of unity or plurality of the collective noun in a particular sentence. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. The jury have brought in their verdict. EXPLANATION. The verb 'have' is incorrect, because the subject, the collective noun 'jury,' suggests the idea of the body as a whole. Hence it should be ' has brought in. ' In like manner, the pronoun should be ' its, J not their, seeing that it represents a noun that is construed as singular. 2. The jury has disagreed. EXPLANATION. The verb 'has' is incorrect, because the noun 'jury' as used here signifies the individuals of the body separately regarded. Hence it should be 'have disagreed. PKACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 79 201. Is there any violation of this rule in the following? 1. The Church have no power to inflict corporal punishment. 2. A detachment of two hundred men were immediately sent. 3. The public is often deceived by false appearances. The Subject a Relative Pronoun. 202. When the immediate subject is a Relative Pronoun, the antecedent of the Pronoun determines the Number of the Verb. NOTE. As the relative pronouns have no peculiar form for the plural, these pronouns have an attributed number in accordance with the number of the antecedent. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. Ye stars, which are the poetry of heaven. EXPLANATION. Here the immediate subject is the relative pronoun ' which.' This pronoun is construed as plural, because its antecedent 'stars* is plural ; therefore the verb takes the plural form. 2. This is one of the most valuable books that has ap- peared in any language. EXPLANATION. Here the verb ' has' is in the wrong number. Its im- mediate antecedent is the relative pronoun ' that;' but this pronoun is con- sidered as plural, since its antecedent * books' is plural ; therefore * has ap- peared' should be ' have appeared. 7 When the antecedent consists of a noun and a pronoun in apposition, the relative takes the number and the person of the pronoun, and the verb agrees with the relative in that number and person ; as, It is I, your friend, who [1st person singular] tell you to go. But if the relative clause belongs to the noun rather than to the pronoun, the relative is considered to be in the third person, and the verb agrees with it in that person ; as, It is I, the friend that loves you, who tell you to go. The first sentence = I (your friend) tell you to go. The second I (the friend that loves you) tell you to go. 203. Are the following sentences correct? Bless them that curses you. 2. It is an ill wind that blow nobody good. 3. The strata that contains coal belong to the tertiary era. Singular Subjects united by ' and.' 204. When the subject consists of two or more singular Nouns united by 'and/ the Verb must be Plural. ILLUSTKATIONS. 1. John and James are in the field. EXPLANATION. Here the subject is * John' and * James,' two singular nouns united by and. Hence the verb ' are' is plural. 80 SYNTAX. 2. Mars and Jupiter has been visible this week. EXPLANATION. Here the subject is two singular 1 nouns connected by 'and;' so the verb should be plural. Hence ''has been' should be ''have been.' SPECIAL APPLICATIONS OF THE PRINCIPLE. (a) The principle applies equally if the conjunction ' and' be understood. Thus/ Art, empire, earth itself to change are doomed.' But, (&) If the two nouns are names for the same object, they are not united copulatively, but merely in an explanatory way ; hence there is no real plu- rality of subject, and the verb must be singular. The spectator and his- torian of his exploit has observed ; that is, a single person who was at once 4 spectator' and * historian' of his exploit. (If two persons, the one specta- tor, the other historian, were intended, the article would be repeated, and then the verb would need to be plural. Thus the spectator and the histo- rian of his exploit have observed.) (c) Note that where two or more singular subjects almost synonymous in meaning are employed for the sake of emphasis, there is still a kind of unity in the subject ; hence the singular verb is used ; as, the head and front of his oifending was this ; to read and write was once an honorary distinction. (cO Sometimes 'and' is not a real conjoiner, but has the sense of the prep- osition with. In such cases there is no plurality of subject, and the verb must be singular. EXAMPLE : Two and three is five. This does not mean 'two is five,' 'three is five,' but two with three is five. The wheel and axle was out of repair; that is, the 'wheel together with the axle.' We may say A needle and a thread were given to her, but she could not thread the needle meaning the needle and thread were given separately ; A nee- dle and thread was given to her, but she could not sew on the button meaning that a threaded needle was given her. (e) Here is a peculiar case : 4 The captain with his men were taken pris- oners.' Grammatically, the subject 'captain' is singular; hence the verb should be was taken [prisoner] ; but the sense requires the plural. The better way in such a case is, if we mean to bring to notice both captain and men, to say, The captain and his men were taken prisoners ; or, if we de- sire to make the captain alone prominent, The captain was taken prisoner with his men. (f) When two singular nouns are coupled by as well as, the verb is sin- gular, as there are in reality two propositions. 'As well as' makes merely an illustrative comparison, so that there is essential unity of subject, and hence the verb must be singular ; as, Africa as well as Gaul [after the man- ner of Gaul] was gradually fashioned by imitation of the capital. (g) When two subjects are connected by 'and,' one affirmative, the oth- er negative, the verb agrees with the affirmative ; as, our own heart, and not other men's opinion s, forms our true honor. The reason of this is that there are really two propositions our own heart forms our true honor, and other men's opinions do not form our true honor. (/O When two or more singular subjects connected by and are preceded by each, every, or no, the verb is singular ; as, Every limb and feature ap- pears with its appropriate grace. PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 81 w Two Singular Subjects joined by 'or' or 'nor. 1 205; Two or more Singular Nouns joined by 'or' or 'nor' must have a Singular Verb. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. He or bis brother has the book. 2. Neither this nor that is the thing wanted. 206. When one of two subjects separated by or or nor is in the plural, the verb should be plural. He or his servants were to blame. It is proper in such cases to place the plural nominative next to the verb. Exercise 23. Correct the false SYNTAX in the following Sentences: 1. Ships and steamers goes to sea. 2. An eminent scholar and judicious critic have said [Tf 204 &]. 3. Wherein do sit the dread and fear of kings [Tf 204 c]. 4. This wine-and-water are hot [f 204 d"]. 5. Sir Richard, with several others, were cited to the Star Chamber [f 204 e]. 6. Franklin as well as Otis were born in Massachusetts [t 204 /]. 7. Our will and not our stars make us what we are [1 204 g\. 8. Every house-top and every steeple show the flag of the republic [f 204 K]. 9. A word or an epithet paint a whole scene [f 205]. 10. Neither the captain nor the sailors was saved [f 206]. THE VERB 'To BE.' 207. The general rule for the agreement of Verbs with their subjects in number, and all the application of that rule, apply to the verb to be. But this verb has an additional point of agreement with its subject, namely, person. NOTE. It has been shown that the English verb is so deficient in inflec- tions as to make its agreement in person of no practical importance. It is otherwise with the verb to be. A review of its conjugation will show that it has numerous changes, making it truly an inflected verb, and thus re- quiring that fuller rule, applicable to most other languages, that the verb 'agrees with its subject in number and in person.' ILLUSTRATIONS OF AGREEMENT IN NUMBER AND PERSON. 1. lam studying; he is studying; we are studying; schol- ars are studying illustrations of the general rule of agreement in number and person. 2. The condition of the roads is bad illustration of a noun with an adjunct as subject [see ^[ 198]. D * 82 SYNTAX. 3. I y who am an American, am proud of my country; He, whom the truth makes free, is a freeman ; Ye stars, which are the poetry of heaven, shine above us il- lustrations of the principle when the subject is a rel- ative pronoun [see *]" 202]. 4. The council is about to present its chairman with a portrait ; The council are to subscribe for the por- trait illustrations of agreement with a collective noun as subject [^f 200]. 5. John and he were students illustration of the rule as applied to singular subjects joinedby arid[$ee ^ 204]. 6. The spectator and historian of his exploits is said to have observed; The head and front of his offending ^vas this ; Two and three is five ; The captain with his men was taken prisoner; Jefferson^ as well as Franklin^ was a great statesman ; Our own con- science, and not other men's opinions, is to be our guide ; Every limb and every feature is clearly seen illustrations of double subjects with unity of idea [see ^f 204, SPECIAL APPLICATIONS], 7. Charles or Richard is to blame ; Neither Charles nor Richard icas to blame illustrations of singular sub- jects joined by or [see If 205]. The Verb ' to be' used with Subjects of different Number and Person. 208. When the Verb 'To Be' has for its subjects two or more Pronouns of different Persons and of the Singular Number, con- nected by ' or' or ' nor/ it agrees in number and person with the first Pronoun. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. JToY he am in the wrong. 2. He or I is in the wrong. 3. You or he are in the wrong. 4. He or you is in the wrong. 209. When the Pronouns are preceded by either or neither, the Verb 'To Be' takes the third Person Singular. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. Either he or Us in the wrong. 2. Neither he nor Us right. PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 83 210. The same rule applies when, instead of two Pronouns, a Noun and a Pronoun are used; as, 1 . Either Mary or I is in the wrong. 2. TOY Mary am to go. 3. You or Thomas are unfortunate. 4. Either Jane OK I is right. 5. Neither Hattie nor I is wrong. 6. Neither /nor Hattie is to blame. The type of sentences exemplified in the preceding cases is not to be commended as illustrating the best usage. Such sentences are common in colloquial use. It is better to write, Either / am in the wrong, or he is. Neither John is right, nor am I. Is James or I to go ? Better thus, Is James to go, or am I ? Two Subjects one Affirmative, tho other Negative. 211. When the Verb 'To Be* has two subjects, one affirmative and the other negative, it agrees in Number and in Person with the affirmative subject. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. He, and not I, is chosen. 2. I, and not they, am to go. 3. Not you, but Mary, is the best scholar. A Peculiar Case. 212. When a noun follows the verb to be,it is not always apparent what is the real subject, since the order of the sen- tence is sometimes inverted. The rule is to determine by the sense what is the real subject, and make the verb agree with it. ILLUSTRATION. His pavilion were dark waters and thick clouds of the sky. EXPLANATION. Here the real subject follows the verb. In the sen- tence ' The wages of sin is death,' the verb is may agree with * death ;' but it also agrees with 'wages,' which is singular, though plural in form. Ellipsis of the Verb. 213. Sometimes, in poetry, the verb to be is omitted. Sweet the hum Of bees, the voice of girls, the song of birds, The lisp of children and their earliest words. Byron. Improper Ellipsis. 214. No ellipsis of the auxiliary verb Be should be made when the auxiliary, if supplied, would not agree with its sub- ject. , 84 SYNTAX. ILLUSTRATION. A bundle of papers was produced, and such particulars as the following detailed. EXPLANATION. There is an ellipsis of the auxiliary before the participle 1 detailed.' But this ellipsis is improper, because, when we come to supply was (expressed before 'produced'), we have 'such particulars was detailed*' which is un grammatical. The auxiliary were should be supplied. A Common Error in Participles. Sailing up the river, the whole town may be seen. EXPLANATION. This sentence illustrates a common error in the use of the participle introducing a phrase. Sailing (a participle construed as an adjective) must belong to some noun ; it here belongs to the noun town. But it is certainly not intended to say ' the river sailing ;' the idea is we sailing. The sentence should be, ' Sailing up the river, we may see the whole town.' The rule is, that when a participle introduces a phrase, that participle must describe the subject of the next verb, and the subject of the next verb must be what is intended to be described. 215. Correct the following : Hoping that I shall soon hear from you, believe me yours truly. 2. Syntax of the Noua. I. How TO PARSE NOUNS. 216. There are seven functions that a Noun may perform in a sentence. It may be 1. Subject of a Verb; 2. Nominative after a Neuter Verb; 3. Object of a Transitive Verb ; 4. Linked by a Preposition ; 5. In the Possessive Case ; 6. In Apposition ; 7. Independent. These are all the possible uses of the noun in a sentence. It must have one of these uses. The following models will show how to parse it when iii any of these relations. Noun, Subject cf a Verb. 217. A Noun as subject of a Verb is parsed by the follow- ing formula: It is in the Nominative Case, because it is the subject of the Verb \}iaminy the verb]. SYNTAX OP THE NOUN. 85 MODEL. As soon as morning dawned all fears were dis- pelled. Morning a noun, is the nominative to 'dawned,* since it is that of which the statement is made. Fears a noun, is the nominative to * were dispelled,' since it is that of which the statement is made. NOTE. A noun, the subject of an infinitive, is construed in the objective case. EXAMPLE : The queen perceived Columbus to be an enthusiast. Here ' Columbus' is parsed as in the objective case, though the form, of course, is the same as the nominative. If a pronoun were used as the subject of an infinitive, the form of the pronoun would mark it as in the objective case. Thus, The queen perceived him to be an enthusiast. This construction is not, strictly speaking, English ; it is an imitation of a Latin idiom. Our English idiom would turn such sentences thus: 'The queen perceived that Columbus was,' i that he was,' etc. Exercise 29. Parse the SUBJECTS in the following Sentences: 1 . Water consists of two gases. 2. Napoleon went to Egypt with forty sail of the line. 3. Life's but a walking shadow. 4. The bugle's note and cannon's roar the deathlike silence broke. 5. Seasons return, but not to me returns Day, or the sweet approach of even or morn, Or sight of vernal bloom, or summer's rose, Or flocks, or herds, or human face divine. Milton. Noun, Predicate-Nominative. 218. A noun after a neuter or a passive verb, meaning the same thing as the subject, is parsed by the following formula : It is in the Nominative Case after the Verb [naming it]. This nominative is often called the predicate-nominative. MODEL. 1. Tennyson is a, poet. Poet a noun, is in the nominative case (or predicate-nominative) after the verb 'is.' 2. Washington was elected President in 1789. * President' is predicate-nominative after the passive verb * was elected.' Exercise 30. Parse the PREDICATE-NOMINATIVES. 1. He was a man ; take him for all in all, I shall not look upon his like again. 2. Our world is a planet. 3. General Grant was made general-in-chief in 1864. 4. Though a prisoner, Mary seemed still a queen. 5. King William of Prussia became Emperor of Germany in 1871. 86 SYNTAX. Noun, Object of a Transitive Verb. NOTE. Remember that transitive verbs are incomplete, and require a noun or the equivalent of a noun in order to make full sense. The noun that is used as the complement of a transitive verb is called its object. 219. A noun, the object of a transitive verb, is parsed by the following formula: It is the object of the verb [naming it], and completes the statement. MODEL. The muses haunt clear spring, or shady grove, or sunny hill. Spring a noun, is the object of the verb * haunt,' and completes the state- ment made by that verb. Grove a noun, is the object of the verb ' haunt,' and completes the state- ment made by that verb. Hill a noun, is the object of the verb ' haunt,' since, etc. Exercise 31. Parse the NOUN SUBJECTS AND NOUN OBJECTS in the fol- lowing Sentences. 1. Their furrow oft the stubborn glebe has broke. Gray. 2. Beaux banish beaux, and coaches coaches drive. Pope. 3. The gushing flood the tartans dyed. Scott. 4. The plowman homeward plods his weary way. Gray. Noun with a Preposition. 220. A Noun governed by a Preposition is parsed by the following formula : It is linked by the Preposition [naming it] to such and such a word [naming it]. MODEL. The man -with the gray coat fell from the top of the wall. Coat a noun, is linked by the preposition with to the noun man. Top a noun, is linked by the preposition/rom to the verb fell. Wall a noun, is linked by the preposition of to the noun top. Exercise 32. Parse the NOUNS linked by PREPOSITIONS, and the NOUN SUBJECTS and NOUN OBJECTS in the following Sentences : 1 . The smiling daisies blow beneath the sun. 2. The army crossed the river by a bridge made of pontoons. 3. Forth in the pleasing spring thy beauty walks. Thomson. 4. He went to California on account of his health. 5. Across his brow his hand he drew. 6. Advance the front athwart my way. SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. 87 Noun in the Possessive Case. 221. A N"oun in the Possessive Case is parsed by the fol- lowing formula : It describes or limits the Noun [naming it]. NOTE. This is the principle by which Adjectives also are parsed. Tho Possessive Case has, in fact, always the use of an adjunct. MODEL. Seeking the bubble reputation at the cannon's mouth. Cannon's a noun possessive, limiting ' mouth.' Exercise 33. Parse the POSSESSIVES. 1 . Let all the ends thou aims't at be thy country's [ends], thy God's, and truth's. 2. My father and mother's command was obeyed. 3. Quench the timber's falling embers, Quench the red leaves in December's Hoary rime and chilling spray. Whittier. 4. So shall the Northern pioneer go joyful on his way, To wed Penobscot's waters to San Francisco's Bay. Ib. 6. Progress, Liberty's proud teacher, Progress, Labor's sure reward. Noun in Apposition. EXPLANATION. A noun is said to be "in apposition" when it denotes the same person or thing as another noun or pronoun, and when both are in the subject or in the predicate. It is then said to be in the same case as the noun or pronoun which it explains. EXAMPLE : Thomson, the poet, was a contemporary of Hume, the historian. Here 'poet' explains 'Thom- son,' and is said to be in apposition with it. So with 'historian' and" 'Hume.' 222. A Noun in apposition is thus parsed : It is in apposition with the Noun or the Pronoun [naming it], since it denotes the same person (or thing). MODEL. All reclined, a man of war and woes. Byron. Man a noun, is in apposition with the noun ' Ali,' since it denotes the same person. Exercise 34. Parse the Nouns in APPOSITION. 1. 'Tis I, Hamlet the Dane. 2. Washington, the Father of his Country, was the First ^President of the United States. 88 SYNTAX. 3. Crown her queen of ell the year. 4. Wisdom and truth, the offspring of the sky, are immortal. 5. Tarquinius Priscus, a son of a citizen of Corinth, was elected to the va- cant throne. Noun Independent. EXPLANATION. A noun is said to be independent when it has no gram- matical relations with the other words in the sentence. EXAMPLE : Hora- tius, saith the consul, as thou sayest, so let it be. Here ' Horatius' has no grammatical relation with any other word in the sentence, and hence is gaid to be independent. 223. A Noun Independent is thus parsed: It is Independent, since it has no grammatical relation to any other word in the sentence. MODEL. The storm having ceased, we departed. Storm.... a noun, is independent, since it has no grammatical relation with any other word in the sentence. Exercise 34. Parse the NOUNS INDEPENDENT. 1. Mary, your lilies are in bloom. 2. False wizard, avaunt ! 3. The river not being fordable, we had to make a great detour. 4. Out, out, brief candle. 5. God willing, I shall persevere in my attempt. II. PKACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. 224. The almost total absence of inflections in the English Noun leaves the practical Syntax of this part of speech ex- ceedingly simple. NOTE. The Grammars usually admonish us that "a noun used as the subject of a finite verb must be in the nominative case;" but it would be quite impossible to violate this rule. So "a noun, the object of a verb, must be in the objective case." However, as there is no peculiar form for the objective case, no error can be committed. It is very different in in- flected languages. We say, The man loves me, and I love the man. In the first case ' man' is subject, in the second, object of the verb ; but the form is identical. In Latin these sentences would read Amo hominem and Homo me amat different forms for the different functions of the noun. The simplicity in the syntax of our English noun is one of the fine points in our mother tongue. THE NOUN-SUBJECT MUST HAVE A VERB. 225. When a noun designed to be the subject of a verb is employed, see, that that noun has a verb of winch it is the sub- ject. PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. 89 ILLUSTRATION. Two substantives, when they come together, and do not signify the same thing, the former must be in the gen- itive case. EXPLANATION. The writer begins with the noun ' substantives, ' which is so placed that it can be only the subject of a verb ; but, before he gets through, the word 'former' comes in as the subject of the .verb must be. The word of at the beginning of the sentence ' Of two substantives,' etc. would rectify the error. The Possessive Caso. 226. The only points of difficulty in the Syntax of Nouns occur in the use of the Possessive Case. Note the following illustrative sentences : 1. I have read a play of Sha&speare's, the great English dramatist. EXPLANATION. The rule in such cases is, that when nouns stand in ap- position (as ' dramatist' and ' Shakspeare'), the possessive 's is used with only one. 2. John, William, and Mary^s share was five thousand dollars. EXPLANATION. The rule in such cases is, that when, in a succession of nouns, joint possession is meant, the possessive '5 is used only with the last. 3. A portrait of my father. A portrait of my father's. EXPLANATION. Observe the distinction between these two expressions. A portrait of my father means a likeness of himself. A portrait of my fa- ther's means one portrait of my father's collection of portraits. This lat- ter employment of the possessive case is called its partitive use. The thing spoken of in the singular number is always understood in the plural number after the possessive. ' A house of my uncle's' =a house out of my uncle's houses. 4. Day and night are a consequence of the earth's revolv- ing on its axis. EXPLANATION. This sentence illustrates a striking peculiarity of En- glish syntax, and one that has greatly puzzled grammarians, namely, the possessive case associated with a participial form. The explanation is that in all such cases the verbal in -ing is a real Infinitive (see ^[ 167). As an infinitive, it has the function of a noun, and, as such, may be preceded by a possessive case describing it. Thus the ' earth's revolving' is equivalent to the ' earth's revolution.' The test of the infinitive character of a participial is to see if we can substitute a possessive pronoun for the possessive noun. Thus we can substitute its revolving for 'the earth's revolving.' %* The verbal in -ing, which, as an infinitive, has thus the use of a noun, retains at the same time its governing power as a verb, and hence it may take an object after it ; as, * Disease and death were consequences of tho man's [possessive] neglecting treatment' [object]. 90 SYNTAX. "Wrong Placing cf Possessive Phrases. 227. The following illustrates a common error in the plac- ing of possessive phrases : The death was announced lately of the great statesman. EXPLANATION. The possessive phrase c of the great statesman' belongs to death: the phrase should be near the noun it describes ; thus, 'The death of the great statesman was,' etc. Never put a possessive phrase in the predicate when the noun to which it belongs is in the subject. Possessive Inflection, when used. 228. The Possessive Inflection is used only when some idea of ownership is present, and hence is limited mainly to nouns denoting persons or personified objects. When we wish to denote merely an accompaniment of an object, we use the phrase-form with the preposition of. Thus we may say 4 The man's occupation," Time's hoary locks,' 'The President's mes- sage,' 'Death's fatal arrow,' but not 'The house's roof (the roof of the house), 'The street's width' (the width of the street). Possessive Phraseology, how varied. 229. Whenever the possessive phraseology is felt to be awkward, we may avoid it by using the preposition of or by. Thus, instead of saying Alexander the Great's conquest of Babylon, we may say The conquest of Babylon by Alexander the Great. 230. Vary the expression of this sentence: This opinion is Newton the astronomer's. Ellipsis cf the described Noun. 231. Sometimes there is an ellipsis of the noun limited by the possessive. EXAMPLE : Whose is this image and super- scription ? They say unto him, Ccesar's [image and super- scription]. The Verbal in -ing 1 . 232. When a verbal in -ing is preceded by the definite arti- cle, or by the Demonstrative this or that, it must be followed by the preposition of. But if there is no the, there must be no of. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. The writing of the book required many years. 2. Receiving this news gave us much pleasure. PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. 91 EXPLANATION. In the former case the verbal in -ing being preceded by the is followed by of. Such phrases as the following are needless and un- graceful, and truly un-English : ' The betraying of a trust ;' ' The receiv- ing of a letter. ' These verbals are not wanted, because we have the true nouns betrayal, receipt, etc. 3. Prompted by the most extreme vanity, he persisted in the writing bad verses. EXPLANATION. The use of the, if correct, would require writing to ba followed by of' the writing q/bad verses.' But the is not correctly used. Writing is here a real infinitive, and an infinitive, being an abstract noun, can take no article ; hence the sentence should be c in writing bad verses.' 233. Correct the following: 1. Much depends on this rule being observed. 2. The building the house is going on. 3. Syntax of the Pronoun. I. How TO PARSE PRONOUNS. 234. The Pronoun has the same functions as the Noun; that is, it may be 1. Subject of a Verb. 2. Nominative after a Neuter or Passive Verb. 3. Object of a Transitive Verb. 4. Governed by a Preposition. 5. In the Possessive Case. 6. In Apposition. 7. Independent. 235. The Pronoun, having the same use as the Noun, is parsed in the same way as the Noun. i^T Review How to Parse the Noun, i\ Johnson. 92 SYNTAX. EXPLANATION. Notice the pronoun them, and see if you can tell what noun it is meant to represent. A careful reading of the sentence will show that the pronoun them was designed to stand for the word ' opinion. ' It is the opinion that was not unanimous : hence the writer correctly says ' it [/. e., the opinion] might have overset my resolutions.' It was this 'opin- ion' that he could neglect, not his 'censurers,' which he carelessly makes the represented noun, and hence uses 4 them' instead of ' it.' *) 2. When a verb governs a relative pronoun, it is placed after it. Chambers^ Grammar. EXPLANATION. This sentence illustrates a careless use of the pronoun. It is not easy to tell which it represents ' verb' and which ' pronoun. ' 3. Men look with an evil eye upon the good that is in others, and think that their reputation obscures them, and that their commendable qualities do stand in their light ; and therefore they do what they can to cast a cloud over them, that the bright shining of their virtues may not obscure them. Hishop Tillot- son. EXPLANATION. The above sentence has two subjects, and we can not tell from the construction to which of the two the pronouns refer. In fact, the multiplicity of pronouns throws the sentence into utter confusion. The Rule as applied to Nouns connected by * and.' 237. When two or more Nouns are connected by 'and/ the Personal Pronoun used to represent them must be in the Plural Number. ILLUSTRATION. He was fonder of nothing than of wit and raillery, but he was far from being happy in it. J)r. Blair. EXPLANATION. As in this sentence the pronoun it was designed to represent the two nouns 'wit' and 'raillery,' them should have been used instead of it. 238. Correct the following: Both Gate and Cicero loved his country. Nouns connected by * or. 1 239. When two or more Singular Nouns or Pronouns are con- nected by ' or/ the pronoun used to represent them must be in the singular number. ILLUSTKATION. When he shoots a partridge, a woodcock, or a pheasant, he gives them away. PRACTICAL SYNTAX OP THE PEONOUN. 93 EXPLANATION. As the represented nouns are singular and connected by or, it should be used in place of them. 240. Correct the following : Man is not such a machine as a watch or a clock, which move merely as they are moved. Collective Nouns. 241 . Collective Nouns require singular or plural Pronouns ac- cording to whether they convey the idea of unity or of plurality. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. The clergy began to withdraw themselves. JjlacJc- stone. 2. The populace, unfortunately for their own comfort, etc. 242. Correct the following : 1. The multitude, with all its means of instruction. 2. The army dragged themselves along through the mud. Each, Every, Either, One, Ecno, Etc. 243. Very frequent violations of the general rule occur when Pronouns are used to represent the words each, every, either, one, or nouns preceded by one of these words. RULE: These words have all a singular meaning, and must be repre- sented by singular Pronouns. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. Franklin and Lawrence were distinguished patriots: each served their country well. EXPLANATION. In this sentence the pronoun ' their' is used to repre- sent the pronoun 'each;' but 'each' has a singular meaning, and hence should be represented by a singular pronoun ' each served his country well.' 2. Every person is the architect of their own fortune. EXPLANATION. Here the pronoun ' their' is used to represent the sin- gular noun 'person,' and hence should be singular 'the architect of his own fortune. ' What causes the mistake is the notion of plurality in the word ' every ;' but ' every' is always grammatically singular. 3. John and James have "been late for a w r eek : if either are absent from their seat at nine to-morrow they will be kept in. EXPLANATION. Here the pronouns ' their' and ' they' are used to repre- sent 'either,' which is singular; hence singular pronouns and the singular verb should be used. ' If either is absent from his seat, he will,' etc. 94 SYNTAX. 4. One is seldom at a loss what to do with their money. EXPLANATION. As l one' is the represented word and singular, 'his,' instead of their,' should be used. 5. Every boy and girl must learn their lesson. EXPLANATION. This sentence presents a peculiarity. Under the verb (see 1 204, h) we saw that two singular nouns coupled by ' and' do not take the plural verb when preceded by * every.' Hence the pronoun represent- ing them should be singular also, and the sentence should read, ' Every boy and girl has learned his lesson.' But the sentence presents a further pecul- iarity ; there are two genders to be represented. Now in English we have no pronouns of the common gender. In such cases it is customary to make the masculine pronoun stand for both genders. 6. Every teacher is required to make his or her report. EXPLANATION. When we wish specially to distinguish the sexes we use the above form ; but all difficulty may be avoided by employing the. plural form of the noun and the pronoun thus, 'All teachers are required to make their reports.' 244. Correct the false syntax of the Pronouns: 1. Every one must judge of their own feelings. Byron. 2. Had the doctor been contented to take my dining-tables, as any body in their senses would have done Miss Austin. 3. Not on outward charms should man or woman build their preten- sions to please. Opie. Pronouns the Subjects of Verbs. 245. A pronoun used as tlie subject of a verb must be in the nominative case. ILLUSTRATION. This is a man whom I think deserves encouragement. EXPLANATION. Transposing the parenthetical expression, / think, we have the sentence, * I think this is a man whom deserves encouragement. ' You see, of course, that this is wrong : whom is designed to be subject of the verb deserves, and hence it should be who deserves. 246. Violations of this rule most frequently occur in ellip- tical sentences when the verb is omitted. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. Is she as tall as me? Shakspeare. 2. She suffers hourly more than me. Swift. 3. The nations not so blessed as thee. Thomson. 4. It is not for such as its to sit with the rulers of the land. Walter Scott. 5. She was neither better nor wiser than you or me. Thackeray. PKACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE PKONOUN. 95 EXPLANATION. The above sentences, each by a famous author, all vio- late the rule. The blunder becomes very plain when we supply the el- lipsis thus, (1) 'as tall as me am,' (2) 'more than me do,' (3) 'not so blessed as thee art,' (4) ' such as us are,' (5) ' than you or me are.' 247. Correct the following : Is James as old as me ? 2. Such a man as him could never be President, Improper Ellipsis of tae Pronoun Subject. 248. The following sentences illustrate an improper ellipsis of the Pronoun Subject : 1. It is thinking makes what we read ours. EXPLANATION. The relative that should be supplied after 'thinking;* makes has otherwise no subject. 2. There is and must be a Supreme Being who created and supports us. Heattie. 9 EXPLANATION. This should be ' There is and there must be a Supreme Being who created and who supports us.' 3. Roots are either native or foreign, and sometimes much disguised. EXPLANATION. Better thus, 'Eoots are either native or foreign, and sometimes they are much disguised.' 249. The rule in such cases is that When Verbs are used in different Voices, Moods, or Tenses, or when they are emphatically distinguished, the Subject or an equivalent Pronoun must be repeated. The Pronoun used Redundantly. 250. In poetry the subject is sometimes repeated in the form of a pronoun used along with the noun ; as, The count he was left to the vulture and hound ; To be or not to be [phrase-subject], that [pronoun-subject] is the question. But this is not allowable in prose except where special emphasis is designed. ' My father he said that I must go' is incorrect. We might, however, say, 'A man that wears the livery of heaven to serve the devil in, he is not to be trusted,' because here special emphasis is desired. Pronoun after the Verb To Be. 251. A Pronoun used as the complement of the Verb ' To Be' must be in the same case as the subject of that Verb. In violation of this rule, we often hear, in the ordinary conversation of all classes of society, such expressions as, * Who is it? me?' 'It was her;' 'It is them;' ' It is us.' Indeed, some grammarians (as Dean Alford and 96 SYNTAX. Mr. Bain") defend these forms as allowable, but there seems to be no suffi- cient justification for these wide departures from the regular syntax of our language. ILLUSTEATIOXS. 1. It was he that secured our liberty. EXPLANATION. Here he is in the nominative case, because it, the sub- ject of is, is in the nominative. 2. We knew it to be him. EXPLANATION. Here him is properly in the objective case, for the rea- son that it, being the subject of the infinitive to be, is in the objective case. 3. Let him be who he might be. EXPLANATION. In a sentence like this it is very common to hear people say whom instead of who, as if they thought the relative was in apposition to him. This is not the case. The sentence is very elliptical. Fully ex- pressed, it would stand thus: Let him be (the man) who he might be. Him is Abjective, because the subject of the infinitive (to) be. Who is nom- inative, because the verb might be (of which it is the complement) has for its subject he, in the nominative case. 252. Point out the violations of this rule in the following : 1. It is not me whom you are in love with. Addison. 2. If there is one character more base than another, it is him who, etc. Sydney Smith. 3. It could not have been her. 4. Whom eay ye that I am ? Prcncim as Object. 253. A Pronoun used as the object of a Transitive verb must be in the objective case. NOTE. This rule is seldom violated when the pronoun immediately fol- lows the verb. It is only when the object is at some distance from the verb, or when the sentence is elliptical, that the nominative form of the pronoun is liable to be used, 'He that flatters too much, do not believe,' for 'him that flatters,' etc. Here him is the object of the verb 'believe.' ILLTJSTKATIONS. 1. Who do you take me to be? EXPLANATION. Here 'who' should be whom, because the relative is used after ' to be,' and is in apposition with 'me,' the object of the transi- tive verb take. 2. Who should I meet the other day but him. EXPLANATION. The relative is here the object of the verb ' should meet,' and must take the objective form. 254. Point out the violations of this rule in the following: 1. My father allowed my brother and I to accompany him. 2. Let you and she advance. PKACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. 97 The Pronoun Used in Apposition. 255. When a Pronoun is put in apposition with a noun used as the object of a verb or of a preposition, the pronoun must be in the objective case. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. Peter's sister married John Brown him that I told you about. 2. Mary bought a bonnet from the milliner her that keeps a shop in Montgomery Street. NOTE. Sentences like the preceding are used colloquially. The better form is to use the relative pronoun instead of the personal; as, John Brown whom I told you about ; The milliner who keeps, etc. Pronouns. Object of Propositions. 256. A pronoun linked by a preposition must be in the ob- jective case. NOTE. This rule is seldom violated when the pronoun immediately fol- lows the preposition. Nobody would say I gave it to he; but people read- ily commit such errors as Who did you get that bookfrojn ? In the latter sentence, the distance of the pronoun from the governing preposition is the occasion of the blunder. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. Who did you speak to? This should be l Who?n did you speak to? 1 2. No one but he [him'] should be about the king. ShaJc- speare. 257. Correct the following : 1. Between you and I, all is not gold that glitters,. 2. Who servest thou under ? Shakspeare. The Pronoun 'It.' 258. The fact that the pronoun it has two distinct uses its ordinary use and its idiomatic use in introducing a sen- tence [see erso?zs,the other animals or things ; as, The man and the dog that we saw. The reason of this is that neither who nor which could properly be used. PRACTICAL SYNTAX OP THE PKONOUK. 101 * Which' having a Collective Noun for its antecedents. 272. Which, and not who, is used when the antecedent is a collective noun expressing unity of idea ; as, The party which be entertained yesterday was very numerous. 'Whose/ 273. Whose, properly the Possessive of who, is often used, especially in poetry, as the possessive of which, the latter having no possessive of its own. ILLUSTRATIONS. That undiscovered country From whose bourne no traveler returns. ShaJcspeare. The poor banished insects whose intent, Though they did ill, was innocent. .Shelley. Mixing Relatives. 274. When the pronoun which has been used to introduce one relative clause, that should not be used to introduce an- other clause of the same kind in the same sentence. ILLUSTRATION. It is remarkable that Holland, against which the war was undertaken, and that, in the very beginning, was re- duced to the brink of destruction, lost nothing. EXPLANATION. Here the relative which in the first clause should not have been changed for that in the second clause. Which and That. 275. On account of euphony, that, whenever it can be used, is preferable to which. That with Prepositions. 276. The relative that can not be preceded by its govern- ing preposition ; that preposition must be placed at the end of the clause ; as, The steam-boat that I went up the river in was sunk. Whom and Which with Prepositions. 277. The Prepositions governing whom and which may also be placed at the end of the clause, but modern usage prefers placing them immediately before the relatives. ILLUSTRATION. Thus it is deemed more elegant to say ; The steamer in which I went up the river' than * The steamer which I went up the river in. 1 102 SYNTAX. An Idiomatic Construction. 278. In many cases a much more vigorous and effective statement is made by introducing a clause by that and fol- lowing it by its governing preposition, than by introducing it by which or whom, preceded by its governing preposition. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. He is the stranger of whom you told me=He is the stranger that you told me of. 2. The musquito is good for nothing that I know of, is much less pompous than The musquito is good for nothing of which I know. 3. There are many words which are adjectives which have nothing to do with the qualities of the nouns to which they are put. Cobbettfs Grammar. This sentence would read better thus : There are many words that are adjectives that have nothing to do with the qualities of the nouns that they are put to. 279. Change the relatives in the following: 1. The subject, of which I had occasion to speak, is a most important one. 2. He sold me the house of which you have heard. 3. It is the strangest story of which I ever heard. 4. There was nothing upon which a beetle could have lunched. 'As' a Relative. 280. The word as is used as a relative when the anteced- ent is such, some, and so much. ILLUSTEATIONS. 1. I wish all men in the world did heartily believe so much of this as is true. Jeremy Taylor. 2. Avoid such companions as those are. 3. We are such stuff as dreams are made of. ShaJcspeare. Here as is a relative governed by the preposition of at the end of the clause. 4. He is, as I have said, a great lover of books. EXPLANATION. Here as is the object of ' said;' it represents the state- ment, 'He is a great lover of books.' The sentence is equivalent to this : He is a great lover of books, which I have said before. Ellipsis cf tho Relative. 281. In conversational style the relatives are often omitted PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. 103 ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. The family I lived with has removed. Here the relative that is under- stood. 2. I have sent you every thing [that] you ordered. 3. He can not tell all [that] he knows. 4. I have no money [that is] worth talking about. 5. Men must reap the things [that] they sow. Shelley. 6. There is a willow [that] grows askant the bank. Shakspeare. 7. I may do that which I shall be sorry for. Shakspeare. 8. I am monarch of all [that] I survey. Coivper. 9. In this 'tis God [who] directs, in that 'tis man. Pope. 10. [He] who steals my purse, steals trash. Shakspeare. Misused Kalatives. 282. The following sentences illustrate two incorrect uses of the relatives. 1. Be diligent; without which you can never succeed. EXPLANATION. In this sentence the only antecedent that the relative which can refer to is the adjective 'diligent;' but from its very nature a relative can represent only a noun, or some expression equivalent to a noun. The way of dealing with this kind of sentence is to use, in place of the relative, an abstract noun expressing the quality implied in the adjective. Thus the adjective ' diligent' implies the noun ' diligence. ' The sentence corrected stands thus : Be diligent ; for without diligence you can not suc- ceed. 2. And do you now strew flowers in his way, That comes in triumph over Pompey's blood? Shakspeare. EXPLANATION. Here 'that' has for its antecedent the possessive pro- noun his ; but ' his' is in reality an adjective, and is a mere adjunct of the noun 'way/ Hence it can not'be made the antecedent of the relative that. The mode of dealing with this case is to change the adjective (or posses- sive) pronoun into a real pronoun ; thus, ' flowers in the way of him, 1 etc. Important General Caution. 283. When in a sentence there is the slightest ambiguity cr obscurity in the reference of a pronoun to its noun (whether of the relative to its antecedent, or of the personal pronoun to its represented noun), the noun itself should be repeated, in place of using a pronoun. NOTE. The best modern writers pay no attention to the old maxim against repeating a word. Every thing must give way to perspicuity. 284. The following sentence exemplifies the principle stated in the general caution : He [Philip] wrote to that distinguished philosopher [Aris- totle] in terms the most polite and flattering, begging 104 SYNTAX. of him [Aristotle] to undertake his [Alexander's] edu- cation, and to bestow upon him [Alexander] those use- ful lessons which his [Philip's] numerous avocations would not allow him [Philip] to bestow. Goldsmith. EXPLANATION. This sentence may be corrected thus : 'Philip wrote to Aristotle in terms the most polite and flattering, begging of that distin- guished philosopher to undertake A lexander's education, and to bestow upon his son those useful lessons that kis own numerous avocations would not allow him to bestow.' 4. Syntax of Adjectives. I. How TO PAESE ADJECTIVES. 285. There are but two uses of the Adjective: 1. It may describe or limit a noun to which it belongs. 2. It may be predicate adjective after a neuter verb, and in this case it describes or limits the subject of the verb. Adjective with a Noun. 286. An Adjective belonging to a noun is parsed by the following formula : It describes (or limits) the Noun [naming it]. MODEL. O tenderly the haughty day Fills his blue urn with fire. Haughty an adjective, describes the noun day. Blue an adjective, describes the noun urn. Predicate Adjectives. 287. A Predicate Adjective is thus parsed : It is Predicate Adjective after the Verb [naming it], and describes the Subject \jiaminy it]. MODEL. Oak is tough. 'Tough' is predicate adjective after the neuter verb 'is,' and describes 'oak.' The rose smells sweet. 'Sweet' is predicate adjective after the neuter verb 'smells,' and da- scribes 'rose.' Exercise 35. Parse the ADJECTIVES. 1. Around the fire one wintry night The farmer's rosy children sat. 2. The stately homes of England, How beautiful they stand. PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 105 3. These forms are very elegant. 4. Were never folks so glad. 5. Now the bright morning star, day's harbinger, comes dancing from the East. 6. Cloves smell aromatic. II. PRACTICAL SYNTAX OP THE ADJECTIVE. The Degrees. 288. The Comparative Degree is to be used in reference to only two objects. The Superlative Degree is to be used only when comparing more than two objects. EXAMPLES. He is the stronger of the two not the strong- est. He is the strongest of the three not the stronger of the three. 289. When a person or a thing is compared with others be- longing to the same class, the Adjective in the Comparative Degree must be followed by some phrase that will exclude the thing compared; such as/ than any other/ 'than all others.' ILLUSTRATION. Bismarck is greater than any German statesman. EXAMPLE. This would be incorrect, because, as Bismarck is himself a German statesman, the sentence would affirm that he is greater than him- self. It should read, 'Bismarck is greater than any other [or than all other] German statesmen.' The phrase than any other excludes Bismarck from the class with which he is compared. "We can properly say, Bismarck is greater than any Chinese statesman, because Bismarck, being a German, does not belong to the class of Chinese statesmen. 290. When one person or thing is compared with all others of the same class, the adjective in the superlative degree must be used. ILLUSTRATION. 'Bismarck is the greatest of German statesmen,' or 'Bis- marck is the greatest German statesman.' 291. Why is it incorrect to speak of Paul Pry as * the most inquisitive of his contemporaries ?' Why is Milton correct in calling 'Eve fairest of her daughters? 292. In speaking of two sets of objects, ' the two first' means the first of each series. In speaking of one set of ob- E 2 106 SYNTAX. jects, ; the first two' denotes the first and second of the same. Hence such errors as the following should be avoided : c The clergyman reacl the two first stanzas of the hymn.' Special Adjectives. This and That. The demonstrative adjectives 'this' and 'that' must be used only with singular nouns; 'these' and 4 those' with plural nouns. NOTE. Never use the personal pronoun them for the adjective those; that is, never say ''them books' for ''those books.' Either and Neither. ' Either' and * neither' properly apply to one of tic o objects not more than two. Would it be cor- rect to say * John, James, and Henry are faithful boys ; either lad will carry the message?' Such. The adjective 'such' is often improperly used for the adverb ' so.' ' She is such an extravagant woman' should be ' she is so extravagant a woman.' Like. The adjective like is sometimes improperly used for as. Victory must end in possession like toil in sleep. Glad- stone. This should be, ' Victory must end in possession, as (does) toil in sleep.' Special Prepositions. 293. Many adjectives require to be followed by a certain preposition ; as, ' different from? ' agreeable to] ' illustrative o/," preferable to.' Use of the Articles. 294. In the use of the articles there are several important points illustrated by the following examples: 1. We saw a red, white, and blue flag. EXPLANATION. This means, we saw one flag having the three colors red, white, and blue. In such cases the rule is, when several adjectives are used to limit a noun representing only cao object, the articlo is used before only the first adjective, 2. We saw a red, a white, and a blue flag. EXPLANATION. This means that we saw three different flags. In such cases the rule is, when the adjectives apply to different objects, repeat the article before every adjective. 3. It is difficult, in some cases, to distinguish between an interrogative and exclamatory sentence. Murray's Grammar. PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 197 EXPLANATION. The great grammarian should have written t an inter- rogative and an exclamatory sentence,' because two kinds of sentences are meant. 4. There is about the whole book a vehement, contentious, replying manner. Macaulay. EXPLANATION. This sentence is correct. It is here not necessary to repeat the a, because it is one manner that is spoken of a manner vehe- ment, contentious, and replying. 5. Both a noun and pronoun may be the subject of a verb. Either a noun or pronoun is the subject of a verb. EXPLANATION. These sentences are incorrect. The article should be inserted in each instance before the second of the two nouns joined in con- struction : both a noun and a pronoun ; either a noun or a pronoun. The principle in such cases is, that when there is a close connection between two nouns, indicated by the correlatives either or, neither nor, both end, the article must bo repeated. The same principle applies when the introducing correlative both, either, neither, is understood. 6. A man, woman, and infant were riding in the cars. EXPLANATION. This sentence is incorrect. The article a may be un- derstood before the second noun, woman, but when we come to supply it before the third (a infant) it is not in the proper form. The principle is, that in a series of nouns, the article a need not be repeated after tho first ; but if, in a succession of nouns, one noun requires a and another an, no ellipsis is allowed. 7. An adjective or participle must belong to some noun or pronoun. EXPLANATION. This is a violation of the principle in 6. Supplying the ellipsis, we have ; An adjective and an participle.' It should be 4 An adjective or a participle.' A simple way of avoiding the difficulty as to the use of the article is to use the plural form of the nouns, and to employ and in place of or. Thus, * Adjectives and participles must belong to some noun or to some pronoun.' 8. The variation or deviation of the compass was first ob- served by Columbus. EXPLANATION. This sentence seems to violate the principle stated in 6, but it is strictly correct. ' Deviation' is used to explain * variation,' and is synonymous with it, and hence it is not necessary to repeat the article. When the conjunction or connects two nouns, the second of which is only explanatory of the first, the article must not be repeated. NOTE. Mr. Moon (Bad English, p. 31) takes Lindley Murray to task for using the expression 'an oration or discourse.' Moon's objection is that if the ellipsis were supplied the expression would read ' An oration or [an] discourse.' But there is really no ellipsis to be supplied, since, in ac- cordance with the above principle, the article is not to be repeated, the sec- ond noun being explanatory of the first. &T When two nouns are thus connected in an explanatory ivay, a comma should be placed after thejirst. 108 SYNTAX. 9. He is a better statesman than soldier. EXPLANATION. In sentences like this sentences in which the two nouns denote the same person, the article is not repeated before the noun following than or as. Repeating the article before soldier will entirely change the meaning of the sentence. 1 A lawyer may be as good a man as a clergyman.' Here the article is repeated because the comparison is made between two different persons. Exercise 36. Correct the Mistakes in the use of the ARTICLE. 1. The importance of obtaining in early life a good education and ( ) ample stock of ideas. 2. The oral or ( ) written forms of a language. 3. An adjective in the comparative or ( ) superlative degree must pre- cede an adjective modified by more or most. 4. The dash is mostly used to denote an unexpected or ( ) emphatic pause of variable length. 5. No figures will render a cold or ( ) empty composition interesting. Blair. 6. When an adverb qualifies an adjective, [an?'] participle, or infinitive, it is generally placed before it. 7. The object of a transitive verb is a noun or a pronoun which denotes the person or thing that the agent or doer acts upon or controls. 8. A noun or ( ) pronoun, used as the predicate of a proposition, is in the nominative case. 9. Specifying adjectives should be so used as clearly to signify the real in- tention of the speaker or ( ) writer. 10. An adjective or [an ?] participle qualifies the substantive to which it belongs. 11. And since it is not always easy to make a new or [a?~\ acceptable proper name, etc. 12. The liberty of capitalizing is carried to a great and [a?] almost indefi- nite extent. 5. Syntax of the Adverb. I. How TO PARSE ADVERBS. 295. The Adverb has but one function in a sentence it de- scribes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. 296. Hence an adverb is thus parsed : It describes the Verb, Adjective, or Adverb [naming if]. MODEL. The very fairest flowers usually wither most quickly. Very an adverb, limits the adjective fairezt. PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE ADVERB. 109 Usually. . . .an adverb, limits the verb wither. Most an adverb, limits the adverb quickly. NOTE. Sometimes an adverb seems to be independent, but there is gen- erally an ellipsis, which, if supplied, will show some word that the adverb may modify. EXAMPLE : 4 There is none that is righteous. No, [there is] not one.' ' Do you like poetry ?' [I like if] Very much. Exercise 37. Parse the following ADVERBS: 1. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 2. And now a bubble ble bursts, and now a world. 3. For them no more the blazing hearth shall burn. 4. The enemy was completely in my power. 5. Nothing is too gross or too refined, too cruel or too trifling, to be prac- ticed. II. PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE ADYERB. 297. Adverbs and adverbial phrases should be so placed with reference to the words they are intended to modify as to bring out the meaning clearly and to round the sentence agreeably. Hence the following 298. GENERAL RULE OF POSITION. An Adverb should be placed in close proximity to the word or the words that it mod- ifies. ILLUSTRATIONS. ^iT The proper placing of adverbs is a matter of nice taste and of keen judgment. The art will best be learned, not by studying rules that are subject to numberless exceptions, but by dealing with actual examples. 1. We can not deprive them of merit wholly. EXPLANATION. The adverb * wholly' is inelegantly placed. It is meant to relate to the verb 4 deprive,' and the intervention of the words ' them of merit' between the adverb and the verb obscures the relation. It should be, We can not wholly deprive them of merit. 2. I hope not much to tire those I shall not happen to please. Dr. Johnson. EXPLANATION. Doctor Johnson did not mean to say that he did not much hope to tire, but that he hoped not to tire much. The sentence should be constructed in this manner : 4 1 hope I shall not much tire those whom I shall [or may] not happen to please. ' 3. This mode of expression rather suits familiar than grave style. Murray's Grammar. EXPLANATION. As the comparison is .not intended to be between suiting and not suiting, but between suiting one kind of style (namely, ' a familiar') in preference to another, the adverb of comparison should be placed, not 110 SYNTAX. before the verb ' suit/ which it is not meant to qualify, bat before the ad- jective 'familiar,' to which it is intended to relate. Making this altera- tion, the sentence becomes, 'This mode of expression suits rather familiar than grave style.' But the sentence is still faulty. A particular kind of style, and not style in general, is spoken of; hence the indefinite article should be used. Fully corrected, the sentence reads, ' This mode of ex- pression suits rather a familiar than a grave style.' 4. The colon may be properly applied in the following cases. Murray's Grammar. EXPLANATION. The writer did not mean that the colon may be ap- plied in a proper manner, but that it is proper to apply the colon ; hence it should be, ' may properly be applied,' etc. 5. It is a frequent and capital error in the writings even of some distinguished authors. Murray's Grammar. EXPLANATION. The position of ' even' confuses the sense by suggesting a qualification of 'writings.' 'Even' should be carried to the other side of the preposition ; the sentence will then read thus : * in the writings of even some distinguished authors.' 6. A master-mind was equally wanting in the cabinet and in the field. EXPLANATION. This should be, 'Was wanting equally in the cabinet,' etc. Take notice that in this example, as in Illustration 3, the adverb has a mixed reference. ' Equally' modifies wanting, but it has reference also to the phrase 'in the cabinet and in the field.' The principle in such cases is, that the adverb should be placed between the two words or expres- sions to wnicli it has reference. 7. I have been disappointed greatly at your conduct. EXPLANATION. Here the adverb greatly is not correctly placed. The sentence should read thus : 'I have been greatly disappointed,' etc. The principle in such cases is, that in compound tenses adverbs should be in- serted between the auxiliary and the participle. 8. He used to often come. I wished to really know. EXPLANATION. With the infinitive simple tense, the adverb must never separate the sign to from the verb ; it must either precede or it must fol- low the whole infinitive form. Thus, ' He used often to come,' or ' to come often. ' ' I wished really to know, ' or ' to know really.' With the infinitive compound tenses, of course, the same rule applies as in other compound tenses. We say, 'It is believed to have often happened ;' ' He is thought to be well informed on that subject. ' In these examples the preposition to is not severed from its infinitive. 299. The varieties of position and of reference in the ad- verb are seen in the following examples: 1. Sometimes she sings. ... (at other times she reads). 2. She sometimes sings .... (at other times he sings). 3. She sings sometimes. . . .(but not frequently). FEACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE ADVERB. Ill 'Only.' 300. The most troublesome of all our English adverbs is the word 'only.' "A blunder of which the instances are innumerable is the misplacing of the word 'only.' Indeed, this is so common, so absolutely universal, one may almost say, that ' only' can not be found in its proper place in any book within the whole range of English literature." Gould's Good En- glish, p. 100. 301. According to the position of 'only? the very same word may be made to express several very different mean- ings. The following examples will illustrate this : 1. i Only\iQ mourned for his brother.' Only here expresses an antithet- ical relation equivalent to ' but. ' He was generally a cold-hearted man, only (but, as an exception to his general character) he mourned for his brother. 2. 'He-on/y (alone) mourned for his brother.' No one else mourned for him. 3. { He cw/y-mourned for his brother.' He did nothing else. 4. l He mourned only for his brother.' And for no other reason. 5. * He mourned for his only brother.' His single brother ; only, an adjec- tive. 6. ' He mourned for his brother only' (alone) and for no one else. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. A term which only implies the idea of persons. EXPLANATION. The force of exclusion possessed by the 'only' is not meant to apply to the word ' implies,' but to the word ' persons.' It should be ' which implies the idea of persons only. ' 2. I can only regard them as Scotticisms. Dean Alford. EXPLANATION. The force of exclusion in the ' only' is not meant to apply to the verb * regard,' but to the noun 'Scotticisms.' The sentence should be,' I can regard them only as Scotticisms.' 3. When the article stands only before the first of two or more connected nouns. EXPLANATION. This should be, ' When the article stands before only the first, 'etc. 4. The negroes are to appear at church only in boots. EXPLANATION. This means that when the negroes go to church they are to have no clothing but boots. The negroes are to appear only at church in boots. This might mean that they are not to appear any where but at church, whether in boots or out of them. The proper arrangement would be to connect 'in boots' with its verb 'appear,' and make 'only' qualify 'at church,' and no more. Thus,' The negroes are to appear in boots only at church. ' 112 SYNTAX. 'Not Only.' 302. The same difficulty is met with in the use of c not only.' The following sentences will serve as illustrations : 1. By greatness I not only mean the bulk of any single object, but the largeness of the whole view. This should read, ' By greatness I mean not only the bulk,' etc. 2. Thales was not only famous for his knowledge of na- ture, but for his moral wisdom. Enfield. This sentence should read, ' Thales was famous not only for his knowl- edge of nature, but also for his moral wisdom.' Alcae. 303. Alone, when used adverbially, should be placed imme- diately after the verb that it modifies. As, The teacher was sitting alone in the school-room. EXPLANATION. In this sentence the meaning is, 'The teacher was sit- ting by himself m the school-room.' If we said ' the teacher alone was sit- ting in the school-room,' we should convey the idea that nobody else was sitting in the school-room. Here * alone' is an adjective limiting ' teacher.' It would be better to say ; only the teacher,' etc. Some misused Adverbs. 304. Where. . . .This Relative Adverb must not be used in introducing clauses unless the reference is to literal place. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. Franklin lived in Philadelphia, where the Declaration of Independence was signed. EXPLANATION. This is correct ; but we can not properly say, * The Americans addressed the king in a petition where they asked" for the lib- erties of British subjects.' Here 4 in a petition' does not denote literal 7>/ace,but merely place figuratively, and in all such cases the relative phrase 'in which 1 must be used. 2. The only sentence which I can call to mind where the words ' so as' are proper when speaking affirmative- ly, are those in which the last of the said words pre- cedes a verb in the Infinitive Mood. Moorfs J3ad English^. 139. Mr. Moon, though a discriminating critic, is guilty of ' bad English' in this sentence. Any scholar can see that the reference made by the relative adverb where is to the noun * sentence,' and, therefore, that the clause should be introduced by in which. Thus 'The only sentences which [better that] I can call to mind in which the words,' etc. 305. How This Relative Adverb must not be used in PRACTICAL SYNTAX OP THE ADVEKB. 113 introducing clauses unless the reference is to literal manner. Hence it can relate only to a verb, and can not relate to a noun. ILLUSTKATIOX. I do not know how it may be done. EXPLANATION. This is correct ; but we can not properly say, I know of no rule how it may be done. In all such cases, which, with its appro- priate preposition, must be used, thus : I know of no rule by which it may be done. There is another misuse of how illustrated by the following sentence : He said how he intended to buy a horse. Here it is plain that the proper con- nective is the conjunction that. i How that' and ' as how' are often wrong- ly used instead of that. 306. When... /.This Adverb can not refer to a specific noun ; it relates only to phrases, to clauses, or to statements. ILLUSTEATION. The time is approaching [statement] when we shall be free. EXPLANATION. This is correct; but we can not properly say 'The hour when we shall be free is approaching,' because in the latter form the refer- ence is to the specific noun 'hour.' In all such cases, which, with its ap- propriate preposition, must be used. 307. Whence hence thence. The preposition 'from' is fre- quently used before these adverbs, but this use is redundant, as direction from is implied in the adverbs themselves: whence being equal to from ivhere; hence from here ; thence =from there. 308. So A common misuse of this adverb is illus- trated by the following sentence : I will answer his letter so soon as I receive it. EXPLANATION. The proper use of so is to introduce a comparison of inequality. We say 'John is not so brave as James.' To introduce a, comparison of equality, we use as. Thus, John is as strong as James. The sentence above should read, I will answer his letter as soon as I re- ceive it. 'The Rose smells sweet/ 309. In sentences like the above, it is sometimes difficult to tell whether to use an adjective or an adverb. The principle is this : Neuter verbs can not take adverbs as their comple- ment; the complement of quality must belong to the subject, and consequently must be an adjective. In the sentence 'The rose smells sweet,' sweet denotes the quality of the rose. The sentence is equal to ; The rose is sweet.' 114 SYNTAX. EXPLANATION. We say,* Mary looks cold' [she is cold], because what we wish is, not to mark the manner of looking, but to denote a quality of Mary. If we change the neuter verb into a transitive verb by the addition of a preposition, and say, 'Mary looks on John coldly,' the expression 19 correct, because in this instance we wish to denote the manner of her look- ing-on, and not a quality of Mary. 310. Would you say c the velvet feels smooth ' or feels smoothly ? Would you say 'gutturals sound harshly ' or sound harsh f Would you say c the dog smells disagreeably P or ' smells disagreeable ?' Would you say she looks finely ' or ' looks -fine?* Double Negatives. 311. In English, two negatives are equal to an affirmative. Hence the rule : Two negatives must not be used when a neg- ative statement is intended. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. I have not done nothing. This means 'I have done something. 1 If you mean a negative, say 'I have done nothing,' or ; I have not done any thing.' 2. He has eaten no bread nor drunk no water these two days. EXPLANATION. The negative in nor (=not or), together with the word no before water, makes a double negative. Correct thus : He has eaten no bread and he has drunk no water ; or, He has neither eaten any bread not has he drunk any water, etc. 312. What does c I have not had no dinner' mean ? 313. But double negatives are elegantly used to express an affirmative in an indirect way. In place of saying, I am somewhat acquainted with his virtues, the sentence might be turned thus : I am not z^iacquainted with his virtues. The principal negative prefixes are un, dis, and in (with its variant forms t7, iff, im, i>, etc). Distribution of Adverbs. 314. When a sentence contains a number of adverbs and of adverbial phrases, they should be appropriately distributed in the sentence. ILLUSTRATION. Cromwell called a council of his chief officers secretly, at SYNTAX OP THE PREPOSITION. 115 Windsor, at the suggestion oflreton, to deliberate con- cerning the settlement of the nation. EXPLANATION. Here the adverbs and adverbial phrases are crowded to- gether in the centre. They should be distributed thus : At the suggestion oflreton, Cromwell secretly called a council of his chief officers at Wind- sor to deliberate concerning the settlement of the nation. Exercise 37. In the following sentences, see in how many different posi- tions you can place the ADVERBS, and tell what difference the change of position will make in the meaning of each sentence. 1. We used to see them very frequently. 2. Sometimes he returns home very late. 3. I really am not at all sorry. 4. We may probably go there to-morrow. 5. When I called at your house yesterday I left my stick behind me. 6. They set off early this morning for London. 7. We all dine out to-day. 8. He acted throughout with great discretion. 9. The winter is past ; already the trees and herbs begin to unfold their tender green. 10. At last he opened his mouth and spoke. 11. He resolved immediately to make an apology. 12. I went immediately to his assistance, and never shall I forget the scene. 6. Syntax of Prepositions. I. How TO PARSE THE PREPOSITION. 315. The Preposition is parsed according to the following formula : It links such and such a noun or pronoun [naming it] to such and such another word [naming if]. MODEL. Around the rugged rocks the ragged rascal ran. Around a preposition, linking the noun rocks to the verb ran. Exercise 38. Parse the PREPOSITIONS. 1. The smiling daisies blow beneath the sun. 2. We crossed the river by a bridge made of ropes. 3. They sat them down upon the yellow sand. 4. We visited the ruins of the great Thebes. 5. How fresh the meadows look above the river. 6. The mocking-bird loses little of its energy by confinement. 7. The deer across their greensward bound. 8. I saw a wearied man dismount from his hot steed. 9. She waited underneath the dawning hills. 10. The noise of battle rolled among the mountains by the winter sea. 11. The light white cloud swam over us. 12. Her tears fell with the dews at even. 116 SYNTAX. H PRACTICAL SYNTAX OP THE PREPOSITION. Position of Prepositions. 316. The usual position of prepositions (pre, before, and positiOy a placing) is before the words they govern. 317. But in poetry the preposition frequently follows the word it governs ; as, The rattling crags among. Byron. 318. The Preposition should not be separated by an interme- diate phrase from the word it governs. ' Appears Lausanne, with at its feet the little village of Ouchy,' should be ' with the little village,' etc. Repetition of Prepositions. 319. When the introductory correlative/ both/ ' either/ or 6 neither/ is followed by a preposition, that preposition must be repeated after the conjunctions 'and/ 'or/ or 'nor* in the suc- ceeding part of the sentence. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. This, in philosophical writing, has a disagreeable effect, both upon the memory and upon the understanding of the reader. 2. Mary is neither in the house nor in the garden. 3. We shall consider each of these three objects in versi- fication both with respect to the feet and the pauses. Murray's Grammar. EXPLANATION. This should be ' with respect both to the feet and to the pauses/ 4. Performing at the same time the offices both of the nominative and objective cases. EXPLANATION. This should be, 'performing at the same time the of- fices both of the nominative and of the objective case.' The article 'the' is repeated before the word objective in accordance with f 294 (2). 5. The choice of prefixes or suffixes is determined not merely by their meaning, but, etc. EXPLANATION. Better, The choice of prefixes or of suffixes, etc.; be- cause, when the correlative both, either, or neither, is plainly implied, the principle given above holds good. C. That is applied to persons as well as [to] things. EXPLANATION. The preposition used before the first of two nouns joined by the connective as well as, should be used before the second also. PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE PREPOSITION. 117 'Between' and 'Among.' 320. Between literally signifies by twain, that is, by twos. Hence it can not apply to more than two. We may say mother divided the apple between sister and me, but not be- tween John, James, and Martha. The preposition among or amongst is used to denote distribution applied to more than two. The booty was divided among the forty thieves. Rhetoric of Prepositions. 321. A statement is sometimes made effective by repeating the preposition before each word of a series. Thus, I will buy with you, sell with you, talk with you, walk with you ; but I will not eat with you, drink with you, nor pray with you. Shakspeare. Appropriate Prepositions. 322. There are many words that can be followed by but one preposition ; there are other words that admit different prepositions, the sense greatly varying with each. Care should be taken to select the preposition exactly adapted to express tho relation intended. 1. Making sense of itself. Murray's Grammar. Should be by itself. 2. In respect of time. Murray. Should be With respect to time. 3. When I was deliberating of what new qualifications I should aspire, should be, When I was deliberating with regard to what new, etc. Ask for. If he ask for bread, will he give him a stone? Bible. Ask from. We ask not such from thee. Hemans. Ask of. But of the never-dying soul ask things that can not die. Averse/row*. Because my nature was averse from life. Byron. Averse to. Averse to all innovation. Call at (a house). He ordered him to call at his house. Temple. Call back (retract). Will not call back his words. Bible. Call for (demand, claim). His majesty doth call for you. Shakspcarc. Call t (invite). Call in the powers, good cousin. Shakspeare. Call upon (pray). Call upon me in the day of trouble. Bible. Compare to (as illustration). He compared reason to the sun, and fancy to a meteor. Johnson. Compare with (in quality). Compare their condition with his own. Concur in (opinion). As if all my executors had concurred in the same. Swift. Concur with (a person). It is not evil simply to concur with the heathens. Hooker. 116 SYNTAX. IL PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE PREPOSITION. Position of Prepositions. 316. The usual position of prepositions (pre, before, and positio^ a placing) is before the words they govern. 317. But in poetry the preposition frequently follows the word it governs ; as, The rattling crags among. Byron. 318. The Preposition should not be separated by an interme- diate phrase from the word it governs. ' Appears Lausanne, with at its feet the little village of Ouchy,' should be ' with the little village,' etc. Repetition of Prepositions. 319. When the introductory correlative/ both/ ' either/ or 6 neither/ is follov/ed by a preposition, that preposition must be repeated after the conjunctions 'and/ 'or/ or 'nor* in the suc- ceeding part of the sentence. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. This, in philosophical writing, has a disagreeable effect, both upon the memory and upon the understanding of the reader. 2. Mary is neither in the house nor in the garden. 3. "We shall consider each of these three objects in versi- fication both with respect to the feet and the pauses. Murray's Grammar. EXPLANATION. This should be * with respect loth to the feet and to the pauses.' 4. Performing at the same time the offices both of the nominative and objective cases. EXPLANATION. This should be, * performing at the same time the of- fices both of the nominative and of the objective case.' The article 'the' is repeated before the word objective in accordance with ^294 (2). 5. The choice of prefixes or suffixes is determined not merely by their meaning, but, etc. EXPLANATION. Better, The choice of prefixes or of suffixes, etc.; be- cause, when the correlative both, either, or neither, is plainly implied, the principle given above holds good. C. That is applied to persons as well as [to] things. EXPLANATION. The preposition used before the first of two nouns joined by the connective as well as, should be used before the second also. PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE PEEPOSITIOX. 117 'Between' and 'Among.' 320. .Between literally signifies by twain, that is, by twos. Hence it can not apply to more than two. We may say mother divided the apple between sister and me, but not be- tween John, James, and Martha. The preposition among or amongst is used to denote distribution applied to more than two. The booty was divided among the forty thieves. Rhetoric of Prepositions. 321. A statement is sometimes made effective by repeating the preposition before each word of a series. Thus, I will buy loith you, sell with you, talk with you, walk with you ; but I will not eat with you, drink with you, nor pray with you. ShaJcspeare. Appropriate Prepositions. 322. There are many words that can be followed by but one preposition ; there are other words that admit different prepositions, the sense greatly varying with each. Care should be taken to select the preposition exactly adapted to express tho relation intended. 1. Making sense of itself. Murray's Grammar. Should be l>y itself. 2. In respect of time. Murray. Should be "With respect to time. 3. When I was deliberating of what new qualifications I should aspire, should be, When I was deliberating with regard to what new, etc. Ask for. If he ask for bread, will he give him a stone? Bible. Ask from. We ask not such from thee. Hemans. Ask of. But of the never-dying soul ask things that can not die. Averse/roTw. Because my nature was averse from life. Byron. Averse to. Averse to all innovation. Call at (a house). He ordered him to call at his house. Temple. Call back (retract). Will not call back his words. Bible. Call for (demand, claim). His majesty doth call for you. Shakspcarc. Call i (invite). Call in the powers, good cousin. Shakspeare. Call upon (pray). Call upon me in the day of trouble. Bible. Compare to (as illustration). He compared reason to the sun, and fancy to a meteor. Johnson. Compare with (in quality). Compare their condition with his own. Concur in (opinion). As if all my executors had concurred in the same. Swift. Concur with (a person). It is not evil simply to concur with the heathens. Hooker. 1 1 8 SYNTAX. Consist in (contain). Wit consists in such a resemblance and congruity, etc. Addison. Consist o/(made of). The land would consist of plains and valleys. Burnett. Consist with (agree). Health consists with temperance alone. Pope. Contend against (an obstacle). Contend against thy valor. Shakspeare. Contend with (a person). Neither contend with them. Bible. Copy after (an example). Several seemed to have copied after it. Copy from (as a painter). A painter copies from the life. Dry den. Defend (others) from. He defends thern/m/i danger. Defend (ourselves) against. The queen is able to defend herself against all her enemies. Swift. Die of (disease). She died of scarlet fever. Differ from (in quality). Nor how the hero differs from the brute. Differ with (in opinion). Those who differ with you in their sentiments. Addison. Disappointed in (what is had). He was disappointed in his friend. Disappointed o/*(what is not had). Than to be disappointed of what wo have only the expectation. Adam Smith. Divide amongst or among (three or more). Divide it amongst the men. Divide between (two). It was divided between her heart and lips. , Exception from (a rule or law). Exception to (rule or law). That proud exception to all nature's laws.-~ Pope. Indulge in (habitual). We indulge ourselves in the gratifications, etc. A tterbury. Indulge with (occasional). Lean against (a wall). Leaning against a pillar. Peacham. Lean on (a staff). I lean no more on superhuman aid. Byron. Lean to (an opinion). Leaning to either side. Watts. Lean to (bias). Leaned to virtue's side. Goldsmith. Listen for (expected sound). He listened for the traveler's tread. Listen to (present sound). Listen to the noise. Dennis. Live at a small town ; live in London ; live in France. My father lived at Blenheim then. Southey. Live at. Who live at home at ease. Dorset. Live in (state). He lived and died in poverty. Live upon (food). They live upon other animals. Arbuthnot. Live up to (rules). Live up to the dictates of reason. Addison. Live with (a person). Then live with me. Shakspeare. Look at (to regard). As if it looked at something. Sterne. "Look, for (what is lost or expected). Looked for death with the same ex pectation as for victory. Southey. Look on (see). I'll be candle-holder, and look on. Shakspeare. Look to (guard). Look well to thy herds. Bible. Look upon. Look not upon me thus reproachfully. Byron. Look up to (heaven). Let us look up to God. Bacon. Prevail on ^ Prevail upon > (persuade). Prevail upon some judicious friend. Swift. Prevail with ) Sink beneath (a sword). Worlds must sink beneath the stroke. Sink down (penetrate, faint). SYNTAX OF THE CONJUNCTION. 119 Sink into (into the sea or earth). He sinks into thy depths. Byron. Sink under (a burden). A nation sinking under its debts. Junius. Sink upon (ground, bosom). He sank upon my breast. Hemans. Start at (dreadful sight). He starts at sin. Dryden. Start from (a place). Shall start from every wave. Campbell. Start with (a companion). Start up (spring). Start up from the dead. Pope. Strive against J a person or ) Private pity strove with public hate. Dcr^ Strive with \ obstacle ) ham. Strive for (an object). Pretenders oft for empire strive. Dryden. Struggle for (an object). Struggle with (a person). Tasteybr (inclination). A taste for wit and sense. Swift. Taste of (morsel, flavor). The taste of it was like wafers. Weary in. Weary in well-doing. Weary o/"(task, duty). Society grown weary o/'the load. Cowper. Weary with. Not to be tueary with you. Shakspeare. Wait at (table). Made him wait at table. Swift. Waitybr (an expectation). And waited for his prey. Southey. Wait on (a person). I will wait on him. Shakspeare. 7. Syntax of the Conjunction. I. How TO PAUSE THE CONJUNCTION. 323. The Conjunction is thus parsed : It joins the statements [naming them] by joining such and such words (verbs, nouns), etc. [naming them]. MODEL. The day is fine and the sun shines. And a copulative conjunction, connects the two statements 'the day is fine,' ' the sun shines.' Wisdom is better than gold. Tfian a conjunction, connects the subordinate elliptical statement * Gold [is],' with the statement 'Wisdom is better.' 324. In disposing of the correlative conjunctions 'both and,' ' neither nor,' ' though yet,' ' as as,' ' so that,' say that the former of the pair serves to introduce the connection made by the other. Exercise 39. Parse the CONJUNCTIONS. 1. He has some money, but you have none. 2. 'Twas noon, And Helon knelt beside a stagnant pool In the lone wilderness. 3. The trees have lost their foliage because autumn has come. 4. Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull. 120 SYNTAX. 5. The boy breathes so very hard that we find it impossible to sit. 6. Neither the horse nor the carriage was injured. II. PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE CONJUNCTION. NOTE. The Syntax of Conjunctions has been treated incidentally in connection with other parts of speech. Conjunctions have very little syn- tax of their own. They indeed exercise an important influence over words associated with the words that they conjoin ; but this influence has already been considered under the Verb, the Adjective, etc. The following aye the principal points relating to conjunctions themselves: 'And/ or 'Or/ 325. The Copulative and is sometimes wrongly used in place of the Disjunctive or. Also, or is often misused for and. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. It is obvious that a language like the Greek and Latin, etc. EXPLANATION. Here the fit conjunction is * or.' Moreover, in accord- ance with the principle stated in *j[ 294: (2), the definite article should be re- peated with the second noun. The expression correctly written stands thus : It is obvious that a language like the Greek or the Latin, etc. 2. A perfect alphabet of the English language, and, in- deed, of every other language, would contain a num- ber of letters precisely equal to the number of single articulate words belonging to the language. Mur- ray* s Grammar. EXPLANATION. The same error is found here. The author should have written, A perfect alphabet of the English language, or, indeed, of any other language, would, etc. 3. Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns. EXPLANATION. The conjunction l and' would here better serve to make the connection intended : 4 Relate to nouns and to pronouns.' 'Or' its double use. 326. The conjunction or has two uses its use in joining two parts of an alternative, and its use in uniting synonyms. Christ or John the Baptist Christ, or (what is another per- son) John the Baptist; Christ, or. the Messiah = Christ, or (what is the same person) the Messiah. In the language of law, the latter use of or is expressed by alias (literal- ly, at another time); as, Heenan, alias the Benicia Boy. PEACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE CONJUNCTION. 121 ' and 'Not nor/ 327. When, of two members that are disjoined, the first is a negative, the contrast may be mad^ either by or or by nor. Thus, The king, whose character was not sufficiently vigor- ous, nor [or or] decisive, assented to the measure. flume. The nor is more emphatic, as it repeats the negative of the first term. ' So that,' 328. In constructions requiring that as the correlative of 50, the relative pronoun who should not be used in place of the conjunctions 'that' or 'as.' ILLUSTRATION. At Bunker Hill there was no one so sanguine but who feared defeat. EXPLANATION. * Who' can not fill the office of a correlative to 'so. 1 Either * that' or ' as' should be employed. Thus, ' There was no one so sanguine that he did not fear defeat,' or, 'no one so sanguine as not to fear defeat.' ' Doubt/ ' but/ or ' that.' 329. The verb doubt is followed by either that or but. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. I can not doubt that I have contributed something to the general literature of my country. Hallam. 2. It is not doubted but the bishops were constituent members of this council. Hume. CAUTION. Be careful not to follow ' doubt' by ' but that' or 'but what. 1 'As as,' 'EC as.' 330. 'As as' is used in affirmative comparison; c so as' in negative comparison. EXAMPLE : Mine is as good as yours ; but his is not so good as either. 'And and,' 'nor nor.' 331. In poetry, c and and' is often used for c both and;' 4 nor nor' for * neither nor.' EXAMPLE : And trump and timbrel answered keen. Scott. I, whom nor avarice nor pleasure moves. 'Neither nor;' 'Either or;' ' Whether or.' 332. These may be called alternative conjunctions. An al- ternative is a choice between two, and only two : hence these F 122 SYNTAX. conjunctions must not be used to unite more than two terms. 'Either or' denotes one thing with a choice of another; ' neither' means simply not either ; * whether or' means lit- erally which of the two or. This principle is constantly lost sight of. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. These rules should be kept in mind as aids either for speaking, composing, or parsing correctly. MorreWs Grammar. EXPLANATION. Incorrect. Kectify it by omitting the ' either.' 2. Neither in France, in Spain, in Italy, nor in Germany, is this false and absurd appellation in use. Cobbetfs Grammar. Correct thus : "This false and absurd appellation is not in use in France, Spain, Italy, or Germany.' 'Now.' 333. There is a peculiar use of the adverb 'now,' that ren- ders it in certain cases a conjunction. EXAMPLE : He was promised a holiday if he executed his task ; now, he has done the task ; hence he is entitled to the holiday. Connection of Terms. 334. Any two terms connected by a conjunction should be the same in kind or quality, not different or heteroge- neous. ILLUSTKATIONS. 1. Macaulay wrote the history of England with the two- fold purpose of clearing the name of the Whigs from the charges made by Hume, and to set forth the real life of the English people. EXPLANATION. Notice the two expressions joined by the conjunction 'and.' 'The purpose of clearing the name,' etc., and 'the purpose [un- derstood] to set forth, ' etc. The two terms are different or heterogeneous the one being a participial construction, the other an infinitive construc- tion, and accordingly the sentence violates the rule. Correct it thus : The purpose of clearing the name, etc., and of setting forth the real life, etc. 2. There are many persons who have the means of doing good, but have not the desire to do good. EXPLANATION. This sentence produces an unpleasant effect, owing to the fact that the two phrases of doing and to do are not of the same kind, but are heterogeneous. The sentence may be better constructed thus : Many persons have the means of doing good, but have not the desire of doing good ; or, better still, Many persons have the means, without the de- sire, of doing good. PKACTICAL SYNTAX OP THE CONJUNCTION. 123 3. I would do as much or more work than John. EXPLANATION. This is a somewhat complicated blunder; let us see if we can detect exactly where the fault lies. The sentence makes, in point of fact, two statements : (1.) 'I would do as much work than John' (we must supply the 'than/ because it is expressed in the second member). (2.) 'I would do more work than John.' But ' as much than' is incorrect, since the compound conjunction is ' as much as. ' The way to turn such a sentence is to say, ' I would do as much work as John, or more.' 4. The happy historian has no other labor than \ of gath- ering what tradition pours down before him. EXPLANATION. In this sentence the conjunction than connects what terms ? The terms l other labor' and ' of gathering. ' But these are of wholly different kinds or qualities. The sentence is corrected by supplying the pronoun * that' to correspond with the term l other labor.' Thus The happy historian has no other labor than that of gathering what tradition pours down before him. Ellipsis of Conjunctions. 335. Some conjunctions are often properly suppressed. Such are : 1. And and or before all but the last of several words, phrases, or clauses of the same kind in a series, and in the elevated style of writing, even before the last. EXAMPLE : Science has now left her retreats, [and] her shades, [and] her selected company of votaries. 2. Either before or, and neither before nor. EXAMPLE : None of them [either] returned his gaze, or seemed to notice it. Dickens. 3. That when the connecting word between the principal member and the dependent proposition of a sentence. EXAMPLE : But Brutus says [that] he was ambitious. Shakspeare. " You're sure [that] you did not, sir," said Mr. Winkle. DicJtens. 4. Yet after though. EXAMPLE. Though he fall, [yet] he shall not be utterly cast down. The Rhetoric of Conjunctions, 336. A rhetorical effect maybe produced by omitting con- junctions. In like manner, a rhetorical effect is produced by supplying conjunctions where they would ordinarily be omit- ted. In each case it is departure from the common practice that produces the effect. 124 SYNTAX. ILLUSTRATION Conjunction omitted. Through many a dark and dreary vale They passed, and many a region dolorous ; O'er many a frozen, many a fiery Alp, Rocks, caves, lakes, fens, bogs, dens, and shades of death, A universe of death. Milton. ILLUSTRATION Conjunctions in full. Seasons return, but not to me returns Day, or the sweet approach of even or morn, Or sight of vernal bloom, or summer's rose, Or flocks, or herds, or human face divine. Milton. 8. Syntax of Moods and Tenses. '!F HE is' and 'Ip HE BE.' 337. It is sometimes difficult to tell whether to use the In- dicative or the Subjunctive Mood when the verb is preceded by a conditional conjunction ; that is, to know whether to say if he be or if he is> if he love or if he loves. 338. The rule is that, whenever one of the potential auxil- iaries, 'may,' 'can,' 'would,' 'should,' is understood, or the future auxiliary 'shall,' the subjunctive form may be used. NOTE. (a) The potential auxiliary is understood when doubt or contin- gency is implied. Review what is said on the real nature of the Subjunc- tive Mood, 1 157-160. (6) The choice between the Indicative and the so-called Subjunctive Mood has long been a matter of great practical difficulty. It is believed that the above treatment of the subjunctive as an elliptical form of the Po- tential will serve to make the matter at least a little more intelligible. The tendency of modern usage is wholly to disregard the niceties of the Sub- junctive Mood, and it seems probable that this form will in time wholly disappear from our language. The irregular verb to be is the only verb retaining any thing like full inflection of the Subjunctive Mood. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. EXPLANATION. In this sentence 's%' is rightly in the Subjunctive Mood, and the indicative slays would be wrong. Putting the sentence in the regular or common order, it will stand, I will trust in him, though he [may] slay me. Since ' may' is understood, we must use slay [the Subjunctive Mood], since to say may slays would be absurd. 2. If he believes in the law of charity, he does not prac- tice it. EXPLANATION. In this sentence, it is plain that there is no contingency implied, for we can not suppry a potential auxiliary, and say 'if he [may] SYNTAX OP MOODS AND TENSES. 125 believe.' The statement is assumed as a fact, and is equivalent to 'If he does believe in the law of charity, he does not practice it.' Hence the con- ditional form of the Indicative Mood is correctly used after the conjunc- tion if. Whenever the Indicative auxiliary does or do can be supplied, the Indicative Mood is required after the Conditional Conjunctions. Remember that the Conjunctions ' if,* ' though,' l but,' i unless, 1 etc., are not signs of the Subjunctive Mood. They may be used with either the In- dicative or the Subjunctive Mood, the sense determining which should be em- ployed. 3. If he thinks as he speaks, he may safely be trusted. EXPLANATION. If he speaks =if he does speak, not If he may speak. Hence the Indicative is correctly used. 4. He acts uprightly unless he deceives me. EXPLANATION. This does not mean unless he may deceive me, but un- less he does deceive me. Hence the Indicative is used. 5. If he see the signal he will answer. EXPLANATION. This means if he shall see, or if he should see; hence the subjunctive is the proper form. If the sentence meant if he does see, the indicative form, if he sees, would be used. 6. If it were [it should be] done, when 'tis done, Then 'twere [it would be] well it were [it should be] done quickly. Shakspe&re. THE USE OF TENSES. 339. In constructing a sentence, the tense of the verb fitted to express the exact meaning should be employed. The ap- plication of this principle will be seen by the following illus- trations : Present Infinitive. 1. Last week I intended to have written him a letter. EXPLANATION. This is a very common form of expression, but it is in- correct. No matter how long it now is since I thought of writing, to write was present to me when I intended, and must still be considered present when I recall the intention. The sentence should be, Last week I intended to write a letter. 2. I expected last year to have gone to Europe on busi- ness. EXPLANATION. For the same reason as before given, this sentence should read, I expected last year to go to Europe on business. 3. When I went to Europe I hoped to have visited Italy. EXPLANATION. For the same reason as before given, this sentence should be, I hoped to visit, etc. 4. It is a long time since I commanded him to have done it. EXPLANATION. This sentence is formed on the model of the three fore- 126 SYNTAX. going sentences. It will readily be seen that it is absurd, but it is no worse than the others are. 340. The following rule applies to sentences like the above : All verbs expressing~hope, desire, intention, or command, must be followed by the Present Infinitive, and not by the Perfect In- finitive. Perfect Infinitive. 1. Bishop Usher believed the earth to have been created 4004 B.C. EXPLANATION. Here it is evident that the Perfect Infinitive is correct- ly used, the sentence being equivalent to * Bishop Usher believed that the earth was created 4004 B.C. the creation being a past event at the time Bishop Usher formed his opinion. 2. Alexander considered the battle of the Granicus to have been won by the charge of the Macedonian phalanx. Here the act spoken of is regarded as having been completed before the time when he considered. 341. These illustrations show that the Perfect Infinitive is used if the act spoken of is regarded as completed before the time expressed by the verb with which it is connected. igiT It is evident from these examples that whether the Present Infini- tive, is to be used or the Perfect Infinitive depends on the idea to be con- veyed. HAEMOXY OF TENSES. 342. A proper harmony and correspondence of Tenses must bs observed. ILLUSTEATIONS. 1. I shall be much gratified if you would favor us with your company. EXPLANATION. A proper harmony requires the future indicative, c will favor,' not the past potential, ' would favor.' 2. I feared that I should have missed the train before I reached the depot. EXPLANATION. This is equivalent to ' at that time [past] I feared that I should miss [future] the train before I reached the depot. Hence the sen- tence should read, I feared that I should miss the train before I reached the depot. 3. I can not excuse the carelessness of the officer whose duty it was to have watched the enemy's approach. It should be to watch. 4. Columbus believed that the earth was spherical. EXPLANATION. Here ivas should be is, because it is not the intention SYNTAX OP MOODS AND TENSES. 127 to state that the roundness of the earth was a fact of the past ; it is an im- mutable truth, and the rule is that such statements must always be made in the present tense. 5. If you are not careful, you might fall overboard. The proper tense is l may fall. ' 6. I know him for more than ten years. Say have known. 7. Nor has it ever been seriously undertaken, until it was commenced, within the last ten years, by the Lon- don Philological Society. The present perfect tense is here wrongly used. It should be, Nor was it ever seriously undertaken, etc., or else, Nor had it ever been, etc. Correct the following: 1. By letters dated May 3d, we learn that the West India fleet arrived safely. 2. I have lost the game, though I thought I should have won it. 3. The next New-Year's day I shall be at school three years. ELLIPSIS OF VEKBS. 343. The following sentences illustrate a common blunder in the ellipsis of parts of compound verbs : 1. This elucidation may serve for almost any book that has, is, or shall be published. Bolingbroke. EXPLANATION. 'Published,' the past participle of the verb publish, is correctly used with ' shall be ;' its ellipsis with ' is' is proper ; but the ellip- sis with * has' is not correct, because the writer intended to say has been published, using the present perfect tense, passive voice. 344. Hence the rule : When two or more Compound Tenses of the same Verb are connected, such parts of the Tenses as are not common to all must be inserted in full. 2. Did he not tell you his fault, and entreated you to for- give him ? EXPLANATION. The two verbs here connected are 'did tell' and 'en- treated;' but, supplying the ellipsis before the second verb, we have 'did he not entreated,' which is incorrect, as ' did' is never used with a past par- ticiple. The sentence fully corrected is, 'Did he not tell you his fault, and did he not entreat you to forgive him ?' It is allowable to drop the aux- iliary before the second verb if the verb is put into a form to harmonize with the auxiliary ; hence we may say, ' Did he not tell you his fault, and entreat,' etc. Hence the rule : When Verbs are connected by a Conjunc- tion, never make an ellipsis of an auxiliary used before the first Verb if the after forms of the Verb will not harmonize with the auxiliary when supplied. 128 SYNTAX. SHALL AND WILL. c I will drown ; nobody shall help me.' The unfortunate foreigner that fell into a river, not understanding En- glish idioms, exactly reversed the places of shall and will when he made use of this exclamation. He meant to say, I shall drown [t. e. , I expect to drown], because nobody will help me. ' 345. The correct and elegant use of shall and will is one of the most difficult things in the English language for a for- eigner to learn. Correct usage, indeed, is often violated by those that speak and write English as their mother tongue. 346. Shall and will are the two auxiliaries by which we ex- press our future tense, the English language having no dis- tinct and separate forms of the verb to express mere future time ; but each of these auxiliaries has its own specific shade of meaning besides that of futurity, arid hence arise many nice distinctions in their peculiar and appropriate uses. Shall etymologically means to owe, or to be morally bound. It is traced back in its origin to the Gothic skal, which meant I have killed, and thence I owe the penalty. Chaucer writes, * By the faith I shall to God,' meaning i I owe to God. ' WILL means to wish, or to be willing. Etymologically, then, SHALL implies obligation or necessity, and WILL implies wish, con- sent, or volition. Case I. Futurity, ii You ) ,j 7 > shall write. He > will write. They) 347. The reason of the preceding use of shall in the first person, and will in the second and third persons, seems to be this : When a person says, c I shall write a letter,' he express- es his own obligation to write ; but he expresses the obliga- tion of another person more deferentially and delicately by referring to that person's wish rather than to obligation. It is a form of grammatical politeness. 348. The misuse of^wiU instead of shall in the first person, denoting mere futurity, is common in many parts of our country; thus: 6 In a century hence we will [shall] be a great and power- ful people.' Newspaper. c We will [shall] undoubtedly elect our candidate by a large majority.' Newspaper. The same rule of courtesy is the reason why shall is not always used in the first person plural. When we means he and I, it is followed by shall; SYNTAX OF MOODS AND TENSES. 129 but when it means you and /, the courteous and deferential will takes the place of shall. If the speaker puts himself in the third person he will not use shall ; as, * Mr. Brown will be glad of Mr. Smith's company at dinner to-day,' or,* Dear Smith,! shall be glad of your company to-day at dinner.' Case II. Determination, Command. I ) You ) ,, r > will write. He V shall write. They) 349. 'We will write' may mean 'We promise to write,' or it may express our determination to write. In either case will retains its proper force, to wish, to resolve, to consent. ' You shall write' means ' I have power over you, and I am determined to force you to write ;' i. e. 9 I will you to write. - In the two common forms of polite speech, * I shall be obliged to you' and ' I will thank you,' the auxiliaries are rightly placed, and ought not to be reversed. * I shall be greatly obliged to you' foretells an obligation in the future for which I ought to thank you, and 'I will thank you' expresses my intention or my promise to thank you. ' I will be greatly obliged to you' and 'I shall thank you' are inelegant and ungrammatical. Case III -Asking Questions. Shall I write ? Will you write ? Shall we write ? Will he or they write ? 350. The usual form in interrogative sentences is shall in the first person, and will in the others, but it can not be laid down as an invariable rule to reverse the declarative forms. Thus we say, 'Will you go?' or 'Shall you go?' The first form implies a request; the second form, intention. 351. In asking a question we generally use the form of ex- pression in which we expect the answer to be given. If I say ' Shall you go to school to-morrow ?' [Do you intend to go to school to-morrow ?], I expect the answer from you 1 1 shalV [I intend to go]. If I expect a promise, I say, * Will you write a composition ?' and ex- pect the promise 'I will.' It is a piece of good manners, a part of gram- matical courtesy. 4 You will go to school to-morrow' may be said affirmatively even, with the rising inflection, and then the answer expected is 'I will,' or ' I will not/ The expression 'You will go to school to-morrow, shall you not?' may seem to be redundant, but it is quite correct. ERRORS IN VERBS. 352. The following are some of the most common vulgar- isms in the use of verbs. 1. 1 done [did] my example in arithmetic correctly. Why is this an error ? Correct it, and be careful not to use so gross a vulgarism either in talking or in writing. F2 1 30 SYNTAX. 2. I seen him when he done it. What are the two vulgarisms here used ? 3. Where is Alice ? She has went [gone] to echool. Why does this jar on the ear of every cultivated person ? 4. Hadn't [had not] I ought to do it ? Had is never used as an auxiliary of ought* You should say l Ought I not to do it ?' . 5. He dorft believe it. EXPLANATION. Don't is a contraction of do not, but it would be incor- rect to say, He do not. Hence the form should be does not, or by colloquial contraction, doesn't. The same objection may not hold as against 4 I don't,' but it is certainly more elegant to say I do not, and the expression should always be so written. 6. ^Tisrtt a wasp. Itfs John that goes to school. EXPLANATION. 'JYs and it's are not commendable forms for it is. Though allowable in conversation, they should not be used in written com- position. 4 'Tis' is a poetic license, as, 'Twas mine, 'tis his, and has been slave to thousands. Shakspeare. 1. I have not done it yet, but I mean to. EXPLANATION. To omit the infinitive after to is a very faulty con- struction ; and though in ordinary conversation this ellipsis often occurs, it is not allowable in accurate writing. Either repeat the verb or supply its place by do or do so. *I have not done it yet, but I mean to do it.' ' You may take a walk, if you like.' Better thus : 'You may take a walk, if you like to do so.' { Is BEING DONE.' 353. Forms like the above are felt to be very awkward. The house is being built. It has been being built many months, are such disagreeable phrases, through the repetition of the verb be, that we avoid them when possible. It is common even to say the house is building, or has been building, as if build were an intransitive verb. But this is not strictly cor- rect. The old English expression, It is a-building (at build- ing, 'in the process of building'), is preferable, though seldom used. We must choose among the following forms of ex- pression : The house has been many months a building (which is good old Saxon English) ; The house has been many months building (perhaps el- liptical for the above, but in itself incorrect) ; The house has been many months being built (which is correct, but intolerably awkward). SYNTAX OF MOODS AND TENSES. 131 Or we must vary the expression by saying, They have been many months building the house ; Or, The house has been many months in course (or pro- cess) of building. Exercise 39. The following sentences illustrate a great variety of FAULTS OF SYNTAX. The pupil, in correcting these sentences^ is to ap- ply the principles heretofore learned: 1. This is very easy done. 2. The great historian and the essayist is no more. 3. It could not have been her. 4. Did you see the man and the dog which passed this way ? 5. I intend to immediately retire from business. 6. I think I will return home next week. 7. He seldom or ever visits us. 8. It is thinking makes what we read ours. 9. The death was announced lately of the great statesman. 10. Who are you looking for ? 11. The collection of books that have come down to us from that period are very valuable. 1 2. I expected to have been at home when you called. 13. It was him and me that were chosen to go. 14. When will we three meet again? 15. He not only ought, but must succeed. 16. I never saw it rain so heavy before. 17. His work is one of the best that has ever appeared. 18. It has been said that politics are but little more than common sense. 19. Metal types were now introduced, which before this time had been made of wood. 20. No man ever bestowed such a gift to his kind. 21. The book is fitted either for school or private use. 22. This is one of the most memorable battles that ever have or will be fought. 23. All thinking men believe that the soul was immortal. 24. He found he had lost his sight, and was led from the battle-field by a soldier. 25. It is now five days since you have arrived. 26. I trust you shall overlook the circumstance of me having come to school late. 27. The regiment had no less than a hundred men fell in the engagement. 28. What is the difference between an adjective and participle ? 29. These flowers smell veiy sweetly and look beautifully. 30. Have you no other book but this ? 31. He is only fitted to govern others who can govern himself. 32. The spirit, and not the letter, of the law are what we ought to follow. 33. This one seems more preferable than the other. 34. The inscription gave the name and age of the deceased.merely. 85. Once upon a time there lived a poor man who had two sons, near a wood. 132 SYNTAX. 86. I found the knight under the butler's hands who always shaved him. 37. Flour will not do to make our bread alone. 38. No one in England knew what tea was two hundred years ago. 39. The man could neither read or write. 40. The Book of Psalms were written by David. 41. That building must be either a church or school. 42. Here come my old friend and teacher. 43. The minute finger and the hour hand has each its particular use. 44. Which of that group of men is the taller ? 45. What boy amongst us can foretell their future career ? 46. She walked with the lamp across the room still burning. 47. An account of the great events in all parts of the world are given in the daily papers. 48. I shall not trouble any reader, being studious of brevity, with all the curiosities I observed. 49. Ifiwere in his position,! would not have gone. 50. They would neither eat themselves nor suffer nobody else to eat. 51. Wild horses are caught with a lasso, or a noose. 52. Did you expect to have heard so poor a speech ? 53. I can not give you no more money. 54. Am I the scholar who am to be punished. 55. There were a large number of soldiers killed and wounded. 56. We did no more but what we ought to. 57. We have done no more than it was our duty to have done. 58. He is a man of remarkable clear intellect. 59. He showed me two kinds, but I did not buy any of them. CO. I never have nor never will forgive him. 61. Every one is the best judge of their own conscience. 62. They told me of him having failed. 63. I understand why the water never rises high quite well. 64. He has already, and will continue to receive many honors. 65. A dervise was met by two merchants traveling alone in a desert. 66. One species of bread of coarse quality was only allowed to be baked. 67. The party whom he invited was very numerous. 68. It is now about four hundred years since the art of multiplying books has been discovered. 69. An officer on European and on Indian service are in very different sit- uations. 70. The doctor said in his lecture that fever always produced thirst. 71. Alarmed by so unusual an occurrence, it was resolved to postpone their departure. 72. The Annals of Florence are a most imposing work. 73. Such expressions sound harshly. 74. What can be the cause of the Parliament neglecting so important a business ? 75. Either you or I are in the way. 76. He would not be persuaded but what I was greatly in fault. 77. I do not think that leisure of life and tranquillity of mind, which for- tune and your own wisdom has given you, could be better employed. 78. That is seldom or ever the case. 79. The fact of me being a stranger to him does not justify his conduct. 80. Let me awake the King of Morven, he that is like the sun of heaven rising in a storm. SYNTAX OF MOODS AND TENSES. 133 81. Either the young man or his guardian have acted improperly. 82. I had several men died in my ship of yellow fever. 83. The following treatise, together with those that accompany it, were written many years ago. 84. A talent of this kind would perhaps prove the likeliest of any other to succeed. 85. The ends of a divine and human legislation are very different. 86. On your conduct at this moment depends the color and complexion of their destiny. 87. I have never seen Major Cartwright, much less enjoy the honor of his acquaintance. 88. I am afraid of the man dying before a doctor can come. 89. That is either a man or a woman's voice. 90. Man, though he has great variety of thoughts, yet they are all within his own breast. 91. The ebb and flow of the tides were explained by Newton. 92. And indeed in some cases we derive as much or more pleasure from that source than from any thing else. 93. The number of inhabitants were not more than four millions. 94. The logical and historical analysis of a language generally in some de- gree coincides. 95. But she fell a laughing like one out of their right mind. 9G. Verse and prose run into one another like light and shade. 97. Homer had the greatest invention of any writer whatever. 98. Of all the other qualities of style, clearness is the most important. 99. That is applied to persons as well as things. 100. The maps are clear, attractive in appearance, and not encumbered with minute details calculated only to embarrass the learner, ex- cept the reference maps, which are very full and complete. PART III. ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. DEFINITION. 354. Analysis is resolving sentences into their component parts. The building up of sentences according to these principles is called Synthesis or Construction. NOTE. Analysis is a sort of general syntax (being equally applicable to all languages), and in this text-book it is made to follow the Special Syntax of our own tongue. To analyze well-written sentences into their constitu- ent parts is the best means of understanding how to write correctly our- selves. As in Chemistry, so in Grammar, there are two processes, Analysis and Synthesis. The former resolves a compound into its elements ; the latter puts elementary substances together to form a compound. And as the chemist takes a substance to pieces, and thus learns what elements go to its formation, so the grammarian analyzes a sentence into its element- ary parts. Then, too, as the chemist combines substances, so the gram- marian puts words together synthetically. CHAPTER I 1. Sentences. 355. A Sentence is a complete thought expressed by means either of one proposition or of several propositions. Practically a sentence embraces all the words between two full stops. 356. A Proposition is the statement of a single fact by means of one subject and of one predicate. 357. Propositions are of two kinds: 1. Principal containing the leading statement or state- ments of the sentence. 2. Dependent containing the subordinate statement or statements of the sentence. NOTE. The term CLAUSE, whenever used in this book, is synonymous with dependent proposition. 358. Sentences are divided into Simple, Complex, and Com- pound. 1. A Simple sentence consists of a single proposition. 2. A Complex sentence consists of one principal proposi- tion, together with one or more dependent proposi- tions. SENTENCES. 135 3. A Compound sentence consists of two or more prin- cipal propositions. ILLUSTRATIONS OF SENTENCES. 1. Simple Sentence. C I hear thee speak of the better land.' c At daybreak, all fears were dispelled.' 2. Complex Sentence. 'When morning dawned [depend- ent proposition], all fears were dispelled' [principal proposition]. 3. Compound Sentence. ' Morning having dawned^ ALL FEAKS WEKE DISPELLED; and WE SAW THE LAND WITHIN A FEW LEAGUES OF US.' Each principal proposition of a Compound Sentence may have one de- pendent proposition or several dependent propositions attached to it. Such a sentence is a sort of composite compound sentence. EXAMPLE : ' When morning dawned all fears were dispelled ; and we saw the land for which we had so eagerly watched within a few leagues of us.' NOTES. NOTE I. The number of propositions in a sentence will he determined by the number of verbs it contains. NOTE II. The kind of any proposition will generally be determined by the word which introduces it. All propositions introduced by Relative Pronouns, or Relative Adverbs, or Subordinate Conjunctions, are Depend- ent. NOTE III. Every sentence must contain one principal proposition at least, but may contain any number of principal propositions. NOTE IV. It must not be supposed that a Simple sentence necessarily consists of only a few words. No matter how many qualifying or explan- atory terms a sentence may contain, if it has but one subject and one pred- icate, it is a Simple sentence. ' Jesus wept' is a Simple sentence contain- ing two words -, the following is also a Simple sentence, though containing sixty-two words : 'About fourscore years ago there USED TO BE SEEN sauntering on the pleasant terraces of Sans Souci, for a short time in the afternoon, or driv- ing in a rapid, business manner on the open roads, or through the scraggy woods and avenues of that intricate, amphibious Potsdam region, a higbly interesting lean, little old MAN, of alert, though slightly stooping figure.' Carlyle's Frederick the Great. NOTE V. It may aid the scholar in discriminating between Compound and Complex sentences to remember that in Compound sentences the parts are joined by^ co-ordinate conjunctions [see ^ 83]; in Complex by subordinate conjunctions. In Compound sentences the numbers are mere- ly put together (cum and pono~), while in Complex sentences they are woven together (cum and plecto'). 136 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. Kinds of Sentences. 359. Sentences may be thus classified as to the form they take 1. The Sentence Assertiv e or Declarative ; as, Gold is yel- low (affirmative). The man has not come (negative). 2. The Sentence Interrogative; as, Have you any bread/ 3. The Sentence Imperative; as, Go lack to your place. 4. The Sentence Exclamatory / z^How softly the moon shines ! NOTE. The Assertive or Declarative form being the main type, of all sentences, this form will be used throughout in analysis. The same prin- ciples that apply to the Declarative form apply also to all the other forms. The Order of a Sentence. 360. The order of a sentence may be direct or inverted ; and in resolving a sentence that is, in showing the elements that enter into its construction it is necessary to reduce it from the inverted to the direct form ; thus : Inverted. Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight. ^ . ( The glimmering landscape fades on the sight now ; or, ec ' ( The glimmering landscape now fades on the sight. Inverted. Thee the voice, the dance obey. Direct. The voice, the dance obey thee. Inverted. Slow melting strains their queen's approach declare. Direct. Slow melting strains declare their queen's approach. 2. Elements of a Sentence. 361. Every sentence must contain an independent subject and an independent predicate. These are the essential ele- ments of a sentence. 362. The Predicate is that part of the sentence that makes a statement. 363. The Subject is that about which the statement is made. NOTE. By this definition we may always test whether or not an assem- blage of words is a sentence. EXAMPLES : * Sailing in a steamer to Eu- rope;' *A design which has never been completed.' The first example contains neither subject nor predicate. The second has both subject and predicate, but they are not independent, as the relative ' which' converts what would otherwise be a principal sentence into a dependent proposi- tion. 364. A Phrase is an element of a sentence not having a subject or a predicate, but introduced by a preposition, a par- ticiple, or an infinitive. SENTENCES. 137 ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. 'Washington retreated into New Jersey? (Phrase in- troduced by a preposition.) 2. ''Having crossed the Delaware, Washington's army was safe.' (Phrase introduced by & participle.) 3. ' To attack the British was Washington's next object.' (Phrase introduced by an infinitive.) 365. In addition to the essential elements of a sentence, there are two subordinate elements the adjective element, and the adverbial element. 366. An Adjective element may be 1. A single word (adjective or noun) ; as, c Wise men think rightly.' 'Milton, the poet, wrote Paradise Lost.' 2. A phrase; as, 'Men of wisdom think rightly.' 'The Secretary of Oliver Cromwell wrote Paradise Lost.' 3. A clause; as, 'Men who possess wisdom think rightly.' 367. An Adverbial element may be 1. A single word (adverb) ; as, 'He acts wisely? 2. A phrase; as, 'He acts with wisdom? 3. A clause; as, ' He acts as a wise man should act? 368. All sentences, however elaborate and lengthy, may be resolved into these four elements : I. Subject. IT. Predicate. III. Adjective Element IV. Adverbial Element. 3. What the Subject may be. 369. The Subject of a sentence may be 1. A Noun or a Pronoun; as, 'Buckle wrote a History of Civilization.' 'He was an Englishman.' 2. A Phrase; as, 'JVbt to know me argues yourselves unknown.' Mil- ton. 'Riding on horseback is good exercise.' 3. A Noun- Clause; zs,'That the earth is spherical was not known by the ancient Greeks;' 'That you have wronged me doth appear in this.' Shakspeare. 138 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 4. What the Predicate may be. 370. The Predicate may be either a Complete verb, or an Incomplete verb and its complement. 371. A complete verb makes sense in itself; as, 'Time flies;' ' Time will have fled /' ' Bread is eaten.' In Complete verbs the predicate and the verb coincide ; that is, they are one and the same thing. A Complete verb does not necessarily consist of a single word. It may be any of the forms of the verb found in its conju- gation. Thus will have fled is the future perfect of 4 fly.' 372. An Incomplete verb becomes a predicate by means of one of the kinds of complements. For the definition of Complement, review T 63. 373. The complement may be I. The direct object of a transitive verb. ILLUSTEATIOXS. 1. ' Greene defeated Cornwallis? In this sentence it is evident that * Cornwallis' is an essential part of the predicate, as no thought is expressed until we specify whom Greene defeat- ed. The same fact holds true of all transitive verbs. The complement of a transitive verb is what is usually termed the object. Some text-books make it a subordinate element of a sentence. 2. 'He expected to go to school.' 'He stopped reciting his lesson. 9 The first is a phrase introduced by an infinitive ; the second, a phrase introduced by the verbal in -ing, equivalent to an infinitive. 3. 'Talleyrand said that the purpose of language is to con- ceal thought.' Here the complement is a clause. NOTE 1. There are certain classes of verbs which, in order to express their full sense, require an indirect as well as a direct object; thus 1. 'Murray taught me [indirect object^] grammar* [direct object]. 2. 'Columbus told the Council [indirect object] that he could sail to the Indies'* [direct object, clause]. NOTE 2. Certain verbs take as their complement two objects, both of which are direct; thus 'The people elected Andrew JacJcson [obj.] President* The usual explanation is to call the two objects respectively the inner and the outer object ; but some grammarians prefer the term factitive predicate for the second object. SENTENCES. 139 4. ' We expected Mm to go to school 9 He was expected to go to schooL Here ' to go to school,' a part of the object, in the active voice, becomes the indirect complement of the verb 'was expected, ' in the passive. 5. ' We told him to wait 9 ['to wait,' the direct, and 'him 1 the indirect object of ' told']. 'He was told to wait 9 [indirect object of ' was told']. II. Various predicate attributes of a subject used with the verb 'to be.' ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. 'Man is mortal 9 [complement a predicate adjective]. 2. 'And the earth was all rest, and the air was all love. 9 Keats. [Here the complements are nouns, termed predicate nominatives']. 3. 'It is she. 9 [Here the complement is a personal pro- noun as predicate nominative]. 4. 'His intention was to go. [Here the complement is a phrase]. 5. 'The probability is that he has stolen the money. 9 [Here the complement is a clause.] III. Various predicate attributes used with neuter verbs, other than the verb to be. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. Napoleon became First Consul 9 [Complement a noun, predicate nominative.*} 2. 'The rose smells siveet 9 [Complement & predicate adjec- tive.] 3. ' He died a natural death 9 [Complement a noun, death, of cognate signification with died.] 5. How the Subject may be enlarged. 374. The Subject is enlarged by adjective elements. 1. By an adjective; as, 'The little bird sings.' 2. By a noun in apposition ; as, ' Newton, the philosopher [adjective element], discovered the law of gravita- tion.' 3. By a noun or & pronoun in the possessive case ; as, 'The ladies 9 [adjective element] dresses were elegant.' 4. By & phrase; as, 'The battle of Marathon [adjective element] secured the liberty of Greece.' * The oxy- 140 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. gen in the air [adjective element] preserves animal life.* ' The sea, having spent its fury [participial ad- jective element], became calm. 5 5. By a clause; as, 'Carbon, ichich is the life of plants [adjective element], is destructive to animals.' An adjective clause is always connected with the noun which it limits by a relative pronoun or a relative adverb. Exercise 40. State by what Idnd of an ADJECTIVE ELEMENT the Subject is enlarged [ADJECTIVE word or words, ADJECTIVE phrase, or ADJECTIVE clause}. 1 . Good old red wine is the best. 2. Cagsar, having conquered Gaul, sailed over to Britain. 3. Chaucer, the father of English poetry, wrote the Canterbury Tales. 4. The invention of the steam-engine has made ocean navigation swift and safe. 5. So ended Hannibal's first campaign in Italy. Arnold. C. The drum's deep roll was heard afar. 7. Under her torn hat glowed the wealth Of simple beauty and rustic health. Whitticr. 8. The railroad that connects New York and San Francisco is the longest in the world. 9. The government founded by our fathers will not be broken up by us. 10. A little old man, dressed in tattered clothes, passed by our door. 11. Born to inherit the most illustrious monarchy in the world, and early united to the object of her choice, the amiable princess, happy in her- self, and joyful in her future prospects, little anticipated the fate that was so soon to overtake her. 6. Expansion of the Subject. 375. Expansion of a subject is the enlargement of its ad- jective element from a word to & phrase or from a phrase to a clause, without introducing any new idea ; as, 1. c A prudent man is respected.' [Adjective element WOED.] 2. c A man of prudence is respected.' [Adjective element PHEASE.] 3. c A man who is prudent is respected.' [Adjective ele- ment CLAUSE. ] 4. ' Shrewd persons are to be found in all nations. ' Shrewd persons = persons of shrewdness or gifted with shrewd- ness persons who are shrewd, or persons who possess shrewdness? SENTENCES. 141 Exercise 41. Expand the WORDS printed in italics into PHRASES and CLAUSES. 1 . Brave soldiers fell at Thermopylae. 2. The grateful mind loves to consider the bounties of Providence. 3. Four-legged animals are called quadrupeds. 4. Great generals [of great ability] were common in the time of Napoleon. 5. Virtuous men are honored. 7. How the Predicate may be Enlarged. 376. The Predicate may be enlarged 1. By an adverb ; as, 'Leonidas died "bravely? 2. By a phrase ; as, ' The sun rises in the morning? 3. By an adverbial clause ; ' The lawyers smiled that aft- ernoon when he hummed in court an old love-tune? Whittier. 377. The adverbial elements used in enlarging the predi- cate may be classified under the following four heads : (1.) Those relating to time, or the token word, phrase, or clause. (2.) .place, or the where word, phrase, or clause. (3.) manner, or the how word, phrase, or clause. (4.) cause, or the why word, phrase, or clause. ILLUSTRATIONS WORDS. 1. 'He came up yesterday* time. 2. 'He went there' place. 3. ' He walks fasti manner. 4. ' Why did he go ?' cause. ILLUSTRATIONS PHRASES. I. 'In Spain [place] Columbus waited for seven year$ [time], 2. 'Many travelers in Africa have perished, with terrible suffering [manner], from thirstf [cause]. 3. 'Him the Almighty power Hurled headlong [manner] flaming from the ethereal sky, With hideous ruin and combustion [manner], down To bottomless perdition* [place]. Milton. ILLUSTRATIONS CLAUSES. 7. ' Cromwell matured little events before he ventured to govern great ones' \time\. 2. ' The gardener is planting the shrubs where they will have the most shadd [place!. 142 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 3. 'Fishes have no voice because they have no lungS [cause]. Exercise 42. Enlarge the Predicate l>y an Adverbial Element WORD, PHRASE, or CLAUSE. 'Violets bloom' [time]. 'I get up' [time]. 'Liverpool is situated' [place]. 4 Scholars study' [manner]. ' The balloon rises' [cause]. ' Rise early' [cause]. 378. The object of an incomplete verb may be enlarged in all the various ways in which the subject is enlarged (see IT 374). ILLUSTRATIONS. 1 . * The Esquimaux inhabit icy Greenland' [adjective], 2. 'The English conquered Ireland, the Emerald Isle 1 [noun in apposition]. 3. * In 1864 we celebrated Shakspeare's three hundredth birthday' [noun possessive]. 4. ' The battle of Marathon secured the liberty of Greece' [phrase]. 5. ' Jefferson proposed the decimal notation which is in use in our country 1 [clause]. 8. Expansion of the Predicate. 379. Expansion of the Predicate is accomplished by en- larging its Adverbial element from a word to a phrase, or from a phrase to a clause, without introducing any new idea. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. ' Jenny Lind sang sweetly* (adverbial element WORD). 2: 'Jenny Lind sang with sweetness* (adverbial element PHRASE). 3. c Jenny Lind sang as a sweet singer does'' (adverbial element CLAUSE). 4. * The husbandman's treasures are renewed yearly? ' Re- newed yearly* ^ renewed with every year 9 =' renewed as each recurring year comes round? Exercise 43. Expand the words printed in italics into PHRASES and CLAUSES, 1. He came upon me unawares [notice]. 2. Bees build their hives ingeniously. 3. Do not speak foolishly. 4. Leonidas acted heroically. 5. Columbus sailed confidently [sure of success]. SENTENCES. 143 CHAPTER II. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 1. The Simple Sentence Analyzed. 380. In analyzing a Simple Sentence proceed as follows : I. Name or write the subject of the sentence. By ' subject' is meant the grammatical subject, which will be either a noun-word or a noun-phrase. &T The Articles a or an and the are to be taken as a part of the subject. II. Name or write the Predicate. The Predicate will be (1) a verb alone, or (2) an Incomplete verb with its complement. III. Name or write the enlargement or enlargements of the subject. The enlargement of the subject may be an adjective, a possessive noun or pronoun, a noun in apposition, or an adjective phrase. It may be any one or all of these. IV. Name or write the enlargement or enlargements of the Predicate. (a) The enlargements of the predicate that consists of a Complete verb will be (1) an adverb or (2) an adverbial phrase. (b) The enlargement of the predicate in which an Incomplete verb is used will be (1) an adverb or an adverbial phrase, or (2) an enlargement of the complement by one or more of the four forms of the adjective element. MODELS OP ANALYSIS. Example 1. 'The hardy Laplander, clad in skins, boldly defies the se- verity of his arctic climate.' I. SUBJECT * The Laplander.' II. PREDICATE ' defies the severity. ' III. ENLARGEMENT or SUBJECT. . /hardy' (adjective), and 'clad in skins' (adj. phrase). IV. ENLARGEMENT or PREDICATE. * boldly, ' adverbial enlargement of verb, and 'of his arctic climate,' adjective enlargement of complement. Example 2. ' Night, sable goddess, from her ebon throne, In rayless majesty, now stretches forth Her leaden sceptre o'er a slumbering world.' Young } s Night Thoughts. I. SUBJECT ' Night.' II. PREDICATE * stretches her sceptre.' 144 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. IH. ENLARGEMENT OF SUBJECT. ... * sable goddess,' adjective element with noun in apposition. IV. ENLARGEMENT OF PREDICATE. ' fromher ebon throne,' ' in rayless maj, esty,' 'now,' and 'o'er a prostrate world,' adverbial enlargements of verb; 'leaden,' adjective enlarge- ment of complement l sceptre.' Example 3. 'Him the Almighty Power Hurled headlong flaming from the ethereal sky, With hideous ruin and combustion, down To bottomless perdition.' Milton's Paradise Lost. (a) Power SUBJECT OF SENTENCE. (/;) Hurled him Predicate of sentence. (c) The Almighty Adjective enlargement of a. (d) Headlong Adverbial enlargement of 6. (e) Flaming Adjective enlargement of 'him,' complement of 6. (/) From the ethereal sky. . .Adverbial phrase, modifying e. , -. (With hideous ruin ) Enlargement of pred. , Adverbial phrase (man- ^' (And combustion | ner). (h) Down Enlargement of pred. Adverb (direction). (0 To bottomless perdition. .Enlargement of pred. Adv. phrase (place). Example 4. To reach Cathay, famed in the writings of Marco Polo, fired the imagination of the daring navigator.' I. SUBJECT To reach Cathay (noun phrase). II. PREDICATE fired the imagination. III. ENLARGEMENT OF SUBJECT... famed in the writings of Marco Polo (adj. phrase). IV. ENLARGEMENT OF PREDICATE. of the daring navigator (adj. phrase). Example 5. 'My mother gave me a letter to read.' I. SUBJECT Mother. II. PREDICATE gave me (indirect comp.) a letter (di- rect comp. ). III. ENLARGEMENT OF SUBJECT... adj. element 'my.' IV. ENLARGEMENT OF PREDICATED read (adverbial phrase). Example 6. ' Houses (subject) are built (predicate) to live in' (adverbial enlarge- ment of predicate). Example 7. ; How are you?' * You' (subject) ' are' (predicate) ' hov/ (adverbial enlargement of pred- icate). THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 145 Exercise 44. Analyze the following simple Sentences. 1. The plowman homeward plods his weary way. 2. The squirrel eyes askance the chestnuts browning. 3. The moon threw its silvery light upon the rippling waters of the lake. 4. The swift-winged swallows twittered in their nests built under the eave3 of the old barn. 5. Clad in a robe of everlasting snow, Mt. Everest towers above all other mountain peaks of the globe. 6. Reaching the summit of the mountains was a feat hazardous to under- take. 7. In the hereafter angels may Roll the stone from its grave away. Whittier. 8. Gayly chattering to the clattering Of the brown nuts dow r nward pattering Leap the squirrels red and gray. Whittier. 9. The great work laid upon his twoscore years is done. Whitti&r. 10. There is a rapture on the lonely shore. Byron. 11. We while the evening hours away Around our camp-fires burning. 12. Stretched round the fading, flickering light, We watch the stars above us. 13. The master gave his scholars a lesson to learn. 14. Where are you? 15. Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise. 2. Sentence-Building The Simple Sentence. 381. In the following exercises in sentence building, each element to be included in the sentence is stated as a separate proposition. 382. The various propositions are to be built up into one Simple sentence, introducing into it only such words as are necessary fully and clearly to express all the ideas. iHT Remember that your sentence must contain only one Subject and one Predicate. 383. In performing the exercises, use the following method : I. Write the Subject on a line by itself. II. Write the Verb on a line by itself. III. If the Verb is Incomplete, write the Complement, or Complements, on a line by themselves. IV. Write the Adjective Elements belonging to the Subject on the same line as the Subject ; and the Adjective Elements which modify the Noun-object of an incomplete Verb on the same line as the Predicate. V. Write each Adverb or Adverbial Phrase on a line by itself. 140 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 384. The natural order of the elements in a simple English sentence is so plain that it requires no explanation. The only difficulty is in the right placing of the adverbial elements. 385. RULE. A series of Adverbs, or of adverbial phrases, ... should not be crowded together at the close of a sentence, but distributed in such a way as to group the adverbials around the principal words. NOTE. The symboK stands for enlargement ; P. stands for Predicate; S. stands for subject; Comp. for complement. Punctuating the Simple Sentence. 386. Punctuation is indicating by means of points what parts of a sentence are to be conjoined, and what parts sepa- rated in meaning. RULE I. When the elements stand in their natural order Subject, Pred- icate, and Object no point is required except a period at the close of the sentence ; as, ' The morning air is laden with the perfume of the flowers.' RULE II. An adverbial phrase at the beginning of a sentence is gener- ally followed by a comma ; as, ' By night, an atheist half believes there is a God.' RULE III. Appositional words and phrases following their nouns are generally inclosed by commas ; as, 4 Thackeray, the author of Vanity Fair, died in 1863.' RULE IV. Words and phrases of the same order in a series, taken indi- vidually or in pairs, require to be separated by commas. * A blending of all beauties ; streams and dells, fruit, foliage, crag, wood, corn-field, vine.' ' From grave to gay, from lively to severe. ' RULE V. Independent nouns are separated from the rest of the sentence by the comma, ' Sweet Auburn, loveliest village of the plain.' MODELS OF SYNTHESIS. Example 1. 1. The Propositions. (a) Washington gained a victory. (b) Washington was the commander-in-chief of the American army (adj. PRINCIPAL PROPOSITION. will probably undervalue it ) 2. A reader. PRINCIPAL SUBJECT. 8. Unacquainted with the real nature ) Adjective phrase, enlargement of of a classical education J subject. 4. Will undervalue it PRINCIPAL PREDICATE. 5. Probably Adverbial enlargement of pred. { Dependent proposition, an adverb- 6. When he sees that generation | & clause P qu P %in g' pred . Analysis of Dependent Proposition. 1. He SUBJECT. 2. Sees PREDICATE. 3. That so large a portion of time is devoted to the study of a few ancient authors [clause a], whose works seem to have no direct bear- ing on the studies and duties of our own generation [clause 6J . . . Complement of incomplete verb sees. .Subject of clause a. 1. Portion . . 2 nf time (adjective phrase qualifying ***!** love. Thou art loved. He loveth. They) lie is loved. Loved. Passive. We > Ye > are loved. They) I loved. Thou lovedst. He loved. We ) Ye Y loved - They) Past Tense. I was loved. Thou wast loved. He was loved. \Ye ) Ye > were loved. They) I shall or will love. Thou shalt or wilt love. He shall or will love. We shall Ye > or will They \ love. Future Tense. Thou shalt or wilt I shall or will He shall or will bo loved. We Ye ) shall I or will fbe k 1 loved. I have ~) Thou hast >- loved. He hath ) I had ) Thou hadst > loved. He had ) I shall or will Thou shalt I have or wilt (loved. He shall or \ will Present Perfect Tense. We ) have Ye They) loved. He hath ) lovcd ' Past Perfect Tense. I had Thou hadst He had l}' 66 " ) loved ' Future Perfect Tense. ) shall 5-1 Ye > have They) loved. I shall ( wilt Thou shalt ( or wilt He shall or \ will have been loved. ") have U We Ye J- been They) loved. We ) had Ye > been They) loved. ) shall \Ye ( or will Ye V have They I been \ loved. 200 APPENDIX. Active. SINGULAR. I may, can, or must ) Thou mayest, canst, or must ^ love. lie may, can, or must ) PLURAL. POTENTIAL MOOD. Present Tense. Ye > may, can, or must love. They) Passive. SINGULAR. I may, can, or must } Thou mayest, canst, or must > be lovod. He may, can, or must ) Ye > may, can, or must be loved. They) Past Tense. SINGULAR. I might, could, would, or should Thou mightest, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst He might, could, would, or should love. We ) Ye They) might, could, would, or should love. SINGULAR. I might, could, would, or * should Thou mightest, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst He might, could, would, or should be loved. We ") Y ' might, could, would, or should They)" beloved - Present Perfect Tense. SINGULAR. I may, can, or must have Thou mayest, canst, or must > , r , He may, can, or must ) PLCRAL. We ) Ye )- mav, can, or must have loved. They) SINGULAR. I may, can, or must havo Thou mayest, canst, or must > been Pie may, can, or must PLURAL. ) loved. We ) may, can, They) must Past Perfect Tense. - have been loved. SINGULAR. I might, could, would, or should Thou mightest, cotildst, wouldst, or shouldst He might, could, would, or should We )' ml &f> Y I could, 3 r \ would, J should have loved. SINGULAR. I might, could, would, or , have 'loved. should Thou mightest, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst He might, could, would, or havo been loved. should PLURAL. vy } might, } 1. Ye i %!!M ? haye been loved - . should APPENDIX. 201 Active. If I or we *l If thou or ye > love. If he or they ) If I or we } If thou or ye > loved. If we or they ) Active. Love (thou or ye). SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Passive. If I or we ~\ If thou or ye > be loved. If we or they ) Past Tense. If I or we If thou or ye If we or they INFINITIVE MOOD. were loved. Passive. | Ee (thou or ye) loved. INFINITIVES. Present. To love. To be loved. Perfect. To have loved. To have been loved. PARTICIPLES. Present. Loving. Being loved. Past. Loved. Been loved. Perfect. Having loved. Having been loved. SYNOPSIS OF THE YEKB LOYE. (ANCIENT STYLE.) INDICATIVE MOOD. ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOIC'B. Tense. Simple Form. Progressive Form. Present. Past. Future. Pres. Perf. Past Perf. Fut. Perf. Thou lovest. Thou lovedst. Thou wilt love. Thou hast loved. Thou hadst loved. Thou wilt have loved. Thou art loving. Thou wast loving. Thou wilt be loving. Thou hast been lov- ing. Thou hadst been lov- ing. Thou wilt have been loving. Thou art loved. Thou wast loved. Thou wilt be loved. Thou hast been loved. Thou hadst been, loved. Thou wilt have been loved. POTENTIAL MOOD. Present. Past. Pres. Perf. Past Perf. Thou mayest or canst love, mightest or couldst love, mayest or canst have loved, mightest or couldst have loved. Thou mayest be loving, mightest be loving. mayest have been loving, mightest have been loving. Thou mayest be loved, mightest be loved. mayest have been loved, mightest have been loved. I 2 202 APPENDIX. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. Past. If thou love. If thou loved. If thou be loving. If thou were loving. if thou be loved. If thou were loved. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present. \ Love (thou). | Be (thou) loving. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Perfect. To love. To have loved. To be loving. To have been loving. To be loved. To have been loved. SYNOPSIS OF A VERB CONJUGATED 1. NEGATIVELY ; 2. INTERROGATIVELY ; 3. NEGATIVE-INTERROGATIVELY. INDICATIVE MOOD. 1. 9 3. Present. I do not move. Do I move ? Do I not move ?* Present progres. I am not moving. Am I moving? Am I not moving? Past emphatic. I did not move. Did I move ? Did I not move? Past progres. I was not moving. Was I moving? Was I not moving ? Perfect. I have not moved. Have I moved ? Have I not moved ? Perfect proyres. I have not been Have I been mov- Have I not been moving. ing? moving ? Past perfect. I had not moved. Had I moved ? Had I not moved ? Past perf. prog. I had not been Had I been mov- Had I not been mov- moving. ing? ing? Future. I shall not move. Shall I move? Shall I not move? Future progres. I shall not be Shall I be mov- Shall I not be mov- moving. ing? ing? Future perfect. I shall not have Shall I have Shall I not have moved. moved ? moved ? Fut. perf. prog. I shall not have Shall I have been Shall I not have been moving. moving ? been moving? POTENTIAL MOOD. I. 2. 3. Present. I may, } May, } May, } can, > -not move. Can, > I move ? Can, > I not move ? must ) Must ) Must ) Past. I might, j Might, j Might, j would f notmove - w IA / -^ 1Ti0ve ? 1*7 i,q V I not move? should I Should j Should' 1 not I move?' or 'Don't I move ?' or emphatic : Do I not move ?' It' the negative is after * I,' the phrase is energetic APPENDIX. 203 Pres. Per/. I may, | not ^ St t-r-i Pas* Per/. I might, ] could, I not have would, (moved, should j n ) I have Can ; moved? Might, ] Could, 1 I have Would, ( moved ? Should ) May, \ I not have Can, j moved. Might, ^| Could, ! I not have Would, [moved? Should J ANGLO-SAXON PARADIGMS. [The Inflections and Words retained in Modern English are printed in ItaUcs.1 1. THE NOUN. PLUR. Nom. fisc, fisc-as!( 2 ) Nom. fot, ./&(*) Gen. es,0) a. Gen. es, fot-a. D.Ab. e, um. D. Ab. fet, um. Ace. , as.( 2 ) Ace. , / e '*-( 3 ) (t)-es=-'s. (2) -as= -es, -s. ( 3 ) fet=feet SING. PLUR. BING. PLUE. Nom. ox-a, ox-an. ( 4 ) Nom. aeg, aeg-rw. ( 5 ) Gen. an, ena. Gen. ef ra. D. Ab. an, um. D. Ab. e, rum. Ace. an, an. ( 4 ) Ace. , ru. ( 5 ) ( 4 ) -an = -en. ( 5 ) -ru = -ry in eyry, rookery, etc. Other plural-endings : -a, -e, -, all of which are lost. 2. THE PRONOUN. First Personal Pronoun. BING. DUAL. PLUR. Nom. Ic = I, wit, we = we. Gen. mm mine, uncer, ure our. Dat. me = me, unc, us = us. Ace. me me, unc, us = us. Second Personal Pronoun. BING. DUAL. PLUR. Nom. thu = thou, git , ge = ye. Gen. thin = thine, incer , eower = your. Dat. the = thee, inc , cow = you. Ace. the = thee, me = you. Demonstrative Pronoun (3 J Person). Singular. MABO. FEM. NEUT. Nom. he he, heo , hit = it. hire = her, his (its). hire(^) = here, him . l> hig , hit = it. 0) hire = here, adv., in this place. Gen. his = his, Dat. him ) , . Ace. hinet = him Plural M. F. N. hf hira him" hig 204 APPENDIX. MAEO. Norn, se = the, Gen. thaes Dat. tham Ace. thone All. thy Definite Article. Singular. FEM. NEUT. seo she, thaet = that. thaere , thaes . thaere( z ) = there, tham . , tha , thaet . thaere , %( 3 ) = the. Plural M. F. N. tha = they. thdra = their. tham ) tha > = them, tham ) ( 2 ) thaere^ there, adv., to that place. (3) thy =the t adv., in " the more, the better." Demonstrative Adjective. Singular. MASO. FEM. NEUT. Norn, thes = this, theds , this = this. Gen. thises , thisse , thises . Dat. thisum , thisse , thisum . Ace. thisne , thas , this = this. Plural. M. F. N. thus = these, those. thissa . thisum . thas = these, those. Interrogative and Relative Pronoun, Singular. MASO., FEM. Norn, hwd = who, Gen. hwaes = whose, Dat. hwdm ) _ , Ace. luvone f whom ' Abl. hwi , NEUT. hwaet = what. hwaes = whose. $hwdm = . (hwaet what. hwi why. Plural. M. and N. hwa. hwaes. hwam. hwone. hwy. Hwylc = which, is declined as an indefinite adjective. 3. THE ADJECTIVE. (1.) Indefinite (Strong). Singular. MA80. FEM. NEUT. Norn. god, god, god. Gen. es, re, es. Dat. um, re, um. Ace. ne, e, . Abl. e, re, e. Norn, Gen. Dat. Ace. Abl. (2.) Definite (Weak). Singular. MASO. FEM. NEUT. (se) god-a, (seo) god-e, (thaet) god-e. an, an, an, an, an, an, . an, an, an. an. e. an. Plural. M. F. N. god-e (-u). ra. um. e (-u). um. Plural. M. F. N. (tha) gdd-an. ena. um. an. um. All theso endings are lost. APPENDIX. 205 Pos. smael= small, (se) smaela laet^late. (se) laeta. Comparison. Comp. M. F. smael-ra, -re= smaller, (se) smael-ra. laet-ra, -re later. (se) laet-ra. Super. > (se) smad-erta; = laet-os=latest. (se) laet-mesta=latemost. SAXON VERB. WESAN, To BE. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. SINO. PLUE. 1. eowi = am ^ 2. ear* = art > synd (-on) . 3. ys = is ) Past Tense. 1. waes = was 2. waere = [wast] ^ waeron = were. 3. waes = was ti, 3.) SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense. BINQ. PLUK. waere = were < waeron = were. 3.) ( BEON, To BE. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. BINO. PLUR. l.bed, 2. byst, - > bed [-th], - . 3. byth, - ) IMPERATIVE MOOD. |- I b e o = le I bed [-th] = be. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense. GINQ. PLCB. = be bedn = be. INFINITIVE MOOD. Indef. beon = be. Gerund, to beonnc [for] being. PARTICIPLE. Imperf. beonde = being. 206 APPENDIX. COMPARATIVE TABLE OF TENSES IN ENGLISH, LATIN, FRENCH, AND GERMAN. ACTIVE VOICE. INDICATIVE MOOD. English. Latin. French. German. ^ CIndef. He writes. Scribit. 11 ecrit. Er schreibt I Progr. He is writing. Scribit 11 ecrit. Er schreibt. > 1 Per/. He has written. Scripsit 11 a ecrit Er hat geschrie- ** I ben. CIndef. He wrote. Scripsit. 11 ecrivit. Er schrieb. * 1 Progr. He was writing. Scribebat 11 ecrivait. Er echrieb. I \r*f. He had written. Scripserat. /Il avait ecrit. ) \I1 cut ecrit. f Er hatte geschrie- ben. rindef. Ele will write. Scribet 11 ecrira. Er wird schreiben. g \ Progr. He will be writ- Scribet. 11 ecrira. Er wird schreibeu. $ < ing. ? ) Per/. Ele will have Scripserit 11 aura 6crit. Er wird geschrie- ** k written. ben haben. PASSIVE VOICE. INDICATIVE MOOI>. (Inde/. It is written. Scribitur. 11 est ecrit. Es wird geschrie- 3 \ ben. 2 <^ Proi/r. It is being writ- Scribitur. Es wird geschrie- ten. ben. ^ UW. It has been writ- ten. {Scriptum est. ) (Scriptnm fuit.j" 11 a et6 ecrit -f Es ist geschrieben worden. ^ (//wz?/. It was written. (Scriptum est. \ (Scriptnm fuit.J 11 fuc ecrit. JEs^wurdegeschrie- | ) Progr. It was being Scribebatur. Es wurde geschrie- ^ 1 written. ben. I Per/. It had been written. rScriptum erat.) ^Scriptum fue-J- ( rat. ) f 11 avait etc 6critl j 11 eut ete ecrit. f Es war geschrie- ben worden. (Indcf. It will be writ- Scribetur. 11 Gera ecrit. Es wird geschrie- * \ ten. ben werden. { Progr. It will be being Scribetur. Es wird geschrie- I) written. ben werden. &< {Per/. It will have been Scriptum erit 11 aura ete 6crit Es wird geschrie- written. beu worden seyn. THE INFINITIVE OR VERBAL IN -ING. In Anglo-Saxon, and in most inflected languages, the Infinitive is formed by a suffix. Thus, A. S. gang (go) ; Infin. gang-an (Germ, geh-en). In semi- Saxon and Old English -an became -en, gang-en ; in later English n was lost, gang-e', as in Old Fris. heJp-a (to help), and Old Norse far-a (to fare or go) ; and in modern English the suffix disappeared. To is not found in A. S. before the Nom. and Ace. of the Infinitive, and even in modern English it is not inserted after the following verbs : may, can, shall, will, dare, let, bid, make, must, see, hear, feel, do, need, and have. The cause of its later appearance may be thus explained. In A. S. the Infinitive was declined as follows : APPENDIX. 207 N. and Ac. writ-an, to write. Dat. to writ-ann-e, for writing. This Dative is usually called the Gerund, and the term Infinitive is limited to the Nom. and Accus. When, in later times, the inflectional endings were lost, the origin of the separate forms write and to write was forgotten, and the preposition was inaccurately applied to all cases of the Infinitive. This con- fusion is first observed in semi-Anglian writers, when the occasional omission of the Dative suffix -e eifaced the distinction of case. The Dat. to writ-ann-e, by the omission of the case-ending, appears as to writ-cm, and the Nom. and Accus. writ-cm, in consequence of this accidental resemblance, improperly re- ceived the preposition to. In Old English we sometimes find at instead of to before the Infinitive ; "That es at say," i. e. " that is to say" This is a Norse form, and is due to the Scandinavian conquerors of England. The Nom. and Ace. wrlt-an afterwards assumed the forms writ-en, writ-in, and finally writ-ing ;* and this form of the Infinitive is also known to mod- ern grammarians as the Gerund. Hence the identity of meaning in writing and to write. 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