LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Gl FT OF 
 
 Class 
 
MANUAL 
 
 OP THE 
 
 FREE HIGH SCHOOLS 
 
 OF WISCONSIN 
 
 FIFTH EDITION 
 
 (REVISED.) 
 
 C. P. GARY, State Superintendent. 
 1906. 
 
 MADISON, WIS.: 
 DEMOCRAT PRINTING Co., STATE PRINTER. 
 
 1906, 
 

 V 
 
 MANUAL 
 
 
 OF THE 
 
 FREE HIGH SCHOOLS 
 
 OF WISCONSIN. 
 
 FIFTH EDITION 
 
 (REVISED.) 
 
 C. P. GARY, State Superintendent. 
 1906. 
 
 MADISON, WIS.: 
 DEMOCRAT PRINTING Co., STATE PRINTER, 
 
 IQC6. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 This Manual is intended to aid in interpreting the laws re- 
 lating to free high schools, to furnish information regarding 
 their establishment, organization and management and to offer 
 suitable suggestions as to the scope and character of the in- 
 struction in such schools. 
 
 Part I contains general suggestions and the courses of study; 
 Part II comments on the courses and suggestive methods of 
 teaching; Part III, the laws under which the schools are or- 
 ganized and maintained. 
 
 The Manual of the Elementary Course of Study for Com- 
 mon Schools should be consulted and studied for more extended 
 outlines and directions in connection with the work in Read- 
 ing, Arithmetic, Grammar, Geography, Penmanship, Spelling, 
 Physiology and United States History, and for tests for pro- 
 motion to high schools. The completion of the course of study 
 for common schools, or its equivalent, is required for admis- 
 sion to high schools. 
 
PART I. 
 
 General Suggestions. 
 
 Q-M 
 
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 ORGANIZATION. 
 
 For guidance in organizing and conducting a free high 
 school, inquirers are referred to Part III of this Manual which 
 contains the laws relating to free high schools. Correspond- 
 ence is invited by the state superintendent. 
 
 QUALIFICATIONS OF TEACHERS. 
 
 High school teachers should not neglect or fail to obtain the 
 necessary and proper legal qualifications. Without such quali- 
 fication, no valid contract can be made with the high school 
 board, nor is the teacher entitled to pay from the public funds. 
 Under no circumstances should the work of teaching be entered 
 upon before the propar legal qualification has been obtained. 
 
 Any high school board employing a teacher without legal 
 qualification, renders the high school district liable to loss of 
 state aid. 
 
 Any one of the following named documents is considered a 
 sufficient legal and educational qualification for the position of 
 principal or assistant in any high school: 
 
 1. The Wisconsin unlimited state certificate. 
 
 2. A diploma granted upon the completion of a regular col- 
 legiate course in the University of Wisconsin, or upon the com- 
 pletion of the full course of any Wisconsin state normal school, 
 if countersigned by the state superintendent of Wisconsin. 
 
 3. A special license good for one year issued by the state 
 superintendent to the holder of either of the above diplomas. 
 
 4. A special license good for two years, issued by the state 
 superintendent and based upon a diploma from a state normal 
 school, located outside of Wisconsin, and whose courses of study 
 are fully and fairly equivalent to the corresponding advanced 
 courses in the Wisconsin state normal schools. 
 
WIISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 5. A special license good for two years, issued by the State 
 Superintendent and based upon a diploma from a university 
 or college located outside of Wisconsin and whose courses of 
 study are fully and fairly equivalent to the corresponding 
 courses of study in the Wisconsin State University. 
 
 6. A special license good for two years, issued by the State 
 Superintendent, based upon an unlimited state certificate, 
 granted to the applicant by legal authority in another state. 
 
 7. An unlimited state certificate, based upon a diploma from 
 a college or university in Wisconsin, whose courses of study 
 are fully and fairly equivalent to corresponding courses in the 
 University of Wisconsin. The holder of this diploma must 
 have successfully taught for at least one year in the public 
 schools of Wisconsin, after graduation, before such certificate 
 can be issued. 
 
 8. An unlimited state certificate, based upon a diploma from 
 a college or university outside of Wisconsin whose regular and 
 collegiate courses of study are fully and fairly equivalent to cor- 
 responding courses in the University of Wisconsin. The holder 
 of this diploma must have successfully taught for at least two 
 years in the public schools of Wisconsin, after graduation, be- 
 fore such certificate can be issued. 
 
 9. An unlimited state certificate, based upon a diploma from 
 a state normal school outside of Wisconsin whose courses of 
 study are fully and fairly equivalent to the advanced or four 
 year courses of study prescribed for the Wisconsin state nor- 
 mal schools. The holder of such diploma must have success- 
 fully taught for at least two years in the public schools of Wis- 
 consin, after graduation, before such certificate can be issued. 
 
 10. A special license will be issued by the State Superin- 
 tendent when recommended by the State Board of Examiners, 
 after said board has passed favorably on the papers, documents, 
 credentials and testimonials furnished by the officers of the 
 institution from which the applicant has graduated, and such 
 other persons as may be named or called upon for reference as 
 to learning, good moral character, ability to teach, ability to 
 govern, and ability to conduct and supervise a school. 
 
 LIMITED STATE CERTIFICATES AND ASSISTANTS' 
 CERTIFICATES. 
 
 A limited state certificate, gained by examination given by 
 the Wisconsin state board of examiners, qualifies the holder 
 during the life of the certificate for the principalship of a free 
 high school having a three years' course of study only. . 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 A certificate granted upon the completion of the elementary 
 course prescribed for Wisconsin state normal schools, if counter- 
 signed by the state superintendent, legally qualifies its holder 
 for the principalship of a free high school having a three years' 
 course of study, but not for the principalship of a high school 
 having a four years' course of study. A special license issued 
 by the state superintendent for one year, to the holder of a 
 Wisconsin normal school elementary certificate, gives like legal 
 qualification to its holder. 
 
 Any person desiring to occupy the position of assistant in a 
 free high school, who does not hold (a) some one of the above 
 named documents, or (b) a county superintendent's certificate, 
 as provided by chapter 333; laws of 1895, and laws amendatory 
 thereto, should first obtain a certificate from the superinten- 
 dent of the city or county in which he intends to teach, which 
 certificate should be of the first grade and issued on a written 
 examination. 
 
 If his position as assistant requires him to teach branches 
 not named in the certificate thus held or obtained, he will be 
 required to pass a satisfactory examination in such branches 
 under the direction of the state superintendent or present satis- 
 factory evidence of having completed the study of this branch 
 in some accredited institution. The amount of work done and 
 the final standings obtained in each such branch must be pre- 
 sented in evidence. To enable assistants properly to qualify 
 for their positions, the subjects they are to teach should be de- 
 termined and made known to them by the high school board as 
 early as possible. High school assistants whose certificates ex- 
 pire June 30th of the current year, should secure certificates 
 for the next year before making a new contract. 
 
 All documents described above are subject to the inspection 
 and approval of the state superintendent, under section 494 of 
 the revised statutes. For this reason every diploma or certifi- 
 cate relied upon as a legal qualification must be forwarded to 
 the state superintendent for approval before its holder can com- 
 plete a legal contract with any high school board. This re- 
 quirement does not apply to Wisconsin state certificates, to 
 properly countersigned diplomas, to licenses which have not 
 expired, or to properly countersigned state certificates from 
 other states. 
 
 Elementary certificates from normal schools of other states, 
 limited state certificates or limited licenses of any kind from 
 other states can not be given legal recognition. 
 
 Special licenses authorizing the licensee to teach a special 
 subject or subjects, such as music, drawing, elocution, manual 
 training or domestic science, in which said licensee has made 
 special and satisfactory preparation, will be granted upon rec- 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 ommendation of the state board of examiners when complete 
 and satisfactory evidence of such preparation is presented with 
 the application. 
 
 For special cases see Chapter 231, Laws of 1905, as printed 
 in this manual in statutes relating to free high schools. 
 
 MANAGEMENT. 
 
 The high school board should co-operate with the teachers 
 in all important matters and should at all times give them 
 strong and consistent support while exercising authority with 
 which they have been clothed. 
 
 Respect for authority should begin with those who are given 
 authority, and should show itself in prompt and willing obe- 
 dience on the part of teachers and principal to the expressed 
 wishes of the board of education. 
 
 All reports required by the principal from teachers, by the 
 board from the principal, and by the state superintendent, both 
 from teachers and boards, should be carefully prepared and 
 promptly rendered. To this end, school records, including final 
 standings, should be posted to date, and books, apparatus and 
 all school material should be frequently inventoried and at all 
 times properly classified. 
 
 The principal is responsible to the local board and to the 
 state superintendent: 
 
 (a) For the character of the instruction given by himself 
 and his assistants, 
 
 (b) For the habits of study, character of recitation, and in- 
 tellectual and moral progress of each pupil. 
 
 (c) For the condition of the building, apparatus, library and 
 closets, and 
 
 (d) He is required to see to it that the courses of study 
 adopted by the board and approved by the state superintendent 
 are not changed by omissions, additions, or alterations with- 
 out the written approval of the state superintendent. 
 
 The recitation program should be prepared in accordance 
 with the course of study; should be arranged primarily for the 
 convenience of pupils rather than that of teachers; and should 
 be posted in a conspicuous and permanent place. 
 
 It is recommended that all persons occupying the high school 
 room be requested to preserve order at all times. Idle habits 
 are formed and valuable time is wasted in schools where pupils 
 at morning, noon and night loiter in the study room to indulge 
 in noisy chatter and boisterous fun. 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 COURSES OF STUDY. 
 
 The state superintendent is authorized by law to personally 
 supervise the free high schools, and to appoint a person to aid 
 in such duty. Section 496a, (as amended by Chap. 439, Laws 
 of 1901), reads: "The state superintendent shall prepare a 
 course or courses of study suitable to be pursued in free high 
 schools, publish the same and furnish the same upon applica- 
 tion. * * * Each free high school shall offer at least a 
 twelve weeks' course oi instruction each year in the theory and 
 art of teaching; in the organization, management . and course 
 of study of ungraded schools; and in the duties of citizens in 
 the organization and administration of local school systems. 
 Such a course of instruction shall be open to all students in the 
 school." 
 
 In compliance with this statute, courses have been published 
 and are commended to the consideration of boards, as recited 
 in form hereinafter. 
 
 All courses adopted by boards must be approved by the state 
 superintendent in order that the school may share in the ap- 
 portionment of the state aid. Any changes in these courses 
 after adoption and approval, without the consent of the state 
 superintendent, will jeopardize the state aid, and no changes in 
 the courses can be approved for operation during a school year. 
 All negotiations for change should be perfected so as to inaugu- 
 rate actual changes in the course on the opening of the fall 
 term. 
 
 It has become an established rule to require every school 
 board to adopt and offer an English course of study which shall 
 contain no foreign language. This rule continues in force ex- 
 cept in the case of schools offering a single course. These 
 schools are permitted to offer not more than two years of a for- 
 eign language, when, and only when, it is shown by a resolu- 
 tion passed at an annual meeting that the people of the com- 
 munity desire it. 
 
 For the four years' English course there must be two 
 teachers, the principal and one assistant at least, where in 
 addition to the full work of an English course, two or more 
 years of a foreign language are offered, the services of a second 
 assistant are required. If more than six years of foreign lan- 
 guage or other work are offered in addition to the work of the 
 full English course, a third assistant must be procured. 
 
 Each high school having a course of three years will be re- 
 quired to have one teacher who shall devote all his time and 
 an assistant who shall devote at least one-half her time to high 
 school work. 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 Courses of study now in operation in free high schools and 
 approved by the state superintendent, may continue in opera- 
 tion and receive the sanction of this department. The follow- 
 ing rules outline the method of procedure of any free high 
 school board when changes in the present courses are desired ~ 
 by them: 
 
 I. All proposed changes in courses of study should first be brought to 
 the attention of the state superintendent. When approved by him, a 
 copy of the course as adopted must be signed by the secretary of the 
 board of education, and filed with the state superintendent. 
 
 II. New courses should go into force only at the beginning of a school 
 year, and should be put into operation gradually, and in such manner as 
 not to affect the plans of pupils who have already entered upon the work 
 of a former course. 
 
 III. No courses will be approved where the teaching force is insuf- 
 ficient for their administration. An increase in the number of the courses of 
 study in a school or an increase in the number of electives where a single 
 course is offered, must carry with it an increase in the teaching force. 
 
 CORE OF REQUIRED WORK FOR ALL COURSES. 
 
 Every four year course of study shall contain at least fourteen year 
 units of work. Of these the following units of work should be found in 
 every course of study (a unit of work to mean one year's work of one pe- 
 riod a day, or 180, or more, recitations). Recitation periods should be not 
 less than 35 minutes in length and a longer period is desirable. 
 
 I. Mathematics: 
 
 Algebra, 1 unit. 
 
 Geometry, 1 unit 2 units. 
 
 II. English: 
 
 (Includes literature, literary readings, composition, 
 
 grammar and rhetoric) 2 units. 
 
 III. Science: 
 
 (r.) Physics, 1 unit. 
 
 (b) Any one of the following sciences, or a combi- 
 nation of not more than two of them. Botany, 
 zoology, physiology, physical geography 1 
 unit 2 units. 
 
 IV. History :- 
 
 (a) United States history, including history of the 
 constitution, 1 unit. 
 
 (6) Ancient history, or ancient and medieval, or 
 medieval and modern and English history, 
 1 unit 2 units. 
 
 V. Theory and art of teaching must be offered as an option for at 
 least 12 weeks, or may be required in one or all courses. (See 
 sec. 496a, as amended by chapter 439, laws of 1901.) 
 
 VI. In courses offering less than four years of work in a foreign lan- 
 guage, there must be at least three units of work in English, and 
 two and one-half units in history. 
 
10 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 OPTIONS. 
 
 Subject to the advice and sanction of the state superintendent, and sub- 
 ject to the conditions herein contained, high schools have the following 
 branches from which to choose in the construction of school courses: 
 
 1. Any foreign language. -^ r - 
 
 2. Chemistry or any one of the sciences named in the "Core of required 
 
 work." 
 
 3. History. 
 
 4. English. 
 
 5. Mathematics. 
 
 6. Civics. 
 
 7. Political Economy. 
 
 8. Psychology. 
 
 9. Commercial subjects. 
 
 10. Subjects found in Manual Training and Domestic Science courses. 
 
 MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM TIME LIMITS. 
 
 1. No subject, as a general rule, should be offared for a less time than 
 one half year. Algebra and geometry should never be required for a period 
 to exceed one and one-half years each. 
 
 2. Chemistry, if offered, should be offered for a full year. 
 
 3. Not less than two years of any foreign language may be offered. 
 
 4. No single science should extend through more than one year. 
 
 5. The maximum time for history shall be three years, or four years in- 
 cluding civics and economics. Where instruction in American history in 
 the elementary schools is strong, it is advisable to have United States 
 history follow rather than precede European history. 
 
 6. Civics and Economics not to exceed one-half year each- 
 
 7. Teachers in all branches of study will be held responsible for results 
 in English, and all teachers of Composition and Literature are urgad to 
 make an especial effort to improve the organization of this work. 
 
 TYPE COURSES OF STUDY. 
 
 The following type course is made in accordance with preceding: rules, 
 and should be adhered to as closely as possible. The options offered in 
 the course are not intended to encourage or to discourage optional courses 
 in high schools, but are to be interpreted as intended solely to indicate 
 the various opportunities for choice which school boards have in the mak- 
 ing of local courses of study. 
 
 I. English 1. (Includes Composition and Literary Readings.) 
 Science 1. 
 English Grammar 1, or English Grammar J, Physiology J, or 
 
 Latin 1. 
 Algebra 1. 
 
 II. Ancient History 1, or Ancient History y% and Medieval . 
 Science 1. 
 English 1. 
 
 Arithmetic ^, and Commercial Geography or Book-keeping ^, 
 or Latin 1. 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH .SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 III. English 1, or Latin 1. 
 Geometry 1. 
 
 Medieval or Modern History ), Eiglish History ^, 
 
 or 
 Modern History J, English History ^, 
 
 or 
 
 English History ^ and Civics, %. 
 
 Science 1, or Economics ^, and advanced Composition ^ or Ger- 
 man 1, or Greek 1. 
 
 IV. United States History 1, or United States History y% and Civics ^. 
 Physics 1. 
 
 Literature 1, or German 1, or Greek 1. 
 
 Algebra l, and Theory and Art and Reviews J, or Latin 1, 
 
 or 
 Psychology and Theory and Art and Reviews 1. 
 
 For guidance in the choice and arrangement of subjects in science and 
 history, see the minimum requirements in "Core of required work." No 
 local course should contain such indefinite terms as "Science," or "His- 
 tory." Indicate the particular science to be offered at any given point. 
 
 The following course of study presents a specific application 
 of the preceding and is being, with slight variations, generally 
 adopted. It is printed in this form for convenience and may 
 readily be worked over into the separate English and Science 
 courses when desired. 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 TYPE COURSE. 
 
 FIRST YEAR. 
 
 FIRST SEMESTER. SECOND SEMESTER. 
 
 Required Units. 
 
 English. English. 
 
 Algebra. Algebra. 
 
 Elect Two Units. 
 
 Physical Geography. Physiology. 
 
 Latin. Latin. 
 
 Spelling, Penmanship, etc. Literary Reading. 
 
 Manual Training or Dom istic Science. Manual Training or Domestic Science . 
 
 SECOND YEAR. 
 Required Units. 
 
 Ancient History. Ancient History. 
 
 English. English. 
 
 Elect Two Units. 
 
 Botany. Botany. 
 
 Latin. Latin. 
 
 Arithmetic and Bookkeeping. Arithmetic and Bookkeeping. 
 
 Manual Training or Domestic Science. Manual Training or Domestic Science. 
 
 THIRD YEAR. 
 Required Units. 
 
 Geometry. Geometry. 
 
 Medieval History. English History. 
 
 Elect Two Units. 
 
 English. English. 
 
 German. German. 
 
 Latin. Latin. 
 
 Economics. Grammar. 
 
 FOURTH YEAR. 
 Required Units. 
 
 Physics. Physics. 
 
 American History and Civics. American History and Civics. 
 
 Elect Two Units. 
 
 English. English. 
 
 German. German. 
 
 Latin. Latin. 
 
 Advanced Algebra. Theory and Art. 
 
 NOTB. In courses offering less than four years of work in a foreign language, there 
 mast be at least tbree units of work in English; English grammar in the third year 
 may count as one-half unit. 
 
 Not less thin two years of any foreign language will be accepted. 
 
 L itio students mav ele^t Advanced Algebra IV in place of Medieval History lit. 
 
 Wiiere the term "English" appears, work in the study of literary masterpieces, library 
 work, composition, and applied gramnar is implied. 
 
 Advanced composition is often offered in place of economics. 
 
 Uale?s a sufficient number of students to form a class of fair size, desire to take any 
 givei elective c mrse, it shoal I not be offerei. 
 
 An additional semester of physical geography may be substituted for physi- 
 ology, and physiology taken instead of first literary reading. If physiology is 
 not given a place in the course as a regular study, special lessons should be 
 given in physiology and hygiene with particular reference to the effects of stim- 
 ulants and narcotics. These may be a part of the general exercises for which a 
 period of about twenty minutes is allowed in the program of many schools. 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 13 
 
 RECORDS. 
 
 Boards should provide for the high school two record books 
 sufficiently large to serve for several years. In a form like the 
 following, should be kept the term or semi-term standings: 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 Grammar. 
 
 History, 
 
 Etc. 
 
 A. B. 
 
 75 
 
 88 
 
 83 
 
 78 
 
 98 
 83 
 
 79 
 
 86 
 
 88 
 83 
 
 84 
 
 83 
 
 
 
 C.D. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The other should record the final standings only, and may 
 be ruled as follows: 
 
 Name. 
 
 Arith- 
 metic 
 
 "Grammar. 
 
 History. 
 
 Etc. 
 
 J. S. 
 
 83 
 
 88, 
 
 79 
 
 
 The book records should be kept posted to date, so as to af- 
 ford reliable references at any time, for promotions, reports, 
 and for granting certificates of graduation. 
 
 In place of book records, many of the larger schools are 
 using a card system of records similar to the following. For 
 convenience arrange subjects by years. 
 
 Provide a case of two drawers with lock and key. Transfer 
 cards to second drawer when pupils withdraw or graduate. 
 The back of the card can be used for further data. A special 
 card for final standings only is sometimes provided for safety. 
 
14 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 Student 
 
 When born 
 
 Entered 
 
 Parent 
 
 Address 
 
 it 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 Eater Final Standings ia column 5 in red ink, or Quarterly Standings in first four 
 columns Enter Term Standings in first three columns. 
 
 STANDARD OF ADMISSION. 
 
 The standard established in the examination for the organi- 
 zation of the free high school, must not be lowered after the 
 establishment of the school. The minimum of admission to all 
 the free high schools, is the standard prescribed for completion 
 of The Course of Study for Common Schools. If pupils whose 
 scholarship is below such common school standard are taught 
 by any high school teacher, an appropriate deduction must be 
 made from the total amount which the board reports expended 
 for high school instruction. This may mean reduced appor- 
 tionment of state aid. 
 
 The following is the summary of the course laid down in 
 The Manual of the Elementary Course of Study for Common 
 Schools and will assist in determining the requisites for admis- 
 sion to the high schools. Close study of the Manual will re- 
 veal the force and meaning of this summary. References to 
 that publication are inserted to facilitate comparison. 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH iSCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 15 
 
 READING. 
 
 The pupil should have acquired: 
 Ability to read intelligently and expressively any selection in 
 
 the Fourth Reader. 
 Ability to give a clear statement of the meaning of the words 
 
 used. 
 Ability to modulate the voice in stress, volume, pitch, rate, 
 
 inflection and quality. 
 Ability to recite with good expression choice selections of prose 
 
 and poetry equal in amount to six pages of the reader. 
 Ability to use the dictionary intelligently. 
 
 SPELLING. 
 
 The pupil should spell correctly through force of habit what- 
 ever he writes. He should have the habit of consulting the 
 dictionary in all -doubtful spelling. He may be fairly tested 
 by his spelling in examination papers, by a promiscuous list 
 of fifty or more words, and by applying the principal rules of 
 spelling. 
 
 WRITING. 
 
 The pupil should have the ability to write legibly and neatly, 
 and to prepare papers in good form. 
 
 GRAMMAR. 
 
 The pupil should be able: 
 To give clear and grammatical oral and written expression to 
 
 his thoughts, and to use capitals and punctuation marks 
 
 correctly. 
 To use a vocabulary that is sufficient for the precise expression 
 
 of his thoughts. 
 To use nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and verbs correctly in 
 
 the construction of sentences, as suggested in the outline 
 
 of work. 
 
 To separate easy composition into component sentences, sen- 
 tences into principal and modifying elements, and to apply 
 
 rules of construction, 
 
16 W1ISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 The pupil should be able: 
 To read maps readily. 
 
 To sketch in outline each of the continents, to state approxi- 
 mately their relative sizes, using Wisconsin and the United 
 
 States as units of measure. 
 To locate the system of water-partings and drainage slopes of 
 
 each continent. 
 To locate and tell something about some land and water forms, 
 
 some city, or other point of interest included in the course 
 
 of tracing lessons. 
 To describe important areas of production, especially those of 
 
 his own country. 
 To draw a map of Wisconsin from memory, with a fair degree 
 
 of accuracy. 
 To comprehend clearly the system of reckoning standard time; 
 
 also the method of surveying public lands, with practical 
 
 applications. 
 
 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 The pupil should show: 
 
 Ability to analyze problems involving applications of percent- 
 age indicated in the course of study, problems in proportion, 
 and in mensuration of surfaces and solids when geomet- 
 rical formulas are not employed. This analysis should 
 show a logical train of thought properly expressed. 
 Ability to indicate by arithmetical symbols the operations neces- 
 sary to the solution of problems in the classes mentioned 
 above. 
 
 Ability to extract square and cube roots by some one method. 
 Ability to state original practical problems of the various classes 
 
 indicated in first paragraph, and to solve them. 
 Skill in writing the various kinds of business forms in common 
 use, and in performing by short methods the computations 
 required in ordinary business transactions. 
 Ability to define arithmetical terms used, and to state rules 
 
 for performing operations. 
 
 Accuracy and rapidity in performing the work required 
 above, are essential requisites for completion of the work 
 of this Form. 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 17 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 The pupil should be able to give the general structure of the 
 alimentary, respiratory, and nervous organs of the body their 
 chief functions, the well established laws of health, and the 
 effects of stimulants and narcotics. 
 
 CONSTITUTION. 
 
 It is expected that both history and constitutions will have 
 been studied before the pupil enters the high school. It is 
 unnecessary to make a summary of the preliminary work that 
 should be done in those branches, but reference is made to The 
 Manual for Common Schools, under the head of "Constitu- 
 tions." 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Agriculture is now a required study in all the district schools 
 of Wisconsin. After the year 1906 pupils graduating from 
 these schools will be required to pass a satisfactory examina- 
 tion in this subject. 
 
 2 
 
PART II. 
 
 Subjects and Methods. 
 
20 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 SCIENCE. 
 
 In teaching the physical and the biological sciences in the 
 high school, two phases should stand out strong. One is the 
 nature side of the work, the other the science side. The na- 
 ture phases should give the pupil the fullest possible acquaint- 
 ance with nature in its real manifestations, its phenomena and 
 its sequences. This part of the work can be pursued satisfac- 
 torily only in the field and the laboratory. The science side of 
 the work should give the pupil a systematic knowledge of the 
 laws and principles involved and of the established classifica- 
 tion of the data of the science. A scientific knowledge of na- 
 ture in any of its aspects comes from a thoughtful study of its 
 phenomena, from scientific literature, and from instruction. 
 
 The study of the text book and scientific literature may give 
 the pupil considerable knowledge of the science, but it will be 
 weak and unsatisfactory unless it is supported by an intimate 
 acquaintance with nature gained at first hand. On the other 
 hand, it is equally objectionable for the pupil to spend his time 
 in the laboratory peering into a microscope or performing ex- 
 periments without such an accompaniment of the philosophy 
 of things as will enable him to make a broader interpretation 
 of nature, and to .gain that culture which comes not simply 
 from things observed but from a knowledge of their signifi- 
 cance and relationships'. 
 
 The laboratory is designed to make the study of nature and 
 the observation of its laws and principles practicable and 
 efficient. Time, however, will not permit of anything like an 
 exhaustive study of nature in this way; hence the few things 
 that are studied should be of the most instructive type and 
 planned with special reference to giving the pupil the best pos- 
 sible knowledge of the science and the largest appreciation of 
 nature. Just as the student of art strives to master model 
 types of form and color, and the student of literature studies 
 to know and 'appreciate model forms of literature, so the stu- 
 dent in the laboratory should come to see and appreciate im- 
 portant types of scientific truth. 
 
W1ISCONS1N FREE HIGH .SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 The aim in science teaching as in all teaching is to develop 
 in the individual the best and most appreciative correspond- 
 ence with his environment. To this end, good science teach- 
 ing should secure to the pupil the following: 
 
 1. A correct knowledge of the facts of nature, and a sufficiently 
 
 extensive acquaintance with these facts to furnish a suit- 
 able basis for the study of the science. 
 
 2. Skill and facility in the use of aids to the interpretation of 
 
 nature, as seen in the useful instruments and apparatus of 
 the laboratories. 
 
 3. A well grounded knowledge of the simple elements of the 
 
 science as a science, that is, of the present system of clas- 
 sified knowledge on that subject. 
 
 4. Excellence in the use of scientific language as the medium 
 
 for the exact expression of truth. 
 
 5. Training that will make for skill and efficiency in the prac- 
 
 tical applications of knowledge. 
 
 6. Culture, both intellectual and ethical. Among the elements 
 
 of culture that good science teaching should impart are: 
 
 1. Habits of correct observation. 
 
 2. Power to visualize knowledge. 
 
 3. Due appreciation for the nature and value of evi- 
 
 dence as a basis for correct thinking. 
 
 4. Love for and devotion to truth based upon scientific- 
 
 ally established premises. 
 
 5. A mind disciplined to presistent and unbiased search 
 
 for truth. 
 
 The pupil's knowledge. will be derived from three sources: 
 
 1. From observation and induction. 
 
 2. From the text books and scientific literature. 
 
 3. From instruction. 
 
 These three sources should be well balanced since each con- 
 tributes elements of value not derivable from the others. 
 
 Observation and induction implies a good laboratory with 
 good facilities for studying such types of phenomena as will 
 contribute most to the scientific growth of the pupil. It im- 
 plies also that the supervision in the laboratory will be such as 
 to secure from the pupil the most thoughtful consideration of 
 the phenomena observed. 
 
 The text book and scientific literature are the teacher's chief 
 aids in furnishing a carefully collected body of information on 
 the subject, in presenting this information in an orderly and 
 systematic manner, and in contributing suitable material for 
 stimulating and directing interest and observation. 
 
 Instruction, the third source, should be used to direct the 
 pupil's mind into the right channels of effort, to correct erron- 
 
22 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL, MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 eous impressions, and to aid in securing those broad truths 
 and generalizations which may not be obtained without help. 
 Good instruction will do much also to give the pupil an apti- 
 tude for the lifelong pursuit of scientific knowledge. 
 
 There should be a good reference library for every science 
 taught, and the books should be kept in a suitable case readily 
 accessible to the pupils in their daily work. 
 
 The teacher should generally avoid the use of the recitation 
 period for experimental purposes; but when experiments are 
 introduced they should be brief and should afford a simple 
 illustration of an important and not clearly apprehended truth. 
 
 Kecitations in science should be topical both in the assign- 
 ment for preparation and in the class room discussion. At the 
 close of the discussion and for review purposes, the quiz finds 
 its proper place and is one of the most important factors in a 
 good recitation in science. It should be sharp and searching, 
 and should show whether the pupil has a clear and presentable 
 knowledge of the truths in question. But the quiz should 
 never be permitted to take the place of individual initiative on 
 the part of the pupil in discussing the topic. 
 
 The laboratory work should be closely correlated with the 
 class work. The experiments should be performed under the 
 supervision and direction of a competent teacher. The pupils 
 should be taught by instruction and by example to care for the 
 apparatus and facilities of the laboratory, and should not be 
 permitted to use the laboratory for any but earnest purposeful 
 scientific work. These habits once formed contribute much 
 toward the best scientific spirit and culture. The note book 
 is an indispensable adjunct of good laboratory work and should 
 contain the actual observations made by the pupil during the 
 progress of the experiment. But laboratory work which ends 
 with note book records is a failure. The pupil should be re- 
 quired to make such discussion, oral or written, of his 
 notes and observations as will bring to his consciousness the 
 knowledge of the significance and scientific relationships of 
 the data thus obtained. 
 
 PHYSICS. 
 
 This subject is almost universally taken during the entire 
 fourth year in the free high schools of Wisconsin. It is not an 
 optional study, but is required of all pupils in all courses. 
 
 This latter fact is an especially important factor in determin- 
 ing both the general purposes of the study and the subject mat- 
 ter. The pupils vary greatly in the amount of experience and 
 knowledge which the teacher may assume them to have as a 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. . 23 
 
 basis upon which to build. Some of the class may have ac- 
 quired a large fund of information in regard to the physical 
 facts around them, and may have that interest which will make 
 them ready to do hard, effective work. Others, often a major- 
 ity, are not possessed of an inquiring mind in this direction;- 
 their interest is yet to be aroused; they must be taught the sim- 
 plest fundamental facts; the circle of their mental horizon must 
 be widened, new interests awakened, and respect aroused for 
 those workers who first found out these things. To such pu- 
 pils the study is especially valuable, coming as it does just as 
 they are leaving school to carry last impressions away with 
 them. 
 
 .To reach these results the teacher must constantly keep 
 in mind the need of emphasizing the relations of the study to 
 daily life and interests. Comparatively few high school stu- 
 dents are prepared to pursue the subject by exact, scientific, 
 quantitative methods. Perhaps no other study, however, lends 
 itself so readily to such variations of assignment to fit individ- 
 ual needs; thus an experiment may be made qualitative to one 
 pupil and quantitative to another, certain problems and demon- 
 strations be made honorary, etc. 
 
 Of all branches in the high school course, physics has per- 
 haps the greatest range of values as a subject for the fourth 
 year in giving review and training in other lines, especially 
 needed at the close of the course, while gaining knowledge of 
 the facts of the science. Such review and training need not 
 hinder the main work, but will rather make it more effective. 
 One of these secondary lines is that relating to mathematics. 
 Many of the problems , equations , and demonstration s have a prac- 
 tical application which the pupil has, perhaps, never met with 
 before. The arithmetic, algebra, and geometry called for are in- 
 struments used for a purpose, that of securing some definite 
 knowledge. When the student has worked out the various equa- 
 tions of acceleration of force as applied in the laws of falling bodies, 
 and has acquired facility in determining any one of the factors 
 when others are given; or when he has mathematically, graph- 
 ically and experimentally proved the laws of the inclined plane, 
 and has found that all these methods lead to the same conclus- 
 ions, mathematics has a significance undreamed of before. Many 
 of the mathematical problems can be verified experimentally. For 
 instance, in the Torricellian experiment, the height of the col- 
 umn of mercury may be found by experiment, the capacity of 
 the tube calculated, and the result verified by weighing the 
 mercury; the accuracy of the whole may be tested by the 
 barometer. Such work, through its definiteness and practical 
 nature, tends to counteract the inclination toward superficiality 
 in the study of a science, making it well-balanced, and giving 
 
24 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH -SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 training of the highest value. On the other hand, much of the 
 mathematical work given in the majority of the texts in use, is 
 so difficult and deals with units so imperfectly comprehended 
 by the pupil, that the operations become to him a mere indef- 
 inite striving after a numerical result, which when it is reached 
 cannot be tested, and means practically nothing to him. 
 
 The study of physics also affords excellent opportunity for 
 training in English. The subject is broken up into so many 
 practically independent topics, each leading back to fundamental 
 principles, that it affords the best of material for extended oral 
 and written composition. The study of the compound micro- 
 scope may serve as an illustration. This naturally begins with 
 the fundamental theory of light, follows through refraction, 
 lenses, and the formation of images, until the full explanation 
 of the instrument is reached. There are many such topics 
 which may be used as material for extended exercises likely to 
 be needed by seniors. 
 
 If papers are required they may be written as tests in the 
 school room; or they may be prepared entirely outside and a 
 definite time given for their presentation, as is done in the case 
 of a thesis. Supplementary material and all sources of infor- 
 mation should be freely used, and, if thought best, the outline 
 may be worked out in the daily recitation. The final form and 
 language, however, must be the pupil's own. 
 
 (See Hall's "Adolescence," Vol. 2, pp. 148-160). 
 
 LABORATORY WORK. 
 
 From forty to fifty fundamental principles and applications 
 should be thoroughly illustrated by experiments. These ex- 
 periments should be shown by the teacher, the same or similar 
 ones performed by the pupil, and studied until a clear under- 
 standing of their nature and purpose is gained. These do not 
 include all of the laboratory work, but are for the one object 
 which should be kept steadily in view, the acquirement of an 
 understanding of fundamental principles. Many of them give 
 opportunity for either qualitative or quantitative treatment, 
 and (if the class has the proper school spirit) the abler pupils 
 can be easily led to do more advanced work than can be done 
 by the rest of the class. 
 
 The following list includes more than the number indicated 
 above, and selections may be made to suit conditions: 
 
 Presence of superficial films. 
 
 Contractility of liquid films. 
 
 Diffusion of liquids. 
 
 Capillary attraction. 
 
 Composition of three forces in a plane. 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH iSCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 25 
 
 The pendulum law of length. 
 
 Pulleys. 
 
 Levers. 
 
 Pressure of liquids in all directions. 
 
 Transmission of pressure in liquids. 
 
 Pressure on bottom of vessel. 
 
 Upward pressure in liquids. 
 
 Effect on weight of a body by submerging it in different liquids. 
 
 Principle of Archimedes. 
 
 Specific gravity of a solid heavier than water. 
 
 Specific gravity of a solid lighter than water. 
 
 Specific gravity of a liquid. 
 
 Specific gravity of a substance which will dissolve in water. 
 
 To show that a floating body will sink until it displaces its own 
 
 weight of the liquid. 
 Barometer. 
 Siphon. 
 
 Tension of confined gas (air). 
 Boyle's law. 
 
 Boiling point and pressure. 
 Testing a thermometer. 
 Dew point. 
 
 Fluid currents caused by heat. 
 Expansion by heating. 
 Heat of fusion of ice. 
 Number of vibrations in tone. 
 Vibration in segments of cords and plates. 
 Resonance of air column. 
 Vibrating strings -law of length. 
 Vibrating strings law of tension. 
 Umbra and penumbra of shadow. 
 Images by apertures. 
 Intensity of light at different distances. 
 Photometer. 
 
 Regular and irregular reflection. 
 Refraction of ray of light in water. 
 Position of image in plane mirror. 
 To show experimentally, facts demonstrated graphically in regard to 
 
 the formation of images in concave and convex mirror. 
 Location of image formed by convex lens 
 Kinds and action of electricity by friction. 
 Polarization by induction. 
 Charging by induction. 
 The simple voltaic cell. 
 Electrolysis. 
 
 Lines of force in a magnetic field. 
 Lines of force around a wire carrying a current. 
 Electromagnet. 
 
 Effect of cutting lines of force by a closed coil. 
 Effect on secondary coil of making or breaking circuit in primary. 
 Heating and lighting effect of current due to resistance. 
 
2Q WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL,, 1906. 
 
 LABORATORY EQUIPMENT. 
 
 Apparatus should be selected for service, not for show. 
 Hence, every piece purchased should be substantially made 
 and should be well calculated to aid in the study of some im- 
 portant physical principle. Generally, in purchasing a first 
 equipment it will be best for schools to be guided in the selec- 
 tion by such a list as that presented below. The list includes 
 standard apparatus that has come into use in the best high 
 school laboratories of the country. It represents a fairly good 
 equipment for a new high school, both for variety and for com- 
 pleteness, but should be added to as the school advances. The 
 entire list named can be purchased for from $250 to $300. 
 
 LIST OF APPARATUS. 
 
 For work in general physical measurement. 
 
 Meter sticks sufficient to supply class. 
 
 Vernier caliper, metric system. 
 
 Graduated glass cylinder, 500 cc. 
 
 Graduated glass cylinder, 100 cc. 
 
 Graduate English measure. 
 
 Set liter measures. 
 
 Jolly balance, cheap form. 
 
 Harvard balance. 
 
 Horn pan balance, 6 in. 
 
 Spring balance, 30 Ib , 15 kg. 
 
 Three spring balances. 8 oz., 250 g. 
 
 Set universal iron weights with hooks 10 g. to 1 kg. 
 
 Set brass weights, in block, 100 grams to 1 centigram. 
 
 Set avoirdupois weights, 1 oz. to 2 Ibs., with hooks. 
 
 Iron support. 
 
 Iron tripod. 
 For work in mechanics of solids. 
 
 Set pulleys 1 fixed single, 1 mov. single, 1 each double, 1 triple. 
 
 Wheel and axle. 
 
 Iron ball 4 in. in diameter, with hook. 
 
 Small brass ball with hook to use for experiments with pendulum. 
 For work in mechanics of fluids. 
 
 Universal Hydrometer, that is one that may be used for liquids either 
 lighter or heavier than water. 
 
 Boyle's law tube. 
 
 Set capillary tubes. 
 
 Air pump. 
 
 Seven-in-one apparatus. 
 
 Barometer tube. 
 
 Pascal's vases. 
 For work in sound. 
 
 Sonometer. 
 
 Tuning fork, 256 vibrations. 
 
 Second tuning fork of different pitch. 
 
 Tall glass cylinder without lip, 50 cm. or more high. 
 
 Whirling machine. 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 27 
 
 Savart wheel for whirling machine, 4 rows holes. 
 
 Chladni's plate with clamp. 
 
 Cello bow for Chladni's plate. 
 For work in heat. 
 
 Thermometer 3 scale. 
 
 Two chemical thermometers, double scale. 
 
 Glass bulb, about lOOcc., with long #tem for use as air thermometer 
 and for study of liquid and gas expansion, etc. 
 
 Apparatus A. 
 
 Ball and ring for studying expansion of solids. 
 
 Pulse glass. 
 For work in light. 
 
 Lamp. 
 
 Concave and convex mirror. 
 
 Set lenses. 
 
 Glass prism. 
 
 Color discs. 
 For work in electricity and magnetism. 
 
 Glass rod, rubber rod, catskin, and pieces of flannel and silk cloth. 
 
 Frictional machine. 
 
 Insulated conductor. 
 
 Leyden jar. 
 
 Demonstration voltaic cell. 
 
 Battery. 6 cells. 
 
 Bar magnets in box. 
 
 Horseshoe magnet. 
 
 Electro magnet. 
 
 Primary and secondary coil. 
 
 Induction coil, 14 i n - spark, sliding coil. 
 
 D'Arsonal galvanometer, cheap form. 
 
 Magnetic compass. 
 
 Resistance box 1 to 100 ohms (cheap form). 
 
 The following are ,some of the pieces which should be added 
 as soon as circumstances will permit: 
 
 Model steam engine. 
 Electric bell. 
 Telephone. 
 Telegraph. 
 Dynamo, motor, etc. 
 
 In addition to the above there should be the equipment of 
 ordinary supplies of glass and rubber tubing, plain and insu- 
 lated wire of different sizes, corks, mercury, sheet rubber, etc., 
 and a few tools such as pincers, hammer, saw, plane, stock 
 and bits, etc. 
 
 Some of the pieces in the list which are used in individual 
 experiments should be duplicated, unless the school is very 
 small. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 The field of original investigation is beyond the high school 
 student; it belongs to the college post-graduate. 
 
28 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH /SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 Experiments for display and entertainment are appropriate 
 for evening shows, but are not productive of the best results 
 for the student of science. 
 
 Laboratories should be provided with suitable tables and 
 blackboards. They should be well lighted and provided with 
 means for darkening the windows. 
 
 The pupils can, under the direction of the teacher, make 
 much simple but useful apparatus outside of school hours. 
 The caution here is, however, to employ the pupils as students 
 of science, not as carpenters and blacksmiths. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 The work in physiology should cover, in a general way, the 
 work outlined in any good text-book. The study should be 
 made as objective as possible, special emphasis being given to 
 diagramming organs and systems at the time they are studied, 
 and suggested experiments made when possible. Too much 
 attention should not be given to details, but the fundamentals 
 should be thoroughly taught. 
 
 The work should give to the student a clear idea of the living 
 body, the divisions of bodies into organic and inorganic, into 
 plants and animals; of what is meant by the structure of a 
 body, anatomy, physiology, hygiene, cell tissue, membrane, 
 gland, muscle, tendon, blood vessel, nerve, lymphatic, bone, 
 and joint. There should also be a clear notion of the kin'ds of 
 work done in the human body and of the systems by which it 
 is accomplished. 
 
 The knowledge of the digestive system should include a 
 knowledge of what constitutes food, and the classes of food 
 which are taken into the system, together with a knowledge of 
 the system as a whole, the function and structure of its organs, 
 including the mouth, tongue, testh, salivary glands, pharynx, 
 esophagus, stomach, pancreas, liver, small intestine, and large 
 intestine. There should also be a clear understanding of and 
 ability to diagram the two routes by which the digested food 
 goes into circulation (by bloodvessels and lymphatics), as well 
 as the ability to trace the steps in the digestion of the differ- 
 ent classes of food, and to state the laws of hygiene for the 
 system. 
 
 In connectfon with the circulatory system, students should 
 be able to give the plan of the system as a whole, the function 
 and structure of the organs of circulation, including the heart, 
 arteries, capillaries, and veins; to show the structure, compo- 
 sition, and function of the blood, and to explain by diagram 
 the pulmonic and the systemic circulation, to show the changes 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH (SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 9 
 
 which the blood undergoes in the lungs and capillaries, how 
 animal heat is produced and how regulated, and what is meant 
 by congestion, inflammation, a cold, and a fever. 
 
 A knowledge of the respiratory system should include a 
 knowledge of the purpose of respiration, the structure and 
 function of the organs of the system, the movements in respir- 
 ation, the chemical changes which result from it, the consequent 
 importance of ventilation, and Nature's provisions for keeping 
 the air pure. The dissection of the heart and lungs of a sheep 
 or other mammal, and a diagram of the circulatory and respir- 
 atory systems combined, would be of value to the student at 
 this point. 
 
 The study of the secretory system should result in knowledge 
 of the secretory organs and the functions of their secretions. 
 The organs thus studied should include the muncusand serous 
 membranes, synovial membranes, salivary glands, lining mem- 
 branes of the stomach and intestines, liver, pancreas, oil glands, 
 lachrymal glands, and the lining of the ear. 
 
 The knowledge of the absorbent system should include the 
 method by which the waste matter is taken from the tissues 
 and expelled from the body as perspiration, and by the lungs, 
 and kidneys. In this connection, there should be a study of 
 the skin, its structure, appendages, and functions. 
 
 As the result of the work on the osseous system students 
 should be able to give the composition, structure, classes, and 
 use of bones; the parts of the skeleton in the head, trunk, upper 
 and lower extremities; means by which parts of the skeleton 
 are united, kinds of joints, and the hygiene of bones, especially 
 with relation to children. 
 
 For the muscular system there should be a knowledge of the 
 structure, function, general arrangement, position, and attach- 
 ment of muscles, together with rules of hygiene, in connection 
 with exercise and rest. 
 
 As a result of the study of the nervous system, the student 
 should be able to show the necessity of a nervous system, to 
 diagram in a general way the cerebro-spinal and the sympa- 
 thetic systems, to describe the two kinds of nerve tissue, with 
 the function of each, to illustrate and explain what is meant 
 by an impression, sensation, and reflex nervous action; to dia- 
 gram and state the function of the parts of the brain and spinal 
 cord, to describe by diagram the crossing of the nerve fibers 
 in the cord and the medulla oblongata, and to show the effect 
 of injury to either side of the brain or spinal cord, and to trace 
 the course of the nerve current in reflex action; to show the 
 knowledge gained through each sense acting alone, and to dia- 
 gram the nerves of the ear and eye, describing by means of the 
 diagrams acts of hearing and of seeing, and to show reasons 
 for defective hearing and vision. 
 
30 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 There should be a clear notion of the action of alcohol and 
 other stimulants and narcotics upon the human body. 
 
 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 This is a branch of study that involves the elements of all the 
 sciences. It is therefore necessary for the instructor before 
 he begins the subject to ascertain what knowledge the pupils 
 have of botany, physics, geology, astronomy, chemistry, etc. 
 If they have had training in nature work and elementary 
 science in the grades, the study of physical geography may not 
 be found difficult. 
 
 The aim of the teacher in physical geography should be to 
 have the pupil acquire a knowledge of the relation of earth to 
 man, which must necessarily involve a thorough study of the 
 immediate environment of man. 
 
 After establishing a definite aim for each recitation, the 
 teacher should carefully ascertain what things the pupil must 
 know in order to realize this aim; what of these things are now 
 known, and proceed accordingly with the instruction, teaching 
 what remains to be known. 
 
 As text-books differ in the subject-matter treated, it is recom- 
 mended that the study of physical geography shall include the 
 following general considerations, consuming the time allotted 
 to the subject in the high school. 
 
 1. The earth as a planet and its relation to the solar system. 
 
 2. A brief geological history of the earth with special reference to Wis- 
 
 consin and the United States. 
 
 3. The land distribution and the relief of its various divisions, vol- 
 
 canoes and earthquakes. 
 
 4. The water distribution, continental drainage, erosion, waves, tides, 
 
 ocean currents, glaciers, and geysers. 
 
 5. 1 he atmospheric movements and their causes, with a careful study 
 
 of climate and its causes. 
 If time permits, the following subjects may be pursued: 
 
 6. The human race as distributed. 
 
 7. The animals and plants as distributed. 
 
 8. The economic products, including variety of soil, distribution and 
 
 use of coal, ores, building stone and natural gas. 
 
 The practical side of the subject should not be neglected. The 
 rivers, creeks, lakes, hills, valleys, railroad cuts, storms, the 
 sky, day and night, all furnish an opportunity for personal 
 observation. The laboratory will probably furnish apparatus 
 for demonstration, such as: 
 
 A thermometer. 
 
 A barometer (its construction should be taught). 
 
 A centrifugal hoop. 
 
 An electrical machine. 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH 'SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 31 
 
 Bar magnets. 
 Magnetic needles. 
 
 Ball and ring to show expansion and contraction. 
 Air pump. 
 
 A prism or spectroscope. 
 
 Relief maps, a good globe or tellurian, and a spherical blackboard areT 
 needed in this study. 
 
 BOTANY. 
 
 The work in botany in the high schools of the state is not 
 uniform either in regard to the subject matter or to the method 
 of treatment. Much of this difference must necessarily con- 
 tinue to exist, since a school thoroughly equipped with appar- 
 atus and having a special teacher naturally can undertake a 
 more extended line of work than one not having these facilities. 
 Authorities, too, differ widely in their views as to how the 
 subject should be treated, and even the same author sends out 
 several editions of his text with many changes. 
 
 Under these conditions no definite course can be outlined 
 which will apply to all schools. Certain general conclusions 
 may be stated, however, which will serve as a guide in the 
 selection of texts and in determining what to take and what to 
 omit from any given book. The work should begin with what 
 the pupil has seen, or with what he readily can see with the 
 simple dissecting glass. Neither the schools nor the teachers 
 are ready for the scientific work needed in beginning with the 
 lower forms of life. The compound microscope is not a suit- 
 able instrument for use by pupils in the first or second year of 
 the high school in doing independent and original work in the 
 study of the 'minute structure of plant life. It has a legitimate 
 place, however, in demonstrating facts learned by pupils in 
 regard to minute structures. 
 
 The course should include some study of the lower forms, es- 
 pecially of such fungi as have great economic importance such 
 as bacteria, yeast, various rusts, and mushrooms. These 
 should be studied in their gross forms without using the 
 compound microscope other than as indicated above. 
 
 In localities in which farming is of great interest, agricul- 
 tural botany should be made prominent. If a year is given to 
 the subject, as is now so commonly done, during the winter 
 some time may well be given to the definite study of agricul- 
 ture using a text book as a basis; as much time will still be 
 left for botany as has been generally given in the past. 
 Again, instead of stock specimens for study and illustration, 
 plants which are of economic interest as friends or foes should 
 be used. They should be studied fully, not only as to their 
 
32 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 anatomy and morphology, but alsotheir physiology and ecology. 
 Some time should be given to a study of the more prominent 
 flora of the home region including the characteristics and ap- 
 pearance of the trees, woods, etc. 
 
 Such work is better adapted to the smaller and medium-sized 
 schools than the extended work in the lower forms so often un- 
 dertaken. Large and well equipped city schools where agri- 
 cultural interests are not prominent; may, profitably perhaps, 
 do more with lower forms. 
 
 The following is a course adopted with more or less modifi- 
 cation in a large number of states, and represents substantially 
 the attitude of botanists in this country in regard to the con- 
 tent of a one-year course. 
 
 The division into parts is not intended to imply that each 
 topic is to be studied separately. The morphology, physiology 
 and ecology should ba treited as needed in the study of the 
 plant. 
 
 As stated above, it is not expscted that any but the largest 
 and best equipped high schools will undertake the extended 
 study of the lower forms. (See Hall's "Adolescence" Vol. 2, 
 p. p. 148-160: (Appletons), and "Lloyd and Bigelo w' s" "Teaeh- 
 of Biology", p. p. 125-128.) 
 
 A. MORPHOLOGY. 
 
 1. The seed. Four representatives (dicotyledon without and 
 
 with endosperm, a monocotyledon, and a gymnosperm); 
 structure and homologous parts. Food supply; experi- 
 mental determination of its nature and value. Phenomena 
 of germination and growth of embryo into a. seedling (in- 
 cluding bursting from the seed, assumption of position, and 
 unfolding of parts). 
 
 2. The shoot. Gross anatomy of a representative shoot; the ar- 
 
 rangement of leaves and buds on the stem; and deviations 
 (through light adjustment, etc.) from symmetry. 
 Buds and the mode of origin of new leaf and stem; winter 
 buds in particular. Specialized, and metamorphosed shoots 
 (stems and leaves). General structure and distribution of the 
 leading tissues of the shoot; annual growth; shedding of bark 
 and leaves. 
 
 3. The root. Gross anatomy of a representative root; position 
 L, and origin of secondary roots; hair-zone, cap and growing- 
 point; origin of new roots. 
 
 Specialized and metamorphosed roots. General structure and 
 distribution of the leading tissues of the root. 
 
 4. The flower. Structure of a representative flower, especially 
 
 of ovule and pollen; nectar glands; functions of the parts. 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH .SCHOOL MANUAL, 190G. 33 
 
 Comparative morphological study of six or more different, 
 marked types, with the construction of transverse and 
 longitudinal diagrams. 
 
 5. The fruit. Structure of a representative fruit, especially with 
 
 reference to changes from the flower, and from ovule to_ 
 seed. Comparative morphological study of six or more 
 marked types, with diagrams.* 
 
 6. The cell. Cytoplasm, nucleus, sap-cavity, wall. Adaptive 
 
 modification of walls, formation of tissues. 
 
 The precise sequence of topics in the above outline is not a 
 matter of importance. The study of the cell should not be post- 
 poned for consideration by. itself after the other topics, as its po- 
 sition in the above outline may seem to imply, but should oe 
 brought in along with the study of the shoot or root and con- 
 tinued from topic to topic. Although enough study of the 
 individual cell is to be made to give an idea of its structure (a 
 study which may very advantageously be associated with the 
 physiological topics first mentioned under B) the principal mi- 
 croscopical work should consist in the recognition and study of 
 the distribution of the leading tissues. 
 
 B. PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 1. Role of water in the plant; absorption (osmosis), path of 
 
 transfer, transpiration, turgidity and its mechanical value, 
 plasmalysis. 
 
 2. Photosynthesis: dependence of starch formation upon chloro- 
 
 phyll, light, and carbon dioxide; evolution of oxygen; ob- 
 servation of starch grains. 
 
 3. Mineral nutrition: ability of green plants and inability of 
 
 non-green plants (fungi) to thrive upon the carbon dioxide 
 of the air and mineral solutions. 
 
 4. Respiration: necessity for oxygen in growth, evolution of car- 
 
 bon dioxide. 
 
 5. Digestion: digestion of starch with diastase, and the role of 
 
 digestion in translocation of foods. 
 
 6. Irritability: jreotropism, heliotropism, and hydrotropism; 
 
 nature of stimulus and response. 
 
 7. Growth: localization in higher plants; amount in germin- 
 
 ating seeds and stems; relationship to temperature. 
 
 8. Fertilization: sexual and vegetative reproduction. 
 
 Although for convenience of reference, the physiological 
 topics are here grouped together, they should not be studied 
 
 *This comparative morphological study of flowers and fruits may advantageously be 
 postponed until it can be taken up in connection with classification of the angiosperms. 
 
 3 
 
34 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 by themselves and apart from anatomy and morphology. On 
 the contrary, they should be taken up along with the study of 
 the structures in which the processes occur, and which they 
 help to explain; thus photosynthesis should be studied with 
 the leaf, as should also transpiration, while digestion may best 
 come with germination, osmotic absorption with the root, and 
 so on. The student should either try, or at least aid in trying, 
 experiments to demonstrate the fundamental processes above. 
 
 C. Ecology. 
 
 
 1. Modifications (metamorphoses) of parts for special func- 
 
 tions. 
 
 2. Dissemination. 
 
 3. Cross-pollination. 
 
 4. Light relations of green tissues; leaf mosaics. 
 
 5. Plant societies; mesophytes, hydrophytes, halophytes, xero~ 
 
 phytes; climbers, epiphytes, parasites (and saprophytes), 
 insectivora. Symbiosis.; 
 
 6. Plant associations, and zonal distribution. 
 
 The topics in ecology, like those in physiology, are to be 
 studied not by themselves, but along with, and in dependence 
 upon, the structures with which they are most closely con- 
 nected; as, cross-pollination with the flower, dissemination 
 with the seed, etc. (5) and (6) may be studied most advan- 
 tageously when the student is dealing with systematic groups 
 under angiosperms, and are to be considered as recommended 
 rather than as required. 
 
 In this connection field work is of great importance, and for 
 some topics, such as (6) indispensable, though much may be 
 done also with photographs, museum specimens, and potted 
 plants in greenhouses. Every effort should be made to make 
 the field work in ecology systematic and definite. The tempta- 
 tions to haziness and guessing must constantlybe combated. 
 
 The study of systematic groups should be a comprehensive 
 summary based upon the thorough study of the structure, re- 
 production, and adaptations to habitat of types from each 
 group, supplemented by more rapid study of other forms in 
 these groups. Where living material is wanting, some use 
 may be made of preserved or even pictured materials. A 
 standard text-book should be carefully read. The general 
 homologies from group to group should be noted. 
 
 In general, in this part of the course, much less attention 
 should be given to the lower, difficult, and inconspicuous 
 
W1ISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 35 
 
 groups, and progressively more to the higher and conspicuous 
 forms, and at least one-third of the time devoted to the groups 
 should be given to the spermatophytes. 
 
 Attention should be called throughout to the economics (re-_ 
 lations to man's good and injury) of the forms and grouplT 
 studied. 
 
 Following is a list of recommended types from which selec- 
 tions may be made: 
 
 D. In Classification. 
 
 1. Algae Pleurococcus (or sphaerella), spirogyra, vaucheria, 
 
 Cladophora, Fucus, Nemalion (or Batrachospermum or 
 Chara or Polysiphonia or Coleochaete). 
 
 2. Fungi. Bacteria, Rhizopus, Yeast, Puccinia (or any Pow- 
 
 dery Mildew), Mushroom. 
 
 Bacteria and Yeast have obvious disadvantages in such 
 a course, but their great economic prominence may jus- 
 tify their introduction. 
 
 3. Lichens. Physcia (or Parmelia). 
 
 4. Bryophytes. In Hepaticae, Radula (or Porella or Mar- 
 
 chantia). In Musci, Mnium (or Funaria or Polytrichum). 
 
 5. Pteridophytes. In Filicineae, Aspidium (or equivalent), 
 
 including of course the prothallus. 
 In Equisetineae, Equisetum. 
 In Lycopodineae, Lycopodium, and Selaginella (or Isoetes). 
 
 6. Gymnosperms. Pinus or equivalent. 
 
 7. Angiosperms. A monocotyledon and a dicotyledon, to be 
 
 studied with reference to the homologies of their parts 
 with those in the above groups; together with the repre- 
 sentative plants of the leading subdivisions and principal 
 families of angiosperms. 
 
 Classification should include a study of the primary subdivi- 
 sions of the above groups, based on the comparison of the types 
 with other (preferably) living or preserved material. The prin- 
 cipal subdivisions of the spermatophytes, grouped on the Engler 
 and Prantl plan, should be understood. 
 
 The ability to use manuals for the determination of the spe- 
 cies of flowering plants is not considered essential in this 
 course, though it is desirable. It should not be introduced to 
 the exclusion of any other work, but may well be made volun- 
 tary work for those showing a taste for it. It should not be 
 limited to learning names of plants, but should be made a 
 study in the plan of classification as well. 
 
 The preparation of an herbarium is not required nor recom- 
 mended except as voluntary work for those with a taste for 
 collecting. If made, it should not constitute a simple accumu- 
 
36 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 lation of species, but should represent some distinct idea of 
 plant associations, of morphology, of representation of the 
 groups, etc. 
 
 NOTE. The classification is given here to show the entire course as pub- 
 lished, and not with the thought that the work in the lower forms will be 
 given except as" indicated in the introductory directions. 
 
 REFERENCE BOOKS IN BOTANY. 
 
 Coulter: 
 
 Plant relations Appleton. 
 
 Plant structures Appleton. 
 Bailey, Lessons with plants Macmillan. 
 Bergen, Glimpses of the plant world Ginn. 
 Gray, Lessons in botany American Book Co. 
 Allen, The story of the plants Appleton. 
 Campbell, University text-book of botany Macmillan. 
 MacDougal, Experimental plant physiology Holt. 
 Gray, Field, forest, and garden botany - American Boo! Co. 
 Schimper. Plant geography Clarendon Press. 
 Bailey, Garden making Macmillan. 
 Lubbock, Flowers, fruits, and leaves Macmillan. 
 Conn, The story of germ life Appleton. 
 Pruden, T. Mitchel, Dust and its dangers Putnams. 
 
 THEORY AND ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 Section 496a^ (as amended by Chapter 439, Laws of 1903) 
 requires each free high school to offer at least a twelve weeks' 
 course of instruction each year in the theory and art of teach- 
 ing; in the organization, management and course of study of 
 ungraded schools; and in the duties of citizens in the organiza- 
 tion and administration of local school systems. Such a 
 course of instruction shall be open to all students in the 
 school, and a satisfactory standing in the work of this course 
 shall be a condition precedent to the countersignature of a di- 
 ploma held by a graduate of the school as prescribed in Sec- 
 tion 7 of this act." 
 
 It should be understood by teachers and members of school 
 boards that this is not a study which is of value to those pupils 
 only who expect to teach in the schools of this state. The 
 pupils in the public schools will soon be in positions where 
 they will be responsible for the development and maintenance 
 of those schools. The work in Theory and Art of Teaching 
 may be so broadened as to include a consideration of the 
 proper organization of the public schools, the necessity for an 
 intelligent interest in their welfare, and in what is necessary to 
 secure that welfare. 
 
 This subject if properly taught, may afford as valuable a 
 training for citizenship as any in the course; it is also of high 
 value as a disciplinary study. 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 37 
 
 The best text book for use in the study of pedagogy is the 
 Manual of the Course of Study for Common Schools issued 
 by the state superintendent. It should be made the basis of 
 the work in this subject. As an aid to the study of the Man-_ 
 ual a good reference library should be provided, containing 
 texts on school management, pedagogy, courses of study, etc. 
 
 In the study of the Manual the teacher should emphasize 
 the following: 
 
 I. How to study the Manual. See that the pupils are fa- 
 miliar with the uses of the numbered paragraphs for 
 cross references, and the meaning of the divisions of 
 each subject; (a) primary form, (b) middle form, (c) 
 upper form. 
 
 II. It will be observed that each subject has a general aim 
 with which the pupil should be familiar. Each form 
 has also the three following divisions: 
 
 (a) The specific purpose in the work of each subject in 
 
 each form. 
 
 (b) A course of study with suggestions to teachers upon 
 
 the same. 
 
 (c) Tests for promotion. 
 
 III. Before leaving the study of the Manual the members of 
 
 the class should be familiar with the tests for promo- 
 tion of pupils from each form in all the branches 
 taught in the public schools. 
 
 IV. Drill work .with the class in pedagogy in daily recita- 
 
 tion plans should give definite ideas of the aim to be 
 accomplished, and the method of reaching it. 
 
 When time permits it will be advisable to take the class to 
 observe the lower grades and to see the principles of the Man- 
 ual exemplified. Some schools carry on practice work in the 
 grades, but this proceeding is of questionable value unless it 
 shall be directed and personally supervised by the principal. 
 
 When the study of library reading is begun it will be well 
 for the teacher to have a copy of the List of Books for Town- 
 ship Libraries, prepared by the state superintendent, accessible 
 to the members of the class. Some of the books found in this 
 list can probably be obtained from the school library, and defi- 
 nite instruction as to the best use of these books should be 
 given. 
 
38 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 MATHEMATICS. 
 
 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 Before leaving the high school the students should be able, 
 with accuracy and rapidity, to perform operations in reduction, 
 addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of simple 
 numbers, of fractions, of decimals, and of denominate numbers. 
 He should possess skill in factoring numbers; should be able 
 to find the L. 0. M. by inspection of all numbers of two orders; 
 should be skillful in extraction of square and cube roots; meas- 
 uring and finding areas of rectangles, triangles, and circles; in 
 measuring and finding volumes of rectangular solids, cylinders, 
 cones and spheres. 
 
 He should be able to form and solve proportions and to ana- 
 lyze problems giving rise to proportions. 
 
 He should know the fractional equivalents of the different 
 per cents, commonly used, as well as he knows the multiplica- 
 tion table; be able to find readily any per cent, of a number; 
 to find any number, knowing any per cent, of it; to find what 
 per cent, one number is of another. The student should be 
 able to change problems under each of these three general cases 
 to problems in common fractions and in decimal fractions, and 
 to solve them as such. He should be able to apply the prin- 
 ciples of percentage to operations in profit and loss, commission, 
 trade discount, insurance, and taxes, and should be master of 
 one good method of computing interest, and be able to determine 
 the amount due on a note on which partial payments have been 
 made. 
 
 When dealing with small, simple whole numbers, and with 
 common fractions whose denominators are twelve or less and 
 with small compound denominate numbers, he should be able 
 to secure correct results rapidly without written work. 
 
 He should be able to give a clear analysis of the work in solv- 
 ing practical problems, and to state in order the processes in- 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH iSCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 39 
 
 volved in the solution of problems, not only when the work has 
 all been performed, but when it is indicated without being per- 
 formed. 
 
 Much time will be saved in the work in arithmetic, if the 
 student will learn to perform the fundamental operations ac- 
 curately, and in the later portions of his work, indicate or state 
 the operations to be performed in the solution of problems with- 
 out actually performing them. 
 
 Mental training arises more largely from determining what 
 operations are to be performed under certain conditions, than 
 in the mechanical performance of the operations which are 
 always those of addition, subtraction, multiplication, or di- 
 vision. 
 
 The student should have the power to state and solve original 
 problems, to illustrate general principles and to furnish oppor- 
 tunities for applying the rules for special cases. 
 
 He should be able to state clearly, concisely, and accurately, 
 the definitions of terms commonly used in arithmetic, and to 
 illustrate their meaning by examples or otherwise. 
 
 Unless he can improve upon the definitions given in the books, 
 he should learn them as there stated. This statement also ap- 
 plies to the rules for performing operations. 
 
 It is not meant that th,e student should learn the words of the 
 book without a knowledge of their meaning, but that he should 
 understand the meaning of terms in arithmetic and know how 
 to perform operations; then if he cannot improve upon the 
 formulation of definitions and rules given in the books, he 
 should learn those as the orderly statement of what is in his 
 mind. In the solution of problems, students should be able to 
 give reasons clearly and readily for each operation. 
 
 Good oral and written expression is as essential as the ability 
 to solve difficult arithmetical problems. 
 
 ALGEBRA. 
 
 It is now generally recognized that the first year is not suf- 
 fient time to give the knowledge of algebra which should be 
 had by students completing a high school course, especially if 
 they wish to attend a higher school. Accordingly, all of the 
 newer courses provide for an additional semester in the senior 
 year, during which a review of the fundamental principles as 
 well as new topics may be given. 
 
40 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 OMISSIONS. 
 
 Certain omissions may be made in the first year from the 
 work as usually given ,in text-books, and the time so saved 
 may be used in giving greater thoroughness in what may be 
 called the fundamentals of algebra. 
 
 By this it is not at all meant that dawdling is to be per- 
 mitted. 
 
 By dwelling too long at the beginning upon mechanical 
 operations which are in constant use throughout the subject, 
 time is often wasted. Thus multiplication and division need 
 comparatively little time at the first reading, since there is 
 constant practice afterward. 
 
 The principal omissions are as follows: 
 
 1. Many of the numerous definitions given at the beginning 
 
 of most books may be either omitted entirely from the 
 first year or touched on very lightly and reviewed 
 when needed. Such for example, are the definitions 
 of algebra, known and unknown quantities, prime quan- 
 tities, signs of equality, degree of a term, homogeneous 
 terms, reciprocals-, etc. Caution: Certain other definitions 
 are fundamental and should be memorized in an exact 
 form and thoroughly mastered through abundant illustra- 
 tion and constant drills. Among these are factor, 
 power, root, coefficient, positive integral exponent, term, 
 the common signs, and others which will readily occur to 
 any skillful teacher. 
 
 2. Extended explanations and proofs of laws of operations. 
 
 3. Long and involved examples. 
 
 NOTE. Many text-books give such examples, especially in removing 
 signs of aggregation, in multiplication and division, in complex fractions 
 and in exercises giving practice in equations. Tn such work the pupil 
 loses sight of the purpose of the example and becomes absorbed in the 
 intricate operations necessary to get the answer. 
 
 4. All examples in addition, subtraction, multiplication, divi- 
 
 sion, and factoring containing literal exponents unless 
 they are in very simple form. 
 
 5. All unusual forms in factoring. 
 
 6. The "second method" in H. C. D. and L. C. M. 
 
 7. Certain whole classes of problems in equations, clock prob- 
 
 lems, fox and hound "leap" problems, and "train" prob- 
 lems may in most classes be omitted in first year work 
 and used as fresh exercises in giving review in last year. 
 
 8. Non-practical problems whenever more suggestive ones 
 
 can be found. 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 41 
 
 WHAT TO TAKE IN THE FIRST YEAR. 
 
 1. Fundamental definitions and principles thoroughly mas-_ 
 
 tered as indicated in 1 above. 
 
 2. In every topic numerous short examples illustrating the 
 
 principles under consideration. The teacher should 
 make this work of such a character as will require 
 close attention and vigorous and intensive thought on 
 the part of the pupil. 
 
 3. Exercises throughout the work involving translation of al- 
 
 gebraic into common language or vice versa. Such 
 translations are especially valuable as exercises in Eng- 
 ^ lish. 
 
 4. Fundamental operations, including the usual special rules. 
 
 '(See Note 3 in omissions.) 
 
 5. Factoring including 
 
 (a) Trinomial squares. 
 
 (b) The difference of two squares. 
 
 (c) A trinomial whose first term is a square and whose 
 
 last term is a product of two factors whose sum 
 into the square root of the first term equals the 
 second term. 
 
 (d) The sum or difference of two cubes. 
 
 (e) The sum of the same odd powers of two quantities. 
 
 (f) The difference of the same powers of two quantities. 
 
 6. II. C. D. and L. C. M. by method of factoring only. 
 
 7. Fractions (See 3 in omissions.) 
 
 8. Simple equations. (See 7 in omissions.) 
 
 9. Involution and evolution. (Integral positive exponents 
 
 only). 
 
 10. Radicals. 
 
 (a) Meaning (without proof) of different exponents. 
 
 (b) Simple work in reduction and fundamental opera- 
 
 tions. (See 3 in omissions.) 
 
 11. Solution of simple quadratic equations. Solution of af- 
 
 fected quadratic equations by completion of the square. 
 (Easy examples.) 
 
 The above indicates a minimum of work for the first year, 
 and gives a sufficient knowledge of algebra for use in the suc- 
 ceeding years of the high school. More extended or difficult 
 work may often be given to the stronger members of the class. 
 
 The proper assignment will always provide material suited 
 to the varying capabilities of the class. It must give the 
 strongest members sufficient work, and at the same time it 
 must include a definite connected treatment of the topic in 
 hand simple enough for the weaker pupils. The character of 
 
42 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 the student's work in algebra depends as largely upon his 
 ability to make correct, clear and concise statements of defini- 
 tions, processes or rules, and steps in the performance of alge- 
 braic operations in the solution of problems, and in general 
 demonstrations, as in his ability to perform operations, to 
 solve problems, and to give demonstrations. 
 The advanced work of the fourth year should include 
 
 (a) A brief review of the essentials of the first year with 
 
 more attention to proofs and underlying reasons. 
 
 (b) Radicals and quadratics including simultaneous quad- 
 
 ratic equations. 
 
 (c) Ratio and proportion and variation. 
 
 (d) Arithmetical and geometrical progressions. 
 
 (e) Binomial theorem for positive integral exponents. 
 
 (f) "Logarithms including use of tables in simple numeri- 
 
 cal work. 
 
 (g) Graphs introduced in connection with above advanced 
 
 work. 
 
 GEOMETRY. 
 
 At the mathematical conference of the college and high school 
 section of the State Teachers' Association held in Milwaukee in 
 December, 1903, a committee was appointed to prepare a year 
 course in plane and solid geometry. This committee consisted 
 of Messrs. E. B. Skinner, chairman, C. H. Chandler, W. C. 
 Hewitt, and J. H. Hutchison. The accompanying list of prop- 
 ositions presented to the conference by the committee in De- 
 cember, 1904, was adopted by the conference. 
 
 In making its report, the committee presented certain recom- 
 mendations designed to explain and to supplement the report. 
 What follows contains the gist of these recommendations. 
 
 1. Pupils should be carefully drilled in the matter of axioms, 
 
 postulates, and definitions, and should be made to under- 
 stand as early as possible the part these play in the devel- 
 opment of the subject. 
 
 2. It is not desirable to abridge materially the work in the 
 
 earlier part of the course as laid down in the best text- 
 books. It is necessary to go carefully over a fairly large 
 number of elementary propositions in order to make the 
 pupil realize the nature of demonstration. 
 
 3. The committee recommends that, so far as possible, a single 
 
 fact should be stated in each theorem. The simpler the 
 statement, the more easily its meaning will be grasped by 
 the pupil. When some progress has been made it will be 
 a useful exercise to attempt to combine the subject matter 
 of several theorems into a single statement, but not before. 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH -SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 43 
 
 4. The term "corollary" should be reserved to designate a 
 
 truth that really does follow from the main theorem as an 
 obvious consequence, and not a truth requiring a more or 
 less difficult demonstration. 
 
 5. The course as presented should be supplemented by not less 
 
 than one hundred exercises and problems of a fair degree 
 of difficulty. Too much emphasis cannot be laid upon 
 this point. One hundred should be regarded as the mini- 
 mum to be covered bv the slowest members of the class. 
 Brighter pupils will do considerably more. It is in this 
 way that the course can be made elastic and adapted to 
 the varying abilities of the pupils. 
 
 6. The solutions of many of the theorems should be merely 
 
 suggested to the pupil and in other cases he should be re- 
 quired to furnish the demonstration without any other 
 than brief oral directions given on the day preceding that 
 on which the demonstration is to be presented by him. 
 This will of course be next to impossible if a book giving 
 full demonstrations is in his hands. 
 
 7. The wide awake principal will see to it that so far as pos- 
 
 sible, pupils should have some notion of the form of the 
 more common plane figures and, possibly a few of their 
 more elementary properties, before entering upon the work 
 in formal geometry. The committee does not, however, 
 recommend the establishment of courses in so-called con- 
 crete or inventional geometry. The required preliminary 
 knowledge can easily be imparted to the pupil in connec- 
 tion with the arithmetic of the grades. 
 
 8. The teacher must never lose sight of the fact that knowing 
 
 geometry does not consist in a more or less accurate knowl- 
 edge of any given set of theorems, but in the ability to 
 grasp firmly and clearly the underlying processes and con- 
 cepts, and to see quickly the method of attack when a new 
 problem is presented. For this reason teachers are urged 
 strongly to use their own judgment in the matter of the 
 use of this report. Other selections may be better, and 
 the teacher who takes the time and trouble to make out 
 his own list will surely find that the results will be better 
 than if he were to accept without question the report of 
 this or any other committee. 
 
44 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 Report of the Committee appointed to select theorems 
 for a year course in Geometry. 
 
 (Read before the Mathematics Section of the Wisconsin State Teachers 
 Association, December 28, 1901.*) 
 
 PLANE GEOMETRY. 
 
 1. At a given point in a line, one and only one perpendicular 
 
 to the line can be erected. 
 
 2. The sum of the adjacent angles which one Ifne makes with 
 
 another equals two right angles. 
 
 Cor. 1. The sum of all the angles having a com- 
 mon vertex and lying on one side of a 
 straight line is equal to two right 
 angles. 
 
 Cor. 2. The sum of all the angles formed about a 
 point in a plane equals four right an- 
 gles. 
 
 3. Opposite or vertical angles are equal. 
 
 4. Two triangles having two sides and the included angle of 
 
 the one equal to two sides and the included angle of the 
 other are congruent. 
 
 5. Two triangles having one side and the two adjacent angles 
 
 of one equal to a side and two adjacent angles of the 
 
 other are congruent. 
 
 Cor. Two right triangles are congruent if the hy- 
 potenuse and an acute angle of one are 
 equal to the hypotenuse and an acute 
 angle of the other. 
 
 * To save space in printing, the theorems are in many cases merely 
 named, and in other cases the statement is abbreviated as much as possi- 
 ble. The careful teacher will in every case insist on a clear, clean cut, and 
 rigorous statement of every theorem, and in no case will he accept the 
 form of statement here given if that statement is in any way incomplete. 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 45 
 
 6. The angles opposite the equal sides of an isosceles triangle 
 
 are equal. 
 
 7. The distances from any point in a perpendicular at the mid- 
 
 dle point of a straight line to the extremities of the line, 
 are equal, and the distances from any point without 
 the perpendicular are unequal. 
 
 8. The locus of a point equidistant from the extremities of a 
 
 right line. 
 
 9. Two triangles having the three sides of the one equal re- 
 
 spectively to the three sides of the other are congruent. 
 
 10. Converse of 2. 
 
 11. From a point without a straight line one and only one 
 perpendicular can be let fall to the line. 
 
 Cor. Two perpendiculars to the same straight line 
 are parallel. 
 
 12. Two right triangles are congruent if the hypotenuse and a 
 
 side of the one are equal to the hypotenuse and a side 
 of the other. 
 
 13. If two triangles have two sides of one equal respectively 
 
 to two sides of the other, and the included angles un- 
 equal, the triangle which has the greater included an- 
 gle has the greater third side. 
 
 14. If two triangles have two sides of one equal respectively to 
 
 two sides of the other, and the third sides unequal, 
 the triangle which has the greater third side has the 
 greater included angle. 
 
 15. If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal (1), the al- 
 
 ternate interior angles are equal; (2), the correspond- 
 ing angles are equal; (3), the interior angles on the 
 same side of the transversal are supplementary. 
 16-18. Two straight lines are parallel when they are cut by a 
 transversal (1), so that the alternate interior angles 
 are equal; (2), so that the corresponding angles are 
 equal; (3), so that the interior angles on the same 
 side of the transversal are supplementary. 
 
 19. If the sides of an angle are respectively perpendicular to 
 
 the sides of another angle, the angles are either equal 
 or supplementary. 
 
 20. Any exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the 
 
 opposite interior angles. 
 
 21. The sum of the interior angles of a triangle is equal to 
 
 two right angles. 
 
 , Cor. 1. In a right triangle the acute angles are 
 
 complementary. 
 
 Cor. 2. If two angles of one triangle are equal 
 respectively to two angles of another, 
 the third angles are congruent. 
 
46 WSCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 22. If two angles of a triangle are equal, the triangle is isos- 
 
 celes. 
 
 23. If two angles of a triangle are unequal, the sides opposite 
 
 are unequal; the greater side is opposite the greater 
 angle. 
 
 24. Converse of 23. 
 
 25. A convex broken line is less than any other which en- 
 
 velops it and has the same extremities. 
 
 26. If a perpendicular and oblique lines be drawn from a 
 
 point to a given line: 
 
 I. Two oblique lines cutting off equal distances 
 from the foot of the perpendicular are 
 equal. 
 
 II. Of two oblique lines the one which cuts off the 
 greater distance from the foot of the per- 
 pendicular is greater. 
 
 27. The perpendicular is the shortest line that can be drawn 
 
 from a point to a straight line. 
 
 28. Two equal lines drawn from a point in the perpendicu- 
 
 lar to a given line, cut off equal distances from the 
 foot of the perpendicular. 
 
 29. Two unequal lines drawn from a point in the perpendicu- 
 
 lar to a given line, cut off unequal distances, the lon- 
 ger cutting off the greater distance. 
 
 30. The bisector of an angle is the locus of points equally dis- 
 
 tant from the sides. 
 
 31. Two parallelograms are equal when two sides and the in- 
 
 cluded angle of the one are equal respectively to two 
 sides and the included angle of the other. 
 
 32. The opposite sides of the parallelogram are equal, as are 
 
 also the opposite angles. 
 
 33. A quadrilateral having two sides equal and parallel is a 
 
 parallelogram. 
 
 34. A quadrilateral whose opposite sides are equal is a paral- 
 
 lelogram. 
 
 35. The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other. 
 
 36. Two angles having their sides respectively parallel are 
 
 equal or supplementary. 
 
 37. Problem: To determine the sum of the interior angles of 
 
 a convex polygon. 
 
 38. Problem: To determine the sum of the exterior angles of 
 
 a convex polygon. 
 
 39. Circles having equal radii are equal. 
 
 40. A circle is bisected by a diameter. 
 
 41. In the same circle or in equal circles, equal angles at the 
 
 center intercept equal arcs on circumference. 
 
 42. Converse of 41. 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 47 
 
 43. In the same circle or in equal circles, equal cords are sub- 
 
 tended by equal arcs. 
 
 44. Converse of 43. 
 
 45. In the same circle or in equal circles, the greater of two 
 
 unequal arcs subtends the greater chord. 
 
 46. Converse of 45. 
 
 47. The diameter perpendicular to a chord bisects the chord 
 
 and the two subtended arcs. 
 
 Cor. The line joining the center of two intersecting 
 circles bisects their common chord at right 
 angles. 
 
 48. In the same circle or in equal circles, equal chords are 
 
 equally distant from the center; and of two unequal 
 chords, the shorter is farther from the center. 
 
 49. Converse of 48. 
 
 50. A tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius drawn 
 
 to the point of contact. 
 
 Cor. At a given point on a circle one and only one 
 tangent can be drawn. 
 
 51. Converse of 50. 
 
 52. Parallel chords intercept equal arcs of a circle. 
 
 53. Through three non-collinear points one and only one circle 
 
 can be drawn. 
 Cor. A circle may be circumscribed about a triangle. 
 
 54. Problem: To find the greatest common measure of two 
 
 commensurable lines. 
 
 55. The fundamental theorem of limits. 
 
 56. In the same circle or in equal circles, angles at the center 
 
 have the same ratio as their intercepted arcs. 
 
 57. An inscribed angle is measured by one-half its intercepted 
 
 arc. 
 
 Cor. An angle inscribed in a semicircle is a right 
 angle. 
 
 58. The angle formed by a tangent and a chord is measured 
 
 by one-half the intercepted arc. 
 
 59. The angle formed by two intersecting chords is measured 
 
 by the half sum of the intercepted arcs. 
 
 60. The angle formed by two secants intersecting without the 
 
 circumference of a circle is measured by one-half the 
 difference of the intercepted arcs. 
 
 61. The angle formed by a tangent and a secant is measured 
 
 by one-half the difference of the intercepted arcs. 
 
 62. To bisect a given line segment. 
 
 63. At a given point in a line segment to erect a perpendicular. 
 
 64. From a given point to let fall a perpendicular to a given 
 
 line. 
 
 65. Through a given point to draw a line parallel to a given 
 
 line. 
 
48 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL, MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 66-69. To construct a triangle given: (1), Two sides and the 
 included angle; (2), one side and two angles; (3), three 
 sides; (4), two sides and the angle opposite one of 
 them. 
 
 70. To find the center of a circle passing through three given 
 
 points. 
 
 71. To bisect a given arc. 
 
 72. To bisect a given angle. 
 
 73. To construct an angle equal to a given angle. 
 
 74. To draw a line parallel to a given line. 
 
 75. Through a given point to draw a tangent to a given circle. 
 
 76. To inscribe a circle in a given triangle. 
 
 77-82. The necessary theorems in the theory of proportion. 
 
 83. A parallel to the base of a triangle divides the other two 
 
 sides proportionally. 
 
 84. Converse of 83. 
 
 85-87. Two triangles are similar: (1), When they are mu- 
 tually equiangular; (2), When, an angle of one is equal 
 to the angle of the other and the sides including the 
 equal angles are proportional; (3), When their sides 
 are proportional. 
 
 Cors. to 85. 1. Two triangles having two angles 
 of one equal respectively to tw r o angles of the 
 other are similar. 
 
 2. Two right triangles having an acute angle of 
 one equal to an acute angle of the other are 
 similar. 
 
 88. The ratio of the homologous altitudes of two similar tri- 
 
 angles equals the ratio of similitude of the triangles. 
 
 89. If two polygons are composed of the same number of tri- 
 
 angles similar each to each and similiarly placed, the 
 polygons are similar. 
 
 90. Converse of 89. 
 
 91. The ratio of the perimeters of two similar polygons is 
 
 equal to their ratio of similitude. 
 
 92. If a perpendicular be dropped from the vertex of the right 
 
 angle of a right angled triangle to the hypotenuse; 
 I. The triangles thus formed are similar k> each 
 
 other and to the whole triangle. 
 II. The perpendicular is a mean proportional be- 
 tween the segments of the hypotenuse. 
 III. Each side is a mean proportional between the 
 hypotenuse and the segment adjacent to 
 that side. 
 
 93. The Pythagorean theorem. 
 
 94. If two chords intersect within a circle their segments are 
 
 reciprocally proportional. 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 49 
 
 95. If two secants intersect without a circle the whole secants 
 
 and their external segments are reciprocally propor- 
 tional. 
 
 96. If a secant and a tangent meet without a circle the tangent 
 
 is a mean proportional between the external segment 
 and the whole secant. 
 
 97. To divide a straight line into parts proportional to given 
 
 straight line. 
 
 98. To find a fourth proportional to three given lines. 
 
 99. To find a third proportional to two given lines. 
 
 100. To find a mean proportional to two given lines. 
 
 101. Parallelograms having equal bases and equal altitudes are 
 
 equivalent. 
 
 102. Two rectangles having equal bases are to each other as 
 
 their altitudes. 
 
 103. Two rectangles are to each other as the products of their 
 
 bases by their altitudes. 
 
 104-107. The theorems which give the areas of (1), the rect- 
 angle; (2), the parallelogram; (3), the triangle; (4), the 
 trapazoid. 
 
 Cors. to 106. 1. Triangles having equal altitudes 
 
 and equal bases are equivalent. 
 2. Triangles having equal altitudes are to each 
 other as their bases; triangles having equal 
 bases are to each other as their altitudes. 
 
 108. Similar triangles are to each other as the squares of their 
 
 homologous sides. 
 
 109. Similar polygons are to each other as the squares of the 
 
 homologous sides. 
 
 110. To construct a triangle equivalent to a given polygon. 
 
 111. To construct a square equivalent to a given parallelogram. 
 
 112. To construct a square whose area is equal to the sum of 
 
 two or more given squares. 
 
 113. To construct a square whose area is equal to the difference 
 
 of two given squares. 
 
 114. To find two straight lines having the same ratio as two 
 
 given polygons. 
 
 115. If a/ circumference be divided into equal parts, the chords 
 
 joining successive points of division form a regular in- 
 scribed polygon, and the tangents drawn at these 
 points form a regular circumscribed polygon. 
 
 116. The tangents drawn at the middle points of the arcs sub- 
 
 tended by the sides of a regular inscribed polygon, 
 form a reguiar circumscribed polygon whose sides are 
 parallel to the sides of the inscribed polygon, and whose 
 vertices lie on the radii drawn to the vertices of the in- 
 scribed polygon. 
 4 
 
50 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH /SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 117. A circle may be circumscribed about a regular polygon 
 
 and a circle may be inscribed in a regular polygon. 
 
 118. Regular polygons of the same number of sides are 
 
 similar. 
 
 Cor. The perimeters of two similar polygons have the 
 same ratio as their radii or their apothems, and 
 the areas the same ratio as the squares of their 
 radii or their apothems. 
 
 119-121. When the number of sides of an inscribed polygon 
 is increased indefinitely: (1), The apothem is a variable 
 having the radius as its limit; (2), the perimeter is a 
 variable with the circumference as its limit; (3), the 
 area is a variable with the area of a circle as its limit. 
 122. Two circumferences have the same ratio as their radii, or 
 
 as their diameters. 
 Cor. The ratio of the circumference to its diameter is 
 
 constant and C=7rD. 
 
 128. The areas of two circles have the same ratio as the squares 
 of their radii or of their diameters. 
 
 124. The area of a circle is equal to one-half the product of 
 
 the circumference by the radius. 
 Cor. The area of a circle equals TrR 2 . 
 
 125. To inscribe a square in a circle. 
 
 126. To inscribe a regular hexagon in a circle. 
 
 127. Given the sides of a regular inscribed and a similar cir- 
 
 cumscribed polygon, to compute the perimeters of the 
 inscribed and circumscribed polygons of double the 
 number of sides. 
 
 128. To compute an approximate value for w. 
 
 SOLID GEOMETRY. 
 
 1. A plane is determined, (1), by a straight line -and a point 
 
 without the line; (2), by two intersecting right lines; 
 (3), by three non-collinear points; (4), by two parallel 
 right lines. 
 
 2. The intersection of two planes is a straight line. 
 
 3. From a point without a plane one and only one perpendic- 
 
 ular to the plane may be drawn; this perpendicular is 
 the shortest line that can be drawn from the pointto the 
 plane. 
 
 4. Through a given point one and only one perpendicular can 
 
 be erected to a plane. 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 51 
 
 5. Equal oblique lines drawn from a point in a perpendicular 
 cut off equal distances from the foot of the perpendicu- 
 lar; and of two unequal lines drawn from the point in 
 the perpendicular, the greater cuts off the greater dis-~ 
 tance from the foot of the perpendicular. 
 
 ' 6. A straight line perpendicular to two intersecting lines is 
 perpendicular to their plane. 
 
 7. All the perpendiculars to a straight line at a point lie in a 
 
 plane? which is perpendicular to the line. 
 
 8. If from the foot of a perpendicular to a plane a straight line 
 
 be drawn at right angles to any line of the plane, and 
 the intersection with that line be joined to any point in 
 the perpendicular, the line so drawn is perpendicular to 
 the line of the plane. 
 
 9. If one of two parallel lines is perpendicular to a plane the 
 
 other is also. 
 
 10. Two lines perpendicular to the same plane are parallel. 
 
 Cor. Two straight lines both parallel to a third, are 
 parallel to each other. 
 
 11. Planes perpendicular to the same straight lines are parallel. 
 
 Cor. Through a point, one and only one plane can be 
 drawn parallel to a given plane. 
 
 12. The intersections of two parallel planes with a third are 
 
 parallel, 
 
 13. Two angles having their* sides parallel are either equal or 
 
 supplementary, and their planes are parallel. 
 
 Cor. All plane angles of a dihedral angle are equal. 
 
 14. A dihedral angle is measured by its plane angle. 
 
 15. Every plane containing a line perpendicular to a plane is 
 
 perpendicular to this plane. 
 
 16. If two planes are perpendicular, a line drawn in one per- 
 
 pendicular to their intersection is perpendicular to the 
 other. 
 
 17. The intersection of two planes perpendicular to a third 
 
 plane is perpendicular to the third plane. 
 
 18. Through a given straight line, one and only one plane 
 
 perpendicular to a given plane can be drawn. 
 
 19. The projection of a straight line upon a plane is a straight 
 
 line. 
 
 20. The angle which a line makes with its projection upon a 
 
 plane is the least angle made by the line and any line of 
 the plane. 
 
 21. A point in the bisector of a dihedral angle is equidistant 
 
 from the faces of the dihedral angle. 
 
 Definitions of polyhedral angle, sphere, tangent line and tan- 
 gent plane, great circle, spherical angle, and spherical 
 triangle. 
 
52 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH ,SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 22. The section of a sphere by a plane is a circle. 
 
 Cor. 1. The center of a great circle coincides with the 
 
 center of the sphere. 
 
 Cor. 2. The plane of a great circle bisects the sphere. 
 Cor. 3. Two great circles bisect each other. 
 Cor. 4. Through three points on a sphere but one circle 
 
 may be drawn. 
 
 23. A plane perpendicular to a radius at its extremity is tan- 
 
 gent to the sphere. 
 
 Cor. All lines tangent to a sphere at a point lie in the 
 plane tangent to the sphere at the point. 
 
 24. The angle between two arcs of great circles is equal to the 
 
 angle of their planes and is measured by the arc of a 
 great circle described from its vertex as pole and in- 
 cluded between its sides. 
 
 25. The sum of two face angles of a trihedral angle is greater 
 
 than the third. 
 
 Cor. The sum of two sides of a spherical triangle is 
 greater than the third. 
 
 26. Parallel plane sections of a prism are congruent. 
 
 27. The lateral area of a prism. 
 
 28. The criterion for the equality of two prisms. 
 
 29. An oblique prism is equal to a' right prism having for its 
 
 base and altitude a right section and an edge of the; 
 oblique prism. 
 
 30. Opposite faces of a parallelogram are congruent. 
 
 31. A plane embracing two opposite edges of a parallelepiped 
 
 divides it into two equivalent triangular prisms. 
 
 32. A parallelepiped is equal in volume to a rectangular paral- 
 
 lelopiped having an equal altitude and an equivalent base. 
 
 33. Two rectangular parallelepipeds having equal bases are to j 
 
 each other as their altitudes. 
 
 34. Two rectangular parallelepipeds having equal altitudes are ! 
 
 to each other as the areas of their bases. 
 
 35. Any two rectangular parallelepipeds are to each other as 
 
 the products of their three dimensions. 
 
 36. The volume of any rectangular parallelepiped. 
 
 Cor. The volume of any parallelepiped. 
 
 37. The volume of a triangular prism. 
 
 Cor. The volume of any prism. 
 
 38. If a pyramid be cut by a plane parallel to its base: 
 
 I. The edges and the altitude are divided propor- 
 tionally. 
 
 II. The section is a polygon similar to the base. 
 III. The area of the section is to the area of the base 
 as the square of the distance from the ver- 
 tex is to the altitude. 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 53 
 
 39. The lateral area of a regular pyramid 
 
 Cor. The lateral area of a frustum of a regular pyr- 
 
 40. Triangular pyramids having equal altitudes and equivalent 
 
 41 A triangular pyramid 'is one-third of a triangular prism 
 having the same base and altitude. 
 
 Cor. 1. The volume of a triangular pyramid. 
 
 Cor. 2. The volume of any pyramid. 
 
 Cor 3 The ratio of pyramids with equal altitudes. 
 
 42. Plane sections of a cylinder embracing an element are par 
 
 allelograms. 
 
 43. The bases of a cylinder are congruent 
 
 Cor. Parallel sections of a cylinder are congruent. 
 
 44. The lateral area of a cylinder. 
 
 46. The raUoTf the surfaced and of the volumes of two similar 
 
 right cylinders. 
 
 47. Plane section of a cone, containing one element, an 
 
 48. AnTsection of a circular cone parallel to the base, is a cir- 
 
 cle whose center lies upon the straight line joining the 
 vertex to the center of the base. 
 
 49. The lateral area of a cone of revolution. 
 
 51.' The Irea^the^nvex surface of 'the frustum of a cone of 
 
 52. Th^ratio of the surfaces and of the volumes of two similar 
 
 53. Al^p^intT^'the circumference of a circle or sphere are 
 
 equally distant from its poles. . 
 
 Cor. The polar distance of a great circle is a quad 
 rant. . 
 
 54 If the first of two spherical triangles is the polar of the sec 
 
 ond, the second is the polar of the first. 
 
 55 In two polar triangles each angle of one is measured by t 
 
 supplement of the side lying opposite it in the other. 
 
 56 The sum of the angles of a spherical triangle is greater 
 
 than two and less than six right angles, 
 
 57. The area of the surface generated by a straight line 
 
 ing about an axis in its plane. 
 
 58. The area of a zone of a sphere. 
 
 59. The area of the surface of a sphere. 
 
 Cor. The ratio of the surfaces of two spheres. 
 
 60. The volume of a sphere. 
 
 Cor. The ratio of the volumes of two spheres. 
 
54 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 BOOKKEEPING. 
 
 In all or nearly all of the courses lately adopted, the time 
 devoted to bookeeping has been increased from a term to a 
 semester. Where arithmetic is followed with bookkeeping and 
 the two together occupy a full year of work, no objection will 
 be raised to alternating the subjects, thus concentrating atten- 
 tion upon bookkeeping, and such reviews of arithmetic as are 
 necessary for a full year. Bookkeeping originally found a 
 place on the course of study because of a demand for some 
 practical instruction in the common affairs of business life. 
 
 The high schools of the state should keep faith with the peo- 
 ple by devoting the best talent and teaching energy of the 
 school to instruction in this subject when it is offered. 
 
 The value of bookkeeping as a high school study depends 
 more largely than, perhaps, any other in the course upon the 
 system used and the manner of treatment. Its low repute in 
 the minds of many is due to the fact that they are thinking of 
 the formal text-book work of earlier days, with its uniform 
 memoranda and utter lack of anything in the nature of actual 
 business transactions. Beyond a more or less vague idea of 
 debit and credit, and some training inhabits of arrangement, 
 care, and neatness, it yielded little benefit, and was hardly 
 worthy of more than a very few weeks' study. 
 
 With any one of several of the modern systems, however, 
 the case is quite different. Jf treated properly, no other sub- 
 ject in the whole curriculum possesses a greater interest to the 
 pupil, affords a wider range of training for practical applica- 
 tion after leaving school, gives greater opportunity for the for- 
 mation of habits of care, neatness, accuracy and the like, or 
 aids the pupil more in determining his fitness for certain voca- 
 tions in life. It is not mere surface work. It requires close, 
 intensive business thinking which is of the highest training 
 value. 
 
 Again, bookkeeping has an advantage over almost every 
 other study in that it appeals so strongly to the business pa- 
 trons of the schools. It popularizes the high school and over- 
 comes the prejudices of so many in regard to some of the 
 other branches. 
 
 The value of any special system may be said to be in direct 
 ratio to the actual business conditions for which it provides, 
 provided, of course, that these are within the comprehension 
 of the pupil. It should call for transactions so varied that, 
 while there may be a general similarity, no two books shall be 
 alike. When such work is given, the pupil realizes as never 
 before that his success depends upon his own individual 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 55 
 
 effort. His cash must equal the amount called for by his 
 books, his trial balance must be correct, and he must be able 
 to stand the test in regard to all phases of his business. If his 
 books are not fairly well kept, not even the expert teacher can 
 help him out of his difficulties, and he learns what it means 
 to depend upon himself. The various forms of business paper, 
 checks, drafts, leases, and some of the methods of business 
 transactions assume a definite meaning which can only be 
 given by daily use and experience. Topics of arithmetic, such 
 as markings of goods, interest, discount and commission be- 
 comes real and tangible, and their connection with the world 
 outside the covers of the book is comprehended. The impor- 
 tance of ability to do the fundamental operations is understood 
 after hours have been spent in detecting some error in compu- 
 tation. A standing of 90 per cent, is not sufficient; the work 
 must be correct or it is a failure. 
 
 The above will indicate the purposes to be kept in view in 
 the study of bookkeeping in the high school. It is within the 
 ability of the average second year student, and, if given at 
 that time, will have its effect on the succeeding work. It re- 
 quires a longer time, however, than the one term often given 
 to it. A year for bookkeeping and the allied arithmetic is not 
 too long. Not only are the transactions confusing at first and 
 the intricacies of the double entry difficult, but time is needed 
 for a gradual growth of the power to see relationships of the 
 different entries and processes. But little, if anything, will be 
 gained by using single entry as an introduction. The change 
 makes the double entry more difficult than to introduce all 
 parties to the transactions at once. 
 
 There should be a few weeks of introductory work with uni- 
 form memoranda in the old fashioned way. This will give 
 opportunity to gain familiarity with forms of entry, and a 
 knowledge of the necessary general principles of the subject 
 before taking up the confusing details of the actual business. 
 
56 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH (SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 HISTORY. 
 
 THE PURPOSE OF HISTORICAL INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 SCHOOL. 
 
 The utility of history as a high school study is due chiefly 
 to the training which it affords for citizenship. "To prepare 
 the child for judgments in actual life the materials must re- 
 semble as nearly as possible the conditions of actual life. Such 
 materials are found in history and found there in greater de- 
 gree than in any other subject." Aside from the body of in- 
 formation acquired, the weighing of evidence, the comparative 
 study of political systems of other countries, and the formation 
 of judgments upon men and measures, constitute a most useful 
 training for the future citizens. Dr. Arnold described the 
 utility of instruction in history, civics, and economics when he 
 said: "It is clear that in whatever it is our duty to act, those 
 matters also it is our duty to study." In addition to the train- 
 ing which it affords to the judgment, history, constantly taught, 
 also trains the perception, imagination and memory. The im- 
 portance given to training the judgment should increase in the 
 higher grades and the judgment can be best exercised when the 
 pupil's perception, imagination, and memory supply the neces- 
 sary data. It is hardly necessary to say that by the imagina- 
 tion, in this case, is meant the power to place one's self in the 
 position of the people of other times and of other countries. 
 For fuller discussion of the purpose of historical instruction 
 see Bourne: Study of History and Civics; Report of the Com- 
 mittee of Seven; Hinsdale: How to Teach and Study History, 
 ch. I-IV; Lecky: Political Value of History. 
 
 It should not be the ideal of history teaching to furnish a bare 
 outline of names and dates, a well proportioned set of pigeon- 
 holes to be filled up in after life. Such a process, however at- 
 tractive in theory, is not workable in fact; the names and dates 
 come to have less than the value of algebraic symbols of un- 
 known quantities. But it by no means follows that history 
 
WUSCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 57 
 
 can be taught without accurate knowledge and caref ul memori- 
 zation of the most significant historical landmarks 
 means to an end, and should be so illuminated with concrete 
 o as to be held as vital elements rather than as a bare and 
 dead weight on the memory. Institutions and men should be 
 made red for the student by sufficient concrete and intelligible 
 discussion of their essential characteristics. As a part of the 
 trainmT n judgment, and in the interest of mental economy, 
 hev shoukl be taugh to observe lines of causation, to distm- 
 %%M the I nduring and the fleeting between the essen- 
 ti i s and the non-essentials in history, and the important should 
 be made clear, at whatever cost of time. To the objection that 
 this moL of bating Instorical study ^ 
 takes more time, the answer of the late Mary Sheldon Barne 
 
 condusive: "Good friend, it does; and it takes more time 
 to solve a problem in arithmetic than to read its answer; and 
 more tim? to read a play of Shakespeare than to read that 
 Shakespeare was the greatest dramatist of ^^JH < 2g 
 more time finally to read the American constitution and OM 
 SSSSf^i. and make up your mind how to vote your 
 own vote, than it does to be put into a block of five. But wfia 
 is time for?" 
 
 METHOD. 
 
 The following outline is probably inclusive of the various 
 possible activities connected with the daily business of teaching 
 nistorj A careful study of this outline, read m connec ion 
 with the immediate business in hand, should prove helpful. 
 
 OUTLINE of the TEACHER'S DAILY BUSINESS in HISTORY 
 
 TEACHING. 
 
 /. The Alignment. 
 a. Text book. 
 
 Questions of fact. . . 
 
 Questions of reasons, relation and opinion. 
 
 ' L To organize old material for thinking, relating. 
 
 2. To store facts to be memorized, 
 c Cherts-for visualizing, localizing, in time and 
 
 Purpose, to aid memory, and to assist pupils to grasp and 
 hold complex events. 
 
 d. The map, as in c. 
 
 e. Outside leading. 
 
 1. Original sources. 
 
 2. General reference work. 
 
 3. Biography. 
 
 4. Historical fiction. . 
 
 f. Special topics for selected individuals, or sections oi 
 
58 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 //. The Recitation. 
 
 a. Review. 
 
 Topical method. 
 Question method. 
 
 b. Testing on assigned work for the day. . 
 
 c. Free discussion by pupils. 
 
 d. Supplementary discussion and assignment by the teacher. 
 
 The following are some of the fundamental criticisms made 
 on history teaching in general by inspectors of schools, and 
 others who have observed the work in Wisconsin: 
 
 I. The core of essentlial fact material which is found in a good text 
 
 book is not thoroughly mastered, for some or all of the following 
 reasons: 
 
 (a) Because the assignment is not sufficiently specific to guide 
 
 pupils to advanced work. 
 
 (b) Because the teacher does not keep clearly in mind that one of 
 
 the uses of the chart and the maps is to definitely fix his- 
 torical fact. 
 
 (c) Because pupils are not made to see the importance of the his- 
 
 torical facts selected to be studied. 
 
 (d) Because the teacher has not definitely determined upon the 
 
 relative value of the various historical facts which may be 
 selected for study. 
 
 (e) Because the discussion of reasons and relations is thrust for- 
 
 ward, before the facts, on which the discussion depends, 
 are fixed by all members of the class. 
 
 (f) Because the topical method is employed too frequently and too 
 
 early in the work. 
 
 (g) Because the assignment does not contain questions of reason, 
 
 relation and opinion, to stimulate and direct thought and 
 inquiry during the study period. 
 
 (h) Because the teacher neglects to test the student's memory of 
 facts assigned, and invites free discussion, or volunteers a 
 discussion herself before the facts, upon which the discus 
 sion must depend, are known by all. 
 
 (i) Bf cause assignment of outside reading is made without suffi- 
 cient reference to the core of essential fact found in the 
 text book. 
 
 (j) Because assignment of special topics to selected individuals is 
 made without reference to the core of essential fact, and 
 because recitation upon special topics easily creates the il- 
 lusion that the class understand the subject covered, when, 
 in reality, it is blurred for all by a system of division of 
 labor. 
 
 II. Pupils do not learn to read history thoughtfully ; neither do they 
 
 learn to plan and direct their own study, that is to say, to groiv 
 steadily more and more self-reliant in the use of books, for 
 some or all of the following reasons: 
 
 (a) Because lessons are not assigned in a detailed and logical man- 
 
 ner, and in such form that all will be able to recollect the 
 assignment. 
 
 (b) Because they are not slowly but surely made conscious of the 
 
 teacher's method of directing their work; that is to say, 
 they are not led as they should be, to gradually assume re- 
 sponsibility for making the assignment themselves. If they 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 59 
 
 become conscious of the value of the teacher's question, of 
 the help it renders them in study, then they will gradually 
 acquire the power to ask questions of themselves when they 
 study. They should be tested steadily for this power. 
 
 (c) Because for some of the reasons enumerated in number one 
 
 they have never absolutely mastered the core of essential 
 fact and because they have not learned that thinking rests 
 back upon fact. 
 
 (d) Because they are permitted in the recitation to make random 
 
 discussion of things, the elements of which are not known; 
 because they are called upon in recitation to render judg- 
 ment on things not previously analyzed or thought out dur- 
 ing the study period; that is to say, because the assignment 
 did not direct them to do thinking while they studied, they 
 grew accustomed to rendering snap judgments in the reci- 
 tation, or to accepting the snap judgments of their fellows. 
 
 (e) Because the teacher, before entering upon a discussion her- 
 
 self, does not review and test thoroughly the knowledge of 
 the pupils. Occasionally the work of a history class is 
 completely blurred because the teacher tells too much. 
 
 THE CURRICULUM. 
 
 The work in the high school should consist of the history of 
 the United States (to be given in the last year, if possible) and 
 one or more of the following blocks: 
 
 1. Ancient History (Oriental Greek, Roman and Early Medie- 
 
 val) to 800 A. D. One year. 
 
 2. Medieval and Modern History, 800-1900 A. D. One year. 
 
 3. Medieval, one-half year, and English History, one-half year. 
 
 4. English History. One year. 
 
 The topics to be treated in each "block" are discussed at 
 length in Bourne's book and in volume by -the Commit- 
 tee of the New England Association. In Bourne, too many 
 topics are suggested if less than five periods a week are 
 given to history. The teacher should remember that it is wiser 
 to teach a few subjects in such a manner as to train the judg- 
 ment, rather than to attempt to cover the field. The latter is 
 an impossible task, and the value of the study will be best se- 
 cured by selecting only the most important topics for careful 
 study. In ancient history? for example, much attention should 
 be given to the biographical side and to the civilization of the 
 different ages, rather than to the dynasties of Egypt or the laws 
 of early times. In medieval history the elements in the civil- 
 ization which have influenced modern life and thought should 
 be emphasized. In modern history the pupils should learn the 
 more important features of the governmental systems in the 
 chief European countries. They should be taught to contrast 
 the federal systems in Germany and in the United States 
 
60 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 the party systems in France, England and this country. In 
 English history the pupils should study the elements which 
 have been important for the history of our own country. 
 
 REFERENCE BOOKS FOR TEACHERS. 
 
 Bourne: Teaching of History and Civics. Longmans. 
 
 Practical Recommendations, with excellent bibliographies. 
 
 The Study of History in Schools. Report to the American 
 Historical Association by the Committee of Seven. Macmillan. 
 A very valuable discussion; should be studied by all history 
 teachers. 
 
 Channing and Hart: Guide to the Study of American His- 
 tory. Ginn. Essential to every teacher of the history of the 
 United States. 
 
 A report of the Committee of Six, on Practical Methods and 
 Courses, to the New England Teachers' Association, submitting 
 a plan of a syllabus for a four years' course in history. D. C. 
 Heath & Co. 
 
 See High School Library lists for reference works for pupils. 
 
 CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED 
 STATES. 
 
 In the high school, the history of the United States should 
 be taught with stress upon the political, constitutional and 
 economic aspects, as a preparation for the exercise of citizen- 
 ship. The emphasis should be laid upon the period following 
 the Revolution. The survey of the confederation and the for- 
 mation of the new constitution should make clear the difficul- 
 ties which led to th& compromises of the constitution, and the 
 colonial and early state institutions should be sufficiently de- 
 scribed to show how the new constitution derived its material 
 from these earlier political institutions. In connection with 
 the formation of the constitution the main features of the in- 
 strument should be studied, thus enabling the student to see 
 the result of the work of the constitutional convention. The 
 struggle between the systems of Jefferson and Hamilton in 
 Washington's administration will serve to reveal the organiza- 
 tion of national political parties, and the beginning of the long 
 struggle between the strict and loose construction of the con- 
 stitution. In connection with Hamilton's plans for the bank, 
 funding, the tariff, the currency, etc., the fundamental ideas of 
 political economy in respect to currency, finance and banking 
 should be elucidated. Throughout the course this inter-rela- 
 tion of civics, economics, and American history should be 
 preserved. 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 61 
 
 In cases where civics is taught as a separate study constant 
 reference should be made to concrete historical examples in the 
 civics class, and equally constant attention should be called to 
 the economic and constitutional bearings of an event, in the 
 class in history. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Provision is made by statute for the teaching of the Consti- 
 tution of the United States and of Wisconsin in the public 
 schools. 
 
 A knowledge of the fundamental laws of the land is indis- 
 pensable to every citizen, and with this end in view the consti- 
 tution should be taught, the more important clauses being 
 memorized. The error, however, should not be made of treat- 
 ing the subject in a meaningless, routine manner, for every 
 section and every clause possesses a life which more or less 
 affects our every-day existence. Let the teacher make the 
 branch a practical one, losing no opportunity of bringing out 
 its full meaning by the application of current history or local 
 events. In this way an interest w T ill be excited, and more than 
 all, the great object in teaching of civil government will be 
 more nearly attained, viz., to create law-abiding citizens. The 
 young people must early learn the duties of the citizen and the 
 individual responsibility of that citizen toward maintaining a 
 stable government for the nation. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF WISCONSIN. 
 
 The Constitution of Wisconsin should be treated in its anal- 
 ogies to the national constitution, at the time of consideration 
 of the leading topics of that branch. It will therefore not be 
 necessary to spend much time in a special study of the Wiscon- 
 sin constitution. In general, the two are much alike. The 
 principal study should be put upon the important parts of the 
 state constitution not already considered in connection with 
 the constitution of the United States. Omit unimportant facts. 
 It will be well to deal with the different forms of governments, 
 as administered in the county, town, village, city and school 
 districts. These governments come within the immediate 
 knowledge of the children or their parents, and a study of de- 
 tails will be found profitable. It will be well also to take up the 
 subject of elections. The present system of voting, known as 
 the "Australian" method, may be illustrated by securing 
 samples of the ballot. The method of nominations through 
 primary elections is important. 
 
62 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 If there is a literary society in connection with the school, 
 much assistance can be given to the subject of civil govern- 
 ment by providing for debates upon important national ques- 
 tions, for moot courts, and mock legislative deliberations. 
 Every opportunity to visit the state legislature, the county 
 board of supervisors, the town meeting, and other assemblages 
 of govermental character, should be improved. Throughout 
 the entire work on this subject an attempt should be made to 
 have pupils realize the essentials of good citizenship. A know- 
 ledge of constitutions and of the details of governmental acti- 
 vities may make more intelligent citizens, but it does not nec- 
 essarily make better ones. 
 
 ECONOMICS. 
 
 A high school course in economics should be made the essen- 
 tial part of the training for citizenship by giving pupils a 
 definite understanding of the leading facts and principles which 
 underlie the present social order, by inculcating hajbits of in- 
 dependent investigation and clear reasoning with respect to the 
 facts entering into such investigations, by cultivating that atti- 
 tude of mind which will always be tolerant without sacrificing 
 personal convictions, and, in general, by introducing pupils to 
 the great problems which affect the industrial world, without 
 prejudice and without dogmatism. 
 
 In schools where only a half year is devoted to this study 
 one of two lines of work may be pursued; where economics runs 
 through a whole year, both lines of work may be attempted. 
 It is doubtful whether both can be made a success if together 
 they occupy only half of one year. 
 
 One line of work embraces a study of industrial history. 
 Beginning with the family methods of production, the growth 
 of the present industrial order may be traced through the guild, 
 domestic and factory system, to the present system of combina- 
 tion. Material for the first three stages of industrial evolution 
 must be drawn chiefly from European sources, while for the last 
 two, the factory and combination or consolidation systems, 
 American history abounds in illustrations. The causes which 
 produced successive stages of industry should be analyzed and 
 the relation of each system to its contemporary social order 
 pointed out. Pupils will thus gradually learn to realize that 
 our industrial, social, political and other institutions differ with 
 time, circumstance and place. 
 
 The other line of work involves a study of the production, 
 exchange, distribution and consumption of wealth. Pupils 
 should gain definite conceptions of terms like production, capi- 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 63 
 
 tal, labor, value, interest, etc. Special care should be taken not 
 to leave pupils with the impression that great world-wide prob- 
 lems can be expressed and solved in dogmatic definitions. 
 Nowhere is a largeness of view and open-mindedness more es- 
 sential than here. The United States census and other statisti- 
 cal works afford ample illustrative material by means of which 
 class discussions can be made concrete. The publications of 
 the state and federal departments of labor and many other gov- 
 ernment publications can be used with profit. Roscher's state- 
 ment that the point of departure, as well as the aim of economic 
 science, is man, should not be forgotten. The final test of 
 economic life is human welfare. 
 
 Useful text and reference books can be secured for both lines 
 of work, and neither can 'or should completely exclude the other. 
 
 GERMAN AND LATIN. 
 
 In teaching the foreign languages in the high school, the 
 teacher should never lose sight of their value as a means of giv- 
 ing a thorough training in the use of English. In fact this 
 value in itself is a strong justification for their place in the high 
 school course, and for this purpose they are among the most 
 practical of all the studies. 
 
 This training is along three lines: 
 
 1st. In giving ability to get the exact thought from the printed 
 page; in other words, in learning to read. Under the instruc- 
 tion of a capable teacher the pupil can be held to a definiteness 
 and exactness in this respect, closely approximating that which 
 the professional man must reach in mastering his difficult 
 reading. 
 
 When this close work is attempted with the familiar English, 
 it is difficult to prevent the substitution of mere superficial read- 
 ing, giving a vague comprehension of a few of the more prom- 
 inent ideas, for the intensive study necessary to understand the 
 foreign language. Teachers, too, are often inclined to accept 
 this slipshod work in English when they would not think of 
 doing so in German or Latin. 
 
 2nd. In enlarging the pupil's vocabulary through the selection 
 of the proper English word to fit the thought. This affords an 
 excellent opportunity for a close study of the meaning of words 
 and may be made more profitable than the formal word analy- 
 sis so often taken. 
 
 3rd. In training in the mechanics of English expression. The 
 translation of what is to the pupil a confused and unnatural ar- 
 rangement of ideas into clear readable English is the test by 
 which the teacher may know how thoroughly the thought has 
 
64 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 been mastered by the pupil. The absurd and ridiculous hodge- 
 podge of words so often allowed to pass as translations cannot 
 be too strongly condemned. Not only is the disciplinary value 
 of the study almost wholly lost, but the effect upon the pupil's 
 English must be distinctly bad in every way except in so far as 
 the translation is an example of what is to be avoided. The 
 translation should be criticised and worked over until it be- 
 comes good, idiomatic English. When pupils understand that 
 this is to be always demanded, they will prepare for it and there 
 will be growth accordingly. There should be considerable 
 written translation. An excellent exercise is to write a trans- 
 lation upon the board and have the class criticise it until it is 
 satisfactory. In this way the laws of English composition, 
 grammar, and rhetoric may be practically applied. Of course 
 all this will take time, but results can be reached which will 
 amply justify the extra time and effort. The added power 
 which will come from the thorough w r ork will probably make 
 up for the loss, and the teacher may find the class easily com- 
 pleting the usual amount. In any case, the great object should : 
 be quality of work; and good English should always be the out- 
 come of the study of the foreign language. By insisting on this 
 the other great benefits usually ascribed to such study will be 
 realized in the fullest measure. 
 
 GERMAN. 
 
 It should be continually borne in mind by the teacher that 
 German, as every other subject, should be taught in the interest 
 of sound results and not merely in the interest of the most expe- 
 ditious preparation for college. The colloquial side of this sub- 
 ject has been much neglected in high schools, and the aim of 
 teachers should be to secure, by the end of the second year, not 
 only a ready reading of easy German texts but also a fair abil- 
 ity to understand easy German when spoken and to carry on a 
 very simple conversation based upon the ordinary occurrences 
 of daily life or upon the texts set for translation. 
 
 The following outline of a course of study is largely based 
 upon the report of the Committee of Twelve of the Modern 
 Language Associations of America, which may be found in the 
 proceedings of the National Educational Association for 1889, 
 page 732 ff. Neatly bound copies of the report can be procured, 
 at the price of sixteen cents, from D. C. Heath & Co., Boston. 
 Teachers are strongly advised to secure a copy of this report. 
 
 The "elementary," "intermediate," and "advanced" courses 
 outlined in the Report correspond approximately to high school 
 courses of two, three or four years, respectively. 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 190-6. 65 
 
 THE ELEMENTARY COURSE IN GERMAN. 
 
 A. The aim of the instruction. At the end of the ele- 
 mentary course in German, i. e., at the end of the second year's 
 work, the pupil should he able to pronounce and translate at 
 sight (into good idiomatic English) simple German prose, help 
 being given on unusual words and constructions, to prpve his 
 knowledge of elementary grammar by putting easy English sen- 
 tences into German, and to carry on a very simple conversation 
 in German. 
 
 B. The work to be done. 
 
 First Year. 
 
 During the first year the work should comprise: (1) careful 
 drill upon pronunciation; (2) drill upon the rudiments of gram- 
 mar, that is, upon the inflection of the articles, of such nouns 
 as belong to the language of everyday 'life, of adjectives, pro- 
 nouns, weak verbs, and the more usual strong verbs; also upon 
 the use of the more common prepositions, the simple uses of 
 the modal auxiliaries and the elementary rules of syntax 
 and word order; (3) the memorizing and frequent repetition of 
 easy colloquial sentences, and short suitable poems; (4) abund- 
 ant easy exercises designed not only to fix in mind the forms 
 and principles of grammar, but also to cultivate readiness in 
 the reproduction of natural forms of expression; (5) the read- 
 ing of from 75 to 100 pages of graduated texts from an intro- 
 ductory reader, with constant 1 practice in translating into 
 German easy variations upon sentences selected from the read- 
 ing lesson (the teacher giving the English), and in the repro- 
 duction from memory of sentences previously read. 
 
 Second Year. 
 
 During the second year the work should comprise: (1) the 
 pronouncing and translating of from 150 to 200 pages of litera- 
 ture in the form of easy stories and plays; (2) accompanying 
 practice, as before, in the translation into German of easy var- 
 iations upon the matter read, and also in the off-hand repro- 
 duction, sometimes orally and sometimes in writing, of the sub- 
 stances of short and easy selected passages; (3) continued drill 
 upon the rudiments of the grammar, directed to the ends of 
 enabling the pupil, first, to use his knowledge with facility in 
 the formation of sentences, and second, to state his knowledge 
 5 
 
66 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 correctly in the technical language of grammar; (4) daily con- 
 versation from five to ten minutes on suitable passages se- 
 lected from the reading lessons: 
 
 THE INTERMEDIATE COURSE IN GERMAN. 
 
 In addition to the work outlined for the two years of the ele- 
 mentary course, students during the third year should read 
 from 300 to 480 pages of moderately difficult prose and poetry, 
 with constant practice both oral and written, upon portions of 
 the texts read. Of the latter, about one-half should be taken 
 from modern prose, and the other half from poetry and the 
 easier plays of Schiller? Goethe or Lessing. The work in 
 grammar, accompanied by exercises in composition, should in- 
 clude the less usual strong verbs, the more idiomatic uses of 
 prepositions, conjunctions, and modal particles, and the essen- 
 tials of syntax and word formation. In this year the teacher 
 should make a systematic effort to use German in the class 
 room for all exercises suitable for such treatment. 
 
 THE ADVANCED COURSE IN GERMAN. 
 
 The work of the fourth year should comprise the reading of 
 from 400 to 500 pages of standard literature in prose and poetry, 
 with reference reading in the history of German literature, 
 especially upon the lives and works of the authors studied. 
 Students should write numerous short themes upon assigned 
 subjects, mostly relating to the text read. With exception of 
 the periods devoted to grammar and composition, the work of 
 the class room should be conducted in German and students 
 should be required to answer in that language the questions 
 asked by the teacher. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 (1) Pronunciation. 
 
 The first matter of importance for the beginner is the acqui- 
 sition of a reasonably accurate pronunciation. Daily drill 
 upon the subject should be kept up inexorably until right 
 habits are fixed. It" is far easier to learn right than to unlearn 
 the wrong. In all oral practice, i. e., in all exercises in which 
 the student has to pronounce German words, correct pronun- 
 ciation should be insisted on. The teacher will find a careful 
 treatment of pronunciation in Thomas's German Grammar 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 67 
 
 (Henry Holt & Co., N. Y.), in Victor's German Pronuncia- 
 tion (Lemcke & Buechner, N. Y.), and in Hempl's German 
 Orthography and Phonology (Ginn & Co., Boston.) 
 
 (2) Grammar. 
 
 As the present tendency in modern language teaching is a 
 wholesome reaction against the former excessive emphasis on 
 purely theoretical grammar, the teacher should beware of fall- 
 ing into the opposite mistake of trying to build up a sound 
 knowledge of a foreign language without grammar. Although 
 the study of grammar is not an end in itself, it is a most im- 
 portant means to the right end, and during the elementary 
 course, especially during the first year, there should be constant 
 and careful drill in the principles of elementary grammar. 
 Much repetition will be needed, even though at times it may 
 become tedious; for the time spent upon a thorough drill in ele- 
 mentary grammar will greatly facilitate satisfactory subsequent 
 progress in reading and speaking. Especially students who do 
 not study a classical language should receive a thorough gram- 
 matical training in their study of German. 
 
 The following points should be observed: (a) A small 
 amount of elementary grammar thoroughly mastered is far 
 more valuable than a large amount of more advanced grammar 
 superficially acquired. All the grammar needed may be found 
 in the "first parts" of the larger grammars, or in a good intro- 
 ductory book, (b) Whatever is regular and of common occur- 
 rence is far more important than the rare and unusual. Ele- 
 mentary students should not be burdened with long lists of 
 exceptions or with rules for which they have no practical use. 
 (c) The teacher's maxim should be: Little theory and much 
 application. The work in grammar should be made as prac- 
 tical as possible. Glib reciting of rules and paradigms should 
 never be accepted as a substitute for the actual use of the forms 
 in short phrases and easy sentences. Most of the grammar 
 drill should be in the form of oral elementary composition- 
 
 (3) Memorizing. 
 
 The proper starting point in teaching a modern language is 
 the familiar language of everyday life. The student must 
 begin to feel at home in it before he can begin to appreciate 
 literary and poetic forms of expression. For creating this 
 Sprachgefiihl, one of the best kinds of drill is the memorizing 
 and frequent repetition of easy colloquial sentences. Such 
 sentences, taken from some phrase book or carefully selected 
 from suitable texts, can be dictated to the students. The drill 
 on them can either take the form of a dialogue, the teacher ask- 
 ing questions in German, or the teacher can give the thought 
 
68 WIISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 in English and call for a translation. The customary mem- 
 orizing of poems is less useful in this regard as poetry often 
 contains rare and archaic expressions. Its value in other direc- 
 tions, however, is sufficiently great to warrant its continuance, 
 provided that the poems are carefully chosen, with reference to 
 simplicity and naturalness of their language. During the in- 
 termediate and advanced courses the memorizing of poetry can 
 be used to good advantage. The first year's work does not call 
 for many poems. 
 
 (4) Reading. 
 
 Aside from the German-English exercisas and anecdotes of 
 the grammar, the reading matter of the first year should be in 
 a very elementary reader, as Guerber's "Marchen und Erzah- 
 lungen," or Seligmann's "Altes und Neues." During the sec- 
 ond year one of the larger readers may be taken up, or special 
 editions of good stories and plays can be used. One or two of 
 these should be provided with exercises based on the text. For 
 suitable reading material for the second year, as well as for 
 the third and fourth years, see pp. 63-4, 71, and 73 of the 
 Report. 
 
 Very easy parts of each lesson need not be translated in class, 
 and especially in the intermediate and advanced course transla- 
 tion should be confined to test passages here and there in the 
 lesson to gain time for oral work. But students should then 
 always be given an opportunity to ask questions on the parts of 
 the lesson left untranslated. The less routine translation is 
 done in class, the more possible is it to insist on a really careful 
 and idiomatic rendering of the parts chosen for translation, 
 Valuable time can also be saved in the more advanced years by 
 assigning some relatively easy text for additional outside read- 
 ing, testing the amounts assigned by occasional short written 
 examinations. In this way, shorter lessons can be assigned 
 for the daily recitations and be treated more thoroughly. To 
 show what a really good translation means, and to cultivate the 
 pupil's literary sense, a passage of the German text should 
 occasionally be given out for a carefully prepared written trans- 
 lation, with instructions to make the work just as good as pos- 
 sible. Such translations should then be criticised by the 
 teacher and compared with one another in the class. Attention 
 should then be called to the more delicate points of idiom, 
 choice of words, word order, etc. 
 
 A short and carefully chosen passage of each reading lesson 
 should be assigned for "intensive study." The student should 
 be required to practice pronunciation on this passage especially, 
 to memorize all the words and idioms in it, to learn the prin- 
 cipal parts of all the nouns and verbs, to look up all the gram- 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 69 
 
 mar rules involved, to be so familiar with it generally, as to be 
 able to give its contents either verbatim or in his own language. 
 This passage will then form a very good basis for conversational 
 drill. 
 
 (5) Oral drill. 
 
 As the course progresses, the student should be given more 
 and more opportunity for hearing and speaking the foreign 
 language. This refers by no means merely to conversation in 
 the ordinary sense of the word. The latter should certainly 
 not be emphasized unless the teacher has a fairly good practical 
 command of the language. But dictation, oral composition, 
 free retranslation of parts of the texts read, recitation of mem- 
 orized or prepared work, expressive reading of certain passages 
 by the teacher and other similar exercises can also be used to 
 good advantage in training the student in readiness to under- 
 stand and express himself in the foreign tongue. In all of 
 these exercises, to make them really valuable, careful pronun- 
 ciation and grammatical correctness must be rigorously insisted 
 upon. Oral work, when thoroughly done, is of the greatest 
 value; when superficially treated, it is likely to become worse 
 than useless. No part of the work calls for greater vigilance 
 and alertness on the part of the teacher who desires to gain 
 the best results. 
 
 (6) Books for Reference. 
 
 The Teaching of German in Secondary Schools Elijah W. 
 Bagster Collins. Macmillan Co. N. Y. 
 
 Methods of Teaching Modern Languages (by thirteen differ- 
 ent authors). D. C. Heath & Co., Boston. 90 cents. 
 
 Bahlsen: New Method of Teaching Modern Languages. 
 Translated by Dr. M. B. Evans. Teachers' College Record, 
 Vol. 4, No. 3. 30 cts. 
 
 Bruel: The Teaching of Modern Foreign Languages in our 
 Secondary Schools. Cambridge (England), 1898- 50 cts. 
 
 Rippmann: Elements of Phonetics. English, French and 
 German. Translated and adapted from Prof. Victor's "Kleine 
 Phonetik." London, Dent & Co. $1.00. 
 
 Grandgent: German and English sounds. Boston. Ginn 
 & Co. 50 cts. 
 
 Francke: History of German Literature. N. Y. Holt & 
 Co. $2.00. (Does not extend much beyond Goethe's death.) 
 
 Robertson: History of German Literature. N. Y. Put- 
 nam's Sons. $3.50. (Has an adequate treatment of 19th 
 century literature.) 
 
 Hosmer: A Short History of German Literature. St. 
 Louis. G. I. Jones & Co. $2.00. 
 
70 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH .SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 A fuller list of reference books has been prepared by the 
 German department of the State University and can be had 
 by applying to the Secretary of the University or any mem- 
 ber of the German department. 
 
 LATIN. 
 
 COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 First year. Latin lessons, accompanied from an early stage 
 by the reading of simple selections. From twenty to thirty 
 pages of an easy, consecutive text should be completed by good 
 classes. Selections from Nepos, Viri Romae, or Eutropius 
 may be used. In all written exercises the long vowels should 
 be marked, and in all oral exercises pains should be taken to 
 make the pronunciation conform to the quantities. The stu- 
 dent should be taught to read the Latin aloud with intelligent 
 expression. Sanity in First Year Latin by H. W. Johnson 
 Classics Journal, vol. I, No. 3, February, 1906. 
 
 Second year. Selections from Caesar's Gallic War equiva- 
 lent in amount to four books. Selections from other prose 
 writers such as Nepos, may be taken as a substitute for the 
 Caesar. The equivalent of at least one period a week should 
 be devoted to grammar, syntax, and prose composition. Read- 
 ing aloud and translating, both prepared and unprepared pas- 
 sages, should be made a part of the work. A little pamphlet 
 by H. W. Johnston, entitled, " Second Year Latin," published 
 and furnished gratis by Scott, Foresman & Co., should be read 
 by all teachers of Caesar. 
 
 Third Year. Six orations of Cicero. Selections from the 
 letters may be substituted for two orations. The equivalent of 
 at least one period a week should be devoted to grammar, syn- 
 tax, and prose composition. Special attention should be given 
 to the translation into English, and to the study of Cicero's life 
 and personality. 
 
 Fourth Year. Six books of Virgil's Aeneid. The student 
 should acquire the ability to read metrically hexameters at 
 sight. The equivalent of at least one-half period a week should 
 be given to the study of mythology. Gayley's Classic myths in 
 English Literature is very helpful. 
 
 The foregoing course represents the minimum amount of 
 Latin to be read in four years. Many an ambitious teacher 
 will do at least from one-third to one-half more than this 
 amount. During the first and second years many easy selec- 
 tions should be read. This plan will not only enlarge and fix 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 71 
 
 the vocabulary but it will add greatly to the pupil's enjoyment 
 and give him increased facility in translation. In the last 
 months of each year, when the pupil has acquired considerable 
 facility in translating the author of that year, much rapid read- 
 ing can be done. Caesar may be used for sight reading in the 
 third and Cicero in the fourth year. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 
 
 Pronunciation. The Roman method of pronunciation should 
 be used. Peck's, The Roman pronunciation of Latin, Henry 
 Holt & Co., will be useful to teachers. In pronouncing proper 
 names in translation the English pronunciation should be used. 
 Otherwise the systems used by the history and Latin students 
 will be at variance. The pronouncing vocabulary and rules 
 given in the appendix to Webster's International Dictionary 
 will serve as a guide. 
 
 Vocabulary. The acquisition of a good vocabulary neces- 
 sarily demands much of the student's time. While the learning 
 of new words and attention to word study is of the utmost im- 
 portance and should receive attention daily, it is largely by 
 much reading that the vocabulary is kept fresh and increased. 
 Ambitious and thoughtful teachers will strive, in every way 
 possible, to increase the amount of Latin which the pupils read 
 daily. This can be done by reading rapidly several pages in 
 review, by translating at sight in advance, and by requiring 
 pupils to give the substance of selections which have been 
 assigned for outside reading. In the earlier stages of the study 
 of an author the teacher and the pupil should frequently work 
 together, the teacher leading the way and opening up the ad- 
 vance lesson, sometimes merely rapidly translating. See Prof. 
 Friedrich Paulsen's article in the educational Review, Novem- 
 ber, 1899, on Changes in Latin Teaching in Germany, for a 
 description of this method of teaching languages. 
 
 Grammar and Syntax. The necessity of a thorough acquain- 
 tance with the forms of the language is so obvious that it will 
 seem superfluous to call attention to it here. Yet the fact is 
 that no part of Laun preparation is more defective than this. 
 The forms as contained in the lesson book or as referred to in 
 the grammar must be mastered absolutely. Well-directed 
 memorizing, followed by written exercises, dictation, oral prac- 
 tice and frequent reviews, ought to produce good results. 
 There should be definite and systematic grammar and syntax 
 lessons throughout the four years, the topics being selected ac- 
 
72 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 cording to the needs of the pupils and the text read. This 
 work and the practice in composition should be done largely in 
 the fall and winter months. 
 
 Composition. The purpose of this study as pursued in the 
 high school, is not to make pupils skillful in writing Latin, but 
 to enable them by use to make the forms and syntax of the 
 language more completely their own. The composition of a sin- 
 gle Latin sentence, illustrating certain constructions or idioms 
 of the language, will do more to impress these upon the mind 
 of the pupil than half a dozen parsing exercises involving the 
 same points. Latin composition may be pursued by devoting 
 one or more exercises of each week exclusively to this work; 
 or, by means of daily exercises based upon limited portions of 
 the Latin read in class. Many teachers believe that it is well 
 to supplement the practice in connected-discourse-com position 
 based on Caesar and Cicero, with lessons in which the sentences 
 are selected with reference to illustrating some important 
 principle in grammar or syntax. 
 
 Preparation for Caesar. A good class with a good teacher 
 ought to finish a lesson-book in time to do some work prepara- 
 tory to Caesar in the first year; for in most cases the transi- 
 tion from an elementary book to Caesar is too abrupt. If Caesar 
 is to be read immediately, the teacher must exercise great dili- 
 gence in anticipating the difficulties of the advance lesson and 
 striving by every means to make smooth the somewhat uneven 
 path. Extracts from Roman history, Fabulae Faciles, Viri 
 Romae and extracts from Eutropius have been used as a 
 preparation for Caesar with good results. 
 
 Translation. An exact and idiomatic rendering into Eng- 
 lish of the thought of a difficult Latin sentence is perhaps the 
 chief visible result of Latin instruction, and teachers who are 
 not working to secure that end have in a measure lost sight of 
 the goal. Literal translations are often indispensable by way 
 of explanation and for purpose of illustration, but if they are 
 not at the same time idiomatic, they should always be accom- 
 panied by idiomatic renderings. "Translation English" is not 
 only painful to hear but it destroys the linguistic sensibility 
 which all instruction should foster and gives most grotesque con- 
 ceptions of Roman literature. 
 
 Not only should good English be insisted on always, but some 
 effort varying with the maturity of the class or of the individ- 
 ual pupil, should be made to produce the style of the author 
 translated. The succession of Latin authors read in school is 
 all that could be desired in this regard. The straightforward 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 73 
 
 narrative style of Caesar may be reproduced without difficulty 
 by pupils who have not read much in English. In connection 
 with Cicero, translations may be improved and made more 
 spirited by bringing out some characteristics of oratorical Eng- 
 lish, with examples from speeches of American orators. Mil- 
 ton' and Spenser studied in the high school ought to contribute 
 to better translations in Virgil. 
 
 Roman life, literature and history. The Latin authors read 
 in the high school afford a considerable field for the study of lit- 
 erary form and historical events. This should not be neglected. 
 For example, in Cicero the pupil should be required to analyze 
 the argument of the speeches read and thus to obtain some con- 
 ception of the form of an ancient oration. It is a good plan 
 to call upon some member of the class each day to give orally a 
 synopsis of the review or advance lesson, and at the conclusion 
 of any work the argument should be carefully read, so that each 
 pupil should carry away a definite idea of the work as a whole, 
 both in respect to form and content. Every high school library 
 should be provided with a copy of Ward's Fowler's (G. P. 
 Putnam's Sons) Caesar, Strachan Davidson's Cicero and 
 Sellar's Virgil (G. P. Putnam's Sons) the last perhaps more 
 especially for the teacher. By judicious reference to them 
 much can be done to stimulate and maintain a living interest in 
 the men whose works are read. Many topics relating to Roman 
 life may be worked up by the pupils and presented to the class 
 in such a way as to increase the interest in Latin. 
 
 JOURNALS, MAPS, ATLASES, AND REFERENCE BOOKS. 
 
 Journals. Teachers of Latin should subscribe for one or 
 two good periodicals like the Classical Journal and the School 
 Review. 
 
 Maps and Atlases. Good wall maps of the Roman Empire 
 and the Italian peninsula are needed in every school for the 
 classes in Ancient History and Latin. Kiepert's maps (Rand, 
 McNally & Co.) are excellent in every way. Johnston's maps 
 are less expensive but very serviceable. 
 
 A classical atlas should be upon every reference table. The 
 best are Kiepert's (Benj. H. Sanborn & Co.), Ginn & Co.'s 
 Classical Atlas, and Benj. H. Sanborn's Classical Atlas. 
 
 Books for teachers. The following books relate more partic- 
 ularly to methods of teaching Latin: 
 
 Bennett, C. E., and Bristol, Geo. P., The Teaching of Latin 
 and Greek in the Secondary School; Longmans, Green & 
 Co. 
 
74 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 Hale, W. G., Aims and Methods of Classical Study; Ginn &Co. 
 
 Hale, W. G., The Art of Reading Latin; Ginn & Co. 
 
 Lodge, Gonzales, Helps for the Teaching of Caesar; Teacher's 
 
 College Record, Columbia University. 
 Tolman, H. C., The Art of Translating; B. H. Sanborn & Co. 
 
 Reference books. The following books are indispensable 
 where Latin is taught. Histories of Rome are not included in 
 this list: 
 
 Becker, W. A., Gailus: or Roman Scenes of the Times of Au- 
 gustus; Longmans, Green & Co. 
 Church, Alfred J., Roman Life in the Days of Cicero; Dodd, 
 
 Mead & Co. 
 
 Forsythe, William, Life of Cicero; Scribner's Sons. 
 Froude, J. A., Caesar: A Sketch; Scribner's Sons. 
 
 Fowler, H. A., A History of Roman Literature; D. Appleton 
 
 &Co. 
 
 Gay ley, C. M., Classic Myths in English Literature; Ginn & Co. 
 Gow, J., A Companion to School Classics; The Macmillan Co. 
 Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities; 
 
 American Book Co. 
 Harper's Latin Dictionary, Edition of 1895; American Book 
 
 Co. 
 Johnston, H. W., The Private Life of the Romans; Scott, 
 
 Foresman & Co. 
 
 Judson, H. P., Caesar's Army; Ginn & Co. 
 Nettleship, Henry, Virgil; D. Appleton & Co. 
 Sellar, W. Y., The Roman Poets of the Augustan Age: Virgil; 
 
 The Macmillan Co. 
 
 Shumway, E. L., A Day in Ancient Rome; D. C. Heath & Co. 
 Strachan, Davidson Cicero; Warde Fowler, Caesar; G. P. 
 
 Putnam's Sons. 
 Trollope, Anthony, The Life of Cicero; Harper & Brothers. 
 
 GR'EEK. 
 
 The suggestions here made with regard to the study of Greek 
 in high schools are all to be found in the Report on College 
 Entrance Requirements made to the National Educational As- 
 sociation, 1899. 
 
 The first principles should be learned from some good be- 
 ginner's book. **.;*;_ It cannot be said too plainly that a 
 thorough knowledge of forms is absolutely necessary not only 
 for entrance to college, but as a basis of any accurate reading. 
 The Greek grammar must be carefully and constantly and per- 
 sistently studied. Special emphasis must be put upon the 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 75 
 
 mastery of forms, which are to be repeatedly written as well as 
 said; the elements of syntax are necessary, but will not seem 
 difficult after some study of Latin. 
 
 From the beginning systematic instruction in writing Greek 
 sentences should be given, and this should continue through- 
 out the preparatory course, as auxiliary to and indeed a part 
 of grammatical study. Its main object is to train the pupil to 
 read Greek readily and accurately. In the hands of a skillful 
 teacher the most efficient means of teaching connected dis- 
 course is turning back into Greek passages of Attic prose that 
 have been translated by the pupil. If the teacher cannot find 
 time always for this, text books embodying this idea can be 
 had from several of the publishers of Greek books. 
 
 The practice of reading Greek aloud with intelligent expres- 
 sion and careful attention to the quantity of syllables must be 
 insisted upon. This should be a part of every recitation, just 
 as translation, that the pupil may be taught to appreciate the 
 beauty of form and sound and to feel the rhythm of the sen- 
 tence. Metrical reading should commence as soon as Homer 
 is begun. 
 
 Sight reading, or the reading of unprepared passages of easy 
 Greek, is an exercise which should be early begun and continued 
 throughout the course. This may be so managed as to enliven 
 a part of every recitation and at the same time to quicken the 
 pupil's confidence in his own knowledge and skill. 
 
 What has been said in the Latin section about translation 
 applies quite as much to the Greek. Really good translation, 
 accurate and idiomatic, is not simply an intellectual feat and 
 of great disciplinary value; under the direction of a skillful 
 teacher translation from Latin and Greek contributes as per- 
 haps nothing else can to the mastery of style in English. 
 
 The teacher should insist that the Classical Atlas (e. g. Kie- 
 pert's) be constantly used, and no question that is important in 
 history or antiquities or social life or mythology should be left 
 unexplained. Gulick's Life of the Ancient Greeks (Appleton's) 
 or Gayley's Classic Myths (Ginn & Co.) are not only service- 
 able but interesting. 
 
 It is practically universally agreed that Zenophon and Homer 
 are the Greek to be read in the high school. (The amount re- 
 quired is four books of the Anabasis and three of the Iliad or 
 four of the Odyssey.) Text books in these authors, for high 
 school pupils, are provided with vocabularies. 
 
76 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 COURSE OF STUDY RECOMMENDED IN GREEK. 
 First Year. 
 
 First and second terms: Introductory lessons. 
 Third term: Xenophon's Anabasis (20 to 30 pages). 
 
 Practice in reading at sight and in writing Greek. 
 
 Systematic study of grammar begun . 
 
 Second Year. 
 
 Zenophon's Anabasis (continued), either alone or with other 
 Attic prose (75 to 120 pages). 
 
 Practice in reading at sight, systematic study of grammar, 
 thorough grammatical review, and practice in writing 
 Greek, based on study of Books I and II of the Anab- 
 asis. 
 
 Third Year. 
 
 Homer's Iliad i-iii (omitting ii, 494-2nd), or Odyssey i-iv. 
 Attic prose (30 to 40 pages) with practice in writing Greek; 
 
 grammar; practice in reading at sight. 
 
 NOTE: If only two years can be given to preparatory work 
 in Greek, at least one book of the Anabasis, better two, should 
 be read the first year. The remainder of the Anabasis and the 
 Homer may then be read in the second year; but this will re- 
 quire some extra time and very steady work. 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 There are three great purposes in the work in English in the 
 high school: 
 
 1. To give the pupil ability to think clearly to the end of a 
 topic and to express his thought in clear, concise and correct 
 oral and written language. 
 
 2. To train him so that he can understand what he hears 
 and reads. 
 
 3. To give him an appreciation of literature. 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 77 
 
 The first two of these purposes should not be confined to the 
 exercise of English proper, but should be distinctly kept in mind 
 in every recitation. Clear, correct expression is a test of clear 
 understanding of any subject. While it may perhaps not al- 
 ways follow that a pupil does not understand an idea because 
 he cannot express it, it is almost certain that he has a fairly 
 good comprehension of it if he can state -it well in his own lan- 
 guage. The work in the different mathematical studies, for in- 
 stance, which give such an abundant opportunity for thought, 
 would be greatly strengthened if more attention were given to 
 the exact expression. The same fact is in a great measure true 
 of the other studies of the course. The teacher should never 
 lose sight of the form of even the short recitation, while the 
 topical recitations now so commonly required, supply excellent 
 opportunity for more extended oral composition. 
 
 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 
 
 Little aid can be given in the matter of method of teaching 
 composition. In no work in the high school are the tact and 
 ability of the teacher more clearly shown than in the interest 
 and results obtained in this study. A few fundamental facts 
 and principles should, however, be kept in mind. 
 
 First. The aim as stated above should be to give ability to 
 the pupil to express his own thought in clear, concise and cor- 
 rect language. 
 
 Second. That if the work is to be effective, the pupil must 
 be interested in what he is writing; pupils as a rule like to ex- 
 press that which they understand and in which they are inter- 
 ested. 
 
 Formal exercises, written according to a mechanical stand- 
 ard, are likely to be distasteful, irksome, and productive of 
 little good. Topics relating to the pupil's interest outside of 
 school and to his everyday work in the school (his present 
 business), should be used to a much greater extent than they 
 usually are. History and the different studies in science have 
 in them very valuable material which will aid both in compo- 
 sition and in the studies themselves. Physics, taken as it gen- 
 erally is, in the last year of the high school, lends itself espe- 
 cially well to this use. Topics such as a steam engine, com- 
 pound microscope, pumps, capillarity, inclined plane, and many 
 others, treated fully from their fundamental principles, afford 
 material for long or short compositions requiring a definite, 
 logical outline. These will appeal to the student as being 
 closely connected with his daily work so that he looks upon 
 them as very practical and useful. The preparation of para- 
 
78 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906, 
 
 graph and theme outlines of the daily lessons in such subjects 
 as admit of this treatment, is a very valuable exercise in com- 
 position, and at the same time gives definite training in ability 
 to study in a systematic and intelligent way. 
 
 Third. Rules and forms of rhetoric according to which com- 
 positions must be written should not be given. The expression 
 of the pupil should be* that which is natural to him, and if it 
 is not rhetorical it should become so as a result of growth 
 through reading the works of masters and the study of their 
 characteristics. The discriminations of the kinds of discourse 
 into narrative, expository, and descriptive, should not be made 
 the test of his composition, especially in the first years of the 
 course. The formal study of rhetoric by means of lessons as- 
 signed from a text-book day after day is of very doubtful value; 
 the principles of the subject should be taught inductively, in 
 connection with the reading and composition. 
 
 A text-book- in grammar and one in composition and rhetoric 
 should be in the hands of the pupil for reference and occasional 
 assigned lessons throughout the course. About one-half the 
 time of the work in English in the first and second years 
 should be given to composition, and about one-fifth in the third 
 and fourth. All written work should be promptly and carefully 
 examined by the teacher, and errors indicated by some system 
 of signs which shall leave the pupil to make his own correction. 
 Criticisms made in conference with the pupil are, perhaps, the 
 most effective of all. The longer themes written by the pupils 
 should be filed by the teacher in some systematic way so that 
 they may afterward be referred to in case it is desirable to do 
 so for any purpose. At stated times these may be returned. 
 
 READING OF MASTERPIECES. 
 
 The most common criticism on high school work made, not 
 only by authorities in higher schools but by the general public, 
 is that the pupils are not able to read. The idea is too common 
 with teachers of English that the close, intensive study neces- 
 sary to comprehend the thought of a difficult passage is likely 
 to detract from the interest necessary to secure the proper ap- 
 preciation as a piece of literature. While there is a measure 
 of truth in this, especially if the teacher has not a full appre- 
 ciation of the proper relations of the different purposes of the 
 study of English in the high school, yet the danger is much 
 greater in the opposite direction, that the interest aroused is 
 merely theatrical, superficial, and really weakening in effeet. 
 Far too many of the questions asked are not such as will call 
 
WilSCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 79 
 
 out real study and thought on the part of the average high 
 school pupil; they are too general and require too great ma- 
 turity for their answers; in other words, they are college ques- 
 tions. Questions for high school pupils should be very speci- 
 fic and within the ability of the class. 
 
 The first duty of the high school is the very practical one of 
 training the pupil to read. Teachers of English may well learn 
 from the teachers of Latin in this respect. The greatest 
 practical value of Latin in the high school lies in the fact that 
 it gives a training in the power to read closely, and to express 
 clearly the thought of what is read. The capable teacher 
 questions closely, applies grammatical principles, and uses all 
 possible means to compel the pupil to get the exact thought of 
 the author. The final test comes in the correct, readable trans- 
 lation. 
 
 In English as in Latin the material for this training must 
 be the matter read. This should be of so difficult a nature as 
 to require close study to get the thought. Some selections 
 recommended for high school reading, give little opportu- 
 nity for this intensive study; their construction and meaning 
 are perfectly clear. Such have their place in the course, but 
 their value lies in other directions. Others are nearly as diffi- 
 cult as Latin itself. -. Not only should the thought of the selec- 
 tion be mastered, but this mastering should be done in so sys- 
 tematic a way that power is given to apply to fresh difficulties. 
 This study should give the ability clearly to express the thought 
 by oral reading. 
 
 The following list of books contains nearly all of the master- 
 pieces commonly approved for use in literary readings. The 
 figures set opposite indicate the year or years of the high school 
 course in which they are commonly offered: 
 
 Addison Spectator Papers, 2. 
 
 Sir Roger de Cover ly, '2. 
 Arnold Sohrab and Rustum, 2. 
 Bacon Essays, 3. 
 Burke On Conciliation, 3-4. 
 Burns Cotter's Saturday Night, 2-3. 
 Carlyle Essay on Burns, 4. 
 
 Heroes and hero worship, 4. 
 Chaucer Prolog. Knight's Tale, 4. 
 Coleridge Ancient Mariner, 3-4. 
 Cooper Last of the Mohicans, 1. 
 Dickens-Tale of Two Cities (outside;, 4. 
 
 David Copperfield (outside,), 3. 
 
 Christmas Carol, 1. 
 Eliot, George Silas Marner, 1-4. 
 Emerson Lincoln, 3. 
 
 American Scholar, 4. 
 
 Self Reliance, 4. 
 
 Compensation, 4. 
 
 Fortunes of the Republic, 3. 
 
80 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 Franklin Autobiography (outside), 1-4. 
 Goldsmith Deserted Village, 2-3. 
 Gray Elegy, 2-3. 
 
 Hawthorne Twice Told Tales, Part I, 1. 
 Irving Sketch Book (selections), 1. 
 
 Tales of a Traveler (selections), 1. 
 Lamb Essays of Elia, 2-3. 
 Lincoln Gettysburg Speech, 1. 
 
 Second Inaugural, 3. 
 Longfellow Tales of a Wayside Inn, Part I, 1. 
 
 Evangeline, 1 or 8th grade. 
 Lowell Crisis, 1-4. 
 Essays, 4. 
 
 Vision of Sir Launfal, 2. 
 Milton Shorter Poems, 3-4. 
 
 Paradise Lost, 4. (Usually a failure in high school classes.) 
 Macaulay Essay on Addison, 4. 
 Life of Johnson, 4. 
 Lord Clive, 3. 
 Milton, 4. 
 
 Warren Hastings, 4. 
 
 Palgrave Golden Treasury, 1st series, 1-4. 
 Poe-Gold Bug, 1. 
 Poems, 2-4. 
 
 Pope Essay an Man (outside^, 4. 
 Iliad, Books I, IV, XX, 2. 
 Ruskin Sesame and Lilies, 3-4. 
 Scott Lady of the Lake, 1. 
 
 Ivanhoe, 1. 
 
 Schurz -On the Death of Lincoln, 3. 
 Shakespeare Julius Caesar, 1-2. 
 
 Merchant of Venice, 1-2. 
 Midsummer Night's Dream, 3. 
 Tempest, 3-4. 
 Macbeth, 4. 
 
 Stevenson Treasure Island, 1-4. 
 Tennyson Enoch Arden, 1. 
 
 Idylls, 2. 
 Warner - Essays, 1-2. 
 
 Hunting of the Deer, 1-2. 
 Washington Farewell Address, 4. 
 Webster-First Bunker Hill Oration, 3. 
 
 Adams and Jefferson, 3. 
 Whittier Snow Bound, 1-2. 
 Wordsworth Intimations of Immortality, 3-4. 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 81 
 
 GRAMMAR AND RHETORIC. 
 
 In English as in Latin the great instruments for reaching 
 the above results are grammar and rhetoric; the former through 
 syntax and analysis, and the latter through the paragraph and 
 the theme. When the pupil definitely comprehends the rela- 
 tions of the different elements of the sentence, and when he 
 knows the topic sentence and the relation of the other sentences 
 of the paragraph to this topic sentence, he is in a condition to 
 appreciate the value and the appropriateness of the setting of 
 the thoughts as a whole. 
 
 A caution may be necessary here. The thought in the above 
 is emphatically not to teach grammar as an end, but to use it 
 as an instrument in getting the thought of what is being read. 
 It should be made use of only when necessary for this. Eng- 
 lish grammar should continually be used in all of the years of 
 the course as a means of criticism and interpretation. The 
 fact is, that today, in many schools, it is almost never referred 
 to outside of the grammar classes. 
 
 Every pupil, upon entering a high school, should be able to 
 define the various terms employed in elementary grammar, to 
 give the principal rules of syntax, rules for spelling and rules 
 for use of capitals. It is especially necessary that pupils have 
 some definite knowledge of the parts of the sentence, and abil- 
 ity to analyze and parse plain English. 
 
 The study of formal grammar as such, should have no place 
 in .the high school before the third or fourth year. The amount 
 usually given in the grades is enough for use as an aid in the 
 mastery of thought in reading, and in the correction of com- 
 positions, and it should be so used throughout the entire course. 
 If pupils are found deficient and a special class is necessary, 
 it can hardly be considered high school work. 
 
 If occasional weaknesses are found, it may be well to teach 
 special topics as needed, with the distinct understanding that 
 this is done that they may be afterward applied throughout the 
 course. 
 
 A semester of formal grammar not earlier than the third year 
 will prove an excellent disclipine as a training to distinguish 
 niceties of thought and language with their appropriate modes 
 of expression. By that time the pupil will have gained suffi- 
 cient maturity to understand something of grammar as the sci- 
 ence of language, and will be able to apply its laws in dealing 
 with the difficult selections indicated for use in the fourth 
 year. 
 
 The following syntactical and rhetorical rules, or a similar 
 list, should be known in such form as to be readily reproduced 
 at any moment. 
 6 
 
82 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 190B. 
 
 RULES. 
 
 1. A noun or pronoun used as the subject of a finite verb is in the nom- 
 
 inative case. 
 
 2. A noun or pronoun used to modify another by denoting possession is in 
 
 the possessive case. 
 
 3. A noun or pronoun used as the direct object of a transitive verb or 
 
 verbal is in the objective case. 
 
 4. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, number and gender. 
 
 5. A verb agrees with its subject in number and person. 
 
 6. The tense forms and infinitives in subordinate elements should indi- 
 
 cate time that shall correspond with the time denoted by the sen- 
 tence. 
 
 7. Never use the past participle for the past tense, nor the past tense for 
 
 the past participle. 
 
 8. The objective complement of a verb agrees in case with the object of 
 
 the verb. 
 
 9. Modifying elements should be placed as near to the words they modify 
 
 as other requirements will permit. 
 
 10. The parts of a sentence should be alike in form if they express like re- 
 
 lations in the thought. 
 
 11. When a verb has two or more subjects, ,or a pronoun has two or more 
 
 antecedents connected by or, or nor, it agrees with the nearest. 
 
 12. To express -futurity use shall in the first person and wilt in the sec- 
 
 ond and third. To express promise, purpose, determination, obliga- 
 tion or inevitable action which the speaker means to control, use 
 will in the first person and shall in the second and third. 
 
 13. When a verb affirms something of many as individuals, it must be in 
 
 the plural number. 
 
 14. The word number followed by of with a plural noun, meaning many 
 
 or several, must have a plural verb; but number preceded by the 
 takes a singular verb. 
 
 15. The comparative is used when two things or two classes of things are 
 
 compared. 
 
 16. Do not use the adverb in place of the predicate adjective after verbs 
 
 of incomplete predication. 
 
 17. Avoid the use of double negatives. 
 
 Note: A few simple but sufficiently adequate rules for the use of 
 the comma and semicolon should be taught in connection with the 
 study of grammar, and much practice in applying them to writing 
 other than their own should be given: this, in connection with the 
 study of grammar or with the study of composition. 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 83 
 
 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 
 
 In many schools altogether too much time is spent in text- 
 book study of the history of literature. In a majority of classes 
 such study is uninteresting and unprofitable. It is likely to 
 consist in the mere acquirement of a store of facts and book 
 statements memorized for the occasion, and beyond the power 
 of appreciation of the pupils. Such work does more harm than 
 good, since the facts are forgotten long before the power to 
 apply them in their proper relation is developed, and at the 
 same time a dislike for the whole subject is formed. 
 
 When a student becomes so filled with the writings of any 
 author that his personality becomes of interest, then the 'biog- 
 raphy may be read with profit, but the biography of an author 
 should usually be approached through his writings. In rare 
 cases it may happen that the life of an author is so interesting 
 as to arouse an interest in the masterpiece to be read. In such 
 cases the teacher may be justified in approaching his work 
 through his biography. 
 
 The writings of certain typical authors should be studied in 
 class and accompanied by such a study of history and biog- 
 raphy as to give the student, in an orderly manner, some defi- 
 nite ideas of the growth of literature, its relations to the time 
 in which it is produced, and some notion of the growth of 
 ideas. The history should serve as a frame work to systematic 
 reading, and assist in giving some idea of the entirety of liter- 
 ature. 
 
 The above would imply that more or less of biography and 
 history should be given throughout the course as a part of the 
 study of English. The formal knitting together of this into a 
 connected whole would, perhaps, naturally come in the fourth 
 year. Inasmuch, however, as all students cannot take fourth 
 year English under the present arrangement of courses, it 
 would seem that the third year will best suit the conditions. 
 A course of study should accordingly be so arranged that the 
 classics read may be made the basis for the necessary group- 
 ing to give the brief general survey of literature adapted to 
 high school work. An amount of time equal to not more than 
 one period per week should be given to this formal study. If 
 a text is used it should be rather for reference and arrange- 
 ment of matter presented than as material for formal study. 
 
 If this work is taken in the third year as suggested, there 
 will be opportunity in the fourth year for students who are not 
 taking two foreign languages, to make an intensive study of 
 some difficult English classics in a way which will give a train- 
 ing nearly or quite equal in value to that given by a foreign 
 
84 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 language. The lack of this training is now one of the weak 
 points in our English courses and it is very desirable that 
 these courses be strengthened in this direction. 
 
 BOOKS FOR TEACHERS. 
 
 How to Teach Reading in the Public Schools S. H. Clark. 
 Scott, Foresman & Co. 
 
 The Teaching of English Carpenter, Baker & Scott. 
 Longmans, Green & Co. 
 
 Talks on the Study of Literature Arlo Bates. Houghton, 
 Mifflin&Co. 
 
 Talks on the Writing of English Arlo Bates. Houghton, 
 Mifflin & Co. 
 
 The Teaching of English Chubb. Macmillan. 
 Lectures on Language S. S. Laurie. Macmillan. 
 Education, Vol. XXV., No. 1., Sept. 1904. 
 First Steps in English Composition Patterson. Flana- 
 gan. 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING. 
 
 The law provides that the courses of study, and the scope 
 and character of the work shall be such as to meet the approval 
 of the state superintendent. Up to the present time no definite 
 general requirements in these respects have been made, but 
 the work of each school has been individually considered. 
 
 The limit of twenty schools to receive state aid has been 
 reached, and the status of manual training in Wisconsin is such 
 that it is deemed best to establish a minimum amount of time 
 and scope of work in such departments, the same to go into 
 effect for the school year 1907-1908. It is highly desirable that 
 schools receiving state aid for the year 1906-1907 shall approx- 
 imate this limit, and in case any school falls considerably be- 
 low, aid will be refused and the school taken from the list. 
 
 SCOPE OF THE WORK. 
 
 The scheme of work should require at least seventy minutes 
 daily for two years in the high school, preceded by preliminary 
 preparation equivalent to one period weekly for one year. It 
 should provide for two optional courses: (1) Instruction and 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 85 
 
 exercises in wood work and drawing. (2) Instruction and ex- 
 ercises in domestic science. 
 
 Specifically, course one should include: 
 
 (a) Instruction and exercises in free-hand and mechanical 
 
 drawing of objects used as exercises. 
 
 (b) Instruction and exercises in bench work in wood-sawing, 
 
 planing, tenons, mortises and joinery. 
 
 (c) Instruction and exercises in lathe work in wood, wood 
 
 turning, face-plate, and center turning, polishing and 
 simple designing. 
 
 (d) Project work. 
 
 (e) Lessons in kinds and qualities of woods, care of tools, etc. 
 While it is not intended that the following list shall be an 
 
 arbitrary one, it includes in a general way what should consti- 
 tute suitable work with tools for a course as indicated above. 
 In schools which provide for a part or all of this in the grades 
 more extended work in carpentry should be given. 
 
 BENCH WORK. 
 
 1. Exercise in squaring, gaug- 
 
 ing, chamfering, and 
 rounding with plane. 
 
 2. Pointer. 
 
 3. Bench hook. 
 
 4. Plate mat. 
 
 5. Bill file. 
 
 6. Coat hanger. 
 
 7. Plant pot stand. 
 
 8. Pen tray. 
 
 9. Hatchet handle. 
 10. Broom holder. 
 
 11. Bracket shelf. 
 
 12. Towel rack. 
 
 13. Coat rack. 
 
 14. Knife box. 
 
 15. Half splice. 
 
 16. Mortise tenon. 
 
 17. Double tenon. 
 
 18. Mortise and tenon. 
 
 19. Keyed tenon. 
 
 20. Dovetail. 
 
 21. Half miter frame. 
 
 LATHE WORK. 
 
 1. Plain cylinder. Involving: Use of gouge in roughing 
 
 and finishing; centering and preparing stock for lathe; 
 sharpening tools; speed of lathe. 
 
 2. Use of turning or skew chisel. 
 
 3. Concave turning with gouge. 
 
 4. Convex aud concave turning. Practice with chisel and 
 
 gouge. 
 
 5. Chisel handle. Polishing in lathe. 
 
 6. Turning tool handle. 
 
 7. Mallet. 
 
86 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 8. Bracket. Relation of bench and lathe work. 
 
 9. Egg. 
 
 10. Rosette. Face plate work. 
 
 11. Additional face plate work. 
 
 12. Ring. Making and use of chuck. 
 
 13. Plate. Practice in chucking. 
 
 14. Goblet. Inside turning. 
 
 15. Napkin ring. Finishing on mandrel. 
 
 16. Hat rack. Practice in assembling. 
 
 17. Towel rack. Plain and face plate work combined. 
 
 18. Candelabrum. Same as above. 
 
 19. Mirror frame. Built up work. 
 
 Course two should include: 
 
 (a) Instruction and exercises in sewing forms of stitches, 
 piecing, hemming, darning^ mending, patching, cutting, 
 fitting, and making garments. 
 
 (b) Instruction and exercises in cooking study of foods, 
 dietetic values and combinations, uses and processes of cook- 
 ing, invalid cooking, preparation of common foods soups, 
 meats, vegetables, bread, tea, coffee, cocoa, cakes, pies, 
 
 , puddings, etc. 
 
 (c) Serving of food, study of markets, food materials and 
 their preservation, etc. 
 
 (d) Household management drainage, water supply, 
 ventilation, heating, lighting, etc. 
 
PART III. 
 
 Laws and Forms. 
 
88 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 STATUTES RELATING TO FREE HIGH 
 SCHOOLS. 
 
 How established. Section 490 (as amended by Chapter 258, 
 Laws of 1905). Any town, village or city school district or 
 sub-district which contains within its limits an incorporated, 
 village jor which has a graded school of not less than two de- 
 partments may establish and maintain not exceeding two high 
 schools in the manner and with the privileges herein provided ; 
 but no such school shall be established or maintained unless 
 twenty-five persons of school age, resident of the town, city or 
 village or scnool district, or sub-district, pas> a satisfactory ex- 
 amination in the branches required to be taught in the common 
 school and are prepared to begin a high school course. The 
 question of establishing such schools may be submitted by the 
 town, district, sub-district, village board or common council to 
 the legally qualified voters at any annual or special meeting or 
 election upon written resolution therefor proposed for adop- 
 tion; provided that ten days' notice of such purpose embody- 
 ing such resolution be given by posting five copies thereof in 
 five different public places in such town, village, city, school 
 district or sub-district, or by publishing such notice in any 
 newspaper published in any such town, village, city, school 
 district or sub-district, ten days prior to the time set for hold- 
 ing such meeting. In the case of a sub-district the meeting 
 may be called by the clerk thereof. The vote shall be taken 
 by ballot and canvassed according to the statutes for conduct- 
 ing elections in such municipality, those ballots in favor being 
 written or printed "for high school," those opposed, "against 
 high school." If the resolution be adopted such town, district, 
 sub-district, village or city shall constitute a high school dis- 
 trict. But this section shall not apply to high schools already 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. gg 
 
 established. No action heretofore taken by any town, village, 
 city, school district or sub-district in voting to form a high 
 school or joint high school shall be invalid by reason of any de- 
 fect in the form of notice given or the time such notice shall 
 have been given, posted or published; but all steps heretofore 
 taken by any tovm, village, city, school district or sub-district 
 in forming a high school or joint high school are hereby vali- 
 dated, and declared to conform to law. 
 
 Joint high school districts. (Chapter 345, Laws of 1903, 
 amending Section 49.1, Statutes of 1898, as amended by Sec. 1, 
 of Ch. 57 of the Laws of 1899, and also amending Section 492 
 of the Statutes of 1898.) Section 491. Two or more adjoining 
 towns or school districts, or one or more towns or school dis- 
 tricts and an incorporated village or city, when the same to- 
 gether will make a district of contiguous territory, may unite 
 in establishing and maintaining any sueh high school. The 
 resolution proposing the same shall be approved and submitted 
 and the notice of election signed by at least a majority of the 
 supervisors of each town, the directors of each school district, 
 the common council of such city and trustees of such village, 
 if any, and the election shall be notified and conducted in each 
 town, school district, city or village as provided in the preced- 
 ing section. Such resolution shall not be adopted unless a 
 majority of the votes cast in each such town, school district, 
 city or village, be in favor thereof. The votes shall be can- 
 vassed at the first election, and all subsequent elections in the 
 several towns as at town meetings, in the several school dis- 
 tricts as at annual school district meetings, in the city, if any, 
 as at a charter election, and in the village, if any, as at vil- 
 lage elections; and Lhc supervisors of the several towns, direct- 
 ors of said school districts, common council of such city and 
 trustees of such village shall, within one week after such elec- 
 tion, meet and canvass the votes and certify the result to the 
 town clerk of each town, the clerk of each school district, the 
 clerk of such city and to the village clerk of such village. If 
 such resolution be adopted, the town, or towns, school district 
 or school districts and city and village, so voting, shall con- 
 stitute a joint high school district. The creation of a new 
 town or incorporation of a village out of the territory included 
 in a free high school district shall not dissolve nor otherwise 
 affect such district but siich towns or town and village shall 
 
90 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 thereafter constitute a joint high school district. A town 
 school district, incorporated village or city contiguous to a 
 free high school district may become joint with such district 
 upon the approval and submission of a resolution proposing 
 the same and the terms thereof, and notice of election signed 
 by a majority of the supervisors of each town, directors of each 
 school district, common council of each city, and trustees of 
 each village, if any, to be affected and the adoption of such res- 
 olution by a majority of all the votes cast in each such town, 
 school district, city or village, the election to be had and the 
 result canvassed and determined in the manner provided herein 
 for the organization of a joint high school district in the first 
 instance. 
 
 Certificate. Section 491a. (Statutes of 1898, as amended by 
 Chap. 214, 1899, as amended b-' Ohap. 345, Laws of 1901.) 
 Whenever a frjee high school shall have been established and 
 maintained as provided in sections 490 and 491 for at least 
 three months, and the proper board shall have made the report 
 required by section 496 in order to obtain the aid furnished by 
 the state in maintaining free high schools, they shall append 
 thereto a certificate that such school is established and main- 
 tained in a district composed of a town ; of a town and an in- 
 corporated village within the town; of two or more towns; or 
 of two or more towns and an incorporated village in one or in 
 each of them. 
 
 State aid. Section 491b. (Statutes of 1898, as amended by 
 Chap. 214, Laws of 1899, as amended by Chap. 345, Laws of 
 1901.) Upon receiving the reports and appended certificate pro- 
 vided for in section 496, it shall be the duty of the state super- 
 intendent to make a separate and distinct class of the schools 
 thus established and maintained in the districts designated in 
 section 491a as amended by this act, and each such school shall 
 be entitled to receive from the general fund of the state, annu- 
 ally, one-half the amount actually expended for instruction 
 therein; and said superintendent shall fix the amount to be paid 
 to each of said high schools and certify the same to the secre- 
 tary of the state at the time and in the manner he is now re- 
 quired to fix and certify to him the amount to be paid to high 
 school districts. On such certificate, at any time after the first 
 day of December, the same shall be paid to the district treas- 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 91 
 
 urer out of the state treasury; but the whole amount so paid 
 shall not exceed twenty-five thousand dollars in any one year 
 to this class of free high schools, and if more is demanded by 
 such districts they .shall be paid proportionally. The secretary 
 of state shall annually include and apportion in the state tax 
 all such sums as shall have been so paid, in addition to t^e 
 amount authorized to be paid in aid of free high schools by 
 section 496 and in addition to all other sums to be levied for the 
 year. 
 
 Secton 491c. (Chapter 174, Laws of 1905.) It is hereby 
 made the duty of the town, village, city or school district board 
 to submit any resolution proposed in pursuance of section 491 
 as amended by section 1 of chapter 57 of the laws of 1899, as 
 amended by section 1 of chapter 345 of the laws of 1903, to the 
 voters of such town, village, city or school district upon the fil- 
 ing with said board 01 a petition in writing, praying for such 
 submission, signed by at least ten per cent, of the qualified 
 electors who voted at the last preceding gubernatorial election 
 in such town, city, village or school district. 
 
 District officers. Section 492. (Statutes of 1898, as amended 
 by Chapter 329, Laws of 1905, amending Chapter 345, Laws 
 of 1903.) The officers of each free high school district shall 
 be a director, treasurer and clerk, whose terms shall be each 
 three years beginning with the annual town meetings, and until 
 his successor shall have been chosen ; provided that at the first 
 election the clerk shall be chosen for one year, the treasurer for 
 two years and the director for three years, and all of said of- 
 ficers may be chosen first at the same election at which the 
 question of establishing a high school is submitted, to take their 
 offices if the resolution therefor be adopted. Thereafter such . 
 officers shall be elected at the annual town meeting or charter 
 election. The votes cast shall be canvassed and the result de- 
 clared and certified as provided in the preceding sections. But 
 in all cities not under a county superintendent which now con- 
 stitute free high school districts or which shall hereafter adopt 
 the resolution provided for in section 490 and become free high 
 school districts, the board of education in each such city shall 
 be the high school board and the city treasurer shall be ex- 
 officio the treasurer of the high school district unless the board 
 of education embrace a treasurer; and in all districts main- 
 taining a graded school of not less thn two departments which 
 
92 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 now constitute free high school districts or which shall here- 
 after adopt said resolution, the district board in each shall be 
 the high school board and the district treasurer shall be the 
 treasurer of the high school district. Whenever a sub-district 
 shall vote to establish and maintain a free high school, such 
 sub-district shall constitute a free high school district, shall 
 elect a free high school board, the clerk for one year, the treas- 
 urer for two years and the director for three years; thereafter 
 one officer shall be elected annually in place of the one whose 
 term expires at the annual meeting of such sub-district, and 
 such high school board shall perform all the duties and have 
 the same authority as high school boards in towns or districts. 
 The clerk shall certify all taxes levied for high school purposes 
 to the town, city or village clerk, who- shall apportion the same 
 upon the taxable property of the sub-district, and the treasurer 
 of such municipality shall collect the taxes thus apportioned 
 and pay over the same to the high school treasurer and return 
 the delinquent taxes to the county treasurer as in other cases. 
 Where a high school district consists of two or more towns or 
 school districts, or one or more towns or school districts and 
 an incorporated village or city, the officers thereof shall be 
 elected for the same terms as in other districts by joint vote 
 of the town boards of such towns or the board or boards of the 
 school district or districts ,town or towns, and three members 
 elected by the board of the village or council of the city which 
 have united in forming such district ; except that in all cases 
 where the free high school district is composed of one town and 
 an incorporated village only, the election of a high school district 
 officers shall be held at the time of the annual town meeting 
 on the first Tuesday in April of each year at the usual polling 
 places for holding such elections ; provided that in cases where 
 such usual polling places are outside the village limits and no 
 village election is held on that day an additional and convenient 
 polling place shall be provided for within the village limits. 
 Separate ballots and a separate ballot box for school district 
 officers shall be provided. The names of the candidates for 
 school district officers voted for shall be printed or written on 
 a ticket separate from the town ticket and the ballots cast at 
 this election for school officers shall be canvassed and counted 
 at a joint session of the canvassing boards of the town and vil- 
 lage. Such town boards shall hold their first meeting to elect 
 officers at two o'clock p. m. on the first Tuesday following 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 93 
 
 the town meeting, at the office of the clerk of the town having 
 the largest population, and thereafter shall meet for such pur- 
 pose at the same time* at such place as may be determined upon. 
 The first meeting of the board or boards of the town or towns 
 or a school district or districts with the members elected by 
 the board of any village (with the above exception) or council 
 of any city which forms such a district shall be held at two 
 o'clock p. m. on the first Tuesday next following the village or 
 city election at the office of the clerk of such village or city; all 
 subsequent meetings shall be held at the same time at such 
 place as may be determined upon. A majority of all the mem- 
 bers representing such town or towns, school district or dis- 
 tricts, and such village board or city council shall be necessary 
 to constitute a quorum. The secretary of the meetings of 
 such boards shall certify the names of the officers of the district 
 elected thereat to all the clerks of the towns, school districts, 
 village or city in the district. The officers so elected shall 
 have the same authority, be charged with the same duties and 
 be under the same liabilities as other officers of such districts. 
 
 High school board Township system. Chapter 253, laws of 
 1901. Section 1. (492a.) The town board of school directors 
 in any towtnship now organized or which may be hereafter or- 
 ganized under the township system of school government,shall 
 be and is hereby constituted the free high school board for 
 the town as a free high school district. In such cases the 
 secretary of the town board of school directors, shall be ex- 
 officio clerk, the president of the board shall be ex-officio direc- 
 tor, and the town treasurer shall be ex-officio treasurer of the 
 free high school board of said district. Said board is hereby 
 authorized to perform all and singular the duties prescribed 
 b^ law for free high school officers and boards, and the func- 
 tion and duty of free high school boards heretofore organized 
 and acting as such in a free high school district consisting of a 
 town having the township system of school government , shall 
 cease and be of no effect on and after the lawful surrender of 
 records, papers, moneys and other property as hereinafter pro- 
 vided. The records and accounts of the board created by this 
 act shall be kept separate and distinct from the records and ac- 
 counts which the said board are required to keep as a town 
 board of school directors. The free high school board in any 
 
94 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH (SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 existing free high school district composed of a single town 
 organized under the township system of school government, is 
 hereby authorized and directed immediately upon the passage 
 of this act. to deliver to the care and custody of the free high 
 school board herein provided for in such cases, all records, pa- 
 pers, money, and other property of the free high school district, 
 and the free high school board herein provided for shall accept 
 the care and custody of such records, papers, money and other 
 property and use them for and in behalf of the free high school 
 district in conformity to law. 
 
 Officers' duties; other statutes apply. Section 493. Such of- 
 ficers shall constitute the high school board, and shall conduct 
 the affairs of the high school district on the same general plan 
 provided for a school district, and possess, with respect to such 
 high school district, all the powers and be charged with all the 
 duties conferred and imposed by these statutes on the district 
 officers and district board of a school district applicable to such 
 high school district ; the treasurer shall give a like bond, to be 
 a-pproved and filed in a similar manner. The high school dis- 
 trict clerk shall make ? similar report to that required by sec- 
 tion 462, omitting the first subdivision. t The board may grade 
 such school and establish the branches of study to be taught 
 therein, under the advice of the state superintendent. Every 
 forfeiture and punishment for neglect or violation of duty in 
 a school district officer shall apply to a high school district 
 officer for like neglect or violation. The reports of free high 
 schools in cities not lender a county superindent shall be in- 
 cluded in the reports from sucn cities to the state superin- 
 tendent. 
 
 Schools free; teachers' qualifications. Section 494. All 
 such hierh schools shall be free to all pupils resident in the dis- 
 trict. Every principal of such school shall, in addition to his 
 qualifications as teacher of a common school, be a graduate of 
 some university, college or normal school, hold a state certificate 
 or pass an examination in the studies reauired to be taught in 
 any such school; r>rovided, the state certificates authorized by 
 law 1 and the certificates authorized by section 49a shall qual- 
 ify their holders both as principals and as teachers of common 
 schools ; and each principal and assistant teacher in a free high 
 school shall be eligible to teach only on approval of his certificate 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 95 
 
 by the state superintendent ; and the high school board or boards 
 of education having charge of such schools shall determine, 
 with the advice and consent of such superintendent, the course 
 of study and minimum standard of qualification for admission 
 to the same. 
 
 Residents of towns and villages without free high schools 
 may attend free high schools in other districts Tuition, how 
 paid. (Chap. 329, Laws ("of 1903, amendatory of Oh. 188 of 
 the Laws of 1901.) Section 1. The free high school board 
 of any free high school district organized under the laws of 
 this state, shall admit <to the high school under its control, 
 whenever the facilities for seating and instruction will warrant, 
 any person of school age prepared to enter such school, who 
 may reside in any town or incorporated village, but not within 
 any free high school district, and who shall have completed the 
 course of study in the school district in which he resides, or 
 one equivalent thereto. Persons so admitted shall be entitled 
 to the Isame privileges and be subject to the same rules and 
 regulations as pupils of the school who are residents of the 
 free high school district. 
 
 Tuition fee, statement of. Section 2. Whenever persons, not 
 residing in any free high school district and having com- 
 pleted the course of study in the school district in which they 
 reside, or one equivalent thereto, as herein provided, enter any 
 free high school, the free high school board of that district shall 
 be entitled and is hereby authorized to charge a tuition fee for 
 such pupils not to exceed fifty cents per week. On or before 
 the first day of July in each year, the secretary of the free 
 high school board shall make a sworn statement to the clerk of 
 the city, town or village from which any person may have been 
 admitted to said free high school. Said statement shall set' forth 
 the residence, name, zge and date of entrance to such school, 
 and number of months' attendance during the preceding school 
 year of each person <?o admitted from such city, town or village ; 
 this statement shall show the amount of tuition which, under 
 the provisions of this act, the district is entitled to receive for 
 each person reported as having been a member of the school 
 from such city, town or village, and the aggregate sum for tui- 
 tion for all persons so Emitted fom each city, town or village, 
 which statement shall be filed as a claim against the town, 
 
96 "WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 city or village where such person resides, and allowed as other 
 claims are allowed. 
 
 Evidence of completion of course of study, what is sufficient, 
 Section 3. The usual diploma issued by any school or school 
 district organized under the laws of the state, shall be sufficient 
 evidence of the completion of the course of study hereinbefore 
 mentioned, and it shall be the duty of the state superintendent, 
 in all cases where a course of study is not already prescribed, to 
 prescribe a course of study and designate what shall constitute 
 a completion thereof under this act. A duplicate of such di- 
 ploma or a copy thereof duly certfiied as such, by any of the 
 persons signing the original, shall be delivered upon request 
 to the persons named therein, and shall be filed by him with 
 the secretary of the free high school board of the free high 
 school district, upon his admission to its high school. A cer- 
 tificate from the county superintendent of the completion of 
 such course, or that the diploma hereinbefore referred to has 
 been properly issued to the person named therein, shall have 
 the same effect as such diploma, as evidence of the completion 
 of the course of study. All duplicate diplomas, or certified cop- 
 ies thereof, or certificates of county superintendents so filed, 
 shall be attached to the sworn statement of such secretary here- 
 inbefore provided for. 
 
 Tuition, how collected in villages. Section 4. The village 
 clerk shall enter upon the tax roll of the village for the en- 
 suing year such sums as may be due for tuition on account of 
 residents of the village who have attended such free high school 
 or schools, and the amounts so entered shall be collected when 
 and as other taxes are collected, and shall be paid when so 
 collected, to the treasurer of the free high school district or dis- 
 tricts, where such persons have attended the free high school 
 or schools. 
 
 How collected in towns. Section 5. The clerk of any town 
 not having within its territory a free high school district, shall 
 enter upon the tax roll of the town for the ensuing year such 
 sums as may be due for tuition on account of residents of the 
 town who have attended such free high school or schools, and 
 the amounts so entered shall be collected when and as other 
 taxes are collected, and shall be paid when so collected, to the 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 97 
 
 treasurer of the free high school district where such persons 
 have attended the free high school or schools. 
 
 How collected in portion of town or city not in district. Sec- 
 tion 6. The clerk of any town or city, a portion of which con- 
 stitutes or forms a part of a free high school district, shall en- 
 ter upon the tax roil for that part of the town or city, not 
 Within a free high school district, such sums as may be due 
 for tuition on account of residents of that portion of the town 
 or city, that have attended such free high school or schools, 
 and the amounts so entered shall be collected when, and as 
 other taxes are collected and shall be paid when so collected, 
 to the treasurer of the free high school district or districts 
 where such persons have attended the free high school or 
 schools. 
 
 Taxes, apportionment of. Section 495. The high school board 
 shall annually, on or before the second Monday in September,, 
 meet and determine the amount necessary to be raised by tax 
 for the support of. such high school, and certify the same to- 
 the proper town, city or village clerk ; if a joint high school dis- 
 trict they shall certify to the clerk of each town or to such 
 clerk and the village clerk the proportionate amount thereof 
 to be raised by such town or village, such proportion to be 
 determined according to the total valuation of all the taxable 
 property therein as equalized by the boards of review, state- 
 ' ments of which shall, as soon as the assessment is complete, 
 be sent by the respective town or village clerks to the clerk 
 of such district. Such tax shall be apportioned on the next tax 
 roll by such clerk or other officer making the same, and col- 
 lected and returned as other taxes, and paid to the high school 
 district treasurer. Such moneys shall be paid out only on 
 orders drawn and countersigned as prescribed in case of school 
 districts. Any town which is a single high school district may, 
 by resolution adopted at the annual town meeting, limit the 
 amount to be raised for high school purposes during such year. 
 In case of a joint high school district, the town boards of the 
 several towns or of the town and village or towns and villages 
 embraced may by joint resolution adopted by all such boards 
 before the first day of July, likewise limit the amount to be- 
 raised therein. 
 1 
 
98 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 Providing for town free high school buildings. (Chapter 
 123, Laws of 1903, amending Chapter 27, Statutes of 1898, by 
 thje addition of a ne\v section to be known as Section 495a.) 
 Section 495a. The electors of any town organized as a town 
 free high school district are authorized at any annual town 
 meeting or special town meeting, regularly called, to levy a tax 
 upon the real and personal property of said town free high 
 school district for the purpose of purchasing a site, erecting 
 a suitable school building thereon, and furnishing said building 
 with the necessary furniture, and heating and ventilating ap- 
 paratus. 
 
 Powers of electors Buildings for town free high school dis- 
 tricts. (Chapter 351, Laws of 1905.) Section 1. Upon the 
 filing with the town clerk or clerks of each town included in any 
 town free high school district and with the village clerk of any 
 village included therein, a petition in writing signed by at least 
 ten per cent of the qualified electors of such town high school 
 district as determined by the last preceding gubernatorial elec- 
 tion asking to have submitted to a vote of the electors of said 
 district the question of erecting a new school building therein 
 or building an addition to a school house or furnishing such 
 building with necessary furniture and heating and ventilating 
 apparatus, the supervisors of the several towns and the trustees 
 of any village included in any such joint free high school dis- 
 trict, shall give notice of an election to be held in such towns or 
 town and towns and village for the purpose of voting upon such 
 question, which shall be submitted to 1 be voted upon in the form 
 of a resolution embodying the question to be submitted and the 
 amount of m;oney proposed to be raised for such purpose upon 
 which the electors shall vote aye or nay, and such resolution 
 shall be adopted if a majority of the total vote in the entire 
 joint free high school district be in favor thereof. Before 
 issuing notice of such election the town clerks of the several 
 towns and villages ii any, included in such school district, 
 sha 1 ! meet and determine on a time /for holding such election, 
 which shall be held in each town and village upon the same day, 
 and within ten days after such election shall have been had 
 the clerks of the several towns and villages included in such 
 district shall meet and canvass the returns (of such election 
 and announce the result thereof and make a written report 
 thereon and file the same with the clerks of the several towns 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 99 
 
 and villages included in such school district. Such election 
 shall be noticed and conducted and the votes counted in the 
 several towns as at town meetings and in a village, if any, as at 
 village elections. 
 
 Borrowing money. (Chap. 342, Laws of 1901.) For the 
 purposes expressed in section 474 of the statutes of 1898 and 
 chapter 40 of the laws of 1901, any high school district board 
 is hereby authorized and empowered to borrow money when- 
 ever directed by the electors of such high school district assem- 
 bled at a meeting regularly called and held for that purpose, 
 pursuant to the provisions of section 427 of the statutes of 1898. 
 The payment thereof shall be provided for by said board by a 
 tax to be raised and certified as provided in this section. 
 
 State aid, how obtained. Section 496. (Statutes of 1898, as 
 amended by Chap. 214, Laws of 1899,, as amended by Chap. 345, 
 Laws of 1901.) Any high school district which shall have 
 established a free high school according to the provisions of 
 these statutes, and shall have maintained the same for not less 
 than three months in any school year, shall be entitled to 
 receive from the general fund of the state annually one-half 
 of the amount actually expended for instruction in its high 
 school during such year over and above the amount required 
 by law to be expended for common school purposes, but not to 
 exceed in one year five hundred dollars to one district: pro- 
 vided, this limitation! shall not apply to the class of high schools 
 designated in section 491a, as amended by this act. To obtain 
 such aid the high school board, or in cities not under a county 
 superintendent, the president and secretary of the board of 
 education and the treasurer, shall on or before the first day of 
 November, report in duplicate to the state superintendent, un- 
 der their oaths the amount actually expended for instruction 
 during the previous school year, specifying the several items 
 thereof, with the date and the object of each fully. Thereupon 
 said superintendent shall fix the amount to be paid such district 
 and certify the same to the secretary of state with one of such 
 reports annexed ; provided, the state superintendent may with- 
 hold such certificate i'rom any district for reasons based upon 
 failure to comply with the law relating to free high schools 
 which reason he shall transmit to the school board thereof on 
 
100 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 or before the thirteenth day of the next succeeding June. On 
 such certificate, at any time after the first day of December, the 
 certified amount shall be paid to the district treasurer out of 
 the state treasury. The secretary of state shall iannually in- 
 clude and apportion in the state tax all such sums as shall have 
 been so paid. "Whenever, by any neglect or omission, any free 
 high school shall fail to have apportioned to it its share of state 
 aid, the state superintendent may, after the time hereinbefore 
 fixed for such apportionment by him, fix an amount ten per 
 centum less than the amount Which such school would have 
 been entitled to had it complied with the provisions of this 
 section, and certify the same to the secretary of state with the 
 report of such district annexed thereto, and the secretary of 
 state shall thereupon draw his warrant for such amount or 
 amounts in favor of such district. The whole amount annually 
 paid under the provisions of this section shall not exceed 
 seventy-five thousand dollars, and if more be demanded by such, 
 districts they shall be paid proportionally; provided, that if 
 the whole amount authorized to be paid annually in aid of free 
 high schools as provided by section 491b as amended by this act, 
 is not demanded or expended under the .provisions of that sec- 
 tion then the unexpended balance of the amount therein annu- 
 ally authorized to be paid in aid of such schools may be added 
 to and apportioned among the free high schools provided for 
 in sections 490 and 491 ; but no more than one hundred thou- 
 sand dollars shall be apportioned to both classes of schools 
 in any one year. 
 
 Supervision and course of study. Section 496a, (as amended 
 by Chap. 429, Laws of 1901). The state superintendent shall 
 prepare a course or courses of study suitable to be pursued in 
 free high schools, publish the same and furnish the same upon 
 application. He shall exercise such personal supervision and 
 make such, personal inspection of the work of all such schools 
 as they seem to require and the other duties of his office may 
 warrant ; he shall examine or cause to be examined all teachers 
 of high schools, requiied by law 'to pass special examinations 
 to qualify them for teaching in high schools, and grant certifi- 
 cates to such as pass examinations satisfactorily, which certifi- 
 cates shall be in such form and for such time as he may pre- 
 scribe, and shall authorize the holder to teach in such special 
 place or places, or in the whole state, as the qualifications of 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 1Q1 
 
 the candidate may warrant. Each free high school shall offer 
 at least a twelve weeks' course of instruction each year in 
 the theory and art of teaching; in the organization, manage- 
 ment, and course of study of ungraded schools; and in the 
 duties of citizens in the organization and administration of lo- 
 cal school systems. Such a course of instruction shall be open 
 to all students in this school and a satisfactory standing in the 
 work of this course rhall be a condition precedent to the count- 
 ersignature of a diploma held by a graduate of the school as 
 provided in section 7 of this act. Said superintendent shall 
 furnish suitable blanks for annual and special reports for all 
 such schools, which shall require returns as to the number, age 
 and sex of all pupils enrolled, the number in each class or year 
 in the course of study, the number pursuing English branches 
 only, the number completing the course of study each year and 
 such other statistics as may be deemed necessary. 
 
 Manual training. Section 496b. Any board having charge 
 of a free high school or of a high school having a course of study 
 equivalent to the course or courses prescribed by the state su- 
 perintendent ifor such schools may establish, and maintain a 
 department of manual training in connection with the school 
 under its management. The expense of maintaining such de- 
 partment shall be provided for in the same manner as other 
 expenses of maintaining high schools, and such department 
 shall be under the management, direction and control of such 
 board. The state superintendent shall, so far as his other du- 
 ties may warrant, give such information and assistance as may 
 seem necessary in organizing and maintaining such departments, 
 and in arranging schemes and outlines of work; and with the 
 aid of the inspector of high schools shall have the general super- 
 vision of all manual training departments established under 
 this section ; shall from tim^e to time inspect the same, make 
 such recommendations relating to their management as he may 
 deem necessary, and make such report thereon as shall give 
 full information concerning their number, character and effi- 
 ciency. The state superintendent shall establish a standard 
 of qualification for all teachers in such department, and may 
 grant special certificates to such applicants as are fully quali- 
 fied to instruct in special lines of manual work, which certifi- 
 cates shall be in such form and for such time as he may pre- 
 scribe, and shall be regarded as qualifying the holders thereof 
 to teach in any manual training department. 
 
102 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 State aid for manual training department. Section 496c, (as 
 amended by Chap. 273, Laws of 1899). Any high school whose 
 course of study or outline of work in manual training- has been 
 approved by the state superintendent, and whose teacher has 
 been qualified may,, upon /application, be placed upon an ap- 
 proved list of schools maintaining manual training departments. 
 A school once entered upon such list may remain there and be 
 entitled to state aid so long as the scope and character of its 
 work are maintained in such manner as to meet the approval 
 of such superintendent. On the first day of July in each year 
 the clerk of each school board maintaining a school on the 
 approved list or the city superintendent of any city where 
 such an approved school is maintained, shall report to the state 
 superintendent in such form as may be required, setting forth 
 the facts relating to the cost of maintaining the manual training 
 department thereof, the character of the work done, the num- 
 ber and names of teachers employed, and the length of time 
 such department was maintained during the preceding year. 
 And upon the receipt of such report, if it shall appear that the 
 department has been maintained in a satisfactory manner for 
 a period of not less than six months during the year, the said 
 superintendent shall make a certificate to that effect and file it 
 with the secretary of state. Upon receiving such certificate 
 the secretary of state shall draw his warrant for two hundred 
 ? ud fifty dollars payable to the treasurer of the district or cor- 
 poration maintaining the school ; provided, that the total amount 
 expended for such purpose shall not exceed five thousand dol- 
 lars in any year. 
 
 Certification of manual training and domestic science teach- 
 ers. (Chapter 64.) Section 1. A diploma granted by the 
 board of regents of normal schools to any person who completes 
 the training course for teachers of manual training or of do- 
 mestic science, established by said board in any of the state nor- 
 mal schools, shall be regarded as a certificate legally qualifying 
 the holder thereof to teach manual training and domestic science 
 respectively for one year in any school forming a part of the 
 public school system. The state superintendent may, after such 
 examination as to moral character, learning and ability to teach, 
 as to him may seem proper, countersign such diploma if, since 
 receiving it, the holder has taught manual training or domestic 
 science in a public school in this state one year, and thereafter 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 103 
 
 such, countersigned diploma shall qualify the holder as a teach- 
 er of manual training or domestic science as the case may be, 
 until the same shall be annulled. 
 
 Other diplomas; special license. Section 2. The holder of 
 a diploma granted by any manual training school or school of 
 domestic science, upon the completion of a training course for 
 teachers in either subject fully and fairly equivalent to the 
 course of instruction for teachers in the same subjects pre- 
 scribed by the board of regents of normal schools, may present 
 such diploma, together with the evidence of the required stand- 
 ing of the training school issuing such diploma, to the state 
 board of examiners. The applicant shall furnish therewith 
 testimonials of good moral character and of two years' suc- 
 cessful teaching of manual training or domestic science, as 
 the case may be, in the public schools of the state after the 
 date of such diploma. The holder of any such diploma, recom- 
 mended favorably by the board, shall be entitled to receive a 
 certificate issued by the state superintendent, qualifying the 
 holder as a teacher of manual training or of domestic science, 
 until the same shall be annulled. The holder of a diploma, 
 granted upon the completion of a course of study, accredited as 
 herein provided, upon which a state certificate has not been is- 
 sued, upon the recommendation of the board of examiners made 
 in pursuance of such examination as to learning, moral charac- 
 ter and ability to teach las said board may require, m!ay be giv- 
 en a special license by the state superintendent to teach manual 
 training or domestic science as recommended by the board, for 
 two years in the public schools of the state. 
 
 Countersignature of high school diploma by county superin- 
 tendent. Section 452a. The free high school board shall 
 make out and deliver to each graduate of the high school at 
 the time of graduation, a certificate of his standing in the 
 branches pursued by him in such school; and if such graduate 
 of a high school, having a four years' course, receive a first 
 grade certificate from any county superintendent, and furnish 
 to him or to any other county superintendent, a certificate from 
 the free high school board that includes a satisfactory stand- 
 ing in theory and art of teaching, based on a study of this 
 subject in a free high school for at least twelve weeks 
 and furnish also satisfactory proof of having taught success- 
 
104 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH (SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 fully at least one school year, under such first grade certificate, 
 such county superintendent may countersign his certificate of 
 .graduation or diploma at any time before the expiration of the 
 .first grade certificate, and affix the date of such signature 
 thereto. The diploma so countersigned shall have for the 
 period of five years thereafter, the force and effect of a first 
 grade certificate. It shall be lawful for more than one county 
 superintendent to countersign the diploma, but no countersig- 
 nature shall have the effect of extending the diploma as a first 
 grade certificate beyond the expiration of the five years immed- 
 iately following the date of its first countersignature. 
 
 State superintendent; special licenses; state certificates; 
 diplomas. (Chapter 231, laws of 1905.) Section 458i. The 
 state superintendent is authorized and empowered to counter- 
 sign diplomas and issue state certificates to persons who are 
 engaged in supervising work in the public schools or teaching 
 in colleges or normal schools, otherwise legally qualified under 
 existing statutes or are recommended by the state board of ex- 
 aminers. 
 
 Section 458 j. The state superintendent may issue a special 
 license good only until the next meeting of the state board of 
 examiners in cases where the applicant gives satisfactory evi- 
 dence that his qualifications and credentials shall m\eet the re- 
 quirements of the board of examiners; said temporary license 
 to be issued only in urgent cases and in order that the school 
 Aboard, or board of education may be legally authorized to pay 
 the salary of said teacher from the funds of the district for 
 services rendered. 
 
 Section 458k. The state superintendent may upon the rec- 
 ommendation of the state board of examiners, grant a special 
 certificate legally qualifying the holder to teach such special 
 branch or branches in the public schools as may be named on 
 the face of the certificate. 
 
 Section 4581. Upon the recommendation of the state board 
 of examiners an applicant may be* granted a limited special 
 certificate qualifying him to teach not more than one special 
 branch in the public schools, said certificate being limited to 
 one particular school or district to be named in the certificate, 
 said certificate to be null and void in any other school or dis- 
 trict. 
 
WdSCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 1Q5 
 
 FORMS FOE ESTABLISHING FREE HIGH 
 
 SCHOOLS. 
 
 No. 48. 
 
 Form of resolution proposing establishment of a town free 
 high, school. 
 
 In order that the question of establishing and maintaining 
 .a town free high school in the town of - may be 
 
 properly submitted to the electors of said town for considera- 
 tion and final determination, the following resolution is pro- 
 posed for adoption: 
 
 Resolved, by the undersigned town board of supervisors of 
 the town of - , that a town free high school be 
 
 established, organized and maintained in said town and the 
 town clerk is hereby directed to give due notice that this reso- 
 lution will be submitted to a vote of the duly qualified electors 
 (men and women) of the town of - - at the annual 
 
 town meeting, (or at the general election on the first Tuesday 
 after the first Monday in November; or at a special town meet- 
 ing or election) to be held in said town of - on the 
 - day of - , 190. 
 
 Dated this - - day of - 190. 
 
 Signed : 
 
 Board of Supervisors. 
 
106 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 Form of notice that the foregoing resolution will be sub- 
 mitted to vote. 
 
 Notice is hereby given in accordance with a resolution* 
 adopted by the board of supervisors, to the duly qualified 
 electors (men and women) in the town of , county 
 
 of that at the annual town meeting, (or at the gen- 
 eral election on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in 
 November; or at a special town meeting or election) to be held 
 
 in the said town of - - on the day of , 
 
 190 , the following resolution will be submitted to the vote 
 of the electors of said town : 
 
 Resolved, that a town free high school shall be established 
 and maintained in said town of - , and further 
 
 that at said election there shall be chosen a town free high 
 school board consisting of three persons who shall take their 
 ofiices if said resolution shall be adopted, the clerk for one 
 year, the treasurer for two years and the director for three 
 years, the time elapsing between their election and the next- 
 annual town rrieeting to be considered as one year. 
 
 Dated this day of , 190. 
 
 Town Clerl- of the Town of- 
 
 1No. 48a. 
 
 Form of resolution proposing the establishment of a, school 
 district free high school. 
 
 In order that the question of establishing and organizing a 
 
 school district free high school in (joint) district No. of 
 
 the town (or towns) of , county, Wiscor 
 
 sin, may be properly submitted to the electors, men and women, 
 of said district for consideration and final determination, the- 
 following resolution is proposed for adoption: 
 
 Resolved, by the undersigned board of education (or school 
 
 district board) of (joint) school district No. , 
 
 county,. that a district free high school shall be established, 
 organized and maintained in said district. The district board 
 is hereby authorized and directed to give due notice that this 
 resolution will be submitted to a vote of the duly qualified 
 
WSCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 107 
 
 electors, men and women, of said school district (joint) No. 
 , at the regular annual district meeting (or at a 
 
 special school meeting) to be held in said district on the 
 
 day of - 190. 
 
 Dated this day of , 190 . 
 
 Signed 
 
 Board of Education (or School District Board), 
 
 Form of resolution proposing the establishment of a school 
 district free high school. 
 
 Notice is hereby given to the duly qualified electors, men 
 
 and women, of (joint) school district No. of the town (or 
 
 towns) of - , - county, Wisconsin, that 
 
 in accordance with a resolution adopted by the board of edu- 
 cation, (or school district board) the following resolution will 
 be submitted to the vote of the electors of said district at the 
 annual meeting (or at a special district meeting) to be held on 
 the - - day of , 190: 
 
 Resolved, that a district free high school shall be established 
 and maintained in said district No. town (or towns) of 
 
 Dated this day of , 190 . 
 
 District Cleric of District No.- 
 
 No. 50. 
 
 Form of certificate to be forwarded to the State Superin- 
 tendent preliminary to securing the certificate of establishment 
 and organization of a town free high school. 
 
 This certifies that on the day of - , 190, the 
 
 legally qualified voters, men and womien, of the town of - 
 
 , assembled at the annual town meeting (or at the gen- 
 eral election held the first Tuesday after the first Monday in 
 November ; or at a special town meeting or election) voted and 
 adopted the following resolution submitted by the town board 
 
108 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 of supervisors, having for its purpose the establishment, or- 
 ganization and maintenance of a town free high school in said 
 town of - , - county, Wisconsin < 
 
 Resolved, that a town free high school be established, organ- 
 ized and maintained in said town of - , - 
 county, Wisconsin. 
 
 It is hereby further certified that this election was held pur- 
 suant to law and after due notification and that the electors of 
 voted by ballot as follows: 
 
 (For town free high school- 
 Males . ( 
 
 (Against town free high school 
 
 (For town free high school- 
 Females ( 
 
 (Against town free high school- 
 Total votes for town free high school 
 Against town free high school- 
 It is further certified that the following persons were voted 
 fo,- as officers of said town free high school and were declared 
 duly elected and that each of said officers has each for him- 
 self given his signature hereto: 
 Clerk Term expires 
 Director Term expires 
 Treasurer Term expires 
 
 No. 50a, 
 
 Form of certificate to be forwarded to the State Superin- 
 tendent to secure a certificate of establishment and organiza- 
 tion of a district free high school. 
 
 This certifies that on the - - day of - , 190 , 
 
 the legally qualified voters, men and women, of (joint) school 
 
 district No. - town (or towns, or village) of , 
 
 county of - , assembled at the annual school dis- 
 
 trict meeting (or at a special district meeting) held on the 
 
 day of - , 19 , voted upon and adopted the 
 
 following resolution submitted by the school district board (or 
 board of education) of said school district No. . 
 
 Resolved, that a district free high school be established, 
 
 organized and maintained in (joint) school district No. 
 
 town, (or towns, or village) of - , county, 
 
 Wisconsin. 
 
WilSCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 109 
 
 It is hereby further certified that said election was held pur- 
 suant to law and after due notification and that the electors 
 voted by ballot as follows : 
 
 (For district free high school 
 Males ( 
 
 (Against district free high school 
 
 (For district free high school 
 Females ( 
 
 (Against district free high school 
 Total votes for district free high school 
 Against district free high school- 
 In accordance with the above facts we the undersigned 
 school district board (or board of education) do hereby re- 
 quest you as State Superintendent to issue a certificate estab- 
 lishing a district free high school for said school district No. 
 
 Signed : 
 
 , Director. 
 , Clerk, 
 , Treasurer. 
 
 The following method of procedure is suggested to school 
 boards in the case of non-resident pupils attending Free High 
 Schools, as a means of preventing friction and misunderstand- 
 ing in applying the new law relative to tuition. A printed 
 blank similar to the following, is signed by the applicant, 
 county superintendent, and a supervisor of the town in which 
 the pupil resides and presented in duplicate by the applicant 
 shortly after entering school would serve to give notice to all 
 parties interested, and would also be sufficient evidence there- 
 after, when attached to the bill for tuition, that the pupil has 
 completed the course of study for common cshools. 
 
 Let the principal issue these blanks to pupils upon entering 
 school. When the candidates have 1 filled them out and signed 
 them, the principal should then forward them in duplicate to 
 the county superintendent. When signed by him, let them 
 be returned to the principal who in turn may send them by the 
 applicant, to be signed by a supervisor of the town, and to be 
 returned by him to the clerk of the school board. 
 
HO WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 Ths certifies that , age , is a resident of the Town 
 
 of , County of , State of Wisconsin, and that 1 has 
 
 completed the course of study prescribed for common schools, 
 and is entitled to all privileges granted in Chapter 329, Laws 
 of 1903, amending Chapter 183, Laws of 1901, for the school 
 year beginning . 
 
 County Superintendent. 
 
 Applicant sign here. Supervisor, 
 
 Town of . 
 
 Dated . 
 
 The above blanks will not be furnished by this office, but 
 would need to be prepared by the High School Board. 
 
WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 Ill 
 
 No. 51. 
 
 The following form is intended to show what items are to 
 "be prepared by the principal at the close of the school year, as 
 -a part of his report to the free high school board : 
 
 STATISTICAL REPORT OF 'j.*iE FREE HIGH SCHOOL AT 
 
 FOR THE SCHOOL YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 190. 
 
 Male Fem'le Total 
 
 1. Number of teachers employed including principal..... 
 
 2. Number of pupils registered not over 20 years of age. 
 
 3. Number of pupils registered over 20 years of age 
 
 4. Average daily attendance 
 
 5. Number of days of High School (including holidays) 
 
 6. Number of pupils in English branches only... 
 
 7. Number of pupils in German 
 
 8. Number of pupils in Latin 
 
 9. Number of pupils studying both Latin and German 
 
 10. Number of pupils in Greek 
 
 11. Number of pupils studying both Latin and Greek 
 
 12. Cost of instruction in German $ In Latin $ In Greek $. 
 
 13. Average age of pupils entering the High School. Males 
 
 Females 
 
 14. Average age of pupils at leaving! the High School. Males 
 
 Females 
 
 15. Number of persons who graduated in 190. Male Female... 
 
 16. Number of these who have taught at any time since graduation 
 
 Male Female 
 
 17. Number of graduates this year. Males Females. 
 
 18. Number graduates since organization of school- 
 
 Males Females Total 
 
 19. K'umber years required to complete the course of study... 
 
 20. Is the school on the Univ. Wis. accredited list 
 
 21. Number of non-resident pupils during year 
 
 22. Rate of tuition for non-residents per month 
 
 23. Total amount received and due for tuition 
 
 24. Average yearly salary of the high school assistants 
 
112 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1906. 
 
 25. Total amount of salaries of principal and assistants.... I 
 
 26. What portion of the principal's service is given to the actual super- 
 
 vision of the grades below the high school? v-' 
 
 27. Name the high school branches actually taught by the principal.... 
 
 28. Give total number of pupils enrolled in each grade in the high 
 school, 1st year 2d 3d , 4th (or senior) 
 
 29. Does the high school district furnish the text books? If so, are 
 they free, rented, or sold to the high school pupils? 
 
 Name of Principal ., 
 Salary of Principal 
 Names of assistants 
 
 Is the Principal Superintendent, also? 
 
 I hereby certify that the above is correct. 
 
 Clerk. 
 
 NOTE. Two copies of this report are sent, one of which 
 should be returned to the State Superintendent on or before 
 July 10, and the other filed among the clerk's records. Statis- 
 tics relating to High School departments only should be given. 
 Do not omit to fill out every blank space by some mark, words- 
 or figures. Write the first name of each assistant in full. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Admission, requirements for 14-17 
 
 Algebra 39-42 
 
 Apparatus 24-27 
 
 Approval of Courses by State Superintendent 9 
 
 Arithmetic 38-39 
 
 Assistants 5-7 
 
 Bookkeeping 54-55 
 
 Botany 31-36 
 
 Certificates of legal qualifications for High School principals and 
 
 assistants 4-7 
 
 Composition 77-78 
 
 Constitutional history of the United States 60-61 
 
 Constitution of the United States 61 
 
 Constitution of Wisconsin 61-62 
 
 Courses of Study 8-12 
 
 Core of required work 9 
 
 Proposed changes in course of study 9 
 
 State Superintendent to prepare courses 8 
 
 Type courses 10-12 
 
 Economics 62-63 
 
 Elements of agriculture 31-32 
 
 Employment of teachers without legal qualifications effect of 4 
 
 English 76-84 
 
 Books for teachers 84 
 
 Composition 77-78 
 
 Expressive reading 78-79 
 
 Grammar 81-82 
 
 History of literature 83-84 
 
 Literary readings 78-80 
 
 Expressive reading ... 82 
 
 8 
 
114 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Forms 105-112 
 
 Notice of vote 106-107 
 
 Preliminary certificate of establishment 107-109 
 
 Resolution proposing establishment 105-106 
 
 Entrance certificate . , 110 
 
 Report of principal 111-112 
 
 General Suggestions 7 
 
 Legal qualifications necessary to validity of contract 4 
 
 Organization 4 
 
 Qualifications of teachers 4-7 
 
 German 64-70 
 
 Advanced 66 
 
 First year course 65 
 
 Second year course . . . r 65-66 
 
 Geometry 42-53 
 
 Greek 74-76 
 
 History 56-60 
 
 Constitutional History of the United States 60-61 
 
 Curriculum 59-60 
 
 Method in teaching history 57-59 
 
 Purpose of instruction 56-57 
 
 Reference books for teachers 6 
 
 Introduction 
 
 Language (Foreign) 63-64 
 
 Latin 70-74 
 
 Literary Readings 78-80 
 
 Literature 78-84 
 
 Books for teachers 84 
 
 .Expressive reading 78-79 
 
 History of literature 83-84 
 
 Jjiterary readings 78-80 
 
 Management 
 
 Principal relation of , to school and board 7 
 
 Principal- to administer courses as adopted by the board and 
 
 approved by the State Superintendent 7 
 
INDEX. 115 
 
 Page 
 
 Mathematics 38-53 
 
 Algebra 39-42 
 
 Arithmetic 38-39 
 
 Bookkeeping 54-55 
 
 Geometry 42-53 
 
 -Organization of free high schools 4 
 
 Physical geography 30-31 
 
 Physics 22-28 
 
 Physiology 28 30 
 
 Political economy 62-63 
 
 Principal qualifications of 4-5 
 
 Relation to school and board 7 
 
 To administer courses as adopted by the board and approved by 
 
 the State Superintendent ' 7 
 
 Program of study and recitation 7 
 
 Qualifications of high school teachers 4-6 
 
 Reading expressive 78-79 
 
 Literary 78-79 
 
 Records 13-14 
 
 Book records 13 
 
 Card records 14 
 
 Science 20-36 
 
 Botany 31-36 
 
 Elements of agriculture 31-32 
 
 Introduction 20-22 
 
 Physical geography 30-31 
 
 Physics 22-28 
 
 Physiology 28-30 
 
 Theory and art of teaching , 36-37 
 
 Statistical report of free high schools 111-112 
 
 Statutes relating to free high schools 88-104 
 
 Certificate of establishment 90 
 
 Countersignature of high school diplomas by county superin- 
 tendent . 103 
 
116 INDEX. 
 
 State Superintendent; special licenses; state certificates; diplomas. . 104 
 
 Statutes relating to: 
 
 Course of study and supervision 100-101 
 
 High school district officers 91-93 
 
 Joint districts how established 89 
 
 Manual training 101-102 
 
 Certificate of manual training and domestic science teachers 102-103 
 
 Officers' duties 94 
 
 Qualifications of teachers , 94-95 
 
 Schools free 94-95 
 
 Single districts how established 88 
 
 State aid 90-91 
 
 Supervision and course of study 100-101 
 
 Taxes apportionment of 97 
 
 Teachers' qualifications 94-95 
 
 Township system 93 
 
 Free high school buildings 98 
 
 Tuition 95-96 
 
 Teachers' qualifications 4-7 
 
 Theory and art of teaching 36-37 
 
 Legal requirement in courses (See pp. 8 and section 496a) 100-101