AGRIC, DEPT, DOMrN'IOTST OF DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE DOMINION EXPERIMENTAL FAEMS MILK PRODUCTION IN CANADA CROP ROTATIONS, DAIRY BARNS BREEDING DAIRY CATTLE FEEDING, CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF MILCH COWS BY J. H. Grisdale, B. Agr., Director, Dominion Experiment**, BULLET FIST No. 73 January, Published by direction of Hon. MARTIN BURRELL, Minister o< Agriculture, Ottawa, Ont. OTTAWA GOVERNMENT PRINTING BUREAU 1913 27SS9 1 27S89-p. 5. OF DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE DOMINION EXPERIMENTAL FAEMS MILK PRODUCTION IN CANADA CROP ROTATIONS, DAIRY BARNS BREEDING DAIRY CATTLE FEEDING, CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF MILCH COWS BY J. H. Grisdale, B. Agr., Director, Dominion Experimental Farms. BULLETIN No. 72 January, 1913 Published by direction of Hon. MARTIN BURRELL, Minister oi Agriculture, Ottawa, Ont. OTTAWA GOVERNMENT PRINTING BUREAU 1913 27889-1 *> C3G7 4dfi Dept To the Honourable, The Minister of Agriculture, Ottawa. SIR, I have the honour to submit herewith for your approval Bulletin No. 72 of the Experimental Farm Series, on 'Milk Pro- duction in Canada,' prepared by myself. The ever-increasing importance of the dairying ind-uistry in Canada and the constant d'emand for information on the farmer's side of the question have made apparent the need for such a publi- cation as the accompanying bulletin. It was proposed, at first, to issue a number of bulletins, each dealing with some particular phase of milk production, but the combining of the information appearing under different headings into one, rather bulky, bulletin has seemed advisable as being less expensive and, possibly, more con- venient to the farmer. For assistance in the preparation of this work I have to thank Mr. W. Logan, who did good service in the preparation of the tables of feed composition, in the collection of notes on rations as fed in different parts of Canada, and in the compilation and summarizing of results of experimental work with dairy cattle here. It is hoped that this publication, though far from being as complete and comprehensive as the author would have liked, may prove of use to the many farmers interested in the dairy industry throughout Canada. I have the hono-uir to be, sir, Your obedient servant, J. H. GKRISDALE, Director, Dominion Experimental Farms. Ottawa, January 25, 1913. 2788&-1J 272169 MILK PRODUCTION IN CANADA. INTRODUCTORY. Farming operations in Canada may be varied to an almost unlimited extent. Here, as elsewhere, however, early agricultural effort has usually been along grain-farming lines, invariably a most exhausting system so far as the soil is concerned. With improved shipping facilities and increased population, however, different com- binations of live stock and grain farming come into being until finally d>airy farming makes its appearance. Dairy farming is undoubtedly the system making for the greatest returns from the land in any particular year while at the same time not only maintaining but even increasing the fertil- ity of the farm occupied. The possibilities of profits are therefore twofold: (1) increased crop returns and (2) most profitable and most convenient marketing of these crops and of every part thereof. The measure of the profits reaped will be the quality or economic value of the herd maintained, the methods of handling the same, and, to a certain extent, the business ability of the operator. Men competent to express an opinion because conversant with conditions which obtain and results which "have been secured in different parts of Canada, are of the opinion that a very large pro- portion of our Canadian dairy herds do not produce enough milk to pay their keep. From time to time, statistics seem to confirm this view. The fact that these cattle consume a certain amount of otherwise unmerchantable roughage and convert it into valuable fertilizing material would therefore appear to be about the only justification of this industry, an industry that for possibilities of money making to the thoughtful Canadian farmer is without a peer but which, as too commonly conducted, entails a loss or gives but poor returns for muidi hard labour performed and much good feed consumed. The aim of this bulletin is, if possible, to help the dairying industry in Canada by placing in the hands of those interested a 5 6 brief summary of our findings in the dairy business. It is not claimed that all ideas submitted originated on the Dominion Experi- mental Farms, but all suggestions offered have either originated here or have been tried out on these farms and found generally satis- factory. It is hoped that the information, suggestions, and pointers may prove of value to the dairying industry in this country, and the bulletin be of practical use to each individual farmer into whose hands it may happen to fall. FACTORS AFFECTING RESULTS. Many factors combine to make for success or failure in milk production. To say that any one or any group of influences is more important than another would be unwise, since any one, even the apparently most trivial consideration, might, under certain circum- stances, prove the most important. There can be no doubt, how- ever, that the following factors rank among the most important and it is under these headings that it is proposed to treat the subject in this publication: I. The farm chosen, the rotation followed and the crops grown. II. The breed of cattle selected, and breeding methods followed. III. Stables, and care and management of the herd. IV. Milking and care of milk. V. Feeding method and rations. These are not given in order of importance but rather from the bottom or foundation upward, or from the beginning forward. PART I. THE FARM. THE FARM TO SELECT. Milk production may be carried on successfully on practically any farm. In many cases milk is produced profitably where the only property owned or occupied is a stable, as witness numerous milk- men's herds in cities. While any farm suitably located is suitable for milk production, some farms are undoubtedly more suitable than others. Soil. A farm to be eminently adapted to milk production should have a plentiful supply of pure water. The lay of the land should be such as to permit of its being well drained. The best results may be expected where the soil is of the best quality fruit dairy farming can be successfully followed on almost any soil from the lightest sand to the heaviest clay. Area. The area of arable land under crops other than pasture each year should include about as many acres as it is hoped to carry head of cattle when the herd has reached its maximum of size and production. Too great value should not be placed on rough land for pasturing purposes unless it is low-lying and fertile. Location. Proximity to market or factory is an important con- sideration. When milk is sold long hauls are expensive. Where cream is the product shipped, distance from point of delivery to factory or train is not so important. When cheese or butter is manu- factured on the farm, remoteness from shipping point is a minor consideration provided always that suitable storage conditions exist. i CROPS AND CROP ROTATIONS. oVops to grow. The farm having been selected it is important to so handle it as to provide the cheapest supply of the most suitable feeds the year round. This means plenty of succulent forage from January 1 to December 31. It should also include plenty of clover or some suitable substitute. As to grain crops advisable, a mixture of oats, peas, and barley would probably give best results. 8 Succulent forage might be either ensilage or roots. In most parts of Canada, Indian corn is the most suitable crop for ensilage, but clover, alfalfa and a variety of other crops give good results. Where roots can be grown to better advantage than corn, turnips, mangels, or sugar beets may be used, mangels and sugar beets being the sorts likely to give best results* ROTATIONS SUITABLE FOR DAIRY FARMING IN EASTERN PROVINCES AND BRITISH COLUMBIA. Rotations. To produce these feeds in right proportion and at the same time maintain or increase the fertility of the soil, a short rotation is necessary. In Ontario, Quebec, the Maritime Provinces, and British Columbia, rotations of three and four years will be found best. A good three-year rotation is as follows: 1st year. Corn, roots, potatoes or peas. Spring ploughed for corn, summer ploughed if for roots, manured in either case. 2nd year. Cereals seeded down. 6 Ibs. red clover, 2 Ibs. alsike, 7 Ibs. alfalfa, 6 Ibs. timothy per acre. 3rd year. Hay or part hay and part pasture, followed by corn, etc., the next year. A good four-year rotation is as follows: 1st year. Corn, roots, potatoes or peas. Land plo-ughed for roots, potatoes or peas early preceding fall. Corn land ploughed spring. Corn, root, and potato land manured. 2nd year. Grain, mixture, peas 1 bus., barley 1 bus., oats, Q bus., sown at rate of 3 bus. per acre. Seeded down with red clover, 6 Ibs., alsike, 2. Ibs., alfalfa, 7 or 8 Ibs., and timothy, 6 Ibs. per acre. 3rd year. Part pasture, part hay or hay cut early and pasture part of aftermath. Cut two crops hay off part of area. 4th year. Hay and pasture. Part intended for roots, potatoes or peas to be ploughed early in August, rolled, disced and cultivated. Corn area ploughed next spring. Manure applied as convenient during summer, winter and spring preparatory to corn and other hoed crop. Where practically the whole farm consists of arable land under cultivation it will be found much more profitable to soil or feed cattle during summer, in part at least, rather than depend upon pasture exclusively. 278S9 p. 8. &c Q 9 Where possible to grow corn to advantage, corn ensilage will be fonmd to be the best forage for summer feeding. Where no silo is available or where green forage is preferred, a combination of the three and four-year rotations will be found satisfactory. The four- year rotation should include about three-fourths of the arable land and the three-year rotation the other fourth. The four-year rotation land would then provide forage for winter and spring, and pasture for spring and summer. The three year rotation land would supply feed for summer and autumn and a small amount of pasture. A glance at the following diagram will indicate what might be the arrangement of the fields and the crops thereon in the case of a 100-acre farm where in addition to orchards, gardens, etc., about 60 acres could be brought under the plough. Fields Fl, F2, F3, and F4 would be under the four-year rotation and would be cropped as indicated. Fields Tl, T2, and T3 would bo under the three-year rotation and would be cropped as indicated 1 . EXPLANATION OF SIGNS ON DIAGRAM. A. Dwelling house. B. Shed. C. Poultry house. D. Horse stable. E. Implement shed. F. Cow barn, feed room and silos. G. Pig pens. 10 Buildlng8 & Paddocks for Cattle & Calves. F2 - 11 ao. 1912 - Corn - manured. 1913 - Grain. 191 1 * - Hay - chiefly clover.] 1915 - Hay or pasture. 1916 - Corn. eto. F3 - 11 ao.' 1?1Z - Grain, seeded 10 Clover, I'O timothy, 1913 - Kay - chiefly clover. 191 if - Hay or Pasture, 1915 - Corn - manured. 1916 - Grain. eto. 1912-Corn - manured. 1913-Peas & Oats. I9m-Clrver & Alfalfa Pasture in fall. 1915-Cern. 1916-Peas & Oats, etc. T2 - 5 ao. 1912-Peas & Oats. 1913-Clover 4 Alfalfa pasture, 191^-Corn - manured. 1915-Peas & Oats. 1916-Clover & Alfalfa. eto. . T3 - 5 ao. 1912-Clrver & Alfalfa pasture. l?13-Com - manured. I91 l f-Peas & Oats, seed clover & Alfalfa 6 1915-Clover 4 Alfalfa! 1916-Corn. eto . F>* - 11 ao. 1912 - Hay - chiefly clover. 1913 - Hay or pasture. 1914 - Corn - manured. 1915 - Grain. 1916 - Hay - chiefly clover. etc. Fl - 11 ao. 1912 - Hay or pasture.' 1913 - Corn - nar.ured. 191f - Grain. 1915 - Hay - chiefly clover. 1916 - Hay <-r pasture. eto. 15 ao. Rough Lano. - Pasture. FIG. 1. Suitable Arrangement and Roattions for a 100-acre Dairy Farm. 11 DAIRY FARM ROTATIONS IX MANITOBA, SASKATCHEWAN AND ALBERTA. In Manitoba a rotation that has given good results on the Experi- mental Farm at Brandon and at various other points and one that appears to the writer to be fairly suitable for dairy farming is as follows : 1st year. Corn or roots. Disc after harvesting. Do not plough. 2nd year. Wheat. Double disc stubble at harvesting, Disc seed in next spring. 3rd year. Wheat or coarse grain; again double disc stubble. Plough 6 inches September or October. 4th year. Coarse grain seeded down 10 Ibs. timothy, 10 Ibs. clover. 5th year. Hay. 6th year. PaskKre. Plough shallow (3 inches) and pack in July. Work at intervals. Plough deeper (6 inches) in October. Manure on surface; work in with disc and drag harrow. This rotation does away with the summer-fallow. It is some- times hard to get a catch of grass and clover. Great care must be exercised to see that all cultural operations are properly performed. SASKATCHEWAN. In Saskatchewan we have not yet sufficient information available to permit even suggesting a probably suitable rotation. Our trials have, however, shown that it is possible to grow red clover, alsike, alfalfa, and corn, turnips, mangels, sugar beets, and a great variety of grasses over a very large part of this province, and this fact is significant of the tremendous possibilities of the prairies as live stock districts and more particularly as areas where the dairying industry may be expected to prove eminently practicable and highly profitable. ALBERTA. In Alberta the irrigated areas in the south with their abundant root and alfalfa crops provide such forage as cannot be surpassed for milk production. In the central parts of the province, the abundant grass, the rolling plain diversified with park and dale, make ideal paslruire lands for dairy cattle. The forage crops possible of culti- vation include alfalfa, roots and corn, hence everything points to this province becoming more and more interested in live stock generally and in milk production in particular. 12 PART II. THE COW. THE BREED TO USE. The right farm found, the crops ito grow determined, and the rotation arranged, the prospective milk producer must next decide what sort of cattle "to keep. No man can say positively what breed or class of cattle will do best under any given conditions. Any and every experienced dairy farmer will, however, concede the absolute necessity of using either puire breds or grades of one of the recognized dairy breeds of cattle if the greatest profits are desired. No breed of cattle is the best breed for Canada any more than for any other country. Generally speaking, the best breed is the breed the man likes best. It might be ventured that under average farm conditions when milk is sent to a cheese factory or shipped to a city, Ayrshires, Holsteins, Dutch Belted, or the grades of any one of these breeds would be suitable. Where cream is shipped, where butter is manufactured on- the farm, or where milk ' is sent to a creamery, then Canadians, Guernseys, Jerseys, Dairy Short- horns, or the grades of any one of these breeds would be likely to give most satisfactory returns. Besides the consideration of a market or the utilization of the milk, the character of the farm to be occupied might, other things being equal, exert an influence on the selection of the breed where- with to work. On 'heavy land in sheltered places, where pasture is abundant, the Holstein, Jersey or Guernsey would possibly give best results; on lighter, more exposed, and more or less hilly land, the * Ayrshire might be the best. On exposed land, where there is scattered pasturage which may not be very abundant, the French Canadian cow would perhaps be the most profitable. One fact, however, should be kept in mind: whatever breed is settled upon, whether for breeding registered cattle or for grades, ' stick to it.' It is possible to make a success of dairying with any one of the breeds mentioned almost anywhere in Canada. Changing from breed to breed means loss of time in the case of pure breds to say nothing of almost certain heavy financial loss, while in the case of grade herds it means almost always the most utter failure. This holds of course except in the case of the breeder who has strength of mind enough to make one decisive change and then ' stick to it,' that is, does not try first one breed of bull and then another, seeking something each time that will correct what he 13 considers the faults of the progeny of the previous sire of some other breed. BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE. It wouild be unwise in a bulletin so limited as this must necessarily be, to attempt to give a full history and an elaborate description of even the few dairy breeds above enumerated, to say nothing of "the various other breeds with some claim to recognition as economical milk-producers. To omit all remarks on the subject would, however, possibly be open to still greater criticism and accordingly the following brief notes on the history, appearance and peculiar aptitudes of the principal breeds as known to Canadian dairy farmers are submitted. AYRSHIRE. The Ayrshire is one of the principal breeds of dairy cattle in America. They are medium-sized animals, spotted red, or brown and white. They possess great vitality, are of a nervous disposition, and respond readily to good feeding. They are hardy and well suited for rough pasture and scant herbage. They yield a fairly large flow of milk of medium quality. A common yield is 8,000 pounds of 3 to 4 per cent milk in 9 or 10 months. Their chief faults are a tendency to beefiiiess, shown by a rather large proportion of the breed, and the very common and rather serious defect of small teats. As the name implies, the Ayrshire had its origin in Scotland. The south-western portion of that country was in a very poor state as far as agriculture was concerned at the end of the 18th century. An historian of that period says that there were no crops whatever sown, and all the food the cattle had was the grass in the bogs and wastes. Under these circumstances the cattle were starved in winter, * being scarcely able to rise in the spring.' Such were the conditions from which the hardy, useful race of Ayrshire cattle has come. It may be inferred "that only the fittest survived, and the inherent hardi- ness seems to have been but little disturbed by whatever crosses have been made. It is supposed tbat these native cattle were crossed with imported Teeswater or Durham cattle, and with Alderneys or Jerseys, though there is no historical evidence of this. The first importations of Ayrshire cattle into Canada were made between 1820 and 1830. For some time they did not meet with munch favour, but with the formation of Breeders' Organizations, Dairy Tests, and Advanced Registers they have taken their rightful 14 place, and every year sees greater numbers of them imported from Scotland. DUTCH BELTED. Dutch Belted cattle are bred to a very limited extent indeed in Canada. This breed has been long in the upbuilding, but the basis of selection having been the clear, wide band of white around the body, the results of centuries of work are far from satisfactory from the dairyman's standpoint. The breed might be considered as orna- mental rather than useful. FRENCH-CANADIAN. The French Canadian cows are worthy of much consideration where a hardy breed of rustlers is required. The individual cow is somewhat small, weighing only 700 to 900 pounds. A bull weighs about 1,000 pounds. In general conformation they are somewhat rough and angular; in the cows the wedge shape is present. The colour is black, or dark-brown. As milk producers they resemble the Jersey, though in quantity and quality they fall somewhat behind that breed. An average of 6,500 Ibs. of milk of a little over 4 per cent butter fat is about the standard. The first individuals of the breed are supposed to have come over from Normandy or Brittany with the early French settlers in the 17fh century. Many years of ' roughing it ' along with the early settlers have made them hardy, and selection by the same people has made them productive on light, poor rations. GUERNSEY. As the name indicates, the Guernsey is one of the breeds native to the Channel Islands. On account of the scarcity of animals, the breed is not very widely distributed. They are found in small numbers in the Maritime Provinces, a few herds exist in Quebec and Ontario, and even in the prairie provinces and British Columbia herds are to be seen here and there. The total number of Guernseys in Canada is, however, quite small. Next to the Holstein, the Guernsey is the largest of the special- purpose dairy breeds. Orange-fawin-and- white in colour, they possess a skin remarkable for the large amount of yellow pigment or secretion which it contains. They yield a fairly large flow of rich milk of a very high colour. Some of the most remarkable butter-fat producing cows in the world are fccutnd in this breed. f- 15 HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN. Holstein or Holstein-Friesian cattle are large, black-and-white animals. Rather coarse-boned, rough and strong in appearance, they are, withal, heavy milkers and the largest of the purely dairy breeds. Coming, as their name indicates, from the low-lying, rich lands of Holland, they are peculiarly well fitted for heavy and low-lying farms in this country where they may be expected to prove more profitable than the small finer breeds for general dairy farming. With proper care and feeding, a fair cow of the breed should produce, when five years old or over, from 8,000 to 10,000 Ibs. of milk in a year, though there are records of cows yielding as high as 30,000 Ibs. in a like period. It is probable that the Holstein-Friesian was introduced into America by the Dutch who settled in what is now New York State, since black-and-white cattle, known as Duftch cattle, have long been owned in the New England States. Toward the end of the 18th century, an importation, consisting of two bulls and six cows, was made by the Holland Land Company which owned land in New York State. Since then, frequent shipments have been made into both the United States and Canada; toward the end of the last century, however, these fell off to a large extent JERSEY. The Jersey, introduced into this country many years ago, must always remain one of the most popular breeds of dairy cattle where quality of product and beauty of individual are considered. In appearance the Jersey is lean and muscular, the general outline conforming to the dairy type. The colour is fawn, but runs through many shades. The Island of Jersey, of something under 30,000 acres with 60,000 inhabitants, is the original home of the breed, some 10,000 individuals being kept there by the system of ' tethering.' The breed probably sprang from the old Normandy or Brittany cattle though there is no definite proof of this. The purity of the breed has been jealously guarded by the natives of the island and, as far back as 1763, laws were passed prohibiting the importation of cattle of any kind. Much improvement in the breed has also been effected by the islanders, at first only along the lines of ' quality ' in milk. It was not until 1865 that much, if any, thought was given to the produc- 16 tion of ' quantity/ but since that year, this too has received its meed of attention. The earliest authentic records point to the first importation of this breed into America having been made about the middle of the 19th century, though it is known that some Channel Island cattle, whether Jersey or Guernsey, had been brought here very much earlier. Their ready adaptability to conditions has created for them a great demand, and they are now very widely distributed over Canada and tha United States. GENEKAL PURPOSE CATTLE. The General Purpose, Dual Purpose, or Farmer's, cow, as variously called, means the cow or class of cow that, in addition to yielding a fairly profitable flow of milk, carries a large frame capable of being fed into a good beef, carcase. In spite of the claims of advocates of specialization, those who hold that animals should be selected for one special purpose, the demand for dual purpose cattle is extremely widespread in this country. Many farmers prefer a type of cow that will produce a fair quantity of milk, that will fatten easily, and will produce offspring that can be fed into good veals or steers. This class of cow is no doubt peculiarly adapted for such sections as afford more or less extensive areas of rough land suitable for grazing. Many breeds have claims to a place in this class but the more common are: Brown Swiss, Devons, Lincoln Keds, Red PoHs, Short- horns, and Sussex. Only a few remarks on each breed are submitted. BROWN SWISS. The individuals of this breed are fairly large, exceedingly strong- boned, and distinctly blocky. The body shows a great deal of feeding- capacity with plenty of depth. The colo-ur is a light or dark brown. Coming originally from Switzerland, as their name implies, they were first imported into America in 1869. Several importations have been made from time to time since then, though the breed has not gained much in favour. In Canada only very few herds are to be found. DEVON. The Devons, long bred in the southern part of England, have PLATE IV. Guernsey Bull Dairymaid's King His dam has a record of 12176 "9 Ibs milk and 608*36 Ibs. butter fat in one year. He heads the Guernsey herd at Ottawa. 27889-p. 16. A Jersey Bull. PLATE V. Ayrshire Bull Bargenoch Victor Hugo. Sold at public auction for $2,000 as a 3 yr. old. Holstein Bull Schiuling Sir Poach 3707 Sire of two official record daughters in 1911 17 been introduced into Canada only to a very limited extent. They are red in colour, compact in build, and they produce milk in fairly paying quantities. They are peculiarly s'uiited for the farmer who wishes to produce both beef and milk on land of a light or hilly character. They are famous for the oxen produced in the breed. LINCOLN RED. The Lincoln Beds make up merely a branch of the Shorthorn breed, not a few of the animals registered in the Lincoln Red Herd Book being likewise entered in the Coates' Shorthorn Herd Book of Great Britain. The cows are, as a rule, heavy milkers but the steers of the breed make but second-rate beef animals. They have never been bred in Canada under the name Lincoln Reds. RED POLL. The Red Polls come from almost the same part of England as the Devons and possess many similar characteristics. They are larger-sized, however, and are probably better suited for general farming than the Devons as they are heavier milkers and yield larger carcases. \ SHORTHORN. To outline even briefly the history of the Shorthorn in Canada wou'ld be quite impossible in a bulletin such as this. The breed and the main facts of its history are, however, so well known as to need little comment here. Many strains of this far-famed breed are noted for large yields of milk, while their unequalled value as beef pro- ducing animals is universally acknowledged. A number of herds notable for milk-production have been established in Canada at one time and another. Two individuals in a herd established and main- tained on the Central Experimental Farm for some years, produced over 11,000 Ibs. of milk each in single lactation periods. The average yield of milk from this herd was about 6,000 Ibs. a year for several years. Steers from these heavy milking cows when finished for beef were considered first-class beef animals. In England, the Shorthorn with its grades and crosses is used almost universally for milk production. It is par excellence the farmer's cow the 'rent payer/ SUSSEX. The individuals of this, another English breed, are large cattle, blocky in form, inclining to coarseness, solid red in colour. They have never been bred to any extent in Canada. 278892 18 KEEPING UP THE HEED. The breed having been decided upon, the method of maintaining the herd at a certain standard of efficiency or of increasing its milk-, producing capacity must next be considered. There are three methods commonly followed in Canada. 1. Buying springers, or new-calved cows from time to time as required and either selling when dry, or breeding to any bull available, the calves being slaughtered at birth or vealod as convenient. This line is the one commonly followed by farmers or milkmen shipping milk to cities. It is a method no farmer should consider for a minute. 2. Starting with any grades available and iieing a good pure bred bull of the breed chosen as being most to the liking or best suited to the requirements of the farmer, is the second method and, with modifications, the one most to be recommended to the average farmer. It permits of the upbuilding of a highly profitable herd from the producer's standpoint. The writer has known many herds in Canada built up in this way where the returns ran from $75 to $150 per cow in herds of from 10 to 100. This method is open to the objection that male calves must go as vealers and that females are not as valuable as they would be if pure bred. Of course, when starting with a grade female, no number of crosses of pure bred sires would ever enable a man to register any of his calves. The advantage lies in the very searching selection it is possible to make in raising calves, since calves from poor cows need never be kept and inferior cows are not likely to be retained in the herd for any length of time as the temptation of fictitious pedigree values is eliminated. Where it is desired ultimately to get into pure bred cattle, a good plan is to start with a herd largely grades and invest in one or two extra good females as well as a bull of the breed desired. The pure breds proving to be really good individuals, the calves can then be raised and in a short time a herd of p-uire breds of the breed favoured is gradually driving the grades from the stable. 3. Where considerable capital is available, and experience in breeding and feeding is part of the owner's equipment or where some other circumstance makes success highly probable, even the beginning of operations in milk production might be made with pure breds. In guch a case, it will usually be found advisable to start with a few 19 animals of superior quality rather than with a large number of small or even average worth. This is the third and most risky method. Of the three methods, experience and observation lead the writer to most strongly recommend the second to the young farmer and also to the man long engaged in the milk-producing business unless exceptional conditions point clearly to the probability of the third method proving a success from the start. THE DAIRY BULL. In any case, the upbuilding of a good dairy herd without the use of a good dairy bull is impracticable. The maintenance of the herd in the highest state of productivity for any considerable length of time without having such an animal at the head thereof may be said to be impossible. CHOOSING THE BULL. The selection of a sire fit to head the herd is difficult. So- called dairy conformation, that is, conformation supposed to entitle the bull to honours in the show-ring, is not an unfailing indication of good stock-getting qualities. The best way to select the dairy bull is to judge him by the milk records on both sides of his family. In addition, attention must, of coutrse, be paid to the bull himself. No animal strikingly weak, or of very faulty conformation should be used even when coming from heavy milking stock. Such indi- viduals are more likely to perpetuate their own faulty conformation than to transmit the heavy milk-producing peculiarities of their ancestry. No breeder of pure bred dairy stock who considers himself worthy the name, should keep a cow whose records he does not care to know, or attempt to sell a bull for the high milk-producing qualities of whose ancestry he is not ready to vouch. Such records, while becoming more and more common, have not yet risen to the high place they are ultimately bound to occupy in the estimation of the average dairy farmer. The dairyman willing to buy a bull without taking the trouble to learn something of the milk-producing qualities of his ancestry, and the breeder unable or unwilling to give such information are equally guilty of failing in their duty to them- selves and to the dairying interests of their country. 27889 2J 20 When selecting a mature or aged bull, the purchaser should first assure himself that the animal possesses plenty of vigour and vitality. A soft hide and fine, silky hair, a bright eye and broad forehead, a strong crest, broad, deep chest and good heart girth all unite to declare the individual healthy, robust, and vigorous. No coarseness or beefiness should be in evidence. An openness or looseness of the bony system is desirable. The body should be large and deep with well-sprung ribs indicating feeding capacity. The quarters should be long and fairly broad; peakedness at the pins is objectionable. The thighs should be well muscled but compara- tively free from fat and the twist should be well split up. The flank should be high, indicating room for a good udder on a cow of similar conformation. A straight-away clean walk and stylish appearance are very valuable features. MATURE BULLS BES1 A very large proportion of our dairy farmers are prejudiced against old or even against mature bulls. No more injurious practice can be imagined than placing a succession of young bulls at the head of the herd. Loss results in various ways. In the first place the progeny are not likely to be as vigorous from an immat/uTe sire as from a well-developed, fully-grown animal. Further, if it is desired to really improve the herd the continuous changing of sires is likely to detract materially from the uniformity of type and distinctive peculiarities which must characterize all herds worthy the name of 'breeding herd.' So far as age influences the reproductive powers of the sire, it may be said to be for the better rather than the reverse up to a fairly advanced age at least. At the Experimental Farm here, bulls of various breeds have been kept till 8 or 10 years old and proven quite satisfactory up to the very last, invariably leaving strong, well- developed calves. The writer knows of various bulls 10, 11, and even 12 years old that are still leaving good stock. The objection is sometimes raised that old bulls are vicious and hard to handle. This objection is occasionally well grounded. It might in almost every case be overcome by giving the bull plenty of exercise. Work on a tread power, work hauling some vehicle, a run in a good large paddock, all wo"udd do much to soften the temper, to ay nothing of improving his procreative powers. 21 The question as to what extent a given bull may be used in the herd is one of very great importance. Generally speaking, where pure bred females are being used, it is not advisable to use a bull on his own offspring. Cases might occur where in order to fix certain very desirable peculiarities the use of the sire on one of the most suitable, that is one of the most robust, of his own get might be per- mitted or even recommended. In grade herds, however, especially where the dams are of a nondescript character, the sire may fre- quently be used on his own get with most satisfactory results. Under such circumstances, the infusion of the entirely new blood of the sire is likely to lend vigour and growthiness to the offspring and so permit of his being used on the first generation with a view to getting as much as possible of the superior blood of the sire into the females of the herd it is desired to improve. The writer has seen thip line of breeding followed in several cases and has tried it in his own herd with gratifying results. It is often asserted that weaklings result from such crosses, but this is likely to be true only when pure breds of a peculiarly, weak character are the subjects chosen with which to work. In selecting bulls, care should be taken to choose animals uniform in type, since in this way only may one hope to achieve the honour and reap the advantage of having a uniform and distinctive herd. It is also necessary to bear in mind any weakness it is desired to correct and to secure a sire well developed where the herd or some animals thereof are weak. These aims are of course in addition to, or rather in connection with, the ever-present and all-important consideration of improving the milking qualities of the breed and more particularly of the herd in question. THE FINANCIAL SIDE. Too great cost is the objection most commonly put forward by the farmer hesitant about the purchase of a good dairy bull. A consideration of the business side of the venture should do much to convince the dairyman that the investment of even a considerable sum in the purchase of a first class dairy bull is money quite wisely and most profitably spent. Experience has demonstrated over and over again that heiferg sired by a really good dairy bull are capable of producing from 5 to 10 Ibs. a day more milk than heifers sired! by scrub bulls and from 22 the same or similar cows. This being the case, as all having any experience must admit it to be, we might proceed to form an estimate of the value of the bull. Suppose the herd considered be one of <20 cows a number quite common in many parts of Canada. To keep oiip such a herd the owner will need to raise from 5 to 8 calves a year say an average of 6 yearly. Five of these heifers are likely to come to maturity and each one will give, say, 5 Ibs. a day more milk than would a scrub heifer under like conditions. The period of lactation being about 300 days, there would thus be 1,500 Ibs. of milk more in the year from one heifer. Since the life of the milch cow as such is about 5 years, each heifer would be worth 7,500 Ibs. more milk in her life than the scrub. There being 20 cows in the herd, these might soon all be replaced and the 20 cows would in their lifetime be worth 150,000 Ibs. more milk than the scrubs. This amount of milk would be worth, say, $1,500. This sum, therefore, represents the returns from a good bull in the small herd of 20 cows. He would be worth relatively more in larger herds. A really good bull calf of any one of the breeds commonly kept in Canada can usutally be bought for from $50 to $100. Financially it looks like a good venture. FEED AND CARE. No set rules can be given as to the care and feeding of the dairy bull. One bull will do well on feeds that, if given to another, would prove quite unsuitable. In the first place, the bull should receive considerable feed of a buflky character. Oat straw, clover hay, corn stalks or stover, roots, etc., are all desirable. By way of meal when in the midst of a hard season, there is nothing better than a mixture of oats, bran and oil cake in quantities sufficient to keep him in fair shape. A good ration for a 1,500 pound bull would be: Lbs. Oat straw 5 Clover hay 20 Eoots or grass 30 Meal mixture 3 Give more meal if necessary. Certain methods of feeding and certain feeds are likely to render the bull sluggish in action and uncertain in service. The feeding 23 of coarse, non-nutritious forage in large quantities as, for example, corn ensilage, will sometimes develop so much middle and so sap vitality as to render the bull very clumsy and quite ineffective even when able to work. Where clover hay is lacking, its effects may be secured by feeding somewhat more freely with bran. This latter feed will also be found of great val^e when roots or other succulent feeds are largely lacking or entirely absent from the lists of available feeds. DAIKY CALVES. In choosing calves to raise to keep up or increase the dairy herd, the progeny of the best cows only should be selected, and these only if they are well-developed heifers. Many good calves from good cows develop into inferior dairy animals. This may be due to one single cause or to a combination of causes. The suggestions given below are based on our experience here for the last 18 years, during which time many hundreds of calves have been raised. It is confi- dently asserted that a close observance of the rules laid down will ins-mire success in a large percentage of case? THE DAM. The cow should be kept in gdod health and in good condition while carrying a calf. Particularly is this true during the 6 or 8 weeks immediately preceding parturition. The mature cow should be dried off at least six weeks previous to dropping her next calf, then put in good flesh. In the case of the heifer with her first calf, she should have been fed generously and wisely during the whole period of pregnancy. Her food shou'ld have been such as would havej^een suitable for a cow in full flow of milk, the most suitable foods being pasture grass, clover hay, roots, ensilage, bran, oats, and oil meal. THE CALF TO RAISE. Objection is sometimes made to raising calves from heifers. If the heifers have been properly mated and wisely fed during pregnancy the calves are likely to prove as satisfactory as stock from older cows. In the case of grade heifers, however, it may scarcely be considered wise to raise the first calf since, the milking qualities being unknown, the breeder might later find himself with a six or nine months' calf from an unsatisfactory cow on his hands. 24 AT CALVING TIME. The cow should be placed in a box stall a few days before she is due to calve. She should be kept on a somewhat lighter ration than usuial and her food should be rather laxative in character, bran, clover, roots, or ensilage. The calf may be left with her for two or three days, She should be milked in addition to what the calf draws from her. In the case of very heavy milking cows likely to suffer from milk fever, it is advisable to stop short of drawing off all the milk for three or four days. This practice has saved us all trouble from milk fever for the last five or six years. FEEDING THE CALF. The calf should be removed from the cow the second or third day. . It should 'then be taught to drink. This may be done about an follows : Take a quart of warm new milk in a 10-quart pail. Give the calf two fingers to suck air between. Gradually lower its nose into te pail. When it finds milk instead of air entering between the fingers it is likely to relax the neck and start to take milk. Do not sink the nose so far into the milk* as to cover the nostrils. If it will not drink at first, leave it for a few hours to work up an appetite. After a few days it may gradually be weaned from the fingers. Whole milk should be fed for at least one week. During the next week the change from whole milk to skim milk should gradually be brought about. Substitute each day a regularly-increasing pro- portion of skim milk for the same amount of whole milk withdrawn. The skim milk should be fed warm, from 90 to 100 degrees Fahr., no more and no less. To replace the fat that has been removed from the skim milk, as well as to furnish additional protein, it is well to add some flax seed jelly to the ration. This jelly should be added in small quantities at first and slowly increased. Begin with n dessert spoonful in each portion and gradually increase until about a cupful is being fed night and morning to the three months old calf. To prepare the jelly, boil, or rather, steep, one pound of whole flaxseed in water almost boiling, until a thick paste results. Another method of preparation is to take half a cup of ground flax in a quart of water and allow to simmer just below the boiling point until a o .b 27889-p. 24. 25 thick jelly is formed. It should be kept cool and sweet luntil fed. Another good jelly for mixing with the milk is prepared as follows : One part pure ground flax seed, two parts finely-ground corn meal sifted, two parts finely-ground oatmeal, sifted, and the whole well mixed; "then boil and allow to stand for twelve hours covered. Begin with one-eighth pound per day for calves a month old; new milk for the month previews and no solids. Increase the allowance as the calf grows older but not to exceed a half-pound per day. In addition to the flax seed jelly, or the calf meal just described, a little dry bran and whole oats should be fed. Start with very small ' quantities. Some clean, sweet, clover hay will be a valuable addition to the ration at a very early age. Whey may be used where skim milk is not to be had. Change from milk to whey as from whole milk to skim milk (see method outlined above). The flax seed jelly, etc., should be used just as with skim milk. Where skim milk or whey is not available, calces may be raised on hay tea. Boil cut clover, or even timothy, in water until a strong decoction or tea is obtained. Wean the calf from milk to this tea precisely as described above from whole milk to skim milk. The same supplementary feeds may be used in somewhat larger quantities. The skim milk should be fed sweet for some time at least. If it is likely, however, that it will sometimes be sour it is advisable to gradually change to sonur milk and feed sour milk invariably. Ths same counsel applies to whey. Calves should be kept in scrupulously clean pens. These should be dry and warm in winter and dry and cool in summer. A strict observance of the following general directions will almost certainly insure success: 1. Treat calves kindly and carefully. 2. Be scrupulously clean as to food, pails or troughs, and pens or quarters. 3. Make all changes in character of food very gradually. This applies whether changes be as to temperature, percentage of butter fat, acidity or sweetness, quantity, times of feeding or any other feature in connection with the food. 26 4. Feed only wholesome food, feed regularly, and feed in suffi- cient quantities, but not too generously. CALF FEEDERS. A number of what are known as l calf feeders ' of various kinds have been tried here, but have been abandoned after a fair trial. The teaching of the calf to drink, then supplying the right quantity of the proper kind of food, in the right condition as to temperature and sweetness and in a clean vessel held firmly in place in such position as to render the contents easily accessible to the calf, but so protected as to prevent the calf getting its foot thereinto, is the best plan. Calf feeders are more apt to get out of order and to get dirty than are pails. Further, our experience is that they involve more labour. CALF TIES. Where more than one calf is confined in a stall, the use of some kind! of tie to hold the calves during and for some little time immediately after feeding is very necessary. The stanchion is pro- bably the best method for so tying them. They should be so placed as to permit of the vessel containing the food being held firmly in place in front of them. It is essential that the food be carefully apportioned and fed each calf in a separate pail. WATER AND SALT. In addition to a sufficient supply of suitable food, an abundance of water and a moderate amount of salt should be provided. Calves frequently suffer from lack of water. If water cannot be kept in front of them, they should be given an opportumity to drink at least twice a day. The water offered should be potable, that is, not too warm in hot weather and not too cold in cold weather. Salt can be best supplied in the form of rock salt. A lump in the manger will prove cheap and wholesome. HEIFERS, SELECTION. From every herd there are some members to be removed every year, and it should be made a point that, whether the cause of removal be old age or poor production, the animal being introduced into the herd should be of higher merit than the retiring individual. a? The farmer should, as already indicated, attempt to rear on hia own farm, and from his own best cows, the animals which he will requiire to keep up or increase his herd. While he cannot be sure of every heifer reared from the best producers in the herd making good when coming into milk, still, knowing the dams, he may look for a semblance to them in the daughters. Careful selection from well-bred animals is, however, not all that is required to make well-developed heifers. Good feeding also is necessary. It is absolute folly to expect that heifer calves will develop into first-class cows if they /are stunted when young. It is perfectly legitimate to get a good ration at as low a cost as possible, but nothing except failure can come from trying to save money in the dairy business as in any other line of live stock enterprise by feeding a poor or insufficient ration, whether to old or young animals. CARE AND FEEDING. The calf stage is over with the sixth or seventh month or there- abouts. Upon the treatment accorded the heifer from that age till dropping the first calf, will depend very largely her future value as a dairy cow. Heifers from 6 months to 2 or 2 years are usually supposed to be able to look after themselves. They really should have considerable care and attention at this time. The prime requisites are an abundant supply of suitable food and comfortable quarters. Foods suitable for this purpose are bright alfalfa, or clean, sweet, clover, and a small proportion of fine,soft straw; mangels, turnips, sugar beets, or ensilage; and a small amount, say 1 to 1J Ibs. daily, of a mixture of two or more of the following feeds : bran, oil cake meal, oats, gluten meal, pea meal. Bran or oats shctuid always form part of the meal ration. Where fall-dropped calves are raised they may safely be put on pasture in June provided always that an abundance of grass is available not only in early spring but throughout the summer. Shade or shelter from the hot summer sun is important at any age but doubly worthy of attention with heifers or young stock under one year old. TIME TO SERVE. The heifers should be bred at about 21 months old so that th first calves may be dropped at two-and-a-half years. This breeding age may be varied somewhat, according to the development of the 28 animal. If exceptionally large and strong, breeding at 18 months will do no harm; if rather backward, impregnation had better be put off till two years old. TREATMENT DURING FIRST PERIOD OF GESTATION. The last nine months before calving should see the budding matron given every consideration likely to make for her future success as a dairy cow. Kindly treatment, frequent handling, abun- dant, nutritious and at the same time bulky food, with considerable meal the last few weeks, will surely give good results. The heifer should come to the calving in good flesh and with the udder large, full and firm. As the time of parturition approaches, the feeding of the heifer should be plain, without stimulating foods that might have a dele- terious effect on the foetus and cause abortion. Good clean hay from clover or mixed grasses, corn fodder and corn ensilage or roots should constitute the main portion of her diet. TREATMENT DURING THE FIRST PERIOD OF LACTATION. Directly after calving, a warm, thin slop of oatmeal, bran or shorts should be given, or, where the cow is weak or exhausted, warm water only. For a few days, omtil the danger of fever is over, the ration should be very light, and gradually increased for two or three weeks, when the heifer may be put on full feed. A heifer with her first calf should receive special care and be fed liberally since she is growing and producing milk at the same time. A good supply of protein must be furnished in her ration to meet the requirements of the body for nitrogenous food components. If the heifer be not bred again until some six months after the dropping of her first calf, she will be free to devote all her energies to the production of milk. This would tend to the establishment of the l milking habit/ SPRING OR FALL CALVING. The question of spring or fall calving is one that so far as the relative merits of the two systems are concerned, can have but one answer, and that is that the cow should freshen at the season when her services are likely to be of the greatest use to the owner. So far as records are concerned, however, it is practically certain that, under average conditions in Canada, much better year-long records are likely to be made when the cow comes in in early aiuitumn than when 29 she freshens at any other time. This is due not so much to any one circumstance or condition as to a combination of influences which might be summarized in part as follows: More equable temperature throughout early or heavy milking part of lactation period; freedom from extreme heat and flies, two enemies of big records that are very hard to combat; more time for the attention and care conducive and, one might say, essential to erature or variation in wind velocity will always necessitate some change in the arrangement of the controls or checks. Neglect to open or increase the capacity once it has been cut off in some measure in a cold time, is the most common cause leading to the condemnation of what might otherwise have been a good system. Another quite frequent cause leading to the condemnation of a sysrtem is the too small capacity of the installation. The average carpenter is apt to guage the requirements of the stable in the way of air by the coldest weather requirements. For this reason, installations are very apt to be too limited in capacity for average weather conditions and much too limited for warm weather. Then again, an installation may be condemned unfairly, because the owner of a stable expects it to do more than any system of 48 rentilation could ever do. A common standard by which the effective- ness of a system is judged is its ability to keep the walls and ceiling free from moisture. This is frequently a most unfair test. Precipi- tation of moisture on walls or ceiling is due to the warm vaponir or water-charged exhalations of the animals, rising and lying for too great a length of time in contact with the cold wall or ceiling as the case may be. If the construction of wall or ceiling be faulty, as for instance, where only double boards with paper between constitute the same, then no system of ventilation could keep them dry without lowering the inside temperature to practically the same as the outside. Walls possible of being kept fairly dry must have more or less insulation, that is, a dead-air space or a concrete core, or shavings, or something to prevent too rapid conduction of heat. Then with a fairly rapid circulation of air the walls and ceiling may be kept dry. A ceiling protected by straw or hay overhead is the most satisfactory. Walls with a dead-air space may usually be kept dry fairly easily. Stone walls or solid cement walls must be lined to insure their being fairly dry. No system of ventilation would otherwise ever keep them dry in very cold weather. The number of cattle in a given cubic space is quite an important factor making for the effectiveness of any system. Too many cattle makes it difficult to ventilate in such a way as to avoid draughts, too few makes it impossible to keep the temperature up to the com- fortable point and at the same time provide for sufficient air circula- tion. Low temperature does not always mean pure air, and here is a point where a great many stablemen make a mistake. The air in a stable where the thermometer shows several degrees of frost may quite easily be most vile. From all which, it seems important, in the first place to so arrange matters that there shall be about the right number of animals in the given stable, allowing, say, from 600 to 800 cubic feet of air space for each cow two years old and over. This condition existing, there should then be provided about 15 square inches or more of controlled outlet area and about 8 square inches or more of controlled inlet area for each animal in the stable. For instance, a stable 36 x 30 x 10, which might be expected to accomo- date 18 or 20 head, should have an outlet about 18 inches square or 20 inches in diameter, if round, and the inlets should be at least 6 inches by 12 inches and two in number. 27881) -p. 48. 49 By controlled inlets and outlets is meant that it should ba possible to cut off the whole or any part of the inlet and outlet by means of some kind of damper or key. The controls are necessary for the reason that very cold air being a great deal heavier than warm air compels a very much more rapid circulation or inflow and outflow of air in very cold weather than in warm. This must be controlled or temperatures will fall too low in cold weather and rise too high in warm weather. The dimensions of shafts or cutlets and inlets given above, allow for friction of air currents in the shaft, for, while 8 to 10 square inches per head in outlet area might be sufficient in very large stables, the same relative area in a small stable would certainly be found faulty. Outlet shafts must be neither too small nor too large. Where materially exceeding the area per head given above, they are likely to work unsatisfactorily and to be constantly dripping in warm weather and freezing in cold, due to the air currents being too sluggish. Where less in area by any considerable amount, they are sure to be wet and dripping practically all the time and to carry imp/uire air off too slowly. Many systems of ventilation have been devised and advocated. The perfect system has not yet been thought out. It is, besides, practically certain that a system capable of operating satisfactorily under any set of conditions that might be imposed never will be constructed. During the last ten years, the writer has tested out some thirty or forty different schemes, systems or devices for venti- lating farm buildings such as cow barns, horse barns and piggeries, and has, during that time, learned two things very thoroughly. These two items of information well-learned are: (1.) Good ventilation is a necessary and very profitable feature of any stable. (2.) No known' system of ventilation is absolutely automatic or faultless. It has also been possible to come to some conclusion as to the relative merits and adaptability of the various systems tried out. Many systems have shown more or less effectiveness, but of the thirty and odd systems experimented with, I may say that the system commonly known as the Rutherford System of Ventilation has proven much superior to any other tried. The superiority of this system is due to various features, the chief being: 278894 50 (1.) Ease in installation, in buildings old or new. (2.) Adaptibility to all classes of stables. (3.) Suitability to variety of weather and climate. (4.) Facility of operation and control. (5.) Effectiveness in control of temperature in all parts of stable. As just stated, it is susceptible of easy introduction into old etables and may be readily and conveniently installed in new build- ings. A study of diagrams given below will show probably the best relative positions for inlets and outlets. There is, however, but slight objection to any number of other possible or necessary different arrangements. Diagram A, showing floor plan of a stable for, say, 26 cattle, also illustrates probably the best relative positions of fresh air intakes A A A A and foul air outlets B B (beginnings of shaft in ceiling, see WD, diagram B). This arrangement suits where nothing in the use to be made of loft or superstructure interferes in any way. If 'a horse fork is to be used in the superstructure, then it might be necessary to change positions of B B to C C where shafts would need to be constructed as shown in Diagram B by dotted lines W 1 G D. The fact of the outlet shaft changing directions at G and D will not interfere materially with its efficiency. These outlet shafts, provided they are staunchly built as described further on, may take almost any desired course so long as it is always more or less upwards. The area indicated, 1 foot x 2 feet each, or 4 square feet for the two owitlet shafts, is somewhat greater than is really necessary but it is much better to have shafts slightly larger than any smaller than the minimum of 15 square inches per cow mentioned above. The intakes AAAA might, if necessary, -be changed to pass under or through walls at D D D D, say 7 inches x 12 inches. This new arrangement would be advisable in case outlet openings had to be placed as C C. In the intakes, fresh air enters at 1, passes under wall and enters stable at 2, with an luipward tendency. The wall, 3, should be about 6 inches thick and on this wall should be built the little guard shown at M in Diagram B. The inner wall corresponding to 3, need not be over 4 inches thick. , 51 To" 1 4.. J <._._.- >.-.,, ._._;, ._._,;.,.._ it 11 DIAGRAM A. Floor arrangement of Dairy Barn, showing Stands, and Ventilators. 27869 4J 52 Diagram B, showing a stable in cross-section, will indicate the best method of building walls and ceiling and also illustrates two different methods of introducing the fresh air in the Rutherford System. There is very little to choose between these two methods; DIAGUAM B. Sectional View of Barn, showing Rutherford System of Ventilation that on the left is somewhat more cheaply installed and can be intro- duced at any time, while the method on the right is probably some- what more effective, slightly more expensive and must be installed when the building is being erected. The following explanatory para- graph will help to a full understanding of the features illustrated. 53 The outlet shaft for foul air, WD, should be in duplicate and should be abauit 1 foot by 2 feet inside measurement. The best construction is boards running vertically, two ply with inch airspace and two papers between. The opening at the top should be roofed, (see B). The roof should be supported on four posts, AA, leaving a clear space aboiuit 15 or 16 inches between top of shaft and bottom of roof B. The amount of air to escape by these shafts in any given time may be controlled by means of a key as at E. The key may be regulated by cords F F. The key should never be entirely closed. Where the shafts are large enough, there is no objection to their being used as chutes for feed or litter, but care should be taken to so hang the door as to insure its remaining tightly closed when not held open to allow of shaft being used as a chute. The fresh air inlets require careful consideration. The method on the left is very simple of installation. The passage through from K to I should be about 12 inches by 7 inches, the greater dimension being horizontal. K is a protection or roof, H the intake, I the outlet into the stable through which the air passes with an upward tendency. J is a guard or board so placed as to direct air currents upwards. To do this, it will need to extend about 4 inches above top of opening through wall. It will, of course, be nailed to the projecting 7 inch sides of this fresh air shaft inside the building, just as K will be nailed to the same sides outside the building. These passages might be controlled by means of small keys or hinged covers, but it is not usually necessary or advisable to so control tha intake shafts. The method on the right hand side admits air by the passage N, 12 inches x 7 inches below the level of the floor. Air enters this passage at L under shelter of the snow and rain guard M and flows into the stable at 0, with an tupward tendency. The cement or wooden guard X is to prevent c 1 ' "t or dust being knocked or swept in. The top or opening shouM be protected by a grating of some description. It is possible, but seldom necessary or advisable, to provide these inlets with keys or controls. If it is found necessary to use some system of control, then the control Z had better be out- side the building but inside the guard cabin M where it can be reg>udated by a cord passing out at P. The careful installation of this system of ventilation, with either method of , fresh air intake, will insure an abundance of good 54 fresh air at all times, provided it is allowed to operate. If, however, it is left to the mercies of the average hired man, it, like any other system, will be found useless. To get best results in ventilating any stable and to insiutre a comfortable, dry building possible of being kept well ventilated, clean and hygienic, attention to the following small details in construction will be found very helpful. 1. Use simple fixings. 2. Ceil under joists. 3. Put in all the windows the superstructure will permit. 4. Let windows be high. (See out). 5. Hinge windows in middle at C. 6. Use chains as at V to allow them to open inwards at top. 7. Provide double windows for winter. 8. Walls should be built to include air space. Starting from the outside inward, the following will be found satisfactory: Battens R, inch dressed lumber, two tar papers, studding 2x6, and air space S, two tar papers, V-joint 55 PART IV. THE PRODUCT MILK. Milk is an opaque, whitish liquid secreted by female mammalia for the njuitrition of their young. In the case of the cow, and some other animals used to supply milk for human consumption, the function of milk production has been so developed by breeding and selection that the yield is much greater than is required for the sustenance of their young. The length of their period of lactation has also been increased much beyond the time that the yowng would be dependent upon the mother's milk. The processes of the elaboration of milk are not very well under- stood. The seat of secretion is however undoubtedly in the mammary glands, though some believe that the water and some of the soluble* compounds are derived by direct nitration from the blood. The udder is not merely a reservoir for the milk between the time it is manufactured and drawn. Indeed it is evident that a great part of the milk is made du/ring the actual operation of milking, as is shown by changes in quality and quantity resulting from any unaccustomed action, such as quick instead of slow milking, or a change of milker. Milk is a food, and, of all foods, comes nearest to meeting all demands of the body. It is, in fact, a complete food for the young. Its constituents in their proportions in average milk are as follows : Constituents. Quantity., Per cenfc. Water 87-0 Ash 0-7 Albumen 0-7 Casein ' 2-6 Fat 4-0 Sugar 5-0 In analysis these are spoken of as water and milk solids, the latter comprising the ash, albumen, casein, fat and sugar. Th< solids again are divided into ' Fat ' and ' Solids, not fat.' Milk standards are fixed by Provincial Statute in Canada hence no uniform Canadian standard may be said to exist, but it usually requires that there be no more than 87-5 per cent water, that the total milk solids shall make up at least 12-5 per cent, and that there b at least 3 per cent fat. 56 COLOSTRUM. The first milk after parturition is usually thick ish and bloody or orange-yellow in colour. This milk is laxative in effect and shqudd be given to the calf. It is not usually used as human food and where milk is being sent to factory or city, that from the newly calved cow should not be included in shipment until after the third day from parturition. PRESERVATION OF MILK. In the process of milking a greater or lesser number of bacteria find their way into the milk. While some of these are not harmful, the greater number are and the dairyman's aim, as soon as the milk is drawn from the cow, should be to make conditions for the growth of these as unfavourable as possible. The temperature at which most of theso organisms grow best, * known as their optimtutm temperature, is about 95 F. which is a little above the temperature of milk as it comes out of the udder. As soon, therefore, as the milk can be cooled down to a temperature which does not favour the growth of these organisms 45 to 50 F. the better it will be. The methods of cooling down are many and varied, and must necessarily be according to the conveniences of the place. One of the best methods is the use of a tank containing iced water. As soon ae taken from, the cow, the milk is placed in a can standing in the water in this tank and then covered at once. Care has to be taken that the level of the water on the outside of the can is higher than the level of the milk within, else a layer of milk at the top will not be properly cooled. If there is a great quantity of milk to be cooled, the water may have to be renewed, or it may be kept cool by placing within the tank a block of ice. Whatever method of cooling is adopted, care should be taken to have it done in a clean, sanitary building which is apart from tJtie cow shed, and remote from any offensive odoturs which might be readily absorbed by the milk. It is 'only by properly cooling the milk to a temperature at which the unfavourable organisms cannot grow, and doing it in a clean sweet place, that milk can be kept for any length of time and put on the market in good condition. MILK UTENSILS. Ease of cleaning is the first requisite of milk utensils, and in this regard there are several things to be considered. In the first 27889 p. 56. PLATE XVI. Milking by Machinery. The milking machine in operation at the Main Barn, Experimental Farm, Ottawa. 57 place, metal utensils are always preferable to wooden, since wooa readily absorbs milk particles and is thus very difficult to keep sweet and clean. In purchasing metal utensils, care should be taken to seo that all are heavily tinned for, unless they are, the tinning will soon wear off and a chemical reaction will set up between the milk and the iron. The compound so formed, if present in sufficient quantity, will cause a greenness in cheese made from this milk. The wearing out of the tinning also makas for greater difficulty in the keeping of the utensils clean. There should be as few seams and crevices as possible for these are difficult to keep clean and give lodgment to dirt and bacteria. It is possible now to buy * stamped ' pails without seams or crevices. If such pails are not procurable, care should be taken to see that all seams in pails in use are filled and flushed with solder. The bottoms of all vessels should be concave rather than convex, thus doing away with the crevice which is so often found all around, and which cannot be cleaned properly. The mouths of cans should be wide enough to permit of easy cleaning; all lids should fit tightly and should be provided with a shoulder to overlap the mouth of the can. CAKE OF UTENSILS. As soon as possible after milk has been removed from utensils they should be washed. First, a rinsing with tepid water to remove the milk particles should be given, to be followed by a thorough washing in hot water to which washing soda has been added. The scrubbing brush should be freely used here especially in any corners which the vessel may have. To finish, a scalding in boiling water, or, better still, a good steaming over a steam jet should be given. After this, the vessel may be placed in a sunny, airy spot, free from dust and dirt and remote from bad odours. Where milk is conveyed to a creamery and whey taken back, th same cans should not be lused for both purposes. It is almost impossible, even with the greatest care, and the best conveniences, to get rid of the organisms which are most likelv to be nreRfitit. in thp by-product. THE SEPARATOR. The purpose of a separator is to remove the cream from th& milk, and this a good separator will do almost completely if pro- 58 perly managed. The old-fashioned method of skimming leaves some- times as much as 25 per cent of the cream in the milk. Another benefit derived from the use of a separator is that the skim-milk is still warm after the cream is removed and can be fed to calves or other animals in this condition with best results. In the choice of a separator there are one or two things to be considered, of which ease of cleaning is perhaps the most important. The more pieces of intricate mechanism there are in a separator the greater will be the difficulty of cleaning, and so simplicity of con- struction combined with efficiency of working is essential. In addition to this, ease of running and durability are deserving of consideration. BY-PRODUCTS. In some parts of the country, the farmer ships the whole of his milk supply to the nearest city or cheese factory. If to a city, there is no return of by-product, and the whole of the valuable consti- tuents of the milk is lost to the farmer. If, however, the milk is sent to a cheese factory, the farmer frequently is able to take back some whey which contains many of these constituents in almost their original quantities. If, however, the farmer uses a cream separator and ships only his cream, or better still, if he makes his cream into butter on his own farm, there is practically no loss of fertility for ' selling butter is selling siunlight.' Where the farmer makes his own butter he has two by-products in skim-milk and butter-milk, both very valuable in the feeding of animals. Of milk there are thus three by-products, skim-milk, butter- milk, and whey. Skim-milk, as is stated elsewhere in this work, is a valuable feed for calves, pigs, and other classes of stock, its content of ash and protein being especially valuable in the nourish- ment of growing animals. Butter-milk also is rich in ash and protein and is very much valmfed as a feed for young pigs. Whey, if returned to the farm from the factory, brings back very much of the mineral matter contained in the original milk. For pigs, and even, when fresh and sweet, for calves, whey makes a valu- able addition to the ration. 59 MILKING. The cows should be milked regularly at the same hours every day, and these hours should be separated by periods of as nearly- equal duration as possible. Cleanliness. Before beginning to milk, the milker should wipe the sides and udder of the cow with a clean rag moistened with fresh clean water. This has the effect of causing loose hairs, dust or bacteria to adhere to the animal, and so they do not fall into the milk pail. The first few streams of milk should not be drawn into the pail for the content of harmful bacteria therein is usually large. Milking should be done with clean, dry hands, and dry teats, and the milker should wash and dry his hands after milking each cow. This, besides keeping his hands clean, prevents the spread of any disease, such as sore teats, from one animal to the other. In short, the utmost cleanliness should be exercised by the milker in the care of the animal, of the milk dishes, and of himself. The milking shqudd be done as rapidly as possible, though care should be taken that it is done evenly, so that the temper of the cow may not be disturbed. , Periods between Milkings. As already indicated, the periods between milkings should be as nearly equal in length as possible. It may be stated, however, that experiments conducted here show that, where cows are milked only twice a day, as is the usual practice in Canada, a considerable deviation from this general recommendation may be made without any appreciable effect upon the result in a given period of, say, a couple of months' duration. This is true, of course, within certain limitations, thus, while milking at ten and fourteen-hour intervals might be expected to prove satisfactory, milking at six and eighteen-hour intervals would very certainly prove injurious in effect. It should be noted, however, that what is true is this respect about a 30 or 40 pound-a-day cow is not likely to be true with the 50 to 60 pound-a-day cow and even much less so in the case of very heavy milking cows yielding, say, 70, 80 or 90 pounds a day. In fact, it is practically certain that no cow would ever reach 80 or 90 Ibs. of milk a day, if the milking were being done only twice in 24 hours. Variations in Quantity and Quality of Milk. It should be observed that the milk yielded by cows milked at unequal periods, but at regular hours,, is likely to vary in quantity proportionately 60 with the length of periods but to vary inversely as to quality of milk. This might be better explained by saying that, while cows yielding 30 Ibs. of 4 per cent milk, or 1-20 Ibs. butterfat, and milked at 6 a.m. and 6 p.m., might be expected to give about 15 Ibs. of 4 per cent milk, night and morning, the same cows milked at 6 a.m. and 4 p.m. would quite probably continue to give 30 Ibs. of milk in the 24 hours but would generally produce the milk and butterfat about as follows: At 6 a.m., 17 to 18 Ibs. of 3-5 to 3-75 per cent milk and at 4 p.m., 12 to 13 Ibs., of 4-3 to 4-6 per cent milk. ' We have demonstrated, too, that not only may the quality of the milk produced by any given cow vary from milking to milking in a fairly regular way, belt it may vary materially from day to day as affected by a multitude of minor influences, such as variations in weather, supply of water and salt, change in quality of food or of method or time of feeding, change of milkers or time of milking, fear, anger, uneasiness or discomfort in any form. Further, as any dairyman soon learns, the quality of the milk improves as the actual milking operation progresses. The first milk drawn is invariably low in buitterfat. As the operation progresses, the percentage of fat increases until the highest fat content is reached in the last few ounces that can be drawn or coaxed from ] the udder. Moral, milk your cows clean. MILKING MACHINES. Milking machines have been in use for many years. A machine in use in the main barn here has proven very satisfactory. It can be kept perfectly clean with a moderate amount of labour. It has not, apparently, any tendency to decrease the milk yield of the cows. The milk drawn by the machine is, on the average, about as clean as that drawn by hand. While it cannot be said, everything considered, to do the milk- ing much more cheaply than it can be done by hand, it has the advantage of making it possible to milk a large number of cows in a reasonably short time with a small number of milkers. The work of running the milking machine seems to be more acceptable to most men than is hand milking. The machine may be operated by steam, gasoline or electric power. One man can run from three to four milking units. Each unit draws the milk from a single cow and draws it quite as quickly, if not even more quickly, than it can be done by a rapid milker. It 61 is too soon yet, however, to permit of making a definite pronounce- ment on this rather vexed question. CARING FOR AND HANDLING THE COW IN MILK. The quantity and quality of the milk produced depends in large measure upon the methods of caring for and handling the cow in milk. Comfort and quiet in her siuirroundings, kindness and clean- liness in handling are the certain conditions of success and profit in the cow business. LITTER. Comfort means good stalls well bedded. Almost any dry absor- bent material wiJ answer for bedding, clean, dry sawdust and straw being among the best. The supply of these should be renewed with more or less fresh material every day so that the dust which is likely to gather in old bedding may be kept down. BRUSHING. When at pasture, the hair of the stock is kept clean by wind and rain, and very little grooming or brushing is necessary. Some time before milking, however, they should be rubbed down so that the diuet and loose hairs may be removed and will not fall into the milk pail. In winter, when the cows are confined to the stable, the waste thrown off by the skin must be removed in order that the skin secretions be not interfered with. This is best done by currying and brushing, which, in winter, should be a daily operation. WASHING CATTLE. Washing cattle is a custom not generally followed except in the case of cattle being prepared for the show-ring. Where the cattle are properly groomed curried and brushed washing is perhaps unnecessary, and is too great an undertaking to be practicable. Sometimes, however, a cow coming in from a muddy road or field may be so dirty that washing seems the only way of getting her clean. CLIPPING. As an aid to cleanliness, clipping either the whole body of the cow, or at least the hind flanks, the udder and the inner and outer thighs, will be found advisable. The actual operation of clipping takes but little time and the saving in time needed to keep the cattle clean will pay for it in a week, to say nothing of the almost certainly better quality of the milk produced. Our practice is to clip the whole body. This, while involving some expense to begin with, has, we consider, in the long run, proven by far the cheapest help in keeping cattle clean. KINDNESS IN TREATMENT OF COW. Kindness is an efficient aid in increasing milk yield and costs nothing. The more a cow likes a milker, the more milk she will give him. Investigations show that it is probable that a considerable portion of the milk is secreted during the operation of milking, especially the rich milk which comes last. Abuse and excitement reduce the .secretion and not only lower the quantity of milk yielded, but often lower the percentage of butter fat. Kindness makes the cow contented and puts her nervous system in such a condition that the fullest yield is given. Hurrying cows, running them with dogs, beating them or speaking roughly to them, will reduce the quantity of milk and percentage of butterfat. A change of milkers will often lower the quantity and quality of the milk until the cow becomes accustomed to the new milker. For this reason, it is usually advis- able, in large stables, where milkers are sure to be changed from time to time, to so arrange matters that no particular cow is milked for any considerable niuimber of days by any one man. A good plan is to start the first milker at the first cow, then take the cows in order as each man is ready for a new one. SUMMARY. To condense the above remarks, it might be said that proceeding according to the following suggestions will do much toward insuring ' clean milk ' being produced in any even fairly well-arranged stable. 1. Do not disturb manure for at least one hour previous to beginning milking. 2. Do not feed dusty feed or scatter dusty bedding for some considerable time before milking. 3. Ten minutes before milking, clean off all dust from cows to be milked. 4. Just before milking, rub right flank and udder with a damp doth. 5. Draw first two stream's from each teat into separate pail. 6. Use narrow-mouthed pails. 7. Wash hands after milking each cow. 63 8. Milk with dry hands or else (use vaseline. Never moisten fingers with milk. 9. Milk rapidly but smoothly. 10. Talk in low tones, if at all, and do nothing else to disturb cattle. 11. Strain milk through three or four plies of cheese cloth as well as through a fine wire screen into larger receptacles, 64 PART V. FEEDING FOR MILK. GENERAL NOTES. AN ABUNDANCE OF FOOD NECESSARY. Where the herd is made up of the right kind of cows, the quantity and quality of the feed consumed is, up to a certain point, the measure of milk production. -Underfed cows, as every farmer knows, yield small quantities of milk, usually, if not always, at a high cost per unit for even the small quantity produced. Yet it is safe to say that in Canada seventy-five per cent or three-quarters of N the cows in milk do not receive enough feed to enable them to reach what might be described as the maximum of production at the mini- mum of cost. l The largest quantity of milk and butterfat at the lowest feed cost per pound milk or butterfat produced' should be the aim of every dairyman. Many under-fed dairy cattle are also badly-fed dairy cattle inasmuch as the ration provided is frequently unsuited for the end in view milk production. It is not, however, among the under-fed alone that the badly-fed cows are to be found since many farmers, sufficiently large-hearted to feed a generous ration, fail to appreciate or are ignorant of the importance and economy of combining the different feeds in the right proportions to insure the best returns in milk. Siuich a knowledge of feeds as will enable the feeder to prepare the best ration at the lowest cost is not very easily gained but the careful study of the following notes and a little experience will go far toward making even the veriest beginner an effective ar>^ economical, that is to say a skilful, feeder. CHANGING FROM STALL TO PASTURE. Sudden changes from one feed to another should never be made, as they, in most cases, decrease the flow of milk, even when the new ration is better than the one to which the cow is accustomed. When a change is necessary it should be gradual, extending over a week or ten days. The young, immature grasses, especially in early spring, as is well known, contain a large amount of water, a condition commonly called ' washy.' Wheat and rye pastures are of the same nature, and when the cows are about to pass from the dry feed of winter to the succulent feed of summer, great care is needed. At first they ought 1 If I 27889 -p. 64. JtD I s |3 I O) J3 H 65 to have a feed of hay before they leave the cow house for pasture and only be left at grass a short time. Then day by day the hay may be diminished and the length of time at pasture increased until at length they may be allowed to pass all the time at grass. It does not pay, however, to tuirn dairy cows to pasture in the spring until the grass furnishes good feed, i.e. until it has a good growth. PASTURING. On most Canadian farms, pasture grass forms the main food for the dairy cow in summer. Pasture grass in right condition is a perfect food and when the animal can secure sufficient of it, with- out too great effort, maximum milk yields may be expected. Clover and alfalfa pastures give best results, but our natural grasses as they grow in rough places on hill sides, etc., are very valuable as feeds for milk production. At the Central Experimental Farm the following mixture of seed per acre for seeding down and pasturing has been found to be very satisfactory: 5 Ibs. red clover; 2 Ibs. alsike; 71bs. alfalfa; and 10 Ibs. timothy. Pastures should not be used till the grass stands several inches high and, in the case of clovers and alfalfa, it should be a foot high before cattle are turned in. Much better results may be expected in the way of feed from a given area if it be divided into two, or even better, into three parts and the parts pastured for a few days in turn. Closely cropped grass grows slowly and suffers much more quickly from drought and trampling than does longer, stronger grass. FEEDING MEAL TO COWS AT PASTURE. Opinion is divided as to whether it is profitable to feed meal while the cows are at pasture, but the weight seems to be in favour of feeding meal, for while perhaps no improvement in quality nor increase in quantity of milk results while the pasture is at its best, yet when the pasture begins to fail, the animals are better able to keep up to their flow. It is doubtful, however, if it would be economical to feed meal where there is an abundance of nutritious grass, for the increase in quantity of milk from such feeding may not, unless the price of dairy products be very high, justify the extra expense. While the pasture is abundant and of good quality, the quantity 278895 GO of meal fed need not be great. One to two poiumds per day would be sufficient; whenever the pasture begins to fail, however, the meal ration will have to be relatively increased in order to avoid a drop in the milk flow. As can be readily understood, meals or meal mixtures most suitable for feeding to cows in winter quarters and on winter feeds are not necessarily the best for feeding to cows on grass. Mixtures of equal parts oats, barley and peas, or of oats, barley and bran, or of oats, corn and peas, or of oats, corn and bran will be found satis- factory. SOILING. Drought and the hot sun of summer very quickly injure pastures ; and after about the latter end of June, as a rule, recourse must be had to something else to keep up the flow of milk, for if - it is allowed to fall at this time, no amount of care and feed will bring it back to the original flow o: anywhere near it. For soiling crops the farmer has abundant material wherofrom to select. Tests at the Experimental Farm, as well as elsewhere, would seem to indicate vetches, peas, oats, clover and corn as the most suitable crops. Where green feed is required earlier than Lie time indicated above, fall rye and fall wheat are much used. Fall rye is ready for cutting at the beginning of June; fall wheat a little later. Dairy farmers are, therefore, recommended to prepare and feed somewhat as follows for each 10 cows in their herds: 1. Clover, 1 acre. To have been sown with the mixture of peas and oats the previous year as described below. Feed off June 20 to July 15. 2. Peas and oats, acre. Sow 1 bushel peas, l bushel oats, and 5 Ibs. red clover seed on one-half acre of land about the first week in May, or earlier if possible. Feed off July 15 to 31. 3. Peas and oats, A acre. Sow same mixture on another half- acre about third week in May. Feed off August 1 to 15. 4. Corn, acre. Sow 10 Ibs. Longfellow corn (or other small variety) in hills 3 feet apart each way. Sow third week in May or as early as possible. Sow on well-drained land, clover sod, manured at rate of 20 loads (tons) per acre. 67 Feed off August 15 to 30. 5. Corn, acre. Sow 12 Ibs. Learning (or other medium variety) same way as above^ Feed off in September. For arrangements on a farm to suit soiling, see farm plan page 10. SUMMER SILOS. Cutting green feed every day takes considerable time, and frequently interferes with the regular farm work. It increases the labour, and consequently the cost, of feeding, and where labour is scarce and expensive it may not be the most profitable method of working. For such localities, the summer silo is the best method of handling green feeds. The feed is stored in the fall, and is available for use in a con- venient form at any time. The amount of silage to be fed from the summer silo will of course depend upon the quality and quantity of the pasture, and the nature of the other varieties of feeds supplied to the animals. Here at the Central Experimental Farm, between 20 and 30 Ibs. of ensilage per day are fed to each animal during the summer. Silos for summer feed are built with less diameter but more height than those for winter feed, unless the herd of cattle is large. By this means less suirface is exposed from day to day and less waste occurs. The heat of summer causes the exposed surface of ensilage to go bad more quickly than it does in winter. AUTUMN AND WINTER FEEDING OF DAIRY COWS. Cows are fed in the stable during one half of the year or more, and feeding during this period may through ignorance or on account of using unsuitable forage, voluntarily or involuntarily, be made very expensive. The profits from the herd will of course depend to a large extent on the economy of the methods of winter feeding followed. Economical feeding does not mean scant supplies, but the using of the kinds of feeds and feed combinations that will be likely to produce the best results at the lowest cost. As the milk produced depends upon the quantity and quality of the food consumed, every effort should be made to supply the cow with all she will eat of a ration combining palatability, easy digesti- bility, and suitability in composition for the milk flow. 27889 5J 68 Observation and experimental work here during the past twelve or thirteen years lead the writer to consider succulence, variety, and regularity in hours of feeding as the most important factors making for palatability and high digestibility of a ration. SUCCULENCE INCREASES PALATABILITY. . By succulence is meant juiciness or a high percentage of water in the feed. Giving an abundant supply of water for use along with a dry feed will not have the same effect as causing the cow to take the water as a part of her food. To illustrate: 100 Ibs. of fresh pasture grass may include as much as 85 Ibs. or more of water and only 15 Ibs. or less of dry matter. This 100 Ibs. of pasture grass fed green is, however, as proven by experiment, worth considerably more than the same 15 Ibs. dry matter fed in the shape of 15 Ibs. dry grass and the cow allowed to drink all she will of water along with the dry grass. Further, the cow will take considerably more of almost any kind of dry matter, and digest it more readily and more completely when fed as a succulent than when fed as a dry food. Sucauilence in the winter ration may be secured in several ways. The most common, and the most advantageous from the standpoints of low cost of ration and convenience of handling, is the use of ensilage. Roots of various kinds are however largely used and are very valuable for the purpose. Where both the above are lacking, succulence may be secured by cutting the straw or hay and sprinkling freely with water a few hours or even a couple of days before feeding. Adding aboiut 20 per cent of feed molasses to the water used for sprinkling improves the palatability and effectiveness of such a ration very greatly. Where ensilage is available, it is well to mix from 8 to 12 Ibs. chaff with each 100 Ibs. ensilage. This should be done some little time before feeding to insure the chaff being moistened, VARIETY INCREASES PALATABILITY. Variety in the ration fed the dairy cow adds greatly to its effectiveness by rendering it more palatable. Variety in fhis con- nection, however, musf not be taken to mean feeding one kind of feed to-day, a different feed or combination of feeds to-morrow and still another ration the next day. Variety in feeding the dairy cow must be secured by combining in the ration, which should be the same or practically the same from day to day, as many different kinds of roughage and meals or concentrates as it is found convenient or possible to include. Feeding a meal mixture made up of oats, barley, bran, oil-cake meal and corn is likely to give better results than a meal mixture of similar feeding value from a chemical stand- point including, say, only bran and barley and much better results than feeding bran alone. The mixture of meals improves the flavour thus rendering the meal more palatable and hence more digestible. Palatability in a ration adds greatly to digestibility. Improved digestibility means increased effectiveness. The value of variety in the feed is thus apparent. These remarks miuist not be taken to mean, however, that a mixture of roughages or a meal mixture once compounded, no other may be fed. It is possible to have two or three quite different mix^ tures on the go at the same time, provided always that the same feed be fed at the same hour each day. That is, one might feed ensilage, straw and meal in the morning, and roots, straw, hay and bran in the evening or vice versa. It will not do, however, to feed ensilage in the morning one day and in the evening of the next. It or any other feed should always be fed at the same hour. SOME IMPORTANT MINOR AIDS TO PALATABILITY. The stage at which the various forage crops are harvested has much to do with their flavour and aroma. Early-cut hay is not only superior in composition to the late-cut article, but is much more pleasant in aroma and more acceptable in flavour. The same may be said of most forage crops, the early-cut, well-cured forage plant of practically every description is much superior to the late-cut badly- autred plant of the same species. Freshly-ground grain is always more palatable than long-ground material and will give better results. Feed the best feeds, that is, the most palatable feeds, in the morning. Give less acceptable feeds at night or outside in racks or in some such way as will leave the eating of the same a matter of amusement or a pastime, as it were, rather than a duty or a neces- sity. The cow eats such things best when she really does not need to eat them and, what is more, shows results for the extra feed con- sumed even though it be inferior in quality. HOW OFTEN TO FEED. Some feeders claim it to be necessary to feed several times each day. A common practice is to feed morning, noon, and night. A TO satisfactory method as tried here has been to feed as follows: Succulent roughage mixture and meal mixture first thing in the morning, hay after that is cleaned up. This is repeated for the ensilage and meal mixture about 3 p.m. The hay is fed after the cows are all milked aboiuit 5.30 p.m. Experiments extending over some years to determine the relative merits of dividing t'he ration into two or into three or more portions seemed to indicate that when the same amount of the same kinds of feed was fed in two portions it gave just as good results as* when fed in three or more portions. REGULARITY IN FEEDING. A certain hour should be chosen as the time to feed each portion and that hour should be adhered to most strictly. Any temporary variation is sure to result in a falling off in milk. Anything likely to irritate the cow or render her uneasy is almost certain to injuriously affect the milk flow. WATER. The requirements of the milch cow in the way of water are very considerable. The more milk produced and the more feed consumed, the greater is likely to be the amount of water required. This amount may vary from, say, 75 pounds up to even 300 pounds water in a single 24-hour period. The problems of how to water, when to water and how much water to give, can best be solved 1 by allowing the cow free access to water at all times. The water had better be warmed in winter, but, if it is not convenient to store it in a warm place, it will not pay to warm it artificially. The individual drinking fountain is probably the best method, but the trough filled periodically and washed out frequently has many advocates. The using of the manger for watering purposes after feeding is practised in some stables, but our experience would lead us to condemn the system as troublesome and less satisfactory from the standpoint of comfort to the animals than the individual bucket. But of one thing care should be taken, no matter what the system adopted, that is, to keep the cups or troughs or water supply clean and sweet. SALT. Salt is necessary to the comfort and health of the dairy cow. The quantity to feed will vary from an ounce to three or four u ounces a day. It might, as in the case of the calf, be given in the form of rock salt in the manger, but had better be fed daily in the food. It adds to the palatability of a food, hence is valuable as an appetizer, as a food and as a stomachic. EXERCISE. Exercise when taken by the dairy cow is not immediately con- ducive to milk production. On the contrary, anything that might be called exertion is practically certain to lower the milk flow temporarily. It would, however, be unwise to say that the dairy cow shomdd have no exercise while producing milk. It is probable that the allowing of a moderate amount of exercise will have a bene- ficial effect upon the health of t'he animal and almost certain that such exercise will advantageously affect the offspring. Turning the cow out in cold winter weather, however, to shiver, if only for half an hour a day, in the winter winds, is likely to prove anything but healthful to the cow, economical to the farmer or advantageous to the breeder. 72 THE PHILOSOPHY OF FEEDING. The maintenance of life in any animal means food consumption. The performance of work means proportionately so miuich more food required by the animal body, while the production of milk in large or considerable quantities means much more food consumed even relatively since not only must the elements entering into the composi- tion of the milk be secured from some external source, food, but there is a further and very considerable demand for food to supply the energy required to elaborate milk from the material consumed. In brief, the good dairy cow is necessarily a large consumer of food. Food consumption is her business. The food consumed should, and usually does, contain the elements found necessary to repair the body waste and elaborate that much-desired product, milk. The animal body consists of (1) water, from 40 to 65 per cent; (2) ash or mineral matter, from 2 to 4 per cent; (3) fat, from 5 to 30 per cent; and (4) nitrogenous material or protein, from 11 to 20 per cent. All these materials sihould be supplied living animals daily in order to keep them in good health. WHAT WE FEED. As might be expected, the foods commonly fed cattle and other farm animals contain in varying proportions those very ele- ments found to be necessary to the life and profitable exploitation of the dairy cow. Plants or their parts, however, contain in considerable quantities a substance called ' carbohydrates ' in addition to the protein, water, fat and mineral matters or ash. Water. All feed stuffs contain water. The proportion varies from 8 to 10 per cent in grain, hay, etc., to 90 or even 95 per cent in certain varieties of roots or lush-growing peas and clover. The water in feeds is of no greater food value than common drinking- water; but its presence may materially affect the palatability of a food. Carbohydrates. Carbohydrates may be said to be of two kinds: Nitrogen-free extract, .as starch, sugar, gums, etc., and cellulose or fibre, the principal part of vegetable cell walls. These substances are converted by the animal into fat and so stored in the body or are used at once to produce heat or energy. Carbohydrates, con- stituting as they do the largest part of most feeding stuffs, are made PLATE XIX. The Record Sheet furnished free on application. See page 33. 27S8J p. 7 PLATE XX. ; Th' 1 Meal Cart." Note: 3 wheels ; 2 compartments ; spring balance ; feed scoop. 73 the basis for ration calculations. Fat, it has been determined, is worth about 2 times as much as carbohydrates pound for pound. Protein. Protein (or nitrogenotus material) is that constituent of the plant containing nitrogen. It is sometimes called the 'flesh former.' It enters into the composition of most parts of the animal body and is a most important constituent of milk. No other sub- stance can take its place. It is believed, however, that protein may take the place of, or can be converted into, fat. It is thus evident that protein is an indispensable part of every ration. Fat. Fat is the part of a feeding stuff that may be dissolved from it by ether. Real fats, moreover, include wax and some other constituents of plants. Fat in the food may be stored in the body as fat, used to maintain the heat of the body or converted into the fat of milk. As already stated, one pound of fat is worth about 2J pounds of carbohydrates for heat production. Asli. Ash is what is left after the combustible part of a feeding stuff is burned away. It is used in the formation of bone and the elaboration of the digestive juices. Water is the most common and the most important substance in the body. It serves as a solvent for most solids in the body and enters largely into the composition of every part of it as well as plays a most important part in all functions. Mineral matter enters more or less into the composition of the muscles and other soft tissues, but is used most largely in building nip bone. Fat is found in greater or less quantities in most tissues while protein enters into the composition of practically every part of the animal body or product. Milk, with the production of which we are especially concerned, hns protein for about one-third of its dry matter content, and fat for another third thereof, while sugar, etc., make up the rest. PROPORTIONS IN WHICH DIFFERENT FOOD CONSTITUENTS SHOULD BE FED TO DAIRY COWS. A great deal of work has been done by investigators to determine just how much of each of these food constituents is needed by animals under given conditions. It is a general principle that an animal should have as much water as its body calls for, and sufficient ash seems to be fed in ordinary rations to meet all demands. It 74 is evident, therefore, that if it be possible to determine just how much of each of the three remaining classes of nutrients protein, carbohydrates, and fat is needed, and if it be known how much of each the various feeding stuffs contain, it will not be a difficult matter to compute the ration. Meaning of 'Ration' By ' Ration ' is meant (1) the total amount of food of all kinds fed to an animal in each or any 24-hour or day-long period, and (2) in a general way, the mixture of feeds being fed any given herd or individual. Digestible Constituents. By the use of reagents, the chemist can determine the exact percentage of any given substance in a food. The digestive organs of the cow, while able to utilize or digest certain proportions of the different substances, are seldom or never able to dissolve the whole of any food or of any particular constituent, as protein, carbohydrates or fat, contained in that food. By careful experimental work it has been possible to determine just what percentage of any given substance in a food is digestible by cattle. The quantity so digestible is called ' digestible protein,' 'digestible fat 7 or 'digestible carbohydrates/ as the case may be. Nutritive Ratio. The proportion existing between the digestible protein and the sum of the digestible carbohydrates and the fat multiplied by 2 in any particular feed or in any mixture of feeds, is known as the nutritive ratio of the feed or of the mixture. Thus in the case of wheat bran there is about 11 -9 pounds digestible protein to 47 -6 pounds of digestible carbohydrates plus fat x 2. If the number 47-6 be divided by 11 '9 it will be found to go 4 times. It is then said that the nutritive ration of wheat bran is 1 to 4. This is usually written : N.R. 1 : 4. A ration where the amount of carbohydrates and fat is large in proportion to the amount of protein is said to have a 'wide' nutritive ratio. A ration where the proportion was 1 of protein 75 to 8 of carbohydrates and fat, written usually N.R. 1: 8, would be called wide for a dairy cow in milk. ' N.R. 1 : 8 ' is read ' Nutri- tive Ratio 1 to 8.' A ration with a large amotunt of protein in proportion to the carbohydrates and fat, say 1 protein to 3 -2 carbohydrates and fat, that is N.R. 1: 3-2, would be called a narrow ration for a cow in milk. A ration in which the proportion between the principal consti- tuents, protein on the one side and carbohydrates and fat on the other is such that for the amount of feed the best possible results are obtained in the way of milk, in Hhe case of the dairy cow, is said to be a ' balanced ration? As given in the ' Wolff-Lehmann Feeding Standard' below, a balanced ration for a cow giving about 27 -5 Ibs. milk should show 1 protein to 4 '5 carbohydrates and fat, that is N.R. 1: 4-5. FEEDING STANDARDS. Investigations made into the amounts of protein, carbohydrates and fats required by animals, and the amount of each available in the vario-us feeding stuffs, have resulted in the evolving of what are commonly called l Feeding Standards,' indicating what experience and investigation have found to be the approximately proper amounts of each of these essential food constituents to include in a ration for the best results. Some of the better known of these ' Standards/ so far as dairy cattle are concerned, are given below: WOLFF-LEHMANN FEEDING STANDARD. (German Investigations.) Milch cows when yielding. Per day, 1,000 Ibs. live weight. Nutritive Ratio. Digestible protein. Digestible Carbohydrates plus fat x 2 25. 11 Ibs milk daily 1-6 20 L"5 33 10 7 11-9 14 1 14-8 1 :6'7 1 :6 1:5-7 1 :4 5 IG'G ii oo 27-5 M 76 WISCONSIN STANDARD. POUNDS OF DRY MATTER, DIGESTIBLE MATTER AND DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN TO BE FURNISHED IN RATIONS FOR DAIRY COWS. Live Weight. Dry cows. Production of Butter fat per day in Pounds. Less 1 than 0-5-0-75 51b. 75-1-0 1-0-1-25 1-25-1-5 1-5-1-75 1-75-2.0 . POUNDS DRY MATTER TO BE FURNISHED IN RATIONS. 800 10-0 13-7 16-2 18-6 21-1 23-5 2G-0 28'4 900 11-3 15 17-5 19-9 22-4 24-8 27'3 29'7 1,000 12-5 16-2 18-7 21-1 23-6 26-0 28-5 30-9 1,100 13-8 17-5 20-0 22-4 24-9 27 3 20-8 32-2 1,200 15-0 18-7 21-2 23-6 26-1 28-5 31'0 33-4 1,300 16'3 20-0 22-5 2-1-9 27-4 29-8 32'3 34 : 7 1,400 17-5 21-2 23-7 26-1 28-6 31-0 33-5 35-9 1,500 18-8 22-5 25 27'4 29-9 32-8 34-7 37 2 POUNDS DIGESTIBLE MATTER TO BE FURNISHED IN RATIONS. 800 56 1'04 1-35 1-65 1-97 2-29 2-60 2-91 900 63 I'll 1-42 1-73 2-04 2-36 2'67 2-98 ,000 70 1-18 1-49 1 80 2-11 2-43 2-74 3-05 ,100 77 1-25 1-56 1-87 2-18 2-50 2'81 3-12 ,200 84 1-32 1-63 1-94 2-25 2-57 2-88 3-19 ,300 91 1-39 1-70 2 01 2'32 2-64 2-95 3-26 ,400 98 1-46 1-77 2-08 2-39 2-71 3-02 3-33 ,500 1-05 1-53 1-84 2-15 2-46 2'78 3-09 3-40 POUNDS DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN TO BE FURNISHED IN RATIONS. 800 6-3 9.0 10-7 12-5 14-2 16-0 17 7 19-5 900 7-1 9-8 11-5 13'3 15-0 16-8 18-5 20 3 1,000 7-9 10-6 12-3 14'] 15-8 17-6 19-3 21-1 1,100 8-7 11-4 13-1 14-9 16-6 18-4 20 1 21-9 1,200 9-5 12-2 13'9 15-7 17 4 19-2 20-9 22-7 1,300 10-3 13-0 14-7 16-5 18-2 20'0 21-7 23-5 1,400 11-1 13-8 15-5 17-3 19-0 20-8 22-5 24-3 1,500 11-9 14-6 16-3 18-1 19-8 21-6 23-3 25-1 77 THE HAECKER FEEDING STANDARD. (Minnesota, U.iS.A.) Daily Allowance of Digestible Nutrients. Nutritive ratio. Crude Protein. Carbohydrates plus fat x 2 ' 25. For support of the 1 000 Ib cow Ibs. 0'700 Ibs. 7-00 To the allowance for support add : For each Ib. of 3 per cent milk . . n Ib. of 3'5 .. .. .. Ib. of 4-0 .. Ib. of 4'5 n .. .. Ib. of 5-0 .1 .... Ib. of 5-5 ,, .. .. Ib. of 6-0 n ii Ib. of 6 '5 n .... 040 0-042 0-047 0-049 0-051 0-054 0-057 0-061 0-063 22 0-24 0'27 0-30 0-31 0-33 0'3(5 0'38 0-41 1 :5'5 1:5-7 1 : 5-74 1 :6'1 1:61 1:6-1 1 :6'3 1 :6'3 1:6-5 Ib. of 7'0 In using this standard prepared -by Professor Hsecker at the Minnesota Station, it is necessary to change the amount of food indicated * For support of the 1,000 Ib. cow ' in proportion to the weight of the cow being considered, that is while a 1,000 Ib. cow requires 0-.700 Ibs. crude protein arid 7 '225 Ibs. carbohydrates plus fat x 2-25, a 1,200 Ib. cow would require 1,200 or six-fifths of these amounts, or -840 Ibs. crude protein and 8 -670 Ibs. carbohydrates plus fat x 2 -25. KELLNER'S STANDARD. 1,000 Ib. Cow. Dry matter. Digestible Protein. Milch cow yielding 20 Ibs. milk daily Ibs. 25-29 Ibs. 1'6 tol'9 ,, 30 n 27-33 2'2 to 2'5 ii 40 n 27 34 2'8 to 3'2 78 SCANDINAVIAN STANDARD. Milch cow yielding to 13 Ibs. milk 22 Ibs. milk 33 44 Digestible Protein. Ibs. 1 10 1-65 2'20 2 75 A glance at the above Feeding Standards indicates the necessity of the feeder having at hand tables showing the composition of the feeding stuffs he is using. In the tables on page 116 and following, compiled from various sources, (Henry's Feeds and Feeding in most cases) will be found t'he quantity of dry matter, digestible protein and digestible carbohydrates, plus fat, (the latter multiplied by the co-efficient 2-], that is 2-25) in 100 pounds of an average sample of each of the feeding stuffs mentioned. Not infrequently, feeds being fed differ materially in composition from the average as given in the tables just mentioned. This might be due to various causes, as weathering in the case of hay, or drought at filling time in the case of grain. Among the feeds in the tables as mentioned above, will be found a number that, so far as composition is concerned, come very nearly fulfilling the requirements of the Feeding Standards. We know that it is impossible, however, without serious injury to the health of the cows and to the yield of milk, to feed them exclusively on any one feed, as roots or grain, or even on good corn ensilage alone, and that to ensure good results, these feeds must be mixed in certain more or less definite proportions, sudh as theory and practical agri- ctuilture have together worked out. A study of the different kinds of foods available is, therefore, necessary so that the proper quantities of the substances in the foods, viz, proteins, carbohydrates and fats, may be given to the animals and the best results thus attained. Moreover, it is necessary, both for the sake of economy and for the health of the animal, to weigh or measure the amount of feed given to each. In order that a cow may digest her food to the best advantage, she must receive a considerable volume of bulky food, 79 part of which will necessarily be of low nutritive value. As a matter of fact, her total ration should include from 25 to 35 pounds or even more dry matter. It is evident, therefore, that a great deal of roughage has to be fed so that this quantity of dry matter may be supplied to the cow. Experience has shown that for a 1,000 pound animal, a good roughage ration is 35 Ibs. corn ensilage, 20 Ibs. mangels, 5 Ibs. clover hay and a little chaff. The amount and character of the meal mixture or concentrate part of the ration will be affected by the amount of milk being produced. If a cow responds freely to an increase of meal she should be fed all the more liberally up to that point where a further increase in the quantity of meal does not seem to produce a relative increase in milk flow. One pound of meal for four pounds of milk is liberal feeding; one pound for three pounds of milk would be hardly economical unless dairy products were bringing relatively a very high price. The quality or composition of the meal ration is an important factor affecting the milk yield. As a rule, heavy milking cows can and will make better use of meal mixtures containing heavy meals such as corn, gluten meal, oil cake and cotton seed meal, than will small producers. Further, it is exceedingly important to remember that palatabil- ity in the meal as well as in the roughage is an influence that is not infrequently underestimated. Variety in meals fed is advisable, but variety should mean a blending of meals not a substitution of one for another at frequent intervals. To illustrate, it is much better to feed a mixture of bran, oats, barley, oil meal, gluten, cotton- seed meal, etc., than to feed any single one of them for a time, to be subsequently replaced by some other. INDIVIDUALITY OF COWS. Another point to be kept in mind is that considerable difference may be observed in individual cows as to their feeding capacity and the returns they make for the food supplied them. These differences may in turn be ascribed to differences in the maintenance require- ments of each. The maintenance requirement is the ' amount of food required to prevent the body consuming its own tissues/ In this maintenance requirement, considerable variation may be observed in individuals of the same bresds on similar feeds and under like 80 conditions. It seems probable that much of this variation is due to differences in the temperament of the animals. Obviously, the main- tenance requirement of a quiet, placid animal will be considerably less than that of a restless one. The individuality of cows, therefore, and especially in the matter of their responsiveness to feed 1 , ought to be a matter of con- tinual study to the dairyman. HOW TO USE THE TABLES OF COMPOSITION AND THE FEEDING STANDARDS. To show how to use the tables of feed composition as given on page 117 et seq. } in such a way as to learn the probable value of a given ration, or to compound an entirely new ration, the feeds avail- able being known, the following problems and their solutions are given. Problem 7. ' To a thousand-pound Ayrshire cow, yielding 30 Ibs. of milk a day, there is being fed 35 Ibs. corn ensilage, 10 Ibs. cut oat straw, 5 Ibs. clover hay, 3 Ibs. bran and Q Ibs. crushed oats. Could this ration be improved upon, and, if so, how?.' Discussion. Reference to the Feeding tables shows the following to be the feeding value of the ration described : Digestible Feed. Digestible Protein. Carbohydrates plus digestible Nutritive Ratio. fat x 2. Ibs. Ibs. - 490 5-530 10 Ibs oats straw . 130 4'130 5 Ibs clover hay 355 2 ' 095 '357 1'428 2 Ibs crushed oats 170 1'178 1-508 14-361 1 :9 55 Requirements of : 1. Wolff-Lehmann Standard about. 3 5 15-2 1 :4'50 2. Wisconsin n n . 2-11 15-8 3. Haecker ., . 2'00 14-5 4. Kellner's n n . 2-40 5. Scandinavian n n . 2'25 This ration, according to any or all of the Feeding Standards given, is evidently much too wide, and to correct this condition it PLATE XXI. Milking Shorthorn Illurninata III. Produced 8,555 Ibs. 3 '77 per cent milk in 327 days as a. mature cow. Holatein Cow De Kol Pauline Sadie Val, Champion Holstein cow at Toronto, 1910. 27889 p. 80. PLATE XXII. Canadian Cow Fortune Precoce- Produced 0,639 Ibs. milk 4'47 per cent fat in 269 days, as 4 yr. old. Ayrshire Cow Billhead 1437 13 yrs. old. Many times a champion. 81 will be necessary to either add or substitute some feed rather rich in protein. The diminution of the straw to 5 Ibs. instead of 10, the increasing of the clover hay from 5 up to 10 Ibs., the increasing of the bran to 4 Ibs.. and the addition of 2 Ibs. of oil cake meal, would mean a much better ration for such a cow, and a ration that would probably ressuit in a considerable increase in the flow of milk. Below is given the new ration, worked out in the same way as tihe old : Feed. Digestible Protein. Digestible Carbohydrates plus digestible fat x 2j. Nutritive Ratio. 35 Ibs corn ensilage Ibs. 490 Ibs. 5 '530 5 Ibs oat straw 065 2 065 10 Ibs clover hay , '710 4 ' 190 4 Ibs wheat bran . '47G IMlOi 2 Ibs. crushed oats 176 1*178 2 Ibs. oil cake . '630 822 2'547 15-689 1 :6'2 This modified ration is apparently still too wide according to the Wolif-Lehmaiin ; it is however quite as narrow as necessary according to the other Standards given, which are probably the more nearly rig-ht. Further, as this ration is made up almost entirely from exceedingly palatable fesds, corn ensilage, clover hay, wheat bran, crushed oats and oil cake meal, is is probable that it is as good a ration as could be fed such a cow and almost certainly more pro- fitable than would be a ration complying more nearly with the require- ments of the Wolff-Lelimann feeding standard, since to narrow the nutritive ratio down to 1 : 4 -.5 would mean the addition of about 3 Ibs. more oil cake or else the still further substitution of clover for straw or of clover in the place of part of the ensilage. Our experi- ence here would seem to show that while the Wolff-Lehmann Standards are probably right wKere no attention is paid to the effect of feeds on palatability, they are apparently unnecessarily narrow when easily digestible, highly palatable feeds make up the ration. In this, our experience seems to bear out the findings of the Wis- consin and other investigators both American and European, whose 27889-6 standards, it will have been observed, are of mu'0h wider nutritive ratio than the Wolff-Lehmann under similar conditions. Further, we have seldom found it profitable to feed more than one pound of meal mixture or concentrate to about four pounds of milk produced. Of course, if the cow was giving 30 Ibs. of milk on the ration mentioned in the inquiry, she is practically certain to give considerably more, probably 35 to 40 Ibs. on the new ration as suggested. Problem II. A farmer has at his disposition clover hay, mixed hay, wheat chaff, mangels and oat straw. He has also a small amount of oats and he can conveniently purchase gluten meal, bran and cotton seed meal. He is particularly anxious to produce a large quantity of milk. His cows are for the most part Holstein grades and not long calved. What would be a good ration compounded from all or any of the feeds mentioned? Solution. Nothing is said of the quantities of different feeds available hence it will have to be taken for granted that they are any and all, except oats, available in any quantities desired. The Holstein grade being usually a large cow of 1,200 to 1,500 Ibs., a ration must be compiled accordingly. As already indicated, variety is an excellent quality in a ration, so, although a suitable ration might be prepared from which some of the feeds could be left out, it will probably be found advisable to include them all in one proportion or another. The ration given in the following table suggests itself: Feed. Amount. Dry Matter. Digestible Protein. Digestible Carbohydrates plus fat x 2 Nutritive Ratio. Clover hay Ibs. 8 Ibs. 6'776 Ibs. 0-568 Ibs. 3-352 Mixed hay Wheat chaff Oat straw 5 5 8 4-355 4-285 7-272 0-295 O'OOO 0-104 2-180 1-335 3-304 50 4 550 0-550 2-950 Oats 2 1-792 0-176 1-178 Gluten meal Cotton seed . . ... Bran 2 2 5 1-810 1-860 4-405 594 0-752 0-595 1-124 0-860 2-380 Wisconsin Stand- ard about 37*105 35-9 3-694 3 33 18 663 Since the Wolff-Lehmann Standards do not go above 30 Ibs. of milk per diem it will be necessary to compare this with the Wisconsin Standard as given on page 76. This Standard calls for 3-33 Ibs. digestible protein, 35 -9 Ibs. dry matter and 24 '3 Ibs. digestible dr v matter (digestible protein plus digestible fat x 2) for a 1,4100 pound cow giving from 1 -75 to 2 -00 Ibs. butter fat per diem, which is the maximum such cows might be expected to give when fresh. The ration as suggested shows 37-105 Ibs. dry matter, 3-694 Ibs. digestible protein and 18 -663 Ibs. digestible carbohydrates and fat, approximately the same as in the Wisconsin Standard. The ration as suggested might be fed as follows: Morning. 25 Ibs. mangels, 5 Ibs. mixed hay; 5 Ibs, oat straw; and half the meal mixture, since the best way to feed the 2 Ibs. each gluten meal, oats and cotton seed meal and the 5 Ibs. bran would be as a meal mixture made up in those proportions. Afternoon or evening, 25 Ibs. mangels, 8 Ibs. clover hay, 5 Ibs. wheat chaff and half meal mixture. It is probable that the wheat chaff would not be all eaten fou.t what was left could be thrown back for litter under the cow. If more concentrates were necessary, that is, if it were found advisable to give some heavy producing individuals more meal, an extra amount of the meal mixture described would probably be as good as anything that could be fed. Making the proportion of gluten or cotton seed meal 3 instead of 2 would probably be a slight improvement, although any increase of the heavier meals in a mix- ture must be made gradually and the effects carefully watched. FEEDING METHODS PRACTISED AND DAIRY RATIONS FED BY CERTAIN FARMERS. To give the beginner some idea of what ^feeding methods are actually followed in various parts of Canada letters weire sent to a number of the best dairymen in each province, asking them to state briefly their methods of feeding cows both summer and winter. Some of the replies are summarized below. Further on are submitted what the' writer considers would be the methods of feeding and the rations most likely to prove satis- factory and profitable in the various provinces mentioned. In the Eastern provinces and British Columbia the ration suggested is for a 1,000 Ib. cow. 27889-6i 84 In the Prairie provinces the ration suggested is for a 1,200 Ib. cow. PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND. J. H. S., Bay View, P.E.I. Feeds grain all the year round. When grass begins to fail, supplies green feed, oats and peas, vetches, corn and roots. Allows cows to pasture on the aftermath of clover and timothy crop. For winter ration, feeds: 50 Ibs. pulped turnips, clover and timothy hay all they will eat, and a small quantity of oat and barley dust. F. G., Margate, P.E.I. Ports cows on pasture about June 15. Soils with oats and vetches, later corn. No meal in summer. In winter feeds silage, roots, oat and vetch hay, with two gallons crushed oats. W. C. & S., North Wiltshire, P.E.I. Feed no grain during first two months of pasture, but after that, supply for one month 35 Ibs. green feed (oats, peas and vetches) 4 Ibs. crushed oats and Q Ibs. bran per day. Next two months feed 40 Ibs. corn fodder," 6 Ibs. crushed oats, 2 Ibs. bran and 1 Ib. oil cake. The winter ration con- sists of 30 Ibs. roots, 15 Ibs. hay, 8 Ibs.. straw, 6 Ibs. crushed oats, 2 Ibs. bran and 1 Ib. oil cake. NOVA SCOTIA. S. A. L., Amherst Point, N ? S. Feeds 3 to 6 Ibs. bran or middlings to each cow at pasture. When pasture begins to fail, soiling crops (peas and oats, vetches, corn and turnips) supplied. When cattle are housed feed consists of marsh hay all they will eat, 10 to 60 Ibs. swede turnips, 4 to 10 Ibs. per day of meal crushed barley, oats, peas, wheat bran, oil cake or gluten meal or mixtures of these. F. M. T., Antigonish, N.S. Feeds cows nothing but pasture until toward end of August when soiling is resorted to, the crops being peas and oats, vetches and oats and, later, turnips. The winter feed is made iu.p as follows : 20 Ibs. clover hay, oat straw all thoy will eat; 40 Ibs. turnips; 8 to 12 Ibs. meal (wheat bran and cotton- seed meal in proportion of 100 to 20). C. A. A., Truro, N.S. As a rule feeds no grain to cows at pasture, but in dry season supplies one quart oil cake meal and two quarts of wheat bran once a day. In winter, hay all they will eat, 1 85 bushel roots, ono quart oil cake and two quarts oats, barley and pea chop mixed with the roots make iup the ration. Much of the hay is grown on undyked marshes. E. S. A., Truro, N.S. Feeds in pasture season 3 to 6 Ibs. meal to newly-freshened cows. Feeds also large amounts of green feed, viz., rape, mixed peas, oats and vetches, second cut of clover and corn. In winter he supplies for roughage to 1 bushel roots, 15 to 20 Ibs. ensilage, 9 to 15 Ibs. hay. The meal ration is fixed, according^ to the breed and production of the animal, between the following figures: Holsteins, 12 to 15 Ibs.; Ayrshires, 7 to 12 Ibs.; Jerseys, 6 to 10 Ibs. NEW BRUNSWICK. J. F. R., Sussex, N.B. Cows prut to pasture end of May. Very little grain is fed. Green feed (oats, peas and corn) is supplied. In winter 4 Ibs. wheat middlings, 4 Ibs. bran O>T shorts, 2 Ibs. cotton- seed meal, one-half bushel turnips and 30 Ibs. mixed hay are given. H. H. S., Upham, N.B. Cows put to pasture about middle of June. Beginning of August green oats and peas are fed, and, later, turnips along with 3 qiu-arts middlings, bran or meal. Turnips, clover or timothy hay, 3 quarts bran, 3 quarts middlings, and one quart meal make up the winter ration. E. A. S., Hampton, N.B. Does not usually feed grain while cows are at pasture. Green feed is supplied in late summer. For winter feed, one bushel pulped turnips, 8 to 10 Ibs. hay with one Ib. of the following mixture for every 4 Ibs. of milk produoed: 3 bags bran, 2 bags middlings, 1 bag corn meal, 1 pail cottonseed meal. G. R. Bloomfield Station, N.B. Cows put to pasture June 1. No grain, but in August green feed (oats and peas, vetch and buck- wheat) is supplied. Hay and straw all they will eat; bushel pulped turnips; 8 Ibs. of a mixture of bran and cornmeal with a little oats and barley make up the winter feed. QUEBEC. G. F. T., Hudson Heights, Quebec. Feeds no grain while cows are at pasture, but has ensilage to last until green feed clover is ready. In winter the cows get 50 Ibs. ensilage, 9 Ibs. of meal (shorts and oil cake) and hay all they will eat. 86 F. E. 0., St. Lambert, Quebec. Cows at pasture get 2 bushels brewers' grains and, in late summer, green feed in addition. In winter, ensilage, hay, brewers' grains, gluten, and cottonseed meal comprise the ration. J. C. P., West Brome, Quebec. Feeds a little grain (oats, middlings, bran, corn meal, shorts and schumacker) when pastures begin to fail. From middle of July, green feed, peas, oats and barley and, later, green corn are supplied. The winter ration is made up of 30 Ibs. ensilage, roots, clover hay, ground oats and corn meal OT bran and meal. Institut Agricole, Oka, Quebec. No grain is fed while cows are at pasture, but when grass fails, green oats, peas, vetches, alfalfa and rape are supplied. T>he winter feed is: 25 Ibs. ensilage, 20 Ibs. mangels, 12 Ibs. alfalfa, 3 Ibs. bran, 2 Ibs. oats, 2 Ibs. barley, 1 Ib. oil meal. N. L., St. Paul 1'Ermite, Quebec. Cows get only pasture until August when corn and other green feed is supplied. In winter, 8 Ibs. each of hay and straw, 10 Ibs. of mixture of barley, oats and buckwheat with a little bran and dust made into a mash make up the ration. O. S., North Sut ton, Quebec. Cows are put to pasture about end of May. No grain fed, but in the late part of the summer, soiling crops (vetches, millets and corn) are supplied. 30 Ibs. turnips, 4 Ibs. shorts, 3 Ibs. corn meal and as much corn fodder and mixed hav as they will eat make iu,p the winter feed. T. T., St. Prosper, Quebec. Cows get pasture alone until August when they get oats and vetches. In September they are 'allowed the run of the meadow aftermath. Turnip tops are fed in October. Clover hay and hot mash containing 1 Ib. bran, \ Ib. oi' cake and 30 Ibs. turnips, make up the winter feed. J. J. T., White's Station, Quebec. If pasture is good, no grain is fed. Ensilage with a sprinkling of ground barley and oats when grass gets scarce. The winter ration is 50 Ibs. ensilage, alfalfa or clover hay all they will eat; meal (barley and oats, gluten meal, cottonseed meal and bran). F. V. B., Beaupre, Quebec. Feeds Q Ibs. oil cake, clover, oats and peas or corn all summer besides allowing cows to run on pasture. In winter feeds 8 Ibs. oat meal, 25 Ibs. mangels or swedes, 9 Ibs. hay, 3 Ibs. oil cake and straw all they will eat. 87 A Quebec ration (Cap Rouge). Cows put to grass June 1. After middle of July, green feed such as oats and vetches is given. No grain. Winter ration consists of 25 to 30 Ibs. of hay, 5 Ibs. of a mixture of 2 parts bran, and one part oil cake. Meal mixed with chaff and out hay and moistened. After 12 hours, this is fed with i Ib. salt. A Quebec ration (Ste. Anne de la Pocatiere). Cows put to grass first week in June. Nothing but pasture until late summer when vetches are fed. In winter feeds hay, straw, and a mash of bran and crushed oats with roots, turnips, beets and potatoes. ONTARIO. J. McK., Norwich, Ontario. Feeds no grain while cows are at pasture; in fall, feeds green sweet corn, and pastures on second growth of alfalfa. Winter ration: Alfalfa hay, 40 Ibs. ensilage, 2 Ibs. of oil cake or cottonseed meal, 8 to 12 Ibs. of oat chop plus i bran plus gluten; and a few roots. S. B., Glendale, Ontario. Feed in winter one bushel ensilage, 12 quarts brewers' grains, several quarts barley, oats and peas (ground) and some clover or alfalfa. J. H. M., London, Ontario. Feeds 8 quarts oat chop and shorts while cows are at pasture. Between August 1 and October, feeds green alfalfa, and, later, corn ensilage. Ensilage with cut straw mixed with shorts, together with hay or alfalfa make up the winter ration. . MANITOBA. D. S., Gladstone, Manitoba. While cows are at pasture, feeds bran with barley or oats. In winter, cows get barley and oat straw, hay or corn stalks and 2 gallons of mixture equal parts barley chop, oat chop and bran. W. H. N., Carman, Manitoba. Feeds 2 gallons oat chop while cows are at pasture. Continues this grain feed throughout winter and feeds also as roughage iimthreshed oat sheaves. W. M. C., Reaburn, Manitoba. Allows his cows hay all summer while pasturing on prairie grass. In addition, they get 2 to 4 quarts oat chop. In winter, he gives them prairie hay all they will eat, oat sheaves, a little fodder corn, and barley chop, flaxseed mixed with barley, and wheat chop. 88 A Manitoba ration (Brandon, Manitoba). Pasture season extends from middle of May to end of November. Summer feed is almost exclusively pasture. For winter feed the following are used: Corn ensilage, 35 Ibs. ; roots, 15 Ibs. ; clover or alfalfa hay 12 Ibs.; oat straw, 4 Ibs.; chopped oats, 6 Ibs.; bran 3 Ibs. S. B., Neepawa, Manitoba. Puts cows to pasture about middle of May. Feeds 2 gallons oat and barley chop until about 1st August when green corn is substituted. Winter ration consists of corn >s stalks, hay, barley or oat straw. Chop is a mixture of bran, oats and barley. Amounts given according to production of animals. SASKATCHEWAN. A. B. P., Langbank, Sask. Feeds a mixture of oats and barley while cows are at pasture, and in fall some rape. In winter, gives cows a".l roughage they will eat, and measures grain according to cow. Roughage consists of corn stover, prairie hay, oat and barley straw, some alfalfa hay, and roots. The meal ration is a mixture of oats and barley. F. O. H., Pense, Sask. Feeds 3 quarts of oat chop while cows are at pasture. For winter roughage, hay and oat sheaves arc supplied and a meal ration consisting of 6 quarts oat chop and 6 quarts bran. J. T., Abernethy, Sask. Feeds one gallon chopped oats while cows are at pasture and, later, some sugar beets. Sugar beets and turnips, oat straw, prairie hay, and oat sheaves are the roughage feeds in winter. A slop of oat chop and bran (about 1 gallon each cow) is supplied. J. McF., Parkbeg, Sask. Allows only pasture for his cows in summer. In winter wild hay and green oats are the ration. A Saskatchewan ration (Indian Head). Pasture lasts from end of May until middle of November. 2 Ibs. of a mixture of one part wheat screenings to 2 parts oats are fed during this season. In winter, the ration is '20 Ibs. corn ensilage in which is mixed 10 Ibs. cut oat straw, 8 Ibs. meal (1 part barley, 2 parts oats, 2 parts bran, p ; nd 1 part linsead meal). A Saskatchewan ration (Rosthern). Cows are pastured exclu- sively during summer from May 1 to end of September. In winter, they are fed two sheaves of oats, 6 Ibs. of oat chop, 4 Ibs. bran, and all the prairie hay they can eat up clean. PLATE XXIII. Canadian Bull Goldfinder 1613. Holstein Bull Artis Mercedes Posch. "Many times a winner of Championships." 27889 -p. 88. 89 ALBERTA. T. L., Calgary, Alta. .Cows at pasture get green feed of peas and oats', rape, and, later, Aberdeen turnips. In winter, they get 10 Ibs. of oat sheaf, hay and oat straw all they will eat and 10 to 15 Ibs. of a mixture of bran with chopped oats, frozen wheat or barley. W. J. T., Calgary, Alta. Feeds some grain while cows are at pasture and also, in late season, rape, alfalfa and green oats. Prairie hay, oat hay, fodder corn and 3 Ibs. per 10 Ibs. milk of a mixture of bran, oats and barley chop make up the winter ration. C. P. R., Strathmore, Alta. Cows are pastured in early sum- mer on rye sown preceding fall, and later on permanent pasture. In winter, they get either alfalfa with crushed oats and barley, or prairie hay and crushed oats with barley and bfaii (2 parts bran; 2 parts crushed oats; 1 part barley) 5 to 5 Ibs. of this grain ration is fed per cow. C. A. J. S., Red Deer, Alta. Uses rye for early spring and late fall pasture. Pastures also on prairie grass with fodder corn for soiling. In winter, gives the animals all they will clean up of alfalfa, hay from brome and western rye grass, barley and oats (cut green). In addition to these they get some roots, and some chop (3 of oats to 1 of wheat). An Alberta ration (Lethbridge). Cows put to pasture about 1st of May. No grain nor soiling crops are fed. In winter, cows are supplied with 30 Ibs. alfalfa hay, 20 Ibs. mangels and 4 to 5 Ibs. bran. BRITISH COLUMBIA. W. F. H., Eburne, B.C. Feeds nothing but pasture until middle of July after which he supplies about 5 Ibs. ground oats. His winter ration is: 40 Ibs. corn ensilage, 5 Ibs. finely-ground oats, 6 Ibs. shorts, 4 Ibs. bran, 40 Ibs. roots, 2 to 3 Ibs. hay, and oat straw. F. S., Agassiz, B.C. While cows are at pasture, feeds 2 to 5 Ibs. of a mixture of bran and shorts (2:1). In winter feeds 20 to 30 Ibs. of mangels or turnips, 4 to 6 Ibs. of bran and shorts, mixed hay. M. B., Eburne, B.C. Feeds no meal while cows are at pasture, but in late summer, supplies green clover or oats. The winter ration is as follows : Bran and oats in equal quantities up to 8 Ibs. per day, pulped mangels, corn silage and brewers' grains all mixed. The allowance of brewers' grains is abo'ut 50 Ibs., and of the mixture above described, the animals are fed all they will 'eat. 90 SOME SUGGESTED METHODS AND RATIONS. From experience in Ontario and Quebec and from observation and enquiry in other provinces, the writer would offer the following suggestions as to methods and rations. MARITIME PROVINCES, ONTARIO, QUEBEC AND BRITISH COLUMBIA. Summer. Cows on pasture from time grass is 6 to 8 inches high. Pasture srupplemented by soiling crops or ensilage as soon as cows show any signs of falling off in milk yield. While on grass, feed small amount meal mixture, equal parts bran, crushed oats and corn meal, say from 1 to 3 Ibs. per cow in full milk. Cows being fed ensilage may require somewhat larger portion. Winter. Provide liberal supply of succulent feed, as mangels, sugar mangels, siugar beets, turnips, swedes, corn ensilage, clover ensilage, etc. Feed moderate amounts, clover hay, mixed hay, English hay, alfalfa, corn forage, corn stover, marsh hay, etc. Feed with succulent feed some oat chaff, oat straw, barley straw, etc. Supply meal mixture made 'up of two or more of the following, pne or more out of each group : Group (a). Crushed oats, corn meal, bran, shorts, buckwheat shorts, barley meal, gluten feed, brewers' grains, distillers' grains, etc. Group (b). Cottonseed meal, oil cake meal, gluten meal, peas, horse beans. Suggested Rations for 1,000 Pound Cows. Ration 1. Roots 50 Ibs., clover hay, 20 Ibs., oat straw, 5 Ib.j. Meal mixture: Bran 500, oats, 200, corn, 300, gluten meal, 300. Fed one pound meal to each four pounds milk produced. Ration 2. Roots, 20 Ibs., corn ensilage, 35 Ibs., clover hay, 10 Ibs., oat straw 5 Ibs. Meal mixture: Bran, 500, oil cake meal, 300, corn, 200. One pound to each four pounds milk produced. Ration 8. Clover hay, 20 Ibs., oat straw, 10 Ibs. Meal mixture: Bran, 500, oil cake meal, 300, oats, '200. Fed one pound to each three potunds milk produced. 91 Ration 4- Corn ensilage, 40 Ibs., oat chaff, 5 Ibs., alfalfa hay 8 Ibs. Meal mixture : Bran, 500, gluten, 200, oil cake meal, 300, barley, 200. Fed one pound to four pounds milk produced. Ration 5. Corn ensilage, 40 Ibs., alfalfa, 10 Ibs., oat straw, 10 Ibs. Meal mixture : Bran, 500, oats, 500, barley, 500, cottonseed meal, 500. Fed one pound to four pounds milk produced. PRAIRIE PROVINCES. Summer. Cows on pasture from time grass is 4 to 6 inches high. Pasture supplemented by soiling crops, peas and oats, oats, vetches, etc., as soon as cattle show signs of falling off in milk flow. While on grass, or on grass and soiling crops, feed moderate amount suitable meal mixture as bran, oats, barley, equal parts, at rate of from 1 to 4 or even 5 pounds a day. Winter. Some succulent feed if at all possible. Corn ensilage, mangels, turnips, potatoes, etc. Hay from clover, alfalfa, brome, western rye, wild prairie grasses, oat sheaf, mixed oat and pea hay, mixed oat, wheat and barley, cut green, etc., oat chaff, wheat chaff, oat straw, barley straw, slough hay, etc. Meal mixture made up of two or more of the following one or more out of each group: Group (a). Bran, crushed oats, spelt or emmer, shorts, etc. Group (?>). Small wheat, frozen wheat, barley, oil cake meal, flax, peas, beans/ etc. Suggested Rations for 1,200 Pound Cow on Prairies. Ration 6. Corn silage 30 Ibs., Western rye grass, 10 Ibs., oat chaff, 10 Ibs. Meal mixture: Bran, 300, oats, 300, flax, 200, small wheat, 200. Fed one pound mixture to three pounds milk produced. Ration 7. Mangels or turnips 30 Ibs., brome hay, 10 Ibs., clover hay, 5 Ibs., oat chaff, 10 Ibs. Meal mixture: Oats, 300, barley, 200, small wheat, ground, 200. Fed one pound meal mixture to three pounds milk produced. Ration 8. Potatoes, 20 Ibs., brome hay or western rye grass, 10 Ibs., alfalfa, 5 Ibs., oat straw, 10 Ibs., wheat chaff, 5 Ibs. Meal mixture; Bran, 300, oats, 300, barley, 200, oil cake meal, 200. Fed one pound meal mixture to three pounds milk produced. 92 Ration 9. Brome 'hay, 12 Ibs., alfalfa, 5 Ibs., oat straw, 10 Ibs., wheat chaff, 5 Ibs. Meal mixture: Oats, 500, barley, 200, frozen wheat, 200, flax, 200. Fed one pound meal mixture to three poiunds milk produced. Ration 10. Oat sheaf, 15 Ibs., brome or western rye grass hay, 10 Ibs., oat chaff, 5 Ibs. Meal mixture: Oats, 500, small wheat, 200, barley, 200, flax, 200. Fed one pound to 2 pounds milk produced. 93 SOME NOTES ON FEEDS. The tables of feed composition as given further on in this bulletin may serve a useful purpose. Knowledge of the composition of a feed is, however, of very little use excepting there be added to that knowledge, information as to palatability, as to suitability for certain purposes, as to influence on the digestive organs or as to its effect upon the article being produced for sale, whether flesh, milk, cream, cheese or butter. The notes which follow make no claim to being exhaustive but are, for the most part, as comprehensive as will ever be found necessary to enable the average dairy farmer to feed his cattle to the best advantage both as to cost of feed and quality and quantity of product. CONCENTRATES OR MEALS. BARLEY. Barley when well ground and mixed with other and lighter meals has proven to be a valuable feed for milk production. It is held to have a good effect upon the flavour of dairy products, although the writer has never been able to satisfy himself that such was the case. It is iusually a profitable food for cows but must always be fed cautiously and should never constitute more than half the meal ration. The other meals most suitable to feed along with it are bran, oats, oil cake and corn. BREWERS 7 GRAINS. The malt grains freed from the dextrin and sugar are known as brewers' grains. They are often sold to the local trade in the wet form, and are then valuable only for immediate -use, as they do not keep. They are not injurious to cows, as claimed by some, but make a very good food when mixed with corn, oats or barley. 94 / ( BREWERS' GRAINS (DRIED). A very valuable arid easily stored cattle feed can be got by removing some of the excessive moisture from wet brewers' grains, when a feed containing a fair quantity of protein, carbohydrates, and fat is obtained. Four or five pounds per cow per day along with corn, oats, or barley and small quantities of oil cake meal or gluten meal will give good results in milk production. BUCKWHEAT. Buckwheat for dairy cows is rarely used in Canada oiutside the Maritime Provinces. It has a fair feeding value. When ground and mixed with other concentrates it usually cheapens the ration and frequently seems to increase the flow of milk. It is sometimes supposed to injuriously affect the flavour of milk. BUCKWHEAT BRAN. This is the name usually given to the mixture composed of the buckwheat hulls and that portion of the grain immediately within the hulls. The latter is a very good feed, rich in protein, but thy hulls have practically no feeding value. CORN. Corn is an excellent feed for dairy cattle. It is a concen- trated source of nutriment, extremely palatable, easily masticated and readily assimilated, bu.t should never make up more than one- half to three- fifths of the concentrate part of the ration. Poor in protein but rich in digestible carbohydrates, it should always be ground and fed along with some other grain rich in protein and light in character, s-u.ch as bran, shorts or crushed oats. Corn and cob meal is better for dairy feeding than corn meal alone or as the chief part of the meal ration. Pure corn meal is rather heavy but if mixed with cut feed can be fed in considerable quantities. Its great value lies in its easy and almost complete digestibility. CORN OIL CAKE. Corn oil cake consists of the pressed germs freed from most of the oil they .carry. It is rich in ether extract, or fat, and protein. It should never be fed in large quantities and always mixed with feeds such as bran OT oats, or a mixture of other light meals. 95 CORK BRAN. Corn bran has about the same feeding value as good straw. It contains about one half less protein than wheat bran but more carbohydrates and fat. It feeds well with gluten meal. Only wKen low priced can it be fed with profit. COTTON SEED MEAL. Cotton Seed meal, as sold on the Canadian market, is of very variable composition. It frequently contains considerable hull and much fluffy, fibrous material. Such meal is of low feeding value and need not be expected to give good results. Cotton Seed meal of good quality, that is, free from hulls and fibre, is, however, an excellent feed for dairy cows, when fed in conjunction with other and lighter meals such as oats and bran. It is, as a rule, not very acceptable to cattle at first, but is soon eaten with apparent liking. It is usually as well to feed from two to three or at most four pcxunds only of this meal a day, along with other concentrates. Larger quantities may injuriously affect the health of the animals. Cotton Seed meal is one of the few feeds likely to in any way affect the character of the fat in the milk produced. As observed elsewhere, oil cake meal fed freely will usually induce the production of softer fats or softer butter. Cotton Seed meal, however, has the opposite effect, as it will, if fed freely, cause the cow to produce harder fats or firmer butter. Erom experiments it would appear that dried distillers' grains are better milk producers than oats. They are worth about 50 per cent more than bran, depending, of course, upon their quality According to German experiments, they will produce about 12 per cent more milk and 9 per cent more fat than oats. Our experiments here indicate an even higher relative feeding value than the German experiments point to. EMMER. Emnier and speltz, as to their nutritive properties, are more nearly allied to barley than to oats, but in practice they have about the same feeding value pound for pound as oats. They are always ground together with the hulls, and may enter in large quantities 96 one-half or more in mixture with other grains. Where the rain fall is so low as to make it difficult to grow oats and barley, emmer and spe'tz frequently do very well. FEED FLOUR. When feed flour can be had at reasonable prices, it is a good feed for milk production as it contains a high percentage of carbo- hydrates and fat. Objection is sometimes made to its stickiness. To overcome this, it should never be 1 ted alone and always in small quantities and thoroughly mixed with bran or with some other feeds rich in protein and light or loose in character. FLAXSEED. On account of the high commercial value of the oil, flaxseed is not extensively used as cow feed. It contains a considerable quantity of protein with an excess of oil, but very little -starch. Steeped till it forms a gelatinous mass, it is of great value as a feed for calves on skim milk. It may be used as above either whole or ground. Mixed in small proportions along with coarse grains and ground, it adds greatly to the palatability and wholesomeness of the meal ration. It should very seldom constitute more than about one-fifth of the grain mixture and one-tenth is usually an effective proportion GLUTEN FEED. Gluten feed, as contrasted with gluten meal, contains more coarse residues from the manufacture of starch from corn. Tne effect of the addition of more or less hu!l or skin of the kernel is to render the by-product more open in character, lighter in weight and less rich in protein, hence of lower feeding value. Gluten feed is worth about the same as wheat bran from the milk production standpoint, but is not nearly such a safe feed to use. Gluten fee;!. like gluten meal, varies greatly in composition and should be bought subject to analysis. GLUTEN MEAL. A by-product of the manufacture of corn in starch and glucose factories, gluten meal is rich in protein and has a feeding value about equal to oil cake. It should be fed mixed with either bran or oats. It is susceptible of adulteration and should be bought only on guaranteed analysis. Some gluten meal will show over 30 per 27889-p. 96. 97 cent protein and may go as high as 35 per cent. When showing over 30 per cent protein it is worth from 30 to 40 per cent more than wheat bran. HORSE BEANS. Horse beans are not much grown in Canada. They are rich in protein and enter very well into mixtures with bran, oats or corn, but no more than two or three pound per cow per day should be fed. MALT SPROUTS. In the process of malting, the seeds are allowed to germinate; the germination is arrested at a certain stage and the seeds dried. The sprouts are broken off and separated from the grain and dried, in which form they are sold for feeding purposes. Malt sprouts are relatively rich in protein, 50 per cent more so than bran, but low in carbohydrates and fat. This feed is not much relished by cattle, and can only be fed in limited amount. It should be soaked for several hours before feeding and mixed with ground corn, barley or bran and never more than 2 to 5 pounds per day be fed. It is well to secure* a sample for trial before buying. OATS. Oats of various varieties are fed very extensively by dairy farmers. They have proven themselves to be fairly satisfactory as a milk-producing feed. It is, however, as a flavouring or palatability increasing constituent of the meal ration that they are most worthy of consideration. When finely ground, as should always be the case, a small proportion in the meal mixture adds very materially to its effectiveness. No other single grain or meal ration will give as good results as oats. They are, however, 'Usually so high in price as to prevent their being so used. In any case, they do better when mixed with some other grain or meal. The other meals most suitable to feed along with them are bran, oil cake, cotton seed, barley, peas and corn. OAT HULLS. Oat hulls are low in nutritive value but not unpalatable to the cow. When they contain any portions of the grain, broken kernels, or oat dust, as they practically always do, they have a considerable 278897 98 value as a flavouring feed and are worth probably half as much us crushed oats or even more. They give best results when dampened before feeding. OIL CAKE MEAL. Oil cake should always be on hand. It is a very palatable feed and has a beneficial effect on the digestive tract. It serves as an appetizer and laxative as well as a concentrated source of protein. Its general effect is to place the animal in fine condition, with a pliable skin, sleek coat and good quality of flesh. It should be fed in amount not over two or three pounds per 1,000 Ib. cow per day along with some other meals such as bran, corn or oats or a mixture of the three. Milch cows fed freely on this meal are likely to pro- duce soft fats in their milk, or milk that, if churned, will yield a soft butter. PEAS. Peas being very heavy and very rich in protein, are suitable for mixing with lighter meals. They are palatable and easily digesti- ble. The high price at which they are usually sold does much to prevent their more extensive mse. They are suitable for feeding along with oats, bran or corn. Fed in moderation and along with oats, calves do well on them. PEA HULLS. Pea hulls are practically worthless as feed for milch cows. They are dry in nature and almost destitute of the best nutritive material. When very low in price, they might be fed to cheapen the ration, as they are light and fairly palatable. RYE. Rye is not much- used for cattle feed in Canada. It has been fed in Denmark and is reported to have a deleterious effect on the quality of butter. When used at all, it should always be fed in small quantities, ground and mixed with bran, oats or corn. SHORTS OR MIDDLINGS. This is a by-product of the manufacture of wheat flour and is a valuable feed if obtained without the addition of mill dust and other adulterations. About equal to bran in dry matter and protein content and rather higher in carbohydrates, it is somewhat ' heavy' as a feed, and should be mixed with corn or oats. 99 SOY BEANS. Soy beans are grown in very small quantities in Canada and then usually as a forage crop. Aa a meal feed for dairy cows they are practically unknown here but, when available, are very valuable if mixed with other concentrates. They are rich in protein and oil. Cows must be accustomed to them to eat them readily. They should be fed along with bran, oats or corn, but in moderation, since they have a laxative effect and tend also to soften the butter. WEED SEEDS. Weed seeds, being the residue from mill screenings, contain a great deal of dust with all kinds of chaff as well as many evil-smelling and worse-tasting seeds which are not always a safe feed for dairy cattle. Feeding at intervals, in small quantities, ground and mixed with other feed, turns to profit an otherwise waste material. Soma weed seeds are very rich in oil, in protein or in carbohydrates. It is, however, safer to feed them to sheep, swine or poultry, and always in the ground state. WHEAT. Wheat as a feed for dairy cows is almost unknown in Canada. Where tried it has proven satisfactory. To give the best results, it must be rather finely ground and fed along with other meals. The other meals most suitable to feed with it are wheat bran, oats, oil cake and corn. Frozen wheat, when available, is a first-class feed for dairy cows. It should be finely ground and should not make up more than half the meal mixture. Oats and wheat bran are suitable for mixing with frozen wheat. WHEAT BRAN. As a concentrate feed for dairy cattle, all things considered, wheat bran has no equal in Canada to-day. It is good combined with other meals such as oats, corn, barley, pea, gluten, oil cake or bean meal. It comes nearest to making a successful meal ration of any concentrate fed alone. Furnishing, as it does, protein and ash, which are essentials in milk production, and also some amount of starchy matter, it should enter into every meal mixture intended for dairy cows. Being exceedingly wholesome, easily digestible and very palatable, it may constitute any part or even the whole of a profitable dairy meal ration. 100 Wheat bran is about of equal feeding value with a mixture of barley and oats, and is very little inferior to oats alone, which are usually very much dearer pound for pomnd. It is mildly laxative. Bran, as offered on the Canadian market, is frequently adulter- ated with crushed weed seeds or the hulls thereof, which greatly detract from its value. HAY FROM CLOVERS AND GRASSES. ALFALFA OR LUCERN. In many parts of Canada, three cuttings of alfalfa hay may be made each summer. It is seldom indeed that it is not possible to harvest from the alfalfa field two good large crops of a forage that for palatability, high feeding value and low cost of production is without an equal. This forage plant, so far but little known to Canadian dairymen, will undoubtedly come to its own in the near future. It is as a feed for dairy cows that it is most worthy of consideration but all classes of stock do well on it, and young cattle and calves do exceptionally well when fed therewith. When cut at the right stage (just starting to blossom) and properly aured, it is' equal to good wheat brail, pound for pound. (Tor instructions how to grow, see Experimental Farm bulletin No. 46 and Second Series bulletin No. 8.) ALSIKE CLOVER. Alsike clover is not usually sown alone for forage purposes. Mixed with red clover in the proportion of 2 to 3 pounds to 10 pounds red clover per acre, it has a most satisfactory effect upon both the quality and the quantity of hay produced. It grows well on moist land, and its stand for several years from one seeding makes it valuable in pastures and in mixed meadows that it may be desired to leave down for more than one year. BROAD LEAF MARSH HAY. Some claim broad leaf hay to be very nutritious, others say it is not very high in feeding value. Each statement has some truth in it. Its value depends, to , a great extent, on the place where it has grown and the manner in which it has been cured. Some samples from the Maritime provinces analyzed here (C.E.F.) were found to be poor in albuminoid and high in fibre. Other samples from the 101 West have shown up somewhat better. In any case, it adds to the bulk of the roughage supply and is especially useful when there is a shortage of other more highly nutritive roiughage. BROME GRASS. In many places, brome grass is looked upon as a weed on account of the thick sod it makes being difficult to plough and almost impossible to kill. For these reasons, it should be sown only on land intended for permanent pasture. As a pasture grass, it is a high producer, and is relished very much by cattle, being rather more pala- table than timothy. If intended for hay it should be out as soon as the blossoms have fallen, when it makes hay of good quality and superior to timothy in palatability and nutritive value. It is laxa- tive in effect and is therefore an exceedingly valuable hay for districts or on farms where succulent forage is scarce for winter use. CANADIAN BLUE GRASS. Canadian Blue grass is somewhat similar to Kentucky Blue grass in habit and usefulness. It makes a good, nutritious and abundant pasture, but on account of its low habit of growth is not used much for hay. It does not form such a dense turf as Kentucky Blue grass, but will grow on poorer and drier soils. FESCUE. The Tall Fescue and Meadow Fescue are perennial plants and among the best adapted to cultivation in Canada. Both are per- fectly hardy and produce heavy crops of good quality. They also provide excellent pasture in early spring and late autumn. These nutritious and productive grasses should, always be included in per- manent pasture mixtures. HUNGARIAN GRASS. A valuable grass for catch crop owing to its rapidity of growth. It succeeds well on dry light land and produces a h*avy crop of hay, which is jrery nutritious when it has been sown thickly and cut early. It is not among the best grasses, rapidly deteriorating as it matures, so as to be practically worthless when ripe. The young crop, however, furnishes a wholesome and valuable fodder. 102 KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS. Kentucky Blue grass is the most valuable of the grasses. It makes the best pasture of any grass during the early part of the season, but does not withstand drought very well. The leaves, which are numerous, are sweet, nutritious and rich, containing much protein. In a permanent pasture, Kentucky Blue grass forms, after a year or two, a very dense turf. As a hay crop it is not recommended on account of the shortness of the plants and the small amount of aftermath. MILLETS. Millets are used mostly as soiling crops but make excellent hay. Their rapidity of growth, large yield, great palatability and high feeding qualities make them valuable forage plants. To give satis- faction as hay, the millet must have been sown thickly, 50 to 60 pounds per acre, and must have been cut just as the heads were appearing. When so handled, the forage is largely freed from coarseness and is much more digestible. OAT HAY. Green oats are made into hay with profit only when there is a shortage of other hay or when the crop lodges badly and the grain is not likely to ripen satisfactorily. For hay making, oats should be cut in the early milk stage while the leaves and stems are still bright and clean and before any signs of ripening appear. Oat hay is cured the same as ordinary hay and fed out with the grain unthreshed and either mixed with ensilage or by itself. Cut with the binder and cured in shock it makes a cleaner and more accept- able forage but there is, of course, less of it. OAT AND PEA HAY. This is one of the best forage crops grown. It is valuable on account of its high nutritive qualities and its large yields per acre. It is rich in protein and very palatable. In choosing varieties of seed to sow together, a variety of oats which will be in the milk stage when the peas are in full bloom should be chosen, for this is the best time to cut the crop for hay. 103 ORCHARD GRASS. Orchard grass is a rather coarse grass, which grows in tufta, being particularly suitable for orchards or other shady places. When young, it is very succulent, and its chief value is as pasture grass, though, out early before it becomes coarse and woody, it makes a fair hay. In mixtures for pastures it is very valuable on account of its early and late growths, and its ability to withstand drought. RED CLOVER. For cows in milk and young stock, red clover is one of the best of forage feeds. It is especially rich in the protein and ash con- stituents so essential to milk production. It is also very palatable and much relished by cattle and is an excellent supplementary feed where corn ensilage or mangels constitute the succulent part of the ration. To get the best results from red clover hay, the seed should have been sown very thickly, say 12 to 15 Ibs. per acre, and the hay cut in full blossom before any brown heads are in evidence. Clover hay made in this way from thick stands of clover is worth anywhere from 50 per cent to 100 per cent more than late-cut hay from thin, coarse-growing clover meadows. In pasturing cattle on clover, care should be taken to avoid bloating (see under l Soiling Crops'). In many parts of Canada, red clover is a biennial but west of Lake Superior wherever it can be grown and more parti- cularly in British Columbia, it is apparently perennial. RED TOP. Red top is one of the hardiest and most long-lived of grasses, and so should be always included in mixtures for seeding pastures which are to be left for a time in grass. Red top grows well on rich, moist land; it makes a good pasture grass when grazed in its early stage. It is also valuable as a hay crop, blossoming at the same time as timothy, with which it may thus be sown. SLOUGH HAY. It is a tall, coarse grass of the West, making remarkably soft hay, growing in wet sloughs. It grows abundantly, and, if cut early, soon after the heads appear, forms valuable fodder much relished by cattle. It contains more albuminoids and carbohydrates than timothy. 104 SWEET CLOVER. Sweet clover (or melilot, whose seed is sold on the market under the name of Bokhara clover), is a biennial plant, looked upon as a weed in most places. Owing to its bitter taste, it is not much relished by stock. They can, however, be taught to eat it. To be palatable, it must be cut very early, because it makes a fast and rank growth and soon becomes woody. It will grow on the poorest of soils, and its chief value, therefore, would seem to lie in its manurial qualities. It is now being sown in clover mixtures for meadows. The white variety is the most prolific and the most succulent. TIMOTHY. When cut on the green side and well cured, timothy is much liked by cattle and gives fairly satisfactory returns. It is, however, usually too coarse and dry to be as well liked as a forage should be to give good results. In addition to this fault, it is, in composition, suitable for fattening rather than for producing milk and should be fed dairy cattle only when other more suitable forage is not available. It is, however, when out at the right stage, viz., early blossoming, a highly digestible and very nutritious forage. VETCH HAY. Vetch hay is a good and palatable feed for dairy cows, being high in nutrients, especially protein. The best materials to be fed along with it are roots, corn and oats. Neither oil meal nor a great quantity of bran is necessary. WESTERN RYE GRASS. This grass has succeeded remarkably well (under cultivation and is one of the best western hay grasses, producing a large number of leaves and a straight, slender stem. It is an early grass and does well on heavy soil even when impregnated with alkali. It is very nutritious. STEAW AND FODDER CORN. CORN FODDER. Corn fodder is the name given to the whole corn plant harvested with the ears on. It is a very valuable feed when fed alone, but one which does not lend itself to exactness, for it is impossible to pro- 27889 -p. 104. 105 perly regulate the daily allowance of grain. It is difficult to feed such material in mangers, unless the stalks are out. Alfalfa or clover is good to supplement corn fodder in feeding. CORN STOVER. Corn stover is the name given to the whole stalk of corn after the ear has been taken off. It is frequently fed to dairy cattle, and, shredded and mixed with cut alfalfa, bran, corn, oats, barley or peas, it makes a fairly valuable feed. Shredding adds value to it as it is thereby more easily handled and stored, and more readily eaten by the cattle. If shredded and stored in large quantities, a silo is necessary to preserve it in good shape. BARLEY STRAW. Barley straw has a feeding value not much higher than that of wheat straw. The best way to use it is finely out, mixed with clover and soaked with water for a short time, or mixed with ensilage and allowed to stand for a day or two before using. When so prepared, it has nearly the value of oat straw. BUCKWHEAT STRAW. Buckwheat straw has some feeding value, owing to the nitrogen it contains. It is more suited for sheep than for cow feeding. CHAFF. Chaff of wheat and oats is a fairly valuable feed, containing, as it does, more protein than the straw. Mixed with pulped roots, and allowed to stand until fermentation begins, chaff is a very good feed, quite palatable to dairy cows. FLAX STRAW. There is some record of flax straw being fed to cattle with satisfactory results. Possibly it has more nutritive value than oat straw, especially when some flax seed is left in it, but it is not very palatable because of the stringy twine-like covering of the stems which is difficult to digest. OAT STRAW. Oat straw is successfully utilized when fed in combination with some other roughage and grain. It contains a great deal of fibre 106 and indigestible matter, but adds a good deal of mineral matter to the ration. It is an excellent ' filler ' and, though not likely to add materially to the value of a ration on account of its nutritive quali- ties, it is of great value in helping disteod the digestive organs and so facilitating and even aiding digestion. Of all straws in Canada, oat is undoubtedly the best for cattle. PEA STRAW. Clean pea straw is of considerable value for cattle feeding. It is, however, usually very dusty and badly broken up, which conditions very greatly reduce its value as a forage. It is excellent sheep feed. WHEAT STRAW. Wheat straw is very low in nutrients, It is dry, coarse and nmpalatable, and has very little digestible matter. It may, however, be fed in small quantities to dry stock whenever there is a shortage in the roughage supply. SOILING CROPS. In growing soiling crops, provision should be made for a succession of such for continuous feeding. Fall rye and fall wheat, followed shortly by alfalfa, will be the earliest, perhaps 3 or 4 weeks before pasture grass is ready. In quick succession come red clover, vetches, oats, beans and com. Roots come late in the fall. To tide over any possible period 1 between crops, ensilage could be used. ALFALFA. As a soiling crop, alfalfa is without a peer. It is ready for use earlier than any other soiling crop possible of cultivation in Canada save only fall rye and winter wheat. It starts to grow again immediately it is cut and furnishes two, and frequently three, heavy cJuttings in the season. It is not so readily affected by weather conditions as other soiling crops and demands much less labour to keep in shape year after year. For methods of growing see Domin- ion Experimental Farm Bulletin No. 46 and second series Bulletin No. 8. lor CLOVER. For soiling purposes, clover holds an important place since th crops is ready early in the season, provides an abundance of succu- lent feed, and is very much relished by cattle. The best soiling variety is red clover, and the best mixture is Mammoth and Alsike. Clover should be out a few hours before feeding to prevent any possible injurious effect from bloating. Should it be found desir- able to pasture the clover field at any time, care should be taken to guard against bloating by giving the cattle all they will consume of some other kind of food before letting them into the clover field. This should be done to a certain extent for several days. Later, when the cattle become accustomed to the forage, it will be sufficient to see that they are not unusually hungry and that the clover is not wet with dew or rain. CRIMSON CLOVER. Crimson clover is an annual plant. As a fall-sown crop it is unsatisfactory in many parts of Canada because it does not always come through the winter successfully. It can, however, be grown to advantage in Nova Scotia, British Columbia and some parts of Ontario. Sown in the spring it makes a fairly good soiling crop, Ibut is a" somewhat dangerous feed on account of the small, stiff hairs or bristles on the heads which gather into balls in the stomach of the animal. CORN. This is one of the most succulent forage plants that can be grown for soiling. It has a palatability and succulence surpassed by no other feed and the large amount of food it will yield per acre adds greatly to its other qualities. The way to feed it with as little labour as possible is in the form of ensilage. If an excess of what is needed for winter -use be put into the silo in the fall, it can most advanta- geously be used for summer feeding. Corn can be sown in the early spring and be fed in the stable in late summer. HAIRY VETCHES. These vetches, however good they may be, cannot be sown alone on account of the weakness of their stems. With a crop of oats or barley as support, they make an excellent soiling crop, as good as 108 peas and oats or even better. The seed is, however, exceedingly expensive and there is very little probability of this crop being grown to any appreciable extent in this country. OATS. Sown alone, oats are not recommended for soiling. Mixed with peas or vetches, however, they will produce large yields of green feed per acre and rank next to corn in palatability, succulence and milk-producing value. When sown at intervals of from 12 to 15 days, they can be made to last as long as necessary. The best time to have them ready is July and August, when pasture grass is dry and scarce. RAPE. As a soiling crop for cows in milk, rape is not likely to become very popular since it is sure to flavour the milk unless fed with the greatest care and in moderate quantities. It is, however, exceedingly acceptable to dairy cattle and is sure to increase the milk flow. It is best suited for the feeding of dry cows, heifers, steers, sheep or swine. For methods of growing see Dominion Experimental Farm Bulletin No. 42. BYE. Rye in this country is not much used for soiling. It is, how- ever, when cut at the right stage, much relished by cows but is said to impart a bad flavour to the milk. If fed in moderation along with other feeds, it is not likely to perceptibly affect the milk in any way. Rye sown in the fall will provide a large amount of feed early in the summer, 2 or 3 weeks before grass is ready. Rye sown in August will furnish a small amount of pasture four to six weeks after sowing until winter sets in. SORGHUM. Sorghum is a very valuable plant for green feed, especially for milch cows, being very palatable and succulent. It is not yet much used in Canada but in the ' dairying ' States it has been found almost indispensable. It gives very large returns per acre SOY BEANS. The soy bean is a very good crop for green forage. Its abun- dant yield, high feeding value, lengtli of season (it may be fed from 100 the time the flowers appear until it is damaged in the fall by frost) and its great adaptability to varying soils and climatic conditions make it one of the most valuable. Because of its high protein con- tent it is excellent to feed with materials that are lacking in protein, but rich in carbohydrates. Cattle like it fairly well. VETCHES. Common vetches are an excellent soiling crop. They are parti- cularly adapted to sandy soil. When sown in the early spring, they will give an abundance of fairly succulent feed about the end of July or August. They are as nutritious as clover and are relished by cattle even more. WHITE CLOVER. White clover is never sown alone but always in mixtures intended for pasture and, when pastured, it gives a thick growth of leaves till late in the fall. It does very well on heavy soils. ENSILAGE CROPS. CORN, SUNFLOWER, AND HORSE BEAN SILAGE. This mixture, commonly known as * The Robertson Mixture/ gave good results on the Central Experimental Farm, where it was first tried. As to yield per acre, quality and quantity of digestible matter contained in the whole, it has proved especially suited for feeding dairy cows. There are, however, some strong doubts as to the practicability of harvesting these crops when grown together. Horse beans are rather weak plants with short stems as compared to corn and, when grown together, it is very difficult to cut both clean with the binder. In the case of sunflowers, only the heads are of any feeding value, the stems are coarse, woody and hollow, and almost indigestible, which renders them objectionable in silage making. It is considered better, therefore, to grow these crops separately. This combination of corn, horse beans and sunflowers gives a forage which approaches very nearly the balanced ration, supplying carbohydrates, proteins and fats in effective proportions. The mix- ture, however, has not proven very popular anywhere, on account of difficulties met with in growing the sunflower and horse b*ean. 110 CORN ENSILAGE. Good corn ensilage is fairly high in feeding value, and this, combined with its advantages over other succulent feeds in the matter of cheap production and labour-saving in using, has rapidly brought it to the top of the list of Canadian forages. At relatively low cost, a large amount of corn can be produced, stored up in the silo in the fall, and (used any time during the winter or even in summer in place of soiling crops (see Dominion Experimental Farm Bulletin No. 65, for instructions how to grow). When cut fine there is practically no waste, and owing to its succulence or juiciness it is eaten freely. It may constitute the principal part of the ration of any class of horned cattle and for dairy cows is easily the cheapest and most convenient forage material possible of pro- duction over a very large part of Canada. It may be fed in large quantities without fear of any injurious effects, save in the case of very young calves or hard-working stock bulls. It should, generally speaking, have intermixed with it, 12 to 36 hours before feeding, from 10 to 15 per cent cut straw or chaff, oat chaff preferably. RAPE, Because of its watery nature, rape cannot be used for ensilage with any great advantage. It will keep satisfactorily and is very palatable but can be used for dry cattle only, as it makes a very highly-flavoured and exceedingly odorous brand of ensilage. HORSE BEANS. The horse bean is a very valuable feed where it can be properly grown. In the dairying districts of Great Britain it is one of the staple feeds. It has, however, not been grown very successfully in Canada, except in a few places, and there it is highly prized. SORGHUM. Sorghum as silage gives only fair satisfaction. It is inferior to corn in feeding value, containing less protein and more carbo- hydrates (sugar). This excess of sugar, when fermenting, develops more acetic acid than does corn and causes the silage to become injurious to the health of animals if fed in large quantities. Corn and sorghum may be mixed with good results. Ill CLOVER. Among the clovers, the Mammoth or Common Red varieties mixed with alsike are the best for silage purposes. When cut in blossom and run through the feed cutter, they can be ensiloed to best advantage, and give a very good quality of feed ready to use at any time, and even to take the place of soiling crops in summer when grass is scarce. In value it comes next to corn both as to succulence and milk-producing qualities. PEAS AND OATS. Peas and oats make a good quality of ensilage when cut fine and thoroughly packed. Unless it is well packed so as to drive out nearly all the air it will not keep. It must, in addition, have been cut at an early stage, say when the oats are in the milk. It had better be mixed with clover, alfalfa or corn to insure good results. ROOTS AND POTATOES. MANGELS. Mangels are among the best feeds that can be fed cows in milk. They are exceedingly palatable, easily digestible and very nutritious. Where pulped and fed along with cut dry feed they add greatly to the value of the latter. They have the effect of hardening the butter slightly and are said to affect favourably the flavour of the milk and cream. Much has been said about their value as a sub- stitute for meal in feeding dairy cows. They are, no doubt, of some value as decreasing the quantity of meal necessary, but need not be expected to replace the meal ration to any great extent. Their great value lies in their remarkable palatability or acceptability to dairy cows. A cow refusing to eat almost any other kind of feed will greedily eat quite a considerable Quantity of this most valuable root. Of the three types commonly grown, the Long Red or Gate Post, the Tankard or Half Long and the Globe, the Long Red is usually the most prolific cropper as well as the most nutritious. (For methods of growing, etc., see Experimental Farm Bulletin No. 67). POTATOES. The potato is high in nutritive constituents but usually com- mands siuch a good price for table use that it is seldom used as a 112 forage crop in Canada. However, the farmer who grows potatoes has usually the small, 'unmarketable tubers which he may feed to his stock. At times, also, he might consider it advisable to feed much of his general crop rather than put it on the market when prices were very low. Marketable potatoes should seldom be fed whole to cattle, but should be either sliced or pulped. Kaw potatoes, if fed in too large quantities, cause scouring. The potato, though to judge by its chemical composition of rather low feeding value, is really a most excellent cattle food and, if fed in moderation, gives excellent results as a milk-producing forage. RUTABAGAS OR SWEDES. Swedish turnips or Rutabagas are not recommended for milch cows because of the flavour they impart to the milk. They are, however, excellent for fattening purposes or winter feeding of heifers, calves, etc. If they must be fed to milch cows, they should be given just after milking, as then there is less likelihood of their tainting the milk. They are mwch relished by cattle either fed alone or mixed with other feeds. SUGAR BEET. The deep-growing habit of the sugar beet and the consequent difficulty of harvesting it, together with the danger of scour, make this crop of less value as a cattle feed than mangels. If fed in moderation, however, they make a most excellent dairy feed. They are much liked by dairy cows and when used to replaces an equal quantity of other roots or corn ensilage, have the immediate effect of materially increasing the milk flow. They should be pulped or sliced. (See Experimental Farm Bulletin No. 67). SUGAR MANGELS. Sugar mangels are supposed to be a cross between the sugar beet and the mangel-wurtzel or the common mangel. They are, however, at the present time but slightly different in feeding value from the mangel, and since they do, as a rule, yield less per acre, are not to be recommended as in any way superior to or even equal to the Long Red or Gate Post mangel. (See Experimental Farm Bulletin, No. 67). 27389 p. 112. 113 TURNIPS. Flat turnips or white turnips are softer and more watery than the swedes and do not keep so well; they cannot be stored for any length of time. They can hardly be recommended for cows, but are less likely to injuriously affect the flavour of the milk or cream than rutabagas. They are frequently used as a soiling crop for dairy cattle, with quite satisfactory results. VAKIOUS FEEDS. APPLES. Apples have been found to be fairly satisfactory as a feed for dairy cattle, possibly not so nuuch because of the nutriment they afford as on account of their palatability and health-giving qualities. When fed apples, cattle seem to eat more of other food, seem to increase in digestive capacity and in power of assimilating a greater quantity of grain per day with a consequent increase of profit. Refuse apples sAould be fed in addition to the regular ration and not to take the place of anything in the ration. APPLE POMACE. This feed is a by-product of the cider industry. It is a pulp- like prodiu.ct with a value somewhat less than apples. It has the same properties as apples, but to a less degree. It has no injurious effect but should be fed when fresh and always as an addition to the regular ration and not to take the place of any part. CABBAGE. X For feeding dairy animals, the cabbage is one of the most palatable plants and would probably be used a great deal more extensively were it not for the difficulty of storing and also for the dangar of tainting the milk. It is very valuable as a soiling crop, but should be fed immediately after the cows have been milked and the milk removed from the near neighbourhood. CONDIMENTAL FEEDS. There are on the market many feeds which are claimed by their manufacturers to be beneficial to cattle as .tonics or medicines. Tests of these have been made frequently, and no benefit whatever 278808 114 seems to be derived from their use, a fact which is not surprising when it is known that, as a rule, these feeds are merely compounds of the ordinary feeding stuffs coloured and flavoured according to the taste of the manufacturer. It is safe to say that these condi- mental feeds are far from being worth the high prices which are usually asked for them. DRIED SUGAR BEET PULP. The dried pulp from beet sugar factories makes a good feed for milk production. It can scarcely be classed as a concentrate but is much superior in composition to most forms of roughage. Probably its greatest value to the dairy farmer would be found when it was used as a substitute for succulent feed after being soaked for 12 hours in from four to five times its own weight of water and then used as a succulent base wherewith to mix oat chaff and other dry and more or less /unpalatable roughage as well as whatever meal is being fed., When so used, it acts not only as a feed but as an aid to palatability as well as increases the digestibility of the whole ration. MOLASSES. Molasses contains about 50 per cent sugar. When it is mixed with other substances, it makes a very nutritious feed which is palatable to all kinds of stock. It should not be fed more than 2 or 3 pounds a day to "dairy cows and only about half the quantity to cows advanced in pregnancy. It may be fed with all kinds of cereals. It is usually rather laxative in effect. It adds greatly to the palatability of both roughage and meal. It may be fed to best advantage by diluting 1 to 3 or 4 parts of water and sprinkling on the feed. PUMPKINS. This crop, one time grown very extensively along with corn in Canada, has of late years been much less commonly produced, diue to the use of the corn harvester and the much longer period of cultivation found profitable in growing corn, whether for grain, forage or ensilage. Where grown, however, the pumpkin has proven to be a most satisfactory feed for milch 'cows and is worth probably more than an equal weight of roots or ensilage. 115 SKIM MILK. Skim milk is of high value as a feed especially to young animals on account of the amount of ash and protein which it can give to the building up of muscle and bone. In its use, care should be exercised -to feed it at a uniform temperature and uniformly sweet or uniformly sour. It is sometimes fed to milch cows. As a feed for milk production it has undoubted value but is not worth as much in this connection as when used as a feed for young stock. 278898J 116 TABLES OF FEED COMPOSITION. TABLES showing quantities of dry matter, digestible protein and digestible carbohydrates plus fat x 2 -25 in 100 pounds of various feeds. CONCENTRATES. Feed. Concentrates- Barley 89 1 Beans....... 85 9 Brewers' grains (dry) ........ 91 '8 Brewers' grains (wet) 24 3 Buckwheat 86'6 Buckwheat shorts 87 ' 2 Corn and cob meal , . 81 ' 9 Corn meal..* 850 Cotton seed meal 93 ' Distillers' grains (mostly rye). 92 '4 Feed flour (Red Dog) 90 1 Flax seed 90'8 Gluten feed 90'6 Gluten meal 90'5 Horse beans 85'7 Linseed meal (oil cake) old process 90' 2 Linseed meal (oil cake) new process 91 ' Malt sprouts 90'5 Oats 89'6 Oatmeal 92'1 Peas 85-0 Rye 91-3 Spelt 92 "0 Wheat 89'5 Wheat bran 8S'l Wheat screenings 88 '4 Wheat shorts .. 88 '8 Dry Matter. Digestible Protein 8-4 20-59 20'0 4-9 8'i 22-7 4-4 6-1 37'G 22'8 16 2 20'G 17'8 29-7 22 4 30-2 31-5 20'3 8'8 11-9 19-7 9'5 10 5 8-8 11 9 9-6 13-0 Digestible Carbohydrates plus digestible fatx 2 25. 08 '9 50-15 45-7 ' 13-22 53-60 51-22 66-5 72-2 43-0 65-8 64-7 82-4 72-1 56-2 52-0 47'4 41-1 49 2 58 ' 9 80-2 51-2 72-1 74-8 70-9 47-6 52 5 55-8 Nutritive Ratio. 2'28 2-7 6-6 22 15'1 11-8 1'14 2'9 4-0 1-9 2-3 1-6 1-3 24 0-7 0-8 26 76 7-1 80 4'0 5-5 4-3 117 HAY AND DRIED FORAGE. Feed. Dry Matter. Digestible Protein. Digestible Carbohydrates plus digestible fat x 2 25. Nutritive Ratio. Hay and dried forage Alfalfa 91-8 90-3 * 93-0 89-24 89-5 86-0 86-0 80'0 87-1 86 85'0 90-1 90-0 89'5 88-3 91-25 84-7 91-1 88-4 92-1 85-0 85-8 85-9 87-1 86-0 89'7 10-5 8-4 2 475 3-31 9-2 5-0 4-4 4-2 5-9 4-7 8-3 4-9 3-5 7'6 4-3 2-7 7'1 4'8 2'4 11-9 3-4 2-5 2-1 3-8 61 37 42 3 42 2 27 13 25-57 42 3 49-4 41-8 40-3 43 6 40-6 38 '7 45-5 45 45 27'7 22-5 41-9 49-5 31-9 37-8 46-6 42'6 42 6 42-8 40-5 44-8 1 4-0 1 50 1 10 9 1 77 1 4T> 1 10-0 1 9-5 1 96 1 7-4 1 86 1 4'7 1 9'3 1 12-8 1 6-0 1 6-4 1 8-3 1 5-9 1 10-0 1 13-3 1 3-2 1 13 7 1 19-0 1 20-3 1 11 3 1 66 1 12 1 Alsike clover Broad leaf marsh hay Broine Cow pea Hungarian grass or millet Kentucky blue grass . . Meadow fescue JVIixe j grasses and clover Oat hay . . . Oat and vetch . Orchard grass Prairie hay . Peas and oats (dried) Salt meadow hay or marsh hay Sedge hay Red clover R^d top Slough hay Sweet clover (Melilotus alba). Timothy, cut full bloom Timothy, cut soon after bloom Timothy, cut nearly ripe Timothy and clover . . . White Daisy (Ox-eye Daisy). . 118 STKAW, CHAFF AND DRY FODDER. Feed. Dry Matter. Digestible Protein. Digestible Carbohydrates plus digestible fat x 2 "25. Nutritive Ratio. Straw, chaff and dry fodder : Barley . 85'8 09 41*5 1 46 1 90-1 1/20 38 '50 32 '1 Flax 88'8 0'88 17-2 19 '5 Oat 90'9 13 41*3 31 '8 Oat chaff 85'7 1*5 34'6 23 "0 Pea 85'7 4-3 31 '1 4'6 Rye 92' 9 07 40 '5 57 -9 Wheat 90'4 0'8 36 1 45 '1 Wheat chaff. 85'7 1'2 26 '7 22 "2 Dry fodder : Corn stover 59'5 1'4 32'8 1 23 "4 Dry ensilage corn or dry fod- der corn 57'8 2'5 37 3 1 14 9 ENSILAGE AND ROOTS. Feed. Dry Matter. Digestible Protein. Digestible Carbohydrates plus digestible fatx2'25. Nutritive Ratio. Ensilage : Corn 28'4 1*4 15*8 1 11 '3 Corn and soya beans Clover 24'0 28-0 1-6 1*5 14 6 10 3 !: 9-1 1 6'8 Sorghum 23-9 O'l 13'9 1 13 "9 Rye 19'2 0'7 9-5 1 IS 6 Roots, etc : Cabbage 10*0 23 6'1 1 2'6 Carrots 11'4 0'8 8'o 1 10'6 Mangels 9'1 I'l 5-9 1 5'4 Potatoes 20-9 ri 15'9 1 14 '4 Rutabagas or swedes 11*4 I'O 8'6 1 8'6 Sugar beets . . . .... 13*5 1-3 10 -0 1 7'7 Turnips (flat) 9'9 I'O 6'6 1 6'6 119 GREEN FEED. Feed. Dry Matter. Digestible Protein. Digestible Carbohydrates plus digestible fat x 2-25. Nutritive Ratio. Green feed Alfalfa 28'2 39 13'8 1 35 Alsike clover 25'2 2'6 12 5 1 4'8 Blue grass (Kentucky) 34'9 2'8 21 2 1 75 Cow peas . 16'4 1'8 9'2 1 51 Crimson clover 19'1 2'4 10'2 1 42 Canadian blue grass 16'1 4-04 7'3 1 1-8 Hairy vetches. . . 16'7 33 8'4 1 2-5 Mixed pasture errass., Oat forage (in milk) 25 37 '8 2-3 25 15-7 20'5 1 68 1 8'2 Oats and peas . . 20'3 1-8 'll'l 1 61 Oats and vetch 20 '0 23 10'5 1 45 Pasture grass 20-0 25 11 3 1 45 Rape 14 3 2-0 8 7 1 4-3 Red clover 29 2 2'9 15'2 1 5'2 Rye 23 4 2'1 15'0 1 71 Sorghum 20 6 0-6 12'3 1 20-5 Sweet clover. . . . 20'0 2'5 9'3 1 37 Vetches 15'0 1-9 7'0 1 36 White clover 19'8 2'5 5 65 1 22 MISCELLANEOUS FEEDS. Feed. Dry Matter. Digestible Protein. Digestible Carbohydrates plus digestible fatx2-25. Nutritive Ratio. Miscellaneous feeds Artichokes 20'5 22 2 17'C 92-0 10-2 91 ''6 89 6 90-83 91-5 85'2 12-8 81-4 10-9 9'4 6-6 99 1-3 0-80 GO 6-1 06 4-1 12-8 21-2 70-9 13 5 3-6 8-5 I'OO 2-9 0-60 38 15-1 16-9 14 2 68-7 73 64 9 83 1 50-1 5-625 69-6 13-2 60 5 6'25 5-9 5'4 6-2 11-6 21 'I 23 6 11-2 12-1 15-8 6-5 23 0'08 6-1 1 37 1 7-1 1 6-2 1 2'0 1 9-0 1 1-6 Apples Apple pomace Beet pulp dried with molasses Beet pulp (wet) Beet pulp (dry) Bibby 's calf meal Blatchford's calf meal Blood (dried) Milk Molasses Pu'iipkins Skim milk \Vhey Buttermilk . . 120 RAPID RATION CALCULATION. As a help to rapid ration calculation, a few of the more commonly-used feeds, with their feeding values, are given below in quantities of from 1 to 10 pounds, or, in the case of succulent roughage, 1 to 50 pounds. CONCENTRATES. Name of Feed. Quantity. Dry Matter. Digestil Pro- teins. le Nutrients. Carbohy- drates. Fats x 2-25 Nutri- tive Ratio. Barley 1 Ib. 2 Ibs. 3 4 5 10 ,' 1 Ib. 2 Ibs. 3 4 n 5 10 1 Ib. 2 Ibs. 3 4 ,. 5 10 1 Ib. 2 Ibs. 3 4 5 n 10 n 1 Ib. 2 Ibs. 3 4 5 M 10 1 Ib. 2 Ibs. 3 4 5 M 10 ,. lib. 2 Ibs. 3 4 n 5 i, 10 891 1-782 2-67:< 3 564 4-455 8-910 0'88l 1-702 2-6J3 3-524 4-405 8-810 0-850 1-700 2-550 3-400 4-250 8-500 0-930 1-860 2-790 3-720 4-650 9-300 0-908 1-816 2-724 3-632 4-540 9-080 0-905 1-810 2-715 3-620 4-525 9-050 J 0-896 1-792 2-688 3 584 4-480 8 960 0-084 0-168 0-252 0-336 0-420 0'840 0-119 0-233 0-357 0-476 0-595 1-190 0-061 0-122 0-183 244 0-305 0-610 0-376 752 1-128 1-504 1-880 3'760 0-206 0-412 0-618 824 1-030 2-060 0-297 0-594 0-891 1-188 1-485 2-970 0-088 0-176 0-264 0-352 0-440 0-880 0-689 1-378 2-OC7 2 '756 3 445 6-8'.;0 476 0-952 1-428 1-904 2-380 4-760 0-722 1-4-14 2-166 2-888 3-610 7-220 0-430 O'HX) 1-290 1-720 2-150 4-300 0-824 1-648 2 472 3-296 4-120 8-240 0-562 1-124 1-686 2-248 2-810 5 620 0-589 1-178 1-767 2-356 2-945 5-890 1 :' 8'20 1 : 4 00 1 :11'80 1: 1-14 1 : 4-00 1: 4 00 1 : 6-70 Bran wheat Corn meal . Cotton seed meal Flax seed j Gluten meal Oats 121 CONCENTRATES. Digestit >le Nutrients. Name of Feed. Quantity. Dry Matter. Pro- teins. Carbohy- drates. Fats x2'2n. tive Ratio. Oil cake meal new process . lib. 0-910 0-315 0-411 2 IDS. 1-820 0-630 0-822 3 2-730 945 1-233 4 3 640 1-260 1-644 5 .1 4-550 1-575 2-055 10 9-100 3-150 4-110 1 : 1-30 Peas lib. 0-850 0'197 0-512 21bs. 1 700 0-394 1-024 3 2-550 0-591 1-536 *** 4 3-400 0-788 2-048 5 4-250 985 2-560 10 8-500 1-970 5-120 I: 2-60 Shorts (wheat) 1 Ib. 0'888 0'130 0'558 21bs. 1'776 260 1-116 3 H 2-664 0-390 1-674 4 ,i 3-552 0-520 2-232 5 4-440 0-650 2-790 10 8-880 1-300 5-580 1 : 4'30 Wheat lib. 895 0'880 0'709 21bs. - 1-790 1-418 3 2-685 2'640 2 127 4 3 '580 3-520 2-836 5 4-475 4-400 3-545 10 .1 8-950 8-800 7-090 1 : 8-00 lib. 0-852 0-135 0-696 21bs. 1-704 0-270 1-392 3 ,. 2-55; 0-405 2-088 4 ,i 3-408 0-540 2-784 5 4-260 0-675 3-480 10 8-520 1-350 6-960 1: 6-12 HAY. Alfalfa hay 1 Ib. 0'918 0'105 0-423 21bs. 3 4 it 5 10 .1 1 Ib. 1-836 2-754 3-672 4-590 9 180 0'847 0-210 315 0-420 0-525 1-050 0*710 0-846 1-269 1-692 2-115 4-230 0"419 1 : 4-00 21bs. 3 .. 4 .1 5 10 1-694 2-541 3-388 4-235 8 470 1-420 2-130 2-840 3-550 7-100 0-838 1-257 1-676 2-095 4-190 1: 6-90 122 HAY. Name of Feed. Quantity. Dry Matter. Digestib Pro- teins. le Nutrients. Carbohy- drates. Fats x2'25. Nutri- tive Ratio. Marsh hay or Salt Meadow hav 1 Ib. 0-883 0'043 0'277 21bs. 1-766 0-086 .0-554 3 2-649 0-129 0-831. 4 3-582 0-172 1-108 5 4-415 0-215 1-385 10 .. 8-830 0-430 2-770 1 : 6-4 Mixed grasses and clover. . 1 Ib. 0-871 0-059 0-436 21bs. 1-742 0-118 0-872 3 2-613 0-177 1-308 4 M 3-484 0-236 1-744 5 .. 4-355 0-295 2-180 10 i. 8 710 0-590 4-36.0 1 : 7'4 Oat hay 1 Ib. 0-860 0-047 0-406 21bs. 1-720 0-094 0-812 3 2-580 0-141 1 218 4 ,. 3-440 0-188 1-624 5 ,. 4-300 0-235 2-030 10 .. 8-600 0-470 4-060 1 : 8-6 Peai? and oats cured 1 Ib. 0'895 0'076 0'450 21bs. 1-790 0-152 0-900 3 ., 2-685 0-228 1-350 4 .. 3-580 0-304 1-800 5 r. 4-475 0-380 2-250 10 8-950 0-760 4-500 1 : 6-00 Timothy and clover 1 Ib. 0'871 0'038 0-428 2Ibs. 1-742 0-076 . 0-856 3 2-613 0-114 1-284 4 3-484 0-152 1-712 5 ., 4-355 0-190 2-140 10 8-710 0-380 4-280 1 : 11-3 Timothy hay (cut soon after bloom) 1 Ib. 0'858 025 0'426 21bs. 1-716 050 0-852 3 2-574 075 1-278 4 3-432 100 1-704 5 ,. 4-290 125 2-130 10 8-580 250 4-260 1: 19 OHAPF AND STRAW. Barley straw . 1 Ib. 0'858 O'OO!) 0'415 2 Ibs. 3 ,. 4 5 10 1-716 2-574 3 432 4-290 S'580 0-018 027 0-036 045 0'090 0-830 1-245 1-660 2 075 4-150 1 : 46-1 123 CHAFF AND STRAW. Name of Feed. Quantity. Dry Matter. Digestib Pro- teins. ie Nutrients. Carbohy- drates. Fats x2 25 Nutri- tive Ratio. Oat chaff 1 Ib. 2 Ibs. 3 4 5 i, 10 1 Ib. 2 Ibs. 3 4 10 M 1 Ib. 2 Ibs. 3 4 5 10 ., 1 Ib. 2 Ibs. 3 4 ,. 5 ,, 10 0*857 1-714 2-571 3'428 4-285 8-570 0-909 1-818 2-727 3 036 4-545 9 090 0-857 1 714 2-571 ' 3-428 4-285 8-570 0-904 1-808 2-712 3 616 4-520 9 040 0-015 0-030 0-045 0-060 0-075 0-150 0-013 0-026 0-039 052 0-065 0*130 0-012 0-024 0*036 0*048 0-060 120 0*008 0*016 0*024 0*032 0-040 0-080 0*346 0-692 1*038 1-384 1-730 3*460 0*413 0-826 1-239 1-652 2-065 4 130 0-267 0-534 0-801 1-068 1-335 2*670 0*361 0*722 1-083 1*444 1*805 3-610 1:23-06 1:31-8 1 : 22*2 1 : 45*1 Oat straw Wheat chaff Wheat straw SUCCULENT FEEDS. Alfalfa 1 Ib. 0*282 0'039 138 2 Ibs. 0-5G4 0-078 - 0-276 , 3 ,,. 0-846 0-117 0*414 4 i> 1-128 0-156 0-552 5 1*410 0*195 0-690 10 2*820 0-390 1*380 20 5-640 0-780 2-760 30 8*460 1'170 4-140 40 11-280 1*560 5*520 50 14-100 1-950 6-900 1 : 3 53 Clover red 1 Ib. 0'292 0'029 0'152 2 Ibs. 0*584 0-058 0-304 3 0-876 0*087 0-456 4 .. 1*168 0*116 608 5 ,, 1-460 0*145 0-760 10 ,. 2-920 0-290 1*520 20 ., 5-840 0*580 3-040 30 .. 8-760 0*870 4*560 40 11-680 1-160 6-080 60 14*600 1*450 7-600 1 : 5'2 124 SUCCULENT FEEDS. Digestible Nutrients. Name of Feed. Quantity. Dry Matter. Pro- teinb. Carbohy- drates. Fats x2'25. Nutri- tive Ratio. Corn ensilago 1 Ib. 0'264 0'014 158 2 Ibs. 0-528 0-028 0-316 3 0-792 042 0-474 4 n 1-056 0-056 0-632 5 1-320 0-070 790 10 2:640 0-140 1-580 20 5-280 0-280 3-160 30 T'920 0-420 4-740 40 .. 10-560 560 6-320 50 13-200 0-700 7-900 1:11-3 1 Ib. 091 Oil 0'059 2 Ibs. 0-182 0-022 0-118 3 0-273 0-033 0-177 4 ., 0-364- 0-044 0-236 - 5 .. 0-455 0-055 0-295 10 0-910 0-110 0-590 20 ,, 1-820 0-220 1-180 30 2-730 0-330 1-770 40 ,. 3 640 0-440 2-360 50 n 4 550 0-550 2-950 1: 5-4 Mixed pasture grass 1 Ib. 2 Ibs. 0-250 0-500 023 0-046 0-157 0-314 3 ., 750 0-069 0-471 4 1-000 092 0-628 5 1-250 0-115 0-785 10 2-500 0-230 1-570 20 5-000 0-460 3-140 30 7-500 0-690 4-710 40 10 000 0-920 6-280 50 12-500 1-150 7-850 I : 6-80 Oat Fodder (fed green).. . . lib. 0-378 0-025 0-205 2 Ibs. 0*756 0-050 0-410 3 1-134 0-075 0-615 4 1-512 o-ioo 0-820 5 1 890 0-125 1-025 10 3-780 0-250 2-050 20 7'5fiO 0-500 4-100 30 11-340 0'750 6-150 40 15-120 i-ooo 8-200 50 ., 18 900 1-250 10-250 1 : 8-20 Peas and Oats . lib. 0'203 0*018 O'lll 2 Ibs. 0-406 0-036 222 3 0-609 0-054 0-333 . 4 0-812 0-072 444 5 1-015 0-090 0-555 10 2-030 0-180 1-110 20 4-060 0-360 2-220 30 6-090 0-540 3-330 40 8-120 0-720 4*440 50 10-150 0-900 5-550 1 : 6-10 125 SUCCULENT FEEDS. Digestib le Nutrients. Kiitri Name of Feed. Quantity. Dry Matter. Pro- tein. Carbohy- drates. Fats x2'25. IN utn- tive Ratio. Swedes or Rutabagas lib. 21bs. 0-114 0-228 o-oio 0-020 0'086 0-172 3 0-342 0-030 0-258 4 456 0-040 0-344 5 0-570 050 0-430 10 1-140 0.100 0-800 20 2-280 0-200 1-720 30 3-420 0-300 2-580 40 4 560 0-400 3 440 50 5-700 0-500 4-300 1 : 8 06 Milk lib. 0-128 0,36 0'132 21bs. 0-256 0-072 0-264 3 0-384 0-108 0-396 4 ., 0-512 0-144 0-528 5 ,. 0-640 180 0-660 10 1-280 0-360 1-320 1 : 3-07 Skim Milk lib. 0-09* 0-029 0'059 21ba. 0-188 0-058 0-118 3 0-282 0-087 0-177 4 0-376 0-116 0-236 5 ,. 0-470 0-145 0-295 10 0-940 0-290 0-590 20 1-880 0-580 1-180 1: 200 126 PART VI. THE HOSPITAL. The following notes on a few of the more common troubles likely to demand the attention of every man having to do with dairy cattle, make no claim to originality. All that can be said is that the suggestions offered or the treatments outlined have been tried by the writer personally and found to be satisfactory and, in most cases, efficacious. STABlE HYGIENE. In dairy stable management, the great aim should be the pre- venting rather than the curing, of disease. In spite of the greatest precautions, however, no stable is likely to be always free from some one or more of the numerous troubles which seem to be ever ready to intrude where the least opening offers through carelessness of some kind, or laxity in the enforcement of the most strict rules of hygiene, and of quarantine or separation from other herds, possibly infected. Some preventive measures that can be fairly readily put into force might be briefly stated as follows: (1). Keep the stable free from dust and dirt of all kinds, that is, observe perfect cleanliness in everything having to do with the oow and the stable. (2). Supply an abundance of good, pure air, so introduced as to avoid draughts or air currents striking any individual. (3). Admit an abundance of sunlight through clean windows. (4). Periodically disinfect the stables with some powerful disinfectant or germ-destroyer, as corrosive sublimate. (5). Give a liberal but judicious supply of good food and clean water, and (6). Test for tuberculosis at least once each year. THE MEDICINE CHEST. Every dairyman should keep a few simple remedies and appli- ances on hand. A small cupboard or a chest should be kept for 127 this purpose exclusively. It should be located in a dry spot and should never be left unlocked. The owner and one or two other trusted men, if the staff is large, should have keys. Every drug should be carefully and clearly labelled and the dose indicated on the label. To start out, a good medicine chest should contain the following : Quantity. Drugs. Purpose. Dose for Adult. Dose for Calf 6 mos. or under. 10 Ibs. . . 1 lb 1 . 1 gal .... \ pint . . . lil Epsom salts Purgative, indigestion. ... Tonic, diarrhoea, indiges- tion . . 1 to H KX- . 2 055 4 ozs. loz. i pint. i dram. 1 ii Ginger Baking soda Linseed oil raw Indigestion colic 2 i. Laxative, purgative, colic Soothing for external use, udder 1 to 2 pints.. Olive oil Saltpetre Urinary troubles 1 tol| ozs.. to 1 dram . 4 drams 20 grs. to 1 oz. water.. 4 cup, 2 to 3 ozs 1 dram fluid. 5 to 100 water Ln 30 1..1COO ,, Sulphate of iron Tonic Grentian root Boric acid Injections into udder .... Colic, bloating Fever, cramp, colic For external use 1 pint . . . lb Igal.... lib. ... 1 02 Turpentine . . Fluid extract bella- donna Zenoleurn or creolin . Carbolic acid, Poison Corrosive sublimate, Poison 1 tablespoonful is equal to about \ oz. 1 dessertspoonful equals about 2 fluid drams. 1 teaspoonful equals about 1 fluid drain. Besides the above drugs, a few appliances should be included, chief among which might be named: Bottle for drenching, (long necked bottle), trocar and canula, probang, graduated beaker 4 oz., clinical thermometer, five or six feet of or f-inch hose, funnel (glass), milk fever apparatus, small scale, hard rubber syringe, teat tubes arid* bistoury. Where serious trouble occurs, it will be found advisable to consult a good veterin- arian, if siuch a practitioner be within reach. To supplement these notes, a good veterinary manual might be added to the farmer's library. 'Veterinary Elements/ by A. G. Hopkins, D.V.M.., V.S., B. Agr., is about the only book of this description published in Canada and is a valuable work. 123 FlG. 7. From left to right Bistoury, self-retaining milk tube, common milk tube, tiocar and canula. 27889- p. 128. , 129 NOTES ON SOME DISEASES. ABORTION. Of all diseases or troubles to afflict the dairyman abortion is undoubtedly the most to be feared. The loss of the fioetus, or abortion, is sometimes due to a blow, a prod from another cow, or some other more or less severe injury. The more common cause is, however, the presence of a germ disease in the womb. Abortion, when due to this disease, is contagious and difficult of cure or eradication. Contagious Abortion is, undoubtedly, a curable disease; it is, however, at the same time most difficult to control and almost impossible to completely eradicate, once it gets into a district or neighbourhood. Preventive or precautionary measures can scarcely be too sti'jingeiit. The observance of strict quarantine against animals of any age or either sex from infected herds is absolutely necessary. If, however, in spite of all efforts at prevention, the disease should get a foothold, no time should be lost in the inception of most energetic and thorough measures of control and eradication. The first animal to be affected in a herd usually drops a dead calf or foetus. The fact of the cow aborting from no apparent cause and giving birtih to a dead foetus, should excite suspicion and lead to immediate precautionary action. The things to do are: (1). Isolate the cow or cows, burn the foetus and afterbirth, etc., also all litter soiled with the fluids escaping at time of birth. Clean out the whole barn and burn the refuse. Whitewash the walls, floors, stall divisions, etc., with a solution of corrosive sublimate, one ounce in 8 gallons of lime wash ready for application. Apply freely. (2). Wash off the tail and all adjacent parts of all animals in the stable with a solution of carbolic acid, 5 per cent, or a' solution of creolin, zenoleum or phenol, aboiut three per cent, in water. The uterus should be irrigated with a similar solution, kept well mixed. A funnel and a bit of hose 5 or 6 feet long will prove satisfactory as apparatus for this operation. The washing and irrigating treat^ incut had better be repeated every second day for ten days or a fortnight. (3). The isolated or aborted animals should be washed and irrigated every day for two or three weeks and then every other day 278SD 9 130 for a considerably longer period, until all signs of a discharge disappear. (4). -The stable used for the isolated animals should be kept thoroughly disinfected, care being taken to spray with a solution of corrosive sublimate in water, 2 per cent solution, every day or two, the floor and partitions until all discharge stops. (5). Do not breed affect&d cattle until absolutely certain that all danger of infection has disappeared. (6). The lull should be disinfected by washing the under part of the body with the corrosive sublimate solution and by the injection of one of the other disinfecting solutions mentioned, in considerable quantities, into the sheath, both before and after service. (7). Attendants should not be the same for the isolated animals as for the unaffected herd and they should not be allowed to asso- ciate with the attendants of, nor visit healthy herds not under their care BLOAT OR HOVEN will occur occasionally in almost any herd. A too liberal supply of some succulent food, as wet, green clover, or green corn, is usually the cause. Practically the only treatment, or at least the first treatment in severe cases, is to tap with trocar and canula on the left side, between the last rib and the point of the hip. Then give a drench of about Q oz. of turpentine in 1J pints raw linseed oil. Drench slowly and carefully. BLOODY MILK may be due to a variety of causes, as inammitis, external udder wounds or bruises and internal udder injuries. Fre- quent milking and hot fomentations are the best treatment, keeping in mind always the removal of the cause, if at all possible. CHAPPED TEATS often occur in the spring or in wet, cold weather. They may be helped by applying oxide of zinc ointment or carbolic salve. DEHORNING DAIRY cows is becoming more common and is, under most conditions, quite the best practice. A good plan is to dehorn as calves. This can be done by burning the horn buttons with caustic potash or concentrated lye, when the calves are about ten days old. In the case of potash being used,, the method is to clip the hair from around the buttons, moisten slightly, and rub the potash on. Care should be taken to keep the potash from coming into contact with the hands. Sufficient moisture should be used to 131 ensure a moderate amount of potash remaining on the button, but not enough to cause the potash and water to run down and so endanger the eye or remove the hair. If the animal is not dehorned when a calf, it should be dehorned when about two and a half years old. This may be done with a saw or a clipper. Tha Keystone clipper is probably the best instru- ment wherewith to perform the operation. When clipping, it is best to cut so close to the head as to remove a ring of about one- eighth of an inch of hair with the horn. By clipping at that point, the operation can be performed much more quickly, with less pain to the animal and with less risk of any unpleasant after-effects. Searing the horn stub with a hot iron immediately after clipping is a good practice, but is probably unnecessary under most conditions. The best months to dehorn in are October, November or April. EVERSION OF THE UTERUS, INVERSION OF THE WOMB, OR CASTING OF THE WITHERS. Are all three different ways of describing the same condition, in which the uterus or womb is thrust out and hangs down from the vagina in a large mass. It occurs usually immediately after calving, but may happen, in some degree at least, at almost any time, even when cows are pregnant. The protruding 1 mass should be carefully washed with cold water containing a small percentage of zenoleum, creolin or carbolic acid. When clean, it should be gently but firmly shoved back into place. This may be done by placing the closed fist under the mass and pressing it steadily -upward and inward into position, in spite of straining on the part of the cow. When in place, it should be held by stitching the lips of the vulva and leaving thus for a day or even longer. Tying a small rope tightly round the body just behind the fore legs and another similar rope just in front of the hind legs will do much to keep the cow from straining. Building up a plat- form 6 or 7 inches high, in such a way as to raise the hind quarters higher than the front, will help correct any tendency toward this condition and will also help cure any difficult case. Cows that have once suffered from eversion of the uterus are very likely to be similarly affected each time they calve. FLIES cause great loss to the dairy farmer by so irritating the cows as to reduce the flow of milk very materially. They may be combatted by the more or less frequent application of suitable 132 repellents to those parts of the body commonly attacked. Many so-called fly-repellents on sale, fail to effectually repel the flies for any considerable length of time. A repellent that has been found effective here and that is moderately cheap, comparatively long- lasting in its effects and only slightly objectionable, is a mixture of imsalted lard 10 Ibs., pine tar 1 lb., carbolic acid 1 oz., thoroughly mixed and -applied every few days as required on those parts where flies most commonly settle. Where cattle are milked in stables diuring the summer months, it is usually found quite impossible to keep the byre from becoming filthy with flies. The setting around; in shallow pane, of a mixture of sweet skim milk two parts and formalin one part, will do much to reduce the pest. This plan has been tried here and found very effective in clearing the flies from the cow barn and the piggery. LICE usually make their appearance known by rendering the animal affected (unthrifty and causing more or less hair to fall off or be scratched or rubbed off on account of the extreme itchiness induced. The washing of the animal with a strong solution of such substances as Creolin, Zenoleum or liquid sheep dips, about five per cent solutions (1 to 20) being employed, is one remedy; another plan is to clip the hair short, beginning about six inches down on the tail and extending in a strip about four inches on. each side of the backbone and up the neck to the poll. Along this strip, apply freely some heavy oil such as fish oil. This is usually an effective but not a very pleasant method of combatting the evil. LUMPY JAW occurs occasionally. It shows itself by a hard swelling or growth on the lower jaw. This grows fairly rapidly as a rule and finally bursts. If the animal is not very valuable, it is well to slaughter and 5 20 00 223 65 3 acres roots ... . ^ acre cabbage . 37 131 7 1,296 4 00 2 00 148 26 15 30 2 acres spring rye put into silo 7 1,905 2 00 15 91 11^ acres corn, cut for ensilage 130 1,750 2 00 261 75 1 acre corn, cured in stocks 1J acres corn, cut and fed green 5 1,940 4 00 Per acre. 21 00 23 88 31 50 38 acres mixed grain, fed green 17 50 64 17 Total 872 00 The cost of producing these crops was $565.74 which is $14.14 per acre. CROPS ON 40 ACRE LOT 1892. Estimated Variety. Yield in Value Total Value. per ton. Tons. Lbs. $ cts. $ ct-. 8/ 1910 1911 i Tune 30 of tht is, July 1, 19 March 31 of tf fear. it year No. cows kept. 25 20 18 215 38 28 35 40 50 38 49 65 54 Average return per cow. $ cts. 51 22 64 18 69 93 73 50 63 GO 75 03 65 62 41 92 52 60 73 71 69 43 76 78 80 27 5," to March 31, 190G) fit y^ar PLATE XXXT. 27889 p. 144. General view interior Main Cow Barn, Ottawa. 145 SOME FEEDING EXPEKIMENTS. 'DRY vs. WET FEED/ Two lots of cows of three each were fed for seven days on similar rations. On the eighth day the rations were charged, lot 1 being given a meal ration of barley, oats and oil meal dry, and lot 2 a meal ration of bran and gluten meal wet. The same amounts of ensilage and hay as had been fed the first seven days were supplied all through the experiment. After 14 days on this feed, the rations were interchanged between the lots of cows. The following is a summary of the results: Feed. Average milk per day. Average per cent fat. Average yield b. f. Ensilage, clover hay, bran and gluten (fed wet) 1H 3'83 4 '365 Ensilage, clover hay, barley, oats and oil meal (fed dry) 116i 3-39 4-927 Difference in favor dry feed. . . 24 0'16 ' 202 It will be seen from this table that not only is there an increase in quantity of milk, but also an increase in the quantity of fat, when cows were fed on dry feed, as compared with the same cows fed on wet feed. ENSILAGE VS. MANGELS. Two groups of cows (C and D) were put in this experiment. For the first two weeks they were fed the regular ration, at the end of which time the * ' group was put on to ' Ensilage, Hay and Meal ' while the ' D ' group was fed ' Mangels, Hay and Meal.' At the end of two more weeks on these respective rations, the *C' group was fed ' Mangels, Hay and Meal ' and the ' D ' group ( Ensi- lage, Hay and Meal/ 2788010 146 The following is a short summary of the results: Summaries . Summary. Summary. Mangels, Hay, Meal. Ensilage, Hay, Meal. Average weight to start Lbs 983 1,006 + 23 29i 20 271 409 280 3,795 982 1,006 + 24 29J 20 200 413 280 H at end of 2 weeks Loss or gain + . Moal fed group in 1 day ... Hay fed group in 1 day ... . Ensilage fed group in ] day JVloul fed in 2 weeks . . . . Hay fed in 2 weeks Mangels in 2 weeks Ensilage in 2 weeks 2,800 7 91 14-2 1,003 71 73 73 70* 71i 681 7li 6i 8 Value of food fed group in 2 weeks $ 8 87 15-4 1,007 75 75 73 71 72 73 73 4i 5i it 1 cow in 1 day Cts. Milk produced by group in 2 weeks .. Lbs. First day's milk from group Second day's milk from group .Average daily yield of group during 1st week 2nd 2 weeks Next to last day's milk from group Last day's milk from group Decrease in rate of daily milk yield in 2 weeks Per cent decrease in rate of daily milk yield it PC. The results show that mangels are practically no better than ensilage for milk production. The cost of growing them is, however, appreciably higher than the cost of growing corn, which fact raises the daily cost of the cow's food when mangels are used to 15-4 cents as compared to 14-2 cents when corn ensilage is fed, a difference of 1-2 cents per day. DRY FORAGE VS. SUCCULENT FORAGE. The dry forage used in this experiment was hay, while roots and ensilage made the succulent forage. 147 o PH H X K i_J | 0} O * 9et>~et~t~ t *f i4 ifo'frliiH 27889-lOi 148 The cows liked the dry forage and ate about 25 per cent more dry matter when fed hay alone, but the yield of milk fell off very rapidly, as is shown by the table. The results seem to indicate quite strongly the advisability of every dairy farmer having some succu- lent feed to give his milch cows in addition to hay and meal. BOOTS AND ENSILAGE, TURNIPS AND SUGAR MANGELS AND ROOTS AND ENSILAGE, SUGAR MANGELS AND SUGAR BiSJSTS. This experiment was not carried on quite fully for two reasons, viz.: (1) the supply of sugar beets w*as quite limited, and (2) the effect of the turnips on the butter was very injurious. 149 W2 i W PQ 04 a cc p 3 o W a iod. II M 5(5 II ft 11 o * i-lctO 1 W rH cents to 86-2 cents, an increase of 15-7 cents. EXPERIMENTS WITH INTERNATIONAL STOCK FOOD FOR DAIRY COWS. In order to get some information as to the value of International Stock Food as an addition to the ration of dairy cows in milk, an experiment was carried on in 1905 with the following result: 158 Summary. Summary. Fed Stock Food. Fed no Stock Food. Number in group 3. Number in group 3. Ensilage fed group in 1 day . Lba. 355 6 766-6 168 7,035 7'8 15 29 12-1 2,066 109-5 107 104-4 93 98-3 94-5 92-5 74 310 Stock Food fed group in 1 day Oxs. . Lba. 806 161 6,720 Hay fed group in period . . Ensilage fed group in period .... Stock Food fed group in period Value of feed fed group in period . , . . $ . Cts. . Lbs. 15 53 12 3 2,147 116 114 5 108 8 .96-3 '99-8 99-8 94 72 3 Value of feed fed 1 co\v in 1 day . Milk produced by group in period .. Sscond ii it Average daily yield of group durin^ 1st week '. ii ti 2nd it ,, 3 weeks t Last day's milk from group . .... ( Cost to produce 100 Ibs milk during period Cts. It will be seen from -the above table that International Stock Food is not of very great value as a food for dairy cattle. In the case where a quantity of it was substituted for a like quantity of the regular meal ration, the cost of producing 100 Ibs. of milk was raised from 72*3 to 74 cents. MANGELS VS. MEAL. A test was made of three small groups of cows (three cows to the group) which were far advanced in the lactation period, to gain some information as to the possibility of replacing the meal ration, or some part thereof, by mangels. An outline of the experiment is as follows: First period, February 15-21, 1910. Lot 1. Alma, Fannie, Gurta. Daily ration per cow. Meal mixture, 1 Ib. for each 3 Ibs. milk produced; long straw, 3 Ibs.; sorghum ensilage, 100 Ibs.; cut straw, 16 Ibs. What each cow would eat up clean. Lot 2. Soncie, Bessie, Jessie E. 159 Daily ration per cow. Same as Lot 1. Lot 3. Queenie, Robichaud, La Belle. Daily ration per cow. Same as Lot 1. Second period, February 22-March 7, 1910. Lot 1. Daily ration per cow. Same as period 1. Lot 2. Daily ration per cow. Roughage, same as period 1; mangels, 3 Ibs. for each pound milk produced; no meal. Lot 3. Daily ration per cow. February 22-28, roughage, same as period 1; meal, 1 Ib. to 4 Ibs. milk produced; mangels, $ Ib. to 1 Ib. milk produced. March 15-21, meal, 1 Ib. to 7 Ibs. milk produced; mangels, 1 Ib. to 1 Ib. milk produced. Third period, March 1-8, 1910. Lot 1. Daily ration per cow. Roughage, same as period 1; mangels, 3 Ibs. to 1 Ib. milk produced. Lot 2. Daily ration per cow. Same as period 1. Lot 3. Daily ration per cow. March 8-14, roughage, same as period 1; meal, 1 Ib. to 6 Ibs. milk produced; mangels, l Ib. to 1 Ib. milk produced. March 15-21, Meal, 1 Ib. to 7 Ibs. milk produced; mangels, 2 Ibs. to 1 1'b. milk produced. Meal mixture. Bran, 500 Ibs.; beet pulp, 200 Ibs.; beet and molasses pulp, 200 Ibs.; cottonseed meal, 100 Ibs. Cows weighed. Monday, February 14, 10 a.m.; Tuesday, March 22, 10 a.m. 160 co 8 g8<-3SSS S S* 5 8S il S.S 33 27889-p. 100. 161 The feed for each cow was carefully weighed at each feeding. The results indicate the danger of depending too much on roots for cows far advanced in lactation. A COMPARISON OF GLUTEN, OIL MEAL AND COTTON-SEED MEAL WITH BRAN AND OATS. During the winter of 1906-07, an experiment was undertaken to gain some information as to the value of gluten, oil meal and cottonseed meal as feeds in comparison with bran and oats. Each group contained four cows. The tables which follow give a full history of the experiment. VALUES OF MIXTURES. Per ton. Oats and bran mixture, equal parts. . . . $20 00 Oats, bran and gluten meal mixture, equal parts 21 60 Oats, bran and oil meal mixture, equal parts 23 40 Oats, bran and cottonseed meal mixture, equal parts 23 60 These were the prices the feeds cost jus. 2788911 102 GROUP I. Item considered. Meal Mixture Fed. Pre- liminary Oats 100, Bran 100, Oats 100, Bran 100. Oats 100, Bran 100, Oil meal 100. Oats 100, Bran 100. Gluten 100 Oats 100, Bran 100, Cotton seed meal 100. Period. Feb. 21 to Mar. 6. Mar. 7 to Mar. 20. Mar. 21 to April 3. April 4 to April IT April 18 to May 2. Number of days on feed Amount meal mixture con- sumed in period Average amount meal per cow per day 14 364 Ibs. 6i .. 2,660 475 ii 168 .. 86 1,210* 258-5 255 |$6 89 49A 57 56*3 57-9 4 p.c. -1-3 p.c. 4'4 p.c. 14 364 Ibs. 6i 2,380 43 168 82 1,147 ,. 250 244 ., $6 61 47 A 57'6 56-7 58-1 4 p.c. -2-3 p.c. 4'6 p.c. 14 364 Ibs. 6* 2,359 H 42 163 76-5 1,145 243i 241 $7 21 51i 63 63 64 4 p.c. -1 p.c. 4'6 p.c. 14 364 Ibs. 6*,, 2,338 41-5 168 82 i f i48* 241 242 $6 86 49 60 60 60 4 p.c. 4- .4 p.c. 4'4 p.c. 14 364 Ibs. 6i 1,820 32 163 86 1,1175 247 241 $6 71 047H 60 58 2 59 7 4 p.c. -24 p.c. 4'4 p.c. Amount roots and ensilage consumed by group in period. Average amount roots and ensilage per cow per day. . . Amount hay consumed by group in period Total milk in average day of Total milk produced by group in period Total milk produced by group in first three days of p riod Total milk produced by group in last three days of period. Value of food consumed by group during period Value of food consumed by group in one day Cost of 100 Ibs. milk produced by group during period. . Cost of 100 Ibs. milk produced by group during first three days of period Cost of 100 Ibs. milk produced by group during last three days of period .... Normal rate of decrease in milk flow during period Rate of decrease - , or increase + , during period A verage per cent of fat in milk during period 1G3 GROUP II. Item Considered. Meal Mixture Fed. Pre- liminary Bran 100, Oats 100. Oats 100, Bran 100, Oil meal 100. Oats 100, Bran 100, Gluten 100. Oats 100, Bran 100, Cotton seed meal 100. Bran 100, Oats 100. Period. Feb. 21 to Mar. 6. Mar. 7 to Mar. 20. Mar. 21 to April 3. April 4 to April 17. April 18 to May 2. Number of days on feed 14 303 Ibs. 5 2063 47'5 n 168 72 1003 215-5 210^ ., $6 33 45^ 63 63 64-4 4 p.c. -20 p.c. 4'2 p.c. 14 308 Ibs. 5i,, 2520 45 168 ,. 70 986i " 209 212 $671 047JI 68 68-2 67'3 4 p.c. + 15 p.c. 4'7 p.c. 14 308 Ibs. 5i 2506 44A ,, 168 72 1005i 216i i. 217 .. $6 43 45}| 64 64 64 4 p.c. + 0'4 p.c. 4'7 p.c. 14 308 Ibs. 5i .. 2492 44i 168 71 .. 988 .. 214 2124 .. $671 047J2 67'8 67'3 67'9 4 p.c. 0'7 p.c. 4 7 p.c. 14 308 Ibs 54 .. 1960 ,. 35 168 67'6 ' 947 '5 .. 211 197 .. $5 63 40A 59'4 57 2 61-2 4 p.c. -6'6 p.c. 4-5 p.c. Amount meal mixture con- sumed in period . . /. Average amount meal per cow per day . . Amount roots and ensilasre consumed by group in period Average amount roots and en- silage per cow per day Amount hay consumed by group in period Total milk in average day of period . To^al milk produced by group i n period Total milk produced by group in first three days of period. Total milk produced by group in last three days of period. Value of food consumed by group during period. Value of food consumed by group in one clay Cost of 100 Ibs. milk produced by group during period Cost of 100 Ibs. milk produced by group during first three days of period Cost of 100 Ibs. milk produced by group during last three days of period Normal rate of decrease in milk-flow during period.. . . Rate of decrease - ; "or in- crease + ; during period . . . Average per cent of fat in milk during period 27889 llj 164 GROUP in. Item Considered. Meal Mixture Fed. Pre- liminary Bran 100, Oats 100. Oats 100, Bran 100, Gluten 100. Oats 100, Bran 100, Cotton seed meal 100. Oats 100, Bran 100. Oats 100, Bran 100, Oil meal 100. Period. Feb. 21 to Mar. 6. Mar. 7. to Mar. 20. Mar. 21 to April 3. April 4 to April 17. April 18 to May 2. Number of days on feed Amount meal mixture con- sumed in period Average amount meal per cow per day Amount roots and ensilage consumed by group in period 14 308 Ibs. 5*,, 2590 4G 168 76 10631 228 228i $6 26 044} 59 59 59 4 p.c. 4'2p.c. 14 308 Ibs. 5J 2380 421,, 168 77 .1 1077 .. 223 233 $6 30 45 58'5 60-5 58 4 p.c. + 4"4 p.c. 4'7 p.c. 14 308 Ibs. 5i,, 2359 42 168 76 1061i 230 224^ $6 58 47 62 61 63 4 p.c. -2 "6 p.c. 4'9p.c. 14 308 Ibs. 6i 2338 42 168 71 .. 977 217i " 206J .. $601 42H 61-5 59-3 62-4 4 p.c. 5 p.c. 4'5p.c. 14 308 Ibs. 5i 1,820 *.. 168 66 932 207^ ,. 199 $6 01 042}l 64-5 62-3 64\S 4 p.c. 4 p.c. 4'2p.c. Average amount roots and en silage per cow per day Amount hay consumed by group in period Total milk in average day of period , .... Total milk produced by group in period Total milk produced by group in first three days of period. Total milk produced by group in last three days of period . Value of food consumed by group during period Value of food consumed by group in one day Cost of 100 Ibs. milk produced by group during period .... Cost of 100 Ibs. milk produced by group during first three days of period Cost of 100 Ibs. milk produced by group during last three days of period. Normal rate of decrease in milk-flow during period Rate of decrease ; or in- crease + ; during period . . . Average per cent of fat in milk during period 165 GROUP IV. Item Considered. Period. Number of days on feed Amount meal mixture con- sumed in period Average amount meal per cow per day. Amount roots and ensilage consumed by group in period Average amount roots and ensilage per cow per day. . . Amount hay consumed by group in period Total milk in average day of period Total milk produced by group in period Total milk produced by group in first three days of period Total milk produced by group in last three days of period. Value of food consumed by group during period Value of food consumed by group in one day Cost of 100 Ibs. milk produced by group during period Cost of 100 Ibs. milk produced by group during first three days of period Cost of 100 Ibs. milk produced by group during last three days of period Normal rate of decrease in milk flow during period Rate of decrease ; or increase + ; during period Average per cent of fat in milk during period Meal Mixture Fed. Pre- liminary, Bran 100, Oats 100. Bran 100, Oats 100, Cotton seed meal 100. Bran 100, Oats 100. Bran 100, Oats 100, Oil meal 100. Bran 100, Oats loo, Gluten 100. Feb. 21 to Mar. 6. Mar. 7 to Mar. 20. Mar. 21 to Apl. 3. Apl. 4 to Apl. 17. Apl. 18 to May 2. 14 14 14 14 14 392 Ibs. 392 Ibs. 392 Ibs. 392 Ibs. 392 Ibs. 7 ., 7 "i 7 7 M 7 2,660 2,600 2,590 2,520 2,030 4|> 47*.. 4fii 45 36| 168 168 ., 168 168 168 87 88 ,. 83 ., 83 82 1.225J H 1,233 1,166 1,167$ .. 1, 149 ., 266 257 259 246i 250 264i 267^ .. 246^ .. 254 ., 252 ,. $7 17 $ 7 88 $ 7 10 $ 7 70 $ 6 85 61A tt OfiOH 55 48} 59 64 61 66 59' 60 66 69 67 58 59 63 61-5 65 53 2 4 p.c. 4 p.c. 4 p.c. 4 p.c. 4 p.c. -1 p.c. + 2'5 p.c. 5 p.c. + 3'2 p.c. + ' 8 p.c 4'3 p.c. 44 p.c. 4'4 p.c. 4-8 p.c. 4'4 p.c 166 SUMMARY. Mea 1 Mixture 1 Fed. Item Considered. Pre- liminary, Oats 100, Oats 100, Bran 100, Oats 100, Bran 100, Oats 100, Bran 100, Oats 100, Bran 100. Oil meal Gluten \_>otton pH Bran 100. 100. 100. S66Q meal 100. Period. Number of days on feed. . . . 14 14 14 14 14 Amount meal mixture con- sumed in period 1,372 Ibs. 1,372 Ibs. 1,372 Ibs. 1,372 Ibs. 1,372 Iba. Average amount meal per cow per day '6' In 6 'In 6'L,, 6 I,. 6-1,, Amount roots and ensilage consumed by group in period 1.0,570 .. 9,268 .. 9,219 9,254 9,331 Average amount roots and ensilage per cow per day . . 47-2,, 4l'5.i 41 41 -L, 41-6., Amount hay consumed by group in period 672 672 H 672 672 672 ., Total milk in average day of period 320 5,, 393-6,, 295-5,, 313 321 Total milk produced by group in period 4, 502 '5,, 4,237-5,, 4,231-5,, 4,380-5,, 4,400-5,, Total milk produced by group in first three days of period 998 937-5,, 907 ., 940-5,, 948 Total milk produced by group in last three d ays of period. 958-5,, 893 906-5,, 944-5,, 945-5,, Value of food consumed by group during period. . Value of food consumed by $ 26 65 $ 25 35 $ 27 63 $ 26 44 $ 27 88 group in one day 1 90-4 1 81'1 1 96-6 1 48'8 1 99-1 Cost of 100 Ibs. milk produced by group during period 59-1 59'8 65-3 60-3 63'3 Normal rate of decrease in milk flow during period . . . 4 p.c. 4 p.c. 4 p.c. 4 p.c. 4 p.o. Rate of decrease ; or increase + ; during period 3-1 p.c. 3- 7 p.c. + '4 p.c. '2 p.c. Average per cent of fat in milk during period 4-3 p.c. 4'5 p.c. 4'6 p.c. 4'5p.c. 4 '6 p.c. It was found, as will be seen from the above taWes, that while these feeds, especially oil meal and gluten, checked the falling-off in milk flow, they at the same time raised the cost of production so that the period when bran was being fed holds first place in economy. The gluten meal period is very close behind, however, and has the advantage of having not only checked the natural decrease in milk flow but even induced a slight increase. EXPERIMENTS IN VENTILATION OF DAIRY BARNS. Many systems of ventilation for cattle barns have been devised and advocated by many experimenters. The writer has tried between 25 and 30 different systems within the last ten years. Most methods tried have proven more or less objectionable. Of all the systems advocated, that commonly known as ' The Rutherford System of Stable Ventilation ' would appear to be the one most worthy of trial. A system known as the King System has been widely advocated. It proved quite unsatisfactory here. It would seem to be better suited for warmer countries. Below are submitted descriptive cuts and brief explanatory notes of a number of systems or methods. SYSTEM OF VENTILATION ' A/ PIERCED WALLS. [Plan A Pierced Walls.} This system of ventilation is simple and cheap of installation. All that is required is the piercing of square or round holes on all sides exposed to air. These holes or openings in our standard stable (30 x 36) should be 4 inches in diameter at three feet intervals, or 6 inches in diameter at six feet intervals in at least three sides of the building. They had better be provided with some sort of door or key to control either incoming or outgoing currents of air. The fresh air will, if permitted, enter from the side against which the 168 wind strikes. Hence the openings serving as inlets one day or at one moment may be outlets the next moment or any other day, depending of course upon the direction of the wind. When calm prevails, internal influences will exert the controlling forces as to which openings shall act as inlets and which others as outlets. The controlling and limiting of the rate of inflow of air is essential. The outflow will (usually require that the controls or keys be fully open. The temptation to partially plug the holes with wisps of hay or straw must be guarded against. SYSTEM OF VENTILATION ' B/ VENTILATION BY CONVECTION. Plan B rVentilation by Convection^ In the system described below, the proper distribution of pure air throughout the stable depends for the most part upon convection or circulation of air in the lower half of the stable due to the heat PLATE XXXV. Ayrshire Cow Netherhall Brownie IX. Produced 1025 '11 Ibs. butter 80 per cent at in 1 yr. 27889 p. 168. 169 from the animals causing displacement of the lower air which, when warmed, will ascend and be replaced by cool, fresh air entering by ' A ' or ' B ' or by both or numerous similar openings. The impure air leaves the stable by outlet ' D.' O C are windows hinged at the bottom and held in position by small chains from a to b. The windows may be of any desired width or height. If very high it is advisable to have the lower half stationary and the upper hinged thereto as in B. The outlet D E F for such a stable as mentioned, if single, should be about two feet sqmare. If it is preferred to have two outlets, as is probably somewhat better, then each outlet should be 1^ feet square. This outlet pipe D E F may be in the centre or to one side. So far as satisfactory working is concerned, I may say that we have had almost equally good results when the pipe took the courses D E F, D E E' F' or D' E' F' provided always that the out- let F or F' was 2 or 3 feet higher than H the apex of the roof. To prevent in some measure the inflow of snow or rain, a cap G should be constructed over the outlet pipe. If conveniently situated, D might serve as an opening through which to drop bedding or feed. The amount of air to escape through the outlet is controlled by the trap T which may be regulated by cords descending into the stable. SYSTEM OF VENTILATION ' C/ THE RUTHERFORD SYSTEM. This system is no doubt fairly well known to most readers, but a few descriptive paragraphs will probably not be out of place. It is the system most commonly used here for the reason that it has proven to be most simple of manipulation and affords the least opportunity of being badly worked or blocked by cattlemen unwisely anxious as to the comfort of their charges. This system requires that the air enter at or near the floor level. The best plan of bringing it in is probably as shown on the left hand side in the diagram where the single-headed arrows indicate the entrance of the air and its passage through A C B under the wall. When the air current enters the stable it has an upward direction, which it retains in some degree, but, once free from the confining passage, it spreads and takes usually the course indicated by the single-headed arrow. 170 If for any reason it is not considered advisable to pass under the wall, then an opening through the wall at the level of the floor will serve the purpose. In such case it will, however, be found necessary to so surround the opening into the stable as to give the Plan C Rutherford System. entering air current an upward tendency. The air current would then follow the directions indicated by the double-headed arrows. As to outlet, the same plan serves as was described in writing of venti- lation plan ' B.' SYSTEM OF VENTILATION ' D/ THE KING SY JTEM. Like the system just discussed, the King system is probably known to many readers. It has many admirers, and many have 1T1 succeeded with it. It is most remarkable in this, that the foul air is drawn from the floor and the fresh air enters at the ceiling. In the previously discussed systems as will be remembered, the foiul air in every case was drawn from the ceiling, while the fresh air came in at different points from the floor to the ceiling according to the system being considered. 1 'IT \ Plan D King System. The advocates of the King System claim that since carbonic acid gas is the chief impurity in stables, and since this gas is heavier than pure air, it is likely to be found in largest quantities near the floor, and therefore outlets for impure air should begin near the floor level. 172 In the cross section diagram, the inlet is shown by arrows running from A to C. The outlet begins at B and the fowl air goes up the tube and out at E. Both inlets and outlets occur on each side, and should be at intervals of about 10 feet, say 3 of each on each side. Where these numbers occur, then each inlet and each outlet should have a cross sectional area of at least 60 square inches, say 4 inches x 15 inches., Where it is intended to install this system, it should be provided for when building the walls. Spaces between the studs will serve for both inlets and outlets. The outlet B L E might be modified to take the course B L M, in which case it would probably be necessary to extend M above the level of the apex of the roof. At O openings should be made into the outlets so that the warm air at the ceiling may be allowed to escape when the average stable temperature rises too high. The chief objection to this system is the large number' of long pipes or boxes necessary to admit pure air, or discharge foul air, as the case may be. This objection is particularly in evidence when it becomes necessary to install the system in an old building. A modification of the system and one that is easy of introduction in an old or new wooden building is given below. SYSTEM OF VENTILATION ' E.' This system, a modification of the King, permitting of cheap ,and easy installation in either new or old frame or log buildings, is one which the writer devised and put into operation some years ago at the Experimental Farm and elsewhere. It has worked very satisfactorily, wherever installed. That it is cheap as well as effective is proved by the fact that in a stable for 22 cattle it cost $12 for labour and material. The pipes in this system are entirely inside the stable. For 20 cattle in the standard stable these shoulj be six in number, each about 12 inches x 6 inches or 12 inches x 7 inches in cross section, 3 on each side (east and west sides if possible). Each ventilation pipe must 'have two openings to the outside aii, one an inch or so below the ceiling level as a and b, and the other 6 inches to 8 inches above the floor level as c and d. These open- ings should be of the same dimensions as the pipes. The air enters 173 the building by passing into the right hand pipe at D up past E and into the stable at F at the ceiling. It circulates through the build- ing, enters the outlet at A, passes up through B and out at C. Tf the wind were blowing from the left, however, it would enter at X up through B and out into the stable at Y finding its way out by entering the right hand tube at D and passing up through E and out at B, Bad Wall Construction TWO-PIY IncH LUMBER, PAPER BETWEEN. Plait E- Modified Kin0 System H J L N represent barriers or trap doors hinged at G I K and M respectively. As set in diagram, air enters by D E F and dis- charges by A B C. If set as per dotted lines, then entry would be by X B Y and discharge by D E B. When properly attended to this is an exceedingly satisfactory system, but when neglected does not always work well. If desired, trap doors II J L U may be arranged so as to permit of air entering directly, that is by flowing through X A and D D and leaving: the stable at ceiling that is B and Y C, which would be a modified Rutherford system. This latter modification works well in warm weather. MUSLIN CURTAIN VENTILATION SYSTEM. Muslin curtain ventilation, a so-called system of ventilation advocated to a considerable extent in recent years, was given a thorough trial at the Central Experimental Farm and found quite unsatisfactory. The most striking faults with the system were: 1. Too great watchfulness necessary to insure even a fair measure of siuccess. 174 2. Danger of too great a fall or rise of temperature in the night, due to rise or fall of wind. 3. Darkening of stable due to presence of muslin on windows which renders stable gloomy and damp. 4. Fouling of the muslin on account of changing directions of air currents which wet the curtains permitting foul air to escape, thus preventing the escape of foul air, so the curtains soon get muddy in appearance and unsanitary in condition. 175 INDIVIDUAL RECORDS. All Battle in the barns at the Central Experimental Farm are under experiment to a greater or less extent. All cattle are not necessarily in comparative tests, but a record is kept of the methods of feeding and the quantities given to each animal. Results are noted and conclusions drawn as to the values of different methods of feeding and different rations under certain conditions. Moreover the total production of each individual is carefully recorded, its value fixed according to the price on the market for milk or butter at the time, and with the returns thus obtained, the exact profit of each cow per year is arrived at by deducting the cost of care and feeding. By this method of keeping accurate records of the feed supplied and the milk and butter fat produced, it is possible to weed out the 'boarders ' from a herd. As an example of what this means to a farmer, it may be stated, as shown elsewhere in this work, that the average return per cow at the Central Experi- mental Farm in 1899 when this system was introduced was $51.2(2 while in 1911 it was $80.27, this being but s'ightly higher than figures obtained in some of the intervening years. PLATE XXXVI. Jersey Cow Jacoba Irene 13 years old. Champion long-distance cow. Produced 2,053 Iba. 15 '3 oz. butter, 85 per cent fat in 2 yrs. 27889-p. 176. IHDEX. PACT Abortion, contagious 129 Afterbirth, Retention 135 Air space, Allowance of 42 Alberta, Methods of Feeding Dairy Cattle in 89,91 Suitable Rotations for 1-1 Alfalfa 100, 106 Apoplexy, parturient 133 Apple Pomace 113 Apples 113 refuse, experiment in feeding at Central Farm 152 Ayrshires 13 Barley 93 Straw 105 Barn, Cow, The 41 Arrangement of 41 Arrangement of cows in 41 Box Stalls in 46 Carriers in 46 Feed Room in 46 Flooring of 42, 44 Lighting of 44 Location of 41 Mangers, arrangement of 43 Stalls in 45 Tracks in 46 Tying Cattle, Methods of 43 Ventilation of 47 Water Supply in 43 Whitewashing of 44 Bloat 130 Box Stalls in Dairy Barns 46 Bran as a feed for calves 24 Breeding, Methods of 6 Results of at Central Farm 142 Breed- Ayrshire 13 Brown Swiss 16 Devon 16 Dutch Belted 14 French Canadian 14 2786912 177 178 PAGB Breed Continued. PAGB General Purpose 16 Guernsey 14 Holstein-Friesian Ib Jersey 15 Lincoln Red 17 Red Poll 17 Shorthorn 17 Sussex 17 Breeds- Conditions affecting 12 Selection of, in Dairying; 12 Brewers' Grains 93 Dried 94 British Columbia Methods of Feeding Dairy Cattle in 89,90 Rotations suitable for 8 Brome Grass as a Feed for Dairy Cattle 101 Brown Swiss 16 Brushing Dairy Cattle 61 Buckwheat as a Feed for Dairy Cattle 94 Bran 94 Straw 105 Bull, The Dairy 19 Age of, The best 20 Cost of and returns from 21 Feeding and care of 22 Selection of 19 Type of, the best 20 By-products, Value of 56 Cabbage 113 Caked Bag 133 Calf Feeders 26 Calf Meal, Preparation of 24 Calf Ties 26 Calves, Feeding of 21 Feeding of colostrum to 54 Scouring in 136 Selection of 23 Stalls for 24,46 Treatment and care of 23,26 Calving, Milking before 29 Canadian Blue Grass 101 Canadian Cattle 14 Carriers in Dairy Barns 46 Casting of the Withers 131 179 Central Experimental Farm PACK Experiments with Dairy Cattle at 138 Chaff 105 Chains for tying cattle .-.. 43 Clipping dairy cattle 60 Clover 100, 104, 106 Alsike 100, 107, 111 Crimson 107, 111 Red 103 Sweet 104 White 109 Colostrum, Use of 54 Condimental Feeds 113 Contagious Abortion 129 Corn as a Feed for Dairy Cattle 94 as an ensilage crop 109,110 as a soiling crop 107 Bran 95 Fodder 104 Oil cake 94 Stover 105 Cost of Milk Production on Central Farm 143 Cotton Seed Meal 95 Cows, Arrangement of in barn 42 Autumn feeding of 67 Comfort of 59,60,62 Drying off of 29 Dry Period of 29 Grooming of 60 Individuality of 79 Judging of 30 Points of 33 Records of 35, 175 Summer feeding of 64 Treatment of, at Calving 28 Treatment of, in Calf 28 Winter feeding of 67 Crop Rotation Succulent forage in 8 Crops as related to dairying 7 Dairy Bull, The 19 Dairy Cattle, Experiments with at Central Farm 138 Individual Records of 35, 175 Dairy Cow, The, Exercise for 71 Judging of 30 Kind Treatment, Necessity of 60,62 Points of 33 Records of 35, 175 180 PAGE Dairy Farming, Breeding Methods followed 12 Breed Selected 12 Care and Management of Herd 18 Factors Affecting Results in 6 Farm Chosen, The 7 Fee-ding Methods ' 6, 64 Marketing 7 Rotation followed '. 7 Value of % 7 Dairy Herd, The 18 Method of Keeping np 18 Dairy Shorthorns 17 Dehorning, Methods of 130 Devons 16 Diseases of Dairy Cattle 126,129 Abortion 129 Apoplexy, Parturient 133 Bloat 130 Bloody Milk 130 Caked Bag 133 Casting of the Withers 131 Chapped Teats - 130 Dehorning 130 Eversion of Uterus , 131 Flies, Repellents for 131 Garget 133 Hospital, The 126 Hoven 130 Inflammation of Lungs 135 Inflammation of Udder 135 Inversion of Womb 131 Lice 132 Lumpy J aw 132 Mammitis 133 Milk Fever 133 Pneumonia 135 Remedies Baking Soda 127 Belladonna, Fluid Extract of 127 Boric Acid 127 Carbolic Acid 127 Corrosive Sublimate 127 Creolin 127 Epsom Salts -.... -. 127 Gentian Root 127 Ginger 127 Linseed Oil, raw 127 Olive Oil 127 Saltpetre 127 181 Remedies Continued. PAOI Sulphate of Iron 127 Turpentine 127 Zenoleum 127 Retention of Afterbirth 135 Ringworm 136 Scouring in Calves 136 Tuberculosis 136 Warbles , 136 White Scours 136 Wounds 137 Distillers' Grains as a Feed for Dairy Cattle 95 Drainage from B-arn, Importance of 41 Drugs. See Under Diseases, Remedies for. Drying off Heifers 29 Dry Period of Heifers 29 Dutch Belted 14 Emmer, as a Feed for Dairy Cattle 95 Ensilage Crops- Clover Ill Corn 109, 110 Corn, Sunflowers and Horse Beans 109 Horse Beans , . . . 109 Peas and Oats Ill Rape 110 Sorghum, as a Feed for Dairy Cattle 110 Eversion of the Uterus 131 Exercise for Dairy Cows 71 Fall Calving 28 Farming, Dairy, Value of 5 Farm Selected- Arable Land on 7 as Affecting Dairy Results 6 Shipping Facilities from 7 Water Supply of 7 Feeding Calves, Methods of 24 Feeding Dairy Caltle 113 Cost of on Central Farm 143 Feeding For Milk Production 64 Frequency of 69 In Autumn * 67 In Summer 66 In Winter 67 Meal, Rate of Increase in Feeding of 79' 182 Feeding Continued. PAGI Meal with Pasture 63 Methods of, Suggested 90 Experiments in, at Central Farm 145 in Albeita 89 in British Columbia 89 in Manitoba 87 : in New Brunswick 85 in Nova Scotia 84 in Ontario 87 i n Prince Edward Island 84 in- Quebec 85 in Saskatchewan 88 Pasturing 65 Philosophy of 72 Proportioning Ration 73 Regularity of, Importance of 70 Soiling Crops 66,106 Stall to Pasture, Changing from 64 Summer Silos 67 Two vs. Three times per day 69 Standards 75 Tables of Feeding Values 116,125 Haecker, The 77 ; Kellner, The 77 Scandinavian, The 78 Wisconsin, The 76 Wolff-Lehmann, The 75 Feed Records, Forms for 40 Feed Room, in Dairy Barns 46 Feeds 93 Alfalfa or Lucern 100,106 Alsike 100 Apple Pomace 113 Apples 113 Apples, refuse 152 Barley 93 Barley Straw 105 Brewers' Grains 93 dried 94 Brome Grass 101 Buckwheat 94 Buckwheat Bran 94 Straw ." 105 Cabbage 113 Canadian Blue Grass 101 Chaff 105 Clover 107 Crimson 107 Bed 103 183 Feeds Continued. PAQI Clover Continued. Sweet 104 White 109 Condimental 113 Corn 94, 104, 107 Bran 95 Ensilage 109 Fodder !04 Oil Cake 94 Cotton Seed Meal 95 Distillers' Grains : 95 " Dry " vs. " Wet." 145 Dry vs. Succulent Forage 145 Emmer 95 Ensilage vs. Mangels 145, 156 Fescue 101 Flaxseed 96 Flax Straw 105 Flour, Feed 96 Gluten Feed % Gluten Meal 96 Gluten, Oil Meat and Cotton Seed Meal vs. Bran and Oats 161 Hairy Vetch 107 Horse Beans 97, 109, 110 Hungarian Grass 101 International Stock Food 157 Kentucky Blue Grass 102 Malt Sprouts 97 Mangels HI Mangels vs. Meal 160 Marsh Hay, Broad Leaf 100 "Meal Seeds" 153 Millets 102 Molasses 114 Oat Hay 102 Oat and Pea Hay 102 Oat Hulls 97 Oat Straw 105 Oats 97 Oil Cake Meal 93 Orchard Grass 103 "Pea Dust" 154 Pea Hulls 98 Pea Meal Pea Straw Ifo Peas 98 Peas and Oats HI Potatoes HI Pumpkins 114 Rape 108 184 PAGE Red Clover 103 Bed Top 103 Roots vs. Ensilage 156 Rutabagas. See Swedes. R,ye 98,108 Salt 70 Shorts or Middlings 98 Skim Milk 115 Slough Hay 103 Soiling Crops 106 Sorghum 108, 110 Soy Beans 99,108 "Spirit Grains" 155 Straw 101 Succulent, Value of 68, 146 Sugar Beets 112 Sugar Beet Pulp, dried 114 Sugar Mangels 112 Sugar Mangels, Sugar Beets and Ensilage. 145 Sunflower Silage -. . . . 109 Swedes 112 Sweet Clover 104 Timothy 104 Turnips 113 Turnips, Sugar Mangels and Ensilage .* 148 Yetch, Common 109 Vetch, Hairy 107 Vetch Hay 104 Water 70 Weed Seeds 99 Western Rye Grass 104 Wheat 99 Wheat Bran 99 Wheat Straw 106 Composition of, Tabks 116,125 Notes on some 93, 115 Palatibility of, Minor Aids in 69 Value of 68 Variety in, Value of 68 Fescue 101 Flavia II of Ottawa, Record of v 37 Flaxseed ' 96 Jelly, as a Feed for Calves 24, 25 Flax Straw, as a Feed for Dairy Cattle 105 Flies, Repellents for 131 Flour, Feed, as a Feed for Dairy Cattle 96 Floor Space in Barns 42 Flooring of Dairy Barns 44 185 PAGB Food Constituents 72 Ash 73 Carboydrates 72 Pat 73 Protein 73 Water , 73 Forage, Dry vs. Succulent 146 Forty Acres, Crops on 138 Number of Cows for 139 Fountains, as used in Dairy Barns 70 Garget 133 General Purpose Cattle 16 Gluten Feed 96 Gluten Meal 96 Grains vs. Meals Green Feeds . 119 Grooming; Dairy Cattle 61 Guernseys 14 Hairy Vetch, as a Feed for Dairy Cattle 107 Hay, Marsh, Broadleaf, as a Soiling Crop 100 Hay, Slough, as a Soiling Crop 103 Heifers, Age to Serve '. 27 Calving, Time of 28 Care of 27 Feeding of 27 Selection of 26 Treatment of During Gestation 28 Lactation 28 with first Calf 28 Herd, The Dairy, Care and Management of, Methods of keeping up.. 18 Holstein-Friesians 15 Horse Beans, as a Feed for Dairy Cattle 97, 109, 110 Hospital, The 126 Hoven 130 Hungarian Grass 101 Hygiene in Stables 126 Inflammation of the Lungs 135 Instruments, Surgical. See Under Diseases. International Stock Food 157 Inversion of (he Womb 131 Jerseys 15 Judging Dairy Cattle 31 Kentucky Blue Grase 102 Kind Treatment, Value of 28, 62 Lice 132 Lighting of Dairy Barns 44 186 PAOB Lincoln Reds 17 Lucern. See Alfalfa. Lumpy Jaw 132 Litter 61 Malt Sprouts, as a Feed for Dairy Cattle 97 Mamraitis 133 Mangels Ill, 118, 124, 145, 149,158 Mangels vs. Ensilage 145 Mangels vs. Meal 158 Mangers, Arrangement of, Methods of Feeding in 43 Manitoba, Suitable Rotations for 11 Methods of Feeding Dairy Cattle 87 Marketing, as Affecting Dairying 7 Meal, as fed to Cows at Pasture 65 " Meal Seeds " 153 Medicine Chest, The 126 Milk, The Product ' 55 Analysis of 55, 63 Bloody, Treatment for 130 Care of Utensils 56, 57 Cooling of 56 Feeding for 64, 71 Fever 133 Preservation of 56 Separators 57 Utensils 56 Variations in Quantity and Quality of 59 Milk Production, Cost of on Central Farm 143 Milking Before Calving 29 Cleanliness in 59 Periods between 59 Regularity in Hours of 142 Summary of Rules for 62 Millet 102 Molasses 114 New Brunswick Methods of Feeding Dairy Cattle in 85 Rotations suitable for g Nova Scotia Methods of Feeding Dairy Cattle in g4 Rotations suitable for $ Oat Hay 102 Oat and Pea Hay 102 Oat Hulls, &a a Feed for Dairy Cattle 97 187 PAOB Oat Straw, as a Feed for Dairy Cattle 105 Oats, as a Feed for Calves 25 as a Feed for Dairy Cattle 97 as a Soiling Crop 108 Oil Cake Meal 98 Ontario, Methods of Feeding Dairy Cattle in 87 Rotations suitable for 8 Orchard Grass 103 Palatibility of Feeds, Minor Aids in 69 Pastures 65 Changing from Stall to 64 " Pea Dust " as a Feed for Dairy Cattle 151 Pea Hay, as a Soiling Crop 102 Pea Hulls, as a Feed for Dairy Cattle Pea Straw, as a Feed for Dairy Cattle 106 Peas, as a Feed for Dairy Cattle 98 Peas and Oats as an Ensilage Crop Ill Pneumonia 135 Potatoes, as a Feed for Dairy Cattle Ill Preservation of Milk Prince Edward Island Methods of Feeding Dairy Cattle in 84 Rotations suitable for , 8 Problems relating to Feeding, Solutions of 80 Pumpkins 114 Quebec, Methods of Feeding Dairy Cattle in 85 Rotations suitable for 8 Rape as an ensilage crop : 110 Rape as a Soiling Crop 108 Ration, Definition of 74 Balanced, Definition of 75 Rations. See also under Feeding Standards 74 Calculation of 8,120 Discussion of various, for different parts of Canada 90 Ratios, Nutritive, Illustrations of 74 Records, Dairy, Forms for 38 Individual, at Central Farm . 175 Keeping of 35 Records, Feed, Forms for 40 Red Polls 17 Red Top 103,116 Remedies. See under Diseases. Ringworm 136 188 PAGE Boots vs. Ensilage as a Feed for Dairy Cattle 156 Rotations, as Affecting Dairying 7 Clover Ensilage Rutabagas. See Swedes. Rye, as a Feed for Dairy Cattle 98 as a Soiling Crop 108 Salt, Necessity for 70 Saskatchewan, Methods of Feeding Dairy Cattle in 88 suitable Rotations for 11 Scale of Points as iised in Judging Dairy Cattle 34 Score Card, The, as used in Judging Dairy Cattle 33 Separators, Choice of 57 Shorthorns 17 Shorts or Middlings, as a Feed for Dairy Cattle 98 Silos, Summer 67 Skim Milk, as a Feed for Calves 24 as a Feed for Dairy Cattle '. ... 115 Slough Hay 103 Soiling Crops for Dairy Cattle 106 Alfalfa 106 Clover, Alsike 107 Crimson 107 Red 107 White 109 Corn 107 Oats 108 Oats and Peas 108 Oats and Vetches 108 Peas and Oats 108 Rape 108 Rye 108 Sorghum 108 Soy Beans 108 Timothy Vetches 107, 109 White Turnips 113 Solutions of Problems in Feeding 80, 90 Sorghum 108, 110 Soy Beans 108 " Spirit Grains " as a Feed for Dairy Cattle 155 Spring Calving 28 Stable, The 41 Stalls in the Dairy Barn 45 Stanchions .45 189 PARK Stock Food, International, as a Feed for Dairy Cattle 157 Straw as a Feed for Dairy Cattle 104 Sugar Beets 112 Sugar Beet Pulp, dried, as a Feed for Dairy Cattle 114 Sugar Mangels 112 Sunflowers as an Ensilage Crop 109 Sussex 17 Swedes 112 Tables of Feeds, How to Use 80 Chaff and Dry Fodder , 118 Ensilage 113 Green Feed -..' 119 Hay and Dried Forage 117 Miscellaneous Feeds 119 Roots 118 Teats, Chapping of 130 Conformation of 30 Timothy 104 Tracks in Dairy Barns 46 Tuberculosis 136 Turnips, as a Feed for Dairy Cattle 113, 148 White, as a Soiling Crop 113 Tying Cattle, Methods of 43 Udder, The, Conformation of 30 Inflammation of 133 Utensils, care of 57 Used in Caring for Milk 156 Values of Feeds, Tables of 116,125 Variety in Feeds, Value of 68 Ventilation of Dairy Barns 47,167 System B, Convection 168 System D. The King System E. The Modified King System Muslin Curtain System System A. Pierced Wall System... 167 System C. The Rutherford System 49, 169 Vetch Hay 104 Vetches as a Soiling Crop 107,109 Warbles 136 Washing Dairy Cattle 61 Water, Supply of in Dairy Barns 43 Weed Seeds, as a Feed for Dairy Cattle 99 Western Rye Grass 104 190 PAOB Wheat, as a Feed for Dairy Cattle 99 Wheat Bran, as a Feed for Dairy Cattle 09 Wheat Straw, as a Feed for Dairy Cattle 106 White Scours 13$ Whitewashing 144 Wounds 137 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY BERKELEY Return to desk from which borrowed. This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. JAN 5 1948 REC'D LD JAM 2 '64-8 AW LD 21-100m-9,'47(A5702sl6)476 to 04537 272169 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY