AMERICAN, OR BALD, EAGLE, 
 
 (Haliaetus Leucocephalus) . 
 
 Frontispiece 
 
BIRDS OF THE 
 WORLD 
 
 FOR 
 
 YOUNG PEOPLE 
 
 BY 
 
 CHARLES R. KNIGHT 
 
 ELLA HARDCASTLE 
 
 WITH FORTY-ONE COLOUR PLATES 
 
 AND NUMEROUS BLACK-AND-WHITE ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY 
 PUBLISHERS 
 

 
 COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY 
 FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY 
 
 All Rights Reserved 
 
 
 November, 1909 
 
PREFACE 
 
 THE object in the present volume has been to give 
 a brief description of such birds of the world as are 
 usually to be seen in zoological collections and in 
 museums, together with some of the most significant 
 and striking facts in their life-histories. To include 
 even a very short account of each of the fourteen J;hou- 
 sand species known to exist, was clearly impracticable 
 within the limits of a book of this size. It has been 
 thought desirable, therefore, to give special attention 
 to the birds of America, to corresponding species and 
 allied forms found in Great Britain and on the Con- 
 tinent of Europe, and to certain of the more remarka- 
 ble and interesting birds of other countries. 
 
 This work is based upon one by W. P. Pycraft, 
 well known among ornithologists as a systematist and 
 bird anatomist, and now in charge of the Department 
 of Birds in the British Museum. Use has been made 
 of a large part of his admirable Introduction, dealing 
 with the evolution and structure of the bird. Portions 
 of it that were considered too technical to be readily 
 understood by young readers were simplified as much 
 as possible, other portions were omitted as being of 
 comparatively little value, and a few additions were 
 
 iii 
 
 267886 
 
iv PREFACE 
 
 made. The general arrangement has been adhered 
 to throughout. 
 
 The interest in birds is widespread and constantly 
 growing, and it is hoped that the use of this volume 
 as a reference-book will lead young readers to further 
 study of this most fascinating subject. 
 
 i 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 PREFACE iii 
 
 INTRODUCTION xi 
 
 PUBLISHERS' NOTE xliv 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 OSTRICH-LIKE BIRDS . i 
 
 (Orders Casuarii, Struthiones, Apteryges, 
 Crypturi.) 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 CARINATE, OR KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS ... 10 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 DIVING-BIRDS, PETRELS, AND PENGUINS . . 14 
 (Orders Pygopodes, Tubinares, and Im- 
 pennes.) 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 TOTIPALMATE BlRDS : HERONS, STORKS, AND 
 
 FLAMINGOES . 23 
 
 (Orders Steganopodes, Ardeae, Ciconae, and 
 Phoenicopteri.) 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 v 
 
 DUCKS, GEESE, AND SWANS . .' . " . , 44 
 ( Order Anseres. ) 
 
 V 
 
vi CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 BIRDS OF PREY: SECRETARY-BIRD, EAGLES, 
 BUZZARDS, HAWKS, KITES, VULTURES, AND 
 FALCONS 56 
 
 ( Order Accipitres. ) 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 FOWL-LIKE BIRDS 78 
 
 ( Order G alii formes. ) 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 CRANES, RAILS, AND BUSTARDS .... 93 
 (Order Grui formes.) 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 PLOVERS, GULLS, AND AUKS 101 
 
 ( Order Charadriif ormes. ) 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 PIGEONS 124 
 
 ( Order Columbae. ) 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 
 PARROTS AND CUCKOOS . . . % . . 133 
 (Orders Psittaci and Cuculi.) 
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 ROLLERS, MOTMOTS, KINGFISHERS, BEE-EATERS, 
 
 HOOPOES, AND HORNBILLS . 142 
 ( Order Coraciae. ) 
 
CONTENTS vii 
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 
 NIGHTJARS, SWIFTS, AND HUMMING-BIRDS . . 148 
 (Orders Caprimulgi, Cypseli.) 
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 
 OWLS 156 
 
 ( Order Striges. ) 
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 
 TROGONS, TOUCANS, AND WOODPECKERS . . 164 
 (Orders Trogones and Pici.) 
 
 CHAPTER XVI 
 
 PASSERINE BIRDS 172 
 
 (Order Passer! formes.) 
 
 INDEX 
 
 233 
 
LIST OF COLOUR PLATES 
 
 BALD EAGLE . . . . . v . Frontispiece 
 
 PLATE i . . . . . . Facing page 74 
 
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 PLATE 14 . . . . . . Facing page 212 
 
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 PLATE 16 . . . . . . Facing page 220 
 
 PLATE 17 * Facing page 226 
 
 PLATE 1 8 . . . . t . Facing page 216 
 
 PLATE 19 . . . . ... Facing page 176 
 
 PLATE 20 >*,. . . , . . Facing page 230 
 
 PLATE 21 . V . . . . Facing page 152 
 
 PLATE 22 ... " * . . Facing page 126 
 
 PLATE 23 Facing page 130 
 
 ix 
 
LIST OF COLOR PLATES 
 
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 I 12 
 
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 FULL-PAGE 
 
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 HALF-TONE PLATES 
 
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 98 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 THE study of birds, or Ornithology, began long 
 before the dawn of civilisation. At first, to 
 primitive man the bird represented only a kind 
 of food, and the study of birds' habits and peculiari- 
 ties must have had its beginning after pursuit had 
 made birds wary and only to be caught by some 
 knowledge of their character and haunts. With bet- 
 ter knowledge of birds, as of other animals, it was 
 found that some species might be kept and bred in 
 captivity, thus giving a regular and certain kind of 
 food. With the keeping of fowls, of dogs, of cattle, 
 sheep, and horses, began the pastoral or shepherd 
 stage of civilisation, which came earliest in man's up- 
 ward progress toward a settled life. All the complex 
 communities of to-day may be traced back to such 
 simple beginnings, and the domestication of animals 
 was by no means a small factor in man's progress. 
 The freedom of birds, their mastery of the regions of 
 the air, their mysterious goings and comings some, 
 or all, of these gave them a peculiar fascination and 
 caused them from the earliest times to be regarded 
 with religious awe as being closely allied to the gods, 
 or with superstitious fear and reverence as partaking 
 of the strange powers of the air, No doubt they 
 seemed to be in some sense dwellers in lands of the 
 
 xi 
 
xii INTRODUCTION 
 
 gods. Whatever the reason, birds have been in every 
 land connected with religious observances or super- 
 stitious rites, and even chosen as symbols of power, 
 authority, or wisdom. No doubt their expressive cries 
 contributed much to this result. The folk-lore in 
 every nation gives evidence of this feeling. It is found 
 among the Hindus, the Egyptians, the Greeks, the 
 Romans, and the European nations alike. 
 
 But the scientific study of birds cannot be said to 
 have begun until very recent times. The foundations 
 of ornithology were laid by two Englishmen, Francis 
 Willughby (1635-1672) and John Ray (1628-1705), 
 to whom we owe the first attempts to classify birds 
 upon right principles. Their good work was based 
 upon practical observation combined with the ability 
 to rightly weigh and analyse. Though to-day other 
 ideas prevail in regard to the relationship and classify- 
 ing of species, yet Willughby and Ray are still re- 
 garded as pioneers in ornithology. In this chapter 
 our purpose is to give a brief summary of the state 
 of our knowledge of birds at this time, rather than 
 to trace even in outline the progress of the science 
 during the last two or three centuries. 
 
 Let us begin with the question: What is a bird? 
 Briefly, a bird is distinguished from all other living 
 creatures by its covering of feathers. Not thus alone, 
 however, are birds distinguished, since they differ 
 almost as markedly in the matter of their skeletons. 
 But it is not enough that we should be able to quote 
 the "hall-mark," so to speak, by which our favorites 
 are to be recognised. At least it is not enough for 
 those of us who are not content with mere facts. 
 
_ INTRODUCTION _ xiii 
 
 Thus, then, we ask, How have the birds come by 
 these distinguishing characters? The answer to this 
 question has been supplied partly by the anatomist 
 and partly by those who have spent their lives in read- 
 ing the riddles of the rocks. Let us take the anato- 
 mist's evidence first. According to him, the peculiari- 
 ties which distinguish the bird have been derived from 
 reptiles, and this is nowhere more evident than in the 
 skull. As in the reptile, it joins the neck by a single, 
 rounded boss of bone; while in the mammals (the 
 great class to which we ourselves belong, the class dis- 
 tinguished by the body covering of hair, and the fact 
 that the young are suckled) the skull joins the neck 
 by two such bosses. In the form of the backbone 
 and of the hip-girdle, and in the structure of the legs, 
 birds also agree with the reptiles. To state in full 
 the evidence on which these conclusions are founded 
 
 TiJBJff 
 
 m 
 
 FIG. i. BONES OF THE FOOT AND ANKLE OF A YOUNG FOWL, SHOW- 
 ING THE SEPARATE ELEMENTS THEREOF. 
 
xiv INTRODUCTION 
 
 might be wearisome to those who are not particularly 
 interested, but we may indicate the nature of the argu- 
 ment by a comparison of the hind limb of the bird and 
 reptile. This limb, in both, is peculiar in that the 
 ankle-joint is formed in such a way that when the 
 foot is bent the joint turns on a hinge formed between 
 two rows of ankle-bones, while in mammals the 
 joint is formed by the hinging of the shank of the 
 leg upon the uppermost row of ankle-bones. But the 
 bird's leg is peculiar in that these two rows of ankle- 
 bones have undergone great modifications, and can be 
 seen in their originally separate condition only by ex- 
 amining the chick some time before hatching, though 
 traces yet remain in a young fowl of, say, three months 
 old (see Fig. 1). It is owing to the fact that these 
 peculiarities are not generally known, that most books 
 on birds are inaccurate when they describe the "legs 
 and toes" of a bird, the legs being the long "cannon- 
 bones," which are clad in scales and often brightly 
 coloured. 
 
 A reference to the accompanying diagram should 
 make this clear. Here we have the leg of a fowl. 
 The first joint is formed by the hinging of the femur, 
 or thigh-bone, with the tibia, thus forming the "knee- 
 joint." At the end of the tibia is the joint with the 
 ankle-bone; but in the birds, as we have said, the two 
 rows which these small bones make up disappear be- 
 fore adult life is reached. One row (shown in 
 Fig. 1 ) , composed in the half -grown bird of a mallet- 
 like piece, the handle of which runs up the front of 
 the tibia or shank, becomes welded to the "shank"; 
 while the other ("2nd Row," Fig. 1), composed of 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 xv 
 
 ** 
 
 several small pieces originally, but now forming a 
 thin plate, becomes welded on to the top of the bones 
 of the foot. It it these last which are always, but 
 wrongly, described as the "leg-bones." Really, they 
 answer to the bones of our own feet which lie be- 
 tween the ankle and the 
 toes. Finally, we have 
 the toes, about which 
 there can be no mistake. 
 The great lengthen- 
 ing of the foot-bones 
 has been brought about 
 by the evolution of the 
 bird from a climbing 
 to a walking animal. 
 Originally they were 
 five in number, but are 
 now, like the toes, re- 
 duced to four. Of 
 these four, three are 
 now welded together 
 Nos. I, II, III to 
 form a single "cannon- 
 bone," answering to 
 that of the horse; but 
 in the young bird their 
 originally separate con- 
 dition can still be traced 
 ( see Fig. 1). The first 
 of these foot-bones answering to the hind-toe is now 
 reduced to a mere "button" of bone slung by liga- 
 ments on to the cannon-bone." The leg of the old 
 
 FIG. 2. DIAGRAM OF THE LEG OF 
 AN ADULT BIRD, SHOWING THE 
 CONDITION OF THE LIMB AFTER 
 THE SEPARATE ELEMENTS HAVE 
 BECOME WELDED. 
 
XVI 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 giant reptiles known as the Dinosaurs corresponds 
 marvellously well with that of a modern bird, only 
 in the reptiles the foot-bones had not become welded 
 to form a cannon-bone. So much, then, for the 
 evidence from the skeleton, for the present. 
 The arrangement of the blood-vessels, the struc- 
 ture of the eye, ear, organ of smell, and brains, are all 
 on the reptile plan, and so also are the organs of re- 
 production. Similarly, the microscopic structure of 
 the growing feather in the embryo, or unhatched chick, 
 shows that it is really an extremely elaborate reptile 
 scale, and is formed on a plan quite different from 
 the hairs of mammals. 
 
 But, it may be urged, it is all very well, and it may 
 be quite true, to say that because the reptiles and the 
 
 birds have so much 
 in common, there- 
 fore they must be 
 related. But why 
 should we assume 
 this? One of two 
 courses is open to 
 u s. Either w e 
 must believe that 
 birds were, as used 
 to be held, special- 
 ly created, or that 
 they have in- 
 herited the char- 
 acters which they 
 hold in common with reptiles from a common ancestor 
 which had the characteristics which distinguish rep- 
 
 FlG. 3. THE FIRST KNOWN BIRD. 
 
INTRODUCTION xvii 
 
 tiles to-day. And in support of the reasonableness 
 of this latter view we may appeal to the evidence 
 which the rocks have preserved for us in the shape of 
 the fossil remains of ancestral birds. In these we 
 have still further and more striking proof of the 
 descent of birds from reptiles, and the gradual change 
 from the reptile to the bird type. 
 
 The earliest fossil bird yet discovered is that known 
 as Archseopteryx, and this differed from all other 
 birds in one or two very important particulars. In 
 each case these differences serve to bridge the gap be- 
 tween the reptiles and the birds, though it must be 
 (admitted many other links are necessary to make the 
 chain complete. In the first place, instead of the 
 horny sheaths which cover the beak of living birds, 
 we find the jaws were provided with teeth, set in 
 sockets like those of the crocodile; in the second, the 
 tail was of great length and made up of a long row 
 of bones, as in the tail of reptiles. Each bone sup- 
 ported a pair of feathers, as may be seen in our illus- 
 tration, so that in this respect it was neither like that 
 of the reptile nor of the typical bird. In the latter, 
 the tail is apparently fashioned after a very different 
 manner. 
 
 When we come to examine the arrangement of the 
 tail-feathers in a bird, we find that they are set fan- 
 wise about a plate of bone, the last of a series of the 
 eight separate tail-bones which form the termination 
 of the backbone. But it must be remembered that 
 what is commonly called the "tail" is really only the 
 outward sign of this appendage, for feathers, alone, 
 
xviii INTRODUCTION 
 
 no more make the tail of a bird than hair makes the 
 tail of a dog. Now if we examine this bony plate in 
 the embryo, say, of a duck, we shall find that it is 
 really made up of six or seven separate vertebrae, 
 which have become, as it were, telescoped. Each of 
 these represents one of the feather-bearing vertebra? 
 in the tail of Archgeopteryx ; but by the process of 
 telescoping this process of shrinking they have 
 brought the bases of the feathers they supported close 
 together in the fan- wise shape we have just described. 
 
 Here, then, we have a lesson in the evolution of 
 birds a transformation that will go far to help realise 
 how similar changes could bring about the evolution 
 of the ancient reptile into the modern bird. Some 
 day, without doubt, a yet older form of bird will be 
 discovered, which will show even more reptilian char- 
 acters. 
 
 Another strong proof of the identity of the two 
 forms in origin is found in the study of the develop- 
 ment of the egg into the chick. It is well known that 
 the gradual changes which may be studied here re- 
 peat to some extent the history of the species from the 
 earliest to the latest form, and the fact that the early 
 embryonic development of birds agrees with the be- 
 lief that they are descended from the same ancestral 
 form as the reptiles, is supported by the conclusion 
 arrived at by embryologists. 
 
 Birds, then, in the possession of feathers, are unique 
 in the scheme of nature; so that by this character 
 alone they are distinguished from all other backboned 
 animals. There can be no doubt that they owe their 
 descent to some reptilian ancestor. Let us now pass 
 
INTRODUCTION xix 
 
 on to consider one or two other peculiarities of birds 
 peculiarities which have gone on developing and per- 
 fecting since the time when birds branched off from 
 the reptile stock. 
 
 Surely the most important of these is to be found 
 in the fore-limb. This we know as the "wing." When 
 stripped of its feathers, we could trace the wing- 
 structure of the bird in the fore-leg of any other 
 animal. Yet it cannot be used as an absolutely dis- 
 tinctive character, since in some of the Ostrich tribe, 
 for example, it has become degenerate and so reduced 
 in size as to be hardly recognised; while, if we take 
 fossil forms into consideration, we shall find that it 
 becomes still more dwarfed, until, as in the Moas, it 
 is lost altogether. 
 
 The principal features in which the wing differs 
 from the fore-limb of other animals are found in the 
 bones of the "wrist" and "hand." In the wrist only 
 two separate bones appear, though in the embryo the 
 rudiments of several can be made out ; these disappear, 
 however, before hatching. The bones of the hand and 
 fingers are reduced to three in number the thumb 
 and first and second fingers. The first portion of 
 these finger-bones, which answer to the bones that ex- 
 tend between the wrist and the bases of the fingers 
 and make up the palms of our hands, are firmly 
 welded together, the base of the thumb being hardly 
 traceable. The second and third are welded together 
 at each end, enclosing a space, while the finger- joints 
 are represented, in the second finger by two or some- 
 times three bones, and the third by one bone only. 
 
 The remarkable wrist and hand have reached this 
 
xx INTRODUCTION 
 
 unique stage of development as a response to the 
 peculiar need of the bird's flight, the hand being 
 drawn out into a long rod, across which the bases of 
 the quill-feathers are securely lashed by ligaments. 
 The wing, no less than the rest of the skeleton, fur- 
 nishes convincing evidence to show that the bird, as 
 we see it to-day, has acquired this form by a slow 
 transformation. In many birds, as in the Duck, the 
 Water-hen, or any of the Hawks, there will be found 
 on the thumb and the tip of the second finger a small 
 claw the vestige of a claw that once was useful. In 
 some other birds, as in the common Fowl, similar 
 claws will be found in the embryo in the chick be- 
 fore it leaves the shell though quite commonly the 
 thumb-claws persist throughout life. Examine the 
 wing of the next Fowl you come across, and likely 
 enough you will find it. 
 
 Now, if we go back to Archseopteryx, we shall find 
 that the wing possessed a large claw on each of its 
 three fingers; and also, in this ancient bird we find 
 that the second row of wrist-bones those at the base 
 of the fingers though welded together to form a half- 
 moon-shaped bone, yet remained distinct from the 
 fingers. They, in fact, retained throughout life the 
 condition which is met with to-day only in very young 
 birds. When a yet more ancient bird than Archse- 
 opteryx is discovered, it is safe to predict that a still 
 more complex series of wrist-bones will be found. We 
 expect, indeed, to find all the links from the reptile 
 to the bird of the present time. 
 
 In one particular the bird and the reptile are very 
 different, inasmuch as while reptiles are cold-blooded, 
 
INTRODUCTION xxi 
 
 birds are hot-blooded creatures; indeed, their 
 blood is much warmer than that of mammals, the 
 temperature ranging from 100 to 112. The highest 
 figure is attained by the smaller perching birds, such 
 as Finches; Hawks do not maintain a temperature 
 above 109, and Gulls only a little above 104. 
 
 This rise in the temperature of the blood is due to 
 several causes too technical to be here discussed. But 
 chief among them is the fact that the heart of the bird, 
 like that of the mammal, is a four-chambered heart, 
 whereby a more perfect oxidation of the blood is pos- 
 sible than is the case with reptiles, in which the 
 heart has but three chambers. And for this reason: 
 When passed through a four-chambered heart, the 
 impure blood brought back from the body to the right 
 side of the heart is driven through the lungs to be 
 thoroughly purified by the air drawn in during breath- 
 ing; it is then received by the left side of the heart, 
 thence to be sent over the body without any mingling;, 
 of the two streams. In the reptile this mingling takes 
 place, and consequently a smaller relative quantity 
 of the heat-giving oxygen is brought into the system. 
 But, strangely enough, the blood of reptiles and 
 birds agree in this, that the little red bodies, or "cor- 
 puscles," whose duty it is to absorb the air from the 
 lungs and the carbonic acid from the tissues of the 
 body, have each a central "kernel," or nucleus, whereas 
 the blood-corpuscles of mammals have no such nu- 
 cleus. 
 
 To expand further this matter of the temperature 
 of the blood a somewhat intimate knowledge of physi- 
 ology and chemistry would be required in the reader. 
 
xxii INTRODUCTION 
 
 It is, indeed, a question for the physiologist, rather 
 than for the ornithologist. 
 
 It may seem that this attempt to answer the ques- 
 tion, "What is a bird?" has taken us rather far afield. 
 And on this account it may be well briefly to sum- 
 marise the facts which have been gleaned on the jour- 
 ney. 
 
 In few words, then, a bird is a warm-blooded, egg- 
 laying feathered biped, having the fore-limbs modified 
 to form wings, and the hip-girdle so adapted as to 
 bring the hind-limbs far forward, to balance the body 
 in walking on them alone. These characters, there 
 can be no reasonable doubt, have gradually come into 
 being by the slow transformations in a long chain of 
 creatures, which, as we trace them back, are less and 
 less bird-like, and more and more like reptiles. 
 Though many links in this chain are yet missing, some 
 day they will almost surely be found. 
 
 The evidence for this reptilian descent is abundant. 
 Every bird, in the course of its growth from the egg, 
 passes through more or fewer of the ancestral stages ; 
 and while some of these carry us back to phases of de- 
 velopment which belong to ancient types of birds long 
 since extinct, others carry us yet further, and show 
 that modern birds and reptiles have descended from a 
 common stock. 
 
 Feathers. Though feathers are so common, few 
 realise what marvels of structural beauty they are. 
 Nor is the peculiar fashion of their distribution over 
 the body even now generally recognised. Those who 
 have spent their lives in the study of living birds need 
 not be told that the feathers of a bird are not, as a 
 
INTRODUCTION xxiii 
 
 rule, generally or evenly distributed over the body, 
 after the fashion of hairs on a dog, for instance, but, 
 on the contrary, are arranged in long and generally 
 narrow bands, or "tracts," separated by wide, bare, 
 or sometimes down-clad spaces. 
 
 The fact that these bands vary greatly in shape 
 among birds was first realised by a German naturalist 
 named Nitzsch, who made a long and careful study 
 of the feather-tracts of birds. As a result of his pa- 
 tient work, he was able to show that the variations in 
 this arrangement followed certain definite lines, each 
 group of birds possessing a type peculiar to itself; 
 and, for the purposes of convenient description, he 
 gave these tracts distinctive names, which, in the main, 
 are followed to this day. 
 
 Briefly, as a result of his work, he distinguished: 
 (1) a head tract, formed by the feathers clothing the 
 head; (2) a spinal tract, extending from the head 
 down the back of the neck, and along the back to the 
 tail ; (3) a ventral tract, running from the throat down 
 to the base of the neck, where it branches at the shoul- 
 ders, to run down over the breast and abdomen in the 
 form of two bands, a broad outer and a narrow inner 
 band; (4) a pair of humeral tracts, which, crossing 
 the upper arm, form the feathers known as the scapu- 
 lars; (5) the wing tract, including the quills and wing- 
 coverts; (6) the tail tract; (7) the femoral tracts, 
 which run across the thighs; (8) the leg tracts, which 
 cover the legs below the knee. 
 
 The most important of the variations which these 
 tracts present are to be found in the spinal and head 
 tracts. Thus, in the first-named, the spinal tract in 
 
xxiv INTRODUCTION 
 
 the Swifts encloses a bare space over the middle of 
 the back; while in the Swallows it divides into a fork 
 in this region, leaving the hinder portion of the tract 
 in the form of the usual straight band. In the Finch 
 tribe the middle region of this tract is diamond- 
 shaped. The head tract, again, often encloses a 
 space; as, for example, in the Humming-birds and 
 Mouse-birds of Africa. The ventral tract similarly 
 presents very marked differences when a number of 
 different kinds of birds come to be examined. 
 
 Those who may be interested in this question should 
 take, say, a Sparrow, Starling, Thrush, Pigeon, and 
 Fowl, cut off the feathers with a pair of scissors, close 
 to the body, and compare the differences between 
 them. Since these differences are constant, and since 
 each group presents a type of its own, it has been 
 found that the "pterylosis," as this arrangement of 
 the feathers is called, affords a valuable aid to the 
 classification of birds. For example, the very wide 
 difference in the pterylosis of the Swifts and Swallows 
 was the first indication of the fact that these birds 
 were not related, as they had always been supposed to 
 be, and later anatomical investigations have given 
 further proof that these birds belong to quite different 
 groups. 
 
 In the Penguins and the Ostriches the bare spaces 
 found in other birds are hardly traceable, in so far as 
 the trunk is concerned, the feathers covering almost 
 every inch of the body. 
 
 In describing the external appearance of a bird 
 these tracts are commonly ignored, the body being 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 XXV 
 
 mapped out into certain areas such as are indicated 
 in Fig. 4. 
 
 So far we have spoken only of the feathers which 
 form the outer surface-covering of the bird, the "con- 
 tour" feathers, as they 
 are called because they 
 form the contour or out- 
 line of the body. But 
 besides these there are no 
 less than three other dis- 
 tinct kinds of feathers 
 d own feathers, filo- 
 plumes, and powder- 
 down. 
 
 Down feathers in 
 many birds are conspicu- 
 ous by their absence, 
 and are developed most 
 abundantly in water- 
 birds, such as Ducks, for 
 example, growing not 
 only between the feathers, but over the otherwise bare 
 spaces as well, so as to form a thick undergrowth, 
 answering to the under- fur of seals, for instance. 
 
 Filo-plumes appear to be present in all birds. They 
 are the long, hair-like growths so conspicuous in the 
 common Fowl when plucked. In some birds they at- 
 tain such a length as to extend beyond the contour 
 feathers, forming, as in some Cormorants, long, white, 
 delicate plumes. 
 
 The powder-down feathers are found only in a few 
 groups, such as the Herons and Bitterns, and some 
 
 FIG. 4. DIAGRAM OF A BIRD, 
 
 SHOWING THE DIFFERENT 
 AREAS OF THE BODY. 
 
xxvi INTRODUCTION 
 
 Hawks and Parrots. In the Herons and Bitterns 
 they form large patches, a pair on the breast, and a 
 patch over each thigh. Of a peculiar woolly appear- 
 ance, they are remarkable for the fact that they break 
 up, when touched, into a fine powder, which, when 
 rubbed between the fingers, gives an indescribably 
 smooth feeling. It is the powder from these remark- 
 able feathers which gives the peculiar bloom to the 
 beak of many parrots, as well as to the plumage. As 
 to the real purpose of the powder, however, we know 
 nothing. 
 
 This brief survey of feathers would not be complete 
 without a few words as to their structural characters. 
 In the typical feather (say, a quill-feather) , two main 
 parts are to be distinguished the stiff stem, and the 
 broad, flexible blade known as the vane, or vexillum. 
 The stem may further be divided into the quill, or 
 calamus, the hollow part below the vane, and the shaft 
 or rhachis, which is flattened in section and filled 
 with a white pith-like substance. The vane runs 
 along on either side of the rhachis in the form of a 
 series of tapering, flattened rods, the "barbs." They 
 are set so closely together that they must be carefully 
 sought for; and give to the vane that finely grooved 
 appearance, or, rather, the appearance of a series of 
 fine lines running obliquely outwards from the shaft. 
 If an attempt be made to pull these apart, it will be 
 found that considerable force must be used, and 
 this is owing to the fact that they are locked together 
 by a second series of flattened rods, known as barbules, 
 so small as to require the microscope to reveal them. 
 
INTRODUCTION xxvii 
 
 But the mechanism by which this vane is held together 
 is so wonderful that it must be explained. 
 
 If you examine the blade of a feather with a mag- 
 nifier, you will see that the vane is made up of small 
 barbed feathery portions, which interlock one into 
 another so as to be flexible without separating. In 
 Fig. 5 a portion of this magnified area is shown as it 
 appears when seen in a section still further mag- 
 nified. 
 
 When the structure of a feather is examined under 
 a microscope of high power it is seen that the barbs 
 are themselves sub-divided along the edges into a 
 marvellously constructed system of branches which are 
 most wonderfully shaped so as to hook one into the 
 other and to support one another under the great 
 pressure of the air coming upon them during the 
 motion of the wing in flight. Only a complicated set 
 of diagrams and a long technical description could 
 give the reader any adequate idea of its surprising 
 mechanism. We can say here only that it is of almost 
 unimaginable delicacy and strength. We earnestly 
 recommend that the subject be studied in more techni- 
 cal books, as it will prove most fascinating. 
 
 Thus, then, this marvellous interlocking is the rea- 
 son why it is so difficult to pull the barbs of a feather 
 apart. In the vane of a Crane's quill, in a piece of web 
 15 inches long, no less than 650 of these barbs were 
 counted, each of which bore about 600 pairs of bar- 
 bules that is* about 800,000 for the inner web alone, 
 and more than a million for the whole feather: and 
 all these are necessary to hold the vane together. 
 
 This system of interlocking is most perfect in the 
 
XXV111 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 wing and tail quills. In some feathers, such as have 
 a loose, hairy texture, as in the body feathers of many 
 birds, these booklets are but feebly, if at all, developed. 
 The loose feathers of the Ostrich tribe also lack them, 
 but even here they were at one period all perfectly 
 
 XX. 
 
 FIG. 5. SECTION THROUGH TWO ROWS PARALLEL TO THE DISTAL 
 RADII OR BARBULES. D.R V DISTAL RADII; P.R V PROXIMAL RADII 
 OR BARBULES. 
 
 developed; when the birds ceased to fly, the feathers 
 degenerated, and the interlocking was lost. 
 
 What are known as semi-plumous feathers are im- 
 perfectly developed or changed feathers. 
 
 Down feathers differ considerably from "contour 
 feathers" in structure, having little or no shaft, all the 
 barbs arising from a common base. These barbs are, 
 further, very long, and have only very minute barb- 
 ules. In the Ducks and some other birds these 
 barbules take the form of triangular nodules; while in 
 other birds again they are knot-like. 
 
 The filo-plumes have a long, slender shaft with a 
 minute vane at the tip. They are, apparently, a de- 
 generate form of contour feather, judging from the 
 fact that during the earlier part of their development 
 
INTRODUCTION xxix 
 
 many more barbs are present than are to be found in 
 the fully grown filo-plume. 
 
 Yet another form of feather is that which is found 
 fringing the mouths of birds like Flycatchers and 
 Nightjars. Bristle-like, there will yet be found about 
 the bases of many a few weak barbs ; the eyelashes of 
 many birds, like the Ostrich, the Ground-Hornbill, 
 and some other birds, are similarly fringed with these 
 peculiar bristle-like feathers. 
 
 The down which covers the nestlings of many birds, 
 such as Fowls and Ducks, answers to the contour 
 feathers of the adult, but is of a simpler structure; 
 indeed, it differs in character among different species 
 of the same group. In its most completely developed 
 form it recalls the contour feathers, having a shaft 
 and barbs with weak barbules, but these last have no 
 distinct booklets, hence the general loose character of 
 down plumage ; while in its more degenerate form the 
 shaft is absent, as in a true down feather. 
 
 Where down is present in the adult, it will be found 
 in the nestling just before the feathers begin to ap- 
 pear. In some birds, as in the Ducks, indeed, and 
 young Hawks, these early down-feathers, or "pre- 
 plumula?," attain so large a size that they eventually 
 play a more prominent part than the typical nestling- 
 down, or "pre-penna?," so-called because preceding the 
 pennse, or feathers. In young Cormorants the nest- 
 ling-down is wholly made up of these pre-plumulge, 
 which are succeeded later, not by contour feathers, but 
 by down feathers. 
 
 Nestling-down in its most degenerate form may be 
 seen in young Pigeons, and the young of most of the 
 
XXX 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Song-birds; while in others it is altogether wanting, 
 as in young Sparrows, and those of the Crow tribe. 
 
 Only in the nestling-down of the Game-birds, 
 Ducks, and the Ostrich tribe is there found a forma- 
 tion of feathers known as the "after-shaft." This, by 
 the way, is a conspicuous feature in the adult feathers 
 of the Emu and Cassowary, where it forms a sort of 
 duplicate of the main-shaft, equalling it in size; while 
 among the higher birds it is never very large, except 
 in the Game-birds (Fig. 6) , but even here it is downy 
 in texture, and is always shorter than the main- 
 shaft. 
 
 As touching the growth of feathers, but little can 
 be profitably said here. The earliest traces of feathers 
 must be sought for in the embryo, where the first rudi- 
 ments of the coming nestling-down appear in the form 
 of tiny bead-like bodies, which soon sink down into a 
 pit. Next an outer pro- 
 tecting sheath is devel- 
 oped around this feather 
 rudiment, and within 
 this the mass of pulp 
 which it contains pro- 
 ceeds to form first the 
 main axis, and next the 
 barbs and barbules. 
 What will prove the tip 
 of the feather is the first 
 to be formed, and as this 
 forces its way up, the 
 lower parts are added, till at hatching-time the 
 whole of the down feather is completed. 
 
 FIG. 6. 
 
INTRODUCTION xxxi 
 
 At the base of this down feather lies the germ of the 
 contour feather which is to follow. As this grows the 
 down feather is thrust out upon the tip of the new 
 contour feather, and here it may be attached for a 
 very considerable time, as in the case of young 
 Herons, for example. On its first appearance, the 
 new feather is ensheathed in a thin, delicate blue wrap- 
 per, the first-formed portion of the vane bursting its 
 way through while the lowermost portion of the 
 feather is yet forming. 
 
 Moulting. In most birds the feathers are renewed 
 annually, by the process known as moulting a criti- 
 cal time in a bird's life. When there is a lack of suit- 
 able nourishment, or when the bird is low in vigour 
 at the moulting-season, the feathers become curiously 
 indented with fine grooves known as "hunger-marks." 
 
 The annual moult takes place generally after the 
 breeding-season; but some birds moult again in 
 spring, when a new and more resplendent livery is put 
 on, as in the case of many of the Plover tribe. But 
 the quills in such cases are not renewed. In some of 
 the Ducks, as in the drake of the common Wild Duck, 
 a dull livery, resembling that of his mate, is assumed 
 the so-called "eclipse" dress during the month of 
 June, and this is worn for some weeks. By the 
 middle of August the new and characteristic "breed- 
 ing-dress" is well in evidence, and by October is com- 
 pleted. This "eclipse" dress, then, answers to the 
 dull dress put on after the breeding-season by the 
 Plovers, and is simply moulted again in a month or 
 two instead of being worn till the following spring. 
 Some of the Game-birds undergo a partial "eclipse" 
 
xxxii INTRODUCTION 
 
 plumage, but this change is confined to the feathers 
 of the head and neck. 
 
 While some birds put on a new and brightly 
 coloured dress in spring, others brighten up their 
 plumage quite as conspicuously by simply shedding 
 the tips of the feathers assumed at the autumn moult. 
 No better instance of this can be found than that of 
 the Linnet, which, by this shedding process, gains the 
 beautiful rich brown back, and rose-pink breast, that 
 make these birds so much prized. For some as yet 
 unexplained reason, however, captive birds, if taken 
 in July, before the autumn moult, develop yellow in 
 the place of red which colour is never regained; if 
 taken in the autumn, the red breast appears in the 
 following spring, but never again. The beautiful 
 plumage of the Starling is similarly attained by this 
 method of shedding the outer edges of the feathers, 
 and the Chaffinch gains its blue head in the spring by 
 this same process. 
 
 Whether birds can gain an access of colour to the 
 feathers without a moult is still a disputed point. 
 Some hold that there can be no doubt about the mat- 
 ter; while others, apparently as well qualified to speak 
 on the subject, deny the possibility of such a change 
 absolutely. 
 
 That the colour of feathers can be influenced by 
 feeding is a fact too well known to need further com- 
 ment; but it may be interesting to remark that this 
 fact is well known to the savage people of Brazil, who 
 feed a species of green Parrot on the fat of Siluroid 
 fishes ; the feathers, as a consequence, becoming beau- 
 tifully variegated with red and yellow. Another race 
 
INTRODUCTION xxxiJi 
 
 of South Americans change the colours of Parrots by 
 plucking out such feathers as they propose shall be 
 altered, and inoculating the spot from which the 
 feather was taken with the milky juice obtained from 
 certain glands of a small toad. The new feathers 
 now appear of a brilliant yellow colour, and on being 
 plucked out, it is said, grow again of the same colour 
 without any fresh inoculation. It taxes human in- 
 genuity to account for savages making such a dis- 
 covery. 
 
 Beak and Feet. Finally, let us 'consider the 
 covering of the beak and feet. The jaws of a bird, 
 as we have already remarked, no longer bear teeth, 
 but are ensheathed in horny cases. In many species, 
 as in the Petrels, for example, the beak-sheaths, in- 
 stead of being entire, one for the upper and one for 
 the lower jaw, are made up of a number of separate 
 pieces; while in the Puffin, and one of the Pelicans, 
 ornamental plates are developed during the breeding- 
 season and shed immediately after. In the Pelican 
 this plate is square in shape, and borne on the ridge 
 of the beak near its middle; in the Puffin it is tri- 
 angular, and is attached to the base of the beak at 
 each side. 
 
 The legs, to use the common term, as a rule are 
 covered, as in the reptile, by horny scales; but in some 
 birds, as in Grouse, and Sand-grouse, and the Golden 
 Eagle, and many Owls, the shank of the legs, and 
 often the toes also, are covered by long feathers not 
 unlike long, silky hairs, and quite different in char- 
 acter from the quill-like feathers on the legs of the 
 
xxxiv INTRODUCTION 
 
 domesticated races of Pigeons and Fowls. In some 
 birds a delicate skin takes the place of scales. 
 
 The claws of birds vary greatly in shape, according 
 to whether they play any part or not in the capture 
 of the food. Thus they may attain a relatively enor- 
 mous size in Birds of Prey, where the claw of the 
 hind-toe is especially large; here the feet are used to 
 hold living prey securely. Some species, indeed, as 
 the Goshawk, for instance, kill their prey by means 
 of the feet and claws. In the Jacanas, birds of the 
 Plover tribe, the claws attain an enormous length, 
 forming long, pointed rods, which with their tremen- 
 dously long toes serve to enable them to walk on the 
 delicate floating weeds of the rivers which these birds 
 haunt. In some other birds, as for example in the 
 Cassowary, the claws may be used as a weapon of 
 offence. In this bird the inner claw is of great size 
 and strength and is capable of inflicting a very dan- 
 gerous wound. 
 
 In many of the Grouse tribe the claws are shed each 
 spring; though in some, as in the Black Grouse, the 
 shedding is confined to the ragged fringe along the 
 inner side of the claws. This fringe, by-the-bye, re- 
 calls the fact that the middle claw in many birds, as 
 the Barn Owl, Nightjar, and Herons, for instance, 
 has a curious series of little teeth running along its 
 outer edge ; but so far no one has been able to tender 
 any suggestion as to what purpose it may serve. 
 
 Finally we must find space for a brief reference to 
 the formidable weapons which many birds possess in 
 the shape of spurs. These are generally confined to 
 the legs, and may be represented by a pair only, as 
 
INTRODUCTION xxxv 
 
 in the Game-cock, or by several, as in the Peacock- 
 pheasant. But, beside these, a few birds have a simi- 
 lar, and equally powerful, armature in the wings. In 
 some, as on the "Screamers" (Palamedea and 
 Chauna) , two spurs are developed, one at each end of 
 the fused metacarpal bones the bones which form 
 the "palm" of the hand; in all other birds but one spur 
 is developed, and this may spring from one of the 
 wrist-bones, as in the Spur-winged Goose, or from 
 the base of the thumb, as in the Jacanas. 
 
 Flight and its Mechanism. While, in the posses- 
 sion of feathers, birds are unique in the animal king- 
 dom, they are not to be so distinguished in the matter 
 of flight, for many creatures even far below them in 
 the scale of life have this most enviable form of loco- 
 motion; while the Bats, which belong to man's own 
 class the Mammalia on the other side of the scale, 
 are also adepts in the art. In the manner of their 
 flight, at any rate, the birds are peculiar. 
 
 In the study of "the way of the bird in the air," it 
 is difficult to know where to begin, and having made 
 a beginning, it is by no means easy to tell a plain, 
 straightforward tale. Though birds are essentially 
 flying animals, and though to attain this power they 
 have become profoundly modified as to their bodily 
 shape, they have yet, in some respects, not gone so 
 far as, say, the Bats. The latter have almost com- 
 pletely sacrificed the power of walking, while birds 
 have, with some few exceptions, preserved this. Let 
 us come to closer terms with our subject by a study 
 of the bony framework of the body in its relation to 
 flight. 
 
xxxvi INTRODUCTION 
 
 The whole body is brought into harmony with the 
 requirements of flying. The long neck, passing in- 
 sensibly into the body, which tapers again into the 
 tail; and the beautifully smooth, rounded surface 
 formed by the close-fitting overlapping feathers, offer 
 the least possible resistance to the air ; while the large 
 mass of the breast-muscles attached to the under sur- 
 face of the body which during flight is, as it were, 
 slung between the wings contribute toward the right 
 ordering of that all-important matter, balance. In 
 many birds special means have been adopted to secure 
 extreme rigidity, as may be seen by the fact that the 
 separate vertebrae of the back have become welded 
 together to form a stiff, unyielding beam. But it is 
 not until we come to examine the bones of the shoul- 
 der-girdle and sternum, and of the wings, that we find 
 the modifications of the skeleton which flight has 
 brought about. 
 
 By the shoulder-girdle is meant those bones which 
 make up the shoulder-blade, or scapula; the long, 
 straight pillars known as "coracoids," and the furcula, 
 or "merry-thought." These form a sort of cage fixed 
 on to the front of the sternum, or breast-bone. This 
 bears, as everybody knows, a rough resemblance to 
 the hull of a ship, with an extremely deep keel. A 
 reference to the figure here should make this clear. 
 The deep keel and the broad, flat plate of the breast- 
 bone serve for the attachment of the breast-muscles, 
 which in the bird are of enormous size, equalling or 
 exceeding in weight all other muscles of the body. 
 
 These muscles, which constitute the large mass of 
 flesh familiar to every one as the "breast-meat" of a 
 
INTRODUCTION xxxvii 
 
 bird as served at table, are arranged in two layers. 
 The outermost runs forward, to be inserted into a 
 shelf of bone which projects from the upper surface 
 of the humerus, or upper arm; while the lower runs 
 
 FIG. 7. TRUNK OF A BIRD, SHOWING BONES OF SHOULDER AND HIP- 
 GIRDLES. 
 
 beneath it, along the coracoid, and finally passing into 
 a round tendon, runs through a pulley formed by the 
 meeting of the coracoid, blade-bone, and merry- 
 thought, and into the head of the humerus. These 
 two muscles play the most important part in raising 
 the body and keeping it in motion, for these, by their 
 contraction, bring about the downward wing-beat. 
 The other muscles which aid in this work, and those 
 which raise the wings at the end of the stroke, need 
 not be studied here. How intimately the keel is as- 
 sociated with flight may be seen by an examination 
 of birds which fly but little. In them the keel is 
 always shallow, while in those which have lost the 
 power of flight altogether it is reduced to a mere ridge 
 of bones, as in the Owl Parrot (Stringops), or has 
 vanished altogether, as in the flightless Ostrich tribe. 
 
XXXV111 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 The wing itself is no less profoundly modified, as 
 we pointed out in an earlier part of this chapter. 
 Suffice it to say here, that of the original five fingers 
 but three remain. Of these the thumb and third 
 finger are reduced, and little more than stumps ; while 
 the second finger has been elongated to form a long, 
 rigid rod, strengthened at the base by that portion of 
 the third finger which in ourselves contributes to form 
 the "palm" of the hand. In the bird's palm there 
 are but two bones, forming the base of the second and 
 third fingers respectively. 
 
 The bird's wing folds in a peculiar manner, so as to 
 form a more or less Z-shaped rod, the humerus, or 
 
 C.C 
 
 FIG. 8. WING OF A BIRD, SHOWING THE 
 FLIGHT FEATHERS AND SOME OF THE 
 
 COVERTS. 
 
 the 
 
 upper arm, form- 
 
 ing the top f the 
 Z, the fore-arm the 
 
 downstroke, and 
 the hand the base 
 of the Z. 
 
 When extended, 
 each of these divi- 
 sions or segments, 
 will be found to 
 support a series of 
 long, broad feath- 
 ers. Those on the 
 hand are known as 
 the primaries, and 
 secondaries, while 
 
 those on the fore-arm as 
 those on the upper arm are sometimes described 
 as the tertiaries. These last form a double se- 
 ries, one attached to the upper and one to the under 
 
INTRODUCTION xxxix 
 
 surface of the humerus, or upper arm-bone, and their 
 purpose is to close the gap which would otherwise be 
 left between the wing and the body during flight a 
 gap which, indeed, would make flight well-nigh, if not 
 quite, impossible in birds which, like the Albatross, 
 have a long humerus. Above the "quill" or "flight" 
 feathers the primaries and secondaries will be 
 found a number of rows of smaller feathers, which 
 can be divided into several distinct series. These are 
 the "coverts," and are known respectively as the 
 major, median, minor, and marginal coverts. Of the 
 first and second series the major and median coverts 
 there is but a single series ; while the minor coverts 
 and marginal coverts number several rows each. 
 Some of these smaller coverts have, for clearness's 
 sake, been removed in the accompanying diagram. 
 The row marked t. m. is formed by the major coverts, 
 or tectrices majores. 
 
 The manner in which the feathers of the wing over- 
 lap one another is a matter of some importance to 
 those who are engaged in the work of classifying 
 birds, and in the mechanism of flight is even more im- 
 portant. If the wing of any bird be examined, it will 
 be found that the free edges of the "quill" feathers and 
 of the major coverts are turned outwards ^towards 
 the tip of the wing; while more or fewer of the other 
 coverts have the free edges turned towards the body. 
 Consequently, when the wing is raised the wind forces 
 its way easily between the feathers, and so offers the 
 least possible resistance to the upstroke; but during 
 the downstroke the wing affords an unyielding sur- 
 face, and so forces the body upwards and forwards 
 
xl INTRODUCTION 
 
 at each stroke. Compared with the Bat's wing, the 
 wing of the bird is a vastly superior organ, and for 
 this reason : The wing of the Bat is formed by a mem- 
 brane stretched between long, slender fingers, so that 
 any serious injury to this membrane permanently dis- 
 ables the creature. The bird's wing, on the other 
 hand, has its flying membrane formed of a number of 
 overlapping, elastic, ribbon-like structures the quills 
 which are periodically renewed, and can be replaced 
 if injured. 
 
 Organs of Digestion and Air-sacs. Though once 
 upon a time birds had teeth, they long ago solved the 
 problem of doing without them. Like the Tortoise 
 and the Turtle among the reptiles, birds have re- 
 placed their teeth by horny sheaths which encase the 
 jaws, and these sheaths take many forms. As a rule, 
 that of the upper differs but little from that of the 
 under jaw; but in many birds this is not so. In the 
 Birds of Prey, for example, which tear their food in 
 pieces, the sheath of the upper jaw is hook-shaped; 
 and this is true also of the Parrots. Birds which 
 seize rapidly moving and slippery prey, such as fish, 
 have spear-shaped beaks, as in Herons and King- 
 fishers; and a similar weapon is developed where a 
 rapid succession of blows is rained upon hard, unyield- 
 ing surfaces, as in the beaks of Woodpeckers, which, 
 moreover, have the density of the horn immensely in- 
 creased. On the other hand, these sheaths are often 
 of great delicacy, as in the case of the Snipe and 
 Woodcock, the fragile, upturned beak of the Avocet, 
 or the long, rod-like probe of many Humming-birds. 
 
 In the so-called soft -billed birds, the jaws serve 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 xli 
 
 FIG. P.-HEAD OF A HAWK, SHOWING 
 
 THE HOOK-SHAPED BEAK USED FOR 
 
 TEARING PREY. 
 
 merely as light forceps, and, consequently, they and 
 their sheaths offer no very striking characters; while 
 in Swifts, Swallows, and Nightjars the beak has be- 
 
 come reduced to the 
 smallest possible lim- 
 its because the jaws 
 perform but little 
 work in seizing the 
 food. When slip- 
 pery victims have to 
 be held, such as fish, 
 the edges of these 
 ho sheaths are 
 
 J ... 
 
 armed with saw-like 
 teeth, as in the Mer- 
 
 gansers among the Ducks ; or these teeth may take the 
 form of needle-like spines, as in the Darters. In the 
 Ducks and certain Petrels, horny plates, resembling 
 the baleen-plates of "whalebone" Whales, are devel- 
 oped, and these serve as sieves, or strainers, allowing 
 the water taken into the mouth with the food to escape, 
 leaving the solid matter behind. 
 
 This horn-encased region of the jaws forms the 
 "beak," and the shape of this is determined by the 
 nature of the bird's food. 
 
 From the mouth the food is passed down the gullet, 
 or oesophagus, until, in many birds, such as Pigeons 
 and Fowls, it reaches a special dilatation of the gullet 
 known as the "crop." This is a thin-walled bag, 
 wherein the food is stored and softened, preparatory 
 to being passed on to the stomach. This, in birds, 
 consists of two parts, one lying in front of the other. 
 
xlij INTRODUCTION 
 
 The first, which is superficially hardly distinguishable 
 from the gullet, is known as the "proventriculus." 
 Its walls are richly supplied with digestive glands. 
 From this first stomach the food passes into the sec- 
 ond, which, in birds such as Fowls and Pigeons, for 
 example, has extremely thick and muscular walls, 
 while its cavity is lined with a more or less dense skin, 
 thrown into a series of folds. A stomach of this kind 
 is known as a "gizzard"; but in birds which feed on 
 animal food, such as Hawks and Gulls, there is no 
 gizzard, the walls of this region of the stomach being 
 thin and soft. Where a true gizzard is developed, 
 sharp stones and sand are swallowed by the bird, and 
 these are stored in the gizzard to aid in the work of 
 grinding up the grain and other hard matter, which 
 form the bird's food. Even flesh-eating birds appear 
 to find it necessary to swallow indigestible matter with 
 their food, and this matter is furnished by the hair 
 and feathers of their victims. Digestion completed, 
 the indigestible residue becomes welded together into 
 a mass, and is ejected from the mouth in the form of 
 a "pellet." From the second stomach the food passes 
 on into the intestine, and here all the nourishing por- 
 tions are absorbed. 
 
 The air-sacs are found in all birds. They take the 
 form of a number of thin-walled chambers lying on 
 the sides of the body, and in front of the merry- 
 thought. During life these chambers are filled with 
 air drawn from the lungs. They are really a part of 
 the lungs; but their precise structure need not be 
 described here. At one time it was thought these 
 great air-chambers served the purpose of decreasing 
 
INTRODUCTION xliii 
 
 the weight of the bird during flight; but this is now 
 known to be an incorrect view. They serve to assist 
 respiration, and also, probably, to regulate the tem- 
 perature of the body. 
 
 Concerning Eggs. Birds, like their cousins the 
 reptiles, and certain low forms of mammals, lay eggs. 
 In birds these are always invested in a hard shell, 
 which is commonly coloured, often very beautifully. 
 How this colouring is formed, and how deposited on 
 the shell, we do not yet know, or at least only in part. 
 
 The number of eggs laid by different species of 
 birds varies greatly. Thus some species lay but one 
 egg, as the Guillemot; some two, as the Pigeon. 
 Plovers lay four, Game-birds from twelve to twenty. 
 
 When first formed the egg of a bird is extremely 
 small, but during its development there is added to 
 the germ, which is to grow into the chick, a great quan- 
 tity of yolk, to serve as food for the developing bird, 
 and outside this food-yolk there is deposited a quan- 
 tity of "white" of egg, and, finally, the whole mass 
 is enclosed within the shell. 
 
 Although certain stages of development are passed 
 before the egg is laid, this development is soon sus- 
 pended, and is only resumed as a consequence of the 
 heat generated by the body of the brooding bird. 
 
 When hatched, the young birds are in many species 
 extremely active, following their parents and finding 
 food for themselves soon after leaving the shell; in 
 other species the young leave the shell in a singularly 
 helpless condition blind and naked and these have 
 to be very carefully attended by the parents until they 
 are strong enough to fly and take care of themselves. 
 
PUBLISHER'S NOTE 
 
 THE color-plates for this work have been engraved 
 after designs by a German artist. Since they were 
 printed, with the accompaniment of the common and 
 scientific names, careful verification of these names 
 has been made, in consultation with some of the lead- 
 ing zoological authorities. As a result, the attention 
 of the reader is called to the names of the birds men- 
 tioned in this note. This list contains names correct- 
 ing typographical errors in the same names as they 
 appear under the pictures to which they belong. 
 
 Plate 2, Fig. 5 : Gypagus papa. 
 
 3, " 12 : European Sparrow Hawk. 
 
 4, " 17: European Red Kite. 
 8, " 37: Blue-fronted Amazon. 
 
 10, 48: Chasm orhynchus nudicollis. 
 
 99 11, " 54: European Blackbird. 
 
 " 13, " 71: White-throat ' (Sylvia cinerea). 
 
 " 16, " 92: Pine Grosbeak. 
 
 " 17, " 95: Paradise Whydah-bird. 
 
 17, 96: Sporceginthus amandava. 
 
 " 25, " 145: Red-legged Rock Partridge. 
 
 xliv 
 
BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 THE OSTRICH-LIKE BIRDS 
 
 ORDERS CASUARII, STRUTHIONES, 
 APTERYGES, AND CRYPTURI 
 
 ALTHOUGH lowest in the matter of intelli- 
 gence, the Ostrich tribe are among the most 
 interesting of birds. In the first place, they 
 are the survivors of a much more ancient type, extinct 
 long before the advent of man upon the earth ; and in 
 the second, they have undergone most profound 
 changes in their anatomical structure. 
 
 To begin with, all save the Tinamous of South 
 America have absolutely lost the power of flight, and 
 at so remote a period that the great keel of the breast- 
 bone, to which we have already referred, has entirely 
 disappeared. But, besides this, the wings have de- 
 generated to an extent met with in no other living 
 birds; and this is true also of the feathers. 
 
 The first member of this Order to be considered is 
 the Emu, of Australia, the home of so many strange 
 forms of animal life. Next to the African Ostrich, 
 the largest of living birds, the Emu has little to dis- 
 tinguish it in the matter of beauty, its coarse-looking 
 
 1 
 
BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 plumage being dull-greyish in colour. The wings are 
 extremely small, and can be found only by diligent 
 search among the feathers of the sides of the body. It 
 is a singular- appearing bird, owing to the long, hair- 
 like feathers, and when viewed from the front the eye- 
 lashes sticking out on each side of the head give it a 
 very fierce expression. 
 
 Two species of Emu are generally recognised, both 
 inhabitants of Australia and neighbouring islands. 
 The bird is easily acclimated in England, and is quite 
 common in many of the parks of that country, where 
 it is allowed to run at large. It breeds remarkably 
 well. The eggs are solidly coloured, a deep bluish- 
 green at first, which gradually changes to black. The 
 young are prettily striped little creatures, looking 
 quite unlike the parent birds. The Emu has three 
 toes, and, like other members of the Ostrich family, is 
 able to deliver a very powerful kick. 
 
 The sober-coloured Emu has some very handsome 
 relatives in the Cassowaries of New Guinea and the 
 neighbouring islands though one species occurs on 
 the mainland of Australia. But little is known about 
 these birds, however, in the wild state. When first 
 feathered they are like the Emu in colour of plum- 
 age, but when adult life is fully attained they have 
 a rich shining black coat, much resembling hair. At 
 maturity they shed the feathers of the head and neck, 
 the bare skin then assuming the most brilliant hues 
 combinations of blue, green, violet, red and yellow, ac- 
 cording to the species. From the crown of the head 
 there arises a large casque, or helmet, which, though 
 it looks solid, is really a very frail structure, consist- 
 
CASSOWARY 3 
 
 ing of a mass of delicate lacework of bone encased in 
 a thin sheath of horn. 
 
 The general appearance of the Cassowary is well 
 seen in the illustration. The curious spikes project- 
 ing from the sides of the body are all that remain of 
 wing- feathers, while the wing as a whole, is like that of 
 the Emu, extremely small and degenerate. The 
 "hand" is so reduced that it cannot be bent back at 
 the wrist, as in birds that have the power of flight, 
 and the thumb is quite lost, as in the Emu. The only 
 finger that is left is provided with a long claw. Casso- 
 waries are further remarkable for the fact that the 
 inner toe bears an enormous claw, which is used in 
 fighting forming indeed a very formidable weapon. 
 The legs are short and thick. The sexes are coloured 
 alike, and the neck is adorned with brilliantly coloured 
 wattles, or excrescences. Altogether, fifteen species 
 of Cassowaries are known, one of which almost equals 
 the Emu in size, standing as much as six feet in 
 height. See Plate 28, Fig. 159. 
 
 The Emu and the Cassowary differ from all other 
 birds in that the feathers are double that is to say, 
 each has two shafts, of equal size. 
 
 In Australia and Tasmania many remains of gigan- 
 tic fossil birds are found, related to the Cassowary, 
 one of which, the Moa, stood ten or twelve feet in 
 height, dwarfing in size the largest Ostrich. Remains 
 of these birds in a perfect state of preservation have 
 been found. A fossilised egg of the Moa, of enor- 
 mous size, has also been discovered. Another great 
 bird, ^pyornis, closely allied to the Cassowary, prob- 
 ably lived at the same time as the Moa, and, judging 
 
4 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 from the condition of the fossil remains, these birds 
 must have existed until comparatively recent times. 
 The egg of ^pyornis was the largest ever known, 
 being several times the bulk of an Ostrich egg. 
 
 The Rhea, or South American Ostrich, though 
 smaller than either the Emu or Cassowary, is yet a 
 very large bird. It is remarkable, among other 
 things, for the relatively large size of the wings, which 
 are extended when running to act as sails, though they 
 are far too feeble to raise the body off the ground. 
 The loose structure of the feathers of this bird forms 
 another bar to flight. The sexes are nearly alike in 
 colour, both being a light purplish-grey, and there is 
 little difference in the plumage of the young and the 
 fully adult bird. Like its relatives, the Emu and 
 the Cassowary, the Rhea has three toes, all placed 
 at the front of the foot. As in the case of the former 
 birds also, the male undertakes the duties of incuba- 
 tion and the care of the chicks. Several hens combine 
 and lay their eggs in one nest, so that the male is at 
 last left to brood about twenty eggs. These are 
 golden yellow in colour, in contrast to the eggs of the 
 Emu and the Cassowary, which are a beautiful green. 
 Some specimens of this bird in the Zoological Park, 
 at Washington, had the curious habit, when angry or 
 excited, of crouching upon the ground and spreading 
 out their wings to the fullest extent. 
 
 The natives of South America pursue the Rhea on 
 horseback and capture it by hurling the bolas stones 
 fastened to the ends of lines which are hurled by the 
 hunter and twine around the legs of the birds, quickly 
 bringing them to the ground. See Plate 28, Fig. 158. 
 
159. Helmeted Cassowary 
 (Casuarius yaleatus). 
 
 158. Rhea 
 (Ehea americana) 
 
 157. Ostrich 
 (Strut/tio camelus). 
 
 160 Kiwi ( After yx mnntelli). 
 
OSTRICH 5 
 
 The voices of all the Ostrich-like birds are rather 
 singular, consisting of a deep booming note uttered 
 with the mouth apparently closed, and seeming to 
 come from the chest. 
 
 The African Ostrich is the giant among living 
 birds, the male standing some eight feet high, and 
 exceeding the female in size, wherein he differs from 
 the other Ostrich-like birds so far described. The 
 African Ostrich is also unlike all his relatives in that 
 he is conspicuously different from his mate in coloura- 
 tion, having the body clothed in a livery of glossy 
 black, relieved by the pure white of the wing- and tail- 
 feathers, which are the plumes so highly prized for 
 millinery purposes. The head and neck are almost 
 bare of feathers, while the massive legs are absolutely 
 naked. The plumage of the female is of a sober 
 brown hue. In the possession of a tail the African 
 Ostrich is also peculiar among his tribe. As in the 
 Rhea, the wings are of relatively large size, and, 
 though useless for flight, they are of much assistance 
 when running, being made to serve as sails. 
 
 The Ostrich stands alone among birds in the struc- 
 ture of the foot, which has the toes reduced to two in 
 number; and of these one is so small as to play but a 
 slight part in supporting the body. It runs with 
 great swiftness, and is able to kick with terrible effect. 
 
 Like the Emu, the Ostrich has very long eyelashes, 
 a singular character and one not often found in birds. 
 The eyes are extremely large and bright, but stupid 
 in expression, and indeed the bird is of a low order of 
 intelligence. The Ostrich's habit of swallowing all 
 sorts of indigestible substances is well known, and in 
 
6 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 the stomachs of dead birds have been found such 
 strange objects as a china doll, a horn comb, pieces of 
 glass, and small tools. For the same reason our 
 domestic poultry swallow pebbles in order to grind 
 their food. 
 
 The Ostrich further differs from his relatives in that 
 both sexes share the work of incubation; and here the 
 difference in plumage plays an important part. The 
 female, with her dull, sandy-coloured dress, sits by 
 day, so that she is practically invisible when seen 
 against the arid wastes chosen for the nesting-site. 
 The male sits by night, when his dark plumage renders 
 him invisible also. Like the Rhea, the Ostrich is 
 polygamous, and several hens lay their eggs together 
 in the same nest. See Plate 28, Fig. 157. 
 
 Though four distinct species of Ostrich are recog- 
 nised by ornithologists, they do not differ greatly in 
 appearance one from another, except in the colour of 
 the legs, one of the South African forms having skin 
 of a reddish hue, while the species found in Somali- 
 land has dark bluish-grey thighs. These great birds 
 are often found in company with herds of antelopes 
 and zebras. 
 
 In all the Ostrich-like birds so far described, the 
 nestlings are striped with broad bands of white and 
 black, or brown, which run from head to tail. This 
 striping is, however, not equally well marked in all 
 the species. It is most clearly seen in the young of 
 the Emu and of the Cassowary. In the young Ostrich 
 the neck is striped, but the down of the body shows 
 no stripes, these being obscured by the tips of the 
 
KIWI 
 
 down feathers, which are transformed into little, horny 
 curls, resembling dark, narrow shavings. 
 
 Ostriches are now raised on farms in various parts 
 of the world. The largest of these farms are in South 
 Africa, but in recent years some have Been started in 
 Arizona and California, where the birds thrive well. 
 The feathers are clipped regularly at certain seasons 
 of the year, the birds, which are blindfolded, suffering 
 no injury in the process and offering no resistance. 
 
 Of the Apteryx, or Kiwi, of New Zealand, there 
 are several species, that figured being known as Man- 
 tell's Apteryx. All agree in being soberly coloured, 
 some having a freckled or mottled appearance like 
 that of Plymouth Rock Fowls. The legs are short 
 and stout, and the bird is able to run with great swift- 
 ness, depending, indeed, upon its speed for safety, 
 since it is flightless. It can also deliver a strong blow 
 with its feet, like other members of its tribe. The 
 Apteryx is the smallest of the Old World Ostrich- 
 like birds, not exceeding a large Domestic Fowl in 
 size, and the female is said to be somewhat larger than 
 the male. See Plate 28, Fig. 160. 
 
 Nocturnal in habits, the eyes of the Apteryx are 
 exceedingly small; but deficient sight is amply com- 
 pensated by a wonderfully developed sense of smell, 
 in which it is believed to excel all other birds. Be- 
 sides this, the region of the face in front of the eyes 
 is provided with long hair-like feathers, which, like 
 the "whiskers" of the cat, probably serve the purpose 
 of feelers. This bird is also remarkable for the fact 
 that its nostrils are placed at the extreme tip of its 
 
8 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 beak a unique character. This curious position 
 enables the bird to find its prey, which consists of 
 worms and grubs. They are discovered by thrusting 
 the beak down into the soil and sniffing for the odour 
 of the desired dainties. 
 
 While the wings of the Apteryx are reduced to 
 the merest vestiges, yet, as in the case of its relatives, 
 a large claw is retained on the tip of the only finger 
 that remains. 
 
 Though silent by day, the Apteryx is by no means 
 so by night, giving forth piercing squeals that can 
 be heard for long distances. In this way, doubtless, 
 it finds its mate. The list of the peculiarities of the 
 Apteryx is not yet exhausted; for it is remarkable for 
 its enormously large egg, only one of which is laid 
 in a season, and which, in proportion to the size of 
 the bird, exceeds all other eggs in bulk. Within a 
 very few years the Apteryx will probably be as ex- 
 tinct as the Dodo, owing to its destruction by stoats 
 and weasels, which have, most unwisely, been intro- 
 duced into New Zealand. 
 
 Sometimes placed in a separate Order, but often 
 included in the Ostrich-like birds, is the Tinamou, 
 found only in South America. Unlike the other birds 
 described in this chapter, the Tinamou has a keeled 
 sternum, but in very many other characters it agrees 
 with them. It is Partridge-like in form, and for a 
 long time was classed among the Game-birds, whose 
 place it takes in South American countries. Sixty- 
 five species of Tinamou are recognised, varying con- 
 siderably in size. The head is small, the bill rather 
 long, the wings short and rounded, as in the Quail 
 
TINAMOU 9 
 
 and Grouse, the tail-feathers short. In colour they 
 are inconspicuous, usually greyish-brown above and 
 mottled below. The nest is made in hollows in the 
 ground, the eggs vary in number and in colour, and 
 arc incubated by the male. The eggs are remarkable 
 for their very high polish, looking like burnished 
 metal, or porcelain. Like other ground-birds, Tina- 
 mous are difficult to flush, but when well on the wing 
 are powerful and swift flyers. Mr. W. D. Hudson 
 says "the whir of their wings can only be compared 
 to the rattling of a vehicle driven at great speed over 
 a stony road." See Plate 41, Fig. 240. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 THE CABINATE OR KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS,, AND THEIR 
 CHIEF PECULIARITIES 
 
 THE birds to which the rest of this volume is to 
 be devoted all differ from the Ostrich tribe, not 
 only in the formation of the skull, but also in 
 that the breast-bone bears a deep plate, or "keel," 
 which runs down the middle of its under surface. In 
 
 \ 
 E 
 
 FlG. 10. THE SHOULDER-GIRDLE OF A CARINATE BlRD 
 
 TO SHOW THE KEEL OF THE BREAST-BONE, THE 
 LARGE MERRY-THOUGHT AND SEPARATE BLADE- 
 BONE. 
 
 addition to this, the bones which are charged with the 
 support of the wings are different, not in kind, but 
 in degree. With the loss of the power of flight which 
 
 we remarked in the Ostrich tribe, these "shoulder- 
 
 10 
 
CARINATE BIRDS 11 
 
 girdle" bones, as they are called, degenerated. As a 
 consequence, the blade-bone became immovably fixed 
 to its supporting pillar, the "coracoid"; and the fur- 
 cula, or "merry- thought," disappeared altogether, or 
 left, at most, but slight traces of its former existence 
 in the Emus. But with the flying birds the blade- 
 bone is joined to the coracoid by elastic ligaments, 
 and the furcula, or "merry-thought," is well devel- 
 oped. 
 
 There are certain exceptions to this rule, however; 
 and these occur in the case of some species which have, 
 like the Ostriches, lost the power of flight. Herein the 
 keel of the breast-bone has become greatly reduced, 
 while some birds which yet retain the power of flight 
 have either a very imperfect merrythought or none 
 at all. 
 
 Flying-birds further differ from the Ostrich tribe 
 in that their feathers are more perfectly developed 
 they only, in short, possess typical feathers. The dis- 
 tinctive characters of these have already been de- 
 scribed in the introductory chapter. 
 
 Birds, like all other living creatures, compete one 
 with another for food; and hence a given area of 
 ground can support only a limited number of birds. 
 All above the number which can find support in this 
 area must either starve or seek fresh feeding-grounds, 
 or contrive to find other kinds of food in the con- 
 gested area. And it is this struggle to live which has 
 brought about the marvellous variety in the forms of 
 birds. For as new kinds of food and new methods 
 of feeding were adopted, slow changes of shape in 
 body, beak, wings, and feet oame about through the 
 
12 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 process known as selection. That is to say, birds 
 which, by some peculiarity in their structure, found 
 themselves able to capture and thrive upon the flesh 
 of other animals, including other birds, went on com- 
 peting among themselves for this particular kind of 
 food, and those which were best endowed that is to 
 say, those which by their longer wings or sharper beak 
 and claws, or by their ability to swim and to dive 
 gradually crowded out their less fortunate fellows. 
 As time passed, the peculiar characters and qualities 
 which originally gained for them superiority over their 
 neighbours went on increasing, because the competi- 
 tion continued, being rendered, indeed, the more 
 severe because carried on between fewer rivals but 
 rivals almost equally well fitted for the struggle. And 
 thus, in course of time, by slow degrees, the various 
 forms of birds have come to be. To-day, as a result, 
 we find such differing types as Diving-birds and Tree- 
 climbers, Hawks and long-legged Waders, and so on. 
 
 These different kinds of birds we group together 
 in assemblages which are known as "Orders," and 
 these are further sub-divided into Sub-orders, 
 Families, and Genera, until finally we come to the 
 division into species. In this way we can sort out and 
 bracket together all kinds of birds according to their 
 relationship one to another. 
 
 While some Orders are made up of birds which 
 have retained a relatively large number of characters 
 that are certainly survivals of very ancient times, and 
 are hence said to be primitive, others have undergone 
 great changes in structure and show many signs of 
 descent from the less modified, less changed forms, and 
 
CARINATE BIRDS 13 
 
 these are accordingly to be regarded as higher in the 
 scale of evolution. The natural order, therefore, is 
 to work upwards from the lowest, or more primitive, 
 types to the highest, or latest evolved forms. The 
 lowest of all, the Ostrich tribe, have already been con- 
 sidered, and we proceed now to a brief study of the 
 higher forms of bird life. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 DIVING-BIRDS, PETRELS, AND PENGUINS 
 
 ORDERS PYGOPODES, TUBINARES, 
 AND IMPENNES 
 
 The birds which form the subject of this chapter 
 are all aquatic in their habits, and feed upon fish. 
 
 THE DIVING BIRDS 
 
 THESE are divided into two groups : Sea Divers, 
 or Loons, and Fresh-water Divers, or Grebes. 
 The largest of the Sea Divers is the Black- 
 throated Diver, or Loon. This bird breeds in Ice- 
 land, Greenland, and the Fur Countries of North 
 America, as far west as the Great Slave Lake. It 
 lays two eggs, olive-brown in colour, spotted with 
 black, any convenient place on the ground near the 
 water's edge serving for a nest. See Plate 39, Fig. 
 231. 
 
 Though these birds are commonly called Sea 
 Divers, they show great preference for fresh water, 
 breeding and passing the summer months in inland 
 waters. During the winter, however, they retreat to 
 the sea, and there disperse along the coast. This 
 migration is probably due to the necessity of keeping 
 to open water, for, being entirely dependent upon 
 fish for their subsistence, severe frosts immediately cut 
 
 14 
 
LOON 15 
 
 off the supply of fresh-water fishes in their chosen 
 haunts. 
 
 The Loon is so called on account of the strange cry 
 it utters, suggesting the laugh of a maniac; at other 
 times its voice has a piping, resonant sound. When 
 swimming under water, the wings are not used, the 
 Loon depending for progression entirely upon the 
 strokes of the feet in which it differs from the Pen- 
 guins, to be described later. 
 
 The adult male is very beautiful in summer plum- 
 age. The head and upper part of the body are a deep 
 greenish-black, velvety in texture, and the breast is 
 silvery white. Over the back and around the neck are 
 numerous spots and lines of pure white, giving much 
 the effect of lace over the dark green ; the eye is a deep 
 blood-red. 
 
 An individual of the Common Loon, caught in a 
 fish-trap off the coast of Massachusetts, was kept for 
 some months in a pool belonging to the Fish Com- 
 mission Station at Woods Hole. Extremely shy at 
 first, for several days it would come to the surface of 
 the water at intervals, remaining only long enough 
 to breathe before diving again. Within a week, how- 
 ever, this Loon became ridiculously tame, and would 
 allow itself to be lifted from the water with as little 
 resistance as a wooden decoy. Although the pool was 
 more than a hundred feet in length, there was not 
 sufficient distance for the bird to rise in the air and 
 fly over the low stone wall surrounding it, since these 
 birds require a long "start" in order to get on the 
 wing. Once fairly launched, however, they are 
 powerful and swift flyers; but on land they are ex- 
 
16 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 tremely awkward, owing to the position of the legs 
 at the back of the body. The Loon referred to was 
 supplied with living fish from the aquariums at the 
 Station, and it was most interesting to watch it pur- 
 suing them under water. It would catch the smallest 
 fry with remarkable quickness and dexterity, never 
 seeming to miss one of its finny prey. When given 
 a fish too large to swallow with ease, the Loon would 
 pound and thresh it about, gradually softening it until 
 in condition to be devoured. The amount of food 
 required by this captive bird was extraordinary ; after 
 despatching twenty-five or thirty minnows in quick 
 succession, after a very short interval it would be 
 ready for as many more. 
 
 The Red-throated Loon is a smaller species hav- 
 ing much the same range, breeding in the far north 
 and migrating southward in winter. 
 
 Fresh- water Divers, or Grebes, are found in nearly 
 every part of the world, although they are most com- 
 mon in temperate regions. While the Sea Divers 
 have fully webbed feet, the Grebes simply have the 
 toes provided with broad lobes. But both Grebes and 
 Divers are experts at swimming under water. So. 
 completely have the Sea Divers become modified by 
 this mode of life, that the legs have become shifted 
 to the extreme hinder end of the body, and, as a con- 
 sequence, they cannot walk. The Grebes, however, 
 can do so, although awkwardly. 
 
 Two species of Grebe are figured here, the 
 Great Crested Grebe and the Little Grebe, or 
 Dabchick. The former is a very handsome bird, 
 and was at one time much hunted for the sake 
 
39. 
 
 227. European Least Tern 
 (Sterna minuta). 
 
 228. Black- 
 headed Gull 
 (Larus ridibundtt*}. 
 
 Sandwich Tern (Sterna sandvicencis). 
 
 231. Black-throated Loon 
 (Oavia arctica). \ 
 
 230. Common Tern 
 (Sterna hinmdo). 
 
 232. Crested Grebe 
 (Colymbus cristatus). 
 
 (.Fratercuia arctica). 
 
DABCHICK PIED-BILLED GREBE 17 
 
 of its breast feathers, which were made up into 
 muffs and other ornamental articles of dress. This 
 bird is remarkable for the wonderful frill which 
 surrounds the head. This is a rich dark chestnut in 
 colour, shading at the edges into a very dark brown, 
 and can be raised or depressed. In addition, long 
 "horns," or tufts of feathers, spring from the crown 
 of the head. The sexes are similarly adorned, but in 
 the males these ornaments are more developed than 
 in the females. A curious thing about the Grebes is 
 the fact that they build floating nests of weeds, some- 
 times attaching them to rushes and reeds growing in 
 the water. The eggs vary in number from three to 
 six, and are white at first, but gradually change to 
 brown. See Plate 39, Fig. 232. 
 
 The Dabchick, or Little Grebe, is a much smaller 
 bird, which in summer has the cheeks, throat, and 
 sides of the neck a rich chestnut colour, giving place 
 to a silvery white in winter. It ranges over Europe, 
 Africa, and Asia, extending from the Malay coun- 
 tries into North Australia. See Plate 40, Fig. 
 237. 
 
 Two species common in America and frequently 
 confused are the Horned Grebe and the Pied-billed 
 Grebe. The former is distinguished by large tufts of 
 feathers which stand out on each side of the head. It is 
 seen along our coasts during the spring and fall 
 months but is not so common as the other species 
 mentioned. The breast is glistening white, and in 
 flight the white patch on the wings is a conspicuous 
 mark. This bird winters throughout the United 
 States, breeding northward. 
 
18 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 The Pied-billed Grebe, commonly called Hell-diver, 
 has also a very extensive range, being found at differ- 
 ent seasons of the year in both North and South 
 America. It swims and dives with the greatest ease, 
 often swimming under water with only the tip of the 
 bill exposed. In summer this bird is dark greyish- 
 brown above, lighter below, and has a black band 
 across the bill. In the fall the upper parts are darker, 
 the breast and sides are brown, and the rest of the 
 under parts silver-white. 
 
 PETRELS, OR TUBE-NOSED BIRDS. 
 
 The Petrels are strictly sea-birds, having webbed 
 feet, and all are peculiar in that the nostrils open, 
 either in the form of a pair of tubes, one on each side 
 of the beak, or into a cavity on the top of the beak: 
 hence the name, "tube-nosed" birds. The wings of 
 the Petrels are long and pointed, and their powers of 
 flight are remarkable. They practically live at sea, 
 seldom coming to land except during the breeding 
 time. 
 
 Of the many different kinds of Petrels, three species 
 are figured ; and of these by far the most interesting 
 is the Albatross, one of the largest birds that fly. The 
 Black-browed Albatross is found in Europe and 
 Western America, though its real home is in the 
 southern oceans. Albatrosses commonly breed in 
 large colonies. In the island of Laysan, in the 
 Pacific Ocean, thousands of these birds can be 
 seen, each brooding its single white egg. The nest- 
 ling is covered with white down of extraordinary 
 length, and it is remarkable for the great length of 
 
ALBATROSSES 19 
 
 time it remains in the nest. The wings of the Alba- 
 tross spread as much as ten feet, but though so long, 
 they are very narrow, not more than a foot in widtli 
 at the widest point. In rising from the water it has 
 some difficulty in getting under way, but once on the 
 wing the flight is unexcelled by that of any other bird. 
 These birds often follow ships at sea for days at a 
 time, and there is a superstition among sailors that it 
 is bad luck to shoot or otherwise injure one of them. 
 This sentiment has been made use of by Coleridge in 
 his "Rime of the Ancient Mariner," in which he tells 
 of the sufferings of a ship's crew after the shooting of 
 one of these birds. See Plate 38, Fig. 221. 
 
 Albatrosses are very plentiful in the islands of the 
 Pacific Ocean. A writer who has studied them there 
 says they behave very strangely at the mating season. 
 Standing face to face, they begin nodding and bow- 
 ing vigorously, and then rub their bills together with 
 a whistling cry. After this they begin shaking their 
 heads and snapping their bills with marvellous rapid- 
 ity, occasionally lifting one wing, straightening them- 
 selves out, and blowing out their breasts. Then they 
 put their bill under their wings or toss it in the air, 
 with a groaning scream, and walk round each other, 
 often for fifteen minutes at a time. 
 
 The largest and perhaps best known species is the 
 Wandering Albatross. Its plumage is, in general, 
 white, with some black markings, the feet are pinkish, 
 and the bill is yellow. Another well-defined, much 
 smaller species is the Sooty Albatross, so called from 
 its very dark colour. 
 
20 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 While the food of these birds consists chiefly of liv- 
 ing fish, they also act as scavengers on the ocean. 
 
 The Manx Shearwater may be regarded as a 
 typical Petrel. This bird breeds in considerable 
 numbers in the Hebrides, though in some of the 
 islands, curiously enough, it has been ousted by the 
 Puffins, a much smaller but very pugnacious bird. 
 About a hundred years ago the Puffins began to in- 
 crease rapidly, and drove the Shearwaters from the 
 holes which they occupied in the cliffs, so that now 
 comparatively few remain. The young of this bird 
 remain in the nest-burrow until long after they are 
 fully fledged, becoming, in consequence, enormously 
 fat. See Plate 37, Fig. 215. 
 
 Leach's Fork-tailed Petrel is met with quite com- 
 monly in both American and European w||fers, hav- 
 ing quite an extensive range in Atlantic anifl Pacific 
 waters. See Plate 37, Fig. 214. | 
 
 Perhaps the most interesting of all the Petrels is 
 the little Stormy Petrel, known to sailors as "Mother 
 Carey's Chicken," whose appearance is supposed to 
 indicate a coming storm. Against the vast bulk of 
 the ocean it looks extremely small, seen through the 
 driving spray. Although, like the other members of 
 this family, the Stormy Petrel spends most of its time 
 on the ocean, it nests in holes in the ground. Many of 
 them are to be seen during the breeding season at the 
 mouth of the St. Lawrence River on the Perce Rocks. 
 
 As a rule, Petrels are dark-coloured above, and 
 lighter below; but one species, the beautiful Snow 
 Petrel of the icy regions of the Antartic, is all pure 
 
40. 
 
 234. Great King Penguin 
 (Apttnodytes patagonica). 
 
 235. Little Penguin 
 (Aptenodytes porous). 
 
 231. Little Grebe 
 (Colymbus flwoiatifa). 
 
 238. 
 Brunnich's 
 
 Murre 
 (Uria lomvia) 
 
 236. 
 
 Dovekie 
 (Alle atte). 
 
 239. Razor-billed Auk 
 (Atca torda). 
 

 
PENGUINS 21 
 
 white ; and the Great, or Giant Petrel, when it wanders 
 to the far south, also becomes white. 
 
 Petrels were supposed by the older naturalists to be 
 nearly related to the Seagulls, which they closely re- 
 semble. But the resemblance may be purely super- 
 ficial, and due to their similar modes of life. 
 
 PENGUINS 
 
 The Penguins are perhaps the most remarkable of 
 all the carinate birds. No other family has become so 
 profoundly modified and adapted for an aquatic life. 
 Though the bird-like shape is retained, the wings have 
 become transformed into paddles, resembling those of 
 whales, and with these paddles Penguins propel them- 
 selves through the water after the fashion of a bird 
 flying through the air. When on land Penguins 
 stand almost perfectly erect, with their wings, or flip- 
 pers, hanging at their sides, in an attitude unlike that 
 taken by any other bird. When seen in this position 
 and from a distance they look not unlike a band of 
 small men, as they waddle along in single file across 
 the ice. In captivity they seldom live long, but are 
 very intelligent, soon learning to recognise their keep- 
 ers. Their food consists exclusively of fish. 
 
 These birds are confined absolutely to the southern 
 hemisphere. In size they vary enormously, the 
 largest species being represented by the King Penguin 
 and the Emperor Penguin, which stand about four 
 feet high; while the smallest is the Little Penguin of 
 New Zealand, no larger than a small Duck. See 
 Plate 40, Fig. 235. 
 
22 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 The King and Emperor Penguins are found only 
 in the inhospitable regions of the Antarctic, a land of 
 perpetual ice and snow. They lay but one egg dur- 
 ing the year, and this is most carefully guarded. To 
 protect it from the cold, it is placed as soon as laid, 
 upon the back of the feet and covered by the feathers 
 of the lower part of the abdomen. It is brooded by 
 each parent in turn until hatched, when the young 
 bird is cared for in the same way. The young of these 
 two species are very unlike, the young King Penguin 
 being covered with long, hair-like, tawny-coloured 
 down, while the young Emperor is clad in down that 
 is pure white except for black markings on the head. 
 Certain other species of Penguins build nests either 
 on the open ground or under ledges of rock. 
 
 Owing to the complete transformation of their 
 wings into flippers, Penguins are quite unable to fly. 
 They are also unable to breathe through their nostrils, 
 these having become completely closed. 
 
 Penguins have no very near relatives among living 
 birds, but they stand nearest to the Diving-birds, 
 which, however, they far surpass, both in their ability 
 to walk when on land, and in their wonderful swim- 
 ming and diving powers. Fossilised forms of Pen- 
 guins have been found in New Zealand, one exceeding 
 in height an average man. See Plate 40, Fig. 234. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 THE TOTIPALMATE BIRDS : HERONS, STORKS, AND 
 FLAMINGOES 
 
 ORDERS STEGANOPODES, ARDE^B, CI- 
 CONLE, AND PHCENICOPTERI 
 
 THE birds which form the subject of this chapter 
 comprise a number of distinct groups which, at 
 first sight, seem to have little in common, for, 
 in the first place, while some are web-footed, others 
 are not. As a matter of fact, however, a study of 
 their anatomy shows that they are all closely related. 
 
 THE TOTIPALMATE BIRDS 
 The birds which are known as the Totipalmate, or 
 
 Steganopodous, birds were grouped together by the 
 
 older naturalists 
 because they dif- 
 f e r e d from all 
 other web - footed 
 birds in that all 
 the four toes are 
 united by a contin- 
 uous web, whereas 
 in the other web- 
 footed birds the 
 
 FIG. IT. FOOT OF A CORMORANT, TO hind-toe, when 
 
 SHOW THE TOTIPALMATE CONDITION , . /> 
 
 ALL FOUR TOES UNITED IN A COMMON P^Sent, IS 36. 
 
 WEB. The labours o f 
 
24 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 later workers have shown that this association was 
 justified. 
 
 The best known of these Totipalmate birds are the 
 Cormorants and Gannets. 
 
 The Common Cormorant is a bird which enjoys 
 a very wide distribution over the earth's surface, being 
 common in Europe and Asia, and in America along 
 the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. It is a rather 
 large bird, being about three feet long, of a wonderful 
 dark-green colour, and having emerald-green eyes. 
 The neck is long, the bill heavy and furnished with a 
 very sharp recurved hook, useful in seizing fish. The 
 feathers of this bird are velvety and scale-like in ap- 
 pearance, very thick, and they lie close to the body. 
 Although such an expert swimmer and diver, the Cor- 
 morant is also strong in flight, once well on the wing, 
 and in Florida numbers of them are seen soaring high 
 in the air, or flying in a straight line like that taken 
 by Wild Ducks. The feathers of the Cormorant, like 
 those of the Snake-bird (hereafter described) , become 
 saturated with water, so that the bird is obliged to 
 dry them by sitting in the sun on exposed branches of 
 trees. During the breeding season, the sides of the 
 neck are marked by long hair-like white feathers, while 
 a similar white patch occurs on the thighs. The head, 
 with its remarkable eyes, is quite reptile-like in char- 
 acter, as are also the actions of the bird. On the 
 Pacific coast and adjacent islands they congregate in 
 thousands, and may be seen, together with Murres and 
 Guillemots, seated on the rocks. In captivity they 
 are very quarrelsome, squabbling and fighting almost 
 continually, and unless kept in a large enclosure are 
 
CORMORANT SNAKE-BIRD 25 
 
 apt to kill each other, the sharp and heavy beak deal- 
 ing terrible blows. 
 
 The nestlings are ugly little creatures, covered with 
 short black down, which gives place to a brown plum- 
 age. The eyes of the young are brown, also. Not 
 until they are fully grown is the dark-green dress 
 assumed. See Plate 37, Fig. 218. 
 
 The wonderful skill displayed by the Cormorant in 
 its pursuit of fish is turned to good account by the 
 Chinese and Japanese, who domesticate these birds 
 and train them to catch fish. By the ingenious device 
 of placing a ring around the neck, their masters pre- 
 vent the birds from swallowing their captures, and 
 compel them to bring each fish as it is caught to the 
 raft from which the fishing is carried on. 
 
 There are many species of Cormorants, the smallest 
 being but twenty-two inches long. This species is 
 found in Central and South Europe, North Africa, 
 and Central and Southwest Asia. The largest species, 
 known as Harris's Cormorant, is nearly extinct, and 
 is found only in one of the Galapagos Islands, off the 
 coast of South America. It is much larger than the 
 common Cormorant, but has quite lost the power of 
 flight, and so does not have the keel of the breast-bone. 
 
 Very nearly related to the Cormorant is a remark- 
 able bird known as the Darter, Snake-bird, or Water 
 Turkey, differing chiefly in the great length and slen- 
 derness of the neck, from which character it derives its 
 common name. The beak of the Snake-bird is quite 
 unlike that of the Cormorant, being very sharply 
 pointed, while its edges are armed with fine needle-like 
 spines. When fishing, the Darter spears its victim, 
 
26 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 and brings it wriggling to the surface, when it is 
 tossed up and swallowed. See Plate 38, Fig. 222. 
 
 The subject illustrated here is a native of tropical 
 and sub-tropical America, ranging northwards to 
 West Mexico and South Carolina; but different 
 species are met with in other parts of the world. Like 
 the Cormorants, the Darters, in summer, have the 
 neck adorned with long, white, hair-like feathers, 
 known as filo-plumes. They are further remarkable 
 for the fact that the tail-feathers are curiously corru- 
 gated. Though occurring on the sea-coasts, the 
 Darter is more strictly a river bird. 
 
 One of the best known species of Snake-bird nests 
 in the swamps and lagoons of Florida, and these birds 
 may often be seen sitting on branches of trees in the 
 bright sunlight, drying themselves after the manner 
 of the Cormorants. While in this position, although 
 the body and wings remain stationary, the head is con- 
 tinually turning round on the snake-like neck. Dar- 
 ters are extremely wary and difficult to approach. 
 They are strong and graceful in flight, soaring high 
 above their nests, much like the Eagle. The male 
 bird is a rich dark bottle-green colour, with very soft 
 and shining feathers. The upper feathers on the 
 wing and back are covered with a curious chalk-like 
 substance, forming a pattern which looks not unlike 
 lace overlying the dark green. This substance is only 
 on the surface of the feathers, however, and can easily 
 be rubbed off. During the breeding season, the eyelids 
 and the bare skin around the base of the beak become 
 very brilliant in colour, an emerald-green, with outer 
 edges shading into deep cerulean blue, while the eye 
 
215. Manx 
 Shear- water 
 
 214. Leach's 
 
 Petrel 
 
 (Oceanodrmna 
 
 leucorhoa,). 
 
 216. Red-killed 
 
 Tropic Bird 
 
 (Phaeton tel/te- 
 
 reus). 
 
 217. Gannet 
 (Sula basaana) 
 
 219. Frigate Bird 
 (Fregata aquila). 
 
 lorant 
 (Phalacrocorax caarbo) 
 
 ". European Pelican 
 (Pelecanus onocrotaius). 
 
SNAKE-BIRD GANNET 27 
 
 itself is bright red. The mouth and inside of the 
 throat are deep purple. The female is much more 
 soberly coloured, and is a lightish-brown over most of 
 the body. 
 
 When shot at on the wing, the Darter drops im- 
 mediately to the water and dives beneath it, holding 
 to the weeds at the bottom with its bill. If wounded, 
 it will continue to hold on until drowned, and cannot 
 be recovered. Owing to the extreme toughness and 
 solidity of its muscles, the Darter is very difficult to 
 kill. If startled when swimming on the surface of 
 the water, it quickly dives beneath, and swims with 
 only the tip of the head and bill projecting. 
 
 The eggs of both Darters and Cormorants are cov- 
 ered with a thin layer of chalk, which may be scraped 
 away, revealing a shell of a very delicate greenish-blue 
 colour. 
 
 The Common Gannet, also known as the Solan 
 Goose, is found along the Atlantic coasts of America 
 and Europe. During the breeding season they con- 
 gregate in large numbers on rocky ledges, and, al- 
 though strong flyers, they are never found far from 
 land. Though closely related to the Cormorants and 
 Darters, they differ from them, not only in shape and 
 colouration, but in their method of fishing. Their 
 prey is captured, not by pursuit under water, but by 
 pouncing upon it from a great height in the air. 
 
 The adult bird in both sexes is pure white, except 
 for the primaries, which are black, and a light buff 
 tinge over the head and neck. The young birds are 
 a blackish ash colour, flecked with white, but, year by 
 
28 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 year, at each successive moult, they grow paler, until, 
 at the sixth year, they assume the fully adult dress. 
 
 Large numbers of Gannets breed on the rocks at 
 the mouth of the St. Lawrence River, in company with 
 many other forms of sea-birds. As many as nine 
 species are known, and all are remarkable for the fact 
 that under the skin is a wonderful system of air-cells, 
 which serve to break the force of the impact with the 
 water when the birds dive for their food. Like the 
 Cormorants, Darters, and Penguins, the Gannets 
 have no external nostrils, but breathe only through 
 the mouth. See Plate 37, Fig. 217. 
 
 PELICANS, TROPIC BIRDS, AND FRIGATE BIRDS 
 
 These birds are very remarkable types, nearly re- 
 lated to one another, and to the Cormorants and 
 Gannets. 
 
 Pelicans are found in all the continents of the world. 
 The European White Pelican, which is figured, is a 
 native of Southern Europe and Africa, ranging east- 
 ward into Northern India. The American White 
 Pelican closely resembles it, and breeds extensively 
 in the northwestern parts of the United States, nota- 
 bly on lakes in California and Oregon, and on islands 
 in Lake Utah, Utah. These are the largest of the 
 Pelicans, having a wing-spread of eight and a half 
 feet. A curious thing about these birds is that al- 
 though the feathers are pure white, after immersion 
 in the water they have a delicate pink hue, which 
 slowly fades as they become dry. All Pelicans are 
 provided with a pouch of skin which hangs down from 
 
31 
 
 175. 
 Pratincole 
 
 ((jlareola 
 pratincola). 
 
 176. 
 
 European 
 
 Curlew 
 
 (Nuinienius 
 
 arquatusj. 
 
 177. Euro- 
 pean Woodcock 
 'j(Scolopax rusticola). 
 
 179. Great Snipe 
 (Gallinayo media). 
 
 180. GreenshaiiP 
 Totanus 
 

BROWN PELICAN 29 
 
 the lower mandible and is capable of being enor- 
 mously distended. When not in use, this pouch is 
 drawn up so as to be hardly noticeable. During the 
 breeding season the upper part of the bill of the male 
 is ornamented by a horny knob, which is afterwards 
 shed. See Plate 37, Fig. 220. 
 
 The Brown Pelican of Florida and the Pacific 
 coasts is not more than half the size of the White 
 Pelican, and has somewhat different feeding habits. 
 When in search of food, they fly slowly along, in 
 single file, twenty or thirty feet apart and fifteen or 
 twenty feet above the water, alternately flapping and 
 sailing for short distances. Catching sight of a fish, 
 a Pelican suddenly drops, after the manner of the 
 Gannet, opens the mouth to the widest extent, the 
 pouch automatically rounding into a scoop at the same 
 time, and seizes its prey. Pelicans not only swim with 
 great facility, but on the wing are almost unrivalled. 
 
 One of the principal breeding places of the Brown 
 Pelican is Pelican Island, in the Indian River. For 
 years these birds were much hunted and were in 
 danger of extinction, but owing to the efforts of the 
 Audubon Society they are now strictly protected and 
 a permanent warden is stationed on the adjoining 
 mainland to see that the laws are enforced. They 
 are consequently rapidly increasing in numbers, as 
 many as six or eight thousand birds nesting on that 
 island alone. It is low and boggy, scarcely rising 
 above the surface of the water, and at times is prac- 
 tically inundated. The few thinly scattered man- 
 grove bushes are occupied to the fullest capacity by 
 the nesting Pelicans, and others build upon the 
 
30 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 ground. The nest consists of a few twigs and branches 
 of the mangrove loosely woven together, and is rather 
 an insecure affair. When hatched, the young are 
 naked, and purplish-black in colour, with eyes tightly 
 closed. They gradually become covered with a soft 
 white down, which is succeeded by soft greyish feath- 
 ers, and the adult plumage is not attained until the 
 bird is several years old. At maturity, the top of the 
 head is white, with a yellowish tinge, the neck seal- 
 brown and having much the character of a piece of old 
 sealskin. The pouch is purplish-black, and the gen- 
 eral colour of the bird is a mixture of grey, white and 
 brown. The general effect, however, is far from 
 brown, but is rather a purplish-grey. 
 
 When at rest, the head of the bird is bent down, 
 with the bill pressed closely against the breast. This 
 attitude seems to be simply a matter of balance, as the 
 legs of the Brown Pelican are so far back on the body 
 that when the bill is stretched forward horizontally it 
 overbalances the bird. 
 
 These Pelicans are not at all shy, and may be ap- 
 proached closely while on their nests, although at such 
 times they strike at the intruder with their bill. Be- 
 fore the young are able to fly, they jump down from 
 their nests and congregate in large numbers on the 
 shore. When alarmed, they take to the water. 
 
 It is interesting to see the old birds coming home 
 to their young after a day's fishing. On approaching 
 the nest, the young ones awake from the seeming 
 lethargy in which they have been during the day, and 
 stretching their necks upward, thrust their heads into 
 the pouches of the parents, which are opened widely 
 
FRIGATE-BIRD 31 
 
 to receive them. The adults travel many miles a day 
 in search of food, leaving the nests early in the morn- 
 ing and sometimes not returning until dusk. Occa- 
 sionally an Eagle will attack the young birds during 
 the parents' absence, but as a rule they are not mo- 
 lested. 
 
 The Brown Pelican does not at any season of the 
 year develop the brilliant colours of beak and pouch 
 displayed by its white relative, nor does the horny 
 excrescence on the bill of the latter ever make its ap- 
 pearance. 
 
 The Frigate, or Man-of-war Bird, is met with 
 throughout the tropical regions of the world, and has 
 even strayed so far north as Nova Scotia. It is a re- 
 markable bird in many ways. Spending the greater 
 part of its life on the wing, it has but little, use for 
 legs, and as a consequence has acquired the distinction 
 of having the smallest feet, for its size, of any living 
 bird. Feeding upon squids, small crabs, flying-fish, 
 and young turtles when they come in their way, Frig- 
 ate Birds nevertheless derive no small part of their 
 food by robbing others. Their victims are chiefly 
 Terns and Gannets, which, returning home with full 
 crops, are chased and made to disgorge their captures. 
 Before the coveted morsel has reached the sea again, 
 it is caught up by these unscrupulous highwaymen 
 and promptly swallowed. See Plate 37, Fig. 219. 
 
 During the nesting-season the males develop be- 
 neath the beak a great pouch of a brilliant red colour. 
 This can be inflated, at the will of the bird, until it 
 rivals the rest of the body in size. "A dozen or more 
 of these birds sitting in a tree," says Dr. Andrews, 
 
32 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 of the British Museum, "with outstretched, drooping 
 wings, and this great scarlet bladder under their heads, 
 is a most remarkable sight. When a hen bird," 
 he continues, "approaches the tree, the males utter a 
 peculiar cry, a sort of Vow- wow- wow- wow,' and clat- 
 ter their beaks like castanets, at the same time shaking 
 the wings." The Frigate Bird is probably the strong- 
 est flyer of any bird in the world. It is able to ride 
 out the fiercest storms, and has been seen during 
 heavy gales soaring quietly in the air, without any 
 flapping of the wings. In shape it is peculiar, having 
 extremely long, pointed wings, a long, forked tail, a 
 strong, hooked bill, with a pouch like the Pelican. 
 The East Indians make use of this bird as a Carrier 
 Pigeon. 
 
 The Tropic Bird, or Boatswain Bird, is a native 
 of the tropical portions of the Pacific and Atlantic 
 Oceans, and measures about 40 inches in length ; but 
 this includes the long tail, which has a length of about 
 26 inches. See Plate 37, Fig. 216. 
 
 Altogether six species are known, of which three are 
 American. Tropic Birds are true denizens of the 
 ocean, often being met with many hundreds of miles 
 from the land. Their flight is rapid and sweeping. 
 Like the Gannet, they procure their prey by diving, 
 often from an immense height, in the air. On land, 
 as might be expected, they are greatly at a disadvan- 
 tage, and walk with a shuffling gait. Though the 
 majority of the species are white, with black pencil- 
 lings, one is remarkable for the exquisite orange colour 
 of its plumage. 
 
EUROPEAN HERON WARD'S HERON 33 
 
 THE HERON TRIBE 
 
 While the birds which we have just described are 
 all remarkable for the shortness of their legs, the types 
 now to be considered are distinguished by the great 
 length of their legs. This difference is due to the fact 
 that the Herons and their near relations catch their 
 prey by wading in shallow water, whereas the birds 
 just described either procure their prey under water, 
 or capture it by plunging from a height. 
 
 The Common European Heron is still found on 
 the streams and mud flats of secluded neighbourhoods ; 
 but it is a very wary bird, and must be approached 
 with great caution. In the days of feudal England 
 it was strictly protected, on account of the sport it 
 afforded in falconry, but the wonderful sight of a 
 "heronry," as a nesting-colony of these birds is called, 
 is becoming more and more rare. Their food con- 
 sists largely of small mammals and fish. 
 
 The nests of these birds, constructed of sticks, are 
 usually placed in the tops of trees, but they will also 
 build upon the ground. See Plate 33, Fig. 192. 
 
 The Common European Heron enjoys a wide 
 range, occurring over the greater part of Europe and 
 Asia, and in most parts of Africa and Madagascar. 
 It is also found in Australia. This bird's place is 
 taken in America by the Great Blue Heron, one of 
 the largest of the species. It has a very extensive 
 range, being found throughout most of the eastern 
 and southern States, and a particularly large variety, 
 called Ward's Heron, occurs in Florida. Standing 
 about four feet in height, when fully adult, this is a 
 
34 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 magnificent and imposing bird in appearance. When 
 in full plumage, from the back of the head there run 
 two long black plumes, and these, together with 
 shorter ones, form a crest which the bird raises when 
 excited or alarmed. The bill is long, and sharply 
 pointed, and with it the Heron can deal a terrible 
 thrust. It is semi-nocturnal in habits, and, like all 
 other Herons, procures its food by wading in shallow 
 water and quickly darting out the long neck, seizing 
 its prey with the sharp bill. It is shy and wary, and 
 very difficult to approach. When disturbed, it rises 
 heavily in the air, flapping its broad wings slowly, and 
 uttering harsh guttural croaks. The Great Blue 
 Heron chooses widely varying sites for its nest, but 
 in Florida usually builds in the top of tall pine trees, 
 some distance from the water. 
 
 The Great White Heron, rivalling, or even exceed- 
 ing in size the Great Blue, is now comparatively rare 
 in its former haunts. The plumage of this bird is 
 entirely white. The feathers of all the Herons are 
 loose on the body, and powder-down feathers are al- 
 ways present. It is thought by some naturalists that 
 the powder from them makes the feathers of the bird 
 waterproof. 
 
 The Little Green Heron is the smallest of the 
 American species, as well as the commonest. It is 
 popularly called the Shitepoke. The general effect 
 of colouration is not green, as one would think from 
 the name, the neck and head being a delicate brownish 
 hue, while the rest of the plumage is exquisitely 
 coloured in delicate shades of grey and green. The 
 Little Green Heron is more solitary in habits than 
 
33. 
 
 190. 
 European Spoonbill 
 
 189. European 
 
 Flamingo 
 
 ( Ph ten icop terus 
 
 roseua). 
 
 (Platalea leucerodia). 
 
 191. European Stork 
 (Oconia ciconia). 
 
 194. 
 
 European Bittern 
 (Botaurus steliarisj. 
 
 192. European 
 
 Heron 
 (Ardea cinerea). 
 
 193. European Egret 
 (Herodias alba). 
 
LOUISIANA HERON SNOWY EGRET 35 
 
 most other members of this family, though it some- 
 times builds in heronries. The nests are roughly 
 made, usually placed in branches of trees, or in bushes, 
 and the eggs vary from three to six in number. The 
 young are covered with hair-like feathers, and are 
 helpless for some time. 
 
 The Louisiana Heron is a common form in Florida, 
 and is very beautiful in plumage, being a delicate 
 bluish-grey on the back and yellowish-brown on the 
 breast. 
 
 There are two species of Night Herons in America, 
 the Black-crowned and the Yellow-crowned. These 
 birds are entirely nocturnal in habits, and are com- 
 monly known as "Quawks," from the cry they utter 
 when sailing through the air. When fully adult, the 
 male Black-crowned Heron is very beautiful in colour. 
 The head and back are greenish-black, the wings and 
 tail greyish-black, and two long white plumes depend 
 from the back of the head, except just after the breed- 
 ing season, when they are shed. The eye is very 
 large, and of a deep blood-red. Large colonies of 
 these birds nest in the swamps of Florida, sitting si- 
 lent by day, brooding in quiet spots among the trees, 
 but at night they rouse and fly forth, uttering their 
 peculiar cry, to their feeding grounds in neighbouring 
 streams. 
 
 Among the Heron tribe are certain species which 
 possess in a remarkable degree the "fatal gift of 
 beauty." These are known as Egrets, chief among 
 them being the Great White Egret, found in many 
 parts of Europe and Asia, and the Snowy Egret and 
 Little Egret of America. The Snowy Egret is pure 
 
36 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 white in colour of plumage, has a golden yellow eye 
 and yellow bill, black legs, and yellow feet. During 
 the breeding season, both males and females develop 
 exceedingly fine recurved plumes growing from the 
 back and falling over the wings. These are known 
 to commerce as "aigrettes," and in consequence of 
 their popularity among ladies of fashion this beauti- 
 ful bird is rapidly becoming extinct. See Plate 33, 
 Fig. 193. 
 
 The American Egret is also white, but has black 
 legs and feet. Its plumes grow from the back, like 
 those of the Snowy Egret, but are straight instead of 
 recurved. In habits the Herons are a very homogene- 
 ous family. All secure their prey by stealth, or stalk- 
 ing, standing quietly in the water until a fish ap- 
 proaches, when they quickly dart out the long neck 
 and transfix it with the powerful beak. All are 
 strong flyers, though their feathers are rather loosely 
 set on the body. The vertebras of the neck are joined 
 so as to form the letter S in the resting attitude of the 
 bird, the spring giving added power to the forward 
 stroke of the neck when thrust suddenly out. These 
 birds are determined fighters, and when wounded 
 must be approached with care in order to avoid the 
 rapid thrusts of the sharp bill, which can inflict ter- 
 rible injury. They seem to strike preferably at the 
 eyes, and many a dog has been blinded by a Heron 
 that had been partly disabled by a shot from his 
 master's gun. 
 
 In the feudal days of England, hunting Herons 
 by means of the Peregrine Falcon was a favourite 
 sport with lords and ladies. A party would set forth 
 
34. 
 
 195. Marabou 
 (Lqptoptiiui 
 
 196. 
 
 v Sacred Ibis 
 'ftbia (zthiopica) 
 
 Gray Lag Goose 
 (Anaer anser). 
 
 199. Brant 
 (Branta bemicla) 
 
 197. 
 Crowned 
 
 Crane 
 (Balearica, 
 
 -200. Snow Goose 
 (Chen hyperboreus). 
 
BITTERNS 37 
 
 on horseback, with Falcons attached to the wrists of 
 attendants, and when a Heron was sighted flying high 
 in the air the Falcons were released. The Heron 
 would double and twist in every direction, in order to 
 avoid the terrible claws of the pursuing Falcon, and 
 often gave a good account of itself, but was usually no 
 match for its more active adversary. 
 
 From the Herons we pass to the Bitterns. This 
 bird is remarkable for the wonderful way in which its 
 plumage harmonises with its surroundings, and, as if 
 aware of this, the Bittern seeks safety in moments of 
 danger, not by flight, but by sitting close, with up- 
 stretched neck and beak, among the reeds. When in 
 this attitude, with the bill pointing skywards, the eyes, 
 curiously enough, may be directed forward over its 
 base and toward the observer. The American Bit- 
 tern is similar to the Common European Bittern. 
 Like the Herons, it is a bird that delights in desolate 
 places, in secluded swamps and marshes, from which 
 the curious booming noise it makes is heard at fre- 
 quent intervals during the evening hours. See Plate 
 33, Fig. 194. 
 
 An unusual feature about the Bittern is the wide 
 fringe of long feathers which runs along the throat, 
 and which, when extended, gives the neck a very wide 
 appearance. When depressed, these feathers meet at 
 the back of the neck, which is clothed only in short 
 down. 
 
 In both Herons and Bitterns the middle claw bears 
 along its inner edge a comb-like fringe, while on the 
 breast and thighs are patches of the remarkable feath- 
 ers known as powder-down. These feathers break up 
 
38 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 in the form of an exceedingly fine powder, but it is 
 not known what purpose this powder serves, although 
 there are many theories in regard to it. 
 
 STORKS, SPOONBILLS, AND IBISES 
 
 Though very like the Herons in habits and general 
 shape, the Storks differ from them in many anatomical 
 characters. There are a number of species, perhaps 
 the best known being the White Stork of Europe. In 
 colour it is rather striking, the plumage being white 
 over the body, the wings tipped with black, the bill 
 and legs a bright red. Although so large a bird, stand- 
 ing four feet in height, this Stork is a powerful flyer, 
 making yearly trips to Africa across the Mediter- 
 ranean during the migrating season. Unlike the 
 Herons, which have long, spreading toes, enabling 
 them to wade in shallow streams, the Stork has com- 
 paratively short toes, although it frequents marshy 
 places, seeking the snakes, frogs and lizards which 
 form its principal food. See Plate 33, Fig. 191. 
 
 For generations the Stork has been held in great 
 esteem by the natives of Holland and Germany, where 
 it has been rigidly protected, and in consequence has 
 become very tame, building nests upon the tops of 
 chimneys even in thickly populated towns. 
 
 The Adjutant Storks, which occur in India and 
 Africa, are of enormous size, standing five or six feet 
 in height. Hanging down in front of the neck is a 
 bag which can be filled and emptied of air at the will 
 of the bird. These Storks are sometimes called Mara- 
 bous, and furnish Jhe ornamental feathers known to 
 
ADJUTANT STORK SPOONBILL 39 
 
 commerce as marabou plumes. The African Adjutant 
 Stork has a heavy, sharply pointed bill, and the top 
 of the head and neck has a curious bald and shrivelled 
 appearance. From this scaly skin projects a few 
 sparse feathers resembling hairs, and as the bird 
 stands with its head sunken between its shoulders in 
 a dejected attitude, it looks not unlike some weak and 
 tottering old man. See Plate 34, Fig. 195. 
 
 This Stork is extremely voracious, and can swallow 
 very large objects at a gulp. It is a scavenger, and 
 in some places is protected by law. Although so un- 
 gainly when at rest, this bird is very majestic in flight, 
 the wings being long and powerful. 
 
 In Central Africa is found a species known as the 
 Whale-headed Stork, from the enormous development 
 of its bill. 
 
 The Jabiru is a Stork-like bird found in South and 
 Central America. The bill is long and heavy and 
 slightly recurved at the tip. The plumage is almost 
 entirely white ; the feet, bill and bare skin on the neck 
 are black. 
 
 The European Spoonbill is a bird which a few cen- 
 turies ago bred commonly in marshy districts through- 
 out Europe, but is now, largely owing to drainage, 
 only an accidental visitor. The bird derives its name 
 from the curious spoon-like shape of the bill. See 
 Plate 33, Fig. 190. 
 
 The Roseate Spoonbill of America, closely allied 
 to the European species, is remarkable for the ex- 
 quisite reddish tint of its plumage, which is particu- 
 larly bright on the under portions of the body and 
 wings. The Spoonbill uses its bill very dexterously 
 
40 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 in securing its food as it wades about in the water, 
 scooping up the fish and frogs that come in its way. 
 
 The Ibises, though they bear a superficial resem- 
 blance to the Curlews, really belong to the Stork tribe, 
 and are most nearly related to the Spoonbills. These 
 birds, like the preceding, are limited to the warmer 
 regions of the earth. The Sacred Ibis of Egypt was 
 an object of worship, and after death was embalmed 
 by the ancient Egyptians. The veneration in which 
 it was held may be seen from the various representa- 
 tions of it upon the obelisks and other remains of a 
 former civilisation. In form the Sacred Ibis is not 
 prepossessing. The long, downward curving bill, bare 
 head and neck are black in colour, the skin of the 
 legs is also blackish. These birds are extremely in- 
 quisitive and bold, but are rather difficult to approach 
 on account of their remarkably keen sight. The long 
 bill is used as a probe, and the bird is continually 
 inserting it into holes and crevices, either in search 
 of food or simply to satisfy its curiosity. See Plate 
 34, Fig. 196. 
 
 The Scarlet Ibis of our Southern States is the most 
 brilliantly coloured species known, and is probably 
 the brightest in hue of all living birds. For some 
 reason, however, the bird soon loses its glorious colour 
 in confinement, though it has been recently found that 
 by the use of certain kinds of food the colour can be 
 to some extent retained. In form this species is more 
 delicate and smaller than the Sacred Ibis. It is being 
 rapidly exterminated by plume-hunters. 
 
 The Wood Ibis, which is really a Stork, is a larger 
 bird than those already described, but is coloured 
 
GLOSSY IBIS 
 
 somewhat like the Sacred Ibis, the plumage being 
 white, the wings and tail tipped with black, the bare 
 skin of the head and feet dark in colour. These birds 
 nest in thick swamps in the interior of Florida, and 
 may be seen standing idly about in the blazing sun, 
 extending their wings as if enjoying the great heat, 
 or possibly to cool their bodies. 
 
 The Glossy Ibis is another American form that is 
 yearly becoming more rare. It is dark brown, almost 
 black, in colour, over which runs a brilliant greenish 
 iridescence. 
 
 The White Ibis is the commonest species found in 
 this country. The plumage is pure white, except for 
 the tips of the primaries, which are dark green, irides- 
 cent, and in striking contrast to the rest of the plum- 
 age. The naked skin of the face is orange-red. These 
 birds are seen in Florida flying in long lines to their 
 feeding-grounds in the swamps, and adding much in- 
 terest to what would otherwise be a most monotonous 
 landscape. 
 
 FLAMINGOES 
 
 As to the exact relationships of the Flamingoes 
 there are many opinions among naturalists. Some 
 authorities regard them as long-legged Geese, others 
 as Storks with goose-like beaks; and probably the 
 latter view is nearer the truth. The beak of the Fla- 
 mingo is unique in shape, being bent downwards in 
 the middle; but it is provided with ridges, or "gutters," 
 like those found in Ducks and Geese. Hence the sup- 
 posed relationship to these birds. Their common name 
 is derived from their flaming colour. 
 
42 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 The European Flamingo is still quite common 
 about the salt-water lagoons of France and Spain, 
 and is occasionally found in Great Britain. See Plate 
 33, Fig. 189. 
 
 Of the seven or eight species known, four are 
 American. One of the principal species breeds in 
 Florida and in certain of the Bahama Islands, which 
 are little more than low coral reefs covered with scant 
 vegetation and mud-flats. Here they congregate in 
 vast numbers, scraping up the mud to make their won- 
 derful nests, from eighteen inches to two feet in height. 
 The young are unlike the parent birds, having short 
 legs, and looking not unlike young geese. The beak, 
 too, is almost straight and does not assume the re- 
 curved form until the bird is fully adult. The use of 
 the peculiar shaped bill is seen when the Flamingo is 
 feeding. Owing to its extremely long legs, the head 
 is turned upside down as the creature dabbles about 
 in the water in search of its food, the lower part of 
 the beak becoming uppermost. 
 
 Mr. Chapman, in his "Camps and Cruises of an 
 Ornithologist," says: "Flamingoes in flight resemble 
 no other bird known to me. With legs and neck 
 fully outstretched, and the comparatively small wings 
 set half way between bill and toes, they look as if 
 they might fly backward or forward with equal ease. 
 They progress more rapidly than a Heron, and, when 
 hurried, fly with a singular serpentine motion of the 
 neck and body, as if crawling in the air." 
 
 The plumage is dense, like that of a Duck, and lies 
 close to the body. The primaries and secondaries of 
 the wings are black, and form a striking contrast to 
 
BIRDS OF THE WORLD 43 
 
 the rest of the plumage. For some unknown reason 
 the brilliant colour of the Flamingo, like that of the 
 Ibis, fades in captivity, possibly owing to the diffi- 
 culty of obtaining the proper food. When at rest, 
 this bird usually stands upon one leg, the other being 
 drawn up against the body, with the long foot and 
 toes projecting at right angles to the supporting limb. 
 The voice of the Flamingo is a harsh croak, and when 
 on their feeding-grounds these birds are extremely 
 noisy, their combined voices making an uproar that 
 may be heard for a great distance. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 THE DUCKS, GEESE AND SWANS 
 ORDER ANSERES 
 
 THE Ducks, Geese and Swans form a well- 
 defined order of birds, which appear to be 
 related on the one hand to the Totipalmate 
 birds and Storks, and on the other to the birds of prey. 
 
 All are aquatic in their habits, short-legged and 
 web-footed, and all have very large, thick, fleshy 
 tongues. 
 
 Unlike the Totipalmate birds and Storks, their nest- 
 lings leave the egg in a very forward state, so that they 
 can run and swim almost immediately after hatching. 
 
 The Saw-billed or Fishing Ducks are remarkable 
 for the fact that the edges of the beak are armed with 
 sharp, conical, horny, tooth-like spines, admirably 
 adapted for the capture of the slippery fish on which 
 these birds live. 
 
 Ducks are distinguished, as a rule, by elaborately 
 coloured plumage. Some species are very brilliantly 
 marked, but many of them are principally black and 
 white, with spots and stripes arranged in various deli- 
 cate patterns over the body, giving a most charming 
 effect. 
 
 All the members of this family are strong and rapid 
 
 44 
 
LABRADOR DUCK SMEW 45 
 
 flyers, rising from the water instantly and flying 
 straight ahead at very great speed. When migrating, 
 they rise to a great height above the earth, and travel 
 for many hours without resting. The wing-beat is 
 so fast as to be almost invisible, and it is difficult to 
 imagine how such speed can be kept up for so long 
 a time without the birds becoming exhausted. They 
 are gregarious, flying in large flocks, and are usually 
 very noisy, quacking and calling almost continuously. 
 Many species are common to both the Old and the 
 New World, and seem to travel with ease between the 
 northern parts of the two continents, such forms as 
 the Scoters, Pintails, Widgeons, in particular, being 
 found in both countries. In fact, Ducks are spread 
 over almost the entire surface of the earth, some spe- 
 cies living in the far North, while others inhabit tropi- 
 cal and subtropical regions. Some are confined to 
 fresh water, others seem to prefer the shores of the 
 ocean. The latter may be distinguished by the lobe 
 on the hind toe. See Plate 35, Figs. 204, 205. 
 
 One species, known as the Labrador Duck, of which 
 only a few skins are preserved in museums, has be- 
 come exterminated within recent times. In the early 
 part of this century it was common in the Arctic re- 
 gions, but for some unexplained reason these birds 
 suddenly disappeared, so far as is known not one ex- 
 isting at the present time. 
 
 The Goosander, found in the northern parts of both 
 continents, and the Smew, are typical examples of the 
 Saw-bill Duck. In them the bill is rounded, instead 
 of flattened, as in most other species, and is provided 
 with tooth-like spines. It also has a hook at the tip. 
 
46 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 The feet and bill of the Goosander are a bright red, 
 the head is dark green, the upper part of the body 
 black and white, and the lower part white washed with 
 pink. The Hooded Merganser, a smaller bird, is 
 also black and white in general colouring, and has a 
 beautiful crest, from which it takes its name. See 
 Plate 36, Fig. 207. 
 
 The Smew is a small Fishing Duck found only in 
 the more northerly parts of the Old World. The col- 
 ouring of the adult male is white, varied with black, the 
 head crested and dark green. The general colour of 
 the female is reddish-brown. See Plate 36, Fig. 210. 
 
 The Velvet Scoter, or Coot as it is commonly called 
 in America, is a large Sea Duck, frequently met with 
 along the coast in fall and winter. It feeds largely 
 on shellfish, which it obtains by diving. In colour it 
 is a rich velvety black, relieved only by a small white 
 patch on the head and wing and the brilliant orange 
 of beak and legs. Several species of this Duck are 
 found in both America and Europe. See Plate 36, 
 Fig. 212. 
 
 The Eider-Duck is one of the best known of the 
 Duck tribe, on account of the fact that its down is so 
 much in demand for domestic purposes. This down 
 is obtained by robbing the nest-material of the breed- 
 ing birds. It is plucked by the female from her 
 breast to serve as a lining for the nest and a covering 
 for the eggs. In Greenland and in various parts of 
 Iceland and Labrador many people make their living 
 by gathering this beautiful down and selling it. The 
 male plumage is black and white over most of the 
 body, the head greenish, and the female, as is the case 
 
209. 
 
 Sheldrake 
 
 (Tadorna tadorna). 
 
 207. Goosander 
 Merganser merganser). 
 
 208. Old Squaw (Hareldn hyemalis). 
 
 210. Smew 
 (Mergus albellus). 
 
 212. Velvet Scoter 
 (Oidemia fusca). 
 
 211. Tufted Duck (Nyroca fuliyula). 
 
 213. Golden-eye (Clangula clangula). 
 
LONG-TAILED DUCK MALLARD 47 
 
 in so many of the Ducks, is much more soberly clad 
 in brown, with overlying patterns of reddish and grey- 
 ish colour. Like the preceding species, the Eider- 
 Duck is a large form, and has a gibbous, or humped, 
 beak. See Plate 35, Fig. 206. 
 
 The Long-tailed Duck is a relative of the Eider, 
 though perhaps not so handsome a bird. The white 
 plumage of the male is relieved by black and washes 
 of dark brown and buff. This bird breeds as far 
 north as the Arctic Ocean, and winters as far south 
 as Virginia. There is considerably more white in the 
 winter colouration than in that of summer In this 
 country the Long-tailed Duck is usually called the 
 Old- Squaw, possibly on account of its noisiness when 
 a large number are gathered together. The long tail- 
 feathers of. this Duck make it easy to distinguish. 
 See Plate 36, Fig. 208. 
 
 The Tufted Duck, although well known in Europe, 
 is not found in America. See Plate 36, Fig. 211. 
 
 The Golden Eye is common to both countries, the 
 American variety, sometimes also called Garrot, being 
 much larger than the European. This bird is remark- 
 able for the fact that, like a very few of its kind, it 
 lays its eggs in the holes of trees. The colouration 
 is black and white, a distinguishing mark being the 
 round, or crescent-shaped, white spot in front of the 
 eye. See Plate 36, Fig. 213. 
 
 Of the Fresh-water Ducks some of the species illus- 
 trated are the Mallard, the Teal, the Widgeon, and 
 the Pintail, all of which are conspicuous for their 
 beauty, although, as with the species already de- 
 
48 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 scribed, the brilliant plumage is confined to the males, 
 the females being very dull-coloured. 
 
 The Mallard is probably the best known of our 
 American Ducks, and is the bird from which our 
 domestic variety is derived. The male is rather 
 brightly coloured, with a beautiful dark-green, velvety 
 head, and a white ring around the neck, the rest of 
 the body being various shades of brown and grey. 
 The eyes are dark, the legs and feet a bright orange 
 colour. The flesh is excellent, and is much prized for 
 food. The domestic variety is larger than the wild 
 form, and flies with difficulty, owing to the fact that 
 the breast muscles are less developed. See Plate 35, 
 Fig. 203. 
 
 The Black Duck seems to be nearly related to the 
 Mallard, but differs from it in that the male and 
 female are almost exactly alike in colour, both being 
 a brownish-black, with a patch of deep iridescent blue 
 on the wings. 
 
 Several varieties of Teal are found in this country, 
 the principal forms being the Blue-winged, the Green- 
 winged, which most nearly resembles the European 
 form, and the Cinnamon. All are most beautiful 
 little Ducks, with very delicate shades of colour in 
 their plumage. See Plate 35, Fig. 202. 
 
 Two species of Duck justly celebrated for the deli- 
 cious flavour of their flesh are the Canvasback and the 
 Redhead, or Pochard. These are near relatives, and 
 are often confused, since the general colour is much 
 the same in both species. The head and part of the 
 neck are reddish-brown, the body a rather warm grey 
 and black, with very fine black lines, or rows of spots, 
 
MANDARIN SCAUP 49 
 
 on certain feathers. They may at once be distin- 
 guished, however, by the differently shaped head and 
 bills. In the Canvasback, the head is pointed at the 
 top, the bill also being sharply pointed and forming 
 a continuous line from the top of the head. The Red- 
 head has the usual rounded head and short, broad bill 
 of most of the family. 
 
 Perhaps the most brilliantly coloured of all the 
 Ducks is the Mandarin, a native of China. The male 
 of this species, particularly in the breeding season, has 
 most gorgeously coloured plumage, almost impossible 
 to describe. The bird seems to be cut into sections of 
 colour, some being brown, some blue, some red, white, 
 and so on. The crest is purple and green. These 
 Ducks are rather small, and have the ability to perch 
 well on the branches of trees. 
 
 The Wood Duck, or Summer Duck, of America is 
 closely related to the Mandarin, which it somewhat re- 
 sembles in colouring. It also perches in trees, and, 
 indeed, lays its eggs in the holes of trees, unlike most 
 Ducks, which make their nests on the ground. The 
 female of both the Mandarin and the Wood Duck is 
 dull brown in colour, and almost invisible as she stands 
 by the side of her brilliantly attired mate. 
 
 The Aylesburys and the Pekin Ducks are large, 
 white domestic varieties that have practically lost the 
 power of flight. Muscovys, on the other hand, which 
 are descended from the South American Wild Duck, 
 although larger than the two preceding species, have 
 retained the ability to fly. These Ducks are curiously 
 mottled in places with dark green and white, and have 
 
50 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 a knob-like excrescence at the base of the bill. The 
 naked skin around the eye is red. 
 
 The Common Scaup is a Duck found in many parts 
 of the world. Three species are known in America, 
 under a great many different names. In some parts 
 of the country it is called the "Raft Duck," from the 
 fact that they swim in large, compact bodies on the 
 surface of the water. When alarmed, they rise in a 
 mass, fly for some distance, and alight in the same 
 compact form. In general colour they resemble the 
 Canvasback and Redhead, except that the head of the 
 male is black instead of red. The flesh is fishy in 
 flavour, and is not particularly esteemed. 
 
 In hunting Ducks, different methods are employed, 
 chief among them being the use of decoys pieces of 
 wood carved and painted to resemble any particular 
 species of Duck. These are placed on the surface of 
 the water, in the neighbourhood of reeds and rushes, 
 the sportsman concealing himself a short distance 
 away under a blind made of bushes. As the wild 
 Ducks fly overhead, they see the decoys, and mistak- 
 ing them for living birds, drop to the water and at- 
 tempt to mingle with them. This is the hunter's op- 
 portunity to shoot into the flock before it can rise. 
 Owing to their great speed, Ducks are difficult to 
 shoot on the wing, and good judgment is required not 
 to place the charge behind them. They are also able 
 to carry away a considerable amount of shot without 
 falling. 
 
 The Sheldrake, or Sheld-duck, is a large, somewhat 
 Goose-like bird found in many parts of Europe, Asia, 
 and Africa, but not represented in America. In 
 
203. 
 
 Mallard 
 (Anas boschas). 
 
 . European Teal 
 (Nettion crecca). / 
 
 204. European Widgeon (Afareca penelope). 
 
 205. Pintail (Daftla acute}. 
 
 206. Eider 
 (Sanutteria mollitslma). Male. 
 
SHELDRAKE GEESE 51 
 
 many ways it is remarkable. The sexes are coloured 
 alike, although the female is not quite so vivid in hue 
 as the male. The colours are strongly contrasted 
 pure white relieved by broad bands of bright chestnut, 
 and rich metallic blue-blacks and greens. The beak 
 is a wonderful cherry-colour, the legs and feet are a 
 delicate pink. The Sheldrake is also called "Burrow 
 Duck," from its habit of nesting in burrows under- 
 ground. These they usually make for themselves, but 
 they will also make use of rabbit-burrows. See Plate 
 36, Fig. 209. 
 
 The Sheldrakes are further remarkable in that they 
 never assume the "eclipse" dress, as it is called. In 
 most other species of Ducks, it will be remembered, 
 the female is a dull brownish hue, and this for a time is 
 assumed by the males, just after the young are 
 hatched. It is at this time that the moult, or annual 
 renewal of the quills, takes place, the Ducks shedding 
 their quills all at once, and not in pairs, as do most 
 other birds, which thus retain the power of flight. 
 Hence they are compelled to seek safety by hiding, 
 which they do very successfully, the sober hues of the 
 female dress harmonising perfectly with the bird's sur- 
 roundings. But the male Sheldrake, instead of 
 adapting himself in this way to his environment, seeks 
 safety at sea, or crouches among the vegetation near 
 his mate, brooding her eggs in her burrow. 
 
 In this country, the Mergansers, or Fishing Ducks, 
 are called Sheldrakes. The Sheldrakes serve as a 
 connecting link between the Ducks and the Geese. 
 
 In the true Geese, as in the true Sheldrakes, the 
 sexes are coloured alike as a rule very soberly, al- 
 
52 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 though in some species the plumage is rather conspicu- 
 ous. The neck and legs are longer than in Ducks, 
 the bill is thicker, and the hind toe has no lobe. They 
 are also less aquatic than Ducks, spending much time 
 on land and feeding on grass and cereals. The call 
 of the Goose is known as honking; they also give ut- 
 terance to a hissing sound. 
 
 What we may call a typical Goose is represented by 
 the Grey-lag, or common wild Goose of Europe, from 
 which our domestic Goose is supposed to be derived, 
 although other species may be included in the ancestral 
 forms. See Plate 34, Fig. 198. 
 
 The Brant Goose breeds in the Arctic regions, and 
 winters southward. It is very generally distributed 
 throughout the northern hemisphere. It is distin- 
 guished by white markings on the sides of the neck. 
 The Black Brant, which breeds in Western North 
 America, has a white ring around the neck. See 
 Plate 34, Fig. 199. 
 
 A very handsome form is the Snow Goose, in which 
 the plumage is snow-white, relieved by the black quill- 
 feathers of the wings, while the legs and feet are 
 bright red. It breeds in the Arctic regions, and win- 
 ters from the Chesapeake Bay southward to Cuba. 
 A considerably smaller, but similar, form is called 
 the Lesser Snow Goose. In this the head is some- 
 times reddish. See Plate 34, Fig. 200. 
 
 Perhaps the best known American species is the 
 Canada Goose. It has a white patch on the side of 
 the head, the throat is white, the rest of the neck black. 
 The back and wings are mostly greyish-brown. Like 
 the other wild Geese, this bird breeds in the far North, 
 
GEESE SWANS 53 
 
 migrating southward in the winter in vast numbers, 
 in a V-shaped wedge, the lead being always taken, it 
 is said, by an old male bird. When one tires he falls 
 back, and another takes his place as leader of the flock. 
 
 The White-fronted Goose is represented in both 
 European countries and in America, the American 
 variety being somewhat the larger. 
 
 The Chinese were among the first peoples to domes- 
 ticate Geese, Ducks, and Chickens, and they have bred 
 many singular varieties in the course of the centuries. 
 The so-called Chinese Goose has huge excrescences on 
 top of the bill and curious wattle-like appendages 
 under the throat. Geese have figured for centuries in 
 the history of mankind. They were venerated by the 
 Romans from the fact that they were supposed to have 
 saved the city by their cackling when it was threatened 
 by the Gauls under Brennus. 
 
 The domestic Goose is a fierce and aggressive bird, 
 and a blow from its powerful wings has been known 
 to inflict serious injury. The attitude of the Goose 
 when alarmed or angry lowering its head, hissing, 
 and running after its enemy is very singular. In 
 Holland and England for many years the Goose- 
 girl has been a well-known figure in literature and in 
 painting. In those countries Geese are taken regu- 
 larly out to graze in the fields, like sheep or cattle, 
 the birds progressing in a solid body and feeding as 
 they go. 
 
 Swans are very large birds, with long sinuous necks, 
 found in most parts of the world except in Africa. 
 On land they are clumsy, owing to the backward posi- 
 tion of their legs, waddling along and using their neck 
 
54 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 as a balance ; but once in the water, they are different- 
 looking creatures, gliding smoothly along with the 
 beautiful neck carried in a graceful curve. Although 
 such large birds, when fairly, on the wing they have 
 a very powerful flight. Like the Flamingoes, they 
 fly with the neck stretched forward to the fullest ex- 
 tent, with their feet spread out behind them to act as 
 a rudder. From ancient times these birds have been 
 domesticated in Europe and kept as an ornament to 
 streams and lakes. 
 
 When nesting, Swans are very savage and coura- 
 geous, defending their nests to the last extremity. One 
 has been known to break a man's leg by a blow from 
 the powerful wing, and there is an instance of a Swan 
 and a fox having been found dead together, the fox 
 having attacked the young, and killed the parent bird, 
 but losing its own life as well. 
 
 When alarmed or excited, the Swan has a curious 
 habit of raising its wings over its back, and the effect 
 of these beautiful feathers falling gracefully back- 
 ward and reflected in the water is most charming. 
 
 Swans are extremely voracious, and when in the 
 same pond with Ducks and Geese will invariably drive 
 them away at feeding-time, if possible. 
 
 The best-known species is the European Mute 
 Swan, the one usually seen in public parks and col- 
 lections. The plumage is white, the bill red, with a 
 curious bulbous place, or knob, at the base. See Plate 
 35, Fig. 201. 
 
 The Australian Black Swan has a neck consider- 
 ably longer, in proportion, than that of other Swans, 
 and the feathers of the upper part of the body, es- 
 
BLACK-NECKED SWAN 55 
 
 pecially over the back, have a curled or ruffled appear- 
 ance, instead of lying smoothly against the body. It 
 is entirely black except for certain white wing-feath- 
 ers, and the bill and eyes are red. 
 
 Two species of Swan are found in North America, 
 the Trumpeter, so called from its loud, sonorous call, 
 and the Whistling Swan. The former species is now 
 exceedingly rare. Both species breed in the Arctic 
 regions and migrate southward to the Gulf coast. 
 For some reason they have never thriven in confine- 
 ment. In both forms the plumage is white; the bill 
 and feet are black; and the Whistling Swan is dis- 
 tinguished by a small yellow spot on each side of the 
 bill. The young of all white Swans are greyish or 
 brownish in tone until maturity. 
 
 In South America is found the Black-necked Swan, 
 a striking-looking bird with pure white plumage, ex- 
 cept for the black neck. The beak in this species is 
 provided with a conspicuous scarlet wattle a charac- 
 ter lacking in the North American Swans, but found 
 in the European forms. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 BIRDS OF PREY SECRETARY-BIRD, EAGLES, BUZ- 
 ZARDS, HAWKS, KITES, VULTURES 
 AND FALCONS 
 
 ORDER ACCIPITRES 
 
 AMONG the Birds of Prey the older naturalists 
 included Owls, which they distinguished as 
 Nocturnal, or Night-flying, Birds of Prey. 
 But it is now known that Owls, though in many re- 
 spects closely resembling the birds to be described in 
 this chapter, are members of a very different group. 
 They are, in short, nearly related to the Nightjars. 
 
 The purpose of classification, it must be remem- 
 bered, is not so much to bring together those birds 
 which are externally similar, as those which are struc- 
 turally related one to another. Unrelated birds may, 
 and often do, resemble one another, because they lead 
 similar lives, and thus have become slowly changed till 
 they assume a common likeness; while birds, on the 
 other hand, which are really closely related, come to 
 assume very different shapes, because their mode of 
 life is different. 
 
 The relationship of birds one to another is to-day 
 determined rather by anatomical structure than by ex- 
 
 56 
 
BIRDS OF PREY 57 
 
 ternal form. And it is on these grounds that anato- 
 mists have separated the Owls from the Eagle tribe. 
 
 The hooked beaks, sharp claws, and upright car- 
 riage of the body, which distinguish both the Owls 
 and the Day-flying Birds of Prey, or Accipitres, owe 
 their being to the same causes. That is to say, when 
 the ancestors of these birds began preying on their 
 neighbours, they did it because they were stronger, 
 and had heavier, sharper beaks, and longer, sharper 
 claws than their victims. As time went on, the de- 
 scendants of these marauders gradually improved 
 these weapons, and this improvement is still taking 
 place. 
 
 Birds of Prey are noted for certain striking char- 
 acteristics, among them their great powers of flight, 
 their fierce and keen eyes, recurved beaks, and sharply 
 curved and pointed claws. In character they differ 
 considerably, some species being bold and aggressive, 
 while others are comparatively shy and retiring. 
 Many of them are very large birds. All are flesh- 
 eaters, some confining themselves almost entirely to 
 the flesh of animals and birds, while others feed upon 
 small snakes, lizards, and even insects. All, except- 
 ing possibly the Caracara, seize their prey with the 
 feet, and not with the bill, driving the pointed talons 
 deep into the flesh and tearing off pieces with their 
 sharp, hooked beaks. 
 
 The nests are always flimsy-looking affairs, loosely 
 constructed of sticks placed together. They make 
 most devoted parents, however, both male and female 
 working together to supply the nestlings with food. 
 The young remain in the nests for a considerable time 
 
58 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 before learning to fly, and having voracious appetites, 
 consume enormous quantities of game or carrion dur- 
 ing that time. 
 
 Birds of Prey are found in all regions of the world, 
 from the tropics to extremely cold countries. In most 
 cases they live in barren, rocky districts, although 
 some species, particularly in South America, are for- 
 est-loving, building their nests in the tops of tall trees, 
 from which they are able to see for enormous dis- 
 tances. Some species, such as the Bald Eagle of our 
 own country and the Fish Hawks and the White- 
 tailed Eagle of Europe, feed almost entirely on fish; 
 others, such as the Golden Eagle, prefer animal diet. 
 Nothing can surpass the energy and dash with which 
 many of the smaller Falcons and Hawks pursue their 
 prey, and an instance has been cited of a Sparrow 
 Hawk impetuously crashing through the glass of a 
 greenhouse in order to get at a bird hanging in a cage 
 inside. 
 
 The voice of almost all Birds of Prey is a harsh and 
 rasping scream, and a few species, among them the 
 African Sea Eagles, are extremely noisy, uttering 
 their calls at regular intervals. As a general rule, 
 however, they are silent. They are not particularly 
 intelligent, and most of them are shy in captivity. 
 Indeed, it is impossible to keep some species in con- 
 finement, as they batter themselves to death against 
 the bars of their cage. The Vultures, however, be- 
 come remarkably tame, showing no fear of human 
 beings. They are very Crow-like in general actions 
 and demeanour, being inquisitive and easily ap- 
 proached without taking alarm, even in the wild state, 
 
SECRETARY-BIRD 59 
 
 and without exception they do well in captivity. Al- 
 though having enormous wings, they take the greatest 
 care of them in order not to injure their feathers. The 
 Eagles, on the contrary, batter themselves about, 
 breaking their feathers, and not infrequently the 
 wings themselves. 
 
 All these birds normally attain a great age, though 
 just how long they live is not known. They are sup- 
 posed to have but a single mate, and instances have 
 been recorded of birds that remained alone for the rest 
 of their lives, after having been deprived of their 
 mates. Year after year they return to the same nest, 
 adding to it each season until it becomes an enormous 
 mass of trash and sticks. When possible, they build 
 in inaccessible places, along the sides of steep preci- 
 pices or in the tops of high trees. 
 
 The Eagle has been taken from time immemorial 
 as a symbol of strength, and is used emblematically 
 by nearly all civilised nations. The North American 
 Indians paid great reverence to this bird, the braves 
 when going to war wearing bonnets with Eagle 
 feathers stuck in them and otherwise decorating them- 
 selves with the plumage. 
 
 One of the most remarkable of the Accipitres is the 
 Secretary-bird, because of the very great length of 
 legs, the long tail, and the long feathers which spring 
 from the back of the head and neck. These last, from 
 their fancied resemblance to a quill pen behind the ear 
 of a secretary, or scribe, have given the bird its name. 
 A native of South Africa, this bird is held in high re- 
 gard there from the fact that its favourite food is 
 snakes, many of which are poisonous, and conse- 
 
60 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 quently dreaded by all who have to live in that region 
 of the world. The bird attacks and kills these rep- 
 tiles by pounding them with its feet, using its wings 
 as a shield against bites. On account of its valuable 
 services it is often domesticated by the colonists of 
 Africa. The Secretary-bird builds a huge nest of 
 sticks, in which the nestlings remain for six months. 
 See Plate 3, Fig. 13. 
 
 One of the most interesting Birds of Prey is the 
 common Red Kite of Europe. It was once extremely 
 common, and was nowhere more plentiful than in 
 London, where its numbers excited the comment of all 
 foreign visitors. But that was several hundred years 
 ago, when it was unmolested, being highly valued as 
 a scavenger. It was also held in great esteem by the 
 falconer, who hunted it with trained Falcons. No bird 
 has a more beautiful flight than the Kite. See Plate 
 4, Fig. 17. 
 
 The Swallow-tailed Kite of this country is a very 
 handsome bird, purplish-black on the back and wings, 
 with head, neck, and under-parts pure white. The 
 tail is extremely long and forked. Its flight is re- 
 markably swift and graceful. 
 
 Other American species are the White-tailed Kite, 
 distinguished by its black shoulders, greyish back and 
 white tail, and the Mississippi Kite, by its slate- 
 coloured back, black tail, and buff under-parts 
 streaked with reddish and blackish colour. 
 
 The Harriers are peculiar in that the feathers of the 
 face are arranged somewhat after the fashion that ob- 
 tains among the Owls. The female differs remark- 
 ably from the male in colour, being brown above and 
 
1 4. European Goshawk 
 (Astur paltunbarius). 
 
 5 
 
 15. Hen Harrier (Cirew cyaneus). 
 
 16. European Buzzard 
 (Buteo buteo). 
 
 17. European Kite 
 ilmiA milmis). 
 
HARRIER SPARROW HAWK 61 
 
 having the tail banded with five dark bars, and on 
 this account was at one time regarded as a distinct 
 species, known as the Ring-tail. The males are bluish 
 above, white below, with reddish spots. These birds 
 are distinguished by the unusual length of their legs, 
 wings, and tail. There are perhaps a dozen species 
 distributed throughout the world. 
 
 The American Harrier, or Marsh Hawk, is almost 
 identical with the European species figured. It is 
 common throughout North America, and is one of our 
 beneficial Hawks, feeding upon reptiles, mice, locusts 
 and grasshoppers. In flight the females may be 
 recognised by the reddish colour of the under-parts, 
 spotted with darker; the males by the white spotted 
 under-surface. See Plate 4, Fig. 15. 
 
 The Goshawk is an exceedingly powerful bird, hav- 
 ing hind toes remarkable for their size and strength. 
 In the old days it was much esteemed by falconers, the 
 female, which is considerably larger than the male (as 
 in all Birds of Prey) , being flown at such large game 
 as Geese and Herons, while the male was allowed to 
 take smaller birds, such as Quails and Partridges. 
 On account of its relatively short wings and long tail, 
 it is able to turn and twist with wonderful dexterity. 
 The American Goshawk is larger than the European, 
 but resembles -it in general colouration, differing 
 chiefly in that the under-parts are freckled rather than 
 barred. The plumage of the sexes is much alike. 
 See Plate 4, Fig. 14. 
 
 The European Sparrow Hawk is a near relative 
 of the Goshawk, but is a much smaller bird. Dis- 
 parity of size in the sexes is nowhere more marked 
 
62 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 than in the Sparrow Hawks; they also differ greatly 
 in colour, the female lacking the beautiful chestnut 
 colour that is on the breast of the male. See Plate 
 3, Fig. 12. 
 
 Here, the place of the European Sparrow Hawk is 
 taken by two quite distinct species the Sharp-shinned 
 and Cooper's Hawk, both, however, bearing a very 
 close resemblance to the Old World form. The bird 
 known as Sparrow Hawk in this country belongs to 
 a different section of the Hawk tribe. The two 
 American species mentioned are similar in colour- 
 greyish above, white barred with reddish below, with 
 the shafts of the feathers blackish, and tail crossed 
 with black bars. The tail of the Sharp-shinned Hawk 
 is square at the end, while that of Cooper's Hawk is 
 rounded. Both of these varieties are very destructive 
 to poultry. Cooper's Hawk is considerably larger 
 than the other species. 
 
 Among other common American Hawks are the 
 Red-shouldered, so called from the rich reddish color 
 of the lesser wing-coverts; the Red-tailed, from its 
 reddish-brown tail, a larger species, but similar in 
 habits; the Broad- winged, and the Zone-tailed. 
 
 We pass now to the Buzzards and Eagles, which 
 blend one into the other. 
 
 The Common European Buzzard is still met with, 
 although it is now a misnomer to call it "common." 
 Sixty years ago it bred throughout Great Britain in 
 considerable numbers, but to-day it is only occasion- 
 ally seen. In the matter of plumage this species 
 varies greatly, especially in the character of the mark- 
 ings. Some birds are a mixture of very dark and 
 
GOLDEN EAGLE -SPOTTED EAGLE 63 
 
 light brown, others are almost cream-coloured, while 
 the markings on the breast often form a T-shaped 
 pattern. 
 
 The Buzzard feeds on field-mice, reptiles, frogs, and 
 occasionally earthworms, varying this diet with small 
 birds. See Plate 4, Fig. 16. 
 
 Perhaps the best known of the true Eagles is the 
 Golden Eagle, the original species to which the name 
 Eagle was given, a native of Europe and also of the 
 western part of the United States. The name is de- 
 rived from the supposedly golden colour of the plum- 
 age, but, as a matter of fact, this is a rich dark brown 
 in tone. The legs are a brilliant yellow, and the eyes 
 are dark brown and mild in expression. The bird it- 
 self, however, is one of the fiercest and most rapacious 
 of the Order to which it belongs. It feeds upon hares 
 and small mammals, Grouse and other birds; and 
 when pressed to hunger it will even eat carrion. Of 
 the numerous stories told of these birds carrying away 
 children in their claws, none has ever been authenti- 
 cated. The eggs of the Golden Eagle, two or three 
 in number, vary greatly in colouration. See Plate 2, 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 The Spotted Eagle is a bird which can be easily 
 recognised by the white patch on the shoulders. It is 
 a southern form, occurring in Southeast Europe, and 
 ranging thence through Palestine to India and China. 
 While some travellers describe it as displaying great 
 beauty and majesty in its movements, and dauntless 
 courage when foraging for food, others tell a different 
 story. One writer assures us that it is a dull and 
 stupid bird. "I have driven," he says, "the female off 
 
64 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 her eggs, and plundered the nest before the eyes of 
 the pair, without either of them flapping a pinion 
 to defend what even a little Shrike will stoop at once 
 to save." Another writer says that he generally 
 found these birds gorged with carrion, sitting stupidly 
 around, when they would allow one to come within 
 a few yards of them. See Plate 3, Fig. 10. 
 
 The White-tailed Eagle, or Sea Eagle, is found in 
 the more northern parts of Europe and America. In 
 general colour it somewhat resembles the Golden 
 Eagle, but whereas in that species the legs are feath- 
 ered to the toes, in the Sea Eagle the tarsus, or shank, 
 is covered with small yellow scales. Very old birds 
 have the head and neck almost white. The white tail 
 is not acquired until the bird is several years old. 
 
 This bird lives, for the most part, on fish and offal 
 cast up by the sea. Occasionally it preys upon hares 
 and rabbits, and when much pressed by hunger it has 
 been known to attack lambs. See Plate 3, Fig. 9. 
 
 A somewhat smaller bird than the preceding, but 
 resembling it in character and in appearance, is the 
 Bald Eagle of America, which figures as our national 
 emblem. The female is larger than the male, but both 
 have white heads and tails, the rest of the plumage 
 being a dark chocolate-brown. The white- feathered 
 head has probably led to the name bald. The bill is yel- 
 lowish, the feet are a brighter golden yellow, the claws 
 black. While extremely fond of fish, the Bald Eagle 
 is not a particularly good fisherman, and does not 
 scruple to take advantage of the Fish Hawk's greater 
 skill. Watching its opportunity, the Eagle pounces 
 upon the Fish Hawk as it rises from the water with 
 
10. Spotted Eagle 
 (Aquila maculata). 
 
 9. White-tailed Eagle 
 (Haliaetiis albicillaj. 
 
 11. Kestrel (Cerchneix 
 tinnunculus). 
 
 13. Secretary-bird 
 (Serpentarius secret aritis). # * 
 
 12. 
 
 Sparrow Hawk 
 (Acdpiter ni 
 
BALD EAGLE 65 
 
 the finny prey struggling in its claws, and worries 
 the smaller bird until it drops the fish, whereupon the 
 Eagle, making a sudden downward dart, dexterously 
 catches it, and carries it off to his nest to be eaten at 
 leisure. In Florida one is treated to daily exhibitions 
 of these contests between Bald Eagles and Fish 
 Hawks. See Frontispiece. 
 
 The nest is usually placed in the top of some tall 
 pine or other tree, in an exposed position, and consists 
 of a mass of twigs and sticks roughly interwoven. 
 It is occupied by the same pair of birds for a number 
 of years; indeed, it is thought that Eagles mate but 
 once, a pair continuing to live together until the death 
 of one or the other of the birds. In Florida these 
 birds are seen wheeling and screaming overhead at 
 almost any time of the day. Strange as it may seem, 
 the immature bird is at one period larger than the 
 adult of either sex, being more loosely jointed and 
 bulkier, and becoming more compact in form as it 
 reaches maturity. 
 
 Audubon, in his "North American Birds," has given 
 a thrilling account of the pursuit and capture of a 
 Swan by a pair of Bald Eagles. When living prey 
 is not available, this bird does not disdain carrion, and 
 may often be seen, like the Sea Eagle of Europe, pick- 
 ing up the remains of dead fish and other offal cast 
 up by the waves. 
 
 Probably the largest of the Eagles in actual meas- 
 urement, although not in weight, is the great Kam- 
 chatka Sea Eagle, certainly one of the finest repre- 
 sentatives of the genus. This great bird lives, as its 
 name implies, along the shores of Siberia, and also in 
 
66 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 neighbouring portions of the United States, Alaska 
 and the Behring Sea. It is particularly striking in 
 appearance, having an enormous yellow bill, bright 
 yellow feet, and rich dark brown plumage with cer- 
 tain of the wing-feathers snow-white. The tail is also 
 pure white. The sight of one of these grand birds 
 flying over the deep blue water of the ocean must be 
 most inspiring. Owing to the inaccessibility of the 
 region in which it is found, the life-history of this bird 
 is comparatively little known, although it is safe to 
 presume that in habits it resembles Eagles in general. 
 One of the most extraordinary of the Eagles, in- 
 deed of all Birds of Prey, is the great Harpy Eagle 
 of South America, which inhabits, as a rule, the forests 
 of the Amazon, although its range extends into 
 Mexico and through Central America. The Harpy 
 Eagle is short- winged and does not soar into the air 
 to such a height as some of the other Eagles, though 
 its power of flight is considerable. The primary 
 feathers of the wing do not extend below the second- 
 aries, so that when the wings are folded we do not 
 see the sharp projecting points of the long wing- 
 feathers extending across the tail, as in the Bald and 
 Golden Eagles. In colour the adult is a deep bluish- 
 green on the back and pure white on the breast. The 
 head is a delicate pearl-grey, and the neck is almost 
 surrounded by a greenish band, the same colour as the 
 back. The thighs are white, with small spots and 
 lines of black upon them, and the under side ol the 
 wings is coloured in the same way, being pure white 
 with numerous fine lines. The under side of the long 
 tail is also white, but is banded by broad black marks. 
 
HARPY EAGLE 67 
 
 The most striking thing about the Harpy Eagle 
 is the enormous size and strength of the feet and 
 claws, the latter being some three inches in length. 
 The legs are as thick as the wrist of a man, and the 
 claws may be driven through the thick and tough hides 
 of sloths and monkeys, which are its principal prey. 
 Sailing over the dense forests of the Amazon country, 
 it drops lightly upon an unwary sloth or monkey that 
 approaches the tops of the trees. It is also said to 
 attack larger game, such as deer. The head of this 
 splendid bird is adorned by a crest of dark greyish- 
 brown feathers which it can raise and lower at will. 
 The eye is a beautiful deep grey, and the bill is of an 
 ashy hue. Its whole appearance is martial in the 
 extreme, and onelmight easily credit to this bird such 
 stories of strength and courage as are wrongly at- 
 tributed to the Bald Eagle. A magnificent specimen 
 of the Harpy Eagle is now in the Washington Zoo- 
 logical Garden. Brought by steamer from South 
 America to New York, it was carried through the 
 streets of the city in an open cage, but instead of bat- 
 tering itself to death from fright, as would have been 
 the case with most wild birds, it remained quietly 
 seated on its perch, gazing fearlessly at the throngs 
 of people passing. Since its confinement in Wash- 
 ington, it has exhibited the same indomitable char- 
 acter. It always seems greatly interested in visitors 
 that pass by, and seated upright on its perch will turn 
 its head quite upside down as it gazes at some particu- 
 larly interesting individual. At times the Harpy 
 Eagle utters a curious faint squeak, quite out of pro- 
 
68 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 portion to the great size of the bird. Little is known 
 of its habits in the wild state, but it is said to nest in 
 the tops of tall trees, like most members of the Eagle 
 family. Individuals of this species are rarely seen in 
 captivity, and still more rarely in good condition, 
 being usually either wing-broken or injured so that 
 they do not appear to good advantage. See Plate 
 42, Fig. 241. 
 
 The Caracara is a singular Bird of Prey found only 
 in America, one species being somewhat common in 
 our Southern States. The legs and wings are long, 
 and the plumage is brown and white. Though nearly 
 related to the Vultures, in appearance the Caracara 
 is more like the Falcons, while in disposition and gen- 
 eral habits it somewhat resembles the Crows, being 
 both inquisitive and offensive in its demeanour toward 
 other birds. It exhibits much intelligence and is 
 easily tamed. A captive Caracara in the same cage 
 with a Griffon Vulture, in a zoological park, was ob- 
 served one day suddenly to sail over the larger bird, 
 grasp it by the top of the head, and lift it completely 
 from its perch. Apparently before the astonished 
 Vulture could realise what had happened, the Cara- 
 cara was skipping proudly about in a distant part of 
 the cage. This bird exhibited great curiosity, and was 
 continually pecking at the artificial-rock formation in 
 its enclosure, moving about from place to place with 
 a strange hopping gait. While extremely restless, 
 it was entirely fearless. See Plate 42, Fig. 242. 
 
 It has been said that, unlike all other Birds of Prey 
 of this class, the Caracara is unable to lift anything 
 from the ground with its claws, the beak being always 
 
QSPREY 69 
 
 used instead, although when well clear of the ground 
 the prey is dropped and dexterously caught in the 
 talons. When a smaller bird is pursued and captured 
 in the air, however, the claws are used, as with other 
 Hawks. 
 
 The cry of the Caracara 9 uttered at frequent inter- 
 vals, is quite unlike that of any other bird, having a 
 peculiar clattering sound. The position assumed in 
 giving utterance to it is also unusual, the head being 
 thrown sharply backward until the crown touches the 
 middle of the back. 
 
 The Falcons form a group by themselves, more or 
 less distinct from the rest of the Birds of Prey, though 
 the characters which give them this distinction are 
 mainly anatomical. Their two most conspicuous ex- 
 ternal features are the long, pointed form of the wings, 
 and the notch, or tooth, near the tip of the upper jaw, 
 or mandible. 
 
 The Osprey, or Fish Hawk, is by some naturalists 
 regarded as a connecting link between the true Hawks 
 and Eagles and the Owls, because, as in the Owls, the 
 hind toe of the Osprey is reversible ; that is, it can be 
 turned either outwards or backwards. See Plate 2, 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 There is but one species of Osprey, and it has an 
 almost world-wide distribution. It lives entirely on 
 fish, which it captures by a sudden dive from a height, 
 sending up a shower of spray as it plunges into the 
 water to seize its victim. Occasionally it will drive 
 its talons into a fish too large to be lifted, in which case 
 the Osprey, unable to release itself, is dragged be- 
 neath the water and drowned. On order to hold the 
 
70 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 slippery prey more easily, the soles of the feet are 
 provided with numerous rough spines. 
 
 It is a large bird, about two feet in length, with 
 a wing-spread of more than twice as much. The gen- 
 eral colour is greyish, or brownish, above, the under 
 surface white, with dark spots. The colour, however, 
 varies considerably in different individuals. 
 
 Living as it does exclusively upon fish, the nest of 
 the Osprey is usually built near the water, in the top 
 of a tall tree or an old building, and is used for many 
 years in succession. Two or three white eggs 
 blotched with brown are laid, and the young are much 
 darker in colour than the adult birds. The Osprey 
 is a most devoted mate and parent. This bird is par- 
 ticularly beautiful and graceful in flight. 
 
 The Kestrel is a little Falcon that is still quite com- 
 mon in many parts of Europe. It is easily recog- 
 nised from its habits of hovering in the air on quiver- 
 ing wings, always facing the wind, and examining the 
 ground with keen eyes in search of the mice and insects 
 upon which it feeds. As with the Falcons generally, 
 it builds no nest, but uses those that have been deserted 
 by Crows and Magpies, or deposits its eggs on the 
 ground, in cliffs or in hollow trees. See Plate 3, Fig. 
 11. 
 
 The male Kestrel when fully adult is a very hand- 
 some bird; the female is duller in hue, with back and 
 tail closely barred. The young, as is so often the 
 case when the parents differ in colour, resemble the 
 female. The eggs, as with all the Falcons, are very 
 richly coloured. 
 
 The place of the European Kestrel is taken in this 
 
5. King Vulture 
 (Sartwhamphus papa) 
 
 7. White Gyrfalcon (Fako island) 
 
 8. Golden Eagle 
 (Aquila cfirysaStus). 
 
GYRFALCON DUCK HAWK 71 
 
 country by the American Sparrow Hawk. As has 
 been said, the Sparrow Hawk of Europe is quite a 
 different species, and more nearly corresponds to our 
 Sharp-shinned Hawk and Cooper's Hawk. 
 
 The American Sparrow Hawk is about eleven 
 inches in length, and the sexes are quite different in 
 colouration, the male being reddish brown above, with 
 a few black marks, wings bluish and spotted, with 
 a single broad black band across the tail, while the 
 female is barred over the whole of the back, streaked 
 with black on the breast, and has the tail crossed with 
 numerous black bars. The bill is dark blue, the feet 
 and legs are yellow. 
 
 This beautiful little Hawk is found in many parts 
 of North America. It has the same habit as the 
 European Kestrel mentioned above, of hovering on 
 swiftly moving wings while seeking its prey of mice 
 and smaller birds. It builds no nest, but frequently 
 usurps that of the Woodpecker. 
 
 The Greenland Falcon, or Gyrfalcon, is one of the 
 largest of this group, and is native to the Arctic 
 regions, though occasionally found further south. In 
 the old days when the sport of falconry was at its 
 height, this bird was the most highly prized of all the 
 Falcons. The general tone of the plumage is pure 
 white relieved by black markings. Nearly allied to 
 this bird, if not of the same species, is the Labrador 
 Falcon, but it is at once distinguishable by the very 
 dark colouring. The food of these Falcons consists 
 of Ptarmigan and Willow Grouse, varied by lem- 
 mings and other small mammals. See Plate 2, Fig. 7. 
 
 The American Duck Hawk, or Peregrine Falcon, 
 
72 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 in many ways resembles the Gyrfalcon* It has a wide 
 range throughout North America and a large part of 
 South America. The sexes are coloured alike blu- 
 ish-slate above, a somewhat lighter tint below, the 
 lower part of the breast and upper part of the legs 
 barred with dark colour. The under-surface of the 
 wings is also barred. 
 
 The Duck Hawk is very strong and swift in flight, 
 and very fierce and aggressive in character. It 
 pounces upon its prey from an elevation, easily cap- 
 turing such fast-flying birds as Wild Ducks, and even 
 attacking Geese when pressed by hunger. 
 
 From the Falcons we pass to the Vultures, a group 
 which possesses many interesting points for considera- 
 tion. Vulture-like birds taken as a whole are by no 
 means all closely related one to another. Divided into 
 Old and New World Vultures, the latter constitute a 
 very ancient family, standing apart from the Hawks, 
 Buzzards, Eagles, and Falcons. If we take these last 
 as representing so many branches of a common stem, 
 then the Vultures may be regarded as forming a simi- 
 lar independent stem, both arising, however, from a 
 single trunk. The letter Y may well represent this. 
 The different kinds of Old World Vultures may be 
 pictured as forming so many branches from the left- 
 hand, and the Hawks, Buzzards, Eagles, and Falcons 
 as so many branches from the right-hand branch of 
 the Y, the stem of which indicates that both main 
 branches with their ramifications came from the same 
 stock. 
 
 The New World Vultures, however, form a group 
 by themselves; they are the terminal branches of a 
 
EGYPTIAN VULTURE 73 
 
 separate trunk, which we may suppose grew out from 
 the very root of the Y-shaped tree. They may at 
 once be distinguished from all other birds of prey by 
 the fact that the nostrils are pierced quite through, 
 whereas in the rest of the birds of prey they are divided 
 by a partition ; further, the feet and claws of the New 
 World forms are less Hawk-like. 
 
 Of the Old World Vultures, three very interesting 
 species are figured. 
 
 The smallest members of this family are the 
 Egyptian Vultures, found in considerable abundance 
 in the Mediterranian countries and in Africa. Though 
 it has the reputation of being an exceptionally foul 
 feeder, this bird is most useful in removing offensive 
 matter which in such hot climates would breed disease. 
 The Egyptian Scavenger also preys upon rats and 
 mice, snakes, lizards and even insects. See Plate 1, 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 The Griffon Vulture is a large bird, having an ex- 
 treme length of about three feet six inches. It is 
 common in the southern part of Europe, particularly 
 in the neighbourhood of Gibraltar, nesting in colonies 
 in the cliffs. See Plate 1, Fig. 3. 
 
 Probably the most interesting of all this family is 
 the Lammergeier, or Bearded Vulture, whose range 
 extends through Southern Europe, Central Asia, the 
 north of Africa, and into China. Though at one time 
 frequently met with in Switzerland, it is now almost 
 unknown in that country. It is the largest of the 
 Old World birds of prey. See Plate 1, Fig. 4. 
 
 One of the most striking features about this bird 
 is the brilliant vermilion colour of the outer coat of 
 
74 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 the eye the part corresponding to the whites of 
 human eyes ; the rest of the eye is golden yellow with 
 a black pupil. There are curious tufts of stiff feathers 
 like bristles at the base of the bill. The plumage is 
 brown streaked with white. 
 
 The Lammergeier is very powerful in flight, 
 traversing great distances in search of its food, which 
 consists of small mammals and carrion. Bones ap- 
 pear to be a great delicacy, and to smash these the 
 bird is said to drop them from a great height upon 
 rocks below. 
 
 The King Vulture of the New World is a wonder- 
 ful bird that is by no means well known. It receives 
 its name from the fact that it drives away from a 
 carcass the smaller birds of prey until its own appetite 
 is sated. It is found in the higher mountain regions 
 of South and Central America, and occasionally comes 
 as far north as Texas and Florida. One of the most 
 remarkable features of the male is the curious fleshy 
 wattle which surrounds the beak, while the bare skin 
 of the head is most brilliantly coloured with varying 
 shades of orange, purple, crimson, and black. The 
 upper parts of the body are creamy white, the long 
 wing- and tail-feathers black. The plumage of the 
 female is much less conspicuous, the upper parts being 
 dark instead of white, and lacking the brilliant colours 
 on the head. See Plate 2, Fig. 5. 
 
 The South American Condor is a near relative of 
 the King Vulture, but greatly its superior in size. 
 With the possible exception of the succeeding species, 
 it is the largest of all Birds of Prey. See Plate 1, 
 Fig. 1. 
 
1. Condor 
 
 (Swcoramphus 
 
 gryphvx). 
 
 ? Egyptian Vulture 
 (Neophron percnopterus). 
 
 3. Griffon Vulture 
 (Gyp, fulvu,). 
 
 4. Lammergeier 
 
 (GypaVtus bar- 
 
 batus). 
 
CALIFORNIA CONDOR 75 
 
 The general colour is ashy grey, with considerable 
 white in the wings; there is a ruff of soft white 
 feathers, or down, about the neck, except in front, and 
 the head of the male is adorned with a great fleshy 
 wattle at the base of the beak. Condors feed upon 
 carrion mostly, but show a marked liking for fresh 
 meat when obtainable. Apparently, however, they 
 never kill for themselves. Like other Vultures, they 
 gorge themselves when food is plentiful, and at such 
 times are often taken by the natives^ of the country 
 by means of lassos. 
 
 The California Condor equals, if, indeed, it does not 
 exceed in size the South American species. In gen- 
 eral form they are not unlike, but the more northern 
 bird lacks the white collar about the neck, having in- 
 stead a ruff of dark, pointed feathers. It also is with- 
 out the curious wattle that grows from the top of the 
 head in the other species. The plumage is generally 
 ashy grey in colour, with a kind of bloom over it. 
 The feet are very large. These birds nest in high 
 cliffs along the coast of California. The young birds 
 are clothed in pure white down, which gradually 
 deepens to grey as they grow older. 
 
 Owing to their destruction by hunters, and to 
 poison set out by sheep-herders as protection against 
 wolves, these birds are becoming rare in the regions 
 where they were formerly common. The Condor is 
 absurdly tame, allowing itself to be approached by 
 man even when at large. Fortunately, it thrives in 
 confinement, largely owing to its lack of fear, and it 
 is a remarkable fact that such great birds, accustomed 
 to flying over vast mountain regions, should do so 
 
76 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 well and keep themselves in such perfect condition in 
 small cages often not more than six feet square. It 
 is with much satisfaction that one looks at this mag- 
 nificent bird, seated on a rock or tree in its enclosure, 
 absolutely at ease, and with every feather lying 
 smoothly like metal plates on its back. 
 
 The Turkey Vulture, or Turkey Buzzard, as it is 
 commonly called, has rather an extensive range in 
 America, but as a rule it is not found farther north 
 than Pennsylvania and New Jersey. It is quite com- 
 mon in the region of the city of Washington and 
 farther south. In general appearance it somewhat 
 resembles a hen Turkey, the skin of the head and neck 
 being of a reddish colour blotched with white. The 
 plumage is rusty black in colour, the under-surface 
 of the wings a light grey, the bill whitish. The feet 
 and legs are red. The eye is bright and piercing and 
 quite intelligent in expression. See Plate 41, Fig. 
 243. 
 
 These birds are extremely useful in ridding the 
 ground of fetid matter that would otherwise pollute 
 the air, and consequently they are rigidly protected. 
 They are almost exclusively carrion-eaters, although 
 like other Vultures they will eat fresh meat when ob- 
 tainable. Their sight is remarkably keen, and they 
 are often seen flying over wooded or marshy country, 
 seeking with their sharp eyes for the carcasses of 
 animals. After these birds have eaten heavily, they 
 sit, like the Old World Vultures, in a drooping atti- 
 tude, with wings hanging listlessly at their sides. 
 The object of this is probably to air and cleanse the 
 feathers, but when in this position they have a most 
 depressing effect upon the observer. 
 
BLACK VULTURE 77 
 
 These birds are strong and beautiful flyers, soaring 
 in the air for hours at a time without flapping their 
 wings. When rising from the ground, however, or 
 starting from a tree, they flap heavily several times 
 in order to gain momentum for flight, but once on 
 the wing they rise and fall without perceptible motion 
 of the wings. Owing to the rather flimsy character 
 of the feathers, the Turkey Buzzard has a wobbly or 
 teetering appearance when a puff of wind strikes it. 
 But this effect is of course more apparent than real, 
 as by a single stroke of the wings the bird regains 
 its equilibrium and sails gracefully on in an undu- 
 lating course. Although living in the vicinity of 
 human habitations, it is always a shy and wary bird. 
 
 In the far Southern States the Turkey Vulture's 
 reign is disputed by that of the Black Vulture, some- 
 times called Carrion Crow by the natives of that 
 region. In form it is somewhat similar, but is more 
 compact, and the feathers are richer and more glossy 
 in tone. The colour is a deep black, almost blue, and 
 slightly iridescent like that of the Crow. It is a 
 stronger flyer than the Turkey Vulture, the primaries 
 of the wings being much stiffer, and on occasions it 
 rises so high as to become a mere speck in the air, 
 wheeling in great circles over the region it inhabits. 
 It is more common in the Southern States than the 
 other species, and in the streets of Charleston, South 
 Carolina, may be seen in great numbers gathered 
 about the slaughter-houses and greedily devouring the 
 offal thrown out from them. Unlike the Turkey Vul- 
 ture, it is extremely tame, allowing itself to be closely 
 approached without taking alarm. 
 
T 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 THE FOWL-LIKE BIRDS 
 ORDER GALLIFORME S 
 
 HIS Order includes an enormous number of 
 birds, more or less nearly related to each other. 
 In certain groups, common anatomical char- 
 acters are apparent externally in the form of beak and 
 legs, and in the general shape of wings and body. In 
 all, the upper portion of the beak is curved and com- 
 pletely overlaps the lower ; wbilp th^ .l^gs ha.vp strong 
 toes and short, blunt claws, forming admirable dig- 
 ging and scratching tools. As a rule, the Gallina- 
 ceous or Fowl-like birds have legs_completly-CQYered 
 with scales and armed with a pair of powerful spurs ; 
 but some have very short legs, feather-clad, and with- 
 out spurs. 
 
 These birds are divided into two great groups 
 one in which the hind-toe is on a level with the other 
 toes,. and the other in which the hind-toe is at a higher 
 level than the rest. To the former belong the curious 
 Mound-birds, or Megapodes, of Australia, and the 
 equally curious Curassows and Guans of America, all 
 others belonging to the group which has thejhind-tqe 
 at a higher level than the other toes. In both sections 
 
 78 
 
CUR AS SOW TURKEY 79 
 
 ~ \X 
 
 the young are hatched clothed in down, and are able 
 to run-about immediately after leaving the shell. 
 
 The Mound-birds have very large, strong feet, and 
 with them they throw up huge mounds of earth and 
 decaying vegetable matter, in which they deposit their 
 eggs, digging holes for their reception a number of 
 feet below the surface of the ground. The male bird 
 is said to assist the female in making these mounds, 
 but after the eggs are laid, apparently no further at- 
 tention is paid to them by the parents, and they are 
 hatched by the heat generated in the decaying vegeta- 
 tion. But little appears to be known about the habits 
 of these strange birds. 
 
 The Curassows are somewhat Turkey-like in form. 
 They are forest-loving birds, nesting in trees, and are 
 found in the tropical portions of America. There are 
 many species. Perhaps the commonest is the Globose 
 Curassow, which is frequently seen in captivity. It 
 is almost black in colour, with greenish iridescence on 
 the back and breast, and has a large crest. These 
 birds go about in flocks, and perch high up in the 
 branches of trees, where they build their roughly- 
 shaped nests. See Plate 41, Fig. 244. 
 
 The only species of Guan known in North Amer- 
 ica is the Chacalacca, so called from its cry. In the 
 Guans the bill is longer and wider than in the true 
 Curassows. The two forms are closely related, but 
 the Guans are more solitary in habits. They are dis- 
 tinguished by the bare, bright red skin of the throat, 
 which may be expanded at will. 
 
 The largest of the Gallinaceous birds is the Turkey, 
 native to North and South America. It is one of the 
 
80 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 oldest types of the Order to which it belongs. The 
 Mexican Wild Turkey is the species from which our 
 domestic Turkeys are descended. Among the many 
 remarkable features of the male Turkey are the curi- 
 ous tuft of hair-like feathers attached to the breast, 
 the bare and brilliantly coloured head and neck, and 
 the long, fleshy, finger-like appendage, or wattle, 
 hanging down over the beak, that can be increased in 
 size at will. This bird is very large, individuals some- 
 times weighing as much as thirty-five pounds. See 
 Plate 27, Fig. 155. 
 
 The actions of the Turkey-cock when "strutting" 
 are very remarkable. The head is drawn sharply 
 backward, the wings dropped, the tail spread like a 
 great wheel, a deep reddish colour suffusing the naked 
 skin of the neck and head, and the stiff primaries of 
 the wings drawn along the ground with a sound like 
 distant thunder. 
 
 The male Turkey is irascible in disposition, easily 
 excited to anger, and very aggressive. There are 
 many instances of children having been injured by 
 these great birds, whose size and weight render them 
 formidable. 
 
 The hen Turkey is not so large as her mate, and is 
 not so brilliantly coloured. She is extremely wary 
 and suspicious, especially when she has to protect her 
 young ungainly-looking little creatures, with long 
 necks and long legs. They are able to walk for many 
 miles, the mother seeming to delight in taking long 
 pilgrimages in search of new feeding-grounds. 
 
 When wild, the Mexican Turkey is extremely shy 
 and ever on the alert, and the sportsman who can add 
 one of these great birds to his game-bag may justly 
 
155. 
 
 Turkey 
 
 (Meleagris 
 
 gallopavo). 
 
 156. Domestic Cock 
 
 and Hen 
 (Oallua gaily*) var.J. 
 
TURKEY GUINEA-FOWL 81 
 
 feel proud of his achievement, for it is only by the 
 shrewdest strategy that he can approach within shoot- 
 ing distance. 
 
 Closely related to the preceding form, although dif- 
 fering in some minor particulars, is the Eastern Wild 
 Turkey, which, in consequence of much hunting, is be- 
 coming very rare. The colour of this bird is some- 
 what darker, in general, than that of the Mexican 
 variety, and it lacks the light colour on the upper sur- 
 face of the tail. It is a finer and trimmer bird than 
 the domesticated species, but in captivity would no 
 doubt soon acquire the over-developed and heavy form 
 of the other. Another very beautiful variety is the 
 Honduras Turkey. 
 
 The Guinea-fowl is a native of Africa. It is L 
 easily domesticated, and is commonly seen in our 
 farmyards. This bird is almost reptilian in certain 
 characters. In walking, the back is much arched, the 
 head dropped low, almost touching the ground, and 
 at a distance a flock of them looks not unlike quickly 
 moving tortoises. See Plate 27, Fig. 154. 
 
 The colour pattern of the plumage is quite wonder- 
 ful. The body tone is a delicate grey, and each 
 feather is covered with numerous pure white dots, 
 making a most complete and intricate design. The 
 naked skin around the eye is white, and the wattle at 
 the base of the bill and the under-throat are a bright 
 red. The Guinea-fowl is a very restless bird, con- 
 tinually moving about and uttering its monotonous 
 cry one that is apt to "get on the nerves" when 
 listened to for hours at a time. On account of their 
 alertness, Guineas are often kept by farmers as guar- 
 
82 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 dians of their poultry ; at the slightest sound they raise 
 their voices and often give warning of the approach of 
 a Hawk. The flesh is dark in colour, and has a strong, 
 gamey taste. 
 
 Besides the species represented, there are numerous 
 others known to science. Perhaps the most beautiful 
 is the Vulturine Guinea-fowl, in which the grey colour 
 is replaced by a delicate blue, and the feathers are 
 very long. 
 
 The (Pheasant <tribe include some of the most bril- 
 liantly coloured b^rds in existence. They are natives 
 of China and India, some species extending into the 
 islands of the Indian Ocean. 
 
 The best-known Pheasants to the Western world 
 are the Common and Ring-necked Pheasants of 
 Europe. Fossil remains show that they at one time 
 lived wild in Europe, and the present species may 
 have descended from these; but it is more likely that 
 they were introduced into England by the Romans. 
 The so-called Common Pheasant, the species figured, 
 is now very rare, because it has interbred with other 
 species which have been allowed to run wild. But 
 the Ring-necked Pheasant is the principal game-bird 
 of England and the continent of Europe, being kept 
 in large parks, or preserves, and shot at certain seasons 
 of the year. The eggs are usually placed under 
 domestic hens, as they are considered better mothers 
 than the female Pheasants. Great care is taken of 
 the young birds in order to bring them to maturity. 
 See Plate 26, Fig. 150. 
 
 The male Ring-necked Pheasant is rich and pleas- 
 ing in colour, a splendid golden tone covering the 
 
GOLDEN PHEASANT 83 
 
 whole body, the feathers arranged like scales. Around 
 the neck is a pure white ring, and the skin about the 
 eye is a brilliant red. The females are much duller in 
 hue, although they have some beautiful feathers. 
 
 These birds have been introduced into the United 
 States, and in certain parts of the country, notably in 
 Oregon, they have multiplied to an extraordinary ex- 
 tent. The flesh is highly prized. The Pheasant is 
 not a satisfactory bird to keep in close confinement, 
 as it never loses its extreme shyness, and is apt to in- 
 jure itself by flying against the bars of its cage. 
 
 The most brilliantly coloured member of this family 
 is the Golden Pheasant, a native of China. On ac- 
 count of its resplendent plumage it is usually seen in 
 collections. It is impossible to give any adequate idea 
 of the brilliance of the feathers, which glisten as if 
 illuminated from beneath, and the various plates, bars, 
 and scales arranged over the body of the bird make 
 it seem as if clothed in armour. A study of the figure 
 of the Golden Pheasant will do more than words to 
 indicate this remarkable colouration. The male has 
 the ability to spread out the long neck-feathers into 
 a wide, circular cape. See Plate 25, Fig. 146. 
 
 The Silver Pheasant is another form commonly seen 
 in aviaries. It is now rare in a wild state, and little 
 is known of its habits, except in confinement. The 
 upper surface of the body is white, covered with fine 
 black lines; the breast is dark, and the long tail- 
 feathers are white. See Plate 26, Fig. 151. 
 
 The Impeyan Pheasant is probably the most bril- 
 liant of all iridescent birds, the colours ranging 
 through the spectrum from orange to yellow. The 
 
84 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 head and neck are greenish, the back a shining purp- 
 lish-blue, with red and green iridescence. Across the 
 tail is a wide band of pure white, the tail itself being 
 brownish, barred with darker colour. 
 
 Other well-known species of Pheasant are the 
 Reeves and the Lady Amherst. 
 
 But the largest, and in some respects the most con- 
 spicuous, of this family is the Argus Pheasant, a 
 native of the Indo-Malay Peninsula. It is remark- 
 able for the enormous length of the inner flight- 
 feathers of the wings, while the tail-feathers are also 
 extremely long. But it is not so much the great 
 length as the wonderful and complicated pattern on 
 them that makes them so extraordinary. Large eye- 
 like marks are placed at regular intervals along the 
 main shafts, so wonderfully shaded as to look like balls 
 lying loose within sockets, with a wonderful network 
 of spots and lines about them. The colours are rich 
 brown and white. When the male bird displays, he 
 raises and spreads his wings so that they form a great 
 circle over his back, the wings being raised at the same 
 time. See Plate 26, Figs. 152, 153. 
 
 Perhaps the crowning glory of this family is the 
 Peacock, a native of India, and one of the most mar- 
 vellously coloured of all the feathered tribe. It is dis- 
 tinguished at once by its long train of feathers, which 
 drag on the ground when the bird is walking. Each 
 of these is a gem in itself, being finished at the tip by 
 a large expanded web, in the centre of which is a 
 huge eye-like form. In a mass they seem to shimmer 
 and glow with all the prismatic colours red in some 
 lights, green and gold in others. The "eyes" are a 
 
26. 
 
 151. Silver rneasant (Gennceus nycthemerus). 
 
 150. European Pheasant 
 (Pkaxianus colchicus). 
 
PEACOCK FOWLS 85 
 
 beautiful blue. The Peacock is a very graceful bird, 
 the neck long and slender, the head surmounted by a 
 most beautiful and delicate crown, or crest, of fine 
 lace-like feathers. Most of the body is a deep rich 
 blue, in texture like the finest velvet, and shading 
 almost to black upon the breast and upper parts of 
 the legs. The upper . feathers are a delicate grey, 
 covered with fine dark lines, while the stiff and long 
 flight-feathers are a light reddish-brown, and not 
 iridescent as are the other feathers. It is only when the 
 Peacock flies, or stretches its wings, that these red 
 feathers become visible ; at other times they are folded 
 closely against the back. See Plate 25, Figs. 148, 
 149. 
 
 When displaying, the Peacock raises its gorgeous 
 train which, of course are not the true tail-feathers- 
 over its back in a half circle, and spreads it to the 
 fullest extent. 
 
 Although so magnificent in plumage, the Peacock 
 is not a singer, its voice being extremely harsh and 
 disagreeable, and sounding not unlike the magnified 
 "meow" of a cat. 
 
 These birds are easily domesticated, and become 
 very tame, and it is only because they are so common 
 that their beauty is not more appreciated. 
 
 The nearly related Javan Peacock differs from the 
 common species chiefly in having neck-feathers of 
 enormous size, so that the neck has the appearance of 
 being clothed in large, overlapping scales. 
 
 Our domesticated Fowls are really near relations 
 of the Pheasants. They are supposed to have de- 
 scended from the wild Jungle- fowls of India, and by 
 
86 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 careful breeding for centuries man has produced from 
 this bird many remarkable varieties. Indeed, the 
 Leghorn and the Game-fowls retain much of the 
 original character of the Jungle-fowl, although in 
 them, as well as in most other domestic breeds, the 
 comb and wattles are much more developed. The 
 cocks of the Game-fowls are used for fighting, and 
 for many years, in England and in other countries, 
 they were regularly bred and trained for this pur- 
 pose. The largest of the domestic Fowls are the 
 Brahmins and the Cochin Chinas. The latter breed 
 was introduced into England about 1850, and soon 
 was in great demand, the eggs bringing very high 
 prices. Perhaps the best-known breed in this country 
 is the Plymouth Rock, a large, heavily made fowl, 
 curiously mottled with grey and white. Among the 
 most beautiful are the silver-speckled and golden- 
 speckled Hamburgs. Polish-fowls are distinguished 
 by their large topknot of long feathers, which fall 
 down over the eyes like the hair of a sky-terrier, in 
 some cases almost blinding them. In Japan for many 
 hundreds of years has been bred a curious species 
 called the Long-tailed Fowl, in which the abnormally 
 lengthened tail-feathers sometimes measure as much 
 as twenty feet. These feathers are sometimes kept 
 carefully wrapped in paper to protect them from in- 
 jury. See Plate 27, Fig. 156. 
 
 Domestic Fowls have a great variety of calls, or 
 notes, which any one may soon learn to interpret. 
 The cluck of the mother hen when she takes her chicks 
 out to hunt for food; the peculiar sound known as 
 "singing," in which she indulges after having been 
 
25. 
 
 146. Golden Pheasant, Male 
 (Chrysolophus pietus). 
 
 r^ 14 7. 
 
 Golden Pheasant 
 Female. 
 
 145. Greek partridge (Caccabis .aaxatUu). 
 
 149. Peahen. 
 
EUROPEAN PARTRIDGE QUAIL 87 
 
 fed and in fine weather, the "cackle" that follows the 
 laying of an egg; the cry of warning that instantly 
 brings her chicks to cover under her wings when a 
 Hawk appears overhead are all familiar sounds of 
 the poultry-yard. The "crow" of the cock, usually 
 given when he goes to roost at night, early in the 
 morning, and after he has gained a victory over an- 
 other cock, is also well known. 
 
 Although originally from warm climates, domestic 
 Fowls are able to withstand very low temperature, 
 especially if protected from severe winds and from 
 dampness. 
 
 Between the Pheasant tribe and the Partridges and 
 Quails of the Old World there is no very sharp 
 division. True Partridges and Quails are not met 
 with in America, but they are represented by birds 
 that closely resemble them in many particulars. 
 
 The Common Partridge of Europe is also some- 
 times called the Horse-shoe Partridge, from a horse- 
 shoe-like mark on the breast in both sexes. The 
 female may always be distinguished by the buff cross- 
 bars on the smaller wing-coverts. In eastern Siberia 
 this bird is replaced by the Bearded Partridge, in 
 which the throat is decorated with long beard-like 
 feathers. See Plate 24, Fig. 144. 
 
 The Common Red-legged Partridge ranges over 
 southwestern and western Europe and Great Britain. 
 
 The Red-legged Rock Partridge is a native of the 
 mountains of southern Europe, from the Pyrenees 
 to the Balkans, and differs from the Common Euro- 
 pean Partridge in the absence of white on the flanks 
 
88 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 and of black spots on the chest. See Plate 25, Fig. 
 145. 
 
 Quails are frequently described as miniature Par- 
 tridges, and the two families are very closely related. 
 The Common European Quail is found in many parts 
 of Europe and northern Asia. These birds migrate 
 in the spring in vast numbers from Africa to various 
 parts of Europe, and this is the season for hunting 
 them. The European Quail has been imported into 
 the United States, but has failed to thrive in this 
 country. See Plate 24, Fig. 141. 
 
 Their place here is taken by the Grouse and the Bob 
 White, of which there are many varieties. In the 
 northern States the Grouse is called "Partridge"; in 
 the southern States the same bird is called a "Pheas- 
 ant." The Bob White of the North is known as 
 "Quail," while in the South it is termed "Partridge." 
 But, as has been said, there are no true Partridges 
 and Quails in America. 
 
 The Ruffed Grouse is a large bird, measuring 
 nearly eighteen inches in length, and its plumage is 
 a mixture of greys, browns, and buffs. On the neck 
 of the male are long, purplish-black feathers capable 
 of being erected. This is the principal Game-bird of 
 our Eastern States. Its home is in the dense coverts 
 of the woods, and so closely does it resemble the 
 ground colour and dead leaves that it is impossible 
 to see a flock until it takes flight. The suddenness 
 with which they start from the ground is very startling 
 and disconcerting to a novice at shooting. They 
 spring into the air with a loud whirring sound and 
 fly so rapidly that they are almost instantly lost to 
 
24. 
 
 138. 
 
 Capercailzie) Male 
 (Tetrao urogallus). 
 
 139. \ 
 Capercailzie, 
 Female. 
 
 142. Black Cock 
 (Lyruru* tetrvt)* 
 
 140. Hazel Grouse 
 (Tetrastes bonasia). 
 
 European Quail 
 (Coturnix coturnixj. \ 
 
 M 
 
 143. Alpine Ptarmigan fLaaovus mutw). 
 
 144. European 
 Cartridge 
 (Perdix perdix). 
 
GROUSE PTARMIGAN 89 
 
 view. In winter scales grow out from the sides of 
 the toes, enabling the bird to walk on soft snow. 
 
 In the spring the male Ruffed Grouse goes through 
 with the curious performance known as "drumming." 
 Standing upon some convenient log, he raises his tail 
 to the fullest extent and spreads out the ruffs at the 
 sides of his neck, at the same time beating the air with 
 his wings, quickening the strokes until they move with 
 lightning-like rapidity, producing a curious rumbling 
 sound much like that of a drum. This is done for 
 the edification of his mate, who stands watching the 
 performance with apparent indifference. 
 
 The Pinnated and the Sharp-tailed Grouse are 
 found in many parts of the Middle West, and the 
 name "Prairie Chicken" is somewhat vaguely ap- 
 plied to both in different sections. These birds, too, 
 have singular actions at the mating season, at such 
 times inflating and exhausting the large orange- 
 coloured sacs at the sides of the throat and raising the 
 tail high over the back. 
 
 Other well-known species are the Sage Grouse, a 
 very large form, but one whose flesh is not especially 
 prized, the Canada Grouse, and the Dusky Grouse, 
 found in various parts of the country. 
 
 The Ptarmigan is another species of the Grouse 
 family found in the northern parts of America and 
 Europe. This bird has a most remarkable system of 
 protective colouration adapted to each season of the 
 year. In winter, when the ground is covered with 
 snow, the plumage is white ; as spring approaches, this 
 is gradually replaced by a brownish coat, which is 
 worn until the autumn, when the moult again takes 
 
90 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 place and the bird becomes a mixture of brown and 
 white, this gradually giving place to the winter coat 
 of snow-white. Thus the Ptarmigan is at all seasons 
 practically invisible in its environment. This and 
 other species are remarkable for their extreme tame- 
 ness, allowing themselves to be closely approached and 
 actually touched without taking flight. Whether this 
 character is due to lack of fear or stupidity it is diffi- 
 cult to say, but it is one that is certainly not shared by 
 its near relative, the Ruffed Grouse. See Plate 24, 
 Fig. 143. 
 
 The Willow Ptarmigan is also found in the north- 
 ern parts of both continents. 
 
 Largest of the Game-birds of Europe is the Caper- 
 cailzie, or Cock of the Woods, also belonging to the 
 Grouse family. At one time common in Great 
 Britain, it became extinct, but of late years has been 
 reintroduced into Scotland, where it is found in con- 
 siderable numbers. It is not an inhabitant of Amer- 
 ica. This is a woodland bird, living in trees, and in 
 this respect unlike most other Game-birds, which seem 
 to prefer the ground. The males go through with 
 many curious performances during the breeding sea- 
 son, when they are so engrossed as to be unconscious 
 of the approach of enemies, and are often shot down. 
 The female is smaller than her mate, and quite dull in 
 colour. See Plate 24, Figs. 138, 139. 
 
 The Black Grouse is a particularly handsome bird, 
 remarkable for the curious shape of its tail, which is 
 divided in the middle, the feathers curving to right 
 and left, like hooks. There is a brilliant red skin 
 
BOB WHITE GAMBEL'S PARTRIDGE 91 
 
 around the eye, as in some of the Pheasants. See 
 Plate 24, Fig. 142. 
 
 The Hazel-hen is a native of Europe and northern 
 and central Asia, and its flesh is much esteemed for 
 food. It bears some resemblance to our own Ruffed 
 Grouse. See Plate 24, Fig. 140. 
 
 The Bob White has well been called the king of our 
 American Game-birds. It is small, about ten inches in 
 length, and the plumage renders it extremely incon- 
 spicuous, when on the ground. The male has a white 
 throat and a white stripe over the eye; the top of the 
 head is reddish, varied with black and white; the back 
 and wings are a mixture of delicate greys and browns ; 
 the lower parts are yellowish- white, crossed with deli- 
 cate lines of black ; a black mark encircles the white of 
 the throat; the flanks are reddish, barred with black; 
 the upper part of the tail is bluish-grey. The sexes 
 are similarly coloured, except that the female has more 
 yellow in the plumage. 
 
 Bob Whites live more in open country than the 
 Grouse, run in large flocks, and when flushed fly in 
 different directions. Their speed is not so great as 
 that of the larger Game-bird. When alarmed, Bob 
 Whites "lie close" on the ground, instead of rising in 
 the air, trusting to their colouring to remain invisible. 
 Setters and pointers, dogs having remarkably keen 
 scent, are trained to hunt these birds, advancing slowly 
 upon a covey until it rises with a great whirring of the 
 short, rounded wings. These dogs are trained to drop 
 at the sound of a gun, and then to retrieve, or bring 
 back to their master in such a way as not to injure 
 them, the birds that have been shot. 
 
92 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 In the West are found several species of "Par- 
 tridge," some of great beauty. One called Gambel's 
 Partridge has the upper parts of the neck and back 
 a plicate fawn colour, the breast being somewhat 
 lighter. In the middle of the breast is a large, irregu- 
 lar blackish patch of feathers. The sides are a rich 
 reddish-brown, streaked with pure white. The most 
 striking feature of this bird is the long, forward pro- 
 jecting crest of black feathers, normally drooping 
 over the bill. The top of the head is reddish, and the 
 feathers are very soft and velvety in texture. The 
 face and under part of the throat are deep black, the 
 eyes very dark brown, and around the face is a narrow 
 line of pure white. The feathers of the body are 
 rounded, and have much the appearance of scales. 
 See Plate 41, Fig. 245. 
 
 The California Partridge is quite similar in colour- 
 ing to the Gambel, and has also a forward curving 
 crest of black feathers. Other Western species are 
 the Scaled Partridge, the Mountain Partridge, and 
 the Plumed Partridge. 
 
248. Hermit-thrush 
 (Hylocichla guttata pallasi). 
 
 245. Crested Seriema 
 (Cariama cristata). 
 
 247. Mocking-bird 
 (Mimus polyglottus). 
 
 241. Harpy-eagle 
 ^(Thrasaetus harpyia). 
 
 242. Audubon's Caracara 
 (Polyborw cherivay). 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 CRANES, RAILS, AND BUSTARDS 
 ORDER GRUIFORMES 
 
 CRANES, Rails, and Bustards, though very dif- 
 ferent in external appearance, are really 
 closely related. Cranes and Rails are marsh 
 birds, while Bustards frequent sandy wastes; Cranes 
 are wading birds, but Rails swim and dive with ease. 
 All are vegetable feeders, and the diet of Cranes and 
 Rails is varied by insects and molluscs, such as snails, 
 slugs, and worms, and Bustards also eat small mam- 
 mals, such as mice, and reptiles. 
 
 The Common European Crane is a large and very 
 beautiful bird, measuring about four feet in length. 
 In Cranes the windpipe, instead of running straight 
 down the neck to the lungs, passes first into a large 
 chamber in the keel of the breast-bone. After form- 
 ing a coil or loop there, it emerges and passes back- 
 wards to the lungs. By the increase in length thus 
 gained, an extremely loud and resonant voice is pro- 
 duced. See Plate 29, Fig. 161. 
 
 These birds have long legs and long necks, and are 
 not unlike Herons in general appearance, although 
 the form of the head, as well as the colouration, differs 
 in different species. But three out of the fifteen or 
 more existing species of Cranes are found in America. 
 
 93 
 
94 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 The Whooping Crane winters in the Gulf States, 
 but breeds farther north. It is a large white bird, 
 with primaries, bill, and legs, black, top of head and 
 sides of throat red. 
 
 The Sandhill Crane is a smaller form also found 
 in the Southern States, especially in the pine barrens 
 of Florida, some distance inland from the coast. The 
 body colour is a beautiful bluish-grey, the top of the 
 head a soft, deep red. The bill of Cranes is used both 
 as a digging instrument and a weapon of defence, and 
 with it they also make a strange clattering noise, when 
 excited. The Sandhill digs enormous holes in the 
 ground in search of food. Its voice is very loud and 
 resonant, and may be heard at a great distance as 
 the bird flies from place to place. 
 
 The Little Brown Crane is a smaller and rarer 
 species than either of the preceding. It closely re- 
 sembles the Sandhill Crane. 
 
 Two very beautiful species found in Africa and fre- 
 quently seen in captivity, are the Demoiselle, a small 
 bluish-grey bird, with long feathers trailing from the 
 tail, and the Crowned Crane, remarkable for the tuft 
 of feathers on its head. See Plate 34, Fig. 197. 
 
 Included among the Crane-like birds, although 
 bearing a strong resemblance in both appearance and 
 character to the Hawk tribe, is the Seriema, of South 
 America. It is not unlike the Secretary-bird of 
 Africa, and feeds upon snakes, killing them in much 
 the same manner, by pounding them with its feet until 
 they are reduced to a pulp. It also eats small mam- 
 mals, such as mice and rats, and further varies its diet 
 with fruits. Although able to fly well, it lives on 
 
SERIEMA TRUMPETER 95 
 
 the ground, in the grass of the pampas, and runs with 
 great speed, having very long legs. See Plate 42, 
 Fig. 245. 
 
 In colour the Seriema is a dull brown over the 
 greater part of the body, somewhat reddish on the 
 back and the upper coverts of the wings. The 
 feathers are thin and loosely attached, as in the 
 Herons, and the long neck- feathers are so fine in text- 
 ure as to have 'almost the appearance of a mane, fall- 
 ing over the back and sides of the* neck. The inner 
 web, only, of the primaries is barred with dark colour. 
 The bill and legs are a delicate reddish colour, and 
 the eye, which is fierce and Hawk-like in expression, 
 is a beautiful grey, and is shaded by long and delicate 
 lashes. A curious character of this bird is the 
 inner toe, which is carried free of the ground and bears 
 a very long, sharply recurved claw like that of the 
 Eagles, the other claws being much less pointed and 
 straighter. Growing from the base of the bill, but 
 not extending to the crown, are a number of sparse, 
 hair-like feathers, giving the bird a very peculiar ap- 
 pearance. 
 
 The Seriema has a most remarkable call, or cry, 
 the noise being extremely loud and piercing, and al- 
 most deafening to one standing near the bird. In 
 uttering it, the head is dropped back against the shoul- 
 ders and the mouth is held widely open, the sound 
 actually seeming to be pumped, or squeezed, from the 
 throat. 
 
 The Common Trumpeter, or Golden-breasted 
 Trumpeter, is another very interesting South Ameri- 
 can bird, that has no very near relatives, and so con- 
 
96 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 stitutes a family by itself. Like the Seriama, how- 
 ever, it is placed by ornithologists in the Order of 
 Crane-like birds. Its power of flight is feeble, so that 
 most of its time is spent upon the ground, and like the 
 preceding form, it is a very swift runner. These birds 
 are easily domesticated, becoming very much attached 
 to people and living peaceably with domestic Fowls. 
 Trumpeters are somewhat gregarious, being found in 
 small flocks. Their call, uttered at night and by a 
 number of birds at the same time, is loud and harsh. 
 
 In form the Trumpeter is not unlike a small Emu, 
 having a rounded back and long neck, but it partakes 
 of the characters of other species as well. The head 
 and neck are almost jet black, and on the breast is a 
 patch of brilliant iridescent feathers which seem to 
 differ in texture from the rest of the plumage, being 
 much stiff er and harsher. This iridescence is entirely 
 bluish-green, and has no suggestion of golden colour 
 in it. The back and upper tail-coverts are a warm 
 grey, and bill and legs greyish-black. The eye is very 
 dark and shining, and looks not unlike a shoe-button 
 sunken in the dense plumage of the face. The feet 
 are large for the size of the bird, and are evidently 
 formed for scratching. 
 
 The Rail tribe are mostly small birds, of shy, skulk- 
 ing habits and feeble flight, but with strong legs, and 
 able to run with great speed through the marshes in 
 which they live. One of the smallest is the Little 
 Crake, a native of Africa, but occasionally seen in 
 Great Britain. The Spotted Crake is common all 
 over Europe during the summer, but returns to Africa 
 to winter. See Plate 29, Figs. 164, 166. 
 
164. 
 
 Little Crake 
 (Zapornia parva) 
 
 163. Water 
 aqua 
 
 European Crane 
 
 162. 
 
 Little Bustard 
 '(Tetrax tetrax). 
 
 166. 
 
 Spotted 
 Crake 
 1 Ponana 
 parzanaj. 
 
 165. Moor-hen 
 (Oallinula ckloropus 
 
 167. European Coot (Fulica atra). 
 
CAROLINA CRAKE 97 
 
 A very near relative of the Spotted Crake is the 
 Carolina Crake, or Sora, of this country, a pretty little 
 bird of mottled plumage and black and white bars on 
 the flanks. 
 
 The Corncrake, or Land Rail as it is often called, 
 is common in Great Britain, but only occasionally 
 seen in the eastern part of this country. Unlike the 
 Little Crake and the Spotted Crake, which love the 
 marshes, this bird frequents dry meadows, clover 
 fields, and fields of corn. Though feeble in flight, 
 when migrating this bird is able to travel many hun- 
 dreds of miles without stopping, leaving the British 
 Islands in the autumn to pass the winter in Africa, 
 and returning in the spring. See Plate 30, Fig. 168. 
 
 This bird makes a remarkable creaking sound dur- 
 ing the summer which can easily be imitated by pass- 
 ing the thumb-nail over the teeth of a fine comb. In 
 this way they can often be lured into sight. Like the 
 other Rails, the Corncrake does not take wing readily, 
 and it flies slowly, with the legs hanging down. When 
 captured, it sometimes tries to effect its escape by 
 feigning death a device used by other members of 
 this family also. 
 
 Some well-known species of Rail in this country 
 are the King Rail, one of the largest forms, with 
 variegated plumage of brown, black and grey above, 
 reddish-brown below, and sides barred with white, 
 found in the eastern parts of the United States; the 
 Virginia Rail, considerably smaller than the preced- 
 ing, but resembling it in colour; the Clapper Rail, or 
 Marsh Hen, with pale olive colouring above, greyish- 
 brown on the wings, and, as with all the family, bars 
 
98 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 on the flanks; and the Little Black Rail, with rusty 
 black plumage above, barred with white, nape of the 
 neck reddish, and the under-parts slate colour. 
 
 The Gallinules constitute another branch of this 
 family, two species of which are found in our Southern 
 States. The Purple Gallinule has the head, neck, 
 and breast a deep bluish-purple, the rest of the plum- 
 age shading to greenish, the under tail-coverts white. 
 A distinguishing mark is the flat, waxy plate, red and 
 blue in colour, on the top of the head. The bill is 
 red, tipped with green, and the legs are yellow. In 
 flying, the Purple Gallinule raises the short tail, dis- 
 playing the pure white under-feathers, and the legs 
 hang straight down. When a shot is fired, it is at 
 once answered, like an echo, by hundreds of these 
 birds. But, although heard, they are seldom seen, for 
 their colouring harmonises so perfectly with the water- 
 lily pads floating on the blue water that they are prac- 
 tically invisible. Their toes are Very long and deli- 
 cately made, enabling the birds to walk with ease over 
 the vegetation of lakes and ponds in search of their 
 food. They are also good swimmers. 
 
 The Florida Gallinule is about the same size as the 
 preceding species, but differs in colouration, the back 
 being brownish, the flanks streaked with white. The 
 birds are often seen together in the fresh-water 
 marshes of Florida, the more brilliant colouring of the 
 first species mentioned making it easily distinguish- 
 able from the other. 
 
 The Water Rail is the commonest of European 
 Rails. It is never found far from water, and, in spite 
 of the fact that its feet are not Webbed, it swims and 
 
240. Rufous Tinamou 
 (Hhynchofus wfescent). 
 
 243. Turkey-vulture 
 (Cathartes aura septentrionalte). 
 
 244. Globose Curassow 
 
 (Female) 
 ( Crax gloMcera). 
 
 245. Gambel Partridge 
 (Lophortyx gambettii). 
 
 246. Road-runner 
 (Geococcyx calif ornianus). 
 
COOT GREAT BUSTARD 99 
 
 dives with remarkable ease. The toes are very long 
 and slender. On account of its shy and retiring 
 habits, this bird is rarely seen, even in localities where 
 it is quite common. See Plate 29, Fig. 163. 
 
 The Coot and the Water Hen, or Common Gal- 
 linule, of Europe are also admirable divers. The toes 
 of the Coot are provided with broad lobes along their 
 sides. 
 
 The Moor Hen may be distinguished from the 
 Coot not only by its smaller size, but also by the bright 
 vermilion-red shield on the forehead and the white 
 patches under the tail. Though an extremely timid 
 bird in a wild state, it thrives well in captivity and is 
 often seen in public collections. See Plate 29, Fig. 
 165. 
 
 The Coot is a larger bird than the Water Hen, or 
 Gallinule, and is easily distinguished from it by the 
 broad white bill. The European Coot has no white 
 below the tail, and is also without the white markings 
 on the wings that characterise the American species. 
 Although very shy birds naturally, it is said that in 
 certain localities in Florida where shooting is forbid- 
 den they are as tame as domestic Ducks. Young 
 Coots, while still in the nestling plumage, have the 
 head ornamented by numerous little fleshy warts of a 
 bright red colour, while the rest of the body, as in the 
 young 'of the Rail tribe generally, is jet black in 
 colour. See Plate 29, Fig. 167. 
 
 The Little Bustard is common in certain parts of 
 Europe, especially in the Spanish peninsula. It is 
 abundant in Africa, north of the Sahara, also in north- 
 western India. See Plate 29, Fig. 162. 
 
100 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 The Great Bustard is known as the largest of Euro- 
 pean birds, male individuals often weighing as much 
 as thirty pounds. It is now extinct in Great Britain, 
 although at one time common there, but is still found 
 on the Continent. The enclosures of waste land, 
 planting of trees, and increase of population have 
 driven it from many of its former breeding places. 
 The males are much larger than the females and more 
 brightly coloured; both sexes have long hair-like 
 feathers back of the ears. During the breeding season 
 the males go through with strange performances. 
 The tail is thrown up over the back, showing the pure 
 white under-tail coverts, the wings are drooped, and 
 the bag, or pouch, which runs down the front of the 
 neck, is inflated until it reaches enormous proportions, 
 while the head is sunken between the shoulders, with 
 the long ear-feathers standing up at the sides. Stc 
 Plate 30, Fig. 169. 
 
 Bustards are confined exclusively to the Old World, 
 most of the species being found in Africa. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 PLOVERS, GULLS, AND AUKS 
 ORDER CHARADRIIFORMES 
 
 THE birds which form the subject of the present 
 chapter represent a varied assemblage, yet all 
 are related. Besides the typical Plovers, they 
 include the Pratincoles, Stilts, Curlews, Snipes, Pha- 
 laropes, Gulls, Terns, and Auks. 
 
 While some species frequent inland waters and 
 marshy' places, others keep more or less to the sea- 
 coast. Though the majority are never found far from 
 water, some find a living on dry, sandy wastes. All 
 are remarkable for their great powers of flight, some, 
 indeed, travelling thousands of miles when migrating. 
 
 The young of the more typical of the Plover tribe 
 are quite active from the moment they leave the shell, 
 and are covered with short down more or less mottled 
 with black; but the colouration of the down varies in 
 different species, being very pale in those that breed 
 in sandy wastes, and dark when the nesting-ground is 
 in marshy places. 
 
 One of the most aberrant that is, one that differs 
 most from the typical form is the beautiful Pratin- 
 cole, or Glareola, a bird which in many ways resembles 
 
 the Swallow. The tail is long and forked, the wings 
 
 101 
 
102 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 long and pointed, and the form is slender and graceful. 
 The Pratincole breeds in many parts of the continent 
 of Europe, but is only occasionally seen in the British 
 Islands. Like the Swallow, it catches much of its food 
 on the wing beetles, grasshoppers and locusts form- 
 ing the principal prey and it runs very nimbly along 
 the ground. This bird is in many of its characters 
 unlike the true Plovers, and is regarded as a descend- 
 ant of a more ancient stock as a side branch of the 
 tree that gave rise to the typical Plovers. It has no 
 representative in this country. See Plate 31, Fig. 
 175. 
 
 A good example of the true Plover is the Golden 
 Plover, a bird widely distributed throughout both the 
 Old World and the New^ and known under many 
 names. The American species is slightly smaller than 
 the European, but resembles it in colouration. See 
 Plate 30, Fig. 170. 
 
 In the breeding season this bird dons a gorgeous 
 plumage, greyish above, thickly spotted with black, 
 and all black below, but in the autumn the jet-black 
 feathers of the under-parts become replaced by white, 
 while the upper loses some of the black markings and 
 becomes more golden in tone. 
 
 There are many species of Ringed Plover, the one 
 figured being a common European and American 
 shore-bird. This bird builds no nest, but deposits its 
 eggs in a slight depression in the sand, and from their 
 close resemblance to the surrounding stones, they are 
 exceedingly difficult to locate. The nestlings are also 
 very inconspicuous on the sand of the beach. See 
 Plate 30, Fig. 173. 
 
KILLDEER LAPWING 103 
 
 One of the commonest of our Plovers is the Killdee, 
 or Killdeer, so called from its notes, uttered loudly and 
 rapidly when the bird is alarmed. It is greyish-brown 
 above and white below, has a black band on the breast, 
 and a black ring round the neck. Another distinguish- 
 ing mark is a white line over the eye. The Killdeer 
 resembles the preceding species, but is considerably 
 larger. It feeds both by day and by night, on worms, 
 beetles, grasshoppers, and so on, in marshes and, in 
 winter, along the shore. 
 
 The Little Kentish Plover is a tiny bird, easily 
 recognisable by its incomplete chest-band. It is com- 
 mon in many parts of Europe, but is somewhat rare 
 in England, being met with most frequently in that 
 country along the shingle beaches of Kent. See Plate 
 30, Fig. 174. 
 
 The Piping Plover is a small form found in eastern 
 North America, ashy-brown above and white below. 
 
 The Lapwing, or Peewit, is another bird of this 
 tribe that is common in Europe, especially so in 
 England, where its eggs are highly esteemed for food, 
 many of them being sold in the markets of London 
 under the name of Plovers' eggs a practice that 
 must result in reducing its numbers. See Plate 30, 
 Fig. 171. 
 
 The male bird is very beautiful in colour, iridescent 
 green and purple, under-parts white, the long crest 
 and top of the head black and the feet red. 
 
 The eggs of the Lapwing vary greatly in colour. 
 They are laid in slight hollows in the ground, little or 
 no nest being made for their reception. On the ap- 
 proach of winter these birds collect in large flocks, dis- 
 
104 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 persing again in the spring. They are among the 
 most valuable of the farmer's allies, worms, slugs and 
 insects forming their principal food. 
 
 The Black-winged Stilt is one of the most remark- 
 able of the Plover tribe, having extremely long legs 
 (from which fact it receives its name), a long, sharp 
 bill, long neck and long wings. The colour, in gen- 
 eral, is blackish above and white below, and the feet 
 and legs are brilliant red. This bird is met with abun- 
 dantly in marshy places in the Old World. The great 
 length of the Stilt's legs is due to the fact that the bird 
 obtains its food by wading in shallow water and prob- 
 ing in the mud for snails and other small creatures. 
 See Plate 30, Fig. 172. 
 
 Occasionally seen in the eastern parts of this coun- 
 try, and quite common in certain sections of the West, 
 is the Black-necked Stilt, which is all black above and 
 white below. 
 
 The Avocet is one of the strangest forms of Plover, 
 having a very long, slender, upward-curving bill, long- 
 legs and webbed toes, in the latter respect differing 
 from most of the Wading-birds, whose toes are free. 
 The colour of the Avocet is chiefly black and white and 
 the legs are bluish. The principal American species 
 differs from the European in having a reddish-brown 
 head and neck. See Plate 32, Fig. 184. 
 
 The Snipe and the Woodcock are birols with which 
 most people are somewhat familiar. The long, slender 
 bills and long legs which distinguish them show at once 
 that they cannot live long far away from water. They 
 are, indeed, dwellers in marshes and swamps, living on 
 worms and aquatic insects and small water-snails. 
 
30. 
 
 168. Corn Crake (Crex crex). 
 
 no. 
 
 Golden Plover 
 
 (Charadrius domi- 
 
 nicus). 
 
 169. Great Bustard 
 (Otis tarda). 
 
 111. Lapwing L vul 
 (Vanellus vanellus). 
 
 173. Ring Plover 
 (JEyialitis hiaticula}. 
 
 
 172. European Stilt 
 (Himantopus himantopus). 
 
 174. Kentish Plover 
 (^Eyialitis alexandrina). 
 
EUROPEAN SNIPE WILLET 105 
 
 The worms are obtained by probing in the soft soil and 
 are apparently detected by the tip of the beak, which 
 is supplied with a pair of large nerves and is therefore 
 extremely sensitive. 
 
 The buff and black stripings and barrings on these 
 birds play a very important part, since they serve to 
 blend the body with the surrounding grasses when the 
 bird is crouching to avoid its enemies. This it always 
 does in preference to seeking safety by flight. 
 
 In the spring both males and females spend much 
 of their time in making extraordinary sounds known 
 as "bleating." This curious, humming noise they pro- 
 duce by mounting high in the air and then descending 
 with tremendous rapidity, meanwhile spreading the 
 wings so that the two outer feathers stand apart from 
 the rest. The rush of air against these is now known 
 to cause the sounds which have puzzled so many ob- 
 servers. 
 
 The Common Snipe of Europe has fourteen tail- 
 feathers, while the nearly related American species has 
 sixteen. See Plate 31, Fig. 178. 
 
 The Jack Snipe is a common British bird during the 
 winter season, leaving in the spring to breed in north- 
 ern Europe. Smaller than the Common Snipe, it is 
 further distinguished from it by having but twelve 
 tail-feathers. This bird also makes curious noises dur- 
 ing the breeding season, but these are apparently vocal 
 and not made by the wing- feathers. It is said that this 
 noise resembles that made by a horse when galloping 
 on a hard road. 
 
 The real home of the Great, or Solitary, Snipe is in 
 the marshy districts of Poland and in parts of Russia, 
 
106 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 but it is met with also in Africa and in Asia. It is a 
 larger bird than the Common English Snipe, has rela- 
 tively shorter beak and legs and more closely barred 
 under-parts. See Plate 31, Fig. 179. 
 
 The Willet is a common North American bird of 
 the Snipe family, with black-lined wings and other- 
 wise varied plumage. It is rather large, has a heavier 
 bill than most of the Snipes, and bluish feet. 
 
 A well-known marsh bird of this country is the Yel- 
 lowlegs, named from its conspicuously bright yellow 
 legs. This and the preceding species are members of 
 a group called Tattlers, from their habit of giving 
 shrill cries on the approach of sportsmen. Their flesh 
 is highly prized for the table. These birds are found 
 in summer throughout the temperate parts of North 
 America, migrating in winter to Central and South 
 America. Their plumage is, in general, a mixture of 
 black and white, in spots and streaks. They are semi- 
 palmated, or partly webbed, and can swim, fly and run 
 with equal facility. The Greater Yellowlegs and the 
 Lesser Yellowlegs are similar in colouring, but the 
 second is considerably smaller than the first named 
 and has relatively longer legs. 
 
 The Woodcock is found in both the Old World and 
 the New and differs but little in colour. The Euro- 
 pean species is much larger than the American and has 
 the breast barred, while that of our bird is whole- 
 coloured. The plumage is a beautiful mixture of 
 russet-brown and black and there is a transverse black 
 bar across the top of the head. The Woodcock is 
 closely allied to the true Snipe, having the long, 
 straight, sensitive bill common to that family, the 
 
WOODCOCK GREENSHANK 107 
 
 upper mandible being used much as a finger when 
 probing in the mud for worms and larvae. 
 
 The European Woodcock is occasionally seen on 
 our shores as a straggler. In both countries the flesh 
 of this bird is so highly esteemed for the table that it is 
 in danger of extermination. It breeds chiefly in the 
 higher latitudes, laying its eggs upon the ground in 
 the woods, in nests of leaves. See Plate 31, Fig. 177. 
 
 A curious anatomical character in the Woodcock is 
 the position of the ear opening, which is in front of and 
 beneath the level of the eye. In the Snipe it lies 
 underneath the eye, while in all other birds it is found 
 behind the eye. The eyes of this bird are large, dark 
 brown in colour and set far at the back of the head and 
 close to the top. 
 
 The Woodcock is nocturnal in habits, starting for 
 its feeding-grounds in the early evening. It makes 
 remarkable spiral flights high up into the air, during 
 which the wind rushes through the stiff outer primaries 
 with a whistling or bleating sound. 
 
 The species now to be described differ conspicuously 
 from the Snipes and Woodcocks in that they have two 
 distinct plumages during the year a sober-coloured 
 dress for autumn and winter and a more richly col- 
 oured one for spring and summer. The latter being 
 assumed just before the nesting season, is known as 
 the breeding dress. 
 
 This difference is not very strikingly marked in the 
 Greenshank, a somewhat common European bird, so 
 called from the colour of its legs. It is rather large, 
 measuring about fourteen inches in length, and has a 
 slightly upturned bill. In summer the upper parts 
 
108 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 of the neck and wings are nearly black, relieved by 
 pale grey edgings to the feathers ; the lower parts are 
 flecked with ashy brown. In winter the upper parts 
 are greyer and the under parts white. See Plate 31, 
 Fig. 180. 
 
 The eggs of the Greenshank are a warm stone col- 
 our, blotched with purplish-grey and spots of brown. 
 The nest, such as it is, is often placed at a distance 
 from water and sometimes on dry ground amid scat- 
 tered pine trees. 
 
 In our country this bird is represented by the God- 
 wits, or Marlins, found on the Pacific coast and also 
 in the interior of the Western States, but seldom on 
 the Atlantic coast. In colouring and in general char- 
 acters they resemble the species figured. 
 
 In the Dunlin the contrast between the summer and 
 winter plumages is very striking. In winter the 
 upper parts are ash-coloured, the under parts white; 
 but towards the end of March the new livery begins to 
 make its appearance. When complete the upper parts 
 are a rich golden-brown, streaked and blotched with 
 black, except the wings, which remain grey, while the 
 breast becomes jet black. The females are somewhat 
 larger and have longer beaks than the males, but in the 
 length of beak there is great variation in both sexes. 
 
 The Dunlin, like the Snipe and Woodcock and 
 many other long and slender-beaked waders, has the 
 power of curving the tip of the upper mandible up- 
 wards for a considerable distance, enabling it to seize 
 its prey when the beak is thrust downward into the 
 mud of their feeding-grounds. See Plate 32, Fig. 
 185. 
 
LEAST SANDPIPER 109 
 
 This bird is widely distributed throughout the 
 northern hemisphere, migrating at the beginning of 
 winter to a warmer climate. It breeds chiefly in the 
 Arctic regions. The variety found in this country is 
 slightly larger than that of the Old World and has a 
 longer bill, slightly recurved. 
 
 In its winter dress the Little Stint looks like a mini- 
 ature Dunlin, but in summer it assumes the coloura- 
 tion of its larger relative only so far as the upper parts 
 are concerned, the under parts remaining white. Its 
 breeding-ground is in the northern hemisphere, but 
 it takes long journeys when migrating, and in the 
 winter is found in many parts of the world. See Plate 
 32, Fig. 183. 
 
 Our American Stint is commonly called the Least 
 Sandpiper and differs from the European species 
 chiefly in that it is smaller and darker in colour at all 
 seasons. This tiny wanderer, but six inches in length, 
 sometimes strays as far as Great Britain and other 
 parts of Europe. Its bill is straight. A larger spe- 
 cies, the Semipalmated Sandpiper, is sometimes seen 
 with the Least Sandpiper along our coasts. 
 
 Many other species of Sandpiper are found in this 
 country. 
 
 The Curlew Sandpiper, which is only an occasional 
 visitor to the United States, is very striking in the 
 matter of plumage. In winter ash grey above and 
 white below, this bird in the early spring assumes a 
 richly coloured livery, the upper parts being beauti- 
 fully barred and streaked with black and grey on a 
 ground of rich chestnut, while the under parts are red- 
 dish, slightly barred on the flanks with dark brown and 
 
110 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 grey. The females, as in the Plovers generally, re- 
 semble the males and are slightly larger. See Plate 
 32, Fig. 186. 
 
 In the autumn these birds visit the eastern shores of 
 Great Britain in great numbers, the immigration 
 at that time consisting chiefly of young birds. 
 Smaller numbers of adult birds arrive in the spring 
 in their full breeding colours, on their way to their 
 breeding-grounds within the Arctic Circle. 
 
 Like the Curlew Sandpiper, the Knot and the San- 
 derling have a red breeding plumage. 
 
 The Knot, also called Robin Snipe and Grey Snipe, 
 is the largest of these three species, measuring ten 
 inches in length. In winter grey above and white 
 below, it assumes in the spring a very handsome dress. 
 The head and neck are reddish-brown, with dark 
 streaks, the back-feathers are blackish, spotted with 
 chestnut and margined with white, while the throat 
 and breast are a rich dark chestnut. See Plate 32, 
 Fig. 187. 
 
 Until the year 1876 the breeding-place of the Knot 
 was unknown. It was then discovered nesting in the 
 snow of the Arctic regions, by Colonel Fielding, when 
 on an Arctic expedition. On this occasion nestlings 
 only were found, and the eggs were unknown until the 
 year 1901, when specimens were found in the Taimyr 
 Peninsula, Siberia. 
 
 The Knot is well known in this country along the 
 Atlantic seaboard, as well as on the Great Lakes and 
 in the Mississippi Valley. 
 
 The Sanderling differs from the other Sandpipers 
 in that it lacks the hind-toe. In its autumn and win- 
 
RUFF REDSHANK 111 
 
 ter dress this bird is grey above and white below, but 
 during the summer months the feathers of the upper 
 parts have dark brown or black centres, edged or spot- 
 ted with rufous, while the face, neck and upper part 
 of the breast are a pale chestnut, spotted with dark 
 brown. This little bird breeds in the far north, but 
 at other times is found along the beaches in almost 
 every part of the world. See Plate 32, Fig. 188. 
 
 In many ways the most remarkable of the Plover 
 tribe is the Ruff, sometimes called the Fighting Sand- 
 piper, a bird that is widely distributed in the Old 
 World, though but rarely seen in America. The male 
 takes its name from a wonderful frill of feathers about 
 the neck, bearing a fancied resemblance to the Eliza- 
 bethan ruff. The female is called a Reeve, but for 
 what reason is not known. The colouration of the ruff 
 varies in every individual. As if still further to 
 heighten the effect of this ornament, the head is 
 adorned with broad ear-tufts, while around the beak 
 are brilliantly coloured, fleshy tubercles. In the illus- 
 tration the ruff is black and the ear-tufts dark brown, 
 but ruffs of white, buff and chestnut also occur, and 
 they may be plain, banded, spotted or streaked with 
 darker colours. In the autumn the various ornaments 
 are discarded, and the male is distinguished from the 
 female only by its larger size. These ruffs are made 
 to play an important part during the courting season, 
 for at this time their wearers meet together daily for 
 the purpose of sparring with each other and fighting 
 mimic battles. When a Ruff is in the presence of a 
 Reeve he behaves very strangely, thrusting his beak 
 
112 EIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 down to the ground and spreading out his ruff and 
 ear-tufts to the fullest extent. And in this position 
 he will stand for a minute or more, as if to give the 
 female time to admire him, though, as often as not, she 
 quietly walks off as soon as she sees that he is too ab- 
 sorbed in his ceremonial to notice whether she is look- 
 ing or not. See Plate 31, Fig. 181. 
 
 The Redshank brings us back to the more normal 
 Wading-birds. The name is derived from the orange 
 colour of the legs. This bird is common in many parts 
 of the Old World, but is not known in America. Al- 
 though it has distinct summer and winter plumage, 
 these do not differ conspicuously. The lower part of 
 the back is always white. See Plate 32, Fig. 182. 
 
 The American Oyster-catcher is a strictly marine 
 bird of this tribe, so called from its habit of feeding 
 upon small oysters, clams and other mollusks found 
 along beaches, using its strong beak to force open the 
 shells. It breeds on the coast as far north as southern 
 New Jersey and is fairly common. Three species are 
 found in America, the Black Oyster-catcher having 
 entirely black plumage, with red bill, feet and eyes. 
 
 Several species of Curlew are native to this country, 
 the largest of which is the Long-billed, found chiefly 
 in the interior as far north as Manitoba, but also seen 
 along the coast. The beak is long and curved like that 
 of an Ibis. The colouration is black and buff above, 
 the tail barred with the same colours, the under parts 
 buff, streaked with darker colour. This is the largest 
 of American shore-birds, measuring about two feet in 
 length, the long, pointed wings spreading about forty 
 
32. 
 
 182. Re 
 
 (Actod-romas minuta) 
 
 European Avocet 
 
 (JRecuroirottra 
 
 avocetta). 
 
 ^ 
 
 186. Curlew Sandpiper 
 (Eroiia ferruginea). 
 
 187. Knot 
 (Tringa canutu*). 
 
 188. 
 Sanderling 
 
 (CaUdris arenaria). 
 

PHALAROPE GULLS 113 
 
 inches. Like that of the Snipe and Woodcock, this 
 plumage is worn throughout the year. 
 
 A commoner species along our coasts is the Hud- 
 sonian Curlew, a smaller form than the preceding. 
 The Eskimo Curlew is more frequently met with in 
 the interior, being more of a field bird than either of 
 the others mentioned. 
 
 The species figured is the European Curlew, which 
 closely resembles the American. See Plate 31, Fig. 
 176. * 
 
 The Phalaropes are small birds, in general appear- 
 ance resembling the Sandpipers, but having lobed 
 toes. The wings are long and the tail rather short. 
 They breed in the Arctic regions and migrate south- 
 ward in winter. 
 
 The largest and most beautiful species is Wilson's 
 Phalarope, found only in America, chiefly in the in- 
 terior of the country. The female exceeds the male 
 in size and beauty, and he performs the duties of nest- 
 building and brooding the eggs. The plumage is ash- 
 colour above, varied with chestnut, and white below; 
 the bill and feet are black. 
 
 The Jacanas are related to the Plover tribe and are 
 found in both America and Europe. These are small 
 birds, having enormously long toes and claws that 
 enable them to walk with ease over floating aquatic 
 plants. The commonest species in this country is the 
 Mexican Jacana. The tail is short and the wings are 
 provided with spurs that are used in fighting, the birds 
 being very quarrelsome. They are found along the 
 banks of streams and ponds, but are unable to swim. 
 
114 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 GULLS 
 
 At one time regarded as near relatives of the Pet- 
 rels, it is now known that these birds are much more 
 closely related to the Plovers, and this relationship is 
 shown, curiously enough, most strikingly in the 
 colouration of the eggs on the one hand and in the 
 skeleton on the other, though many other common ana- 
 tomical characters afford equally positive evidence of 
 this fact. 
 
 Like the Petrels and unlike the Plovers, they are 
 web-footed. But they differ from the Petrels and 
 resemble the Plovers in having slit-like instead of 
 tubular nostrils. 
 
 Such species as display a distinct summer dress 
 have this change confined to the colouration of the 
 head. Many species require several years to attain 
 their fully adult plumage. 
 
 Gulls fly with more deliberate flaps of the wings 
 than Terns and Jaegers and are able to keep in the air 
 even longer without coming to the water to rest. It 
 is believed that individuals have followed vessels en- 
 tirely across the Atlantic. Gulls are excellent swim- 
 mers, exceedingly buoyant and floating high on the 
 waves with the breast seeming just to touch. One 
 alighting upon the water is a very pretty sight, indeed. 
 Raising the wings high above the back as it nears 
 the surface, with the delicate feet extended down- 
 ward, the bird settles quietly to rest, folding its wings 
 and carefully adjusting its plumage. They sleep or 
 appear to sleep in the wildest sea, bobbing up and 
 down on the waves like corks, and no amount of spray 
 
GULLS 115 
 
 or wind seems to affect them. Strangely enough, they 
 are able to accelerate their speed without flapping the 
 wings, and a Gull hovering at the stern of a swiftly 
 moving steamer will suddenly fly ahead of and around 
 it, resuming its position at the stern without a single 
 wing-beat. Gulls fly by night as well as by day and 
 take very little, if any, sleep, for days at a time, resting 
 on the water for some hours and then resuming their 
 flight. 
 
 Gulls have long and rather narrow wings, particu- 
 larly adapted for long-continued and powerful flight. 
 They flap the wings apparently with considerable 
 effort, but in spite of seeming exhaustion keep flap- 
 ping for hours at a time on inland streams or rivers 
 where the wind is hardly sufficient to buoy them up. 
 
 All have powerful bills which serve in tearing their 
 food. The legs are short and delicate, the feet small 
 and webbed. Most species are white mixed with grey 
 or black, though in one or two forms a reddish tint is 
 visible on the feathers. The plumage is exquisitely 
 soft and smooth and always in immaculate condition. 
 
 Gulls nest in many different sites, but usually on 
 the ground, either among rocks or on the sandy shores. 
 Occasionally they build in trees. They eat a great 
 variety of food and are practically birds of prey, feed- 
 ing on small animals and the eggs and young of other 
 birds. This is particularly true of the Jaegers, who 
 keep the Murres, Puffins and Auks which nest in the 
 same localities constantly on the alert to protect their 
 nurseries from these marauders. 
 
 The voice of the Gull is peculiarly harsh, and the 
 
116 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 screams of these birds above a heavy storm are fre- 
 quently heard on vessels far out at sea. 
 
 The young are covered with a fluffy down, usually 
 mottled with grey, light brown and white. They re- 
 main in the nest for a considerable time and are so 
 protectively coloured that they are with difficulty dis- 
 tinguished from their surroundings. 
 
 Besides living food, Gulls consume an immense 
 amount of refuse matter found along shore in the 
 neighbourhood of cities. For some years scows laden 
 with refuse from the city of New York have, at regu- 
 lar intervals, emptied their contents some miles out at 
 sea. At the shriek of the whistle on one of these 
 barges the signal to dump the garbage into the sea 
 they begin to gather in thousands to feed upon it, and 
 those who have seen it say it is a most remarkable spec- 
 tacle to see these birds hurrying from all quarters to 
 the feast. 
 
 Great numbers of Gulls were formerly killed by 
 feather hunters, but fortunately they are now pro- 
 tected, and they have again become quite plentiful 
 along our coasts. 
 
 The Herring Gull affords a good instance of the 
 Gulls which take several years to attain the character- 
 istic adult dress. The back in this species is a delicate 
 grey, the rest of the plumage pure white, set off by the 
 yellow colour of the feet and beak. The beak is fur- 
 ther decorated by a touch of bright red. The eye is 
 a beautiful straw colour, set in a frame of vermilion 
 formed by the rim of the eyelid. The sexes cannot be 
 distinguished externally, and the summer and winter 
 plumage is alike, except. that in winter the head is 
 
221. Black-browed 
 
 Albatross 
 (Diomedea metano- 
 
 222. Snake Bird 
 (Anhinga anhinga). 
 
 223. Herring Gull 
 (Larus argentatw). 
 
 224. Mew Gull 
 (Larus carius). 
 
 - 'l 
 
 226. 
 
 Parasitic Jaeger (Stercorariue paraslticus). 
 
 225. Kittiwake (Ri*8a tridactyla). 
 
MEW GULL BLACK SKIMMER 117 
 
 streaked with grey. The young birds are mottled 
 with brown. See Plate 38, Fig. 223. 
 
 The Herring Gull is common in both Europe and 
 America and the two forms are practically alike in 
 size and colour. This is the bird so commonly seen in 
 our harbours and following in the track of vessels. 
 
 Nearly allied to the Herring Gull is the Great 
 Black-backed Gull, a rather larger bird than the for- 
 mer and distinguished from it by having a dark, slaty 
 black instead of pale grey back. The tips of the 
 wings and rest of the plumage are pure white. It is a 
 more northern species than the Herring Gull, but is 
 frequently seen in company with them. 
 
 The Common European Gull, or Mew Gull, as it 
 is called in Great Britain, and the Kittiwake, have no 
 decided difference of plumage, except that in winter 
 the head and upper part of the neck become flecked 
 with grey, as in the Herring Gull. In the Kittiwake 
 the hind-toe has become reduced to the vanishing 
 point. See Plate 38, Figs. 224, 225. 
 
 There are several species of these birds in this coun- 
 try, but they differ little in general appearance. 
 
 The Black-headed Gull differs from those just de- 
 scribed in that during the summer months the head 
 assumes a dark brown colour, which, when the bird is 
 flying, looks black; hence its name. Young birds in 
 their first plumage may be readily distinguished by 
 the fact that the small feathers of the wings are brown, 
 while the tail has a black bar across the tip. But the 
 fully adult characters are assumed on the comple- 
 tion of the first year in which it differs from the 
 
118 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 Herring and Black-backed Gulls, which require years 
 to attain the adult plumage. See Plate 39, Fig. 228. 
 
 During the winter months, for some years past, 
 these birds have assembled in large numbers on the 
 Thames and on the waters of the London parks. 
 
 The Laughing Gull, which breeds in the eastern 
 part of North America, has in summer dark grey 
 wings and back, with black primaries, head and throat 
 darker, under parts white, and bill a deep red; in 
 winter, the head and throat become white, sometimes 
 streaked with greyish colour. The name is taken from 
 its curious cry, resembling laughter. 
 
 The Black Skimmer or Scissor-bill is a remarkable 
 member of the Gull family, having the lower mandible 
 considerably longer than the upper. Both are thin 
 and very flexible, and the bird skims the surface of the 
 water in search of small aquatic creatures. These 
 birds are quite common along our southern coasts, 
 nesting in the sand and gravel of the beach. The 
 young harmonise so perfectly with their surroundings 
 as to be practically invisible. In them for some time 
 the mandibles are of equal length. The plumage of 
 the adult bird is black and white and the bill is red and 
 black. 
 
 The small, fork-tailed, short-legged birds known as 
 Terns are very closely related to the Gulls, but have 
 relatively longer wings and are much more graceful 
 and swift in flight. They perform many strange evo- 
 lutions in the air, large flocks flying round and round 
 in a huge circle, wheeling and swerving like one bird. 
 They are extremely noisy, uttering their harsh calls 
 almost continuously. Terns flap their wings much 
 
ROYAL TERN FULMAR 119 
 
 oftener than Gulls and may readily be distinguished 
 from them by their smaller size and long, sharply 
 pointed bills. They are not as good swimmers, having 
 very small and delicate feet. On shore they patter 
 about in a very pretty and graceful manner. Their 
 food consists principally of living fish, which they 
 procure by diving from a considerable height into the 
 water. 
 
 Their nesting habits are similar to those of Gulls, 
 great colonies of them laying their eggs in hollows on 
 the beach, usually on remote islands, but sometimes 
 on the coast or along inland waters. Great numbers 
 of the Common, or Wilson's, Tern breed on the island 
 of Penikese, off the coast of Massachusetts, a favour- 
 able site for them, since it has in recent years become 
 Government property and the breeding-grounds of 
 the birds will be protected. The young are tiny, 
 fluffy creatures, much like young Gulls for the first 
 few months of their existence, and bear a close resem- 
 blance to their surroundings. See Plate 39, Fig. 230, 
 
 The Royal Tern is frequently seen along our south- 
 ern coasts, particularly in Florida, where it is often 
 seen chasing the less active Pelicans and forcing them 
 to disgorge their prey, when by a swift plunge they 
 secure the prize before it reaches the water. Another 
 interesting species is the Noddy Tern, found in sum- 
 mer along the Gulf coast. In this the top of the head 
 is white, instead of black, the rest of the plumage a 
 very dark brown and the middle tail-feathers are long- 
 est. In Terns the outer tail-feathers are longer than 
 the others, as in Swallows, and hence they are often 
 
120 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 called Sea Swallows. When alarmed, these birds 
 hover distractedly in the air above their nests. 
 
 The Little, or Least, Tern in its general appearance 
 resembles the Common Tern, from which, however, 
 it may be readily distinguished by its much smaller 
 size and by the yellow, black- tipped beak. The Least 
 Tern of America is nearly related to the European 
 species, but has less black on the back. It is said to 
 vary its fish diet with insects. As may be inferred 
 from its name, this is the smallest member of the Tern 
 family. See Plate 39, Fig. 227. 
 
 The Bridled and Sooty Terns are two species that 
 closely resemble each other, found in tropical and 
 subtropical regions of the western hemisphere. 
 
 The Fulmar is remarkable for having two distinct 
 phases of plumage a light phase, in which the head, 
 neck and under parts are white, with back, wings and 
 tail grey, and a dark phase, in which the whole plum- 
 age is much the same shade of dark, smoky grey. 
 This bird is Gull-like in form, but has longer wings. 
 These are occasionally flapped slowly in flight, but 
 much of the time are held stiffly outstretched. 
 
 The Sandwich Tern derives its name from the place 
 where it was first observed Sandwich, England. In 
 this species the crown in summer is black and the beak 
 is black tipped with yellow. The back, as in the other 
 Terns and many of the Gulls, is a beautiful pearl- 
 grey, the under-parts white, but tinged with a salmon- 
 pink colour, which rapidly fades after the death of the 
 bird. The legs and feet are black, in this respect dif- 
 fering from those of the other Terns described. See 
 Plate 39, Fig. 229. 
 
AUKS 121 
 
 Skuas and Jaegers are Gull-like birds found along 
 the waters of the northern hemisphere. They differ 
 from typical Gulls and Terns not only anatomically 
 and in their more sombre colouration, but also in their 
 habits. They are known as parasitic, from the fact 
 that they chase Gulls and force them to disgorge the 
 fish they have captured. So expert is the Skua that 
 he will catch the fish dropped by his victim before it 
 can reach the sea. Skuas also devour the eggs and 
 young of any other birds which may have the misfor- 
 tune to be breeding in their neighbourhood. 
 
 The nestlings of the various species of Skuas differ 
 from those of Gulls and Terns in being dark and 
 whole-coloured, instead of grey and mottled with 
 black. 
 
 The Parasitic Jaeger and the Long-tailed Jaeger, 
 as it is often called, are found the whole way round the 
 northern hemisphere, having a wide range over the 
 Arctic regions of America. See Plate 38, Fig. 226. 
 
 AUKS 
 
 The Auks in other words, the Guillemots, Razor- 
 bills and Puffins are among the most interesting of 
 living birds, for there can be little doubt that they are 
 descended from some Plover-like ancestor and that 
 their present peculiarities of shape and structure were 
 slowly acquired as they became more and more aqua- 
 tic until they have assumed a dose resemblance to the 
 far more ancient Diving-birds. As divers and in the 
 skill they display in the capture of fish, which they 
 chase under water, these birds have no rivals. They 
 are never met with in fresh water, but frequent rocky 
 
122 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 coasts in the northern parts of both hemispheres, 
 where they live in enormous colonies. 
 
 The Guillemot and the Razor-bill breed on the 
 edges of cliffs, laying, on the bare rock, but a single 
 pear-shaped egg. The Puffin, on the other hand, 
 chooses a burrow for its nest, seizing, as a rule, one 
 dug either by a rabbit or a Petrel, and driving out the 
 rightful occupants by the aid of its powerful beak. 
 See Plate 40, Fig. 239. 
 
 These birds are all compact in form, with short, 
 rounded tails and webbed feet. Their wings, while 
 short, are very powerful, and the birds fly with great 
 speed, but they are not graceful on the wing and do 
 not soar like the Gulls and some of their allies. 
 Owing to their almost inaccessible breeding-grounds, 
 these birds are still very plentiful. Their eggs are 
 used for food by the Eskimos and the flesh of the birds 
 as well. The eggs are collected during the warmer 
 months of the year and stored for use during the long 
 winter. See Plate 39, Fig. 233. 
 
 The Murres are closely allied to the Guillemots and 
 much like them in form. Two species the California 
 and Pallas's Murre are extremely abundant on the 
 islands of the Bering Sea and are said "to outnumber 
 all the other sea birds in that region fully ten to one." 
 See Plate 40, Fig. 238. 
 
 One writer who has studied these birds in their 
 haunts on the islands of the Bering Sea, says: "Puf- 
 fins are the most outlandish birds, trim in build, about 
 a foot in length, with very short feet and webbed toes. 
 When seated on the rocks they assume an erect pos- 
 ture, and their small heads set close down upon their 
 
GREAT AUK DOVEKIE 123 
 
 shoulders look ridiculously insignificant in comparison 
 with their exaggerated beaks, which are much flat- 
 tened sidewise and immensely spread out from top to 
 bottom. . . . This great beak is largely an ap- 
 pendage of the breeding season and is cast, like the 
 antlers of a deer, at the end of that period." It is 
 brilliantly coloured in red, yellow and green. 
 
 In the Tufted Puffin, during the breeding season, 
 two bunches of yellow feathers grow from the sides of 
 the head just behind the eye, extending for some dis- 
 tance behind the neck. It is brownish-black above and 
 greyish-brown below, while the Horned Puffin, which 
 takes its name from a small excrescence on the eyelid, 
 is almost black above and white below, and the feet are 
 brilliant red. 
 
 The Great Auk, a larger bird than any of the pre- 
 ceding species, standing more than two feet in height, 
 has become extinct since the middle of the last century. 
 Its wings were rudimentary, and being unable to fly it 
 was quickly killed off by early travellers to the North 
 for its feathers, flesh and oil, and a few skins, bones 
 and eggs that have been preserved in museums and 
 by collectors are all that remain of this interesting 
 bird. In colouring, the Great Auk was all black above 
 and pure white below, with a large white spot in front 
 of the eyes. 
 
 The Wings of the Little Auk, or Dovekie for- 
 tunately unlike those of its great relative, are 
 well developed and used in flight. This bird is com- 
 mon along the rocky shores of the British Islands and 
 many other favourable localities in the north Atlantic. 
 See Plate 40, Fig. 236. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 PIGEONS 
 ORDER COLUMB^ 
 
 PIGEONS are now generally believed to be very 
 near relations of the Plover tribe, little as these 
 two groups appear to have in common, judged 
 by external characters alone. When, however, we 
 compare them anatomically, we gain true insight into 
 their relationships. 
 
 Pigeons are, for the most part, short-legged, ar- 
 boreal birds. Certain forms, however, such as the 
 Crowned Pigeons and a few others, have taken to liv- 
 ing on the ground, and in these the legs are much 
 longer than in the tree-living species. 
 
 Two white eggs are laid in a season and the parents 
 relieve each other in the task of incubating. The 
 young are hatched naked and are for a long time help- 
 less. Pigeons are remarkable from the fact that the 
 inner walls of the crop, which is of great size, are richly 
 provided with blood-vessels which during the breeding 
 season secrete what is known as "Pigeon's milk," and 
 on this the young are fed, the parent thrusting its bill 
 into the mouth of the young and regurgitating this 
 substance. 
 
 The Pigeon family is a very large one, consisting of 
 
 124 
 
PIGEONS 125 
 
 about three hundred species, and is distributed over a 
 large part of the warmer sections of the world. A 
 great many are found in the East Indies, especially in 
 the Malayan Archipelago. In form they resemble 
 each other closely. They are, as a rule, fairly large 
 birds, with strong feet and legs, and in walking have 
 a singular jerky motion, the head bobbing backwards 
 and forwards at each step. When rising from the 
 ground, many beat the backs of their wings together, 
 causing a loud flapping sound. The different domes- 
 tic breeds are supposed to be descendants of the Rock 
 Dove of Europe. The young are known as squabs, 
 and are highly prized for food. 
 
 Pigeons, as a rule, are gregarious, flying in large 
 flocks, although some species are solitary in habits. In 
 flight they do not seem to have any orderly arrange- 
 ment like that of Ducks and Geese, but proceed in a 
 compact mass. 
 
 The attitude of Pigeons in perching is peculiar and 
 very characteristic. The feet that is, the portion 
 from the toes to the heel are placed in an almost hori- 
 zontal position, the bird appearing to hang away from 
 the branch or perch in an awkward manner. The 
 grasping power of the toes must be considerable in 
 order to maintain this position. Most birds perch with 
 the feet directly under the body. 
 
 The voice of Pigeons is a well-marked character, 
 best described by the word "coo," which perhaps most 
 closely resembles it. The sound is always accompa- 
 nied by the curious bobbing motion of the head. 
 
 As a rule, Pigeons of the western hemisphere re- 
 semble each other somewhat in colouring, which is 
 
126 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 a fawn or greyish, variously mingled with spots of 
 black and white. Nearly all have a slight iridescence 
 about the neck and head and sometimes on the wings. 
 A few species have long, sharp-pointed tails like that 
 of the Passenger Pigeon and Mourning Dove, but 
 most of them have short, square tails. 
 
 The remarkable extinct bird known as the Dodo 
 was long a puzzle to scientific men, but is now known 
 to have belonged to the Pigeon tribe. It was an in- 
 habitant of Mauritius and was discovered by the early 
 sea captains who visited the island in search of water. 
 The Dodo was as heavy or heavier than the Turkey- 
 cock and round and ungainly in appearance. The 
 head was enormously large, the bill long and sharply 
 recurved. It was absolutely flightless, the wings 
 being represented by a few small, fluffy, Ostrich-like 
 plumes. The legs were short and stout, the feet heavy 
 and armed with powerful claws. Being flightless and 
 clumsy and so unable to escape from their enemies, 
 these birds were very quickly exterminated, only a few 
 scattered bones and feathers now carefully preserved 
 in museums remaining of this gigantic Pigeon. 
 
 The American Passenger Pigeon was remarkable 
 for the enormous numbers in which it existed in the 
 United States not more than fifty years ago. These 
 birds literally swarmed over the country. A flock seen 
 by the naturalist Wilson was estimated by him to con- 
 sist of many millions, and in 1813 Audubon reported 
 enormous hosts of them, so thickly packed that they 
 obscured the light of the sun at noontime as effectively 
 as an eclipse. See Plate 22, Fig. 133. 
 
 Another naturalist, Brewster, describing the nest- 
 
130. 
 Ring Dove 
 
 (Streptopslia risoria). 
 
 129. Hoopoe (Upupa epop*). 
 
 132. 
 
 Wood Pigeon 
 (Columba palumbtts) 
 
 131. Stock Dove 
 (Columba osnas). 
 
 133. 
 
 Pigeon 
 
 (Ectopistes 
 
 inigratoriua). 
 

PASSENGER PIGEON 127 
 
 ing-place of these birds in Michigan so recently as 
 1866, says: "The birds arrived in two separate bodies, 
 the largest of which formed a compact mass of 
 Pigeons at least five miles long by one mile wide. The 
 nesting area extended for a distance of eight miles 
 through hardwood timber, then crossed a river, . . . 
 and thence stretched through pinewoods about twenty 
 miles." 
 
 These birds were subjected to merciless persecu- 
 tion, being shot by thousands and the flesh of the 
 young used for food. They became enormously fat 
 and were sometimes killed merely for the oil that was 
 extracted from the fat. It is not easy to understand, 
 however, why the Passenger Pigeon should have be- 
 come completely exterminated in so short a time, as it 
 would seem that a few straggling flocks or individuals 
 might still be in existence. But although the entire 
 country has been searched again and again by expert 
 naturalists in search of these birds, none have been dis- 
 covered in recent years, those purporting to be of this 
 species usually proving to be specimens of the Mourn- 
 ing Dove or Zenaida. 
 
 There are many species of Turtle Doves, all inhabi- 
 tants of the Old World. The one figured is frequently 
 seen in collections. It is quite abundant in certain 
 parts of the British Islands during the summer 
 months. Another species commonly seen in captivity 
 is cream-coloured. These birds are popularly sup- 
 posed to have a strong affection for each other, prob- 
 ably from their habit of nestling close together when 
 perching. As a matter of fact, Pigeons in general are 
 rather quarrelsome and disagreeable toward each 
 
128 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 other, the males in particular pecking at and annoying 
 the females*. See Plate 23, Fig. 137. 
 
 The Ring, or Barbary Dove is a near relative 
 of the Turtle Dove and is met with from Constanti- 
 nople to India. The so-called "Turtle Dove," so com- 
 monly kept in cages, is really the Barbary Dove, 
 though the domesticated birds now form a race apart 
 from the wild species. See Plate 22, Fig. 130. 
 
 The Fruit Pigeons of the Old World constitute a 
 very large family, divided into many sub-families. 
 They are of considerable size, and, as their common 
 name implies, feed almost exclusively upon fruit. It 
 is quite probable, however, that they also feed upon 
 seeds, roots and insects. 
 
 The Nicobar Pigeon is an East Indian species, 
 chiefly remarkable for the long, pointed, iridescent 
 feathers growing from each side of the neck a rich 
 greenish blue in colour and very brilliant. 
 
 Another common East Indian form is the Blood- 
 breasted, a rather small species having a crown of 
 feathers and a conspicuous red spot, closely resembling 
 blood, in the centre of the breast. 
 
 The largest of all living Pigeons is the Goura, or 
 Crowned Pigeon, a native of New Guinea and some 
 of the neighbouring islands, and a familiar bird in zoo- 
 logical collections. This bird has a beautiful crest 
 composed of soft, filmy feathers which rise stiffly in a 
 fan shape over the head and back of the neck, and is 
 always erect. The Goura is about the size of a small 
 Goose, but is quite differently shaped from that bird 
 and has a short, thick neck like the other members of 
 its family. It has a curious habit of shaking its tail 
 
WOOD PIGEON ROCK DOVE 129 
 
 almost continuously. In colour it is a charming bluish- 
 grey or purplish-grey, with darker shades of purplish- 
 red upon the wings. The eye is a deep rich red. The 
 legs are long and heavily scaled. An even more beau- 
 tiful species, perhaps, is the Victoria Crowned Pigeon, 
 but it does not thrive well in captivity. See Plate 23, 
 Fig. 136. 
 
 The Wood Pigeon, also called Ring Dove, is a 
 European species, measuring about seventeen inches 
 in length. The female is hardly distinguishable from 
 the male, being very little smaller and rather duller in 
 colour. The white patch on the neck is a conspicuous 
 mark. Of late years this bird has become very com- 
 mon in London parks, where it is said to show not the 
 slightest fear of man, though in the open country very 
 shy and wary. See Plate 22, Fig. 132. 
 
 The Stock Dove is often confused with the follow- 
 ing species the Rock Dove but it may always be 
 distinguished from it by the absence of the patch of 
 white above the tail. It has somewhat increased in 
 Europe of late years, and shows a marked preference 
 for wooded districts. Rabbit burrows, holes in trees, 
 and matted ivy are chosen as nesting-sites by these 
 birds. See Plate 22, Fig. 131. 
 
 Perhaps the most interesting of the Pigeon family 
 is the Rock Dove, since it is probably the ancestor of 
 all our domesticated races. Readily distinguishable 
 by the double black bar across the wings and the white 
 patch on the lower part of the back, this bird is to be 
 found only in a truly wild state where caves or deep 
 fissures in rocks exist. It is a common bird in Scot- 
 land and is met with abundantly on the west coast of 
 
130 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 Ireland, where it finds suitable breeding-places in the 
 rugged cliffs facing the Atlantic. See Plate 23, Fig. 
 135. 
 
 Though partial to grain, the Rock Dove feeds 
 largely on the roots and seeds of various troublesome 
 weeds. This and other Pigeons will occasionally, like 
 Gulls, quench their thirst while floating on the water, 
 always in going downstream. In drinking, they do 
 not raise the head, but keep the bill immersed. 
 
 The Pouter Pigeon represents one of the most pe- 
 culiar of all the products of the breeder. By long and 
 careful selection this bird has acquired an enormous 
 crop, which, when the bird is excited, becomes greatly 
 inflated. The long feathers of the legs have also been 
 developed by care in selecting those birds which had 
 legs most inclined to produce feathers. See Plate 23, 
 Fig. 134. 
 
 But the races of domesticated Pigeons are legion. 
 Some of the most striking varieties are the Pouter, 
 Fantail, Homing, Tumbler, Owl and Carrier, but in 
 grace and beauty none compare with the wild species. 
 
 The smallest species found in this country is the 
 Ground Dove, sometimes also called Mourning Dove, 
 found in many of the Southern States, usually near 
 the coast. Scarcely more than six inches in length, 
 this beautiful little bird is a rosy fawn colour, deli- 
 cately spotted with different shades of purple, and is 
 almost invisible on the ground as it walks jauntily 
 along, industriously feeding upon seeds 'and small 
 fruits. 
 
 The Mourning Dove, or Carolina Dove, has a wide 
 range throughout North America. The name is de- 
 
23. 
 
 134. Pouter Pigeon 
 (Colnmba livia, var.J. 
 
 Vv\l 
 
 136. Crowned Pigeon 
 (Ooura coronata). 
 
 137. Turtle Dove (Turtur turtur). 
 
ZENAIDA DOVE CARRIER PIGEON 131 
 
 rived from the mournful call of the male, which may 
 be heard for a considerable distance. The Zenaida 
 is a somewhat smaller form, closely resembling the 
 foregoing, but has a square instead of pointed tail. 
 It was formerly found in considerable numbers in 
 summer off the coast of Florida. 
 
 The White-winged Dove inhabits the southern part 
 of the United States and ranges through the West 
 Indies and Central America. It is distinguished by 
 the white wing-coverts and a wide black mark below 
 the ear. 
 
 A large species found in the Western States is the 
 Band-tailed Pigeon. It is greyish above, white below, 
 has a white band at the back of the neck and a dark 
 band across the tail. 
 
 The Carrier is a species in which the natural power 
 of flight and the homing instinct have been greatly 
 developed. It is also sometimes called the Homing 
 Pigeon, from the practical certainty with which it 
 returns to its roosting-place after being carried away. 
 The rate of speed attained by these birds has been 
 closely determined, and it is known that the trip from 
 London to Edinburgh has been made by them in con- 
 siderably less time than is taken by the fastest express 
 trains. But this speed, while very great, is doubtless 
 excelled by that of many other species of wild birds 
 whose habits are not so well known. As might be 
 expected, the form of the Carrier Pigeon is long and 
 trim, and the wing- and tail-feathers are greatly 
 lengthened. A curious abnormal development is the 
 bare skin above the beak and around the eyes. 
 
 A well-known and graceful domestic variety is the 
 
132 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 Fantail, in which the tail spreads over the back in the 
 manner of a strutting Turkey-cock. This character 
 seems to be permanent, the birds maintaining it at all 
 times. The Tumblers are so called on account of their 
 habit of tumbling or falling in the air during flight. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 PARROTS AND CUCKOOS 
 ORDERS PSITTACI AND CUCULI 
 
 PARROTS are quite distinct in many particu- 
 lars from any of the birds so far described. 
 They are a very ancient group and have under- 
 gone such deep-seated structural changes, especially 
 in regard to the skull, that it is not easy to discover 
 what their nearest relatives are, though the Cuckoos 
 are generally accorded this honour. 
 
 Among the Parrot's many striking peculiarities the 
 beak is most conspicuous. Not only is it a very pow- 
 erful weapon, but it also plays an important part in 
 climbing among the branches of trees. It is heavy, 
 sharply pointed and recurved. Some species have the 
 ability to hook the tip of the beak on a branch or the 
 bar of a cage and remain suspended from it for hours 
 at a time. 
 
 The legs are very short and the toes are arranged 
 in pairs, two in front and two behind ; hence these birds 
 are called Zygodactyle, or yoke-footed. The use of the 
 foot in holding food and conveying it to the mouth is 
 not confined to Parrots, as certain other birds have 
 this habit. In the true Parrots there is no crest, the 
 tails are square and the upper mandible has tooth-like 
 notches along the edge. 
 
 133 
 
134 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 Parrots are gregarious, flying in large flocks and 
 feeding, roosting and nesting in numbers when pos- 
 sible. They are remarkable tor their harsh and pierc- 
 ing voices, and are extremely noisy, chattering and 
 scolding and screaming when alarmed and also for 
 pleasure. Their food consists principally of fruits 
 and nuts, but they are also insect-eaters, and at least 
 one species, the remarkable Kea of Australia, has 
 developed the habit of feeding on the flesh, particu- 
 larly the liver, of sheep, since their introduction into 
 that country. The tongue of the Parrot is short, hard 
 and round and has great mobility. It is of much as- 
 sistance to the bird in eating, rolling the food about in 
 the mouth and placing it in position for the beak to 
 tear or break apart, and also in articulating. 
 
 Parrots are among the most brilliantly coloured of 
 birds, bright blue, scarlet, yellow and green being 
 mingled in the most striking contrasts imaginable. 
 Certain species, however, are quite dull-coloured. 
 
 Many of them have short, square tails, but the 
 Macaws, the largest members of the family, have very 
 long, pointed tail-feathers. 
 
 The beautiful bloom" which covers the feathers of 
 some Parrots and the beak and face of the African 
 Grey Parrot is due to a kind of pow r der formed by the 
 breaking up of what are known as powder-down 
 feathers. 
 
 The Grey African Parrot may be taken as a typical 
 representative of the tribe. It is a very beautiful bird 
 of moderate size, with delicate grey plumage over the 
 body and a scarlet tail. This bird has acquired first 
 place among Parrots as a linguist, and well-trained 
 
29. Red-headed Woodpecker 
 CMelanerpes erythrocephafa*}. 
 
 30. 
 
 European Cuckoo 
 (Cuculus canorus). 
 
 32. 
 
 Carolina 
 
 Parrakeet 
 
 (Conurua caro- 
 
 linensis). 
 
 31. Wryneck 
 (Jynx torquiUa) 
 
CAROLINA PAROQUET MACAWS 135 
 
 specimens bring very high prices. It ranges across 
 equatorial Africa and is very familiar as a cage-bird. 
 They live for many years, in captivity, and are very 
 interesting, extremely alert and performing many 
 droll and singular antics. The nestlings are naked 
 when first hatched, but soon become covered with a 
 dense, thick down. See Plate 7, Fig. 33. 
 
 The Carolina Paroquet, or Conure, was until late 
 years very common throughout the southern parts of 
 the United States; now it is practically extinct, the 
 only breeding-ground known to exist being in one 
 or two counties of Florida. The causes of its ex- 
 termination are many, but probably the chief one 
 was that it was destructive to crops and fruit-orchards. 
 These birds were easily destroyed from the fact 
 that when one of a flock was injured or killed, the 
 others would assemble about it, and this would happen 
 again and again, so that a hunter was able to shoot 
 numbers of them before any would make their escape. 
 
 The colour is a delicate green over most of the body, 
 the head orange-yellow and the bill a rather light flesh- 
 colour. These birds are said to have roosted in a 
 peculiar manner, a number occupying the same hole 
 in a decayed tree and hanging by their bills and feet 
 to the edges. Whether, under the protection now ac- 
 corded it, the Carolina Paroquet will ever again be- 
 come common is a matter of doubt. This is the only 
 species native to the United States. See Plate 7, 
 Fig. 32. 
 
 The gaudy Macaws, largest of the Parrot tribe, are 
 found only in South America. There are many spe- 
 cies. The best known is the Blue and Yellow, which 
 
136 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 is a delicate greenish-blue on the head and neck, shad- 
 ing into deep purple as it nears the tail. The under- 
 parts are a brilliant chrome yellow, in striking con- 
 trast to the rest of the plumage. See Plate 8, Fig. 
 34. 
 
 Very little is known about the habits of the Macaws 
 in the wild state, but they are said to possess great 
 powers of flight, rising high in the air and travelling 
 long distances in search of food, which consists of vari- 
 ous kinds of fruits. The sexes are alike in colouring. 
 In some species the skin below the eyes is bare and 
 wrinkled. 
 
 The Red and Blue is dazzling in the brightness of 
 its scarlet and blue feathers, which, however, are not 
 pleasing in texture, being thin and harsh to the touch. 
 These birds are easily tamed and are commonly seen 
 in captivity. See Plate 8, Fig. 35. 
 
 The Hyacinthine Macaw is a rich deep blue over 
 the entire body, .the naked skin around the eye is a 
 brilliant yellow and the tail is black. In all these 
 birds the feathers are quite loosely set in the skin. 
 The Macaws, like many others of the Parrot tribe, 
 make their nests in tree-holes, which they adapt by 
 means of their powerful beaks to suit their require- 
 ments. 
 
 The Amazon Parrots are a South American family 
 not found north of Brazil. They are quite small and 
 are coloured in tones of brilliant green and yellow. 
 Many species are known, but all have the same gen- 
 eral colour disposed in varying proportions over the 
 body. The species figured is the Blue-fronted Ama- 
 zon. These birds fly in small flocks and feed on or- 
 
KEA GREAT BLACK COCKATOO 137 
 
 anges, plantains, berries and other fruit. See Plate 8, 
 Fig. 37. 
 
 Most notable among the Australian Parrots is the 
 great Kea. Before the introduction of sheep into that 
 island the food of this bird consisted chiefly of fruit 
 and nuts, but it speedily developed a taste for animal 
 food. These birds will seat themselves on the backs 
 of living sheep and with their long, sharp-pointed bills 
 tear through the wool and flesh in order to reach the 
 liver or kidneys of their victims, inflicting wounds that 
 usually result in the death of the animals. The Keas 
 are large, heavily built Parrots, in colour a dull green- 
 ish-brown over the whole body, with the feathers 
 arranged like scales. 
 
 Australia is also the home of the Cockatoos, most of 
 which are a delicate cream-white or rosy colour. 
 Some, however, are black. These birds vary greatly 
 in size, some being very large, others among the small- 
 est of the Parrots. 
 
 In the Great Sulphur-crested Cockatoo the body is 
 a pure cream- white in tone, the crest a sulphur-yellow. 
 The under-side of the wings is also a delicate sulphur 
 colour. 
 
 The Great Black Cockatoo is a most striking-look- 
 ing bird and the largest of this family. The upper 
 mandible is very large, with strongly-toothed edges. 
 The tongue is unlike that of most Parrots, being long, 
 slender and capable of being extended beyond the 
 beak. The colour of the plumage is jet black, with 
 a purplish bloom over it, due to the white powder 
 from powder-down feathers. The head is decorated 
 with an enormous crest of long, loose black feathers 
 
138 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 and the bare skin around the eyes is red and finely 
 wrinkled. 
 
 One of the most remarkable of the Parrot tribe is 
 the Kakapo, or Owl-Parrot, found only in the interior 
 of New Zealand. It is one of the ground-living spe- 
 cies and is unable to fly, except for very short dis- 
 tances, although having fully developed wings, "fhe 
 colour, in general, is dark greenish. It is nocturnal 
 in habits, hiding during the day and coming out at 
 dusk to feed on grass-seeds, fruits, and so on. Its re- 
 semblance to the Owl in form and habits has given it 
 its common name. 
 
 The Little Budgerigar, or Grass Parrakeet, is an- 
 other of the Australian birds, rather more of a ground- 
 feeder than most Parrots. It is an extremely common 
 cage-bird, living and breeding readily in confinement. 
 Its plumage is in general dark green, varied in the 
 different species with patches and mottlings of brown, 
 blue and yellow. The flight of this bird is strong and 
 rapid, and while on the wing it is extremely noisy. 
 See Plate 8, Fig. 38. 
 
 The Helmet, or Ganga, Cockatoo, found in Aus- 
 tralia, is the only representative of its family. The 
 crest of the male, which covers the entire head, is 
 red, the rest of the plumage a greyish colour. See 
 Plate 8, Fig. 36. 
 
 CUCKOOS 
 
 The Cuckoos are generally regarded as relatives of 
 the Parrots, but rather on account of anatomical char- 
 acters than likeness in external form. The only re- 
 spect, indeed, in which these two groups resemble one 
 
34. Blue and 
 Yellow Macaw 
 (Ara ararauna). 
 
 35. Red and 
 Blue Macaw 
 (Ara macao). 
 
 38. Zebra 
 
 Grass Parrakeet 
 
 (Melopsittacus 
 
 36. 
 
 Helmet Cockatoo 
 
 (Callocephalon 
 
 galeatum). 
 
 cestiva). 
 
YELLOW-BILLED CUCKOO 139 
 
 another externally is in the arrangement of the toes, 
 two being directed backwards and two forwards. 
 This division of the toes, however, is not confined to 
 the Parrots and Cuckoos, being shared by many other 
 groups of birds, quite unlike in other particulars. 
 
 There are a very large number of species of Cuck- 
 oos, showing a surprising range both in size and col- 
 ouration. Some are wholly black, some resplendent 
 in rich metallic emerald-green and copper, while oth- 
 ers are clad in sober hues of grey. 
 
 Although comparatively few species are found in 
 America, among them are some of the most remark- 
 able of the Order. Africa and India are particularly 
 rich in Cuckoos. 
 
 While the Cuckoos are somewhat solitary in habit, 
 the Anis, an exclusively American branch of this fam- 
 ily, are gregarious. A number of them combine in 
 building a nest, in which several females lay and take 
 turns in brooding the eggs. Their powers of flight 
 are not strong, but they are good walkers and runners. 
 
 The Yellow-billed Cuckoo is common in the eastern 
 part of North America, migrating in winter to Cen- 
 tral and South America. It is greenish-grey above, 
 white below, the outer tail-feathers black tipped with 
 white, the under part of the bill yellow, the upper part 
 black. 
 
 The Black-billed Cuckoo resembles the preceding 
 species, but in this the bill is wholly black and the tail 
 is grey, very slightly tipped with white. Its range is 
 much the same as that of the Yellow-billed Cuckoo. 
 
 One of the best known of all this family is the Com- 
 mon European Cuckoo, a bird which is found over the 
 
140 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 greater part of the Old World. Its fame is due partly 
 to its wonderful call, "Cuckoo, cuckoo!" and partly to 
 its curious parasitic habits. For this bird, like the 
 American Cowbird, thrusts the charge of its offspring 
 upon other birds, choosing as its dupes such species as 
 Robins, Hedge Sparrows, Wagtails, Thrushes, Larks 
 and Red-back Shrikes. The young Cuckoo almost as 
 soon as hatched ejects the offspring of its foster-par- 
 ents from the nest, thereby securing an abundance of 
 food for itself. See Plate 7, Fig. 30. 
 
 The resemblance which the Common Cuckoo bears 
 to the European Sparrow Hawk, both in flight and 
 colouration, serves it in good stead when seeking vic- 
 tims on whom to thrust its eggs. The male Cuckoo 
 attracts the attention of the other birds and draws 
 them away from their nest, in defending which they do 
 not hesitate to attack even the Sparrow Hawk. The 
 female Cuckoo watches this opportunity to steal up 
 and deposit her egg with those of the absent birds, 
 having first dropped it and then picked it up in her 
 bill. When the infuriated pair return, they either do 
 not notice the additional egg or are so thankful to find 
 their nursery intact that they do not interfere with the 
 egg that has been thus cleverly foisted upon them. 
 The egg of the Cuckoo is extremely small compared to 
 the size of the bird and closely imitates in colour those 
 of the birds to whose care it is committed. 
 
 The Ani is common in the Bahama Islands and 
 occasionally seen in the southern parts of the United 
 States. The Groove-billed Ani, another species hav- 
 ing the upper mandible ridged, ranges north through 
 Mexico into Lower California and some of the South- 
 
ROAD-RUNNER 141 
 
 ern States. In both the plumage is bluish-black with 
 a slight iridescence. 
 
 The Road-runner, or Chapparal-cock, is one of the 
 most striking members of the Cuckoo family of the 
 southwestern parts of the United States and Mexico. 
 It is a Ground Cuckoo that is, it frequents the 
 ground rather than trees and consequently has long 
 legs, all the other Cuckoos having conspicuously short 
 legs. The plumage is in general olive-brown above, 
 with considerable white and washes of reddish colour, 
 the tail is long and rounded, the outer feathers black 
 tipped with white. The bill is long and sharp and a 
 strip of blue and red skin runs back from the eye. 
 See Plate 4% Fig. 246. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 ROLLERS, MOTMOTS, KINGFISHERS, BEE-EATERS, 
 HOOPOES AND HORNBILLS 
 
 ORDER CORACI^B 
 
 THE Order Coracige comprises a remarkable as- 
 semblage of birds, mostly of brilliant plumage, 
 and, in the case of the Hornbills, of bizarre 
 shape. 
 
 The Rollers, which look rather like gorgeously col- 
 oured members of the Crow tribe, have representatives 
 all over the temperate parts of Europe, the whole of 
 Africa and central and southern Asia, but none in 
 America. They are extremely beautiful birds, with 
 long tail, long, pointed wings and rather weak feet. 
 Their food consists mostly of insects, caught on the 
 wing, but they also eat worms and grubs. The domi- 
 nant colours in their plumage are intense blues and 
 greens. See Plate 9, Fig. 43. 
 
 During the mating season the males practise a very 
 curious flight, turning and twisting in the air, at the 
 same time expanding and contracting the tail. But 
 both sexes have the habit of "rolling" or turning 
 somersaults in the air, which has given them their 
 name. They breed in holes in walls, roofs of houses 
 and tree-trunks, laying several glossy white eggs, for 
 
 142 
 
MOTMOTS KINGFISHERS 143 
 
 which they make little or no nest at best but a mass 
 of roots, grass, hair and feathers. 
 
 The Motmots are South American birds about 
 whose position there has been much controversy 
 among naturalists, but which are now thought to be 
 most nearly allied to the Kingfishers. Their coloura- 
 tion is mostly greenish and bluish. In appearance 
 they somewhat resemble the European Bee-eater. 
 Motmots have a peculiar habit, one that is unique 
 among birds and the reason for which is not under- 
 stood, of deliberately picking away a part of the web 
 from the two middle tail-feathers, leaving a racket- 
 shaped end to each. These feathers are two inches 
 longer than the others, and it is said that even the 
 youngest birds of both sexes begin to pick at them as 
 soon as they have grown beyond the others. 
 
 The Lesson Mexican Motmot has the crown of the 
 head dark green, encircled with brilliant blue feathers-. 
 It is also known as the Blue-capped Motmot. 
 
 Among the most beautiful of living birds are the 
 Kingfishers. In size they present a wide range, the 
 largest species, the Laughing Jackass, or Giant King- 
 fisher of Australia, being about eighteen inches in 
 length, while the smallest are not as big as Sparrows. 
 In colouration also they are wonderfully varied. The 
 species mentioned has head, throat and under-parts 
 buff, wings brownish with the upper coverts spotted 
 with blue, the tail brown, barred with black and tipped 
 at the end with white. This bird receives its name 
 from its strange cry, which it uttered thrice morn- 
 ing, noon and night. 
 
 As a family, the Kingfishers have short bodies and 
 
144 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 long, sharp bills. In some species the toes are ar- 
 ranged three in front and one behind; in others, two 
 in front and two behind, as in the Parrots and certain 
 other groups. 
 
 Kingfishers breed in holes in banks, generally by 
 the side of some stream. No nest is made, but the 
 eggs, which are white and translucent, are laid on a 
 bed of fishbones and the hard parts of Crustacea that 
 has been ejected by the birds after the soft parts have 
 been digested. The Common European Kingfisher 
 is small, the upper parts are a brilliant blue and the 
 lower parts buff and white. See Plate 9, Fig. 40. 
 
 The Common American, or Belted Kingfisher, is 
 much larger than the preceding and has a well-marked 
 crest. The upper part of the body is blue, faintly 
 streaked with darker colour; the throat and sides of 
 the neck are white, as well as the under-parts; the 
 wings are blackish, with white spots on the primaries, 
 and across the breast is a wide band of blue. The tail 
 is barred with white, except the two middle feathers, 
 which are blue. The Belted Kingfisher, like many 
 others of its tribe, has the habit of perching motionless 
 on a small bough overlooking a stream and waiting 
 until a fish comes to the surface, when it makes a 
 quick dart, seizes the prey in its beak and returns with 
 it to the perch, where it is devoured. The feet are 
 very small in comparison to the size of the bird. Like 
 the European species, the Belted Kingfisher nests in 
 holes, digging a tunnel in a bank and widening it at 
 the end for the reception of the eggs. When invaded, 
 the birds will defend their nests vigorously with their 
 sharp bills. 
 
40. European Kingfisher 
 (Akedo istpida). 
 
 39. 
 
 Indian Hornbill 
 (Bueeros bicomis). 
 42. 
 
 European Bee-eaten 
 (Merops apiaster). 
 
 41. Giant Toucan 
 (Rhampastos toco). 
 
 44. 
 
 African 
 Trogon 
 
 (Hapaloderma 
 narina). 
 
 43. European Roller (Coradas qarrulus). 
 
j BEE-EATERS HOOPOES 145 
 
 While the Kingfishers present some species which 
 are dull-coloured, their near relatives, the Bee-eaters, 
 are all brilliantly coloured birds, green, blue and a 
 wonderful rose-red being the principal types, and 
 these colours are, in some, relieved by patches of red 
 and yellow. They are confined to the temperate and 
 tropical regions of the Old World. 
 
 Bee-eaters, like Kingfishers, breed in holes in banks 
 or even in tunnels bored almost vertically into the 
 level ground and extending from three to ten feet. 
 These birds have long, pointed wings and long, wide 
 tails. In some species the two outer feathers of the 
 tail are longer than the others. The bill is long and 
 curved and the base of the bill is provided with short, 
 hair-like feathers. Bee-eaters feed upon insects, show- 
 ing a marked partiality for bees and wasps and ap- 
 pearing to suffer no ill effects from their stings. 
 These birds are common throughout the continent of 
 Europe, and when seen in flocks afford a most beauti- 
 ful spectacle. See Plate 9, Fig. 42. 
 
 By many naturalists thought to be allied to the 
 Bee-eaters and Kingfishers are the Jacamars of South 
 America. In these birds the plumage is brilliantly 
 coloured, the bill is long, slender and sharp and the 
 corners of the mouth are protected by stiff bristles. 
 The feet are small and extremely weak and the toes 
 vary in number in different species. 
 
 The Hoopoes are singularly graceful birds, having 
 long, curved and sharply pointed bills and very beau- 
 tiful plumage. Their wings are short and rounded, 
 legs short, the feet strong and armed with heavy claws. 
 The Hoopoes have a wide range over the whole of 
 
146 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 Europe, northern Africa and parts of Asia. Con- 
 spicuous though its colours appear to be, this bird, 
 when alarmed, has the habit of throwing itself flat 
 upon the ground and spreading its wings, when it 
 becomes at once almost invisible. The most striking 
 feature of the Common Hoopoe is its beautiful crest, 
 which can be raised or depressed at will. 
 
 Hoopoes breed in holes, and their nests composed 
 of sticks, straw and a few feathers give forth an 
 almost overpowering smell. This, however, is pro- 
 duced by the oil-glands of the sitting birds and is not 
 due to the birds feeding upon carrion, as was once 
 thought to be the case. While sitting, the female, who 
 rarely leaves the nest, is fed by her mate with insects 
 and worms. The larger insects, when captured, are 
 tossed in the air and caught again before being swal- 
 lowed. See Plate 22, Fig. 129. 
 
 Black Hoopoes, with red beaks and no crown of 
 feathers, are also found in Africa. The black of the 
 plumage is brightened by a. metallic gloss of purple 
 and green, relieved by a white wing-patch and white 
 markings on the tail. 
 
 The Hornbills are among the most remarkable of 
 living birds, having bills of enormous size and often 
 further exaggerated by a huge casque which extends 
 backwards over the top of the head. 
 
 These birds are natives of India and Africa and 
 the Malay regions. The beaks of the Hornbills, in 
 spite of their frequently very great size, are extremely 
 light, being of the delicacy of filigree work, and cov- 
 ered externally by the horny sheath. 
 
 The nesting habits of the Hornbills are very 
 
INDIAN HORNBILL 147 
 
 strange. After the eggs have been laid and the female 
 begins to sit, the male proceeds to plaster up with mud 
 the hole by which she entered, leaving a small aperture 
 out of which she thrusts her bill to receive the food 
 dutifully brought by her lord and master. This is 
 passed to her enclosed in the lining of his stomach, or 
 gizzard, which peels off, enclosing the fruit or other 
 food he has swallowed. She remains imprisoned until 
 the young are fully fledged. 
 
 The Homrai, or Indian, Hornbill, a Malayan 
 species, is a good example of this curious group of 
 birds. See Plate 9, Fig. 39. 
 
 There is one extraordinary exception to the rule 
 with regard to the lightness of the beak. In the Hel- 
 met Hornbill, of the Malay countries, the forepart of 
 the helmet, or casque, which surmounts the beak is of 
 great hardness and density, and is used by Eastern 
 artists for carving ornaments of various kinds, many 
 of which are of remarkable beauty. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 NIGHTJARS, SWIFTS AND HUMMING-BIRDS 
 ORDERS CAPRIMULGI, CYPSELI 
 
 IT is now an established fact that the Nightjars are 
 near relatives of the Owls. They may be re- 
 garded, indeed, as representing the ancestral 
 stock from which the Owls descended. 
 
 The most striking feature of the Nightjars is the 
 huge size of the mouth and the remarkably small beak, 
 which is fringed on either side by long, stiff bristles. 
 These birds also have large eyes and extremely small 
 feet. The former are necessary because the food is 
 largely sought during the twilight hours, while the 
 smallness of the feet is due to the fact that all their 
 food is procured while on the wing. When not flying 
 they remain motionless, either squatting on the 
 ground or along the bough of some tall tree, for these 
 birds are peculiar in that they do not perch like other 
 birds, with the body across the bough, but along it. 
 This unusual method of perching is adopted for pro- 
 tective purposes, for the plumage, which is always of 
 some brown hue, pale or dark, is freckled or powdered 
 with grey, thereby enabling the bird so closely to har- 
 monise with its surroundings as to become well-nigh 
 invisible. 
 
 The Common European Nightjar is a representa- 
 
 148 
 
NIGHTJAR WHIPPOORWILL 149 
 
 tive of the family popularly known as "Goatsuckers" 
 from their supposed habit of sucking the milk of goats 
 and cows a ridiculous superstition, having no foun- 
 dation in fact. These birds are widely distributed 
 throughout Europe, Asia and the north of Africa. 
 The Nightjar has a wonderful sailing flight, during 
 which it sometimes brings the wings sharply together 
 over the back, producing a loud clapping. It also has 
 a remarkable "churring" note, uttered during the 
 evening hours and in the night. See Plate 19, Fig. 
 111. 
 
 Two creamy white eggs, marbled and veined with 
 brown and lilac, are laid, and these are deposited on 
 the bare ground. The young are hatched covered with 
 down, but are cared for by the parents for some time 
 before they are able to fly. 
 
 The Nightjars, or Goatsuckers, of America are the 
 Whippoorwill, the Nighthawk and Chuck-wuTs- 
 widow. In all the plumage is mottled with black, 
 brown and grey, and is soft like that of the Owls. 
 
 The Whippoorwill is very similar in appearance to 
 the European Nightjar, and, like it, is nocturnal in 
 habits, setting forth at dusk in pursuit of its prey. 
 The gape of the mouth is very large and the bill is very 
 small. 
 
 This species is found in the eastern part of North 
 America. The male has a white band across the 
 throat ; in the female it is buff. The inner web of the 
 three outer tail-feathers is white in the male, buff in 
 the female. This bird receives its popular name from 
 its call, which is rapidly repeated with the accent on 
 the last syllable. 
 
150 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 The Nighthawk has much the same range as the 
 preceding and is frequently confused with it, although 
 it is a distinct species. The colouring is, in general, 
 the same, but the Nighthawk is darker. It has a white 
 throat-patch and a white bar across the primaries. 
 The wings are long and slender, the tail forked, and 
 the bird is very beautiful in flight as it turns and 
 twists in pursuit of insects. It is chiefly nocturnal in 
 habit, but is frequently seen early in the evening as 
 well as on cloudy days. It has a peculiar hoarse cry. 
 
 The Chuck-will's-widow is a more southern species 
 than the other two mentioned and is a larger form. 
 In the male the inner vane of the outer tail-feathers is 
 white, the outer vane barred with buff and black. It 
 has a loud cry, from which it takes its name. 
 
 SWIFTS 
 
 The Swifts bear a close superficial resemblance to 
 the Swallows, with which, indeed, they are always as- 
 sociated in the popular mind. As a matter of fact, 
 however, they are in no way related, the Swifts being 
 near allies of the Nightjars. They are long- winged 
 birds and have tremendous powers of flight. The legs 
 are short, the feet extremely weak, and it is with great 
 difficulty that they can rise from level ground. They 
 are insect-feeders, catching their prey while on the 
 wing. In the true Swifts the toes all turn forward, 
 enabling the birds to cling with ease to vertical sur- 
 faces. 
 
 The Common European Swift is very abundant 
 throughout Europe during the summer months, leav- 
 
SWIFT HUMMING-BIRDS 151 
 
 ing early in the autumn for their winter quarters in 
 Africa. Their flight is marvellously rapid, as they 
 chase each other about in the dusk of evening, some- 
 times high in the air and sometimes near the ground, 
 uttering their shrill cries. See Plate 18, Fig. 107. 
 
 This bird, which is known also as the Deviling, 
 occurs all over Europe and parts of Asia and Africa. 
 
 The so-called "Chimney Swallow" of Eastern 
 North America is really a Swift. These birds are gre- 
 garious, usually being seen in large companies. Origi- 
 nally their nests were built in the holes of decayed 
 trees, but many of them now use the chimneys of 
 houses for this purpose, building nests of small sticks 
 glued together and attached to the walls of chimneys 
 with saliva. In perching, they use the stiff and 
 sharply pointed tail-feathers as a prop for the body 
 while clinging to upright surfaces. 
 
 There are seventy-five known species of Swifts in 
 the world, only four of which are found in North 
 America. 
 
 HUMMING-BIRDS 
 
 That the Humming-birds and Swifts are very 
 closely related no one now doubts, unlike though they 
 be in external appearance. 
 
 Confined to the American Continent, and ranging 
 from the extreme south thereof as far north as 
 Canada, these birds are by no means to be regarded 
 as the jewelled darlings of the tropics, though it is in- 
 deed in tropical America that they are to be met with 
 in the greatest plenty. Numbering no less than four 
 hundred species, they present a relatively great range 
 
152 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 in size, the largest measuring nine and a half inches, 
 while the smallest is but little bigger than a bumble- 
 bee. In the matter of the shape of the beak and 
 tail they present hardly less variety. Thus the 
 beak may be short and straight, curved upwards or 
 downwards, or drawn out into a great probe, consid- 
 erably longer than the whole body. The tail may be 
 short and rounded or long and Swallow-like, and in 
 some species these long tail-feathers cross one another 
 in graceful curves, while in others these crossed feath- 
 ers are drawn out into mere threads, terminating in 
 oval expansions. 
 
 But it is on account of the exquisite beauty of their 
 plumage, resplendent in the most gorgeous metallic 
 hues, that the Humming-birds have become so famous. 
 No other birds can vie with these v fairy-like creatures 
 in this respect. 
 
 One of the most elegant, though by no means the 
 most gorgeous of all, is the Double-crested Hum- 
 ming-bird, a native of Brazil. See Plate 21, Fig. 121. 
 
 The Coquette Humming-bird is a native of Cen- 
 tral America. Ten different species of Coquette 
 Humming-birds are known, ranging from Mexico 
 southwards. They are easily distinguished by their 
 crested heads and the "ruff," which projects from the 
 throat. See Plate 21, Fig. 122. 
 
 Perhaps the most gorgeous birds in existence in so 
 far as the colouring of the tail is concerned, are the 
 Fire-tailed Humming-birds. Three species are 
 known. They inhabit Peru, Bolivia and the Argen- 
 tine Republic. See Plate 21, Fig. 123. 
 
121. 
 
 Double-crested 
 
 Humming-bird 
 
 (Heliactin bilopha). 
 
 122. 
 
 Coquette 
 (Lophornis 
 
 124. Topaz 
 Humming- 
 bird 
 
 (Topaza pella) 
 
 Humming 
 bird 
 (Lesbia 
 
 sparganura) 
 
 127. 
 
 European 
 
 Creeper 
 
 (Certhia 
 
 familiaris). 
 
 125. Racquet-tailed 
 
 Humming-bird 
 (Spathura underwoudi) 
 
 126. Wallcreeper 
 (Tichodroma mwraria). 
 
 128. European Nuthatch 
 (Sitta ccesia). 
 
TOPAZ HUMMING-BIRDS 153 
 
 The Topaz Humming-birds are hardly surpassed 
 by any other members of this group in brilliancy of 
 plumage. They are distinguished by the two long 
 middle tail-f eathers> which cross one another in grace- 
 ful fashion. The species here figured is a native of 
 the Rio Negro. See Plate 21, Fig. 124. 
 
 Not the least remarkable of the many peculiarities 
 which distinguish the Humming-bird is the curious 
 way in which some develop a kind of "powder-puff" 
 around the legs. This is well seen in the Racquet- 
 tailed Humming-bird, of which six species are known, 
 inhabiting South America from Venezuela and Co- 
 lombia, through Ecuador and Peru, into Bolivia. 
 See Plate 21, Fig. 125. 
 
 As we have already remarked, these birds are by no 
 means confined to the tropics. They have been seen 
 flitting about the fuchsias of Terra del Fuego in a 
 blinding snowstorm, and they are met with on the 
 lofty mountains of Chimborazo as high up as 16,000 
 feet, dwelling in a world of almost continuous hail, 
 sleet and rain. 
 
 These wonderful birds feed chiefly on insects which 
 harbour amid the petals of honey-bearing flowers. To 
 procure these they have developed a most remarkable 
 tubular tongue of complex structure, which is so con- 
 trived as to suck up the honey and insects at the same 
 time. 
 
 Beautiful as these birds appear in pictures, they 
 are far more beautiful in life, for no picture can pos- 
 sibly represent the superb play of colour which takes 
 place with every movement of the body. Though 
 stuffed specimens lose much of their beauty, they re- 
 
154 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 tain sufficient of their glory to dazzle us. At times 
 these tiny bodies glow as with some internal fire, at 
 others they appear dull. As the spectator changes his 
 place, green turns to gold, and gold to black, and 
 back again to gold and green, and a dozen other inter- 
 mediate hues, according to the intensity and incidence 
 of the light. One must see Humming-birds to realise 
 their surpassing beauty; no brush can depict them nor 
 can words describe them. 
 
 The Ruby-throated Humming-bird is a very beau- 
 tiful species, about three and a half inches in length, 
 found in the eastern part of North America, breeding 
 from the southern border as far north as Labrador. 
 The upper parts are brilliant green, wings and tail 
 brownish-grey, and the throat and exquisite ruby-red. 
 The female is similarly coloured, but lacks the red 
 throat of the male. These birds are said to spend 
 much of their time perched motionless in trees, going 
 at intervals to certain places to feed. They are re- 
 markably fearless and may be closely approached 
 without taking alarm. The nests are beautiful little 
 structures, lined with the softest down and sometimes 
 with spider-webs, and the eggs are always white and 
 two in number. The young are fed by the parents on 
 small insects, which they regurgitate. 
 
 In the Old World the place of the Humming-birds 
 is taken by the Sun-birds, which resemble them in 
 general appearance and in habits, but are not so bril- 
 liant in plumage. Their wings are shorter and more 
 rounded and their feet are stronger. Unlike Hum- 
 ming-birds, which take their food from flowers while 
 
SUN-BIRDS 155 
 
 hovering on swiftly moving wings, the Sun-birds 
 usually perch when feeding. The male bird assumes 
 quite gorgeous raiment during the breeding season, 
 but this is moulted afterwards and replaced by the 
 more sober colours of his mate. 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 OWLS 
 ORDER STRIGES 
 
 BY the older naturalists Owls were regarded as 
 near relatives of the Accipitrine birds, such as 
 Hawks and Eagles. This was because of their 
 similar beaks and claws and their common habits in 
 feeding. It has, however, been conclusively shown 
 that Owls are very closely related to the Goatsuckers. 
 
 These birds are spread over a very large portion of 
 the globe, being found in all the continents and many 
 of the islands. They vary greatly in size, some being 
 but a few inches in height, while others measure sev- 
 eral feet. Most species are nocturnal in habits, but 
 certain others feed by day. The plumage of Owls is 
 remarkably soft and fluffy, rendering their flight 
 practically noiseless and enabling them to pounce 
 upon their prey without giving alarm. 
 
 The foot in most Owls is feathered to the toes; the 
 claws are remarkably long and sharply pointed and 
 the foot is used with great dexterity in seizing. The 
 outer front toe and the hind toe are placed somewhat 
 more closely together than in most other birds, but the 
 toes are not divided into pairs, two in front and two 
 behind, as in the Parrots and Cuckoos. Stiff bristles 
 project from the toes on each side. 
 
 156 
 
OWLS 157 
 
 The beak of the Owl, although sharply hooked and 
 used to tear the prey, is not nearly so powerful as in 
 the true Birds of Prey, but more closely resembles 
 that of the Nighthawk and Whippoorwill. The eyes 
 are very large and are fixed in their sockets so that 
 they cannot be turned, the bird being obliged to move 
 its head in order to see at the side or behind it. The 
 eyelids are heavy, and the nictitating membrane, or 
 inner eyelid, is fully developed. Any one looking at 
 an Owl in the daytime will see this thick membrane 
 frequently sliding across the eyeball as the bird gazes 
 sleepily about. 
 
 Owls are fierce and aggressive in character. When 
 disturbed, they fluff out their feathers, lower their 
 heads, and give vent to a loud, hissing sound, at the 
 same time clattering their mandibles together. When 
 in this attitude, nothing in the bird world is more 
 sinister in appearance. The voice of Owls is unlike 
 that of any other bird, and while it differs in various 
 species, is yet somewhat similar in all. The word 
 "hoot" is used to describe it. Sometimes this note is 
 uttered once and repeated at intervals, and again it 
 will be given several times in quick succession. It is 
 varied by strange coughs and hisses, and at times is 
 very loud and far-reaching. 
 
 Owls have always occupied a prominent place in the 
 traditions and literature of the peoples of the world. 
 They were practically worshipped by the ancient 
 Romans, Greeks, and Egyptians, who looked with 
 reverence upon this strange, usually silent, bird, and it 
 is even now used as an emblem of wisdom, though by 
 no means a very intelligent bird. 
 
158 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 The nocturnal Owls feed principally at dusk, when 
 the small mammals upon which they prey are also 
 abroad. Some species, such as the Great Horned Owl 
 of North America and the Eagle-Owl of Europe, 
 feed on quite large game, such as wild Turkeys and 
 small deer, but the food of most Owls consists of such 
 small creatures as mice, rats, frogs, lizards, and small 
 reptiles. Most species have the remarkable habit of 
 swallowing their food whole, when not too large, and 
 afterwards ejecting the hair, bones, and feathers, in 
 the form of small pellets. 
 
 The nests are usually made in the hollows of trees, 
 and the eggs are always white. The number varies in 
 different species. The young are hatched covered 
 with down, and are carefully tended by the parents 
 until they are able to leave the nest. 
 
 Owls are sombrely coloured, most of them being 
 mottled in various shades of brown and buff inter- 
 mingled with white and sometimes black, but in no 
 case is there any really brilliant colour in the plumage. 
 They have remarkable control over the form of their 
 bodies, at times making themselves appear long and 
 slender; at others, short and rounded. 
 
 These birds are divided into two general classes, 
 those that have ear-tufts, or horns, and those that lack 
 them, the former embracing a large number of species. 
 
 The largest and perhaps best known Owl in the 
 United States is the Great Horned Owl, celebrated 
 both for its ferocity and for its remarkable voice. It 
 feeds on large game, when pressed by hunger attack- 
 ing even the wild Turkey. This sagacious bird, how- 
 ever, often eludes its enemy by waiting until the Owl 
 
GREAT HORNED OWL 159 
 
 is about to descend upon it, then spreading the tail 
 feathers over its back so that the Owl slides off the 
 slippery surface and the Turkey has time to escape 
 before a second attack can be made. 
 
 During the day this Owl flaps helplessly about in 
 the cover of the woods, endeavouring to conceal itself 
 from its enemies, but at dusk it emerges and stares 
 about with its magnificent yellow eyes opened to the 
 widest extent. Its sight then is remarkably keen, the 
 tiniest mouse being seen at a great distance and 
 silently pounced upon. The claws of the Great 
 Horned Owl are extremely long and sharp, and the 
 grasp of the foot very powerful. This Owl shows 
 great preference for the flesh of the skunk, almost 
 every specimen captured reeking with the nauseating 
 odour of that animal. The long talons are driven into 
 the vitals, and the victim is quickly despatched. 
 
 In this species the ear-tufts are greatly developed, 
 and are raised several inches above the side of the head, 
 giving the singular horned appearance. In colour 
 individuals vary considerably, but in general they are 
 different shades of buff and brown, splotched and 
 striped in a confused pattern. This intermingling of 
 colours is of great service in concealing the bird from 
 view, and when seated in an upright position on the 
 stump of a dead tree, it is almost identical in tone and 
 therefore practically invisible. 
 
 The Great Eagle-Owl of Europe differs but little 
 from the Great Horned Owl of this country. See 
 Plate 5, Fig. 18. 
 
 The voice of the Great Horned Owl is loud and 
 startling. Mr. Chapman describes it as " a loud, deep- 
 
160 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 toned whoo, hoo-hoo-hoo, whooo,, whooo, the syllables 
 all on one note, and bearing some resemblance to a 
 bass-voiced dog barking in the distance. A much rarer 
 call," he says, "is a loud, piercing scream, one of the 
 most blood-curdling sounds I have ever heard in the 
 woods." At other times hisses and groans come from 
 the throats of these birds apparently a sort of con- 
 versation with them. 
 
 The Snowy Owl is an Arctic species of both the 
 Old World and the New. In the winter it wanders as 
 far south as the United States. It is a large and 
 handsome form, differing considerably in colour in 
 individuals. Some are almost pure white over the 
 whole body, while others are thickly spotted with 
 black. The eyes are extremely large and light yellow 
 in colour, forming a striking contrast to the beautiful 
 white of the feathers around them. See Plate 5, Fig. 
 23. 
 
 This bird sees with perfect ease in the daytime, and 
 is very shy, keeping well out of the range of a gun. 
 Its food consists of small mammals, Ptarmigan, 
 Grouse, and Ducks, and it is said also to catch fish. 
 
 The Little Owl is an Old World form, about eight 
 inches in length. A native of the continent of Europe, 
 it has of late years been introduced into the British 
 Islands, where it now breeds well and is increasing in 
 numbers. See Plate 5, Fig. 22. 
 
 The Coquimbo, or Burrowing Owl, is found only in 
 North America, and is the only species that lives and 
 breeds underground. It is about ten inches in length, 
 has no ear-tufts, and the feet are but slightly 
 feathered. The legs are longer in proportion than 
 
COQUIMBO BARN OWL 16T 
 
 are those of most Owls. The Western species lives 
 in burrows made by prairie-dogs although certainly 
 not welcomed by them. But the Florida Burrowing 
 Owl digs a hole for itself. They are day-feeding, 
 being perfectly able to endure the fierce glare of the 
 sun in the regions in which they live. 
 
 The Tawny Owl is an interesting species, having 
 two distinct phases of plumage, some individuals 
 being very grey, while others are red in colour. This 
 Owl is further peculiar in that the apertures of the 
 ears are not alike in the two sides of the head, though 
 both are covered by a large flap of skin. See Plate 5, 
 Fig. 19. 
 
 The European Long-eared Owl is another species 
 in which the apertures of the ears are unlike. It is 
 common in European countries, and is very beneficial, 
 destroying large numbers of mice and other small 
 rodents. The American Long-eared Owl is similar 
 in appearance. See Plate 5, Fig. 20. 
 
 The Long-eared Owls and the Short-eared Owls, 
 though very much alike superficially, differ conspicu- 
 ously in their nesting-habits. The former deposit 
 their eggs in the deserted nests of Crows, Hawks, 
 Herons, or squirrels, while the Short-eared species 
 nests on the ground in hollows made in weeds and 
 sedge. The eggs vary in number from six to twelve. 
 During a great plague of voles which occurred in 
 Scotland a few years ago, these Owls, finding food in 
 abundance, reared broods twice in the year and double 
 the normal in number. 
 
 The Barn Owl, or Monkey- faced Owl, found in 
 both the Old and the New World, is not only a beau- 
 
162 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 tiful species, but forms a group by itself apart from 
 the rest of the Owls, 'differing from them in structure. 
 The colouration differs in certain parts of its range. 
 The eyes are almost black, as in the Tawny Owl, 
 while in most Owls the colour of the iris is a bright 
 orange-yellow. The Barn Owls are without ear-tufts, 
 and the disks about the eyes, instead of being round, 
 are irregular in shape. See Plate 5, Fig. 21. 
 
 The young Barn Owl is at first clothed in a downy 
 coat of white, and this is replaced by plumage like that 
 of the adult bird. In most, if not all, other Owls the 
 down-feathers of the nestlings are replaced by a plum- 
 age that is intermediate between that and the adult 
 feathers, and this is worn until autumn, when the true 
 feathers appear. 
 
 The Barred Owl, or Hoot Owl, is a common species 
 in Eastern North America. The under parts are 
 white, the breast barred with dark colour, and the 
 sides streaked. The eyes are dark, and the toes are 
 feathered. 
 
 The Great Grey Owl is a northern species, occa- 
 sionally seen in the United States. It is a very large 
 form, having the upper parts dark irregularly marked 
 with white, the under parts streaked, and the legs and 
 toes feathered to the claws. 
 
 The Little Screech Owl is perhaps the best known 
 of our American Owls, being common in the woods 
 throughout the Eastern States. Its voice has a low 
 and tremulous quality, and is often heard in the even- 
 ing hours. A peculiarity of this species is that it has 
 two phases of colour, one reddish in tone, the other 
 greyish, both varieties being found at the same time 
 
AMERICAN HAWK OWL 163 
 
 in the nest. The Screech Owl has well-marked ear- 
 tufts. 
 
 The American Hawk Owl, so called from its 
 Hawk-like appearance and character, is another spe- 
 cies found in the northern part of North America and 
 occasionally seen in Europe. It is dark brown above, 
 spotted with white, and has the under parts barred. 
 The tail is longer than in most Owls. This bird is one 
 of the most rapacious of the Order to which it belongs. 
 As in all Owls, the female is larger than the male. 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 
 TROGONS, TOUCANS, ^ND WOODPECKERS 
 ORDERS TROGONES AND PICI 
 
 precise relationship of these birds has not 
 yet been decided, though probably all are akin. 
 The Toucans and Woodpeckers are certainly 
 more nearly related one to another than to the 
 Trogons, which form a rather isolated group. 
 
 The Trogons are represented by many species, some 
 of which are of surpassing beauty. Some are natives 
 of tropical America ; others occur as resident species in 
 Africa, a large part of India, and the Malayan coun- 
 tries. In ancient times they occurred in Europe, 
 fossil remains of Trogons having been found in 
 France. The American species are distinguished by 
 their barred tails. 
 
 As their small, weak feet would indicate, these birds 
 are tree-living, and feed while suspended in the air, 
 their diet consisting of berries and insects. The sexes 
 differ greatly in colouration, the males being much 
 more brilliantly attired. The Trogons are "yoke- 
 footed," like Cuckoos and, Parrots, but they differ 
 from them, as well as from all other known birds, in 
 that it is the first and second, instead of the first and 
 fourth, toes which are directed backwards. 
 
 The Narina Trogon is an African species, ranging 
 
 164 
 
NARINA TROGON TOUCANS 165 
 
 from northeast Africa to Cape Colony. It is a very 
 shy bird, hiding in the deep recesses of the forests, and 
 is seldom seen. It has a curious wheezing call. See 
 Plate 9, Fig. 44. 
 
 The Resplendent Trogon is a large and beautiful 
 species found in Central America. The upper parts 
 of the body are golden-green, the breast and under 
 parts a brilliant red, the middle tail-feathers are black, 
 while the outer ones are white, barred with black. 
 
 In the Cuban Trogon the upper parts are green, 
 the top of the head washed with blue, the throat, 
 breast, and under surface of the tail a delicate grey, 
 the primaries black, spotted with white, and the bill 
 scarlet. 
 
 But the most magnificent of all the Trogons is 
 the Quetzel, of Central and South America. The 
 upper parts of this bird are brilliant green and blue, 
 the under parts a gorgeous crimson, and it has a long 
 and gracefully flowing tail consisting of the length- 
 ened coverts, which extend from one to two feet 
 beyond the other tail-feathers. In olden times the 
 native chiefs wore these plumes on days of high 
 festivals. 
 
 TOUCANS 
 
 So far as outward appearance goes, the Toucans 
 have many characters resembling the Hornbills, the 
 most conspicuous among them being the enormous 
 beaks. On this account they are frequently mistaken 
 one for the other by those who are not very familiar 
 with them, but, as a matter of fact, these birds are 
 not closely related. 
 
166 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 There are several species of Toucans, some of which 
 are sombrely attired, but many of them are quite 
 richly coloured. They range in size from a rather 
 large thrush to about two feet in length. 
 
 As in the Hornbills, the beak is extremely light and 
 porous, ensheathed in a very thin case of brightly 
 coloured horn, which is serrated, or notched, along the 
 cutting edges. They have the curious habit of sleep- 
 ing with the head turned back and the tail brought 
 forward, so that both rest on top of the back. 
 
 Both Toucans and Hornbills are awkward on the 
 ground, hopping about with the legs far apart. In 
 the trees, they spring lightly from branch to branch. 
 They stare about them with a curious slow movement 
 of the head and beak from side to side, unlike that of 
 most birds, which is quick and rather jerky. All these 
 birds are fruit-eaters, but their diet is varied by in- 
 sects, as well as small birds and mammals. 
 
 One of the largest of the Toucans is the Toco, or 
 Giant Toucan. It is widely distributed throughout 
 South America, and is met with in rather large flocks. 
 
 The Short-billed Toucan is a smaller species, found 
 from Costa Rica to Northern Columbia. The plum- 
 age is black and red, and the bill is varied with red, 
 blue, green, and yellow. See Plate 9, Fig. 41. 
 
 WOODPECKERS 
 
 Woodpeckers are an extremely interesting group 
 of birds that illustrate to a remarkable degree what 
 is meant by "adaptation to environment." That is 
 to say, they show, by their many singularities of struc- 
 ture, that they have become changed, or "adapted," 
 
WOODPECKERS 167 
 
 so as to fit them for their peculiar mode of life. The 
 most obvious of these changes are in the shape of the 
 beak, the tail, and the feet. Their food consists of 
 insects and grubs which they find concealed in the 
 bark of trees. The beak is wedge-shaped and sharply 
 pointed, and has a horny sheath of unusual hardness, 
 enabling the bird to peck away the bark in search of 
 its prey, and also to dig the holes in which it makes 
 its nest. The toes are placed two in front and two 
 behind, and are furnished with long claws, which serve 
 the purpose of grappling-irons. Finally, the tail- 
 feathers are of a curious spiny character, and these 
 serve as supports when the bird, having firmly fixed 
 itself by its claws, begins its work of excavation. The 
 Woodpeckers are essentially tree-dwellers, and after a 
 peculiar fashion, for they spend most of their lives, 
 not in perching on the boughs, but in climbing up and 
 down the trunk. The spiny tail-feathers are devel- 
 oped in proportion to the amount of hammering which 
 must be performed to gain a livelihood. They afford, 
 in short, a very effective leverage during the time that 
 the beak is being used as a "pick." 
 
 But the peculiarities of the Woodpeckers do not 
 end with these external characters. The tongue, for 
 example, is of enormous length, and its roots, or sup- 
 ports, are excessively developed, so that they curve 
 round and over the skull, to be finally stowed away in a 
 channel above the beak. This tongue is used as a trap 
 for the capture of ants and other insects. Thickly 
 covered with a sticky saliva, which has been compared 
 to bird-lime, this wonderful and worm-like organ is 
 suddenly thrust out amid swarms of ants, which are 
 
168 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 borne back into the mouth, struggling helplessly. 
 The saliva is secreted by a pair of enormous glands 
 on each side of the head. The head of Woodpeckers 
 is set in a peculiar manner, being at right angles with 
 the body a natural position, considering that the 
 bird must remain upright in feeding, when the head 
 is used as a hammer. 
 
 Nearly all Woodpeckers have a crest at the back 
 of the head, which may be slightly raised or lowered. 
 This crest is usually a brilliant red, and in many 
 species it is the only spot of bright colour on the bird. 
 
 America is peculiarly rich in Woodpeckers, about 
 one half of the three hundred and fifty known species 
 occurring in this continent and displaying a wonderful 
 diversity of plumage. These birds, however, are 
 found all over the world, except in the Australian 
 region, Madagascar, and Egypt. 
 
 The Ivory-billed Woodpecker is the largest of the 
 American species, measuring twenty inches in length. 
 The general colouring is black and white, and there 
 is a large scarlet crest. Running from the eye down 
 the neck and half way down the back on each side is 
 a conspicuous white stripe. The lower half of the 
 primaries is white, and the under parts are a glossy 
 black. The bill is ivory white. This handsome bird 
 is extremely shy, and is found only in the forests of 
 the Gulf States and in the Lower Mississippi Valley. 
 See Plate 6, Fig. 25. 
 
 The Great Black Woodpecker is a large European 
 species, in which the plumage is entirely black except 
 for the red crest. Attempts have been made to 
 acclimatise these birds in the British Islands, but with- 
 
24. Gray-headed Lessi shotted 
 
 Green Woodpecker Woodpecker 
 
 v, . (Dryobates 
 
 (Gecmus canus). minor). 
 
 Woodpe^kerf 
 (Campephilus principals). 
 
 26. Green Woodpecker 
 (Gecinus viridis). 
 
 28. Great BI 
 WoocrjpR&k 
 (Picus ntartiusj. 
 
RED-HEADED WOODPECKER 169 
 
 out success. This bird corresponds to our Pileated 
 Woodpecker, being about the same size. See Plate 6, 
 Fig. 28. 
 
 The Red-headed Woodpecker is found in the 
 eastern part of the United States. The whole head, 
 neck, and throat in this species is red; the upper part 
 of the back is black, as well as the primaries and tail; 
 the rest of the plumage is white. The combination 
 of colours makes this bird quite conspicuous when on 
 the wing. See Plate 7, Fig. 29. 
 
 The Green Woodpecker is very common in Great 
 Britain, where it is also known as the Yaffle, as well as 
 by many other provincial names. The female has 
 black upon the cheeks where the male has red. See 
 Plate 6, Fig. 26. 
 
 The Grey-headed Green Woodpecker is a near rela- 
 tive of the preceding species, and is common through- 
 out Europe and Asia. See Plate 6, Fig. 24. 
 
 The Lesser Spotted Woodpecker is a very small 
 form found in Europe, Asia, and parts of Africa. Its 
 plumage is mingled black and white, and there is a 
 red crest at the back of the head. Owing to its small 
 size and its partiality for tall trees, such as elms and 
 poplars, this bird is not often seen. Its near relative, 
 the Great Spotted Woodpecker, is a much larger bird, 
 and corresponds to the Hairy Woodpecker of this 
 country ; while the smaller form more nearly resembles 
 our Downy Woodpecker. See Plate 6, Fig. 27. 
 
 The Yellow-bellied Sapsucker is common in the 
 eastern part of North America. It feeds on the juice 
 of trees, which it extracts by boring holes in the bark. 
 The tongue in the Sapsuckers is not extensile, as in 
 
170 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 the true Woodpeckers. In this species the crown 
 and throat are red, the back is irregularly marked 
 with black and white, with a yellowish tinge, there is 
 a black patch on the breast, and the under parts are 
 pale yellow. 
 
 The Common Flicker, or Golden-winged Wood- 
 pecker of the United States, is a very beautiful bird, 
 differing in habits from the other members of its fam- 
 ily. In colour it is very charming, a delicate pinkish 
 grey over most of the body, the under surface of wings 
 and tail a bright golden yellow, the under parts white, 
 washed with yellow and thickly spotted with black. 
 There is a band of red across the back of the neck, a 
 black crescent on the breast, and a black patch on each 
 side of the throat. This bird has many popular names, 
 High-hole being one of the most common. 
 
 Unlike other Woodpeckers, the Flicker spends much 
 time on the ground. It nests in holes in trees, how- 
 ever, like other members of the group, and lays from 
 five to nine white eggs. 
 
 Though in its colouration unlike the typical Wood- 
 peckers, the Wryneck, or Cuckoo's-mate, nevertheless 
 is of the Woodpecker tribe. In the soft, mottled grey 
 and brown colours of its plumage, this bird more 
 closely resembles the Goatsuckers. The tail-feathers, 
 too, as may be seen in the figure, are not stiff and 
 pointed, as in the typical Woodpeckers, but are soft 
 and rounded. These birds never use their beak, which 
 is small and delicate, as a pick; hence they have no 
 need of support from spiny tail-feathers. But the 
 Wryneck is undoubtedly a Woodpecker, in spite of 
 these differences, as is shown by the structure of the 
 
WRYNECK 171 
 
 tongue, as well as by other common characters. See 
 Plate 7, Fig. 31. 
 
 Like all the other Woodpeckers, the Wryneck lays 
 several glossy white eggs in the hollow of some decay- 
 ing tree, making no nest, but using the rotten wood 
 at the bottom of the hole. When disturbed, the 
 sitting-bird makes a loud hissing noise, which induces 
 one to suppose that the hole is occupied by a snake, 
 and this usually secures freedom from further inter- 
 ference. On this account, as well as from the remark- 
 able way in which the bird twists its neck, the name 
 Snake-bird has been bestowed upon it. When taken 
 in the hand, the Wryneck, like some other birds, 
 feigns death so successfully that it often escapes. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 
 THE PASSERINE BIRDS 
 ORDER PASSERIFORMES 
 
 IN this chapter we shall describe some families of 
 what are known as the Passerine, or Perching- 
 birds. These, though preserving a remarkable 
 uniformity in so far as their anatomical characters are 
 concerned, present an amazing variety superficially, 
 as in colouration and in the form of beak, so much 
 so that nearly six thousand distinct species are known 
 to science. 
 
 Though all are essentially tree-dwellers, many 
 species have come to pass much of their time in low 
 scrub or in the open country. Some possess remark- 
 able powers of flight, while others are practically 
 unable to fly. 
 
 This great series may be divided into two more 
 or less sharply defined groups, based partly upon the 
 structure of the syrinx, or voice-organ, and partly 
 upon other anatomical characters. 
 
 The first of these groups may be sub-divided so as 
 to form three smaller groups, distinguishable partly 
 by means of characters afforded by the voice-organ, 
 and partly by other anatomical characters; all of 
 which are too complicated to come within the scope 
 and purpose of this volume. 
 
 172 
 
COCK-OF-THE-ROCK BELL-BIRD 173 
 
 The first of the two large groups just referred to 
 form the 
 
 SUB-ORDER CLAMATORES 
 
 The birds herein placed, though regarded as non- 
 singing birds, yet include a few species with melodi- 
 ous voices; though none have a song comparable to 
 that of such songsters as the Nightingale or the 
 Thrush or the Mocking-bird. But it is not, as has 
 been said, the quality of the song so much as the 
 number of song-muscles and their arrangement that 
 is considered in this connection. 
 
 Included among the Clamatores are the birds 
 known as the Broadbills, or Eurylgemidse, of East 
 India, some of which are very beautiful. Very 
 closely allied to some of these are the Cotingas, of 
 which the most gorgeous is the Cock-of-the-Rock, a 
 native of South America. This bird is shy and 
 solitary in habits, living among the rocks along the 
 river-banks. The whole plumage is brilliant orange- 
 red, with the exception of the primaries, which are 
 brown with yellow tips. A thick crest of feathers runs 
 from beak to the back of the head, and long, soft 
 plumes fall from the upper wing- and tail-coverts. 
 
 During the mating season, the birds gather in small 
 companies and the males go through with a weird 
 kind of dance, in which they droop their wings, wave 
 their crests from side to side, and hop along in a 
 peculiar manner. See Plate 19, Fig. 112. 
 
 Closely related to the Cock-of-the-Rock are the 
 Bell-birds, also of South America, of which four 
 species are known. The Naked-throated Bell-bird, 
 
174 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 the one illustrated, is pure white in colour. Another 
 species has a long, fleshy wattle hanging from the 
 base of the beak like the wattle of a Turkey. It stands 
 straight up when the bird is excited. The home of 
 the Naked-throated Bell-bird is in Brazil, where the 
 gloomy forests resound with its wonderful notes. 
 These resemble the sounds made by a clear ringing 
 bell, or, according to some travellers, the sound pro- 
 duced by a blacksmith when he strikes a piece of steel 
 on an anvil. The song is heard at all hours of the day, 
 and when, as often happens, several of these birds are 
 in the same neighbourhood and answer one another's 
 calls, a wonderful concert is the result. See Plate 10, 
 Fig. 48. 
 
 AMERICAN FLYCATCHERS 
 
 Among the non-singing Passerine birds are classed 
 the American Flycatchers. This family numbers 
 about three hundred and fifty species, and is confined 
 exclusively to the New World, By far the greater 
 number of these are found in the region of the tropics, 
 but as many as thirty-five species occur in North 
 America. In colouring the sexes are much alike, and 
 the nestlings resemble the parents. The prevailing 
 tints are olive-grey and brown, with touches of yellow 
 on the under parts. A few species, however, have 
 patches of bright-coloured feathers. 
 
 Flycatchers are notable for the width of the beak 
 opening, as in the Goatsuckers, and for the bristles at 
 the angle of the mouth which are of assistance in cap- 
 turing their insect prey. The method of pursuing and 
 catching insects is characteristic of this entire family. 
 
KINGBIRD PHCEBE 175 
 
 The bird perches upon the branch of a tree, and, 
 motionless and upright, awaits the passing of victims. 
 When one comes within sight, the Flycatcher darts 
 from its perch, pursues, and usually captures the fly- 
 ing insect with a snap of the bill, and invariably 
 returns to the branch from which it started. Preying 
 almost entirely as they do upon insects, these birds are 
 necessarily migratory, leaving their northern summer 
 haunts for a warmer climate in winter. 
 
 The Kingbird, or Tyrant Flycatcher, is one of 
 the largest of American Flycatchers, and gets its 
 name, "Tyrant," from its pugnacious disposition. 
 Owing to its powers of flight and its great courage, 
 this bird attacks without fear much larger species, 
 such as Hawks, Owls, and Crows, driving them away 
 from its chosen haunts whenever they appear. Tak- 
 ing its place in the air above the larger bird, the king- 
 bird maintains the relative position and, with a note of 
 alarm, now and again dives swiftly down and stabs the 
 offender with his sharp beak. Neither Crows nor 
 Hawks make any attempt at defence, but fly from the 
 assaults of their tiny enemy. 
 
 Although the common name, Bee-Martin, is applied 
 to the Kingbird because of the farmers' belief that it 
 preys upon bees, many authorities claim that only the 
 drones are eaten. But as to this there seems to be 
 some doubt. 
 
 The general colouring of the Kingbird is greyish- 
 slate above, the tail black, slightly tipped with white. 
 Both male and female have an orange-red crest, 
 which is only visible when the feathers are raised. 
 
 The Phoebe is distinguished by a dark crest on the 
 
176 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 head, white on the outer tail-feathers, yellowish-white 
 under parts, and black bill. This bird is fond of 
 nesting near houses, showing little fear of man. Its 
 name is derived from its monotonous note. The 
 Phoebe is the only member of its family found in 
 numbers in the Southern States during the winter. 
 
 The Wood Pewee is a slightly smaller bird than 
 the preceding. The colouring is generally dull dark 
 olive, and the wings have two whitish bars. The upper 
 mandible only is black. The wings are considerably 
 longer than the tail, as in one other species, the Olive- 
 sided Flycatcher, and the legs are short. The Wood 
 Pewee nests on the limbs of trees, from twenty to 
 thirty feet above the ground, and the nest, like that of 
 the Humming-bird, is hardly to be distinguished from 
 the bough on which it rests. 
 
 The Great Crested Flycatcher is the largest of this 
 family, being slightly more than nine inches in length. 
 The upper parts of the body are greyish-brown, with 
 tints of olive green; the throat and breast are pearl- 
 grey, the rest of the under parts bright yellow. A 
 peculiar habit of this bird is the lining of its nest with 
 a cast snake-skin, for what reason is not known. The 
 Crested Flycatcher is a shy bird, keeping well out of 
 sight, and its habits are not so well known as those of 
 some other members of its family. 
 
 SUB-ORDER OSCINES 
 
 We pass now to the second of our two great groups 
 of Passerine birds. This group, which is divisible into 
 two sections, is made up of what are known as the 
 
19. 
 
 ' >' ''- - 
 
 109. 
 
 European House Martin 
 (Ckelidonaria urbica). 
 
 v 
 
 no. 
 
 k Swallow 
 (Riparia riparia). 
 
 Nightjar"' 
 rimulgtis europasus). 
 
 of the Rock 
 (tiupizola rupicola). 
 
 13. 
 Paradise 
 Tanager 
 (Calospiza iatao). 
 
 114. Jackdaw 
 (Colceus monedula). 
 

LYRE-BIRD 177 
 
 Oscinine Passeres, or Oscines, which are distinguished 
 by having the voice-muscles inserted into the ends of 
 the windpipe. Strange to say, though all the birds 
 included in the second section should prove fine 
 songsters, only a few are really good performers. 
 Crows, for example, are deficient as singing birds, 
 yet they have the same voice-organ as the Nightingale. 
 But then, even in the human race, the voice-muscles 
 of those who are tuneless do not differ essentially from 
 those of the greatest singers. 
 
 The curiously aberrant type known as the Lyre- 
 bird represents the first of the two sections just re- 
 ferred to. By most authorities this bird is placed 
 apart from the true Oscines, and made to form a sub- 
 group, or section, because its voice-muscles, though 
 resembling those of the "true Oscines," are not the 
 same in number; but for our purpose this distinction 
 may be ignored. The Lyre-bird is a native of 
 Australia. Three species are known, that which 
 forms the subject of our illustration being found in 
 New South Wales. See Plate 14, Fig. 73. 
 
 These birds are remarkable for the peculiar form 
 of the tail, the two outer feathers of which are of great 
 length, and so curved as to form a general resemblance 
 to the old-fashioned musical instrument known as 
 the lyre hence the name of the bird. The inner tail- 
 feathers have a peculiar structure, and a soft and 
 filmy appearance. 
 
 One authority says: "These birds inhabit pre- 
 cipitous sandy gullies in thick forests with tangled 
 undergrowth. Each cock has a walk, or playground, 
 and scrapes little hillocks, or hollows, for dancing 
 
178 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 places, where he struts or pirouettes with erect tail 
 and drooping wings, scratching, pecking, and singing 
 at intervals. The normal cry is a loud, liquid 
 gurgling sound; but they are clever mockers, imitat- 
 ing a cock's crow, a hen's cackle, a dog's bark or howl, 
 the Laughing Jackass's note, or even the setting of a 
 saw." They lay but one egg, in a bulky nest of sticks, 
 lined with moss and feathers, and placed either in the 
 fork of a tree or on the ground. The nestling is 
 remarkable for the fact that it is covered with long 
 and woolly down a feature shared by no other 
 Passerine bird. 
 
 All the birds now left for consideration here belong 
 to the second section, and are commonly called the 
 true Oscines, having from five to seven pairs of 
 singing-muscles . 
 
 These will be described in order, as nearly as 
 possible, according to their grade of evolution. That 
 is, we shall begin with those species which are appar- 
 ently least specialised, least modified, and proceed to 
 those which are most specialised, or modified. 
 
 SWALLOWS 
 
 According to this plan, we commence with the 
 Swallow tribe. There are many species of these birds, 
 widely distributed throughout the world. All have 
 long, slender, but powerful wings, and very weak 
 feet, showing that much of their life is spent in flight 
 and that the feet have become feeble from disuse. In 
 many species the tail is forked. They feed almost 
 entirely upon insects, captured in the air, their deeply 
 
BARN SWALLOW BANK SWALLOW 179 
 
 cleft mouths, like those of the Goatsuckers, being well 
 adapted to the purpose. The bill is very short, and 
 slightly curved at the tip. Swallows have a very 
 beautiful flight, unlike that of any other bird. They 
 are gregarious, and just before migrating in the fall, 
 assemble in enormous numbers. Swallows lend much 
 charm to the life of the country during the summer 
 months, and they are certainly most useful birds from 
 an economic standpoint. Like its relative, the House- 
 Martin, the Swallow builds a nest of mud, on rafters 
 in barns and outhouses, and sometimes in trees. Two 
 broods are usually reared before the summer is over. 
 The species figured is the Common Barn Swallow 
 of Europe. See Plate 18, Fig. 108. 
 
 The House-Martin may easily be distinguished 
 from the Swallow, having a large patch of white on 
 the lower part of the back, and the under parts all 
 white. Besides this, the Martin has legs and toes 
 completely covered with short, downy feathers. This 
 bird usually builds its nest under the eaves of houses, 
 and lays white eggs, while those of the true Swallow 
 are spotted. The House-Martin is not represented in 
 this country. See Plate 19, Fig. 109. 
 
 The Bank Swallow is a small form corresponding 
 to the Sand Martin of Europe, a dull greyish-brown 
 above and white below. Unlike the Swallow and 
 the Martin, it nests in holes in sandbanks, labori- 
 ously tunnelling long chambers in which the eggs are 
 deposited, from two to three feet from the entrance. 
 And this work is accomplished by means of the 
 feeblest of beaks and feet. See Plate 19, Fig. 110. 
 
 This species is very similar to the Rough-wing 
 
180 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 Swallow, which also usually, though not invariably, 
 nests in sandbanks. 
 
 The Purple Martin is the largest member of this 
 tribe in North America. The male is a beautiful 
 glossy, bluish-purple colour over the entire body, dark- 
 ening on wings and tail, while the female is a duller 
 hue above and greyish-white below. This bird is quite 
 common throughout the Southern States, where it is 
 valued for its usefulness as well as for its beauty and 
 sweet song. 
 
 Two other species of Swallow common in America 
 are the Cliff Swallow, distinguished by its reddish 
 upper tail-coverts and bluish-black back striped with 
 white, and the Tree Swallow, all blue above and white 
 below. The former builds nests of mud in cliffs or 
 under the eaves of houses and barns, while the latter 
 nests in trees or in boxes provided for its use. 
 
 EUROPEAN FLYCATCHERS 
 
 The European Flycatchers are included among the 
 true Oscines, or singing birds, and rank next in order 
 to the Swallows. 
 
 The two best known species are the Pied and the 
 Spotted Flycatchers, both of which are common on the 
 continent of Europe and in the British Islands. In 
 general characteristics they resemble their American 
 cousins, preying upon insects which they capture in 
 the same manner. See Plate 10, Fig. 47. 
 
 The general colouring of the Spotted Flycatcher 
 is light brown, darkening on wings and tail, throat 
 and breast paler and streaked with brown. This bird 
 
SHRIKES 181 
 
 builds its nest on the branch of a tree, while the Pied 
 Flycatcher makes use of the hollows in trees. 
 
 SHRIKES 
 
 The Flycatchers are comparatively feeble birds, but 
 their near relatives, the Shrikes, or Butcher-birds, are 
 much more formidable. They are considerably 
 larger, and are distinguished by their almost Hawk- 
 like beaks, which are used to tear living prey, such as 
 smaller birds, mice, and so on. Although numbering 
 about two hundred species, these are mostly confined 
 to the Old World, only two being native to America. 
 
 The first of these is the Northern Shrike, a rather 
 large bird, measuring over ten inches in length, grey 
 upon the upper parts, with black wings and tail, 
 marked with white. The bill is powerful and hooked 
 like that of a Hawk. This bird has a characteristic 
 straightforward flight, flying close to the ground with 
 much flapping of the wings, and rising suddenly 
 upward to perch. 
 
 The Northern Shrike breeds in the far north, 
 migrating southward in winter. Its nest of twigs and 
 grass is usually placed in low trees or bushes. The 
 Great Grey Shrike of Europe closely corresponds to 
 this species. See Plate 10, Fig. 46. 
 
 All the birds of this family have the curious habit 
 of killing and impaling their prey on thorns and 
 twigs, presumably for future use. It is on this 
 account they have received the name Butcher-birds. 
 The English name, Flesher, comes from an old 
 English word for butcher. Preying as it does upon 
 
182 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 many harmful insects and mammals, and especially 
 upon the noxious English Sparrow, ornithologists 
 declare that this bird well deserves to be protected. 
 
 The Red-backed Shrike is another common Euro- 
 pean species. See Plate 10, Fig. 45. 
 
 The Loggerhead Shrike is a smaller form than the 
 northern species, but closely resembles it in colouring. 
 This bird does not fly forth in search of prey, but, like 
 the Flycatchers, perches and waits for it to come 
 within view. Its power of sight is remarkably keen, 
 and the grasshoppers, small snakes, and lizards upon 
 which it chiefly feeds are detected at long distances. 
 This bird also often impales its victims on thorns, 
 capturing more than it can devour at one time. The 
 Loggerhead's notes are harsh and guttural, unlike 
 those of the Northern Shrike, some of whose notes are 
 very musical. 
 
 TITMICE 
 
 The Titmice are small birds, of rather pugnacious 
 disposition, and commonly known in this country as 
 Chickadees. It is a moot point among ornithologists 
 as to whether or not they are related to the Shrike 
 family. These little birds feed largely on the eggs and 
 larvae of insects that are injurious to trees, and so are 
 of great benefit to man. They have short, stout bills, 
 and the nostrils are concealed by bristles. 
 
 A common English species is the Blue Tit, a 
 courageous little bird, especially during the time that 
 it is sitting on its eggs. The nest is usually made in 
 the hole of a tree-trunk, sometimes in deserted Wood- 
 peckers' holes, from which intruding fingers are often 
 
46. Great Gray Shrike* 
 (Lanitis excubitor). J ' ' ' 
 
 45. 
 
 Red-backed Shrike 
 f (Lanius collurio). 
 
 48. Bell Bird 
 
 (Chasmortynckus 
 
 niveus). 
 
 49. 
 
 Tree Pipit 
 (Anthw tri^ 
 
 50. Water Ouzel 
 (Cincltts cinclus). 
 

 
GREAT TIT LONG-TAILED TIT 183 
 
 hastily withdrawn in consequence of a hissing sound 
 from the bird, resembling the warning note of a snake. 
 This bird may be readily induced to take up a resi- 
 dence in any desired spot by means of nesting-boxes 
 hung in convenient situations. See Plate 15, Fig. 83. 
 
 The Great Tit is a larger bird than the preceding, 
 but similar in appearance. It may readily be dis- 
 tinguished, however, by the broad black stripe which 
 runs down the middle of the breast. The Great Tit 
 frequently attacks smaller birds, beating out their 
 brains with its powerful beak. See Plate 15, Fig. 84. 
 
 The Coal Tit and the Crested Tit require to be 
 carefully sought, being of shy and retiring disposition. 
 The Coal Tit is met with in many of the less populated 
 districts throughout the British Islands, but the other 
 species mentioned is rarely seen except in Scotland. 
 See Plate 15, Figs. 80, 82. 
 
 While Titmice are mainly insect-feeders, ripe pears 
 and apples prove an irresistible attraction, especially 
 for the Blue Tit, and on this account it is disliked by 
 fruit-growers. In spite of its depredations, however, 
 it is a most useful bird. 
 
 The Long-tailed Tit is the smallest of the family, 
 and a very handsome little bird. In the art of nest- 
 building it is most skilful. Oval in shape, the nest is 
 covered on the outside with moss and lichens, and lined 
 with feathers. It is suspended from a branch usually 
 not far from the ground, and harmonises so perfectly 
 with its surroundings that even an expert nest-hunter 
 has difficulty in finding it. When sitting, the long 
 tail of the bird is turned over the back, so that beak 
 and tail often poke out of the doorway at the same 
 
184 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 time. The capacity of this nursery is as wonderful as 
 its structure, since as many as sixteen youngsters have 
 been found together inside, though usually the number 
 ranges from seven to ten. See Plate 14, Fig. 78. 
 
 The Chickadee is a very common little bird of this 
 family in eastern North America, easily distinguish- 
 able by its glossy black cap and throat, white at side of 
 head and neck, white outer webs of wing- feathers, and 
 buffy sides. It nests in holes in stumps and old trees, 
 lining the cavities with feathers, grasses, and so on. 
 
 This attractive little bird is not at all shy, and is 
 often seen about houses in the winter months. Feed- 
 ing chiefly upon insects in summer, in cold weather it 
 will eat seeds, nuts and a variety of other food, when 
 obtainable, showing much adaptability. Another 
 common name for the Chickadee is Black-capped 
 Titmouse. 
 
 The Tufted Titmouse is a resident of the eastern 
 part of the United States, where it is widely dis- 
 tributed. The upper parts are, in general, a grey 
 colour, the under parts white, with a reddish tinge on 
 the sides. The forehead is black, and the crest is well 
 marked. Its notes are louder and not so pleasing as 
 those of the Chickadee, and they are uttered almost 
 continuously. 
 
 NUTHATCHES 
 
 These birds are near relatives of the Titmice, and 
 four out of the twenty known species are found in 
 North America. As a rule, the Nuthatches are in- 
 conspicuous in colour, black, white, and grey pre- 
 vailing. They resemble the Woodpeckers, and like 
 
NUTHATCH 185 
 
 them, pass their lives on the trunks of trees. The 
 tail differs from that of the Woodpeckers, however, 
 in that the feathers are soft, and not spiny, and there- 
 fore it is not used as a support for the body when 
 feeding. The Nuthatch is able to climb up and down 
 the trunks of trees with equal facility. See Plate 21, 
 Fig. 128. 
 
 Holes in tree-trunks are generally used as nesting- 
 places, and at the bottom of the cavity a bed of dry 
 leaves is made on which the eggs are laid. When the 
 entrance is too large, the bird reduces it by the use of 
 mud to the desired size a hole just large enough to 
 pass through. 
 
 This bird receives its name from its habit of wedg- 
 ing nuts in crevices of the bark of trees and hammer- 
 ing, or hatching, them until the shell is broken. Dur- 
 ing a large part of the year insects form a considerable 
 portion of its diet, and hard seeds of many kinds are 
 also eaten. 
 
 The White-breasted Nuthatch is a resident species 
 throughout eastern North America. It closely re- 
 sembles the European species figured. All the birds 
 of this family are of stocky build, have strong and 
 sharply pointed beaks, sharp claws fitted for climbing 
 and short, square tails. The White-breasted Nut- 
 hatch has the crest and forepart of the back glossy 
 black, the rest of the upper parts blue-grey, with some 
 white feathers in wings and tail. It nests in holes in 
 trees, like the Old World species, sometimes excavat- 
 ing them for itself, like the Woodpeckers. 
 
 In winter this bird is frequently seen in the eastern 
 part of the United States in company with the Downy 
 
186 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 Woodpecker and the Chickadee. It is easy to identify 
 from its habit of running up and down the trunks 
 of trees, usually in a spiral course, searching for grubs 
 concealed in the bark. 
 
 The Red-breasted Nuthatch is a more northern spe- 
 cies than the preceding, but is similar in appearance, 
 except for a black stripe which runs through the eye 
 to the back of the head, and for the reddish instead of 
 white breast. Its notes, too, are quite different in 
 tone, and neither species is remarkable for its melodi- 
 ous voice. 
 
 TREE-CREEPERS 
 
 Like the foregoing family, these birds are tree- 
 dwellers. Like the Nuthatch, the Tree-creeper climbs 
 about the trunks of large trees; but in one point it 
 differs conspicuously in the form of its tail. In the 
 Nuthatch the tail is short and soft; in the Tree- 
 creeper, on the other hand, it is long and composed of 
 stiff and pointed feathers, as in the Woodpecker. 
 Since the Nuthatch uses its beak as a hammer, after 
 the manner of the Woodpecker, and the Tree-creeper 
 does not, this curious difference is not easy to under- 
 stand, for the Woodpecker's tail is supposed to have 
 developed as a support for the body and to give force 
 to the hammering of the beak. This prop seems to be 
 unnecessary in the Nuthatch. The Tree-creeper's 
 beak, indeed, could never be used hammer-fashion, 
 for it is slender and curved and is used for the capture 
 of insects. See Plate 21, Fig. 127. 
 
 The American Brown Creeper is the only one of the 
 twelve recognised species found in America. It cor- 
 
15. 
 
 79. 
 
 Red Crossbill 
 (Loxia curvirostra) 
 
 80. 
 
 Coal Tit 
 (Panu ater) 
 
 Crested Titmouse 
 (Lophophanes cristatus). 
 
 Lapland Longspur 
 (Calcarius lappmi 
 
 84. 
 
 Greater Titmouse 
 (Parus major). 
 
 83. Blue 
 
 Titmouse 
 
 (Parue coeru- 
 
 leus). 
 
 85. 
 
 Yellow Hamme 
 (Emberiza citri- 
 nella). 
 
 86. 
 
 Corn Bunting 
 (Miliaria miliaria). 
 
.. ' ; ' _ 
 
BROWN CREEPER WREN 187 
 
 responds to the European form, being black, white 
 and buff above, and white below. It breeds in the 
 North and in winter migrates southward to the Gulf 
 States. Owing to its small size, sober colours and the 
 skill with which it contrives always to keep the trunk 
 of a tree between itself and human observers, this bird 
 is seldom seen. Its faint little twitter, uttered as it 
 climbs about, is very pleasing. 
 
 The beautiful little Wall-creeper is found only in 
 Asia and certain parts of Europe. It is of a soft grey- 
 ish colour, with white spots on the outer tail-feathers 
 and crimson wing-coverts. The appearance of this 
 bird has been noted two or three times in the British 
 Islands. See Plate 21, Fig. 126. 
 
 WRENS 
 
 The Wren family includes a great number of very 
 small birds, spread over the greater part of the world, 
 being especially abundant in the New World. They 
 are not found, however, in Africa and the Australian 
 region. They are insect-feeders and therefore migra- 
 tory in their habits. Wrens are active, nervous birds, 
 with musical voices. 
 
 The common American House Wren is found 
 nearly everywhere in North America. The colouring 
 is brownish above, indistinctly barred with darker col- 
 our, and greyish below. Like all the other members 
 of this family, it builds domed nests, frequently in 
 outhouses and other places in proximity to human 
 beings. The wings are short and rounded and the 
 short tail is usually carried in a vertical position. 
 
188 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 The Common Wren of Europe closely corresponds 
 to this species. It is popularly known as "Jenny 
 Wren" and is a favourite character in the folk-lore of 
 England. See Plate 13, Fig. 68. 
 
 Other familiar American species are the Winter 
 Wren, the Carolina Wren and the Marsh Wren. 
 
 This great family embraces not only the typical 
 Wrens, but the Mocking-birds, the Catbirds and the 
 Thrashers. 
 
 Among the song-birds of America the Mocking- 
 bird easily takes first place, its wonderful vocal pow- 
 ers being equalled only by those of the celebrated 
 Nightingale of Europe. Not only are its own notes 
 remarkably melodious, but it has the ability to imitate 
 closely the voices of other birds as well as many other 
 sounds in Nature. See Plate 4$, Fig. 247. 
 
 In colour the Mocking-bird is ashy above, darken- 
 ing on wings and tail and paling to dingy white below. 
 The lower half of the quill- feathers of the wings is 
 white, and some of the tail-feathers are also marked 
 with white. The sexes are almost undistinguishable 
 in colour, though the male. has a little more white in 
 the plumage. 
 
 These birds are very common in our southern 
 States. They show little fear of man and are often 
 seen in city streets and parks. Mocking-birds sing 
 morning and evening, and on moonlight nights are 
 frequently heard all night. They build clumsy-look- 
 ing nests in low trees, not far from the ground, and in 
 thickets, and the eggs are greenish, spotted thickly 
 with brown. 
 
 While not equalling the Mocking-bird in musical 
 
CATBIRD WAXWINGS 189 
 
 ability, its near relative, the Catbird, yet has a charm- 
 ing song of its own, as well as considerable power of 
 mimicry. It is bluish-grey above, with crown and 
 tail black and under tail-coverts brownish red, some- 
 times spotted with slate colour. This bird is of a lively 
 and active disposition and very friendly and intelli- 
 gent. One of its commonest notes resembles the mew- 
 ing of a cat, and from this it derives its name. 
 
 The Catbird is very abundant in the eastern part 
 of the United States, breeding from the Gulf States 
 to Canada. It makes a coarse nest of twigs, leaves, 
 and so on, and lays greenish-blue eggs. 
 
 Another well-known American member of this fam- 
 ily is the Brown Thrasher, a frequenter of under- 
 growth and thickets, especially in the Southern States. 
 The upper parts are a rich reddish brown, the under 
 parts whitish, heavily streaked with dark brown, ex- 
 cept on the throat and middle of the breast. The 
 wing-coverts are tipped with white. The Brown 
 Thrasher in form closely resembles the Mocking-bird, 
 and, like it, has the ability to mimic other birds. Its 
 own song, heard during the breeding season only, is 
 loud and very melodious, and is repeated for a long 
 time. 
 
 WAXWINGS 
 
 A very remarkable family is that which comprises 
 the Waxwings of North America and northern 
 Europe and Asia. Numbering but few species and 
 of uncertain lineage, the birds of this family have ac- 
 quired notoriety on account of the fact that the inner 
 wing-quills and tail-feathers are tipped with horny 
 
190 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 plates, having the appearance of small drops of red 
 sealing-wax. 
 
 The Waxwing, or Bohemian Chatterer, is an in- 
 habitant of the Arctic regions. It is very rarely seen 
 in the Atlantic States, but more often in the northern 
 part of the interior of the United States. It has visited 
 the British Islands periodically for upwards of two 
 centuries, sometimes in great numbers. See Plate 18, 
 Fig. 106. 
 
 The Cedar Waxwing is a much more common spe- 
 cies in this country, breeding from Virginia north- 
 ward. The upper parts in this bird are greyish, the 
 forehead, chin, and a line through the eye black. The 
 tail is yellow at the end, and the secondaries and some- 
 times the tail have the small wax-like tips that give 
 the name to the species. It is slightly smaller than 
 the preceding form, but, like it, has a conspicuous 
 crest. Mrs. Bailey says: "The squads of Cedar-birds 
 fly evenly on a level with the tree-tops, in close ranks 
 often of five, seven or nine. Frequently, when under 
 full headway, they suddenly wheel and dive down to 
 an apple-tree for a meal of canker-worms." 
 
 ORIOLES 
 
 The true Orioles are an Old World family exclu- 
 sively, and as to their exact relationship, there is some 
 difference of opinion among naturalists. In the young 
 the under parts are streaked in a way that is thought 
 to ally the group with the Starlings. 
 
 The Golden Oriole is one of the most beautiful of 
 birds, the body plumage being bright yellow, with 
 black wings and tail. The female is more soberly col- 
 
GOLDEN ORIOLE 191 
 
 oured dull green above, the under parts streaked 
 with grey. This species winters in Africa, migrating 
 to southern and central Europe in the spring, and 
 occasionally breeding in the British Islands. All the 
 family have sweet, flute-like voices. See Plate 11, 
 Fig. 51. 
 
 The nest of the Golden Oriole is a very cleverly 
 made, cradle-like structure of bark, wool, and grass- 
 stems, woven together and suspended beneath the 
 fork of a small branch of a tree. 
 
 The American family is a large one, embracing a 
 hundred and fifty species, or more, most of which 
 make their home in the tropics. They differ struc- 
 turally from the Old World Orioles, as well as in 
 many of their habits, but, like them, feed upon insects, 
 fruit, and seeds. They are found in widely different 
 localities, frequenting woodlands, plains, and marshes, 
 showing much adaptability to environment. Certain 
 species are fine singers, while others have harsh and 
 disagreeable voices. 
 
 The most conspicuous member of the family is the 
 Baltimore Oriole, found quite abundantly throughout 
 eastern North America. The head, throat, upper part 
 of the back, and middle tail-feathers are black, some 
 of the wing- feathers are edged with white, and the rest 
 of the plumage is a rich orange colour. 
 
 Like the Old World Oriole, this bird builds a sus- 
 pended nest of grasses, bark, hair, and so on, near the 
 end of a small branch. The work of constructing the 
 nest seems to be done by the female, the male bird 
 assisting her by bringing some of the material used. 
 
192 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 The eggs are whitish, with irregular dark lines and a 
 few spots. 
 
 One of our best known American song-birds is the 
 Bobolink, Reed-bird or Rice-bird. The male of this 
 species has two distinct phases of plumage. In the 
 breeding season, the head, throat, and under parts of 
 wings, and tail, are black, the fore part of the back 
 buffy, the scapulars and upper tail-coverts dingy 
 white. In the fall, after the breeding season, these 
 feathers are all moulted, and the Bobolink assumes 
 the streaked olive and buff colours of the female and 
 young. At this time, during their migration to South 
 America, these birds stop on their way to visit the rice- 
 fields of the Southern States, gorging themselves with 
 the rice until they become very fat. When in this con- 
 dition they are esteemed a great delicacy and are shot 
 in large numbers to supply the table. 
 
 The Bobolink has a rich, melodious voice. His song 
 has been described as "an irrepressible outburst; a 
 flood of melody from a heart overflowing with the joy 
 of early summer." 
 
 Another very common bird of this country is the 
 Red-winged Blackbird. Its name is taken from the 
 colour of its lesser wing-coverts, which are a bright 
 crimson, showing conspicuously in flight, but not 
 visible when the wing is closed. The middle wing- 
 coverts are yellowish, all the rest of the plumage is 
 glossy black. The colouring of the female is much like 
 that of a common Sparrow. 
 
 This bird breeds from the Gulf of Mexico to Can- 
 ada, and winters southward from Virginia. Its nest 
 is built in bushes and reeds in swampy ground. 
 
COWBIRD MEADOWLARK 193 
 
 The Cowbird has fittingly been called an outcast 
 among the feathered tribe, on account of its despicable 
 habit of shirking the duties of parenthood and foisting 
 the care of its offspring upon other birds. Like the 
 Old World Cuckoo, the Cowbird watches its oppor- 
 tunity to deposit its egg in the nest of some smaller 
 bird, who usually cares for it in preference to her own 
 eggs and young, though the imposition is sometimes 
 detected and the Cowbird's egg thrown from the nest. 
 
 The plumage of this bird is shining black, with a 
 metallic lustre over the greater part of the body. The 
 head and neck are dark brown. 
 
 The Purple Crackle, or Crow Blackbird, has beau- 
 tifully iridescent plumage of green, blue and black, 
 over the entire body, somewhat duller below than 
 above. This bird breeds in the eastern part of the 
 United States, wintering in the southern part. A 
 noticeable feature in all the Crackles is their bright 
 yellow eyes, which contrast strikingly with their 
 sombre plumage. These birds are said to prey upon 
 the eggs and young of other species. Their notes are 
 harsh and disagreeable. 
 
 A much larger form than the preceding, found 
 principally in the marshes of Florida, is the Boat- 
 tailed Crackle, the general colour of which is bluish or 
 purplish-black, darker on wings and tail. 
 
 The Meadowlark is the most soberly coloured mem- 
 ber of this family, the plumage being a mixture of 
 black, buff and white. The outer tail-feathers are 
 white, forming a conspicuous mark when the bird is 
 on the wing. These birds frequent marshes and 
 meadow-lands, where they blend so well with their 
 
194 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 surroundings that they are able to keep themselves 
 well out of sight. 
 
 STARLINGS 
 
 The Common Starling belongs to a family that is 
 peculiar to the Old World. These birds seem to be 
 most nearly related to the Golden Oriole, as already 
 mentioned. The Starling is an extremely beautiful 
 bird, its plumage, purplish and greenish in general 
 tone, having a wonderful metallic lustre. The new 
 feathers, assumed after the autumn moult, have light 
 buff tips, which gradually wear off as the summer 
 livery is gained. See Plate 20, Fig. 120. 
 
 These birds lay their eggs in holes or the hollow 
 trunks of trees, making but little pretence at nest- 
 building. Young Starlings are of an ash-brown 
 colour, totally unlike that of the adult birds. 
 
 The Starling has been introduced into this country 
 in recent years, where it breeds well and seems to have 
 become completely naturalised. Like the English 
 Sparrow, it is combative in disposition, and is said to 
 be driving away some of our native birds. 
 
 DIPPERS 
 
 The birds of this family enjoy the unique distinction 
 among perching birds of being not only able to swim, 
 but also to run or fly along the beds of swift streams. 
 The Dipper, or Ouzel, is like a large Wren in appear- 
 ance, having a stout body and a very short tail. The 
 upper parts are dark brown, and the breast white. It 
 receives its name from the habit of dipping or ducking 
 in the water. The Dipper is an insect- feeder, though 
 
DIPPER MISSEL-THRUSH 195 
 
 it has been accused of devouring the eggs of trout in 
 mountain streams. The case, however, has never been 
 proved against them. See Plate 10, Fig. 50. 
 
 The American Dipper, or Water-ouzel, as it is fre- 
 quently called, resembles the European, but the breast 
 is dark-coloured instead of white. About twelve spe- 
 cies are known, all found in the neighbourhood of 
 mountain streams. They build round nests of moss, 
 on the ground, and their eggs are white. 
 
 Of this bird Elliott Coues writes: "Although not 
 web-footed, nor able to swim with its feet, nor having 
 the slightest affinity with water birds, nevertheless 
 there is no duck nor diver more truly aquatic than the 
 Dipper; a great part of its time, in fact, being spent 
 under water, where it repairs in search of food." 
 
 THRUSHES 
 
 We pass now to the large family of Thrushes and 
 their near relations, many of whom are superb song- 
 sters. These birds are spread over a large part of the 
 globe, about twelve, out of the three hundred or more 
 species, being found in the United States. They are 
 rather stoutly built, live in wooded districts, and feed 
 largely upon insects and fruit. The sexes are much 
 alike in colouring, and the species are migratory and 
 somewhat gregarious in habit. The true Thrushes are 
 generally brownish or olive above, with light breasts 
 spotted with darker colour. 
 
 The Missel-thrush is the largest song-bird found in 
 the British Islands, where it is seen all the year round. 
 It measures about ten and a half inches in length, and 
 is distinguished by the fact that the spots on the breast 
 
196 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 are kidney-shaped, while in the Common European 
 Thrush they have somewhat the shape of a peg-top. 
 The outer tail-feathers are tipped with white. See 
 Plate 11, Fig. 55. 
 
 The European Blackbird is probably a better 
 known bird than the preceding, for he is more in evi- 
 dence, living in and near large towns. In the London 
 parks Blackbirds are seen at all seasons of the year. 
 Though the sable livery and golden bill give this bird 
 some claim to beauty, it is more as a songster that it 
 is esteemed, its notes being peculiarly flute-like and 
 beautiful. The plumage of the female is dull brown. 
 
 It is interesting to note that the nest of this Black- 
 bird, like that of the Missel-thrush, is lined with dry 
 grasses, while that of the Common Thrush has a 
 water-tight lining of rotten wood. See Plate 11, Fig. 
 54. 
 
 Nearly related to, and more striking in appearance 
 than the Blackbird, is the Ring-ouzel, which has a 
 pure white crescent on the breast. As a songster, how- 
 ever, it is far inferior to the other species. See Plate 
 11, Fig. 56. 
 
 A very beautiful European Thrush is the Rock- 
 thrush, which most nearly represents the American 
 Bluebird. The plumage of the male is a mixture of 
 blue, black, white and reddish colours. This bird is 
 common in Germany and other parts of the continent 
 of Europe, but is seldom seen in Great Britain. See 
 Plate 12, Fig. 57. 
 
 The delicately coloured little bird called the Wheat- 
 ear is found widely distributed throughout the Old 
 World, and occasionally visits America. The plumage 
 
11, 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 51. European Oriole 
 
 (Oriolw aalbula). 
 
 52. Gray Wagtail 
 (Motacilla melamrpe}. 
 
 53. 
 
 Pied Wagtail 
 (Motacilla alba)/** 
 
 54. Blackbird 
 
 (Merula merula). 
 
 55. Missel Thrush 
 (Turdw viscivorus). 
 
 56. Rilig Ouzel (Merula torquatm}. 
 
WHEATEAR BLUE-THROAT 197 
 
 of the male varies with the season. In summer 
 it is a pale grey above, with wings and tail black, 
 the rump and base of the tail white, and the under 
 parts whitish. After the autumn moult he assumes a 
 plumage that closely resembles that of the female, the 
 feathers having long brown fringes, which wear off 
 as spring approaches. The female is dull brown 
 above, and the young are similar in colouring, but are 
 slightly spotted. The name "Wheatear" comes from 
 an old Saxon word. "Wheat" is a corruption of 
 white, and "ear" is from the old word "aers," mean- 
 ing rump, in allusion to the white patch above the 
 tail. See Plate 12, Fig. 60. 
 
 An extremely lively and very pretty member of the 
 Thrush tribe is the Stonechat, common throughout the 
 whole of Europe, and especially abundant in the pas- 
 ture-lands of Eugland. It is an insect-eater, and feeds 
 largely upon the destructive wire-worm. The Stone- 
 chat builds a nest of grass and moss on the ground, 
 or in the stems of bushes but a few inches from the 
 ground. See Plate 12, Fig. 62. 
 
 A near relative of the preceding form is the 
 European Redstart, of which two species are figured, 
 the Common Redstart and the Black Redstart. Both 
 are extremely handsome little birds, and fairly com- 
 mon in the Old World. They are said to be increasing 
 in Great Britain and extending their range. Curi- 
 ously enough, the eggs of the two species differ con- 
 spicuously, those of the Black Redstart being a pure, 
 shining white, while those of its relative are a beautiful 
 pale blue. The Redstarts build nests of fine grass and 
 
198 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 moss, hidden away in holes of trees and buildings, or 
 in clefts of rock. See Plate 13, Figs. 65, 66. 
 
 A no less beautiful bird is the Blue-throat, of which 
 there are two perhaps three forms found in Euro- 
 pean countries. The first has a red spot in the middle 
 of the blue throat ; the second a white spot. A third, 
 unspotted form may be but a variety of the white- 
 spotted species. The red-spotted Bluethroat is a bird 
 of high northern latitudes, where its song enlivens the 
 nightless Arctic summer and rivals that of the Night- 
 ingale in richness. The white-spotted bird breeds 
 south of the Baltic Sea. See Plate 12, Fig. 63. 
 
 Probably the English Redbreast, or Robin, holds 
 chief place in the long roll of British birds, on account 
 of its friendly ways and sweet notes. It is a small bird, 
 about five and a half inches in length, olive-green 
 above, throat and fore part of the breast orange-red. 
 This bird is found even in large cities, in the parks and 
 gardens. The males and females are alike in colour- 
 ing, but the first plumage of the young birds is a dull 
 brown, showing no trace of the orange-red throat so 
 conspicuous in the parents. They are often mistaken 
 for the females of the species. See Plate 12, Fig. 61. 
 
 While it is not true to say that no brightly coloured 
 birds sing well, it is a well-known fact that some of the 
 most soberly clad are the sweetest of all the songsters. 
 This is peculiarly true of the Nightingale, whose won- 
 derful melody is celebrated throughout the world. 
 This bird is found in many parts of the Old World, 
 and is very common in Great Britain. The sexes are 
 coloured alike, reddish-brown above and whitish below. 
 See Plate 12, Fig. 59. 
 
AMERICAN ROBIN 199 
 
 The American Robin, or Migratory Thrush, is one 
 of the most familiar of our birds, being found through- 
 out the whole of North America. The name "Robin," 
 or "Redbreast," was given it by the early English set- 
 tlers in this country, on account of its resemblance to 
 the Old World bird called by that name. The Robin 
 of the New World, however, is a much larger form, 
 being nearly twice the size of its European cousin, and 
 the red breast is different in hue. It is slate-colour 
 above, the head is black, and the throat is streaked with 
 white. The food of the Robin consists of worms, in- 
 sects, and fruit. The foundation of the nest is made of 
 mud, lined with grasses and other soft materials. The 
 song and call-notes of this bird are very varied, 
 expressing suspicion, alarm, caution, and so on, and 
 many of them have never been satisfactorily inter- 
 preted. 
 
 The Bluebird is another well-known American 
 member of the Thrush family, whose arrival in the 
 spring is eagerly looked forward to. It is a resident 
 species throughout eastern North America, though the 
 majority of Bluebirds go South for the winter. The 
 general colouring of the upper parts is brilliant blue, 
 darkening on the wings ; dull reddish on the breast, the 
 rest of the under parts whitish. The young are 
 spotted on breast and back. 
 
 The largest member of the Thrush family in Amer- 
 ica is the Wood Thrush, reddish-brown above, chang- 
 ing to olive-brown on the tail. Except on the throat 
 and down the middle, the under parts are thickly 
 spotted with black, the spots reaching well up under 
 the wings. This bird is common in the Eastern States. 
 
200 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 Its notes are very sweet and flute-like in quality. The 
 nest and the eggs are much like those of the Robin. 
 
 Wilson's Thrush, or Veery, is a duller brown than 
 the Wood Thrush, and has the under parts white, 
 flecked with small wedge-shaped spots, much the same 
 colour as the brown of the back. The song of this bird 
 is peculiar, and unlike that of any of the other 
 Thrushes. 
 
 The Hermit Thrush is spread over nearly the whole 
 of North America. It is olive-brown, shading to red- 
 dish on the tail; throat and breast buffy, profusely 
 spotted with dark brown. This bird, like the other 
 members of the group, is a fine singer. While not 
 especially shy, the Hermit Thrush is not very often 
 seen, from the fact that it inhabits woodlands and 
 thickets, rather than open country. It builds a nest 
 of sticks and twigs, on or near the ground, and the 
 eggs are greenish-blue, like those of the Robin and 
 Wood Thrush. See Plate 42, Fig. 248. 
 
 WARBLERS 
 
 This is a very large group of birds, inhabiting both 
 the Old and the New World, embracing several fam- 
 ilies and many different species. Only a few birds in 
 America correspond to the Warblers of the Old 
 World, all of which, unlike the typical American fam- 
 ily, have clear, sweet voices. A few species representa- 
 tive of the Warblers of both countries will be briefly 
 mentioned. They are active, sprightly little birds, 
 more or less green or brown above, and yellow or buff 
 below. Formerly they were included in the Thrush 
 
12. 
 
 57. 
 
 Rock Thrush 
 (Monticola 
 saxatdtisj. 
 
 PIP* 
 58. 
 
 ^ Sparrow 
 (Accentor modularis). 
 
 59. Nightingale 
 (Daulias luscinm) 
 
 60. 
 
 heatear 
 (Saxicokt 
 cenanthe). 
 
 61. European Robin Redbreast 
 (JErythacus rubecula). 
 
 63. 
 
 White- 
 spotted 
 Blue- 
 throat 
 
 (Cyanecula jjP 
 cyaneculft). 
 
 62. 
 
 Stonechat 
 (Pratincola rubicolaj 
 
BLACKCAP 201 
 
 family, from which they have now been separated on 
 account of certain important differences. The War- 
 blers have two moults during the year, and the young 
 are like the parents in colour. 
 
 The Blackcap is in some respects almost as skilled 
 a performer as the Nightingale, and it is much more 
 widely distributed than that famous songster. The 
 female Blackcap has the crown of the head a dull 
 chestnut, and so also have the young in their first 
 plumage. See Plate 13, Fig. 72. 
 
 Another sweet singer, but far inferior to the Night- 
 ingale and Blackcap, is the Whitethroat, a common 
 bird in the British Islands. The male White-throat 
 displays great courage in defense of his nest and 
 young. When an intruder draws near, he flits from 
 branch to branch, with every feather of his crest and 
 throat erect, and tail widely spread, while every now 
 and then he shoots up into the air and descends again, 
 almost vertically, keeping^ up this scolding remon- 
 strance until the danger is past. See Plate 13, Fig. 
 71. 
 
 The Golden-crested Wren has the distinction of 
 being the smallest of European birds, measuring not 
 more than three and a half inches in length. Its nest 
 is a wonderful structure of moss, felted together by 
 spider-webs and sheep's wool. Outside, bits of lichen 
 are fastened to render it inconspicuous, and the inside 
 is lined with feathers. This exquisite little nursery is 
 swung at the. end of a long bough, instead of being 
 placed on it. From five to eight, or even ten, tiny, 
 buff- white eggs, faintly freckled with red, are laid, and 
 most jealously brooded by the female. The young 
 
202 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 birds lack the beautiful golden crest of their parents. 
 See Plate 13, Fig. 69. 
 
 The Golden-crowned Kinglet takes the place of the 
 preceding species in America. This pretty little bird 
 has a crown of bright orange colour, bordered by black 
 and yellow. The general tint of the upper part of the 
 body is greyish-green, the lower part whitish. This 
 bird is often associated in migration with another 
 species, the Ruby-crowned Kinglet, which has a 
 bright red crown, more or less concealed, but otherwise 
 closely resembles it. Like the European species, these 
 birds build elaborate nests, which they suspend from 
 the end of branches usually from evergreen trees. 
 The song of the Ruby-crowned Kinglet is mellow and 
 flute-like, that of its Golden-crov/ned cousin shriller 
 and not so pleasing to the ear. 
 
 Among the common Old World species figured are 
 the Wood-wren, the Marsh-warbler, and the Icter- 
 ine Warbler, whose relatives are the Sedge- and Reed- 
 warblers, and the Chiff-chaff. The Reed-warbler 
 builds a most interesting nest. It is shaped like a deep 
 cup, and is fixed at the sides to the tall stems of reeds, 
 giving them the appearance of growing up through 
 the nest. So skilfully is this nursery built, that when 
 the reeds bend low over the water, the eggs or young 
 rest securely at the bottom of the nest. See Plate 13, 
 Figs. 64, 67, 70. 
 
 Though many of the Warblers, such as the Sedge-, 
 Reed- and Marsh-warblers, show a preference for 
 swamps and inland water, a great number of species, 
 on the other hand, inhabit dry localities. Between 
 
HEDGE-SPARROW 203 
 
 some of these species there is so great a resemblance 
 that only an expert can distinguish them. 
 
 The* Hedge-sparrow is a true Warbler, and is in no 
 way related to the House-sparrow, as the name seems 
 to imply. In their habits, even more than in their 
 appearance, the birds are unlike, for the House-spar- 
 row is mischievous and insolent in demeanour, while 
 the Hedge-sparrow is among the most retiring of 
 birds. It is generally distributed throughout the 
 British Islands, where it is a resident species. This bird 
 is frequently made the dupe of the Cuckoo, perform- 
 ing the work of foster-parent with great zeal. The 
 nest of the Hedge-sparrow, seldom placed far from 
 the ground, is made of roots and mosses, and lined 
 with hair and wool. From four to six beautiful tur- 
 quoise-blue eggs are laid. See Plate 12, Fig. 58. 
 
 As has been said, the Wood Warblers are a pecu- 
 liarly American family, found chiefly in the eastern 
 part of the country. The greater part of the one 
 hundred known species inhabit the United States, 
 although some are confined to the tropics. They are 
 generally tree-living birds, but a few species are to be 
 found in undergrowth and open country. All are 
 insect-feeders, but vary in their methods of obtaining 
 their prey, some capturing it on the wing, while others 
 find it by creeping about the trunks and limbs of 
 trees. 
 
 One of the most beautiful members of this family 
 is the little American Redstart, whose plumage is a 
 charming mixture of shining black and rich salmon 
 colour. It breeds in North America, but winters in 
 the tropics. 
 
204 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 In the Hooded Warbler the hind head, neck and 
 throat are black, the face and under parts bright yel- 
 low ; back, tail and wings, olive-green. The outer tail- 
 feathers are mostly white, showing conspicuously 
 when the bird is on the wing. Both this and the pre- 
 ceding species have sweet singing notes, and a sharp 
 call when alarmed. 
 
 The Myrtle Warbler has the top of head, each side 
 of the breast and the rump, yellow, forming a striking 
 contrast to the black-streaked bluish-grey of the 
 upper parts. The throat is white, and there is much 
 black on the breast. Like the other species mentioned, 
 this bird is common in the eastern part of the United 
 States, and the yellow patches of colour make it easy 
 to identify. 
 
 The name of the Blue-winged Warbler is apt to be 
 misleading, since the wings are rather slate-coloured 
 than blue. The tail is the same shade as the wings; 
 the upper parts are olive-green, faintly washed with 
 yellow, and the entire under parts are brilliant yellow. 
 As in many of the Warblers, the wing-coverts are 
 tipped with white, and there are patches of white on 
 the outer tail-feathers. The black line through the 
 eye helps to identify the species. 
 
 The black forehead and cheeks, olive-green back, 
 bright yellow throat and breast of the Maryland 
 Yellow-throat, are found in so many other species of 
 the "Yellow- throats" that only an expert ornithologist 
 can distinguish them one from another. The North- 
 ern Yellow-throat is a somewhat larger form, found 
 quite widely distributed throughout the northern and 
 eastern parts of North America. 
 
YELLOW-BREASTED CHAT VIREOS 205 
 
 A distinguishing field-mark of the Parula Warbler 
 is the triangular patch of greenish-yellow on the fore 
 part of the back. The throat and breast are yellow, 
 and there is a dark band across the breast, usually 
 blackish or reddish. The Northern Parula has a 
 wider breast-band, and there is more reddish in the 
 plumage. 
 
 The Chestnut-sided Warbler has reddish-brown 
 sides, greenish-yellow back streaked with black, black 
 on cheeks and sides of throat. This bird is found 
 along the borders of woodlands and in scrubby under- 
 growth, and its markings differ considerably from 
 those of other species, so that it is comparatively easy 
 to recognise. 
 
 The Yellow-breasted Chat has the distinction of 
 being the largest of all our Warblers, as well as the 
 most eccentric in behaviour. The back of this bird is 
 olive-green, like that of so many of the family; the 
 throat and breast are brilliant yellow, and over the 
 eye and at the edge of the throat is a conspicuous 
 white line. It is a common summer resident in many 
 of our Eastern States. It is a very shy bird, and when 
 approached, especially during* the nesting-time, goes 
 through with many strange performances in the air. 
 Mr. Chapman says, "After an acquaintance of many 
 years, I frankly confess that his true character is a 
 mystery to me. . . . But that there is method in his 
 madness no one who studies him closely can doubt." 
 
 The Oven-bird, or Golden-crowned Thrush, is one 
 of the Ground Warblers, that in appearance resembles 
 a small Thrush, having a white breast marked with 
 brownish spots. It is olive-green above, without white 
 
206 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 markings on wings or tail, and has an orange-coloured 
 crown bordered by black lines at the sides. This bird 
 is common in our Eastern States, but is seldom seen 
 on account of its retiring disposition. He has a liquid, 
 melodious song, "the very force of which carries him 
 up into the air among the tree-tops." 
 
 VIREOS 
 
 The Vireos constitute a family, embracing many 
 species, of small, insectivorous birds that are peculiar 
 to America. Their characteristic colour is olive-green, 
 and on this account they are also called Greenlets. 
 The Vireos inhabit both trees and undergrowth, and 
 most of them have very melodious songs. Unlike 
 many of the other insect-eating birds, they are rather 
 slow in their motions, and obtain their food by glean- 
 ing the under surface of leaves and prying larva? from 
 crevices in the bark, rather than by darting after it 
 in the manner of the Flycatchers. The Vireos are 
 migratory, many species spending the summer in the 
 United States and in the autumn returning to their 
 home in the West Indies and South America. 
 
 A common species in eastern North America is the 
 Red-eyed Vireo, or Greenlet, whose plumage is olive- 
 green above, with a slaty-grey crown, and a conspicu- 
 ous white line over the eye. The under parts are pure 
 white. A distinguishing character of this bird is its 
 red iris. Like most of its relatives, the Red-eyed 
 Vireo is a fine singer, and like them also, but in this 
 character differing from most other birds, it sings 
 while weaving its pensile nest of grasses, lichens, and 
 so on. i 
 
13. 
 
 65. Redstart 
 (Buticilla phcenicurus). 
 
 frl Marsh Warbler. 
 (Acrocephalus palustris). 
 
 61. 
 
 Wood Wren 
 
 (PhylloBCopus 
 
 sibilatrix). 
 
 66. Black 
 
 Redstart 
 
 (Ruticilla 
 
 toys). 
 
 cre^t 
 
 (Regulus re- 
 gulusj. 
 
 10. 
 
 cterine Warbler 
 (Hypolais hypolais). 
 
 (Trogl 
 
 71. Garden- 
 Warbler 
 
 (Sylvia simplex) 
 
 *^ 
 
 if \ Y* 12 - Blackca p 
 
 (Sylvia atricapillaj. 
 
WHITE-EYED VIREO 207 
 
 A very handsome, but somewhat rarer form than 
 the preceding in the United States, is the Blue- 
 headed, or Solitary, Vireo, whose back is bright olive- 
 green, top and sides of head bluish-ash colour, wings 
 marked with two white bars, and under parts pure 
 white. This bird is the first of its family to reach the 
 Northern States in the spring, and the last to leave 
 for its southern home. 
 
 The White-eyed Vireo is abundant in summer in 
 the undergrowth of our Eastern States. The bright 
 olive-green of its upper parts are washed with greyish, 
 and the wings have two distinct yellowish-white bars. 
 A marked character is the white iris, which, however, 
 is brown in the young bird. The White-eyed Vireo 
 has considerable ability as a singer, and varies his own 
 sweet song with the notes of other birds. 
 
 WAGTAILS AND PIPITS 
 
 These birds are found principally in the Old World, 
 only three out of the sixty or more known species 
 inhabiting America. Though the Wagtails and Pipits 
 are closely related, so far as colouration is concerned 
 the two groups differ conspicuously: the Wagtails 
 have a beautifully harmonious, but rather brightly 
 coloured plumage, while the Pipits as a rule are 
 clothed in sober brown, relieved by streaks and spots 
 of darker brown. In both groups the legs are rela- 
 tively long, and the inner quill-feathers of the wing, 
 or inner secondaries, are so long that they reach the 
 end of the primaries when the wing is closed a char- 
 acter shared by the Larks. These birds do not hop, 
 
208 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 but walk or run along the ground, and have the habit 
 of constantly wagging the tail. They feed upon in- 
 sects, which they catch both on the wing and from the 
 ground. The hind toe-nail in both Wagtails and 
 Pipits is greatly lengthened. 
 
 Two of the commonest European species are the 
 Grey Wagtail and the White Wagtail, the former 
 being remarkable for its long tail. Both are beautiful 
 and delicately coloured little birds. The black throat 
 of the male Grey Wagtail is worn only during the 
 breeding season, being replaced by white in winter. 
 This bird is a lover of mountain streams, preferring 
 them to those that run through flat country. See Plate 
 11, Fig. 52. 
 
 The White Wagtail in its summer dress may readily 
 be distinguished from its other common relative, the 
 Pied Wagtail, by the greater amount of white on the 
 sides of the neck, and by the beautiful pearl-grey of 
 the upper parts, that of the Pied species being black. 
 In winter they resemble each other rather closely ; the 
 black back being grey at this time, although darker 
 than in the other species. See Plate 11, Fig. 53. 
 
 The Yellow Wagtail is an extremely common bird 
 in many parts of the British Islands. It is a species 
 which revels in wet meadows, and finds the company 
 of cattle attractive for the sake of the flies which they 
 stir up in the grass. The chin, throat, and under parts 
 of this bird are bright yellow, and a yellow stripe runs 
 over the eye. 
 
 In some respects the Pipits are like the Larks, but 
 they are nevertheless probably not very closely related 
 to the Lark family. In colouration they are very 
 
TREE-PIPITLARKS 209 
 
 similar, and another external character which they 
 have in common is the greatly lengthened hind toe- 
 nail. The Pipits build their nests on the ground, 
 usually in sheltered places, and the eggs of some spe- 
 cies are much more brilliantly coloured than are those 
 of the Wagtails. 
 
 The Tree-pipit is fairly well distributed throughout 
 Europe, though on account of its sober colouring it 
 seldom attracts attention. It has a pleasing and rather 
 powerful, though limited, little song. While able to 
 perch upon trees, the Tree-pipit, like the other species 
 of this group, seems more at home on the ground, 
 where it runs actively about, with much jerking of the 
 tail. Resembling the Meadow-pipit, it is larger, and 
 has a shorter hind-claw. See Plate 10, Fig. 49. 
 
 The smallest of the European Pipits, or Titlarks, 
 is the Meadow-pipit. This dainty little bird may be 
 seen in suitable localities throughout the year in the 
 British Islands. 
 
 The American Pipit, or Titlark, is the most widely 
 distributed species in this country. In colouring it is 
 greyish-brown above, faintly streaked with darker 
 brown; the under parts are buff, streaked on breast 
 and sides with blackish. The end half of the outer 
 tail-feather is white, the one next to it has white on the 
 end, and the wing-coverts are tipped with white. 
 
 These little birds breed in the far North, migrating 
 southward in winter to Mexico and Central America. 
 When a flock is startled, it is said to rise high in the 
 air, as if for a long flight, but after hovering for a few 
 moments, to return to, or near, the place from which 
 it rose. 
 
210 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 LARKS 
 
 There is a general notion among those who are not 
 experts in the matter of the classification of birds, that 
 the Larks are related to the Pipits and Wagtails, but 
 whether this belief is well founded or not remains to 
 be proved. As has been said, in certain characters 
 they bear a superficial resemblance. The relationship 
 between the Larks and the Finches, to be considered 
 later, seems to be evident. 
 
 The Larks are chiefly natives of the Old World, 
 though North America has representatives of the 
 group in the Horned Larks. The family is distin- 
 guished from all the other Perching birds by the fact 
 that the back of the leg is covered by small scutes, or 
 scales. The long hind claw and the length of the inner 
 quill- feathers of the wing in Larks has already been 
 mentioned. Their bills are short and conical. 
 
 The best known of this family is the Skylark, so 
 famous for its song, which is heard during nearly eight 
 months of the year, and ranks next to that of the 
 Nightingale in popular favour. It is one of the few 
 birds that sing while on the wing, and the strong 
 natural impulse to rise in the air when singing makes 
 the efforts of a caged Skylark a most pitiful sight. 
 Sometimes it will sing from the ground, but usually 
 the Skylark ascends in a spiral course to a consider- 
 able height. The general colour of this bird is brown 
 of varying shades, with slight touches of white or 
 yellow. The breast is greyish-brown. See Plate 14, 
 Fig. 74. 
 
 During migration these birds suffer appalling losses 
 
WOOD LARK 211 
 
 in their ranks, immense numbers being killed by dash- 
 ing against lighthouses. As many as fifteen thousand 
 are known to have been killed in this way in a single 
 night. 
 
 Resembling the Skylark in general appearance, the 
 Wood Lark may be distinguished by its smaller size, 
 shorter tail, more pronounced crest, and the broad, 
 pale stripe over the eye. The song of this bird is 
 sweet and flute-like, and is uttered on the wing, the 
 bird hovering in the air and descending spirally with 
 half-closed wings. It does not mount like the Sky- 
 lark, however, nor is its song so powerful and spark- 
 ling. The Woodlark receives its name from its ability 
 to perch on trees, which the Skylark does not seem to 
 have. See Plate 14, Fig. 75. 
 
 The Crested Lark is a fairly common species on the 
 continent of Europe, but is rarely found in England. 
 It is distinguished from the Skylark by the long 
 drooping crest depending from the back of the neck, 
 the absence of white in the tail, and by its somewhat 
 larger form. See Plate 14, Fig. 76. 
 
 The Horned Lark, or Shore Lark, breeds in the 
 Arctic regions of both Old and New Worlds. In win- 
 ter it is found as far south in this country as North 
 Carolina. The black feathers over the eye in this bird 
 are lengthened to form little tufts, or "horns," from 
 which it receives its name. The back is brown, 
 streaked with darker colour, and the sides are pinkish 
 brown, as well as the back of the neck and wing- and 
 tail-coverts, while the throat and a line over the eye 
 are yellow. This species is found in the vicinity of 
 the seashore, or in open country in the interior, but sel- 
 
212 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 dom in wooded districts. They are ground birds, and 
 are usually seen in flocks. 
 
 A smaller but similar form to the preceding is the 
 Prairie Horned Lark, a more southern species, and 
 one that is extending its range eastward from the Mis- 
 sissippi Valley. Formerly confined to the prairies 
 of the West, it now breeds in any suitable locality 
 farther East. This bird has a white, instead of yellow, 
 line over the eye. In singing, it is said to hurl itself 
 aloft like the Skylark, and also to sing on the ground. 
 
 FINCHES 
 
 This is an enormous family of birds, the largest in 
 the Order to which it belongs, and found in all parts 
 of the world, except Australia and adjacent islands. 
 While the plumage of many species is plain, that of 
 many others is brilliantly coloured. Nearly all the 
 Finches are song-birds, and many are favourite cage- 
 birds. All are seed-eaters, although during the breed- 
 ing season they capture great quantities of insects as 
 food for their young. Most of the species are resident 
 throughout their range, and not migratory to any 
 extent, as are all the exclusively insect-eaters among 
 birds. The Finches may be generally described as 
 rather small birds having a short, pointed, conical 
 beak, and nine primary quill-feathers. 
 
 One of the commonest of European Finches is the 
 Greenfinch. It has no representative in America. The 
 male is a beautiful bird whose colouring is in general 
 green and gold, and the female resembles him, but is 
 not so brilliantly coloured. This bird does well in con- 
 finement, and shows some capacity for learning the 
 
14. 
 
 75. Wood Lark 
 (Alauda arborea). 
 
 76. Crested Lark 
 (Galerita cristata). 
 
 77. 
 
 Hawfinch 
 
 (Coccotkruustes cocco- 
 
 tkraustes) 
 
 74;. European 
 
 Skylark 
 (Alauda arvenais) 
 
 73. Lyre 
 \Bird 
 (Menura 
 euperbaj. 
 
 78. Long- 
 tailed Titmouse 
 (Acredula can- 
 data). 
 
GOLDFINCH SISKIN 218 
 
 songs of other species, though it is by no means a 
 skilled performer, and its own notes are rather monot- 
 onous. It is a lover of gardens and orchards. See 
 Plate 16, Fig. 90. 
 
 The Hawfinch is found in nearly the whole of 
 Europe and in parts of Asia, as well as in northern 
 Africa. It is especially common in England, although 
 it contrives remarkably well to escape observation. 
 The plumage of the Hawfinch is much variegated and 
 by no means conspicuous. It closely resembles that of 
 the Chaffinch, but the Hawfinch is a larger bird one 
 of the largest of its family. A marked character is the 
 great size of its beak, inside of which are curious crush- 
 ing-pads, used in opening the hard-shelled stones of 
 the hawthorn and other fruits of which it is very fond. 
 See Plate 14, Fig. 77. 
 
 Perhaps the most beautiful of the Finches is the 
 European Goldfinch, whose name is derived from the 
 golden-yellow of its plumage. The sexes are coloured 
 much alike, but the young are quite different-looking, 
 being without the beautiful markings of the parents. 
 The Goldfinch is a favourite cage-bird, and as it is not 
 easy to keep in confinement, is constantly in demand 
 by fanciers. In England thousands are caught yearly 
 in nets, and so great have been the raids on their ranks 
 that in many parts of the country where they were 
 formerly abundant they have been practically exter- 
 minated. See Plate 17, Fig. 98. 
 
 Introduced into this country in 1878, the European 
 Goldfinch is occasionally seen about New York City 
 and in other parts of the Eastern States. 
 
 The American Goldfinch, more commonly called 
 
214 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 Yellow-bird, is a distinct species from the European. 
 It is also a very beautiful little bird, having a bright 
 yellow body, a black cap, and black wings and tail 
 varied with white. The sexes are quite unlike in 
 colour, the female being olive-brown above and yellow- 
 ish below. In the fall the black cap of the male dis- 
 appears and his colours in general fade until they 
 approximate those of his mate. The sweet song and 
 undulating flight of this little bird are well known. 
 The American Goldfinch is quite common east of the 
 Rocky Mountains. 
 
 The Siskin, or Aberdevine, is a near relative of the 
 Goldfinch, which it resembles both in song and in man- 
 ner of flight. It breeds in the Arctic regions of the 
 Old World, and winters in many parts of Europe. 
 The Siskin is especially abundant in the British 
 Islands, where it is frequently kept in confinement on 
 account of its melodious song. See Plate 18, Fig. 103. 
 
 The Pine Siskin, or Pine Finch, of this country, is 
 also a native of the far North, but winters south to 
 the Gulf States, and is found throughout almost the 
 whole of North America. The colouring, in general, 
 is olive-brown above, whitish, streaked with black, 
 below, with yellow on wings and at base of tail. The 
 latter is slightly forked. Siskins feed chiefly on the 
 seeds of pines and hemlocks and other coniferous 
 trees. 
 
 The home of the little bird known as the Serin 
 is in the southern parts of Europe and northern 
 Africa, although it is an occasional visitor to Great 
 Britain. This Finch has a peculiar interest, inasmuch 
 as it is probably the ancestor of that most popular 
 
ENGLISH SPARROW 215 
 
 of cage-birds, the Canary. It is a slightly smaller 
 bird, with shorter wings and longer tail, and its song 
 is not so melodious nor so varied as that of the 
 Canary. See Plate 18, Fig. 102. 
 
 The Canary is closely allied to, if, indeed, it is not 
 a sub-species of, the Serin. The wild Canary is olive- 
 green above, streaked with darker colour, and green- 
 ish-yellow below; but by ages of careful breeding, 
 many varieties have been produced, the most common 
 being pale yellow over the whole body. This is said 
 to be deepened to a brilliant flame-colour by mixing 
 cayenne pepper in the food. The name of the bird 
 is derived from the fact that it is a native of the 
 Canary Islands, where it is very abundant. It is a 
 popular cage-bird all over the world. The song of 
 the wild Canary, though pleasing, is said to be sur- 
 passed by that of the domesticated varieties. See 
 Plate 18, Fig. 105. 
 
 Of the House-sparrow, or English Sparrow, as it 
 is usually called in -this country, though it is not 
 known to be a native of England, little need be said, 
 for it is, unfortunately, now common everywhere. 
 Although, like the rest of its family, chiefly a seed- 
 and grain-eater, it was introduced into the United 
 States in the expectation that it would destroy noxi- 
 ous insects that were injuring trees in our public 
 parks. It has, however, done far more harm than 
 good, proving a great pest to farmers, and driving 
 away many of our native birds from their former 
 haunts. The House-sparrow is extremely hardy and 
 prolific, and adapts itself with wonderful facility to 
 new environment. It has no song, and its one note is 
 
216 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 by no means pleasant to the ear. See Plate 16, Fig. 
 93. 
 
 The European Tree-sparrow, which is closely re- 
 lated to the preceding species, is a relatively rare 
 bird in comparison. It also was introduced into this 
 country, where it has become naturalised. While 
 much like the House-sparrow, it may be distinguished 
 by its chestnut, instead of grey, crown, and the two 
 white bars across the closed wing. Further, while in 
 the former species the sexes are quite dissimilar, in 
 the Tree-sparrow they can hardly be distinguished. 
 See Plate 16, Fig. 94. 
 
 The American Tree-sparrow is found in the eastern 
 part of the country, breeding north of the United 
 States, but wintering throughout them, as far west as 
 the Great Plains. A small black spot in the centre 
 of the greyish-white breast is an aid in identifying it. 
 It has a sweet liquid warble, somewhat Canary-like 
 in character. 
 
 The Field-sparrow of this country gets its name 
 from its habit of frequenting fields and open country, 
 rather than more wooded sections. It closely resem- 
 bles the Tree-sparrow in colouring, but is somewhat 
 duller. This bird is common in summer throughout 
 our Eastern States. It nests on or near the ground. 
 
 Two other very well known species in eastern North 
 America are the Song-sparrow and the Chipping- 
 sparrow. Both are sociable little birds, often coming 
 about houses in search of food. The former is one of 
 our sweetest and most constant songsters, being heard 
 at all hours during the day. This bird is reddish- 
 brown above, streaked with black and ash, and white 
 
18. 
 
 102. Serin 
 (Serlnus hortulanua} 
 
 104. Brambiing (Fringilla ntontifrtngilla). 
 
 105. 
 Canary 
 
 (Serinus 
 (canarius). 
 
 -M 
 
 106. 
 
 Bohemian Waxwing 
 (Ampelis garrulus}. 
 
 107. 
 
 European 
 
 Swift 
 
 (Cypselus 
 
 108. European 
 Barn Swallow 
 
 (Hirundo ruslica). 
 
BRAMBLING BULLFINCH 
 
 below, the breast and sides having streaks of dark red- 
 dish, and the crown striped with black. Both species 
 build in trees or low bushes, often very near houses. 
 
 The Common Chaffinch is even more abundant in 
 many parts of Europe than the House-sparrow, and 
 is especially plentiful in the north of England. The 
 male bird has a tuneful song, and is much esteemed 
 as a cage-bird. It was a common custom, formerly, 
 to sear the eyes of these birds with a hot iron in order 
 to make them sing better, and even now, in order to 
 perfect their song, they are sometimes made to pass 
 much of their time in the dark. See Plate 17, Fig. 97. 
 
 The Chaffinch is a friendly little bird, building its 
 nest in gardens and orchards near human dwellings. 
 
 The B rambling, or Mountain Finch, is a near rela- 
 tive of the Chaffinch, and is even more brilliantly col- 
 oured, its plumage being a combination of black, 
 orange and white. This bird breeds in the northern 
 parts of Europe and Asia, migrating south in winter. 
 In some years it is remarkably abundant in Great 
 Britain, especially when severe weather prevails on 
 the continent of Europe. The wonderful black head 
 and neck are assumed just before the breeding season 
 not by a change of feathers, but by the wearing 
 away of the brown tips of the fall and winter 
 plumage. See Plate 18, Fig. 104. 
 
 Another common song-bird, found throughout 
 Europe, western Asia, and the north of Africa, is the 
 Linnet, also in great demand as a cage-bird. The 
 wonderful rose-red breast which distinguishes the 
 male is never regained by captive birds after their first 
 moult, but is replaced by yellow. The name, Linnet, 
 
218 BLRPS OF THE WORLD 
 
 is derived from the Latin word for flax, linum, on 
 account of the bird's fondness for the seeds of that 
 plant. See Plate 17, Fig. 100. 
 
 A very beautiful little bird of the Finch family 
 found in southwestern Europe and the British 
 Islands, is the Bullfinch, which gets its name from the 
 thickness of its neck. The sexes differ conspicuously 
 in colour, the females lacking completely the beautiful 
 red on the breast of the male. In her it is replaced by 
 chocolate-brown. The young resemble the female, 
 but lack the black cap, which is common to both sexes 
 in the adult birds. 
 
 The Bullfinch, like the Chaffinch, builds a remark- 
 able nest, though the workmanship of the two differs 
 strikingly. The first makes a wonderful nursery of 
 fine moss, wool, and lichen felted together, while the 
 Chaffinch erects a platform of small twigs, sur- 
 mounted by fine roots and a little hair fashioned into 
 a shallow cup, in which the eggs are laid. See Plate 
 16, Fig. 91. 
 
 A variety of the Bullfinch was discovered in Alaska, 
 in 1887. 
 
 The home of the Pine-Grosbeak is in the far North 
 of both hemispheres in the region near the Arctic 
 circle, wherever cone-bearing trees abound. Here it 
 flourishes, feeding on buds, seeds and berries, varied 
 by such insects as come within its reach. In this coun- 
 try it migrates south in winter as far as Virginia. In 
 the male the plumage is mostly rose-red, changing to 
 ashy below, the wings darker, with white bars. In the 
 female the head and rump are brownish-yellow. The 
 American species is similar to the European, but is 
 
PURPLE FINCH INDIGO BUNTING 219 
 
 somewhat more brightly coloured. See Plate 16, 
 Fig. 92. 
 
 The Pine- Grosbeak has a variety of pleasing notes, 
 and is a popular cage-bird in many countries. 
 
 Closely allied to the preceding species is the Cross- 
 bill. This bird derives its name from the fact that its 
 mandibles cross each other at their tips, a peculiarity 
 which looks like a deformity, but which enables the 
 bird to wrench apart pine-cones and extract from 
 them the seeds which form the bulk of their food. 
 
 The Common Red Crossbill is found in both this 
 country and Europe, breeding in the northern parts 
 of the continents and wintering southward. It 
 migrates in large flocks. Our American species is 
 slightly smaller than the European, and is more 
 brightly coloured. Before the beautiful red plumage, 
 which distinguishes the male, is assumed, a livery of 
 orange-yellow is worn. The general colour of the 
 female is greenish-yellow, with brown wings and tail. 
 See Plate 15, Fig. 79. 
 
 The Purple Finch is a common bird of eastern 
 North America whose name is quite misleading, for 
 the colour over its entire body is dull rose-red, darken- 
 ing on wings and tail. The latter is slightly forked. 
 The female differs markedly in appearance, being 
 greyish-brown above, streaked with black, and white 
 below, streaked or spotted with dark colour. The 
 male does not assume adult plumage for two years, 
 until that time resembling the female in colouring. 
 Both sexes have small tufts of bristly feathers over 
 the nostrils. The Purple Finch is one of our most 
 
220 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 melodious song-birds. His sweet and liquid notes are 
 said to resemble those of the English Chaffinch. 
 
 The Redpoll, or Redpoll Linnet, is an inhabitant 
 of the Arctic regions of both the Old and the New 
 World, migrating south in this country to about the 
 middle of the United States. The bright red crown 
 of both sexes gives it its name. In the male the throat, 
 breast, and rump are also red, the upper parts black- 
 ish-brown, streaked. The female resembles him, but 
 lacks the rose colour on the body. In general habits 
 it is like its relative, the American Goldfinch, and is 
 very friendly in disposition, frequenting orchards and 
 gardens and often closely approaching houses. Its 
 song is said to be musical, but is seldom heard far from 
 its breeding-grounds in the North. 
 
 The Indigo Bunting, an exquisitely coloured little 
 bird often seen in the Eastern States, is bright blue 
 on the back, a deeper blue on the head, and has black 
 wing- and tail-feathers margined with blue. The 
 female is quite Sparrow-like in appearance, plain 
 brownish-grey taking the place of the rich blue in 
 the plumage of the male. The outer wing- and tail- 
 feathers, however, are slightly washed with blue. The 
 cheery song of the Indigo Bunting is especially wel- 
 come during the month of August, when most of our 
 other song-birds are silent. 
 
 In the Towhee, or Chewink, the upper parts, throat 
 and breast are black, the sides reddish, and wings and 
 tail marked with white. This is another member of 
 the great Finch family that is found in eastern North 
 America, where it is found inhabiting dense thickets 
 and undergrowth. In this bird the iris is red, but in 
 
to. 
 
 87. Ortolan 
 
 (Emberiza hortu- 
 
 lana). 
 
 89. 
 
 Snow Bunting 
 (Passerina nivalis). 
 
 90, 
 Greenfinch 
 (Chlons chh 
 
 91. BuUfineh 
 (Pyrrhula 
 pyrrkula). 
 
 92. Pine 
 
 Gosbeak 
 
 (Pinicola enu- 
 
 cleator). 
 
 94. European 
 Tree Sparrow 
 
 
 93. European 
 House Sparrow 
 (Passer domesticus) 
 
 (Passer montanm). 
 
WHYDAH-BIRD JAVA SPARROW 221 
 
 the White-eyed Towhee, a more southern species, it 
 is yellowish-white. 
 
 The Snowbird, or Junco, breeds in the northern 
 parts of both continents, and flocks of them are seen 
 migrating southward as the cold weather comes on. 
 The male is slate-grey above, darkening on the head, 
 and white below, and the female resembles him, but 
 is somewhat browner above. 
 
 Often seen in company with the preceding species, 
 the Snowflake, or Snow Bunting, is sometimes con- 
 fused with it. This bird, however, is pure white 
 above, with black markings on wings and tail, and the 
 bill is black, while in the Snowbird it is white. After 
 the breeding season, the white of the upper parts 
 becomes washed with brown. These little birds are 
 not at all shy, and are frequently seen in winter seek- 
 ing food in the neighbourhood of human dwellings. 
 See Plate 16, Fig. 89. 
 
 The Paradise Whydah-bird is a South African spe- 
 cies, found on swampy ground where reeds and long 
 grasses flourish. Kaffir children capture numbers of 
 the males with limed twigs and strings, and also by 
 running them down, the birds being hampered with 
 their long tails. During the season of courtship these 
 birds perform wonderful evolutions in the air. On 
 account of its beautiful plumage, as well as for its 
 song, the Whydah-bird is frequently kept in confine- 
 ment in European countries. See Plate 17, Fig. 95. 
 
 Both the Amaduvade and Paradise Whydah-bird 
 belong to a group of birds found in Africa and parts 
 of Australia called Weaver-birds, from the remark- 
 able nests which they weave of roots and grasses. By 
 
222 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 some authorities they are considered a distinct family, 
 though they admit that it is hardly to be distinguished 
 from the Finch family. All are small, Sparrow-like 
 birds, and feed principally on seeds and insects. 
 
 The Amaduvade, or Strawberry-finch, is very popu- 
 lar as a cage-bird, and is imported into European 
 markets in enormous numbers. The male in breeding 
 plumage is very beautiful, and, in addition, has a brief 
 but sweet song, which is said to resemble a bugle-call. 
 The female is less brilliant, being brown above, with a 
 light patch of red on the rump, and buff-coloured be- 
 low. These birds moult twice during the year, and 
 after the breeding season the male assumes the dress of 
 the female. The males are pugnacious little birds, and 
 fight with spirit, on which account they are kept by 
 the natives in India to afford them sport. See Plate 
 17, Fig. 96. 
 
 The Java Sparrow, as its name implies, is a native 
 of the Island of Java, where, like the House-sparrow 
 here, it is a pest. In the countries where it has been 
 introduced it commits great ravages on fields of grain 
 and rice. Of late years the Java Sparrow has become 
 much sought after as a cage-bird, and breeds readily 
 in confinement. From the domesticated birds a white 
 race has been raised, which is highly prized. See 
 Plate 17, Fig. 99. 
 
 Though popularly called a "Sparrow," this bird is 
 not really very closely related to the true Sparrows, 
 such as the House- and Tree-sparrows. 
 
 The Buntings are generally regarded as forming a 
 sub-family of the Finches. Many of them are 
 brightly coloured, but others, such as the Corn Bunt- 
 
ORTOLAN LAPLAND BUNTING 223 
 
 ing, or Common Bunting of the Old World, is quite 
 sombrely clad. This bird bears a striking resemblance 
 to the Skylark, from which, however, it may easily be 
 distinguished by the absence of the conspicuously 
 long claw to the hind-toe. See Plate 15, Fig. 86. 
 
 The Yellow Ammer, or Yellow Bunting, receives 
 its name from the bright yellow of the head, neck and 
 lower parts. Like the preceding species, it is a com- 
 mon European resident, but has no representative in 
 this country. The name here is frequently errone- 
 ously applied to the Flicker, or Golden-winged 
 Woodpecker, w r hich has no affiliation with the Bunt- 
 ings. The bird which most nearly resembles the true 
 Yellowhammer (a form in which the name often 
 appears) is the Bobolink in its fall plumage. The 
 Yellowhammer is also known as the Writing-lark, 
 because of the curious scribblings, as of a pen, over 
 its eggs ; though this character is shared by the eggs 
 of the Buntings in general. See Plate 15, Fig. 85. 
 
 Perhaps the most celebrated of all the European 
 Buntings is the Ortolan, because of the fame which it 
 has unfortunately acquired as a table delicacy. Com- 
 mon throughout the greater part of Europe, this bird, 
 as soon as the breeding season is over, returns south- 
 wards in vast flocks. On both of its migratory jour- 
 neys, to and from Europe, it is beset by bird-catchers, 
 who make enormous hauls. The victims are kept alive 
 in dark places, and fed until they become very fat, 
 when they are killed to supply the table. The natural 
 food of this bird consists of insects and seeds in about 
 equal quantities. The Ortolan much resembles its 
 relative, the Yellow Bunting, but the head is greyish 
 
224 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 instead of yellow. Neither species has much musical 
 ability, though their notes are heard almost contin- 
 uously during the summer months in European 
 countries.- See Plate 16, Fig. 87. 
 
 Wherever sluggish streams and reedy marshes 
 abound throughout Europe, there the Reed-bunting 
 may be looked for. In the spring, it is rather hand- 
 some in its reddish plumage and black head, relieved 
 by the white of the under parts, but in the autumn, 
 after the new plumage has been assumed, the black 
 hood is obscured by brown tips to the feathers. As 
 winter proceeds, these tips gradually wear off until 
 the black crown is once more in evidence. See Plate 
 16, Fig. 88. 
 
 Though in general appearance resembling the 
 Reed-bunting, the Lapland Bunting may be distin- 
 guished by the long claw of the hind-toe, which has 
 gained for it the name of Long-spur. See Plate 15, 
 Fig. 81. 
 
 The home of this bird is in the far North; it is, 
 indeed, a circumpolar species, frequenting swampy 
 lands beyond the limit of forest growth. Until the 
 year 1892 the Lapland Bunting was extremely rare 
 in the British Islands, but since that time England 
 especially has been invaded by great numbers, 
 annually, though only a few have ever been seen in 
 Scotland. 
 
 The beautiful Cardinal-bird, or Virginia Nightin- 
 gale as it is sometimes called on account of its famous 
 song, is a common species in the eastern parts of the 
 United States. It is from eight to nine inches in 
 length, the face is black, the bill red, and the head 
 
SCARLET TANAGER CROWS 225 
 
 bears a long crest of feathers. Most of the plumage 
 over the entire body is a deep rich red ; darker in crest, 
 wings and tail, and the back is tinged with greyish. 
 The female is duller in colour than the male. Both 
 sexes have a charming song, that of the female being 
 even more pleasing in quality than her mate's. Inhab- 
 iting thickets and undergrowth, this bird contrives, in 
 spite of its brilliant colouration, to escape observation, 
 even when its rich rolling notes proclaim its near 
 presence. See Plate 17, Fig. 101. 
 
 TANAGERS 
 
 The Tanagers form a group of New World birds, 
 numbering about three hundred and fifty species, and 
 very closely allied to the Finches. Indeed, the char- 
 acters which distinguish the two families are very 
 slight and technical. The Tanagers are birds of beau- 
 tiful and varied plumage, many of them being bril- 
 liantly coloured, and the females differ conspicuously 
 in colouration from the males. They are most abun- 
 dantly represented in tropical America, only five 
 species summering in the United States. The 
 Tanagers are woodland birds, feed chiefly upon insects 
 and fruit, and only a few species have any vocal 
 ability, most of them having very weak voices. 
 
 A very beautiful species common in the eastern 
 part of this country is the Scarlet Tanager, also 
 known as the Blackwinged Redbird. The male bird is 
 a brilliant scarlet, with black wings and tail, while 
 the female is a light olive-green above, darkening on 
 wings and tail, and greenish-yellow below. Towards 
 the end of the summer the male begins to moult his 
 
226 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 scarlet plumage, and replace it with the greenish 
 colours of his mate ; but the black wings and tail are 
 retained. The song of the Scarlet Tanager is char- 
 acterised as "a loud, cheery, rhythmical carol, sug- 
 gesting the song of the Robin." 
 
 Another exquisitely coloured species is the Summer 
 Redbird, or Summer Tanager, also common in the 
 eastern part of this country as far north as Canada. 
 This bird is a rich rose-red over the entire body, and 
 the female is greenish and yellow, closely resembling 
 the female of the preceding species. 
 
 The Little Calliste, or Paradise Tanager, is shown 
 as a good example of the vividness which some of 
 these birds display in their plumage. It is one of the 
 Central and South American species, and is fairly 
 common as a cage-bird. See Plate 19, Fig. 113. 
 
 CROWS 
 
 Although in the past there has been much difference 
 of opinion among ornithologists as to which family of 
 birds is entitled to the highest place in their class, it 
 is now generally conceded that the Crows are the most 
 perfectly developed of all the Passerine birds. In 
 both sexes, and in all stages of development, the 
 plumage is practically the same; each primary and 
 wing-covert is perfect in structure; and the scales on 
 legs and feet are more strongly marked than in any 
 of the other birds. And although most of the family 
 have no powers of song, their voices being extremely 
 harsh and disagreeable, the voice-muscles of all are 
 remarkably well developed. The Australian Piping 
 Crow, a beautiful bird having plumage varied with 
 
95. Paradise AVhiuah-i/bd . 
 
 vade Find* 
 (Sporaginthus 
 ymanactava). 
 
 97. Chaffinch 
 (Fringilla caelebs). 
 
 98. Goldfinch 
 (Carduelis cardvtelis). 
 
 00. J ft 
 
 Linnet 
 
 (Linota canna- 
 
 bina). 
 
 99. Java Sparrow 
 ,._ (Padda ory- 
 zivora). 
 
 101. Cai'dinal (Cardinafa cardinal-is}. 
 
CROWS CARRION CROW 227 
 
 black and white, is, however, exceptional among its 
 relatives in possessing a most enchanting flute-like 
 song, to which it gives utterance at frequent intervals. 
 
 The eyes of Crows are bright and intelligent in 
 expression. The wariness and sagacity of these birds, 
 indeed, is well known, and these traits have doubtless 
 been further developed on account of the constant 
 persecution to which they have for ages been sub- 
 jected by agriculturists, who are their sworn enemies 
 in consequence of the injury Crows inflict upon crops. 
 They will return again and again to some favourite 
 feeding-ground, their wonderful sagacity enabling 
 them to avoid poison, traps and other snares set for 
 their destruction. The food of Crows is much varied. 
 They are especially fond of small living creatures, 
 such as mice, nestlings, worms, and so on, but they 
 also eat carrion, and, indeed, they are practically 
 omnivorous, eating fruit, grain and seeds as well. 
 The great Ravens of Europe and America will even 
 attack and kill small lambs. 
 
 The Crow family numbers about two hundred 
 species, found in all parts of the world, except New 
 Zealand. In colour most of them are shining black, 
 somewhat iridescent on back, wings and tail, although 
 the plumage of certain species, as the Jays, is bril- 
 liantly coloured. The bills are stout, rather long and 
 powerful, and the base of the upper mandible is cov- 
 ered with bristle-like feathers. The feet are strong, 
 and the toes end in rather heavy, curved claws. 
 
 Crows have a peculiarly jaunty manner of walking, 
 and in disposition are a strange mixture of shyness 
 and boldness. They may be thoroughly tamed, and 
 
228 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 make most interesting and affectionate pets, exhibit- 
 ing remarkable intelligence. A curious characteristic 
 habit is the stealing and secreting of small bright 
 objects that attract their attention, about which they 
 are usually so cunning that it is difficult to detect them 
 in their thefts. 
 
 The best known species in this country is the com- 
 mon American Crow, found abundantly throughout 
 North America, and too familiar to require more than 
 brief mention. The plumage is black over the whole 
 body, with purplish reflections, and the female is 
 somewhat duller than the male. The nest is built of 
 sticks, plastered with clay, and lined with feathers and 
 other soft materials. Both male and female take 
 turns in brooding the eggs, and are untiring in their 
 devotion to their young. In the fall, Crows gather in 
 enormous flocks, chattering and "cawing," and 
 making a terrific din. 
 
 The European species that most nearly corresponds 
 to the preceding is the Carrion Crow, a slightly larger 
 form, common in western Europe, and so called from 
 its fondness for carrion. Unlike the American Crow, 
 this bird is seldom seen in flocks, being much more 
 solitary in habit. Its voice also is quite different. 
 
 The Fish Crow, closely resembling the Common 
 Crow, but smaller, is found in large numbers in our 
 Southern States. As the name implies, this bird 
 feeds largely on fish, and is usually found along the 
 coast or not far inland. It is especially common in 
 Florida, and at places along the Indian River every 
 post and tree is occupied by individuals, who keep up 
 
ROOK EUROPEAN JAY 229 
 
 a continual calling. The voice differs from that of the 
 Common Crow, being hoarser and more nasal, and 
 easily distinguishes the two species. 
 
 The largest and most famous of all the Crows is the 
 Raven, found in the northern parts of both hemi- 
 spheres. In colouring it closely resembles the Com- 
 mon Crow, the plumage over the entire body being 
 black with steel-blue reflections; but the feathers on 
 the throat are, long and pointed, while in the Crow 
 they are short and rounded. The bill of the Raven 
 is enormously large and powerful, and the bird will 
 attack and kill small lambs, and even sheep that have 
 been partially disabled. It also eats rabbits, birds, 
 eggs, and carrion, and, like the other members of its 
 family, feeds on grain and fruit as well, being 
 extremely voracious. See Plate 20, Fig. 116. 
 
 The Raven is easily tamed, and as a pet has few 
 rivals, becoming much attached to its master and fol- 
 lowing him about like a dog. It can also be taught to 
 "talk," or to imitate sounds of the human voice, in this 
 respect surpassing some of the Parrots. 
 
 The American Raven is smaller than the European 
 species, but is otherwise identical. It is found in 
 parts of the West, especially where the Crow is not 
 commonly seen. 
 
 The Rook- is peculiar among Crows in having a 
 bare face. Young Rooks have the face feathered, as 
 in the other Crows, and the nostrils protected by stiff, 
 forward-pointing bristles; but after the first moult, 
 these, together with the rest of the feathers of the face, 
 are shed, and thereafter the skin remains bare and 
 
230 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 white, having the appearance of being covered with 
 powder. Why these feathers should thus be shed and 
 never regained, is a mystery which many naturalists 
 have attempted to solve. See Plate 20, Fig. 117. 
 
 The Rook is as abundant in Europe as the Common 
 Crow here, living in societies called rookeries, com- 
 posed of many thousands of birds and nests. Like 
 our species, too, it is a great pest to farmers, but its 
 extreme cunning enables it to avoid many traps set for 
 its destruction. Rooks are not considered as intelli- 
 gent, however, as the Crow and the Raven, though 
 they are sometimes tamed for pets. The young birds 
 are fairly good eating, and many of them are shot for 
 the table. 
 
 The Jays are found in both the Old World and the 
 New, usually in wooded districts. All have harsh, dis- 
 cordant voices, but wonderful ability to mimic other 
 birds. Many of them are very beautifully coloured. 
 They have long tails, and short rounded wings. A 
 character that distinguishes the Jays is their pecu- 
 liarly light, bounding hop. 
 
 The European Jay is a prettily coloured bird 
 inhabiting many parts of Europe, and is especially 
 abundant in Great Britain, in spite of ruthless perse- 
 cution at the hands of game-keepers, who grossly 
 exaggerate the harm it does. It feeds largely on 
 acorns and other forest seeds. See Plate 20, Fig. 119. 
 
 The American Blue Jay is very striking in colour, 
 being beautifully marked in various shades of blue, 
 with a mixture of black and white. Like its European 
 relative, it has a feathered crest, which it constantly 
 
115. 
 
 European 
 
 Magpie 
 
 (Pica pica}. 
 
 x 18; European N 
 / ' '{tiuctftaga ' caryocatactes) 
 
 119. European Jay 
 (Garrulue glandarius) 
 
 117. Rook (Corvus 
 
NUTCRACKER 231 
 
 raises and depresses. The Blue Jay is extremely 
 noisy, keeping up a continual chattering and calling 
 in its harsh and penetrating voice, and mimicking 
 other birds apparently for its own amusement. It 
 appears to take especial delight in frightening smaller 
 birds by imitating the cry of the Sparrow-Hawk. 
 
 The Canada Jay is a slightly smaller form than its 
 blue relative, and is ashy grey in colour, with black 
 and white markings. It is found in the northern part 
 of this continent, coming southward in winter as far as 
 New England. 
 
 The Jackdaw and the Magpie are two common 
 European birds of the Crow family, which share the 
 characteristics of the tribe in general. Magpies have 
 very long tails, and in form are more graceful than the 
 tree Crows. Both species are easily tamed and taught 
 to imitate the human voice to some extent. They are 
 very cunning, and are particularly addicted to steal- 
 ing small bright objects and carrying them to their 
 nests, or hiding them in other places. See Plate 19, 
 Fig. 114. 
 
 The American Magpie, found in the western part 
 of North America, is slightly smaller than the 
 European, but is like it in colouring. The Jackdaw 
 has no representative in this country. See Plate 20, 
 Fig. 115. 
 
 The Nutcracker is an Old World bird whose near- 
 est relative in this country is Clark's Crow, found on 
 the western slopes of the Rocky Mountains. The 
 plumage of the Nutcracker is brown, spotted with 
 white. The seeds of cone-bearing trees form its prin- 
 
232 BIRDS OF THE WORLD 
 
 cipal food, but it also eats insects. The seeds are held 
 in the claw and cracked with the bill, but the bird is 
 not known to crack nuts in this manner, as its name 
 would lead one to suppose. See Plate 20, Fig. 118. 
 
 THE END 
 
INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Acanthus linaria (Redpoll) 220 
 
 Accentor modularis (Hedge Sparrow) . (Plate 12, Fig. 58) 203 
 
 Accipiter atricapillus (American Goshawk) 61 
 
 cooperii (Cooper's Hawk) 62 
 
 velox (Red-tailed Hawk) 62 
 
 nisus (European Sparrow Hawk) .... (Plate 3, 
 
 Fig. 12) 61 
 
 ACCIPITRES 56 
 
 Acredula caudata (Long-tailed Tit) . . . (Plate 14, Fig. 78) 183 
 
 Acrocephalus palustris (Marsh Warbler) (Plate 13, 
 
 Fig. 64) 202 
 
 Acryllum vulturinum (Vulturine Guinea Fowl) 82 
 
 Actodromas minuta (Little Stint) (Plate 32, Fig. 183) 109 
 
 minutilla (Least Stint) 109 
 
 /Egialitis alexandrina (Kentish Plover) (Plate 30, Fig. 174) 103 
 
 hiaticula (Ring Plover) .... (Plate 30, Fig. 173) 102 
 
 meloda (Piping Plover) 103 
 
 Aid galericulata (Mandarin Duck) 49 
 
 Aix sponsa (Wood Duck) 49 
 
 Ajaia ajaja (Roseate Spoonbill) 39 
 
 Alauda arborea (Wood Lark) (Plate 14, Fig. 75) 21 1 
 
 " arvensis (Skylark) (Plate 14, Fig. 74) 210 
 
 " cristata (Crested Lark) (Plate 14, Fig. 76) 211 
 
 Albatross, Black-browed (Diomeda melanophrys) (Plate 38, 
 
 Fig. 221 ) 18 
 
 Sooty (Phoebetria fuliginosa) 19 
 
 Wandering (Diomeda exulans) 19 
 
 Alca torda (Razor-billed Auk) (Plate 40, Fig. 239) 121 
 
 Alcedo ispida (European Kingfisher) . . . (Plate 9, Fig. 40) 144 
 
 Alle alle (Dovekie) (Plate 40, Fig. 236) 123 
 
 Amaduvade ( Sporaeginthus amandava) . (Plate 17, Fig. 96) 222 
 Amazona aestiva (Blue-fronted Amazon Parrot) (Plate 8, 
 
 Fig. 37) 136 
 
 233 
 
234 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Ampelis cedorum (Cedar Waxwing) 190 
 
 garrulus (Bohemian Waxwing) (Plate 18, Fig. 
 
 106) 190 
 
 Anas boschus (Mallard) (Plate 35, Fig. 203) 47 
 
 obscura (Black Duck) 48 
 
 Anhinga anhinga (Snake Bird) (Plate 38, Fig. 222) 25 
 
 Ani (Crotophaga ani) 139 
 
 Groove-billed (Crotophaga sulcirostris) 140 
 
 Anous stolidus (Noddy Tern) 119 
 
 Anser anser (Grey-lag Goose) (Plate 34, Fig. 198) 52 
 
 ANSERES 44 
 
 Anthropoides virgo (Demoiselle Crane) "94 
 
 An thus pensilvanicus (American Pipit) 209 
 
 trivialis (European Tree Pipit) (Plate 10, Fig. 49) 209 
 
 pratensis (Meadow Pipit) 209 
 
 Antrostomus carolinensis (Chuck-will's-widow) 150 
 
 vociferus (Whippoorwill) 149 
 
 Aptenodytes longirostris (Emperor Penguin) 21 
 
 patagonica (King Penguin) .. (Plate 40, Fig. 
 
 234) 21 
 
 parvus (Little Penguin) . (Plate 40, Fig. 235) 21 
 
 Apteryx (Apteryx mantelli) (Plate 28, Fig. 160) 7 
 
 Aquila chrysaetus (Golden Eagle) (Plate 2, Fig. 8) 63 
 
 " maculata (Spotted Eagle) (Plate 3, Fig. 10) 63 
 
 Ara ararauna (Blue and Yellow Macaw). (Plate 8, Fig. 34) 135 
 
 " hyacinthia (Hyacinthine Macaw) 136 
 
 " macao (Red and Blue Macaw) (Plate 8, Fig. 35) 136 
 
 Ardea cineria (European Heron) (Plate 33, Fig. 192) 33 
 
 herodias (Great Blue Heron) 33 
 
 " occidentalis (Great White Heron) 34 
 
 " wardi (Ward's Heron) 33 
 
 ARDE^ 23 
 
 Asio otus (European Long-eared Owl) . . (Plate 5, Fig. 20) 161 
 
 Astragalinus tristis (American Goldfinch) 213 
 
 Astur palumbarius (European Goshawk) . (Plate 4, Fig. 14) 61 
 
 Audubon 65, 126 
 
 Auk, Great (Plautus impennis) 123 
 
 " Little (Alle alle) (Plate 40, Fig. 236) 123 
 
 " Razor-billed (Alca torda) (Plate 40, Fig. 239) 121 
 
 Auks 121 
 
 Avocet, American ( Recurvirostra americana) 104 
 
 Avocet, European (Recurvirostra avocetta) . (Plate 32, Fig. 
 
 184) 104 
 
INDEX 235 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Aythya americana (Redhead) 48 
 
 marila (Common Scaup) 50 
 
 " vallisneria (Canvasback) 48 
 
 B 
 
 Balearica pavonina (Crowned Crane) . (Plate 34, Fig. 197) 94 
 
 Basolophus bicolor (Tufted Titmouse) 184 
 
 Bee-eater, European (Merops apiaster) . (Plate 9, Fig. 42) 145 
 Bell-bird, Naked-throated (Chasmorhynchus nudicollis) 
 
 (Plate 10, Fig. 48) 173 
 
 Bittern, American (Botaurus lentiginosus) 37 
 
 European (Botaurus stellaris) . (Plate 33, Fig. 
 
 194) 37 
 
 Blackbird, European (Merula merula) . (Plate n, Fig. 54) 196 
 
 Red-winged (Agelaius phceniceus) 192 
 
 Blackcap (Sylvia atricapilla) (Plate 13, Fig. 72) 2OI 
 
 Bluebird (Sialia sialis) 199 
 
 Blue-throat (Cyanecula cyanecula) .... (Plate 12, Fig. 63) 198 
 
 Bobolink (Dolichonyx oryzivorus) 192 
 
 Bob White (Colinus virginianus) 91 
 
 Bonasa umbellus (Ruffed Grouse) 88 
 
 togata (Canada Grouse) 89 
 
 Botaurus lentiginosus (American Bittern) 37 
 
 stillaris (European Bittern) 37 
 
 Brambling (Fringilla montifringilla) . (Plate 18, Fig. 104) 217 
 
 Branta bernicla (Brant Goose) (Plate 34, Fig. 199) 52 
 
 canadensis (Canada Goose) 52 
 
 " migricans (Black Brant) 52 
 
 Brewster, William 126 
 
 Broadbills 1 73 
 
 Buceros bicornis (Indian Hornbill) .... (Plate 9, Fig. 39) 146 
 
 Bubo virginianus (Great Horned Owl) 158 
 
 Bullfinch (Pyrrhula pyrrhula) (Plate 1 6, Fig. 91) 218 
 
 Bunting, Corn (Miliaria miliaria) ... (Plate 15, Fig. 86) 222 
 
 Indigo (Cyanospiza cyanea) 22O 
 
 Lapland (Calcarius lapponicus) .. (Plate 15, Fig. 
 
 81) 224 
 
 Reed (Emberiza schaeniclus) . (Plate 16, Fig. 88) 227 
 
 Snow (Passerina nivalis) .... (Plate 16, Fig. 89) 22 1 
 
 Bustard, Great (Otis tarda) (Plate 30, Fig. 169) 100 
 
 Little (Tetrax tetrax) (Plate 29, Fig. 162) 99 
 
 Buteo buteo (European Buzzard) (Plate 4, Fig. 16) 62 
 
236 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Buteo borealis ( Red-tailed Hawk) 62 
 
 " lineatus (Red-shouldered Hawk) 62 
 
 Buzzard, European (Buteo buteo) (Plate 4, Fig. 16) 62 
 
 " Turkey (Cathartes aura) . . . (Plate 41, Fig. 243) 76 
 
 C 
 
 Cacabis saxatilis (Red-legged Rock Partridge) . (Plate 25, 
 
 Fig. 145) 87 
 
 Cacatua galerita (Great Sulphur-crested Cockatoo) 137 
 
 Calcarius lapponicus (Lapland Bunting) .. (Plate 15, Fig. 
 
 81) 224 
 
 Calidris arenaria (Sanderling) (Plate 32, Fig. 188) no 
 
 Callipepla squamata (Scaled Partridge) 92 
 
 Callocephalum galeatum (Helmet Cockatoo) . (Plate 8, Fig. 
 
 36) 138 
 
 Calospiza tatao (Paradise Tanager) .. (Plate 19, Fig. 113) 226 
 
 Calcenas nicobarica (Nicobar Pigeon) 128 
 
 Campephilus principals (Ivory-billed Woodpecker) . (Plate 
 
 B 6, Fig. 25) 1 68 
 
 Canary (Serinus canarius) (Plate 18, Fig. 105) 215 
 
 Capercailzie (Tetrao urogallus) . (Plate 24, Figs. 138, 139) 90 
 
 CAPRIMULGI 148 
 
 Caprimullgus europaeus (European Nightjar) .. (Plate 19, 
 
 Fig. in) 149 
 
 Caracara (Polyborus cherivay) (Plate 42, Fig. 242) 68 
 
 Cardinal (Cardinalis cardinalis) (Plate 17, Fig. 101) 224 
 
 Carduelis carduelis (European Goldfinch) . . (Plate 17, Fig. 
 
 98) ; 213 
 
 Cariama cristata (Seriema) (Plate 42, Fig. 245) 94 
 
 Carpodacus purpureus (Purple Finch) 219 
 
 Cassowary, Helmeted (Casuarius galeatus) . (Plate 28, Fig. 
 
 159) . 2, 3 
 
 Casuarius galeatus (Helmeted Cassowary) . (Plate 28, Fig. 
 
 159) . 2, 3 
 
 Catbird ( Galeoscoptes carolinensis) 188 
 
 Catharista urubu (Black Vulture) 77 
 
 Cathartes aura (Turkey Vulture) . . . (Plate 41, Fig. 243) 76 
 
 calif ornianus (California Condor.) 75 
 
 Cepphus grylle (Guillemot) 121 
 
 Certhia familiaris (European Tree-creeper) . (Plate 21, Fig. 
 
 127) 1 86 
 
INDEX 237 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Certhia familiaris americana (American Brown Creeper) . . 186 
 
 Ceryle alcyon (American Kingfisher) 144 
 
 Chacalacca (Ortalis vetula maccalli) 79 
 
 Chapman, Frank M 42, 159, 205 
 
 Chaffinch (Fringilla caelebs) (Plate 17, Fig. 97) 216 
 
 Chapparal-cock (Geococcyx calif ornianus) . (Plate 41, Fig. 
 
 246) 141 
 
 CHARADRIIFORMES 101 
 
 Charadrius dominicus (Golden Plover) . (Plate 30, Fig. 
 
 170) 102 
 
 Chasmorhynchus nudicollis (Bell-bird) . (Plate 10, Fig. 48) 174 
 
 Chat, Yellow-breasted (Icteria virens) 205 
 
 Chelidonaria tirbica (House-martin) .. (Plate 19, Fig. 109) 179 
 
 Chen hypoboreus (Snow Goose) ... (Plate 34, Fig. 200) 52 
 
 Chewink (Pipilo erythrophthalmus) 220 
 
 Chickadee ( Parus atricapillus) 184 
 
 Chloris chloris (Greenfinch) (Plate 1 6, Fig. 90) 212 
 
 Chordeiles virginianus (Nighthawk) 150 
 
 Chrysolophus pictus (Golden Pheasant) . (Plate 25, Figs. 
 
 146, 147) 83 
 
 Chuck-will's-widow (Antrostomus carolinensis) 150 
 
 Ciconia ciconia (European White Stork) .. (Plate 33, Fig. 
 
 190" 38 
 
 CICONLE 23 
 
 Cinclus cinclus (European Water Ouzel) . (Plate 10, Fig. 
 
 50) 194 
 
 mexicanus (American Dipper) 195 
 
 Circus hudsonius (American Harrier) 61 
 
 " cyaneus (European Hen Harrier) (Plate 4, Fig. 15) 61 
 
 Qamatores 173 
 
 Clangula-clangula (Golden-eye Duck) (Plate 36, Fig. 213) 47 
 
 Coccyges americanus (Yellow-billed Cuckoo) 139 
 
 Cockatoo, Great Black (Microplossus aterrimus) 137 
 
 Helmet ( Callocephalon galeatum) . (Plate 8, Fig. 
 
 36) 138 
 
 Great Sulphur-crested (Cacatua galerita) 137 
 
 Cock-of-the-rock (Rupicola rupicola) . (Plate 19, Fig. 112) 173 
 
 Cocothraustes cocothraustes (Hawfinch). (Plate 14, Fig. 77) 213 
 
 Colaptes auratus luteus (Common Flicker) 170 
 
 Colaeus monedula (Jackdaw) (Plate 19, Fig. 114) 231 
 
 Colinus virginianus (Bob White) 91 
 
 Colomba aenas (Stock Dove) (Plate 22, Fig. 131) 129 
 
 " livia (Rock Dove) (Plate 23, Fig. 135) 129 
 
238 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Colomba livia var. (Pouter Pigeon).. (Plate 23, Fig. 134) 130 
 
 fasciata (Band-tailed Pigeon) 131 
 
 COLUMB^E 124 
 
 Columbigallina passerina terrestris (Ground Dove) 130 
 
 Colymbus auritus (Horned Grebe) 17 
 
 cristatus (Great Crested Grebe) . (Plate 39, Fig. 
 
 232) 16 
 
 fluviatilis (Little Grebe) . . . (Plate 40, Fig. 237) 16 
 
 Condor, California (Cathartes calif ornianus) 75 
 
 South American ( Sarcoramphus gryphus) . (Plate 
 
 i, Fig. i) 74 
 
 Contopus virens (Wood Pewee) 176 
 
 Conurus carolinensis (Carolina Paroquet) .. (Plate 7, Fig. 
 
 32) 135 
 
 Coot, European (Fulica atra) (Plate 29, Fig. 167) 99 
 
 American (Fulica americana) 99 
 
 CoquimBo (Speotyto cunicularia hypogaea) 160 
 
 CORACLE 142 
 
 Coracius garrulus (European Roller) . . . (Plate 9, Fig. 43) 142 
 Cormorant, Common ( Phalacrocorax carbo) . (Plate 37, 
 
 Fig. 218) 24 
 
 Harris's Phalacrocorax harrisi) 25 
 
 Corvus americanus (Common American Crow) 228 
 
 corone (Carrion Crow) 228 
 
 corax (European Raven) (Plate 20, Fig. 116) 229 
 
 corax sinuatus (American Raven) 229 
 
 " ossifragus (Fish Crow) 228 
 
 Coturnix coturnix (Common European Quail) . . (Plate 24, 
 
 Fig. 141) 88 
 
 Coues, Elliott 195 
 
 Cowbird ( Molothrus ater) 193 
 
 Crake, Carolina (Porzana Carolina) 97 
 
 Little (Zapornia parva) (Plate 29, Fig. 164) 97 
 
 " Spotted (Porzana porzana) .. (Plate 29, Fig. 166) 97 
 
 Corncrake (Crex crex) (Plate 30, Fig. 168) 97 
 
 Crane, Crowned (Balearica pavonina) . (Plate 34, Fig. 197) 94 
 
 Demoiselle (Anthropoides virgo) 94 
 
 " Common European (Grus grus) . (Plate 29, Fig. 
 
 161) 93 
 
 Little Brown (Grus canadensis) 94 
 
 Sandhill (Grus mexicana) 94 
 
 " Whooping (Grus americana) 94 
 
 Creeper, American Brown (Certhia familiaris americana) . . 186 
 
INDEX 239 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Creeper, European Tree (Certhia familiaris) .. (Plate 21, 
 
 Fig. 127) 186 
 
 Wall (Tichodroma muraria).( Plate 21, Fig. 126) 187 
 
 Creepers 1 86 
 
 Crossbill, American Red (Loxia curvirostra minor) 219 
 
 European (Loxia curvirostra) . (Plate 15, Fig. 79) 219 
 
 Crotophaga ani (Ani) 139 
 
 Sulcirostris (Groove-billed Ani) 140 
 
 Crow, Common American (Corvus americanus) 228 
 
 Carrion (Corvus corone) 228 
 
 Fish (Corvus ossifragus) 228 
 
 Crows 226 
 
 Cuckoo, Black-billed (Coccyzus erythrophthalmus) 139 
 
 Common European (Cuculus canorus) . (Plate 7, 
 
 Fig. 30) 139 
 
 Yellow-billed (Coccyzus americanus) 139 
 
 CUCULI . . . 133 
 
 Cuculus, canoris (European Cuckoo) . . . (Plate 7, Fig. 30) 139 
 
 Curassow, Globose (Crax globicera) . . (Plate 41, Fig. 244) 79 
 
 Curlew, Eskimo (Numenius borealis) 113 
 
 European (Numenius arquatus) . (Plate 31, Fig. 
 
 176) 113 
 
 Hudsonian (Numenius hudsonicus) 113 
 
 Long-billed (Numenius longirostris) 112 
 
 Crymophilus rulicarius (Wilson's Phalarope) 113 
 
 Cyanecula cyanecula (Blue-throat) ... (Plate 12, Fig. 63) 198 
 
 Cyanocitta cristata (American Blue Jay) 230 
 
 Cyanospeza cyanea (Indigo Bunting) 220 
 
 Cygnus olor (European Mute Swan) . (Plate 35, Fig. 201) 54 
 
 CYPSELI 148 
 
 D 
 
 Dabchick (Colymbus fluviatilis) (Plate 40, Fig. 237) 1 6 
 
 Dacelo gigas (Giant Kingfisher) 143 
 
 Dafila acuta (Pintail Duck) (Plate 35, Fig. 205) 47 
 
 Darter (Anhinga anhinga) . (Plate 38, Fig. 222) 25 
 
 Daulius luscinia (Nightingale) (Plate 12, Fig. 59) 198 
 
 Didus ineptus (Dodo) 126 
 
 Diomeda exulans (Wandering Albatross) 19 
 
 melanophrys (Black-browed Albatross) . (Plate 38, 
 
 Fig. 221) 18 
 
240 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Dipper, American (Cinclus mexicanus) 195 
 
 " European (Cinclus cinclus) .... (Plate 10, Fig. 50) 195 
 
 Dippers 194 
 
 Dodo (Didus ineptus) 126 
 
 Dolichonyx, oryzivorus (Bobolink) 192 
 
 Dove, Ground (Columbigallina passerina terrestris) 130 
 
 Mourning (Zenaida macroura) 130 
 
 Ring ( Streptopelia risoria) .... (Plate 22, Fig. 130) 128 
 
 " Rock (Columba livia) (Plate 23, Fig. 135) 129 
 
 Stock (Columba aenas) (Plate 22, Fig. 131) 129 
 
 Turtle (Turtur turtur) (Plate 23, Fig. 137) 127 
 
 " White-winged (Melopella leucoptera) 131 
 
 Dovekie (Alle alle) (Plate 40, Fig. 236) 123 
 
 Dryobates minor (Lesser Spotted Woodpecker) . (Plate 6, 
 
 Fig. 27 ) 1 69 
 
 Dromaeus novaehollandiae (Emu) I 
 
 Duck, Aylesbury 49 
 
 " Black (Anas obscura) 48 
 
 Canvasback (Aythya vallisneria) 48 
 
 " Eider (Somateria mollissima) . (Plate 35, Fig. 206) 46 
 " Golden-eye (Clangula clangula) ... (Plate 36, Fig. 
 
 213) 47 
 
 Goosander (Merganser merganser) . (Plate 36, Fig. 
 
 207) 45 
 
 Mallard (Anas boschus) (Plate 35, Fig. 203) 47 
 
 Mandarin (Aid galericulata) 49 
 
 " Muscovy 49 
 
 " Old Squaw (Harelda hyemalis) . (Plate 36, Fig. 208) 47 
 
 " Pekin 49 
 
 Pintail (Dafila acuta) (Plate 35, Fig. 205) 47 
 
 " Redhead (Aythya americana) 48 
 
 Scaup (Aythya marila) 50 
 
 " Scoter, Velvet (Oidemia fusca) (Plate 36, Fig. 
 
 212) 46 
 
 " Sheldrake, European (Tadorna tadorna) . (Plate 36, 
 
 Fig. 209) 50 
 
 Smew (Mergus albellus) (Plate 36, Fig. 210) 46 
 
 Tufted, (Nyroca fuligula) (Plate 36, Fig. 211) 47 
 
 Teal, Blue-winged (Querquedula discors) 48 
 
 " Teal, European (Nettion crecca) . (Plate 35, Fig. 
 
 202) 48 
 
 " Teal, Green-winged (Nettion carolinensis) 48 
 
 " Widgeon (Mareca penelope) . . (Plate 35, Fig. 204) 47 
 
INDEX 241 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Duck, Wood (Aix sponsa) 49 
 
 Dunlin (Pelidina alpina) (Plate 32, Fig. 185) 108 
 
 E 
 
 Eagle, Bald (Haliaetus lucocephalus) (Frontispiece) 64 
 
 Golden (Aquila chrysaetus) (Plate 2, Fig. 8) 63 
 
 Harpy (Thrasaetus harpyia) .. (Plate 42, Fig. 241) 66 
 
 Kamchatka Sea (Haliaetus pelagicus) 65 
 
 Spotted (Aquila maculata) (Plate 3, Fig. 10) 63 
 
 White-tailed (Haliaetus albicilla) . (Plate 3, Fig. 9) 64 
 Ectopistes migratorius (Passenger Pigeon) . (Plate 22, Fig. 
 
 133) 126 
 
 Egret, American (Herodias egretta) 36 
 
 Little (Garzetta candidissima) 35 
 
 Great White (Herodias alba) . (Plate 33, Fig. 193) 35 
 
 " Snowy (Egretta candidissima) 35 
 
 Elanus leucurus (White-tailed Kite) 60 
 
 Elanoides forficatus (Swallow-tailed Kite) 60 
 
 Ereunetes pusillus ( Semipalmated Sandpiper) 109 
 
 Erolia ferruginea (Curlew Sandpiper) 109 
 
 Emberiza schaeniclus (Red Bunting) .. (Plate 16, Fig. 88) 224 
 
 hortulana (Ortolan) (Plate 16, Fig. 87) 223 
 
 Emu, Common (Dromaeus novaehollandiae) I 
 
 Eurylaemidae (Broadbills) 173 
 
 F 
 
 Falco islandus (Gyrfalcon) (Plate 2, Fig. 7) 71 
 
 peregrinus anatum (Duck Hawk) 71 
 
 Finch, Purple (Carpodacus purpureus) 219 
 
 " Strawberry ( Sporaeginthus amandava) 22 1 
 
 Finches 212 
 
 Flamingo, American ( Phaenicopterus ruber) 42 
 
 European (Phaenicopterus roseus) . (Plate 33, 
 
 Fig. 189) 42 
 
 Flicker, Common (Colaptes auratus luteus) 170 
 
 Flycatcher, Great Crested (Myiarchus luteiventris) 176 
 
 Pied (Muscicapa atricapilla) 180 
 
 Spotted (Muscicapa grisola) . (Plate 10, Fig. 47) 180 
 
 Flycatchers, American 174 
 
 European 180 
 
 Fowl, Domestic (Gallus gallus, var.) . (Plate 27, Fig. 156) 86 
 
242 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Fratercula arctica (Puffin) (Plate 39, Fig. 233) 122 
 
 Frigate-bird (Fregata aquila) (Plate 37, Fig. 219) 31 
 
 Fringilla montifringilla (Brambling) . (Plate 18, Fig. 104) 217 
 
 caslebs (Chaffinch) (Plate 17, Fig. 97) 217 
 
 Fulica americana (American Coot) 99 
 
 atra (European Coot) (Plate 29, Fig. 167) 99 
 
 Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis) 120 
 
 G 
 
 Galeoscoptes carolinensis (Catbird) 188 
 
 Galerida cristata (Crested Lark) (Plate 14, Fig. 76) 21 1 
 
 GALLIFORMES 78 
 
 Gallinago gallinago (European Snipe) . (Plate 31, Fig. 178) 105 
 
 gallinula (Jack Snipe) 105 
 
 media (Great Snipe) (Plate 31, Fig. 179) 105 
 
 Gallinula chloropus (Moor-hen) .... (Plate 29, Fig. 165) 99 
 
 Gallinule, Florida (Gallinula galeata) 98 
 
 Purple (lonornis martinica) 98 
 
 Gallus gallus, var. (Domestic Fowl) . (Plate 27, Fig. 156) 86 
 
 ferrugineus (Jungle Fowl) 85 
 
 Gannet, Common (Sula bassana) (Plate 37, Fig. 217) 27 
 
 Garrulus glandarius (European Jay) . (Plate 20, Fig. 119) 230 
 
 Garzetta candissima (Little Egret) 35 
 
 Gavia arctica (Black-throated Loon) . (Plate 39, Fig. 231) 14 
 
 imber (Common Loon) 15 
 
 lumme (Red-throated Loon) 16 
 
 Geococcyx calif ornianus (Road-runner) (Plate 41, Fig. 246) 141 
 Gennaeus nycthemerus (Silver Pheasant) . (Plate 26, Fig. 
 
 150 83 
 
 Glareola pratincola (Pratincole) (Plate 31, Fig. 175) 101 
 
 Goldcrest (Regulus regulus) (Plate 13, Fig. 69) 20 1 
 
 Goldfinch, American (Astragalinus tristis) 213 
 
 European (Carduelis carduelis) . (Plate 17, Fig. 
 
 98) 213 
 
 Goosander (Merganser merganser) . . (Plate 36, Fig. 207) 45 
 
 Goose, Black Brant (Branta migricans) 52 
 
 " Brant (Branta bernicla) (Plate 34, Fig. 199) 52 
 
 Canada (Branta canadensis) 52 
 
 Grey-lag (Anser anser) (Plate 34, Fig. 198) 52 
 
 " Snow (Chen hyperboreus) . . . (Plate 34, Fig. 200) 52 
 
 Solan (Sula bassana) (Plate 37, Fig. 17) 27 
 
 " White-fronted (Anser albifrons gambeli) 53 
 
INDEX 243 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Goshawk, American (Accipter atricapillus) 61 
 
 European (Astur palumbarius) . (Plate 4, Fig. 
 
 14) 61 
 
 Goura coronata (Crowned Pigeon) . (Plate 23, Fig. 136) 128 
 
 Grackle, Boat-tailed ( Megaquiscalus major) 193 
 
 Purple (Quiscalus quiscula) 193 
 
 Grebe, Great Crested (Colymbus cristatus) . (Plate 39, Fig. 
 
 232) 16 
 
 Horned (Colymbus auritus) 17 
 
 " Little (Colymbus, fluviatilis) . (Plate 40, Fig. 237) 1 6 
 
 " Pied-billed (Podilymbus podiceps) 17 
 
 Greenfinch (Chloris chloris) (Plate 16, Fig. 90) 212 
 
 Greenshank (Totanus nebularius) .... (Plate 31, Fig. 180) 107 
 
 Groesbeck, Pine (Pinicola enucleator) . . (Plate 16, Fig. 92) 21 8 
 
 Grouse, Black (Lyrurus tetrix) (Plate 24, Fig. 142) 90 
 
 Canada (Bonasa umbellus togata) 89 
 
 Dusky (Dendragapus obscurus) 89 
 
 " Hazel (Tetrastes bonasia) .. (Plate 24, Fig. 140) 91 
 Ptarmigan, Alpine (Lagopus mutus) . (Plate 24, 
 
 Fig. 143) 89 
 
 Ruffed (Bonasa umbellus) 88 
 
 Sage (Centrocercus urophasianus) 89 
 
 Sharp-tailed (Pediaecetes phasianellus) 89 
 
 GRUIFORMES % 93 
 
 Grus canadensis (Little Brown Crane) 94 
 
 " grus (European Crane) (Plate 29, Fig. 161) 93 
 
 americana (Whooping Crane) 94 
 
 rriexicana ( Sandhill Crane) 94 
 
 Guan (Ortalis vetula maccalli) 79 
 
 Guara alba (White Ibis) 41 
 
 rubra ( Scarlet Ibis) 40 
 
 Guillemot (Cepphus grylle) 121 
 
 Guinea-fowl (Numida meleagris) .... (Plate 27, Fig. 154) 8l 
 
 Vulturine (Acryllium vulturinum) 82 
 
 Gull, Black-headed (Larus ridibundus) . (Plate 39, Fig. 
 
 228) 117 
 
 Great Black-backed (Larus marinus) 117 
 
 " Herring (Larus argentatus) ... (Plate 38, Fig. 223) 116 
 
 Kittiwake (Rissa tredactyla) (Plate 38, Fig. 225) 117 
 
 Laughing (Larus atricilla) 118 
 
 " Mew (Larus canus) (Plate 38, Fig. 224) 117 
 
 Gypaetus barbatus (Lammegeier) (Plate I, Fig.4) 73 
 
 Gypagus papa (King Vulture) (Plate 2, Fig. 5) 74 
 
244 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Gyps fulvus (Griffon Vulture) (Plate I, Fig 3 73 
 
 Gyrfalcon (Falco islandus) (Plate 2, Fig. 7) 71 
 
 H 
 
 Haematopus bachmani (Black Oyster-catcher) 112 
 
 palliatus (American Oyster-catcher) 1 12 
 
 Haliaetus albicilla (White-tailed Eagle) . (Plate 3, Fig. 9) 64 
 
 lucocephalus (Bald Eagle) .... (Frontispiece) .. 64 
 
 pelagicus (Kamachatka Sea-eagle) 65 
 
 Haploderma Narina (African Trogon) . (Plate 9, Fig. 44) 165 
 
 Harelda hycmalis (Old Squaw Duck) . (Plate 36, Fig. 208) 47 
 
 Hawfinch (Cocothraustes cocothraustes).( Plate 14, Fig. 77) 213 
 
 Hawk, American Harrier (Circus hudsonius) 61 
 
 European Hen Harrier (Circus cyaneus) . (Plate 4, 
 
 Fig. 15) ^ ;> 61 
 
 Cooper's (Accipiter cooperii) 62 
 
 " Duck (Falco peregrinus anatum) , . . . . 71. 
 
 Goshawk, American (Accipiter atricapillus) 61 
 
 " Goshawk, European (Astur palumbarius) . (Plate 4, 
 
 Fig. 14) 61 
 
 Red-shouldered (Buteo lineatus) 62 
 
 Red-tailed (Buteo borealis) 62 
 
 Sharp-shinned (Accipter velox) 62 
 
 " American Sparrow (Falco sparverius) 7 
 
 " European Sparrow (Accipiter nisus) . (Plate 3, Fig. 
 
 12) 61 
 
 Heliactin bilopha (Double-crested Humming Bird) . (Plate 
 
 21, Fig. 121) 152 
 
 Herodias egretta (American Egret) 36 
 
 alba (Great White Egret) . . (Plate 33, Fig. 193) 35 
 
 Heron, European (Ardea cinerea) (Plate 33, Fig. 192) 33 
 
 Great Blue (Ardea herodias) 33 
 
 Great White (Ardea occidentalis) 34 
 
 Little Green (Butorides virescens) 34 
 
 Louisiana (Hydranassa tricolor ruficollis) 35 
 
 Night, Black-crowned (Nycticorax nycticorax 
 
 naevius) 35 
 
 " Night, Yellow-crowned (Nyctanassa violaceus) . . . 35 
 
 " Ward's (Ardea herodias wardi) ; . 33 
 
 Himantopus himantopus (European Stilt) . (Plate 30, Fig. 
 
 172) 104 
 
 " mexicanus (Black-necked Stilt) 104 
 
INDEX 245 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Hirundo rustica (European Barn Swallow) . (Plate 18, Fig. 
 
 108) 179 
 
 Hoopoe, Common (Upupa epops) .... (Plate 22, Fig. 129) 145 
 
 Hornbill, Indian (Buceros bicornis) .... (Plate 9, Fig. 39) 146 
 Humming-bird, Coquette (Lophornis ornata. . (Plate 21, 
 
 Fig. 122) 152 
 
 Double-crested (Heliactin bilopha) (Plate 
 
 21, Fig. 121) 152 
 
 Fire-tailed (Lesbia sparganura) (Plate 21, 
 
 Fig. 123) 152 
 
 Racquet-tailed (Spathura underwoodi) .. (Plate 
 
 21, Fig. 125) 153 
 
 Ruby-throated (Trochilus colubris) 154 
 
 Topaz (Topaza pella) .... (Plate 21, Fig. 124) 153 
 
 Hylocichla fuscescens (Wilson's Thrush) 120 
 
 mustelina (Wood Thrush) 199 
 
 I 
 
 Ibis, Glossy (Plegadis autumnalis) 41 
 
 1 Sacred (Ibis aethiopica) (Plate 34, Fig. 196) 40 
 
 Scarlet ( Guara rubra) 40 
 
 White (Guara alba) 41 
 
 Wood (Tantalus loculator) 40 
 
 Icteria virens (Yellow-breasted Chat) 205 
 
 Icterus galbula (Baltimore Oriole) 191 
 
 Ictinia mississippiensis (Mississippi Kite) 60 
 
 IMPENNES 14 
 
 lonornis martinica (Purple Gallinule) 98 
 
 Iridoprocne bicolor (Tree Swallow) 180 
 
 j 
 
 Jabiru (Mycteria americana) 39 
 
 Jacana, Mexican ( Jacana spinosa) 113 
 
 Jackdaw (Colaeus monedula) (Plate 19, Fig. 114) 231 
 
 Jaeger, Parasitic ( Stercorarius parasiticus) . (Plate 38, Fig. 
 
 226) 121 
 
 Jay, American Blue (Cyanocitta cristata) 230 
 
 ' Canada (Perisoreus canadensis) 231 
 
 " European (Garrulus glandarius) . (Plate 20, Fig. 119) 230 
 
 Laughing Jackass (Dacelo gigas) 143 
 
 Junco (Junco hyemalis) 221 
 
246 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Jungle- fowl (Gallus ferrugineus) 85 
 
 Jynx torquilla (Wryneck) (Plate 7, Fig. 31 ) 170 
 
 K 
 
 Kakapo (Stringops habroptilus) 138 
 
 Kea (Nestor notabilis) 137 
 
 Kestrel (Cerchneis tinnunculus) (Plate 3, Fig. n) 70 
 
 Killdeer (Oxyechus vociferus) 103 
 
 Kingbird (Tyrannus tyrannus) 175 
 
 Kingfisher, Belted (Ceryle alcyon) 144 
 
 Common European (Alcedo ispida) . (Plate 9, 
 
 Fig. 40) 144 
 
 Giant (Dacelo gigas) 143 
 
 Kinglet, Golden-crowned (Regulus satrapa) 202 
 
 Ruby-crowned (Regulus calendula) 202 
 
 Kite, European Red (Milvus milvus) . . . (Plate 4, Fig. 17) 60 
 
 Mississippi ( Ictinia mississippiensis) 60 
 
 Swallow-tailed (Elanoides forficatus) 60 
 
 White-tailed (Elanus leucurus) 60 
 
 Kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla) (Plate 38, Fig. 225) 117 
 
 Kiwi (Apteryx mantelli) (Plate 28, Fig. 160) 7 
 
 Knot (Tringa canutus) (Plate 32, Fig. 187) no 
 
 L 
 
 Lagopus mutus (Alpine Ptarmigan) . . (Plate 24, Fig. 143) 89 
 
 Lammergeier (Gypaetus barbatus) (Plate I, Fig. 4) 73 
 
 Lanius borealis (Northern Shrike) 181 
 
 excubitor (Great Grey Shrike).. (Plate 10, Fig. 46) 181 
 
 " ludovicianus (Loggerhead Shrike) 182 
 
 " collurio (Red-backed Shrike) .. (Plate 10, Fig. 45) 182 
 
 Lapwing (Vanellus vanellus) (Plate 30, Fig. 171) 103 
 
 Lark, Horned (Otocoris alpestris) 211 
 
 " Prairie Horned (Otocoris alpestris praticola) 212 
 
 " Crested (Galerida cristata) (Plate 14, Fig. 76) 211 
 
 " Skylark (Alauda arvensis) (Plate 14, Fig. 74) 210 
 
 " Wood (Alauda arborea) (Plate 14, Fig. 75) 211 
 
 Larks 210 
 
 Larus atricilla (Laughing Gull) 118 
 
 argentatus (Herring Gull) ... (Plate 38, Fig. 223) 116 
 
 " canus (Mew Gull) (Plate 38, Fig. 224) 117 
 
 " marinus (Great Black-backed Gull) 117 
 
 " ridibundus (Black-headed Gull) .. (Plate 39, Fig. 
 
 228) H7 
 
INDEX 247 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Leptoptilus argala (Indian Adjutant Stork) 38 
 
 crumenifer (African Adjutant Stork) .. (Plate 
 
 34, Fig.^ 195) 38 
 
 Lesbia Sparganura (Fire-tailed Hummingbird) .. (Plate 21, 
 
 Fig. 123) ; 152 
 
 Linnet (Linota cannabina) (Plate 17, Fig. 100) 217 
 
 Longspur, Lapland (Calcarius lapponicus) (Plate 15, 
 
 Fig. 81) 224 
 
 Loon, Black-throated (Gavia arctica) . (Plate 39, Fig. 231) 14 
 
 Common (Gavia imber) 15 
 
 Red-throated (Gavia lumme) 16 
 
 Lophophanes cristatus (Crested Tit).. (Plate 15, Fig. 82) 183 
 Lophornis ornata (Coquette Hummingbird) .... (Plate 21, 
 
 Fig. 122) 152 
 
 Lophophorus impeganus (Impeyan Pheasant) 83 
 
 Lophortyx californicus (California Partridge) 92 
 
 gambelii (Gambel Partridge) . . . (Plate 41, Fig. 
 
 245) 92 
 
 Loxia curvirostra (European Crossbil) . (Plate 15, Fig. 79) 219 
 
 minor (American Crossbill) 219 
 
 Lunda cirrhata (Tufted Puffin) 122 
 
 Lyrurus tetrix (Black Grouse) ... (Plate 24, Fig. 142).. 90 
 
 Lyre-bird (Menura superba) (Plate 14, Fig. 73) 177 
 
 M 
 
 Macaw, Blue and Yellow (Ara ararauna) . . (Plate 8, Fig. 
 
 34) 135 
 
 Hyacinthine (Ara hyacinthina) 136 
 
 Red and Blue (Ara macao) (Plate 8, Fig. 35) 136 
 
 Magpie, American (Pica pica hudsonia) 231 
 
 European (Pica pica) (Plate 20, Fig. 115) 231 
 
 Man-o'-war Bird (Fregata aquila) . . . (Plate 37, Fig. 219) 31 
 
 Marabou (Leptoptilus crumenifer) .. (Plate 34, Fig. 195) 38 
 
 Marecca penelope (Widgeon) (Plate 35, Fig. 204) 47 
 
 Marsh-Hen (Rallus crepitans) 97 
 
 Martin, House (Chelidonaria urbica) . (Plate 19, Fig. 109) 179 
 
 Purple (Progne subis) 180 
 
 Sand (Riparia riparia) (Plate 19, Fig.no) 179 
 
 Meadowlark (Sturnella magna) 193 
 
 Megapodes 78 
 
 Megascops asio (Screech Owl) 162 
 
 Megaquiscalus major (Boat-tailed Grackle) 193 
 
248 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Melanerpes erythrocephalus (Red-headed Woodpecker) 
 
 (Plate 7, Fig. 29) 169 
 
 Meleagris gallopavo (Mexican Wild Turkey) .. (Plate 27, 
 
 Fig. 155) 80 
 
 ocellata (Honduras Turkey) 81 
 
 sylvestris (Eastern Wild Turkey) 81 
 
 Melopsittacus undulatus (Grass Paroquet) (Plate 8, 
 
 Fig. 38) 138 
 
 Melospiza cinerea melodia (Eastern Song Sparrow) 216 
 
 Menura superba (Lyre-bird) (Plate 14, Fig. 73) 177 
 
 Merganser, Hooded (Lophodytes cucullatus) 46 
 
 merganser (Goosander) . . (Plate 36, Fig. 207) 45 
 
 Mergus albellus (Smew) (Plate 36, Fig. 210) 46 
 
 Meropella leucoptera (White-winged Dove) : . . . 131 
 
 Merops apiaster (European Bee-eater) . . (Plate 9, Fig. 42) 145 
 
 Merula migratoria (American Robin) 199 
 
 " torquatus (Ring Ouzel) 196 
 
 Microglossus atterrimus (Great Black Cockatoo) 137 
 
 Miliaria miliaria (Corn bunting) .... (Plate 15, Fig. 86) 222 
 
 Milvus milvus (European Red Kite) (Plate 4, Fig. 17) 60 
 
 Mockingbird (Mimus polyglottos) (Plate) 188 
 
 Molothrus ater (Cowbird) 193 
 
 Monticola saxatalis (Rock Thrush) . . . (Plate 12, Fig. 57) 196 
 
 Moor-hen (Gallinula chloropus) (Plate 29, Fig. 165) 99 
 
 Motmot, Lesson Mexican 143 
 
 Motacilla alba (White Wagtail) 208 
 
 lugubris (Pied Wagtail) . . . (Plate n, Fig. 53) 208 
 
 melanope (Grey Wagtail) . . (Plate n, Fig. 52) 208 
 
 Murre (Uria lomvia) (Plate 40, Fig. 238) 122 
 
 Muscicapa grisola (Spotted Flycatcher) . (Plate 10, Fig. 47) 180 
 
 Mycteria americana ( Jabiru) 39 
 
 Myarchus luteiventris (Great Crested Flycatcher) 176 
 
 N 
 
 Neophron percnopterus (Egyptian Vulture) .... (Plate I, 
 
 Fig. 2) 73 
 
 Nestor notabilis (Kea) 134 
 
 Nettion crecca (European Teal) (Plate 35, Fig. 202) 48 
 
 carolinensis (Green-winged Teal) 48 
 
 Nightingale (Daulias luscinia) (Plate 12, Fig. 59) 198 
 
 Nightjar, Common European (Caprimulgus europaeus) .... 
 
 (Plate 19, Fig. in) 149 
 
INDEX 249 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Nighthawk ( Chordeiles virginianus) 149 
 
 Noddy ( Anous stolidus) 119 
 
 Nucifraga caryocatactes (Nutcracker) . (Plate 20, Fig. 118) 231 
 Numenius arguatus (European Curlew) .. (Plate 31, Fig. 
 
 176) 113 
 
 borealis (Eskimo curlew) 113 
 
 hudsonicus (Hudsonian) 113 
 
 longirostris (Long-billed Curlew) 112 
 
 Numida meleagris (Guinea Fowl) . . . (Plate 27, Fig. 154) 81 
 
 Nutcracker (Nucifraga caryocatactes ).( Plate 20, Fig. 118) 231 
 
 Nuthatch, European (Sitta caesia) ... (Plate 21, Fig. 128) 185 
 
 Red-breasted (Sitta canadensis) 186 
 
 White-breasted (Sitta carolinensis) 185 
 
 Nuthatches 184 
 
 Nyctea nyctea (Snowy Owl) (Plate 5, Fig. 23) 160 
 
 Nycticorax nycticorax nagvius (Black-crowned Night 
 
 Heron) 35 
 
 Nyctanassa violaceus (Yellow-crowned Night Heron) .... 35 
 
 O 
 
 Oceanodroma leucorhoa (Leach's Petrel) .. (Plate 37, Fig. 
 
 214) 2O 
 
 Oidemia fusca (Velvet Scoter) (Plate 36, Fig. 212) 46 
 
 Old Squaw (Harelda hyemalis) (Plate 36, Fig. 208 47 
 
 Olor atratus (Australian Black Swan) 54 
 
 " buccinator (Trumpeter Swan) 55 
 
 " columbianus (Whistling Swan) 55 
 
 Oreortyx pictus (Mountain Partridge) 92 
 
 Oriole, Baltimore (Icterus galbula) 191 
 
 " Golden (Oriolus galbula) (Plate II, Fig. 51) 190 
 
 Orioles 190 
 
 Ortalis vetula maccali (Chacalacca) 79 
 
 Ortolan (Emberiza hortulana) (Plate 16, Fig. 87) 223 
 
 Oscines 176 
 
 Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) (Plate 2, Fig.. 6) 69 
 
 Otis tarda (Great Bustard) (Plate 30, Fig. 169) 98 
 
 Ostrich (Struthio camelus) (Plate 28, Fig. 157) 5 
 
 Otocoris alpestris ( Horned Lark) 211 
 
 Ouzel, Ring (Merula torquatus) (Plate n, Fig. 56) 196 
 
 " European Water (Cinclus cinclus) (Plate 10, 
 
 Fig. 50) . 194 
 
 Oven-bird (Seiurus aurocapillus) 205 
 
250 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Owl, American Barn (Strix pratincola) 161 
 
 European Barn (Strix flammea).. (Plate 5, Fig. 21) 162 
 
 Barred (Syrnium varium) 162 
 
 Great Eagle (Bubo bubo) (Plate 5, Fig. 18) 159 
 
 Great Grey (Scotiaptix nubulosa) 162 
 
 Great Horned (Bubo virginianus) 158 
 
 American Hawk (Surnia ulula caparoch) 163 
 
 Little (Athene noctua) (Plate 5, Fig. 22) 160 
 
 European Long-eared (Asio otus) . . (Plate 5, Fig. 20) 161 
 
 Little Screech (Megascops asio) 162 
 
 Snowy (Nyctea nyctea) (Plate 5, Fig. 23) 160 
 
 Tawny (Syrnium aluco) (Plate 5, Fig. 19) 161 
 
 Oxyechus vociferus (Killdeer) 103 
 
 Oyster-catcher, Black (Haematopus bachmani) 112 
 
 American (Haematopus palliatus) 112 
 
 P 
 
 Pandion haliaetus (Osprey) (Plate 2, Fig. 6) 69 
 
 Padda orizyvora (Java Sparrow) (Plate 17, Fig. 99) 222 
 
 Paroquet, Carolina (Conurus carolinensis) (Plate 7, 
 
 Fig. 32) 135 
 
 Zebra grass (Melopsittacus undulatus) .. (Plate 
 
 8, Fig. 38) 138 
 
 Parrot, Blue-fronted Amazon (Amazona aestiva) .. (Plate 
 
 8, Fig. 37) 136 
 
 Grey. (Psittacus erythacus) .... (Plate 7, Fig. 33) 134 
 
 Kea (Nestor notabilus) 134 
 
 " Owl (Stringops habroptilus) 138 
 
 Partridge, California (Lophortyx calif ornicus) 92 
 
 Common European (Perdix perdix) . . (Plate 24, 
 
 Fig. 144) 87 
 
 Gambel (Lophortyx gambelii) .. (Plate 41, Fig. 
 
 245) 92 
 
 Mountain (Oreortyx pictus) 92 
 
 Plumed (Plumiferous) 92 
 
 Red-legged Rock (Cacabis saxatilis) (Plate 
 
 25, Fig. 145) 87 
 
 Scaled (Callipepla squamata) 92 
 
 Parus ater (Coal Tit) <Plate 15, Fig. 80) 183 
 
 atricapillus (Chickadee) 184 
 
 " coerulus (Blue Tit) (Plate 15, Fig. 83. 182 
 
 " major (Great Tit) (Plate 15, Fig. 84) 183 
 
INDEX 251 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Passer domesticus (European House Sparrow) . . (Plate 16, 
 
 Fig. 93) 215 
 
 montanus (European Tree Sparrow) .... (Plate 16, 
 
 Fig. 94) 216 
 
 PASSERIFORMES 172 
 
 Passerina nivalis (Snow Bunting) .... (Plate 16, Fig. 89) 22 1 
 
 Pavo cristatus (Peacock) (Plate 25, Fig. 148) 84 
 
 " muticus ( Javan Peacock) 85 
 
 Pavoncella pugnax (Ruff) (Plate 31, Fig. 181) in 
 
 Peacock (Pavo cristatus) (Plate 25, Fig. 148) 84 
 
 " Javan ( Pavo muticus) , . . . 85 
 
 Pediaecestes phasianellus (Sharp-tailed Grouse) 89 
 
 Pelican, American White (Pelecanus erythrorhynchus) 28 
 
 Brown (Pelecanus occidentalis) 29 
 
 " European (Pelecanus onocrotalus) . . (Plate 37, Fig. 
 
 220) 28 
 
 Pelicans 28 
 
 Pelicanus erythrorhynchus (American White Pelican) 28 
 
 occidentalis (Brown Pelican) 29 
 
 onocrotalis (European Pelican) . . (Plate 37, Fig. 
 
 220) 28 
 
 Pelidna alpina (Dunlin) (Plate 32, Fig. 185) 108 
 
 Penguin, Emperor (Aptenodytes longirostris) 21 
 
 King (Aptenodytes patagonica) .. (Plate 40, Fig. 
 
 234) 21 
 
 Little (Aptenodytes parvus) . (Plate 40, Fig. 235) 21 
 
 Perisoreus canadensis (Canada Jay) 231 
 
 Perdix perdix (European Partridge) . . (Plate 24, Fig. 144) 87 
 
 Petrel, Giant 21 
 
 Leach's (Oceanodroma leucorhoa) . . (Plate 37, Fig. 
 
 214) 20 
 
 " Little Stormy (Procellaria pelagica) 20 
 
 Snow 20 
 
 Petrels 18 
 
 Petrochelidon lunifrous (Cliff Swallow) 180 
 
 Pewee, Wood (Contopus virens) 176 
 
 Phsenicopterus roseus (European Flamingo) .... (Plate 33, 
 
 Fig. 189) 42 
 
 ruber (American Flamingo) 42 
 
 Phaethon asthereus (Tropic Bird) .... (Plate 37, Fig. 216) 32 
 
 Phalarope, Wilson's (Crymophilus fulicarius) 113 
 
 Phalocorax carbo (Common Cormorant) .. (Plate 37, Fig. 
 
 218) 24 
 
252 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Phalocorax harrisi (Harris's Cormorant) 25 
 
 Pharomacrus mocinno (Resplendent Trogon) 165 
 
 Phasianus colchicus (Common European Pheasant) 
 
 (Plate 26, Fig. 150) 82 
 
 reevesi (Reeves Pheasant) 84 
 
 torquatus (Ring-necked Pheasant) 82 
 
 Pheasant, Common European (Phasianus colchicus) 
 
 (Plate 26, Fig. 150) 82 
 
 Argus (Argusianus argus) .... (Plate 26, Figs. 
 
 152, 153) 84 
 
 Golden (Chrysolophus pictus) . . . (Plate 25, Figs. 
 
 146, 147) 83 
 
 Impeyan (Lophophorus impeyanus) 83 
 
 Lady Amherst (Chrysolophus amherstiae) 84 
 
 Reeves (Phasianus reevesi) 84 
 
 Ring-necked (Phasianus torquatus) 82 
 
 Silver (Gennaeus nycthemerus) .... (Plate 26, 
 
 Fig. 151) 83 
 
 Philohela minor (American Woodcock) 106 
 
 Phcebe ( Sayornis phoebe) 1 75 
 
 Phoebetria fuliginosa (Sooty Albatross) 19 
 
 PHCENIC.OPTERI 23 
 
 Phylloscopus sibilatrix (Wood Wren) . . (Plate 13, Fig. 67) 202 
 
 Pica pica (European Magpie) (Plate 20, Fig. 115) 231 
 
 " " hudsonia (American Magpie) 231 
 
 vanicus) 209 
 
 PICI 164 
 
 Picus martius (Great Black Woodpecker) .. (Plate 6, Fig. 
 
 28) 1 68 
 
 Pigeon, Band-tailed (Columba fasciata) 132 
 
 " Blood-breasted (Columba livia var.) 128 
 
 " Carrier (Columba livia var.) 131 
 
 Crowned (Goura coronata) . . (Plate 23, Fig. 136) 128 
 
 " Fantail (Columba livia var.) 132 
 
 " Nicobar (Caloenas nicobarica) 128 
 
 " Passenger (Ectopistes migratorius) .... (Plate 22, 
 
 Fig. 133) 6 
 
 Pouter (Columba livia, var.) ..(Plate 23, Fig. 134) 130 
 
 " Wood (Columba palumbus) .(Plate 22, Fig. 132) 129 
 
 Pinicola enucleator (Pine Grosbeak) ..( Plate 16, Fig. 92) 218 
 
 Pintail (Dafila acuta) (Plate 35, Fig. 205) 47 
 
 Pipit, American (Anthus pensilvanicus) 209 
 
 " Meadow (Anthus pratensis) 209 
 
 " Tree (Anthus trivialis) (Plate 10, Fig. 49) 209 
 
INDEX 253 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Pipits 207 
 
 Piranga erythromelas (Scarlet Tanager) 225 
 
 rubra (Summer Tanager) 226 
 
 Platalea leucorodia (European Spoonbill) . . (Plate 33, Fig. 
 
 190) 39 
 
 Plautus impennes (Great Auk) 123 
 
 Plegadis autumnalis (Glossy Ibis) 41 
 
 Plover, Golden (Charadrius dominicus) .. (Plate 30, Fig. 
 
 170) 102 
 
 " Kentish (^Egialitis alexandrina) .. (Plate 30, Fig. 
 
 174) 103 
 
 Piping (^gialitis meloda) 103 
 
 " Ringed (^Egialitis hiaticula) . (Plate 30, Fig. 173) 102 
 
 Podilymbus podiceps (Pied-billed Grebe) 17 
 
 Polyborus cherivay (Caracara) (Plate) 68 
 
 Porzana jamaicensis (Little Black Rail) 98 
 
 porzana (Spotted Crake) .... (Plate 29, Fig. 166) 96 
 
 Carolina (Carolina Rail) 97 
 
 Pratincola rubicola (Stonechat) (Plate 12, Fig. 62) 197 
 
 Pratincole (Glareola pratincola) (Plate 31, Fig. 175) 101 
 
 Progne subis (Purple martin) 180 
 
 Psittacus erythacus (Grey Parrot) . . (Plate 7, Fig. 33) 134 
 
 PSITTACI 133 
 
 Psophia crepitans (Trumpeter) 95 
 
 Ptarmigan, Alpine (Lagopus mutus) . . (Plate 24, Fig. 143) 89 
 
 Willow (Lagopus lagopus) 90 
 
 Puffin (Fratercula arctica) (Plate 39, Fig. 233) 122 
 
 " Horned (Fratercula corniculata) 123 
 
 " Tufted (Lunda cirrhata) 123 
 
 Puffinus puffinus (Manx Shearwater) ..(Plate 37, Fig. 215) 20 
 
 PYGOPODES 14 
 
 Pyrrhula pyrrhula (Bullfinch) (Plate 16, Fig. 91) 218 
 
 Q 
 
 Quail, Common European (Coturnix coturnix) . . (Plate 24, 
 
 Fig. 41) 88 
 
 Quetzel 165 
 
 Querquedula discors (Blue-winged Teal) 48 
 
 Quiscalus quiscula (Purple Grackle) 193 
 
 R 
 
 Rail, Clapper (Rallus crepitans) 97 
 
 King (Rallus elegans) 97 
 
 " Little Black (Porzana jamaicensis) 98 
 
254 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Rail, Virginia (Rallus virginianus) 97 
 
 Water (Rallus aquaticus) (Plate 29, Fig. 163) 98 
 
 Rallus crepitans (Clapper Rail) 97 
 
 elegans (King Rail) 97 
 
 Raven, American (Corvus corax sinuatus) 229 
 
 European (Corvus corax) .... (Plate 20, Fig. 116) 229 
 Recurvirostra avocetta (European Avocet) . (Plate 32, Fig. 
 
 184) 104 
 
 Redpoll (Acanthis linaria) 220 
 
 Redshank (Totanus totanus) (Plate 32, Fig. 182) 112 
 
 Redstart, American (Setophaga ruticilla) 203 
 
 Black (Ruticilla titys) (Plate 13, Fig. 66) 197 
 
 European (Ruticilla phcenicurus) . (Plate 13, Fig. 
 
 65) - 197 
 
 Reedbird (Dolichonyx orizyvorus) 192 
 
 Regulus calendula (Ruby-crowned Kinglet) 202 
 
 regulus (Golden-crested Wren). (Plate 13, Fig. 
 
 69) 2OI 
 
 satrapa (Golden-crowned Kinglet) 202 
 
 Rhampastos toco (Giant Toucan) (Plate 9, Fig. 41) 166 
 
 Rhea, Common (Rhea americana) .... (Plate 28, Fig. 158) 4, 5 
 Rhynchotus rufescens (Rufus Tinamou) . (Plate 41, Fig. 
 
 240) , 8 
 
 Rhynchops nigra (Black Skimmer) 118 
 
 Riparia riparia (Bank Swallow) (Plate 19, Fig. no) 179 
 
 Rissa tridactyla (Kittiwake) (Plate 38, Fig. 225) 117 
 
 Road-runner (Geococcyx californiaus) . (Plate 41, Fig. 246) 141 
 
 Robin, American (Merula migratoria) 199 
 
 European (Erythacus rubecula) . (Plate 12, Fig. 61) 198 
 
 Roller, European (Coracias garrulus) . . . (Plate 9, Fig. 43) 142 
 
 Rook (Corvus frugilegus) (Plate 20, Fig. 117) 229 
 
 Ruff (Pavoncella pugnax) (Plate 31, Fig. 181) ill 
 
 Rupicola rupicola (Cock-of-the-rock) . (Plate 19, Fig. 112) 173 
 Ruticilla phcenicurus (European Redstart) . (Plate 13, Fig. 
 
 65) 197 
 
 S 
 
 Sanderling (Calidris arenaria) (Plate 32, Fig. 188) no 
 
 Sandpiper, Curlew (Erolia ferruginea) . (Plate 32, Fig. 186) 109 
 
 Least (Actodromas minutilla) 109 
 
 Sandpiper, Semipalmated (Ereunetes pusillus) 109 
 
 Sapsucker, Yellow-bellied (Sphyrapicus varius) 169 
 
 Sarcoramphus gryphus (South American Condor) . (Plate i, 
 
 Fig. i) 74 
 
INDEX 255 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Saxicola aenanthe (Wheatear) (Plate 12, Fig. 60) 196 
 
 Scolopax rusticola (European Woodcock) . (Plate 31, Fig. 
 
 177) 106 
 
 Scoter, Velvet (Oidemia fusca) (Plate 36, Fig. 212) 46 
 
 Scotiaptix nebulosa (Great Grey Owl) 162 
 
 Secretary Bird ( Serpentarius secretarius) . (Plate 3, Fig. 13) 59 
 
 Seiurus aurocapillus (Oven-bird) 205 
 
 Seriema (Cariama cristata) (Plate 42, Fig. 245) 94 
 
 Serin (Serinus hortulanus) (Plate 18, Fig. 102) 214 
 
 Serinus canarius (Canary) (Plate 18, Fig. 105) 215 
 
 Serpentarius secretarius (Secretary Bird) . (Plate 3, Fig. 13) 59 
 
 Shearwater, Manx (Puffinus puffinus) . (Plate 37, Fig. 215) 20 
 
 Sheldrake (Tadorna tadorna) (Plate 36, Fig. 209) 50 
 
 Shrike, Great Grey (Lanius excubitor) . (Plate 10, Fig. 46) 181 
 
 Loggerhead (Lanius ludovicianus) 182 
 
 Northern (Lanius borealis) ... 1 181 
 
 Red-backed (Lanius collurio) .. (Plate 10, Fig. 45) 182 
 
 Shrikes 181 
 
 Sialis sialis (Bluebird) 199 
 
 Siskin (Spinus spinus) (Plate 18, Fig. 103) 214 
 
 Pine (Spinus pinus) 214 
 
 Sitta canadensis (Red-breasted Nuthatch) 186 
 
 " carolinensis (White-breasted Nuthatch) 185 
 
 " caesia (European Nuthatch) .... (Plate 21, Fig. 127) 185 
 
 Skimmer, Black (Rhynchops nigra) 1 18 
 
 Skua, Parasitic ( Stercorarius parasiticus) . (Plate 38, Fig. 
 
 226) 121 
 
 Skylark (Alauda arvensis) (Plate 14, Fig. 74) 210 
 
 Smew (Mergus albellus) (Plate 36, Fig. 210) 46 
 
 Snake-bird (Anhinga anhinga) (Plate 38, Fig. 222) 25 
 
 Snipe, Common European (Gallinago gallinago) . (Plate 31, 
 
 Fig. 178) 105 
 
 Great (Gallinago media) (Plate 31, Fig. 179) 105 
 
 " Jack (Gallinago gallinula) 105 
 
 Snowbird (Junco hyemalis) 22 1 
 
 Snowflake ( Passerina nivalis) 221 
 
 Somateria mollissima (Eider Duck) . . . (Plate 35, Fig. 206) 46 
 
 Sparrow, Chipping (Spizella socialis) 216 
 
 Field (Spizella pusilla) 216 
 
 House (Passer domesticus) . . (Plate 16, Fig. 93) 215 
 
 Hedge (Accentor modularis) . (Plate 12, Fig. 58) 203 
 
 Java (Padda oryziva) (Plate 17, Fig. 99) 222 
 
 Song (Melospiza cinerea melodia) 216 
 
 American Tree (Spizella monticola) 216 
 
256 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Sparrow, European Tree (Passer montanus) .. (Plate 16, 
 
 Fig. 94) 216 
 
 Spathura underwoodi (Racquet-tailed Humming-bird) 
 
 (Plate 21, Fig 125) 153 
 
 Speotyto cunicularia hypogaea (Burrowing Owl) 160 
 
 Sphyrapicus varius (Yellow-bellied Sapsucker) 169 
 
 Spinus pinus (Pine Siskin) 214 
 
 " spinus (Siskin) (Plate 18, Fig. 103) 214 
 
 Spizella montanus (European Tree Sparrow) . (Plate 16, 
 
 Fig. 94) 216 
 
 monticola (American Tree Sparrow) 216 
 
 Spoonbill, European (Platalea leucorodia) . (Plate 33, Fig. 
 
 190) 39 
 
 Roseate (Ajaia ajaja) 39 
 
 Sporaeginthus amandava (Amaduvade) . (Plate 7, Fig. 96) 221 
 
 Starling, Common (Sturnus vulgaris) . (Plate 20, Fig. 120) 194 
 
 Starlings 194 
 
 STEGANOPODES 23 
 
 Stercorarius parasitacus (Parasitic Skua). (Plate 38, Fig. 
 
 226) 120 
 
 Sterna antillarum (Little Tern) 119 
 
 anaethetus (Bridled Tern) 120 
 
 " fuliginosa (Sooty Tern) 120 
 
 maxima (Royal Tern) 119 
 
 " minuta (Least Tern) (Plate 39, Fig. 227) 120 
 
 Stelgidopteryx serripennis (Rough-wing Swallow) 179 
 
 Stilt, Black-necked (Himantopus mexicanus) 104 
 
 " European (Himantopus himantopus) . (Plate 30, Fig. 
 
 172) 104 
 
 Stint, Little (Actodromas minuta) . . . (Plate 32, Fig. 183) 109 
 
 Stonechat (Pratincola rubicola) (Plate 12, Fig. 62) 197 
 
 Stork, African Adjutant (Leptoptilus crumenifer) .( Plate 
 
 34, Fig. 195) 39 
 
 European White (Ciconia ciconia) . (Plate 33, Fig. 
 
 191) 38 
 
 Indian Adjutant (Leptoptilus argala) 38 
 
 Whale-headed 39 
 
 Streptopelia risoria (Ring Dove) 128 
 
 STRIGES 156 
 
 Stringops habroptilus (Owl Parrot) 138 
 
 Strix flammea (European Barn Owl) . . . (Plate 5, Fig. 21) 162 
 
 pratincola (American Barn Owl) 161 
 
 Struthio camelus (African Ostrich) . . . (Plate 28, Fig. 157) 5 
 
 Sturnella magna (Meadowlark) 193 
 
INDEX 257 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Sturnus vulgan's (Starling) (Plate 20, Fig. 120) 194 
 
 Sula bassana (Common Gannet) (Plate 37, Fig. 217) 27 
 
 Surnia ulula caparoch (American Hawk Owl) 163 
 
 Swallow, American Bank (riparia riparia) . (Plate 19, Fig. 
 
 IIO) ; 179 
 
 American Barn (Hirundo erythrogastra) 179 
 
 European Barn (Hirundo rustica) . (Plate 18, 
 
 Fig. 108) 179 
 
 Cliff (Petrochelidon lunifrons) 180 
 
 Rough-wing ( Stergidopteryx serripennis) 179 
 
 Tree (Iridoprocne bicolor) 180 
 
 Swallows 178 
 
 Swan, Australian Black (Olor atratus) 54 
 
 " European Mute (Cygnus olor) . (Plate 35, Fig. 
 
 201) 54 
 
 Black-necked (Olor nigricollis) 55 
 
 Trumpeter (Olor buccinator) 55 
 
 " Whistling (Olor columbianus) 55 
 
 Swift, Common European (Cypselus apus) . (Plate 18, Fig. 
 
 107) 150 
 
 Chimney (Cha3tura pelagica 151 
 
 Sylvia atricapilla (Blackcap) (Plate 13, Fig. 72) 201 
 
 Symphemia semipalmata (Willet) 106 
 
 Syrnium aluco (Tawny Owl) (Plate 5, Fig. 19) 161 
 
 varium (Barred Owl) 162 
 
 T 
 
 Tadorna tadorna (Sheldrake) (Plate 36, Fig. 209 50 
 
 Tanager, Paradise (Calospiza tatao) . . . (Plate 19, Fig. 113 226 
 
 Scarlet (Piranga erythromelas) 225 
 
 Summer (Piranga rubra) 226 
 
 Tanagers 225 
 
 Tantalus locutor (Wood Ibis) 40 
 
 Tern, Bridled (Sterna anaethetus) I2O 
 
 Common (Sterna hirundo) (Plate 39, Fig. 230) 119 
 
 " Least, European (Sterna minuta) . (Plate 39, Fig. 
 
 227) 120 
 
 " Little (Sterna antillarum) 120 
 
 Noddy ( Anous stolidus) 119 
 
 Royal ( Sterna maxima) 119 
 
 Sandwich (Sterna sandvicencis) . (Plate 39, Fig. 229) 120 
 
 Sooty (Sterna fuliginosa) I2O 
 
 Tetrao urogallus (Capercailzie) (Plate 24, Fig. 138) 90 
 
 Tetrastes bonasia (Hazel Grouse) .... (Plate 24, Fig. 140) 91 
 
258 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Tetrax tetrax (Little Bustard) (Plate 29, Fig. 162) 99 
 
 Thrasaetus harpyia (Harpy Eagle) .. (Plate 42, Fig. 241) 66 
 
 Thrasher, Brown (Toxostoma rufum) 189 
 
 Thrush, Hermit (Hylocichla guttata pallasii) 200 
 
 Missel (Turdus viscivorus) .. (Plate n, Fig. 55) 195 
 
 Rock (Monticola saxatalis) . . . (Plate 12, Fig. 57) 196 
 
 Wilson's (Hylocichla fuscescens) 200 
 
 Wood (Hylocichla mustelina) 199 
 
 Tichodroma muraria (Wall-creeper) . (Plate 21, Fig. 126) 187 
 Tinamou, Rufus (Rhynchotus rufescens) .. (Plate 41, Fig. 
 
 240) 8 
 
 Tit, Blue (Parus coeruleus) (Plate 15, Fig. 83) 182 
 
 1 Coal (Parus ater) (Plate 15, Fig. 80) 183 
 
 " Crested (Lophophanes cristatus) . (Plate 15, Fig. 82) 183 
 
 : Great (Parus major) (Plate 15, Fig. 84) 183 
 
 " Long-tailed (Acredula caudata) . , . (Plate 14, Fig. 78) 183 
 
 Titmouse, Tufted (Baeolophus bicolor) 184 
 
 Titmice 182 
 
 Topaza pella (Topaz Humming-bird) . (Plate 21, Fig. 124) 153 
 
 Totanus melanoleucus (Greater Yellowlegs) 106 
 
 nebularius (Greenshank) .... (Plate 31, Fig. 180) 107 
 
 " totanus (Redshank) (Plate 32, Fig. 182) 112 
 
 Toucan, Giant (Rhampastos toco) .... (Plate 9, Fig. 41) 166 
 
 Short-billed 166 
 
 Towhee (Pipilo erythrophthalmus) 22O 
 
 Toxostoma rufum (Brown Thrasher) 189 
 
 Tringa canutus (Knot) (Plate 32, Fig. 187) no 
 
 Trochilus colubris (Ruby-throated Humming-bird) 154 
 
 Trogon, Resplendent (Pharomacrus mocinno) 165 
 
 " African (Hapaloderma narina) . (Plate 9, Fig. 44) 165 
 
 TROGONES 164 
 
 Tropic-bird (Phaeton aethereus) (Plate 37, Fig. 216) 32 
 
 Trumpeter (Psophia crepitans) 95 
 
 TUBINARES 14 
 
 Turdus viscivorus (Missel Thrush) . . . (Plate n, Fig. 55) 195 
 
 Turkey, Eastern Wild (Meleagris sylvestris) 81 
 
 " Honduras (Meleagris ocellata), 8 1 
 
 " Mexican Wild (Meleagris gallopavo) . (Plate 27, 
 
 Fig. 155) 80 
 
 turtur (Turtle Dove) (Plate 23, Fig. 137) 127 
 
 Tympanuchus americanus (Prairie Hen) 89 
 
 Tyrannus tyrannus (Kingbird) 175 
 
INDEX 259 
 
 PAGE 
 
 u 
 
 Upupa epops (Hoopoe) (Plate 22, Fig. 129) 145 
 
 Una lomvia (Murre) (Plate 40, Fig. 238) 122 
 
 V 
 Vidua paradisea (Paradise Whydah-bird) . (Plate 17, Fig. 
 
 95) 221 
 
 Vanellus vanellus (Lapwing) (Plate 30, Fig. 171) 103 
 
 Vireo, Red-eyed (Vireo olivaceus) 206 
 
 " White-eyed (Vireo noveborensis) 206 
 
 Vireos 206 
 
 Vulture, Black (Catharista urubu) x . . . 77 
 
 Egyptian (Neophron percnopterus) . (Plate I, 
 
 Fig. 2) 73 
 
 Griffon (Gyps fulvus) (Plate 2, Fig. 5) 73 
 
 Turkey (Cathartes aura) .... (Plate 41, Fig. 243) 76 
 
 " King (Gypagus papa) (Plate 2, Fig. 5) 74 
 
 W 
 
 Wagtail, Grey (Motacilla melanope) . (Plate 1 1, Fig. 52) 208 
 
 Pied (Motacilla lugubris) . . . (Plate n, Fig. 53) 208 
 
 White (Motacilla alba) 208 
 
 Yellow (Budytes rayi) 208 
 
 Wagtails 207 
 
 Warbler, Blue-winged (Helminthophila pinus) 204 
 
 Chestnut-sided (Dendroica pensylvanica) 205 
 
 Hooded (Wilsonia mitrata) 204 
 
 Icterine (Hypolais hypolais) . (Plate 13, Fig. 70) 202 
 Marsh (Acrocephalus palustris) . (Plate 13, Fig. 
 
 64) 202 
 
 Myrtle (Dendroica coronata) 204 
 
 Parula ( Compsothlypis americana) 205 
 
 Warblers 2OO 
 
 Waxwing, Bohemian (Ampelis garrulus) . (Plate 18, Fig. 
 
 106) 190 
 
 Cedar (Ampelis cedrorum) 190 
 
 Waxwings 1 89 
 
 Wheatear (Saxicola aenanthe) (Plate 12, Fig. 60) 196 
 
 Whippoorwill (Antrostomus vociferus) 149 
 
 White-throat (Sylvia cinerea) (Plate 13, Fig. 71) 201 
 
 Whydah-bird, Paradise (Viddua paradisea) . (Plate 17, Fig. 
 
 95) 221 
 
260 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Widgeon (Marecca penelope) (Plate 35, Fig. 204) 47 
 
 Willet (Symphemia semipalmata) 106 
 
 Wilson, Alexander 126 
 
 Woodcock, American (Philohela minor) . 106 
 
 European (Scolopax rusticola) . (Plate 31, Fig. 
 
 177) ;.-. Io6 
 
 Woodpecker, Ivory-billed (Campephilus principalis) . (Plate 
 
 6, Fig. 25) 168 
 
 Downy (Dryobates pubescens) 169 
 
 Great Black (Picus martius) . (Plate 6, Fig. 
 
 28) 168 
 
 Great Spotted (Picus major) 169 
 
 Green (Gecinus viridis). . (Plate 6, Fig. 26) 169 
 Grey-headed Green (Gecinus canus) . (Plate 
 
 6, Fig. 24) 169 
 
 Hairy (Dryobates villosus) 169 
 
 " Lesser Spotted (Dryobates minor) . (Plate 6, 
 
 Fig. 27) 169 
 
 Red-headed (Melanerpes erythrocephalus) 
 
 (Plate 7, Fig. 29) 169 
 
 Wren, Carolina (Thyothorus ludovicianus) 88 
 
 " Golden-crested (Regulus regulus) . (Plate 13, Fig. 
 
 69) 201 
 
 " European House (Troglodytes troglodytes) . (Plate 
 
 13, Fig. 68) 188 
 
 " Common American House (Troglodytes aedon) . . . 187 
 
 " Marsh (Telmatodytes palustris) 188 
 
 " Winter (Olbiorchilus hiemalis) 188 
 
 Wood (Phylloscopus sibilatrix) . (Plate 13, Fig. 
 
 67) 202 
 
 Wrens 187 
 
 Wryneck (Jynx torquilla) (Plate 7, Fig. 31) 170 
 
 Y 
 
 Yellowhammer (Emberiza citrinella) . . (Plate 15, Fig. 85) 223 
 
 Yellowlegs (Totanus flavipes) 106 
 
 " Greater (Totanus melanoleucus) 106 
 
 Yellowthroat, Maryland (Geothlypis trichas) 204 
 
 Z 
 
 Zapornia parva (Little Crake) (Plate 29, Fig. 164) 97 
 
 Zenaidura macroura (Mourning Dove) 130 
 
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