STATE NORMAL SCHOOL LOS ANGELES, CAUFORNIA Successful Fruit Culture A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO THE CULTIVATION AND PROPAGATION OF FRUITS By SAMUEL T. MAYNARD, B. Sc. Formerly Professor of Horticulture at the Massachusetts Agricultural College ; Botanist and Pomologist to the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture, etc., etc. Illustrated ORANGE JUDD COMPANY New York 1911 COPYRIGHT 1905 By ORANGE JUDD COMPANY [Printed iu U. S. A.J :. : v 513 355 PREFACE During the past ten or fifteen years great progress has been made in the cultivation and care of our hardy fruits and especially in the varieties grown, the. methods of packing, shipping and marketing, and during this time few books have been written which have kept up with this progress. This progress and the knowledge of insect and fungous pests and their destruction has been largely recorded in scientific books and papers from the numerous experiment stations, with little from the practical and practicing fruit growers, and there is a growing need of a condensed work giving, in plain language, a summary of the scientific progress made, together with the practice of the most successful fruit growers in various sections of the country. Espe- cially is this information needed that those just starting out in the business of fruit growing, or the village home owner who wishes to grow a small quantity of fruit for family consumption, may find in a condensed form the information necessary for success. It is, therefore, the aim of the author to make a book that is up to date in every particular and to cover the entire practice of fruit growing from the starting of the seed or cutting to the marketing of the fruit, though in many cases works devoted to special fruits may be more complete. It is written from the standpoint of the practical fruit grower who is striving to make his business profitable by growing the best fruit possible and at the least cost. No attempt is made to describe a large number of varieties, nor many of the numerous methods of train- ing, pruning, cultivating, etc., but to give in plain, VI PREFACE practical language descriptions of such varieties as are most in demand in our markets, and the methods prac- ticed by the most successful cultivators of many sections of the country; to deal with principles first and with the practice afterward, for the practice to be successful must be based upon correct principles, while the practice will always be varied by the progressive fruit grower according to his immediate conditions and environment. The foundation principles of plant growth and nourish- ment, however, must always remain the same. No one can foresee what results the changing con- ditions from year to year of our own country or of those of other countries of the world may bring about in our methods of fruit growing, and the progressive fruit grower must be ready to adapt himself to these conditions or be left behind in the march of competition. The Northern States cannot expect to compete suc- cessfully with the more southern of our own States in growing our native fruits out of season, but each section can produce them to such a degree of perfection and put them into the hands of the consumer in such a fresh and attractive condition that there need be little desire on the part of dealers or consumers in any community to send beyond their own limits for their supply of fresh fruit in its season. We should also make an effort to supply any de- mand that may come from less favored countries, and, properly managed, this demand for our native fruits should assume very large proportions, but the main effort of the fruit growers, for whom this book is written, should be to supply their own sections with fruit in such an abundance and perfection and at such prices that the inferior products of other sections and other countries cannot secure our markets against the home supply. S. T. MAYNARD. NORTHBORO, MASS., 1905. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION PAGF 1 to 6 CHAPTER II THE APPLE 7 to 70 CHAPTER III THE PEAR ?1 to 77 CHAPTER IV THEPEACH to 91 CHAPTER V THE APRICOT AND NECTARINE 92 to CHAPTER VI THEPLuk 95 to 102 CHAPTER VII THE CHERRY 103 to 107 CHAPTER VIII THE QUINCE 108 to 111 CHAPTER IX THE MULBERRY 112 to 113 Vili CONTENTS CHAPTEK X PACK THE GRAPE 114 to 129 CHAPTEE XI THE BLACKBERRY 130 to 138 CHAPTER XII THE RASPBERRY 139 to 146 CHAPTER XIII THE CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY 147 to 152 CHAPTER XIV THE STRAWBERRY 153 to 169 CHAPTER XV THE CRANBERRY 170 to 173 CHAPTER XVI THE BLUEBERRY AND HUCKLEBERRY 174 to 175 CHAPTER XVII SUB-TROPICAL FRUITS 176 to 182 CHAPTER XVIII PROPAGATION OF FRUIT TREES AND PLANTS. 183 to 204 CHAPTER XIX FRUIT UNDER GLASS 205 to 219 CHAPTER XX INSECT PESTS 220 to 249 CHAPTER XXI FUNGOUS DISEASES . , . .250 to 265 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. PAGE 1 Perfectly Formed Apple Tree Frontispiece 2 Trench Plow 11 3 Apple Orchard Too Closely Planted 13 4 Apple Tree Perfectly Formed, Low Headed 14 5 Planting Board 15 6 Planting Board in Use 16 7 Tree Properly Pruned for Planting 17 8 Well Formed Tree Twelve Years Old 18 9 Well Formed Tree Twelve Years Old in Bloom 19 10 Methods of Heeling-in Trees 20 11 Zinc Tree Label 22 12 Lew Hanging Steel Plow 24 13 Cutaway Wheel Harrow 25 14 Orchard Harrow, California 25 15 Acme Spring Tooth Harrow 26 16 Giape Hoe 26 17 Weeder 27 18 Cover Crop of Canada Peas and Barley 35 19 Apple Tree Pruned Too Severely 37 20 Apple Tree, Lower Branches Pruned 38 21 Apple Tree, Where to Cut Large Branch 38 22 Apple Tree, Pruning Crossing Branches 39 23 Pruning Saw 40 24 Paragon Pruning Saw 40 25 Pruning Hook 41 26 Pruning Shears 42 27 Regraf ted Tree 46 28 Cleft Grafting 47 29 The Cion 48 30 Cleft Grafting, Starting and Growth 48 31 Cleft Grafting, Horizontal View 48 32 Cion, Horizontal View 48 33 Crown Grafting 49 34 Cleft Graft with Four Cions 49 35 Orchard Stepladder 59 36 Cornerpieces on Bushel Boxes 61 37 Apples in Bushel Boxes 61 38 Screw Apple Press 63 39 Lever Apple Press 64 40 Cold Storage Fruit House 69 41 No. 2 Peach Tree 80 42 No. 1 Peach Tree 80 43a Peach Tree Trimmed to Whip 80 43b Peach Tree Cut Back to Stub 80 iz X ILLUSTRATIONS fll PAGES 44 Peach Tree Before Pruning 82 45 Peach Tree Pruned 83 16 Peach Tree Improved 84 47 Peach Orchard Cultivated 85 48 Peach Orchard Four Years Old 86 49 Peach Orchard in Grass 87 50 Georgia Peach Carrier 90 61 Fellenberg Plum 99 52 Satsuma Plum : 100 53 Hawkeye Plum 101 54 Sweet Cherry Trees 105 55 Sour Cherry Trees 106 56 Low Branching Quince Tree 109 57 Orange Quince 110 58 Rea's Quince 110 59 New American Mulberry 112 60 Downing Mulberry 112 61 Planting Grapevine 116 62 Vineyard with Cover Crop 117 63 Vineyard Without Cover Crop 117 64 economical Use of Posts 118 65 The Kniffin System of Grape Training 119 66 Method of Bracing End Posts 120 67 Modified Kniffin System of Grape Training 121 68 Grape Picking and Storing Tray 124 69 Implements for Girdling Grapevines 128 70 Blackberries Pruned and Unpruned 132 71 Crosspiece to Blackberry Trellis 134 72 Supports for Blackberries and Raspberries 135 73 Luc.-etia Dewberry 137 74 Red Raspberry, Field Culture 140 75 Laying Down Raspberry Canes 141 76 Blackca p Raspberry Tips Rooted 143 77 Cherry Currant 149 78 White Imperial Currant 150 79-80 Arrangoment of Planting Staminate and Pis- tillate Varieties 155 81 Plant Set Too Deep 156 82 Plant Set Too Shallow 156 83 Plant Set Just Right 157 84 Diagram of Hwdge Row System 157 85 Strawberries hi Wide Matted Rows 158 86 Ditch Method of Irrigation 161 87 Staminate Flower of Strawberry 168 88 Pistillate Flower of Strawberry 164 89 The Marshall Strawberry Carrier 168 90 Large Bell Cranbervy . , 172 91 Orange Tree in Tub 17* 92 Bearing Branch of Fi* 181 93-94-95 Root Grafting 185 96 Budstick 1ST 97 Budding Knives 188 98-99-100-101 Budding 188 ILLUSTRATIONS XI FIG. PAGE 102-103 Nursery Treatment of Young Trees 190 104 Quince Stool 197 105 Grape Cutting 198 106 Layering the Grapevine 199 107 Grafting the Grape 200 108 Span Roof Curvilinear Fruit House 205 109 Lean-to Fruit House 206 110 Fruit House Wall with Opening into Outside Border. 208 111 Cold Grapery Border 212 112 Training the Vine, Third Year 215 113 Layering Strawberry Plants in Pots 217 114 A Bench of Strawberry Plants for Forcing 218 115 Round-headed Apple Tree Borer 224 116 Flat-headed Apple Tree Borer 225 117 Oyster Shell Bark Louse 226 118 Tent Caterpillar 227 119 San Jose Scale 228 120 Canker Worm 230 121 Apple Aphis 232 122 Codlin Moth 233 123 Apple Maggot 234 124 Woolly Aphis 235 125 Pear Psylla 237 126 Plum Curculio 239 127 Curculio Catcher 240 128 Rose Bug or Chafer 241 129 Currant Worm 24S 130 Currant Eggs on Leaf 244 131 Currant Worms Eating Leaves 245 132 May Beetle 247 133 Strawberry Crown Borer 248 INTRODUCTION The importance of the fruit industry to the people of the United States presents several phases, among which are the value of fruit as a promoter of health, its value as a luxury and its importance as a money crop. AS A PROMOTER OP HEALTH In this way I consider fruit as of by far greater value to man than in any other. Our country is in a remarkably prosperous condition and our people can very easily obtain the food materials necessary to the formation of muscle, bone and fat, and it has been the tendency of a large majority of them to be satisfied with meat, bread, pastry and numerous condiments without an adequate supply of vegetables and fruit. Fruit is generally looked upon as a luxury, but when properly considered it is a necessity, an aid to the proper utilization of the heavier food materials and for invigorating the various organs of the body so that they may best meet the demands made upon them and properly store up materials for repairing all wastes resulting from bodily efforts. That fresh, ripe fruit, in moderate quantities, does enable the system to utilize other food materials taken into it for nourishment, and causes all of the organs to act with more vigor, needs no extended discussion here. Our people should use more fruit, and they would find it profitable to do so, from many points of view, and much cheaper than doctor's bills. 2 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE AS A LUXURY From the above point of view fruit is an indis- pensable article of food. Fresh ripe fruit is always ac- ceptable with meals, or for the midday lunch it is far more refreshing than any fermented beverage and more nutritious than the choicest pastry or confectionery. What a variety of delicious dishes can be prepared from fresh fruit or from the dried or canned product that keeps in a perfect condition so long after its natural season. What fond recollections often in later years linger around the old home where an abundance of fruit was the lot of youth now grown gray in the service of mankind. What a source of pleasure and refreshment to the laboring mechanic or tiller of the soil after a long day's toil in the summer or autumn or during the cold days of winter, and yet how few of our laboring people can enjoy more than a small fraction of the fruit needed for health and enjoyment. AS A MONEY CROP Some idea of the importance of the fruit crops of the United States may be obtained when we consider the extent of land occupied by some of our fruits, although accurate statistics are not available for all kinds of fruits, and the immense quantity of fruit produced for our own consumption and for shipping to other countries. The census of 1900 gives the number of apple trees of bearing age in the United States, 201,794,764, and the crop of apples produced 175,397,- 626 bushels; the number of peach trees 99,919,428, with a crop of 15,433,601 bushels; the number of grape- vines over 200,000,000, while the grape crop was over 1,200,000,000 pounds. Statistics of acreage and products of the other hardy fruits to be found are so unsatisfactory that they INTRODUCTION 3 are not given, but we know that in many localities the number of bushels of small fruits far exceeds the yield of the large fruits, and that they are more or less grown for home consumption on at least a majority of the farm homes of the country, and in most of the home gardens in villages where there is sufficient land. In the extreme Southern States and on the Pacific slope we find large areas planted with oranges, lemons, pineapples, raisin grapes, prunes, and it is claimed that in Florida and California there are orange trees enough planted to produce more than 10,000,000 boxes of fruit annually, while on the Pacific slope so many prunes are produced (600,000,000 pounds reported as the crop of 1904) and those of such fine quality as to reduce the importation of prunes from Southern Europe to a mere nominal quantity. Within the past few years the planting of fruit trees and vines has increased very rapidly in all sections of the country, except possibly in Xew England, so that we have some of the largest orchards in the world in our midst. In Missouri, Kansas and some of the other Middle Western States, may be found apple orchards of thou- sands of acres in extent; on the Pacific slope the prune growing industry is assuming immense proportions, and it is said that the grape growing section or belt between Lake Erie on the north and Lake Chautauqua on the south is the largest in the world. Yet, notwith- standing this immense increase in planting, the demand for our fruit products keeps pace with the supply, prices are sustained, our people are not supplied with nearly the quantity of fresh fruit that they need for health and comfort, and with our rapid growth in wealth and population we must expect equally rapid increase in the demand for choice fruit. Foreign markets, too, are demanding the products of our orchards and if properly managed this demand 4 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE should be sufficient to largely take the surplus that our own population does not consume. In a single year we exported over 3,395,000 barrels of apples to Europe (largely, or almost wholly to England), and a demand for other fruits in large quantities will no doubt arise whenever we can deliver them to these markets in a satisfactory condition. The great progress being made in methods of preservation and shipping fresh fruits will, no doubt, soon solve this important problem, when we can hope to ship successfully to European markets our oranges, grapes, pears, plums and even peaches. Within the past few years a large demand has arisen for our evaporated fruits in foreign markets, and the fact that in this condition these products can be kept for an almost indefinite time, occupy the least possible space and can be shipped to the remotest mar- kets of the world must lead in the future to their large consumption. In 1897 30,883,921 pounds of evaporated apple was exported from the United States to foreign countries. The business of utilizing the products of our orchards and gardens by evaporation and canning, while in its infancy, has reached large proportions, espe- cially in seasons of abundance, where the supply can thus be carried over to seasons of scarcity, but is des- tined to become a far greater factor in the future of fruit growing. The immense wastes of our orchards during the summer and autumn, when fruit perishes very quickly, may be in this way saved. It is said that over 600 carloads of evaporated apple were shipped from one county in New York State in the season of 1894, and other sections are rapidly increasing in this method of utilizing the poorer grades of apples. The city of Boston in one season consumed over 1,000,000 pounds of evaporated apple and more than the same number of gallons of canned apple. The surplus and INTRODUCTION 5 especially the more perishable grades of all kinds of fruits may be utilized, either in the canned or evap- orated condition, which must be kept out of the mar- kets, or low prices of all grades will rule. THE COST OP PRODUCTION The cost of production of any article, whether it be from the factory or a crop grown in the field, is a very important factor, and while, with the products of the factory, the cost of production has been wonder- fully reduced, the cost of the fruit crop or other farm and garden crops has not been materially reduced, owing to the high price of labor and the difficulty of applying labor saving machinery. It may be said in this connection, however, that the price of farm and garden crops, and especially the fruit crops, has not been reduced very materially, and to the intelligent fruit grower, who applies good business principles to his work, who uses the best labor saving devices for reducing the cost and improvement of his product and who looks to the details of the production and the sale of his crops as closely as does the successful merchant or manufacturer, there is almost a certain promise of financial success. FUTURE PROSPECTS OP SUCCESS IN FRUIT GROWING The rapid increase of the country in population and wealth must lead to a proportionate increase in the demand for native fruit, provided the growers are wise and produce attractive fruit of fine quality. Good fruit of any kind, well grown, and put up in an attractive manner, will increase the demand and price for that kind of fruit, while poor fruit will not only decrease the demand and also the price of that particular grade, but more or less of all other grades. t> SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE We may give this, therefore, as a rule or axiom in fruit growing: "That the more choice fruit of any kind the people have, the more they want, while the more poor fruit^p^ii. ll^pn^ the market the less the demand" Of course the prices, other things being equal, will depend largely upon the supply and demand, yet the sales are more or less well founded upon the above facts. The problem, then, that confronts the fruit grower of to-day is "how to grow good fruit, how to grow it cheaply, how to attract buyers, and how to utilize all of the products" In the future chapters of this book it will be my aim to keep these points always in mind, to present the latest and most practical thoughts, and to show what methods progressive and successful fruit growers are following, what varieties they are growing and how they conduct their business. II THE APPLE 2. 6 b > Peach Tre e Cut Back to stub THE PEACH , 81 down from a weight of fruit than upon a head formed in the ordinary way. But whatever method is practiced, the head should be formed at the earliest possible time and a central growth be developed from which the laterals shall come out on all sides of the tree and at it little distance apart. During the summer only those branches should be allowed to grow that are needed to establish the head and all others be pinched off before they have taken the strength of needed parts of the tree. At the end of the second season or before the growth of the third begins, the young trees should be put in as perfect form as is possible, as a rule cutting back the young wood about one-half, varying this, how- ever, to give^perfect form to the tree. Orchard Care The planting of the tree and after care is practically the same as for the apple, with slight variations as to pruning and cultivation. The habit of the peach tree is such that the growth is made largely at the ends of the leading branches, so that in a few years, if unpruned, the branches become long and with few laterals, so that when loaded with fruit the trees break very easily. To overcome this habit severe prun- ing must be practiced. This is done in several ways, some cutting back all of the last season's growth one- half, but if this is done by rule the tree will be irregular in form and too many small shoots will be developed in tufts at the ends of the branches that will require much labor to thin out, or the work will be neglected and poor growth of the tree and fruit also will be the result. In this work it is better to first cut out any large branches that may make the head of the tree too close or give it an imperfect form and then head back some of the strongest shoots, not many, which will tend to increase the growth of the remaining lat- erals, and the fruit will be so distributed over the tree as not to be easily broken down by weight of fruit or 82 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE ice. Figure 44 shows a four-year-old tree at the end of the season, and Figure 4 the same pruned for fifth season's growth. Figure 46 shows an unpruned tree of same age, and Figure 47 a three-year-old peach tree in foliage. Cultivation While we often find peach trees of great age growing in the grass without any care, there Fig. 44 Peach Tree Before Pruning are few orchards where this method of care has been profitable. It is, with few exceptions, only by con- stant cultivation and care that we can expect large fruit and an abundance of it, but this work can be so cheaply done with the tools described for the cultivation THE PEACH 83 of the apple, and when so cultivated so much less fer- tilizer is needed that it is practiced by most successful peach growers. Cover crops have come to play such an important part in the question of fertilization, of plant food and the prevention of the washing of the soil on Fig. 45 Peach Tree Pruned hilly land, that I wish to call attention to this matter as discussed on Pages 32-34. Mr. A. A. Marshall of Fitchburg, Mass., has an orchard of over 6000 peach trees in the most perfect condition, growing in turf. (Figure 48.) These are of three, four and five years' growth and are in condi- tion to produce a large crop of the largest fruit of fine color and quality. A five-year-old peach orchard in 81 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE turf is seen in Figure 49. The grass is cut with a mow- ing machine as often as the cutter bar will work under it about three times each season and allowed to lie on the ground to decay, thus nothing but a crop of fruit is carried from the land and the growth of trees Fig. 46-Peach Tree Not Headed In is kept up by the application of bone, potash, phos- phoric acid, lime and magnesia, using an amount aver- aging from twenty to fifty dollars' worth per acre, according to the season and the crop. By this method THE PEACH 85 cheap land can be utilized, but it must be borne in mind that it will require more plant food to produce a satisfactory growth in turf land than under constant cultivation, and that in time of drouth there is more danger of injury. After trees have become established, however, by close and frequent cutting of the grass there is less danger than to young trees. With skillful man- PiK. 47 Three-Year-Old Peach Tree in Foliage agement and good judgment this method can be recom- mended, but under neglect neither this method nor any other will succeed. Fertilization The peach is a fruit that does not require much fertilizer in good, ordinary soil until the trees begin to bear, if the land is frequently cultivated, 88 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE but when a crop of fruit is set, unless the fruit is thinned severely, a liberal supply must be used to carry the crop through and not weaken the trees. The best fertilizers to use are those rich in potash and phos- phoric acid, with only nitrogen enough to make a moderately vigorous growth of wood. These materials may be put on in any forms that are most available, but the quantity must be determined by the grower, who alone knows the condition of his soil and trees, and upon his good judgment will depend his success. VARIETIES The number of varieties of peaches has become so large that the beginner finds much difficulty in deciding what kinds to plant, and yet when we come to investi- gate we find that there are but a comparatively small number of varieties planted by the successful peach growers. The following named varieties are among the best and most largely grown : White Fleshed Of the very early varieties of this group, including the Alexander, Early Kivers, Sneed types, none will be found profitable, as they are certain to be attacked by the brown rot nine years out of ten. Those generally found profitable of this group are Mountain Eose, Carman, Champion and Oldmixon. Yellow Fleshed Triumph (in a dry season may be of some value), Crawford's Early, Crawford's Late, Elberta and Crosby in Northern localities. This list is purposely made very small for the reason that few varieties will do equally well in distant localities and the grower must study the varieties in his own locality and plant such as have proved the most valuable. The experiment stations are all making comparative tests of the leading varieties that succeed in the different parts of the country and can give the best possible advice as to what will be most profitable. THE PEACH 89 THINNING THE FRUIT There is no one thing connected with the growth of the peach of so great importance as thinning. When the fruit buds are not destroyed by the cold or injured by late spring frosts, the trees are generally so loaded with fruit that, if it is all allowed to grow, the trees will be so injured as to be subject to all the diseases that so commonly attack the trees, while the fruit will be of little value in the market. Thinning should be done f.s soon as it can be determined whether the fruit is perfect or not, the amount of thinning to be done depending upon the size and vigor of the trees, and the quality of fruit desired. If the largest and finest fruit is desired, only a limited number of specimens should be allowed to remain, i. e., thin to from five to six inches apart, while, if the trees are very vigorous and only a medium grade is desired, a distance of from four to five inches may be the rule. The greatest profit will come from the more rigid thinning. It will be found where the trees are well set with fruit that the quantity will be about as great in one case as in the other, while the larger the fruit the higher the price at which it will sell and the less the strain upon the tree. In thinning, all poor or curculio-stung spec- imens should be picked off, even if the last fruit is removed, for it would be of no value in the market and might be a breeder of insects or fungi. HARVEST AND MARKETING Much of the profit of growing this fruit will depend upon the way in which it is harvested and put on the market. To reach its greatest perfection the fruit should be allowed to become nearly ripe, and be picked and taken to the market at once, as it will not keep long after it reaches this stage. It is the practice 90 SUCCESSFUL J?KUIT CULTURE of those who grow this fruit for the local market to pick over the trees several times to get the fruit in the best condition. In picking, each specimen is examined on all sides before it is picked and if the green fruit has changed to a cream or light yellow, and the reds are well developed, it is picked. Some depend upon the feeling, pressing the projecting part on one side of the suture in addition to the change of color. Package The common peach basket is the poorest package that could be devised for keeping the fruit, as well as for harvesting and marketing. It is of such form that the fruit as it becomes ripe and soft settles Fig. 50 Georgia Peach Basket and Crate together and is badly injured in the jar of transporta- tion. It is very difficult to pack in wagons or cars and occupies more space than any other package. The only merit it possesses is its cheapness, and it has been so long in use that it will be a long time before it will be replaced by a more sensible package. One of the best packages in use is the carrier of the Georgia peach growers (Figure 50), which holds six baskets of about three quarts each, or four baskets of four quarts each, making practically about the quantity that is shipped in the standard one-half-bushel peach basket, but its cost is much greater, varying from ten to fifteen cents, THE PEACH 91 according to the locality and the quantity purchased, while the peach basket may be bought at from three and one-half to four cents by the thousand, or larger lots. For long distance shipment, the carrier has now been generally adopted and it should not be long before all of this crop will be put up in a better package than the common peach basket. Keeping the Fruit The practice of not picking this fruit until it is nearly ripe, makes the danger of glutting the market much greater, and consequently produces the necessity of providing some means of hold- ing the crop beyond the natural season. This is done to a limited extent by means of cold storage rooms or refrigerator cars in shipping. While this fruit does not keep in cold storage as well as the apple or pear, it can be kept for a considerable time and for the local markets where large quantities are grown, this is a neces- sity. The temperature at which it will keep the best is from thirty-two to thirty-four degrees, and with a rather drier atmosphere than for the apple. For method of propagation, insects and fungous diseases attacking the peach, see Chapters XVIII, XX and XXI. THE APRICOT AND NECTARINE These two fruits are little known in the North and are seldom seen in our markets except in a dried state. This may be from the fact that as commonly grown the trees are short lived, and the fruit is of rather poor quality. THE APEICOT The apricot is thought by some botanical authori- ties to be a cross or hybrid between the European plum, Prunus domestica, and the peach, Prunus Persica, and by others to be a distinct species. It matters little to the practical grower which view is correct. I incline to the latter theory, as its specific fea- tures are as marked as many of the most distinct species of other plants, and it is a question at what time all species of plants may have been evolved by the process of hybridization or environment to their present condition. I have never known either the apri- cot or nectarine to produce plants from seed other than their specific types, though I have grown many seedlings of both. As grown in the Eastern States the fruit is not of as good quality as that from California, but in a warm soil, rather thin, with a full exposure to the west, the trees grow rapidly, and with proper thinning, pruning and spraying very satisfactory results may be obtained. . The peach stock is most largely used upon which to bud these fruits. The plum stock is recommended for heavy soil, but I know of no case where the apricot THE APRICOT 93 has succeeded on heavy soils, and, 'therefore, consider the peach the best stock. The greatest obstacle to be over- come is the brown fruit rot or monilia that is so destruc- tive to the early varieties of peaches and most of the European and Japanese plums. To overcome this pest the trees should be heavily sprayed in March or early April with the standard bor- deaux six pounds copper sulphate, six pounds lime and fifty gallons water and then again with the same just before the blossoms open. After the petals have fallen spraying with diluted bordeaux (1:1: 50) at intervals of from two to four weeks, should be kept up until the fruit is nearly full grown. If the fruit begins to rot as it approaches ripening, spraying just after every rain with a solution of copper sulphate, four ounces to fifty gallons, will check it. Thinning the fruit as is done in growing peaches and plums, must be practiced, to help prevent this rotting, strengthen the growth of the tree and improve the size and quality of the fruit. Sometimes the trees are winterkilled, but when planted in light soil, as previously mentioned, and an abundance of potash and phosphoric acid us*ed, with only enough nitrogenous matter to make a moderate growth, they will make a hard, short-jointed growth that will be seldom injured by the most severe winter weather, and will live as long as peach trees. The pruning re- quired is practically the same that is given the peach by the most successful growers of that fruit. Head in the most rampant shoots so as to encourage a close, short-jointed growth. The number of varieties that are satisfactory in the East is very small, yet even many of those of poor qual- ity are valuable for canning purposes because of the peculiar flavor and of the ease with which the stone or pit separates from the flesh. Among the best in quality and the most hardy are Early Montgamet, "Moorpark 94 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE and Peach apricot. Some of the Eussian varieties are highly recommended as hardy and productive, but in my experience they are neither as hardy nor of as good quality as those mentioned above. THE NECTAEINE This fruit is perhaps less known even than the apricot, either in the fresh or dried state. In appear- ance of tree and habit of growth it is with difficulty distinguished from the peach, being practically a smooth-skinned peach. It is a distinct species, repro- ducing the type from seed. The tree is about as hardy as the peach and thrives best under the conditions de- scribed for the apricot. It is subject' to the same insect and fungous pests and spraying must be done with the same material and at the same times as for the peach and apricot. This fruit and the apricot also are much injured by the plum curculio, and this insect must be kept from injuring the crops by jarring the trees very early in the morning qvery other day for two weeks and catching on sheets or frames. Or arsenate of lead may be used as the fruit reaches the size of small peas, which is an effectual remedy if all other stone fruit trees in the vicinity are sprayed with some arsenate, and is much cheaper than jarring. If only a few trees are sprayed the insects coming from those near by would be able to lay their eggs before they would eat enough of the poison to destroy them. Among the best varieties are the Boston, Pitmaston and Eivers VI THE PLUM There is no more delicious or nutritious fruit than the plum, and it is largely planted, but owing to the numerous insect and fungous pests that attack it, the crop of fruit is generally very small. On the Pacific Coast, where no fungous pests develop, on account of the dry atmosphere, this fruit is grown largely and is known as the prune, and prune growing has become an important industry. The term "prune," though commonly applied to the dried fruit, is equally applica- ble to all the varieties of the European or "domestica" plums. All varieties, however, do not make good dried prunes ; those containing about twelve per cent of sugar will make "prunes" that will keep without fermentation, while those containing less sugar will soon ferment. New impetus has been given plum growing in the East . by the introduction of the Japanese plums and the many hybrids produced between this and the European and American varieties. The varieties of plums in cultivation may be grouped into three classes, i. e., European (Prunus domestica), Japanese (Prunus triflora), and American (Prunus Americana and other species). EUROPEAN PLUMS The European varieties are represented by the com- mon blue, yellow and red plums of the garden, and produce fruit of the finest quality, but are so subject 9G SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE to the attack of insects and fungous pests that they cannot be grown except by the best attention and skill. The best soil for the growth of this group is a deep, moist loam, though they will grow under a great variety of conditions. It is of the greatest importance that the trees be planted in full exposure to air and sunlight, which will in a great measure counteract the tendency to rotting of- the fruit and the growth of the black knot. It is better to plant on a light soil with such an expos- ure, than on heavy land if low and in a close, sheltered place. JAPANESE PLUMS The Japanese plums are as vigorous in growth as the peach, begin bearing as young and are being planted largely. In- quality the fruit is not as good as the European varieties, and it is subject to the same diseases and insects, but owing to the short time it requires to grow the trees to fruiting and their great productiveness, they may perhaps be more profitable than the former, even with the varieties now grown, and if out of the many new varieties now being offered, with great claims for quality, are found those equal to the best of the European, this group may entirely supersede the latter. The soil best suited to the growth of the Japanese plums is about the same as that for the peach, but perhaps a little richer and deeper. Nearly all varieties are subject to the brown rot, the black knot and the shot-hole fungus, and possibly to the disease known as the peach yellows, and it is important that they be planted in full exposure to air and sunlight. This group is largely propagated upon the peach stock, and generally does well on this stock, but whether this, the American or the Myrobalan stocks are the best no one has conclusively proved by careful experiments. THE PLUM 97 AMERICAN PLUMS The varieties of the several species of this group are now attracting much attention on account of their great hardiness, productiveness, and freedom from disease and insect attack. The fruit is generally of small or medium size, the skin is thick and the flesh acid and clings very firmly to the pit or stone. When fully ripe and soft, many of the varieties are of good quality. Nearly all of the varieties are valuable for canning. The greatest promise of value in this group lies in the possibilities of crosses or hybrids with the Euro- pean and Japanese plums, some of which are already being largely planted. These varieties succeed in a variety of soils, but will generally do best in rather moist land with good exposure. Many of the varieties are not self-fertile and require to be planted near others that will fertilize them. This subject is fully discussed in Plums and Plum Culture, by Prof. F. A. Waugh. The varieties of all of the groups differ very much in size and habit of growth, and the distance at which they should be planted is from twelve to twenty feet, according to the kind. Two-year-old trees of the Amer- ican and European plums and one-year-old of the Jap- anese are the best for planting. CULTIVATION In order to obtain fruit of the largest size and best quality the land must be kept well cultivated .or enriched, so as to produce a vigorous growth of foliage and wood. Fertilizers recommended for the apple are equally adapted to the plum. PRUNING Most of the varieties of the plum require the same attention as to pruning and training as the pear, hav- 98 SUCCESSFUL FJiUIT CULTURE ing the same tendency to produce only a few shoots the first and second years. It is always better to stop these strong, leading shoots during the summer than to let them grow till fall and then cut them off, thus wasting considerable wood growth which, if it had been dis- tributed to the lateral branches, would in a year or two develop into fruit buds. In this work of pruning the aim should be to obtain stocky, low-headed trees that will carry a heavy load of fruit and not break down and be so low that all the work of thinning, spraying and harvesting may be easily and cheaply done. Age of Bearing The Japanese varieties may be expected to produce some fruit two years from planting and full crops in three or four years, the European will bear in from four to eight years and the American in about the same time, but all varying much in time, according to the variety. Thinning the Fruit All varieties of plums have the tendency to overbear, and it becomes an absolute necessity to thin severely if good fruit is expected and the trees are to be saved from injury by overbearing. When the fruit is from one-fourth to one-half of an inch in diameter all imperfect and insect stung specimens should be picked off, one plum ^nly being allowed to remain on each spur and these not nearer than from three to five inches apart, according to the variety and the grade of fruit desired. If the plums are grown for canning purposes more fruit should be allowed to remain (a small plum is generally preferred for this purpose) than if fine table fruit is desired. The fruit generally grows in clusters and care is needed in this work that all of the plums on the spur are not pulled off at the first effort, but by turning each plum carefully backward from the cluster all but one may be removed without injury to the rest. The earlier this work can be done the less will be the strain on THE PLUM 99 the tree, but it will be more work to detect imperfec- tions while the fruit is small than when it is nearly grown. VARIETIES European Varieties These varieties are classified into green or yellow, red and purple, though the latter classes may run together under different conditions Fig. 51-FelIenberg Plum of season and crops. Thus if the Lombard is allowed to be overloaded, and the foliage is not in full vigor, the fruit will be red in color, while under the most favorable conditions and a long season, some red varie- ties will become purple or nearly black. Among the best of this type are : THE PLUM 101 Green Green Gage, McLaughlin, Gen. Hand and Washington. Purple Bradshaw, Lincoln, Quackenboss, Smith's Orleans, Fellenberg (Figure 51), Kingston. Red Pond's Seedling, Victoria. Japanese Varieties The varieties of this group vary in color from yellow to very deep shades of crim- son. The fruit is of much better quality if allowed to become soft on the tree, or if kept a considerable Pig. 53 Hawkeye Plum time after being picked before it is sold. As with the last group the color of fruit depends much upon the length of the season and the crop on the trees. The following are some of the best : Abundance, Red June, Chabot, Burbank, Satsuma (for canning) (Figure 52), Wickson, October Purple. Many new varieties of great promise have been recently introduced, but their value for any given locality can only be determined by further trial in each locality. 102 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE American Varieties There is more uncertainty in regard to the value of the varieties of this group for market than with the other groups, from the fact that they have no reputation in many of the large markets of the country, and the people must become acquainted with them before they will be in demand. Among the best are the following: Hawkeye (Figure 53), Hammer, Wildgoose, Wolf, Wyant, etc. For insects and fungous diseases attacking the plum see Chapters XX and XXI. VII THE CHERRY (Prunus cerasus and P. avium) In some sections of the country cherry growing has become a very important branch of horticulture, i. e., on the Pacific Coast, where it is grown to ship East and for canning, New York State and some of the Middle Western States, where it is largely grown for the canneries. In the older portions of the country it is very little grown on* account of the rotting of the fruit, the black knot, and its attack by the plum curculio, the cherry maggot and the black aphis. In these sec- tions old trees are only found growing in a vigorous condition by the roadside and on the lawn, where the ground is rather rich and well drained and yet where they do not make a vigorous growth. The fruit is one of the most delicious, and where the conditions are favorable for its growth it becomes a profitable crop. THE ORCHARD The best soil for the growth of this fruit is one rather light and moderately rich and warm. If the land is very rich or moist, where the trees grow very rapidly, they are soon injured by the winter and after three or four seasons the trunks crack open on the south side, decay soon sets in and in a few years the trees die. The remedy for this condition is first, to plant on light land and fertilize very sparingly and with quickly soluble fertilizers, especially potash and phosphoric acid, 104 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE applied in the spring. Growth should be completed by the middle of September, and this will be insured by the sowing of a cover crop about August 10, or by ceasing cultivation by the middle of August. The cherry succeeds well under turf culture. To prevent the cracking of the trunk on the south side a board or stake should be set up to prevent the sun striking it during the fall, winter and spring. The disk ce for planting will vary somewhat, according to the variety; those making a large tree should be set twenty to twenty-five feet, while the smaller kinds will need only fifteen to eighteen feet each way. It is the practice of many orchardists to plant 10x10 feet, or lOx 20 feet, and when the trees begin to come together, cut out every other one. For directions for preparing the trees for planting, planting and after care, see directions for the apple. The cultivation of the orchard to be followed is also practically the same as for the apple. Pruning Very little pruning is required more than to direct the growth, so that there shall be but one leader in case of the sweet cherries, which are nat- urally pyramidal in form, while the round-headed varieties may have several main branches. Large branches should never be cut away from trees of the stone fruits if it can be avoided. CLASSIFICATION The varieties of the sweet cherries (Prunus avium) are divided into two groups : The Heart cherries, those heart shaped in form, with a very juicy and sweet flesh and the tree of a pyramidal form, illustrated by Gov. Wood and Black Tartarian, and the Bigarreau cherries, the fruit of which is also heart shaped, but firm in flesh and the tree rather round and stocky in growth. This group is represented by the Napoleon or Yellow Spanish. Figure 54 illustrates a row of sweet cherries. THE CHERRY 107 The varieties of sour cherries (Prunus cerasus) are divided into two groups, the Duke and Morello. The fruit of the former is borne on stout, round-headed trees, is red or crimson in color and not very acid, while with the latter, tree is small and with slender weeping branches. The fruit is round, of a bright red color and very acid. Figure 55 shows the characteristics of the sour cherry tree. The following are among some of the best varieties of each group: Heart Gov. Wood, Black Tartarian, Downer's Late and Windsor. Bigarreau Yellow Spanish, Cleveland, Eockport and Schmidt. Duke May Duke, Eoyal Duke. Morello Early Richmond, English Morello, Mont- morency. The fruit is marketed in several ways. In some places it is sold in the common quart strawberry box and put into the bushel crate or carrier, in other localities it is sold in the four or eight-pound grape basket, while on the Pacific Coast it is shipped in small shallow boxes holding two layers of large, finely-sorted fruit. As grown in the East, where the fruit is likely to decay quickly, the quart box is perhaps the best package unless it is to go to canning factories, when the package is of no great importance, so long as the fruit is delivered in good condition and will keep until it is canned. See methods of propagation in Chapter XVIII, and insects and fungous pests and their destruction in Chapters XX and XXI. VIII THE QUINCE (Cydonia vulgaris) In the past few years quince growing, as a business, has not been as profitable as formerly, owing, perhaps, to an oversupply of this fruit, or the abundance and low price of other fruits. It is not a fruit that can be used for dessert without cooking, and consequently is not consumed largely only for canning, but its aroma and peculiarly agreeable flavor make it a much prized fruit for preserves. As a shipping fruit, it is not so valuable as for the local market, from the fact that the slightest bruise or scratch disfigures it, and when taken from the box or barrel, where packed with pres- sure, it presents anything but a pleasing appearance, but where it can be taken into market in the bushel box or market basket it shows to better advantage and sells at good prices. THE ORCHARD The best soil for the production of this fruit is a deep, rich, moist loam; not one containing stagnant water, but well drained, naturally or otherwise. Trees two or three years from the root graft or cutting are in the proper condition for planting. They are trained in two ways, i. e., in the tree form and bush form. The advantages of the tree form are that cultivation can be done better and the trees present a better appearance, while if the borers attack the trunk they can be easily THE QUINCE 10D discovered and destroyed. The bush form is the most natural to this fruit, and if when trained to the tree form suckers are not cut away as they come out, it will soon take the bush form, and it may be grown in this form with less labor, while if borers get in between the trunks it is more difficult to get at them. If, how- ever, one trunk should be killed there will be others to Fig. 56 Low=Branching Quince Tree take the growth of the root and the tree -is continued. A low-branching five-year-old quince tree is seen in Figure 56. Distance for Planting Ten by ten or 12x12 feet are good distances, according to the soil. The roots of the quince are very fine and numerous and consequently it is easily planted. No fruit responds more quickly to 110 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE good cultivation and fertilization than the quince, but nitrogenous manures should not be used too freely dur- ing the summer. If stable manure is used, it had best be put on in the fall and late cultivation should be avoided, as a late growth tends to increase the danger of an attack of the fire blight, which is often very destructive to the quince. For the production of fruit from three hundred to five hundred pounds of sulphate of potash and one-fourth to one-half ton of fine ground bone will make a good dressing, according to the condition of the land and the growth of the trees. Fig. 57-Orange Quince Fig. 58-Rea's Qu Pruning Little or no pruning is required after tht trees have become established, except to cut off the, suckers from the trunk or roots if they become too numerous and to keep the head in good form. In good soil the quince begins to bear paying crops of fruit in from four to six years from planting in the orchard and continues to bear, with good treatment, for from twenty to forty years. Harvesting The fruit should not be gathered until it begins to turn yellow, when it may be all picked at once. Like the varieties of the apples with yellow skin, it must be handled with greatest care, as even THE QUINCE 111 slight bruises or scratches make the skin turn brown. The fruit may be kept a month or more in a cool cellar, or longer in cold storage, but there is little demand for it after the fall canning has been done. VARIETIES There are but few varieties in cultivation, and these show less distinctive characteristics than those of any other kind of fruit. Among the best are the following : Orange (Figure 57) This is an old standard sort, nearly round in form, of a bright yellow color and fine quality. Rea's (Figure 58) One of the best in cultivation; of the largest size, of good quality and comes into bearing early. Champion A late variety that is valuable when the demand continues into November, but not as valuable as the last two mentioned. IX THE MULBERRY CHINESE (Morus alba var. muUicauUs) RUSSIAN (Mortis alba var. Tartarica) Commercially, the fruit of the mulberry is of little value. Some varieties yield a large quantity of fruit, but it is so small and ripens so unevenly that it is of little use, except for poultry and pigs. It may have a value as a preventive of injury to the cherry and strawberry crops, as the robins and cedar birds are very fond of the fruit and will take less of the former fruits. The varieties that produce the largest and best fruits, the New American (Fig- ure 59), Down- ing (Figure 60), Hicks, Towns- e n d, etc., are either grafted or budded upon the Fig. 59-TheNew American Chinese (MorUS Fi * 60-The Down- Mulberr y alba multicaulis) ing Mulberry or Russian stock (Morus alba Tartarica}, the latter being a little more hardy, but none standing north of the forty-third degree parallel, many being killed even much farther south. THE MULBERRY 113 For the best success, the trees should be planted in a warm, rather poor soil, with full exposure to sunlight and air. Sometimes the trees are injured by too rapid growth, in the same manner as the sweet cherry trees, in fact, they both succeed under about the same conditions. The Russian mulberry, introduced into the Middle West as a timber tree and bird food, to save the cherry crop, has proved of little value, the fruit being too small in size and quantity. The weeping form, known as Tea's weeping mulberry, is an acquisition to our list of beautiful ornamental trees. It is not perfectly hardy north of Boston. THE GRAPE THE FOX GRAPE ( Vitis Labrusca) SUMMER GRAPE ( Vitis aestivalis) FROST GRAPE ( Vitis cordifolia) EUROPEAN GRAPE (Vitis vinifera) The grape, from its healthfulness, the large range of the country over which it flourishes and its large products, may be placed next in importance to the apple. The -area planted is somewhere between 400,000 and 500,000 acres, of which about one-half is in California. The number of vines planted is given in the last census reports as 200,000,000 and the yield of fruit as 1,144,- 278,000 pounds. The largest closely planted grape area in the world is claimed to be that of the "Lake Shore Grape Belt," a tract extending from Brocton, N. Y., to Sandusky, 0., and from Lake Erie to Lake Chautauqua. This fruit is of especial importance, because of the success attained in growing it in the home garden on the south side of fences, walls and buildings. ORIGIN AND HISTORY There are about twenty species of the grape in the United States, but all of the varieties of any importance in cultivation have come from the four above mentioned species. In 1820 only one or two of the varieties now cultivated were known in any section of this country, and all of the especially valuable kinds have been pro- duced within forty or fifty years. A few fairly good THE GRAPE 115 varieties have been produced by hybridization, but most of those in cultivation are chance seedlings, or selected seedlings of such hardy varieties as the Concord, etc. The introduction of foreign blood, as it is called, i. e., the' crossing of our native species with the European grape (Vitis vinifera) has always resulted in a weak vine, liable to diseases and to injury from cold, yet in flavor and keeping qualities they are superior to the former, and by continued effort it is hoped that varieties may be obtained of superior quality and hardiness. The greatest hope, however, seems to be in crosses between these and hardy native varieties. THE VINEYARD The best soil for the growth of the vine is a light sandy or gravelly one, on a high elevation and exposed to the south, where the fruit will be of fine quality and there will be little danger from late frosts in the spring and early frosts in the fall. The more very small stones in the soil the warmer it will be and the richer the fruit. While this fruit may be sometimes ripened on low land, competition is so great and prices are so low that much profit cannot be expected, except under the best of conditions. We may escape frosts now and then on low land, but the loss of even a few crops in a series of years would render the business unprofitable. Steep slopes should be avoided, on account of the washing of the soil during heavy rains, as the cost of terracing is so great as to take any possible profit. Vines The best vines are strong, one-year-old plants, from the cutting or layer, and with a good amount of root. Before planting the top should be cut back to about two buds and the roots to one foot in length. See chapter on the propagation of the vine. Distance Before planting the land should be thor- oughly fitted by plowing and harrowing, and be marked 116 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE out with a plow or a marker. The distance of planting most practiced is eight by ten feet, though small grow- ing vines may be planted six by ten feet. Close planting has a tendency to cause mildew and rot, especially if planted on land not fully exposed to air and sunlight. Planting The crown of the vine should not be planted deep, as the grape roots naturally run very near the surface. Three or four inches is deep enough for the crown, but the ends of the roots should be put down into the moist soil, as seen in Figure 61. It is Fig. 61 Planting the Grapevine sometimes the practice to put the roots on the sloping side of a furrow, with the crown four inches deep and the root spread out flat, at an angle of about forty-five degrees, then covering with soil and pressing it firmly about them. If a double furrow is plowed, leaving a ridge between them, the vine can be easily and quickly planted. The best surface soil should be used in filling in about the roots, and if it is very poor a little fine ground bone should be well mixed with the soil at planting. Fertilization The grape does not require a large amount of fertilizers. The elements most needed are Fig. 62- Vineyard with Cover Crop Pig. 63 Vineyard Without Cover Crop 118 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE potash and phosphoric acid, and this is, in part, the ; reason why it succeeds best on gravelly soil. Enough nitrogen must be applied, however, to make a moder- ately vigorous growth of wood. A very good formula for the grape, to be varied somewhat according to the soil and the condition of vines is: Fine ground bone, five hundred pounds, sulphate of potash, three hundred pounds; or nitrate of soda, two hundred pounds, sul- phate of potash, two hundred pounds, acid phosphate or fine ground rock phosphate, four hundred pounds. If the vines make a poor growth of wood, add more bone or nitrate of soda, but if the wood growth is large, use only the potash and phosphoric acid. A cover crop, sown about August 10, of peas and barley, will be found very useful, especially on sloping land, to supply organic matter, hold the soil from washing and to protect the Fig. 64 Economical Use of Posts grape roots from severe freezing. Figure 62 shows a vineyard with cover crop of peas and barley, and Figure 63 the same without the cover. Cultivation The first two years after planting, some hoed crop, like peas or beans, may be planted among the vines, but a late growing crop, like the potato, might do harm by causing a late growth of the vine, the crop being dug in August or September. Supports and Trellises The trellis most in use and which is the most satisfactory for the commercial vineyardist, is made of posts and wire. Chestnut or cedar makes the most durable posts, though other mate- rials are used. If the posts are six inches in diameter at the small end and are sawed diagonally, as seen in Figure 64, so that they are 2x6 inches at the opposite THE GRAPE 119 ends, two good posts are made of what usually makes but one. The posts are set from twenty to thirty feet apart, according to the weight of the vines, or even a greater distance, and small stakes are put in between. Two or three wires are used for the support of the vines, according to the method of training. If the vines are trained as in Figure 65, known as the Kniffin system, only two wires are needed, but if more than two canes are grown, more wires will be needed. Wire makes the best support, as it is the cheapest, the most durable, and the vines will support themselves more or less by their tendrils without tying. No. 14 and No. 16 galvanized wire are the sizes most in use. The wires are fas- tened to the posts or stakes by the common wire fence staples, the top wire being placed on the top of the post. The hight of the posts varies in dif- Fig. 65 The Kniffin System of Grape Training ferent localities from five to six feet and they should be planted from three to three and one-half feet deep, to be beyond the action of frost. Chestnut and cedar posts will last from twelve to fifteen years, and should be renewed before quite rotted off, that the weight of the vines does not break them over when loaded with fruit. The wires are stretched on the trellis with the common wire fence stretcher. Many devices are employed to brace the end posts; the most common perhaps is td put in a short post six to eight feet from the end of trellis and brace to that. Another is to run the wire over the end post and sink a heavy stone about three feet deep around which the wire is wound, a? shown in Figure 66. This latter method 120 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE is very satisfactory if care is taken not to catch the cul- tivator teeth into it when turning the ends of the rows. On the north side of a vineyard, where a windbreak is needed, a tree like the Norway spruce or European larch can be planted at the end of each row and after a few years the wire be fastened with a screw eye to the trunk near the ground, and thus a brace and windbreak and shelter be provided. The trellis need not be put up until the beginning of the second year's growth, where the vines are strong, or the third year if they have made a small growth. Pie. 66 Method of Bracing the End Posts TRAINING AND PRUNING The First Year It is the common practice the first year to let the vines lie on the ground, giving them no care further than to see that they are not injured in cultivating, but this is not the best way, as the leaves that lie on the ground are sure to be attacked by mildew, while if trained to a small stake they would be much less subject to this injury. The Second YearM the end of the first year, unless the vines have made four to six feet of growth, and before the sap begins to run, the tops of the vines THE GRAPE 121 are to be cut back to two buds, in order to obtain a very vigorous start for the second year. If, however, the growth is more than four feet, the vine is to be cut at the level of the first wire on the trellis. During the second year of the strong, or the third year of the weak vine, two canes are allowed to grow from the two top buds, running along the first wire of the trellis. All laterals should be pinched off when they have made one leaf, but not removing this leaf, as it would cause the bud at the base to grow, a thing that is to be avoided if possible. Then when another leaf is formed on this lateral it is pinched again, thus forcing all of the growth into one or two canes. Fiff. 67 The Modified Knlffin System The Third Year At the beginning of the third year the stronger one of the two canes is carried to the top wire of the trellis for fruiting, while the weaker one is cut back to two buds, from one of which is to be grown a new cane for the next year's fruiting. The vine is now fixed on the trellis, as shown in Figure 67, and each year from this on the training required will be the same, the forcing of the summer's growth into the top or fruiting cane and into the one new cane that is to replace each fruiting cane after the crop has been taken from it. The fruiting laterals on the top canes will need pinching off as soon as the last cluster of flower buds can be distinguished, or owing to their soft growth may be broken off by high winds. These laterals must be kept headed in all summer and will need attention 122 SUCCESSFUL FBDIT CULTURE several times during the summer, as well as all laterals on the new cane on the lower wire. A large amount of foliage should never be removed from a vine at any time; it is much better to stop growth when it has reached the proper length. The winter pruning required after the vine has become established, i. e., after the third year, is simply to cut away the old fruiting cane at or near the point where the new cane started, and cutting away all of the laterals on the new cane. This work may be done at any time after the leaves have fallen and until about the middle of March. After- this date the vines are likely to be injured by bleeding. It is not best to prune when the canes are frozen, as they are then very easily broken. The common hand-pruning shears (Figure 26) are used for this purpose, of which there are many forms, those having the flat spiral or wire spring being preferred by the writer. Pruning Old Vines In many gardens are to be found old vines that have not been pruned for years, and which produce fruit that is almost worthless in consequence. The owner still neglects them because he does not know how to take hold of the vine and put it into shape. Such a vine, with a little care, may be made productive and can be brought up in a few years, to any system of pruning. The first thing to do is to cut away all of the old wood, leaving only the required number of new canes for the system of train- ing desired. Any vine that is vigorous will have enough new canes to fill up the trellis or side of a building and will often produce as much fruit on the few remain- ing canes after pruning as if the vine were not primed at all, and that of a much better quality. In case the vine is not vigorous and has but few or no new canes, the whole top may be cut off and only the desired number of new canes be allowed to grow during the THE GRAPE 123 following summer, when after one season a large crop of fruit may be expected. In both of these cases all laterals must be kept pinched off in the same manner as if the vine were in the vineyard. A very good way to locate the canes on an old vine of this kind that it is desired to save is to start near the ground and mark them with blue or red chalk at frequent intervals and then cut out all not so marked. Thinning the Fruit The money value of a crop of grapes depends very largely upon the size and per- fection of the bunches, and this will depend a good deal upon the number of bunches allowed to grow on a vine. On a vine that is vigorous and well supplied with wood, more bunches of fruit will set than it can mature to the greatest perfection, and the number should be reduced as soon as the berries are the size of small peas. The number of bunches that are to be allowed to grow will depend upon the vigor of the vine. In a well established vineyard the average number should be from twenty to thirty to the vine, making, at a distance of 8x10 feet and the bunches averaging one- half pound, 5440 to 7160 pounds per acre, which is perhaps about the average of vineyards under good care. One, two or three bunches are allowed to each lateral, according to the number and strength of the laterals. Gathering the Fruit Unlike other fruits the grape does not improve in quality after being picked but soon loses its lively fresh taste, and must be fully ripened on the vine. In many localities the fall frosts hold off so that maturity is practically assured every year, but in others it is often destroyed before fully ripe. The ripeness of the fruit is generally determined by the color, but it may be more definitely shown by the chang- ing of the stem of the bunch where it joins the cane. When this takes the color of the cane for one-fourth to 124 SUCCESSFUL FIIUIT CULTURE one-half of an inch, it is safe to pick and put into storage. Light frosts will injure unripe fruit, but when fully ripened it will not be injured except by a freeze. To retain the beauty of the fruit, the bunches should be removed from the vine by taking hold of the stem and cutting with a knife or scissors, so as not to injure the bloom. Where large quantities are to be picked, in some sections, they are placed on trays four feet long by eighteen inches wide with cleats on ends and a single layer deep, the trays to be stacked one above another. These trays are made by nailing head pieces upon the ends of a board of the required dimen- sions. Strips two and one- half inches wide and three- eighths inch thick are nailed on the edges of the trays to keep the fruit from falling off. (Figure 68.) This gives cir- culation enough about the fruit and large quantities can be placed in a small space until they are packed for shipping. Packing and Shipping For nearby markets grapes are packed in open trays, holding from twenty to twenty-five pounds, the common Diamond market basket, containing ten to twelve pounds, or in small chip or veneer baskets, holding from three to six pounds, and taken into the market with the bloom uninjured, but for long distance shipping they are almost invariably packed in the three, five, eight or ten-pound veneer basket with a cover. Varieties with a tough skin pack the best in the last named basket, though hundreds of tons of the thin-skinned Concords and Wordens are packed and shipped in this way. To do this work requires considerable skill and quick movements. In sections where large quantities of grapes are grown, the THE GRAPE 125 packing is done by the buyer, or at a central packing house of a grape union. In both cases the results have proved much more satisfactory than where each grower packs his own fruit, as the grade will be much more uniform, and as skilled help can be employed, the work is better and more cheaply done. In shipping, the local market should be considered first, as better prices can often be obtained there, because the fruit can be put into the hands of the consumer in better condition than where it has been packed in a basket, and the cost of package and transportation may be less. Grapes in Cold Storage Unless one has especially good facilities for keeping this fruit, it is best not to attempt to carry it much beyond the holidays, as there will be often much waste. Prices do not generally improve very much after this time and the quality deteriorates very rapidly unless the conditions for stor- ing are very favorable. In storing with ice, the moist air from the ice chamber should be cut off from contact with the fruit, as it causes the stems to mold. A too dry atmosphere also must be avoided, which causes the stems to shrivel. The most successful cold storage houses for grapes are cooled by chemicals, where the tempera- ture and moisture can be more exactly regulated than with ice. VARIETIES Varieties are classified or grouped into white, red and black or purple. Of the hundreds of varieties known but a very few are of much value for commer- cial purposes, and only those of decided merit will be mentioned. BLACK VARIETIES Warden This is perhaps the best very early grape iix cultivation. It resembles the Concord very closely, 126 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE though the bunch is not quite so large; the berry is larger than the latter, of a dark brown purple color until fully ripe, but is in good eating condition a week or ten days before the Concord. It has the same thin skin as the latter and is more liable to crack during rainstorms, just as it is getting ripe. Concord One of the most vigorous and productive, and perhaps the most largely planted of all. The bunches are large, the berries of good size, the skin thin and the pulp is tender and juicy but rather acid at the center. In Northern localities it is often cut off by the early frosts in the fall. Campbell's Early A comparatively new grape that begins to color earlier than Moore's Early, but like the latter the pulp does not become soft and sweet until after the Worden is in good eating condition. It how- ever hangs a long time on the vine and finally becomes very rich, sweet and tender. Wilder A hybrid grape of large size and good quality. It ripens with the Concord, has a thick skin and a soft, sweet pulp that is very satisfactory. The vine is very vigorous but subject to mildew and anthrac- nose, and the berries to anthracnose and black rot. With favorable conditions and good care it is desirable. The fruit keeps much longer than the others mentioned. EED GRAPES Delaware This little grape is everywhere known. It is hardy and productive but of slow growth and the thin leaves are liable to injury from mildew. It is one of the best in quality and by proper spraying the leaves can be prevented from mildewing and the variety made profitable. Brighton In size of bunch, vigor and productive- ness, and in quality of fruit, under favorable conditions, THE GllAPE 127 no variety is superior to this, but the vine is tender and often injured by diseases so that it has been dis- carded, by many growers, as a commercial variety. It must be planted near other varieties to have it pollenize, as it is not self-fertile and fails to set full bunches when planted alone. WHITE VARIETIES Green Mountain (Winchell) The earliest good white grape that produces a bunch of large size and fine quality. The vine is vigorous, hardy and produc- tive, but the fruit is not of very attractive color, and has not been largely grown for market. Moore's Diamond This variety produces very large clusters of beautiful fruit of good quality. The vine is hardy and generally free from disease. It ripens a little later than the Concord and for Northern locali- ties is therefore not profitable. Niagara The bunches, and the berries as well, are a little larger than those of the last named variety, but the color is not quite as good and it is a little later in ripening. The vine is very vigorous and productive, but is very much subject to disease, especially in the North. Of the varieties of grapes of different colors, those of a purple color sell the best, a very bright red, like the Delaware, the next, and the white or green, unless of a golden color, the poorest. GIRDLING THE VINE In Northern sections and with very late varieties the crop is often cut off by early frosts in the fall, and girdling (taking out a narrow ring of bark below the fruit) is practiced to some extent to hasten the ripening. The effect of this girdling is to stop the backward 128 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE flow of the elaborated sap to the parts of the vine back of the girdle, and as a result the foliage beyond the girdle is much increased in vigor and the fruit in size, and it matures a week or ten days earlier than the un- girdled cane. The fruit thus grown has a more watery consistency, does not taste as sweet, but many analyses of girdled fruit show it to contain several per cents more sugar. The lack of sweet taste is due to the acid being more quickly soluble than the sugar. Only the part of Fijr. 69 Implements for Ringing Grapevines the vine that is bearing the fruit should be treated, i. e., that bearing the fruit, for if the whole vine is girdled, there being no elaborated sap to go below the cut, no new roots will be formed, and the vine will consequently make a very weak growth the next season if it is not killed outright. To obtain the best results, several strong and vigorous canes should be grown below the girdle, when no injury will result from this practice. By this operation the growers in Northern. sections can THE GEAPE 129 get their fruit into the local markets before the main supply from the large grape growing sections gluts them and the prices are too low for profit. The work o girdling is done with a common pocket knife, or some implement made for this purpose, as shown in Figure 69. The best time for this work is when the berries are about one-third to one-half grown. The width of the ring varies from one-quarter to one inch, according to the size of the canes, the smaller the cane the narrower the ring. In girdling, care must be taken not to make the cut on the bend of the vine, as in that case it is very liable to be broken by the weight of the fruit or by high winds. XI THE BLACKBERRY THE HIGH BLACKBERRY (RubllS VilloSUS) THE DEWBERRY (Rubus Canadensis) This is one of the very important native fruits, and is found growing wild in almost every section of the country; perhaps the most noted section for the growth of this fruit is New Jersey, from which large quantities of fruit are shipped to many Northern and Western cities. This fruit is noted for its medicinal properties and is a very valuable addition to the list of late summer fruits. In the garden the blackberry is commonly planted in some out-of-the-way place where it is allowed to spread unmolested, until it becomes an impenetrable tangle, where neither man nor animals can get the fruit. It is then voted a nuisance, when with a little care at the proper time it would have yielded an abundance of fruit. It should be more largely grown than it is now, both in the field and garden. THE COMMON HIGH BLACKBERRY The Soil While the blackberry will grow in a great variety of soils, it succeeds best in a rather heavy moist one. If planted on a thin soil a very large amount of manure or fertilizer must be used in order to produce a large growth of tops that will shade the ground and thus keep it cool. A plantation in thin soil will not last as long as one in heavy land. On a THE BLACKBERRY 131 thin soil, if water is available for irrigation, large crops may often be produced, or this result, a soil-cover, may sometimes be obtained by heavy mulching. The danger from mulching is that the roots are brought to the surface of the ground and the mulch must be kept up all of the time, or when it decays, or if it is removed and the land cultivated, the surface roots will be de- stroyed. Planting The best time for planting is in the fall, but the plants may be set with success in the spring if it is done early. If it is necessary to delay planting until late in the spring, a plantation may be made by taking up the new soft . suckers, putting them into a pail of water as they are dug and setting them without exposure to the sun and air. The soft ends of the canes should be cut off before they are dug. This method may be practiced at any time during the summer when- ever young shoots can be obtained, and is a very, con- venient way to fill out a newly planted field. The distance of planting varies greatly with different growers, ranging from 4x6 to 6x8 feet. Two methods are practiced, the Hill system and the Row system. The advantages of the former are that most of the work of cultivation can be done by the horse, and the fruit may be more easily gathered than in the close row. With the row system the soil is more covered, and more shaded, a thing that must be provided to get the best results, especially in dry weather, and the fruit will be larger, as the largest and best fruit is always found under the shade of masses of foliage. Cultivation There are few crops that may be so easily grown, if the work be done at the proper time, as the blackberry, and few also that if neglected require so much care to put into condition again. All sucker* not needed to fill out the rows or hills must be treated as weeds ami the ground be kept light and loose at all 132 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE times during the summer, especially during dry weather when the fruit is ripening. By frequent cultivation the roots are kept deep in the soil, which produces the cool condition under which they succeed the best, and plant food is being rapidly developed by the frequent exposure of the soil to the air. Late cultivation is generally to be avoided, but in seasons when there is but little moisture in the soil during August, it may be best V x Fig. 70-Blackberry Cane. Pruned and Unpruned to keep up cultivation till the middle or the last of September, or until there has been a considerable fall of rain. Pruning Success in the growth of this crop will largely depend upon pruning. The first year, at plant- ing, the canes are cut back to within five or six inches of the ground, and from each of these canes will grow, THE BLACKBERRY 133 the first summer, one or two canes, and perhaps one or two sprouts from the roots. These may be expected to bear a few berries the next season, but the fruit, being so near the ground, will not be worth the trouble of protecting from the spatter of dirt during heavy rains. The second summer more numerous new shoots, from three to six feet long, should be produced, that may be expected to bear a crop of considerable value the third season. After the canes begin to bear, the work of pruning consists in cutting out the old canes that have borne a crop, thinning out the small, weak shoots, and heading back the new ones so that, as seen in Figure 70, when they are loaded with leaves and fruit they will not be bent down to the ground. The old fruiting canes are cut away by some growers in the late summer or early fall, but are left by most of them until the leisure days of winter. Some growers summer prune by heading back the new canes when they have made about three feet of growth, which causes a stocky and branching condition, as seen in Figure 70. while others let the canes grow to their full length and do not head back until after growth ceases in the fall, or until the winter or spring pruning. After many trials of the different methods and under many varying conditions and soils, we conclude that the single un- branched cane with numerous strong buds along it will give more fruit than the summer pruned canes with buds that mature later on the branched growth resulting from this summer pruning. Another objection to the branching canes is that with a heavy fall of wet snow or heavy accumulation of ice, the laterals are liable to be broken from the main canes. Pruning is often delayed by many until after the buds have begun to grow in the spring, that it may be definitely known what canes are winterkilled and what are not, otherwise many canes that perhaps were alive would be cut out, 134 SUCCESSFUL FKUIT CULTURE while many dead ones would be left, if the pruning were done before growth began. Training While many growers do not give their blackberry plants any support, it is often much better to have some way of holding them up from the ground in cases of heavy foliage and crops of fruit during wet weather. A very good and inexpensive support consists in stretching No. 14 or 16 galvanized wire on each side of the row and holding it in place on a crosspiece from one to two feet, according to the width of the row of canes, nailed to stakes set at intervals of from fifteen to thirty feet apart, as shown in Figure 71. At the end of each crosspiece is driven a strong nail to catch the wires. In putting up the trellis one wire is drawn on the ground close up to the row on each side and fas- tened to one end stake. It is then drawn as firmly as it can be done without breaking, and then fastened tempora- rily at the other end, 'and caught over the nail on each stake, as seen in Figure 72. The wires are then drawn together in as many places between each stake as may be found necessary to bring the canes into an upright position, after which they may then be drawn more tightly and only a few canes will be found that will need tying. This support has the advantage that the wires can be quickly taken off the crosspiece, drawn along the middle of the row during the summer, again caught on the nail, thus all new canes brought into the row, so that cultivation may be carried on more com- fortably and the fruit be more readily gathered. Only Pig. 71 -Crosspiece in Black- berry Trellis THE BLACKBEUUY 135 a limited number of canes should be allowed to grow in the row or hill, and yet there should be enough to cover the ground well during the months of July and August. The larger the canes the fewer there need be. They should stand from six inches to one foot apart, and all small canes be treated as weeds. Winter Protection There is no variety of black- berries that we find hardy under all conditions, and in order to insure a crop every year, some means of protection must be provided. This is not generally Fig. 72 Support for Blackberries and Raspberries practiced, however, except in the extreme North, and in many cases the cost will be more than the gain. The method of protection most in use is covering with soil, as described under the raspberry. VARIETIES The number of varieties that are widely grown are but few, and these do not succeed over a very wide range, therefore the reader should consult his own experiment station or some successful grower in his own vicinity as to what to plant, and plant only those that are generally profitable. 136 SUCCESSFUL FKUIT CULTURE Agawam The earliest hardy variety for the North. Fruit of large size, fine quality and sweet as soon as black. It is rather soft, but firm enough to carry to a near market and keep for two or three days. Its large size, good color and earliness make it profitable. Suc- ceeds best on heavy soil. In some places it has been attacked by the fall orange rust, but this is not a serious defect on strong land. Snyder A very hardy and upright growing variety that is largety grown at the North. In heavy soil the fruit is of large size and good color, but on light soil and where the bushes are not growing vigorously it is small and ripens unevenly in color, so that the berries have a mottled appearance. It also turns red after being put on the market, yet it is more largely grown in many localities than any other. Taylor The canes of this variety are much lighter in color than the two last, very upright and spiny in growth. The berries are long, black and of good qual- ity, ripening about one 'week later than the Snyder. Eldorado This comparatively new variety is of the Snyder type, equally hardy, and as far as tested seems to be productive. The fruit is without the color defects of the latter. Of varieties that are valuable in some localities may be mentioned the Ancient Briton, Erie, Ohmer, Early Harvest, Bangor, Mersereau, etc. Picking and Marketing If the fruit is to be shipped a long distance it should be picked every day, that a" I of the berries shall be firm. It should not be picked while wet if it can be avoided, and should be put into a cool place as soon as possible after picking. It is marketed in quart baskets, put into crates holding thirty-two quarts. The prices at which the fruit sells vary in the local market from five cents to twenty cents, and where stepped a long distance, from three cents THE BLACKBERRY 137 to fifteen cents, according to season and condition of fruit. The yield will vary from 1000 to 5000 quarts per acre. THE DEWBERRY (Rubus Canadensis) This species of blackberry is found growing wild from N e w f oundland to Virginia and west to the Kocky moun- tains, and possesses many desirable qualities, but its habit of running on the ground and its liability to winter- kill in cultivated land have prevented its cultivation as a commercial crop. By giving proper treatment, however, it has been found to produce paying crops in some cases. If the canes are covered during the winter with a little coarse hay or straw and this material is then put under them in the summer, conditions are produced that will result in a large crop of fruit, and as it ripens one or two weeks earlier than the high blackberry it brings a good price. Some growers of this fruit Fig. 73-Lucretia Uewben 138 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE have, in addition to the above treatment, trained the canes to stakes, by which means the fruit can be more easily gathered, but if fully exposed to the sunlight and air the berries are not as large as when shaded. For the best results, the land must be made very rich, so as to produce plants enough to shade the ground, and an abundance of moisture be present at the time of ripening. Varieties There are several varieties listed by nurserymen, but the only one that has been grown to any extent is the Lucretia. (Figure 73.) This is a vigorous grower, as hardy as any, and the fruit is of large size and excellent quality. See methods of propagation in Chapter XVIII, and insects and fungous pests in Chapters XX and XXL XII THE RASPBERRY THE RED RASPBERRY (RubuS StrigOSUS) The red raspberry is the most popular of the bush fruits in most localities. It is found in a wild state from Labrador to the mountains of North Carolina and west to Missouri and Minnesota. Like the blackberry, it delights in a cool, moist location, but is found growing in almost every kind of soil. It is propagated in the same way as the blackberry and the general treatment in the field is the same. The varieties that are most cultivated are not quite as hardy as those of the black- berry, but, as the canes can be more easily protected from cold by covering, the crop is quite as certain to be profitable. As with the blackberry, large fruit cannot be expected unless the land is rich enough to produce a large growth of canes to shade the soil and keep it cool. The distance for planting varies much with dif- ferent growers and different methods. In a very rich soil the canes may grow so large and tall that if planted in rows six feet apart or in hills 4x6 feet, the ground will be well shaded, as seen in Figure 74, while in thin or poor soil the cover would not be obtained if set 3x5 feet. The trellis used for the support of the blackberry (Figure 72) is sometimes used; the canes are some- times tied to stakes, though no support is used by most growers. Pruning and Training The methods of pruning and training outlined for the blackberry apply to this THE RASPBERRY 141 fruit in almost every particular ; it is better, however, to cut out the fruiting canes soon after the fruit has been gathered. Summer pruning is not as generally prac- ticed as upon the blackberry, but some growers obtain good success by this practice. Winter Protection The canes being small and flexible, they can be laid over to the ground and covered with soil and thus injury from cold be prevented. The work of laying down the canes is very simple, three men being employed to the best advantage. One man with thick gloves on grasps a cluster of the canes grow- ing together and with a strong pull bends them to the ground, as seen in Figure 75 ; the second and third man then throw on soil enough to hold the canes down. Another cluster of canes is grasped and the process is repeated. The canes should be bent toward the south, SO that the Fig. 75-Laying Down Red Ra sun may not strike them perpendicularly, which would cause them to start too early in the spring and injure them. After all are laid down the plow is run lightly on each side of the row, turning more soil over or against the canes. It is not necessary that the canes be entirely covered, as the moisture and warmth of the soil without covering is sufficient to keep them from injury. In the spring the canes should be taken up before growth begins, as the buds will start more quickly when near the ground than when standing up- right. Deep working of the soil among both raspberries and blackberries should be avoided, as both are shallow rooted plants and when worked deep the roots are some- times seriously injured and the growth of the plants is 142 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE checked. As with the blackberry, there are but a very few varieties that are of much value at the North, while at the South many of the so-called hardy varieties lose the foliage by burning during the summer. VARIETIES Cuthbert While this variety is often winterkilled, where it does withstand the weather it yields a very large crop of large berries of good quality, and is very profit- able. The berries are large, of a slightly conical form, and rather firm, so that it carries fairly well to market. In color it is not the best, but it sells well. It succeeds best in a rather moist soil. King A very early variety of bright red color and fine quality. In size it is not as large as the Cuthbert, but is one of the largest of the very early kinds, and one of the most productive. It is rather more hardy than the Cuthbert. London A very stocky, hardy growing plant that in good soil produces large fruit of good quality. It requires a rather heavier and richer soil than other varieties. In a few cases it has been reported as being attacked by mildew when the fruit is about ripening in wet weather. This perhaps would be prevented by thorough spraying just as the blossom begins to open in the spring. Other varieties that are of value in many localities are Miller, Phoenix, Thompson's Pride and Early Pro- lific. MARKETING The fruit is very soft and breaks down quickly in the market in hot weather. It should be marketed in pint boxes, and be picked every day. It should never be picked when wet if it can be avoided. As soon as gathered the fruit should be put into a cool, dry place, THE RASPBERRY 143 and then shipped to market at the earliest possible moment. The prices obtained range from five to twenty cents per pint, according to quality and condition. THE BLACKCAP RASPBERRY (RuJ)US OCCldentolis) The blackcap raspberry, in its wild state known often as the thimbleberry, differs in the habit of growth, color of fruit and method of propagation very widely from the red raspberry. It grows in hills and throws up no suckers from the lateral roots, but sends up strong shoots from the center of the plant each year, and is propagated by the ends of these canes rooting, under fa- vorable conditions, during the late summer and fall. Figure 76 shows the rooting of blackcap plants. The fruit is black in color, less acid than the red varieties, but with larger and perhaps more numerous seeds. It was very popular some ten to fifteen years ago, but now in many markets there is little demand for it. It yields much larger crops than the red varie- ties, and comes to the market following the strawberry and just before the red raspberry. Fig. 76-Rooted Tips of Blackcap Canes 144 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE Distance of Planting They are planted from 4x5 to 5x6 feet, according to the vigor of the variety, and cultivation is generally done with the horse both ways. Blackcap plants should be planted only in the spring, as the roots are very soft and tender in the fall, and the slight pressure of the foot will bruise them, while in the spring they have become somewhat hardened. The end bud of the "tip" or plant should not be planted more than an inch or two below the surface of the soil, but the roots must be put down into the moist soil. Figure 61, illustrating the planting of the grapevine, shows a good way of planting the blackcap raspberry. Most failures in planting the blackcap raspberry come from putting the end bud so deep that it cannot break through the cover soil. Pruning The pruning required by the blackcap is about the same as for the blackberry, though it will stand more summer pruning and perhaps requires two or three "pinchings-in" to make the canes stand up without sup- port. Some growers tie to stakes, while others use the trellis and do not attempt to cultivate both ways. The fruiting cane should be cut out as soon as the fruit has been gathered in order to allow full growth of the new canes. Harvesting and Marketing The fruit is picked in quart baskets and sent to market in twenty-four or thirty-two-quart crates. It carries well, but the prices are very low, ranging from five to ten cents per quart, yet the yield is generally large and the fruit ripens nearly all at one time, so that the cost of growing and picking is small and much profit may be expected where there is a demand for this fruit. VARIETIES Scarcely a variety is now grown that was in cul- tivation ten years ago, on account of disease and THE RASPBERRY 145 deterioration of varieties, and it is advisable not to depend upon the old sorts too long but renew the plantations after four or five years with new kinds. Among the best at this time may be mentioned the Palmer This is an early variety of large size and good quality, of dark color and productive. One of the best for general cultivation. Kansas Perhaps more productive than the last, a little later in ripening, but especially valuable on account of its quality and hardiness. Cumberland One of the most vigorous and pro- ductive of the blackcaps. It is late and of good quality. It is recommended very highly wherever grown. Other varieties that are grown in some localities are Souhegan, Gregg, Ohio, etc., etc. THE PUEPLECAP RASPBERRY (RubuS This group of raspberries has of late attracted much attention on account of their great vigor, pro- ductiveness and fine quality. In habit of growth they are like the blackcap, but with a fruit about half way between this and the red raspberry, and the flavor and texture of the latter. They are not as hardy as the other two species, yet the canes seldom kill down so close to the ground but that laterals bear more or less of a crop of fruit every year. The color of the fruit, a reddish-purple, is such that it does not sell readily, but it is especially valuable for home use. It is propagated in the same way as the blackcap, and should be treated in the same way as this species as to pruning and other particulars. Among the leading varieties are : Shaffer One of the oldest of this group, and one of the best in quality, but is not quite as hardy as some of the later kinds. The fruit is large in size but is too soft for distant market. 146 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE Columbian A more vigorous plant than the last, and very productive, but the fruit is not of as good quality. Numerous other varieties of this type have been introduced, but all of them are of the same dark red color that is not attractive in the market, and none of them should be planted largely for market unless there is a certainty of a demand for them. YELLOW RASPBERRIES Yellow varieties, or albinos, of the blackcap and the red raspberry, are listed in most nursery catalogs, but they are of little value in the market, as they are not attractive, and are not of as good quality as the red or black varieties. The best among the yellow raspberries is the Golden Queen or Yellow Cuthbert, which is sup- posed to be a white or albino form of the latter. When first picked it looks well, but it soon turns to a brown color. The yellowcap raspberry and the white black- berry are of no commercial value and are to be planted only as curiosities. XIII THE CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY THE CURRANT (Ribes rubrum) This is one of the most healthful fruits, is easily grown, and should be found in every garden. It is grown to a considerable extent for market, and where the soil is suited to its growth it is found profitable. It succeeds best in a deep, moist loam, but if too wet the plants are heaved out in the fall and spring by frost. To prevent this heaving out the land may be heavily mulched in the fall with coarse stable manure or straw, but this must be removed in the spring before the roots have made much growth, or it will cause the roots to grow so near the surface as to be injured by the cultivator, and the second winter the bushes will be likely to be tipped over by high winds. Shallow level cultivation will give the best results. The land must be kept rich with a heavy dressing of stable manure or fertilizer each year, using enough to produce a few strong new canes each season, for there is no fruit that runs small so quickly on old wood as the currant. Planting The distance most generally planted is 4x6 feet, and they may be planted either in the fall or the spring, as is most convenient. Some grower? set the plants nearer than four feet in the row, and prune the bushes to three or four strong canes. The best plants are strong one-year cuttings, though many 148 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE growers prefer two-year-old plants. The currant comes into bearing the second or third year from planting, and with proper care should last for a generation at least. Pruning The pruning required consists in remov- ing the old wood after it is three or four years old and allowing only a limited number of new canes to grow. These canes should be strong and upright, so as to carry the fruit high that it may not be spattered by heavy rains. If the canes are low it is well to mulch while the fruit is ripening, but this must be removed at the earliest possible time after the fruit has been harvested, so that the roots may not be drawn to the surface. Harvesting and Marketing Currants are marketed in quart baskets in the same manner as strawberries and raspberries. It is a fruit that will hang a long time on the bushes, especially if grown under the shade of trees or when the foliage is heavy, and is often in condition for marketing for more than a month. Some growers pack about ten pounds of this fruit in a common market basket and sell by the pound. The prices range from five cents to fifteen cents per quart, with an average of perhaps not far from eight to ten cents for the season. The yield under good conditions is often 200 bushels per acre and upwards. VARIETIES While there are many more or less distinct varie- ties, they are not so marked in their variations as most of the other fruits. It is often said that the difference in the varieties sold under different names is due to the treatment they receive as to soil and fer- tilizers, and this is in a measure true, yet there are several varieties that are marked enough to warrant distinct names. Among the best of these are: THE CDKHANT 149 Cherry (Figure 77) Bush stocky and vigorous, producing short bunches of large berries of a decidedly acid quality. This variety is found badly mixed in most of the nurseries with the Versailles, a long bunched and more vigorous grower, but not as valuable a variety. For this reason the Cherry is not as desirable as some other varieties that have been kept free from mixtures. Wilder A variety resem- bling the Ctierry somewhat, but with a longer bunch and rather more vigor of bush. The stock has been kept free from mixture and is free from the objection to the Cherry. Fay's Prolific This is perhaps the most planted of any variety. The bush is vig- orous and very productive, the fruit is large, bunches longer than the Cherry, but of about the same degree of acidity. It is a more valuable variety than the latter from the fact that it is entirely free from mixtures. Red Cross Eesembles the Wilder very much in bush and bunch of fruit, but perhaps a little more vigorous. Pomona A very vigorous and productive variety of especially good quality. Grown in a very rich soil the fruit is of good size and its immense productiveness and fine quality make it often one of the most profitable varieties in cultivation. Fig. 77 Cherry Currant 150 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE White Imperial (Figure 78) White varieties of this fruit are not very popular in the markets, but as the fruit is much less acid than the red kinds and of much better flavor, they should be planted for home use, and the markets be educated to know of their superior qual- ity. The above variety is the best in quality of this group, and is equally productive with the White Grape, which is also a good kind, but more acid than the latter. The Black Currant (Ribes nigrum) The black currant is a vigorous growing, hardy ajid productive fruit, but is not generally in demand ex- cept in markets where there are many English or German peo- ple. In its uncooked state it has a peculiar flavor that is not liked by Americans, but it makes a most delicious jelly or marmalade. It is easily grown, is free from all insect pests and fungous diseases that attack the red currant, and where there is a market for the fruit at reasonable prices it would be very profitable. If a hybrid could be produced between this and the red currant, with improved quality and with the same hardiness and vigor, it would be a valuable addition to our hardy fruits. Among the best varieties are the Black English, Black Naples and Lee's Prolific, the latter perhaps being the best of the three. Pie. 78-White Imperial Currant THE GOOSEBERRY 151 The Golden Flowering Currant (Ribes aureum) This is the common flowering currant of the garden, an improved variety of which, known as CrandalFs Im- proved, has been introduced, that produces a much larger berry of rather better quality than the original. The principal objection to this variety is the habit of not ripening all of its fruit at one time. Like the black currant, this is of little value for market, but offers some hope of value if it can be crossed with some other species and thus give us a hardy and vigorous strain that will be as free from disease and insects. Crandall's Improved is the only variety that is offered by nur- serymen. See Chapters XX and XXI for protection from insects and fungous pests. THE GOOSEBEREY EUROPEAN (Ribes grossularid) AMERICAN (Ribes oxyacanthoides) The gooseberry is not a fruit that finds a ready sale in our markets in large quantities, but its consump- tion is increasing, and it should be more largely used. The season for marketing is longer than that of the currant, from the fact that it is sold in both the green and the ripe state. The conditions of growth are about the same as for the currant, but it will grow fairly well under the shade of trees. The land should be made rich with an abundance of potash and phosphoric acid and nitrogen enough to make a fair growth of wood. In pruning the same plan should be followed as with the currant, cutting out the old wood after it is more than three years old, and thinning out some of the small and weak new shoots, and thus forcing the growth into those shoots that are left. Among the varieties that 152 SUCCESSFUL FBUIT CULTURE succeed over the largest area may be mentioned the following : Columbus Fruit large, greenish-yellow, and of good quality. Plant vigorous a^J very productive. One of the best. Downing A very hardy and productive variety, with light green fruit of medium size. It is especially valuable for cooking on account of its tender skin and good quality. Red Jacket One of the best of the red fruited varieties. Fruit of large size and good quality. Industry An English variety that under some conditions is very satisfactory. The fruit is of large size and good quality, but the bush generally makes a slow growth. For insects and fungous diseases attacking the gooseberry, see Chapters XX and XXI. XIV 9 THE STRAWBERRY EUROPEAN (Fragaria vesca) AMERICAN (Fragaria Virginiana) In some particulars the strawberry is the most important fruit crop of the temperate zone. It rivals the apple in the time that we may have it in the market in a fresh condition. Coming from the extreme South soon after Xew Year, a supply is kept up from the South to the North and from the North to the South until August. It is the first fruit of the season, and will produce, under good conditions, more bushels per acre than the potato. It is of especial importance to the grower just starting into business because an income can be obtained within twelve to fourteen months after planting. It is a fruit that succeeds in a great variety of soils, but is most profitably grown on a deep, rich sandy loam. In a very dry time on light land the crop is often injured by drouth, but if a heavy coating of stable manure is turned under before setting and the land is well mulched before the fruit begins to ripen, a crop will be carried through a great deal of dry weather. The strawberry often yields a very heavy crop on reclaimed meadows, but under such conditions the tendency is to run to plant instead of fruit, and the fertilizers used should contain a large amount of potash and phosphoric acid. A very good fertilizer is made of three parts of good hard wood ashes to one of fine ground bone used at the rate of from one to two tons 154 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE per acre, according to the fertility already in the soil. A southern slope should be selected for an early crop and a northern one for a late crop. FITTING THE LAND It will be especially advantageous to work the soil 9 deeply with a trench plow, fining it to a depth of fifteen to twenty inches, as the more deeply and finely it is worked the greater will be its capacity for resisting drouth. If it is plowed in the fall it will work up much earlier in the spring, and if stable manure is plowed under in the fall it will give better results than if turned under in the spring. Turf land that is to be devoted to the strawberry should be planted with some hoed crop like potatoes, etc., for one season, or it may be planted with some leguminous crop like cowpeas, soy beans, hairy vetch or clovers, that can be turned, under to supply nitrogen, and also humus to hold the moisture. The surface of the land should be thoroughly fined with the harrow and drag or leveler and marked out carefully to rows of accurate distances, that the work of culti- vating may be done quickly and easily. If the land is not well supplied with plant food any good fruit fer- tilizer may be scattered along the rows, to be worked in as the plants are set, the remainder to be worked in with a weeder or fine-toothed cultivator within a few days after planting. TIME FOR PLANTING While the strawberry may be planted at any time in the year when the ground will work, it is the practice of most of the large commercial growers to set only in the spring. This is done so that the plants may have plenty of time to make a full growth and mature an abundance of blossom buds, and the largest crops will be produced when planted at this time. Strong layers THE STRAWBERRY 155 or potted plants will yield a few very large berries, and it is from these plants that we often obtain the prize berries, but the cost of plants and the small crop ob- tained does not warrant the outlay if grown for profit. PLANTS Only plants with young, white roots should be used if the best results are expected, and plants taken from a bed grown for fruiting are not as good as those grown for plants alone when all of the plants are dug out by lifting the soil for several inches deep. In digging, the plants should be protected from the air as soon as Fig. 79- Fig. 80- Method of Planting Perfect and Imperfect Varieties out of the ground by putting into sacks or covered baskets and be taken to a cellar or moist shed, where the dead leaves and runners are all pulled off, the roots straightened out and placed in bunches, or if to be sent away tied in bundles of twenty-five or fifty each. Placed in this way for a little time, the roots are straight and easily planted. If plants are to be shipped for some distance the roots should be packed in damp moss with the leaves exposed to the air, when they will keep for a long time in good condition. Staminate and Pistillate, or Perfect and Imperfect Plants In selecting varieties it must be borne in mind that if those with pistils only are planted, little or 156 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE no fruit will be produced, but if every third or fifth row be of a variety that has perfect flowers, all will be fertilized and a good crop the result. The diagram, Figure 79, illustrates this planting; or if it is desired to secure plants of the staminate variety for planting unmixed, they may be planted as shown in Figure 80. PLANTING There are many different ways of putting the plants into the ground, the success of any one of which depends upon the roots being placed deeply in the moist soil, Fig. 81-PlantedToo Deep Fig. 82 Planted Too High well spread out and the soil firmed closely in contact with them. A very good way to determine if the plants are properly set is to take hold of the leaf, and if the plant pulls out it is not planted firmly enough, while if the leaf breaks off it is properly firmed. The depth to plant is illustrated by the accompanying figures : Figure 81 shows a plant set too deep, Figure 82 one too shallow, and Figure 83 one set just right. Methods or systems of planting are very numerous, but only two or three will receive attention here. THE STRAWBERRY 157 The Hill System This consists in setting the plants in rows of from three to three and one-half feet apart and one .foot apart in the row, and keeping the runners cut off, when at the end of the season each plant has made a large number of crown buds, and under favorable conditions will produce a large number of berries. All of the run- ners are of course pulled or cut off as they start out. The only serious objection to this system is that with the roots continually start- ing out higher on the crown as new buds are formed, the plants at the end of the season are rather shallow rooted, and are liable to be heaved out during the win- ter unless a deep covering of mulch is placed around them. This method has the advantage that with the runners removed the ground about the plants can be kept clean very easily and cheaply, and the fruit easily mulched and harvested. The Hedge Row System (of Kellogg) This is a modification of the hill system, the plants being set in rows two and one-half to three feet apart, and in x x x x x x x oxoxoxoxo xxxxxxxx Fig. 84 The Hedge Row System the rows about two feet, and treated the same way as in the hill system except that plants are allowed to fill in the space at eight to ten inches apart. This is in fact but a modified hill svstem in which the hills come Fit-. 83 Planted Just Right 158 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE close together, thus serving to protect one another, and, the ground being well filled with roots, there is less danger of their being heaved out by frost. The same heavy covering during the winter will be needed as with the hill system, taking care not to cover the crowns too deeply. In Figure 84 the old plants are represented by o, the runners by x. Wide Matted Row This consists in setting the plants in rows three, four or five feet apart, according to the richness of the soil, and one to two feet in the Fig. 85-Strawberry Field with Wide Matted Rows rows, and letting the runners grow over the space be- tween the rows from four to six inches apart, thus making beds of fruiting plants eighteen inches to three feet wide. Figure 85 shows strawberry field of A. A. Marshall of Fitchburg, Mass., set 4x5 feet, and run into beds three feet wide; irrigation pipes are seen in the foreground. Some growers place the runners the proper distance apart as they grow, and others let the bed be covered in a natural way and then dig out the surplus plants in the fall, the last of August or early September. The first plan, however, is the better, as then each THE STRAWBERRY 159 plant has an abundance of room to fully mature and will give a much larger crop of fruit with larger berries than the small plants of the second method. The Matted Row System Probably more berries are grown by this system than by any other, and perhaps it requires less labor, yet the size of the fruit will be smaller and, in time of drouth, the ground between the plants not being stirred easily, the roots will be near the surface, and therefore more injured. One advan- tage that the wide matted and the matted row have over the hill and the hedge row system is that the roots are running through all of the soil, holding it together, and the plants are not as likely to be thrown out by frost. Whatever the system, the crop will depend more upon whether the land is rich in plant food and has an abundant supply of moisture in it at the time the fruit is maturing than anything else. CULTIVATION If the plants have been set in regular lines both ways, most of the work of cultivation can be done by the horse cultivator or the small hand cultivators, of which there are many different kinds. All of the run- ners are generally cut off until the plants get strong, or up to about the first of July, after which such as are needed are allowed to grow. After the runners begin to grow, if in the matted row, great care must be taken not to disturb them after they have become rooted. If the plants are grown by the hedge row or in the hill system, the runners being cut off before they are rooted, they will not interfere with the use of the hand or wheel hoe, and better work can be done, and be done more cheaply. The land should be kept fine and mellow to the depth of two or three inches, and the drier the time the more frequently the soil should be cultivated. 160 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE If the plants are not making the growth that is desired, more fertilizer should be applied about July 1, and again early in September. Chemical fertilizers should not be applied when the leaves are wet, but, if dry, can be applied safely unless used in very large quantity. If it should adhere to the leaves it can be easily brushed off with a broom or by drawing a bush over the row. If large quantities of quickly soluble fertilizer like nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia or the potash salts be used, it must be scattered at a little distance from the plants and the soil must be frequently stirred to keep it from burning the leaves as it is deposited on the surface of the soil by evaporation. During the first season the young plants should be sprayed two or three times to keep the rust fungus from gaining a hold. In soils that are infested with the plants known as the chickweeds, of which there are two troublesome species, which grow during very cold weather, the land must be cultivated until the ground freezes, and also in the spring the small chickweed plants must be weeded out. Under this condition the cost of cultivation is much increased and the crop will not be as large as in land free from this pest. IRRIGATION One of the great needs in strawberry growing is an abundance of water as the fruit is ripening, and even if the soil is naturally moist and we have done all that could be done to preserve what there is in it, there often comes a season when a crop would be largely benefited by the use of water on the surface. Of the profits resulting from the establishment of an artificial supply of water we have no figures, but that must depend largely upon the cost of the water and its application. If one is situated so that water can be carried to the THE STRAWBERRY 1G1 strawberry field by gravity in open ditches or cheap troughs, the cost need be but small, while if to be carried a long distance in pipes and be raised to a considerable hight it would be very much greater. There are two methods of applying water most generally em- ployed, the ditch method and the sprinkling method. The Ditch Method This is the simplest and most used. The water is let into ditches at the upper part of the field where it can run down between the rows as Fig. 86-Ditcb Method of Irrigation shown in Figure 86. If the fall is so great that the soil will be washed, hay or straw is trodden into the ditch, when it will run more slowly and spread out bettor among the plants. If the land is nearly level, the water must be directed by means of frequent small ditches and be carried to different parts of the field by means of pipes or troughs. Cheap hose may be made of cotton cloth for this purpose that will last a long time if taken up and thoroughly dried after being used. 162 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE The Sprinkling Method This method is not so much in use as the last, but possesses some merits over it, as the water is applied in the most natural manner and over the whole surface, and when properly applied has generally given remarkable results. It can, however, be applied only where there is a good head or force to distribute in a fine spray to considerable distance. The best time for applying water is an im- portant matter. It has been found that the same amount of water applied at night will do much more good than if applied in the morning, that there is less loss by evaporation, and the ground is less hardened. If water is applied, enough should be used to wet down to the roots fully, or little or no benefit will result, for if only the surface soil is wet the roots work up to the surface and continued dry weather will be more de- structive than if no water were used. WINTER PROTECTION While the strawberry is perfectly hardy, growing, as it does, at the extreme North, if the ground is not covered with snow from the time it is frozen in the fall till settled weather comes on in the spring, the plants will be heaved out, and for this reason it is the practice of all Northern growers to cover the strawberry fields as soon as the ground is frozen in the fall. If deeply covered before the ground is frozen the plants are often smothered, and all of the old leaves destroyed, and, while this does not ruin the crop, yet the plants do not start with the vigor that they would if these leaves were uninjured. Mulching Material Various materials are used for this purpose, among the best of which are pine needles, rye straw, oat straw, meadow or sedge hay, corn stover, buckwheat straw, soy beans, etc., etc. ; of these perhaps THE STRAWBERRY 163 the best are the pine needles, clean rye or oat straw and soy bean straw. But whatever is used, it should be free from weed seeds, as nothing reduces the yield of a plan- tation more certainly than numerous small plants grow- ing about them and carrying off moisture and plant food from the land. In the spring the mulch is drawn off from the crown of the plants as soon as growth has begun, and after the plants have begun to bloom it is best to draw the mulch closely under them so as to keep the fruit clean and the crown roots shaded. Some growers remove the mulch in the early spring, clean out all small weeds, stir the sur- face soil and then put it back close up about the plants again. This in- sures a clean bed and helps to retain the soil moisture that in light land is so often deficient. Fig. 87 Staminate or "Perfect 1 Strawberry Flower VARIETIES Among the hundreds of varieties that are in cul- tivation, there are many that succeed well in one place that do not do well in others, and the grower will have to depend largely upon trial of several sorts and the testimony of those who are successful in growing this fruit in his own locality. It may be said that no variety will succeed long in one locality. It is a fact that no varieties are generally grown now that were 164 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE popular ten years ago, and some do not retain theii vigor even that time. It is therefore the part of wisdom to have a trial bed of the most promising new kinds in order to know what is best adapted to each individual locality. The local experiment station will be the first to try all promising kinds, the best of which each grower should give a trial. Varieties are either staminate, or perfect (Figure 87), those having both stamens and pis- tils, and will bear fruit if planted alone, or pistillate (Figure 88), the flowers having only pistils, and must be planted near some staminate variety to produce fruit. The pistillate flowered varieties are more productive, as a general rule, than are the staminate kind, due probably to the strain on the flower of the latter to produce pollen. Among the varie- ties that are most grown are : Clyde A stam- plant and freedom rather light land, Fig. 88-PIstlIIate or "Imperfect" Strawberry Flower inate variety of great vigor of from disease that does well on when the plants are not too close together, but on heavy soil, or if the plants are very close together, the color is poor and the berry is soft. It requires a rich soil to make it carry out to perfection the large crop of berries that it will set. Haverland A pistillate variety that has made the largest record for productiveness of any now in cultiva- tion. The fruit is medium to large, and is borne on THE STRAWBERRY 165 long and slender stalks that do not stand up under the weight of its heavy crop of fruit. This fault, together with the small size of the berries under ordinary condi- tions, places it in the list of only medium value. Glen Mary A perfect flowered variety of vigorous growth and good quality. The fruit is large but some- what irregular in form. The flowers do not produce as much pollen as some other varieties, and if planted as a fertilizer for pistillate sorts it should be planted in every third or fourth row. Sample One of the most productive pistillate varieties, producing berries of large size and good qual- ity. For general purposes it has proved one of the most profitable. It is medium in season and often carries its fruit very late. Brandywine One of the most vigorous perfect flowered varieties, producing berries of large size, firm and of the best of quality. It is a rather late variety, and under most conditions is productive, but under others it is reported as not productive. It is a good pollenizerfor late varieties. Other varieties that are of value under some conditions are Bubach, Senator Dunlap, Nick Ohmer, Seaford, Gandy, Warfield, Excelsior, Marshall, etc., etc. MARKETING The strawberry is a very perishable fruit, and must be handled with the greatest skill to give the best results. If possible the picking should be done early in the morning or the latter part of the day, and after picking at any time the fruit should be taken to some cool place where there is not too much of a draft of air to dry them too rapidly. It is not advisable to put them on the ice, if it can be avoided, on account of the con- densed moisture that will collect on the berries when 166 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE brought from the cold storage, yet if properly exposed to cool, dry air for a little time after being taken from cold storage they will not be injured by this treatment. Package The quart basket is almost universally used, packed in a bushel (thirty-two-quart), twenty- four-quart, and sixteen-quart crate or carrier. Most of the thirty-two-quart crates are now considered as gift packages, and are not returned to the shipper, but are sold to local growers near the markets for ten cents each. If the grower delivers his fruit to the retailer he may have his crates reserved, and thus only a small number will be needed to market a large crop of berries. One of the best packages for carrying and displaying the fruit is the "Marshall" carrier, Figure 89, in which twenty-four quarts of berries are packed, and it has the advantage that all of the fruit is exposed to the view of the purchaser without removing any partitions, and if well put up will attract customers by the large amount of fruit exposed in one mass. This figure shows thirty quarts, with only from eight to fifteen berries in a basket. Soiled baskets should never be used, as the fruit shows to better advantage in new baskets, and the new ones are as cheap as old baskets collected from the consumers. Picking This is one of the greatest problems of the strawberry grower. Some employ boys, some men and some women. The first are the most difficult to manage, and do the work in the most uncertain way. Girls and women do their work well, are easily managed, but are rather slow in many cases. Quick, active young men make good pickers ; the cost per quart, however, is much greater, but they can often be brought into the field in times of an emergency when other help is not available. Numerous methods of recording the number of boxes picked by the different pickers have been de- vised, perhaps one of the best of which is the card system, THE STRAWBERRY 16V where the picker keeps his record card, and when fruit has been picked the record is made by punching out the proper number of boxes. At the end of each day or week, as the case may be, the first card is taken up and the total number is punched on another card, which is kept by the picker until payment is made. In picking the fruit, each berry should be picked by the stem, and not be pulled off, and for a local market should be allowed to become fully ripe before being picked. Sorting and Packing It will be found very difficult to find pickers in many places who will sort the fruit as picked so that it will be most satisfactory for a fancy market, and it is therefore the practice of most growers of fancy fruit to have it sorted and packed in a shed or house near the strawberry field. All that is done often, where the pickers are reliable, is to sort over and pack the top layer of berries, picking out any defective berries and replacing them with sound ones, and turning the top layer so as to present the best appearance. Others turn out all of the berries in a box and sort and pack all of the fruit. This must be done very carefully, or the berries will be so crushed that they will not stand up long after they reach the market. If, however, this is properly done, the fruit will keep longer, for all of the overripe berries having been removed, decay will be less rapid, and much better prices be obtained. Many growers make two sorts, those that are perfect in every way and of large size, and those of small size and possibly with some other defect. The second grades are sold for canning, making syrups, etc., and often will sell at as good prices as the average run of berries not sorted, while the fancy berries bring high prices and sell the seconds. The common bushel crate or carrier is the most used for shipping to near markets, but when shipped long distances those holding forty-eight or sixty-four THE STRAWBERRY 169 quarts are largely in use. The Marshall carrier (Figure 89), holding twenty-four quarts, is especially adapted to fancy berries, as all the fruit can be seen at once upon taking oit' the cover, and presents the most attractive appearance possible. For insects and fungous pests, see Chapters XX and XXI. XV THE CRANBERRY ( Vaccinium oxy coccus) This delicious fruit is distributed over almost the entire country and under favorable conditions produces large and profitable crops. The entire crop of the country for a single season has been over 808,000 bushels, of which Massachusetts produced 432,000 bushels, New Jersey 175,000 bushels, Wisconsin 101,000 bushels. It can only be profitably grown in a soil nearly saturated with water, bogs and wet meadows being utilized for this crop. The conditions 'for success are wet, boggy land, with an abundant supply of water, so that the "bog" may be flooded in a short time in case of a late frost in the spring when the plants are in bloom, during the summer to prevent injury 'from the "leaf roller" insect, and in the fall to protect from frost before the fruit is gathered. Water should be in sufficient supply also to keep the bog flowed all winter. PREPARATION OF THE BOO All growth of trees, bushes, grasses or other plants must be removed from the surface and the bog made level by grading. Ditches should be made at intervals so that the water may set back into them to hasten flooding, and to quickly drain away the water after flooding. The level of the water in the ditches for the best results is from ten to twelve inches below the surface THE CRANBERRY 171 at all times. After all growth has been removed from the surface and the land roughly graded perfectly level, it should be made as fine and mellow as possible, after which a covering of clean, sharp sand from three to six inches deep is spread evenly over it. The land is then ready for the plants. Setting the Plants The plants, or rather cuttings, are the end runners of established bogs, twelve to fifteen inches long, cut from the edges of the rows or paths, or often taken from some more solid part of the bed. If possible these cuttings should be taken from some spot where the plants are producing large crops of large, finely colored berries. The bog is marked off in from nine to eighteen-inch squares, and the cuttings, three or four in a bunch, are forced through the sand into the fine soil below with a blunt wooden dibble or paddle, and the sand pressed firmly about them. In planting the cuttings, care should be taken not to break off the lower end of them in forcing through the sand. After planting no weeds should be allowed to grow, all that appear being pulled out by hand. It is not the general practice of growers to use the hand hoe unless obliged to do so, and a good bog is so soft that it would not hold up a horse. Sometimes when the land is espe- cially poor, a light dressing of any good commercial fruit fertilizer just before the sand is put on or after the plantation has been in bearing several years, will produce marvelous results. Well prepared bogs will yield good crops the third year, and after this nearly a full crop every year, unless insects or frosts destroy them. The yield of a good bog under favorable condi- tions has often been between one hundred and two hun- dred bushels per acre. The average of all bogs in the Cape Cod section in a single season has been one hundred and seventeen bushels; that of the country between eighty and ninety bushels. 172 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE HARVESTING This crop must be harvested before fall frosts unless water facilities are such that the bog can be flooded at ten or twelve hours' notice. The crop is gathered by hand picking and by means of the rake or scoop. With the latter 400 to 450 quarts per day are picked by the most active pickers, while hand pickers will hardly pick more than 200 quarts unless the crop is large and thick. Storing and Marketing The cranberry is a fruit that keeps well in an airy, cool, but not too dry place, the temperature never going down to thirty-two degrees. Fig. 90 The Large Bell Cranberry For home use, if put in fruit jars and covered with cold water, the fruit will keep until May or June if placed in a moderately cool cellar. It is most largely sold in barrels of about 100 quarts. Prices obtained range from $3.50 to $15 per barrel, an average of about $7. Some markets demand the fruit in crates, and many dealers buy in barrels and repack in crates or boxes. RENEWING A CRANBERRY BOG After ten or fifteen years of fruiting many bogs begin to fail, and are renewed by resurfacing, or with THE CRANBERRY 173 little expense by again covering with sand. A light covering of sand every five years would probably give satisfactory results. It is found in some cases that a light dressing of superphosphate will give the plants a vigorous start and greatly improve the yield and quality of the fruit. INJURIOUS INSECTS Two insects have become somewhat of a menace to the cranberry crop the "leaf roller" and the berry moth. The former is prevented from doing serious damage by flowing for a few days or a week soon after they begin to work seriously. The berry moth is more or less destroyed by the use of arsenate of lead sprayed upon the plants and fruit while quite small. For further particulars as to controlling insect pests, see bulletins of Massachusetts and New Jersey experiment stations. Many varieties of cranberries are now being grown. They may be divided into three groups, i. e., the Bell, Olive and Bugle types. Fixture 90 shows the large Bell variety. XYI THE BLUEBERRY AND HUCKLEBERRY ( (Vaccinium Canadense) BLUEBERRY < (Vaccinium corymbosum) (. (Vaccinium vacillans) HUCKLEBERRY ( Gaylussacia resinosa) While these berries are found in our markets in considerable quantities in almost every section of the country, the supply comes wholly from bushes grown in the pastures, fields and swamps. Many attempts have been made to cultivate it in garden and field, but with poor or indifferent success. Like most plants growing naturally on land with a good soil cover, they become weakened and soon fail if exposed to much sun and air about the roots and lower branches. In the pas- tures and meadows the ground is shaded by grass and undergrowth, and the stems of the bushes by close growing foliage about them, and to insure even a mod- erate growth these conditions must be provided in the garden. The natural soil cover of the meadows may be replaced by leaves, old hay or even by a close planting and a mulch of fine soil, and if the soil is naturally a little moist or the season cool and moist, a fair growth will be made. An acid soil seems to be a necessity in growing this fruit. TRANSPLANTING Plants that will come up with a bog or clump of roots should be selected, and only those producing the THE BLUEBERRY AND HUCKLEBERRY 175 largest berries taken. Cut back severely and set close together about as deep as they stood in the pasture, tramping the soil firmly a'jout the roots. A mulch should be placed around the roots and if very dry a lib- eral amount of water be poured into the holes to settle the soil about the roots before the mulch is put on. Additional mulch or manure should be placed about them when it becomes thin. Another method of treatment which is more generally satisfactory is to clear a blue- berry or huckleberry lot of everything but good, strong bushes of these fruits. Divide into three lots and early in the spring spread manure or fertilizer among them. Then mow the tops of one plot close to the ground. The two plots not cut down will produce a large crop of fruit if the season is favorable, and the new canes on the other plot will make a strong growth that for the next two years will yield very large and fine fruit. The second spring plot No. 2 is cut down, and No. 3 and Xo. 1 bear fruit. After this three years' rotation two plots of bushes will be producing vigorous canes that will yield an abundance of fine fruit, if, in addition to cutting back, an occasional dressing of manure or fertilizer be applied. Many brush pastures, by a little thinning out of "robber" plants, treated in the above manner, may be made a source of considerable income. Women and children can generally be found who will pick the ber- ries on shares "if the picking is good," and the fruit be gathered when it will bring the best prices. XVII SUB-TROPICAL FRUITS THE ORANGE THE SOUR ORANGE (Citrus aumntium) THE SWEET ORANGE (Citrus aurantium dulcis) THE MANDARIN ORANGE (Citrus durantium nolilis) THE POMELO, GRAPE FRUIT, ETC. (Citrus decumana) THE HARDY ORANGE (Citrus trifolidtd) THE LEMON (Citrus limonum) Next to the apple the orange is by far the most important fruit in the United States, although it can be grown only in special localities. It is to the Southern sections of the country what the apple is to the Northern sections. It is a good shipping fruit, even better than the apple, and its beautiful color and delicious flavor make it a close rival. Orange growers are generally very enthusiastic in their work, and well they should be, for the beautiful tree with its bright green leaves and wonderfully fragrant white flowers, followed by its golden fruit, makes it an object for admiration, and when the work is carried on in a systematic, business- like way, except when injured by frost, orange growing is profitable. While easily grown, the trees must have constant care to keep them growing vigorously, and to protect them from insect pests, and in some sections to protect them from frosts. THE ORANGE 177 PLANTING THE ORCHARD Orchards are started in two ways: (1) by planting trees already budded with desirable varieties, and (2) by planting seedlings (stocks) in the orchard and bud- ding them after one or two years' growth. The best stock for the extreme South is the sour orange, and for Northern sections the hardy orange (C. trifoliate). In a general way the preparation of the soil, pruning of the tree before planting, etc., are the same as for the apple or peach. In planting an orange orchard or grove, local conditions of soil, exposure and markets must be very carefully studied. In different sections the distance varies much, according to the variety grown, the method of pruning and richness of soil, so that no rule can be given. Enough room should be given for the full development of the trees. Training the Trees A round, low-headed, compact tree with an abundance of foliage is the ideal condition. If possible give the tree a slightly conical form by keeping the leader or central shoot a little stronger than the lateral branches. In other words, don't let the laterals outgrow the leader. The low head has many advantages. All the work of trimming, thinning, spraying, harvesting and protecting from frosts can be more cheaply and better done on low trees, and less fruit will be blown off in case of cyclones or heavy storms. Cultivation As with other orchard fruits, the aim should be to produce a vigorous and healthy tree. If the soil is naturally rich and drouth resistant, less cul- tivation and less fertilizing material will be needed. It* the soil is very thin, even with a large application of plant food, very frequent cultivation must be prac- ticed. Where the supply of water for irrigation ; -* abundant, less plant food and U** stirring of the soil 178 SUCCESSFUL FKUIT CULTURE will be needed, but very few good crops are grown, even under these conditions, without considerable cultivation. A very cheap source of organic matter (humus) in the Fig. 91 Orange Tree in Tub soil may be produced by sowing cover crops of clover, vetch or other leguminous crops about the time the trees are maturing their main annual growth. If there THE ORANGE 179 is any one season when drouth is more likely to occur than another, care must be taken that the cover crop is not making its greatest growth at this time, as with the great loss of plant food and moisture in this way at such a time the trees are likely to be seriously injured. Protection from Frost To secure fruit and trees from injury 1 by frost, provisions must be made for their protection, which should be ready at all times for use at shortest notice. When the trees are grown close to the ground coarse hay, reeds, brush or other similar material can be quickly piled up around the trunks and in among the branches at but little expense. Such material could no doubt be obtained near at hand or be grown especially for this purpose. After danger is past it could be used for bedding or for mulch. Folding covers, lined with paper, could be employed over small trees, which, if kept stored in a dry, airy place, would last a lifetime, and often in a single night save the results of years of labor and much invested capital. Other methods of protection may also be sug- gested, all of which should be investigated before adopting any of them. Figure 91 shows a sweet Florida orange tree grown in a tub, by Mr. E. H. Wrenn, Mt. Airy, N". C. It is eight and one-half feet high and its top ten feet in diameter. In winter it is kept in a brick store, heated with a stove, and in summer out of doors. It bore over 200 oranges the past season. VARIETIES As with all other kinds of fruit, the varieties of oranges are very numerous, and new and im- proved kinds are constantly coming to notice. The work being done by the Department of Agriculture at Washington in searching every orange growing section 180 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE of the world for choice varieties to be tested in this country will no doubt lead to a rapid improvement, and each grower must follow this investigation and be ready to adopt those that prove the best. Among the varieties now largely grown may be mentioned Boone's Early, Satsuma, Homosassa, Jaffa, Maltese Blond, Pine- apple, Washington Navel, etc. POMELO (GRAPE FRUIT) This fruit is practically a large orange with a thick skin and an acid, slightly bitter pulp. It requires nearly the same treatment as the orange. A few varieties to be recommended are Duncan, Eoyal, Triumph, etc. KUMQUAT (GOLD ORANGE) A most beautiful ornamental tree producing very small fruit in immense numbers. The rind as well as the pulp is edible, the fruit being especially valuable for preserving in the whole state. The great beauty of the trees, their great productiveness, and the quality of- the fruit, especially when preserved, should make this fruit very popular in the near future. THE FIG (Ficus carica) While almost a tropical fruit, the fig, by careful manipulation and winter covering, may be made to bear fruit as far north as New England. In the South it must be grown rather slowly after it reaches fruiting age, as a rapid growth tends to the formation of leaf buds rather than fruit buds. The soil should not be cultivated deeply, as the roots run near the surface. THE PERSIMMON 1 181 Tho strong new shoots that outgrow their neighbors should be pinched back when they have reached the desired length. This is much better than to allow long shoots to grow without checking and finally cutting off large shoots at the end of the season. At the North small trees may be grown in tubs or boxes, putting them in a warm, sunny place in sum- mer, and storing in a dry, warm cellar or pit during the winter. They are sometimes even grown in the garden if planted in a warm, dry soil in the sum- mer, and should be covered deeply in the winter with soil so that they will not freeze, but the tub or box system is much the best. Among the best varieties are the Black Ischia, Brunswick and White Adriatic. A bear- ing branch of the fig tree is seen in Figure 92. THE PERSIMMON AMERICAN (Diospyros Virginiana) JAPANESE (Diospyros Kaki) This fruit, a native of the Middle and Southern States, is one that should be given more attention. When ripe the fruit is beautiful, of good quality, and is pro- duced in large quantities. Few trees are planted in orchards, though some of the new varieties would war- Fig. 92-Bearing Branch of the Fi z Tree 182 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE rant their extensive cultivation. When grown in a too rich soil the trees are often destroyed by cold, there- fore at the North it is hest to plant in a rather light soil. The fruit of most varieties is not edible until the decay- ing process almost sets in, when they become very delicious. The Japanese persimmons are much supe- rior in size and quality, and are becoming of some com- mercial importance in the South. They are not hardy north of Washington. It is grafted upon the native stock, which may tend to make it more hardy. An effort is being made to produce new varieties of the native species, as well as from crosses with the Japanese, and we look for a great improvement in this fruit. Among the best varieties now in cultivation are Hyakume, Taber's No, 129, Yeddo, etc., etc. The cultivation required for success is not unlike that to be given to the Japanese plum or peach, though it is not as easily transplanted as either of the above. THE LOQUAT (Eriolotrya Japonica) . The Japanese medlar or Japanese plum, as it is sometimes called, is a delicious fruit about the size of the Eeine Claude plum, but of a brighter color. The fruit ripens in March and April, and while the trees are hardy as far north as the Middle South, its fruit matures only as far north as the middle of Florida. The leaves are large, dark green above, with a whitish down upon the under side, making it a decidedly orna- mental tree. In Southern Florida it is being somewhat extensively planted, and the fruit often finds its way into nearby markets, but is little seen in the Northern markets. Besides its being used in a fresh state, eaten from the hand, it is preserved, having something of the flavor of sweet cherries. XVIII THE PROPAGATION OF FRUIT TREES AND PLANTS While it may not generally be advisable for the fruit grower to attempt to grow trees for his own planting, in many cases it may be best and profitable to do so, and it certainly will be of great advantage to all to know how they are propagated, to enable them to judge of the value of the trees they buy, and if one can have well grown ones on his own place, ready to transplant at just the right time, and in a perfectly fresh condition, they will be much more sure to do well than the average nursery trees. In this chapter I shall attempt to give only the practice of the most reliable nurseries, so illustrated that with a little practice the intelligent and energetic man may grow good trees for his own planting! and perhaps supply some to his neighbors. The boys and girls should become interested in this work, in which they might soon become skillful, and perhaps lay the foundation for the establishment of the nursery business in sections not now supplied with home grown trees. THE PROPAGATION OP THE APPLE None of the varieties of the apple reproduce the same kind from seed. Thus there has never been but one Baldwin apple tree grown from seed; all of the trees of this variety, except the first one, that came from seed, have been grown by inserting buds or cions 184 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE from this tree, or others like it, into other seedling stocks. Tho stocks most in use for this purpose are those imported from France or other European coun- tries, where the people have gained great skill, and where the price of labor is much less than in this country, though a few of our nurserymen grow good native stocks, either from imported seed or that from strong natural or unbudded trees. If only a small number of seedlings are needed, the seed can be obtained from strong trees of natural fruit, separating it from the pulp or planting the whole apples, first cutting them into quarters and planting in the fall before the ground freezes. If the seed is cleaned it may be planted in the fall, where the mice or squirrels will not destroy it, or it may be kept over in dry sand or fine dry loamy soil buried in the ground where there is no standing water, care being taken that the sand does not become wet. In the spring the seed should be sown as soon as the soil will work fine and mellow. The Seedbed Any rather moist, rich loam will grow good apple seedlings if it is properly prepared. It should be deeply worked with the plow or spade and well enriched with partly decomposed stable manure, or with fine ground bone and potash at the rate of 1500 pounds of the former to 500 pounds of the latter per acre. After the seedbed has been thoroughly fitted the seed should be sown in drills fifteen inches apart if to be cultivated by hand, or thirty inches if it is to be done by the horse, and be covered about one-half inch deep. After the seedlings are an inch or two high they should be thinned to about two inches apart, weeding out all weak or defective seedlings, and during the season cultivate thoroughly at least once a week. If in July the seedlings are not making the growth they ought, some quick acting fertilizer should be scattered along the row and cultivated in. PROPAGATION OF TREES AND PLANTS 183 Digging the Seedlings In the fall, before the ground freezes, the seedlings, which should have made a growth of from one to two feet, must be carefully dug and heeled-in, i. e., packed in trenches of light soil, where there will be no standing water, with the soil carefully worked in among the roots and nearly all of the top covered with soil, and as very cold weather comes on a covering of straw or hay be put on to keep the ground from deep freezing. If the seedlings are to be root grafted, they are washed after digging and packed in sphag- num moss or sawdust and put into a very cool cellar. Root Grafting Much has been said pro and con as to the value of the root- grafted apple tree as compared with the budded tree, and it may be said that both are good when the work is properly done, and the writer believes that a root graft, skillfully made in December or January, and carefully stored in a cool cellar in moist sand or light soil until the last of April and then planted in a rich soil, will make as good a tree as most budded stocks, but, for the amateur, budding will give the best results. The root graft is made by taking the seedling and first trimming off the lateral roots and the end of the Fig. 93 Fig. 94 Fig. 95 Root drafting 186 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE main root to about six to eight inches long. A cut is then made just below the collar about an inch long, as seen in Figure 93. A tongue is then cut at A B ; the cion, Figure 94, a piece of the last season's growth of the variety desired, is then taken, and a similar cut is made at A B, the two being pressed together with the cambium layers of both stock and cion in as close contact as is possible, as seen in Figure 95. The graft is then tied firmly and evenly with waxed string, waxed cloth or raffia fiber. The success of the work depends upon the smoothness of the cut, the perfection of the union of the cambium layers, and close and firm tying. To shut out the air and moisture from the grafted sur- face and insure a more complete union, it is best to cover the cut with grafting wax or with waxed cloth after tying. After the grafts have been made they should be packed in boxes in moist sand or fine sandy soil, pressing the packing very firmly about the grafted parts. After the box is filled it is placed in an upright position, that any growth that may take place will be toward the union of the graft. The grafts should be planted as soon in the spring as the soil will work up light and mellow, and they are best set with a dibber or spade, the top bud being set at the level of the grQund. In planting with the spade the blade is inserted to its full depth, worked back and forth until the desired space is made, when a graft is placed at each end of the opening made, and one in the middle, thus setting them about four inches apart, with the top bud just at the surface of the soil. The spade is then again inserted a few inches outside of this opening and the soil pressed very firmly against the grafts. The soil should then be trodden firmly on both sides. In taking the root grafts from the boxes it is best to keep them in a pail of water until they are planted. PROPAGATION OF TREES AND PLANTS 187 Budding For propagation by budding, the seed- lings that have been heeled-in the previous fall are taken up as soon as the land will work up mellow in the spring, the ends and lateral roots trimmed as for root grafting, and planted in the same manner as the root grafts, except that they are set only as deep as they stood in the seedbed. The seedling and the root graft are now planted in the nursery and in a few days after planting the surface of the soil must be made fine and mellow and be kept in this condition through- out the growing season. To insure success in budding, the stocks must be made to grow vigorously and be kept free from insects and fungous pests by spraying with kerosene and the bordeaux mixture. Budding is best done when the seedlings are approaching maturity, ranging from the first of August to September 15 in different parts of the country, but it must be done when the bark will peel readily. The buds used shctuld be those from vigorous fruiting trees that produce Fig 96 _ Bud stlck the type of fruit desired. Before the work of budding begins, a sufficient number of bud sticks (Figure 9G) should be prepared, as well as an abundance of tying material (raffia fiber) cut to the proper lengths, according to the size of the stocks to be budded. The bud sticks and tying material are carried in a moistened wrapper slung over the left shoulder, so as to be readily reached by the right hand. The stocks should then be trimmed for five or six inches above the ground of all shoots and leaves, so as not to interfere with the work of budding. A sharp shoe knife with a thin blade and a rounded point is generally used, though the budding 188 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE knives (Figure 97) sold by dealers in horticultural supplies are preferable. The process of budding consists in first making a cross cut, as shown in Figure 98, then turning the knife and starting about three-quarters of an inch below, making an upward cut to the cross cut, where by a quick turn of the hand the bark on both sides of the cut is raised, as shown in Figure 99. A bud stick is then taken, and, placing the knife about half an inch below the bud, a cut is made through the bark upward, taking a little of the wood with the bud. The bud is then held by the stalk of the leaf that has been left for Fig. 97 Budding Knives the purpose, and the point inserted under the raised bark and pressed down until it is well in place, as seen in Figure 100. If the bark does not peel quite readily enough the rounded point of the knife is pushed under the raised points and run downward, raising it so that the b.ud will be properly set, but buds will not be as sure to grow as if the bark peels with fhe pressure of the bud as it is forced down in place. After being inserted the bud must be firmly and evenly tied with some soft and flat tying material or soft string, as seen in Figure 101. The material most in use is raffia fiber, so commonly employed for tying asparagus and other vegetables. PROPAGATION OF TREES AND PLANTS 189 The conditions of success are: (1) a vigorous grow- ing stock; (2) a well matured bud; (3) a sharp, thin- bladed knife; (4) a clean, smooth cut; (5) little exposure to the air and a good fit under the bark; (6) firm and even binding. After the buds have been in- serted a week or two the stocks should be examined, and if the bands are cutting into them, the result of rapid growth, they should be loosened a little, or if the R*. 98 Fljt. 99 Fly. 100 101 bud has united sufficiently a cut may be made on the side opposite the bud, when the band will be gradually loosened by the continued growth of the stock. The buds require no further care until the following spring, when the stock is cut off just above the inserted bud, and we have practically the same condition as in the root graft just planted, except that, in the latter, one year's growth of roots has been made in the nursery, while in the former it has been just transplanted. Nursery Treatment Taking the budded seedling and the newly transplanted root graft, we will give the treatment required to produce a first-class tree for 190 SUCCESSFUL FKUIT CULTURE orchard planting. The conditions of success are: (1) a rich soil and frequent and thorough cultivation; (2) allow only one bud to grow, i. e., the bud inserted into the stock in budding and the top bud of the cion on the root graft; (3) allow only one shoot to grow (Figure 102), a clean, straight growth being necessary to a satisfactory tree. The young trees must be protected from injury by insects and fungous diseases as in the orchard, and the / same methods are ' to be employed. At the begin- ning of the second year, and before the growth begins, the one-y e a r-old shoot should be cut back to the hight at which it is desired to have the top formed. (Figure 103.) ,This hight may be from two to four feet, according to the method of training to be followed in the growth of the young tree, those not having made over two or three feet being cut back to the ground for a new start. Buds of those trees that have been topped at from two to four feet high will start all along from the top of the ground in most cases (Figure 102a), but only a few at the top are generally allowed to grow, the others either being rubbed off as soon as well started, or being allowed to grow an inch or two and then the ends pinched to check their growth, thus forcing all development into the branches desired for the head. These branches Fig. 102 Fljj. 103 Nursery Treatment of Young Trees PBOPAGATION OF TREES AND PLANTS 101 pinched are to be finally cut off close to the trunk. * The last method has the advantage of making a more stocky tree, though not quite so smooth and clean. At the end of the second year apple trees, either root grafts or budded stock, should stand from five to seven feet high, and be from three-fourths to one inch in diameter at the ground, with four or five strong shoots near the top and evenly placed on all sides of the trunk. Such trees, i. e., two-year trees, are better than those older or younger for general planting, and should not be allowed to stand longer in the nursery. Digging Trees from the Nursery The value of nursery trees to the purchaser largely depends upon how many of the roots are secured in digging them from the ground, and how long they are exposed to the air before they are planted in the soil again. The best way to get them from the ground is to first dig the soil away from the tree down to the roots, which will be, in well cultivated land, about six inches. Then with sharp spades cut a circle around the tree at from one to two feet, according to the size of the tree, severing all roots that go outside of that limit. With two strong spades, one on each side, and a third man to pull, the tree is then lifted out with the largest amount of roots that it is possible to secure. If a large number of trees is to be dug and the help is limited, all of those of one variety are first loosened and then, going over the row again, all are taken quickly from the ground and the roots covered, or each kind may be planted before another kind is dug. Trees should never be kept out of the ground any longer than is absolutely necessary. If trees are to be transported a long distance, the roots should be protected from drying by the process known as "puddling," which consists in dipping them in a thick mixture of clay and water, the covering thus formed making .an almost air-tight covering over the roots. 192 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE Trees from Home vs. Distant Nurseries The ques- tion as to whether it is best to grow our own trees, to purchase them from nurseries near home, or to send to sections a long distance away where they have peculiar advantages of soil or special skill that comes from long practice which enables them to grow better trees and at a lower price, is one that needs careful consideration. There can be no doubt as to the value of two trees equally well grown, the one from a nursery within a short distance of the place of planting, where they may be dug and planted the same day, and one grown hun- dreds of miles away. The one grown in the home nursery will be, beyond question, the best to plant. It is the practice of local nurseries to buy young stock of parties who are very skillful, and are growing in large quantities, plant them in their own nurseries for a year or two, and then sell to the local trade. These trees are, as a rule, more sure to grow than trees planted at first hand, but are more expensive. The question as to where to obtain the best trees for planting is an. important one, and can only be settled by a very careful consideration of all the surrounding conditions, but one thing must be impressed on the planter that it does not pay to buy poor stock at any price. PROPAGATION OF THE PEAR The pear is propagated in practically the same way as the apple, but requires more care in the selection of the seed, in the growth of the seedlings and in their care in the nursery. The stocks most in use by the nurserymen are imported, and called French stocks, but by a careful selection of seed and an especially good soil, good native seedling stocks may be grown. The varieties of the pear are generally increased by budding (see page 189). Some nurserymen, how- PROPAGATION OF TREES AND PLANTS 193 ever, use the root graft, though this method cannot be recommended for general use. Nursery Treatment The best soil for the growth of good trees in the nursery is a deep, moist loam, per- haps a little clayey, but thoroughly underdrained. The seedlings are cared for and planted in the same manner as the apple, but more attention must be given to them that they do not cease growing from the time planted until they are budded, for, if from want of plant food or moisture they are checked in growth, the leaf blight may attack them, the leaves fall, and budding cannot be done. If it is found at any time in July that growth is weak, some quick acting fertilizer should be scattered in a furrow close up to the roots and be cultivated in. Frequent cultivation must be kept up from the time the seedlings are set out until budding is completed once a week is not too often and in case of drouth more frequent working of the soil will be advisable. The leaf blight fungus, described in Chapter XXI, is more likely to attack pear seedlings in hot, moist weather, in low land, than upon that in full exposure to air and sunlight. The preventive, other than that mentioned, is spraying with the bordeaux as used in the orchard. The budding of the pear seedlings, cutting off of the stock and the forming of the head is the same as to time and method as for the apple, but it generally requires one year longer to grow a first-class pear tree than for the apple. Top-working Some varieties produce a weak stock or trunk, and to make good, upright, clean trees, must be "top-worked." This consists in budding in summer, or splice or tongue grafting in spring, on some strong growing stock like Clapp or Flemish Beauty. In this way a stout trunk is obtained much earlier than rm be produced on its own stock. Old treos of unprofitable varieties may be grafted over as described for the apple. 194 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE PROPAGATION OF THE PEACH Peach trees for orchard planting are more easily grown than those of any other fruit. The soil best suited to the production of first-class trees is a medium deep loam, that will not be subject to drouth, and fully exposed to a good circulation of air. Much care must be exercised in the selection of the seed, that coming from vigorous, healthy trees being the best. Much of the seed used is sold as coming from Tennessee, North Carolina, etc., where it is claimed that the disease known as the "yellows" does not exist. It is undoubtedly true that this disease is less prevalent in the above-mentioned sections, but it is thought that it may be found there, and as the "natural" fruit often is less vigorous than many of the budded sorts, it would seem best to use seed from the most hardy, healthy and vigorous varie- ties, whether budded or not. The seed should be obtained as early in the fall as is possible, and be "bedded," i. e., mixed with soil and exposed to the frost .so that it will germinate more readily in the spring. Bedding the seeds consists in selecting a rather moist soil of sandy loam, where there will be no danger of standing water, and making a pit from six to ten inches deep, and of the size required for the amount of seed to be used. In the bottom of this bed a layer of seeds two or three deep is placed, then a layer of soil of the same depth, treading it firmly, then another layer of seeds, and so on until the bed is filled a little above the level of the surrounding soil. Here the seeds remain exposed to the action of moisture and frost until they begin to sprout in May, when they are thrown upon a wire screen, and the shells will separate from the kernel if the frosting has been a success. If any seeds fail to sprout they must be carefully cracked with a light hammer. As the kernels are separated from PROPAGATION OF TREES AND PLANTS 195 the shells they should be kept covered with moist sand or soil until ready for planting. They are planted in rows from four to five feet apart and about two inches in the row, covering with fine soil from one to two inches deep, according to the character of the soil. Under proper conditions of cul- tivation and in good soil the seedlings should be from eighteen to twenty-four inches high by the last of August, when they are to be budded. If larger than this they are more difficult to bud, and will make a tree the following season too large for the best results in planting in the orchard. The peach is the most easily budded of any of the fruit trees, but care must be taken not to put in fruit buds. Buds should be taken from the best and most fruitful trees and not from the nursery rows, though the latter will be more certain to grow, and fewer blossom buds be obtained. The process of budding is the same as for the apple. As the peach seedlings grow very rapidly about the time of budding, a closer watch must be kept that the bands do not cut into the stocks so as to cause them to break off in the wind. The stocks are cut off, as seen in Figure 43, the following spring, and the buds start into rapid growth, requiring early attention that the inserted bud is not injured by other buds that start about it. The care required the first season is to see that only one leader grows, but all laterals are allowed to grow, and at the end of the first year's growth the tree is ready for planting in the orchard. Peach trees are graded according to size into No. 1 and No. 2, or according to hight, as five to seven feet, three and one- half to five feet, and three to four and one-half feet. The trees most planted are those of medium or second sizes, for the reason that these have more dormant buds on the main stem than the larger trees, and conse- quently more stocky heads can be formed from them. 196 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE PROPAGATION OF THE PLUM Varieties of plums are propagated by budding on several kinds of stocks, the most in use being the French or Myrobalan, strong growing varieties of the native or American plum, and the peach stock. For the Euro- pean varieties the Myrobalan is most largely used, though the use of the American stock is increasing. The Jap- anese plums are grown on both the Myrobalan and the peach stock, the former doing the best when to be planted on heavy soil and the latter when to be set on rather light soil. The nursery treatment is prac- tically the same as in the growth of the apple, and the amateur finds no great difficulty in growing good trees. Some growers are using peach roots on which to graft the Japanese and some American varieties, the claim being that when worked in this way, and planted deeply, roots will soon grow from the cion and thus the trees are on their own roots in a short time. The Japanese plums grown on peach stocks are generally large enough for planting at one year- from the bud. PROPAGATION OF THE APRICOT AND NECTARINE These two fruits are propagated in the same man- ner as the peach, being budded on the peach stock. PROPAGATION OF THE CHERRY Like the plum, the varieties of the cherry are prop- agated on imported stocks. Two kinds are used, the Mahaleb and the Mazzard, the latter being most largely used and most valuable. The soil for the best results is a light, rather rich loam, kept well cultivated, by which means the seedlings are brought into good condi- tion for budding the last of August. If growing very rapidly at the time the buds are inserted, it is often the practice to head back the seedlings to check their PROPAGATION OF TREES AND PLANTS 197 growth, and thus cause a more perfect union of the bud with the stock. After the stock is cut off in the spring, the bud grows very rapidly, and the trees are often large enough for transplanting to the orchard at one year from the bud. PKOPAGATION OF THE QUINCE The quince is propagated by cuttings, by layers, by stools and by root grafts, but as the two former methods are rather difficult, the last two are the ones most used. Root Graft For this purpose small pieces of apple roots are used; the trimmings of the seedlings are taken and cut into lengths of three or four inches, each one to be grafted on a cion six to eight inches long, of the de- sired variety, and are then planted in the same manner as the pig. 104-Quince stool apple root grafts de- scribed on Page 186. The apple root supplies moisture and a little food material until roots are formed on the cion, when it fails to grow more, and we have the quince on its own root. Where only a few trees are desired they may be grown by what is called the "stool" method. This con- sists in first cutting a small, young tree down to within four or five inches of the ground, and- allowing it to throw up new shoots that grow one season, as seen in Figure 104. At the beginning of the second season a mound of soil is made about this "stool" deep enough to keep the base of the shoots moist all of the time 198 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE during the summer, when in the fall roots will be found well developed. These shoots are then cut off and treated as rooted cuttings, which after one season in the nursery under good conditions should be large enough to plant in the orchard. PROPAGATION OF THE GRAPEVINE The grape is propagated by cuttings, by layers and by grafting, and is one of the most easily propagated of the fruits. Cuttings Two kinds of cuttings are employed, the long cutting and the short cutting. The long cutting, under ordinary care, gives the best results, the short cuttings only being employed under glass. The long cuttings are made of canes of the last season's growth, of medium size, about eight to ten inches long, containing two or more buds to each cutting. (Figure 105.) The best time to make them is in the fall before the ground freezes, tying in bundles of twenty-five and carefully heeling-in in a sheltered place or in a cold-frame where they will not freeze, and ~ where they can be gotten at early in the Cutting spring for early planting. Cuttings are some- times planted in the fall, but if this is done a heavy mulch of stable manure should be put on the bed before the ground freezes to keep them from being heaved out by the frost. Layers Perhaps the best method by which the amateur may increase his stock of vines is the "spring layer." (Figure 106.) This consists in taking canes of last season's growth and bending them down into a trench five or six inches deep in the spring before growth begins, and after the buds along the cane have made a few inches of growth, filling in the trench with PROPAGATION OF TREES AND PLANTS 199 good soil, when during the summer roots will form at each node or bud, and in the fall we shall have as many rooted plants as there are shoots. If, after the cane has been bent down, only the buds at the end of the cane and those near the vine start, it may be bent up, when the buds at the highest point will grow. If any of these new canes grow faster than the others the ends should be pinched off so as to force the growth into the weaker ones. Fig. 106-Layerlng the Grapevine Summer Layer This consists in taking a cane of the present season's growth and bending it down into a trench in July, covering with five or six inches of soil as in the spring layer, but only two vines will be produced from each cane layered, i. e., that at the end of the cane and that part nearest to the vine. By these two methods anyone who has a vine or two in the garden may increase the number with much more certainty and with less labor than from cuttings. #00 SUCCESSFUL FHUIT CULTURE Grafting the Vine Many of the varieties highly recommended by nurserymen prove of little value except under the most favorable conditions, and after planting it becomes necessary to destroy them or to change the variety. The latter can be done with a limited success only by grafting, though no one has been able to make more than a small per cent of grafts to grow, but when they do succeed the growth is so great that the graft bears fruit often the next year after grafting. The most successful method of grafting the vine is by cutting Pig. 107 drafting the Grapevine off the stock two or three inches below the surface of the ground in the fall before the ground freezes, and making a colnmon cleft graft. If the stock does not split well a fine saw may be used to split it. After the cion has been inserted the soil is packed firmly about the cleft, no wax being used, then a small flowerpot is inverted over it (Figure 107), so that the cion may not be disturbed when being uncovered in the spring. More soil (d d) is now banked around the flowerpot, and, as cold weather comes on, mulch enough is put PROPAGATION OF TREES AND PLANTS 201 on to keep it from freezing deeply (g /). In the spring, after heavy frosts are over, the covering is taken off, the soil packed firmly to the top of the cion, when, if the work is successful, growth will begin early and a large vine will result. This kind o-f a graft is also made by some in June after the leaves have unfolded, and the sap has become thickened, but the cions must be kept dormant in cold storage or deeply covered on the ice in an icehouse. If the stock used is very small the cion should be tied in with a strong string in order to obtain pressure enough to cause the cambium layers to unite. PROPAGATION OF THE CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY These two fruits are propagated in the same manner as the grape, i. e., by cuttings and layers. The Currant Cuttings are best made as soon as the leaves begin to fade in August or September. They are made of the new wood, from six to eight inches long, and should be planted at once for the best growth. The soil should be a deep, moist, rich loam, and the planting and care is the same as for grape cuttings or root grafts, the top bud of the cutting being just covered with soil. Before the ground freezes the bed should be covered with several inches of strawy manure or other mulch to prevent the heaving of cuttings by the alter- nating freezing and thawing during the winter and spring. If the work is successful a large growth may be expected the next season, and the bushes will be ready to plant at one or two years from the time the cutting were planted. Layers of the currant are made like those of the grape, but as cuttings root so easily under proper conditions, the layer is not much used. The gooseberry is not easily grown from cuttings unless the canes are first covered with soil for one season, but readily grown by what are called "rtools,"" as 202 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE described under the quince. After the shoots have been covered one season they are cut off and planted as cuttings, rooting readily, and at two years they are ready to plant in the field. PROPAGATION OF THE RASPBERRY AND BLACKBERRY These two fruits are increased in two ways, i. e., from suckers and from root cuttings. A sucker plant is one that naturally comes up from the roots of these plants, and is the cause of their spreading. If these sucker plants are taken up we find that they have but few fine roots, but if carefully taken up and transplanted at once make good plants, and are largely used in setting new plantations. The root cuttings are, however, much better, as they have an abundance of fine roots. Root cuttings are made by digging up the roots of the desired kind in the fall before the ground freezes, cutting them into pieces of from two to three inches in length, using everything from one-eighth of an inch up, and planting in rich, moist soil in beds or wide rows about as peas are planted, covering about two inches deep. Before the ground freezes deeply a covering of coarse stable manure should be put over the bed that the ground shall not freeze deeply. In the spring the covering is taken off as soon as severe freezing weather is over, the ground carefully cleared of weeds as the season advances, and by July the bed will be studded over with buds from the planted roots. The only care needed during the summer is to keep the weeds down, keep the surface of the soil mellow and to check, by pinching, any very strong growing plants that tend to injure their neighbors. At the end of the season the plants should average two feet in hight and have a large mass of roots. Such plants are far more valuable than the sucker plants, arid sell at about double the price. PROPAGATION OF TREES AND PLANTS 203 The blackcap raspberry is propagated by the ends or tips of the canes taking root. This takes place to a limited extent without assistance, but to obtain the largest number of plants the ends of the canes should be carefully covered with one or two inches of soil the last of August or early in September. The layer or "tip" plants (Figure 76) are better if not taken up until the following spring, but if carefully dug and handled, it may be done in the fall with a fair degree of success. The tips should not be planted in the field until spring. PROPAGATION OP THE STRAWBERRY The strawberry is not generally grown as a nursery product alone, but the plants for setting new fields are often taken from the fruiting plantations. To a lim- ited extent this practice is not seriously objectionable, but, as many kinds are often grown in the fruiting fields more or less closely together, there are many chances of their getting mixed. The plants cannot be as well dug as from a bed where all are to be removed, and therefore it is better to have all plants grown in beds where no fruit is expected. A' method practiced by some of the experiment stations and others, called "summer bedding," is found very satisfactory. This consists in heeling-in, or planting in close rows or beds, the runners that are thinned from the rows or the field during the summer, where they remain until the follow- ing spring, when they may be set in the field at any time from the first of April to June without being checked in transplanting. In this way runners that have made but very short roots, if heeled-in and shaded for a day or two, will make strong rooted plants in a few weeks, and each plant will have full exposure to the air and sunlight, thus making very strong plants. 204 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE In the foregoing pages of this chapter we have given a brief outline of the methods employed in propa- gating the fruits and the treatment they require in the nursery, which we hope will enable those who are about to go into fruit raising and with some practice to grow, under favorable conditions, good trees and plants for their own planting. XIX FRUIT GROWING UNDER GLASS While in this progressive age almost all of the fruits of the tropics and many local fruits are shipped to the North in a perfectly fresh condition from the South, yet to have native fruits out of season in the Pig. 108 Curvilinear Span-Roof House great perfection that they may be grown in skillfully managed fruit houses will always be considered a great luxury. For many jears past fruit growing under glass has received much less attention than formerly on account of the improved facilities for transportation, and as a market product to compete with Southern or Pacific Coast products the fruit houses will hardly be 206 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE able to hold their own except for its greater perfection. Large estates, with their numerous gardens and green- houses, may add a fruit house, a cold or hot grapery, or force strawberries in any cool house, at little expense, with a great deal of satisfaction. So, too, the owner of a city home with but a few rods of land may have, if he can. afford the expense, even choicer fruit than Fly. 109-Straight Sash Bar Lean-to House can be grown by the farmer, and so control conditions as to have it through a much wider range of season. This expense, however, need not be great after the houses are built, and these may be simple and inexpensive structures built against the house or stable, or may be very elaborate and ornate, built by skillful greenhouse architects. As with fruits out of doors the grower must be familiar with the needs of each crop and they need practically the same conditions under glass that they FRUIT GROWING UNDER GLASS 20? do in the field and be prompt and persistent in carry- ing out the details of the work in all of t its stages. A little neglect or wrong treatment for even a short time will result in more serious injury than in the field. Too high or too low temperature for even a short time at critical moments may often destroy an entire season's growth, and no one should undertake the care of fruit under glass unless they are so situated that attention can be given to the crop by someone at any moment of the day when conditions may require it. Among the fruits that may be successfully grown under glass are the peach, apricot, grape and strawberry. THE PEACH AND APRICOT For forcing these two fruits, very nearly the same conditions are required. The most approved house for this work is one with a span roof running north and south. Both the curvilinear (Figure 108) and the straight sash bar (Figure 109) are used, the former being more ornamental, whiLe the latter will make a closer house. In the extreme Northern sections the lean-to has the advantage that it can be most easily heated, on account of the shelter wall on the north side. The foundation should be raised above the surrounding land to insure quick surface drainage and a dry atmos- phere. The trees are generally grown in borders, but where space is limited they may be grown in pots or tubs and stored during the winter or dormant stage* in close quarters in the houses, in stable cellars or in pits. The Borders The borders are generally made in- side, as seen in Figure 108, but may be partly outside as well, as shown in Figure 109, and should be made of fine, light, but moderately rich material. Decayed sods, leaf mold, coarse bones, mortar waste and perhaps some sand if the soil is heavy should be well mixed together for this purpose. The border should be thor- 208 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE oughly under drained with tile, as shown in the illus- trations, with a free outlet, so that there shall be no possibility of water standing about the roots. Where the fruit is to be forced during the winter the inside border is probably the best, but where growth does not begin until spring the outside border has some advantages, requiring less care as to watering,- though in case of heavy rain storms may become too wet unless drainage is very perfect. The roots of the trees planted inside reach the outsider border through 6xl8-inch openings in III! I i Mill -<5**~? V' \_Ia~ ~ ^ J ""-^c^ Pig. 110 Wall with Openings for the Roots the wall, as seen at a, Figure 110, at intervals opposite where the trees are planted, the border being filled up nearly to the sills of the house. The soil should be woaked over thoroughly several times, and be not less than two feet in depth. Planting Young, vigorous one-year-old trees should be used, the roots being well cut back and the iop trimmed to ten to twelve inches, or perhaps better, cut down to two or three buds. The advantage of the latter method is that one clean central shoot may be trained from a single bud near the ground more easily than from a stock one foot or more high, and the buds FRUIT GROWING UNDER GLASS 201) generally start with greater vigor when from near the ground. The planting and first year's treatment under glass is practically the same as out of doors, except that the training should be directed so as to produce the desired form, pinching here and there as needed to produce the flat form (espalier), or the tree form, as desired. The aim should be to obtain the conditions that would give the best growth if planted outside. Watering Water should be applied liberally whenever the border becomes dry, but too much water is much worse than too little. Syringe the foliage two or three times each week on bright sunny mornings. In extremely hot, moist weather, withhold water, and if the red spider appears an indication of a too dry atmosphere syringe more freely. Ventilate freely both night and day during the summer, but in very cold, wet weather, keep the ventilators partly closed. At blooming time withhold water and keep a dry, airy atmosphere. So, too, when the fruit is beginning to color, give more air and increase or reduce the tempera- ture as the ripening of the fruit is to be hastened or retarded. Cultivation and Fertilization During the growing season the border should receive about the same atten- tion as is given borders outside. The surface should be frequently stirred, and no weeds allowed to grow. If the border becomes too wet it will dry out more quickly if allowed to stand without stirring. Should the growth of the trees be weak and sickly a little quick- acting fertilizer like nitrate of soda will often give them a start. Before growth begins each season a liberal dressing of well decomposed stable manure should be worked into the border. To this may be added to advantage, sometimes, a light dressing of air-slaked lime or wood ashes. 210 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE Training the Tree Two plans or methods of training commonly practiced are the tree form and the "fan" espalier form, the latter being most in use. Much skill may be exercised in this work, and many modified forms of these two methods produced to adjust the trees to surrounding conditions. Each season the new shoots are to be cut back more or less to insure a moderate number of blossoms and enough shoots to renew the fruit bearing wood for the next season. No surplus wood should be allowed to grow, the whole force of the tree to be directed to the production of the fruit and the renewal shoots. During the summer all shoots not needed to carry out the plan of training should be cut off as soon as they appear. Thinning the Fruit To produce fruit of the best size, quality and color, but a limited quantity should be allowed to grow on a given space of wood. Reducing the number of specimens to one-fourth or even more will often not reduce the measured quantity of fruit ripened, while the number of seeds or kernels being largely reduced, the strain on the tree is not as great, and it will often make a much larger growth, and be in better condition for next year's crop. No rule can be given as to the number of specimens to be left or the distance apart on the branches; each grower must "use his judgment," but it is best to err on the safe side by thinning liberally, if the future good of the trees is to be considered. On a well branched, vig- orous tree, four inches apart would give a large number 01 fruits, while if the tree is weak six inches would be a better distance. Varieties Among those recommended by success- ful growers are the following: Peaches Royal George, Golden Eagle, Goshawk. Nectarines Cardinal, Lord Napier, Darwin, Victoria. Trees in Pots When one has limited glass space FRUIT GROWING UNDER GLASS 211 and a good cellar or pit in which to store them during the winter, trees of the peach, apricot and nectarine may be grown in pots with a good degree of satisfaction. Small one-year-old trees should be planted in six to eight-inch pots in rich soil in April or May, and be grown vigorously in the open air until October. For the best results they should be shifted once or twice into pots of larger size until, when well grown, they will be in twelve-inch size. They must have a constant supply of water and an abundance of plant food. To prevent too rapid evaporation of moisture from the soil in the pot, they should be plunged to their rim, or an inch or two lower if the soil is dry, in soil, sphagnum moss, or some other material that holds moisture well. They should be plunged where they will have a full exposure to sunlight and air. Under no circumstances must the soil become dry for any considerable time, and whenever water is ap- plied sufficient should be used to saturate the soil in the pots and that about it. If the roots are found to grow through the drain hole or over the top of the pot the ball of roots should be pulled from the pot and given a full turn, returning all roots to the inside of the pot, settling the soil firmly in place by tamping. As cold weather comes on less water should be used that the wood may become well ripened. Any mulch about the roots should be removed unless in times of severe drouth. Allow the trees to stand in full exposure until there is danger of bursting the pots by frost, when the pots may be protected or be taken up and placed in a frame where the pots can be protected. At any time from December to March, after consid- erable exposure to frost has been given, the trees may be gradually exposed to a higher temperature in a light, airy house, starting at thirty-five degrees at night and forty to forty-five degrees during the daytime, and 212 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE raising it about two to three degrees a week until well started into growth, when the treatment must be the same as for trees planted in the borders. GRAPES UNDER GLASS Of all the fruit crops under glass none gives the satisfaction that the grape does, and none is so easily grown. They may be grown in cheap houses with a Fig. Ill Cold drapery border outside and without any artificial heat, the fruit ripening a little earlier than the outdoor crop, or in houses with borders inside, and by the aid of artificial heat, the fruit may be ripened at any time from July to January. Many of the varieties grown under glass possess such long-keeping qualities that they may be had in perfect condition nearly the year around by a FRUIT GROWING UNDER GLASS 213 little especial care, i. e., cutting a part of the cane with each bunch and inserting it in a bottle of water and hanging in a cool, dry cellar. Cold Grapery Any glass house comparatively close, with long sash bars, and space for a border outside or in, may be used with success for this work. The best form is perhaps a lean-to eighteen to twenty feet wide facing the south, with long rafters or sash bars and ventilators at the top and bottom. Strong one-year-old vines are planted in the border outside, with the cane growing through the openings in the wall, as seen in Figure 111. The Border The border should be made about two feet deep, of about the same material used for making the fruit house border, i. e., partly rotted turf, leaf mold, sand, bones, old mortar, etc. It should be well under- drained and the whole texture, when completed, should be light, warm and rich. The first year it need be made only four to six feet wide, each year adding about two feet, until it is fourteen to sixteen feet wide. Fine ground bone and wood ashes make a good fertilizer if the soil is not too heavy. Training the Vine (first year) At planting the vine is cut back so that one or two buds will come inside of the wall, as seen at a, Figure 111. Only one cane is allowed to grow, and this should make from six to eight feet, but the end be pinched off when it has reached five feet, that the buds and wood may fully mature. No laterals are allowed to grow. If from any cause one of the lateral buds should start into growth, one leaf is allowed to unfold, when the cane should be pinched off just beyond it, as shown in Figure 111. The removal of this leaf would cause the bud at its base to grow. Summer Care During the summer little care need be given the border. If properly made it will take care of itself unless it should become flooded, which 214 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE good drainage will prevent. The inside treatment needed is an abundance of air and sunlight. As the time for growth begins keep the ventilators well open in all bright, warm weather, night or day, so that the vines will not start too early, but keep closed when very cold or wet. Sudden changes from high temperature to low and close hot weather tend to bring on mildew and rot, and must be avoided. During the summer the atmosphere should be kept on the dry side, syringing the foliage in the morning during bright weather once or twice each week and more frequently should "red spiders" gain a foothold. When in bloom and again when the fruit is ripening, and until well ripened, use but little water, and expose to full air and sunlight to ripen the wood. Training the Vine (second year) The first year's growth of five or six feet is generally cut back to two or three feet, as seen at &, Figure 111, and the second year be allowed to start a strong bud at the end. The lateral, Figure 111, will burst also, and a few bunches of fruit might be set, but this is not advisable until the second year. The ends of all laterals should be pinched off as soon as one leaf has been formed, as seen in same figure. Often several buds will start into growth from one node, all but the central one of which should be rubbed off entirely. As with the first year's growth, no laterals are allowed to grow more than one leaf at a time. At the end of the second year the leader will have made one clean cane from eight to fifteen feet long (Figure 111, a, b, c), with a few laterals on the growth of last year. (Figure 111, a, b.) Training the Vine (third year) At the beginning of the third season's growth we should cut the new cane to about three feet, thus increasing the fruiting cane to about six feet in length. From each bud of this cane will be sent out shoots at every node, as seen in Figure 112, FRUIT GROWING UNDER GLASS 215 each of which will produce from one to three bunches of blossoms. As soon as these can be distinguished the cane should be pinched off to the last large cluster and one leaf; thus there will be, when set, one large cluster of fruit and one or more large leaves, besides the leaves of the main canes. During the summer, as soon as a new leaf has been formed beyond the last bunch, the end of the cane is pinched off and at the end of the season we will have short spurs upon which are large bunches of grapes. In pruning the laterals after fruiting, cut back so as to reduce the length of the spur for the next year's cane as much as possible. Fig- ure 112 shows how much the spu? would be elon- gated if the cut were made at the large bud, I, and how much shorter it would be if the cut were to be made as shown at a. Each succeeding sea- son the work is a repeti- tion of that of the third year until the permanent vine reaches the ridge of the house. Each succeeding year, however, will be likely to be met with some new difficulty, the result of climatic or other changes, insect pests or fungous diseases, which must be met and overcome. If a vine becomes weak or seriously injured by cold the root often may be in a healthy condition, and the top may be renewed by starting a new cane from the ground. Fiff. Ill-Training the Vine the Third Year 216 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE This is often practiced and the fruit from the young cane is much superior to that from the old, weak vine. Thinning the Fruit Almost every variety of the European grapes that are grown under glass sets so many berries to the bunch and the stems are so short that, when fully grown, they are so crowded that many are forced from their stem or are cracked, and the whole bunch soon decays. To prevent this loss, when the ber- ries are about one-half grown, those on the inside with short stems are thinned out. Sometimes it is necessary to cut out more than three-quarters of the berries if the bunches set are very large and the vines growing very vigorously, but for an average growth one-third to one-half will be sufficient. Among the best varieties for the cold grapery are Foster's Seedling, Buckland Sweetwater and Black Hamburg. Hothouse Grapes The construction of the house for forcing grapes is practically the same as for the cold grapery, except that the border is generally inside, and artificial heat is used. The treatment of the vines after starting into growth is also very similar, though more care must be exercised during cold weather to prevent a chill, which will often bring on mildew or rot. Among some of the leading varieties for forcing are Muscat of Alexandria and Gros Colman. FORCING THE STRAWBERRY With a good supply of this fruit shipped to the Northern cities from the South as early as the middle of January, and then sent in from the North after the local crop has been harvested as late as September, and the many autumn fruiting varieties, the forcing of the strawberry will probably never become a large industry. When managed skillfully, fruit of very fine quality may be put into the market early in January, and bring the highest prices, as it must to meet expense of growing. FRUIT GROWING UNDER GLASS 217 Success in this work depends largely upon strong, well rooted plants in large pots of rich soil, and a full resting state under similar conditions to those found in the field grown crop. Strong runners from vigorous plants are layered early in the summer in three-inch pots, as seen in Figure 113. As soon as they are well rooted they are shifted to five or six-inch pots and placed where they can have careful attention as to watering and plant food. They must be kept growing vigorously until the time for resting in the fall, and Fig. 113 Layering Strawberry Plants in Pots if the plant food in the pots becomes exhausted, as it often will when water has run through the soil freely, more plant food must be applied. For success an abun- dance of fine white roots and large, heavy leaves must be produced. As soon as freezing nights come on, the whole plant and surface soil of the pots should be exposed to the weather, water should also be withheld, but the soil never be allowed to become quite dry. After having been thus exposed to freezing weather for a few weeks, forcing may begin, though tho longer frozen the better they will force. The plants should be placed in a light, mmm FRUIT GROWING UNDER GLASS 219 airy house, with a temperature beginning at thirty-three to thirty-five degrees at night and forty to forty-five degrees during the day, gradually raising it two to three degrees each week until forty to forty-five degrees at night and fif ty to sixty degrees during the day is reached. As much air must be kept on the house as possible, and an abundance of water be given. Liquid manure may be used every week after blooming if the plants are not growing rapidly. When the plants are showing bud they should be placed as near the glass as possible, but the pots be shaded by the foliage by placing close together, or by some packing like sphagnum . moss about them. When the flowers begin to open the atmosphere should be kept as dry as possible. Fertilization of the flowers should be done by hand with the camel's hair brush or by having bees in the house. To keep the fruit from get- ting into the dirt and decaying, pieces of wire netting up a vigorous growth, and maintain as nearly as possible can be placed on top of the pots, as seen in Figure 114. The aim in all stages of growth should be to supply the best soil and an abundance of plant food ; to keep the temperature, moisture and air of an ideal season for strawberry growing outside. The best varieties for forcing- are probably those that succeed best in field culture, and yet few can hope to supply the exact condi- tions under which they succeed in the field. I would suggest the Clyde, Brandywine, Sample and Senator Dunlap as among the best. XX INSECT PESTS There is nothing connected with the subject oi: fruit growing that is of more importance than a knowl- edge of the habits of the insect and fungous pests that we have to contend with and how to prevent their injury. It is a comparatively easy matter to make the trees grow, and perhaps to set a large crop of fruit, but if this fruit is injured by insects or fungous pests, it will not be salable at paying prices. With the increase of the number of trees or fruit plants in any given locality comes an increase in the number of these pests, and the successful fruit grower must equip himself with spraying outfits and make use of insecticides and fungi- cides if he will insure the quantity and quality of his fruit crop. No attempt will be made to describe the various pests with scientific accuracy, but to show them as they will be seen by the practical fruit grower. % PREVENTIVES The first consideration in growing good fruit is to so grow the trees or plants that they will be the least liable to the attack of insects or fungi. The con- dition of the tree will have a great influence on the amount of injury that will be done by these pests. The more vigorous the growth", the less will be the injury from fungous diseases, and, to a greater or less degree, that from insects also, as most of the fungi and many of the insects only attack the weak plants. An abun- INSECT PESTS 221 dance of plant food and good care and cultivation must therefore be the first point to be attended to, but cannot be wholly depended upon, for, when the season is right for the rapid increase of insects or fungi, trees under all conditions will be sure to be more or less injured unless the work of spraying is promptly and thoroughly done. Insecticides should be applied when the first insects appear, and fungicides before the spores come in contact with the host plant. If the first insect is de- stroyed there will be no further trouble, and if the first spore or seed of the fungus is destroyed, or, coming into contact with the copper sulphate, fails to germinate, there can be no further growth of that pest. Therefore we should adopt the rule that "prevention is better than cure," and it is certainly cheaper. INSECTICIDES (INSECT KILLERS) The substances used to destroy insects on our plants may be divided into two groups: Those that kill by contact, and those that kill by being taken into the stomachs of the insects, i. e., those killing "sucking" insects and those killing "chewing" insects. 1. Of the first, the most in use are Paris green, London purple, arsenate of lead, hellebone, arsenate of lime, arsenate of soda, white arsenic, etc. 2. Of the second group most in use, we may men- tion whale-oil soap, linseed oil, kerosene, crude petrol- eum and pyrethrum or Persian insect powder. Promptness and thoroughness in the application of insecticides should be the watchword. The best pumps for the work in hand should be used, the prepara- tion of the insecticides and fungicides should be most cnrefully done, and in mixing and applying the greatest economy of labor be practiced. In fact, in all the work attending the growing and caring for any crop of fruit, thorough work and business dispatch must be the rule 222 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE if any profit is to be expected. In all this work of fruit growing the margin of profit is very small, and the strictest economy must be practiced even under the most favorable conditions. PUMPS Much of the success in the protection of our fruit crops depends upon the pump used, but there are so many good pumps now upon the market that no one need use a poor one. The main points to be consid- ered are: 1. That the pump be large enough to throw the liquid with so much force that it shall break into a very fine spray and yet strike the plants with force enough to have it cover the surface of all the parts of the plant sprayed. 2. All the parts that come in contact with the liquids must be of brass or copper if copper solutions are to be used, as iron would soon be eaten out by the copper. 3. An effective agitating apparatus should be provided, or very unequal results will be obtained, and if Paris green and other insecticides are used, much injury may be done. 4. Good rubber hose should be supplied of suffi- cient lengths to be easily and quickly moved around the trees or plants being sprayed. It will be found that the best quality of hose will generally be the cheapest in the end, and that of half-inch diameter will last longer than larger sizes where it is to be moved and pulled about very much, as it does not kink up as much. Co-operation in spraying, where orchards and fruit plantations are small, will be found of great economy, as has been the case in many sections where this has been done, as well as in co-operation in the selling of the crops, etc. The cost of appliances for spraying on INSECT PESTS 2#3 a small place is often more than the profits will warrant, and one outfit often would be sufficient to do the spray- ing for a large community or even a township, and at a great saving in time and money. Most of the spraying pumps and machines are rather delicately made, and must have good care, as with all other farm and garden implements, and one must be something of a mechanic to keep them in good working order. After using the pump with mixtures like the bordeaux, unless it is to be used very soon again, clean water should be run through it until both the pump and the hose are well rinsed out, and it is well to hang the hose up so that the water will drain out of it after using. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE Round-Headed Apple Tree Borer (Saperda Candida) (Figure 115) This is one of the most destructive insects to the apple tree, and one of the most widely distributed. The perfect insect (Figure 115, c) is a beetle about three-fourths of an inch long, with three light brown and two creamy white stripes upon its wing covers. It flies at night, laying its eggs upon the trunk in crevices of the bark, not far from the ground, in July and early August. The eggs soon hatch and the young larvae (Figure 115, a) penetrate the bark, feed- ing upon the bark for a time, often not reaching deeper than the sapwood until the following spring. The pupa or chrysalis is shown in Figure 115, b. During the second season it works in the sapwood, and at the end of the second season may be found in a burrow or hole that often runs upward for several inches. After the second season it often makes a turn outward toward the bark, where it undergoes its changes, and the following spring comes out a perfect insect to go through its round of life again. In young trees it often starts on one side of the tree, works into it, then goes 224: SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE upward and comes out on the other side. When the insect comes out of the tree it leaves a clean hole, and when one of these holes is found nothing need be done other than to prevent the decay of the injured parts by filling the hole with putty or forcing in linseed oil. Its presence may be known by the chips or droppings that are found forced out of its hole, or by the discoloration of the bark under the injured parts. Remedy The best and cheapest way to overcome the injury of this pest is to examine the tree twice each year, in August to find the very young larvae, and c Fig. 115 The Round-Headed Apple Tree Borer again in the following June to destroy those that may have escaped in the August examination, digging out the larvae with a pointed knife or killing with a wire. In doing this work, first pare off the outer bark until the opening where the larva entered is found, then follow the channel until the larvae are reached, or until the upward burrow is found, and insert the wire. If the larvae are very young they will be destroyed in the operation of paring off the outer bark, but if deep in the tree considerable effort will be sometimes needed to' reach them. The Flat-Headed Apple Tree Borer (Chrysobothris femorata) (Figure 116) This beotle is smaller than the INSECT PESTS 225 last, of a steel gray color, and moves about in the day- time. It lays its eggs not only on the trunk, but some- times on the main branches as well. It is generally found on the south side, and begins its work where there has been some injury to the bark. The larvae of the flat-headed borer work only in the bark and sap- wood, and are more easily destroyed than the round- headed borer. The insect generally completes its changes in one year, and in many places it is more abundant than the round-headed borer, and is more destructive. Figure 116, d, shows the perfect beetle ; b, the chrysalis ; a, the larva, with the head en- larged at c. Remedy The presence of this larva may be known in the same way as that of the round-headed borer, and the remedy is the same. The use of washes on the trunk or branches is of uncertain, if of any, value, while examina- tion, if thoroughly made, is sure to reveal the insects if present, and there is no uncertainty about it, while the cost is less. The Oyster Shell Bark Louse (Mytilaspis pomorum) This insect, shown in large numbers in Figure 117, injures the apple tree by sucking the juices from the twigs and branches. While young the minute insects move about freely, but soon, finding a desirable place, fix themselves and feed there until they die. During the winter and spring we only find the dead shell and numerous eggs securely covered by it. In this state the shell or covering is so securely sealed that it is with difficulty removed from the bark, and can be destroyed only by very strong insecticides. Figure 117, a, shows Fig. 116-Flat-Headed Apple Tree Borer 226 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE the under side of a mature insect with the numerous eggs; &, same from above; c, twig infested by female scales ; d, male scale, and e, twig infested therewith. It generally attacks weak trees and often destroys them. Remedy It may be destroyed while the trees are dormant by brushing over with linseed oil, by the use Fig. 117 Oyster Shell Bark Louse of fifteen to twenty per cent mechanical solution of kero- sene oil, or by a strong solution of whale-oil soap, two pounds to one gallon of water; or, after the leaves have unfolded, with a ten per cent solution of kerosene when the young are moving about, which is generally during the early part of June. As when used INSECT PESTS 227 for the woolly aphis, the kerosene should be applied with a nozzle that gives a fine spray, and only on bright days. The Tent Caterpillar (Clisiocampa Americana) (Figure 118) This pest is so familiar to almost every- one in its larval state as to need no description. The Fig. 118 The Tent Caterpillar a 6, nest and larvae: c, eggs; d, cocoon various stages of its growth are shown above, including eggs, nest and cocoon. Its eggs are laid during the latter part of the summer in clusters of 200 to 300 around small twigs at the ends of the branches, often on those of the wild cherry, peach and some other trees. Here they remain until the following spring, 22S SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE until the leaves have started, when they hatch out, the larvae feeding rapidly upon the young foliage and form- ing a conspicuous web in the forks of the branches. Remedy The larvae may be found in their nests early in the morning, during wet weather, and in the middle of very hot sunny days, when they may be readily removed by drawing the web around them, placing the mass on the ground and crushing with the to do this is as soon as they hatch out, and while the web is small, when with a glove on the hand a whole col- ony may be crushed with the fingers. During the winter, when pruning, by looking upward with the twigs against the sky, Fig. 119-The S.n Jo~ Scale m&ny Qf ^ ^^ of eggs can be seen and removed, and all chance of injury from them be avoided. San Jose Scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus) (Figure ]19) This dangerous insect, recently introduced from Japan or other foreign countries, has become a most destructive and troublesome pest that attacks the apple and other fruit trees as well as many forest trees. It has become widely disseminated throughout the coun- try, and from its wonderful powers of reproduction, unless checked promptly by parasites, or destroyed by other means, it may seriously injure the fruit growing INSECT PESTS 229 interests of the country. The perfect insect is a minute circular scale varying from one-thirty-second to one- sixteenth of an inch in diameter, which, unlike the oyster shell scale, brings forth its young alive, and pro- duces many broods each season, increasing so rapidly that in a single season entire trees may be destroyed. There are several other scales that resemble this pest so closely that it requires an expert to determine the species, but the others do not increase so rapidly, and when trees are thickly covered with small scale insects of a circular form, it may be safely concluded that it is the San Jose pest. Most of the experiment stations of the country have been at work to discover a sure remedy for this pest, and many report satisfactory results, but orchardists generally have not applied the suggested remedies long enough to prove whether they will be able to control the pest without the aid of the State or government. In all such matters it is always better that the grower protect his own crops than be employed by the State to do the work, but it may be wise for the State to aid in the work, either by furnish- ing trained men to advise and assist, or to provide some compensation where the grower has suffered serious loss through no fault of his own. The salt, lime and sulphur mixture has proved the most effectual remedy, and in its modified simpler forms now used can be applied by the orchardist at no very great expense. The use of hydro- cyanic gas for fumigating trees infested has reached a considerable extent in some States, and is reported as effective, but the gas is such a deadly one that if any other substance will be equally effectual this should not be used. Remedy Among the remedies which it is claimed will destroy or control this pest are kerosene oil, linseed oil, whale-oil soap, the lime, salt and sulphur mixture, and hydrocyanic gas. The application of these insecti- 230 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE cides and their effectiveness may be a matter of some uncertainty. The Canker Worm (Anisopteryx vernata and A. pometaria) (Figure 120, a, male; 6, female; e, eggs; /, larva; g, pupa) In many sections of the country this insect is one of the most destructive of those attack- ing the apple tree, yet, knowing its habits, if prompt application be made of well known remedies it may be easily and cheaply prevented from doing much harm. Two species (as above) of this genus are found here, both of nearly the same form and of the same habits. The female, which has no wings, comes out during warm nights after the ground has been frozen in the fall or early in the spring, from October to May, and lays its eggs in clusters on the trunk and branches. As soon as the leaves come out the eggs begin to hatch and the larvae feed upon the foliage until the trees appear as if fire had run through them. The larvae spend several weeks, eating all but the mid- ribs of the leaves, and when numerous do serious harm. When fully grown they are about three-quarters of an inch long and drop from the tree suspended by a web, going into the ground to undergo their changes. When the defoliation of the trees continues for several years the orchards become worthless. Remedy Taking advantage of the habit of the female insect, which must crawl up the tree to deposit its eggs, a band of gas tar or printer's ink is put around Fig. 120 The Canker Worm INSECT PESTS 231 the trunks of the trees after October 1, and must be kept fresh and soft whenever the nights are warm, up to May 1. If the ground is frozen all winter the bands need have no care until spring, when the frost is out and the nights are warm, when they will be crawling, and the tar or ink must be soft at these times so as to catch them. If the trees are young it is best to put a band of paper about the trunk, upon which to apply the tar, to prevent injury to the bark, but on old trees which have a thick bark no harm will Be done. If the band is used care must be taken that there are no openings under it that the insects can crawl under, for it takes but a few individuals to lay eggs enough to destroy much of the foliage on a tree of good size. Another effectual remedy is to encircle the tree with a tin or zinc trough, in which is placed some cheap non-drying oil. The chief objec- tion to this method is the cost of the troughs and the care required to keep them filled with oil and to keep them from being filled with the insects as they crawl into the oil. The remedy which is now most in use is to leave the trees until the larvae begin to hatch, and then spray with Paris green in water, quarter of a pound to fifty gallons, or with the bordeaux mixture, half a pound to fifty gallons. The first application should be made just before the flowers open and the second when the petals have fallen. This remedy has the advantage that constant attention need not be given during the winter, that this and many other insects are killed at one or two sprayings, and the bordeaux will prevent the apple scab fungus from injuring the foliage. Thus two objects are gained by one spraying. The Apple Aphis or Plant Louse (Aphis mail) The aphides, of which this is only one of a great number of species, are green, brown or black insects very small in size, that suck the juices of the tender shoots and 232 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE leaves, doing an immense amount of damage, and there are few plants that do not have a specific kind that feeds upon them. The apple aphis is green in color and often feeds all summer, but generally only during the early part of the season. Figure 121 shows two forms enlarged and one winged form of natural size. Remedy This insect is destroyed by the use of whale-oil soap, by tobacco water and by kerosene applied as for scale insects. If the leaves are much curled it is best to pick off those most curled before spraying is done, or the ends of the shoots are sometimes removed and burned or dropped into kerosene. The Codlin Moth (Carpocapsa pomo- nella) Figure 122 illustrates a part of an apple injured by this insect, a shows the Fig. 121-The Apple Aphis burrow ; I, the point at which the worm entered ; e, full grown worm ; d, pupa ; f, moth with folded wings; g, moth with expanded wings; h, head enlarged; i, cocoon which encloses the pupa. This is perhaps the most destructive insect attacking this fruit. It flies at night and lays its eggs on the leaves or surfaces of the apple. The larva then moves about until it finds the calyx of the apple, when it enters and feeds until full grown, coming out at some other place and dropping by a web to the ground, or crawls to some shelter, as the crevice in the bark or other dry place, where it spins its cocoon. Generally but one brood is produced in a season, but under favorable conditions,' the larvae that come out in June or July may complete their changes and lay another brood of eggs in August or September th'at will hatch and injure the fruit late in the season. This brood INSECT PESTS 233 enters the apple from other points than the blossom cncl generally where a leaf lies close to the apple or where two apples touch. Remedy The application of Paris green with the bordeaux mixture as directed for the canker worm, has been found to destroy more than seventy per cent of the larvae of the first brood, but as this mixture would disfigure the fruit, if applied for the second brood, other remedies must be employed for the late brood. Pasturing the orchard with sheep, swine or cattle is practiced by many orchard- ists for the pur- pose of keeping this insect and the apple maggot in check, with good results. If sheep or cattle are kept in the orchard it will be necessary to train the trees with a trunk five or more feet high, to prevent injury to the lower branches. Swine some- times will injure the trees by eating the bark or by rooting and destroying the feeding roots. In the former case the protection of the trunk by wire netting or stakes driven down and wired to the trunk, and an abundance of food, will generally prevent them from rooting very deeply, but if this is not effectual "ringing" their noses will be. A large number of fowls will also be sure to destroy most of the insects that go into the ground to undergo their transformations, as Fig. 122-The Codlin Moth 234 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE the codlin moth, canker worm and apple maggot. The cocoons may be also trapped by bands of cloth or straw put around the trunks, and examined occasionally during the summer, and the cocoons destroyed. . The Apple Maggot (Trypeta pomonella] (Figure 123) This is one of the most destructive of the insect pests that attack the apple. The perfect insect is a small fly, about one-half the size of the common house fly, that appears in the latter part of the summer and early fall, laying its eggs under the skin, through a minute puncture which it makes. It attacks sweet and mild flavored varieties more than very acid or winter fruit, though some winter sorts are seriously injured by the maggots. Most of the injury is done as the fruit is approaching maturity, or after it has fallen to the ground. Remedy No means has been found by which- the Fig. 123-The Apple Maggot inS6ct Can be CaU S ht r destroyed before the egg is laid, and therefore the only way it can be prevented from doing harm is to gather the fruit before the eggs are laid or to destroy the poor fruit while the larva is still in the fruit. This is done practically and eco- nomically by pasturing the orchards with swine and poultry where the trees are low headed, and with cattle and sheep if the head is high. If the fruit is picked as soon as matured and put into closed buildings or sold at once, few insects will be matured, but to have this method a success all the growers in a locality must do the same. Summer and fall apples must not be allowed to decay on the ground, as it furnishes the best possible place for their breeding. Fresh dropped apples are worth from three to eight cents per bushel INSECT PESTS 235 as food for stock, and this will pay the cost of picking up all fallen fruit once or twice each week. The Woolly Aphis or Louse (Schizoneura lanigera) (Figure 124, a, rootlet showing galls; b, wingless aphis; c, winged aphis; d-g, structural details; b-g, magnified) Although this is commonly known as the root louse and generally found on the roots of the apple tree, it often causes much injury to the trunk and main branches. It is a small insect, about one-sixteenth to Fig. 124-The Woolly Aphis one-eighth of an inch long, and more or less covered with a cottony, nearly white, substance, whence comes its name. It attacks the trunk and the branches in patches, sucking the juices and causing black, canker- like places which may spread, often destroying the limb. It most commonly attacks parts that have been previously injured in some way, as in climbing about .to pick the fruit, in pruning, or an injury by the black rot fungus increasing its injuries. The roots of young trees are often seriously injured by this pest, baffling all efforts of the grower to make them grow, and the cause of this condition not being known until the tree is dug up. 236 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE Remedy When the injury is upon the branches, the application of soft soap or strong whale-oil soap solution with a stiff brush will be effectual, or kerosene if applied in a fine spray so that it will not stand in drops on the foliage will be equally good. A bright airy day should be selected that the kerosene may be applied liberally and yet evaporate quickly if the trees are in leaf. When the leaves are off it can be much more freely used, and therefore the first or preventive measures should be tried. Its presence on the roots of young trees can only be determined by digging up one or two trees. Plum Curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar) This pest, which is perhaps more destructive to the stone fruits than to the apple, is seriously injurious to the latter. It attacks the fruit in its young stage, making the crescent shaped mark shown in Figure 126, in which it lays its egg. These eggs do not mature in the apple, but the fruit is disfigured and at the punctured place often fails to grow, thus producing gnarly and irregular fruit. Remedy See under the plum. INSECTS ATTACKING THE PEAR The Round-Headed Borer, Flat-Headed Borer, San Jose Scale, Oyster Shell Bark Louse and Codlin Moth, described as attacking the apple, are also injurious to the pear, but the canker worm and apple maggot do not attack it. Remedies for the above insects have already been described. Pear Tree Psylla (Psylla pyricola) (Figure 125) A minute, flat, yellow, aphis-like, jumping insect that injures the trees by sucking the juice from the leaves and young branches. Wherever the punctures are made the juice exudes and a pool is formed in which INSECT PESTS 237 the insect works. The first indication of their pres- ence may be numerous bees, wasps or hornets about the trees in search of the sweet liquid thus produced. Soon the trees have a dirty appearance due to the dust of the atmosphere collecting in the sticky exudations and to a dark colored fungus that grows in it. Orchards have been practically ruined by this pest in two or three years where no effort has been made to control it. Remedy Spraying in the spring before the buds have opened with a twenty-five per cent solution of kerosene, which will destroy most of the hibernating insects or eggs, if there are any, and, when the young begin to appear in June, spraying with a ten or fifteen per cent of the same, from one to three (inns, as may be needed. The trees should be examined in the warm days of spring and if this pest is found, spraying should be done as above, and from the first of June very Flg i 2 5_pear Psyiia frequent examinations should be made that the remedy may be applied as soon as the first insects appear. Pear Leaf Blister (Phytoptus pyri) This mite causes injury by its puncture of the young leaves and new growing shoots, entering the tissue and causing blister-like swellings of a reddish color in the early summer. The mite is entirely hidden from view in the tissues of the injured parts, where it cannot be reached by any insecticide. The matured insect hibernates under the bud scales or bark of the tree, laying its eggs in the warm days of spring. Remedy Spraying with kerosene, twenty-five per cent, in water, before the leaves unfold, is sure to destroy most of the hibernating insects, and perhaps some of 238 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE the eggs. Also as the leaves turn down the mites may be seen on the outside, where many of them may be killed by a ten per cent kerosene mechanical emulsion. INSECTS ATTACKING THE PEACH Peach Borer (Sannina exitiosa] In some years this insect is very destructive, while in others it can scarcely be found. When abundant it is a serious pest, one larva being able to girdle a tree three inches in circumference. The perfect insect lays its eggs on the trunk near the ground in May or June according to the locality, and the larva works its way into the inner bark and sapwood, feeding over a space amounting to an inch or more in diameter. If it works in a direct line it will nearly girdle a small tree. Its presence may be known by the gum containing its chips or droppings that exudes where the injury is made. Sometimes several larvae may be found in a single tree. The larvae feed through the summer and in the fall make a cocoon of soil, chips and gum near where they had fed and come out perfect insects the following season. Remedy A great many washes have been sug- gested to prevent the entrance of the larvae or to kill them as soon as they hatch out, but none of these have been found effectual. The only remedy that can be relied upon, and it is the cheapest in the end, is to examine the trees twice each year, in June and in August, and dig the borers out. It is but the work of a moment to draw the soil away from the trunk of the tree for three or four inches and if there is any gum exuding and this gum contains the chips of the borers the injured parts should be followed until the larva is found and destroyed. If no gum exists or if there are no chips in the gum the soil may be drawn back, as there is no insect there. After a borer has been dug INSECT PESTS 239 out, the soil should be put back to protect the collar of the tree from the weather. Peach Aphis (Myzus Persicae)The aphis or green louse, similar to that attacking the apple, is also troublesome in some seasons, but in others it does little or no harm. When the trees are attacked the leaves curl up and the lice are to be found inside of these curled leaves. Remedy Spraying with twenty per cent of kero- sene before the buds start in the spring will destroy most of the hibernating insects or their eggs, and if ten per cent is used a few times in May and June before they become abundant, they may be kept from doing much harm*. It is the practice of some of the most careful peach growers to spray as above before the leaves open and then as soon as the insects begin to appear make a thorough exam- ination and pick off the first leaves infested, mark the tree on which it is found, and then spray with whale- oil soap, one pound to four gallons of water. In this way the insects never get very numerous, the leaves do not curl and the few remaining aphides are easily destroyed. Plum Curculio See under the plum. INSECTS ATTACKING THE PLUM Plum Curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar) A small brown beetle with projecting mouth parts or proboscis as shown in Figure 126, appears in the early summer when the plums are from one-eighth to one- Fig. 126-1 he Plum Curculio 240 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE fourth of an inch in diameter and makes crescent shaped cuts on the fruit, ~b, in each of which it lays an egg. The eggs hatch and the larvae, a, feed on the fruit until it is destroyed, as at d, most of the fruit falling off soon after being stung, though some will hang on the tree until it colors and then falls. This insect is especially destructive to the European and Japanese plums. It often badly disfigures the American varieties but the larvae do not generally mature in the fruit of this group. Remedy The beetle is sensitive to a sudden jar, loses its hold and falls, and this habit is taken advantage of to capture it by spreading a blanket or screen under the tree before jar- ring. A curculio catcher is found in the market in the form of an inverted umbrella mounted n Fig. .27-The Johnson Curcu.io Catcher like frame, as shown in Figure 127. This is wheeled under the tree, the branches are jarred by a padded stick or mallet, and the insects caught in a tin can in the center of the screen. This is a sure remedy if begun early in the season and followed up every day for two or three weeks, but is rather expensive. The remedy found the cheapest by the writer is Paris green used with the bordeaux as per the spraying calendar of the station for the European varieties, but using the arsenate of lead with the bordeaux upon the Japan and American sorts. Plum Aphis (Aphis prunifolia) This insect is similar to the species that attack the pear and apple and is controlled in the same way. San Jose Scale See under the apple. Peach Borer See under the peach. INSECT PESTS 241 INSECTS ATTACKING THE QUINCE Round-Headed Apple Tree Borer See under the apple. Flat-Headed Apple Tree Borer See under the apple. Codlin Moth See under the apple. INSECTS ATTACKING THE CHEREY Cherry Aphis (Myzus cerasi) This is the insect that causes the cherry leaves to curl up in the early summer. It is dark brown or black in color and increases so rapidly that it seems but a day from their first appearance until they cover many leaves and cause them to curl and finally to turn brown and drop off. Remedy If taken in time they may be destroyed by the use of kerosene as for the apple or peach aphis, but when the leaves have begun to curl it is almost impossible to reach them with any spray and the curled leaves should be picked off and the insects crushed or put into kerosene, before spraying begins. Rose Bug, Rose Chafer (Macrodactylus subspin* osus) (Figure 128) See under the grape. Plum Curculio See under the plum. Paris green cannot be used on the cherry. Arsenate of lead is the best insecticide for the cherry, Japanese plum and peach. INSECTS ATTACKING THE GRAPE Rose Bug, Rose Chafer (Macrodactylus subspin- vsus) (Figure 128, a, larva; b, pupa; c, beetle) This beetle, well known to almost everyone because of its Fig. 128-The Rose Bug 242 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE attack of the rose and many other garden plants in June, is seldom seriously injurious to vines in the large vineyards, but often destroys all of the fruit on vines in the garden. Remedy For the garden, hand picking is about the only means of saving the fruit unless the vines are covered with gauze or mosquito netting. If a pan with a little water and kerosene be held under the vine where the insects are feeding, and they are just touched, they fall from the vine and will be destroyed. In the vine- yard, the spraying with the bordeaux and Paris green as used for other insects and fungous pests, will prevent the injury that sometimes would otherwise occur in a few vines on the edges of the vineyard. Berry Moth (Eudemis botrana) Some seasons a considerable number of berries in a bunch are shriveled and connected with other berries by webs, and upon examination we find a very active, dark olive colored worm eating the center of the berry. One worm often destroys two berries but not more. The only remedy suggested is to trim the bunches as soon as the fruit is picked and see that all wormy berries are destroyed. Grape Leaf Hopper (Typhlocy'ba vitis) An in- sect that has recently become destructive in many locali- ties and one that vineyardists have not learned to control with any degree of certainty. It is a small, light colored, jumping insect that appears in July and August, often in swarms, and, eating out the green color parts of the leaf, gives them a light green or almost white color, which soon changes to brown, and the leaves fall. It also disfigures the fruit with its droppings. Remedy Clean up the vineyard early and give thorough cultivation during the early part of the season. All litter, leaves and grass should be raked up and burned in the fall or early in the spring, then a thorough spraying with twenty per cent mixture of kerosene early INSECT PESTS 243 in the season while the insects are not numerous will generally keep them under control. It has been found that by spraying in the morning with a ten per cent mechanical mixture of kerosene the insects are knocked to the ground, when by spraying them while on the ground with a twenty-five to thirty per cent mixture they will be destroyed. Many other in- sects attack the grape, but while a few of them do seri- ous harm and many of them are destroyed by the insecticides used for these de- scribed, it is the part of wisdom to exam- ine the vines criti- cally whenever work- ing among them and to be sure that they are not in sufficient numbers to do any very great damage. Fig. 129-Currant Worm Fly INSECTS ATTACKING THE CURRANT The Imported Currant Borer (Sesia tipiili- formis) This insect lays its eggs at the base of buds in the spring or early summer, the larvae penetrating into the center of the canes, feeding on the pith, and causing the leaves to turn yellow or the cane to break off. The following season it comes out a perfect insect to again go through its range of life. Remedy The presence of this pest may be known by the yellow color of the leaves, or the premature ripening of the fruit, when the injured canes should be 244 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE cut out and burned. Care must be taken that the cut be made below where the larva is feeding. Currant Cane Girdler (Janus flaviventris) This insect attacks the ends of the growing cane, making numerous punctures in a circle around it, then lays an egg below the girdle. Soon the end of this cane breaks off, leaving the egg at the end, the egg hatches, and the larva, ensured an abundance of food by the girdle, feeds downward toward the base of the cane, where the next season it may be found from one to three feet toward the root. Remedy As soon as the cane breaks off it should be cut an inch or two further toward the base and the part containing the egg dropped on the ground, where it will be destroyed by the drying of the part cut off. The Imported Currant Worm (Nematus ventri- cosus) The most destructive insect attacking the cur- rant. Figure 129 shows the perfect insect a, the male; &, the female. Figure 130 shows a leaf with the eggs arranged on the midrib. The eggs are laid as soon as the leaves unfold, the larvae upon hatching first making minute holes, as shown in the figure, but feeding with such rapidity that in a few days' time the bushes are denuded of leaves and the fruit often hangs in an unripe state through the remainder of the season. Figure 131 shows full-grown larvae feeding. Fig 130-Currant Leaf with Eggs of Currant Worm INSECT PESTS 245 Remedy As soon as the small holes begin to appear in the leaves the bushes should be sprayed with powdered hellebore, one tablespoonful to two gallons of water, or Paris green, one teaspoonful to the same amount of water. If a large plantation is to be treated the bordeaux mixture should be used, adding Paris green, one-fourth pound to fifty gallons. Currant Plant Louse or Aphis (Aphis ribis) Many seasons the leaves of our currant bushes curl up Fig. 131 Currant Worms Eating; Leave* and turn to a reddish-brown color, when upon examina- tion we find a mass of these lice feeding within the curled leaves. Remedy As with the other aphides the time to destroy the pest is when they just begin to appear and before they become numerous and the leaves are badly curled. This may be done with the ten per cent mix- ture of kerosene or a strong solution of whale-oil soap. The work of destruction may be made more certain by picking off the leaves most curled. 246 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE Currant Fruit Worm (Eupithecia interrupto-fac- iata) This insect injures the fruit by attacking a few berries in a bunch and when abundant causes much loss of fruit and a great amount of labor in preparing it for market. Remedy The only remedy suggested is to pick the injured clusters as soon as the injury is discovered, and destroy them. Four-Striped Plant Bug (Poecilocapus lineatus) A bright yellow and black bug about three-tenths of an inch long with two black stripes on each wing cover. It punctures the young leaves of the currant and goose- berry, producing irregular brown spots of dead tissue. When these spots are very numerous the leaves drop off. Remedy Spraying with a ten per cent mixture of kerosene or by knocking them off into a pan of kerosene are the only remedies suggested. In both cases tKe work should be done early in the morning. INSECTS ATTACKING THE GOOSEBERRY Imported Currant Worm See under the currant. Currant Plant Louse See under the currant. Currant Cane Girdler See under the currant. Gooseberry Fruit Worm (Dakruma convolutella) In habits this insect is much like the currant berry moth, and the remedy is the same, which see. INSECTS ATTACKING THE RASPBERRY "Raspberry Root Borer (Bembecia marginata) Closely resembling the peach borer in many ways. They are pretty black and yellow banded insects with transparent wings that lay their eggs on the leaves in the middle of the summer. The larva feeds upon the pith of the canes and passes down to the roots in the fall or winter. The following spring it turns and comes INSECT PESTS 247 up, generally through another cane, and undergoes its changes several inches above the surface of the ground. The canes and the roots are often so injured as to start very slowly in the spring, turning yellow in the early summer and finally dying. Remedy The only remedy suggested is that of cutting off the injured canes and digging out the borer in the root. Vigorous growth will, in a measure, over- come its injury. Raspberry Cane Borer (Oberea bimaculata) A small long-horned beetle with a black body and a pale yellow thorax marked with three blar!; spots. It flies in June and lays its eggs between two girdled places near the end of the young canes, when only a few inches high. The canes break off at the top girdle, when pig. 132-The May Beetle and Larva the food supply will be increased for the larva that soon hatches and bores down the cane, feeding in the pith until the following spring, when it comes out a perfect insect in May or June. Remedy To overcome this pest the injured canes should be cut off below the lower girdle soon after the egg is laid. INSECTS ATTACKING THE BLACKBERRY Raspberry Root Borer See under the raspberry. Raspberry Cane Borer See under the raspberry. INSECTS ATTACKING THE STRAWBERRY May Beetle (Lachnosterna fusca) (Figure 132) In the larval form this insect is injurious to the straw- berry by feeding on the roots of newly set plants. The 248 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE perfect insect is too well known to need description, being the large brown beetle that flies at night into our open windows in May, called the Mlay beetle or June bug, and the larva, the large white grub that we find in plowing turf land in the spring and summer. Remedy To prevent injury, the land to be planted with strawberries should be clean cultivated one or two seasons before the plants are set, as the insects only lay their eggs in soil well supplied with roots for their young to feed upon and avoid clean cultivated ground. The Strawberry Crown Borer (Tyloderma fra- gariae] (Figure 133) A small brown beetle about three - sixteenths of an inch long that lays its eggs in June or July about the crown of the plants. The eggs hatch soon and the larvae pass down into the crown, feeding upon the crown and surface roots, and become perfect insects in August or September. Remedy As this insect is in the larval state during the middle of the summer, few or none of the eggs will be laid in the newly set plants, and if the old bed is turned under in July, most if not all of the larvae will be destroyed by this operation. Thus where this insect is abundant the annual method of cultivation of the strawberry becomes a necessity. Spotted Paria (Paria sex-notata) A rather smaller beetle than the last, nearly black with three light bars on each wing cover. It appears soon after the fruit has set, feeding upon the leaves, and when in large numbers causes considerable injury in tho . 133 Strawberry Crown Borer INSECT PESTS 249 beetle form. Its eggs are laid on the crown of the plant and no doubt do as much injury in the larval forms as in the mature form. The leaves of the plants attacked often show numerous small holes in them and when very numerous the young leaves are nearly destroyed. Remedy Plowing under the fruiting plantation in July has proved a satisfactory remedy. Numerous other insects have at times been more or less injurious to this crop, but are only of local impor- tance, and the reader is referred to the horticulturists of his local station and urged to consult them in cases of any new pests that may appear upon his grounds. XXI FUNGOUS DISEASES Most of the diseases attacking our fruit trees and commonly known as rusts, blights, rots, mildews, etc., are known to botanists as fungi or closely allied plant growths. As a rule they are minute thread- like plants, that, growing in the tissues of other plants called "host" plants, just as the corn grows in the soil, destroy the parts affected, or so weaken them that the leaves fall off, the fruit is spotted or decays, or the trunks or branches are injured, etc. The plants of this class are often very minute, so much so as to be almost invisible to the naked eye, and propagate or increase by means of minute seedlike bodies called spores. These are so minute as to be invisible to the naked eye, unless in masses, and are carried about by the winds, often for miles at a time, and consequently there are few localities where these spores may not be found, and under favor- able conditions be ready to grow. Kearly all of this group of plants grow only under conditions of moisture and high temperature, though some of them, like the apple scab, flourish in rather cool weather. Most, if not all, of these spores require actual water for their germination, as dew or rain, and after becoming rooted in their "host" plant grow in the juices of the cellular tissues, sending their roots from cell to cell, taking up the cell contents for their own development, and the leaves, the branches or other parts attacked become weakened because the food supply is taken up by the parasite, the amount of injury to any FUNGOUS DISEASES 251 plant depending upon the number and vigor of the parasite or robber plant that is feeding upon its tissues. The amount of injury done in a season will depend upon, first, the condition of the weather little or no injury being done in cool, dry weather, while in warm, moist weather this class of plants are sure to develop rapidly ; and second, upon the vigor and strength of the host plant to resist the attack of the parasites. FUNGICIDES Any substance that will destroy or prevent the growth of a fungus is called a fungicide, or fungus killer, and in the growth of all of our farm and garden crops it has become a necessity to use fungicides as well as insecticides, and the fruit grower must equip himself with apparatus for this work just as much as with tools for cultivation if he would insure his crops. As explained under the treatment for insect pests, so with fungous pests the fruit grower must depend upon his local experiment station for full and detailed instruction as to preventive measures, appliances, and applying fungicides, but a brief description of the fungicides in most common use may not be out of place in this volume. Copper Sulphate This substance has become an almost universal fungicide and is most used in a mix- ture with lime known as the bordeaux mixture. Standard bordeaux mixture is made up of four pounds copper sulphate, four pounds caustic lime and fifty gallons of water. But where the fruit is in a condition to be disfigured by it, it is used as a weak solution of copper sulphate alone. The bordeaux mixture is found in the market already prepared for use and under various names, and many of them have some value, especially where the amount of spraying is small and the 252 SUCCESSFUL FKUIT CULTURE cost of procuring materials and making would be more than the crop to be sprayed would be worth, but nu- merous experiments have proved beyond doubt that the freshly prepared mixture is much more effective and cheaper than any thus far found in the markets. Solutions of Copper Sulphate Where the fruit would be disfigured by the bordeaux, the two solutions of this substance without the lime are used, the ammoniacal solution and the simple solution. These solutions are equally effectual with the bordeaux for the time being, but are so soon washed off, in case of rain storms, that they must be renewed after every rain, and wherever the bordeaux can be used it will be much more satisfactory because more lasting. Insecticides and fungicides have become almost as much of a necessity as fertilizers in the growth of farm and garden crops, and to ensure success in the business, the fruit grower must be equipped with the best imple- ments for their application. The cost of this equipment is so great that many small growers cannot afford to purchase it and the only way that the work of the small grower can be profitably done is by co-operation. One powerful, well-built pump with proper nozzles and an abundance of hose would be sufficient to do all the spraying in most of our small townships, and one man who has become skilled in the work would do the same amount much more quickly and better than if it were divided among a dozen or twenty. The cost of material would be much less when bought in large quantities and there would be much less waste of material when all was mixed in one set of vessels. There are often seasons and sections where our fruit crops escape injury from insect or fungous pests, but there are few localities where they always escape, and the cost of spraying is so small when done in a FUNGOUS DISEASES 253 business way that no one should risk a complete loss of a crop which is sure to come at times when the season is especially favorable to insect or fungous life. As these pests are so minute as to be illustrated only in a highly magnified form, a description is all that will be attempted, the reader being referred to more scientific works on the subject of fungous pests. FUNGOUS PESTS ATTACKING THE APPLE The Apple Scab (Fusidadium dendriticum) This is an olive green spot fungus that attacks the surface of the leaves and fruit, and grows with especial vigor during moist, rather cool weather. It feeds only on the epidermis or skin of the leaf or fruit, often causing the former to fall off during the summer, but only disfiguring the fruit, unless it is attacked very early in the season, when it too falls off, or it is disfig- ured or one-sided. This fungus does not work in the tissues of the fruit but disfigures it and injures its looks and its keeping qualities. The spores or seeds of this pest are so minute as to be invisible except by the closest observation, and may be carried long distances by the wind. The only preventive is to have the copper solutions on the leaves and fruit to prevent the growth of these spores whenever there is moisture on them. Remedy Spray with the bordeaux in the early part of the season and after the fruit is nearly grown with the solution of copper sulphate. Cedar Apple Fungus (Roestelia pirata) This fungus appears in small yellow clusters on the under side of the leaves and sometimes on the fruit, and when very abundant both leaves and fruit fall off and the tree is seriously weakened. Remedy It the trees are sprayed as per spray in.? calendar issued by each State experiment station, little or no injury will come from this fungus. 254 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE Black Rot (Sphaeropsis malorum) The dying of the end branches of the apple and pear, and the dead patches of bark also found on the large branches and trunk, are caused by this disease. The injured parts are nearly black in color and studded over with pustules or bead-like projections in which the spores are borne. It also attacks the fruit in large black masses or some- times infests the entire apple. When attacked in the young stage the fruit hangs on the trees until the following season. Remedy Spraying as for the cedar apple fungus is effective. Powdery Mildew (Podosphaera oxyacanthae) This fungus attacks young apple seedlings in the nursery in the early summer and often so checks their growth that they cannot be budded, but is seldom injurious to large trees. Remedy The dipping of the seedlings in the bor- deaux mixture before they are planted and one or two sprayings during the summer will generally prevent any injury. Trees planted in good soil on high land in full exposure to light and air, are less likely to be attacked than those in low places or moist soil. FUNGOUS PESTS ATTACKING THE PEAR The Apple Scab and Apple Rust, previously de- scribed, are also injurious to the pear, but not to so great a degree, and the remedies are the same. Leaf Blight or Leaf Spot (Entomosporium macu- latum) This appears first as minute red dots that increase to from one-sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch, in diameter, and when in large numbers cause the leaves to fall off in the middle of the summer, seriously weakening the tree, or if the fruit is attacked, causing it to crack. Sometimes a second set of leaves comes out late in the summer, or even blossoms appear, and FUNGOUS DISEASES 255 the wood fails to ripen, in which case the tree is very liable to injury during the winter or to the attack of the fire blight the following summer. Remedy Spraying as per the spraying calendars of the stations will entirely overcome the disease. Fire Blight (Bacillus amylovorus) This is a bacterial disease similar to the yeast plant in habit of growth that develops rapidly in moist hot weather. The minute cells (it is a one-celled plant) or spores enter the tree through some soft tissues, possibly the pistil of the flower, or some broken place where the bark has opened by the growth of the inner cells, when, if the weather is hot and the tree in the proper condition, it grows very rapidly, requiring but a few days to spread through an entire tree. The first appearance of the disease may be the wilting of the .leaves of the branch or branches attacked. Sometimes only a small branch is attacked, while in others the attack may be on the main branches, which cuts off circulation, and large portions of the tree die. Remedy All diseased branches should be cut off as soon as the disease appears, as far back as the wood seems to be injured, and burned, and everything be done that is possible to give the tree a vigorous, but sound and hard growth of wood. Few trees will be injured by this disease if they are properly protected from the leaf blight during the summer. FUNGOUS PESTS ATTACKING THE PEACH Peach Scab or Black Spot (Cladosporium car- pophilum) In seasons when there are frequent rains and close moist weather this fungus is often destructive to many varieties of peaches. It is more prevalent on low land than where it is high and in full exposure to air and sunlight. When the fruit is attacked early in the season the growth of the parts affected is checked 256 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE and it becomes one-sided, falls off, or often cracks open. Even if only spotted the quality of the fruit is so injured as to be worthless. Remedy Spraying before the leaves appear in the spring with the strong bordeaux (4 :4 :50), and when the leaves have opened with the dilute bordeaux (4:4:200), will prevent its attack. It is best also to spray once after the leaves have unfolded and at least twice the last of July and early August. Paris green should never be used on peach foliage, but arsenate of lead may be safely used. Brown Rot, Fruit Rot, Twig Blight (Monilia fructigena] This is one of the most destructive of the fungi attacking the peach, causing the rotting of most of the early kinds and often some of the later kinds. It also attacks the twigs in the hot, moist weather of summer, often doing serious harm. The fruit is .first turned brown and soon is covered with myriads of light gray or almost white spores. The branches attacked are killed, Avhile the fruit drops off or dries on the tree, often remaining through the fall and winter. Such varieties as the Alexander, Triumph, etc., very seldom escape unless the ripening season is dry and rather cool. Remedy All dried or mummied fruit should be picked from the trees in the winter or spring and be burned and the branches sprayed with the strong solution of copper sulphate just before the leaves begin to unfold in the spring. Otherwise the treatment is the same as for the black spot. This fungus also attacks all of the stone fruits, and none of the dried fruit should be allowed to remain on the trees after new growth of leaves begins, as the spores are sure to increase the amount of this disease on the peach and other stone fruits. Peach Curl (Exoascus deformans) In seasons when the weather comes on very hot in May so as to FUNGOUS DISEASES 25? cause an early and rapid growth and is followed by very low temperature, the growth of the leaves is so checked that this fungus finds the right conditions in which to develop ; the leaves become thickened and distorted and after a time drop off, to be followed by another set of leaves a little later. If the trees are vigorous and healthy the growth will be but little checked by this attack, but if the trees are not vigorous the injury is often very great. It is not often seriously injurious in orchards in rather light land and on high elevations. In the orchards of the Massachusetts agricultural college, which the author has had charge of for thirty years, no serious injury has occurred, but two seasons, and ^one to speak of for fifteen years, or since the practice 'of spraying has been a part of the routine of the care of the orchards. Remedy Spraying before the leaves unfold with the standard bordeaux, and again soon after they are well developed with dilute bordeaux (4:4:200), is a certain remedy. Peach Yellows This is an obscure disease, or condition of growth, of which no specific fungus or bacterial germs or growth has been discovered. It shows itself in many different ways. When it attacks the tree it may be known by a smaller growth of leaf, narrow, of a lighter color in its first stages, and as it advances they grow in clusters or tufts and are often of a reddish color; sometimes only one branch is affected, but sooner or later the whole tree will die unless it be severely headed back and fertilized abund- antly. The fruit ripens prematurely, is of a more brilliant color than is usual, and often bitter to the taste. It is also of small size. Most old trees as they approach maturity show all of the symptoms of the yellows. The disease is probably of a physiological nature and may be brought on by any cause that 358 SUCCESSFUL .FRUIT CULTURE weakens the tree, as severe weather in winter following a season of coarse and immature growth, overbearing, injury from insects, etc., etc. Remedy The disease being of so obscure a nature it is not profitable to spend much effort in trying to doctor sick trees, especially as young trees can be grown to bearing size in three years' time, and when trees show unmistakable signs of the disease it is best to pull them out and burn them at any time during the summer, fall or winter, and plant young trees in their place. This is the practice in the large peach growing sections of Michigan and other States. Anything that can be done to increase the hardiness and firmness of the wood and bud growth will tend to protect them from this disease, as frequent cultivation, or the application of an abundance of potash and phosphoric acid, with only nitrogen enough to produce a moderate amount of wood, etc. Peach Rosette is a disease somewhat of the same nature of the yellows, but appears earlier in the season and is characterized by a more leafy growth, and should be treated the same as the yellows. Powdery Mildew (PodospJiaera oxyacanthae) See under the apple. Leaf Rust (Puccinia pruni-spinosa) See under the plum. FUNGOUS PESTS ATTACKING THE PLUM Black Knot, Blade Wart, etc. (Plowrightia mor- bosa) More of the plum trees of both the European and Japanese varieties are destroyed by this pest than by any other causes. It is known by the large black excrescences seen on neglected plum trees, and is a fungous growth, the spores of which enter the tissues at some soft place, and, growing rapidly, soon cause the death of the tree unless checked in its early development. FUNGOUS DISEASES 259 Remedy If the trees are sprayed with the bor- deaux mixture (4:4:50) as per spraying calendar of the stations, this fungus will be kept under control. If any warts appear they should be cut off and burned in the winter or spring before growth begins. Shot-hole Fungus (Cylindrosporium padi) (Sep- toria cerasina Peck) This fungus attacks all of the plums, and in very moist seasons is very destructive unless the trees are thoroughly sprayed. It first appears as small red spots in the leaf which soon in- crease in size and. turn brown. After a time the brown part of the leaf drops out, leaving small holes, which gives the name to the disease. Remedy Spraying as for the last named fungi. Leaf Rust (Puccinia pruni-spinosa) In its effect upon the tree and in general appearance this fungus is very much like the last; the spots, however, are smaller and as a rule, more numerous, and cause the leaves to fall in the same way. In some sections of the country it is more prevalent than the shot-hole fungus and in others less so. Both are readily controlled by spraying as above described. Plum Pockets, Plum Bladders (Exoascus pruni) This fungus attacks the fruit while young, causing it to swell until it often reaches full size in a few days, first light green or yellow, then as the spores develop on the outside, it assumes a grayish color and then a dark brown. The American varieties are more subject to its attack than are the European or the Japanese. Remedy Spraying as for the last two fungi will be found effectual in keeping this pest in check. Brown Rot (Monilia fructigena) See under the peach. Powdery Mildew (Podospliaera oxyacanthae) See under the apple. 260 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE FUNGOUS PESTS ATTACKING THE QUINCE Black Rot (Sphaeropsis malorum] Previously de- scribed under the apple. Fire Blight (Bacillus amylovorus) This disease, previously described under the apple, rarely attacks more than the twigs of end shoots, sometimes destroying all of the fruit, but I know of no instance where the whole tree has been destroyed, or even permanently injured. Remedy Cutting off the diseased shoots and keep- ing the trees in a healthy condition are the only pre- ventive measures thus far known. Leaf Blight (Entomosporium maculatum) The leaf blight of the pear is often as destructive to this fruit. See under the pear. Quince Rust (Roestelia aurantiaca) This rust is similar in growth and appearance to the cedar apple fungus described under the apple. It attacks the fruit and also the branches, and when in the fruiting stage gives the parts attacked a golden yellow color. T)ur'> the fall and winter the injured parts are black. FUNGOUS PESTS ATTACKING THE CHERRY Brown Rot (Monilia fructigena] See under the plum. Leaf Blight (Cylindrosporium padi] See under the plum. Black Knot (Plowrightia morbosa) See under the plum. Powdery Mildew (Podosphaera oxyacanthae) See under the apple. FUNGOUS PESTS ATTACKING THE GRAPE Anthracnose, Scab, Bird's-Eye Rot (Spaceloma am- pelinum DeB.) This is one of the most destructive FUNGOUS DISEASES 261 diseases that we have, growing as it does on all parts of the vine, and in its early stages so difficult to dis- tinguish. In its first stage of growth it presents minute circular brown spots on the fruit and larger dark gray or reddish-brown areas on the stems and leaves. Some varieties are more subject to the attack of the anthrac- nose than others, those containing European blood, i. e., those originating from crosses of European and Amer- ican varieties, being more likely to be attacked than pure native seedlings like the Concord, etc. Remedy Spraying with the bordeaux mixture be- fore the leaves unfold and two or three times in May and June, as per spraying calendars, is effectual in keep- ing this disease in control. Black Rot (Guignardia Bidwellii) This disease is called the black rot from the fact that the fruiting pus- tules and the fruit, in its last stages of disease, are black, though when it first appears it is grayish in color. In the center of all the diseased spots, whether on the leaves or fruit, may be found numerous black pustules which contain the spores of the fungus. It appears most abundantly and does the most injury when the berries are nearly full grown. Remedy Thorough spraying must be done throughout the season to prevent -injury when the dis- ease has once become established. See spraying cal- endar. Downy Mildew, Brown Rot, Gray Rot (Peronospora viticola) The stems, leaves and fruit are attacked by this fungus, which in moist, hot weather is likely to do serious hnrm unless spraying is practiced. On its first appearance the leaves are of a lighter green on the p.-irts attacked, which is soon followed by a whitish powder, the spores of the fungus, that are scattered by the wind and are sure to grow when the weather is hot and moist. Leaves, fruit and canes are subject to attack. 262 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE Light rains or misty weather are especially favorable to its growth, but heavy rains wash off the spores and are therefore preventive. Such varieties containing foreign blood as the Delaware, Brighton, Rogers Hybrids, etc., are especially subject to this disease and the next. Remedy First, do everything possible to insure a vigorous, strong vine, then spray with the bordeaux according to the calendar. Powdery Mildew (Uncinula spiralis) This fungus is similar to the last in its effect upon the leaves and stems of the grape, and sometimes attacks the fruit, but it does not appear, generally, until late in the season. It is darker gray in color and often covers over every part of the leaf and young cane. Remedy Where this pest is abundant spraying must be done the last of August and early September with the simple solution of copper sulphate, four ounces to fifty gallons of water, and repeated once or twice if heavy rains wash it off. The bordeaux mixture cannot be used at this time, as it would disfigure the fruit by adhering to the stems. FUNGOUS PESTS ATTACKING THE RASPBERRY Anthracnose, Cane Rust (Gloeosporium venetum) Similar to the anthracnose of the grape, appearing in June and July and attacking the new canes principally, but sometimes the leaves also. On old plantations it is more destructive than on those recently planted. Remedy The free use of the bordeaux mixture once before the leaves unfold and once or twice after the leaves have opened, but before the fruit has set, will control this disease. Leaf Blight., Leaf Spot (Septoria rubi) This disease appears the latter part of summer in the form of small, light brown spots, attacking the lower leaves first and working toward the top of the canes, so that FUNGOUS DISEASES 263 at the end of the season only a few of the upper leaves remain uninjured. If this loss of leaves occurs early in August, as it sometimes does, the canes are very seriously injured. Remedy Spraying as for the anthracnose will also overcome this disease. Spring Orange Rust (Coema luminata) This dis- ease first appears in the spring, the leaves and canes attacked being light green in color, which is followed by large masses of golden yellow spores, and the final drying up of the parts attacked. The spores probably germinate during the summer and fall and grow in the tissues near the ground, to start into vigorous growth with the new growth of the canes in the spring. Remedy The spraying done for the anthracnose and leaf blight has but little effect upon this pest, as it is growing inside of the plant, but if the plants are thoroughly sprayed two or three times after the fruit is gathered in the summer, the spores will be prevented from germinating and becoming established in the new growth during the latter part of the summer. Also, as soon as the disease can be detected in the spring, all affected canes should.be removed and burned. Fall Orange Rust (Phragmidium albida) This disease appears during the latter part of summer and early fall on the under side of the leaves of many varie- ties of the raspberry and blackberry. The clusters of spores are bright orange yellow and are much more scattered than those of the spring orange rust. Remedy If spraying is done as soon as the fruit has been gathered, as for the last disease, it will prevent serious injury. FUNGOUS PESTS ATTACKING THE BLACKBERRY Leaf Spot (Septoria rubi) See under the rasp- berry. 264 SUCCESSFUL FRUIT CULTURE Spring Orange Rust (Coema luminata) See under the raspberry. Fall Orange Rust (Pliragmidium albida) See under the raspberry. FUNGOUS PESTS ATTACKING THE CURRANT Antliracnose, Leaf Blight (Gloeosporium ribis} A. fungus that appears first in rather fine dots on the leaves the latter part of June or July, and when in large numbers causing the leaves to fall in a few weeks, leaving the canes bare until the following spring. The result of this is that they make but little growth and bear very small or very little fruit the season after being attacked. Remedy Spray with the bordeaux mixture thor- oughly just before the leaves unfold and again just before the blossoms open, using Paris green the second time for the currant worm. A third spraying with a weak bordeaux (4:4:200), having it well strained so as not to disfigure the fruit, about the first of July, will be beneficial. Rust., Leaf Spot (Septoria ribis) Similar to the last in general appearance, but producing larger spots and coming later in the season. It attacks the lower leaves first and works toward the top of the canes, until only a few leaves are left on the canes. Remedy Same as for the last. FUNGOUS PESTS ATTACKING THE GOOSEBERRY Mildew (Sphaerotheca morsuvae) The foliage and fruit of the gooseberry are often covered with a light gray powder early in the season that stops growth of the bush and destroys the fruit. In dry, rather cool seasons there is little of this disease. Remedy If abundantly sprayed with the bordeaux mixture early in the spring and before the fruit is full FUNGOUS DISEASES 265 grown, and with the dilute bordeaux as it approaches maturity, the injury will be largely prevented. Rust, Leaf Spot (Septoria ribis) See under the currant. FUNGOUS PESTS ATTACKING THE STRAWBERRY Leaf Blight, Rust (Sphaerella fragariae) The reddish or brown spots that come so abundantly on the leaves of the strawberry in the spring or summer are caused by this fungus. It grows most abundantly in warm, moist weather, and when the plants are in a weakened condition from any cause. Remedy To insure the best results from the use of the bordeaux mixture, the leaves of the plants should be dipped in it before they are set in the spring, and the growing plants sprayed several times during the summer. In the spring, before fruiting, the beds should be sprayed once or twice before the blossoms open. Mildew (Sphaerotheca castagnei) The fungus produces a light grayish growth on the surface of the fruit and leaves in the spring that seriously checks the growth of the plants and injures the berries. Remedy A vigorous growth of plant should be produced by an abundance of plant food in the soil, and the use of the bordeaux for the leaf blight will do the rest. PAGE Apple aphis 231 assorting 61 black rot of ....254 boxes vs. barrels 62 budding 187 bud sticks 187 budding, conditions for success 189 buds, cutting off stock.. 189 buds, first year in nur- sery 190 buds, second year in nur- sery 190 buds, forming head 190 buds, nursery treatment of 189 cedar fungus 253 classification of varie- ties 52 climate and soil for 8 common 7 co-operation in market- ing 67 eo-operation in selling... 190 digging the holes for trees 15 evaporated 4 exporting 4, 65 facing 58 home market 65 heading barrels 63 insects injurious to 183 maggot 234 marketigg : 65 trees, Ko. 1 62 trees, No. 2 62 number of bushels 2 orchard, distance for planting 12 orchard, double thick planting 12 orchard fillers 12 orchard, green manur- ing 11 orchards, large 12 orchard, laying out 13 orchard, -esult of close planting 13 orchard planting board.. 15 orchard, preparation of land for 10 Apple orchard, preparation of trees for 9 orchard, young trees for 9 propagation of 183 propagation of stocks.. ..184 powdery mildew of 254 package and packing 62 root grafts, packing of. 186 root grafts, planting 186 root grafts, conditions of success 190 root grafts, first year in nursery 190 root grafts, second year in nursery 190 scab 253 slope and exposure of land g seeds, care of 184 seed bed 184 seed sowing 184 seedlings, thinning 184 seedlings, fertilizers for. 184 seedlings, cultivation of.184 seedlings, digging 185 seedlings, heeling-in 185 seedlings, root grafting the .185 seedlings, budding 187 selection of varieties 52 stenciling barrels 64 storing 67 storing In bushel boxes.. 61 tree borer, flat-headed.. 224 tree borer, round-headed. 223 trench plowing 10 trees, where to obtain... 10 trees, number of In Unit- ed States 2 trees, protection of roots.191 varieties of: Albemarle Pippin 57 Alexander 57 Astrachan !tt Baldwin 56 Ben Davis 55 Danvers Sweet 58 Early Harvest 11 Fallawater 58 Fameuse 5C Fall Pippin 55 Golden Sweet 67 Oravensteln 64 Grimes Golden 58 INDEX Apple, varieties of: Hub- Blackberry, varieties of: Taylor 136 winter protection for ...135 dewberry 137 King 56 dewberry, method of cul- tivation 137 Ladies' Sweet 57 dewberry, variety best, Lucretia 138 Mackintosh ... 55 attacking 264 Oldenburg 54 Black knot fungus 258 Pomme Royale 58 Blueberry bushes, cutting Pumpkin Sweet 57 back 175 Rhode Island Greening.. 56 Roxbury Russet 56 Spy 56 bushes, fertilizers for 175 bushes, transplanting.. ..174 .success 174 Twenty Ounce 58 mulching 175 Washington Royale (Pal- pasture rotation 175 Brown rot fungus 256 Wealthy 54 Williams ... 54 Budding 187 Wolf River 58 Apricot care of 92 c propagation of 196 Cedar apple fungus 253 protecting from Insects.. 93 stock for 92 Cherry importance of 103 thinning fruit 92 under glass 207 varieties of: Montgamet. 93 Moorpark 93 Duke 107 fertilizers for 103 Russian 94 insects attacking 241 aphis 241 B marketing the 107 Morello 107 Bearing year of fruit trees. 45 Mazzard 190 Blackberry age of bearing. 132 cultivation of 131 dewberry 137 orchard 103 soil for 103 hill system 131 importance of 130 planting 131 pruning the 104 seedlings, soil for 196 pruning 132 row system 131 seedlings, nursery treat- ment 196 soil for 130 sour 104, 107 tree, cracking of trunk.. 104 time for planting 131 varieties of: Heart 107 Gov. Wood ....107 Black Tartarian 107 varieties of: Agawam ..136 Downer's Late 107 Yellow Spanish 107 Erie 136 Rockport 107 Schmidt 107 May Duke 107 INDEX 2GU PAGE Cherry, varieties of: Royal Duke 107 B Evaporated fruit 4 Morello 107 Early Richmond 107 F English Morello 107 Fertilizers for orchard 29 Fig importance of 180 Cions time or cutting j>u cultivation and pruning. 181 Citrus fruits 176 growing in tubs 181 varieties of: Black Ischia. 181 Cold grapery 213 Brunswick 181 preparation of border of.213 storage house, construc- tion of 68 Adriatic 181 Forcing strawberries 216 Foreign market for fruit 3 Commercial fertilizers for Fruit as a promoter of health 2 Co-operation in selling fruit. 67 In spraying 222 Copper solutions 252 as a luxury 2 as a money crop 2 canned . . 4 sulphate 257 Cover crops in orchard 32 crops in orchard, time evaporated 4 growing, future of 5 house, cost of 206 Cultivation effects of 23 house, curvilinear 205 Currant anthracnose 264 of 205 black, importance of 150 black, varieties of: Black trees in pots, summer care of 211 Black Naples 243 trees in pots, winter pro- tection 210 borer (imported) 243 Fungous diseases 250 cane girdler .... 244 distance for planting 147 apple 253 fruit worm 246 golden flowering, impor- tance of 151 golden flowering, variety: Crandall's Improved 151 cherry 260 harvesting and market- grape 260 ing 146 262-264 insects attacking 243 leaf spot 246 planting 148 pruning 243 Q striped plant bug 246 worm (imported) 244 Gooseberry fruit worm 246 Phe'rrv -146 insects attacking 246 Fav's 146 method of cultivation 151 Red Cross 146 propagation of by cut- vrViiY* T^ 11 14ft propagation of by stools. 201 D varieties of: Columbus.. 152 varieties of .. 137 Industry 162 270 INDEX PAGE Grafting 47 Grapes under glass planting chisel ... 47 third year '215 cleft 47 fruit ' 216 root 185 i noinouse. . . .io stock for 185 TT 1 * ' O* l^tieS OI. wax 49 na csweet water. -^lo belt -114 black rot 260 crop of United States, Wilder 128 number of pounds 2 Worden 125 cold grapery 212 red, Brighton 126 cold storage of 125 Delaware, 126 distance of planting 115 Niagara 127 f ox 114 T A imported currant worm Z44 frost 114 Introduction 1 girdling the vine 128 blackberry ""247 grafting the 200-201 currant 243 insects attacking 242 peach 238 pear 236 leaf hopper 242 plum 239-240 mildew, downy 262 quince 241 mildew, powdery 262 origin and history of 114 picking tray 124 packing and shipping 124 planting the vine 116 strawberry 248 Insect pests 220 pests, effect of weather propagation of the 198 Insecticides 221 pruning summer 120-121 arsenate of lead 221 training, second year. . . .120 training third year 121 crude petroleum 221 hellebore 221 London purple 221 linseed oil 221 trellis posts for 118 trellis wires 119 pyrethrum 221 trellis, braces for 120 under glass, cold grapery.212 under glass, preparation of border 213 under glass, planting and training the vine, first whale oil soap 221 Insect pests prevention 220 pests, spraying for 222 pests, spraying outfit for.222 L, Ladders 59 ond year ... 214 steo ... ... INDEX 271 PAGES Leaf spores 64 Lemons 176 Loquat 182 importance of 182 May beetle 247 Medlar 182 importance of 182 Mulberry 112 importance of 112 varieties of: Downing ...113 New American 113 Tea's Weeping 113 N Nectarine 92-94 care of 94 protection from insects.. 94 propagation of 196 varieties of: Boston 94 Pitmaston 94 Rivers Orange 94 Oranges cultivation of or- chard 177 cover crop in orchard.... 178 fertilizers for orchard... 177 gold (kumquat) 180 importance of 176 number of boxes 3 mandarin 176 planting orchards 177 protection of trees from frost 179 sour 176 sweet 176 stock for sweet 177 training trees 177 varieties of: Boone's Early 180 Homosassa 180 Jaffa 180 Maltese Blood 180 Pineapple 180 Satsuma 180 Washington navel 180 Orchard apple, age of bearing 44 apple, commercial ferti- lizing 30 apple, cover crops for 22 apple, cultivation of 23 apple, fertilization and care 29 apple, green manuring for 32 apple, mulching 34 apple, odd year bearing.. 44 apple, preparing trees for planting 17 Orchard, apple, planting trees in is apple, planting the tree. 16 pruning 35 pruning, first year 36 regrafting old trees 46 stable manuring 29 turf culture 27 utilizing wastes of 4 Oyster shell bark louse 225 Peach after pruning 81 aphis 239 basket 90 basket, cost of 96 borer 238-240 brown rot 256 curl 256 house for the 207 harvesting and market- Ing 89 Importance of 78 keeping fruit 91 orchard, care of 81 orchard, cover crops .... 83 orchard, distance of planting 79 orchard, fertilizers for... 84 orchard, in turf 83 orchard, land for 79 orchard, four years old. 86 orchard, five years old... 87 orchard, preparation of land for 79 orchard, preparation of trees for planting 80 orchard, trees for plant- ing 79 orchard, cultivated 85 packages 89 propagation 194 pruning, first year 81 rosette 258 seeds 194 seeds, budding 194 seeds, natural fruit 194 seeds, planting 194 seedlings budded, first year 1!>5 scab 255 seedlings, budding 195 seedlings, cultivation of.195 thinning fruit 89 trees. No. 1 80, 195 trees. No. 2 80, 195 tree, pruned 83 tree, pruning 81 trees, number of 2 tree, number of bushels fruit 2 tree, unpruned 84 272 INDEX PAGE Peach under glass 207 Pear, varieties of* Law- rence 76 border .208 Patrick Barry 76 Seckel 75 under glass, fertilizing... 209 under glass, pruning and training 210 Sheldon 75 Worden Seckel 76 under glass, planting ...208 under glass, thinning ...210 under glass, trees for 208 under glass watering 209 importance of 181 Japanese 181 varieties of: Hyakume...l82 Yeddo .... 182 under glass, varieties of: Royal George 210 Plum American stocks for. 102 Golden Eagle 210 Goshawk 210 black knot 258 varieties of: Alexander.. 88 classification of 95 /^Th * 00 p an SLOCK lor yo V^IlfcUIlp JU ^ 1 V 111 . * " QQ leaf rust 95 pocket 259 yellows 257 after care of tree 73 pruning 97 distance for planting 72 thinning fruit 98 Hawkeye 102 importance of 71 Wildgoose .. 102 Wolf 102 leaf blister mite 237 Wyant 102 European 99 Bradshaw 101 picking and packing 77 propagation of 192 Fellenberg 101 Gen. Hand 101 propagation of seedling stock 192 Kingston 101 propagation, nursery Lincoln 101 McLaughlin 101 Quackenboss 101 pruning first year 72 Pond's Seedling 101 Smith's Orleans 101 Victoria 101 Japanese, Abundance 101 soil for 72 Burbank 101 Chabot 101 October Purple 101 Red June 101 Ansault 73 Satsuma 101 Bartlett 74 Wickson 101 Picking baskets 59 Clapp 74 Pomelo (grape fruit) 180 Dana's Hovey 76 Gifford 74 varieties of: Duncan ....180 Rovale 180 Kieffer 75 Triumph 1W INDEX 273 PAGE Powdery mildew 258 Propagation of apple Ill Cumberland 115 blackberry 202 blackcap 203 Shaffer 146 cherry 196 Columbian 146 currant . 201 fall orange rust 263 grape 198 fungous pests attacking 2G2 importance of home insects attacking 246 leaf spot .... 262 peach ....194 pear 192 red, distance for planting 139 plum 196 quince 197 ing 139 strawberry .203 bert 142 grown in United States. 3 King 142 Pruning covering wounds Miller 142 Phoenix 142 Thompson's Pride 142 Early Prolific 142 hooks 41 g San Jose scale 228 240 Spotted paria ' 248 Q Quince bush form 109 Champion 110 Spraying pumps 222 Strawberry arrangement of staminate and pistillate Plants IK, baskets 166 cuttings 197 distance for planting 109 crates 166 crown borer 248 cultivation of 159 harvesting fruit 110 importance of 108 diseases of 265 fertilizers for 153, 160 Insects attacking ^1 layering 197 hedge row system 157 orchard, soil for 108 importance of 153 soil for 108 stool, first year 197 stool, socond year 197 best kinds of plants 155 R leaf spot or blight 265 Marshall carrier 166 _ _ - Vd,|>i)trrry ariliirrK.n Be '"f'ttn mildew 2tTp blackcap, distance for picking and pickers ltl plants, pistillate l blackcap, propagation ..144 blackcap pruning 144 varieties of: Palmer 145 Kansas .. ...145 plants, stamlnatf 155 plants from fruitin? field 503 planting time for 154 planting, depth of 150 274 INDEX PAGE Strawberry, propagation of.203 T PAGE Tent caterpillar 227 n^ng ru a v ,es ^ fruit time for 43 plants 163 fruit, cost of 43 varieties of: Bubach (pis- tillate) 165 Brandy wine (staminate).165 Clyde (s ) 164 Tools landside plow 22 cutaway orchard harrow. 2G grape hoe 26 row 25 weeder 27 Gandy (s ) 165 Top-working the pear 193 Glen Mary (s.) 165 Haverland (p ) 164 Trees establishing the head 18 Marshall (s.) 164 Nick Ohmer (s.) 164 Sample (p.) 164 heeling-in 20 increasing hight of top of young 19 labeling 22 Warneld (p.) 164 winter protection of 162 under glass, extent of.... 216 under glass, conditions of planting 21 Turf culture in orchards.... 27 V under glass, layering the plants for forcing 217 under glass, tempera- cover crops 116 ture 219 under glass, fertilizers for ... ....213 W Woolly aphis 235 STANDARD BOOKS PUBLISHED BY ORANGE JUDD COMPANY NEW YORK CHICAGO ASHLAND BUILDING PEOPLE'S GAS BUILDING 315-321 Fourth Avenue 150 Michigan Avenue Any of these books will be sent by mail, postpaid, to any part of the world, on receipt of catalog price. We are always happy to correspond with our patrons, and cordially invite them to address us on any matter pertaining to rural boofe. Send for our large illustrated catalog, free on appli- cation. First Principles of Soil Fertility By ALFRED VIVIAN. There is no subject of more vital importance to the farmer than that of the best method of maintaining the fertility of the soil. The very evident decrease in the fertility of those soils which have been under cultivation for a number of years, combined with the increased competition and the advanced price of labor, have convinced the intelligent farmer that the agriculture of the future must be based upon more rational practices than those which have been followed in the past. We have felt for some time that there was a place for a brief, and at the same time comprehensive, treatise on this important subject of Soil Fertility. Professor Vivian's experience as a teacher in the short winter courses has admirably fitted him to present this matter in a popular style. In this little book he has .given the gist of the subject in plain language, practically devoid of technical and scientific terms. It is pre-eminently a "First Book," and will be found especially valuable to those who desire an introduction to the subject, and who intend to do subse- quent reading. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 265 pages. Cloth. Net, $1.00 The Study of Corn By PROF. V. M. SHOESMITH. A most helpful book to all farmers and students interested in the selection and im- provement of corn. It is profusely illustrated from photo- graphs, all of which carry their own story am 1 contribute their part in making pictures and text matter a clear, con- cise and interesting study of corn. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. loo pages. Cloth Net, $0.50 (l) Farmer's Cyclopedia of Agriculture & & A Compendium of Agricultural Science and Prac- tice on Farm, Orchard and Garden Crops, and the Feeding and Diseases of Farm Animals ..... -By EARLEY VERNON WILCOX, Ph. D. arid CLARENCE BEAMAN SMITH, M. S. Associate Editors in tlie Office of Experiment Stations, United States Department of Agriculture Tms is a new, practical, and complete I presentation of the whole subject of ag- riculture in its broadest sense. It is de- signed for the use of agriculturists who desire up-to-date, reliable information on all matters pertaining'to crops and stock, but more particularly for the actual farmer. The volume contains Detailed directions for the culture of every important field, orchard, and garden crop grown in America, together with descriptions of their chief insect pests and fungous diseases, and remedies for their control. It contains an ac- count of modern methods in feeding and handling all farm s*ock, including poultry. The diseases which affect different farm animals and poultry are described, and the most recent remedies sug- gested for controlling them. Every bit of this vast mass of new and useful information is authoritative, practical and easily found, and no effort has been spared to include all desirable details. There are between 6,000 and 7,000 topics covered in these references, and it contains 700 royal 8vo pages and nearly 500 superb half-tone and other original illustrations, making the most perfect Cyclopedia of Agricul- ture ever attempted. Handjomety bound in cloth. S3.5O; half morocco (aery jumpluottj). -f4-.5O, postpaid ORANGE JUDD COMPANY, 31 ^r2 This book is DUE on the last date stamped below 2 192 fr'io, JUN 6 1932 M.X 11934 JUN 13 1958 Form L-9-15m-U,'27 REC'D LO-URL ; MARgSfl MAR 2 4 1973 )RNlA