LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. \ HOBOKEN, NEW JERSEY. /&XX) : Am u!U6tA^ 3 a \ \J\AMUJ . r/ VAJb JVD \WuU . s *Sfc ; <<; A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA INCLUDING SOME IMPORTANT FACTS MOSTLY OMITTED IN THE SMALLER HISTORIES DESIGNED FOR GENERAL READING AND FOR ACADEMIES JOSIAH W. LF^E "/> I f SECOND EDITION, REVISED, WITH MAPS. \J PHILADELPHIA: J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO. i 8; 8. Copyright, 1877, by JOSIAH W. LEEDS. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. PAGH Purposes of Historical Study 1 1 Physical Aspect of the Country 13 Iceland and the Northmen. Madoc. The Zeni 14 CHAPTER II. THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. The Way Prepared 19 Columbus . i ......... 21 CHAPTER III. THE ABORIGINES. The Mound Builders .......... 29 The North American Indians . . . . - . . . 34 CHAPTER IV. ENGLISH AND FRENCH DISCOVERIES IN AMERICA. The English. John and Sebastian Cabot 41 Discoveries by the French 44 CHAPTER V. THE SPANIARDS THEIR CRUEL TREASURE-HUNT. Ponce de Leon, the Invader of Florida ....... 51 Discoveries and Conquests from Mexico to Peru ..... 53 The Florida Interior .......... 57 Discovery of the Mississippi 63 CHAPTER VI. THE HUGUENOTS THEIR MISTAKES AND MISFORTUNES. Coligny, the Huguenot Chief. Villegagnon . . . ... 67 Ribault and Laudonniere 70 Ruin and Revenge Menendez and De Gourgues 75 3 4 CONTENTS. J CHAPTER VII. ENGLISH VOYAGES AND FIRST SETTLEMENTS. Martin Frobisher. Sir Humphrey Gilbert ...... 79 Sir Francis Drake .......... g 2 Raleigh and the Roanoke Settlements ..... 84 Voyages of Gosnold, Pring, Weymouth and others .... 89 CHAPTER VIII. COLONIZATION OF VIRGINIA. Jamestown, the first Permanent English Settlement .... 91 Captain John Smith .......... 93 The Colony under the Government of the Virginia Company . . 97 Slavery in Virginia ........... IO 3 CHAPTER ix. THE FRENCH OCCUPATION OF CANADA. De Monts. The Settlement of Port Royal ...... 1 06 Samuel de Champlain, the Founder of Quebec ..... no The Jesuit Missions ........... n^ CHAPTER X. THE SETTLEMENT OF NEW NETHERLAND. The Trading-post at New Amsterdam ....... ng The Dutch Directors and the Patroons ...... 121 New Sweden ......... 124 William Kieft. Wars with the Indians ....... 126 Peter Stuyvesant. New Netherland resigned to the English . . . 131 CHAPTER XL THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. The Pilgrim Fathers. New Plymouth ....... 135 The Puritans of Massachusetts Bay ....... i 39 New Hampshire and Maine ......... I4I Roger Williams, the Founder of Rhode Island ..... 143 The Connecticut and New Haven Settlements ..... 146 PequodWar ............ I4 8 The United Colonies of New England ....... j^o The Persecution of the Quakers ........ z CONTENTS. 5 CHAPTER XII. MARYLAND. PROGRESS OF THE VIRGINIA COLONY. PAGE Lord Baltimore, the Founder of Maryland 161 Indian Troubles in Virginia. Clayborne, of Kent Island , . . 164 Maryland during the Protectorate, and under Charles II. ... 166 The Administration of Governor Berkeley, of Virginia .... 168 Bacon s Rebellion. Lord Culpeper I7 1 CHAPTER XIII. CAROLINA. The Palatine Proprietors and their Model Constitution .... 176 The Quaker Settlements of Albemarle 179 The Settlers at Charleston 181 CHAPTER XIV. NEW YORK. NEW JERSEY. NEW FRANCE. The Government of the Duke of York 185 East and West New Jersey 187 Explorations of the French Jesuits. Marquette 190 La Salle. An Iroquois War 193 CHAPTER XV. NEW ENGLAND UNDER CHARLES II. AND JAMES II. Connecticut and Rhode Island " . 197 John Eliot. The Praying Indians of Massachusetts .... 200 King Philip s War 202 The Colonial Charters demanded. Andros, Governor of New England 208 CHAPTER XVI. PENNSYLVANIA. William Penn and the Royal Grant 210 The Great Treaty at Shackamaxon 212 Philadelphia Founded .......... 215 Disagreements in Council ......... 218 CHAPTER XVII. THE COLONIES UNDER WILLIAM AND MARY. The English and French Colonies at War . . . . . .221 6 CONTENTS. PAGE Sir William Phipps, Fletcher, Bellamont 223 The Salem Witchcraft 226 Maryland and Virginia 228 John Archdale, of Carolina 230 CHAPTER XVIII. THE WAR IN THE REIGN OF QUEEN ANNE. Louisiana settled by the French 234 Barbarities of the War in New England 235 The Tuscaroras. Slave Laws 238 CHAPTER XIX. GEORGE I. A PERIOD OF FINANCIERING. Piracy suppressed. The Mississippi Bubble ...... 241 Banks and Bills of Credit 243 War with the Norridgewocks and other Tribes ..... 245 CHAPTER XX. GEORGE II. FIRST PERIOD. The French War with the Natchez and Chickasaws .... 249 The Assiento and the African Traders . . . . . . .251 Georgia founded by Oglethorpe 253 Rum and Slavery. The Spaniards and Indians ..... 256 The Walking Purchase. Brainerd ........ 260 CHAPTER XXI. GEORGE II. SECOND PERIOD. Third War with Canada. Louisburg captured ..... 265 The Southern Provinces. Slaves and Redemptioners. The Molasses Act 268 Fourth Intercolonial War. Braddock s Defeat 273 The French Neutrals of Acadie 275 The Marquis of Montcalm ......... 277 David Zeisberger, the Moravian ........ 280 Canada conquered from the French ....... 285 CHAPTER XXII. GEORGE III. COLONIAL DISCONTENT. The Conspiracy of Pontiac 289 CONTENTS. 7 PAGE Colonial Taxation. The Stamp Act . 290 The Tax on Tea. Boston Port Bill 292 Occurrences in several of the Colonies 294 Negotiations of Franklin in England .297 CHAPTER XXIII. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 1775. Lexington and Bunker Hill. Canada Campaign ... 300 1776. The Sieges of Boston, Charleston and New York. Declaration of Independence 3 02 1777. Burgoyne s Surrender. Philadelphia captured by the British . 306 1778. The French Alliance. Massacre of Wyoming . . . . 3 8 1779. Georgia Campaign. Deeds of Reprisal 3 11 1780. The British in South Carolina. Arnold and Andre" . . . 3 J 3 1781-83. Cornwallis surrenders at Yorktown. Peace declared . . 315 CHAPTER XXIV. THE CONSTITUTION FORMED. ADMINISTRATION OF WASHINGTON. Financial depression. Shays Rebellion . . . . . . . 3 T 9 The Constitution. Washington elected first President . . . .323 The Miami War. The Whiskey Insurrection 33 2 CHAPTER XXV. ADMINISTRATIONS OF ADAMS AND JEFFERSON. John Adams, second President. Disputes with France .... 337 Thomas Jefferson, third President. Acquisition of Louisiana. A Duel. War with Tripoli 34 Machinations of Burr. Berlin and Milan Decrees. The Embargo Act 345 The Right of Search 348 CHAPTER XXVI. WAR WITH ENGLAND DURING MADISON S ADMINISTRATION. Negotiations with England. Tecumseh 352 1812. War declared. Detroit and Niagara. Opposition to the War . 355 1813. Operations on the Canada Frontier. Red Jacket and Cornplanter. Creek War 358 1814. Battles near Niagara and Plattsburg. Washington City taken. Hartford Convention 3 6 3 Battle of New Orleans and end of the War 3 6 7 8 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXVII. PRESIDENCIES OF MONROE AND J. Q. ADAMS. Seminole War. Florida ceded by Spain 371 The Missouri Compromise. The Slave Trade prohibited . . . 374 J. Q. Adams, sixth President. Internal Improvements .... 380 Difficulties with Georgia and the Creeks. A New Tariff . . . 384 CHAPTER XXVIII. JACKSON S ADMINISTRATION. VAN BUREN AND HARRISON. Removal of the Cherokees 387 Nullification. The Black Hawk and second Seminole Wars. Bank Troubles 389 Financial Troubles during Van Buren s Administration. Harrison . 393 CHAPTER XXIX. ADMINISTRATIONS OF TYLER AND POLK. THE MEXICAN WAR. The North-eastern Boundary. Annexation of Texas .... 396 War with Mexico. Annexation of California and New Mexico . . 400 CHAPTER XXX. TAYLOR. FILLMORE. PIERCE. BUCHANAN. The Slavery Agitation .......... 406 The Kansas-Nebraska Bill. Troubles in Kansas 409 The Scheme of Compensated Emancipation. Secession . . .411 CHAPTER XXXI. PRESIDENCY OF LINCOLN. THE CIVIL WAR. . .416 CHAPTER XXXII. ADMINISTRATIONS OF JOHNSON AND GRANT. Reconstruction. Impeachment of President Johnson. Alaska . . 433 Grant s Administration. The Freedmen. Education .... 436 The New Indian Policy .......... 442 The Temperance Question 449 Arbitration and Peace .......... 454 Science in America ........... 460 A Few Statistics of Progress 464 PREFATORY NOTE. THE writer of the following pages recalls the fact that when he was a grammar-school student in the " City of Brotherly Love," it was the practice of the pupils in the uppermost class, in lieu of other regular exercises, to rehearse the wars of their country. For this purpose each boy was furnished by the principal with a memorandum book, and required to transcribe briefly the battles of the Revolution, and of the War of 1812. The review of these notes occurred so fre quently, that, while we became very proficient concerning the battles fought by our forefathers, we remained extremely ignorant of matters pertaining to the Indians (save that they were barbarous savages), the slaves, and other items of intrinsic interest bearing upon our country s welfare. This persistent indoctrination of warlike ideas resulted in producing an intensely partisan feeling, so that the very name of "British," or "Mexican," became a hateful sound to our patriotic apprehensions. Indeed, our principal con cern appeared to be, to learn how much greater was the battle-loss in killed and wounded on the part of the British, than was that of the Americans. It is not using too forcible an expression to say, that there was begotten in our youthful minds something of the malignant sentiment of murderers. Of the moral loss occasioned by a state of warfare, together with its exceeding expensiveness, we had no conception. To supply, in a measure, this lack of information, and to pro mote the knowledge of those things in the past and present history of our country which tend to its peace, prosperity and true renown, are the purposes of this work. The rule of political action recommended, may be concisely expressed by that vigorous Anglo-Saxon word STRAIGHTFORWARDNESS. GERMAN-TOWN, PHILADA., 1877. 9 " It were miserable indeed for us to fall under the just censure of the poor Indian conscience, while we make profession of things so far trans cending." WILLIAM PENN. 10 I, I B II A k \ UNIVERSITY OF- 1| ( AL1FOHNIA. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. PURPOSES OF HISTORICAL STUDY. ALTHOUGH the American Union at this day appears as a specially brilliant constellation among the political systems which have been styled the Galaxy of Nations, yet not many generations have gone by since this hitherto hidden hemis phere first became an object of historical notice, and quickly attracted the gaze of all the civilized world. But while our republic has, indeed, thus attained to so noteworthy a position in so brief a time, as to occupy a front rank among the na tions of the earth, yet we read of other nations still more powerful and glorious in their outward aspect, whose suns once rose with splendor in the East, but which now are either sadly degenerated and insignificant, or else have long ago sunk into oblivion. In the pages of the inspired Scriptures we may find related the reason why the glory of these people waned. It was be cause they were of the nations that knew not God, nor were concerned to observe his statutes. The seeds of gross evils were with them from the first, and, not being eradicated, ii 12 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. prevailed eventually to their destruction. So it was for the instruction and reproof of all following ages that we find de tailed in Holy Writ the historical narratives of the Hebrews, their wars with the surrounding nations, together with the prophecies of the future wretched condition of them all, which we now witness to be so remarkably fulfilled. Hence, it is by the intelligent observation of such records, that the student of all history, "sacred and profane," will be benefited; the prime end of all historical inquiry being, to take note of those principles of social and political action which appear best calculated to insure the well-being and permanency of any people. It will, therefore, be the purpose of the following pages, not so much to seek the entertainment of the student by minutely- detailed narratives of military campaigns, as, while treating those subjects at sufficient length, to endeavor to derive some positive benefit from the observation of their causes and effects, as also to bring into prominence other public matters which deeply concern the well-being of the people at large. That historical treatise accomplishes little or no good for humanity which delights mainly in military manoeuvres, moving its kings and captains in the sight of the student like the un feeling puppet figures of a chess-board, and, while vainly minis tering amusement, suppresses the sad tale of utter devastation and woe that ever attend the track of the worldly conqueror. Moreover, by means of intelligent comparison, we should strive to discern how our own nation s sun or starry cluster (so to speak) appears to be drifting : whether we, as a people, by any low estimate of honor, truth, or equality of rights, are in danger of becoming utterly corrupt, and thus over whelmed by divine justice should become comparable to a faint nebula, scarcely discernible in the political firmament ; or, on the other hand, whether it appears our concern to elevate religion, peacefulness, and every good work, that PHYSICAL ASPECT OF THE COUNTRY. 13 thereby we may continue increasing in prosperity, and so exemplify to every nation that it is indeed "righteousness that exalteth a people." PHYSICAL ASPECT OF THE COUNTRY. Before touching upon the particulars of our country s his tory, let us first obtain a broad geographical view of the land : simply its prominent physical characteristics of mountains and plains, of rivers and forest-areas. Looking at the centre section, lying between its right and left mountain-barriers, the Alleghanies and the Rocky Mountain range, we see the Mississippi river, with its great tributaries, appearing like a mammoth tree, though overmuch developed on the left, where the Missouri, the Arkansas, and the Red rivers extend their branches. On the right, spread out the Illinois and the Ohio, with the Tennessee and the Cumberland. Eastward of the Alleghanies, passing over a rather narrow, undulating country, is the nearly parallel range of the Blue Mountains; and beyond the latter, a broad margin to the Atlantic Ocean ; while on the west, beyond the Rocky Moun tain chain, we find a wide extent of mostly flat or desert country to the Sierra Nevada and Coast Mountains, and then a narrower margin between these latter and the Pacific Ocean. Before European nations encroached upon the domain of the aborigines, the aspect of the country east of the Missis sippi was vastly different from the appearance which it pre sents at this day. If, with our eye, we follow up the trunk of the great tree which we have imagined, to where the Ohio branches off on the right, thence along the latter to the neighborhood of Cincinnati, across to Lake Erie and down the St. Lawrence to the sea ; then follow around the Atlantic and Gulf coasts to the place of beginning at the Mississippi s mouth, we will have measured the bounds of what was in that 2 I 4 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. day a dense and almost uninterrupted forest. Between the Ohio river and the vast Lake-feeders of the St. Lawrence, there were, however, some intervals of land destitute of woods, and these open spots increased in number and size as one proceeded westwardly, until, in the country of the Illinois, the forest and the plain became nearly equal in area. Beyond the Mississippi, the change which has ensued is by no means so notable. Here the prairies absorb more and more of the woodland, until there is reached that immense plain, which, bounded on the west by the Rocky Mountains, extends from the Arctic Sea down to the Mexican Gulf, with, in many places, only narrow belts of timber along the banks of the rivers and lesser water- courses. Here the buffalo which also, in limited numbers, were found east of the Mis sissippi even to the Alleghanies ranged in great herds, afford ing a ready subsistence to the tribes of native hunters. In the secondary ridges and intervening valleys, the Parks of the Rocky Mountain region, forest land again appears, but beyond those mountains is a vast extent of prairies and desert. There were no buffalo here, and the population was sparse; the salmon of the rivers, and various species of native roots were the principal articles of food. But on the Pacific slope of the Sierra Nevada, the climate is mild and equable, the soil fertile, and, as a consequence, vegetation is luxuriant, and the timber is of exceptionally large growth and plentiful. It is scarcely necessary to say to the teacher of history, or to any appreciative student, that the open atlas is an aid to the retention of many facts, such as ought not to be neglected. ICELAND AND THE NORTHMEN. MADOC. THE ZENI. Although it is customary to say that "America was dis covered by Columbus," yet the claim to the accomplishment of that historical event belongs rightly to the NORTHMEN. 875] ICELAND AND THE NORTHMEN. 15 Nevertheless, many who are unwilling to disturb the former accepted accounts, profess to disbelieve the relations of the Northmen, however reasonably-reliable the presented facts may appear. On the other hand it will be denied by none, that the effective discovery of the land that which occurred in such a manner and at such a time as to bring about positive valuable knowledge of the new continent, followed by a flow of people towards it and its permanent occupation was the re-discovery by Columbus. Respecting the Northmen, their occupation of Iceland, and the means by which their knowledge of a great country west of that island was brought about, the following brief account may find a proper place in this introductory chapter. It is chiefly from the Icelandic Sagas that the very imperfect nar rative which we now possess of those occurrences is gathered. The Sagas are poems or tales, first recited by the native bards or Saga-men, and afterward collected in more permanent form by the historians Ari Frode, Sturleson, and others. The island of ICELAND, with an area of thirty thousand square miles about equal in size to the state of Maine is situated in the Atlantic Ocean, two hundred miles eastward from Greenland, and nearly three times that distance west of Norway. Although usually accounted as appertaining to the European continent, it properly belongs by position to America. It was occupied A.D. 874, by a colony of Norwegians under the leadership of Ingolf, who sailed away from their native land to escape the imperious sway of the Viking, Harold Harfager the Fair-Haired. .The companions of Ingolf, and the jarls or noblemen who shortly followed his example, were men of high descent, of considerable intelligence, and pos sessed of means, but appear to have been gifted with roving or piratical propensities which were not agreeable to the wishes of the Norwegian viking. Of these jarls were Rolf, who sailed to France and founded the Norman power there ; and 1 6 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [985 Ejnar, who colonized the Orkneys; and similarly, those who settled the other adjacent island groups the Shetlands, the Faroes, and the Hebrides. The CELTS, however, seem to have dwelt in Iceland awhile, previous to 874, for we are told by the historian Frode : " There were here Christian people, whom the Northmen called papas> but they afterwards went away, because they would not be here among heathens ; and left behind them Irish books, and bells and croziers, from which it could be seen that they were Irishmen." More than a hundred years after the settlement of the island, in A.D. 985, Eric, surnamed the Red, having been declared an outlaw in consequence of the fatal result of a dis pute in which he became engaged, left his country in a ship, with a few adherents, and, sailing westward, came to the coast of GREENLAND : calling it by that title, because, as he ob served, "people will be attracted thither if the land has a good name." Upon the news of this discovery reaching Iceland, Biarni, a man of a bold and adventurous spirit, set sail for the same region, but being driven out of his course, towards the south, discovered yet other lands, which were doubtless parts of Nova Scotia and New England. About the year 1000, Eric s son Leif called Leif, the Lucky with thirty-five men, sailed south from Greenland, and landed on a coast, which, from the description of it given in the Saga, is believed to have been the south-eastern section of Massachusetts. Here were found great abundance of grape vines, and so the land was named Vinland, the good. To Nova Scotia was given the name of Markland ; to Newfound land, that of Helluland. Within the succeeding twenty years, this first expedition was followed by others to the same shores, under the direction of Thorvald and Thorstein, other sons of Eric, and by that of Freydis, his daughter. Thorvald having imprudently pro voked the natives or " skrellings," as the Northmen styled 1005] ICELAND AND THE NORTHMEN. 17 them, suffered death at their hands. The voyage of Thor- finn Karlsefne (ancestor of the sculptor Thorwaldsen), who appears to have sailed several degrees farther south, was the most notable. After nearly four centuries of independent existence, under the rule of its own chiefs, Iceland became subject to Norway. The withering blight of party-feeling which had long prevailed in the land rendered its conquest no difficult matter. "Thus did all the noble sentiments generated by equal laws, an independent position, high descent, and intellectual endow ment, sink beneath the angry and narrow-minded conflict of private interest and personal animosity." Very little mention is to be found of the newly-discovered country subsequent to the accounts given by the sons of Eric, although allusion is made to the re-discovery of Helluland, about 1285, and there is also the account of a voyage in 1347 to Mnrkland, whither the Northmen came for timber. Of Greenland, we are told that a bishop, also named Eric, was sent thither in the i2th century to attend to the erection of chapels; and that, in 1448, a brief was issued by Pope Nicholas V. concerning the nearly exterminated church in that land. But the country was scarcely heard of thereafter until the year 1721, when the pious and persevering Hans Egede established a mission-station on the west coast. At present, a few similar stations of the United Brethren are the only settlements on that inhospitable shore, where only an occasional whaling-ship, or Arctic explorers in quest of an open polar sea, seek its ports of refuge in stress of weather, or when baffled in a bootless search. Far less credible than the accounts of the American voyages of the Northmen, is the tradition of the discovery of the con tinent by MADOC, the son of a Welsh prince. He is said to have left his native land (1170) because of the prevalence of a family feud, and, having sailed a great distance to the west- 1 8 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1721 ward, discovered a country where dwelt a people whose his tory, habitations and customs were utterly strange to him. After living there many years, he went back to Wales and equipped a second fleet, with which he again set sail, but never returned. In the latter part of last century, travellers in remote regions of the West, upon the upper waters of the Red River and the Missouri, were said to have met with some Indians whose hair was of a reddish hue and their complexions of a lighter shade of color than was the case with other na tives. Parchment manuscripts, which they exhibited, were believed to have been written in Welsh characters. More re cently the story has been revived by the reputed discovery of light-complexioned natives among the Zunis of New Mexico. By some observers, the Mandans are thought to be the de scendants of Madoc and his companions. Of a like doubtful character is the relation attributed to the brothers NICOLO and ANTONIO ZENO, of Venice. According to the narrative, claimed to have been set forth in certain of their letters published in the i6th century, Nicolo first visited (1380) the island-groups northward of Scotland ; then, being joined by Antonio, they successively voyaged to Iceland, Greenland and the countries adjacent. But the map accom panying the relation is of such a perplexing character, whilst there are so many discrepancies apparent in the text itself, that it is generally discredited as the veritable production of an eye-witness of the lands it professes to delineate and de scribe. For the present, at least, the " Voyages of the Zeni" must be deemed to be apocryphal. CHAPTER II. THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 14921512. THE WAY PREPARED. THE darkness of superstition, the clouds of error and igno rance, with the consequent lack of a pure religion and of right-ordered living, which prevailed over Europe during the period from the 5th to the i4th centuries, have earned for that era the title of The Dark Ages. But this sad condition of mental and spiritual gloom witnessed a wonderful awakening to the light, when the Art of Printing was given to man, and when, shortly afterward, the beams of the Reformation burst upon a world, struggling for escape from the domination of error and of priestly intolerance. It was in the midst of this improving change in the world s civilization that the continent of America was discovered. What the Northmen knew of it was gathered at a time when that knowledge, scant and hazy withal, lacked the means of ready dissemination the press of the printer. But now, in the fifteenth century, there had arisen a spirit of inquiry and of enterprise, which was fanned into a flame of emulation when the existence of a new world was, in the ordering of the Almighty, made known through the agency of the navigator, CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. Yet, it was not emulation alone the thirst for discovery which was excited by the revelation. There was a thirst for 20 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1492 gold as well. The imaginations of men had been set aglow by the captivating stories of the travelers Mandeville, Marco Polo, and others, and hence, were actively alive to rumors of far-away regions where all precious stones and metals might be found in abundance. Lovely visions of Cathay, of the land of Ophir and of " farthest Ind," were much in the minds of maritime people. The Azores and the Madeira Isles had been found, outlying on the sea, while down the African coast for many a league the vessel of the navigator had southward sailed, and still the land and the lapping sea stretched bound less before him. But now, possessed of the mariner s priceless boon the compass surely he need not to cling forever to the shore and the well-known land, but might, at his will, sail westward whither his eyes and his thoughts had so long been wistfully turned. The crusades of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, which had opened to the people of Europe the knowledge of the refined and wealthy nations of the East, had also incited new ideas of domestic luxury and of adornment. By becoming sharers in the riches of the Orient, they would thus be enabled to gratify these newly-ac quired tastes and desires. The spirit of maritime discovery was greatly fostered through the persistent efforts and liberal aid of PRINCE HENRY, of Portugal : so much so, indeed, that in consequence of the substantial results, largely due to his endeavors, the kingdom of Portugal, from being one of the least of the nations, sud denly arose into prominence. He drew around him the chief men of science, and, in order that their learning might be made practically useful, established a naval college and observatory, wherein known facts in geography and navigation were re duced from their previous crude shape to an intelligible sys tem. Much improvement was likewise devised in the con struction of maps. Material for the latter work was constantly accruing, from the reports brought back by the numerous 1492] COLUMBUS. 21 expeditions which he fitted out, to explore, and to collect authentic information of, the African coast; though it appears that the traffic in slaves and the barter for gold, soon became, with the mercenary ones, chief objects of enterprise. Prince Henry has been called the " father of modern geo graphical discovery;" and it is not unlikely that a desire to engage in similar exertions gave to the efforts of Columbus an encouraging impulse, or, perhaps, prompted his great un dertaking. Of Prince Henry s accomplished work, it has been remarked, that " all this was effected, not by arms, but by arts ; not by the stratagems of a cabinet, but by the wis dom of a college. It was the great achievement of a prince, who had well been described full of thoughts of lofty enterprise, and acts of generous spirit one who bore for his device the magnanimous motto, The talent to do good the only talent worthy the ambition of princes." COLUMBUS. Christopher Columbus, or Colombo, the son of Dominico Colombo, a wool-comber of Genoa, in Italy, was born about the year 1445. Historians have proof that he was " honorably connected ;" but, as it is pretty well conceded that title and wealth do not necessarily convey merit, we will not stay to examine whether his ancestry was or was not of noble lineage. Having an early and decided inclination for the sea, his edu cation was such as to fit him for a maritime life ; for, besides the ordinary studies of youth, he received, at the University of Padua, instruction in geometry, geography, astronomy, and navigation. At this seat of learning, however, he did not remain long, but soon was afforded opportunity to apply in practice the lessons he had learnt, being scarcely fifteen years of age when he entered upon a nautical career. This early and irresistible inclination for the sea, Columbus 22 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1492 subsequently attributed, and perhaps correctly, to an impulse from the Deity, inciting to the accomplishment of an ordained high purpose. In his character there was blended with con siderable piety, an unquestioning belief in, and veneration for, the church and creed in which he was educated. In purpose he was resolute and enduring; and, although of a naturally irritable temper, it was softened by his simplicity and mag nanimity of spirit. He was tall of stature and of commanding presence, and his features, though long, and the nose aquiline, partook of a gentle gravity. Especially noticeable, in an Italian, must have been his hair, which was, we are assured, nearly white before he was thirty years of age. His first experience, in entering upon a sea-faring life, was to accompany a naval expedition which was fitted out at Genoa by an Italian duke, to make descent on the kingdom of Na ples. For a number of years following, he was variously en gaged in commercial, exploring, and, perhaps, also less peaceful pursuits, up and down the Mediterranean and in other waters ; and among other and then remote places visited, it is believed that he went to Iceland, where vague tales of the Northmen s discoveries may have had somewhat to do in influencing his future course. Finally, in 1470, he came to Lisbon, the capital of Portugal, but having married the daughter of one who had been a sea captain in the service of Prince Henry, and had been rewarded by appointment to the governorship of one of the Madeira Isles, they removed thither Columbus earning a livelihood at map-making. In the meantime he was eagerly alive to any evidences of the truth of the supposition, which had become a fixed conclusion in his own mind, that the figure of our earth was, in reality, of a nearly globular shape and not, as had been assumed by the world at large, a flat surface and hence, that there must undoubtedly be a way by which, sailing westward, he would reach the shores of India. The extent 1492] COLUMBUS. 23 of the Asiatic continent, described in such glowing terms by Marco Polo and other travelers, he appears to have consider ably exaggerated, for he had no expectation of another land intermediate to the west, between Europe and Asia. But with these strangely wild and extravagant ideas as they were then esteemed to be he could make but little headway with the geographers and men of science of that time. His first application for assistance to demonstrate the truth of his theory, was to the senate of his native Genoa. This being unsuccessful, he next presented the matter to King John, of Portugal, who, finding the problem too deep for his wits to fathom, very conveniently referred it to a committee on geo graphical affairs, for their consideration. But no favorable report came from the committee. Disheartened, but undis mayed, by these failures of his scheme, in 1485 he quitted Lisbon for Spain, and having applied to some nobles of the court, one of them became sufficiently interested in the matter to favor him with a commendatory letter to Isabella, the queen. It was an inauspicious period for the success of the object it being a time of war with the Moors and so the application was referred by Ferdinand, the king, and Isabella, to Talavera, the queen s confessor. The latter, willing to divide the re sponsibility of passing judgment upon so abstruse a problem, summoned a junta of cosmographers, who met the " heret ical" assumption of Columbus with many theological refuta tions, ridiculing his theory of the spherical shape of the earth, and, furthermore, cited the weighty authority of the fathers of the Church against "the foolish idea of the exist ence of antipodes; of people who walk opposite to us, with their heels upward and their heads hanging down ; where everything is topsy-turvy, where the trees grow with their branches downward, and where it rains, hails, and snows upward. Wherefore the junta decided against countenancing any such erroneous and dangerous notions. 24 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1492 Several years had now elapsed in this fruitless work of solicitation, and several times Columbus was about to carry his suit to France, but upon each occasion was stopped by friends who had become persuaded of the correctness of his statements and the practicability of the scheme, and were loth that any other country should gain the honor of the undertaking. At last one of these presented the matter so forcibly to the queen that her consent was given, and the requisite means furnished without any farther delay ; there also being conferred on Columbus the present title of Admiral, and the prospective one of Viceroy of all the countries which he might discover. Three vessels were equipped, provisioned for one year, and supplied with ninety mariners, thirty ad venturers also accompanying the expedition. None of these vessels were greater in size than a large modern yacht, or a medium-sized sloop ; the largest one only which was called the Santa Maria, and was the one in which Columbus sailed being decked throughout. The other two, known as caravels, were called the Pinta and Nina. It was the third day of the 8th month (August), in the year 1492, that Columbus, with his little fleet, sailed away from the port of Palos, in Spain. They were detained a few days at the Canary Isles to repair one of the vessels ; then continued on their westward course over the strange, untraveled sea. When eight days from the Isles, two tropical birds were seen ; then they entered immense plains of sea-weed, hundreds of miles in width, when the mariners thought they had come to shallow water, but the bottom was thousands of feet below, and far too deep for their longest lines to fathom. Again there were birds seen, but no land appeared ; and now they had sailed steadily on for weeks, and the sailors were thor oughly alarmed; the needle of the compass had strangely varied they were sailing and descending, as it appeared, down the broad ocean and who could tell if ever a wind 1492] COLUMBUS. 25 would prevail to carry them back again ! A mutiny appeared for a while to be imminent, but the admiral contrived to soothe their fears, and to animate them with fresh hopes. On the eleventh day of the loth month (October), evident signs of proximity to land were observed as the birds, and the many objects that drifted by j and at night, Columbus, standing by the mast of his little craft, now eagerly and acutely on the watch, saw a light that moved ; and, on the following morning, behold, the land ! It proved to be an island of the Bahama group, called in the native tongue Guanahani, and which they named San Salvador. Landing on the beach, in the presence of the inoffensive, awe-inspired natives, they knelt and offered thanks for their safety and their great discovery ; then raised the figure of the cross, and Columbus, with sword in hand, took possession of the land on behalf of the monarchs of Spain. After bartering with the islanders, who continued to be very pacific, they sailed southward and discovered Cuba, and next Hayti or Hispaniola. On the north-west coast of the latter island a fort was built, and, leaving some of his followers to keep it, Columbus quickly returned to Spain, to announce to the court, then sitting at Barcelona, the news of his wonderful discovery. Before the departure of Columbus, one of his vessels, which had approached too near the beach, was wrecked. The native prince, with friendly zeal, sent out men in canoes to assist the Spaniards in saving their goods. He also placed guards on land to keep away the press of the people from even gratifying their curiosity to see the strange merchandise of the whites. " His subjects," says the historian Herrera, "participated in all his feelings, wept tears of sincere distress for the sufferers, and condoled with them in their misfortune. But, as if this was not enough, the next morning, when Columbus had removed to one of his other vessels, the good prince appeared on board to comfort him, and to offer all that he had to repair his loss !" B 3 2 6 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1492 Upon returning to Hispaniola, Columbus found, to his sur prise, that the little fort had been destroyed, and that the Spaniards had been either dispersed or killed. The latter looked upon the islanders as unmistakable heathen, unbaptized, and with no knowledge of the Christian Church ; but the pity for their ignorance, which should have been shown in acts of strict justice and all good-will toward them, probably found expression in contempt and acts of aggression, which the Indians had thus (as they thought, justifiably) resented. Neither Columbus nor his followers were inclined to submit to this piece of sharp retribution, however well-merited. Accordingly, though mustering but two hundred foot soldiers, twenty horse, and twenty large blood-hounds, they at once attacked the offending natives, who, in their turn, were severely punished, and great numbers of them captured and condemned to be slaves. However strange it may seem that dogs should be mentioned as constituting part of a military force, they were, perhaps, as formidable and destructive, when employed against naked Indians, as any agency of wrath that the invaders could use. From neighboring chiefs, or caciques, whether anything wrong was charged against them or not, tribute was exacted as due to the Spaniards. The country had been taken pos session of in the name of the Spanish crown, and due returns must be made to the royal exchequer. These stringent acts, together with the fact that Columbus obliged the hidalgos who had come to the colony to perform more labor than was agreeable to their inclinations, raised up many enemies against him. To reply to their accusations, which were working him injury at court, Columbus returned to Spain, where he found that his honors had indeed much declined in the popular estimation. He still retained, how ever, enough of the royal favor to be allowed to proceed on a third voyage, commissioned with authority to make further 1498] COLUMBUS. 27 discoveries. This time he came to land at the island of Trinidad, sailed between it and the mainland, opposite the mouth of the river Orinoco, and then continued on to His- paniola (1498). From here he now sent six hundred slaves to Spain. In a letter to the sovereigns, in which he justified his course on the ground that the change would be better for the souls of the natives, as they could thus more readily be made Christians, he also estimates that "in the name of the sacred Trinity" there may be sent as many slaves as sale could be found for in Spain. This traffic was against the express wishes of Isa bella, who had always desired that the natives should not be deprived of their freedom. Yet, upon the pretext that it was doing God service, were the caciques subdued or forced to pay tribute, some in gold, others in cotton, or the bread of the country, while others again, being taken prisoners of war, were made slaves, and compelled to work in the mines, or sent away prisoners to Spain. In vivid contrast to this sad picture is that which is brought to view in reading a description of some of these islanders, as por- tiayed in an early letter, written by Columbus himself, to his royal patrons : " They are a loving and courteous people," he writes, " so docile in all things that I assure your highnesses I believe, in all the world, there is not a better people or a better country ; they love their neighbors as themselves, and they have the sweetest and gentlest way of talking in the world, and always with a smile." Columbus was probably not avaricious : the love of science and investigation were too deeply implanted to permit such sordid motives to prevail for his own benefit. But he had been accustomed to the slave-trade by his early voyages along the coast of Africa, and, doubtless from a desire to make his discoveries remunerative to Spain, was solicitous that the royal revenues should not be neglected. Still, his course did not meet with the approval of the Spanish sovereigns, and by the 2 8 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1502 governor who superseded him he was sent home in chains. A galling condition must this have been to his spirit ; but, alas ! how many thousands of hapless slaves since then have been carried over these very seas to a wretched, life-long servitude victims of a system of which Columbus himself was here the originator ! Columbus was once more reinstated in favor, and set out, in 1502, on his fourth and last American expedition, expecting to be rewarded by finding a strait through which he could reach the continent of Asia ; but after sailing down the coast of Honduras, and finding that the land bent eastward, along the Isthmus of Panama, he abandoned the quest. Upon his way thence to Hispaniola, he was wrecked upon the coast of Jamaica, remaining there a year before succor arrived. He died in 1506, at Valladolid, soon after his return to Spain. The conquest of the neighboring island of CUBA was accom plished in 1512, by Don Velasquez, one of Columbus cap tains. We are told that the Cubans were so unwarlike that the Spaniards experienced no difficulty in overrunning the island, except from a certain chief named Hatvey, who had fled from Hispaniola, where he had witnessed enough of the cruelty of the Europeans not to desire their further acquaint ance. He was, nevertheless, overcome, and condemned to the flames. When fastened to the stake, says Las Casas, a Franciscan friar endeavored to convert him, promising him immediate admission into the joys of heaven. But with bit terness Hatvey replied, that he wished not to go to a place where he might meet even the best of so sinful a race as were his persecutors ! CHAPTER III. THE ABORIGINES. THE MOUND-BUILDERS. THE valley of the Mississippi and its tributaries, was anciently peopled by a race, who, from the circumstance of their having constructed numerous mounds of earth, have been named the MOUND-BUILDERS. We have no means of knowing what was their true national name. The form of these artificial mounds is mostly that of a pyr amid, terraced or truncated ; sometimes square at the base, or of other rectangular shape, but occasionally six- or eight- sided ; while some of the higher ones appear to have been constructed with stairways winding to the summit. These latter forcibly recall the teocallis of Mexico and Central America, which were pyramids used for the worship of the Aztec gods, and were usually constructed of earth, with an exterior facing of stone, in which were rows of steps by which to mount to the level platform at the summit, where the sacri fices were offered. Hence it is inferred that the mounds of the north were built by the same race, and subserved a like religious purpose, as those of the Mexican structures ; though many other conjectures as to their probable use have been suggested. Among the largest of these regular-shaped mounds is one at Miamisburg, Ohio, which is about 850 feet in measurement around the base, and 68 feet in height ; one in West Virginia, which is over 70 feet high, and 1000 feet in circumference; 3* 29 30 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. and one still larger, at Cahokia, Illinois, opposite St. Louis, which is 700 feet long, 500 feet wide, and 90 feet high. Their ordinary height, however, is from 6 to 30 feet. Near Love- dale, Kentucky, there is an octagonal mound, each side of which measures 150 feet in length. Three graded ways ascend from the ground to the sides of the structure. Another frequent form of construction is that of inclosures formed by heavy embankments of earth and stone, five to thirty feet high, and inclosing usually from one to fifty acres ; though there. are a number containing as many as four hundred acres. Some of them were exact circles or squares; some com prised a square within a circle, besides many other forms. Their use is not clearly apparent, though it is generally supposed that they were intended for the purpose of fortifications. These, as well as the mounds, are found in especially large numbers in the state of Ohio, where it is estimated that there are as many as ten thousand of the latter, and at least one thousand five hundred of the inclosures. In the Southern States, where sun-dried bricks were frequently used in their construction, they more nearly resemble the mound-works of the Central American region. There is likewise a third class of these antiquities, repre senting a diversity of odd forms, such as animals, birds, men, etc., lying flat, of course, and of great size often one or two hundred feet or more in length. In Adams county, Ohio, there is a remarkable work of this kind, which is in the shape of a serpent, extending in curves a fifth of a mile, and of an average width of thirty feet. The tail is triple-coiled, while in the distended jaws there can be traced the perfect figure of an egg, which, in its less and greater diameters is, re spectively, 80 and 1 60 feet. In Licking county, Ohio, is an interesting effigy of the same sort, known as the "Alligator," the extreme length of which is 250 feet, and the breadth of the body 40 feet. Nothing THE MOUND-BUILDERS. 31 has been found in it except stones and the fine clay used in its construction. A circular elevation to the right, covered with stones much burnt, may indicate that the effigy was sym bolical in its signification, and that sacred rites were performed in connection with it. But this view is disputed. Remains of these various constructions are found in most of the states of the Mississippi valley and its tributaries, from Pennsylvania to Nebraska in the north, and from Florida to Texas in the south. They are also reported to have been found at the Bute Prairies in Oregon, and along the Gila and Colorado rivers of Arizona, though that these works are iden tical in construction with the others, appears to need confir mation. Where St. Louis now stands, the land was dotted over with many mounds, and on the Illinois shore, across the river, in what is known as the American Bottoms, there are to be seen some of the largest yet discovered. In the canon country of south-western Colorado, some very inter esting discoveries pertaining to the early civilization of America have been recently brought to light by the U. S. Scientific Exploring Expedition in charge of Prof. Hayden. Living in a region where rock abounded, the constructions of the early dwellers in that land were essentially different from those of the inhabitants of the allu vial basin of the Mississippi. Ernest Ingersoll, naturalist of the expedition of 1874, reports : " We first found in the canon of the Rio Mancos, mounds of earth concealing piles of earthenware, masonry, and strewn with frag ments of pottery, ornamented by imprinted designs on the outside, and glazed and painted within. Then the mounds became more numerous, and clustered into villages ; vestiges of ancient walls of regularly-cut stone, and round towers in an excellent state of preser vation, together with the remains of underground workshops, ap peared. These were in the villages, and recorded the prosperous condition at that time of this ancient people when those fertile river bottoms blossomed and bore fruit in abundance." From the fact of the existence of these great and numerous works, it has been inferred that the Mound-Builders were a 3 2 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. more settled and civilized nation than was ever the present race of Indians ; also, that, unlike those nomadic tribes, whose chief occupations have been hunting and righting, the Mound-Builders were a peaceful and eminently agricul tural people. They were a race not clad in skins, as were the Indians, but in woven garments made of a material re sembling hemp, and of a uniform texture. No trace of their ordinary dwellings, which were doubtless made of wood, has ever been discovered. As to the articles besides human remains which have been found in these mounds, they comprise a variety of im plements, such as chisels, arrow- and lance-heads, axes and knives ; of ornaments, such as bracelets, beads and pendants chiefly made of copper, but some also of silver, serpentine and porphyry; articles of pottery, tastefully designed and finished; plates of mica and discs of hornstone ; also pipes in quantity, which proves them to have been great smokers. These pipes were not made of the well-known pipestone of Minnesota which the present Indians use, but of a fine porphyry of many shades of color, upon which were sculptured imitations of birds and animals and of the human face and head. They were probably not worshipers of idols, as they have left us no figures which appear to have been intended for such use, nor any of the full form of man. Many of the mounds contain ashes, and bones charred or decayed, indicating that, whatever other purposes they were intended to subserve, they were at least frequently used as places of sepulture. Some of the copper articles referred to above, which, being all-metal, were worked into the desired shapes without smelting, are known to have come from mines on Lake Superior, inasmuch as they exhibit the peculiarity pertaining to the ore found there, of containing blotches and granules of silver. This surmise has been amply corroborated of late years, by the discovery of great numbers of ancient mining places upon the THE MOUND-BUILDERS. 33 long Keweenaw Point of Lake Superior, where most of the copper from that region is even now mined. By various theorists, the Phoenicians, the Hindoos, and the Egyptians, have each been thought to be the parent-race of the Mound-Builders, while there have been those who claimed them to be descendants of the "lost tribes of Israel." It is believed by many investigators that they came from Mexico and Central America, and, spreading northward, established communities upon both sides of the Mississippi; that they lived several centuries in the land until they were either extermi nated or pressed back the way they came, by the ancestors of the present race of Indians, descending from the north. It is also thought that a remnant became incorporated with the Indians and formed tribes, of which the Mandans and the Natchez have been cited as instances, on account of some exceptional peculiarities in color, manners and customs. Equally conjectural is any statement as to the time that they existed in the country previous to the coming of the Europeans, that period having been variously estimated at from five hundred to two thousand years. Every skeleton which has been exhumed, has been found in a condition of extreme decay ; so much so, indeed, that any attempt to restore the skull or any considerable part of the skeleton, has been found quite hopeless. It is asserted that there is but a single skull which has been taken out and preserved entire. Another proof of their antiquity is afforded by the age of trees found growing on the mounds, trees of several centuries growth being common. The trunk of one which was observed on a mound at Marietta, Ohio, contained eight hundred rings of annual growth. The epoch of the Mound-Builders occupancy constitutes a field for antiquarian research, well worth the attention of the American student. B* 34 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. When the American islands and continent were first dis covered, Columbus and his immediate successors supposed that they had arrived upon the eastern shores of the continent of India, and hence they called the natives INDIANS. The error was not discovered until it was too late to change the name. The origin of the race of copper-colored Indians is as much veiled in obscurity as is that of the Mound-Builders. In personal appearance they much resemble the nomadic tribes of eastern Siberia, so that it has been supposed that they are, as to origin, the same people that they crossed to this continent by way of Behring s Strait, or the Aleutian isles, or across some part of the narrow sea separating from Asia and that, proceeding south-eastwardly in quest of a milder climate, they eventually displaced the less hardy Mound- Builders, in the same way that the Goths of Europe overran the empire of the degenerate Romans. In support of this belief, is adduced a very prevalent tradition among the Indian tribes that their ancestors came from a far-off region in the Northwest; and the tradition is accepted as true by some who have studied this people most carefully. It is the opinion of some ethnologists that the red men be long to the Mongolian type of the human race, the same as the Chinese and the Tartars, and that all the tribes, separated though they mostly are by differences in language, have de scended from a common source. Although it is true that there is seldom any noticeable correspondence between the words of the different Indian dialects, yet it is from the evi dence of a marked uniformity in the grammatical structure of all these apparently diverse languages that we find proof of the common origin of the tribes. This evidence is quite as reliable as is that derived from similarity of complexion and THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 35 features. Exceptions to this conclusion are perhaps to be found in certain Californian tribes, whose language and facial characteristics seem to betoken a Malay derivation. The nomadic habits of these various tribes, and the fact of there being no systematic interchange of commodities between the families or clans to bind them together, will explain how it happened that this race soon ceased to be homogeneous, as that of the agricultural Mound-Builders appears to have been, and to have separated into many tribes, each speaking a dialect of its own. Hatchets shaped out of stone must have proved poor in struments with which to fell the trees of the forest, while wooden hoes made the tillage of the stump-covered clearings a laborious work for the women, to whose lot it chiefly fell ; so the red men s main occupations, when not on the war path, were hunting and fishing, athletic games and gambling, and the construction of bark canoes and their rude weapons of war and of the chase. Far from what are called civil ized" were these rough weapons, the war-club, the tomahawk of stone, the flint-headed arrow. Indian-corn and tobacco, squashes and beans, were the chief products of their limited husbandry. Their simple wigwams or lodges were chiefly formed of a framework of poles, bent together at the top, and covered with skins ; or else were huts overlaid with bark. The Indians used no written language, but sometimes ex pressed their meaning by delineating natural objects upon wood, bark, or stone. It was by means of strings of wampum that they kept a record of their treaties. When the envoys of one nation met in council the chiefs and head-men of another, their memory would be refreshed by the use of belts of wampum or a bundle of little sticks, each belt or stick representing separate parts of the speech to be delivered. Hence these envoys were not usually the chiefs of any tribe, but were chosen for their power of clear and forcible expres- 3 6 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. sion. A herald carried with him the pipe of peace, and was thus allowed safe passage through the countries of hostile tribes. The tribes were subdivided into clans or bands, each of which had its symbolical designation, called the totem t which was generally a bird or an animal, and was analogous to the shield-device among more cultured nations. Thus a tribe would be divided off into Wolves, Bears, Turtles, Crows, Eagles, etc. As a peculiar accompaniment of this separation, it was not: allowable for a man and woman of the same clan to intermarry, notwithstanding there might be no trace of consanguinity between them. A "Turtle" brave could not have a " Turtle" for wife, but with perfect propriety he might wed a "Dove." They believed in a Great Spirit, a power superior to all others, but it was a belief very much corrupted by super stitious additions of special deities of the forest and stream. These numerous inferior spirits or ministering angels were called manitous there being a manitou for each kind of ani mal, for the lakes and rivers and other objects in nature, all of whom must be propitiated by gifts, such as beaver-skins, tobacco, meat, or anything else which the Indian highly es teemed. In place of priests there were "medicine men" and sorcerers, professed dreamers and interpreters of dreams. If an Indian was sick, the doctor would often give his patient a good shaking, besides pinching and beating him, whooping and howling at him, and, in order to expel the evil spirit, would perhaps rattle a tortoise-shell at his ear. Then giving him a severe bite, sufficient to make the blood flow, he would exhibit with triumph any little thing, as a bit of wood or bone, which he had hidden in his own mouth, but which he would claim to be the cause of the disease that he had now happily frightened away. They readily affirmed a belief in the immortality of the THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 37 soul, that for all skilful hunters and great warriors, as well as for the merely well-behaved, there was an after-death transi tion to lands of limitless forest, of boundless prairies, and of beautiful streams, the "happy hunting grounds" of the hereafter. Various natural peculiarities, as well as likeness of language, permit us to classify the many different tribes into a few allied groups. We will specify, as nearly as the ascertained facts will warrant, those portions of the country occupied by the several groups previous to their displacement by the Saxon and Latin races of the old world ; though it is true that a number of the tribes were in a restless, changing state one giving place to another when the Europeans first appeared upon the scene. Farthest northward were the ESQUIMAUX, who then (as they .now do) occupied the shores of all the seas, bays, inlets, and the islands, from Greenland to Behring s Strait. "Eaters of raw fish" their name means, and inasmuch as it is their occu pation to be fishers for the seal affords them not only food and clothing, but light and fuel as well their habitations of ice-blocks or drift-wood do not extend farther than a hundred miles inland from the shores. The ATHAPASCAS occupied the territory from Hudson s Bay westward to the Rocky Mountains the Missinnipi or Churchill river being their southern boundary. They com prised but a few sparse tribes of hunters and trappers, who, when the English Hudson s Bay Company was organized, maintained a thriving business by disposing of their peltry at the trading-posts. The next group southward, the ALGONQUIN-LENAPE, was the largest of all, their territory comprising most of the region from Hudson s Bay southward to the Ohio river, and from the Atlantic Ocean westward to the Mississippi and the Red River-of-the-North. The principal tribes included under this 4 38 HISTORY OF THE UNITED SJ^ATES. head were the Knisteneaux and Chippeways, north of the Great Lakes; in the east, the Micmacs of the lower St. Lawrence, the Mohicans and Narragansetts of New England, the Lenni-Lenape or Delawares, on both sides of the river of that name ; in the south, the Powhatans of Virginia, and the Shawnees of Kentucky ; in the west, extending from the Ohio to Lake Superior, the Illinois, Miamis, and Ottawas, the Pot- tawattomies, and Sacs and Foxes. Surrounded on every side by tribes of the Algonquin- Lenape, was the land of the IROQUOIS. They included the Hurons Or Wyandottes of Upper Canada; the Eries, south of the lake of the name ; but principally, the compact con federacy known to the whites as the " Five Nations." These latter warlike tribes were located in the centre lake-belt of New York, and were named (from east to west) the Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, and Senecas. The Tuscaroras, who for awhile had located south of the Powhatans of Vir ginia, came northward in 1713, and united with the others. The fighting propensities of the Five Nations might well earn for them the title of the Indian Spartans. Isolated they were, in the midst of the Algonquins, who beat against them only to be repelled, like baffled waves upon a rock-bound coast ; while they, in their turn, becoming the aggressors, soon all the country for hundreds of miles south and west of their strongholds among the lakes was overrun, and nearly depop ulated by their reprisals. Ever ready to follow the war-path, it seemed as though they fought not so much to defend them selves and their homes, as to gratify an inappeasable thirst for blood and savage glory. It will appear farther on, how this sanguinary craving was taken advantage of by both English and French, that it might be used for purposes of revenge by the one nation of whites against the other. The MOBILIAN tribes, occupying the region from the lower Atlantic seaboard to the Mississippi, comprised chiefly the THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 39 Catawbas of Carolina, the Seminoles of Florida, the Creeks, Cherokees and Choctaws, the Natchez, Uchees and Chicka- saws. Of these, the Choctaws were the most peaceably dis posed toward the Europeans. They were further advanced in civilization than the tribes adjacent, more considerate to their prisoners, and applied themselves more to agriculture than to the chase. The Natchez tribe, near the present city of that name, had a wigwam-temple and sacred fire, being worshippers of the sun. The hereditary dignity of Chief of the Great Sun, descended by the female line. It is thought that the Natchez were a remnant of the Mound-Builders. The French writer, Charlevoix, says that most of the natives of Louisiana kept a perpetual fire in their temples. It should be noted, to avoid error, that the dialects of several of the foregoing tribes as the Cherokees, the Uchees, and the Natchez were quite distinct from each other, and those tribes are only here included in the Mobilian group for the purpose of convenience. West of the Mississippi to the region of the desert, were the DACOTAHS or Sioux. Their country was included, north and south, between the Arkansas river and the Saskatchewan of British America. They comprised, in part, the Assiniboins of the north, the Mandans of Dakotah, the Tetons and Omahas of Nebraska, the Yanktons and lowas, the Kansas, Osages and Arkansas. Fortunately, the Indian names which have been conferred upon our states, rivers, etc., designate pretty nearly the localities where those tribes formerly existed. One tribe only, belonging to this family the Winnebagoes was found east of the great river, being located upon the west side of Lake Michigan, from near the present city of Chicago to Green Bay. Of the other large tribes, west of the land of the Dacotahs, there were, and are still, the Blackfeet of the upper Missouri, and the Crows of the Yellowstone ; the Pawnees of the Platte ; 40 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. the roving Comanches and Apaches of the Rio Grande. The Blackfeet were usually at war with the Flat-heads and Snake Indians, belonging west of the Rocky Mountains ; keeping guard, like watchful bull-dogs, that their salmon-eating neigh bors should not hunt the buffalo. The most of these tribes, as well as those of the Dacotahs, resided in their villages not over five months of the year, principally to plant and gather the crop of maize. Then the whole population, except those who trapped the beaver and other fur animals, would remove to the ranging-grounds of the buffalo, subsisting on the meat of that animal, and preserving it in quantities for future use. The tribes of the Northwest, beyond the Rocky Mountains, the Flat-heads and Snakes, the Chinooks, Walla-wallas, etc., exhibit a marked inferiority in stature, strength and activity, to their brethren east of that range. The California tribes have long, straight hair, and very dark complexion, and, as has been stated, are thought to be of Malay extraction. Finally, in the region of the Colorado and Rio Gila are the Pueblos, or Village Indians. These live in houses made of adobe i.e. mud, mixed with chopped straw and sand or gravel which are generally several stories in height, each succeeding story less in size than the one below, and reached by ladders on the outside, the whole forming three sides of a square and capable of accommodating hundreds of people : a village, in fact, in a single structure. As a race, they seem to belong with the Toltecs or Aztecs of Mexico and Central America. CHAPTER IV. ENGLISH AND FRENCH DISCOVERIES IN AMERICA. 14961542. THE ENGLISH: JOHN AND SEBASTIAN CABOT. COLUMBUS named the isles of the Caribbean Sea which he had discovered, the WEST INDIES, being under the mistaken belief that they were really insular portions of that great Oriental Empire which, from early manhood, had existed as a cherished object of his thoughts. It was reserved for another Italian, sailing beneath the flag of England, first to behold since the voyages of the Northmen, the outlines of the American continent itself. An imaginary line drawn north and south in the mid-At lantic, had been declared by a "bull" of the pope as dividing the right and title to all new discoveries thereafter to be made by the subjects of Spain and of Portugal Spain to take west of the line, and Portugal east of it. But, other maritime nations did not recognize either the right or the propriety of being thus excluded from any country previously unknown to them, to which their ships might sail ; and, when found, of planting the standard of ownership in behalf of their respec tive sovereigns. This highly presumptuous declaration or bull was promulgated by that wicked pope Alexander VI., of the notorious house of Borgia. It was the act of one who sat upon the throne as God s appointed vicegerent, commissioned to give away his earth ; or, as a historian 4* 41 42 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1496 has defined it " Splitting this mighty planet into two imaginary halves, he hands one to the Spanish and the other to the Portuguese monarch, as he would hand the two halves of an orange to a couple of boys." The fact of this declaration is important to be kept in mind, as it will explain, in a measure, the barbarous treatment of the Indians by the subjects of those monarchs who were the pope s recipients of such unexampled favors. They rested the responsibility of their sinful acts on the so-called Supreme Pontiff, fully persuaded that he who could confer upon them lands and people which himself had neither seen nor heard of, was amply qualified to absolve them from the wrongs which might follow their careers of conquest. King Henry VII. of England would have been glad to secure the services of Columbus, but failing in that, he readily acceded to the request of JOHN CABOT or Kabotto, a wealthy merchant of Bristol, but a Venetian by birth, for a patent of discovery. This patent, which was granted in 1496 to Cabot and his three sons, Lewis, Sebastian, and Sancius, and to their heirs or deputies, authorized them, at their own expense, to fit out as many as five ships, and therewith to sail east, west, or northward, and to "seek out, discover and find whatsoever isles, countries, regions or provinces of the heathen and infi dels whatsoever they may be, and in whatsoever place of the world soever they be, which before this time have been un known to all Christians." A fifth of all the profits realized was to be paid to the king. The expedition, which was soon equipped, sailed (1496) from the port of Bristol, at that time second only to London in commercial importance. Cabot was accompanied and greatly aided in the undertaking by his son Sebastian, who, though then but twenty years of age, was a young man of much practical good sense. They stopped for awhile at Ice land, and then continued on the voyage, hoping to make theii way to India by a north-west passage. They came in sight of the main land in the high latitude of Labrador, in point of 1496] JOHN AND SEBASTIAN CABOT. 43 time nearly a year before Columbus beheld the continuation of the same continent, as he sailed southward along the shores of Honduras, baffled in his quest of a south-west strait. The Cabots, like Columbus, were in search of some land of Ophir or fabled "Golden Fleece" something that would dazzle the world at home with the relation of impressive grandeur, or, at least, of a charming novelty. But the aspect of the Labrador coast the bold, rocky cliffs, and the sterile soil, populous only with countless sea-birds was not very alluring to their expectant gaze. Besides, the line of coast ran not in accordance with their preconceived wish ; for, says Sebastian, in the simple language of the narrative, "After certayne dayes, I found the land runne toward the north, which was to me a great displeasure." They followed down the coast, and sailed into the bay which is now our metropoli tan port; but the sailors manifesting much discontent at the prolongation of the voyage, Cabot reluctantly returned to England. A second patent was issued in 1498 by King Henry, but the elder Cabot dying in the meantime, his son Sebastian took charge of the. new expedition, a number of merchants assisting in the outfit. Three hundred men, who proposed to establish a colony in the New World, went out in the ships though these "shippes" were of no greater capacity than about two hundred tons each. Unfortunately for the comfort of the would-be colonists, they were landed too far to the northward. Cabot did not perceive why the latitude of the southern ex tremity of Labrador, which corresponds to that of Bristol, in England, should be notably colder, and his patent did not give him any claim to the land south of that line. Hence he found upon his return to the colony, after sailing awhile along the coast, that his companions, although suffering much from the inclemency of the weather, had taken no steps to es tablish themselves upon so bleak a shore where even the mid- 44 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1517 summer sun lacked a genial warmth. The demand of the men to be taken home was, considering their unlooked-for hard experience, a reasonable one; so Cabot, after having sailed as far southward, perhaps, as Florida, returned again to England. The king, very naturally, was not a little disappointed at the ill-success of this second attempt, while Cabot, failing to obtain another patent, pursued his researches in more southern latitudes, being for awhile in the service of Ferdinand of Spain. But his royal patron dying, Cabot went back to Eng land. Henry VIII. had meanwhile succeeded to the throne, and by him Cabot was commissioned, in 1517, to sail once more to America. This time he entered the great Bay, which, years after, was re-discovered and named by the navigator Hudson. Finding no western outlet, and the manners, as on the previous occasions, complaining bitterly of the rigorous climate, Cabot, to avoid a mutiny, put back to England. Subsequently, Cabot again went to Spain, was appointed by Charles the Fifth to the station of Pilot-Major, and continued, until upwards of eighty years of age, his favorite pursuits of cosmography and practical navigation. No expeditions of the English followed Cabot s until those of Frobisher and of Humphrey Gilbert, sixty years later of which due mention will be made in a succeeding chapter. DISCOVERIES BY THE FRENCH. It would hardly have been in accordance with human nature, as it certainly would not have been with that of the French, that the exploits of their neighbors in finding new worlds should ring in their ears, and themselves remain quiescent at home. Spain had found an India over the western sea, and was already gathering into her coffers a guilty harvest of gold : the ships of England, in thfc North Atlantic, were actively 1498] DISCOVERIES OF THE FRENCH. 45 seeking for the passage which should lead to China and a hoped-for traffic bringing rich returns : Italy, in the person of Amerigo Vespucci, who had sailed to the southern section of the new hemisphere, and, realizing the fact that it was virtually a new world and no part of India that had been discovered, gave to all the continent the name of AMERICA : while Portugal, little kingdom though it was, had become famous above every nation for the extent of its discoveries, and its capital of Lisbon revelled in the new-found wealth. For in that year of mark, 1498, a Portuguese expedition under Vasco de Gama, continuing the exploration of the African coast which had been begun by Prince Henry, rounded the Cape of Good Hope for the first time, and sailed far beyond to Calicut in India. The lucrative trade in spices and indigo, in the rich silks, the ivory, and other captivating commodities of the Orient, began at once. Brazil also was soon afterward discovered, and became an appendage of Portugal; and in 1501, two caravels commanded by CASPAR CORTEREAL, following in the track of Sebastian Cabot, had coasted along the shores of Labrador. Their visit, however, boded no good to the too-trustful natives, fifty or more of whom were captured and carried back in the vessels to be sold as slaves. It appeared that the Portuguese had no idea of going home empty-handed; for they were then, as they have con tinued to be even to this day, a nation with a strong lust for kidnapping their fellow-creatures. The annals of the time, it is a relief to record, make no farther mention of any suc ceeding visits by them (except as fishermen) to the North American coast. Although the banks of Newfoundland and the adjacent island of Cape Breton, were frequented by French fishermen from Brittany and Normandy, within a very few years after Cortereal s voyage; and although the Gulf, afterwards called the ST. LAWRENCE, had also been explored, and a map of its 46 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1524 coast-line drawn by Denys of Honfleur, a citizen of France ; yet it was not until the year 1524 that a vessel was despatched thither by the royal commission that of Francis the First. The command of this single caravel was intrusted to JOHN VERRAZZANI, a Florentine. It is a fact, in passing, worth bearing in mind, that the first agents of Spain, England, and France, in their American enterprises Columbus, Cabot, Verrazzani were all Italians. The merchants of Venice, of Florence, and Genoa, had been the "commercial kings" of the Mediterranean, but now a social and political unrest prevailed throughout the peninsula ; the prosperity of the country was on the wane ; and the services of many of its skilled citizens were, as we have seen, enlisted in behalf of other nations. Italy, which gave America its name, had no colony of her own to hail her as the " mother country." The vessel of Verrazzani first approached the low shore of Carolina, in the neighborhood of Cape Fear. Upon the sandy beach was a throng of wondering Indians, who presently pointed out a landing-place and made many demonstrations of welcome. It was in the early spring time, and from the tall forests of pine and of cypress, and the dense undergrowth of laurel and blossoming shrubs, there was wafted a pleasant perfume or, in the words of the narrative, "did yeeld most sweete savours, farre from the shore." They coasted north ward, always received with kindly greetings by the natives, but, in one place, badly requited these tokens of hospitality by stealing a child whom they desired to exhibit at home. They would have captured the mother also, had not her piercing outcries caused them to desist. Passing by the heights of Neversink, and the long jutting promontory of Sandy Hook, they sailed up the beautiful bay of New York ; then continued on by the Long Island shore to where Newport was subsequently built, where they spent fifteen days, most courteously entertained by the inhabi- ;. "< r. ft "- y,. 1524] VERRAZZANI. */// 47 tants. Again they spread their sails, slowly following aloAgN / j the rugged, irregular coasts of Maine, to Newfoundland. In these parts they found the natives who were of the Algonquin tribes both savage and suspicious; they had heard of the deeds of the plundering Portuguese, and, as well they might, kept themselves aloof from Verrazzani and his crew. Hence, their provisions failing them, they shortly returned to France. From the port of Dieppe, Verrazzani wrote to the king a de scription (which is the earliest now extant) of the shores of the present United States ; and by virtue of this narrative, more detailed than the accounts of the Spanish and English, did France lay claim, upon the pretext of discovery, to a large extent of territory. Ten years elapsed before a second expedition was sent out. There was a wicked rivalry of kings, that for thirty long years disturbed the peace of Europe the contest between Francis the First and Charles the Fifth; and now the French king, faithless to the promise that released him from captivity, and sorely beset by the wily emperor, was in too critical a plight to give much attention to the wilderness land in the New World. Nevertheless, Francis assented to the solicitation of the admiral of the kingdom, that the time had arrived when at least some show of effort must be made toward colonizing his recently-acquired dominion of NEW FRANCE. To JACQUES CARTIER, a hardy mariner of St. Malo, was assigned the command of the expedition. Sailing from the port of his native town with two ships, in the spring of 1534, he crossed the ocean direct to the island of Newfoundland. The voyage was made in the short space of twenty days. Passing around the island, and through the straits of Bellisle, they entered the gulf, and crossed the same to the mouth of a great estuary the noble river of Canada which was ascended until land was plainly visible on either side. Perhaps, now at last had been found that broad stream which would lead 48 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1534 them to the long-sought Cathay ! They would fain have proceeded, but being unprepared to encounter the storms of winter, it was decided to postpone their explorations for the present, and so, the winds favoring, they turned the ships prows eastward and soon re-entered the harbor of St. Malo. The results of this voyage re-awakened the spirit of dis covery. Francis, also, having been worsted in his wars with the emperor of united Germany and Spain, was not averse to extending his dominions in other quarters as a compensation for the losses incurred, and as a likely means of replenishing the royal treasury. Besides these motives of self-interest and ambition, there was advanced another plausible plea, founded upon the heresy of Luther in Germany, and of Calvin in Swit zerland and France. The losses in the Catholic fold must be made good by the conversion of the heathen in the New World. It was thus that Cartier represented the case to his "very Christian king," and the king readily complied with the wishes of the discoverer by granting him a new commis sion. Three vessels were fitted out, and Cartier, with several officers and men of rank who were to accompany him, after they and the sailors had received at the cathedral the absolu tion and blessing of the bishop, again sailed out from St. Malo (1535). Encountering a severe tempest the little fleet was separated, but eventually came together in safety in the straits of Bellisle. It was then that the name of St. Lawrence was given to a portion of the bay, though the title was after ward extended to the entire gulf, and to the great river flow ing into it. This they ascended until they came to a certain island, now called Orleans, but styled by them the Island of Bacchus; for the trees with which it was thickly covered were all overrun with vines, upon which the purple clusters of ripen ing grapes were everywhere seen. Leaving the vessels, Cartier and some of his companions 1535] CARTIER AND ROBERVAL. 49 ascended the stream in a boat as far as the chief river-settle ment of the Hurons, called in their dialect Hochelaga. With many demonstrations of welcome, the natives received these pale-faced strangers, and esteeming them to be beings of a superior nature, brought forth the sick, maimed and decrepit, for their blessing and healing. From a neighboring height, to which the Indians led them, the French obtained a charm ing view of the majestic river, flowing between forests deep- dyed with the hues of autumn, and stretching far away on every side. This height they appropriately named Mont Royal or MONTREAL; then re-embarked, and rejoined their companions down the river. The winter came. Ice-bound in their vessels, they suffered greatly from the rigor of the climate, while the scurvy made sad havoc among them. After twenty-five men had died of this distemper, an Indian informed them of a cure a decoc tion of pine buds. The remedy proved effectual ; and as soon as the river was clear of ice, being disinclined to attempt any settlement, they prepared to return homeward. The good offices of the Indians they repaid by luring several of their chiefs into an ambuscade, where they were captured and hur ried on board the ships. This act of treachery and ingratitude accomplished, they proceeded to plant the emblem of Chris tianity. A cross was raised, the banner of the French king displayed, and Francis declared to be the rightful owner of the new-found territory. It was not until 1541, five years after the return of the preceding expedition, that Cartier received, with the title of Captain-General, still another commission. The objects of the new enterprise were declared to be those of discovery, settle ment and the conversion of the Indians ; who ate described as " men without knowledge of God, or use of reason." But as Cartier, to complete his crews, was authorized to ransack the prisons for thieves and other malefactors, it must be c 5 50 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1542 admitted that the means provided were not of a nature to spread the true gospel of peace and good-will. In addition to the commission of Cartier s, and superior to that, was one issued to the LORD OF ROBERVAL, naming him the Viceroy of Newfoundland, and of all the territory on both sides the gulf * and river of St. Lawrence. But the two com manders did not embark at the same time, neither did they act in concert. Cartier sailed first with five ships, ascended the St. Lawrence, built two forts, and there passed the winter. But the colonists were sullen and dispirited their provisions failed the natives were now hostile by reason of the previous treachery of Cartier and accordingly when spring opened, the latter gave command to set sail for France. Near the Newfoundland coast, he came in sight of the vessels of Rober- val, inward bound, but refused to return with him. We need but briefly follow the fortunes of the Viceroy. A large barrack-castle was built where the camp of Cartier had been with the winter came famine and disease there was murmuring and threatened mutiny, but it was quelled by the iron rule of Roberval. In the spring (1542), the remnant of the colony returned to France. Fifty years elapsed before the French renewed their purpose of founding a Canadian empire. We may now turn our attention to the progress of the Spanish conquests and colonization in America. CHAPTER V. THE SPANIARDS THEIR CRUEL TREASURE-HUNT. 15121542. PONCE DE LEON, THE INVADER OF FLORIDA. A rabid race, fanatically bold, And steeled to cruelty by lust of gold, Traversed the waves, the unknown world explored, The cross their standard, but their faith the sword. Their steps were graves ; o er prostrate realms they trod They worshipped Mammon, while they vowed to God. MONTGOMERY. THE year that was made memorable by Columbus s great discovery, is also marked in Spanish annals as that in which Granada with its royal palace of the Alhambra was conquered from the Moors ; and shortly after which the whole country became united under the sovereigns Ferdinand and Isabella. And now the haughty cavaliers of Spain, not so much eager for fresh displays of their prowess as in the hope of reaping golden requitals for former valor, began to turn their attention to the new-found empire in the West. As, in their shameless quest for this Eldorado, they regarded neither the rights, the prop erty, nor the lives of the people who then possessed the land, so the following chapter is in large part a recital of the ruth less deeds of freebooters and marauders. Seven centuries of almost continuous warfare had prevailed on the Spanish 52 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1512 peninsula, either between its several rival kingdoms as of Leon, Castile and Aragon or by these together against their common enemy the Moors ; and strange would it have been had training such as this produced other than rough men of war. One of those who had taken an active part in the Moorish wars was JUAN PONCE DE LEON. Subsequently, he was a companion of Columbus in one of his voyages, and, for vari ous campaign-services, at home and in Hispaniola, he was rewarded with the governorship of the island of Porto Rico. There had come to his ears the rumor of a wonder-work ing fountain, of such rare, transforming virtue, that whoso ever bathed in its limpid waters would thenceforth know the weight of years and of care no more. De Leon credited the marvellous tale, and prepared to seek, among the isles that fringe the Caribbean sea or on the mainland adjacent, for this potent Fountain of Youth. Sailing from Porto Rico in 1512 with three brigantines, he cruised awhile among the Bahamas ; and on the day which is called by the Spaniards Pascua Florida ("Easter Sunday") descried in the west a long low line of coast. Nearing the shore, which was fresh with the verdure of early spring, and gay and fragrant with the blossoms of many flowers, he gave to the land the name of Florida. But the coast was danger ous of approach, and there being no good harbor for his ves sels, he sailed southward, rounded the point of the peninsula, and proceeded as far as the group of the Tortugas ; then, feeling doubtful of present success on land, he returned to Porto Rico. De Leon received from the Spanish king the title of Gov ernor of the country which he had discovered, with the understanding that he should proceed to plant colonies therein. It was eight years before he made the attempt to take possession of his province. But the wishes of the natives 1517] JUAN PONCE DE LEON. 53 had not been consulted as to this summary disposition of their own property, and it is not likely that they had even so much as heard of the transfer. At any rate, they were altogether averse to receiving the strangers in their midst, armed as these were with murderous weapons of war. Hence it happened that when, in 1520, the Spaniards attempted to establish a settlement, they were at once beset by the natives with great fury, and moreover driven back to their ships. Ponce de Leon himself was so badly wounded by a poisoned arrow that he died soon after his return to Cuba. DISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS FROM MEXICO TO PERU. Previous to the second and ill-fated expedition of Ponce de Leon, other important discoveries had been made of the countries bordering on the West Indian seas. FRANCISCO FERNANDEZ, in 1517, sailing south-westwardly after leaving the port of Havana, discovered the peninsula of Yucatan. Co lumbus, it will be remembered, had explored the coast from the adjoining province of Honduras southward to the isthmus. Fernandez met, at the hands of the natives, with the same fate as did De Leon. The following year, a fleet under GRIJALVA explored the shores of the bay of Campeachy, west of the discoveries of Fernandez, and also northward along the Mexican coast per haps as far as Panuco the bay of Tampico. The inhabitants of these parts proved to be more confiding than those en countered by Fernandez. They excited the cupidity of the Spaniards by tales of the magnificent empire of Montezuma and of the great capital city in the interior, and confirmed too well the story of their country s wealth by their lavish display of gold. This the adventurers obtained in considera ble quantities, and, with much satisfaction, carried back with them. Little thought the unsuspecting natives that they had 54 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1519 imparted the intelligence of their wealth to those who would return to rob, and even to murder them, for its possession. It was the next year, 1519, that HERNANDO CORTEZ, with a fleet of eleven small vessels, on board of which were nearly seven hundred men, sailed direct from Cuba, and landed at Vera Cruz. His aim it was (however plausible the wording of the commission which he held from Velasquez, the governor of Cuba) both to possess himself of the certain riches of the Aztec empire, and to take forcible possession of the country for his master the king of Spain. It will help to explain the exceeding temerity of the Spanish commander, when it is stated that Velasquez countermanded his commission on the eve of the departure of Cortez, and thus the latter felt that in disobeying orders, he must either go forward or perish. On the great banner which they carried, appeared the figure of a large cross, with the inscription "Let us follow the cross, for under this sign we shall conquer." The depen dence of Cortez was much the same as was that of Mohammed : the first followed the cross, the other the crescent, but their faith alike was in the sword. Fire-arms not being yet in general use, most of the men (few of whom were of the cavalier class) were armed with cross-bows, swords and spears. There were also ten small cannon and a number of horses the first of both ever seen in that country. Montezuma being informed of the prowess displayed by tlie visitors, sent command from his capital for Cortez and his company to depart. To make the request palatable, he accompanied it with rich presents of precious metals, of pearls and other precious stones, bales of cotton cloth of exquisite fineness, and many articles of surprising brilliancy and art. Cortez had grimly and truly remarked to the Mexicans, that " the Spaniards had a disease of the heart which could only be cured by gold." But these magnificent 1519] CORTEZ. 55 gifts, borne to the invaders on the shoulders of a hundred men, naturally excited their cupidity to the utmost. Being joined by several thousand warriors of Tlascala, a republic hostile to Mexico, Cortez made his way triumphantly to the capital, and was there courteously received by Monte- zuma. But the kindness of the Aztec was repaid with perfidy by the "Christian," who seized him in his palace, and kept him more than six months a prisoner. In the struggle which ensued, Montezuma was wounded, and died soon afterwards ; but the Spaniards were driven from the city, with the loss of all their muskets and artillery and many of their men. This reverse obliged the survivors to retreat ; yet, being attacked by a great host of Mexicans, who had pursued them, these latter were defeated. Whereupon the invaders, having re ceived some reinforcements of Tlascalans, as well as of their own countrymen, were enabled to re-enter the city after it had withstood a siege of three months. Guatimozin, the nephew and successor of Montezuma, was treated with great severity by the Spaniards, and finally put to death. The ancient, and once glorious empire founded by the Toltecs, had now become a province of Spain. It is true, the religious observances of the Mexicans involved a loathsome, sanguinary rite that of the sacrifice of human victims upon the high altars of their pyra mids or teocallis ; and this, by the conquerors was eventually abolished. But, alas, that the substitution itself should have been made by unrighteous and murderous hands ! The year that Cortez set sail for Mexico (1519) Francisco de Garay, governor of Jamaica, sent out a squadron of four ships, commanded by ALVAREZ DE PINEDA, with the ostensible purpose of seeking a strait to the west of Florida. That peninsula was then thought to be an island ; but finding upon examination that such was not the case, Pineda continued westward, critically examining the ports and everything worthy of remark, until he had passed down the Mexican HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. coast beyond Panuco. The outlet of one great river the Mississippi was especially noticed : it is named on the map of the pilots, as the Espiritu Santo. These discoveries con nected those made by Ponce de Leon with those of Grijalva, and thus completed the circuit of the Gulf of Mexico. De Garay, like De Leon, received a royal edict to colonize the new-found region ; but as he coveted only that part which would give him access to the riches of Mexico, he became involved in a dispute with Cortez as to his right to the land about the Panuco river, and was killed in the attempt to establish his claim. In 1513, NUNEZ DE BALBOA, a Spaniard, crossed the narrow isthmus of Darien, and was rewarded by the discovery of the 1525] PIZARRO. 57 Pacific Ocean. A settlement was formed a few years later at Panama, and from there several attempts were made to ex plore the regions of South America. Finally, in 1525, an expedition under FRANCISCO PIZARRO discovered the rich and populous kingdom of Peru; though it was not until 1531, after obtaining a commission as governor from Charles V., that he set out to subdue the country. With a band of hardly two hundred men, Pizarro, fortified by royal warrant, invaded the territory of the Inca, Atahualpa. The latter, having been invited to an interview, was ordered instantly to embrace the Christian religion. Upon his refusing to acknowledge a creed he had never before heard of, he was made a prisoner, and, at the same time, not less than four thousand of the wonder-stricken and defenceless attendants were slain by the merciless invaders. Pizarro had been well instructed in the school of Hernando Cortez. As a ransom for his life and liberty, the Peruvian monarch caused a room to be filled with treasures of silver and gold. Their value was computed to exceed seven million dollars. The con querors took the ransom, but upon the charge of his being an usurper and idolater, they also took the life of the hap less Inca. They then quarrelled amongst themselves, and Pizarro himself was soon afterwards assassinated. The Peru vians, under their new Inca, Huanca Capac, undertook to rid themselves of their savage oppressors ; but being unsuccessful, their kingdom, like that of Mexico, became also a helpless appendage of Spain. THE FLORIDA INTERIOR. The Florida of the early Spaniards included, besides the peninsula now known by that name, a vague extent of territory stretching westwardly an indefinite distance. We will briefly trace the several expeditions by which that country and its c* 5 8 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1520 including boundaries became gradually better defined. Of the exploration of its line of coast, an account has already been given. The harsh treatment of the native islanders of San Domingo by the successors of Columbus, had greatly reduced the num ber of laborers and slaves available for work in the mines and on the plantations. How rapid the reduction had been, may be gathered from the statement that in fifteen years their num bers had decreased from one million to sixty thousand, while in fifty years from the time of the Spanish occupation, there remained but two hundred Indians in Hispaniola. Drawn from the life-blood of these Caribs, was the golden product harvested by the Spaniards a sum, per annum, of not less than two and a half million dollars. Enormous fortunes were soon acquired, resulting in a display of splendor at home (in Spain) from whence came numerous fresh tormentors, flocking to the wretched scene of misery and of relentless aggrandize ment. When the yield of gold decreased, the cultivation of the sugar-cane was introduced. Alas ! there was no hope for the islanders : the gold might become exhausted, but the sap of the cane would spring afresh, a perennial fount to them of bitterness and woe ! The poet Montgomery has mournfully portrayed in verse this sad work of inhumanity : O erwhelmed at length with ignominious toil, Mingling their barren ashes with the soil, Down to the dust, the Carib people past Like autumn foliage withering in the blast : The whole race sunk beneath the oppressor s rod And left a blank amongst the works of God. The destruction of human life being thus early so fearful, it became urgently necessary that the destroyers should devise some means to obtain a fresh supply of victims. Hence, it was not long after the mainland had been discovered, before 1520] THE FLORIDA INTERIOR. 59 efforts were made to obtain slaves from that quarter. The first attempt (1520) at this nefarious traffic, was that of VASQUEZ DE AYLLON, whose two ships, after leaving the Baharnas, sailed towards the coast northward of that first seen by Ponce de Leon. They called the land Chicora. In the neighbor hood of St.^ Helena Sound, the shyness of the natives was overcome by the simulated friendship of the Spaniards. Un suspectingly, they crowded the vessels, eager to barter for those novel trinkets so pleasing to the taste of the untutored savage ; and then, at a signal given, the sails were spread, and the ships with their freight of new-made slaves steered across to San Domingo. But it was a sad return ; for one of the vessels foundered at sea, and the other reached the island with its cargo of captives greatly reduced by the ravages of sick ness. The subsequent attempt of Vasquez to obtain possession of his province for which he had received the royal permit resulted disastrously. The Indians, burning with the re membrance of his former visit when their friends and relatives had been kidnapped, repulsed the invaders with loss. In 1525, STEPHEN GOMEZ, a native of Portugal, but em ployed in the service of Spain, having obtained a commission to search for a northern passage to India, sailed along the New England coast about a year after it had been explored by Verrazzani. On an old Spanish map, " the Land of Gomez" is the name placed upon that territory. The navigator like wise entered the bay of New York, and sailed along the Jersey coast nearly to the capes of the Delaware. His voyage had not been entirely barren of profit, as he shortly returned to Spain with a cargo of peltry and of captive Indians some slight amends, in his view, for the failure to discover the mythical passage. This Gomez had been a companion of the navigator MAGEL LAN, who, in 1520, having explored the east coast of South America, entered the stormy straits between the mainland and 60 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1526 Terra del Fuego, and passing thence into the South Pacific, steered boldly toward India. Magellan died on the voyage, but his ship ably guided by his successor realized the vision of Columbus that the world could be circumnavigated, as the vessel passed around the Cape of Good Hope, and thence by the track of Vasco de Gama to Spain again. The expedition of PAMPHILO DE NARVAEZ in 1*528, started out, not to obtain slaves from the coast, but to secure the fancied treasures of the interior. To the excited imaginations of the Spaniards, Florida, like Mexico, contained its mines of inexhaustible wealth ; and thus it happened while Pizarro in tropical Peru was worshipping naught but Mammon though proclaiming a crucified Christ, Narvaez and his three hundred men, landing on the coast of Florida, and advancing into its forests of pine and palmetto, threatened the Indians with destruction unless they accepted the Pope and the Emperor as their masters by divine right. But the gold which he chiefly came to seek, was not to be found. Instead of it came exceeding fatigue and the gnawing pangs of hunger, with sickness and death to many. Their horses also giving out, the famished soldiers fed upon their flesh. The native town of Appalachee, of which they had heard, and where they had hoped to obtain rich booty, they found to be but a little village of wretched wigwams. Through a land of marsh, and of endless forests, and of salt bayous reaching inland from the sea, they came at last to the harbor of St. Mark. Here they had expected succor, but no friendly sail was seen to relieve their desponding sight. Upon the flesh of their horses, and maize plundered from the natives, they sustained life, while constructing boats to carry them away from that unhappy land. Their stirrups and spurs, now useless, and other implements of iron, were beaten into spikes and saws and axes ; the fibre of palmetto answered for oakum to caulk the boats seams, and the pitch from pine- 1 S39~] THE SEVEN CITIES OF CIS OLA. 6 1 trees to cover the same. Twisted horse-hair and the palmetto served them for rigging; of their shirts were made sails; while, as a substitute for water-casks, they used the dressed skins of the horses. Having constructed five boats, each upwards of thirty feet in length, they departed from St. Mark s and followed the coast toward Mexico. But it was not long before they were overtaken by a storm, which either wrecked the boats or drove them on shore. Narvaez was no more heard of. There re mained but four survivors, one of whom named CABEZA DE VACA, a man of great endurance and self-possession, acted -as leader. The narrative which he wrote of their wanderings is a remarkable one, and tells how they lived several years with the tribes of the Mississippi, then made their escape, and after many vicissitudes, journeying westward by the waters of the Arkansas and Red rivers they came to New Mexico and Sonora, and thence by the GulfjDf California to the city of Mexico. It was soon after their arrival in Mexico or New Spain, that a notable expedition was sent out, in 1539, by Mendoza, then viceroy, to search for the "Seven Cities of Cibola," the ru mors of whose wonderful terraced houses and palaces, and of lavish riches exceeding those of Mexico, had recently reached the itching ears of the Spaniards. Three hundred and fifty men of the proudest families of Spain, followed the banner of the youthful commander, FRANCISCO DE CORONADCK As an aid to the land force, Pedro de Alarcon, with several vessels, was sent up the coast and into the Gulf of California. Alarcon discovered the river Colorado, and though it was with great difficulty that his vessels could make headway against the current of that rapid stream, he really ascended it a distance of at least two hundred and fifty miles. Failing to hear anything of the movements of the land force, he returned southward to New Spain. 6 62 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1539 Meanwhile, Coronado had advanced to the Gila river, and thence by rapid marches east and northward through a desert country, to the elevated region of the Sierra Madre. If the reader will examine his map, he will see where the road from the city of Santa Fe leaves the Rio Grande at Albuquerque, and crosses the prolongation of the Madre Mountains by the Zuni Pass. Near the foot of the western declivity of the pass, but built above a precipitous rock, is the village of Zuni. Here Coronado and his cavaliers, with keen disappointment, beheld one of the famous cities of Cibola ! Maddened with hunger and vexation, the Spaniards mounted the rock with a resistless impetuosity, overcame its defenders, and plundered the village but neither gold nor treasures of any kind did it yield. A company was sent out from here to search for the other cities, but they soon returned with the report that these latter presented no more promising objects of rapacity than did the place already taken that they were inhabited only by poor "village Indians" (the Moquis) who cultivated maize, and offered to them presents of their humble products. A second detachment, after an irregular march of twenty days across an arid waste, came to an upland plain in which they found the magnificent, deep-cut canons of the upper Colorado. With amazement they gazed down those precipitous cliffs, and beheld where the river, that raced along on its rocky bed in the abyss far below, appeared to the eyes no greater in size than a babbling rivulet. Before this party had returned, a third was sent out by Coronado, which crossed the pass of Zuni, and came to the valley of the Rio Grande. They had heard of a province called Cicuye, where were cattle having soft hair that curled like wool. They found the province, five days farther to the eastward on the river Pecos, but there was nothing to repay their toil except the report that the real land of the buffalo, 1539] FERDINAND DE SO TO. 63 where also gold and silver were plentiful indeed, was to be found still farther toward the sun-rising. Coronado, himself, determined to seek this land of promised plenty. In nine days they reached the haunt of the bison : the boundless plains and the grazing herds, the countless prairie-dogs and burrowing owls, the hunting tribes of nomad Indians dwelling in tents and moving hither and thither where the buffalo led them. Many days they spent in the fruitless search for a rich kingdom like Mexico or Peru. At last, but reluctantly, they gave up the quest, and, upon the banks of a large river flowing towards the east probably the Arkansas a cross was raised which bore the inscription : "Thus far came Francisco Vasquez de Coronado, general of an expedition." DISCOVERY OF THE MISSISSIPPI. While Coronado, west of the Mississippi, was solving the unsatisfactory problem of the locality and opulence of the Seven Cities of Cibola, one who had been a companion of Pizarro in Peru and a sharer of his plunder, was exploring the territory east of that great, and as yet unknown, river. It was not the love of geographical discovery, but the mercenary lust for gold fired in part by the delusive narrative of Cabeza de Vaca which prompted FERDINAND DE SOTO to solicit from the king of Spain the privilege of undertaking the conquest of the extensive territory then .known as Florida. The king granted his request, as well as the government of the island of Cuba. The plan of De Soto was received with great enthusiasm, and noblemen and gentlemen of means contended for the privilege of joining his standard. With six hundred selected soldiers, De Soto sailed from Spain for Cuba, received some reinforcements at that island, and shortly landed them at the bay of Espiritu Santo (now Tampa Bay), on the west side of 64 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1539 the Florida peninsula. As they disembarked and arranged themselves in order of march, they presented a " gallant array" of men-at-arms their burnished accoutrements and weapons glancing in the sun pennons flying and trumpets sounding the impatient steeds, prancing and eager for the onward march. There was a show of religion too, for the commander declared that the enterprise was undertaken for the glory of God, and appeared to be under his superintending care. Though there were monks and priests with this pano plied company, to attend to the souls of the ignorant Indians, there were also fetters to bind their bodies, and cruel blood hounds, as auxiliaries in the work. It was in the summer of 1539 that the adventurers began their march. But the glory of their first appearance was soon marred ; and as week by week they journeyed on through interminable forests and oozy, tangled swamps, often misled by guides, and never reaching the goal of their hopes, the company grew dispirited and would fain have returned. But the iron will of their leader changed not ; he kept on, relent less, while life lasted. In this extremity the captive Indians suffered still worse than the invaders : with iron collars around their necks, or led in chains, they were condemned to grind the maize, and upon their shoulders the baggage was laden. The misery the Spaniards themselves endured, they seem to have re-inflicted tenfold. They traversed a great part of Georgia and Alabama the upper sections as well as those near the gulf and upon ar riving at Ochus (now Pensacola) received some much-needed supplies from Cuba. Farther west, about the bay of Mobile, the Indians were numerous and hostile, and the country moreover was poor; so De Soto again advanced into the north, still near- ing the Mississippi. In this region they passed the winter, and when spring opened and they were ready to resume their march, a demand was made upon the Chickasaw Indians that ( 4 1 v < 1 540 DISCOVERY OF THE MIS^S^PPL ^/y,65 two hundred men of that tribe should be designated jf^borden- / bearers for the whites. This the natives objected to, ami/re*- sented the invitation by burning at night the lodges of the* Spaniards. Several of the latter lost their lives, a number or the horses were consumed, and much of the clothing and weapons were also lost. Not long after this disaster, but in the third year of their eventful wandering, they reached the banks of the Mississippi. It has been narrated on a preceding page that the expedition sent out in 1519 by De Garay, and commanded by Pineda, had specially noticed the outlet of the Mississippi, which they marked on their map as the Espiritu Santo. It is strange to note that the long period of one hundred and thirty-two years elapsed from the time that De Soto now beheld it, until the river was re-discovered by a French Jesuit, Marquette. To cross the broad expanse of waters, deep, rapid, and bearing on its turbid current a constant succession of trees and drift-wood, was a formidable undertaking for the Spaniards, so that a month elapsed before they had constructed barges staunch enough to carry them safely to the western shore. This accomplished, the company continued their march until they approached the prairies ; but perceiving that they would not be repaid for any farther toil and research in that direc tion, they changed their course to the south-eastward, following the line of the Washita and Red rivers until they again arrived at the Mississippi. They had now entered a sickly and almost impassable re gion, cut up into numberless bayous, and covered with dense woods and canebrake. Their progress became exceedingly slow and laborious, the men were thoroughly disheartened, and at last De Soto himself, borne down by dejection, and suffering from a malignant fever, died miserably, and was buried beneath the swift-rolling tide of the Mississippi. The adventurers then determined on returning to New 6* 66 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1541 Spain by any way that might open, and, despairing of the river route, turned their steps westward, until they came again to the prairies. But they found the march overland would also be impracticable ; whereupon, forming the resolu tion to build themselves boats, they once more came back to the river, and set to work at what seemed the last resource. Seven barges, with sails, were constructed and launched, and, embarking therein they descended the river, and in seventeen days reached the Gulf of Mexico ; when, spreading the sails of their frail vessels, they at last arrived in safety at the Spanish settlement on the river Panuco. We may better understand the perverted religious spirit which was manifested by De Soto and his warriors by perusing an address sent by PEDRO DE SANTANDER to King Philip II. of Spain, in 1557, in which he reminds the king that the latter should act the good shepherd, to tend and lead out the sheep that " may have been snatched away by the dragon, the Demon. These pastures," Santander astutely observes, " are the New World wherein is com prised Florida, now in possession of the Demon, and here he makes himself adored and revered. This is the Land of Promise, possessed by idolaters, the Amorite, Amalekite, Moabite and Canaanite. This is the land promised by the Eternal Father to the Faithful, since we are commanded by God in the holy Scrip tures to take it from them, being idolaters, and, by reason of their idolatry and sin, to put them all to the knife, leaving no living thing save maidens and children, their cities robbed and sacked, their walls and houses levelled to the earth." To carry out this plan, Santander proposed to occupy Florida at various points with colonists such as Tallahassee and Tampa Bay and to name the cities Philippina, Csesarea, etc. An attempt by CANCELED, a Dominican monk, and others of that fraternity (1547), to convert the Florida natives to the Romish faith, resulted disastrously: weapons of steel had already closed the way, which otherwise the tokens of love might have readily opened. CHAPTER VI. THE HUGUENOTS THEIR MISTAKES AND MISFOR TUNES. 15551566. COLIGNY, THE HUGUENOT CHIEF. VILLE-GAGNON. IN the summer of 1555 the same year in which Charles the Fifth gave to his son Philip the Second, of Spain, the prov inces of the Netherlands there sailed from Havre, in France, two vessels, commanded by a certain NICHOLAS DE VILLE- GAGNON. The commission under which he sailed was of a peculiar nature ; and the better to understand the man and his errand, it will be well to glance at the then condition of France, which, with its venal and voluptuous court, and swayed by factions of nobles, bishops and cardinals, was in a sad state of political and religious ferment. Francis the First, the unsuccessful antagonist of Charles the Fifth, had, at his death, been succeeded on the throne of France by his son Henry II. The sceptre of power, however, really rested with Catharine de Medicis, the consort of Henry, an ambitious, intriguing and unprincipled woman ; while the family of Guise, powerful and unscrupulous, were the promi nent leaders of the Papists. The principles of the Reformation were rapidly permeating the country, and notwithstanding that men and women were tortured, and burnt at the stake, the so-called "heretical doctrines" made headway, and the party of Rorae became thoroughly alarmed. Geneva, the home of Calvin, became a 67 68 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1555 city of refuge for many of those who had embraced the re formed faith ; and these were known by the name of Hugue nots. Their principles were those of Calvin stern, and to a certain extent, intolerant; and, when the storm burst, it became manifest that, unlike the primitive Christians who patiently suffered the fires and the rack of persecution, they too, like the Romanists, could be carnally aggressive. Their acknowledged leader was CASPAR DE COLIGNY, Admiral of France : a man of calm and resolute disposition, honest in purpose, firm in his religious convictions, and, by education, prepared to maintain the same at the point of the sword. The Huguenots claimed such supporters as the prince of Conde the dukes of Montmorency and Navarre; yet with these latter, the attainment of their selfish interests probably weighed as much as did their attachment to the reformed faith. The friendship of nobles, who are apt to rely on their own power and influence, rather than on the Almighty arm, has ever proved a weakness to the ad vancement of Christian Truth. " It is better," says the Psalmist, "to trust in the Lord than to put confidence in princes." While Coligny was in a state of perplexity, concerned for the safety and well-being of his co-religionists, there came to him Nicholas de Ville-gagnon, already mentioned. He was one who would be styled a " versatile genius :" an able scholar and linguist, apt at controversy with tongue and pen, by pro fession a seaman and soldier, vice-admiral of Brittany and a commander of the knights of Malta. Restless in spirit, as in body, unstable as well as ambitious, he was now become a contender for the Protestant faith. At his interview with Coligny, he broached the project of establishing a tropical empire in the New World, to be an asylum for the persecuted, free from mischievous plots of monks and cardinals, and es pecially of that Lorraine, of the house of Guise, who then wore the red cassock and hat. The admiral gave a ready ear to the scheme of Ville-gagnon, though the latter had already 1555] COLIGNY, THE HUGUENOT CHIEF. 69 plied King Henry with very different arguments, chief of which was the desirability of appropriating some of the South American possessions of the too-grasping Spaniards and Portuguese. The king and his admiral, though biassed by different motives, had both assented to the undertaking. Although most of the emigrants were Huguenots, there was unfortu nately a counter-element composed of piratical sailors from Breton and Normandy, and of turbulent young nobles, idle and indigent. Upon arriving in the harbor of Rio JANEIRO (1555) the men were landed upon an island, where huts and earthworks were constructed. The fort they called Coligny ; the continent received the name of Antarctic France. That the ill-assorted colonists did not lead a pleasant life of con cord, may be readily inferred. Their commander, with a stern determination to reduce the refractory to implicit obe dience and discipline, resorted to the whip and pillory, and other severe measures. The men conspired to poison or murder him, but the plot being revealed, their purposes were foiled. In the meantime the two vessels had returned to France, carrying despatches from Ville-gagnon of so inviting a nature, that in the following year a second company, chiefly of Hu guenots, embarked for the Brazilian settlement. After the expedition had arrived at its destination, all for a time went well. The men busied themselves about the construction of the fort, and there were daily sermons and prayers Ville- gagnon being always present, kneeling on a velvet cus hion brought after him by a page. But it was not long before his aptitude for polemics drew him into a sharp controversy upon points of faith, with the newly-arrived ministers; and this resulted in filling the fort with wranglings and feuds. The conduct of Ville-gagnon soon became exceedingly intolerant ; he professed to have been deceived in Calvin, whom he now 7 o HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1562 pronounced "a frightful heretic;" three zealous adherents of the Calvinist doctrines he caused to be dragged to the edge of a rock, and cast into the sea; while the ministers were glad to escape to a vessel, which, loading with Brazil wood, was about to sail for France. Pitiful was the experience which awaited them. The vessel being overtaken by storms was delayed in its passage, the water in the casks failed and their provisions gave out, and, tossed upon a tempestuous sea, they seemed doomed to a miserable death. "In their famine they chewed the Brazil wood with which the vessel was laden, devoured every scrap of leather, singed and ate the horn of lanterns, hunted rats through the hold and sold them to each other at enormous prices." At length when overcome with sickness, and scarcely able to move a limb, to their joy they descried the coast of Brittany. Ville-gagnon, himself, soon returned to France, leaving the wretched colony to its fate. The fort was captured by the Portuguese, and the garrison either slain or dispersed among the Indians on the mainland. More than half a century previous to the coming of the Hugue nots, the mariners of Portugal had discovered and claimed this country for their king ; and although it is true that this, their claim, was grounded on no substantial foundation of purchase from the native Brazilians, yet Coligny and his coadjutors erred when they established a settlement and a menacing one as well without any consultation as to the wishes of the Portuguese. The shadowy "right of discovery" was at least partially recognized among mari time nations ; so that, in legal parlance, the Huguenots should have * first "extinguished the prior lien" (if the Portuguese were willing to sell), and then have treated with the aboriginal inhabitants for a clear title to the land. RIBAULT AND LAUDONNIERE. More fortunate was Coligny in his second choice of a com mander, when, in 1562, he directed JEAN RIBAULT, of Dieppe, 1562] RIBAVLT. 71 to sail with two vessels to America ; there to use all diligence in the search for a wilderness-home for the Huguenots. But it must be confessed that Ribault s company of soldiers and sailors and a few young nobles, was but little better consti tuted to secure stability, than was that of Ville-gagnon. He sailed for the northern continent of America, which was reached below the thirtieth parallel of latitude, the coast of Florida. The following day they landed at the mouth of a large river the St. John s but called by them the River of May, for it was on May-day that they discovered it. They had naught to fear from the Indians ; the squaws and children approaching, strewed the earth with laurel boughs, and seated themselves amongst the strangers, whom they sup posed, when they saw them kneeling on the shore, to be chil dren of the sun. The old chronicle of the voyage dwells with rapturous language upon the delightful aspect of nature the verdurous meadows and leafy woods the aromatic odors of pine and magnolia the grazing deer the strange birds and water-fowl while it quaintly adds, that "to be short, it is a thing unspeakable to consider the thinges that bee seen there, and shall be found more and more in this incomperable lande." Then they planted a stone pillar, graven with the lily-flower of France, and, embarking, continued northward, naming the streams which they passed, the Seine, the Loire, the Charente, etc., from the rivers of their own land. It was late in the month when they came to that territory called Chicora by the Spaniard, De Ayllon, when, forty years before, he sailed among its inlets in search of slaves for the mines of San Domingo. Seeing a fine, commodious haven, they named it Port Royal. Passing Hilton Head at its en trance, they sailed into the Broad river. All being well pleased with the aspect of the country, Ribault decided to erect a fort, leave part of the company in charge, and to go back to France for reinforcements. Charles-Fort was forth- 72 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1562 with built, supplied with ammunition and stores, and thirty men chosen to remain. The injunction of Ribault that they should use all gentle ness and kindness towards the children of the forest was for awhile pretty well observed. They had everything their own way, visiting in turn the villages of the neighboring chiefs, feasting on their hominy, beans and game, and not refusing the gifts with which their dusky entertainers loaded them. When, near the time of the Indian harvest, their supplies became exhausted, the generous natives still brought them food as long as their own lasted. But presently discord arose in the camp. The colonists, maddened by the domineering behavior of the commander in charge, who had hung one of their number and banished another to a lonely island, finally attacked the chief and mur dered him. The bloody deed done, and themselves threat ened with famine ; the land of their choice no longer the beautiful place it had seemed when they came; weary of the life they led, and dreaming day by day of home, they at last determined to build a vessel and make the attempt to return to France. What a strange sight, to behold these indolent and quarrel some beings, so suddenly changed to active artisans erecting a forge, making tools, hewing dewn trees, chipping and ham mering at beams and blocks, caulking the seams, and covering them with the smoking pitch ! It is said of them, that, " had they put forth, to maintain themselves at Port Royal, the energy and resource which they exerted to escape from it, they might have laid the corner-stone of a solid colony." Embarking in their frail craft, and spreading the patch-work sails, they made good progress for several days ; then there was a long calm, and the food and water failed, their shoes and leather jerkins were devoured, and in their dire need, one of their own number was sacrificed for food. This dreadful 1564] LAUDONNI&RE. 73 repast sustained them, until, when near the French coast, they were succored by the crew of an English barque. In France there was at this time the hollow form of a truce between the disputing factions, and Coligny being in favor at the court, was enabled to send out another American expedi tion, in the summer of 1564. This was placed under the command of RENE DE LAUDONNIERE, a good marine officer, and of fair reputation otherwise, who had taken part in Ribault s unfortunate undertaking. But the men who accom panied him were of the same sort as those who had gone before; there were soldiers and seekers of fortune, some artisans and tradesmen, but the hardy yeomen, a necessary element of colonial prosperity, were yet wanting. Avoiding the haven of Port Royal, of disastrous memory, they directed their course to the St. John s, or River of May ; and on the south bank of that stream, five miles above its mouth, they built Fort Caroline so called in honor of Charles IX., then king of France. The fort, which was close to an elevation, now known as St. John s Bluff, was constructed in the shape of a triangle, with bastions at the three corners, a parade ground in the centre, the buildings for lodging and storage around its inner sides. The river flowed in front, and there were protecting ditches on the other two sides. But why the need of a fort, seeing that the Indians were friendly, and that they, the Huguenots, professed to seek an asylum from persecution? The reason was, because they occupied the Florida claimed by Spain ; and because their desires were far more toward the gold mines of the interior, which they might have to fight for, than they were toward that "better land" where persecution or other ills are never known. The neighboring Indians, who were worshippers of the sun, and lived in huts thatched with palmetto, though friendly to the whites were at enmity with two tribes on the south and west. Laudonniere, in an evil hour, promised to aid them D 7 7 4 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1564 against their enemies up the river. But in the meantime, an officer, whom he had sent with a boat s crew to the chief of the upper tribe, twice assisted him in a raid against his enemies, hoping thereby to gain the rumored gold of the Appalachee Mountains. Thus it happened that the adven turers at Fort Caroline incurred the distrust and the hate of their neighbors, so that when, shortly afterwards, they were greatly in want of provisions, the natives, refusing to venture within the fort, required the whites to come out to them in boats on the river. Meanwhile, within the fort, discontent and jealousies were rife. There was one, Roquette, who asserted that he knew of mines of gold and silver, many leagues up the St. John s, and which, he covertly asserted, would yield to every one of them an immense fortune, if they could but put Laudonniere out of the way. Their wicked schemes to compass his death proving unsuccessful, advantage was taken of a time when he was suffering from illness to imprison him. But the malcon tents had now concocted a more likely method of making themselves rich, than that of exploring the Everglades for the mines of Roquette : in other words, they proposed to become pirates. Accordingly, having armed and supplied two small vessels with cannon, munitions and stores, the mutineers set sail toward the islands of the Spanish main. They secured a number of prizes and took much booty, but, while rejoicing in their high career, were surprised by several armed vessels, and were glad to make their escape, empty-handed, from the clutches of the incensed Spaniards. Upon their return to Fort Caroline, Laudonniere ordered a court-martial ; all were found guilty, though the ring-leaders only were sentenced to be shot. The colonists at this time were threatened with starvation. Gold and conquest having been their prime objects, not an 1564] MENENDEZ. 75 acre of the soil had been tilled; while, from the Indians, who were hostile, as well as anxious for them to depart, but little succor could be expected. Suffering from want, and despairing of the realization of their dreams, they were about to depart, when relief appeared from a very unexpected quarter. It was the arrival of the ships of Sir John Hawkins. The " father of the English slave-trade" had just sold at a great profit, to the Spaniards of San Domingo, a cargo of negroes kidnapped in Guinea ; and now had merely visited the Huguenot settle ment, preparatory to his return to England. Scarcely had the white sails of his carrion-fleet disappeared from the offing, when Ribault s long-expected squadron entered the River of May, bringing ample stores of provisions, besides several hundred recruits for the colony. But Ribault, who was com missioned to take the chief command, was unaware of the black cloud of ruin that had gathered, and was even then about to burst upon the Huguenots. HAWKINS himself relates, of one of his slave-capturing expedi tions, that he set fire to the palm-thatched huts of a negro town, and, out of eight thousand inhabitants, he succeeded in securing but two hundred and fifty. England s Protestant queen, to her great dishonor, protected, as well as shared in the profits of, this traffic in the sugar, spices, pearls, etc., which were realized in exchange for the bodies of men. RUIN AND REVENGE MENENDEZ AND DE GOURGUES. To MENENDEZ DE AVILES, a distinguished officer of the Spanish marine, Philip II. had granted the privilege of the conquest and settlement of Florida, and the conversion of its natives. All of this Menendez was empowered to do at his own expense, and he was also to take five hundred men, and supply them with as many slaves, besides horses and other domestic animals. 76 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1565 While the preparations were going on, news reached Spain of the sailing of the squadron of Ribault, and so great a zeal to overtake and overwhelm the heretics did this intelligence excite, that the number of men comprising the expedition was shortly increased to two thousand six hundred, besides twenty Franciscans and Jesuit priests. Leaving the greater part of his fleet to follow, Menendez sailed for Florida with eleven ships. Upon reaching the mouth of the St. John s, he at tacked the French vessels, but they escaped to sea. Sailing down the cpast, he came to an inlet, which he called ST. AUGUSTINE. Here a landing was effected, and without delay the negroes were set to work at building houses and intrench- ments. It was a memorable event in our country s history, for it was then, in the summer of 1565, that St. Augustine, the oldest town in the United States, was founded, and it was then also that African slave-labor was introduced upon our soil. The Spaniards were engaged upon this work, when the squadron of Ribault suddenly reappeared, coming towards the harbor. A storm, however, arose, and the vessels were obliged to leave without making an attack. Menendez then proposed to his men to attack the weakened garrison at Fort Caroline, which was but thirty miles distant. All in the storm, and through a wild country of swampy forests and tangled under brush and swollen streams, they went on their bloody errand. Arriving at the fort, it was easily carried by assault, and all of the garrison, except a few who escaped to the swamp, were mercilessly slain. Even those who returned and surrendered themselves, shared the same fate as the rest. Upon a tree, there was set up the inscription, "I do this not as to French men, but as to Lutherans." Then Menendez, having ascer tained that Ribault s vessels, unable to weather the storm, had been cast ashore below St. Augustine, marched thither at once. The castaways, numbering several hundreds, being persuaded to put themselves in his power, he ordered their hands tied 1567] DE GOURGUES. 77 behind their backs, and all of them (who claimed to be Huguenots) were shot. " I had their hands tied behind their backs," writes the cruel Menendez, "and themselves put to the sword. It appeared to me, that, by thus chastising them, God, our Lord, and your Majesty were served ; whereby in future this evil sect will leave us more free to plant the Gospel in these parts." A few days afterward, he accepted the surrender of a remnant of the French who were overtaken down the coast near Cape Ca naveral. Philip the Second graciously writes : "Say to Menendez that, as to those he has killed, he has done well ; and as to those he has saved, they shall be sent to the galleys." The party of Catharine de Medicis and of her pliant son Charles IX. was too much tied to Romish interests to complain of this wretched massacre on the part of the Spaniards. But there was a certain Gascon, named DOMINIC DE GOURGUES, who could not rest easy under the dishonor which he believed his country had suffered; and hence formed the determination to take the reprisal into his own hands. It does not appear certain that he was a Huguenot, while it is sufficiently evident that motives of piety did not at all regulate his career. He hated the Spaniards intensely, and was probably only too glad of an opportunity to exhibit the full extent of his animosity. With three small vessels De Gourgues sailed (1567) on his evil mission. His real destination was not at first divulged to his followers, his commission simply permitting him to make war on the negroes of Benin, in Africa, and to kidnap them as slaves. From the Benin coast he sailed to Florida, and landed, unperceived by the Spaniards, above the mouth of the St. John s. The natives, who had been treated by the Span iards even more harshly than before by the French, were easily induced to unite their forces with those of De Gourgues, for the attack on Fort Caroline. The latter, as well as two small forts at the river s mouth were all quickly surprised and cap- 78 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1567 tured ; and, with the same relentless barbarity with which Me- nendez had slain the French, did they in turn butcher the Spaniards. A few who had been purposely taken prisoners were hung upon a tree, and over them was placed the inscrip tion, burned with a hot iron upon a board of pine : " Not as to Spaniards, but as to Traitors, Robbers and Murderers." CHAPTER VII. ENGLISH VOYAGES AND FIRST SETTLEMENTS. 1576 1605. MARTIN FROBISHER. SIR HUMPHREY GILBERT. IT has been mentioned in chapter iv. that Sebastian Cabot, had, subsequent to his first great discoveries, been honorably employed in the maritime service of Spain. It is true that his expectation as to the discovery of a north-west passage to India had not been realized ; while in the meantime, the south-east route by the Cape of Good Hope, and that of the south-west around South America, had been marked out by the expeditions of Vasco de Gama and of Magellan. But when, in 1547, the English council advanced the sum of one hundred pounds, for Cabot, "a pilot, to come out of Spain, to serve and inhabit in England," the veteran navigator accepted the invitation, and was soon engaged in the work of directing attempts to reach India by the Norway coast and the North-east. These efforts, though not successful as to their announced object, yet were instrumental in developing a trade with Russia, a country which was only then coming into political prominence. The harbor of Archangel, on the White Sea, was reached by the expedition of Sir Hugh Wil- loughby, which was fitted out by Cabot, and a profitable commerce presently established. The returns were not at once so great as were those of Spain and Portugal from their new possessions, but they were not only more sure, but were 79 8o HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1576 exempt from the disastrous consequences of a too rapid in crease of wealth. It would have been well for the English had they always followed the line of legitimate trade, and not looked with envious eyes on the gold speculations of their neighbors. The passage by the north of America, however, was not yet despaired of. To test its practicability, an intelligent English navigator, MARTIN FROBISHER, not possessing means of his own, persuaded the Earl of Warwick and other persons of wealth, to furnish him with the requisite outfit. His three little vessels two barks and a pinnace aggregated a capacity of but fifty-five tons. One of these was lost in a storm, a second returned to port, but the third, in which was the com mander, continued on its way. Frobisher entered a strait between two large islands the same now known by his name, connecting the Greenland Sea with the channels north of Hudson s Bay. Taking it for granted that it opened out into the great Pacific Ocean, he merely gathered up some earth and stones as tokens of his discovery, and returned to England to apprise Queen Elizabeth and his countrymen, of the acquisition of a new dominion. This was in the year 1576. A critical examination of the rubbish brought back by Frobisher resulted in finding a stone which was declared to contain gold. The cupidity of London capitalists straight way became excited, and a fleet was sent out in the following year for the precious ore of the northern seas. The eyes of the mariners were wide open for indications of treasure. At a certain place, spiders abounded an indication, "as many affirm," says the chronicle in Hakluyt s collection, "of signes of great store of gold." The ships having been freighted with the earth, returned to England with the profitless cargo. But this unsuccessful venture did not prevent a repetition of the same, equally foolish, and on a still larger scale. The fine 1583] SIR HUMPHREY GILBERT. 8 1 fleet of fifteen sail, on which had embarked quite a number of the English gentry, entered the strait afterward known as Hudson s, but encountering many icebergs and various other perils, and running into new and devious channels, the zeal of the gold-seekers began to moderate. Loading their vessels with black ore and other minerals, to conceal their failure, they sailed homeward, their avarice greatly unsatisfied. That worthy chronicler, Richard Hakluyt, states, that in 1578 which was the year of Frobisher s last voyage there were at Newfoundland a hundred and fifty French fishing- vessels, besides two hundred belonging to the Spanish, En glish, and Portuguese ; also over twenty Biscayan whalers. Il was the belief of HUMPHREY GILBERT, a step-brother of Sir Walter Raleigh, that these fisheries, which realized the sure riches of the sea, were to be accounted more valuable, and more worthy to be fostered, then was the uncertain hunt after the precious minerals of the earth. Actuated by the expecta tion of forming a permanent colony on the north-east Ameri can coast, Gilbert obtained from the queen a very liberal patent. With the aid of Raleigh, a small fleet was equipped ( T 579)> but unfortunately a storm was encountered, one ship was lost and others were disabled, and as a consequence the expedition was abandoned. As the patent from the queen was to continue in force but six years, Gilbert again, generously aided by Raleigh, was provided in 1583 (a year before the limitation of his charter) with a second fleet. Upon arriving at Newfoundland the country was taken possession of for the queen of England, in the presence of the fishermen of various nations, and lands were granted to them upon condition of paying a quit-rent. But disaster attended the undertaking. The largest ship of Gilbert s little fleet had been lost on the outward voyage. The next in size, which they now loaded with what was thought to be silver ore, struck on a rock and was wrecked D* 82 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1533 nearly a hundred of the men going down with the supposed treasure. Finally, Gilbert with but two vessels, sailed for home, but on a night when a great storm prevailed, the little craft (it was the Squirrel, of ten tons only) in which was the- commander, foundered, and vessel and crew were never seen again. Shortly before the time of Gilbert s last attempt at colonization, the Spaniards established their second settlement within what are now the United States. Augustin Ruiz, a Franciscan friar, with several companions, had, in 1580, explored the Rio Grande from its middle course to the upper valley where Coronado had been, forty years before. And in the next year, Antonio de Espejio, with a body of soldiers and Indians, continuing the interior explorations north of the Gila, gave to the country the name of NEW MEXICO, and Santa Fe was built. SIR FRANCIS DRAKE. That species of modern land-and-water plundering which is called buccaneering, was largely promoted by the daring exploits of SIR FRANCIS DRAKE. For notoriety as a piratical commander, the name of Drake is, or ought to be, connected with early English freebooting, as is that of Hawkins with the beginning of the English slave trade. Men of the sea port towns who might have become peaceful fishermen among the cod-banks of Newfoundland, hearing of the successful pillaging by Drake and Hawkins, easily allowed the desire for- sudden wealth to overcome their honest scruples. They be held likewise how titles of honor were conferred on names which reeked with deeds the most disgraceful. Hence, what wonder that weak consciences gave way, and that men once of good repute, found themselves embarked upon careers which might indeed bring gold to their hands, but must ruin their souls for eternity. This history, however, will have little to do with the plun- 1579] SIR FRANCIS DRAKE. 83 dering exploits of the irascible Sir Francis. It was about the time of Humphrey Gilbert s first expedition (1579), that Drake, having left England on a voyage in pursuit of fortune, sailed around to the Spanish possessions on the Pacific, and, though Philip the Second and Elizabeth were not then at war, vigorously attacked the South American sea-ports and loaded his ship with great spoils. Desirous of discovering a strait which would enable him to return with speed to the Atlantic, he sailed up the Mexican and Californian coasts to the forty-third degree of latitude corresponding to the south part of Oregon and entered the harbor of SAN FRANCISCO. It was so called by the English in his honor. But the change of climate from that of the tropics, was complained of by the men, who also were prob ably unwilling to lose themselves and their ill-gotten gold among the remote inlets and seas which had proved so disas trous to the fortunes of Frobisher. Drake, therefore, after naming the country which he had discovered for the English, New Albion, sailed westward, the summer of 1579, across the Pacific, and reaching England in safety, completed the second circumnavigation of the globe. CALIFORNIA was the name, happily retained, which had already been given to that country by the Spaniards. The coast had been explored in 1542 by a Portuguese in the Span ish service, named CABRILLO, who had gone nearly as far northward as the mouth of the Columbia river. Thirteen years after Drake s appearance on the Oregon coast (1592), JUAN DE FUCA, a Greek, likewise in the employ of Spain, sailed for twenty days in the broad passage between Vancouver s island and the mainland. He supposed that he had discovered the western end of a great inter-oceanic pas sage of which the gulf of St. Lawrence was the eastern en trance. UNIVERSITY OF OA J.ThVlDvrr * 84 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1584 RALEIGH AND THE ROANOKE SETTLEMENTS. Notwithstanding the ill-success of the efforts of Gilbert, and the sad fate of that officer, it was not long before his brother RALEIGH revived the scheme of American coloniza tion. The new patent conferred by Elizabeth with whom the learned and courteous Raleigh was then a rising favorite constituted him lord proprietary over a large extent of coun try, with the power to receive rents and to make grants at his pleasure. PHILIP AMIDAS and ARTHUR BARLOW were the commanders of the two vessels of Raleigh s, which, in 1584, sailed with the purpose of determining the site for a colony. It was to be located in a climate milder than that of New foundland, and far enough removed therefrom to avoid inter ference with its fisheries; while on the other hand it should be sufficiently distant from the Spanish forts of Florida. Amidas and Barlow followed what was then the favorite route to America, via the Canaries and the West India islands. As they came up the American coast, and, when opposite the shores of Carolina, drew near to land, their pleasure at the appearance of the strange vegetation and the delightful fra grance which filled the air, found expression in language like to that of the mariners of Verrazzani many years before. A suitable harbor was not readily discovered ; but after coasting the long, unbroken island-beach that trends north-eastwardly from Cape Lookout, they came to Ocracoke inlet, the lower entrance into Pamlico sound. Here, on the point of the island Wokoken, forming the south shore of the inlet, the ceremony of the queen of England s sovereignty to the coun try was duly enacted. By invitation of some of the natives all of whom had treated them hospitably they sailed across Pamlico sound to Roanoke island, the low, sandy island which separates the former from Albemarle sound. Here a traffic was entered 1585] THE ROANOKE SETTLEMENTS. 85 into with the natives, two of whom, named Wanchese and Manteo, were willing to go back with the adventurers to England. Thither they sailed as soon as the vessels had re ceived their cargo: cedar-wood, peltry purchased of the Indians, and bark of the sassafras an American tree which had been previously found in Florida, and was already much esteemed in Europe for its medicinal and aromatic properties. The glowing report of the voyagers, together with the commercial products returned, produced a favorable influence on the public mind in England. The name of VIRGINIA was forthwith conferred upon the country by Raleigh, in honor of the virgin queen ; and inasmuch as it is not unusual for the recipients of such compliments to make some acknowledg ment of the fact, so it happened that Raleigh was made a knight in consideration of past services, and was granted a monopoly in sweet wines to aid him in planting a colony. Raleigh immediately despatched a second expedition, of which SIR RICHARD GRENVILLE was appointed commander. Ralph Lane was named as governor; Hariot, a man of science, was to gather the facts of interest in his department ; Wythe, a painter, was to be delineator and draughtsman. The expe dition of seven ships left England in the spring of 1585, and, L with a keen lookout for the possible prize of a Spanish galleon, (took the circuitous route by the Canaries and West Indies. ;In sailing along the Carolina coast, the fleet narrowly escaped shipwreck upon Cape Fear; in commemoration of which fact, that prominent headland received its ominous name. Sailing into Ocracoke inlet, the fleet made its way to the harboring- station at Roanoke island. Manteo, one of the natives who had been taken to England, and who was now fitted to act as guide and interpreter, went to the mainland to announce their arrival. Grenville explored the neighboring shores, and visited the Indian villages thereabout; but at one of them a most lament- 86 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1586 able incident occurred. A silver cup had been stolen, it was said, by the natives ; the demand for its restoration was not promptly complied with; and then, with a brutal retaliation utterly disproportioned to the offence, Grenville ordered the village to be burnt, and the fields of standing corn to be de stroyed ! By this cruel act they forfeited, in one hasty hour, the good-will and friendly aid of the natives. Grenville landed the colonists, to the number of one hundred and ten men, and leaving them in charge of Lane, the appointed governor, sailed back to England, capturing on the way a rich Spanish prize, with which to enter triumphantly the harbor of Plymouth. He appears to have coveted piratical booty much more than he did the prosperity of the queen s settle ments in the New World. In the meantime, Lane and his men employed themselves in further exploring the shores of the sounds, and the entrances of the rivers; Hariot diligently examined the natural products of the country, not the least important of which he accounted tobacco; while Wythe made sketches of the natives. Deluded by foolish tales of rich mines of gold to be found far up the river Roanoke, Lane attempted to ascend the rapid current of that stream ; but having made very little progress, and his provisions being exhausted, he was compelled to return. The Indians were becoming disquieted at the presence of the whites, whose power for evil they had so soon learned to fear. In the spring of the new year, the natives, with the intention of causing a famine which would have compelled the de parture of their enemies, would have left their fields unplanted, but this counsel was overruled by the moderation of one of the chiefs. The English had not yet learned aright the lessons taught by the many failures of their predecessors ; they were still un willing to till the soil for their sustenance, and earn an honest livelihood by that and by barter, but would fain grovel in 1586] THE ROAXOKE SETTLEMENTS. S^ mines for gold, or, if need be, steal it from its " savage" possessors. But Avarice and Suspicion usually go hand-in- hand. The colonists professed to believe that a combination of the Indians was forming, for the purpose of getting rid of them by a general massacre. Concealing their suspicions, Lane treacherously requested a parley with the most active one of the chiefs, and then, at a preconcerted signal, this chief and his eight principal followers were overcome and merci lessly put to death. As the summer advanced, and provisions became scarce, parties of the colonists were dispersed in search of food. One of these, on Cape Lookout, descried to their great surprise, a fleet of over twenty sail. The signals which they made were observed, and communication opened. It proved to be Sir Francis Drake on his way home from an expedition of plunder amongst the Spanish West Indian possessions. Rich in the booty obtained, he was generous in offers of help to the despairing colonists tendered them a ship, several boats and quantities of provisions. But these were all destroyed in a storm which arose while Drake yet tarried ; and then, Lane having refused to accept further assistance, returned with his men in the war-fleet to England. Yet he had hardly left the coast, when a vessel, with abundant supplies sent over by Raleigh, arrived at Roanoke ; while a fortnight later came Grenville with three more ships. Having left fifteen men on the island, to be the custodians of his country s rights, Gren- viile departed; but, feeling reluctant to return home empty- handed, he plundered the Portuguese settlements in the Azore islands. Still undismayed, the indefatigable Raleigh planned yet another expedition ; and with the hope of making it more certain of success, he wisely determined to send out not single men only, but also yeomen with their families, who would be apt to feel a more settled, personal interest in the enterprise. 88 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1590 A charter of incorporation was prepared in advance for the " City of Raleigh," and JOHN WHITE with eleven others, were designated as the governor and assistant officers. It had been intended by Raleigh that the colony should be located on Chesapeake Bay, but the officer in command of the ships was eager to be off to the West Indies, so he landed the colonists on Roanoke island (1587). The houses of the previous set tlers were still standing, but they were overgrown with weeds and vines. The fifteen men who had been left by Grenville, were not found they had no doubt been murdered by the Indians in revenge for the death of their chief. The hostility of the natives was presently evinced in the murder of one of the governor s assistants, who had strolled a short distance from the fort. In haste to retaliate, the whites attacked an Indian party at night, and had slain several of their number before it was discovered that they were a friendly band. Manteo, the interpreter, continued to be attached to the whites, and having been baptized by a priest, was after wards invested with the title of the "lord of Roanoke." When the time came for the departure of the vessels, White, at the urgent request of the settlers, consented to go back to England, to hasten the promised supplies. He left on the island over one hundred men and women, besides several children, one of the latter being his grand-daughter, VIRGINIA DARE, the first English child born in America. Three long years elapsed before the governor again ap proached the sandy beach of Roanoke island. He had found upon his return to England, that the whole country was in a fever of excitement at the prospect of a great invasion by the Spanish Armada of Philip II. His services, as well as those of Raleigh, were called for, and thus the colony for a time was reluctantly neglected. When finally, in the autumn of 1590, White landed at Roanoke, the prattling lips of little Virginia Dare were not to be heard in welcoming accents i6o2] VOYAGES OF GOSNOLD, PR ING, ETC. 89 by her long-absent grandsire. Not one of the unfortunate colony was anywhere to be found, or was ever afterward heard of! VOYAGES OF GOSNOLD, PRING, WEYMOUTH AND OTHERS. Hitherto, as has been already observed, English voyages to the temporary American settlements had usually been made by way of the Canaries and the West Indies. A more expe ditious route was chosen by BARTHOLOMEW GOSNOLD, who, in 1602, with the concurrence of Raleigh, steered directly across the Atlantic and approached the continent near the present harbor of Portland. As he sailed southward, probably in the track of Thorfinn and the sons of Eric, Gosnold landed on a promontory which he called Cape Cod the first land in New England, so far as he knew, ever trodden by Englishmen. Farther south he entered Buzzard s Bay, called by them " Gosnold s Hope," and, on the westernmost of the Elizabeth" Islands they landed, with the expectation of establishing a settlement. While the fort was being built, part of the crew loaded the ship with sassafras root purchased from the natives; but when the vessel was ready to sail, those who were to have remained lost heart, and, embarking with the rest, returned to England. In the following year, certain merchants of Bristol, en couraged by Raleigh, and by Hakluyt (the compiler of the narratives of these early voyages), continued the discoveries of Gosnold, by sending out two vessels under the care of MICHAEL PRING. The traffic for sassafras root was also a chief incentive. Pring reached the coast about the mouth of the Penobscot, and sailed slowly southward, entering a number of the harbors that abound in that locality, until he came to Martha s Vineyard. With the trinkets and articles of mer chandise brought out, Pring obtained sufficient sassafras, skins 8* 90 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1605 and furs to load his vessels with profitable cargoes for his employers. In 1605, Cape Cod was again visited by the expedition of an experienced navigator, GEORGE WEYMOUTH, who sailed under the auspices of the Earl of Southampton and others. He also entered the harbor of St. George at the mouth of the bay of Fundy, and made accurate observations of the natural productions of the country, besides trading somewhat with the natives for sables and the skins of deer, beaver, etc. Wishing to obtain some of the natives to be instructed as guides and interpreters for future expeditions, five of these were decoyed on board, and, being carried to England, were presented to Chief-justice Popham and Sir Ferdinando Gorges both actively engaged at that time in soliciting from the king a patent for the North Virginia Company. To the wondering populace of London, Popham s kidnapped savages became ob jects of very great interest. Two years subsequent to Weymouth s voyage, Sir GEORGE POPHAM, brother of the chief-justice, and RALEIGH GILBERT, a son of Sir Humphrey Gilbert, were placed in charge of an expedition, which proceeded to the mouth of the Kennebec with the expectation of effecting a permanent settlement. Here was launched the Virginia, of thirty tons, the first ves sel built by Englishmen on the shores of America. Aboard this little craft many of the colonists, yielding to discourage ments, went back to England. Shortly after, Popham died, and, Gilbert returning home, the remaining settlers who did not seek to conciliate the natives quickly followed. Thus, after a century of exploration and attempted colonization, a few Frenchmen in Acadie and some Spaniards at St. Augus tine were the only Europeans upon that long Atlantic coast. CHAPTER VIII. COLONIZATION OF VIRGINIA. 1607 1624. JAMESTOWN THE FIRST PERMANENT ENGLISH SETTLEMENT. IT having been clearly proved that the great territory which had been discovered beyond the Atlantic was a continent un connected with, and indeed separated by a vast ocean from that of Asia, the desire amongst maritime nations to establish permanent settlements upon the shores of the New World be came stronger with each succeeding year. With the English, the discouraging results attending the Raleigh settlements in Carolina, soon gave place to the hope of a profitable traffic, as developed by the expeditions of Gosnold, Pring, and Wey- mouth. In the year succeeding Weymouth s return (1606), there was organized the LONDON COMPANY, of which the treasurer was Sir Thomas Smith, who was also one of the possessors of the patent which had been issued by King James the First to Raleigh. The code of laws was framed according to the royal ideas, though not strictly in accordance with the wishes of those whom they were intended to govern. The king was to appoint a superior council, resident in England, whose members could be removed at his pleasure ; but the colony was also permitted a domestic council of its own, though its members and its decrees were likewise subject to the king s approval. For the first twenty-one years, the Virginia planta tion was to receive all duties levied on vessels trading to its 91 92 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1606 harbors ; after that time, the right was to be surrendered to the crown. The charter was good in so far as the king acted as a check upon possible oppression by the London Company which established the plantation ; but it was objectionable, in that the people of the plantation could not choose the members of their domestic council, who were obviously the ones best situated to judge of their wants. The code of laws provided that the doctrines and rites of the Church of England were to be the established religion. It decreed the punishment of death not only in cases of murder, but also of dangerous tumults and seditions. All the produce resulting from the labor of the settlers for five years succeeding their landing, was to be held in common. It was to be stored in suitable magazines, superintended by a " cape merchant," and two clerks were to take note of all that went in and came out from the same. The preliminaries of government being thus arranged in advance, the little squadron of three vessels, commanded by CHRISTOPHER NEWPORT, sailed in the latter part of the year 1606, for the American shores. Of the one hundred and five men on board the vessels, who were intended as colonists, forty-eight were styled "gentlemen." Dissensions sprang up amongst them on the voyage, growing out of the uncertainty as to who were to be the colonial councillors, the names of these having been carefully sealed up in a tin box along with the instructions of King James. In addition to the so-called gentlemen, there were a few laborers and artisans, besides soldiers and servants. Prominent among the company, were Wingfield, a rich merchant and a projector of the colony ; John Smith, an energetic adventurer ; Robert Hunt, an amiable and worthy clergyman ; and the voyager Gosnold. Newport, instead of following Gosnold s former track directly across the Atlantic, took the much longer route by way of the West Indies. A severe storm drove the vessels 1607] CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH. 93 beyond the Pamlico inlets, to the great bay of the Chesapeake the mother of the waters. The head-lands at its entrance they named after the sons of King James the lower one Cape Henry, after the Prince of Wales, a youth of good promise, and the upper one Cape Charles, from the king s second son who afterwards ascended the throne. Upon the noble stream, the Powhatan, which they ascended, they conferred the name of King James. About fifty miles above the river s mouth, where they arrived the i3th of the 5th month (May), 1607, they selected a site for their settlement, which was called JAMES TOWN. The sealed box having been opened, the names of Wingfield, Gosnold, Smith, Newport and three others were found in it, as those who were to compose the council ; and of these seven, Wingfield was elected president. Smith was at first excluded upon a false charge of sedition, but by the mediation of Hunt, was soon honorably restored. CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH. This Captain John Smith, who is the central figure in the first two years of Virginia s history, was a man whose promi nent traits of character were a great readiness of invention and promptitude in time of danger habits of self-reliance which invested him with a talent for command. Although but thirty years of age at this time, his life had been one of many adventures : fighting in the Netherlands against the Spanish rulers, and in Hungary against the invading Moham medans carried a captive to Constantinople and sold as a slave a prisoner in a Russian fortress and then the slayer of his task-master next, a fugitive across the Mediterranean to the kingdom of Morocco. Finally, having returned to Eng land, he made the acquaintance of Gosnold, with whom he ardently entered into the scheme of American colonization. His first service in the new colony was to accompany New- 94 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1607 port and twenty others up the river to the Falls of the James, which are opposite the present city of Richmond. A mile below the falls, on a rising-ground is the plantation yet known as " Powhatan," and it was here that the great chief of that name had his wigwam. He was a tall, athletic man, about sixty years of age, and was the ruler of more than forty clans or small tribes, which were thinly scattered over the territory of the lower Potomac and the James. The settlers called them all by the general name of their chief the Powhatans. The Monicans dwelt on the upper James, and the Mannahoacs upon the upper courses of the Potomac and the Rappahannoc ; while at the head of Chesapeake bay were the Susquehannocs. All of these tribes belonged to the Algonquin race. Early in the summer, Newport returned to England, leaving the chief management of affairs in the hands of Smith, al though Ratcliffe was then the inefficient president of the council. The spirits and health of the company were at a low ebb. The small allowance of provisions which was doled out from the common store, consisted principally of wheat and barley which had been damaged on ship-board. Crabs and sturgeon, however, were obtained from the river. But disappointment and melancholy, together with lack of nour ishing food, soon resulted in an outbreak of disease, and, before autumn, fifty men (one of whom was Gosnold) had died. Had the Indians now deserted them, the colonists would have been in a fair way to perish entirely, but the " savages," when the autumn came, and their harvests were gathered, brought voluntary offerings of corn and fruits and venison. The health of the colonists soon improved, and, directed by their energetic leader, they erected a palisadoed fort, as well as huts to protect themselves from the rigor of winter. As the men became better reconciled to their situation, Smith determined to leave them for awhile, for the purpose i6o8] CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH. 95 of exploring the country. Accompanied only by two of his men and two Indian guides, he ascended the Chickahominy, until the canoe would float no longer. Then with a single Indian he struck inland, but, being attacked by a party of natives, was made prisoner, after a vigorous defence in which three of his assailants were killed. His captors would probably have taken his life at once, but he exhibited to them a pocket compass, and otherwise amused them, so that, becoming elated at their triumph in securing such a mortal, they carried him through their villages until they had reached the residence of Powhatan, who at that time was on the York river, not far north of Jamestown. The chief and his councillors doomed their prisoner to death, but just as the sentence was about to be executed, and the tomahawk was uplifted, POCAHONTAS, the daughter of the chief a gentle maiden scarcely twelve years of age sprang forward, and clinging to the neck of the captain, interceded with her father for his life. Her request was granted, and, after seven weeks captivity, Smith was sent back to James town, accompanied by several Indian guides. This story of the rescue, which rests entirely upon the authority of Smith, is now by many discredited. Shortly after Smith s return, Newport arrived from Eng land with 120 emigrants, though not of the sort who were calculated to add to the well-being of the colony, being mostly gentlemen and goldsmiths. Like the adventurers who went with Frobisher, these treasure-hunters soon discovered what they believed to be gold, and loaded one of the vessels with the worthless earth and stones. The other vessel Smith prevailed on the men to load with skins, furs, and cedar-wood the first exportation of value from Virginia. In the summer of 1608, while the settlers were rebuilding their huts, which had been destroyed by a fire, Smith, with eleven companions, undertook the exploration of Chesar^ike 96 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1609 bay, which he surveyed to the mouth of the Susquehanna. So many and so devious are the coast-lines of this great bay, that Smith s investigations embraced nearly 3000 miles of navigation ; the Potomac was also ascended as far as the lo cality of Washington. Upon Smith s return he was elected president of the council. Newport now again appeared, with yet more undesirable and unwelcome recruits, which obliged Smith to write to the London Company, "When you send again, I entreat you, rather send but thirty carpen ters, husbandmen, gardeners, fishermen, blacksmiths, masons, and diggers-up-of-trees-roots, well-provided, than a thousand of such as we have." Nevertheless, Smith was strenuous in obliging every one to work six hours a day being the time allotted and so the settlers passed the summer in a far better state of health than they did the year preceding. When Newport s vessel sailed, it carried back a cargo of wainscot and clapboards, and also some tar, pitch and potash, pre pared by several Germans who were among the last who came. Although the Virginia colony could not be said to be in a flourishing condition, the London Corporation, having changed its title, put forth great efforts to make the under taking popular. They obtained a new charter, in which it was provided that the affairs and laws of the colony should be regulated by the superior council in England, who should choose a governor; that the colonial council at Jamestown should be abolished, and that the governor should exercise its former powers. They were given all the territory north and south of the James, 200 miles each way, and extending west ward to the Pacific. The governor first appointed was LORD DELAWARE. Not being ready to leave England at once, the fleet of nine vessels and 500 colonists set sail (1609) without him, Newport and two others being designated to act as commissioners until he should arrive. But it happened that the vessel in which were i6io] COLONY UNDER THE VIRGINIA COMPANY. 97 the commissioners, having been stranded in a storm upon the Bermudas, did not appear until several months after the others. The new colonists being inclined to dispute the authority of Smith, he partly got rid of them by establishing two new set tlements, one at the Falls of the James, and the other at Nansemond near where Richmond and Norfolk now stand. The unruly behavior of these new-comers soon involved them in disputes with the Indians, while Smith himself, being severely wounded by an accidental discharge of powder, was obliged to return to England for surgical aid. At his depart ure, the colony numbered about 500 persons. At Jamestown, there was a fort, a chapel and a storehouse, besides a.bout 60 dwellings ; also a few horses, swine and other domestic ani mals. Only about forty acres of land were in cultivation, so that the colonists were obliged to depend for food mainly on the corn, purchased or extorted from the Indians. THE COLONY UNDER THE GOVERNMENT OF THE VIRGINIA COMPANY. \ The six months following the departure of Smith, were long remembered in the colony as the Starving Time. All discipline was given up by the settlers, who forsook the reg ular system of labor which Smith had established* and, while consuming the general stock of provisions, became idle and riotous. A famine was the consequence. They also lost the good-will of the Indians, who waylaid and killed many of those who wandered off in search of food. Thirty of the colonists, under plea of their necessities, seized a vessel and sailed away, purposing to become pirates. Only sixty persons out of nearly 500 remained, when, in the spring of 1610, Newport, Gates and Somers, the three commissioners of the London Virginia Company, arrived from the scene of their wreck on the Bermudas. E 9 9 8 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1611 The settlers could probably have survived but ten days longer had not the commissioners come thus timely to their relief; but as their own company, comprising 150 men, had but a few days provisions for themselves, it was resolved to abandon Virginia and to sail for Newfoundland, where succor could be obtained from the fishermen. The settlers had actually embarked, and were sailing down the river, when the three ships of Lord Delaware, with provisions and colonists, met them. Thankful for this second relief, they landed once more, and the habitations of Jamestown were again peopled. But the health of the governor very soon declining, he was forced to return to England, leaving the colony in charge of LORD PERCY. Percy was not long in office, when he was succeeded (1611) as deputy by Sir Thomas Dale, who came over with more men and supplies. He was furnished with a printed code of laws, harsh in their nature, and which remained for eight years the martial law of the colony. SIR THOMAS GATES, one of the late commissioners, but now the appointed governor, also brought over 300 men, as well as a hundred cattle. The animals, indeed, were better assurances of permanency than many men would have been, and their importation was a step which proved the wisdom of Lord Cecil, who had a control ling voice in the affairs of the company. The plantation of Henrico so named from Prince Henry, the eldest son of the king was founded by Dale upon the river, in the neighbor hood of the wigwams of Powhatan : and where the Appo- mattox enters the James, was established another settlement, called New Bermuda. The Indians were driven away from their cabins and fields, and stockades were erected that the English might not in their turn be thus unjustly treated. There now happened an event in the colony which proved instrumental in bringing about more friendly relations with the Indians than had recently existed. Captain SAMUEL 1616] COLONY UNDER THE VIRGINIA COMPANY. gg ARGALL, having gone up the Potomac on a trading expedition, found the princess Pocahontas there, and having enticed her on board his ship, carried her back with him to Jamestown. Powhatan demanded the release of his daughter, which being refused unless a ransom was given, the chief prepared to make war. But a settler named John Rolfe, an honest and pious young Englishman, feeling a strong sympathy for the Indian maiden, labored for her conversion. Being of a docile spirit and quick of apprehension, she made satisfactory progress, and their friendship having ripened into attachment, Rolfe desired her in marriage. Powhatan assented, and Pocahontas having received the rite of water "baptism, the couple were united in the chapel at Jamestown. Argall, the captor of Pocahontas, a coarse and passionate man, hearing that the French were establishing themselves on the coasts of Maine and Acadie (which were claimed as being within the jurisdiction of the English), hastened to dislodge them. He cannonaded their settlements on Mont Desert island, at St. Croix and Port Royal the deserted houses of the latter being set on fire, and those on Mont Desert given over to pillage. He also entered the mouth of the Hudson, where, on Manhattan island, Dutch traders had settled. These acknowledged the authority of England while Argall was there, but hoisted the Dutch flag as soon as their troublesome visitor had departed. In 1616, DALE, who had served with firmness and efficiency after Gates return home, himself went back to England, having appointed George Yeardley to be deputy. At this time tobacco had become the favorite production of the colonists, so that not only the gardens and fields, but even the streets of Jamestown, were allowed for the culture of the weed which was destined to become Virginia s chief staple. Anxious to realize the high price which the article commanded, the settlers devoted so exclusive an attention to its production ioo HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1619 that they were in danger of suffering from insufficiency of food. Each settler had at first been allowed ioo acres of land, for which an annual quit-rent of two shillings was to be paid to the company, but this allowance of land was now reduced one-half. Many who received grants paid a corn rent, and in this manner the colonial officials at first received their salaries. The governor had a plantation cultivated by a hun dred indentured servants of the company. Grants of land were likewise made for meritorious services, but not to a greater extent than 2000 acres ; yet these favors were not always well-bestowed, while the consequent engrossment of lands for such purposes gave rite to much complaint. Upon Dale s return to England, there was considerable con tention between GEORGE YEARDLEY, whom Dale had nomi nated as his successor, and the friends of Argall. The latter individual obtained the office for awhile, but complaints of his misbehavior having been made to the Virginia Company, Lord Delaware was empowered to restore tranquillity. He started with that intent, but died on the voyage across the ocean : it is said, at the entrance of that bay to which his name has been given. Yeardley having been appointed governor, with the title of baronet, then came over to Virginia ; while Argall, fearing lest his ill-gotten property would be confis cated, escaped with it to the West Indies. When Yeardley arrived in Virginia (1619), twelve years after its first settlement, there Were but 600 colonists and 7 distinct plantations. Having added four others, he called a meeting of the first colonial assembly. It was composed of the governor, a council, and of deputies or burgesses from the ii plantations. John Pory was elected speaker, and acts were passed which gave general satisfaction. The colonists, feeling now that their rights were regarded, and that Virginia was indeed their country, applied themselves 1621] COLONY UNDER THE VIRGINIA COMPANY. IQI industriously to the work of building houses and cultivating their fields. And in order that they might become still more attached to the soil, by adopting domestic and virtuous habits, the company sent over to Jamestown ninety young women, " agreeable, persons, young and incorrupt," who were taken as wives by the planters. Sixty more were despatched the next year, and realized a still better price than the first. One hundred and fifty pounds of tobacco was the average price paid by a planter to the company, for its trouble and expense in furnishing him with an amiable partner. This expedient stimulated emigration to such an extent, that in three years the colony had increased in numbers to about 4000 persons. Upon the promulgation by the company of the written constitution of the colony, which was sent thither in 1621, SIR FRANCIS WYATT was appointed governor. He was in structed to restrict the cultivation of tobacco, for its use was as yet limited, and the market soon became overstocked. It was therefore recommended that more attention should be given to corn, cattle, and grape growing, as well as to the culture of silk by planting mulberry-trees. The latter indus try, however, was not destined to succeed, the population being too sparse for its profitable cultivation ; but it is inter esting to note that at that time (1621) the first cotton seeds in the United States were here planted, and their favorable growth soon attracted especial attention. Wyatt was also enjoined to preserve peaceable relations with the Indians, but those injunctions came too late to avert the calamity which presently followed. Powhatan was dead, and in his place ruled Opechancanough, a bold and cunning chief, who showed little of that regard for the English which had been latterly manifested by his elder brother. But it is clear that the English had not exhibited, in their conduct toward the natives, those Christian traits the exercise of which would not have failed to ripen into true 102 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1622 attachment. More than that, they had not regarded the simplest principles of justice. The intruders had continued laying out plantations, erecting their dwellings where once the wigwams of the Indians stood upon the banks of their beautiful Powhatan ; and now, in the eagerness of the settlers to secure the best lands for tobacco culture, they bad pene trated northward, nearly or quite to the Potomac. What compensation had the natives received for all this broad domain? Where indeed would they be in a few years, if strangers continued to steal their lands at the rate they were now doing ? The Indians believed that their only safety was in the extermination of the whites, and, incensed at the mur der of one of their principal warriors, they delayed no longer to raise the tomahawk. The various tribes which comprised the Powhatans, did not number, however, over 2500 warriors, and being scattered over a large extent of territory, and located a few together in little villages, their murderous design was not suspected by the whites. But at mid-day of the 22d of the 3d month (March), 1622, the Indians fell upon the settlers " like a thunderbolt from a clear sky," and in one hour 350 of the inhabitants had been massacred. Jamestown itself and several of the adjacent settlements, were apprised by a friendly Indian of the intended attack, and escaped the carnaga which prevailed in the other districts. The Indians, finding themselves unable to do fur ther mischief, quickly retreated, while the colonists, for con venience of defence, having been all collected on six of the 80 plantations, entered upon a bloody war of extermination, in which the natives were slain without mercy. The imme diate results of this retaliatory policy were disastrous to the prosperity of the colony ; sickness and scarcity of food prevailed; the college estate, a tract of 10,000 acres, was abandoned ; and the small glass and iron works, which had been operated by some Italians and Dutch, were destroyed. 1624] SLAVERY IN VIRGINIA. ^3 Fourteen years elapsed before a peace was made with the natives. In London, there were now great dissensions among the 1000 stockholders of the Virginia Company, a portion of whom, seeing only ruin before them, appealed to King James for an investigation into the company s affairs. The king, for several years, had desired to exercise a more personal control in colonial matters, and hence readily replied to the application by the appointment of commissioners, who at once proceeded to the colony. The report of the commissioners upon the state of the colony was unfavorable; yet they esteemed the plantation to be an important acquisition to the dominion of the king, and made such recommendations as the latter had desired. The matter being heard in court, the judges, whose positions were at the mercy of the king, entered a decree against the cor poration, whereby its patents became forfeited. Thus the London Virginia Company, in 1624, ceased to exist, after spending ^150,000 in establishing a colony, the returns from which had as yet been meagre indeed. SLAVERY IN VIRGINIA. Somewhat has been said, in the preceding chapters, of the traffic in negro slaves, as carried on by the Spanish and Por tuguese. It was in the summer of 1619, while Yeardley was governor, that the curse of slavery was fastened upon the " Old Dominion," and it was in a Dutch man-of-war that the first instalment of twenty negroes was brought, and landed at Jamestown, to be sold to the planters. For many years it was almost entirely the Dutch, who were concerned in bring ing them to the Virginia market. Nevertheless, their intro duction was not by any means rapid, for at the end of thirty 104 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1624 years after the first importation, the proportion of negroes to whites in the colony, was but one in fifty. Although the Dutch, who drove out the Portuguese in the East Indies, claimed to be a reformed people, they exhibited toward the natives of those lands a measure of savage cruelty but little infe rior to that which had characterized their Papist predecessors. In the islands of the Java seas there were secret prisons, known to, and upheld by, the chief men and magistrates, in which kidnapped natives were confined, to be sold abroad as slaves. Any man, woman, or child, might be suddenly carried off to these secret prisons, where they were kept until a ship s cargo of victims was secured then marched out in chains at night and put aboard the vessel, with no hope of relief or rescue. Amongst the nations called Christian, of a few centuries ago, there was a strange discrimination entertained as to what was fair and what was really wrong in the infliction of a state of servitude. For instance, the strangers and the heathen of old time were mentioned as having been held in bondage by the Israelites, a course sanctioned by the law of Moses ; and thus it was agreed that when Christians came in contact with such "heathen and strangers" as the negroes, the Moors and the Indians, the proper course to take with them was to place them in a condition of slavery. But there was another form of servitude the system of indenturing, or apprenticeship of white persons which dif fered from the first only in the duration of bondage. This prevailed largely in Virginia prior to the introduction of negroes. These white servants were first sold in England, to be transported ; were sold again upon their arrival in Virginia, to the highest bidder ; and had then to give their exclusive labor for a term of years to clear themselves of the cost of their transportation. The planters would go aboard the ships upon their arrival in port, and would often pay for the servants four or five times what they had cost in England. Some of 1624] SLA VER Y IN VIRGINIA. ! O5 these servants were prisoners of war; others, again, were known to the colonists as "jail-birds/ being convicts who had been taken from British prisons by the king s orders, and shipped to the colony for sale as servants. It has been already stated that the salaries of a number of the colonial officers were paid in the labor of these indentured servants, and that the governor had as many as 100 assigned to his use. The colonial treasurer and the marshal, had each 1500 acres, cul tivated by 50 indentured tenants; the colonial physician re ceived 500 acres and 20 tenants; while to each clergyman, there appertained, besides the regular tax of tobacco, 100 acres, cultivated by 6 tenants. This system of limited slavery, or feonage, made the way easy for the introduction of the practice of life-long bondage. CHAPTER IX. THE FRENCH OCCUPATION OF CANADA. 1598 1662. DE MONTS: THE SETTLEMENT OF PORT ROYAL. all the century preceding the English occupation of Virginia, the fishermen of Newfoundland and the neigh boring shores, found profitable occupation in cod-fishing, and also in capturing the walrus, whose tusks of ivory were a valu able article of commerce. The harvest of the fur-trappers and traders was likewise at hand, and, besides lesser peltry, the skins of the bear and the bison began to be brought for ward for the European market. Within a few years after Cartier and Roberval ascended the St. Lawrence, the Indians, having heard of the demand for skins, brought them in large quantities to the mouth of the river as many as 6000 buffalo skins alone being thus disposed of in two years. The French, and particularly the hardy mariners of St. Malo, enjoyed the monopoly of this constantly-increasing trade. Roberval s title of "Lieutenant-General of Canada, New foundland, Labrador, and the adjacent territory," though rather an empty honor, it is true, was next conferred by King Henry IV. upon the MARQUIS DE LA ROCHE. Crossing the ocean (1598) to take possession of his extensive dominion, La Roche left forty men on Sable island opposite the southern point of Nova Scotia intending to return after he had further explored the coast. But a storm of long continuance having 1 06 1604] DE MO NTS. 107 driven his vessel far off the shore, he concluded to go back to France. For some political offence, La Roche was thrust into prison, and, unfortunately, five years elapsed before the Sable islanders, now but twelve in number, were rescued and brought back to their own land. They were conducted into the pres* ence of the king, before whom they stood (as described by a writer of the time) like river-gods of old, being clad in shaggy skins of seals and foxes, and with beards of prodigious length, that hung from their swarthy faces. The king granted them a bounty, which, with the sale of the furs they had accumulated, enabled them to embark in the Canada trade on their own account. To the SIEUR DE MONTS was granted a patent to colonize AcadieorLa Cadie, which was described as the territory lying between the 4oth and 46th parallels of north latitude corre sponding to the section included between the present Phila delphia and Montreal. De Monts sailed in 1604, having, as chief aids in the enterprise, Pontgrave, a merchant of Brit tany, and SAMUEL DE CHAMPLAIN, a soldier who had fought zealously for the king, and was now quite ready for fresh ad ventures. He had, a few years previously, ascended the St. Lawrence in the track of Cartier, as far as Montreal. De Monts and his companions sailed beyond Sable island into the bay of Fundy ; the Basin of Annapolis was entered, and named by them Port Royal ; and a fortified settlement was established on the little island of St. Croix, at the mouth of the river of the same name, which partly separates the present state of Maine from the province of New Brunswick. While the constructions at St. Croix were progressing, De Monts and Champlain explored the adjacent coasts of Maine and Massachusetts. They gave a name to the frowning cliffs of Mont Desert, now such a pleasure-place to the summer- sojourner; they entered the river Penobscot, which before had been known as the Norembega ; passed by the Isles of lo8 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1606 Shoals ; and in several places landed, holding conferences with the Indians. This was about the time when Gosnold, Pring and Weymouth, on behalf of the English merchants, were examining the same coast and bartering with the natives for furs and sassafras. The winter at St. Croix proved a disastrous one to the colonists; thirty-five of their number, or nearly one-half, dying of the scurvy. In the succeeding summer the settlement was abandoned, and Port Royal, across the bay, arose in its stead. When De Monts returned to France for additional colonists and supplies, he found a valuable ally in the person of MARC LESCARBOT, an advocate and poet a man of lively fancy, but withat of good judgment. Lescarbot came over to Port Royal with the baron Poutrincourt, to whom De Monts had made a grant of the new settlement. They prudently brought with them mechanics and laborers, as well as abundance of provisions, and the little colony started with a better promise of permanency than had perhaps any previous settlement in the New World. This was in the year 1606, one year before the founding of Jamestown. Lescarbot soon made it evident that he knew how to work with his hands, as well as to pen verses. In the meadows near the Basin of Annapolis, the grass having been first burnt off, he caused wheat, rye and barley to be sown. Near the fort, gardens were made, and so great was the zeal of Lescarbot, and so earnest his desire to see the work prosper, that he him self plied the hoe with diligence. Port Royal was then a quadrangle of wooden buildings, having a bastion on the two water-side corners, and enclosing a spacious court. The winter was passed agreeably, for the friendship of the Indians had been secured, their chiefs being invited to sit at Poutrin- court s table with the principal men of the colony. The latter adopted a recommendation of Champlain s that they should take turns in obtaining supplies of fresh game and i6ii] THE SETTLEMENT OF PORT ROYAL. IO9 fish for the table ; and as it would seem to be the French man s faculty to know how to provide for the larder, there was never lack of fresh provisions venison and bear s meat, wild duck and partridge, sturgeon and codfish. But this quiet life and bright prospect for the future, was not destined to continue. In the spring came a vessel from France, bringing the unwelcome tidings that the patent of De Monts had been revoked. The monopoly to him, had, in the first place, been granted unjustly, for it infringed the rights of the fishermen ; and in the same spirit it was taken away. Merchants of the Norman, Breton, and Biscayan ports had loudly complained, using money freely at court to secure their object, and therefore the obnoxious patent had been withdrawn. With a sad heart Lescarbot left the gardens and corn-fields of Port Royal, which had seemed like a sort of pastoral in his poet s life, and in the same vessel in which he had come over, he and the other settlers returned to their native land. It was not long before Poutrincourt reappeared at his pos session of Port Royal, and, with his son and a few others, occupied it as an intended fur-trading station. Thither in 1611 came two Jesuit priests Biard and Masse being the first of that Society who had appeared in the wilderness of New France. Two years later another vessel brought two more of the Order, and a settlement was begun on Mont Desert island. It was at this juncture that Argall, from Jamestown, made his appearance, as narrated in the preceding chapter. Having captured the French company, he proceeded to Port Royal, which he ordered to be plundered of its stores and then burnt to the ground, and by these unwarranted acts began that struggle between the French and English, in America, which was destined to continue, with intermissions, for a century and a half. 10 I io HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1608 SAMUEL DE CHAMPLAIN, THE FOUNDER OF QUEBEC. Champlain had become enamoured with the wild charms and the life of adventure which the nearly-unexplored conti nent offered, and easily persuaded some merchants of St. Malo and Dieppe, to provide the means for another enterprise. Two vessels were despatched, one of them in charge of Champlain, the other being intrusted to Pontgrave, who had borne an active part in the preceding expedition. Where the Sague- nay, darkly flowing between gloomy walls of precipitous rock, enters the broad St. Lawrence, is situated the town of Tadou- sac, which was at that time, and for a long while continued to be, the centre of the Canadian fur-trade. Here Pontgrave loaded his vessels, while Champlain continued up the river to the isle of Orleans, and on the mainland, opposite the island s upper extremity, founded QUEBEC in the summer of 1608. Until cold weather came, the men employed themselves in building several houses for their accommodation, and also in constructing a strong palisade for their protection ; while part of the adjoining ground was laid out as a garden, and herein Champlain, like Lescarbot, preferred to find employ ment. But their comfortable houses and surrounding wall, which shielded them from the wintry blasts, were not proof against the inroads of the scurvy, which pestilent disease car ried away all but eight of the twenty-eight settlers. Pontgrave who in the meantime had been to France, brought them re lief in the spring. Then Champlain, impatient of confine ment, and eager to begin his cherished plans of exploration, readily acceded to the solicitation of certain Algonquin In dians, from the Ottawa, to join them in a foray against their bitter enemies, the Iroquois. The Ottawas were to be joined by their allies, the Hurons, which tribe, though of the same race as the Iroquois, were, nevertheless, their enemies. 1608] SAMUEL DE CHAMPLAIN. m Several hundred of the Ottawas started up the St. Lawrence, accompanied by Champlain and eleven men the French be ing all armed with the arquebuse, a short firelock which was generally furnished with a forked rest when in use. Upon arriving at the river Richelieu or Sorel, they followed its southward course into that long, narrow lake, which became known as the Champlain. Far down its western shore were descried the canoes of the Iroquois. The Frenchmen at once clad themselves in their light armor of steel the casque, breastplate and thigh-pieces while the Iroquois, unaware of the presence of such potent antagonists, advanced briskly against them. But the arquebuse quickly did its work. Levelled at a chief, the report came like a thunderbolt to the discon certed savages; and, while the victim writhed in agony upon the ground, another and another shot followed with equally deadly effect. The battle resulted in disaster to the Iroquois, while the allies, elated with their sanguinary triumph, returned with their prisoners northward. Champlain had wickedly promised to again assist the allies against their common enemy, with the understanding that the Ottawas should guide him northward to the wonderful bay that of Hudson of which rumor had reached him ; while the Hurons, on their part, should lead him to the chain of great lakes which were the reservoirs of the St. Lawrence. At the rendezvous, which was appointed to be at the mouth of the river Richelieu, in the following year, Champlain and a few of his companions met part of the allies. These were here surprised, and would probably have been overcome by an in vading band of the Iroquois, but the arquebuse again caused the discomfiture of the latter ; a barricade which they had erected was scaled, and nearly all its defenders were slaugh tered. The words of Champlain, in his account, were "By the grace of God, behold the battle won!" Yet he had simply bargained to become the executioner of these people, H2 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1615 for the privilege of being shown a great bay and a chain of lakes ! The body of one of the Iroquois was quartered, and eaten by the Indian captors, probably to infuse some of its superior prowess into their own systems. It was then a common Indian practice to devour the heart of a great warrior who had been slain in battle. Cannibalism did not prevail as a usage, though an enemy was occasionally eaten, as in the instance cited above. Amongst the Canada Algonquins, whose reliance for food was almost entirely on hunting, their dead com panions were frequently eaten to avoid famine. With some of the tribes it was practised as a religious rite. There was one clan or family of the Miamis, with whom the eating of the bodies of pris oners burnt to death, was a hereditary duty and privilege. Professing to have the conversion of the Indians of New France deeply at heart, Champlain returned to France, and en listed in the mission cause that reformed and austere branch of Franciscan friars, called the Recollets. Four of these came back with him in 1615 to Quebec, and established there the first convent in Canada. Champlain now agreed a third time to extend warlike aid to the Canada Indian^. With a few followers, he ascended the Ottawa river to Lake Nipissing, whose tribe of the same name (the Nipissings) were called by the Jesuits, the "Sorcerers," on account of the great prevalence of magicians, and the supposed abundance of demons and spirits among them. They did not tarry in this uninviting company, but proceeded on their way to the Georgian bay of Lake Huron, and here found Le Caron, one of the four friars, who had gone on in advance to establish a mission-station at the village of the Hurons. Leaving the priest to attend to the souls of the women and children, Champlain went forward with the warriors to help them murder their enemies. They crossed Lake Ontario at its eastern end, then struck south-westward to the neighborhood of Seneca Lake, where was located the tribe of Senecas, the most 1632] SAMUEL DE CHAMPLAIN. 113 westerly of the Five Nations- The Hurons had expected to be joined by a large band of Eries, from the country south of the lake of that name, but these not appearing, an attack was made on the Senecas, who were intrenched in a strong pali- sadoed fort, 30 feet high, having a gallery all around near the top. This time the assailants were driven off, and Champlain being wounded, the Canadian Indians returned to their own country. The policy inaugurated by this leader, was that which was usually followed by the French so long as they re tained their American possessions, namely that of making the Canada Indians their dependents, by inciting and aiding them against their native enemies, thus securing in return their help against the English. The English, on their part, made friends of the Iroquois, with the same end in view. In 1622 the Iroquois, smarting under their first defeats, made an incursion as far as the little settlement of Quebec, but were too wary of the fatal fire-arms of the French, to directly assault the place. The monopoly of the fur trade of New France was for a short time given to two Huguenot merchants, but much quarrelling ensued between their adherents and the Papists, so that the latter obtained the grant again from Cardinal Richelieu, who then wielded the chief power in France. He in fact organized the " Company of New France," composed of 100 associates, with almost unlimited powers over the French-American dominion, and a monopoly of its fur trade. But, just at that time there was war with the English, and Port Royal and the trading-posts at Tadousac and Quebec fell into the hands of the latter. They were restored to the French, how ever, in 1632 ; and three years afterward, Champlain, who had been appointed commandant at Quebec, died there. We wish not to do any injustice to the character of that patient explorer and intrepid fighter ; yet it is evident that his acts partook strongly of that blood-thirsty type of Christianity which is of another nature from the conquests of the sword of the Spirit, whose captives are love, joy, peace, gentleness, goodness, etc. The very opposite of these attributes were the results of Champlain s campaigns. 10* H 4 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1634 THE JESUIT MISSIONS. The Recollet priests were soon interdicted from missionary work in Canada; that field of labor, through the influence of Cardinal Richelieu, having been committed to the Jesuits. The zeal which has ever characterized the disciples of Loyola, appears to have proceeded in very many instances from an intense desire to propagate the Romish faith, to this end in volving an implicit obedience to the will of their superiors in the church. Nevertheless, their early labors in Canada were certainly actuated to a large degree by sincerely pious motives : patience and unvarying kindness marked their intercourse with the natives, in whose hearts the strongholds of sensuality, in dolence, and, above all, of superstition, were to be overcome. And, although the last evil was not so much removed, as it was lessened by a milder substitute, still their efforts in soften ing the brute nature were crowned with considerable success. It was their hope that, in the wilderness of New France, the same good results would follow their labors as had been wit nessed with kindred missions in Brazil and Paraguay. As the method of obtaining the confidence of the Indians, which was practised by the first Portuguese Jesuits in Paraguay, was so successful, we will quote what is said of their plan of conciliation there : " The Jesuits took with them a stock of maize as provision in the wilderness, where the bows of the Indians did not supply them with game, for they carefully avoided carrying fire-arms lest they should excite alarm or suspicion. When they arrived amongst the tribes they sought, they explained through their interpreters that they came thus and threw themselves into their power, to prove to them that they were their friends ; to teach them the arts, and to endow them with the advantages of the Europeans. They speedily inspired the Indians with confidence in their good intentions tor wards them ; for the natives of every country yet discovered have been found as quick in recognizing their friends as they have been in resenting the injuries of their enemies." As a consequence, the natives exhibited much improvement in their lives, and were gathered 1634] THE JESUIT MISSIONS. 115 into communities styled Reductions, which became noted as marvels of good order and peacefulness ; but these were broken up by the Spanish and Portuguese themselves, under circumstances of ex ceeding barbarity. The Jesuits arrived at Quebec shortly before the death of Champlain, and besides establishing stations at the four trading-posts on the St. Lawrence, they sent BREBEUF and others (1634) to the Huron country, to re-open the mission there. The locality of the Huron nation was a well-defined one ; they were an agricultural people, and, had not the Iro- quois proved such " thorns in their sides," or the white men intruded, they would most likely have been found in their habitations by the lake to this day. Their villages, which contained altogether over 15,000 persons, were in that small section of Upper Canada included between Lake Simcoe and the Georgian bay of Lake Huron. South of their territory, and along the north side of Lake Erie, was the Neutral Nation, who formed a sort of barrier between the former and the Iroquois of New York. The Huron houses were pecu liarly constructed of a framework of poles, drawn together at the top, and covered with bark; sometimes extending a dis tance of over 200 feet in length, and of course containing many families under the one roof. Brebeuf and his associates met with great opposition from the sorcerers and medicine-men ; and when, upon the arrival of additional priests, the smallpox appeared in the villages, the scourge was attributed to the malignant influence of the "Black Robes." The sprinkling of infants, as a religious rite, the Indians held to be a certain evidence of sorcery. The Jesuits were persistent in this practice, which they held to be of the first importance, and as they were constantly watching for opportunities to make use of it, it seemed at times as though they would all, without doubt, be murdered. One of their number, named JOGUES, having gone with several UNIVERSITY OF Il6 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1650 companions to Quebec for supplies, was captured on the St. Lawrence by a band of Mohawks, and besides being severely bruised and lacerated, was carried to their towns in Eastern New York, and, in each of them, was obliged to "run the gauntlet," and submit to excessive tortures. After several months imprisonment, Jogues escaped down the Hudson, and returned to France ; but having come back to the missions, he again fell into the hands of the Iroquois, and was massacred. Since the defeats inflicted upon the Iroquois or Five Nations by the Hurons and Ottawas, with the aid of Champlain, the former had been incessant in their forays into Canada; and now that they too had become possessed of fire-arms by trading with the Dutch, they were prepared to execute sum mary vengeance upon their enemies. It was in 1649 and 1650 that the memorable Iroquois onset upon the Hurons, and the complete dispersion of the latter, occurred. Of the survivors of that dreadful attack many died of famine ; many who had been taken prisoners were burnt to death or toma hawked ; while a few were permitted to incorporate them selves with the Iroquois tribes. The remnant afterwards dropped the name of Hurons, and became known as the Wyandottes. Brebeuf was among the number massacred, and the mission itself was shortly removed to Quebec. The fierce and powerful tribe of the Eries was also exterminated : no trace of them now remains save the name. After war and disease and famine had so wasted the Canada Indians, there appeared yet other antagonists, more subtle, but no less powerful. Brandy and the evil men who brought it, were the worst of enemies, as well to the Indians as to the missions. Previous to 1662 the Jesuits had forbidden the sale of brandy, but about that time the governor of Canada* granted licenses, and though the remonstrances of the mis sionaries prevailed for awhile to stop the traffic, yet the king s secretary gave the permit, and thus the flood-gate of disaster 17 1 6] THE JESUIT MISSIONS. 117 was opened. The specious plea of the secretary against the prohibition was as follows: "This [prohibition] is doubtless a good principle, but one which is very ruinous to trade, be cause the Indians, being passionately fond of these liquors, instead of coming to trade their peltries with us, go trade them among the Dutch, who supply them with brandy. This also is disadvantageous to religion ; for, having wherewith to gratify their appetites, they allow themselves to be catechized by the Dutch ministers, who instruct them in heresy." The Jesuits, much to their credit, still continued their en deavors to stop the evil, and, in 1716, the priest Lafitau pre sented a petition to the Canadian council urging the abolition of the brandy trade, in which he speaks of its woful effects upon the Indians, in these words: "When the people are intoxicated they become so furious that they break and destroy everything belonging to their households; cry and howl terribly, and go in quest, like madmen, of their ene mies, to poignard them ; their relatives and friends are not at those times safe from their rage. Several of their tribes have been almost wholly destroyed by brandy, particularly the Algonquin nation." In reply to this petition, the Canadian council reported that, "All agree as to the inconvenience of the trade in brandy, but at the same time it is necessary." First declaring it to be wrong, they then agreed that it could not be dispensed with. A recent secretary of the London Missionary Society says : " I beg leave to add the desirableness of preventing, by every practi cable means, the introduction of ardent spirits among the inhabi tants of the countries we may visit or colonize. There is nothing more injurious to the South Sea Islanders than seamen who have absconded from ships, setting up huts for the retail of ardent spirits, which are the resort of the indolent and the vicious of the crews of the vessels, and in which, under the influence of intoxica tion, scenes of immorality and even murder have been exhibited almost beyond what the natives witnessed among themselves while they were heathen." CHAPTER X. THE SETTLEMENT OF NEW NETHERLAND. 1609 1664. THE TRADING-POST AT NEW AMSTERDAM. AN English navigator named HENRY HUDSON, in the em ploy of London merchants, had, like Frobisher, made several fruitless voyages in search of the north-west passage, as well as north-eastward by Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla. With the expectation, as it appeared, of reaching India, directly across the north pole, he still continued his solicitations, but the scheme meeting with no farther encouragement in Eng land, he applied to the Dutch. That nation had but recently escaped from the domination of Spain, and its thrifty mer chants were sending vessels in all directions, reaching out for a supremacy of maritime commerce. They were depriving the Portuguese of their rich possessions in India, while that great monopoly the Dutch East India Company had been formed, with branches in the principal cities of the Nether lands. The Dutch had suddenly become the Phoenicians of modern times. The application of Hudson having been made to the Am sterdam branch of the great corporation, he was furnished with a vessel, the Half-Moon, and, in the year 1609, pro ceeded to try again his fortune in the Arctic regions. Frus trated in his design as every explorer for the "pole" has been, even to the present day Hudson directed his course 118 1 609] THE TRADING-POST AT NEW A MS TERDA M. 1 1 g along the shores of Acadie and New England to Chesapeake bay ; thence, proceeding again northward, entered that beau tiful haven which Verrazzani had visited in 1524, and which became known a few years later as the Bay of New York. The river, thence known as the Hudson, he ascended as far as the Catskills ; but the Indians, who were wonder-struck at sight of the vessels, he treated badly, and consequently they rejoiced when his vessels sails were spread, and he and his crew departed down the river. " It is a striking coincidence that the Iroquois Indians were first unhappily made acquainted with their two greatest enemies, Rum and Gunpowder, by the rival discoverers, Hudson and Champlain, during the same week of the same year, 1609. While Henry Hudson was cautiously feeling his way, as he supposed, into the Northern Ocean, through the channel of the river which bears his name, Champlain was accompanying a war-party of the Hurons against the Iroquois, upon the lake receiving its name from him. Hudson discovered a company of the Iroquois upon the banks of the river, whom he regaled with rum. Champlain discovered a body of Iroquois warriors upon the coast of the lake, near the spot afterwards selected for the site of Ticonderoga, and there first taught them the fatal power of gunpowder, 1 (W. L. Stone.) By virtue of this discovery of Hudson s while sailing under the Dutch flag, that nation claimed all the territory extending from the Delaware or South Bay to Cape Cod, and conferred upon it the name of NEW NETHERLAND. The following year Hudson entered and explored the great bay north of Canada. Rumors of this voyage had come to the ears of Champlain, who had hoped, with the assistance of the natives, to arrive at that body of water overland. Scarcely had the Dutch taken formal possession of their American dominion by erecting a fortified trading-house on Manhattan island, at the mouth of the river, than Argall appeared from Virginia and disputed their right to the soil. But nothing more serious ensued for the time, than the haul- 120 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1621 ing down of their flag. An Amsterdam company having received from the States-General of Holland the exclusive privilege of trade for three years to New Netherland, several vessels were sent out in 1615, one of which under CAPTAIN MAY (or Mey) entered the Delaware bay. The northern cape at its entrance received the name of the captain, while the river itself was called the South river, in distinction from the Hudson, which was also known as the North river. Another of the vessels sailed by way of East river into Long Island sound, and discovered the Housatonic and also the Connecticut river although the latter, for awhile, was known as the Fresh-water, in distinction from the Hudson, the waters^of which were salt. The commander, whose name was BLOCK, and whose explorations are commemorated in- the name of the small island south-west of Newport, sailed as far as Cape Cod. There was established, the same year (1615), a trading-post upon the Hudson near the present site of Albany, but it was soon superseded by the erection of Fort Orange. Hither the Five Nations, and especially the Mohawk tribe, resorted, and received in trade those fire-arms which made them so formid able to the French and the Indians of Canada. Around the mouth of the river were the Manhattans, a tribe of the great Algonquin race. They received in payment for the whole island of Manhattan the sum of sixty guilders, equivalent to twenty-four dollars; or about as much as would be charged an Indian chief at this day for staying less than a week at one of its palatial city hotels. The management of New Netherland affairs passed, in 1621, into the hands of a new corporation, which had been formed under the title of the Dutch West India Company. Its exclusive jurisdiction of trade and settlement embraced the whole Atlantic-American coasts, as well as the coast of Africa from the Tropic of Cancer down to the Cape of Good 1629] THE DIRECTORS AND THE PATROONS. 121 Hope. Like the East India Company, it was divided into several branches or chambers, located in five of the chief Dutch cities ; while its affairs were managed by a board of directors, called the Assembly of Nineteen. Captain May was sent out with instructions to build two forts in the Neth- erland province ; one of them Fort Orange on the Hudson, mentioned above, and the other on the east side of the Dela ware river near Red Bank, which was called Fort Nassau. Several years later another fort and trading-post for furs, called Beversreede, was built at the mouth of the Schuylkill, nearly opposite Nassau. THE DUTCH DIRECTORS AND THE PATROONS. PETER MINUITS came out in 1625, as Director or Governor for the company. With him came the first regular colonists, for those who had preceded them were but traders who had not as yet decided to make their homes, though they might make their fortunes, in the New World. These colonists who were Walloons, from the French Netherland frontier, established themselves on the north-west corner of Long Island, around Wallabout bay. Staten Island was also pur chased from the Indians. At the southern extremity of Man hattan island (the Battery), Minuits caused to be erected a block-house, surrounded by a palisade of cedars, and called it Fort Amsterdam. The director, his council and the sheriff, constituted the local government on behalf of the company ; they could make and execute the laws, and likewise act as rjudges in matters of dispute. In 1629, the West India Company received the assent of the States-General to a scheme of colonization, which allowed them to confer the title of Patroon, with feudal privileges, upon such of their number as would, within four years, cause fifty grown persons to settle in New Netherland, upon any F II 122 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1629 tract of land granted to such patroon for that purpose. The size of the tract was limited to an extent of sixteen miles on the sea-shore or on a navigable river, the distance inland not being specially noted. The recipients of the land were to extinguish the Indian title to the same. The company re served to themselves the island of Manhattan and the fur trade, while they required the patroons to pay them a per centage upon all trade in which they engaged. The colonists were prohibited from making any woollen, linen or cotton cloth, or other woven stuff, on pain of banishment and of punishment as "perjurers," a sort of regulation very com monly practised with colonial people to keep them dependent, by compelling the exportation of their native productions in exchange for all manufactured articles of the mother country. Estrada observes, that the Spanish government, in order to hold its American subjects in greater subjection to its own dominion, con ceived that the best method for accomplishing that end was to pro hibit their manufacturing any of the same articles that were made in Spain, or from growing on their soil any of her productions. Hence they were forbidden to rival the wine, oil, almond, silk, cloth, glass, etc., of the mother country, on which they became dependent for their supplies of these articles. Such also, as we shall see, was the policy of England toward her American colonies. In pursuance of these concessions, some of the leading members of the company proceeded to select for themselves the most inviting tracts in the territory. On both sides of the Delaware bay, above Capes May and Henlopen, lands were taken up, and called by the name of "Swansdale ;" a director of the company, named Pauw, secured the Hoboken and Staten Island localities on New York harbor, calling that portion on the mainland "Pavonia;" while above and below Fort Orange (which itself was not ceded) lands were purchased, and subsequently added to, which formed the 1633] MINUITS AND VAN TW1LLER, 123 large and important manor of "Rensselaerswick." Yet the privileges granted to the patroons became a source of no little trouble, for those proprietors aimed at the fur trade with the Indians, notwithstanding the company s prohibition. Thus, starting as traders, and not as had been intended by the company as settled colonists, their occupancy proved a decided hindrance to the progress of the province. Farmers indeed were sent out, who worked on shares of rent, and in dentured servants were employed as in Virginia ; but conten tions between the patroons and their tenants arose at the very outset. In 1633 WALTER VAN TWILLER succeeded Minuits as Direc tor of the colony. Within a few months after his arrival from Holland, there arose serious disputes with the English, who were then rapidly occupying New England, and were about to encroach upon land which the Dutch claimed as their own. The most threatening complication was in regard to the pos session of the Connecticut river. A tract of land at the river s mouth had been purchased from the Indians by the Dutch, and their national arms affixed to a tree ; while farther up the river a second tract, near the present city of Hartford, had been obtained from the Pequod tribe, and a fortified trading-post established, called the House of Good Hope. Shortly after, there arrived a bark at New Amsterdam from Boston, which, while it was the forerunner of the trade between the two cities, also brought despatches from Governor Winthrop, expostulating against the Dutch occupation of the Connecticut, which he claimed for certain lords and gentlemen, subjects of the king of England. Van Twiller, in reply, suggested referring the dispute to their re spective governments ; but, meantime, the Plymouth colony, without the concurrence of the colony of Massachusetts Bay, erected a trading-house (Windsor) on the river, just above the House of Good Hope, and which the Dutch permitted to 124 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [163 remain. Emigrants from Massachusetts also .settled near the Dutch fort or "House," and likewise at the mouth of the river, where a fort was erected on behalf of the English pro prietors so that it seemed as though the Dutch would presently be altogether excluded from the river. Meanwhile Van Twiller applied himself to the improvement of New Amsterdam. The fort was rebuilt, and barracks, mills and other buildings erected. A brewery and a number of other houses were built upon the farm or " bowery," num ber one, which was the property of the West India Company. Yet the astute director, while managing for the company, did not altogether forego his own interests. From the Indians he obtained a grant of Governor s island in the harbor, and, together with several officials, purchased from the native owners, but without permission of the company, a fertile tract of land on Long Island, where arose the settlement of Flat- lands. Complaints of these and other matters having reached Holland, Van Twiller was recalled after he had continued five years in the office; and, in 1638, WILLIAM KIEFT was appointed to succeed him. NEW SWEDEN. The dispute with New England respecting the ownership of the Connecticut territory, was very soon followed by an alarm from a like cause, but in the opposite quarter. From Queen Christina, of Sweden daughter of the celebrated Gustavus Adolphus Peter Minuits, the former director of New Nether- land, obtained assistance to establish a Swedish trading-post and settlement in America. The desire of colonization in the New World had been strongly favored by Adolphus and by his prime minister, the chancellor Oxenstiern ; and it is worthy of remark that they contemplated a colony of freemen, it being their belief that "slaves cost a great deal, labor with reluctance, and soon perish from hard usage. The Swedish 1 643] NEW SWEDEN. 125 nation is laborious and intelligent, and surely we shall gain more by a free people with wives and children." Just at the time that Kieft entered upon his directorship (1638) Minuits and fifty men, in an armed vessel the Key of Calmar sailed to the head of Delaware bay, and on its west shore, near where Wilmington stands, purchased a tract of land from the Minquaas tribe, and erected thereon Fort Christina. This was the beginning of the little colony of NEW SWEDEN. The strong protestations of Kieft that the whole of the South or Delaware river and bay, belonged to the Dutch, were not heeded by Minuits, who, leaving the fort well-garri soned and supplied with provisions, went back to Sweden. That country was then a warlike state, and the aggression was for the time, submitted to by the West India Company. Two or three years later, however, a fresh trouble appeared. The Connecticut people, also desiring to establish a trading settle ment on the Delaware, fifty English families sailed from New Haven, touching first at New Amsterdam to notify Kieft of their intention. As their minds were fully made up to settle, they paid no regard to the director s protest, but continued on to the Delaware, and located on Salem creek and on the Schuylkill. This intrusion raised the ire of the Swedes as well as of the Dutch, whereupon the forces of both uniting, the new settlers were obliged to declare allegiance to Sweden, while the Dutch exacted from the English leader full pay ment of duties upon the furs for which he had traded. In 1643 came JOHN PRINTZ, deputed by Queen Christina to be her governor of New Sweden. Upon Tinicum island, below the mouth of the Schuylkill, where the Lazaretto build ings now stand, the governor erected a fort of hemlock logs, and also a " palace" for himself, called Printz Hall, which was subsequently surrounded by a fine orchard and pleasure grounds. The queen s instructions to the governor, were to 11* 126 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1643 administer the laws of Sweden, and, so far as practicable, its manners and customs; to promote diligently all profitable branches of industry, such as the culture of grain, tobacco, the vine, and the mulberry for silk; the raising of cattle ; to search for precious metals ; to cultivate a traffic with the Indians, and especially to be careful to undersell the English and Dutch. The Lutheran religion was enjoined to be observed. The good will of the Dutch and the Indians was to be conciliated, the purchases of land from the latter to be confirmed, and they to be instructed in a civilized and Christian life. Under these wholesome instructions, the colony prospered, the treaty of peace with the Indians was observed, and the settlers were consequently not molested. Fort Nassau, oppo site Tinicum, the chief station of the Dutch on the Delaware, being poorly supplied with goods, the larger share of trade fell into the hands of the Swedes, who shortly constructed a fort lower down the river, at the mouth of Salem creek, which they called Fort Elsenberg. WILLIAM KIEFT; WARS WITH THE INDIANS. The new director had not found either the property or the prospects of the company by any means in an encouraging state ; their fine boweries or farms on Manhattan island being untenanted or neglected, and the fur trade very much en grossed by unprincipled traders. It was clearly necessary for the West India Company, if they wished the colony to grow in size like the neighboring province of New England, to offer more liberal inducements to actual settlers. They prudently got rid of two of the three largest patroon- ships, those of Swansdale and Pavonia, and, for the future, limited the size of such estates to four miles of river frontage. The company offered to provide houses, lands, cattle and tools to immigrants, upon receipt of an annual rent, and to transport 1 64 1 ] SE TTL EMENT OF BR O OKL YN. 127 them to the colony free of cost. The prohibition against making woven goods was repealed, while in place of the In dian-trade monopoly, a duty was laid on articles exported. The established religion was declared to be that of the Dutch Reformed Church. It would have been desirable had the large manor of Rensselaers- wick also been purchased, as Swansdale and Pavonia had been. Its patroon caused a fort to be built on a precipitous islet in the Hudson, near the southern boundary of his grant, and obliged all vessels going up to Fort Orange to lower their colors and to pay toll to the watch-master. He in fact aspired to be independent of the jurisdiction of New Amsterdam, to have control of his own trade, and would grant no land to settlers unless they renounced any right of appeal to the company s government. The new regulations for the colony resulted in a steady increase of population; some from Holland, some from Vir ginia, who came to cultivate tobacco (in high demand by the Dutch), and others from New England, driven there from by the religious intolerance of the Puritans. On Long Island, all the western portion of which had been pur chased from the Indians, the new settlement of Breukelen or BROOKLYN, in addition to Wallabout and Flatlands, was com menced. But the eastern portion of the island, which was claimed as the property of Lord Stirling, was taken up by English settlers, who placed themselves under the jurisdiction of Connecticut. On the Connecticut river, the House of Good Hope was soon surrounded by the English settlers at Hartford, who confined the Dutch traders to a plot of thirty acres. Besides that, though the Dutch, by purchasing of the Indians the land along the sound, had hoped to stop the encroachments of the English, the settlements of the latter rapidly multiplied west ward, to and beyond the Housatonic. The hamlet of New Haven or Red Hill was growing apace, and at Fairfield, 128 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1643 Stamford and Greenwich, the first houses of those harbor- towns began to be erected. Although thirty years had elapsed since the founding of the colony, as yet no serious difficulty had occurred with the In dians. Fire-arms were not allowed to be sold to the tribes around New Amsterdam, notwithstanding the Mohawks had obtained them freely from the colonists about Fort Orange, as already stated. The circumstances which led to a disturb ance of the peace were of a trifling sort to have proved the occasion of shedding blood. The RARITAN tribe, on the west side of the Hudson, were accused of trying to rob a Dutch vessel, and were likewise suspected- of stealing swine from Staten Island. This suspi cion appears to have been unconfirmed ; yet on these slight grounds an expedition was sent against them (1641), and several of their warriors brutally shot. The Raritans retali ated by burning some buildings on Staten Island, and by kill ing several servants belonging on one of the boweries. For this, a price was set upon their heads, and Director Kieft per suaded some neighboring tribes to assist him in the work of chastisement. Two years later, in 1643, another difficulty, much more sanguinary in its results, arose with the HACKENSACKS, who also dwelt on the west side of the river. One of this tribe having been made drunk, and then robbed by some colonists, in revenge killed two of the Dutch. The chiefs remonstrated against the sale of brandy to their people, but nevertheless offered to make reparation. Kieft, however, who would listen to no apology, was only to be satisfied with blood. In the meantime the Hackensacks were joined by another tribe about Tappan, who had also incurred the enmity of the Dutch, by retaliating the murder of a warrior. Against these offenders two companies were sent out, one of them being commanded by a colonist named Adriaensen, who had been a freebooter 1643] KIEFT S INDIAN WARS. 129 in the West Indies. The Indians, surprised in the night, offered but little resistance to their assailants ; and warriors, women and children were slain without mercy. Their shrieks, borne by the wintry wind across the frozen waterSj were distinctly heard on the Manhattan shore. The wounded who remained next morning, were either slain or thrown into the icy river. The history of the Dutch occupation of the East Indies, is a sor rowful record of baseness, duplicity and destruction of life. An awful transaction (mentioned by Sir Stamford Raffles) was the drowning of a ship-load of Chinese traders of Java, who, having yielded to the Dutch, were given a promise to be eafely conveyed from the country; but, when out at sea, they were every one thrown overboard. The rich cargoes of pearls and perfumes, of spices and other delectable luxuries which India then contributed to the West, were only purchased at a fearful price. The animosity against the natives next extended to Long Island, where some settlers plundered the corn of the neigh boring Indians and slew two of their warriors. Apprehending a war of extermination, and roused to fury by the ferocity of their punishment, several small tribes of the Indians banded together, and began a series of reprisals against the colonists near to New Amsterdam, burning, slaying, and taking pris oners. All who could escape fled to the town, where pres ently a fast was proclaimed and measures concerted to attack the Indians. The adventurer, Adriaensen, was sent out with a company, but the expedition was unsuccessful. He beheld his own bowery ruined, and he himself was sent a prisoner to Holland for making a passionate attack, with pistol and cut lass, upon the person of Director Kieft. The tribes were willing to listen to terms of pacification, but, unhappily, a fresh hindrance arose, caused by the attack of some up-river Indians upon a trading canoe from Fort Orange. Hostilities were thereupon at once renewed, and F* 130 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1645 expeditions sent to both sides of the Hudson and to Long Island. Especially active as a leader in these bloody enter prises, was Captain Underbill, who had been one of the so- called "heroes" of the Pequod war in New England, an account of which will be given in the succeeding chapter. In an attack against the Long Island Indians, one hundred of the natives were slain, while two of the survivors, who, as prisoners, had been taken to New Amsterdam, were hacked to pieces with knives. On a moonlight night in midwinter, an attack was made upon an Indian village on the Connecti cut frontier, many of the natives being assembled to celebrate a festival. At the onset, a large number of the Indians were slain, their village was then set on fire, and a horrible mas sacre ensued. It was reported that 500 fell in the carnage and by the flames. The Mohawks had not been engaged in the contest, which had been carried on by tribes south of their territory. It was at this time that the missionary Jogues, a prisoner of the Mo hawks, came down to Fort Orange with some of that band, and escaped out of their hands. In the same summer of 1645, Kieft, having paid a visit to the fort, and effected a treaty with the Mohawks, the latter by their influence persuaded the hostile tribes to agree to a definitive peace. It was stipulated that, in future, if difficulties should arise, conciliation should be first resorted to ; and furthermore, that when the Indians approached Manhattan, or, on the other hand, when the Dutch went to the Indian villages, their fire-arms should not be carried with them. The colonists had paid dearly for their foolishness in per mitting this war. Only five or six out of the thirty boweries remained in a tenantable condition, and the prospects of the province had been seriously damaged. Consequently, the people now clamored for the removal of the unpopular magis trate, against whom they made the further grave charge of 1 647] PETER STUYVESANT. 131 denying their right of appeal from his decisions to the authori ties in Holland, just as the patroon Van Rensselaer had denied a similar right to the settlers on his land. A merchant in New Amsterdam had been not only fined, but placed in jail for his presumption in claiming to appeal ; while an Anabap tist minister on Long Island had, for a like offence, been similarly maltreated. These loud complaints resulted in the recall of Kieft in the year 1647, after he had been the com pany s director for nine years. Kieft sailed for home in a vessel richly laden with furs, but it was cast ashore on the coast of Wales, and he and eighty others perished. PETER STUYVESANT; NEW NETHERLAND RESIGNED TO THE ENGLISH. When Peter Stuyvesant, who had been governor of several small islands in the Caribbean sea belonging to Holland, be came director of New Netherland (1647), that province, even including the Delaware settlement of the Swedes, contained less than 3000 settlers ; while the English colonies of New England on the north-east, numbered nearly 20,000, and Vir ginia and Maryland together, on the south, were equally populous. On Long Island, the English were encroaching toward the western end, and in the New Haven territory, the movement in the same direction still continued. Stuyvesant having been particularly charged to adjust the controversy with the United Colonies of New England, pro ceeded to the House of Good Hope, where it was agreed that the boundary matter and the disputes arising from the question of jurisdiction, should be referred to four English arbitrators, two of them to be chosen by Stuyvesant. In accordance with this sensible arrangement, the eastern two- thirds part of Long Island (the present county of Suffolk) was awarded to the English; the Dutch were to retain their trading- 132 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1655 post on the Connecticut ; but the line of boundary between the Dutch and English possessions, which it was agreed should run northward from Greenwich bay, was nowhere to approach within ten miles of the Hudson river. Some of the New Haven people, unduly elated at the favorable issue of the negotiations, sailed for Delaware bay, with the intention of planting a colony there ; but having stopped on the way at Manhattan, Stuyvesant seized the vessel, and, while preventing their undertaking being carried out, he himself caused a fort to be erected (1651) at the same place which they had designed for their colony. It was on the site of the present town of New Castle, five miles below the Swedish fort Christina, and was called Fort Casimir. Printz, in the meantime, had been succeeded as governor of New Sweden, by RISINGH, who managed by an artifice to make himself master of the new Dutch fort. Whereupon Stuyvesant, in 1655, sent a strong force to the Delaware, which not only reclaimed Fort Casimir, but took possession of Fort Christina and the rest of the military posts of New Sweden. The West India Company soon afterward sold the west bank of the Delaware, from Cape Henlopen to the falls at Trenton, to the city of Amsterdam, though Lord Baltimore laid claim to it as part of his province of Maryland. The tobacco exported from Virginia was at that time mostly carried in Dutch vessels, while, as already related, negro slaves found their unwilling way into the Old Dominion by the same channel. Some of these Africans were also conveyed to New Netherland by vessels of the West India Company that corporation being a large dealer in slaves. Many of these creatures, unfortunate captives from the Guinea coast, were brought to Manhattan while Stuyvesant was governor, he being directed to use diligence in attending -to the public sale of these living consignments. Although the slaves were permitted to work out their freedom, yet the children of 1663] PETER STUYVESANT. 133 such did not partake of the purchased emancipation of the parents. It has been truthfully observed that the fact " that New York is (was) not a slave state like Carolina, is due to the climate, and not to the superior humanity of its founders." The predominating trait in the character of Stuyvesant was pertinacity. An opinionated man is very apt to be a perse cutor, and such the director would doubtless have proved ; but, fortunately for the province, his intolerance was held in check by explicit orders from the company that individual rights of conscience should be respected. New Amsterdam was receiving many accessions from New England ; refugee Friends, Anabaptists, and others, to whom the consciences of the Puritan magistrates were so much opposed, that they could not endure the "schismatics" in their sight. In 1663 threatening complications again arose with New England. The province of Connecticut had, the preceding year, received a royal charter annexing the New Haven terri tory to its jurisdiction ; whereupon claims were advanced on behalf of the English, that the Hudson river should thence forth be the western boundary line, and that all Long Island should be given up to them. Stuyvesant, who in a former emergency had refused to call together a popular assembly, was now willing to listen to the voice of the deputies from the settlements. Their decision was, that an appeal should be made to the company and to the home government for protection. But measures were already being taken in Eng land to secure possession of the Dutch province. It has been mentioned that Long Island was claimed as the property of Lord Stirling. This and other claims to adjacent country, including New Netherland, having been purchased by the Duke of York, the brother of King Charles II., his title was duly confirmed, and the territory received the name of NEW YORK. Three ships, carrying 600 men, were at once 134 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1664 despatched to take possession of New Netherland on behalf of the duke. The commissioners appointed were Sir Robert Carr, Colonel Robert Nichols, and Sir George Cartwright. Governor Winthrop, of Connecticut, joined the expedition. Although, upon its arrival before New Amsterdam, the per tinacious governor was unwilling to give up the place without any show of resistance, the prudent counsels of the burgomas ters and the mediation of Winthrop, resulted in an equable capitulation, by which the personal rights of the citizens were amply guaranteed. After the surrender, while Nichols remained in the town, Carr, another of the commissioners, proceeded in one of the ships to take possession of the Delaware settlements, while Cartwright sailed up the Hudson to apprise the settlers of Rensselaerswick of the change of masters, and to raise the English flag on Fort Orange. The village near the fort was thereafter called ALBANY, that being one of the titles of the Duke of York. It was in 1664 that New Netherland was thus speedily brought under English control. CHAPTER XL THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 1614 1660. THE PILGRIM FATHERS: NEW PLYMOUTH. IN the same year that Jamestown was founded by the Vir ginia Company, the Plymouth, or North Virginia Company, sent out a colony to make a settlement within their own grant of territory. They landed near the mouth of the Sagadahoc or Kennebec ; but the winter having proved very severe, and the colonists becoming discouraged, they all re-embarked the following year for England. In 1614, Captain John Smith was sent out by some London merchants, and besides making a map of the coast, brought back a profitable cargo to his employers. He presented the map to Prince Charles; and the name of the territory, which he had changed from North Virginia to NEW ENGLAND, was confirmed by the prince. After two years delay, and much opposition, a charter was finally obtained from King James. This " Great Patent," as it was called, was granteJ in 1620 to forty individuals of wealth and high rank, styled " The Council established at Plymouth, in the county of Devon, for the planting, ruling, ordering and governing of New England, in America." It conferred upon them the exclusive rights of government and of trade in all that part of the American territory comprised between the 4oth and 48th parallels of north latitude, and extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean : including, 136 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1620 therefore, the present Canada, New England and most part of the Middle States, besides the great belt of unexplored region west of the same. But, late in the same year that the charter was obtained, and before the Council of Plymouth had yet equipped an expedition, a company of pilgrims, seeking for homes, had landed and established themselves on the shores of the province. This company was part of a body of Separatists, who, be cause of their non-conformity with the religious views and outward services of the Established Church of England, and in order to escape the persecution incurred by this dissent, had fled to Holland, and, in the city of Leyden, formed a congregation of their own. John Robinson, a leading man and excellent minister among them, is regarded as the founder of the denomination of Independents or Congregationalists. Finding that the manners and practices of the Dutch were quite at variance with their own, and that there was danger of the church suffering moral loss thereby, they had made ap plication to the Virginia Company for permission to seek an asylum in its dominions. Their wish was finally granted, and to the number of 102 persons men, women and children they set sail from Plymouth, in the ship Mayflower, for the mouth of the Hudson river; but they had a long and boisterous voyage, and being carried to the northward of their reckon ing, they found themselves, when land was discovered, oppo site Cape Cod. When it became thus apparent that they were outside the limits of the Virginia Company s territory, they made a solemn voluntary agreement, before landing, to enter into a compact of government, to frame just and equal laws, and mutually to submit to obey the same. They also chose JOHN CARVER to be their governor for one year. A boat s company was then sent out to explore for a safe harbor. At one place where they landed, a few Indians discharged arrows at them 1 620] NEW PLYMOUTH. 137 from a distance; their distrust being due to the fact that several years before, over twenty of their companions had been kidnapped by a ship s crew (Captain Hunt s) and car ried off to be sold as slaves. Having cruised around Cape Cod bay, the explorers found on its west side a harbor which pleased them ; and here the Pilgrims landed the 22d of ti^-t^tli-fiftOfl-thXJ^^ccuiber^ 1620. " Welcome, Englishmen," were the first words which greeted the settlers, from the lips of a native. It was the sagamore Samoset, who came to them alone, with assurances of friend ship. Here, too, lived Tasquantum or Squanto, one of those who had been carried away by Hunt. His name often occurs in the early annals of the colony. The town which the set tlers began to build was called NEW PLYMOUTH, after the Eng lish city whence they had sailed. Unlike most of the colonists who had previously essayed to settle in the New World, these dissenters were a unit in their purpose to establish homes ; and it was the easier to effect this object, seeing that they were not swayed by the mere avarice or caprice of the gold-hunters and fur-traders, but were honest and frugal tillers of the soil, and were generally concerned to observe the Divine requirements according as they understood them. It was this affinity of moral purpose which supported them in the midst of the severe sufferings of the first winter ,the extreme cold and prevalent sickness, the lack of sufficient food and of comfortable habitations. In three months about one-half of their number died, among whom was Carver, the governor. WILLIAM BRADFORD was appointed to succeed him. Fortunately, the friendship of the Indians was early secured. A -fatal distemper had recently prevailed among the tribes along the New England coast, by which great numbers of them had perished, leaving the survivors in a very impover ished condition. A treaty was entered into with MASSASOIT, 12* 138 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1620 chief of the Wampanoags (their neighbors on the west) which was strictly observed for nearly forty years; yet this is not to be wondered at, as it was a mutually protective alliance, by which the colonists were to receive assistance, if attacked, and, on the other hand, to render it, if the Wampanoags were assailed unjustly. MILES STANDISH was appointed captain of the militia. In the third year after the landing, Standish went in pursuit of some Indians who had manifested hostile intentions, to which they had been provoked by the ill-behavior of some colonists, not Puritans. A number of the Indians were killed ; which, being reported to the tender-spirited Robinson, who yet remained in Holland, he wrote to the colonists "Oh, how happy a thing it would have been, that you had converted some before you killed any. " This rigorous proceeding on the part of the colonists filled the neighboring Indians with such terror, that many left their habitations and hid in swamps and unhealthy places, neglecting their planting, so that numbers perished of want and disease. One of these unfortunates was the sachem Aspinet. Nor did they recover from the effects of this blow for a period of fifty years, at the end of which time began the war with the Wampanoags, called < King Philip s War." On one occasion, Standish s company was despatched for a quan tity of corn which some of the settlers had purchased of the In dians, but which, on account of a violent storm, they had been unable to bring with them. They had left it, covered with mats and sedge, in charge of the sachem Aspinet. The Indians faith fully attended to the trust, and delivered the corn to Standish when he came ; but the latter, having missed a few beads and some other trifles from a boat which had been left unguarded, threatened the natives that if they were not returned "he would revenge it on them before his departure." Aspinet recovered the trinkets, and returned them to the English commander. At the beginning of the second winter, a vessel arrived 1 630] MASS A CHUSE TTS JBA Y COL ONY. 1 39 from England with additional colonists, and a charter from the Council of Plymouth. The document they were of course glad to obtain as legalizing their undertaking, yet for the present they would have much preferred that the vessel had brought them a cargo of food, as they were now obliged to subsist for several months on half allowance. WINSLOW, one of the leading colonists, was sent to Monhegan island, a fish ing station near the mouth of the Kennebec, and from thence obtained the necessary relief. Four or five years elapsed be fore they had broken up and cultivated sufficient land to overcome the demand for food ; but the soil in the vicinity was not fertile, and the population consequently increased but slowly. THE PURITANS OF MASSACHUSETTS BAY. In 1628 a new colony, with a separate charter, arose on the north of the New Plymouth tract, and in size soon overshad owed the original settlement. It was known as the " Planta tion of Massachusetts Bay." The first body of colonists under this grant were led by JOHN ENDICOTT, and they set tled at Naumkeag, now Salem, where there were already a few families. These new-comers were of that reformed di vision of the State-religionists called Puritans, who, while objecting to the liturgy and many of the popish practices still retained by the national church, had not, like the Pil grims of Plymouth, really withdrawn from it. Although Endicott was appointed governor, and was to be assisted in the execution of the laws by twelve counsellors, the company in England had also a governor, a deputy, and assistants, and monthly courts were held for the management of its affairs. Two years later they appointed JOHN WIN- THROP governor, an honor to which he was frequently re- elected. In the same year (1630) seventeen vessels conveyed 1 40 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1635 to the settlement about a thousand emigrants, besides horses, cattle, and various supplies, and the requisite implements for fishing, cultivating the soil, and ship-building. Winthrop fixed upon the little peninsula at the head of Massachusetts bay, for the seat of government. There was a hill upon it, having three distinct eminences, and hence the peninsula was called Tri-mountain ; but it soon received the name of BOSTON, after the English town whence some of the principal emigrants came. Charlestown, Boston s northern suburb, had been settled the year before. Roxbury, on the south; Cambridge, on the west; Lynn, Watertown, Maiden, etc., were among the places immediately founded. A general court, the first in America, was held in the autumn of this year. It was decided, after more than 100 freemen had been appointed, that these should have power to choose the assistants or magistrates, while the magistrates should elect the governor and deputy-governor out of their own body ; but it was afterward agreed that deputies chosen by the towns should also convene with the magistrates. It was early the desire of the people to have home rule. Peace prevailed with the Indians : the Mohegans, Pequods, and Narragansetts, all solicited their powerful alliance. Under the judicious administration of Winthrop, the .colony prospered and new settlers constantly arrived from England, where there prevailed a general apprehension of civil and religious trouble. A body of these colonists, in the autumn of 1635, began the settlement of Concord. They encountered many privations ; their cattle sickened, the wolves devoured their swine and sheep, their poorly-con structed huts were not proof against rain and the cold; yet the pioneers were of a devout and patient spirit, and, though esteeming themselves amongst the poorest of God s creatures, they maintained a cheerful state of mind, and a resolution "to excel in holiness." 1 62 1] NEW HAMPSHIRE AND MAINE. 141 In the following year (1636), the young and talented HENRY VANE arrived in the colony, and at once the electors, pleased that a man of such note should make his home among them, chose him for governor. But the short administration of Vane was marked by very serious troubles, a war with the Pequods, and a sharp religious controversy. The Indian war will be mentioned hereafter in connection with the Connecti cut and Rhode Island settlements. The controversy referred to, arose out of what was called the " Antinomian heresy," of which Anne Hutchinson was the chief promulgator. She controverted the austerity of the Puritans, as partaking of unnecessary "good works," and in sisted on the sufficiency of justification by faith alone, as revealed by the indwelling spirit. As Vane supported these views, at the election in 1637 he was superseded by Winthrop, and soon thereafter returned to England, to become a leader of the Independents. Anne Hutchinson, having been ban ished from the colony, went first to Rhode Island, and then to New Netherland ; but in the Indian war brought on by Kieft s misgovernment, she, her son-in-law, and all (except one) of their family, to the number of eighteen persons, per ished at the hands of the incensed red men. -TN NEW HAMPSHIRE AND MAINE. Probably the most active and zealous member of the origi nal Plymouth Company, and of its successor, the Council of Plymouth, in England, and one whose interest in American affairs continued unabated for a space of forty years, was SIR FERDINANDO GORGES. Another member of the Council, and for awhile its secretary, was JOHN MASON, who, within a few months after the Great Patent was obtained from the king (1621), received from the Council a grant of that part of their territory contained between the Salem river and the head- 142 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1636 waters of the Merrimac; while Mason and Gorges together, were allowed a second patent for the adjacent tract to the east, comprised between the Merrimac and the Kennebec. The two proprietors named, had great anticipations as to the success of their projected colony, and in 1623, the settle ments of Dover and Portsmouth on the Piscataqua river, were founded by colonists whom they sent out. But the benefit of their liberal expenditures was reaped by others at a later day. When, in 1628, the grant to the Massachusetts Bay Com pany was made by the Council, the territory which was then conveyed, overlapped that to Mason, who therefore asked for a new patent to that part of the land between the Merrimac and Piscataqua, or NEW HAMPSHIRE, relinquishing the Salem river for awhile as his southern boundary. The title to this latter doubly-claimed section, became the occasion of many disputes at law between the heirs of Mason and the colony of Massachusetts Bay, although it does not appear that the primal right of the natives was taken into consideration. Very slow was the growth of the New Hampshire settlements ; and in 1653, thirty years after Portsmouth was founded, it could boast of containing no more than fifty or sixty families. The settlements were annexed to Massachusetts in 1641. As Mason had taken west of the Piscataqua for his share of territory, Gorges took that east of the same to the Kennebec river. The eastern section, being part of the subsequent state of MAINE, was at first called New Somerset. The region from the Kennebec east to the St. Croix was given at a later date to the Earl of Stirling. Monhegan island, near the mouth of the Kennebec, and a settlement at Pemaquid point, were at that time the only stations on the Maine coast. After these, Saco was settled, and a court held there in 1636 ; then York, which was first called Georgeana, in honor of the proprietary. Upon the death of Gorges, the few inhabitants of the province were left to take care of themselves. The Massachusetts Bay 1631] ROGER WILLIAMS. colony offered its protection, and at the sarrfe time clajfyfecL the territory as being really theirs under the Great Charter. / J Godfrey, the governor of Maine, an Episcopalian as were also most of the settlers strongly remonstrated against the annexation ; but it was accomplished in 1653, the towns very reluctantly giving in their adhesion. There was another important patent granted by the Council of Plymouth, at the request of that persistent colonizer Sir Ferdinando Gorges. It was obtained the same year (1621) that he became possessor of the " Maine" grant, but was made out in the name of Sir William Alexander, afterward known as the Earl of Stirling. It comprised all the region east of the St. Croix and south of the St. Lawrence, includ ing Acadie and part of Canada, all of it, as we have seen, claimed by the French, but now given away by the name of NOVA SCOTIA, or New Scotland. By this procedure, it was designed to induce the Scotch to settle therein, and thus, while acting as opponents of French Catholic colonization, to serve as a pro tecting bulwark to the regular English settlements in the rear. This was an unjust and unfortunate gift of property, which belonged neither to the Council nor to King James to dispose of, and it proved, as might have been expected, a fertile sub ject of contention. Mention has been made in the ninth chapter, how, in 1628, the settlements in Acadie and Canada came into possession of the English in a time of war, and how they were shortly given back again into the hands of the French. Had the line of separation between Maine and Acadie been clearly defined upon that occasion, a great deal of the subsequent hostility would have been avoided. ROGER WILLIAMS-THE FOUNDER OF RHODE ISLAND. In 1631. there arrived at Boston a fugitive from English persecution, named ROGER WILLIAMS. He was a separatist 144 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STA lES. [1636 from the established Episcopal church, and yet his conscien tious convictions were esteemed heresy in Puritan New Eng land. For, while he believed that the civil magistrate should restrain and punish outward crime, so he held that, as the conscience must never be coerced, the magistrate grievously erred when he attempted to set bounds to the soul s inward freedom. In accordance with this earnest belief in the sanctity of the conscience, he was opposed to the exaction of tithes for the support of a special religion, as well as to any fine or punishment by men for non-conformity or non-attendance on public worship. Now, the Puritans were strenuous on these points, and their observance was especially provided for in the colonial law ; hence the separatist soon found that his life in the colony was not likely to be one of outward tranquillity. For over two years, Roger Williams was a minister of the congregations in Plymouth and Salem principally in the latter place where he became greatly endeared to the people. But his views of the inherent right of intellectual liberty, and of the separation of church and state in every particular, finally resulted in a sentence of banishment by the general court. Rather than renounce opinions which had taken such hold of his mind that he doubted not their agreement with the Truth, he declared himself "ready to be bound and banished and even to die in New England." In midwinter, the early part of 1636, Williams departed from Salem, and turning his steps southward toward the wilderness, wandered for fourteen weeks alone, in storms and the bitter cold, often sorely pressed for food and for a shelter at night. But the Indians, by whom he was known and grate fully remembered as their former friend, received him gladly; and in the cabins of Massasoit, chief of the Wampanoags, and of the Narragansett, CANONICUS, he found that brotherly treatment which had been denied him by his own country men. Massasoit granted him some land, at Seekonk, for a 1638] RHODE ISLAND. 145 settlement, but finding that it was within the jurisdiction of Plymouth, and hence might involve him in future trouble, he crossed the Pawtucket river, and at the head of Narragansett bay, founded PROVIDENCE, which he thus named in commemo ration of "God s merciful providence to him in his distress." From Canonicus and his nephew MIANTONOMAH, of the Nar- ragansetts, he obtained a clear title to the land. The great trust which Williams felt had been confided to him by the Ruler of all things, was wisely administered. The liberality with which he granted the land to the needy, with no thought of personal aggrandizement, or emolument for himself, was singularly unselfish. With respect to the govern ment of the little state, he conferred the authority more com pletely upon the people themselves than had yet been realized in any other colony. Harshly. as he had been treated by some of the Puritans, and severe as had been the winter s experi ence which resulted from the sentence of exile, yet he bore no resentment to his persecutors, to whom, as we shall pres ently see, he was enabled to render efficient service. Two years after the arrival of Williams (1638), a number of the Antinomian friends of Anne Hutchinson, having de parted from Massachusetts with the design of forming a sepa rate colony of their own, were welcomed to the new settlement on Narragansett bay. The little flock of emigrants was led by JOHN CLARKE and WILLIAM CODDINGTON; the latter a merchant from Boston, in Lincolnshire, and an associate of the Plymouth Company. Upon the recommendation of Williams, they purchased from the Narragansetts the island of Aquid- neck, afterward called Isle of Rhodes, but shortly altered to RHODE ISLAND. The price paid for the land was forty fathoms of white wampum ; and as an additional consideration for the Indians to remove and leave the whites the sole occu pants, they were presented with twenty hoes and ten coats. The colonists bound themselves that in civil affairs only, was G 13 146 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1635 the majority to rule : in matters of doctrine, while they pro fessed obedience to the "perfect laws of our Lord Jesus Christ," yet their consciences must be left untrammelled by the State. They set love and benevolence before them as their rule. THE CONNECTICUT AND NEW HAVEN SETTLEMENTS. In the account of the province of New Netherland, we have learnt how the Dutch, who claimed the country north of Long Island Sound, had established a fortified trading-post on the Connecticut, which they called the House of Good Hope. But this territory was likewise claimed by the great council for New England, who made a grant of it, first to the Earl of Warwick, and from that proprietary it had passed into various other hands. Without any permit from these new proprie taries, the colony of Plymouth had, in 1633, established the trading-post of Windsor on the river just above the Dutch post, and in point of time only a few months later. In 1635 came JOHN WINTHROP, eldest son of the governor of the Massachusetts Bay colony, with a commission from the proprietaries to build a fort at the mouth of the Connecticut. This was done, and the place called Saybrook. In the autumn a second company of sixty pilgrims, among whom were a number of women and children, set out from the Massa chusetts settlements on their forest journey to the Connecticut, driving their cattle before them. They had scarcely arrived at the banks of the river, when the winter set in, early and severe. Many of the cattle perished ; supplies of provisions which were to have been sent around by water, could not reach them because of the closing of the river by ice; and there being but poor shelter as yet provided, all except a few either returned through the bleak woods, or else made their way down to Saybrook. 1638] CONNECTICUT AND NEW HAVEN. 147 In the summer of the ensuing year (1636) a more auspicious emigration followed, led by HOOKER and STONE, ministers of the gospel, and by John Haynes, reputed a gentleman of great estate." Hartford, Wethersfield and Windsor were now regularly established as settlements, while a fourth party lo cated farther up the river, at Springfield. But the dawning prosperity of the infant colony of Connecticut was very soon interrupted by an Indian war. Before treating of this, men tion should be made here of the founding of the adjoining colony of New Haven. There arrived in Boston at this time, when the Hutchinson controversy was at its height, a company of merchants from England, led by THEOPHILUS EATON, and with them a non conformist minister named JOHN DAVENPORT. The agitation which prevailed in the province about religious matters, made these well-to-do emigrants quite unwilling to fix their habita tions in those parts; hence Eaton, having been sent in advance to select a suitable place for a settlement, chose the locality at the head of Quinnipiack bay on Long Island Sound. A tract of ten miles by thirteen was purchased of the Indians, at the price of ten coats; and here the plan of a city on a liberal scale was laid out (1638), and called NEW HAVEN. The first assembly for organization was held in a barn ; and, from a committee of twelve persons, there were selected "Seven Pillars," as they were called, for the "House of Wisdom." The right of suffrage was restricted to church members, as in Massachusetts, although in the colony of Con necticut, that privilege had been conferred on all residents of respectable character. The Scriptures were ordered to be the law of the land, as they were held to contain every needful regulation for good government : and inasmuch as no warrant for trial by jury was to be found in its pages, that process was not established. Eaton was chosen first governor, and was annually, for twenty years, re-elected to the post. I 4 8 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1636 THE PEQUOD WAR. The habitations of the Wampanoags or Pokanokets, were east of Narragansett bay, while on its western side dwelt the tribe of the Narragansetts. West of these again were the Pequods, a much more numerous tribe, whose domain ex tended nearly to the Hudson. Between the Pequods and the Wampanoags was a band of Mohegans a name frequently given to all the Indians of the lower Connecticut. The pesti lence, already referred to, which had carried off so many of the aborigines of New England, had left New Hampshire and Vermont nearly an uninhabited wilderness; but in Maine, west of the Kennebec, were the tribes of the Tarenteens, and east of that river, the Abenakis. Exclusive of Maine, the New England Indians, at that time, probably numbered about 15,000 persons. The origin of the war of 1636 with the Pequods, appears to have been as follows. The captain of a trading vessel from Virginia, of bad character and accused of a serious offence, had been ordered away from Boston, but on his way back, had entered the Connecticut river, where he and his crew were murdered by the Pequods. The latter claimed that the deed was done in self-defence. The same tribe had sub sequently given umbrage to the Dutch, and their present of wampum was refused. The Narragansetts also had been guilty of the death of a trader, and the capture of his vessel and crew at Block island; and this the settlers revenged by killing and drowning eleven of the offenders. Canonicus and Mian- tonomah, much grieved at the unauthorized murder by their tribe, promptly restored the vessel and prisoners, supposing that nothing more would be asked, as life had been taken for life, eleven-fold. But the event proved otherwise. A company of 90 volunteers under Endicott sailed to Block island, having orders to put all the men to death, and to make 1636] THE PEQUOD WAR. 149 prisoners of the women and children. But the islanders es caping inland, Endicott destroyed their corn and canoes, burnt their wigwams, and sailed across to the mouth of the Connecticut. Then, marching against the Pequods, he burnt two of their villages, and returned to Boston without losing a man. The Pequods, frenzied at what appeared a very harsh retaliation, during the winter killed as many as thirty of the settlers on the Connecticut, and also endeavored to persuade the Narragansetts to join with them. But the interposition of Roger Williams prevented this, while Canonicus sent a messenger to Boston offering his services against the Pequods, though recommending that the women and children should be spared. The Connecticut volunteers, and some Mohegan and Narra- gansett allies, without waiting for reinforcements from Boston, proceeded against two of the fortified villages of the Pequods, which were situated near the mouth of the river Thames. The clustered wigwams being merely protected by a rough pali sade of trees and brush-wood, the guns of the assailants soon gained for them an entrance. Mason, the leader (who had been solemnly invested with the command by a clergyman), set the mat-covered wigwams ablaze with a fire-brand. No mercy was shown ; and shortly,- by fire-arms and the flames, all the Pequod warriors, with their women and children six hundred in number perished, save only seven who escaped and seven who were held as prisoners. Of the English, two only were killed. Underbill, who figured in Kieft s Indian war, was prominent as a leader in this massacre. When the volunteers from Massachusetts arrived, the miser able remnant of the Indians was savagely hunted down, for it was determined that the Pequods should be a tribe no more. Being pursued and surrounded in a swamp, and finding that further resistance was hopeless, most of them surrendered ; the rest united with the Mohegans and Narragansetts. About 1 50 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1640 fifty of the prisoners were distributed among the principal colonists as slaves. SASSACUS, the head sachem, having fled to the Mohawks for protection, was murdered by them and his scalp sent to Boston. The colonists produced their Bibles as ample warrant for their bloody acts. " We had sufficient light from the word of God for our proceedings," said Underhill ; while Mason exulted that "Thus the Lord was pleased to smite our enemies, and to give us their lands for an inheritance. 1 But the Supreme Judge has no pleasure in such slaughter. More truly applicable was the language spoken to Ahab, who coveted the vineyard of Naboth, " Hast thou killed, and also taken possession ?" THE UNITED COLONIES OF NEW ENGLAND. The population of New England, at the time of the Pequod war, numbered nearly twenty thousand. There being as yet no institution for the advanced education of the youth, the gen eral court, in 1637, made provision for a public school, which was accordingly established at Cambridge. Henry Dunster, a learned Hebrew scholar, was its first president. The follow ing year, in acknowledgment of a large bequest of books and" of a considerable sum of money, the endowment of John Har vard, the institution received the name of HARVARD COLLEGE. Soon afterward there arrived the first printing-press used by the English in America. Its first important production, im printed (1640) by Stephen Day, was a metrical version of the Psalms, which had been prepared by John Eliot and others, and revised by Dunster. The fabrication of cotton, linen and woollen cloths, was started, so that the colonies were not altogether dependent on the mother country for such necessary supplies. Ship building also became a profitable source of industry, and the vessels afforded a ready means for engaging in trade with the 1 643] UNITED COLONIES OF NF.W ENGLAND. 15! other English colonies and the West Indies, and even with European ports. Staves and dried fish were principal articles of export. This commerce, however, was not by any means productive of unmixed good, since the ships which carried the New England products across the ocean were accustomed to go around by the Guinea coast for return cargoes of slaves. These, as the demand for them at the North was not great, were usually disposed of at the Barbadoes, or other English islands in the West Indies. The currency made use of in the colonies was of various sorts. There was not much coin in circulation, but beaver- skins were considered an excellent medium of exchange. Foi awhile, musket-balls supplied the place of small change, and were valued at a farthing apiece. But the usual substitute for coin was wampum, or pieces of shell, bead-shaped, and drilled through the centre so as to be strung on a thread. They were of two colors, white and black or dark-purple, the white being worth but half as much as the dark-colored. Six white or three black beads were valued at a penny. In 1641, New Hampshire was annexed to Massachusetts, and so continued for thirty-eight years; and, in 1643, there was organized the confederacy known by the title of the UNITED COLONIES OF NEW ENGLAND, which embraced the colonies of Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven. The prime abject of this alliance was mutual protec tion against the encroachments of the Dutch and the French, but particularly against the Indians, from whom a conjoint attack began to be feared. It was also declared that the upholding of the "truth and the liberties of the gospel" were to be considered as of special importance. There were appointed two commissioners from each of the colonies, to meet annually, the sessions to be held alternately at Bos ton, Plymouth, Hartford and New Haven. One of their number was appointed president of the body, and in deciding 152 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1644 upon any measure the assent of six out of eight members was necessary. The provinces of Maine and Rhode Island were not invited to become a part of the confederacy, "because," it was af firmed, "the people there ran a different course both in their ministry and civil administration." The Baptist settlers in Rhode Island were especially obnoxious. A considerable body of them settled, in 1644, at a place which they called NEWPORT. The same year, Roger Williams having been com missioned to proceed to England to solicit a charter for the Providence Plantations, obtained one from the Long Parlia ment, chiefly at the intercession of Sir Henry Vane. About the same time, Miantonomah, having fallen into the hands of the Mohegans, his bitter enemies, their chief, UNCAS, with his own hand put him to death. It is said that Uncas, cutting off a piece from the shoulder of the prostrate warrior, devoured it, exclaiming that it made his heart strong and was the sweetest morsel he ever ate ! Thus fell the In dian friend of Roger Williams. The gravity of Miantonomah s offence may possibly have been greater than that of Uncas ; nevertheless, his fate was a cruel one and should not have been permitted. The Connecticut commissioners wickedly assented to the act in delivering him back to Uncas (who had referred the case to them), they knowing that the Mohegan chief would be his executioner. Pessacus, a brother of Mi antonomah, and Ninigret, his cousin, were the chief sachems of the Narragansetts after the death of the great chief. The government organized by Williams and his associates, under the charter, was equally as just and liberal as the com pact made when Providence was first planted. Its execu tion was intrusted to a president, assistants and assembly. All laws- enacted by the assembly were to be first submitted to the towns and to meet with the approval of a majority of them. The assistants constituted the supreme court of law; 1656] PERSECUTION OF THE QUAKERS. 153 but in each of the towns there was an inferior court for the trial of petty cases. To every person was assured freedom of religious belief, as also permission to worship according to the dictate of his conscience ; an enactment which is worthy of note, as it was the first legal announcement of entire re ligious liberty in the colonies. (1644.) Massachusetts and Connecticut likewise published their complete code of laws shortly afterward, in 1649 an d 1650. They recite a lengthy list of opinions affirmed to be heretical, the promulgators of any of which were declared liable to ban ishment. Jesuits were prohibited from entering the country, a repetition of the offence being punishable with death. John Clarke, of Rhode Island, with two others, being on a visit to Lynn, the former delivered a public exhortation at the house of a friend, for which offence they were all arrested and carried by force to hear the regular preacher. Clarke was sentenced, in addition, to pay a fine of ^20 or be whipped ; part of the charge against him being that he re fused to take off his hat in the meeting-house. Holmes, one of his companions, was fined ^30, in addition to a flogging. Upon being loosed from the whipping-post, he exclaimed : "Although the Lord hath made it easy to me, I pray God it may not be laid to your charge." Two persons, for shaking hands with him and uttering words of praise, were both fined and imprisoned. At a later date, the learned Dunster, presi dent of Harvard College, was fined for his Baptist belief, and obliged to resign his position. We must now turn our atten tion to the far more bitter persecution of the Friends, or, as they were then in derision called, the Quakers. THE PERSECUTION OF THE QUAKERS. There existed no law in the province especially directed against the Quakers when, in 1656, Mary Fisher and Ann G* I 5 4 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1656 Austin, members of that greatly-traduced society, arrived in Boston harbor from the Barbadoes. The commissioners were duly apprised of the coming of these inoffensive women, who, it was declared, were "fit instruments to propagate the King dom of Satan," and a law was solicited to debar the entrance "from foreign lands of such notorious heretics." Their trunks being searched, a large number of books which they contained were carried ashore and burnt in the market-place by the hangman ; the women were then imprisoned by order of Bellingham, the deputy-governor, and their persons searched for signs of witchcraft. Being clear of any indications of that nature, after enduring an imprisonment of five weeks, they were placed on board a vessel and sent away. In the meantime eight others of the same sect arrived. These were kept in jail for the space of eleven weeks, and then sent back to England at the charge of the master of the vessel ; he having been imprisoned until he promised to take them away. A strenuous law was forthwith enacted, by which it was provided that any one who brought a Quaker into the colony should suffer a fine of ;ioo, besides incurring the obligation to carry such a one away again. The punishment of the Quaker, in such a case, was to be flogging, and imprison ment at hard labor until transported. Any one defending the opinions of the Quakers was also liable to a fine and other penalties. But these enactments failed of their pur pose. A widow who came from England to Massachusetts, having debts owing her there, was thrust into prison, and confined three months ; then sent back to England, her long voyage resulting in no relief to herself and fatherless children. Be side many others who suffered, were Lawrence and Cassandra Southwick, an aged couple living near Boston. Though not Quakers, yet upon beholding the cruelties which were inflicted 1657] PERSECUTION OF THE QUAKERS. 155 upon that peaceful people, they were led, with others, to for sake the appointed assemblies and to meet by themselves on the first day of the week. For this, Lawrence and Cassandra received thirty stripes with a knotted whip of three cords, and part of their household goods were sold to pay a fine im posed for being absent from the established meeting. The rulers, believing that the law was still too lenient for the Quakers persisted in returning even after being fined, flogged and imprisoned ordered that those found guilty of coming back after banishment, should surfer the loss of their ears, and have their tongues bored through with a hot iron. One, William Brend, having been apprehended and brought before the magistrates, was accused of holding certain unchris tian doctrines. The allegation was shown to be untrue ; nevertheless, Brend was imprisoned in Boston, and having declined to work for the jailor, was put in irons, his neck and heels tied together, and kept in that trying position for many hours. No food was given him for several days. In this, his weak condition, having received about a hundred blows with a pitched rope, he nearly died under the inhuman torture. The news of this outrage becoming known in the town, caused such an outcry, that Endicott, the governor, sent his surgeon to the prison to see what could be done. The sur geon reported the condition of the victim to be so deplorable, that his flesh would rot off the bones ere the bruised parts could be healed. This still farther exasperated the people, but the magistrates cast the blame upon the jailor, and said that he should be duly dealt with. But John Norton, the principal clergyman in the town, as well as a chief instigator of the persecution, exclaimed, that as " Brend endeavored to beat our gospel ordinances black and blue, if he then be beaten black and blue, it is but just upon him and I will ap pear in his behalf that did so." Thus, Norton and others of the clergy, apprehending 156 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1658 that scourging and cutting off of ears, was still insufficient punishment for those who held to the faith and practice of the Quakers, petitioned the magistrates that a law be enacted to banish the so-called "heretics," upon pain of death. A court composed of twenty-five persons was accordingly held, and, by a majority of one vote only, a law was passed per mitting a county court of three magistrates to decree the punishment of death, without benefit of trial by jury : a clear infringement of the fundamental law of England. This result so troubled one who was kept away from the court by illness, and whose vote would have defeated the measure, that, weep ing, he declared he would have crept to the court upon his knees rather than it should have passed. The law, however, upon the earnest protest of the dissenting voters, was so amended as that trial by jury was allowed. Mention has been made of the harsh .treatment endured by Lawrence and Cassandra Southwick. A son and daughter of these, likewise refusing to frequent the assemblies of those who had become such relentless persecutors, were each heavily fined for the offence. Upon account of their low estate, the penalty could not be produced ; whereupon the court decreed that they should be sold " to any of the English nation, at Virginia or Barbadoes, to answer the said fines." But there was no master of a ship to be found who was base enough to carry them away : the mariners remembered better than did the rulers, that the judgments of the Lord were of old time against those who "sold the righteous for silver, and the poor for a pair of shoes." In Whittier s ballad of "Cassandra Southwick" the above incident is narrated with much beauty and pathos : " Pile my ship with bars of silver, pack with coins of Spanish gold, From keel-piece up to deck-plank, the roomage of her hold, By the living God who made me ! I would sooner in yon bay Sink ship and crew and cargo, than bear this child away. 1659] PERSECUTION OF THE QUAKERS. 157 " Well answered, worthy captain, shame on their cruel laws ! Ran through the crowd in murmurs loud the people s just applause. 1 Like the herdsman of Tekoa, in Israel of old, Shall we see the poor and righteous again for silver sold ? " We now come to the cases in which certain of the Quakers suffered the penalty of death, rather than offend against the drawings of the Holy Spirit, as clearly revealed in their inmost souls. They doubtless felt that where the blood thirsty spirit of intolerance prevailed, as it then did in New England, there were their presence and exhortations and even the sacrifice of their lives, particularly needed. In obedience to such plain intimations of duty as they felt that they could not, without guilt, withstand, came Marmaduke Stevenson, a yeoman of Yorkshire, William Robinson, merchant, of Lon don, and Mary Dyer, widow of the recorder of Providence Plantation. These were all imprisoned upon the charge of being Quakers. They were then banished; but, having returned, the sentence of death was passed upon them by Endicott. Mary Dyer, however, was reprieved when on the scaffold. Robinson died, exclaiming, "I suffer for Christ, in whom I live, and for whom I die." Stevenson, as he stepped up the ladder, uttered the words, " Be it known unto all this day, that we suffer not as evil doers, but for conscience sake." The following year Mary Dyer again returned, and being once more sentenced to death, remarked that her blood would be required at the hands of those who did wilfully shed it, adding, "But for those that do it in the simplicity of their hearts, I desire the Lord to forgive them. I came to do the will of my Father, and in obedience to his will, I stand even to death." But so hardened were some of these persecutors, that Adderton, a general, who was one of the court, said scoffingly, "She did hang as a flag for others to take example by." Fearful of the result of these bloody proceedings, the 158 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1660 magistrates sent over to King Charles a declaration of the intentions which influenced them in so acting towards the Quakers, and ended with the poor apology that " we desire their lives absent, rather than their deaths present." In a second address to the king, they said that the magistrate, in conscience bound, held the sword s point outward, and that if the Quakers chose to rush upon it, they brought their blood upon their own heads ! In the meantime William Leddra, who had suffered at the same time that Brend was so cruelly scourged, felt the neces sity so forcibly laid upon him to return to the province, that he repaired thither once more, and hence was again impris oned. Being brought into court, ignominiously chained to a log, to receive his sentence, he appealed for trial to the laws of England, saying that, "If by them I am found guilty, I refuse not to die:" for the English law did not punish the Quakers with death. Then appeared a certain Wenlock Christison, who also had been banished under the extreme penalty. Fearless in the right, with a courage which quailed not before the assembled magistrates, Wenlock came forward. For a few moments there was silence in the court, the rulers being amazed and awe-struck at the sudden appearance. Then the governor demanded why he, having been banished, pre sumed to return at the risk of his life, to which Wenlock made reply, that he came with a warning to them to shed no more innocent blood. Nevertheless Leddra was executed the following day. As the executioner placed the halter round his neck, he was heard to say "I commit my righteous cause unto thee, O God." As for the brave Christison, he was kept several weeks in prison, the rulers seeming fearful to proceed against him. But finally the council being agreed, he was brought up to the bar, and Endicott demanded of him if he had anything to say for himself, why he should not die? To which he i66oj PERSECUTION OF THE QUAKERS. 159 answered, "I have done nothing worthy of death; if I had, I refuse not to die." It was then said to him that his crime was that of rebellion and ought to be punished ; but he replied that he came in obedience to the God of heaven and in love to them, for that all have account to give of the deeds done in the body; and added, " Take heed, for you cannot escape the righteous judgments of God." To which the general Adderton made answer: "You pronounce woes and judg ments, and those that are gone before you, pronounced woes and judgments, but the judgments of the Lord God are not come upon us as yet." Then Wenlock warned his judges not to be lifted up in pride, charging Adderton especially that his doom would be sudden, and was even then near at hand. When the vote was taken as to sentencing the prisoner to death, there was a division of opinion, but the governor insisted on the sentence, which he accordingly pronounced. Wenlock having been condemned, solemnly declared to the rulers that he scarcely believed they had the power to hurt him, and furthermore, that he believed they should never more take Quakers lives from them. And thus it turned out; for within a few days, himself and nearly thirty others were liberated ; while, several months later, appeared an order from the king that those summary proceedings must cease, and that the accused might be sent over to England for trial, together with the indictments laid to their charge. Although punishment by hanging was stayed, yet many and sorrowful were the scourgings now inflicted. Only two or three cases need be instanced. One, was that of Edward Whar- ton, who had once befriended the governor when the latter was in want, but now, Wharton being a Quaker, was brought to the market-place in Boston, and being stripped to the waist, was bound to the wheel of a cannon, and lashed most cruelly. Josiah Southwick a brother of those two who had been 160 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1661 ordered to be sold was tied to a cart, and underwent the same torture as did Whartoh. " They that know God to be their strength," he said, "cannot fear what man can do." At Dover, three women of the same sect were sentenced to be tied to the tail of a cart, to be driven through eleven towns (a distance of 80 miles), and to be whipped upon their bare backs ten stripes in each place. This was in winter. But again they returned to Dover, and one of them while kneel ing in prayer was seized, and having been dragged a long distance in the snow, over stumps and fallen trees, was then placed in confinement. Her companion met with similar barbarous treatment. General Adderton came to his end, sudden and unawares, as Wenlock Christison had prophesied; for on a day when he had reviewed his soldiers and was riding proudly by the place where the Quakers were usually loosed from the cart after they had been whipped, his horse took fright, and, dashing him violently to the ground, he died most miserably. Endi- cott, soon after the scourging of Wharton, was visited with a loathsome disease which carried him off; while Norton, who had been so active in procuring the death-law, and in securing its enforcement, died suddenly in his house, exclaiming "The hand [or the judgments] of the Lord are upon me." CHAPTER XII. MARYLAND. PROGRESS OF THE VIRGINIA COLONY. 16321683. LORD BALTIMORE THE FOUNDER OF MARYLAND. THE gradual ascendency of the Protestant faith in England, since the death of that persecuting sovereign who is known in history as "Bloody Mary," had resulted in the establish ment of another form of state religion, but with the spirit of intolerance by no means allayed. The Puritan non-con formists had indeed sought, and secured, a home for their brethren, but, as we have seen, the broad mantle of charity did not overspread all their land. And now the English Papists, exposed alike to the enmity of the State-religionists and the Puritans, turned their gaze also, with hopes of relief, to the Western World. They found an able helper in GEORGE CALVERT, a member of the former Virginia Company of Lon don, and also Secretary of the kingdom. Shortly after the time of the landing of the Pilgrims, Calvert obtained a grant of territory, which he called by the name of Avalon it being the south-eastern part of the island of Newfoundland. A settlement was effected here (1624), which Calvert twice visited ; but being well persuaded that any colony would eventually languish and fail of success if planted in so high a latitude, exposed also as it would be to the jeal ousy of the French and to the plundering fishermen of the neighboring shores, the project was abandoned, and a more 15* 161 162 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1632 desirable locality sought for. The situation of Virginia greatly recommended it, yet Calvert, upon his visit of inspec tion to that province, found that he could not, as a Romanist, take the oath of supremacy which would be there tendered him. He therefore turned his attention to another quarter, as yet unoccupied, where men s consciences would be left un trammelled. Previous to this visit Calvert had acquired the title of Lord Baltimore. The territory which was chosen, and for which a grant was obtained from Charles the First, was that portion lying north of the Potomac river, bounded by the 4oth parallel of lati tude, and extending in width from the Atlantic Ocean to the head-waters of the Potomac. It received the name of MARY LAND, in honor of Henrietta Maria, the queen. Lord Balti more having died before the charter was issued, his son CECIL at once succeeded to the proprietorship, in 1632. By the charter, the province was conferred upon the first Lord Balti more and his heirs, with power to make all necessary laws consonant to reason and not repugnant to the laws of Eng land, subject, however, to the "advifce, consent and approba tion of the freemen of the province." This was a wise and prompt concession to the rights of the governed, which, in the case of Virginia and New England, had not at first been recognized. The ecclesiastical law of, England was declared to be the ruling church power, but it was so bent by the Baltimores as to conform to Catholicism as well. The charter met with great opposition from WILLIAM CLAY- BORNE, Secretary of the council of Virginia, who, in his capacity of surveyor, had made explorations in the Chesa peake, and, furthermore, had obtained a royal license which permitted him to trade in those parts. He had established a post at the mouth of the Susquehanna, and another on the long island of Kent, in the bay, east of Annapolis both within the territory just granted to Lord Baltimore. Leaving 1634] LORD BALTIMORE. 163 Clayborne to obtain redress at law, the first Maryland colony, under LEONARD CALVERT, a brother of Cecil, the proprietary, sailed in two ships, the Ark and the Dove, and early in the year 1634, landed on the north side of the Potomac, near its mouth, at an Indian village which they called St. Mary s. Fortunately for the colonists, the Indians kindly agreed that the whites should occupy the wigwams and be permitted to till the cleared ground. A good crop of corn was secured the same year, and the Dove was sent to Massachusetts to obtain a supply of fish in exchange for the grain. In the meantime the feud with Clayborne came to a crisis ; for he, having made a hostile demonstration, the settlers of St. Mary s possessed themselves of the island of Kent, though not with out bloodshed. Clayborne escaped to Virginia, and being apprehended by the governor of that province, was sent to England. His island property was confiscated by the Mary land Assembly. To encourage emigration, the proprietary promised to allot a manor of a thousand acres to every settler who would trans port five men to the colony ; the land to be held at a yearly rent of twenty shillings, payable in produce. A married im migrant received one hundred acres for himself, the same for his wife, and fifty acres for each child, besides grants for the servants, the whole subject to a rent of a few shillings. In accordance with the charter, deputies met and formed a House of Burgesses ; framed a constitution ; and enacted a code of laws. Lord Baltimore had first sent over a set of statutes drawn up by himself, but the settlers refused to concede to him any privilege as to the power of legislation. The cultivation, and the price, of tobacco, early became a matter for legislative regulation in Maryland, as well as in Virginia. In both provinces, every person who planted that staple was required to cultivate two acres of corn. But as large quantities of the weed were also produced in several of 1 64 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1624 the West India islands, and as the price had greatly declined, it was enacted in 1639 by the Virginia Assembly, in order to enhance the value, that half the crop should be burnt > and that for the succeeding two years a reduced amount should be raised. Tobacco, in fact, was the currency in Virginia and Maryland, as wampum was at the same period in New Nether- land and New England : physicians and lawyers received their fees in it, drunkenness and profanity were punishable by fines payable in the same, and it has already been stated that the wives of some of the first Virginia settlers were paid for in tobacco. INDIAN TROUBLES IN VIRGINIA. CLAYBORNE OF KENT ISLAND. At the time of the dissolution of the London Virginia company in 1624, and the reversion of the province to the king, Wyatt was governor. Five years later, JOHN HARVEY held the office ; and it was he who sent the fugitive Clay- borne to England. At Point Comfort, at the entrance of James river, Harvey built a fort, where all persons entering the colony were tendered the oath of allegiance and suprem acy, and all vessels were sent therefrom to Jamestown before any part of their cargoes could be landed. During his ad ministration, a law was made, with respect to the Indians, that no person should be permitted to speak or parley with them, and the commanders were authorized to fall upon any who might be found lurking about the plantations. To sell powder and shot to Indians involved the entire forfeiture of a person s estate. Under SIR WILLIAM BERKELEY, Harvey s successor, who held the governorship for the most part of forty years, an en actment was made that all ministers should use the liturgy and conform to the usages of the church of England. Non-con formists were requested to depart the colony ; Romish priests 1 644] CLAYBORNE OF KENT ISLAND. 165 being compelled to do so within the space of five days. Some of the Puritan colonists sent a request to Boston for a supply of ministers, three of whom were accordingly deputed with letters, of commendation to Governor Berkeley and the coun cil ; but although they were well entertained, yet as they refused to use the established liturgy, the governor very soon sent them back to New England. In 1644, twenty-two years after the first massacre of the Virginia settlers by the Powhatans under Opechancanough, a second sudden uprising occurred, instigated, it was said, by the same chief. This warrior, it is true, was of a crafty na ture, yet he had deeply felt, from the first arrival of the whites, how grossly the tribes were being wronged out of their pos sessions. Savage-like, he waited sullenly for the time of retribution ; beholding, meanwhile, how his enemies con tinued their encroachments, and, in accordance with their so-called Christian laws shot down every Indian who showed himself. In this second onslaught, about 500 of the colonists were massacred in one day. During the fierce struggle which ensued, the aged chief was captured, and, having been taken to Jamestown, was killed by a soldier who had been appointed to guard him. The Indians sued for peace, and gave up all claim to the land between the James and York rivers. No Indian was permitted to return thither under pain of death. The early settlers of Maryland were mostly at peace with the natives, although occasionally slight disputes arose with the Susquehannas on the north, and with the Nanticokes on the eastern shore of the bay. But the chief antagonist of the colony, or rather of the proprietary s government, was Clay- borne of Kent island. He had applied to the assembly for the restoration of his property, but his claim having been re jected, he was joined by other disaffected ones, who, forcing Calvert to return to Virginia, possessed themselves also of the disputed island. The governor, after an absence of over a 1 66 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1654 year, returned with an armed force and established himself again in power, though he died in the following year, 1647. When news arrived in Virginia of the execution of Charles I., the governor of that province declared in favor of the second Charles, and against the rule of Parliament. An ex pedition, in charge of five commissioners, was accordingly despatched to the Chesapeake (1651), to oblige the colonists "to be true and faithful to the commonwealth of England as it is now established, without king or House of Lords." Two of these commissioners were Richard Bennett, who had been a Puritan emigrant to Maryland, and William Clay borne. Berkeley having been deposed, a new assembly was called, who chose Bennett governor, and Clayborne secretary. The claimant of Kent island being now in a position of influence, lost no time in making the power of the commis sioners felt in the adjoining colony of Maryland. STONE, the governor, although a parliamentarian, was deposed, but upon the petition of the inhabitants was reinstated in office. Two years later, however, when Cromwell was proclaimed Protector (1654), Bennett and Clayborne resented Stone s proceedings, which they thought savored too much of a strict allegiance to Lord Baltimore, the proprietary. Hence Stone was again deposed, the commissioners being aided by the Puritan settlers of Ann Arundel a county which had been so named in honor of Lady Baltimore. Papists and pre- latists were arbitrarily disfranchised, and were forbidden to sit in the new assembly ; an act of intolerance such as had not been attempted by the Catholic proprietary. MARYLAND DURING CROMWELL S PROTECTORATE, AND UNDER CHARLES II. On the north side of the lower Patuxent was a private house, used as a state-house, and here the records of the colony were kept. South of the Patuxent, near the end of i6 7 5] MARYLAND UNDER CHARLES //. 167 the peninsula comprised between that estuary and the Poto mac, were the Catholic settlements of St. Mary s ; while, at Providence (afterward Annapolis), the Puritans were chiefly located. Stone, who resided at St. Mary s, being blamed by Lord Baltimore for surrendering his authority so easily, now called the Catholic settlers to arms. Having first seized the records at the house on the Patuxent, he proceeded with about 200 followers, in several small vessels, to make an at tack upon the Puritan settlement ; but the attempt resulted disastrously, one-fourth of the assailants being killed and wounded. Although the life of Stone was spared, four of his principal officers were condemned to death. The cause of the contestants was then referred to the Pro tector, by whom two commissioners were appointed to decide the matter. Their report was favorable to Lord Baltimore, who sent over his brother, PHILIP CALVERT, to be secretary of the province, and JOSIAH FENDAL to be governor. The Puritans of Ann Arundel, refusing to acknowledge the authority of those officers, it became necessary to secure the mediation of the governor of Virginia. Upon the restora tion of Charles II., in 1660, Philip Calvert received a com mission as governor in Fendal s place, while the latter, though tried and found guilty of acts treasonable to Calvert, was granted a pardon. At this time the English having taken possession of New Netherland and New Sweden, Lord Balti more claimed, under his charter, the right to the land on the Delaware below the 4oth parallel of latitude (that of Phila delphia), but the Duke of York, who had conquered the land from the Dutch, insisted on retaining his acquisitions. Cecil, Lord Baltimore, died in 1675, having been forty- three years proprietary. His administration was, in the main, a mild and just one. The population of the province although Catholic at the first, did not afterward receive many acces sions from that denomination. Notwithstanding that the i68 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1660 religious scruples of the colonists were usually respected, yet the Quakers suffered occasional hardships for maintaining their testimonies upon War and Oaths. Their refusal to per form military duty subjected them to fines and to harsh imprisonment ; while the forfeiture of their property was sometimes the consequence of declining to take an oath. CHARLES, the eldest son of Cecil, now became proprietor. For a number of years previously, he had resided in the province as its governor, having succeeded his uncle Philip ; but upon returning to England he was called to account upon the charge of not maintaining the established Episcopal re ligion ; that there were no parsonages provided for, no tithes collected -as in Virginia, and that the morals of the place were in a low state. Lord Baltimore, in his defence, referred to the large number of religious creeds which prevailed there ; but this answer was not considered sufficient. Meanwhile, these proceedings in England encouraged the malcontents in the colony of whom Feudal was a ringleader to seek to undermine the authority of the Catholic proprietor. Where upon the latter, in 1681, having hastened his return, Fendal was put under arrest, and, being found guilty of sedition, was promptly banished. THE-ADMINISTRATION OF GOVERNOR BERKELEY, OF VIRGINIA. In Virginia, the news of the King s Restoration (1660) was followed by the re-election of Berkeley as governor, after a retirement of eight years. His salary was a large one for the time, being about $3400 in money, collectable from the duty on exports ; also 60,000 Ibs. of tobacco, to be taken out of the levy ; a bushel of corn in the ear, from every tithable in habitant ; besides the customs chargeable on Dutch vessels from New Netherland. The latter fee, however, did not long continue ; for by a navigation act, passed in England, all 1660] VIRGINIA UNDER BERKELEY. 169 foreign vessels were forbidden to trade with the colonies of the Dutch. As the Virginians built no vessels of their own, Berkeley was at once commissioned to proceed to England in behalf of the planters ; for the new act, by removing compe tition, would place them at the mercy of the traders. Al though the governor s mission was unsuccessful, he took advantage of the opportunity to enroll himself as one of the eight proprietors of the new province of Carolina. The organization of society in Virginia was radically dif ferent from what it was in New England. In New England, the settlements were made in villages, each having its school, meeting-house, and concentrated local government.. As a consequence of this aggregation of people in close communi ties, the manufacture of various fabrics soon arose, and the colony was not long dependent on the mother country. In Virginia, on the contrary, the early settlers took up large plantations on the tide-water rivers, and, in the cultivation of the one staple, tobacco, required the services of many helpers, who were at first indentured white servants, more often than slaves. All manufactured goods were supplied by England, and were usually brought in the vessel which came to the planter s wharf to take away his tobacco. Hence, vil lages and towns were few and of slow growth, and education not being diffused to those of low degree, the control of the government tended to concentration in the hands of the planters. The Quaker and Anabaptist heresies, as they were called, were proceeded against according to the code of New Eng land. For a ship-master to bring Quakers into the colony, or for any one to entertain persons of that sect, or to permit an assembly of them in or near his house, there was imposed a penalty of ;ioo. Fines were likewise imposed upon all, Quakers or others, who did not attend the parish chapels, or who refused to allow their children to be baptized by the H 15 I yo HISTORY OF THE U \ITED STATES. [1673 " lawful" minister. A more lenient spirit began to be mani fested toward the Indians. All persons found encroaching upon their lands were to be removed ; none could be sold into slavery ; and as proof of an apparent desire to secure just treatment, several of the colonists were heavily fined for wrongs committed and for intrusions upon them. The fact of the Africans being heathen, had been esteemed a sufficient reason why they should be held as slaves; but when, during Berkeley s administration (1667), the question was raised in the assembly of Virginia, as to whether those negroes who had become Christians could any longer be held to servitude, a law was promptly enacted that their freedom was not to be secured by any change of religion. It was also declared that if slaves be killed by extreme correction, the act should not be rated as a great crime. Some of the POLYNESIAN islanders understood the proper effect of Christianity upon War and Slavery, differently from these legis lators. " When," says William Ellis, " Christianity was adopted by the people, human sacrifices, infant murder and war, entirely ceased." This writer and another missionary agree that the natives also gave freedom immediately to all their slaves : they never con sidered a pure religion and servitude to be compatible. Titus Coan, an American missionary to the Sandwich islands, went in 1833 to Patagonia with a single companion. They were unarmed, and suffered no harm. "They were not jealous or afraid of us," says Coan, "and we left them unscathed, under the wing of our Immanuel. After we left Patagonia, seven armed missionaries were starved to death on Terra del Fuego, because they feared to go with the natives, and the natives feared them. At a later date eight missionaries (armed) were slaughtered, at one time, by the same savages." The year 1673 was marked by a startling event in the his tory of the colony. The king, a few years previously, had granted to LORD CULPEPER, the whole of the peninsula in cluded between the Potomac and the Rappahannoc rivers, 1673] BACON S REBELLION. 171 known by the name of the " Northern Neck." With a mar vellous prodigality the same sovereign hand now assigned to Lords Culpeper and Arlington, two noblemen notoriously rapacious, not only the Neck, but the whole province of Vir ginia, to be under their control for the term of 31 years. Alarmed at this remarkable conveyance, a committee was appointed to proceed to England to buy off the grant ; and, to furnish the means, a large special tax, payable in tobacco, was imposed upon the inhabitants. This onerous tax, as well as the fact that the tenure of their lands was rendered thus uncertain by reason of the royal caprice, produced much dis satisfaction among the colonists. But, for the mass of the in habitants, there were other and still deeper causes of grievance and alarm, to wit : the recent restriction of the right of suf frage to freeholders only ; the exemption of lands from taxa tion, and the consequent increased burden placed upon the poorer part of the community ; also, the high salaries paid to the governor and the burgesses, which were largely raised by the unequal tax upon the people. These, together with a formidable Indian outbreak, were some of the causes of dis content which eventuated in Bacon s Rebellion. BACON S REBELLION. LORD CULPEPER. Simultaneously with the Indian war of Philip of Pokanoket, in New England, came an aggressive movement of the Sene- cas of New York upon the Susquehannahs who dwelt at the head of the Chesapeake. The Susquehannahs, in their turn, pressed upon the Maryland settlements, and a war with the whites resulted. Then followed depredations by the tribes south of the Potomac. Thereupon a body of the Virginians, headed by John Washington, of the Northern Neck (ancestor of the President), proceeded against the natives ; who, being I 7 2 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1673 hard pressed, sent six of their chiefs to treat for peace. These messengers were slaughtered by the whites to whom they were bearing the olive branch. Such perfidy, inflicted upon the persons of envoys, precipi tated a murderous attack by the Indians upon the borders of the colony, as far south as the falls of the James. In the latter neighborhood, where the city of Richmond now stands, was the plantation of a talented and eloquent young planter, NATHANIEL BACON. He had been a student of law in the Temple, at London, whence he had but recently arrived. His plantation had been attacked by the Indians, but, dis daining Berkeley s plan of protection by the use of forts, Bacon demanded a general s commission to organize the militia and follow in pursuit of the foe. This was refused by the governor, who, it appears, had a monopoly of the Indian trade, and desired that his interests should not suffer loss ; whereupon, Bacon, having been speedily joined by several hundred of the planters, went to the war unauthorized. The governor s Indian monopoly partly explains why, prior to the outbreak, a more friendly course had been pursued toward the natives. Berkeley proclaimed Bacon and his followers, rebels, and ordered troops to go after them ; but in the meantime, the counties on the lower York and James, declaring themselves in sympathy with the insurgents, the governor was obliged to yield. A new assembly was called, to which Bacon, who had successfully encountered the Indians, was appointed a burgess. A code of liberal laws was framed which was known as " Bacon s Laws"; the right of suffrage was restored to all the freemen, and the taxes and emoluments were curtailed ; but, the young leader not receiving the commission which Berkeley had promised, summoned nearly 500 of his adherents to Jamestown, and forced the governor finally to accede to his demand. These acts of revolution, which were a sort of ante- 1676] BACON S REBELLION. 173 type of the Revolutionary War, transpired in the summer of 1676, just a century prior to the Declaration of Independence. Bacon once more started out against the Indians ; but he had not been gone many days, when Berkeley again proclaimed him a traitor. DRUMMOND, who had been governor of the North Carolina settlements, and Lawrence, a pupil of Oxford, brought the news to Bacon ; who, mustering his adherents in the lower counties, obliged the governor to retire across the bay to the Eastern Shore. By liberal promises of Jnoney and plunder, Berkeley raised a force of nearly a thousand men of Accomac, with whom he proceeded, in 15 ships and sloops, up the James river to the little capital. Bacon had already defeated the Indians a second time, and disbanded his men, when he learnt of the arrival of the fleet ; but without loss of time, his fol lowers were again in arms and moving against Jamestown. After a short siege the governor and the royalists deserted the town, and embarking on the fleet at night, sailed down the river; while Bacon and his men, in order that their oppo nents might be debarred from the protection which the build ings afforded, set them on fire Drummond and Lawrence, it is said, applying the torch to their own dwellings. The newly- erected state-house and the little brick chapel, the first built in the colony, were burnt with the rest. The voyager who now passes by the Jamestown peninsula, will notice, close to the river s bank, one end of the chapel, with its arched win dow, still standing : it is all that remains of the earliest set tlement in Virginia. Upon the destruction of this place, the royalist troops who were marching against Bacon, decided to join his cause in a body ; but before that leader could carry out his design of subduing the Berkeley party across the bay, he was seized with a miasmatic disorder, which proved fatal. The insurgents, having lost their leader, were not able to cope with Beverly, who took the part of the governor. Over twenty of Bacon s adherents, among whom was Drummond, I 7 4 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, [1680 were hung. And although a proclamation arrived in the meantime from Charles the Second, that a pardon should be granted to all the insurgents except Bacon, yet Berkeley refused to discontinue the executions, until finally the assembly voted him an address, petitioning that no more blood should be spilled. The governor, whose conduct had been greatly cen sured, very soon returned to England ; but he died shortly after his arrival there, before he had had an opportunity to secure an audience with the king. Ardent, talented and brave-spirited though Nathaniel Bacon appears to have been, yet we cannot applaud either his plan for overcoming the Indian difficulty, or his treatment of the arrogant and avaricious Berkeley. The wrongs which had stirred the Indian heart to aggression, were greater by far than wefe those of the settlers, and undoubtedly a just and lenient spirit would have led to reconciliation, because never has it failed when it has been fairly tried. The war resulted in great loss of life, and an unjust decree of slavery directed against the Indians, besides the perpetuation in their minds of a false conception of the religion which the whites had so dishonored. Although Bacon appeared as the champion of the majority of the planters against aristocratic assumption, yet what good was accomplished that could not have been better secured by a dignified and united presentation of their grievances to the attention of the assembly? To sum up the untoward result in a sentence : Bacon was dead twenty-three of his adherents had been hung Jamestown was in ashes a liberal charter had been withheld by the king the old laws and burdensome levies were renewed and the right of franchise again confined to the freeholders. Lord Culpeper having purchased Arlington s share of the grant of Virginia and received from the king a commission as governor for life, appeared in the province in 1680. Although granted a salary of ^2000, he came to gather the perquisites 1683] LORD CULPEPER. ! 75 which his property might afford, rather than to seek the colony s prosperity. One, John Buckner, having brought a printing-press to the colony (1682), imprinted the laws passed by the assembly ; but being called to account by Culpeper and his council, and required to wait until the king s wish could be heard, he was informed that the royal instructions were, to positively forbid the press to be used. The condition of Virginia at that time was one of much distress. The over-production of tobacco, by reason of the increasing number of slaves, had reduced the price of the staple to a penny per pound. The navigation acts, which operated against the interests of the colony, might have had their evils diminished by the home-building of vessels, which would not have been liable to duty, and thus an increased production of corn in place of tobacco, for export, would have been required. But this measure was not adopted. A regi ment of soldiers had been sent over by the king, and, being quartered upon the inhabitants, caused grievous complaints on account of the burden they entailed ; while the troops them selves suffered greatly from sickness. Culpeper, upon his re turn to England in 1683, sold his patent to the crown for a pdnsion, and a successor was appointed to the governorship in the person of LORD HOWARD OF EFFINGHAM. CHAPTER XIII. CAROLINA. 16631688. THE PALATINE PROPRIETORS AND THEIR MODEL CONSTITU TION. To eight courtier-noblemen, King Charles II. of England granted all the territory south of Virginia as far as the latitude of Port Royal ; a country, nevertheless, which the Spaniards claimed as a portion of the province of Florida, being held by the castle of St. Augustine as an appendage of the Spanish crown. Of the eight proprietors, several were men well-known in the political arena : General Monk, now become Duke of Albemarle, the leader of the parliamentary party which re stored the crown to the House of Stuart ; Lord Clarendon, prime minister of the king ; Lord Ashley Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury, the wealthy and intellectual chancellor ; and Sir William Berkeley, governor of Virginia. Beside these, there were Lord John Berkeley and Lord Craven ; Sir George Car- teret and Sir John Colleton. This grant of CAROLINA was made in 1663, three years after the king s restoration. Half-a-century before the time of the royal grant, and soon after Jamestown was settled, the country about Nansemond river (an affluent of the James) began to be inhabited ; and from there a number of parties proceeded down the Chowan, and settled near its confluence with Albemarle Sound. Yet it was not until 1662, when GEORGE DURANT purchased from 176 1 665] THE PALATINE PROPRIETORS. 177 the Indians a tract on the sound, and when Quakers, driven from Virginia, began to bend their steps thither, that the settlements attracted much attention. Berkeley, as governor of Virginia, and at the same time as one of the Carolina pro prietors, was authorized to institute a government for the Albemarle plantations, and accordingly appointed to the ex ecutive post WILLIAM DRUMMOND, a Scotchman, afterward so prominent in Bacon s Rebellion. As Drummond was a man who believed in popular representation, an assembly was readily formed, and the few settlers permitted to manage their affairs without unnecessary dictation. More than a hundred miles to the southward, near the mouth of Cape Fear river, a colony from New England also established itself in 1660, having obtained the title to a small tract of land by purchase from the Indians. But the soil around Cape Fear was neither suitable for grazing nor for agriculture, for which purposes the settlers had designed to use it; and hence, after being obliged to solicit help from Massachusetts, they in a few years deserted the place. Strangely enough the same unattractive locality was selected in 1665 by planters from Barbadoes, who purchased a tract 32 miles square, from the Indians, quite near the New Eng land settlement. SIR JOHN YEAMANS, one of the planters, was appointed by the proprietors governor of the province of "Clarendon," which extended from Cape Fear to the San Matheo or Port Royal. The colonists employed themselves in making boards, shingles and staves, which they shipped to the Barbadoes ; but although the place flourished for awhile, having a population of several hundred persons, it did not continue a permanent settlement. About the time that Yeamans received his appointment (1665), the titled proprietors obtained a new charter from the king, extending the bounds of their grant so as to include the Chowan river and Albemarle settlements on the north, H* 1 78 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1665 and Spanish St. Augustine on the south, and reaching back all the way to the Pacific Ocean. The privileges at the same time conferred, were as ample as the proprietors could have possibly desired giving them power to establish manors and baronies and orders of nobility to levy troops, build fortifi cations, and make war : in short, a feudal seignory subject to, but not controlled by, the crown. To frame a constitution in accordance with and worthy these high powers and privileges, the Earl of Shaftesbury, the most able of the eight corporators, called to his assistance the philosopher, JOHN LOCKE. The predilections of Shaftesbury and Locke, both strongly favored the prerogatives of the no bility. Professing to believe that in the potent hands of the aristocracy, the liberties of the people at large would be best guarded against kingly assumption on the one hand, and plebeian intermeddling on the other, these law-makers were clearly no friends to equality of representation, which is the only assurance of stability of government. The powerful intellect of Locke studied and sifted the methods of the past to construct his ideal ; but the ideal, when worked into shape, was altogether impracticable, and the New World would not receive it. Understanding the views of class-privilege enter tained by Locke and Shaftesbury, we have the key by which to interpret the "model constitution." The immense extent of territory comprised in the grant was to be divided into counties, each containing 750 square miles. To each county there was to be assigned an earl or landgrave and two barons, who together were to possess one- fifth of the land in the county; another fifth was to be re served for the lords-proprietors ; and the remaining three-fifths might be held by the people or lords of manors. The right of franchise could be held only by freeholders, possessing at least 50 acres; the minor tenants, whose limited means obliged them to pay a rent, not only had no right to vote, 1 66s] QUAKER SETTLEMENTS OF ALBEMARLE. ijg but were placed under the "jurisdiction of their lord, with out appeal." The executive and judicial powers were entirely controlled by the proprietors, the eldest of the eight being the president, with the title of Palatine. The grand council or parliament of fifty, admitted 14 commons, but these, to be eligible, must each own at least 500 acres; the rest of the body was to be made up of the proprietors (or their deputies), the landgraves, and the barons. Thus the legislative power was also, by this device, placed out of the reach of the people at large. All sects were to be tolerated, but it was added, the following year, that the English Church should be the national religion, and be maintained by the colonial grants. We will presently see what reception the people in the wilder ness gave to this " Grand Model," as it was derisively called. THE QUAKER SETTLEMENTS OF ALBEMARLE. While the constitution for Carolina was being thus labo riously marked out, the Albemarle colonists were pursuing the peaceful tenor of their way, and craving no more elaborate form of government than the plain and sensible one which they already possessed, to wit, a worthy governor (STEVENS), his council, and an assembly of delegates chosen by the free holders. They made but few laws, which sufficed their simple requirements, while the cost of legislation was on an econom ical basis, adapted to their limited resources. Little need then, for them, of earls, barons, lords of the manor and a grand parliament, with a long train of onerous expenses ! The colonists were a loyal, orderly and law-abiding people, but they resolutely refused to receive the new form of gov ernment, inasmuch as the proprietors had stipulated that the existing one should not be interfered with. The Quakers or, to call them by their proper name, the Society of Friends were the first to organize meetings for I So HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1683 worship in Carolina. William Edmundson, one of their ministers, seeking his exiled brethren on the Chowan, records that "he met with a tender people" there, who gladly re ceived the truth, and that a quarterly meeting was established among them. Later in the same year (1672) it is related in the Journal of that faithful minister, GEORGE Fox, how he also, coming down from Virginia, held a meeting " about four miles from Nancemum water, which was very precious;" that after this the "way to Carolina grew worse, being much of it plashy, and pretty full of great bogs and swamps;" and that on his arrival he was kindly entertained by the governor and others, and satisfactory meetings were held, "the people being generally tender and open." The neighboring Indians also were visited and the Gospel of Peace proclaimed to them. Upon the death of Governor Stevens (1672), renewed efforts were made by the proprietors to introduce the consti tution and to enforce the obnoxious navigation acts. Incon siderable as was the commerce between the Albemarle planta tions and New England, the traders of the latter country were unjustly obliged to pay a duty which was not required of the British merchant or ship-owner. The pacific princi ples of most of the first North Carolina settlers, would have led them to seek redress in a more quiet way than that which was actually adopted ; but by the influence of the New Eng- landers and of refugees from Virginia, who hurried into the colony after the rebellion of 1676, the collector of customs and the deputies appointed by the proprietors, were impris oned, and the old government restored happily without bloodshed. Five years of partial tranquillity had prevailed at Albemarle, when, in 1683, arrived SETH SOTHEL, who had purchased the right of Lord Clarendon, one of the proprietors, and had also been appointed governor by that body. But Sothel found that 4 /v c r /l> s/ ?-) 1670] THE SETTLERS AT CHAftlESTOwIl^f , i$i Si -^_ /l A r / 4 the constitution and the navigation act continued tcHae^as^ obnoxious to the colonists as before, and having no means to enforce them, he turned his attention to his own private gain, exacting unjust fees, seeking to absorb the Indian traffic, and, by other rapacious devices, showing himself unfitted for the executive office. At the end of five years, the colonists con cluded that Sothel had abided with and misgoverned them as long as patience would allow ; whereupon they deposed and banished him, and appealed to the proprietors for better treat ment at their hands. THE SETTLERS AT CHARLESTON. Early in 1670 came to Carolina the first colony sent out by the proprietaries : three ship-loads of emigrants under WIL LIAM SAYLE, the appointed governor, and Joseph West, the company s commercial agent. They entered at first the broad haven of Port Royal, where, more than a century before, the French fleet of Ribault had anchored ; but after a short delay there, they again made sail, and entered that fine harbor sixty miles to the northward, which receives the waters of the Ashley and Cooper rivers. Those streams were then so named in honor of the Earl of Shaftesbury. On the penin sula formed by their confluence, but upon the rising ground some distance back from the point, the colonists selected the site for their town. Ten years elapsed before the point itself was definitely chosen as being much better adapted for the requirements of their commercial city, which they named CHARLESTON. The colonists having quickly to decide as to their plan of government, quietly ignored the Model as unsuitable, and chose Sir John Yeamans, of Barbadoes, but latterly from Cape Fear, as their governor, together with twenty delegates to form an assembly. The council was composed of ten 16 1 82 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1684 members, chosen equally by the people and the proprietors. The government, therefore, was pretty fairly representative ; but Yeamans did not execute his trust to the satisfaction of either party. It is to him that the reproach attaches of bring ing African slaves from Barbadoes. The dusky form of the negro bondsman was beheld at the very founding of the Pal metto State ; and, since the climate was well adapted to the temperament of the race, they were imported much more rapidly into Carolina than they had been into the colonies to the northward. The Cavaliers, who scorned submission to a form of gov ernment which threatened to deprive them of any one of their rights, did not scruple to establish a usage that crushed as with an iron heel every right of the African. Thus, there was one clause of the Model which found ready entrance, to wit, that " every freeman of Carolina shall have absolute power and authority over his negro slaves, of what opinion and religion soever." Their inconsistency in this respect, was akin to that of the Puritan magistrates in the matter of religious intoler ance. As to the Indians, who were principally clans of the Catawba tribe, they were treated even worse than in Virginia; for, being incited to war with each other, the colonists obtained possession of the captives and sold them as slaves to the West Indies. The mild climate of South Carolina early attracted emigra tion from various quarters : Dissenters from England Scotch Presbyterians and Irish Catholics Dutch Reformed from New York and from Holland Calvinist Huguenots from France. The first company of the Scotch comprised a few families under Lord Cardross, who, in 1684, settled at Port Royal; but the Spaniards claiming that section as a dependency of St. Augustine, forced the immigrants to depart, and totally destroyed their settlement. The HUGUENOTS, however, now flocked to Carolina in large numbers. 1 686] HUGUENOTS IN CAROLINA. 183 The Edict of Nantes had for eighty years protected in their rights the Protestants of France; but when, in 1685, Louis XIV. suc cumbed to the papal influence and revoked the edict, the Hugue nots began at once to abandon the kingdom. This was a result by no means desired by the king. He professed to have at heart the conversion of all his dissenting subjects, thousands of whom, indeed, met death, on the gibbet, the rack and at the stake, as the reward of their steadfastness. Over half-a-million fugitives made their way to other countries, principally to Germany and England, and many of them being skilled artisans, as well as industrious and peaceable citizens, their loss was not a light one to France. Of those who crossed the Atlantic, some settled in New York and New England, but Carolina received the greater number. On the Cooper and the Santee rivers were their first habitations erected. Meanwhile, Yeamans, who remained chief magistrate but a short period, was succeeded (1674) by JOSEPH WEST, who held the office nine years. As in the Albemarle settlement, the same questions as to the proprietaries rights and the navi gation acts, continued in dispute ; but unlike the men of Albemarle, the Cavaliers and the governor were not them selves a just-dealing people. Not only did they sell captive Indians as slaves, sending them from their homes to a life long bondage in the Caribbean isles, but they also connived with the buccaneers who depredated upon the Spanish ports and commerce. Had they been good neighbors to the Span iards, and refused intercourse with the plundering sea-robbers, it is not likely that Port Royal would have been disturbed. These acts were displeasing to the proprietors, who finally, in 1686, made choice of JAMES COLLETON, a brother of Sir John Colleton, one of the eight, to be governor. He, they be lieved, would be able to reconcile the differences between themselves and the uneasy colonists ; and having given him the title of landgrave, with an ample grant of territory, they despatched him upon his mission. By the time the landgrave arrived at Charleston, a new " parliament" had been formed. This body refusing to ac- 1 84 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1688 knowledge the constitution, Colleton at once excluded the refractory members ; whereat a systematic opposition ensued between the adherents of the proprietors and the chief body of the colonists. These imprisoned the governor s secretary, seized the records, and refused payment of their quit-rents. Colleton, in despair, issued a proclamation of martial law, calling out the militia, but no one responded : while, at a meeting of the delegates, the landgrave was declared dis franchised, and banished from the province. The colonists, carried away by the unreasoning heat of party-spirit, were more exacting than the proprietors. That there was a practical, as well as Christian way, to reconcile even such formidable differences, will appear when we again recur to the condition of the colony. CHAPTER XIV. NEW YORKNEW JERSEY NEW FRANCE. 16641686. THE GOVERNMENT OF THE DUKE OF YORK. IN the year 1664, the Duke of York, who afterward suc ceeded to the English throne as James the Second, became possessor of New Netherland. SIR ROBERT NICHOLS, one of the three commissioners appointed to receive the surrender of the Dutch, was the first English governor of the newly-named province of New York. As Long Island then contained a large proportion of the population, an assembly of deputies was called there, to whom Nichols submitted a body of laws for the colony s government. This code was known as the " Duke s Laws," and embodied many regulations as to taxa tion, the established religion (to which all had to contribute), the courts, the militia (to which all males above the age of 16 must belong), slaves and indentured servants, Indian affairs, etc. Owners of lands, having obtained their titles from the Dutch, were required to take out new grants : a regulation which secured to the governor no little profit in the matter of fees. Among the eight proprietaries of Carolina, were Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley. The king s lavish grant to the Carolina corporation was followed a few months later by a grant from the Duke of York to Carteret and Berkeley. It comprised that portion of the old province of New Nether- 16* 185 1 86 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1667 land included between the Delaware river on the west, and the lower Hudson and the ocean on the east, and which was now called NEW JERSEY in compliment to Carteret, who had been governor of the small island of Jersey in the British Chan nel. It is true, that all of this territory had, years before (in 1634), been granted to Sir Edmund Ployden, and was called by him New Albion, but as he neglected to organize settle ments, the grant became void. The proprietaries, Berkeley and Carteret, made liberal con cessions to emigrants, who came in considerable numbers, principally Puritans, from Long Island and New England. No quit-rent for the land was to be required from the settlers for six years, that is to say, until 1670. Elizabeth-town, so named in honor of Lady Carteret, was chosen the seat of government; and at Bergen, Newark, Shrewsbury, and other places in the neighborhood of Raritan and Newark bays, set tlements quickly arose. Nichols was much displeased when he heard that the Duke of York had given away the choicest part of his province, and created a separate government ; for, before being aware of the transaction, he had himself per mitted settlers on the site of Elizabeth-town, to purchase land of the Indians. This " Elizabeth-town Purchase," as it was called, was the occasion of considerable litigation. PHILIP CARTERET, a kinsman of Sir George Carteret, was appointed (1665) first governor of New Jersey. When the time came for the payment of the quit-rents, there was a general refusal to accede to the claim of the pro prietaries, many of the settlers alleging that it was sufficient that they had already once paid the Indians for the soil. Governor Carteret not being able to secure compliance with the law, returned to England. In the meantime (1667), FRAN CIS LOVELACE had succeeded Nichols as governor of New York, and he too found himself thwarted in the matter of tax- collecting ; for the Duke of York, without the concurrence 1 674] EAST AND WEST NEW JERSEY. 187 of the assembly, having laid a heavy duty upon all imports and exports, a number of the towns sent in their protest but the paper was ordered to be publicly burnt. These disputes, for the time, were brought to an unexpected termination by the appearance, in 1673, of a Dutch fleet be fore Manhattan island ; for Holland and England were again at war. The summons to surrender was readily complied with, and the example as promptly followed by Long Island, New Jersey and the Delaware bay settlements. But upon the con clusion of a treaty of peace between the two kingdoms, the American colonies were returned to their English owners, having been little over a year in possession of the Dutch. Major EDMUND ANDROS appeared in New York as governor in behalf of the Duke of York. Andros was disposed to make arbitrary use of his position, again laying claim to the territory between the Hudson and Connecticut rivers. Not being successful in this attempted invasion, he had no difficulty in obtaining possession of the sparsely settled country between the Kennebec and Penobscot, where a fort was erected, and the country called by the name of Cornwall. Previously, that portion of the present state of Maine had been known by the Indian name of Sagadahoc, and for a number of years had been under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts. EAST AND WEST NEW JERSEY. New Jersey had been ten years an organized province, when, in 1674, the year of the treaty between England and Holland, Berkeley sold his half-share to EDWARD BYLLINGE and JOHN FENWICK, members of the Society of Friends. On the east of Delaware bay, near an old fort of the Swedes, Fenwick himself established a colony, and called the place Salem. To avoid troublesome questions of jurisdiction, it was decided to divide the province into two parts. The line 1 88 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1677 was drawn from a point on the upper Delaware river south- eastwardly to Little Egg Harbor ; in other words, from the locality of Minisink island to Tuckerton, with Princeton near the centre of the line. East Jersey thence became the sep arate property of Carteret, and West Jersey that of Byllinge and Fenwick. WILLIAM PENN was largely interested in am icably arranging the questions of dispute which arose between the various owners. Byllinge not being able to retain his property, it was divided into shares and sold for his benefit ; Penn and other Friends being the principal purchasers. Many of that denomination emigrated thither, with Thomas Olive and others, agents for the share-holders, and in 1677, Burlington on the Delaware, was founded. Several years later (1681) Byllinge was ap pointed governor. The laws of the colony were founded on the principle contained in the message of the Quaker pro prietaries to the emigrants: "We lay a foundation for after- ages to understand their liberty as men and as Christians, that they may not be brought into bondage, but by their own consent ; for we put the power in the people." The " Conces sions" agreed upon between the proprietaries and the settlers gave general satisfaction. A fair understanding was had with the Indians of the Dela ware tribe. They, together with the Minsi or Minisinks of the upper Delaware valley, formed the two chief divisions of the Lenni-Lenape Indians the latter a section of the great Algon quin race. And since the settlers made no use of warlike weapons, peace and good-will prevailed, and a thriving com munity of yeomen soon established homesteads and meeting houses in the wilderness clearings. " You are our brothers," said the sachems, at the council in Bur lington woods (1677), " and we will live like brothers with you. We will have a broad path for you and us to walk in. If an English man falls asleep in this path, the Indian shall pass him by and say, 1682] EAST AND WEST NEW JERSEY. 189 He is an Englishman, he is asleep, let him alone. The path shall be plain ; there shall not be in it a stump to hurt the feet: Some years before Burlington was founded, a native while under the in fluence of ardent spirits, obtained from the Swedes, had murdered one of the settlers. The Indians now requested an absolute pro hibition of the sale of strong liquors, which was cheerfully complied with by the Friends, who were anxious to remove all " stumps," or stumbling-blocks, from the Indians path. New Jersey, to her great honor, was never guilty of the blood of the red men. In East Jersey, Philip Carteret had come back as governor (1674), and though some trouble still continued about quit- rents, much more dissatisfaction was caused by the course of Governor Andros of New York, who would not permit vessels to land goods in New Jersey unless they had first paid duties to him, hoping by that means to prevent direct trade with England. Having succeeded in enforcing this rule, Andros even claimed to have jurisdiction over East Jersey by virtue of his commission from the Duke of York. Carteret refusing to recognize his authority, Andros sent a squad of soldiers, who laid hold of the governor while in bed, and carried him over to New York. In addition to this, Andros claiming to act as governor of West Jersey, assumed control over Delaware bay, and demanded that duties be paid by all vessels entering those waters. It becoming necessary to submit the question of authority to arbitrators in England, it was their decision that the duke and his high-handed agent were in error. The firm, but respectful remonstrance presented by the Quaker proprietaries, resulting in the discontinuance of the customs-tax and the relinquishment by the Duke of York of all claim to West Jersey, exhibits what might probably have been accomplished in Virginia by Nathaniel Bacon, had he used his fine talents in that direction instead of endeavoring to gain his end by the sword. Upon the death of Carteret (1682), East Jersey being offered for sale, it became the property of an associated com pany of twelve Friends, among whom were William Penn and I 9 o HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1685 ROBERT BARCLAY, the Apologist the latter being appointed governor, although not residing in the province. In Scot land, the attempt of the royal house of Stuart to establish the Episcopal religion, had resulted in a severe persecution of the Presbyterians, who were now eager to find a safe asylum from their tormentors. The Friends, therefore, associating with themselves twelve others, mostly Scotch Presbyterians, a way of escape and of perfect freedom of conscience was offered to the oppressed, who, in large numbers embraced the favor ing opportunity. One of the Scotch proprietors was the EARL OF PERTH, from whom was named Perth-Amboy, at the head of Raritan bay a place which it was hoped would prove a commercial port even rivalling New York. Another was LORD NEIL CAMPBELL, who sent over a large colony (1684), and for a short time was governor, having succeeded Barclay. Andros having gone to England to answer the complaints against him in regard to usurpations in East and West Jersey, THOMAS DONGAN was sent out in 1683, instructed to call a representative assembly of the people such as they had been clamoring for. Two years later the Duke of York, by the death of his brother Charles II. , became king of England, and, claiming jurisdiction over the province of New Jersey, and desiring to consolidate the colonies, he annexed it to New York. Nevertheless, the right of the proprietaries to the soil remained unimpaired. EXPLORATIONS OF THE FRENCH JESUITS. MARQUETTE. In chapter ix. an account was given of the establishment of Jesuit missions among the Hurons, and of the ruin that came upon that nation by the incursions of the Iroquois. Numbers of the conquered warriors had been allowed to join the Five Nations who comprised the Iroquois confederacy, 1 668] EXPLORATIONS OF FRENCH JESUITS. 191 and thither again came the missionaries, seeking them. They were not turned away. But when in 1656, a colony of French from Montreal, established themselves on the Oswego near the country of the Oneidas, the jealousy of the Indians was aroused, and the settlers and priests were obliged to depart. The Mohawks especially, rejoicing in the mighty weapons of war which they had recently obtained, manifested the greatest hostility toward the French intruders; and, sad to say, this revengeful spirit was freely encouraged by the Dutch colonists and their English successors. The spiritual welfare of the Indians weighed nothing against dominion and monopoly of trade the prizes which the whites thirsted for. The condition of affairs in Canada had become so discour aging that the "Company of New France," organized with such eclat by Cardinal Richelieu, was dissolved, and, in 1664 the French West India Company, which had been formed for purposes of trade and settlement in certain islands of the Caribbean sea, was also intrusted by King Louis XIV. with the control of New France. A military force was at once sent over, and forts constructed at Sorel and Chambly (upon the river connecting Lake Champlain with the St. Lawrence), to hold the Iroquois in check. As an efficient ally and entering wedge, the Jesuits were encouraged to pursue their labors ; and not they only, but the Recollect friars, who, after a forty years exclusion, were now allowed re-entrance. On the southern shore of Sault St. Marie, the outlet of Lake Superior where Jogues had assem bled 2000 Chippeways twenty-five years before a mission was established (1668) by three adventurous priests, Mar- quette, Allouez, and Dablon. It was the first settlement of the whites in the North-west. Allouez had explored the southern shores of the great lake beyond, and had also heard of the mighty river that flowed toward the south. Along the shores of Lake Michigan, where Chicago, Milwaukee and I 9 2 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1673 other populous cities now stand, friendly visits were paid to the Indians and missionary stations were planted. MARQUETTE, anxious to reach the great river, received offi cial authority to undertake the exploration. With several companions one of whom was JOLIET, a trader from Que bec and accompanied by Indian guides, they entered the Green bay of Lake Michigan, and, at its south-west extremity passed into Fox river ; thence by the chain of small lakes and a narrow portage, they came to the Wisconsin, down which they floated in their bark canoes to the "Father of Waters." At the portage, their Indian guides had deserted them, being afraid to risk an encounter with the hostile Dacotahs. Thus, in 1673, one hundred and thirty-two years after De Soto was buried beneath its waters, the Mississippi was re-discovered by the French Jesuits. Descending the majestic river nearly 200 miles, they landed at a village by the mouth of a stream, called by the Indians the Moingona, a name which, by the French, became altered into Des Moines. Thus Marquette and Joliet were the first white men who trod the soil of Iowa. Continuing their course, and noticing where the Missouri, the Ohio, and other large streams discharged their floods into the one mighty, swift-rolling tide, they finally came to the mouth of the Ar kansas. Satisfied that the Mississippi found its outlet into the Gulf of Mexico, yet fearful of meeting with the Span iards in that quarter, they turned their canoes up stream. With much labor they ascended as far as the mouth of the Illinois, and, rightly judging that its north-eastward course would bring them to Lake Michigan by a more direct route than that of the Wisconsin, they paddled up the former stream, whose headwaters nearly approach the lake. Much to their surprise they had met with very few Indians. The French occupation of the Mississippi Valley, they perceived, need meet with little opposition from the children of the forest. 1 679] LA SALLE. 193 LA SALLE. AN IROQUOIS WAR. At the time of Marquette s and Joliet s discovery, the COUNT DE FRONTENAC was governor-general of Canada. Near the eastern extremity of Lake Ontario, on the Canada side (where Kingston now stands), was built, in 1675, Fort Frontenac. Like the forsaken Oswego settlement to the south, it was intended to serve as a bulwark against the Iro- quois. An enterprising Frenchman, by name LA SALLE, educated as a Jesuit but turned fortune-hunter, was appointed to the command of this post, and, as a condition that he should discharge his duties acceptably, was granted a large tract of land adjacent, and the sole right of trade with the Five Nations. But La Salle, whose ardor appeared to be quite uncontrollable, refused to be confined by the walls of a fort, and accordingly, being desirous of completing the dis covery of the Mississippi, he repaired to France, obtained the royal permit, and likewise the monopoly of trade in buffalo skins. Elated at his success, La Salle returned to Fort Frontenac, and, with some assistants and supplies, passed up Lake Onta rio (1678), and around Niagara Falls into Lake Erie. Near where Buffalo now stands, the little bark " Griffin" was built, the pioneer of all the modern craft on those inland seas. Accompanied by Tonti, the lieutenant of his company, by HENNEPIN, a priest, and several Recollect friars, La Salle sailed westward in the summer of 1679, passed through the Strait of Detroit and Lake St. Clair into Lake Huron ; thence northward, the length of the latter, to the Strait of Mack inaw. Here was the mission-station from which Marquette had started. La Salle kept on by Marquette s route to Green bay, where the Griffin, laden with furs, was sent back, with orders to return quickly with supplies, to the south end of Lake Michigan. i 17 194 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1684 Unfortunately, the Griffin was wrecked. La Salle, in the meantime, had gone to the appointed rendezvous and built there a trading-post. Weary of waiting for the vessel, of the disaster to which he as yet knew nothing, he and his men continued on their course to the Illinois river, and below the present Peoria built a second fort, called Crevecceur. From here La Salle with but three attendants made his way back to Fort Frontenac, in order to hasten the forwarding of supplies, leaving instructions with Hennepin to explore the headwaters of the Mississippi. Hennepin and a companion accordingly descended the Illinois to its outlet ; then ascend ing the Mississippi as far as the Falls of St. Anthony, returned by the Wisconsin and Fox river route to Green bay. Henne pin, without reporting himself again at Fort Crevecceur, went back to France, and published an account of his lake-and- river voyages. When La Salle returned from Fort Frentenac, he found the two posts at Miami and Crevecceur deserted. The Iroquois, in addition to their former exploits, had recently driven south ward the Guyandots and Shawnees of the Ohio river, leaving the way open to attack the tribes of the Illinois, and, in con sequence of this war, Tonti and his men had fled in alarm to Green bay. La Salle, however, built another fort, and having obtained further assistance, constructed a barge, and descended the Mississippi to the Gulf. To the country on both sides of the river the name of LOUISIANA was given, in honor of the reigning French king; and La Salle, having taken formal possession of the same for his royal employer, returned by way of Quebec to France. Two hundred and eighty persons joined the new expedition which, in 1684, sailed with the design of planting a colony at the mouth of the Mississippi. There were priests and sol diers, farmers and artisans, besides an ample supply of food and implements, that there might be no delay in establishing 1684] AN IKOQUOIS WAR. 195 homes and in beginning life in the New World under happy auspices. But sorrowful was the actual result : for, the voy agers having missed the entrance of the river, passed to the westward, after a futile search, and landed somewhere on the Texas coast, where they built a fort. Having vainly en deavored to reach the Mississippi by land, at last La Salle, with but sixteen men, took up his march for Canada, leaving the rest of the survivors, only twenty in number, at the fort. In a dispute or mutiny, La Salle was murdered by some of his men, a few only of whom were finally found by Tonti, who had descended the Mississippi in search of the commander. The men who had been left at the fort probably perished, for nothing was heard of them afterward. While these events were transpiring in the west, the French in Canada had become involved in a war with the Five Na tions. At a council held at Albany in 1684, those tribes had been met by Governors Effingham of Virginia, and Dongan, of New York, and^Sving professed peace for the English, they were then counselled not to treat the French also as brethren and Christians, but to let them feel the full weight of their enmity. Hence, when a messenger arrived imme diately afterward from DE LA BARRE, the French governor- general, his complaints were not heeded. De la Barre, with about 1500 French and Indians, now crossed the east end of Lake Ontario, and disembarking, ad vanced into the country of the Onondagas the central tribe of the Five Nations. But his men were so wasted by malaria contracted while on the shore of the lake, that they were glad to make peace with the Indians, without venturing the issue of a battle. Soon afterward, De la Barre was superseded by DENONVILLE, whose army of French and allies advanced into the country of the Senecas. An infamous deed is connected with this invasion. Lam- berville, a French missionary among the Onondagas, was re- 196 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1688 quested to invite some of the Iroquois chiefs to a conference. The invitation was trustfully accepted ; but the warriors being surrounded were overcome, placed in irons, and sent to France to work in the galleys. Though Lamberville, the innocent occasion of this act of perfidy, might have properly looked for death at the hands of the savages, yet a chief who loved him well, furnished him with a guide, by whom he was led away to a place of safety. Denonville and his troops then overran the Seneca country, and at Niagara constructed a fort, that the French might better control the fur-trade of the Great Lakes. But as soon as Denonville withdrew from the interior, the Senecas in their turn threatened an invasion ; whereupon the garrison in alarm abandoned the fort (1688). The following year the Iroquois, burning with revenge, advanced to Montreal, killed 200 persons and took prisoners as many more, spreading the ter ror of their name far up and down the St. Lawrence. The evil deed of Denonville had produced a ripe harvest of ruin and wretchedness. CHAPTER XV. NEW ENGLAND UNDER CHARLES II. AND JAMES II. 1660 1689. CONNECTICUT AND RHODE ISLAND. A NUMBER of those judges who had condemned Charles the First to death, and who were known thereafter as the Regicides, were, at the Restoration, apprehended and hung. Others of them sought safety in flight. Three of these, Whalley, Goffe and Dixwell, escaped to New England. Dix- well settled at New Haven, and was not disturbed; but Whalley and Goffe, for whose apprehension large rewards had been offered, were hotly pursued from one place of refuge to another, by Indians as well as by the English. Sometimes they lodged in houses, sometimes in the forest, in clefts of the rock and in caves, until at last they were offered shelter at the little hamlet of Hadley, in the valley of the Connec ticut, near the base of Mount Holyoke. The younger Winthrop was chosen (1662) by the Connec ticut colonists to obtain from the new king a charter. He was well adapted for the important service, being a man of much intelligence, of amiable address and gentle manners, who in his younger days had travelled extensively in Europe, seeking the society of men of learning and of piety. Subse quently, as the founder of a State in the New World, he had given proof of his liberality of heart by refusing to assent to the persecution of the Quakers, begging of the other magis< 17* 197 198 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1664 trates that they should beware of shedding the blood of those who were sufferers for conscience sake. We have also seen, (p. 134), that mainly by his mediation the occupation of New Netherland by the English in 1664, was accomplished with out strife, and the rights of residents fully protected. For his services in securing to Connecticut so great a boon as a char ter which conferred all the privileges of self-government they desired, the grateful inhabitants annually elected him their governor for the space of fourteen years. Notwithstanding some opposition and clashing of interests at first, the New Haven settlements, by the able and concili atory endeavors of Winthrop, became merged (1664) with the larger, Connecticut colony; and henceforth, as one State and under one charter, they progressed happily together. The population steadily increased ; good rulers were chosen ; the interests of religion and education were fostered. The colo nists were a people of frugal habits, chiefly husbandmen, who occupied farms not too extensive to be well cultivated ; and, inasmuch as the power of government was under their own control, the expenses of its administration were regulated so as not to become a burden. They were fortunately exempt from the high-proprietary system of Carolina and Virginia, which was the occasion of so much discontent in those prov inces. . The whole annual expenditure of the Connecticut government was not equal to the salary exacted by Berkeley alone for his bad rulership of the Virginia planters. Rhode Island was equally successful with Connecticut, in obtaining from King Charles a liberal charter; and it was similarly fortunate in having good men to represent its cause to royalty. Roger Williams and John Clarke of Rhode Island, were, like Winthrop of Connecticut, fully persuaded that any infringement upon the rights of conscience was certainly not pleasing in the Divine sight. The following is the clause in the charter obtained in 1663 by Williams and Clarke which 1671] CONNECTICUT AND RHODE ISLAND. 199 affirms equality of religious rights: "No person within the said colony, at any time hereafter, shall be any wise molested, punished, disquieted, or called in question, for any difference in opinion in matters of religion ; every person may at all times freely and fully enjoy his own judgment and conscience in matters of religious concernments." In 1671, eight years after the charter had been obtained, one of its provisions was seriously infringed by the passage of a law by the assembly, declaring that any one who should speak at a town meeting against the payment of certain assess ments, would be liable to a severe penalty. In the next year, George Fox, who, in pursuance of a religious concern had come from England, happened to be in Rhode Island. It was just previous to that visit to Nansemond and Albemarle which has already been spoken of. The blessings of a good government, and the duty of well-intentioned people to pro vide the same, were truths very clear to the mind of the sturdy Quaker ; for nothing could be plainer than that if the wicked and the unjust were allowed to rule, crime would of necessity increase, and souls be lost at a faster rate than the agencies for good could save them. Hence Friends were ad monished by Fox to be diligent in securing "guards against oppression," and in instructing and supporting all the people in their rights. The election resulted in the choice of magis trates opposed to the obnoxious law, and in consequence the former freedom of debate was restored. Although not politicians by choice, yet the necessity laid upon them through a sense of duty, appears to have brought the Friends of those days frequently into prominence in civil life. On behalf of liberty of conscience and enlightened government, William Penn, a few years later, gave advice similar to that of George Fox : " Your well-being," he says, in his forcible appeal to the electors of Eng land, "depends upon your preservation of your right in the govern ment. You are free : God, and nature, and the constitution, have 200 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1646 made you trustees for posterity. Choose men who will, by all just and legal ways, firmly keep and zealously promote your power." Nevertheless, the scruples of Friends as to oaths and against taking part in war, have debarred them for the most part from accepting political office. JOHN ELIOT. THE PRAYING INDIANS OF MASSACHUSETTS. John Eliot, who is also known in New England history by the title of the " Apostle to the Indians," was educated at an English university, where he manifested a special fondness for the study of the languages a disposition of mind which greatly influenced his future pursuits. Coming to Boston but a year or two after it was founded, Eliot presently became interested in the welfare and education of the Indians, whom he was strongly inclined to believe were the descendants of the lost tribes of Israel. In 1646, he began to preach to the Indians of NONATUM, a village ten miles west of Boston ; and here was established the first civilized Christian settlement of natives in the English colonies of America. Eliot was ably assisted in his work by Waban, one of the chief men of the tribe. Through their endeavors, the In dians were instructed to improve the construction of their huts ; to build stone walls and dig ditches ; and to abide by rules which were drawn up for their government. It was in tended, as far as practicable, to bring the Indians into well- ordered towns, where they should be regularly employed in arts and trades, and where a proper management of their civil affairs should go hand in hand with religious improve ment. Great opposition was experienced from most of the sachems and the powows or priests ; the latter well-knowing that their previous juggling rule over the spiritual interests of their subjects must be weakened or entirely lost by the change. Encouraged by some moderate contributions of money from 1674] JOHN ELIOT. 201 England, an entirely new village was built at Natick, eight miles west of Nonatum, where there was more room for the development of agriculture and for the planting of orchards. In all, seven of these villages of the "Praying Indians" (so they were called) were organized around Boston. Eliot s plan of government for the Indians was that T< they were to be wholly governed by the Scriptures in all things, both in church and state; the Lord should be their law-giver, their judge, and their king;" and accordingly he began to divide them as were the Israelites in the wilderness, with rulers over hundreds, over fifties, and over tens. Subse quently, however, there was a court appointed to be held among the villages, presided over by a magistrate chosen to act with the Indian rulers. The first of these magistrates was DANIEL GOOKIN, an upright and intelligent man, whose zeal for the natives, like that of Eliot s, exposed him to much opposition and derision from many of the colonists, who de nied that the experiment could be a success. In the meantime Eliot toiled on undaunted, and, having mastered the structure of the language, began the arduous task of translating the New Testament into the native dialect. The book was printed in 1661 ; the Old Testament followed two years later, and, after that, there were printed sundry religious books and a grammar. In the work of publishing, the translator was materially aided by an Indian called James the Printer, who discharged the duties of proof-reader and pressman. Within the jurisdiction of Plymouth colony also, several settlements of Praying Indians were established on the islands of Martha s Vineyard and Nantucket, and on the promontory of Cape Cod. These were placed under the care of THOMAS MAYHEW, whose family, for the space of five generations (170 years) continued their useful labors. In 1673 anc ^ l ^74) Eliot and Gookin visited the country of the Nipmucks, about 50 i* 202 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, [1674 miles south-west of Boston, and there organized seven other communities, known as the " new praying towns." A year later, when the disastrous Indian war broke out, there were probably about 3500 natives in Massachusetts and Plymouth who had been brought under the direct care of the whites. Although the selling of spirituous liquors to the Indians was for bidden by law in Massachusetts, the prohibition was openly evaded. Gookin says that drunkenness could not be charged to the Indians before the whites came to America, and adds : " The English in New England have cause to be greatly humbled before God, that they have been, and are, instrumental to cause these Indians to commit this great evil and beastly sin of drunkenness." His testi mony on this point is confirmed by Heckewelder, who says : " The Mexicans have their pulque and other indigenous beverages of an inebriating nature ; but the North American Indians, before their intercourse with us commenced, had absolutely nothing of the kind." KING PHILIP S WAR. First to welcome the Puritan pilgrims when they landed at Plymouth, had been Massasoit, sachem of the Wampanoags. When Roger Williams, driven into exile by the stern decree of these Puritan colonists, wandered forth alone and in mid winter into the gloomy forest, the wigwam of the same Massa soit afforded shelter to the destined founder of Rhode Island. But now the old chief was dead. Wamsutta, or Alexander, the elder son, had been accused of plotting with the Narra- gansetts, and, while on the journey to Boston to answer the charge, fell sick of a fever and died ; and his brother META- COMET, or Philip, ruled in his place. Year by year the settlers, at a trifling cost, had possessed themselves of the Indian lands, until at last the Wampanoags found that their once broad domain had narrowed to the little peninsulas about Mount Hope bay, east of the great bay of Narragansett. A feeling of mutual distrust prevailed, for the 1675] KING PHILIP S WAR. 203 Indians were irritated by the loss of their hunting-grounds and their present state of subjection to the English ; while the latter, viewing the discontent of the red men with sus picion, were ready to charge them with all manner of dark designs. The peace which had lasted nearly forty years since the Pequods were crushed, was about to be broken. A historian, by no means friendly to the Indians, observes of this war : " There was too much of positiveness and arrogance in the Englishman s way of asserting his claims, even when those claims were in every respect moderate and equitable ; and his kindness, even when most cordial and beneficent, wore a mien of condescen sion and pity." Penn s successful treatment, the same as the ap proved method of the present day, could not have been possibly attainable, without a truthful exhibition of Christian candor and meekness. Hence, while it is admitted that Philip and his warriors were much to blame for their behavior, yet the odium of this savage war will always rest with the Puritans, because it is evident that many of them had not manifested that forbearance and conciliation which their profession of a purer religion than that of the natives called for. The immediate cause of the war was the circumstance that information had been given to the colonists by an Indian, that a combination of the tribes had been formed for the pur pose of recovering their liberty and lands. The informer was murdered by some of the Wampanoags, while the mur derers in their turn were seized, and, having been tried by a jury, partly of Indians, were convicted of the deed and hung. It has been strongly asserted that the charge of a conspiracy was untrue, but whether such was the case or not, the Indians, with "King Philip" as their leader, prepared to wreak their revenge. CANONCHET, the son of Miantonomah, chief of the Narragansetts, and Wetamoo, the widow of Wamsutta, entered into the league the Indian Revolution of 1675. Driven from Mount Hope by the militia of Massachusetts and Plymouth and their Mohegan allies, Philip and his war- 204 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1676 riors, having burnt the villages of Dartmouth and Taunton and butchered many of the inhabitants, fled westward to the country of the Nipmucks. In the valley of the Connecticut there were at that time, within the Massachusetts border, six settlements of the whites; and of these, Northfield, Deerfield and Springfield were set on fire, while Hatfield, Hadley and Northampton, though assaulted, escaped destruction. Near Deerfield, the little stream called Bloody Brook commemo rates the massacre of over a hundred farmers and militia, who were carrying their harvested grain to the lower towns. The Indians did not enter the borders of the Connecticut colony. When winter approached, the colonists having appointed JOSIAH WINSLOW, the governor of Plymouth, their com mander, penetrated into the country of the Narragansetts on the west of the bay of that name. Canonchet and his tribe had fortified themselves in a palisadoed enclosure, situated on a rising ground in the midst of a swamp, and not far from the fort where the Pequods had met their signal defeat. In the same way were the Narragansetts now to fall. Their assailants suffered great loss before an entrance to the fort could be effected, but that point gained, the Indians were shot down by hundreds, their wigwams set on fire, and great numbers, especially women and babes, perished in the flames. In this awful battle, known as the Swamp Fight, nearly a thousand warriors were supposed to have been slain ; of the English, one-fourth that number were killed and wounded. East of the six Massachusetts settlements on the Connecti cut, there was a forest country unoccupied as yet by the Eng lish, except at one point the village of Brookfield. This place had been set on fire early in the war, and now with the open ing of 1676, many settlements nearer to Boston, as Lancaster, Sudbury, Andover, etc., were sacked and burned. Even Ply mouth was attacked ; and in Rhode Island, Providence, War wick and numerous other places were fired. The dwellers in 1676] KING PHILIPS WAR. 205 lonely habitations by the forest-side, were kept in a constant state of excitement and dread, their fears destined too often to be terribly realized. The magistrates, in the meantime, had levied additional recruits, who, being aided by the Mohe- gans, and by Ninigret, sachem of the Niantics, the Narra- gansetts were pursued, and Canonchet their chief was cap tured. Being given up to his bitter enemies the Mohegans, he met with the same fate at their hands as did his father before him. The Nipmucks of the "new praying towns" mostly joined the hostile Indians. The converts on Cape Cod and Martha s Vineyard did not unite with their brethren in the war; but many of those around Boston were persuaded to do so, some espousing the cause of Philip, and others taking part with the colonists. Thus the lessons of love and good-will which had been taught them, were greatly marred in practice ; their vil lages were broken up ; and the converts who remained were discouraged and weakened in faith. A number of the non- combatant Indians, having been brought to trial upon a charge of being concerned in murdering several persons near Lan caster, Eliot and Gookin (who believed the allegation to be false) were treated with suspicion and reviling by the colo nists because they took the part of the Indians. Several hundred of them were removed to Deer island, in Boston harbor, where they experienced much unmerited privation. Among numerous instances of harsh treatment which happened to these Indians on account of false accusations, was the result which followed the burning of a barn at Chelmsford the act of some members of a hostile tribe. The exasperated settlers went to a village of Christian Indians, and, having called them to come out of their wigwams, fired upon the innocent and unsuspecting natives, killing one and wounding five others. Dismayed at this brutal attack they fled far into the forests, and were only induced to return when winter approached and starvation threatened them. " We are not sorry," they said to the messengers who sought them, 18 206 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1676 " for what we leave behind ; but we are sorry that the English have driven us from our praying to God, and from our teacher. We did begin to understand a little of praying to God." The war was finally concluded by the death of Philip, who, having returned to Mount Hope, was surrounded by a scouting party led by Captain Benjamin Church, and shot dead in his effort to escape. Philip s only son, the last of the family of Massasoit, was sent as a slave to Bermuda. Let us now see what was the cost of this war to the whites. Of the eighty or more towns in Massachusetts and Plymouth, ten had been totally destroyed, while forty had been more or less damaged by fire. About 600 men, of military age, had been killed, or were taken prisoners and never again heard of. The debt incurred by Plymouth colony was believed to have exceeded the value of all the personal property of its people. The Praying Indians, with great labor had been brought to the threshold of the Christian faith, to find that many of its professors were not themselves led by its persua sive teachings ; being, when aggrieved but too ready to cite for their warrant, the Jewish maxims of war, while denouncing their barbarian enemies as very Philistines. But the contest, unfortunately, also extended to the prov inces east of the Merrimac. The state of Maine, which at present is comprised between the Piscataqua river on the west and the St. Croix on the east, was at that time divided into three sections, under as many different governments. The territory between the St. Croix and the Penobscot, although claimed by the English, was considered by the French to be part of their Acadie ; from the Penobscot to the Kennebec was the district of Cornwall, held as a tributary province by Governor Andros for the Duke of York ; from the Kennebec to the Piscataqua, was the proper colony of Maine, being under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts, as was also the adja- 1678] KING PHILIPS WAR. 207 cent colony of New Hampshire. In the latter territory the sagamore Passaconaway, and after him his son Wannalancet, always manifested a friendship for the English. The natives of Maine and Cornwall had experienced much unjust treat ment from a number of the rude-mannered settlers, so that upon intelligence reaching them of the successful war of Philip and his allies, they too entered upon the same career of revenge. In a very short time all the Cornwall habitations were broken up and the settlers either killed or driven away. Many of the fugitives having found refuge on Monhegan and other islands, a vessel sent by Andros conveyed them to a place of safety. In Maine and New Hampshire, nearly one-half the settlements were destroyed, and the loss of life was greater in proportion than it had been in Massachusetts, for the In dians readily obtained arms and ammunition from the French on the east of the Penobscot. Major Waldron, a native of Dover, was commissioned by the Boston authorities to carry on the war. There came to Dover a body of 400 natives to treat for peace. Waldron proposed to the Indians to engage in a sham fight ; but having induced them to discharge their fire-arms, his troops surrounded the natives and made them prisoners. Allowing half of them to depart, the rest he sent captives to Boston, alleging that they were peace-breakers and murderers. The most of these were transported as slaves to the West Indies. At the mouth of the Kennebec, Waldron built a fort and appointed a meeting with a number of the sachems. Having discovered some lances in one of the canoes, the whites professed to mistrust the purpose of the Indians, and thereupon attacked and killed ten of the emissaries. The war began again with renewed fury and havoc, and continued until the spring of 1678, when a treaty was made at Casco with SQUANDO, sagamore of the Tarrantines, and other chiefs, 208 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1684 by which the English agreed to pay the Indians a regular annuity in corn. THE COLONIAL CHARTERS DEMANDED. ANDROS, GOVERNOR OF NEW ENGLAND. About the time that the war terminated in Massachusetts, but while it was yet in progress beyond the Merrimac, King Charles sent over a commissioner, Edward Randolph, to inquire into the condition of the New England colonies, with the object in view of assuming the direct government of those provinces by recalling their charters. Royalty complained of colonial independence of action, not only because the crown had not been called upon to furnish aid in the late war, but because the colony had exercised powers not belonging to it. The jurisdiction of Massachusetts over Maine and New Hampshire was denied as not being in accordance with the intent of its charter; but Massachusetts purchased (1677) the old Gorges claim and thus became proprietary of Maine, and appointed its magistrates. The Mason claim for New Hampshire, how ever, was annulled by the crown. Being organized as a royal province (1680), EDWARD CRANFIELD was appointed its gov ernor ; but his measures were very unpopular with the colo nists, and after serving four years he was recalled at his own request. In Massachusetts, the royal proceedings caused great dis content. Randolph, in the interest of the king, went back and forth from England to the colony, and finally appeared with a writ by which the colony was arraigned to answer before an English court the charges against it, and to submit to an alteration of its charter. This the commissioners for the colony refused to do, whereupon, in 1684, the court decided that the charter of Massachusetts was forfeited. Two years later appeared Sir Edmund Andros, appointed to be governor 1689] ANDROS, GOVERNOR OF NEW ENGLAND. 209 of all New England, from Long Island Sound to the borders of the French province of Acadie. Forcible entrance and toleration were secured by the governor for the established Episcopal religion of England. His arbitrary rule and that of Randolph, his secretary, occasioned the same grievous complaints as those which had already broken out in New- York and New Jersey. It will be remembered that upon the cession of New Netherland, the English owners declared that the Dutch land-patents must be superseded by new ones. This rule was applied in Massachusetts, the court fees at the same time being increased enormously : so that Andros not only imitated the example of Nichols, but very much ex ceeded it. Rhode Island, after some demur, also gave up its charter. Andros, anticipating more resistance from Connecticut, pro ceeded thither with a small armed force. While the subject of his errand was being earnestly debated in the assembly- room, night had come on. Suddenly the lights were extin guished, but when they were re-lit, the charter was gone. It was hidden in the hollow of an oak, yet notwithstanding its abstraction Andros assumed the control of the colony. The commission of Dongan, governor of New York, being like wise revoked, Andros finally added to his prior dignities the governorship of that province as well as of New Jersey. But when, in the spring of 1689, tne stirring news was re ceived at Boston that James the Second was an exile, and that William, Prince of Orange, and Mary, his wife, were the ruling sovereigns of England, Andros, Randolph, and about fifty of their retainers were placed in close confinement, and the people again came under the old charter. The same revolution was also peacefully accomplished in the other New England colonies; but in New York, Maryland and Virginia much more opposition was manifested. 18* CHAPTER XVI. PENNSYLVANIA. 1681 1692. WILLIAM PENN AND THE ROYAL GRANT. WILLIAM PENN was the only son of that Admiral Penn who had acquired celebrity as commander of the English fleet at the conquest of Jamaica, and also for the part he had taken in the subsequent war against the Dutch. A large sum of money was due from the government to the admiral, for arrearages of pay, and for money advanced by him to the naval service ; and it was in consideration of this claim that William Penn, several years after the death of his father, pe- tioned King Charles the Second for a tract of land on the Delaware river north and east of Maryland. After consider ing the objections of Lord Baltimore, as proprietary of Mary land, and of the Duke of York, as proprietary of New York and of the counties of New Castle, Kent and Sussex on the Delaware, the request of Penn was complied with, and in the 3d month (March), 1681, he was granted a charter with full powers of government, for the tract of land thereafter to be called PENNSYLVANIA. Penn s request for the ownership of a province was prompted by no selfish purpose of gain, but simply that he might have it in his power to offer to the persecuted people of all relig ious creeds, and especially those of the Society of Friends, a safe refuge from their oppressors. He knew very well, by 1 68 1] WILLIAM PENN AND THE ROYAL GRANT. 2 n hard experience, not a few of the evils of illiberal and unjust government, and strong and sincere was his hope to exhibit to mankind a better example. Like metal that is tempered for excellent service by fire and frequent hammerings, so Penn had been well prepared for undertaking what he called the " Holy Experiment." Educated at Oxford, Penn had afterward visited various parts of Europe, becoming conversant with the customs of the people and the peculiarities of their governments ; but having on his return embraced the doctrines of the despised sect of Quakers, he was turned out of his father s house, and, at the early age of twenty-four, became a prisoner in the tower of London. Being released from confinement, he was arrested, under the persecuting "Conventicle Act," for merely speaking at a meeting ; but his trial before the judge, which is memorable for his defence of the jury s right to freedom of decision, resulted in a verdict of not guilty. Yet he was again imprisoned half a year for a similar offence ; then being set at liberty, he travelled in Germany, and, later, became concerned in the affairs of East and West Jersey. Perm s purity of purpose is best set forth in his own letter to his friends, while preparing for the settlement and government of Penn sylvania : " Because I have been somewhat exercised at times," he remarks, "about the nature and end of government among men, it is reasonable to expect that I should endeavor to establish a just and righteous one in the province, that others may take example by it: truly this my heart desires. For the nations want a prece dent ; and till vice and corrupt manners be impartially rebuked and punished, and till virtue and sobriety be cherished, the wrath of God will hang over nations. I do therefore desire the Lord s wis dom to guide me and those that may be concerned with me, that we may do the thing that is truly wise and just." The territory granted by King Charles, was described in the charter as extending from a point on the Delaware twelve 212 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1681 miles above New Castle, up the course of said river to the beginning of the 43d degree of latitude, and westward five degrees of longitude. The southern boundary, however, set forth an impossibility, as it required a circle of twelve miles radius to be drawn, with New Castle at its centre, which circle should touch the beginning of the 4oth degree of latitude; then to extend along that line to the western boundary. It would thus appear that the grant included three degrees of latitude from the beginning of the 4oth to the beginning of the 43d parallel but so much territory could not be taken without including portions of previous grants to New York and to Maryland. For the northern boundary, the 42d line of latitude was settled on as meaning the "beginning" of the 43d degree ; but, on the other hand, Lord Baltimore would not agree that the 39th line should mark the beginning of the 4oth degree. This inexactness of expression occasioned con siderable dispute with Lord Baltimore, who likewise claimed the three counties on the Delaware ; but the latter were de cided, by the English arbitrators, as forming no part of Mary land. Many years elapsed before the boundary line between Maryland and Pennsylvania was finally adjusted. THE GREAT TREATY AT SHACKAMAXON. Penn now published an account of the province, offering lands for sale at the low price of forty shillings per hundred acres, subject to a quit-rent of one shilling per annum. At the same time, he cautioned people who might have intentions of removing, not to make the change rashly, but to first weigh well the inconveniences of life in a new world, and, in form ing their plans, to consider the glory of the Almighty as paramount, that so His blessing might attend their honest endeavors. The testimony of one of the first settlers : " Our business here in this new land, is not so much to build houses, and establish factories, 1682] THE GREAT TREATY AT SHACKAMAXON. 213 and promote trade and manufactories that may enrich ourselves (though all these things, in their due places, are not to be neglected) as to erect temples of holiness and righteousness, which God may delight in ; to lay such lasting foundations of temperance and virtue, as may support the superstructures of our future happiness, both in this and the other world. In order to these great and glorious ends, it will well become, nay, it is the indispensable duty of all that are superiors amongst us, to make laws and initiate customs, that may tend to innocency and a harmless life, so as to avoid and pre vent all oppression and violence either to man or beast ; by which we shall strengthen the principle of well-doing, and qualify the fierce, bitter, envious, wrathful spirit." Upon the publication of Penn s proposals a great number of purchasers appeared, a body of whom, having obtained a tract of 20,000 acres of land, formed a company called the " Free Society of Traders in Pennsylvania." WILLIAM MARK- HAM was sent out by Penn, as deputy-governor, in 1681 ; there being associated with him a number of commissioners who were instructed to hold a conference with the Indians. They bore a letter of greeting from the proprietary to the natives, in which he told them that, though the king of the country where he lived had given him the province, yet he desired only to enjoy it with their love and consent ; that he desired to win and gain their love and friendship by a kind, just and peaceable life ; and that he himself would shortly come, and arrange everything, as he hoped, to their satisfaction. Accordingly, the following year (1682), Penn, accompanied by about one hundred persons, mostly of the Society of Friends, sailed in the ship Welcome for the capes of the Dela ware. The Duke of York had previously assigned to him the "three Lower Counties," afterward the state of Dela ware, bordering the west side of the bay. On the 2yth day of the loth month (October) Penn landed at New Castle, and having summoned the people to the court-house, they all English, Dutch and Swedes joyfully acknowledged his gov- 2i 4 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1682 ernment. Assuring them of the continuance of their freedom and of entire liberty of conscience, and recommending them to live in sobriety and peace, he re-appointed the former magistrates, and, re-embarking, continued a little further up the river to Upland or Chester. At Chester an assembly was called, which passed an act of union, annexing the three Lower Counties to the chartered province of Pennsylvania, and accepting with some alterations a frame of government and code of laws which Penn had prepared in England, and had sent over the previous year by Markham. The Swedes deputed one of their number to ac quaint him that " they would love, serve and obey him, with all they had," declaring, " it was the best day they ever saw." At Shackamaxon (in the present Kensington district of Phila delphia), beneath a great elm by the river s side, was held that notable interview with the Indians, which is famed as the only treaty "between those nations and the Christians, which was never sworn to and never broken." The precise date of this treaty is uncertain. In tones of kindness and with benevolent aspect, Penn ad dressed the sachems, telling them of the Great Spirit who made him and them and was the Ruler of all things in heaven and earth, and who, knowing his inmost thoughts, was aware that his heart s desire was to live in peace and friendship with the Indians, and to serve them to the utmost of his power. He told them that he and his friends came unarmed amongst them because it was not their custom to use hostile weapons against their fellow-creatures ; for their object was not to do injury and thus provoke the Great Spirit, but to do good. They were now met on the broad pathway of peace and good will, so that no advantage was to be taken on either side ; but all was to be openness, brotherhood and love. He also assured them that they were not to be driven away from their lands nor molested in their lawful pursuits ; and in 1 682] PHILADELPHIA FOUNDED. 215 case disputes arose between themselves and the settlers, they should be peaceably adjusted by a tribunal to be chosen equally by the English and Indians. Presents were given to the sachems, who, in return, handed back the peace belt of wam pum. In conclusion, Penn told them that he would not call them children or brothers only, for often parents would whip their children too severely, and brothers would differ ; neither would he compare the friendship between them to a chain, which rain might rust, or a tree might fall upon and break ; but he would esteem them as being of the same blood with the Christians the same as though they were two parts of one body. Great were the promises which the red men heard, but never were they broken while the peaceful disciples of Fox and Penn had sufficient power in the government to secure a just and friendly conduct toward them. About five years after the "great treaty," a report spread that 500 Indians had gathered on the Brandywine, with the intention of raising a general insurrection and cutting off all the English on an appointed day. The horrors of Philip s war in N>w England were fresh in people s minds, so that the dire rumor that spread on all sides created considerable alarm ; but a number of the Friends, conscious of their just dealings and honest intentions toward the natives, at once agreed to ride unarmed to the Brandywine and to know of the truth of the report. They found the old sachem lying quietly in his wigwam upon a sort of pillow, the women at work in the field, the children at play together. When informed of the report which had reached the settlement, the sachem was much displeased, and told the messengers that they might go home and gather their harvests in safety, for his heart harbored no enmity against the English. PHILADELPHIA FOUNDED. On the neck of land formed by the confluence of the Schuylkill river with the Delaware, William Penn, in the latter part of 1682, marked out the streets and bounds of the 216 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1686 city of PHILADELPHIA. The site of the city, which was pur chased of three Swedes, the brothers Swenson, presented at that day, a high bold bank along the Delaware, fringed with a line of tall pine trees, and called by the Indians Coaquannock. In this bank, before any houses were built, many of the first settlers dug caves and holes to reside in. The first native Penn- sylvanian of English parents was born in one of these burrows. The avenues of Philadelphia have a wide reputation for their regularity. Penn laid out a "High" street, running east and west from river to river, and a central "Broad" street running north and south at right-angles to the former, besides many parallel avenues. At the place of intersection of Broad and High streets were four open squares. There was also a large plat reserved in each of the four quarters. It was the design of its founder, that Philadelphia should be an open and healthy city, so far as his plans could accom plish that purpose ; and with that intent he desired that "every house should be placed, if the person pleases, in the middle of its plat, as to the breadth way of it, that so there may be ground on each side for garden or orchards or fields, that it may be a green country town, which will never be burnt and always be wholesome." About a year after Penn s arrival, a number of German Friends from Kresheim, settled about six miles from Philadel phia, at a place which they called Germantown. Many of the same society also came from Wales, and took up lands in the neighborhood of the city. In less than five years Phila delphia gained more than did New York in half a century. Over twenty vessels arrived the first year, and within a brief time there were many habitations of settlers upon the Dela ware, even as far as the falls at Trenton, near which was the proprietary s manor of Pennsbury. These all built without fear of molestation from the natives; for, they said, "As our worthy Proprietor treated the Indians with extraordinary hu- 1 682] PHILADELPHIA FOUNDED. 217 manity, they became very civil- and loving to us, and brought in abundance of venison. And whereas in other countries the Indians were exasperated by hard treatment, which hath been the foundation of much bloodshed, so the contrary treatment here, hath procured their love and affection." To the Free Society of Traders, in London, Penn wrote a fair account of the province, its climate, productions and native people. He counselled them not to abuse the Indians, but to win them with justice ; praying that the hearts of all who came into those parts would incline them to show the natives that their claim of a greater knowledge of the will of God was not an idle boast, because, says Penn, "// were mis erable indeed for us to fall under the just censure of the poor Indian conscience, while we make profession of things so far transcending" Those words may be said to sound the key note of the Quaker policy. For the settlement of disputes and the prevention of law suits, three peacemakers or arbitrators were appointed for each county. Penn was offered a revenue from the imposition of a tax on exports, but this he would not agree to, although it was a custom commonly adopted by the colonial proprie taries. Nevertheless, he had expended several thousand pounds sterling in rightly settling his province and in the payment and instruction of the Indians. In organizing the provincial government ; in laying the foundation of its future great city ; in securing the good-will of the Indians, as well as of the Dutch and Swedes, Penn had been eminently suc cessful : but the controversy with Lord Baltimore respecting the boundary line was not so readily settled. Immediately after Penn s arrival in the province, he had proceeded to Maryland to consult with Baltimore upon the running of their dividing lines ; but the two proprietors were unable to agree. Again, Penn appointed a meeting at New Castle to which Lord Baltimore came, but he would not K 19 2i8 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1691 acquiesce in Perm s suggestion that they and their councils should meet in separate houses in the town, and treat with each other by written memorials so as to prevent the mistakes arising from ill designs or slips of memory. Wherefore, to bring the dispute to a close by obtaining the decision of higher authority, Penn returned to England in the summer of 1684, leaving the executive power in the hands of the council, of which THOMAS LLOYD was president. DISAGREEMENTS IN COUNCIL. It would have been better for the political tranquillity of the province had Penn remained there; for, many times during his absence of fifteen years, disputes arose in the council, which would readily have yielded to his firmness and fairness of purpose. The error seems to have been in lodging the ex ecutive power in the council, thus having too many adminis trators in the place of one. That body likewise, did not work harmoniously with the assembly, nor the latter with the members from the three Lower Counties. Lloyd, disliking his position, was excused from further service, and Captain John Blackwell was appointed by Penn as his deputy. The selection, however, was not a judicious one, for Blackwell was a man accustomed to the military service, and, as he utterly disagreed with the council, he was soon recalled. These disagreements were the occasion of much grief to the proprietary, who frequently addressed Lloyd and others of influence, urging them to "love, forgive, help and serve one another ; and let the people learn by your example as well as by your power, the happy life of concord." In 1691, shortly after Blackwell s return to England, the dispute between the province and the three counties so far in creased, that the latter organized a separate assembly. Penn reluctantly confirmed Markham as the deputy of the new 1691] DELAWARE. 219 commonwealth of DELAWARE, while Lloyd accepted the same position in the province of Pennsylvania. The proprietary felt that he had no moral warrant, much as he loved unity, to prevent the separation. Lloyd and Markham, with their re spective councils, joined in a letter to Penn, expressing satis faction at the change, and announcing their intention to act jointly in some matters, as being both under the general gov ernment of the proprietary. There arose at this time a schism in the religious Society of Friends at Philadelphia, which was considered as much more to be lamented than the division in the government. This trouble was brought about by George Keith, a Scotch man, who had been surveyor-general of East Jersey, but was now, master of the public school which had been already established at Philadelphia. Keith is described as a man of quick natural parts, very ready and able in theological disputations, but with an irrita ble temper, and a disposition of mind not sufficiently tem pered by Christian moderation. He had been a trenchant defender of the Society s principles, and had even visited New England as a champion of its doctrines against Cotton Mather and other ministers of the Puritans. Upon his re turn, in an elated state of mind, he began to indulge in un warranted accusations and unbecoming language, and was thereupon dismissed from the Society. Many persons agree ing with his views, they set up separate meetings, styling themselves Christian Friends ; but their erratic leader presently went back to England, where he joined the National church and wrote many passionate things against his former associates. When Keith was found guilty by the grand jury at Philadelphia of " contempt of court," and was sentenced to pay a fine, the Friends forgave him the penalty lest it should seem to the general public that they had grown intolerant, and were persecuting any one because of difference of opinion. 220 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1693 Meanwhile, William Penn had been diligently employed in England, striving to relieve his fellow-members from the impositions and persecutions under which they still labored ; and, since he was high in favor with King James, he had been enabled for the most part to accomplish that object. But upon the accession of William and Mary, the fact of his friendship at the former court operated against him ; so that his enemies, taking advantage of the unsettlement prevailing in the colonial councils, and putting the matter in the worst light possible, caused him to be deprived of both* his provinces. Thus in 1693, eleven years after Philadelphia was founded, the English sovereigns issued a commission to BENJAMIN FLETCHER, governor of New York, to take control of the provinces on the Delaware, which therefore became for a while re-united. CHAPTER XVII. THE COLONIES UNDER WILLIAM AND MARY. 1689 1702. THE ENGLISH AND FRENCH COLONIES AT WAR. ON a preceding page have been mentioned the unsuccessful attempts of De la Barre and Denonville, the French com manders, to obtain control of the Niagara region and the Great Lakes, and to intimidate the tribes of the Iroquois league. With the English traders of Hudson s Bay on the north, and those of New York on the south, to compete with, the French became more and more concerned lest the lucrative fur-trade should be wrested from their grasp. They chiefly valued New France not for the possible products of its soil, but because the lakes and the river St. Lawrence were a highway of com merce which their own pioneers had opened, and whose con trol they were not willing to surrender to any other nation. Hence when war broke out between England and France, in 1689, the northern American colonies took part in the struggle, as having grievances of their own to settle. BARON CASTIN of Acadie had no difficulty in persuading the eastern Indians to resume the war against the New Eng land settlements. Twelve years had elapsed since Waldron had dealt them those treacherous blows already related. That officer being yet at Dover in command of a garrison, a party of the natives made an onslaught upon the place, killed or made prisoners about fifty of the inhabitants, and put Wal- 19* 221 222 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1690 dron (now an old man of 80) to death with tortures. The village was then burned,, as was likewise the fort which Andros had recently built at Pemaquid on the coast ; in short, all the settlements east of Casco bay to the Penobscot, were once again ravaged and broken up. There was no scruple on the part either of English Protes tants or French Papists, against engaging the Indians to aid them in their sanguinary schemes. While French vessels cruised off the coast of New England, making many prizes, the Count de Frontenac despatched a war-party composed of a body of " converted Indians, so called, and a few Frenchmen, to surprise Schenectady on the river Mohawk the northern most English outpost. Unguarded and unsuspicious of evil the inhabitants slept, when suddenly the terrible war-whoop was heard ; in a moment the doors were broken open, the women and children massacred and the village set on fire. Some were carried away prisoners, while those who escaped fled through a driving snow-storm toward Albany, enduring bitter sufferings ere that place was reached. It was surely not Christ s religion that these "converts" were being taught: but, were they or their teachers most guilty? Frontenac s second war-party crossed the mountains (1690) from Canada to the upper Connecticut river valley, thence across the White Mountain region to the frontier village of Salmon Falls on the Piscataqua. As at Schenectady, this place also was taken by surprise, the men mostly murdered, and the women and children made captive. The houses, and the barns with cattle in them, were destroyed by fire. Then with their prisoners and spoils of war, the victors being joined by another party from Quebec, moved across to Casco in Maine. Fortunately, its inhabitants, by surrendering as prisoners of war, escaped the dreadful doom which had over taken the other two places. 1690] SIR WILLIAM PHIPPS. 223 SIR WILLIAM PHIPPS. FLETCHER. BELLAMONT. Immediately after these onslaughts, New York and the New England colonies organized for a counter-attack on the settle ments of the French. Massachusetts sent out a naval expe dition under SIR WILLIAM PHIPPS, a native of Pemaquid, who is celebrated as being one of 26 children borne of the same mother. Phipps sailed at once to Port Royal and the other Acadian settlements, which he plundered to an extent suffi cient to pay all the expenses of the expedition. Meanwhile two English privateers from the West Indies appeared, and Port Royal was devastated a second time. At the accession of William and Mary, two years before this time, JACOB LEISLER, a merchant of New York, supported by a faction, had been installed as governor of that province, a position which he still occupied. A land force was sent out by Leisler, which was joined by troops from Connecticut ; the whole being commanded by Fitz-John Winthrop, son of Connecticut s late governor. Part of these, with some Mo hawks, marched against Montreal, but they were repulsed by Frontenac and his Indian allies. The other detachment, being wasted by smallpox, and lacking provisions, also re turned. Upon the arrival of Colonel HENRY SLOUGHTER, appointed to the governorship by King William, Leisler, and his son-in-law Milbourne, were arrested for high treason, and their enemies being very bitter against them, they were con demned to death on the gallows. Sir William Phipps, with a fleet of 35 vessels, ascended the St. Lawrence to Quebec, but being nine weeks on the voyage up the river, Frontenac had time to prepare for the attack of the English, who soon abandoned the enterprise. Captain Church, who had gained notoriety in King Philip s war, pro ceeded against the Eastern Indians in Maine, and having taken some prisoners, men, women and children, put them 224 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1697 to death, as he declared, " for the sake of example." But the Indians remembered that they had not put to death those who surrendered to them at Casco, and now lost no opportunity to retaliate on the whites. All the towns of Maine suffered from their attacks, and many of them were abandoned. After this, Phipps having gone to England, returned, in 1692, with a commission as governor. He also brought anew charter for Massachusetts, by which Plymouth colony, and Maine as far as the Penobscot, were united with the former under one jurisdiction. Toleration was expressly secured -to all religious sects except Papists. The French at this time had recoyered possession of Port Royal ; and the Eastern In dians being supplied with arms and ammunition from that quarter, the frontier continued to be much harassed by their depredations. Phipps had little opportunity to take further part in the war, for, being accused of misdemeanor, he was summoned to England for trial. Fletcher having been appointed (1693) governor of the provinces of New York, Pennsylvania and Delaware, a royal letter was sent to all the colonies except Carolina, urging them to furnish assistance in men or money for the defence of the northern frontier. The Friends in Pennsylvania, be lieving all war to be unlawful, and being conscious that they themselves had treated both the Indians and whites as breth ren, and had naught of enmity to fear, demurred making any appropriation. Fletcher wrote to them that he hoped they would not refuse to feed the hungry and clothe the naked ;" meaning, as he explained, that they should conciliate the In dians with presents, and not let them go over to the French. But he obtained from them no more than the grant of a small sum of money, which it was stipulated " should not be dipped in blood." This disastrous seven years war was terminated in 1697, when the peace of RYSWICK between England and France was proclaimed, by which it was agreed, so far as re- 1699] BELLAMONT. 225 spected their American territories, that each should retain what it possessed before war was declared. The EARL OF BELLAMONT, an Irish nobleman of affable address and popular manners, wtas sent over in 1698, as gov ernor of both New York and Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, in the meantime, having been remanded to William Penn, its proprietor. New Hampshire, for forty years thenceforward, also continued to have the same governors as Massachusetts. Upon arriving in New York, Bellamont caused Fletcher to be sent back to England under arrest, as it was believed that he connived at violations of the acts of trade, as well as favored the buccaneers who still frequented the American harbors. Captain Kidd, who had been given command of a vessel specially fitted out to re-capture prizes which had been taken by the pirates, himself turned freebooter, and entered upon that bold career of robbery upon the high seas, which was only terminated by his death upon the gallows. In Boston, Bellamont became so much a favorite that the general court voted him the extravagant compensation of $7500 the first year, although under the old charter the gov ernor s salary had been but a small fraction of that figure. Bellamont died in 1701, at New York, whither he had gone to attend to the enforcement of the royal navigation acts. Laws favoring the execution of these acts were reluctantly passed by Connecticut and Rhode Island. In the latter state, SAMUEL CRANSTON, who was chosen governor in 1698, was annually re-elected for twenty-eight years. William Penn, who had returned to his province in 1699, called an assembly which readily acceded to his wish, in pass ing laws for the suppression of piracy and illegal trade. Soon afterward, he granted them a new "charter of privileges," by which the power of legislation was vested in a governor, and in an assembly to be chosen annually by the freemen of the province. K* 226 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1688 Penn remained only two years in Pennsylvania; but before his second and last departure, he met in council the chiefs of the Five Nations, besides the Potomacs, the Susquehannahs and the Shawnees, and covenanted with them that there should be a firm and lasting peace between both races, and that they should all live in true friendship and amity as one people. Regulations were adopted to govern their trade, and the former purchases of land were confirmed. Penn left the management of his estates and of the Indian matters, in the hands of James Logan, colonial secretary and member of the council. But the expenses attending the settling and im proving of the colony were so heavy, that Penn was obliged to borrow several thousand pounds, and to mortgage his province for the debt. Delaware was quietly permitted to again form a separate government in 1702. In the same year East and West Jersey became united as a single province, with LORD CORNBURY, Bellamont s successor, as royal gov ernor. THE SALEM WITCHCRAFT. The six years from 1688 to 1693, were memorable in New England history, not only on account of the unhappy war which has just been related, but because of the prevalence of a popular delusion which has since been spoken of as the Salem witchcraft. The alleged witches were generally ill-favored or bad-tem pered old women, who were believed to have made a bargain with the Evil One, trading away their souls for the privilege of working mischief to their neighbors. By the Massachu setts law, witchcraft, like murder and many other offences, was a capital crime, the warrant for which punishment they adduced from the Old Testament scripture, where it is de clared, "Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live." Prominent in the belief in these supernatural manifestations were IN- 1692] THE SALEM WITCHCRAFT. 227 CREASE MATHER and his son COTTON MATHER, Puritan clergymen of Boston. In the latter city, four children in one family began to be have in a very singular manner: barking, purring, undergoing contortions, and seeming to become at times either deaf, blind, or dumb, or else crying out that they were being pinched, jerked about, and cut at. The ministers declared that the children were certainly bewitched ; for, precisely in the same manner, they said, had afflicted ones been tormented in Eng land. An old Irish servant, living in the family, was fastened upon as being the culprit witch, and, upon trial, was declared guilty and speedily hung. Young Cotton Mather took the eldest of the "bewitched" children to his own house, and being duped by her artfulness, and witnessing many strange things, he believed them sufficiently wonderful to set forth in a book, which he presently published. Several years later (1692) the witch-distemper re-appeared ; this time at Salem village or Danvers, where two young girls, a daughter and a niece of the village minister, began to ex hibit peculiar symptoms, very similar to those witnessed in the former case. Tituba, a servant of the family an Indian woman, old and wrinkled was pronounced to be the witch. A general fast and time of prayer were proclaimed by the ministers ; nevertheless the so-called witches and their victims so increased, that, in alarm, a magistrate s court was ordered to be convened in the village. Not only Tituba, but many other women of weak or fearful minds, were frightened into con fessing that they were witches, who had signed the "devil s book" and been baptized by him. In a short time there were nearly a hundred persons confined in prison upon the charge. A special court for Witch Trials, presided over by Governor Phipps himself, was now ordered. Four sessions were held in four months, at which over fifty persons, most of them old 228 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1692 women, were convicted, and twenty of them were hung. Every day new accusations appeared. A second book pub lished by Cotton Mather, called "Wonders of the Invisible World," contained triumphant accounts of the late trials and executions, and served to spread the excitement and terror broadcast. But the strange fever was destined soon to subside ; for, there having been accusations started against some persons of acknowledged excellent repute, the voice of reason and good sense began at last to be listened to. Some who had confessed to being witches renounced that admission as having been forced from them ; the court refused to convict those brought before it ; and finally, King William s veto of the witchcraft act put an end to the trials. MARYLAND AND VIRGINIA. In the province of Maryland, the news of the accession of William and Mary created much agitation, the majority of the population being favorably inclined to the Protestant sov ereigns. The wide prevalence of this sentiment was taken advantage of by some turbulent spirits, who attacked the town of St. Mary s, captured its fort St. Inigo, and proclaimed the government of William and Mary, in opposition to the Catholic proprietary. The latter, chiefly upon the ground of his being a papist, was, as Penn had been, for awhile deprived of his province, although permitted to receive his quit-rents, tonnage duty and other income. The assembly then called together (1692) by LIONEL COP LEY, the royal governor, made a radical alteration in the ecclesiastical constitution of the province, which theretofore had been tolerant of all religious sects, none being allowed either state support or pre-eminence. This equitable provision was now changed to the establishment by law of the national 1698] MARYLAND AND VIRGINIA, 229 English church, the province being divided into parishes, and every taxable inhabitant obliged to pay for the support of the dominant sect. The new law was especially burdensome to the Friends and Catholics, the latter being forbidden, by an enactment made a few years later, either to preach or to teach. Copley s successor, NICHOLSON, removed the capital, in 1694, from St. Mary s to the new town of Annapolis, the present seat of government of the state. Previous to his appointment as governor of Maryland, Nicholson had held the office of deputy or lieutenant-gov ernor of Virginia, under Lord Howard of Effingham, who had returned to England. A conspicuous personage in the colony at that time, and for half a century following, was JAMES BLAIR, a Scotchman, who had come to Virginia as a missionary preacher, but soon received a commission as a sort of religious-director or legate for the bishop of London. It was through Commissary Blair s influence that a charter was obtained in 1691, locating at Williamsburg the William and Mary College, the chief purpose of that institution being to educate ministers of the established church, for service in the colony. The buildings were erected after plans furnished by the celebrated architect, Sir Christopher Wren. Upon the appointment of Sir Edmund Andros (1692) to succeed Governor Effingham, Nicholson lost his lieutenancy, and, as has been stated, became for a short time governor of Maryland. But Andros was scarcely more popular in Vir ginia than he had been in New England, and upon his recall Nicholson received a commission as his successor. Having changed Maryland s capital, he successfully essayed the same thing in Virginia. Jamestown, ruined village that it was, was deserted in 1698, and Williamsburg, with its streets very loyally laid out in the shape of the cipher W and M, took its place as the seat of government. 20 230 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1693 JOHN ARCHDALE, OF CAROLINA. The efforts of Governor Golleton to reconcile the conflict ing interests of the proprietors and the colonists of South Carolina, had been totally unsuccessful. Colleton was suc ceeded (1691) by PHILIP LUDWELL, to u horn was also intrusted the governorship of the Albemarle settlements, made vacant by the banishment of Seth Sothel. Ludwell attempted to bring to justice a number of buccaneers who had been arrested at Charleston, which place had become one of their favorite resorts ; but this commendable act was resented by some of the traders and planters as an interference with a very profit able branch of trade. These buccaneers were mostly English, who depredated upon the Spanish commerce and towns, and, in return for supplies afforded them, spent their golden spoils with a lavish hand. Another wicked practice carried on by the planters, and usually connived at by the governors, was the traffic in Indian captives. The spirit of discord among the native tribes was fomented, wars followed, and the luckless captives being brought down to Charleston, were disposed of to traders from the West Indies. But the evil practice carried with it the seeds of retribution, inasmuch as the traders, in exchange for the captives, imported large quantities of rum from Ber muda and the Barbadoes, thus fostering a custom depraving to the manners and destructive to the habits of industry of many of the colonists. Governor Ludwell favored the enfranchisement of the Hu guenots, who now formed a numerous and intelligent portion of the population ; but this measure the Cavaliers violently opposed. Hence Ludwell, wearied by the constant opposi tion which he encountered, resigned his office in 1693. After a lapse of two years, Lord Ashley, a grandson of Shaftesbury, having declined to accept the proffered office of governor, it 1693] JOHN ARCH DALE, OF CAROLINA. 231 was conferred upon JOHN ARCHDALE, a member of the Society of Friends, and a proprietary by purchase. He was a man very similar to William Penn in administrative ability, and, like him, was possessed of great prudence and sagacity, united with admirable patience and command of temper. With marvellous celerity he restrained the lawless spirit of turbulence, suppressed abuses, and stilled the tumult of con tending factions. Archdale organized at once a council of sensible and mod erate men, and called together the representative assembly. An address of grateful thanks voted by this body to the pro prietaries the first expression of such sentiments ever uttered in Carolina "attests," says Grahame, "the wisdom and be nignity of Archdale s administration, and justifies the opinion, that, notwithstanding the inflammable materials of which the provincial society was composed, only a good domestic gov ernment had been hitherto wanting to render the colony flourishing and happy." Having quieted the spirit of turbulence, this excellent pacificator endeavored to promote a better feeling toward the Huguenots, being careful not to advocate for them the imme diate right of suffrage, but rather sought to awaken public generosity toward the refugees by warmly commending them to the hospitality and compassion of his countrymen. Yet he did not leave the work only half-done; for to the refugees themselves, he advised "a patient perseverance in those vir tues that tend to disarm human enmity, and by the actual ex ercise of which they were enabled shortly after to overcome the aversion, and even conciliate the friendly regards, of their fellow-countrymen." No less successful was Archdale in correcting those abuses from which the Indians had been such grievous sufferers. He appointed magistrates to settle cases of dispute between them selves and the settlers, as had been done in Pennsylvania. 232 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1696 Some Indians who had been captured by another tribe and were about to be sold to the Islands as slaves, he caused to be returned to their homes. And, as honest, straight-forward treatment begets its like, so it happened that shortly after the above incident, an English vessel being wrecked upon the coast, the crew of which expected to be murdered and their cargo plundered as had formerly been the practice, were, on the contrary, kindly cared for by the natives, and safely con ducted to their friends. In the spiritual welfare of the natives, Archdale was much interested, regretting the fact that his countrymen were so generally more greedy after the Indians land than they were concerned for the salvation of their souls. These honorable methods of treatment were not lost upon the neighboring Spaniards, who now expressed for the first time a desire to maintain friendly relations with the English. Of course, in the Albemarle settlements, where were many Friends, Archdale s administration gave equal satisfaction. But it was not his design to remain in the country longer than was required to reform abuses and quiet the spirit of contro versy ; hence, having accomplished those ends to an extent exceeding all expectation, he returned to England in the latter part of 1696, having earned the grateful thanks of all the people. To Archdale had been given the extraordinary privilege of nominating his successor. In making choice of JOSEPH BLAKE, nephew of the English admiral, for this position, Archdale continued the beneficent results of his own admin istration ; for Blake was a man of prudence and moderation, and governed the province for four years much to the satis faction of the colonists. But under JAMES MOORE and NA THANIEL JOHNSON, the two governors who succeeded Blake, were exhibited the unhappy results of an opposite line of policy from the foregoing. Again were the Indians kid- 1729] THE WRONG POLICY RENEWED. 233 napped, to be sold as slaves, and again was war made against the Spaniards of St. Augustine. But the expedition which was sent (1702) to capture that place proved unsuccessful; the colony moreover was brought into debt, and, of necessity, heavier taxes were imposed. The principal Indian tribes surrounding the English plan tations were the Tuscaroras on the north, the Yamassees and Catawbas on the west, and the Cherokees and Creeks beyond, between the Ohio and the Gulf. In upper Florida were the Appalachees, where Spanish missionaries had established churches and instructed the natives in agriculture. Against this tribe the Creeks, aided by a few of the English, pro ceeded in 1705. They plundered the Indian villages, burnt the chapels, and gave the country of the Appalachees to the lower tribe of Creeks, called the Seminoles. In addition to these wars, and the dissatisfaction occasioned by the laying of taxes and the issue of paper money, there arose religious disputes engendered by unjust laws against the Dissenters. Against the protest of Archdale, who was yet a proprietary, the national Church of England was established, although not a third of the inhabitants were of that denomi nation. The country was divided into parishes as had already been done in Virginia and Maryland. From this time forth the proprietary government gave little satisfaction, and in a few years (1729) its connection with the province was dis solved and its chartered interests sold to the crown. A little bag of rice, presented by the master of a vessel from Madagascar to a Charlestonian (1694), marked the in troduction into South Carolina of its most distinctive staple. The sea-island (or black-seed) cotton, so superior on account of its long and silky fibre to the green-seed or short staple previously planted, was introduced about 1790, the first crop being raised on Hilton Head, near Beaufort. The seed was brought from the Bahamas to Georgia six years earlier. 20 * CHAPTER XVIII. THE WAR IN THE REIGN OF QUEEN ANNE. 1702 1714. LOUISIANA SETTLED BY THE FRENCH. A BRIEF period of five years only elapsed between the peace of Ryswick in 1697, and the renewal of the struggle between the English and French colonies of America. It was during this transient interval of repose, that the French undertook the settlement of the country adjacent to the lower Mississippi, upon which La Salle had conferred the name of Louisiana. A Canadian named D !BERVILLE, with two hundred men in several vessels, sailed for the Gulf of Mexico (1699), and would have landed at the bay of Pensacola, but that the Spaniards were found already intrenched upon that excellent harbor. The French, therefore, continued farther westward, and upon the shores of the bay of Biloxi, within the limits of the present state of Mississippi, they built a fort and erected a number of huts. The Spaniards at first complained of this as an intrusion upon their territory of Florida, but, as a royal alliance at this time transferred the Spanish throne to a French prince, all serious opposition was turned aside. D Iberville went several times to France for fresh settlers and supplies, and, aided by two of his brothers, explored the various intri cate outlets of the Mississippi, ascended that stream and the Red river, and also effected a treaty with the neighboring Indians. 234 1704] THE DEERFIELD MASSACRE. 235 Since the time of La Salle, the French missionaries and traders had not been slow in following upon the track of that discoverer, and at a number of points upon the banks of the Mississippi little settlements had been established. It was soon found that Biloxi was not well situated for becoming a flourishing settlement, and accordingly most of the settlers removed eastward, and located in 1702 at the head of the broad bay of MOBILE. In the north, and nearly at the same time (1701) there was founded by the French the city of DETROIT, eligibly situated upon the strait through which the waters of Lake Huron find an outlet into Lake Erie. The French had now control of the great interior water ways of the country, and, with their new allies the Spaniards, it would thus appear that the English colonies would be de barred from expansion upon every side, north, south and westward. Yet these territorial pretensions of the French would probably have been insufficient to cause a rupture of the existing state of peace, had it not been for the breaking out of the war which England, in alliance with Holland and Germany, declared against France and Spain. Whereupon the colonies, their children, were drawn into the bloody vor tex, just as they had been before. BARBARITIES OF THE WAR IN NEW ENGLAND. As the Five Nations had recently entered into an agreement of amity with the French, and had admitted the Jesuit mis sionaries among them, they could not be prevailed on by the English, their former allies, to aid them in their operations against Canada. Thus the harrowed field of war was transferred to New England, where a massacre by Canadians and Indians, at the frontier town of Deerfield (1704), spread terror into the hearts of the English. The same Captain Church, who had been prominent in the preceding war, as well as in the war 236 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1708 of King Philip, was despatched by Governor DUDLEY of Mas sachusetts against the French habitations on the Penobscot and to the eastward. An English frigate, at the same time, carried a thousand men against Acadie. They could not capture the fort at Port Royal, but the houses of the town were burnt, the cattle killed, and the corn which grew luxu riantly upon the neighboring flats, was destroyed by cutting through the dams and allowing the water to inundate the fields. Yet the English had little cause to rejoice at this de vastation, for in the following year (1708) there was another incursion of the French and Indians from Canada. Descend ing the valley of the Merrimac, they surprised the town of Haverhill in the night, massacred about 50 of the inhabitants, and plundered and burnt their habitations. Massachusetts urgently appealed to Queen Anne and to the other colonies for help. The rest of New England, as well as New York and New Jersey responded to the call, but the Pennsylvania legislature, still influenced by the counsels of peace, replied that "they could not, in conscience, provide money to hire men to kill each other." Two ships of war and 500 marines having been sent from England, were joined by the transports carrying the colonial troops. Nicholson, late governor of Virginia, commanded the -squadron which now proceeded against, and captured, the fort at Port Royal; while the various Acadian settlements were visited in turn, and made to feel the harsh displeasure of the conquerors. The "victories" of the Duke of Marlborough at Blen heim and other hard-fought fields of carnage, had driven a large number of Germans from their homes, many of whom had gone to England. Several thousand of these fugitives, apprenticed as servants of the government, were at this time sent over to the banks of the Hudson, but they became dis satisfied with their condition as contrasted with the free set tlers, and force was used by the governor of New York to 1713] BARBARITIES OF THE WAR. 237 compel them to submit. Yet their subsistence proved very expensive to the government, in fact far beyond the product of their labor. Finally, their indentures being cancelled, they became thriving and industrious, and removed to the upper waters of the Mohawk, where their fertile plantations became known as the " German Flats." Many of the same nationality also settled in compact bodies upon rich lands in Pennsylvania, where they retain their language and manners even to the present time. In 1711, a much larger armament than the preceding, was sent against Canada, several regiments from Marlborough s army being despatched from England to join the provincial troops. Over 50 vessels, carrying 7000 men, sailed from Boston, and entered the St. Lawrence. A lesser body of land troops under Nicholson, joined by warriors of the Five Nations, who had been finally persuaded to take part in the contest, assembled at Albany, preparatory to an attack upon Montreal. It was intended that the attack of the land and naval forces should be simultaneous j but this expectation was not destined to be realized, owing to the wreck of a number of the transports in the St. Lawrence and the loss of nearly a thousand men. Dispirited by this calamity, the English admiral re-crossed the Atlantic, while the colonial transports sailed back to Boston. This second war had been in several respects a counterpart of the first : numerous barbarities and burnings by whites and Indians ; a similar attack upon and plundering of Port Royal ; a like rebuff, not by man, but by the adverse winds and waters of the great Canadian river. The peace of UTRECHT, in 1713, shortly before the death of Queen Anne, put an end to the protracted contest. As part of its provi sions, Hudson s Bay, Newfoundland and Acadie or Nova Scotia, were ceded by the French to the English. But were they worth the price paid ? The resources of the 238 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1712 colonies were greatly diminished, while their growth was cor respondingly checked ; many fields were untilled and extensive tracts had been desolated ; several thousand of the young men, the " flower of the country," had been slain or had died of diseases contracted in the service. Between the Piscataqua and Penobscot, a third of the inhabitants had fallen in the war. Most of the families in New York and New England were mourning for friends either killed or carried away into a miserable captivity. In England itself, the whole nation for a hundred and sixty years past has felt the burden of what the historian calls the "splendid victories of Blenheim, Ramillies, Oudenarde," etc. Fifty million pounds sterling were then added to the English national debt. Thus year by year, through the centuries, must millions of men toil and be taxed to pay for the costly folly of kings. The treaty of Utrecht, amongst other concessions to England, gave to that country the exclusive privilege of introducing negro slaves into Spanish America. As this wicked commerce was ex pected to be exceedingly profitable, the English queen secured a fourth of the stock of the slave-trading company. THE TUSCARORAS. SLAVE LAWS. Almost a year before the close of the war with Canada, the inhabitants of North Carolina became involved in a war with the Tuscarora Indians. This tribe had felt aggrieved at the occupation of their land bordering the Neuse river, by a body of German immigrants, and, more recently by the tres pass of some Swiss settlers. These established themselves at a place which they called New Berne, near where the Neuse expands into a broad estuary before its waters flow into Pamlico sound. Upon the commencement of hostilities by the Indians, Governor CRAVEN of South Carolina sent a few of the colonial THE TUSCARORAS. 239 militia, with a large body of Catawbas, Yamassees and other native bands, against the Tuscaroras, whom they obliged to agree to a peace. But some of the allies, as they retired southward, fell upon several of the Tuscarora villages and carried off the inhabitants to be sold as slaves. Thereupon the war was renewed. About the same time, the yellow fever appeared, and many of the settlers fled in terror to Virginia. The Friends, who, as we have seen, were numerous in North Carolina, having refused to bear arms, the militia with their native auxiliaries again came up from the southern province, while Governor SPOTTSWOOD of Virginia, also sent a few troops to aid in the kidnapping work. The fort of the Tus caroras was besieged and taken, and the prisoners eight hun dred in number were given up to the Indian allies, to be taken to South Carolina and sold into slavery. The remainder of the Tuscaroras forsook their country the following year (1713) and passing northward into the land of the Iroquois, were adopted by that confederacy, which became generally known thereafter as the Six Nations. Yet hardly two years elapsed before unscrupulous traders of Carolina brought on a war with their late auxiliaries the Yamassees, Catawbas, Creeks and Cherokees. The planters, on all sides, were driven back from the frontiers into Charles ton, and, in their turn, were now obliged to crave help from the neighboring provinces. Governor HUNTER of New York despatched military supplies, and Spottswood of Virginia sent a shipload of volunteers and tributary Indians. With these, his own militia, and certain of the slaves whom he armed, Craven drove the Yamassees into Florida, while the other tribes consented to make peace. But the straightforwa-rd policy of Archdale, had it been continued, would have saved the million dollars of damages and debt which this shameful war entailed. It would appear as though, in proportion as a nation is conscious of a departure from rectitude in its deal- 240 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1712 ings with another power, it seeks to hide its unfairness or duplicity by an appeal to force. The first complete slave law for South Carolina was enacted in 1712, there being at that time about 6000 whites and 10,000 negroes in the province. It set forth that as the plantations and estates of the province could not be properly managed and tilled without the labor of negroes and other slaves, and as these latter were a wild and barbarous people, not qualified to be governed by the same laws and practices as the whites, therefore, in order for the good regulation of the province and the security of its inhabitants, it was enacted that all negroes, Indians and mulattoes, who could not prove that they were freemen, be made and declared slaves. It was also ordered by this code that any person finding a slave abroad without a pass, must chastise him, or else be liable to a penalty for the omission. All crimes committed by a slave, from thievery to murder, were punishable by death, but a lesser punishment could be substituted. If the owner of a runaway slave neglected to whip, cut off the ear, or brand the culprit with a hot iron, then the owner was to forfeit his claim to the slave. The leader of a company which captured a runaway, received several pounds compensation ; and if any person whilst engaged in such service should be wounded or disabled, the public had to pay the damages. If a slave was to die while being punished, no penalty was to be inflicted, unless bloody-mindedness could be proved; then the murderer incurred a forfeit of fifty pounds. CHAPTER XIX. GEORGE I. A PERIOD OF FINANCIERING. 17141727. PIRACY SUPPRESSED. THE MISSISSIPPI BUBBLE. WITH the death of Queen Anne in 1714, the rule of the house of Stuart in England came to an end. During most of the following thirteen years which comprised the reign of George the First, the late Elector of Hanover, there was comparative tranquillity in the colonies, although for a few years after the declaration of peace, the Carolina coasts and the West Indian seas were much infested by pirates, whose depredations became very annoying. A notorious freebooter known as " Blackbeard," who had been accustomed to lurk about the inlets of the Pamlico, was captured, after a desperate resistance to the two ships which were sent in pursuit of him by Spottswood. Another, named Bellamy, suffered shipwreck on Cape Cod, and miserably per ished with a hundred of his men. Even in Charleston, pub lic opinion was turned against the pirates ; and, it becoming known there that a party of these outlaws led by one Steed Bonnet, had sought refuge upon the Cape Fear coast, an ex pedition which resulted successfully was sent against them. Bonnet and forty of his accomplices were tried, found guilty and executed. When Alexander the Great put to a pirate the question : " By what right do you infest the seas ?" the pirate answered, " By the L 21 241 2 42 HISTORY OF 7WE UNITED STATES. [1717 same right that you infest the universe. But because I do it in a small ship, I am called a robber ; and, because you do the same acts with a great fleet, you are called a conqueror !" Possibly the offence of Bonnet and Blackbeard was really no greater in the Di vine sight than was that of the kidnapper Hawkins, yet the former were hung, while the latter was honored with knighthood ! The recent wars in Europe and America having left the participants greatly involved in debt, there now arose various paper-money projects intended to remedy the lack of real money, but, being founded on no solid basis of values, great financial distress was caused when the airy bubbles burst. Foremost of these schemes was that originated by JOHN LAW, a Scotch financier, who established a bank in France, empow ered to issue paper currency ; and inasmuch as it became a depository of the public funds, its shares rose rapidly in esti mated value. Connected with this Royal Bank was the MISSISSIPPI COM PANY, or Company of the Indies. The speculators who con trolled this corporation had, in 1717, obtained the commercial patent for Louisiana, which for the five previous years had been held by Crozat, a wealthy French merchant. Under his auspices Fort Rosalie, on the site of Natchez, had been built; and also a trading-house established on the Alabama, near where Montgomery now stands. But Crozat s expecta tions of great riches to be obtained from the opening of mines, from importing negroes into Louisiana, and from a trade with Mexico, had failed of fulfilment. It was the aim of the Mississippi Company to which was given in addition the control of the Canadian fur-trade to colonize Louisiana at once with several thousand whites and negroes; and, having ready command of the funds of the bank, it seemed at first as though the venture was destined to succeed. Law, on his own account, sent out a large colony of Germans, to improve a grant of land upon the Aikansas 1720] J3AA T XS AND BILLS OF CREDIT. 243 river. But BIENVILLE, the surviving brother of D Iberville, having, in 1718, cleared away the canebrakes that covered the swamp-site of the future city of NEW ORLEANS, it was not long before the colony on the Arkansas forsook that distant locality, and settled a few miles above the city of promise. Here, too, Bienville established the seat of government. But in 1720, while as yet New Orleans could boast of but a few insignificant sheds and huts, the Royal Bank failed, the great " Mississippi Bubble" burst, and the alluring scheme of colonization and empire suddenly collapsed. Nevertheless, the population of Louisiana had increased in five years from a few hundred to several thousand. Although the general unhealthiness of the climate, and the annual overflows of the lower Mississippi, unconfined as yet by artificial dykes, were serious obstacles to the growth of the colony, yet by the labor of negroes imported from Africa, the land was presently made to produce plentiful crops of rice, tobacco and indigo, and afterward its great staple, sugar. The government was admin istered, on behalf of the company, by a commandant, assisted by the company s colonial directors and other officers, who composed a superior council. BANKS AND BILLS OF CREDIT. The people of the colonies being constantly in debt to the merchants of the mother country, money for remittances had been always in demand. Especially was this want expe rienced since the late wars, and as a necessary consequence of the drain, the specie gradually disappeared, and the whole country found itself nearly bereft of a coin currency. The time had not yet come when America, in lieu of sending away its specie, could export grain, sugar and cotton to pay its debts. At the same time, the cupidity of the English traders interposed every possible obstacle to the colonists 244 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. producing their own manufactured goods or controlling their own commerce. As an expedient to promote trade and to provide the means for paying the expenses of its Indian wars, South Carolina had resorted to the plan of issuing bills of credit, and next (1712), of creating a bank, the stock of which should be loaned out to individuals and repaid with interest in annual instalments. But in a few years this paper issue so depreci ated that it circulated at but a small fraction of its nominal value ; and hence, in order to provide for the redemption of the outstanding bills, a tax of ten per cent, was levied on all imported British goods. The English merchants complained of this act, and the proprietaries were threatened with the loss of their charter. So much trouble thereupon ensued, that Francis Nicholson, the same who had already been governor of several of the colonies, was sent to South Carolina in 1721, to endeavor to allay the popular ferment. But between the traders of Charles ton and the planters, there continued to be for several years a good deal of animosity ; the planters urging the assembly to authorize the issue of paper money, while the merchants as strenuously opposed its circulation. A law was passed, when paper bills were disallowed, making rice a legal tender in payment of debts. In the northern colonies, the two wars with the French, beside the loss of life and property which they entailed, had caused a corresponding financial distress, to relieve which, bills of credit were issued as in Carolina. In 1714, a public paper-money bank, though at first much opposed, was organ ized in Boston. The plan was also adopted of making certain farm products receivable at a fixed rate for taxes. In Rhode Island, v/here a bank was established, borrowers were per mitted to pay their interest in hemp or flax, the production of which staple that colony used great efforts to encourage. 17^22] WAR WITH THE NORRIDGEWOCKS. 245 In New York, the issue of paper money by the assembly of Governor Hunter, was accomplished without much trouble, although the bills very soon declined to a third of their os tensible value. This money was used to pay for old debts and services, to reward the Indian allies and to erect fortifica tions. The like experiment was tried in Pennsylvania in 1722, under SIR WILLIAM KEITH, who had been appointed to the governorship by Hannah Penn, widow of the late pro prietary. The paper money was loaned out in sums of pfio to ;ioo; was secured upon real estate or silver plate; and drew interest at the rate of five per cent. Sub-banks or loan offices were established in every county. Indeed, in every colony except Virginia, the issue of this provincial paper money was imitated ; but as New England and the Carolinas were not so careful to restrain the issue as were the Middle provinces, the depreciation was correspondingly greater in those parts. The general results of this enlargement of the currency appeared at first to be beneficial. But, naturally, it was found that the paper issue as it depreciated, drove the remaining specie out of the country, and of course debarred the entrance of any more of the same ; that it stimulated the laxity of methods of credit, in preference to a healthy cash system ; that it was a detriment to trade and commerce, because of the unsettlement of merchandise values; and that, in place of affording a real remedy for the scarcity of money, it but generated a wish to have the use of more. Its action was rather that of a stimulant to transiently excite, than of a nourisher to build up strongly. WAR WITH THE NORRIDGEWOCKS AND OTHER TRIBES. While the colonies were thus experiencing the bad results of a depreciated currency, difficulties again arose with the 21* 246 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1724 Abenakis on the Acadian frontier. The French, in conformity with the late treaty, had removed from the peninsula of Nova Scotia, and, upon the island of Cape Breton, near its eastern extremity, had begun the erection of a strong fortress called Louisburg. Upon the Kennebec and Penobscot, French priests still maintained an influence over the native tribes, and were accused of keeping them hostile toward the Eng lish. But the colonists of Massachusetts, jealous of French influence, continued to encroach to the eastward, and as they took no pains to conciliate the aborigines, the latter soon retaliated upon their aggressors. Early in 1722, an expedition which was sent against the Norridgewocks of the Kennebec, pillaged the Catholic mis sion-house and the house of Rasles, the aged priest and mis sionary. The tribe retaliated by burning the village of Bruns wick. - Far to the eastward, some warriors of another tribe, seized, in the strait of Canso, a large number of fishing-ves sels which belonged to Massachusetts. The war shortly ex tended all along the northern frontier as far as the Connecti cut river, and, as it proved to be expensive, as well as annoying, large issues of paper money became necessary in order to carry it on. Massachusetts applied to Connecticut for aid, but at first that colony, which exhibited scruples as to the justice of the war, begged its neighbors to have a care how they shed inno cent blood. But the voice of reason and justice was soon set aside and the aid granted. On the other hand, the Mohawks firmly refused to be drawn into the strife, the savages re proving the whites by telling them to restore the Indian lands and prisoners if they truly wanted peace. A second expedi tion being sent against the Norridgewocks (1724), the French priest and thirty of his Indian disciples were slain, the chapel burned and the village destroyed. To protect the settlements in the upper Connecticut valley, a fort was erected the same 1726] WAR WITH THE NORRIDGEWOCKS. 247 year on the site of the present town of Brattleborough. It was the first English settlement within the territory of the future state of VERMONT. There being a high premium paid for Indian scalps, a blood thirsty fighter of the border led a party who surprised a group of ten Indians sleeping around a fire, and having murdered them all, returned in triumph to Dover, bearing the scalps elevated on poles. A few weeks later, this leader and nine of his men, met at the hands of the Indians with the same awful fate which they had inflicted on their antagonists. Massa chusetts appealed to the king to compel the other colonists and the Mohawks to join in the war ; but in the meantime a peace was arranged with the Indians, after the bitter contest had continued for three years. The colonists by this time began to perceive their error, and that it was themselves who were really to blame for all this unnecessary bloodshed. Hence, in order to protect the Indians against the extortions of private traders, they estab lished public trading-houses where the natives could receive goods in exchange for their peltry, at something like a fair value. Thus peace was secured for many years, and the settlements of New Hampshire and Maine, which had been effectually hindered in growth by the war, now extended wirhout interruption. In 1726, one year after the war, Pena- cook or CONCORD, the capital of New Hampshire, was laid out on the west bank of the Merrimac river. The trading-post of Oswego, the first English settlement upon the Great Lakes, was established by BURNET, who had succeeded Hunter as governor of New York. Burnet courted the alliance of the Five Nations, and obtained from them (1726) a broad tract of territory bounding on Lakes Ontario and Erie, and extending from Oswego to Cuyahoga or Cleve land. The English likewise claimed all the Canadian country which the Iroquois had conquered from the Hurons, on the 248 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1726 plea that the Iroquois were their allies, and were subject to the eminent domain of the sovereigns of England. But be tween them and the tract they coveted, was the French fort at Niagara, commanding the water-way to the upper lakes and the Mississippi ; all of which country the French claimed by right of early discovery and of occupation. CHAPTER XX. GEORGE II. : FIRST PERIOD. 17271744. THE FRENCH WAR WITH THE NATCHEZ AND CHICKASAWS. THE city of Natchez upon the Mississippi, marks the site, and will perpetuate the name, of a now extinct race of Sun- worshippers, in whose lowly temples, dedicated to the great luminary, an undying fire was once kept burning. As stated in the preceding chapter, the French had planted in that country the settlement of Fort Rosalie. The commandant of this post, with the recklessness of insatiable avarice, de manded of the Natchez tribe, for his plantation, the very tract on which stood the huts of their principal village. It was a pretty little settlement called " the White Apple." Incensed at such a proposition, the Natchez listened to the counsel of the Chickasaws, their neighbors to the northward, and, having planned a sudden attack in the latter part of the year 1729, a general massacre of the French settlers at the fort ensued. AH of the men, to the number of several hun dred were murdered, and the women and children made pris oners. We may well describe such a deed as a "savage blow;" and yet, how would nations called civilized how would the French themselves have treated so unjust a de mand as that of giving into the hands of strangers their beloved homes, their chief city? Had they so learnt the pure law of the Gospel that they would have resigned all, L* 249 250 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1736 rather than have slain their enemies had they been in their power ? But the French did not tarry long ere they executed their revenge. On the east of the Mississippi, between the chief colony of the French at New Orleans and the little nation of Sun-worshippers, was the numerous tribe of the Choctaws. Having made these their auxiliaries, the French invaded the Natchez country, put to death or captured many of the natives, and drove the remnant across the river, or forced them to seek safety with the Creeks and Chickasaws. The four hundred prisoners whom they had taken, were sent to Hispaniola to be sold into slavery. But the cost to the Company of the Indies, of defending this wilderness possession, greatly exceeding the profits which they realized, the grant was resigned in 1732 to the crown of France. Because of the counsel, hostile to the French, which the Chickasaws had extended to the Natchez, and because the former tribe was now threatening to sever the connection between Louisiana and the Great Lakes, by attacking the boats which passed up and down the Mississippi, the French authorities determined to make an end of them even as they had of the Natchez. If an additional incentive was wanting, to confirm the French in their purpose, it was afforded by the knowledge of the fact that English traders from Carolina had visited the Chickasaw villages, and busily inflamed the minds of the natives against them. So important was the success of the enterprise deemed to be, that many months were devoted to preparations for the expedition, which did not start until the spring of 1736. The French force under Bienville proceeded in boats to Mobile, and ascended the Tombigbee to its upper waters; being accompanied by about 1200 of the Choctaws, who were eager to gain the high reward offered by the French for the scalps of their enemies. But when they arrived at the in- 1739] THE ASSIENTO AND AFRICAN TRADERS. 251 frenchmen ts of the Chickasaws, they found the warriors on the watch, and English flags displayed above the rude walls of the fort. The attacks of Bienville were so strongly resisted that he was obliged to order a retreat down the Tombigbee. In the meantime a similar force of French and Indians from the Illinois country, entered the Chickasaw territory on the north, expecting to form a junction with Bienville s band. Failing in this, they too made an assault and were driven back with much loss. The wretched prisoners having been bound, were burnt at the stake. One of the principal of these unfortunates was a Canadian, DE VINCENNES, whose name was given to the city on the Wabash, the oldest settlement in Indiana. In the year following, another attempt was made to sub due the refractory tribe, the French on the Mississippi re ceiving aid from Canada. On the prominent bluff where Memphis was subsequently built, a fort had been constructed ; and here the whites, red men and negroes, to the number of about 3500, established their quarters and passed an unhealthy winter. In the spring (i 739), the Chickasaws being willing to agree to a peace, the French gladly destroyed their fort on the bluff and went back to their settlements. THE ASSIENTO AND THE AFRICAN TRADERS. Under the treaty of Utrecht, the English South Sea Com pany was granted the exclusive privilege of introducing negro slaves into the Spanish West Indian dominion. For this wicked favor of becoming the chief slave-dealers of the na tions, it was stipulated that the company should pay to the king of Spain a duty of $33^3 a head, and that it should introduce into the said colonies within the space of thirty years, 144,000 negro bondsmen. The South Sea Company, which was organized nearly at the same time as were Law s 2 5 2 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1739 Royal Bank and Mississippi Company, and which resembled the bank in its plan of buying up the national debt with its stock, was destined, however, to meet with a like disastrous termination. Notwithstanding the notable failure of this bubble-scheme, the Assiento contract, above set forth, survived the financial wreck, and fulfilled its unholy office. At the same time, the organized African Company," encouraged and firmly sus tained by English legislation, continued to supply England s own colonies with thousands of the same oppressed race. It is computed that in the century between 1676 and 1776, the English nation, by means of these two agencies, imported into their own dependencies and into the Spanish and French West Indies, about three million negroes, most of them be tween the ages of 15 and 30 years. Beside these, there were probably a quarter of a million of those who had been pur chased on the African coast for a similar purpose, who suc cumbed to the horrors of the "Middle passage" and were buried beneath the waters of the Atlantic. If we would bring the iniquity of this traffic vividly to view, let us read from the diary of a certain surgeon of an English slave- ship on the Guinea coast written while waiting for a cargo of war- captives : " Sestro, Dec. 29, 1724. No trade to-day, though many traders came on board. They informed us that the people are gone to war within-land, and will bring prisoners enough in two or three days, in hopes of which we stay. " The 3 ist. Fair weather, but no trading yet. We see each night towns burning ; but we hear many of the Sestro men are killed by the inland negroes, so that we fear this war will be unsuccessful. "The 2nd of January. Last night we saw a prodigious fire break out about eleven o clock, and this morning see the town of Sestro burnt down to the ground. It contained some hundred houses ; so that we find their enemies are too hard for them at present, and consequently our trade is spoiled here. Therefore, about 7 o clock we weighed anchor, to proceed lower down." 1729] GEORGIA FOUNDED BY OGLE THORPE. 253 One of the factors of the African Company, of England, wrote thus in 1730 : " When the king of Barsalli wants goods and brandy, he sends to the English governor at James Fort, who immediately sends a sloop. Against the time the vessel arrives he plunders some of his neighbors towns, selling the people for the goods he wants. At other times he falls upon one of his own towns, and makes bold to sell his own subjects." The importation of so many negroes into America was the occasion of considerable complaint on the part of sev eral of the colonies, especially Virginia. But the British government, upheld by its merchants and traders, was stren uous in maintaining the commerce, which it characterized as a "trade highly beneficial and advantageous to the kingdom and its colonies." The selfishness and folly of its motives are apparent in the declaration which was used, that "negro labor will keep our British colonies in a due subserviency to the interests of their mother-country ; for, while our plan tations depend only on planting by negroes, our colonies can never prove injurious to British manufactures never become independent of their kingdom." GEORGIA FOUNDED BY OGLETHORPE. In 1729, the charter of Carolina was sold by the eight pro prietaries to the British crown. The first royal governor of South Carolina, ROBERT JOHNSON, undertook to encourage settlements by free gifts of land, to be laid out on the princi pal rivers : Purysburg, upon the Savannah, founded by Swiss emigrants, being the first place settled in accordance with this scheme. Meanwhile the Spaniards of Florida, although claim ing part of Carolina itself, had but the one chief settlement of St. Augustine in the east, together with Pensacola in the west, and the fort of St. Mark s on Appalachee bay, midway between. But the territory lying south of the Savannah, the 22 254 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1732 English laid claim to as part also of Carolina; wherefore in 1732, to the intent that it might serve as a barrier against future Spanish invasion, they authorized its settlement. To twenty-one trustees was granted the country lying between the Savannah and Altamaha rivers, and extending from the headwaters of those streams westward to the Pacific : to be called the province of GEORGIA, and to be held in trust for the poor. The person who was chiefly instrumental in obtaining the grant was JAMES OGLETHORPE, a member of the British parlia ment. His attention had been especially directed to the sub jects of prison discipline and of imprisonment for debt, and, as a commissioner for inquiring into the condition of English prisons, he had been the means of releasing a large number of- helpless debtors who for years had been kept in confine ment, with no prospect of paying off the scores against them. To provide homes and the chance of re-commencing life, for these; to secure a " place of refuge for the distressed people of Britain and the persecuted Protestants of Europe," Ogle- thorpe and his associates in the enterprise petitioned the king for the above tract. The charter of Georgia granted the free exercise of religion to all people within its borders, papists only excepted. It declared that every one born in the province should be as free in every respect and enjoy the same rights and immuni ties as if born upon the soil of Britain. But all the powers of government were conferred upon a council, part of them named in the charter, and the rest to be chosen by the trus tees, to whom was also given the privilege of filling all vacan cies as they occurred. Hence the form of government was not really a representative one of the people. Begun as a scheme of benevolence, it was thought best that the control should at first be in the hands of trustees, with executive powers similar to those of the managers of any charitable 1733] GEORGIA FOUNDED BY OGLETHORPE. 255 organization. To prevent the wholesale absorption of lands by a few people, as had been the case in Carolina and Virginia, it was provided that no one person should be permitted to re ceive a larger tract than 500 acres. The culture of silk, it was anticipated, would be the chief industry of the new colony. Early in 1733, Oglethorpe and about 130 emigrants of the needy class, sailed up the Savannah river (called also the Isun diga) and upon the sandy bluff of Yamacraw, twenty miles from the sea, made choice of the site of Georgia s future metropolis the city of SAVANNAH. A treaty of amity was entered into with the Creeks, and friendly relations established with the other neighboring tribes. The territory between the two rivers (the Savannah and Altamaha) as far up as the flow of tide-water, was readily granted by the natives. In the second year there came, besides a number of Jews, a body of persecuted Lutherans from the principality of Salz burg in Germany. Singing psalms upon the way, the pious exiles had come down the Rhine to Rotterdam ; at Dover were kindly received by some of the trustees of the Georgia colony; and having crossed the ocean to Charleston, were welcomed there by Oglethorpe, who led them to the locality, not far above Savannah, which he had set apart for their settlement. They called the place Ebenezer ; and being joined by others of the Salzburgers, they soon established a happy and pros perous community. Nearly at the same time, Augusta, at the head of navigation on the river, was established as a trading- post ; the traffic with the Indians soon being greater in Georgia than in any other of the southern provinces. Highlanders also came and settled on the Altamaha. On the Ogeechee river, south of Savannah, a: few Moravians under SPANGENBURG, sent over by Count Zinzendorf, a noted leader of that sect, located themselves, with the intention of carrying on missionary work among the Indians. The brothers JOHN and CHARLES WESLEY, afterward so well known as the 256 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1733 founders of Methodism, came to Savannah ; Charles as secre tary to Oglethorpe, and his brother with the purpose of be coming an Indian missionary : but they did not remain long in the colony. Upon their return to England, GEORGE WHITEFIELD, the celebrated preacher, came over in 1738, and having interested himself in founding an orphan asylum near Savannah, made an extensive tour through the colonies, preaching and collecting funds for the asylum s support. This was the time in the religious history of our country which was characterized by intense religious excitement and enthusiasm, and is spoken of as the "Great Awakening." RUM AND SLAVERY. THE SPANIARDS AND INDIANS. The introduction into Carolina of the rum of Barbadoes had proved such a serious evil to that colony that the trus tees determined to prohibit its use in Georgia; and the bet ter to exclude it, all trade with the West Indies was positively forbidden. This course was much resented by the debtor- settlers, who should naturally have been the most grateful for the kindness of which they had been the recipients. They declared that rum was essential in such a climate as is that of lower Georgia, with its low sandy plains, and swamps that breed the miasma. But the Salzburgers and Highlanders, men better accustomed to patient labor, were a more temper ate class, who believed the disease was best fought by removing its causes ; that the latter could be better effected by draining their land and keeping it well cultivated, than by the use of ardent spirits. Among the minutes of the board of trustees occurs the following entry : " Read a letter from Mr. Oglethorpe with an account of the death of several persons in Georgia, which he imputed to the drink ing of rum. Resolved, that the drinking of rum in Georgia be ab solutely prohibited, and that all which shall be brought there shall be staved." 1739] RUM AND SLAVERY. 257 John Wesley wrote, many years afterward, alluding probably to this period of his life : " I was fully convinced above 40 years ago that all distilled liquors are liquid fire, and consequently, slow poison. It is from this consideration that we do not admit in our society either distillers or retailers of spirituous liquors." The trustees also prohibited slavery in the colony ; but the class who were clamorous for rum were also the most eager to be maintained by the labor of the negro. The words of Ogle- thorpe relative to the practice, are worthy of retention in our country s history : " Slavery," he says, " is against the gospel, as well as the fundamental law of England. We refused, as trustees, to make a law permitting such a horrid crime." The Salzburgers of Ebenezer, contented in their homes of peace, and busy in the work of producing raw silk and indigo, ear nestly protested against the introduction of slaves. White- field and the Wesleys, who had witnessed the results of slavery in the Carolinas, were also much concerned lest Georgia should fall under its withering blight. All three were moved to write earnest addresses on the subject, to the American planters. But with the system in active operation in Carolina and Florida, Georgia was not able long to withstand the contami nating influence. Ambitious to establish the boundary-mark of the English dominion on the Atlantic coast, Oglethorpe located the forti fied post of Frederica on St. Simon s island below the mouth of the Altamaha; and, still further south, two other forts on the islands at the mouths of the St. Mary s and the St. John s. New treaties were entered into with the Indians, who declared themselves ready to aid the English against either the Span iards or French. Opportunity was not long delayed, for, in 1739, England declared war against Spain, on the ground that the latter country had refused to agree to the commercial requirements of England, and had exercised severe measures upon captured English smugglers. But the fleet of Admiral 22* 258 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1740 Vernon which was expected to effect the conquest of the Spanish West Indies, was baffled in its object ; while Ogle- thorpe, though aided by South Carolina troops, failed to effect the capture of St. Augustine. Charleston, by an accidental fire, was laid in ashes (1740), and the settlers at that time were also in much dread of a revolution of the slaves. The Spaniards having collected a considerable force, their fleet of over thirty vessels sailed from Cuba for the Georgia coast. After an unsuccessful attempt to capture Fort William at the mouth of the St. Mary s, they proceeded against Fred- erica on the island of St. Simon ; but the troops having de barked, were attacked as they were crossing a marsh, by the army of Oglethorpe, and obliged to retreat to their ships. The squadron made another fruitless assault upon Fort Wil liam, and then returned to Cuba. Oglethorpe the following year went back to England. Although of a benevolent dis position, the founder of Georgia had, from boyhood, been attached to military pursuits, and as a consequence of this training he "was ever ready," says Bancroft, " to shed blood, rather than brook an insult." It is instructive to consult the testimony of history as to the cause of this British-Spanish war, of which only a fragment is here related. We will find that in this instance the two governments really desired peace; that they had each appointed commissioners to determine the boundary between Carolina and Florida, as well as to arrange the other matters in dispute. But the English people refused to abide by the proposed arrangement, declaring that it would unfavor ably affect their interests. They appear to have believed that they could easily overcome their rich but less hardy enemies ; and hence, owing to the belligerent clamors of the traders and the excited popu lace, the negotiations were broken off and the government forced into a war. The sturdy and industrious Highlanders and others, who had proved such a valuable acquisition to the colony, had been 1 741] THE BRITISH-SPANISH WAR. 259 withdrawn from their useful occupations and obliged to serve as soldiers. More than this, the Moravians, who had come to Georgia to make Christians of the Indians, and not to teach them the art of war, finding that their work was quite broken up, determined to leave the colony. " In order to avoid taking up arms, which, at that time," says De Schweinitz, " was contrary to the principles of the Church, they relin quished all their improvements and emigrated to Pennsyl vania, arriving at Philadelphia April 20, 1740, in company of George Whitefield, and in his sloop." They settled at the Forks of the Delaware on land belonging to Whitefield ; but a year later purchased an adjacent tract on the Lehigh, where a mission settlement arose, which by Count Zinzendorf was called Bethlehem. To aid Admiral Vernon, the northern colonies had also been called on to furnish their quotas of troops and supplies. Spottswood, late the governor of Virginia, had died of yellow fever at the disastrous siege of Carthagena (1741), where he had been second in command. In Pennsylvania, the assembly being still mostly Friends, were, as before, scrupulous about voting money for the furtherance of war; but as the governor and most of the inhabitants were of another way of thinking, there ensued a warm controversy upon the subject of the militia and measures of defence. Massachusetts, under Gov ernor WILLIAM SHIRLEY, ordered the issue of more provincial paper money, and furnished the troops called for. Of 4000 men who went from the colonies to the war, it is stated that not a tenth part ever returned. It was at this time (1741) that New Hampshire, which had had the same governors as Massachusetts, was permitted one of its own. BENNING WENTWORTH, who first held the posi tion, continued to serve for a period of twenty years. The town of Bennington, then settled, received its name from this efficient officer. 260 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, [1718 THE WALKING PURCHASE. BRAINERD. The Indian Walk, or Walking Purchase, appears as a promi nent incident in the colonial history of Pennsylvania. It strongly marks the departure from that plain path of right- dealing, which the benevolent Penn had hoped would ever subsist between his successors in the proprietary trust and the original occupants of the soil. At the Great Treaty, Penn had declared to them in good faith that they "were met on the broad pathway of peace and good-will, so that no advan tage was to be taken on either side, but all was to be openness, brotherhood and love." But unhappily, as it proved, for the peace and prosperity of the commonwealth, the descendants of Penn (who differed in religious faith from their ancestor,) were also at times, in their colonial dealings, inclined to a different practice. Their interest in the colony was not, like his, so entirely unselfish in its character, and hence they had not the same regard for the establishment therein of pure and noble principles of life and government. In making land purchases of the Indians, it had been the practice of Penn and his agents to define the boundaries by streams and highlands, so far as their knowledge of the coun try extended ; but, respecting the unknown interior, such vague terms were used as "two days journey with a horse" or "as far as a man can go in two days," etc. Penn s own policy was one so grounded in uprightness and love, that he preferred paying for land several times over, and to as many different claimants, rather than, through lack of an indis putably clear title, to expose the settlers upon his lands to the chance of a miserable death by the scalping-knife and toma hawk. A deed made in 1718, by a number of chiefs of the Dela- wares, had confirmed to the proprietaries the title to all the territory between the Susquehanna and Delaware rivers, as far 1733] THE WALKING PURCHASE. 261 northward as the Lehigh hills. But as the land beyond the latter boundary began to be taken up by settlers, the Indians made complaint of these encroachments, and accordingly THOMAS PENN, who was then in the province, paid for a part the Tulpehocken lands on the Schuylkill but refused to make compensation for the territory at the Forks of the Dela ware. The " Forks" included not only the site of the present city of Easton, but the whole region comprised between the Lehigh and Delaware, and bounded on the north by the Blue Mountains. It was agreed finally that the dispute should be decided according to the wording of the oldest deed to Penn, to wit : one and a half days journey northward from the Neshamony creek towards the mountains, and from that point a straight line to be drawn eastward to the Delaware. The proprietors immediately advertised in the public papers for the most expert walkers in the province, offering a reward of several pounds in money, besides a tract of 500 acres of land, to the one who should walk the farthest in the given time. Of the applicants, three were carefully chosen, the Indians bringing forward a like number of their own nation to accompany them. Upon a selected day in the latter part of 1737, when the time from sunrise to sunset was the longest, the pedestrians started from the Neshaminy (twenty miles north of Philadelphia), on their momentous journey. By the time they had crossed the Lehigh hills and the river of that name, two Indians and one of the whites had given out. At sundown an Indian village was reached, and a halt made until morning. When the north side of the Blue Ridge was gained, the forenoon following, many Indians were there col lected expecting the walk to terminate, but upon finding it was to be continued still farther, they became very angry. The walking was proceeded with and finished, all having given out but one, a white man. The Six Nations, the masters of the Delawares, confirmed the land to the English. 262 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1733 By this piece of over-reaching it was, that Penn s successors extinguished the Indian title to the rich lands of the Minisinks beyond the Delaware Water Gap. But the land speculators had a special reason for desiring the Minisink territory to be included in the walk, which was, that thousands of those acres had been previously surveyed and sold. Also, about the time of the walk, the proprietary had issued proposals for a lottery of 100,000 acres of land; it having been stipulated that pur chasers of tickets should take up any unoccupied tracts. In this manner many tracts at the Forks were now settled upon. The Walking Purchase became the cause of jealousies and heart-burnings among the Indians, eventually breaking out into loud complaints of injustice, followed by savage acts of vengeance, as will appear farther on in our history. Area .north of XI %udulcntly ac, about 500,000 acjf-es Three years subsequent to the Walking Purchase (1740), came the Moravian colony from Georgia, and settled at the 1744] BRAINERD. 263 Forks of the Delaware. A little later (1742), CHRISTIAN RAUCH and other Moravians began to labor among the Mohe- gan tribe in Eastern New York and also just within the borders of Connecticut ; but the assembly of New York, instigated by the land-speculators and liquor-traders, forbade the mission aries to preach. Accompanied by some Indian converts they therefore moved down to their settlement of Bethlehem, on the Lehigh. Simultaneously, JOHN SERGEANT, a tutor of Yale College, originated a mission among the Housatonic Indians at Stock- bridge in western Massachusetts, not far from Rauch s little settlements. Sergeant labored with much zeal and success for fifteen years, when he died. The noted JONATHAN EDWARDS became his successor. The Stockbridge colony, when Ser geant was stricken down, had increased from fifty natives to four times that number, and possessed neat dwellings, culti vated farms, a house of worship and several schools. A young man of strong intellect, of excellent memory, search ing and convincing in his discourse, was DAVID BRAINERD, a pupil of Jonathan Edwards, who came in 1744 from Connec ticut to labor among the tribes of the Delawares at the Forks and in central and western New Jersey. Living in their wigwams, eating their coarse fare, regardless of creature comforts so that he might have many hours of quiet for med itation and prayer, he travelled mostly at his own charges hundreds of miles through the wooded wilderness and swamps, and over toilsome steeps, exhibiting in his beautiful Christian life a worthy example of purity and self-denial. The scene of Brainerd s greatest success was in New Jersey. The principal village of the Christian Indians was called by the name of Bethel, and it was said of its people that their consistent lives " put to shame their white brethren in other churches." But the young missionary sustained for three years only this arduous life in the wilderness; for, having 264 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1744 embarked upon a journey to the upper Susquehanna (whither he had been several times before), his feeble frame gave way under the fatigue and exposure, and death ensued before he had reached his thirtieth year. A younger brother, JOHN BKAINERD, entered the same field of useful work. Although much favored by Belcher, the governor of New Jersey, yet many of the Indian titles for lands being disputed, fell into the hands of chief-justice Morris, an irreligious man, and the Indians of Bethel were eventually ejected from their posses sions. One who came to assist the younger Brainerd, says : " It is sur prising to see the people who, not long since, were led captive by Satan at his will, and living in the practice of all manner of abomi nations, without the least sense even of moral honesty, yet now living soberly and regularly, and not seeking every man his own, but every man, in some sense, his neighbor s good ; and to see those who but a little while past, knew nothing of the true God, now worshipping him in a solemn and devout manner, not only in public, but in their families and in secret ; which is manifestly the case, it being a difficult thing to walk into the woods in the morning without disturbing persons in secret devotions. It seems wonderful that this should be the case not only with adult persons, but with children also ; for it is observable here, that many children retire into secret places to pray." CHAPTER XXI. GEORGE II. SECOND PERIOD. 17441760. THIRD WAR WITH CANADA. LOUISBURG CAPTURED. THE wars that at intervals broke out between the rival monarchs of Europe, were always accompanied, as we have seen, by a counterpart conflict in the American colonies. When Charles VI., Emperor of Germany, died in 1740, the claim of his daughter Maria Theresa to the throne, was dis puted by the Elector of Bavaria. England, thereupon, espoused the* cause of the former, while France, Spain and Prussia took the part of the Bavarian, and for seven years were fought upon the plains of western Europe the battles for the Austrian succession. Meanwhile the angry billows of strife had broken upon the American shores, where the English colonies, under the leadership of Massachusetts, prepared once more to attack Canada. It was considered, in the first place, of vital importance to firmly secure the friendship of the Six Nations ; and accord ingly, Governor CLINTON of New York, together with com missioners from New England, met the chiefs and envoys of the tribes at Albany, in 1743, and gained them over by liberal presents. And at another important council held at Lancaster a year later, it was agreed, upon the part of Pennsylvania, Maryland and Virginia, that the claim of the Six Nations to the country between the Blue Ridge and the Ohio, which they M 23 265 266 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1745 had conquered from the Shawnees, should now be admitted. For the sum of ^400 all the beautiful valley of the Shenan- doah and the mountain-country of Virginia back to the Ohio were given up to the English. But the vanquished Shawnees who had been thus deprived of their hunting-grounds, and the Delawares who had lost largely of their land by the Indian Walk, both favored the cause of the French. The latter nation began hostilities by the capture of the little fort, and the destruction of the fishery, at Canso, on the north-eastern extremity of the Nova Scotian peninsula; and, as privateers, issuing from Louisburg on the opposite isle of Cape Breton, threatened to injure the New England commerce and to annihilate its fisheries, it was determined to attempt the conquest of that formidable fortress. The colonies as far south as Pennsylvania having been solicited for aid, 4000 troops, mostly furnished by Massachusetts, were placed under the command of William Pepperell, and, embarking for Canso, were shortly joined by several ships from England under Commodore Warren. The siege of Louisburg, after it had continued over two months, was terminated in the sixth month (June) 1745, by the surrender of its French garrison, together with the defenders from the town, numbering in all nearly 2000 men. Although the loss of the English in the siege had been but about 150, yet of those who were now unwil lingly detained to garrison the place, ten times that number perished by disease, many of them being Indians who had been persuaded to enlist as soldiers in the provincial regiments. While the colonies, in the expectation of another fleet from England, were raising additional troops to follow up their re cent success by the hoped-for conquest of Canada, great con sternation was caused by the news of the sailing of a French squadron of forty ships of war for the American coast. The hostile fleet, however, was shattered by storms and shipwreck, 1747] THIRD WAR WITH CANADA. 267 and the troops were wasted by a pestilent disease ; the admi ral died, and his successor, in a delirium, committed suicide. The ships returned singly to France, but having subsequently made a second attempt (1747) to reach Canada, they were captured by the English fleet of Admiral Anson. In the meantime the Canadian Indians, allies of the French, were active in harassing the northern frontier. At Crown Point, on the west shore of Lake Champlain, a fort had been constructed by the French, and from there a small force was sent, which surprised and ravaged the English settle ment at Saratoga. The official agent of the English among the Six Nations at this period, was a man of Scotch-Irish birth, named WILLIAM JOHNSON. He had established him self on the Mohawk river, thirty miles west of Albany, where he diligently cultivated the good-will of the natives, took a wife from amongst them, and carried on a lucrative traffic, supplying them with rum, fire-arms and scalping-knives, or whatever else their savage need craved. Johnson s influence over the Mohawk tribe was greater than that of any of their native chiefs, and, in the war with the French, he led a party of the tribe who were designed to act as forest-skirmishers in advance of the main army. In Pennsylvania, the desire of the Friends, the Mennonites and others, for peace, was at last overruled by the governor and a majority of the people of the province, the wishes of the latter being greatly aided by BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. The philosopher at that time was a man above forty years of age, and by his printed productions, his great abilities and natural force of character, began to exercise much weight in political affairs. There being a rumor that French privateers were about to attempt the capture of Philadelphia, a large militia force was organized, and money was raised by lotteries to erect batteries for the defence of the Delaware. And thus terminated (1747) the happy period of uninterrupted peace 268 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1748 and of freedom from invasion, which had existed for the period of 65 years since the foundation of the province. The SCHWENCKFELDERS, a body of Germans, who, on account of the religious toleration and immunity from military service which they were told prevailed in Pennsylvania, had come hither in 1733 and 34, were likewise opposed to the war. The founder of the sect, Caspar von Schwenckfeld, a Silesian knight, was a con temporary of Luther. For two hundred years his followers re mained in Silesia, but, having been subjected to much persecution by the Jesuits, they removed to Saxony, where they found a friend in Count Zinzendorf, the Moravian. Eight years later, however, receiving a peremptory notification to depart, they embarked for this country. A few years subsequently, Frederick, of Prussia, amazed at the short-sightedness which had driven away such an honest and industrious community, issued an edict, offering to reimburse them for all their losses, and to give them new farms and building-lots free of cost, but not one of the Schwenckfelders accepted the prof fered aid and protection. With the peace of AIX-LA-CHAPELLE in 1748, the war in Europe and America (and in India, to which it had likewise extended), was brought to a close. Cape Breton and Louis- burg were returned to the French, and the St. Mary s river was made the boundary between Georgia and Spanish Florida; but the right of the Spaniards to search English vessels sus pected of smuggling, which had been a principal pretext for the war with Spain, was not even alluded to in the treaty. THE SOUTHERN PROVINCES. SLAVES AND REDEMPTIONERS. THE MOLASSES ACT. BALTIMORE, the present metropolis of Maryland, was laid out in 1729, but for thirty years or more, it remained a mere village : Annapolis, the seat of government, being the more important place. THOMAS BLADEN, who had married a sister of Lord Baltimore, was governor under the proprietor at the 1746] THE SOUTHERN PROVINCES. 269 time of the war with Canada ; but being a man of an irascible temperament, which caused him easily to fall into disputes with the assembly, he was displaced (1747) by BENJAMIN OGLE, a former occupant of the governor s office. Under the proprietor Frederick, the sixth and last Lord Baltimore, the Catholics, having for many years experienced the social annoyances and disadvantages imposed upon them in the province which themselves had settled, applied to the court of France for a grant of lands in Louisiana; but no practical step followed the application. About the same time (1751) the Nanticoke tribe of Indians, left their ancient homes on the Eastern Shore of Maryland, and carrying with them the bones of their forefathers, found a temporary resting- place and hunting-grounds about the upper waters of the Susquehanna. In North Carolina, the collection of the quit-rents the sole source from which was derived the pay of the gov ernor and other royal officers continued to occasion a great deal of contention, precisely as it had done in South Carolina, in Pennsylvania and in New Jersey. Finally, when their salaries had become several years in arrears, the royal officers removed the seat of government (1746) from the Albemarle plantations down to the new settlement of Wil mington, on the Cape Fear river. The southern counties were more favorable to the governor ; and the English authori ties having approved of the change, the collection of the quit- rents and the payment of arrearages of salary were then carried into effect. The institution of slavery, although it existed, to a greater or less degree in all the colonies, did not make the same prog ress in the northern that it did in the southern provinces, where the soil, climate and plantation system, all favored the employment of the African. Nevertheless the slaves were, as a general thing, treated with more kindness and care in 270 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1750 New England than they were in the South, as being considered more in the light of. apprentices. In 1750, there were about 1000 slaves in Boston ; while in Newport, Rhode Island, which was then the principal shipping-port of New England, the ratio to the white population was even greater than in the former city. Newport rum was exchanged on the African coast for negroes to be sold to the southern colonies; and ships from Boston and New York embarked in the same un righteous traffic. A Congregationalist pastor of Newport, DR. SAML. HOPKINS, having frequently witnessed, close to his house, the landing of cargoes of negro slaves, boldly rebuked his congregation for the sin in which they were so deeply engaged. In 1770, and for six years thereafter, he continued to visit the masters from house to house, urging them to give liberty to their bondsmen. So greatly blessed were his labors, that the church of which he was a member, decided before the end of the century, that the holding of slaves would not be tolerated amongst them. In Pennsylvania, the custom of slave-holding found many opponents among the Friends ; and it is noteworthy that the first protest of a religious body against negro slavery was one drawn up in 1688 by FRANCIS DANIEL PASTORIUS, a Ger man Friend of Germantown. The protest was adopted by the members there, and forwarded to the " Yearly Meeting" at Philadelphia. The eccentric BENJAMIN LAY, who had wit nessed the horrors of slavery in the Barbadoes, was zealously opposed to the system. The labors of JOHN WOOLMAN and ANTHONY BENEZET, were of marked effect upon the whole body of Friends, who, when persuaded that the practice was morally unlawful, rested not until the evil was eradicated from the borders of their religious society. Benjamin Franklin was, from an early period in his public career, a decided advocate, with Friends, of emancipation. J 750] SLAVES AND REDEMPTIONERS. 271 At the Yearly Meeting of Friends of Philadelphia and vicinity, held in 1758, so impressive and convincing were the remarks made by Woolman upon the practice of slave-holding, that it was agreed to appoint a committee to visit, and to entreat with, such of the members within the limits of the meeting as kept slaves. Their labors were attended with excellent results, many who held slaves being willing to set them at liberty. In 1774, the Yearly Meeting issued its testimony against the practice, and in I77^> the subordinate meetings were directed to deny the rig/it of membership to such as persisted in holding their fellow-men as property : a worthy Declaration indeed for that year of Independence ! Furthermore, conceiving that some reparation was due to those who had been held in bondage, many of the former owners of such, agreed to pay them for past services according to an award to be made by arbi trators. Meanwhile Woolman, following the call of duty, had visited New England, and at the Yearly Meeting for that section, held at Newport (1760), finding that several Friends were concerned in the slave trade, he proclaimed with kindly and yet most earnest utterances, the sin fulness of the practice. The same result ensued as at Philadelphia, for (says Whittier) "wherever he went hard hearts were softened, avarice and love of power and pride of opinion gave way before his testimony of love." Such are the true con quests of Christianity ! In the space of twenty years there were no slaves known to be held by members of New England Yearly Meeting. These also made restitution for former services. The like course was adopted in New York ; and finally, in Virginia, where slavery had its strongest hold in the Society, the evil was peacefully abolished. In the middle colonies, from New York to Virginia, the importation of indentured white servants was extensively carried on. These servants were also known as " Redemp- tioners," and their term of service was limited bylaw, seldom or never exceeding seven years. In Virginia, upon the expi ration of his term, the redemptioner was entitled to a grant of fifty acres of land, the same as any other immigrant. But the condition of poverty, and especially of ignorance, in which they were kept, as a class, tended to retain them even when freed, in a reduced and subject state. The name "soul- 272 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1750 drivers" was given to a certain set of men, who made it a business to purchase the redemptioners in lots from captains of ships, and to drive them about the country like cattle, dis posing of them to the farmers, with whom they worked out the term of service necessary to pay for their passage-money. It has been mentioned above that New England rum, espe cially that of Newport, was a medium largely employed to obtain slaves, with which to stock the southern plantations. This rum was produced by the distillation of molasses, mostly obtained from the French West India islands, and on which the New England traders paid no duty. In order to stop this traffic, and to compel the colonies to get their supply of sugar, molasses and rum, from the British West Indies, the English parliament passed a law known as the Molasses Act, by which a heavy duty was imposed upon all importations of those pro ducts from the French or Dutch islands. Nevertheless, this act was constantly evaded, not only by smugglers, but by the whole mercantile body of the colonies. Perhaps it may seem to some, upon a casual view of the case, not to have been very wrong for the merchants to get their sugar and syrup where they chose. So far, indeed, they were perfectly right. But when the government, for purposes of its own utterly selfish withal as those purposes were saw proper to impose a tax on the commodities in question, then it became the duty of the citizen to pay the same, even though by so doing he realized no profit from their sale. The case is altered, however, when the question of a scruple of conscience is presented ; for it is necessary to keep clearly in view the distinction between a law that is simply oppres sive, and another that offends the conscience, in other words, one which we cannot obey without offending God, and thus committing sin. Hence a person who is conscientiously opposed to military service may properly refuse to bear arms, because he will feel that if he takes the life even of his country s enemy, he is committing a grievous sin ; but he will have no right, even though he honestly believe that free trade will best promote the prosperity of his country, to attempt to smuggle goods into his warehouse, contrary to the law 1753] FOURTH INTERCOLONIAL WAR. 273 FOURTH INTERCOLONIAL WAR. BRADDOCK S DEFEAT. By the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, commissioners were to be appointed to settle the boundary between the Eng lish settlements and those of Acadie. It was the wish of the French to restrict the English to the peninsula of Nova Scotia and to the country west of the Penobscot river. In the inter vening territory between Nova Scotia and the Penobscot, several French military posts were established. The English about the same time (1749) began to construct the fortress of HALIFAX, as a check to Louisburg. It received its name from the Earl of Halifax, first commissioner of the Board of Trade and Plantations. To this Board the English government committed the superintendence of American affairs ; its duty being to make recommendations to one of the two secretaries of state. The secretary in important matters consulted with the king or with parliament. A second section of country, for the possession of which both the English and French began to manifest a dangerous rivalry, was that between Lake Erie and the Ohio. As many as sixty posts were at this time possessed by the French along the Great Lakes and the Mississippi ; while they had also se cured the friendship of the Indian tribes of Canada and the West. But immediately after the treaty, an English corpora tion, called the Ohio Company, composed mostly of London ers and Virginians, obtained a grant of 500,000 acres of land on and near the Ohio river, together with the exclusive privi lege of the Indian traffic. On the Monongahela, much to the disquiet of the French, a trading-post was established by the company. This was resented by the capture of a number of English traders by the French, who likewise determined to further strengthen their claims by building a large post (1753) at Presque Isle now Erie and smaller trading-posts in the neighboring interior. M* 274 HISTORY OF 1 FIE UNITED STATES. [1754 Governor Robert Dinwiddie,- of Virginia, apprised of these active movements of the French, sent an envoy, the young GEORGE WASHINGTON, to demand the release of the captured traders, and to inquire by what right the French were en croaching on that region. Washington was then but twenty- one years of age, and by occupation wa*s a land-surveyor, resident in the county of Westmoreland on the " Northern Neck." While Washington was absent on his mission, Dinwiddie ordered a fort to be erected at the point of land where the Alleghany and Monongahela rivers meet, to form the Ohio. But the French interfered, drove off the construction party, and they themselves began to build a fort, which, in honor of the governor-general of Canada, was called FORT Du QUESNE. Washington, upon his return, was sent with a de tachment to resist the attempt of the French, but was over powered by the latter at the Great Meadows, and forced to capitulate. All this occurred in the year 1754, and marked the beginning of a final terrible struggle between the two powers for the control of the continent : a struggle in which Canada depended largely on aid from France and alliance with the Indians. The whole population of New France, from Louis- burg to New Orleans, was then but about 100,000, while the English exceeded twelve times that number. About the middle of the year, there was held at Albany, an important council of commissioners from all the colonies north of the Potomac, to concert measures of defence, and to treat with the Six Nations and their allies. At this assembly there was introduced a plan, chiefly devised by Franklin, for a federal union of the English-American colonies, which were to be represented in a great. council by their chosen delegates. A president-general was to be named and supported by the king, and the capital city was to be Philadelphia. Yet the proposition was not entirely acceptable either to Great Britain 1755] TnE FRENCH NEUTRALS OF ACADIE. 275 or America, and after causing considerable discussion, then and subsequently, it was finally rejected. GENERAL BRADDOCK having been appointed commander- in-chief of the English forces, sailed (1755) for America with 2000 regular troops, and landing at the little town of Alex andria on the Potomac, proceeded up that river to Cumberland. Being joined by a body of the provincials, and, through the co-operation of Franklin, furnished with wagons and horses, he slowly advanced through the wilderness toward the mountains. The opening of a road for the passage of the artillery and wagons proved to be an exceedingly laborious work, and con sumed much time. Impatient at the delay, the commander pushed on in advance with a part of the troops, but when within five miles of Fort Du Quesne, they fell into an ambus cade of the French and Indians. Braddock and many of his men were killed, the military stores were abandoned to the enemy, and the surviving troops hastily retreated, the rear being protected by Washington, who had accompanied Brad- dock in the capacity of aid-de-camp, and now took command of the Virginia troops. THE FRENCH NEUTRALS OF ACADIE. The upper part of the bay of Fundy divides into the two tributary bays or basins of Minas and of Beau-Bassin. Around these waters, and upon the fertile banks of the broad river of Annapolrs another estuary of the bay of Fundy were clus tered the quiet hamlets of the French settlers. These settlers, amounting in number to 12,000 or more, were known by the name of the "French Neutrals;" and, although by the treaty of Utrecht forty years before, Acadie had been ceded to the British and its name changed to Nova Scotia, yet were these colonists permitted, in accordance with their choice, to retain their homesteads, exempt from fighting the battles of either nation. 276 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1755 The peacefulness and serenity which marked those happy abodes have often been celebrated in song and story. But, unhappily for their continuance, a number of young Aca- dians, who were forced into the French service upon the breaking out of the war, were taken prisoners. They formed part of the garrison of a fort which had been captured by an army of provincials from Massachusetts, sent to break up the posts of the French in the debatable territory between the Penobscot and Nova Scotia. To arrange some scheme by which the Acadian settlers might be got rid of, and the trouble and expense of keeping garrisons among them be saved, the lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia consulted with Admirals Boscawen and Mostyn, commanders of the English fleet. Notwithstanding it had been agreed, at the capture of the fort above spoken of, that the neighboring French inhabitants should not be disturbed, the result of the conference was, the devising of a plan for kidnapping the Acadians, and transporting them to the various British colonies. Upon divers pretexts the people were in one day assembled together in their chapels, and these being quickly surrounded by troops, the inmates were made pris oners and hurried on board the transports. Furthermore, that there should be either a complete surrender or the alter native of starvation, the growing crops were destroyed, and houses, barns and all their contents were given over to the flames. This ruthless deed was consummated in the harvest- time of 1755. In the confusion and haste of forcible embarkation, many were the children who were separated from parents wives from husbands and dear friends parted, never to see each other again. Then in poverty and utter misery, they were landed at the ports of all the British-American colonies, among strangers and haters of their name and religion ; and, although their sorrows sometimes won for them considerate 1755] THE MARQUIS OF MONTCALM. 277 attention, yet in most cases the colonial assemblies endeavored to remove them as quickly as it could be effected. A few made their way to France, and some to Canada, Louisiana, or other of their country s colonies; but the greater part, heart-sick or overcome by dejection and despair, ended their days in exile. The plea of expediency, while it is a prolific incentive to war fare, has also been used as the cloak of many a dark deed of cruelty. Such was Napoleon s excuse for the massacre of the 2000 Arabs of JAFFA. Those unfortunates had surrendered upon the promise given them by two officers of Napoleon s staff that their lives would be spared. But upon a council of war being held, at which it was stated that some of the prisoners were men who had violated their paroles, it was decided at length that as provisions were scarce, and as troops could not be spared either to guard them or to convey them to French territory, it would be most expedient thatthey should every one be shot. With their hands tied behind their backs, they were led down to the bottom of the sand-hills by the sea-shore, and for five hours the soldiers fired a continuous volley of death into the dense mass of humanity, until not an Arab was left alive. " The returning tide washed the blood of this murdered host from the sands of Joppa, but no tide will ever wash their blood from those French executioners and this soldier-god !" THE MARQUIS OF MONTCALM Upon the death of Braddock, Governor SHIRLEY of Massa chusetts became commander-in-chief of the English forces. With troops from New England and New York, he erected (1755) strong defences at Oswego on Lake Ontario, and, after making great preparations, was about to embark for the pur pose of attacking -the French fort at Niagara; but in conse quence of the approach of winter, the scantiness of supplies, and the continued prevalence of storms, the expedition was abandoned. To Johnson, the Indian agent, was given the command of 24 278 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1756 an expedition which was to attack Crown Point on Lake Champlain. The French general, Count Dieskau, had as cended the lake to its southern extremity, and there landed his troops. These encountered and defeated a body of the English and their Mohawk allies, near Lake George ; but in a subsequent attack upon Johnson s camp, they were them selves overcome, with the loss of a thousand men. Dieskau himself was mortally wounded. Meanwhile the Delawares and Shawnees, in alliance with the French, committed great depredations on the border set tlements of Pennsylvania, Maryland and Virginia. Along the whole frontier, from the upper Delaware to the Potomac, was seen the blaze of burning farm-houses and villages. In Pennsylvania loud was the call "to arms." Large rewards being offered for Indian scalps, many of the Friends who were in the assembly either resigned their places or declined re-election, as they could not unite with the people in pro viding means to carry on the contest. The French had all along expressed a desire to come to terms, but asked as a con dition that the English should restore the merchant ships which in great numbers they had piratically seized in a time of peace; yet this the latter refused to do, and so the war went on. It raged also in Europe, being known in history as that "Seven Years War," in which Frederick, called the Great, was the ally of England. In the following year (1756) the EARL OF LOUDOUN was sent over to America to take the chief command of the army, with authority superior to the colonial governments, and with permission to keep and quarter the king s troops in private houses, if need be, without the consent of the assemblies. Thus began the royal military rule of the provinces, which continued to prevail for the succeeding twenty years, until the breaking out of the Revolutionary war. A large force was organized at Albany, but in the meantime 1757] THE MARQUIS OF MONTCALM. 279 the MARQUIS OF MONTCALM, Dieskau s successor, crossed Lake Ontario with 5000 French and Indians, and captured the forts at .Osvvego, together with the garrison and stores, and also the vessels which had been built the year before for the Niagara expedition. To please the Six Nations and secure their neutrality, Montcalm destroyed the Oswego forts, to the existence of which in their territory the Indians had been averse from the first. In the campaign of the next year (1757), Montcalm was again successful. With 8000 men, including the garrisons of Crown Point and Ticonderoga, he ascended Lake George to its southern extremity, and laid siege to Fort William Henry. The garrison, 2000 in number, expected aid from General Webb, who, with a much larger force, was at Fort Edward, fourteen miles distant. This aid being withheld, the garri son agreed to surrender, with the understanding that they should be fully protected. But the Indian allies of Mont calm, eager for plunder, and overcome by liquor obtained in the fort, fell upon the English, of whom many were massa cred, although the greater number either fled back to the French, or, after many hardships and wanderings, finally reached Fort Edward. Montcalm, ordering Fort William Henry to be demolished, embarked his troops and Indians. The Canadians returned home to gather in their harvests, and the beautiful lake called in the Indian dialect, Horicon, or Silver Water was left once more to its primeval solitude. A band of two hundred men from Carolina had penetrated to the region of the upper Tennessee (1756) and built Fort Loudoun. They now found the Cherokees wavering, and divided in sentiment. "Use all means you think proper," wrote Governor Lyttleton, of Carolina, "to induce our In dians to take up the hatchet. Promise a reward to every man who shall bring in the scalp of a Frenchman or one of the French Indians." 2 8o HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1750 DAVID ZEISBERGER, THE MORAVIAN. For his success at the battle of Lake George, the Indian agent Johnson received the honor of knighthood ; whilst among the French, the name of the Marquis of Montcalm was heralded with many plaudits. Nevertheless, it is said of men, "Ye shall know them by their fruits:" and again, " A good tree cannot bring forth evil fruit." Whether the work of the French and the English leaders in stimulating the worst passions of the Indians, was work for a Christian to do, or for Christian people to applaud, the reader can determine for himself. He beholds the evil fruit the revenge and ra pine, the devouring flames, and the hideous deeds of slaughter and may readily decide whether such things as these have any part in the religion of the Christian, and whether glory such as this is of a sort acceptable in the sight of God. Now while Johnson and Montcalm were thus teaching the red men lessons of life and death such as Christ and his Apostles never taught, a greater hero than English knight or French marquis, was laboring zealously, patiently, lovingly, in the path of Eliot and Brainerd, striving to instruct the Indians in a far more excellent way. The name of this worthy was DAVID ZEISBERGER, a Moravian. He had heard of the active interest manifested by Oglethorpe in the Moravian colony of Georgia, and though yet a boy, came over to the province just before the breaking out of the war with Spain. He was one of the number who departed thence in White- field s sloop for the Forks of the Delaware ; and, shortly after his arrival, felt called to devote his life to the spread of the Gospel among the aborigines. Zeisberger spent a number of years at the several mission- stations of his brethren ; at Shamokin, near the Forks of the Susquehanna, on the upper Lehigh, and in the valley of Wyoming mostly among the Shawnees, the Delawares, the 1755] DAVID ZEISBERGER, THE MORAVIAN. 2 8l newly-arrived Nanticokes, and the Monseys or Minisinks. Having been adopted into the Turtle clan of the tribe of the Onondagas, he went in 1750, with a single companion, on an embassy to the Six Nations, to solicit permission to maintain a mission among them, as the French Jesuits had done years before. Their wilderness-journey was attended with many hardships and dangers, yet still greater perils awaited them when they arrived at the capital village of the Senecas. From afar they heard the shouting of the savages, frenzied with the liquor which white traders had sold them. Affrighted at their repulsive reception the awful laughter, the yells, and the heathen abominations they sought refuge in the loft of one of the low houses ; but at the first opportunity escaped through a hole in the roof, and made their way to the neigh boring country of the Onondagas to the central council-fire of the Six Nations. The Indian council complied with the request of Zeisberger to establish a mission, but unfortunately for its prospect of good service, the war with France soon interfered with its operations, and the Indians were easily drawn aside into the war-path. At Gnadenhiitten on the Lehigh, nearly all of the missionaries, with their families, were massacred in the autumn f J 755j shortly after the defeat of Braddock. At an Indian treaty held at Carlisle, a little later, one of the Iro- quois chiefs, speaking in behalf of all the Indians present, expressed himself to the following effect : "The rum ruins us. We beg that you would prevent its coming in such quantities, by regulating the traders. We never understood the trading was for whiskey. We desire it may be forbidden, and none sold in the Indian country ; but that if the Indians will have any, they may go amongst the inhabitants and deal with them for it. When those whiskey traders come, they bring 30 or 40 kegs, put them down before us and make us drink, and get all the skins that should go to pay the debts we have contracted for goods bought of the fair traders ; and by these means we not only ruin ourselves, but others too. These wicked 24* 282 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1763 whiskey dealers, when they have once got the Indians in liquor, make them sell their very clothes from their backs. In short, if this practice is continued, we must be inevitably ruined. We most earnestly, therefore, beseech you to remedy it." Once more, in 1763, when prosperity seemed ready again to smile on the missions, that widely-extended combination of the Indian tribes, known as the Conspiracy of Pontiac, frustrated the benevolent hopes of Zeisberger and his coadju tors. The Moravian Indians were then unjustly accused of being in league with Pontiac s warriors. Special bitterness was exhibited toward them by the Scotch-Irish settlers on the Pennsylvania frontier, who professed to believe that the In dians were the Canaanites of the New World, and that the existing war had come upon the colonies as a judgment for failing to totally exterminate the native tribes. The Moravian Indians were precisely in the same strait as were the Praying Indians of Massachusetts when the war with Philip of Poka- noket was raging. In order that these Indians (one of whom was accused of a murder) might be safe from the deadly threats of their enemies, it was ordered that they should deliver up their rifles and allow themselves to be brought to Philadelphia. This was accordingly done. They were marched to the military quarters, but the soldiers, with levelled muskets, threatened to kill them, if they were not taken away. Imprecations and revilements were poured out upon the refugees, and the streets "rang with yells and shouts which sounded as fierce as the war-whoop of the savages." Meantime, Zeisberger and the other missionaries stood faithfully by them, while many of the Friends, indifferent to the scorn of the rabble, took the In dians by the hand and addressed them as brethren. Neverthe less, as a measure of safety, the Indians were quickly removed to an island in the river. Several hundred Scotch-Irish from near Lancaster the " Paxton Boys" they were called after 1781] DAVID ZEISBERGER, THE MORAVIAN. 283 butchering a number of Conestoga Indians who had taken refuge in a jail, marched toward Philadelphia, threatening to exterminate the refugees there ; but they were finally induced to desist from their murderous intent. Several months later (1764), when the excitement had sub sided, these Indians were taken to the upper Susquehanna region, beyond the Wyoming valley, where they built the vil lage of Friedenshiitten, or " Tents of Peace." This place was as neatly laid out as any New England hamlet, being entirely surrounded by a post-and-rail fence, every house having its garden and orchard, and everything kept scrupulously clean. In summer, it was the custom for a party of women frequently to pass through the several streets and alleys, sweeping them with brooms and removing the rubbish. In 1768 -and 1770, Zeisberger established stations among the Monseys, on the Alleghany and Beaver rivers. A little later, these and the converts from the Susquehanna, were concentrated in several settlements in the valley of the Tusca- rawas, in eastern Ohio, and for ten years the Moravian missions flourished greatly, being frequented by hundreds of natives, some even from the far west. But in 1781, near the close of the American revolution, a body of hostile Delawares, under Captain Pipe, a chief, and of Wyandottes under their " Half- king," at British instigation broke up the peaceful settlements, and carried the Indians off to Sandusky, and their teachers to the British head-quarters at Detroit. But a far worse catastrophe befel this people the next year, when a party of them came back to the Tuscarawas valley to harvest the corn which had been left standing- in the fields. Their return happened at the time of the murder of a settler and all his family by a band of hostile Indians. The event caused such an excited and unreasoning feelin^tp^ prevail among the frontiersmen, that a company was speedily organ ized to proceed to the Tuscarawas valley, and to punish the 284 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1781 Moravian Indians as spies and abettors of the murder. The commander of the expedition was named David Williamson. Dissembling their real purpose, they greeted the Indians in a friendly manner, and informed them that they had come to carry them to a place of safety, where they would be well taken care of; that the whites would also take charge of their guns, for safe-keeping ; and that it would be best to burn down the houses to prevent their harboring any warriors. The Indians, to the number of ninety, being now at the mercy of the Americans, they were readily made prisoners, and a council was held to decide upon their fate. It was promptly- determined that they should all be put to death ; though some further debate ensued as to whether it would be preferable to set fire to the two large houses in which the cap tives were kept, and burn them alive, or whether to tomahawk and scalp them, so that the militia might carry back with them some trophies of the campaign. The latter plan had the preference. The Christians being informed of their doom, began to sing, and to pray, and to comfort one another. Thus the night went by, and when the morning broke the militia selected two buildings which they called "slaughter houses," in which they carried out their awful purpose: the men and boys were butchered in one the women and babes in the other. There were in all 29 men, 27 women and 34 children, who thus perished at the MASSACRE OF GNADEN- HUTTEN, the "Tents of Grace!" Which were Christ s sol diers ? which were the conquerors ? and with whom was the glory ? Although greatly cast down by the news of the massacre, Zeisberger did not relax his endeavors to civilize and make Christians of the Indians, being mostly engaged in the neigh borhood of Sandusky and Detroit, and in Canada at a flour ishing station which was named Fairfield. After the lapse of sixteen years, some of the converts, led by Zeisberger, returned 1757] CANADA CONQUERED FROM THE FRENCH. 285 to the Tuscarawas. For a while the new settlement pros pered. A memorial was presented to the Ohio legislature, asking for the passage of a bill prohibiting any spirituous liquors to be offered for sale or barter in any town of the Indians ; but in consequence of the influx of settlers upon the reservation the prohibitory law could not be enforced. Not only passing traders, but the near neighbors, tempted the Indians in every possible way, waylaying them in the forest while hunting or engaged in other pursuits, and, hav ing supplied them with liquor, lured them into bargains very much to their disadvantage. Zeisberger died in 1808, hav ing been sixty years a faithful laborer among the Indians. The Tuscarawas valley was soon forsaken by the red men, who retired first to Canada, and eventually to the Moravian mission-station in Kansas. CANADA CONQUERED FROM THE FRENCH. We must now turn back to the events which immediately succeeded the successes of Montcalm in 1756 and 1757, when the French power prevailed throughout all the territory of the St. Lawrence, the Great Lakes, the Mississippi and their tribu tary streams. Three principal routes, along which were forti fied posts, connected the St. Lawrence with the Mississippi. The nearest to the English frontier was that via Erie, Fort Du Quesne and the Ohio ; the second, by way of the Mau- mee and the Wabash ; the third, by the route of the Illinois. If the reader will examine his map, he will observe that the intercommunication by water was very nearly continuous in all. In truth the French claimed, and appeared to control, twenty times as much of the American continent as did the English, who were now confined to the peninsula of Nova Scotia and a narrow strip along the Atlantic coast from the Penobscot to the St. Mary s of Florida, averaging about 200 286 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1758 miles in width. But the French domain was very sparsely occupied, and when, after the victory on Lake George, the Canadian soldiers went back to their homes, there was but a slight harvest gathered, and a general famine threatened. Beef and bread and similar necessaries of life, were so scarce that great numbers of horses were distributed for food. Artisans and laborers became too weak to follow their daily occupations.^ On the other hand, there had been a change in the English ministry, by which William Pitt (afterward Lord Chatham) a man very popular with the Americans, had been placed at the head of the administration. 30,000 regular troops were sent across to America. The same number of militia having been raised in the colonies, three expeditions were planned for the year 1758, to wit, against Louisburg, Fort Du Quesne and Ticonderoga, respectively. General ABER- CROMBIE was appointed commander-in-chief, to succeed the Earl of Loudoun. Abercrombie himself led the attack on Ticonderoga, a strong fortress situated south of Crown Point, on the long river-like prolongation of Lake Champlain, whence a short di verging channel connects its waters with those of Lake George. But Montcalm, who commanded the garrison, repulsed the English, inflicting upon them a heavy loss. A detachment of Abercrombie s defeated army, under Colonel Bradstreet, then proceeded against Fort Frontenac (now Kingston), at the eastern outlet of Lake Ontario, the post at which the voyager La Salle was stationed prior to his eventful expedition of dis covery to the Mississippi. Although well supplied with cannon and mortars, it surrendered the second day to the army of Bradstreet. The expedition against Louisburg was led by Generals Am- herst and Wolfe, assisted by the fleet of Admiral Boscawen. The investing force greatly exceeded that of the garrison, the latter, with the mariners, numbering less than 6000 men. 1759] CANADA CONQUERED FROM THE FRENCH. 287 After a siege of several weeks the fortress capitulated, and, as a consequence, both the islands of Cape Breton and Prince Edward s became British possessions; while Louisburg, being no longer of value to its captors, was deserted and fell into decay, Halifax becoming the naval station. The third main expedition, that directed against Fort Du Quesne, was placed under the command of General Forbes, who was assisted by Colonels Armstrong and Washington. The army proceeded slowly, harassed by parties of French and Indians, and opening a wide road as it advanced, the same which is now the line of the Chambersburg and Pittsburg turnpike. Upon arriving at the Ohio, they found that the French, without awaiting a siege, had deserted the fort and set it on fire. In honor of the English minister the place was then called Fort Pitt or PITTSBURG. Stimulated by these successes, and the promise of the English government to re imburse them for their expenses, the colonies were ready the following year to undertake the conquest of Canada, agreeably to the programme of Pitt. Early in the spring of 1759, a powerful fleet, conveying an army which had been placed under the command of the young General Wolfe, sailed from England for the St. Lawrence, and at the same time General AMHERST (Abercrombie s successor) advanced, with a co-operating force, along Lake Champlain. The French garrisons at Ticonderoga and Crown Point there upon withdrew from those posts, and went to the relief of Montreal and Quebec. The latter city, which is divided into an upper and lower town, was very strongly fortified with munitions of defence, and had also a garrison of about 10,000 men ; but the English army having succeeded in scaling the cliffs at night, and in reaching the plains or "Heights of Abraham," in the rear of the city, it soon fell into their hands. The struggle was a sanguinary one, and Wolfe and Montcalm both fell, mortally wounded. In the following winter, the 288 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1760 English garrison who held possession of Quebec, suffered greatly from lack of fresh provisions, as many as a thousand soldiers dying of the scurvy. While Quebec was being besieged, another division had at tacked and obtained possession of the French fort at Niagara. This result was mainly owing to the influence exercised by Sir William Johnson over the Six Nations, in inducing a large body of the warriors to break the neutrality which most of them had promised to observe toward both the com bating powers. Montreal was now the only place of conse quence yet remaining to the French, and in the following year it also succumbed to the combined forces of the English. Presque Isle, Detroit and Mackinaw, were included in the capitulation, so that Canada became in 1760, as it has ever since remained, a province of Great Britain. By the PEACE OF PARIS in 1763, all the northern possessions of the French, as well as those east of the Mississippi, were formally con firmed as belonging to the English. Louisiana, west of the Mississippi, was given by France to Spain, in payment for aid afforded. The result of the Seven Years War, in Europe, has been thus summed up : " Thus was arrested the course of carnage and misery ; of sorrows in private life, infinite and unfathom able ; of wretchedness heaped on wretchedness ; of public poverty and calamity ; of forced enlistments and extorted contributions ; and all the unbridled tyranny of military power in the day of danger. France was exhausted of one- half of her specie ; in many parts of Germany there remained not enough of men and of cattle to renew cultivation. The number of the dead in arms is computed at 886,000 on the battle-fields of Europe or on the way to them." The same Seven Years War also doubled the debt of England. CHAPTER XXII. GEORGE III. COLONIAL DISCONTENT. 17601775. THE CONSPIRACY OF PONTIAC. THE colonists had confidently supposed, upon the declara tion of peace with the French, that they would have little to fear from the enmity of the Indians. But in this belief they were destined to be mistaken. The Indians, it is true, had willingly agreed to the establishment of the French forts upon Lake Erie and on the Pennsylvania frontier, seeing that they were likely to prove an obstacle to English encroach ments upon their hunting-grounds ; but when they saw these same posts occupied by the English themselves, the conquerors of Canada, they realized with dismay that their own doom was approaching. Settlers, with no regard for aboriginal rights, were already passing the Alleghanies and locating upon their lands. In this extremity they listened with eagerness to the emissaries of the great chief PONTIAC, of the tribe of the Ottawas. The nation of the Shawnees, together with the Delawares, now dwelt in the region of the Miami and Scioto rivers, whither the latter had emigrated after their expulsion from Pennsylvania. Through the instigation of Pontiac, a wide spread conspiracy was entered into between these disaffected tribes and the others with which the French had been allied, as also with the Seneca tribe of the Six Nations. Upon an N 25 289 2 9 o HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1764 appointed day in the summer of 1763 (it being the 25th anniversary of the birthday of King George the Third) a simultaneous attack was made along the whole western border. The English traders among the Indians were the first vic tims. With but two or three exceptions, they were all killed ; for this war was begun as oe of retribution, in which the plea for mercy should pass unheard. Scalping parties attacked the mountain settlements and marked their tracks with blood and fire. The forts also, with few exceptions, were captured, and the garrisons put to death. All who could escape, fled to the eastward and sought shelter in the larger towns. A proclamation was issued by John Penn, lieutenant-governor of Pennsylvania, offering bounties for the scalps of Indians or for their capture. In order to repel this fierce onslaught of the Indians, Gen eral GAGE, who had succeeded Amherst in the chief command, sent two expeditions into their own country. One of these, commanded by Colonel Bouquet, was to proceed from Fort Pitt into the Ohio region ; the other, under Bradstreet, by way of the Great Lakes, was to relieve Detroit, which had been closely besieged for several months by the warriors of Pontiac. Both of these expeditions were successful. The Indians despairing of the accomplishment of their designs, consented to a treaty, by which they agreed to deliver up the prisoners then in their hands, and thenceforth to permit the British to build as many forts as they wished. COLONIAL TAXATION. THE STAMP ACT. For the purpose of raising in the colonies a revenue to de fray the expenses of the French war, an act was passed by the English parliament in 1764, adding to the number of im ported articles liable to pay duty, and also prohibiting iron and lumber from being exported to any country except Eng- 1767] THE STAMP ACT. 291 land. It was likewise proposed for the same object of liquidating the war expenditure to impose a stamp tax on bills, bonds, leases, and upon all legal documents, according to the method long practised in England. The news of the proposed measure was received with great clamor in the col onies, it being strenuously objetted that no people should be taxed without their consent, and without having their repre sentatives in the assembly or parliament which laid the tax. Samuel Adams and James Otis, in Massachusetts ; Benjamin Franklin, in Pennsylvania; and Patrick Henry, in Virginia, were outspoken in opposition to the scheme, while petitions drawn up by the leading men of several of the colonies, were forwarded for presentation to parliament. Notwithstanding these remonstrances, the Stamp Act became a law the follow ing year (1765). The assembly of Virginia was in session when the informa tion arrived, and adopted strong resolutions in opposition to the act. In the Massachusetts assembly similar action was taken, and a call was issued for a general Congress of the colonies, to be held at New York. Nine of the colonies sent delegates, who united in publishing a declaration of their rights and grievances, especially complaining of the Stamp Act, and insisting that all taxation ought to be imposed by their own assemblies. After disgraceful riots and assaults upon the crown officers and their property had occurred in several of the cities, the obnoxious act which had proved so distasteful was repealed. Parliament, however, in repealing the Stamp Act, held on to the declaration that it had the right to " bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever." Hence, another bill was passed in 1767, imposing a duty on tea, paint, paper, glass, etc., and com missioners were appointed to attend to its collection. Where upon it was agreed by many people in the colonies to discon tinue the importation of British goods, and to make use only 29 2 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1773 of those articles, absolutely necessary, which could be supplied at home. The crown officers having suffered losses in the re cent Stamp Act riots, two British regiments were sent over to Boston, and quartered in the town. The result of the first year s trial of the new customs-act was a revenue of less than ^16,000, nearly all of which, however, was required to pay the expenses of its collection ; while in addition to that, the cost of support of the military amounted to ten times the revenue above stated. The presence of the troops in Boston was a source of con tinual trouble, the hostile feeling against the military being kept bitterly alive by a weekly paper there published. Finally, a mob of men and boys, encouraged by the popular sympathy, made a practice of insulting and provoking the troops, and as a natural result several minor brawls having first occurred, a more serious collision took place, in which a number of the inhabitants were killed and wounded. This encounter, which was styled the "Boston Massacre," produced great ex citement throughout the colonies, the inhabitants now being divided in sentiment into two parties : the Tories, or those who favored the mother country, and Whigs, or opponents of parliamentary taxation. THE TAX ON TEA. BOSTON PORT BILL. The disuse of British goods had so seriously affected the trade of the English merchants, and at the same time so fa vored colonial manufactures, that parliament, in response to the petitions of the merchants, agreed to repeal the duties on all articles except that of three pence per pound on tea. This was retained, apparently, more for the purpose of insisting on the right to impose the tax, than because it was likely to produce any considerable revenue. Yet the colonists were opposed to the principle, however small the tax, and hence 1774] BOSTON FOR T BILL. 293 they refused to import any of the article. But in order to test their right, Parliament, in 1773, encouraged the East India Company to send a cargo of tea to each of the principal American ports. In New York and Philadelphia, the commanders of the ships finding no one willing to receive their cargoes, returned with them to England. At Charleston, the tea was indeed landed, but allowed to become worthless by being stored in a damp warehouse; while at Boston, a party of young men dis guised as Indians, went on board the vessels, and threw the consignment of over 300 chests into the harbor. In conse quence of this and the former riotous proceedings, the city of Boston, which was regarded as the chief seat of rebellion, was selected by parliament as the special object of its displeasure. By an act called the "Boston Port Bill," all intercourse by water with that place was interdicted ; the seat of government was removed to Salem, and the governor was authorized, in cases of treason, to send the accused for trial to England. For awhile the people of Boston were deprived, to a great extent, of the means of subsistence; but their necessities were soon relieved by contributions from various quarters. Meanwhile, in the spring of 1774, General Gage, the king s commander of the British forces in America, arrived in Boston with a commission as governor of Massachusetts ; and shortly afterward more troops and military stores were landed. Prom inent men in Massachusetts thereupon formed a committee of correspondence, and drew up an agreement called a " Solemn League and Covenant," wherein they pledged themselves to give up all intercourse with Great Britain until the colo nial rights should be restored. But the general court of Massachusetts went farther than this : a militia force was en rolled, officers appointed, and military stores were ordered to be collected. Finally, in the Qth month (September) of the same year, 25* 294 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1767 delegates from eleven of the colonies met at Philadelphia, and formed themselves into an assembly known as the Continental Congress. It was composed of 55 members, who appointed PEYTON RANDOLPH, of Virginia, their president. They pre pared a declaration of the rights of the colonies ; agreed to continue the plan of non-intercourse with Great Britain ; and issued an address to the king, another to the colonies, and a third to the English people. But the king, being assured by parliament that a rebellion actually existed in Massachusetts, the army in Boston was increased to 10,000 men. At this time Benjamin Franklin, as the agent of Pennsylvania and several others of the colonies, was in England, endeavoring to effect a settlement of difficulties with the home government. Before referring particularly to his efforts, some reference should be here made to a few contemporaneous events in several of the colonies. OCCURRENCES IN SEVERAL OF THE COLONIES. After many vexatious delays and disagreements between the proprietaries of Maryland and Pennsylvania respecting the division line between the two provinces, it was finally de termined, in 1767, that its course should be in accordance with an agreement which had been made 35 years before. Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, two distinguished mathe maticians and astronomers (who had just returned from the Cape of Good Hope, whither they had gone to observe the transit of Venus), were designated to run the line, and to erect stone pillars at conspicuous points along the same. " Mason s-and-Dixon s Line" subsequently became famous, as marking the parallel of separation between the free-soil and the slave states. Although bounded on the east by a large river, and on the other three sides by nearly straight lines, Pennsylvania was 1774] OCCURRENCES IN SEVERAL COLONIES. 295 involved in a number of other disputes relative to its bound aries. Connecticut people settled on lands in the Wyoming valley, in 1762, alleging that their province, by virtue of the king s grant to the Plymouth Company, extended westward even to the Pacific Ocean. This claim resulted in bloody con flicts with the settlers who held grants from the proprietaries. Little forts were built, hamlets were burned, and goods and cattle carried away. The matter was finally referred to the king for adjudication. In 1774, Lord Dunmore, of Virginia, granted land-warrants for settlements upon the Monongahela river, and in the neighborhood of Pittsburg, asserting that that section was no part of Pennsylvania ; but his settlers were driven off, and a serious war between Virginia and the western Indians also ensued. Prominent in this war were the Indian chiefs Cornstalk and Logan ; the family of the latter having previously, without provocation, all been murdered. Like disturbances arose in the settling of that part of the country between the Connecticut and Hudson rivers, now the state of Vermont, for which the governors of New York and New Hampshire both issued grants. This was also referred to England for settlement. (See page 330). About the time that Mason s-and-Dixon s line was run, an earnest controversy arose in Massachusetts touching the legality and the justice of negro slavery. The subject was carried for decision to the Superior Court, and in a number of suits which ensued, the juries invariably gave their verdict in favor of freedom. An important decision of the same nature was given in 1772 by the court of King s Bench, in London, before which had been brought a Virginia slave who had come with his master to England. Refusing any longer to serve, he had been put on board a vessel to be shipped to Jamaica. The court ordered that the black should be dis charged. This important decision served as a precedent in all succeeding cases on the soil of Britain. 296 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1769 In New Jersey, Maryland and the Carolinas, there were many complaints of official extortion, of antagonism to lawyers and sheriffs, who, it was alleged, exacted unjust fees and ren dered no account thereof to their superiors in office. The trouble from this source was greatest in the middle section of North Carolina, a rather barren, unfruitful region, with a population mostly poor and illiterate. Under the name of "Regulators," they not only refused to pay taxes, but as saulted the judges, lawyers, and all others obnoxious to them, and even broke up the session of the court. Governor TRYON marched against them with a body of volunteers, and having overtaken them at Alamance, near the head-waters of Cape Fear river, a battle was fought in the summer of 1771. It re sulted in the death of about 200 of the disaffected ones. Some of the prisoners were also executed for high treason. A bitter feeling arose as a consequence of this severe retaliatory meas ure, and it was not allayed until Tryon departed for New York and a governor succeeded whose conciliatory treatment of the malcontents made them his friends. While these disturbances were transpiring, the first settle ments were made within the borders of the present states of Tennessee and Kentucky. Emigrants from North Carolina, led by JAMES ROBINSON, crossing the mountain barriers of the Blue Ridge and the Alleghanies (1768), settled upon one of the headstreams of the Tennessee, on lands obtained from the Cherokees. Others soon advanced to the Holston and Clinch rivers, and ascending those streams, located in the south-west corner of the present state of Virginia. From the Yadkin valley of North Carolina, DANIEL BOONE and others, led by an Indian trader, crossed the Cumberland mountains (i 769) and reached the head-waters of the Kentucky river. From the forest-crowned slopes of the hills, they sur veyed the plains where, at that time, herds of buffalo ranged in great numbers. But Boone was captured by the Indians, who 1764] NEGOTIATIONS OF FRANKLIN. 397 little desired any irruption of the whites upon those famous hunting-grounds. Escaping, however, from his captors, the adventurous hunter wandered three months in the wilderness, but finally reached again his home on the Yadkin. Having determined to settle in the region which he had discovered, he led a small party down the Clinch river valley, but in con sequence of Lord Dunmore s war with the Indians, a year and a half elapsed before their feet pressed the soil of Kentucky. NEGOTIATIONS OF FRANKLIN IN ENGLAND. When, in 1764, Franklin, the philosopher and statesman, proceeded to England as the accredited agent of Pennsylvania and shortly afterward as agent also for others of the colo nies he was destined to exert a marked influence upon the future of those portions of the dominions of Britain which he represented. Being examined before the House of Commons, whose members desired a definite statement of the pending difficulties, the directness and freedom of his testimony were largely instrumental in procuring the repeal of the obnoxious Stamp Act. By addresses published in the papers of London, giving calm and lucid expositions of the effect of English legislation upon the commercial industries of the colonies, he endeavored to work a change in the tone of feeling toward America. He instanced the fact that if American merchants wished to obtain commodities direct from a Mediterranean port, these must be carried a long voyage out of the way, in order that the cargo might be first landed and re-shipped in London, and that thus a few favored merchants there might reap their commissions. And although iron was found everywhere in America, and nails and steel were greatly in demand, he showed how a very few manufacturers had obtained an act of parliament, totally prohibiting the erection of slitting-mills or steel-furnaces in N* 298 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1775 the colonies. And in the same manner even the hat-makers of England had prevailed to obtain an act in their favor; re straining the business in the colonies in order to oblige the Americans to send the beaver-skins to Britain, and buy back the made-up hats, increased in price with double-charge of transportation. These, and many other cogent reasons why the laws of trade and of administration for the colonies, should be altered, were presented by Franklin to the notice of the public and the rulers of England during the ten years that he remained in that country. And when in the autumn of 1774, news arrived of the assembling of an American Congress for concert of action, he was unwearied in his efforts, by private conversations, by published articles and by letters to states men, to induce the government to change its measures, giving it as his belief that notwithstanding the attachment of the colonies to the mother country, yet a continuance in the same arbitrary course must alienate them entirely. Being urged by Dr. Fothergill and David Barclay, promi nent members of the Society of Friends, in London, he pre pared a careful statement of a plan of reconciliation. William Pitt (Lord Chatham) had himself prepared another and some what similar plan, and after several consultations with Franklin, it was submitted to parliament, but was by that body hastily rejected. Yet Franklin s private interviews with the ministers of state and influential citizens did not cease ; while Fother gill, Barclay and others, frankly condemning the injustice of their own countrymen, were unremitting in endeavors to secure a compromise and avoid the effusion of blood. Never theless, their efforts proved unavailing ; and Franklin, depart ing from England in the spring of 1775, arrived in America only to find that war had been actually begun. It is well worth while, at this momentous epoch in our country s history, for the student calmly to ask himself: 1775] NEGOTIATIONS OF FRANKLIN. 299 What more could America have done, to prevent war, than she did do ? And, since England, without doubt, was clearly guilty of oppression, as well as of injudicious and unjust methods of government, were not the colonies justified in resisting their oppressors? Now, if we answer the latter question in accordance with the international practice of the last fifteen centuries, we may promptly say that the colonies were justified in making war to secure their political rights; but on the other hand, if we are to answer it according to the Gospel rule, as well as the Christian practice of the first three centuries of our era, we must as certainly say that our ances tors had no right to make war upon the plea that they were unjustly taxed and treated. For, the methods of protest and prayer, of appeal and patient endurance of wrong, still re mained open, and such sort alone are the weapons which the Christian may use to battle against tyranny. "The weapons of our warfare are not carnal, but mighty through God to the pulling down of strongholds." The boundaries of the thirteen colonies of Great Britain, as they existed at the commencement of the war of the Rev olution, are shown on the map, page 331. CHAPTER XXI11. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. I775I783- 1775- LEXINGTON AND BUNKER HILL. CANADA CAMPAIGN. A QUANTITY of ammunition and stores for the use of the provincial militia, having been deposited at Concord, about twenty miles west of Boston, General Gage sent a body of the king s troops under Colonel Smith and Major Pitcairn, to seize or destroy them. Upon arriving at Lexington, early in the morning of fourth month (April) iQth, they found a com pany of armed militia assembled upon the common, ready to dispute their progress. Refusing to obey the order of Pit- cairn to disperse, the latter commanded his troops to fire. Eight of the Americans were killed and a number wounded. The troops then continued on to Concord and destroyed the stores collected there; but on their return toward Boston they were severely harassed by the Americans, who were con cealed behind barns, trees and stone-walls, and who would probably have killed or captured the whole company had re inforcements not arrived. The battle of Lexington at once inflamed the passions of the people, already at fever-heat, and the war feeling spread like wild-fire on every side. It is only requisite, as in the case of two individuals who have been taunting each other, for one to deliver a blow, to cause that spirit of violent con tention which leads to murder, to break forth uncontrollably. 300 1775] BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL. 301 An army of 20,000 provincials was quickly mustered, and the British troops were closely besieged on the peninsula of Boston. Considerable reinforcements, however, under Generals HOWE, CLINTON and BURGOYNE soon came to their relief by sea. Learning that it was the intention of the British to make an advance into the country, the Americans now began to strengthen their position by erecting a breastwork on Bun ker s Hill, near the suburb of Charlestown. This was nearly completed during the night of the i6th day of 6th month (June), but in the morning following, the British perceiving what had been done, began a severe cannonade upon the entrenchments. Having set fire to Charlestown, they then advanced to the attack. Their assault was for awhile repelled, but, receiving farther help, the provincials gave way and es caped along Charlestown Neck, where, exposed to the fire from the ships, they suffered severely. The forts of Ticonderoga and Crown Point were, in the meantime, captured from the royalists, by militia under Colo nels Ethan Allen and Seth Warner. The second Continental Congress being assembled again at Philadelphia, the title of the "United Colonies" was adopted. George Washington, one of the delegates from Virginia, was appointed commander-in-chief of the army ; Artemus Ward, Charles Lee, Philip Schuyler and Israel Putnam were chosen major-generals, and eight others received appointments as brigadiers. Bills of credit to the amount of three million dollars were ordered, to provide for the expenses of the war. In Virginia, the royal governor, Lord Dunmore, after a lengthened dispute with the people, was obliged to seek refuge on board a man-of-war. The governors of North and South Carolina retired in the same manner, and by the end of the year all the old governments of the provinces were dis solved. Dunmore landed several times upon the Virginia coast, seeking to regain possession of his province; but being 26 302 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1776 pressed for want of provisions, and the militia at Norfolk re fusing to comply with his demand, he destroyed the town by fire and departed for the West Indies. Fearing an attack of the British from Canada, of which prov ince SIR GUY CARLETON was governor, Congress despatched two expeditions in that direction ; one under Generals Schuyler and Montgomery, by way of Lake Champlain, and the other under Colonel Arnold, by the route of the Kennebec. Mon treal was taken by the force under Montgomery (Schuyler himself being ill), but Arnold having been delayed, and his men much exhausted by their toilsome march through the tangled forests of Maine, did not join the force before Quebec until late in the autumn. Their combined, but desperate, assault upon the strongly-fortified city was repelled. Four hundred of the Americans were killed and wounded, Mont gomery being numbered with the slain. Canada, in a few months, was entirely evacuated by the Americans. The English parliament, toward the close of the first year of the war, passed an act prohibiting all trade and commerce with the colonies, and authorizing the capture of the trading- vessels of the latter found on the high seas. Treaties were likewise entered into with the Landgrave of Hesse Cassel and the Duke of Brunswick, who agreed to furnish, for pay, 16,000 of their subjects to aid the army of Britain in its work of sub jugation. But the petition of Congress to the king, brought over by Richard Penn and Henry Lee, was refused a hearing by parliament, upon the ground that that Congress was an unlawful assembly. 1776. THE SIEGES OF BOSTON, CHARLESTON, AND NEW YORK. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. Washington, upon receiving his appointment as commander- in-chief, repaired at once to the army besieging Boston. In 1776] SIEGE OF CHARLESTON. 303 consequence of the lack of supplies and the departure of many of the militia whose terms of enlistment had expired, he did not make any attack upon the city until the 3d month (March), 1776, when he ordered a redoubt to be constructed on Dorchester Heights, which menaced not only the soldiers in the town, but the ships in the harbor. Sir William Howe, the successor of Gage, perceiving that it would be now necessary to dislodge the besiegers or to evacuate the city, essayed the former ; but, being defeated in his design by a tempest of wind and rain, he embarked with all his troops for Halifax, and nearly at the same time Washington and his army entered. To effect the conquest of the southern colonies, a British fleet under Sir Peter Parker appeared, early in the summer, before the harbor of Charleston. Upon Sullivan s island, at the entrance of the port, a fort of sand and palmetto-logs had been constructed, and its defence intrusted to Colonel Moul- trie. The balls from the cannon of the British fleet readily penetrated in part the yielding palmetto-wood, but failed to shatter it, while on the other hand the fire from the fort was severely felt by the assailants. In the night the British com mander, relinquishing his design, drew off his vessels, and as his co-operation was required by the other fleet, which was operating against New York, he soon sailed toward that port. Washington, foreseeing that the British would make an early effort to possess themselves of a place so important to their success as was New York, had ordered the construction of works of defence, and leaving Boston soon after the British evacuation, established his headquarters in the former city. A highly important event was about to transpire in the Congress, then in session at Philadelphia. The hostile meas ures which had taken place had produced a very general desire in the colonies to renounce allegiance to the mother country. This feeling was accelerated by a pamphlet written by Thomas 304 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1776 Paine, under the signature of "Common Sense," which was designed to show the necessity of a state of independence to the well being of the country. By RICHARD HENRY LEE, of Virginia, a motion was made in Congress for declaring the colonies " free and independent." A committee, consisting of Jefferson, Franklin, Sherman, Adams and Livingston, was appointed to prepare a Declaration of Independence. The document was accordingly drafted with great care, and the important resolutions being fully discussed, were adopted the fourth day of the yth month (July), 1776. By another com mittee, Articles of Confederation were prepared, but they were not adopted until the following year. They conferred upon the nation the title of " United States of America," and were duly ratified by the governments of the several states. It was the aim of the British commanders, by obtaining possession of New York, to control the line of the Hudson river and Lake Champlain, and thus cut off New England from the south. The troops from Halifax under General Howe, and those from England under Admiral Howe, landed on Staten Island ; and these, together with Hessians, and the forces which had besieged Charleston, constituted an army of about 30,000 men, being considerably in excess of that of the Americans. At this juncture, Lord Howe issued a proclama tion offering pardon to those who would return to their alle giance, and endeavor to restore peace ; but the Americans, now aiming at independence, refused to entertain any offers of reconciliation. In the 8th month (August), a large force of British troops landed on the west end of Long Island, in the neighborhood of Gravesend, and attacking the American army which was commanded by Putnam and Sullivan, defeated them with great loss. Washington then ordered Brooklyn to be evac uated, and, removing also from New York, occupied Harlem Heights in the upper part of Manhattan island. General 1776] BATTLES OF TRENTON AND PRINCETON. 305 Howe now made further overtures of amity, and appointed commissioners to meet on Staten Island the three appointed by the Americans, to wit, Franklin, Rutledge and Hancock; but as these refused to treat upon any other basis than the ac knowledgment of American independence, there was nothing effected. Later in the year Congress commissioned Franklin, Silas Dean and Arthur Lee to proceed to the French court and procure aid in money, arms and ammunition, as well as a recognition of the independence of the United States. Leaving General GREENE in command of Forts Washington and Lee, which were on opposite sides of the Hudson a few- miles above New York, Washington withdrew a little to the eastward to the highlands of White Plains, where he hoped to hold possession of an important road. But General Howe advancing, compelled his retreat, and, a little later, succeeded in capturing both of the Hudson forts. About 2000 Americans were taken at the surrender of Fort Washington, the loss in killed and wounded being large on both sides. Washington with the remnant of his army then retreated to Newark, and through New Jersey to Trenton, whence he escaped across the Delaware to the Pennsylvania shore, just as the pursuing army under CORNWALLIS came in sight. Howe stationed detachments of his army at Trenton and Princeton, and withdrew for the winter to New York, having no apprehension of any attack by the Americans unless the river should be frozen. Without waiting for that to occur, Washington determined, as the enlistments of many of his men would expire with the end of the year, to make further immediate use of their services, by re-crossing the Delaware in boats. The Hessians at Trenton were taken by surprise, and many made prisoners. The commander-in-chief followed up his success by an attack on the British troops at Princeton, sev eral hundred of whom were captured, and the rest put to flight; after which he retired into winter-quarters at Morristown. 26* 306 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1777 1777. BURGOYNE S SURRENDER. PHILADELPHIA CAPTURED BY THE BRITISH. To effect a junction with the British forces at New York, and to occupy the line of the Hudson in accordance with the pre-arranged plan, Burgoyne, with 7000 British and Hes sians, beside Canadian and Indian auxiliaries, passed up Lake Champlain and laid siege to Ticonderoga. Finding that the fortress could not be held, the Americans under General St. Clair abandoned the place ; but the escaping garrison was pursued and defeated by a body of the invaders, while a large part of the stores which had been sent in bateaux to White hall, at the southern extremity of the lake, also fell into their hands. Burgoyne then passed on to Fort Edward, a little below where the Hudson bends from the west to pursue its general southward course. While at Fort Edward, Burgoyne being in great need of provisions, and hearing that a large quantity of these necessa ries were stored at Bennington, forty miles distant, despatched Colonel Baum, with five hundred men, to secure them. But the foragers were met and repulsed by the American militia under General Stark, who also defeated a second detachment which was sent to the relief of the first. Burgoyne with his army, leaving Fort Edward, crossed the Hudson and advanced to Saratoga; while the Americans under General HORATIO GATES, encamped at Stillwater in the vicinity. KOSCIUSKO, a noted Polish officer, was in the American service as chief engineer. On the i Qth day of Qth month (September) an obstinate, but indecisive, engagement between the two armies occurred near Stillwater. This was followed by a number of skirmishes, until on the 7th day of loth month a general battle was fought at Saratoga. Burgoyne, finding that his army, hemmed in by superior numbers, was being overpowered ; that his provisions 1777] PHILADELPHIA CAPTURED. 307 had failed, while his troops were worn out by fatigue, was finally compelled to capitulate. On the iyth of the month his whole army surrendered as prisoners of war to General Gates. Sir Henry Clinton, meanwhile, with the forces from New York, had captured Forts Clinton and Montgomery, near West Point ; but hearing of Burgoyne s surrender, he hastily dismantled the forts and went back to New York. While these operations were transpiring in the north, the army of General Howe and Admiral Howe, 16,000 in number, sailed from Sandy Hook for the Chesapeake, and ascending to Elk river, at the head of the bay, disembarked, and began their march toward Philadelphia. To stay their progress, Washington posted his army on the rising ground above Chad s-ford of the Brandywine. The British, however, forced a passage, and having thrown the Americans into con fusion, caused their defeat after a bloody struggle. A young French officer, the MARQUIS DE LAFAYETTE, who had left his country to aid the American cause, was wounded in the battle. COUNT PULASKI, a Pole, who had come over with the same object as Lafayette, was also present. Immediately after the battle of Brandywine, General Howe took possession of Philadelphia (gth month 26th), although the principal part of his army was encamped at Germantown, several miles north of the capital. Washington, thinking that he would be able to overpower the British at German- town, made an attack, at dawn of loth month (October) 4th. The British were thrown into disorder by the unexpected on slaught, but a fog coming on, they had time to recover from the first attack, and eventually drove the Americans from the field. The latter retired into winter-quarters at Valley Forge, on the Schuylkill, twenty miles from the city, where their sufferings from cold, nakedness, fever and other diseases, as well as from poor and insufficient diet, were deplorable in the extreme. 308 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1778 1778, THE FRENCH ALLIANCE. MASSACRE OF WYOMING. The winter preceding the campaign of 1778 was marked by much disaffection in the army: the depreciation of the bills of credit to about a fourth of their nominal value, being the chief cause of the trouble. Many of the officers, after expending their own means in addition to their pay, gave in their resignations. An intrigue was also set on foot by Generals Conway, Gates and others, to force General Washington to retire from the chief command; but that measure being opposed to the popular wish, it failed of success. Conway was superseded by BARON STEUBEN, a Prussian officer, who had recently entered the American service. In the meantime, the news of the capture of Bur- goyne having arrived in Europe, the French court, impelled by rivalry of England, agreed to acknowledge the independ ence of the United States, and also entered into an alli ance to afford them aid in carrying on the war. Benjamin Franklin, the most influential of the three American com missioners, was appointed by Congress minister to the French court. A fleet of 1 8 large war vessels commanded by the Count D Estaing,was sent over by the French government, and arrived at the mouth of the Delaware early in the summer. But the design of the French commander to blockade the British in Philadelphia, was frustrated by their evacuating the city. Washington s army, starting in pursuit, intercepted them on their way across New Jersey, at Monmouth Court-House, and an indecisive battle ensued on a day 6th month (June) 28th memorable for its excessive heat, and the consequent terri ble suffering of the combatants. The British troops con tinued their retreat to New York, to which port the French fleet also sailed. The vessels of the latter, however, being 1778] MASSACRE OF WYOMING. 309 of too great draught to enter the harbor, they were ordered to Newport. General Sullivan, at the same time, was sent with a large army to effect the capture of the British forces on Rhode Island; but the French admiral failing to co-operate, the American general with difficulty withdrew his army. D Estaing sailed to Boston and then to the West Indies. Toward the end of the year, Sir Henry Clinton sent a fleet against Savan nah, and, as the place was unprepared for defence, it soon yielded. Clinton also took measures to retaliate on the Americans for their depredations upon the British merchant shipping ; not less than 500 trading vessels having been cap tured by them within two years. In Buzzard s bay and its vicinity, where the American privateers resorted, Gray, the British general, destroyed sixty large vessels, besides smaller craft; and thence proceeding to New Bedford and Fair Haven, executed similar destructive work upon the mills and other property at those places. The confederacy of the Six Nations having been induced in the preceding year to enter the British service, their ma rauding parties had committed extensive depredations, prin cipally within the borders of the state of New York. They had also been largely employed in the army of Burgoyne. A chief of the Mohawks, named Brandt, received a colonel s commission in the British service, and made himself notorious by his numerous deeds of devastation and bloodshed. In the summer of 1778, a band of the Seneca tribe, with British troops and tories, under a leader named John Butler, de scended the Susquehanna and destroyed the settlements in the Wyoming valley. The able-bodied inhabitants were principally absent in the army, but a company of above four hundred, principally old men and boys, was mustered ; the women and children being placed within a stockade fort. 310 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1778 Unable to withstand the fierce attack of the allied band, many of the Americans yielded themselves prisoners, the rest sought safety in flight ; but in either case all who were captured were destined to be massacred. Sixteen of the cap tives were placed in a ring around a rock, and each being held by a stout Indian, they were one by one tomahawked. Nine persons in another ring were murdered in the same way. But the whites were no less sanguinary than the Indians, for party-spirit ran high in the valley, and men of the same household were arrayed in hateful strife against each other. One who was attacked by his own brother, fell upon his knees beseeching his assailant that if he would spare his life he would serve him as his slave forever; but the unnatural brother refused the cry for mercy, and muttering an oath, shot him dead ! What a brutal method for determining the right or justice of any cause is War ! As the student follows in the devastating track of its chariot wheels, how appalling grows the recital of the deeds of pillage and blood how hideous the features of hate and cursing and every crime which are hidden by the mask of glory, and of patriotism, falsely so called ! Several of the few survivors of the fight, panting and bloody, rushed into the fort where the terrified women and children waited, trembling for the issue. Fearful of encountering the same fate as the soldiers, these widows and orphans hurried to the mountains, and beyond to the Delaware, and finally, after much suffering reached their former homes in Connecticut. And for days afterward, other companies of sorrow-stricken fugitives, leaving their smoking and ruined homesteads in the pleasant valley, crossed that weary wilderness of the Pokono mountains which is known as the " Shades of Death," and at Stroudsburg found rest and safety. 1779] GEORGIA CAMPAIGN. $ tt 1779- GEORGIA CAMPAIGN. DEEDS OF REPRISAL. The British, being in possession of Savannah, were not long in quelling throughout the state of Georgia, the remnant of opposition to their authority. As they believed that a large proportion of the people of Carolina were royalists at heart, emissaries were sent out to prevail on the Tories to join the royal standard; and, to make this co-operation easier, the British army under General Prevost was ordered to move up the Savannah river to Augusta. Thus emboldened, the Tories appeared in considerable numbers ; the Indians also, joining with the royalists, there ensued the harrowing barbarities of partisan warfare. General LINCOLN, the American com mander, after failing in his attempts to regain upper Georgia from the British, and fearing lest Charleston also would fall into their hands, entreated the Count D Estaing to render aid with his fleet. D Estaing, who in the meantime had been depredating upon England s West India possessions, responded to the call, and appeared with his vessels in the harbor of Savannah, while Lincoln brought up the land forces. The British refusing to surrender, batteries were thrown up and armed with cannon and mortars. Perceiving, however, that the cannonading was distressing the inhabitants more than their foes, the American and French forces united, and, on the qih day of roth month (October) made an attempt to capture the place by assault. The undertaking was repelled, with great loss to the allies. D Estaing was wounded and Count Pulaski was killed. Lin coln s army retreated, and the French fleet sailed for home. In other quarters the English cause was likewise successful. A naval expedition under Sir George Collier and General Matthews, sailed into. Hampton Roads and devastated Ports mouth and the other towns on or near the Elizabeth river. Large quantities of-provisions intended for the American army 3 i2 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1779 were seized, and the shipping was either destroyed or removed. Verplanck s and Stony Points, below West Point on the Hud son, important by reason of their commanding King s Ferry, fell into Clinton s hands. Stony Point was re-captured by a force of Americans under General ANTHONY WAYNE, but it was soon again in British possession. To retaliate the second time on the American privateers, and especially on those of Connecticut, which had nearly de stroyed British commerce on Long Island Sound, General Tryon, instructed by Clinton, proceeded to New Haven, and burnt the shipping in that port. Fairfield, Norwalk and Greenwich, on the sound, also received the hostile visitation of fire. The expedition of General Tryon was bitterly complained of by the Americans because of its ruthless destruction of private property. Yet the sway of the sword is naught else but barbarous and cruel : all its methods are revengeful, and it can only thrive as the wicked spirit of retaliation is aroused. " An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth," is its motto. Thus it was in retaliation for the massacre of Wyoming, and other less notable Indian enormities, that General Sullivan was sent in the summer of 1779 to invade the country of the Six Nations. Forty of their villages upon the Tioga and Gen- esee rivers were laid waste, and all their corn and fruit trees destroyed. The Indians, however, mostly escaped, and during the remainder of the war hovered in small and scattered bands upon the frontier settlements, where, with torch and tomahawk they wreaked their revenge, and at the same time earned their pay as British allies. Perhaps the most awful engagement of the war, because of the reckless sacrifice of human life involved, was the naval en counter on the coast of Scotland between a squadron of five American vessels, commanded by John Paul Jones, and two British frigates, under Captain Pearson, acting as convoy to 1780] THE BRITISH IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 313 a merchant fleet from the Baltic. The American commander ran his vessel, the Bon-Homme Richard, so close to the frigate Serapis, that the muzzles of the hostile cannon came in contact. In this position, the malignant combatants using their muskets and pikes, fought ferociously for the space of three hours, until both vessels were badly shattered and on fire. The magazine of the Serapis having exploded, Pearson surrendered. But it was a dreadful victory for the Americans : of 375 men who were on board the Bon-Homme Richard, 300 were either killed or wounded. 1780. THE BRITISH IN SOUTH CAROLINA. ARNOLD AND ANDRE. The military operations of 1780 were most active in the Carolinas, where Sir Henry Clinton, after remaining a short time in the vicinity of Savannah, began, in the spring, the siege of Charleston. General Lincoln and Governor Rutledge commanded the garrison in the city. At Monk s Corner, Ninety-Six and other places, detachments of the American army were defeated by the British, of whom Colonel Tarleton, with his cavalry, was the most active and relentless. Charles ton being completely surrounded, Lincoln was obliged to ca pitulate. Many of the inhabitants declared their allegiance to the British cause ; and as South Carolina now appeared re claimed to the Crown, Clinton, leaving Lords Cornwallis and Rawdon in command, returned to New York. General Gates, with reinforcements of militia from the Southern states, advanced toward the English forces, which, with the intention of invading North Carolina, had been posted at Cainden. Very early in the morning of 8th month (August) 1 6th, the advance guards of the opposing armies met, each of them being on the way to surprise the camp of the other. The American militia recoiled before the British o 27 3 I 4 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1780 regulars, and fled in great disorder. They were pursued for a distance of over twenty miles ; losing about 2000 men in killed, wounded and prisoners. Among the killed was the BARON DE KALB, a Prussian in the American service. Gen eral Gates retired into North Carolina, leaving Colonels Sumter and Marion, who commanded local troops of cavalry, to maintain a desultory warfare with the British and their tory allies. Cornwallis also advanced across the frontier to Charlotte, but a portion of his army under Colonel Ferguson, having been decisively repulsed at a woody eminence called King s Mountain, the British retired again into South Caro lina. About midsummer, 6000 French auxiliaries, under the com mand of the COUNT DE ROCHAMBEAU, arrived at Rhode Island, where the troops were disembarked, and the armed vessels which brought them returned to France. An event occurred in the autumn of 1780, which caused a profound sensation throughout the country. When General Arnold, who was wounded at the battle of Saratoga, was obliged to retire from active service, he obtained from Con gress the position of commandant at Philadelphia. Being of an extravagant disposition, and living in a style of princely display far beyond his means, he was finally led into the dis honest practice of embezzling the public moneys. For this offence he was tried by a court-martial and sentenced to receive a reprimand from Washington. In revenge for this humilia tion, and to obtain the money which he coveted, Arnold en tered into correspondence with Sir Henry Clinton. It resulted in an agreement to deliver West Point (to the command of which place he had been recently appointed) into the hands of the English, and at the same time to join the royal army. For the purpose of arranging the details of the treacherous barter, JClinton sent an aid-de-camp, the young and talented Major Andre, to meet Arnold by night, some distance below 1781] REVOLT IN THE AMERICAN ARMY. 3^ West Point. Daylight dawned before the secret interview- ended, and as the vessel in which Andre had come had drifted down the river, he was obliged to return by land. Near Tarrytown he was met by three of the American militia, whose suspicions being aroused, they searched their captive, and found, concealed in his boots, the papers which proved the treason of Arnold. Unmindful of Andre s entreaties and of the tempting bribes which he offered for his release, the three soldiers delivered him to the commanding officer at Peekskill. Sir Henry Clinton and others were unremitting in their endeavors to procure the release of Andre ; but Washington, acting in accordance with the usages of war, referred his case to a court-martial. The captive being sentenced to suffer death, was accordingly hung. Arnold managed to escape, and received at British hands a guilty reward of ^10,000 and the rank of brigadier-general. The nature of the services rendered against his country is briefly alluded to in the next section. 17811783. CORNWALLIS SURRENDERS AT YORKTOWN. PEACE DECLARED. The new year opened with a serious revolt in the army, the whole body of Pennsylvania militia refusing to serve any longer. They complained that their term of service properly expired at the close of the preceding year, and also that they were suffering greatly from lack of clothing. But as the gov ernment maintained that they must continue to serve while the war lasted, the soldiers seized their arms and began their march toward Philadelphia for the purpose of demanding jus tice in the halls of Congress. Clinton endeavored to persuade the insurgents to enter the British service, an offer which they quickly declined. At Princeton they were met by Generals 316 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1781 Reed and Wayne, who had been appointed by Congress to investigate the state of affairs, and to restore tranquillity. The soldiers finally agreed not to disband, upon condition that they should receive the necessary supplies of clothing, their arrearages of pay, and re-imbursement for losses in con sequence of the depreciation of paper money. At this time ROBERT MORRIS, of Philadelphia, a man of large pecuniary means, was appointed treasurer of the United States. It was through his knowledge of financial concerns ; by the free use of his own private resources ; and by the es tablishment of the national "Bank of North America," that the government credit exhibited an improvement. France and Holland also made large loans to the republic. But the Continental money, which had been issued to carry on the war, and which it was an almost treasonable offence to refuse, had become nearly worthless, five dollars of such scarcely sufficing to purchase five pennies worth (sterling value) of produce. In the south, General Greene had been appointed Gates successor. A part of his troops, under Colonel Morgan, were attacked by Tarleton s cavalry at a place called the Cow- pens ; but the assailants were repelled with loss. Cornwallis then started in pursuit of Morgan s detachment, but the latter passed the fords of the Catawba, the Yadkin and the Dan, just in advance of his pursuers. Being joined by Greene s main army, a battle was fought, on the 15th day of 3d month (March), at Guilford Court-House, in which the British had the advantage. Cornwallis marched into Virginia, while Greene, retiring southward, attacked Rawdon s forces at Hobkirk s Hill, near Camden, but was defeated in the attempt to dis lodge the British commander. Numerous skirmishes, mostly of a partisan character, ensued, until finally there occurred a severe engagement at Eutaw Springs, when the British having lost all their military posts retired to Charleston. 1781] CORNWALLIS SURRENDERS. 317 Very early in the year, General Arnold had landed a force of British troops in the vicinity of Richmond, and destroyed the public stores there, besides committing various wanton acts of depreciation upon private property. Clinton sent an additional army under General Phillips, to aid Arnold in his destructive work, and to effect a junction with the army of Cornwallis. The increased force of the latter began its march toward the interior of Virginia, somewhat harassed by the troops of Lafayette ; but receiving orders from Clinton, they retreated toward the coast. At Yorktown, upon the north side of the York-and-James rivers peninsula, Cornwal lis strongly intrenched himself, relying for assistance upon Clinton or the British admiral, if such aid should be needed. Meanwhile, Washington ordered the French army of Count Rochambeau to leave Rhode Island and join the army of Lafayette, the junction being formed at Williamsburg, close to Yorktown. The allies then numbered 16,000 men. The large French fleet of the Count de Grasse likewise arrived in the Chesapeake, after a slight but successful engagement with the British fleet of Admiral Graves. Batteries were con structed by the Americans, and cannonading commenced. Cornwallis, with an army not half as large as that of the allies, being defeated in several sorties, and failing in an attempt to withdraw his forces, finally agreed to terms of capitulation. On the i Qth day of the loth month (October), 1781, his army of over 7000 men, together with all the military stores, were surrendered to the Americans ; the shipping and their crews being given up to the French five days later. Clinton, with heavy reinforcements, arrived off the capes of Virginia, but being apprised of the surrender of Cornwallis, he sailed back to New York without delay. The serious reverse to the British cause experienced at Yorktown, caused an abrupt cessation of hostilities. Unwil ling to be taxed any longer for the prosecution of so expensive 27* 318 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1783 a contest, the people of England demanded that peace should be made. The king, although very reluctant to renounce all hope of re-possessing the American colonies, could not pre vent the organization of a new cabinet favorable to peace. As a first conciliatory step, Sir Guy Carleton, governor of Canada, a man popular with the Americans, was appointed to supersede Clinton at New York. Early in 1783 preliminary articles of peace were agreed upon, and on the 3d day of the pth month (September), in the same year, the definitive treaty was signed at VERSAILLES. The United States were represented by Dr. Franklin, John Adams, John Jay and Henry Laurens. While these negotiations were pending, the stability of the young republic seemed for a time endangered by the discon tent and machinations prevalent in the army. The officers had been promised by Congress half-pay for life, but, aware of the low condition of the public treasury, they became apprehensive lest the stipulation would not be fulfilled, nor even their accounts for arrearages settled. To quiet the rising storm, Washington appointed a special meeting with his officers at Newburg, where he gave them assurances that he would endeavor by all the means in his power to secure from Congress the right adjustment of their claims. Some of the officers, actuated by motives of ambition, made a secret proposition to Washington that he should accept the title of "king;" but that doubtful honor he promptly and indignantly declined. News of the signing of the treaty of peace having arrived, the British army evacuated New York ; and immediately thereafter, Washington, proceeding to An napolis where Congress had assembled in session, resigned his commission as commander-in-chief, i2th month (Decem ber) 23, 1783. He then retired to his estate of Mount Ver- non, and engaged in the quiet pursuits of agricultural life. CHAPTER XXIV. THE CONSTITUTION FORMED. ADMINISTRATION OF WASHINGTON. 17841796. FINANCIAL DEPRESSION. SHAYS REBELLION THE desire of our Revolutionary ancestors to be free from the control of the parent country was a sufficiently laudable wish in itself, yet that object could surely have been peace ably attained at a mere tithe of the expense which the war involved, and probably, too, without any loss of life whatever. According to an estimate made by Congress after the decla ration of peace, it appeared that the war had cost the country about 135 million dollars. Not only were the government finances in a deplorable state, but a burden of debt encum bered almost every corporation. With an unreliable paper currency, trade and manufactures were necessarily greatly depressed, while agriculture had been very much neglected, consequent upon the withdrawal of so many yeomen to serve in the army. England, in addition to the loss of her colonies, incurred, as a result of her folly, a debt of over ^100,000,000, and the loss of 50,000 men. But, far more to be lamented than the pecuniary loss and business depression which followed the war, was the in crease of vice and immorality, the inevitable consequents of every period of strife. The lax manners and mode of life of 3 20 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1784 the army were by no means calculated to aid the virtue or to foster the industrious habits of the provincial soldiers. Furthermore, the skeptical opinions held by many of the French and German officers had been widely disseminated, and, aided by sundry infidel publications, had weakened and even blasted the religious belief of many in the community. The chief of these pernicious works was the "Age of Reason," by Thomas Paine, a writer who had acquired great popularity during the Revolution, by his advocacy of the American cause in his pamphlet entitled "Common Sense." Subsequently, having defended, in his "Rights of Man," the principles of the French Revolution, he made his appearance in France, and was chosen a deputy to the National Convention ; but, by the influence of Robespierre, whose enmity he had incurred, he was thrown into prison, and, while there, wrote that most mischievous publication, the "Age of Reason." PAINE came back to America, and died at Greenwich on Long Island, in 1809. In his last hours he found that reason was, after all, but a poor stay a broken staff to lean upon. His infidel friends, too, had all deserted him. Being in a destitute condition, very ill and without a nurse, he was visited by some members of the Society of Friends (among whom was Stephen Grellet) who, pitying his lamentable state, supplied him with an attendant and ministered to his necessities. Once, some of his deistical comrades came to the door and cried out in a loud and unfeeling manner "Tom Paine, it is said you are turning Christian, but we hope you will die as you have lived :" upon which, turning to his attendant, he said "You see what miserable comforters they are." At another time, when the nurse told him that she had once begun to read his book, but it so distressed her that she threw it into the fire, he remarked " I wish all had done as you, for if the devil has ever had any agency in any work, he has had it in my writing that book." Various expedients were resorted to by the several states, to obtain relief from the financial distress and embarrassment. The farmers, who were mostly in debt to the merchants, 1 786] SHAY^S REBELLION. 321 favored the issuing of paper money by the states in a manner similar to that already adopted by the general government. This course was adopted in Rhode Island, but resulted in a heavy depreciation of the bills and the loss of public credit. With onerous taxes to pay, the discontent among the people became wide-spread and alarming, finally, in various quarters breaking out into open insurrection. Of these disturbances the most notable were those in Massachusetts (1786), which culminated in " Shays Rebellion." A few particulars of the effects of the war in the one state, will suffice the purpose of our history, in pointing out the error of a resort to arms for the settlement of differences which can be far better adjusted by remonstrance and arbitration. The debt of Massachusetts at the end of the war, together with the state s proportion of the national debt, and the money due to its soldiers, exceeded thirty times the amount of its debt before the war ! In addition to this, every town was em barrassed by advances which had been made in complying with requisitions for soldiers and supplies. On the other hand, in the maritime towns, many men had acquired fortunes, di rectly or indirectly, by privateering. Among these an emu lation began to be manifest of making a free display of their riches, an example which their less opulent neighbors were not slow to imitate. To gratify this new taste for luxuries, foreign articles were imported in quantities which the exhausted state of the country would not warrant, especially as commerce and the fisheries had been so greatly crippled. It will be sufficient to instance the fact that the merchant fleet of Nantucket had been reduced by the war, from 150 sail to 19. One of the severest effects of the Revolution is stated to have been, the loss of many markets to which Americans had formerly resorted with their produce. And inasmuch as such produce could not be procured to pay for foreign importations, the little specie that remained was o* 322 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1786 necessarily in demand for that purpose ; and, not being always adequate to meet the requisition, numbers of the importers became bankrupt. But the chief cause of the commotion which broke out in Massachusetts, was the accumulation of private debts. An act had been passed which provided that cattle, and other things especially enumerated, might, in default of money, be used to satisfy executions for debt; but this "Tender Act" became so obnoxious, that it remained but a short time in force. Cases of litigation, however, multiplied; the public outcry being first directed against the lawyers as being the legal instruments of their tribulations, and then against the holding of the courts, because from them issued the executions for debts. At Northampton, the malcontents to the number of nearly 1500, took forcible possession of the court-house; and in several other of the towns, in defiance of the governor s proclama tion, similar insurrectionary measures were adopted. Many of the insurgents were soldiers of the late war, who, as they had shouldered their muskets to settle their grievances against England, considered themselves justified in trying the same violent method in the present case. Incited by their success in embarrassing the proceedings of the common pleas courts, the insurgents attempted to stop the assembling of the supreme court also, hoping by that means to prevent a legal prosecu tion of their riotous acts. At Springfield, several hundred armed men, led by Daniel Shays, a captain of the late Continental army, having obtained possession of the court-house, endeavored to secure the federal arsenal likewise ; but they were met by some of the state mili tia, and several of their number killed. Meanwhile, the main body of the state troops under General Lincoln advancing into western Massachusetts, several skirmishes ensued, resulting in the discomfiture of the insurgents, who were obliged to take 1786] THE CONSTITUTION. 323 refuge in the surrounding states. Many of the fugitives were harbored in Vermont, which, nine years previously (in 1 7 7 7) had declared itself a separate state, independent of both New York and New Hampshire. Although a number of the leaders of the insurrection were apprehended and sentenced to death, they were subsequently pardoned, while the grievances com plained of were mostly remedied by acts of the general court and the legislature : the proper channels for the rectification of abuses, they being open to all. THE CONSTITUTION. WASHINGTON ELECTED FIRST PRESI DENT. The authority vested in the Congress of the American states, while it had sufficed for the purposes of a military confede racy, like that of the preceding century in New England, was found to be totally inadequate as a permanent form of govern ment. The compact was one of mere temporary convenience ; and, since each state had reserved so much liberty of govern ment to itself, it became very soon evident there could be no wise concert of action until the articles of confederation were amended to meet the exigencies of the occasion. For instance, some of the treaties made with foreign nations had been com plied with by part of the states, but violated by others ; and in the same manner, when the Congress had declared a sys tem of imposts, only those states adopted it whose conveni ence it happened to suit. In accordance with a proposition made by JAMES MADISON in the Legislature of Virginia, delegates from five of the middle states met at Annapolis in 1786, for the purpose of taking measures to reform the system of government. But, as a minority only of the states was there represented, and the power vested in the delegates was too limited for the occasion, it was judged best to recommend a general conven- 324 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1786 tion of delegates to meet the following year at Philadelphia. The assembly met, pursuant to the call, and, having elected George Washington, one of the members from Virginia, their president, they proceeded with the momentous task of framing a new constitution. There was necessarily much conflict of opinion as to what degree of power it was advisable should be conferred by the separate states upon the one central government ; those in favor of a strong compact of the states being called Federalists, while their opponents, who feared the curtailment of the states rights, were known as Anti-Federalists. Another chief point of disagreement was in regard to the representation to be allowed in Congress to the slave-holding states ; it being contended by the delegates who did not favor slavery, that the number of free white citizens in each state should constitute the basis of apportionment. They thought that, since the negroes were held to be chattels, debarred from all the privileges of citizenship, the fact of their posses sion should not enhance the representative power of the masters any more than should the possession of any other species of property. But it was finally allowed, that in deter mining the quota of representation for those states, five slaves should be counted as equivalent to three white inhabitants. The new constitution was ratified by eleven of the states in 1788. Of the two dissenting states, North Carolina adopted it in 1789, and Rhode Island in 1790. Had the constitution provided that slaves should not be counted in computing the quota of representatives, it is highly probable that our country would have escaped the sad experience of the War of Emancipation. The slave power would then not have been over- represented, and hence would have been more likely to accept of some satisfactory plan of adjustment ere sectional bitterness closed the way. The preamble of the constitution declares that it is ordained iyS6] THE CONSTITUTION. 325 by and in the name of the people of the United States, and that its purposes are " to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to themselves and their posterity." By its provisions, the legislative power is vested in two as semblies a Senate and a House of Representatives. The Senate is composed of two members from each state, who are chosen by the legislatures of the respective states, their term of service being for six years. The members of the lower house are chosen directly by the electors of the states, and are apportioned to each state according to the number of its inhabitants. The term of the representatives is for two years. They choose their presiding officer, who is called the "speaker." Both houses together are called the Congress, and they must convene as often as once every year. The executive power is vested in a president and vice-presi dent chosen by the people for a term of four years. The vice-president is the presiding officer or speaker of the Senate. The president is privileged to nominate ambassadors and con suls, to appoint heads of the departments, judges of the Su preme Court and many other officials, to enter into treaties with foreign powers, etc., subject, however, to confirmation by the Senate. He is also commander-in-chief of the army and navy when they are in actual service. The judicial power of the republic is vested in a Supreme Court and such other inferior courts as Congress may from time to time establish. Any laws, state or federal, which shall be adjudged as at variance with the federal constitution, the Supreme Court may declare to be illegal and not binding ; and all disputes between two states, or the citizens of one state and the government of another, may be referred to the same tribunal. The term of office of the judges, it is very properly ordained, shall be during good behavior. They may 28 326 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1789 be impeached for misdemeanor by the House of Representa tives, with which body impeachments against the president or vice-president must also originate. The Senate is the court for trying such cases. Should a president, vice-president, or United States judge be found guilty, no penalty is permitted greater than loss of office and disqualification to hold it in future. It was the intention of the framers of the Constitution that the three co-ordinate branches of the government the legisla tive, executive and judicial should act as checks upon each other. The power of originating bills and making appropri ations being lodged with the most popular section of the national legislature, the House of Representatives, it was be lieved that the latter would serve the purpose of a counter poise to the Senate, the treaty-making power. This associ ation of two legislative assemblies is now common to all con stitutional governments. The president s veto (only to be overcome by a two-thirds vote of both houses) is well de signed to prevent inconsiderate haste in the passage of any bill. Further, if an act passed by Congress be approved by the president, it may still be set aside if declared unconstitu tional by the Supreme Court. The plan of our government has been thought to nearly resemble that of the Achaean League, with its strategus or president, council and senate, formed in the third century E. c. between twelve towns of the Grecian Peloponnesus for their mutual welfare and support. Of modern confederations or unions, it has been compared with the present federal gov ernment of Switzerland, and with the Union of Utrecht formed in 1579 between the provinces of the Netherlands. More nearly, however, do these agree with the original American government, as founded on the Articles of Confederation of 1777. That was simply a league of friendship between the several states for their common defence and mutual welfare, 1789] GROWTH OF REPUBLICANISM. 327 whereas the national union of 1787 is declared to have been made by and between the "people of the United States." Notwithstanding the fact that the colonies had been so va riously governed some under proprietary rule, others under royal governors, and others again under charters which per mitted the freemen to frame their own laws yet in all, the strong undercurrent of republicanism made itself apparent. As all were united in the purpose of upholding the principles of self-rule, and as life-term magistracy and hereditary nobil ity were not tolerated, the governments must have eventually ripened into the republican form, even without revolution. Early was this tendency manifested in New England : first, by the signers of the Mayflower compact in carrying into practice the wise political counsel of pastor Robinson of Ley- den, and subsequently by the Puritan settlers generally, who at their town-meetings regulated all matters pertaining to the public health, education, the poor, roads, finances, etc. Sim ilarly in Pennsylvania, under proprietary rule, the settlers were allowed, in accordance with Penn s own declaration, "to be governed by laws of their own making." In other cases, where royal governors ruled, the freemen, through domestic councils, while they regulated the governors salaries, also made laws which they believed were suited to their neces sities. Although there was a tendency on the part of Puritans in Massachusetts and Connecticut, and Episcopalians in Vir ginia and South Carolina, toward uniting the political and ecclesiastical powers, the Baptists of Rhode Island, disavowing all connection between Church and State, early pronounced for entire freedom of conscience. For maintaining this prin ciple, Roger Williams was banished from Massachusetts, and Quakers were ignominiously hung on Boston Common. The faithfulness of a few, in patiently following the line of duty, may, by God s letting, accomplish a work which hosts of 328 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1789 heroes might vainly battle for at the cannon s mouth. That men s consciences throughout the republic should remain un shackled, and that ecclesiasticism should never find place as a function of the government, the first amendment to the Con stitution declares that "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof." Washington, who, as already stated, had been a delegate to the convention which framed the constitution, was the first choice of the people for their president. In the retirement of Mount Vernon, he had found congenial occupation in the improvement of his estate and in the gratification of a taste for the beauties of landscape gardening. When on a visit to certain lands owned by him upon the Ohio, he became im pressed with the feasibility and importance of uniting the head-waters of that great stream with those of the Potomac and the James, and thereby opening a perpetual channel of intercommunication between the Atlantic and the fertile prai ries of the West. A memorial which he addressed to the Virginia legislature upon this important subject, resulted in the formation of the Potomac Company, and the Kanawha and James River Company. In the spring of 1789, -Washington, then in the 57th year of his age, was inaugurated president of the United States. The ceremony was performed amidst much popular enthusiasm, in the city of New York, where the national Congress was in . session. JOHN ADAMS, of Massachusetts, had been elected to the office of vice-president. The other chief officers of the government at its first organization, were Thomas Jeffer son, secretary of state; Alexander Hamilton, secretary of the treasury; Henry Knox, secretary of war; Edmund Randolph, attorney-general; Samuel Osgood, postmaster-general; and John Jay, chief-justice of the United States. These consti tuted the "cabinet;" being appointed to, or removable from, 1790] FINANCES. 329 office, directly by the president. The. offices of secretary of the navy and secretary of the interior were added afterward. With the wise and impressive utterances of Washington s Inaugural Address before them, Congress at once devised measures for raising a revenue to defray the expenses of car rying on the government and for the payment of the debt contracted during the war. This was effected by laying du ties on merchandise imported, in other words, by a tariff; and likewise by a similar duty charged upon the tonnage of vessels. At the same time, in order to give encouragement to native shipping, a discrimination was made both in favor of the tonnage-tax on American vessels and in the duty upon foreign articles imported in them. Other important measures of this Congress were the organi zation of the national courts into a Supreme Court, Circuit and District Courts; the amendment of the constitution by the adoption of twelve new articles; and the arranging of the salaries. The president s salary was fixed at $25,000; that of the vice-president at $5000 ; those of the heads of departments (the cabinet officers) at $3500 each. Members of the Senate were to receive seven dollars per day, and allow ance for travelling expenses ; representatives, the same allow ance, and six dollars per day. The session of the following year (1790) was very much engrossed by the consideration of the finances. Hamilton, the secretary of the treasury, presented to Congress a plan for funding the national and state debts into one, and also a recommendation for the imposition of taxes on articles of luxury and on spirituous liquors. The funding measure gave rise to a great deal of animated and even bitter debate be tween the Federalists who favored its passage, and their op ponents. The latter feared that if the general government assumed the state debts, and thus made the capitalists depend ent upon a central power, it would weaken the influence of 28* 330 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1790 the state governments ; hence they preferred that the states should take the burden of repayment upon themselves. The Southern members, as they, more especially, favored "states rights," were therefore opposed to the funding bill, and herein they had the outspoken support of Jefferson. Its passage, nevertheless, was effected by a compromise upon a very dif ferent matter, to wit : that the seat of government should be removed, within ten years, from Philadelphia to some place to be selected on the Potomac. The amount of the debt was about 75 million dollars, upon part of which the rate of interest was placed at three per cent., and upon the rest at six per cent. A national bank, with a capital of 10 million dol lars, was also ordered, and was established at Philadelphia. Reference has been made on a preceding page (295) to the disturbances which arose in the territory between the upper Connecticut and Hudson rivers, in consequence of the rival claims of New York and New Hampshire for the ownership of that district. Benning Wentworth, governor of the latter colony, had issued (1749) the first of the New Hampshire grants that for the township of Bennington. Many similar grants were issued during several succeeding years, notwith standing the claims of New York, founded upon the patent to the Duke of York, to jurisdiction over that region. Final ly, in 1764, appeal having been made by the claimants to the Crown, decision was given in favor of New York. In 1791 the "Green Mountain State" was admitted, the fourteenth member of the American Union, the State of New York hav ing relinquished all right to the soil upon receipt of the sum of thirty thousand dollars. All that part of original Virginia lying south of the Ohio and west of the Big Sandy river and the Cumberland Moun tains, having been surrendered to the general government, became the State of Kentucky, and was admitted into the Union, next after Vermont, in 1792. Where LOUISVILLE 33 2 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1790 was afterward built, at the falls of the Ohio, a stockade fort had been erected (1778) by a party of Americans during the Revolutionary War. All of western North Carolina extend ing from the Great Smoky range to the Mississippi, became the State of Tennessee, and was admitted into the Union in 1796. Western Georgia, and the long, narrow strip, scarcely fourteen miles wide, of western South Carolina, was erected into the Territory of Mississippi, out of which were subse quently formed the two States of Mississippi and Alabama. The territory north and west of the Ohio, extending to the Mississippi river, was conveyed -by Virginia, New York, Con necticut and Massachusetts to the general government within a few years after the adoption of the Articles of Confedera tion in 1777. A condition of the conveyance was, that the territory thus surrendered should be divided into not less than three, nor more than five, states. The "territory north-west of the Ohio" was accordingly organized (1787), and in due course, as the requisite population stipulated by the Constitution was reached, there were admitted successively the five states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and Wis consin. Washington was re-elected president, and John Adams, vice-president, at the election in the autumn of 1792. This was the period of the French Revolution or "Reign of Ter ror," which, beginning in 1789, culminated in 1793 ^ n tne execution of Louis XVI. , the downfall of the royal house of Bourbon, and the proclamation of the French Republic. THE MIAMI WAR. THE WHISKEY INSURRECTION. Twenty-six years had elapsed since the failure of Pontiac s conspiracy, when, in 1790, there occurred another general outbreak of the western Indians, the foremost inciter of which was a chief of the Miami tribe, named LITTLE TURTLE. It 1795] THE MIAMI WAR. 333 is not improbable that some unprincipled plotters among the Canadians encouraged the hostility of the Indians, for De troit and a few other frontier posts within the boundary of the United States were still held by the English, on the plea that certain treaty stipulations remained as yet unfulfilled. Simon Girty, a half-breed trader, notorious as a busy-body and fo- menter of discord, was an active agent in the movements which had led to the massacre of the Moravian Indians at Gnadenhtitten. Carried away with the illusive hope of exterminating the whites, the banded warriors committed terrible atrocities along the western border. In return, a force under General HARMER destroyed a number of their villages in the Ohio territory ; but Harmer being defeated in an engagement with the Indians, the command of the army was transferred to General ST. CLAIR, governor of the North-Western territory. The latter, however, while in the vicinity of the Miami vil lages, was surprised by Little Turtle s band, and a wholesale massacre of the whites took place. Not more than one-fourth of them escaped. So disastrous was this defeat, and so un popular the war, that a truce with the Indians was agreed to. Yet, the tribes having refused the following year to consent to a treaty, General Wayne with an army of 3000 men now undertook to chastise them. Contrary to the advice of Little Turtle, who had heard of Wayne s prowess in battle, the In dians again came into conflict with the whites, and were this time badly defeated. All the chiefs of the Wyandottes, nine in number, were slain. Being satisfied of the futility of con tending any longer, the chiefs of twelve tribes met the ap pointed commissioners in the 8th month (August), 1795, at Fort Greenville, and agreed, as a condition of peace, to re linquish an extensive territory south of Lake Erie, as well as certain other tracts in which were the military posts of the West. The United States conditioned to pay them a 334 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1791 perpetual annuity of a few thousand dollars in money and goods. Shortly before the above treaty was concluded, a formidable rebellion, known as the "Whiskey Insurrection," broke out in western Pennsylvania. The pioneers of that region, many of whom were from Ireland and North Britain, having an in herited love of ardent spirits, had themselves become large producers of Monongahela whiskey. The province of Penn sylvania had, as early as 1756, laid an excise duty on this article, to obtain the means of sustaining its bills of credit. These, it will be remembered, were made necessary, in order to defray the cost of fighting the French and Indians. For a few years prior to the Revolution, however, the tax had not been rigorously collected ; but, when the debts caused by that war began to press heavily, then the law was again enforced. In the estimation of the whiskey distillers, this was an infringement of their liberties equal to the imposition of the tax on tea by Great Britain ; and in a similar manner they prepared to contest its collection. The law-officers were mal treated or chased away, liberty-poles were erected, and the people assembled in arms. The state excise tax was soon after ward repealed, and whiskey remained thus exempt until 1791 ; but, Congress having then passed a like law for the benefit of the national treasury, the former scenes of violence were re- enacted. The principal mode of opposition was that of tar ring and feathering the obnoxious officers, and of burning the barns and mills of those distillers who complied with the law. After these violent proceedings had continued for about three years, and a body of malcontents from Braddock s-field had menaced Pittsburg, the president issued a requisition upon the governors of Pennsylvania and of several of the adjoining states, for an army of 15,000 men to quell the disturbances. Governor Lee, of Virginia, was placed in command of the 1794] WHISKEY INSURRECTION. 335 troops, but, fortunately, a conflict was prevented through the earnest persuasions of a number of the residents of the dis affected district. One of the most influential of these was ALBERT GALLATIN, a native of Geneva, in Switzerland. A man of liberal education, and imbued with republican senti ments, he came to this country in 1780, and eventually settled on the banks of the Monongahela, where he established the glass-works and village of New Geneva. Although opposed to the excise tax, he was a man of moderation, and hence his judicious appeals in favor of law and order were well re ceived. After a few of the leaders had been arrested, the army was withdrawn, and quiet was soon fully restored. France being at war with England and Holland, the Amer icans were much inclined to extend aid to the young republic; but Washington was strongly opposed to any interference on the part of his countrymen with the affairs of the nations beyond the Atlantic. His cabinet, being unanimously of the same mind, a proclamation of neutrality was issued. Never theless, the country for awhile seemed in danger of drifting into the strife, through the reckless behavior of the new French minister, the "Citizen" Genet, who, mistaking the warmth of his reception by the American people for a will ingness to afford warlike aid, presumed to fit out privateers at the port of Charleston, to cruise against his country s enemies. This, and other arbitrary measures, rendered him so unpop ular that he was shortly recalled by his government. JAMES MONROE was our own representative at the French capital. Important treaties were also entered into with England and Spain. By the treaty of 1794 with England, Detroit and the other western posts were given up; but the Uni ted States conceded to England the right claimed by that country of searching merchant-vessels, a permission which, though it caused a great clamor as being humiliating, was certainly a point which was not worth fighting for. Thieves are not 336 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1796 sought for in the houses of honest men, and no government professing neutrality is just and ingenuous in its policy if it consents to harbor armed plotters against the peace of a sister nation. In short, the treaty was happily conceived, and its benefits became apparent in the removal of the various causes of uneasiness, of complaint and of recrimination between the two countries. Nevertheless, dissatisfaction concerning the right of search ensued, when England, a few years later, abused the concession. By the treaty with Spain, the boundary between its prov ince of Louisiana and the United States was amicably adjusted. The free navigation of the Mississippi was secured to the American government, together with the privilege, hitherto withheld, of landing and depositing cargoes at New Orleans. The wisdom manifested by Washington in thus administer ing the political affairs of the nation, especially in deprecating warfare with foreign powers, had resulted in a very marked commercial prosperity, the amount of our exports having in creased, during his eight years term, from 19 to 56 million dollars. In his Farewell Address to the American people, published in 1796, he calls upon them to cherish an unwaver ing attachment for the union of the states, and ever to watch for its preservation inviolate. As peculiarly hostile to re publican liberty, he warns them against the maintenance of a large military establishment. Believing the constitution to have been wisely framed, he also cautions against any altera tion of its provisions without positive necessity being ap parent ; while party spirit he especially reprobates as being inimical to the best interests of the people at large. CHAPTER XXV. ADMINISTRATIONS OF ADAMS AND JEFFERSON. 17971809. JOHN ADAMS, SECOND PRESIDENT. DISPUTES WITH FRANCE. NOTWITHSTANDING the cautionary admonitions of Washing ton, the conflict of parties continued greatly to agitate the nation, the partisans of the two chief political divisions being sharply divided not only upon various subjects of domestic policy, but also with regard to the foreign relations of the na tion. The Federalists were charged by their opposers with an undue partiality for England, whilst the Republicans, on the other hand, were accused of manifesting too strong a friendship for France. As Washington declined to be a candidate for a third term, the choice of the people for his successor in the presidency, fell upon John Adams of Massachusetts, a Feder alist. THOMAS JEFFERSON, of Virginia, a Republican, was chosen vice-president. John Adams was of a Puritan family which had emigrated from England to Massachusetts about twenty years after the landing of the Pilgrims at Plymouth. He was a strong advo cate of separation from the mother country, and, at the mem orable Congress which assembled at Philadelphia in 1776, was one of the committee appointed to draft the Declaration of Independence, a duty, however, which principally de volved on Jefferson. Adams was the first ambassador of the United States to England. p 29 337 33 8 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1797 Jefferson was the son of a planter of Albemarle county, Virginia. After the important part he had taken in the Con gress of 1776, he became governor of Virginia, and was sub sequently sent as minister to France. Adams, like Washington, was in favor of a firm centralized government ; whilejefferson, perhaps a stronger advocate of a republican government than either of the former, favored more liberty for the individual states. The reason why a president and vice-president of such opposite political views were chosen, was because the then method of balloting for those officers was for each elector to vote for two persons ; he who received the highest number of votes being elected president, and the second on the list, vice- president. Many of the Federalists voted for Jefferson, in stead of their own candidate for vice-president. Immediately after their inauguration (3d month 4th, 1797) the attention of the new incumbents was turned to the hostile attitude of the French Directory, which, having failed to per suade the American government to forsake its policy of neu trality, was disposed to make its displeasure apparent. Re fusing to receive Pinckney as minister, in place of Monroe, until their demands should be complied with by the United States, the president thereupon appointed three envoys-extra ordinary to proceed to the French capital. Though they were not officially received, the envoys were given to understand that the payment of a considerable sum of money to Talley rand, the minister of foreign relations, would open the wa^y to negotiations with the Directory. As this method of inter course was as unsatisfactory as it was dishonest, the envoys, after several months spent in fruitless parleys, were recalled by the president. A war now seemed imminent. Washington was called once more from his home on the Potomac and placed in command of a provisional army, while the navy was increased, and began measures of retaliation. A large French frigate, L Insurgent, i8oo] JOHN ADAMS, SECOND PRESIDENT. 339 was captured by the Constellation, commanded by Commo dore Truxton. But at this crisis, the power of the Directory was overthrown by Bonaparte, who, being willing to enter into a negotiation with the United States, envoys were again appointed to proceed to Paris. In the gth month (September), 1800, a treaty was signed, by which all matters in dispute were amicably adjusted. Before the treaty was concluded, Wash ington died at Mount Vernon the i4th day of the i2th month (December), 1799, in the 68th year of his age. The warlike measures adopted by Adams in the dispute with France, had rendered him unpopular with many citizens, and this feeling was increased by his approval of the " Sedition" and "Alien" laws, which were considered as opposed to the constitutional guarantee of personal liberty. By the Sedition Law, any persons combining or conspiring together to oppose the measures of the government, by means of any false or scandalous writing, were punishable by a heavy fine and long imprisonment. The Alien Act conferred authority upon the president to banish any unnaturalized foreigner whom he should consider dangerous to the peace and liberty of the country. These restrictive measures were adopted to circum vent the machinations of the French revolutionists, whose acts were reprobated as partaking far more of unlimited license than of true liberty. Similar Alien acts were passed by the English parliament in 1792 and 1793, in consequence of the great influx of strangers, many of them being political adventurers suspected of sinister motives. The year 1800 is also memorable as being that in which the seat of the Federal government was removed from Philadel phia to the city of Washington, in accordance with the law passed by Congress in 1790. A small territory, the District of Columbia, square in shape, and measuring ten miles on each side, situated partly in the state of Virginia and partly in Maryland, had been ceded by those states as the location for 340 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1801 a permanent capital. The city was laid out under the direc tion of General Washington, with streets from 90 to 120 feet wide, and twenty "avenues" 130 to 160 feet in width. A capitol and other public buildings having been erected, Con gress assembled there for the first time in the nth month (November), 1800. THOMAS JEFFERSON, PRESIDENT. ACQUISITION OF LOUISI ANA. A DUEL. WAR WITH TRIPOLI. At the next presidential election, the result of a persistent adherence to party candidates became apparent when the electors chosen by the states (who together constitute the temporary body styled the "electoral college"), having cast their ballots, it was found that Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr each had the same number of votes. Consequently, in accordance with a constitutional provision, it became necessary to refer the choice to the House of Representatives. Curiously it happened, that the like result transpired there, Jefferson and Burr receiving again an equal number of votes ; and it was not until the 36th ballot had been taken, that the change of one vote decided the contest for the presidency in favor of Jefferson. Jefferson s inaugural speech (1801) instead of being de livered before the houses of Congress in person, as had been done by Washington and Adams, was conveyed to those bodies in the shape of a written message, a practice which was fol lowed by his successors. To fill the important post of secre tary of state, James Madison was appointed. The various political offices of the country were, for the most part, trans ferred to the adherents of the successful party. Thus was begun that bad practice of substituting party favor for integrity and ability, which has to this day proved so disastrous to the best interests of the country. iSoo] ACQUISITION OF LOUISIANA. 34I The Alien and Sedition Laws were repealed by the new administration, and the excise on whiskey abolished. By the second census, the population of the United States was shown to have increased from about four million in 1790, to five million three hundred thousand; and the exports, from 19 to 94 million dollars. Ohio was admitted in 1802, the seven teenth state of the Union, slavery being excluded. The territory of this state, by virtue of the original grants from the crown, had been claimed by both Connecticut and Virginia, but those claims were now relinquished. During St. Glair s governorship of the North-West Territory, Fort Washington was built on the Ohio (1788), on the site of the future city of CINCINNATI. The most important event of the first term of President Jefferson s administration, was the acquisition of the territory of Louisiana, then included within boundaries many times larger than is the present state of that name. This extensive territory, which had been transferred by France to Spain in 1762, was ceded back to France in the year 1800. As a result of the latter transfer, the permission which had been granted by the Spanish authorities to United States citizens, of landing merchandise at the port of New Orleans, was rescinded. Ap prehensive that the commerce of the western rivers would be ruined by this prohibition, Congress lost no time in repre senting to the French court the serious loss which must ensue. These representations having been made in a reasonable and amicable spirit, the privilege was once more restored. So obvious, however, was the desirability of obtaining con trol of the Louisiana territory, and thus permanently assuring the free navigation of the Mississippi river, that Congress, in structed by the recent troublesome occurrence, opened nego tiations with the French government for its purchase. The proposal was acceded to. For the sum of fifteen million dol lars, all the region included between the Mississippi river and 29* 342 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1804 the Rocky Mountains was granted absolutely to the United States. By this treaty, which was concluded at Paris in 1803, the geographical area of the Republic was more than doubled. (See map, page 405.) The State of Louisiana was admitted into the Union in 1812. Although its staple, the sugar-cane, was introduced in 1751, slow progress was made in cultivat ing it until 1794, when the revolution in San Domingo drove some Frenchmen to Louisiana, and by them was introduced an improved smaller variety, the yellow Creole cane. In the summer of 1804 occurred the death of Alexander Hamilton in a duel with Aaron Burr, the vice-president. Hamilton -had been the constant companion and counsellor of Washington during the latter years of the Revolutionary war. About the time of the framing of the constitution, he had pub lished, under the title of " The Federalist," a series of notable essays intended to vindicate the constitution from the various objections which had been urged against it. As secretary of the treasury during Washington s presidency, Hamilton had acquired a reputation for ability which ranked him with the greatest financiers. Upon the death of Washington, he be came commander-in-chief of the army ; but, having incurred the bitter resentment of the vice-president on account of some published expressions which he refused either to retract or deny, Burr sent him a challenge to mortal combat. Aaron Burr, although a grandson of the good Jonathan Edwards, and son of a clergyman (President Burr, of Prince ton College), was himself a skeptic in religion. From his youth he had evinced a love of intrigue and of the military art, had gleaned from books all that could be learned of the latter " profession," and prized the soldier s glory above any other. After taking an active part in the war of the Revolu tion, he became a practicing lawyer of New York city, in reputation second to Hamilton, but opposed to him in politics and always his rival. 1804] HAMILTON KILLED BY BURR. 343 Hamilton, it is true, was well aware that he had given Burr just cause of offence. He was ready to make a partial ac knowledgment of his error, but an unworthy fear, the dread of public opinion, forbade his acting that nobler part which the line of duty called for. Thus, rather than submit to what he esteemed to be a humiliation, Hamilton accepted the chal lenge. He was not without warning of the miserable fate which was likely to await him, for his own eldest son, had, three years before, been shot in a duel which had arisen from a political dispute in a theatre. Early in the morning, without the knowledge of his wife and children, Hamilton crossed the Hudson and landed beneath the heights of Weehawken, where Burr and his companions awaited him. Ten paces were stepped off, and pistols handed to the combatants. At the first fire, Hamilton received his death-wound. Burr and his accomplices fled, for the commu nity branded the deed as that of murder. So great was the sensation caused throughout the country by this lamentable event, and so general became the inquiry as to the propriety of countenancing so foolish a thing as duelling, that the prac tice thenceforth fell very much into disrepute. Formerly the wager of battle, or judicial combat, was a very common method for asserting one s rights or redressing grievances, it being superstitiously believed that the Almighty would favor the arm of justice in all such contests. But the custom became eventu ally merely a bloody method of obtaining " satisfaction" for insults or injuries, real or imaginary. The French people, in times past, have been especially partial to duelling ; and to sudi a great length was the practice carried in the reign of Henry IV. that at least 4000 " honorable combatants" (so-called) perished thereby. While it is true that the nation at large was shamed at this public exhibition of the enmity of two prominent citizens, as well as appalled at the sorrowful result of their method of proving the right, no such sentiment was apparent respecting a 344 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, [1804 dispute which prevailed at the same time respecting the Med iterranean state of TRIPOLI. As a Roman province, Tripoli obtained its designation from the fact that its three principal cities (tri poli) were leagued together. Of one of these cities the emperor Septimius Severus was a native. In common with the rest of north Africa, Tripoli succumbed to the Moham medan sway, and in the i6th century became a part of the Turkish empire. The inhabitants of the coast, acquiring a taste for piratical pursuits, made themselves obnoxious to maritime nations having commerce in those parts. American merchant-vessels had suffered from these depredations, and their crews had been held in bondage. The Tripolitan government, in reply to the remonstrance which was made, demanded the payment of tribute. This, the United States refused to accede to, and, not thinking it worth while to parley long with a semi-barbarous, non-christian nation, despatched three armed vessels under Commodore Dale, to the Mediterranean. These blockaded the port of Tripoli, and prevented the cruisers from leaving. A larger fleet of seven sail, under Commodore Preble, also proceeded to the same locality ; but one of the frigates, the Philadelphia, ran aground in the harbor, and, being captured by the Tripoli- tans, the officers and crew were either imprisoned or treated as slaves. The vessel was soon afterward set on fire and de stroyed by a small force under Stephen Decatur. This oc curred early in the year 1804. A year later, William Eaton, who had held the post of American consul at Tunis, obtained permission of his govern ment to participate in the war. He took command of several hundred troops raised in Egypt by Hamet, an older and ex pelled brother of the Pasha of Tripoli, and marched with them across the desert, many toilsome leagues to the seaport of Derne. This Tripolitan town he captured, and, receiving the co-operation of the fleet, the war was brought to a close I8o7] MACHINATIONS OF BURR. 345 within two months. An exchange of prisoners was agreed upon ; likewise that the wife and children of Hamet should be given up to him. But the Americans, having accomplished their object, withdrew any further support of Hamet s rightful claim to the governorship of the province. MACHINATIONS OF BURR. BERLIN AND MILAN DECREES. THE EMBARGO ACT. At the autumn election of 1805, Jefferson was a second time, and by a large majority, elected president. GEORGE CLINTON, of New York, was chosen vice-president. Aaron Burr, disappointed in his aspirations for office, and shunned as a murderer by many of his countrymen, now began to de velop his innate love of intrigue in a manner very disturbing to the tranquillity of the country. He conceived the nefarious design of attempting the conquest of Mexico, purposing the establishment of a royal government, with a court where his daughter Theodosia might preside, and her little son figure as the heir-apparent to the throne. As preliminary to the main object of the enterprise, a large section of land on the Washita river, comprising several hundred thousand acres, was pur chased as a rendezvous for Burr s followers in case the scheme was delayed, and, by the possession of which, they might at least be temporarily rewarded. Burr s chief coadjutor was Herman Blennerhassett, the pro prietor of a long and narrow island in the Ohio, some distance below Marietta. Upon the improvement and adornment of this romantic island-domain, Blennerhassett had expended a considerable fortune ; and now, being nearly bankrupt, his imagination was dazzled by the adventurous project of Burr, and he did all in his power to promote it. Barges were built at Marietta (1807), and bands of the associate marauders were beginning to assemble, when the undertaking was exposed, p* 346 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, [r8o6 and Burr, being apprehended, was taken to Richmond for trial before Chief-Justice Marshall. He was arraigned on the double charge of a misdemeanor in undertaking to make war upon the dominions of the king of Spain, and of treason in organizing an armed force for the purpose of seizing New Orleans and of separating the Western from the Atlantic states. Notwithstanding there was no doubt whatever in people s minds as to his culpability, he was released upon the ground that there was insufficient evidence to warrant a con viction. Meanwhile, the war which was raging in Europe, had resulted in great benefit to the commerce of the United States, whose interest it was to extend the privileges of neutrality, and thus to reap on all sides a rich harvest out of the gains of the carrying trade. On the other hand, it was the object of part of the contestants to contract the rights claimed by neutrals, that thereby their opponents might be debarred from the "aid and comfort" which, to a certain extent, these neutrals were enabled to afford. For, although articles " con traband of war," such as warlike stores and weapons, are for bidden by the Law of Nations to be carried in neutral vessels, yet frequently, equal or greater aid may be afforded, by furnishing other products specially needed by either of the contestants. While the United States, having thus become the great neutral trader among the European nations, was exulting over the flourishing state of its commerce, the British government, in the spring of 1806, issued a declaration that all the ports and rivers from the port of Brest in France to the river Elbe in Germany, were in a state of blockade by the fleet of Eng land, and that any vessels which might be found trading within those limits would be liable to seizure and condemna tion. In a few months Napoleon retaliated by issuing from Berlin his "Berlin Decree," declaring the British Islands iSoy l EMBARGO ACT. 347 themselves in a state of blockade, and thus forbidding the Americans, or any other neutrals, to trade therewith, under the same penalty as the foregoing. Next, in 1807, appeared the "British Orders in Council," which were orders not promulgated, as was customary, by authority of parliament, but by the king s privy council on its own responsibility. Issued in retaliation for the Berlin Decree, they prohibited all neutral vessels from having any intercourse with France or any of her allies, unless they first touched at some British port and paid customs-dues there. But the French were not to be outdone in the repayment of injuries; and accordingly, near the end of 1807, Napoleon published his " Milan Decree." It declared not only the British Islands, but also all of the British dominions, to be in a state of blockade ; and, moreover, forbade all countries trading with each other in any articles of English manufacture. Furthermore, any vessel of a neutral nation which submitted to being searched by the English, would be liable to seizure and condemnation, the same as though it was actually an English vessel. To prevent the wholesale destruction of American shipping which must follow the operation of the foregoing acts, Con gress, upon the recommendation of President Jefferson, laid an embargo on all the merchant vessels of the country. This was also intended as a retaliatory measure against the bellig erents, and especially against British manufacturers, whose wares at that time of war were largely carried to the ports of other neutral nations in American vessels. But the Embargo Act met with much opposition, particu larly in the Atlantic seaports, whose shippers preferred risking the loss of their vessels to being debarred from trade alto gether. Necessarily, great loss and distress were entailed upon the farmers and planters, the home-market being soon supplied at low rates, while the excess could not be disposed 343 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1807 of; and since the demand had thus so greatly fallen off, it resulted that a great many people were deprived of employ ment. Upon the cotton planters and rice producers, the embargo fell heavily. Finally, the injury being so apparent, Congress, in 1809, substituted a law prohibiting intercourse with Great Britain and France, and confiscating any vessels of those countries (their cargoes included) which should enter United States ports ; with a proviso, that if either of those nations would revoke their orders or decrees, intercourse with such nation would at once be resumed. In the course of the following year, Napoleon issued still a third edict, called the " Decree of Rambouillet," confiscating American vessels found in French ports ; to which the Americans could make no very great objection, as it was of a like nature with their own con fiscations under the non-intercourse act. Immediately after ward, Napoleon repealed the Milan and Berlin decrees, and accordingly trade with France was resumed. Commerce is, or ought to be, a great conservator of international peace. " Commerce has no country but the world, no patriotism but an earnest interest in the well-being of all the nations. Its genius in this respect, runs parallel with the genius of Christianity, though in a lower course just as subterranean rivers run parallel with those that show their silver currents to the sun: Commerce repudiates war as an outrage upon its domain. It will not obey the laws of war, nor recognize any nation as an enemy with which it has or may have intercourse." (Burritt.) THE RIGHT OF SEARCH. The French government well knew of Jefferson s dislike to England, and was only too anxious that provocations should arise which would precipitate the United States into a war with that power. It was the hope of the French emperor that if the British government now refused to annul its edicts 1807] THE RIGHT OF SEARCH. 349 against neutrals, the United States would manifest its resent ment. The maxims of war are by no means in accord with the honorable and generous feeling which teaches us to "re joice not when thine enemy falleth, and [to] let not thine heart be glad when he stumbleth;" but contrariwise, suggest pleasure and stimulus in every occasion of disaster and error. The occasion for which the French waited was even then op erating, in the resentment manifested by the Americans at the right which the British claimed, of searching American vessels for British seamen. This claim of the right of impressment was complicated by differences in the laws of the two countries upon the subject of naturalization. In the United States it is sufficient for this purpose that an alien should have resided five years in the country, and have declared before a magistrate his intention of becoming a citizen ; and on the other hand, if a native- born American desires to be adopted as the citizen of another nation, he is at liberty to renounce allegiance to the land of his birth. England, however, did not at that time consider that its citizens could so expatriate themselves ; but that having once been subjects they must always remain so. If, therefore, the British government, in its search for deserting seamen, could find any whom it could show had been born in England (notwithstanding the United States had granted them . the rights of citizenship), they became liable to impressment into the British service. Considering the similarity of lan guage and appearance between the people of the two nations, it is apparent that the difficulties in the way of identification were indeed great, and, without exceeding caution, must lead to disputes of a serious character. Hitherto, the practice of searching for British seamen had been confined to private vessels ; but, in the summer of 1807, the American frigate Chesapeake was overhauled off the ca^es of Virginia by an English frigate, the Leopard, and four sea- 30 35 o HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1807 men, who had deserted from the British service, were ordered to be given up. The American commander (Barren) refusing the demand, the Leopard fired a broadside into the Chesa peake, when, a number of the Americans having been killed and wounded, the requisition was acceded to. The four sea men were surrendered, and the Leopard proceeded on her course. In the heat of the excitement produced by this arbi trary proceeding, but without waiting to hear what the Eng lish government had to say about the matter, Jefferson issued a proclamation commanding all English war-vessels imme diately to leave the harbors and waters of the United States. Before this hostile act on the part of the British occurred, James Monroe, the American minister at London, had been endeavoring to negotiate a new treaty in lieu of the one of 1794. The latter, Jefferson strongly disapproved of, because it did not forbid the right of impressment. The British gov ernment, while it refused to make an express declaration disclaiming this right, professed a willingness to have such an understanding upon the subject as would place it "on ground which it was both safe and honorable for the United States to admit," that is, that the right should not be taken advantage of except very cautiously, and in such cases only as would be satisfactory to both parties. There is reason to believe that if this treaty had been concluded, the War of 1812 would not have occurred. The president declined to submit it to the Senate for ratification. Soon after the news of the affair of the Leopard and Chesa peake had reached England, and Monroe had made formal complaint concerning it, the British government sent an envoy to America to adjust the difficulty. He came with instructions, however, that before anything could be done, Jef ferson must first recall his proclamation. The envoy stated that the fact of his being thus sent over to reconcile the difference was evidence of the amicable disposition of his government, 1807] THE RIGHT OF SEARCH. 351 and therefore that the president s edict against the British vessels, which had been issued so precipitately, ought not to continue in force. The envoy would not deviate from his instructions, and since Jefferson refused to comply therewith, the mission of the British minister failed, and with it a second opportunity of ending the difficulties. Although, as stated, undue precipitancy had been exhibited by the United States with respect to the negotiations, yet no extenuation is intended to be offered for the manner in which the British government, either on its own soil or upon the high seas, enforced the harsh provisions of its law of impress ment. This law, which permitted men of its mercantile ma rine to be pressed into the naval service upon occasions of urgency, was the frequent cause of very great distress and hardship. So great were the necessities of the war with Na poleon, that press-gangs were constantly occupied in securing recruits, and their appearance came to be as much dreaded as would have been that of the French themselves. Seafaring men, and sometimes landsmen as well, whose homes were in the coast-towns of Britain, were often made drunk or knocked down, gagged, bound and carried on board war-ships to serve for five years or more, without pretence of right. A British privateer, encountering a war-ship flying the flag of the same nation, would crowd all sail to effect its escape, lest part of the crew should be summarily impressed into the regular service. Therefore, as the navy rather than the army of Britain was her chief dependence, it will be perceived that, to maintain its efficiency, she was not always scrupulous to respect the rights either of her own subjects or those of her late dependencies. CHAPTER XXVI. WAR WITH ENGLAND DURING MADISON S ADMINIS TRATION. 1809 -1817. NEGOTIATIONS WITH ENGLAND. TECUMSEH. IN the spring of 1809, James Madison, of Virginia, who had been Jefferson s secretary of state during both his terms of office, succeeded to the presidency in accordance with the popular verdict. The new administration began auspiciously, for, in the month succeeding Madison s inauguration, an agreement was made with David Erskine, the British minister at Washington, that if his government would repeal its ob noxious Orders in Council, the non-intercourse act would be revoked on the part of the United States. This was mutually assented to, and proclamation was immediately made by the president to that effect. But, unfortunately, Erskine had exceeded his instructions, having no power to make such a treaty without the ratification of his government, which accordingly disavowed his act. Francis J. Jackson was sent hither to supersede him. Instead of endeavoring calmly and candidly to adjust the real diffi culties at issue, a fruitless correspondence ensued between Jackson and our secretary of state, as to the extent of the powers with which Erskine had been invested. Jackson having twice intimated that the American government knew that Erskine was exceeding his powers, the secretary refused 352 i8ii] NEGOTIATIONS WITH ENGLAND. 353 further correspondence, and the minister was dismissed. The newspapers accusing him of insulting the government, the popular resentment was roused to such a degree that it was considered hardly safe for him to travel through the country. Thus were the purposes of peace a third time defeated, and the happiness of a nation of seven million people again put in jeopardy because of a misapprehension, which, it must be admitted, was of comparatively little importance. The con troversy in regard to the Chesapeake was, however, adjusted in 1811, four years after the occurrence; the British govern ment agreeing to make reparation to the families of the sea men who were killed and wounded, and to restore the two sailors (surviving of the four) who had been taken. But the good effect of this adjustment was neutralized by another exciting and disastrous naval encounter, namely, that between the American frigate President and the British sloop-of-war Little Belt. Like the first, it occurred off the Virginia capes ; the British vessel was disabled, and 32 of her men killed and wounded. In the year 1811, there arose into prominence the cele brated Indian chief and orator, TECUMSEH, of the tribe of the Shawnees. He and his brother the "Prophet," had set tled on the Wabash river, in the land of the Miamis, upon a tract which the latter nation at this time ceded to the United States. Tecumseh declared the transfer was not good with out his consent, and that the acquiescence of all the chiefs of the tribes of the Ohio and the Lakes was essential to make a valid title. In a council held with General HARRISON, gov ernor of the Indiana Territory, the chief insisted upon retain ing the land ; to which the governor replied that his words would be reported to the president, and that he was confident the land would not be relinquished by his government, but would be maintained by the sword. 30* 354 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1812 Aided by the wily representations of the Prophet, who, pretending to a direct commission from the Great Spirit, ex ercised a remarkable influence even over distant tribes, Te- cumseh was enabled to gather a large force on the banks of the Wabash river, near its confluence with the Tippecanoe. Here, in the absence of their chief, the Indians were met by a body of troops led against them by Governor Harri son. The Prophet assumed command of the natives, not in deed by mingling in the encounter, but by the performance of conjurations on an eminence near the battle-ground. But the jugglery failed of its intended effects, for the Indians, though they inflicted some loss upon the whites, were obliged to retreat. In the following year (1812) Fort Harrison on the Wabash, was besieged by Tecumseh s bands. Governor Shelby, of Kentucky, issued a call for volunteers, who, uniting with those raised in the Indiana and Illinois territories, relieved the fort, and thence started on an expedition to destroy the villages of the Kickapoos and Peorias. The Indians being closely pursued, set fire to the long, dry prairie grass, so that the flames advancing rapidly with the wind toward the militia, threatened them with destruction ; but by employing the de vice of the "back-fire," often resorted to on the prairies during such perils, they escaped the danger. The militia and most of the officers becoming dissatisfied with the expedition, notified the commanding general that they would go no farther, and, despite his orders, they returned home. A suc ceeding expedition, however, a few weeks later, was success ful in destroying the Prophet s town and a Kickapoo village. In the war which now began with the English, Tecumseh, taking part with the latter, was made a general, and was in strumental in rendering them important service. I8i2] WAR DECLARED. 355 1812. WAR DECLARED. DETROIT AND NIAGARA. OPPOSITION TO THE WAR. War was formally declared against Great Britain by the president, the i8th day of 6th month (June), 1812 ; but the vote by which the measure passed Congress was far from unanimous, less than two-thirds of the members giving their voice in its favor. Although the commercial losses of the country consequent upon the Orders in Council and the Decrees, had been very great as many as 900 vessels having been condemned within the preceding eight years yet the national debt by reason of economy in the administration, had been reduced one-half. This reduction was especially owing to the curtailment of the army and navy; the army in 1808, being composed of but 3000 men. The same year, however, it was ordered to be increased to 9000, and afterward to 25,000. This did not include the militia of the states, which the president was authorized to call upon to the extent of 100,000 men. General DEARBORN was. appointed commander-in -chief. Only five days after the declaration of war, the British gov ernment, unaware of the promulgation of that hostile decree, repealed its Orders in Council. The real reason for the revoca tion, was the continued interdiction of American commerce with England. The loss of the promising trade with this country, added to the onerous burden of taxation imposed to carry on the continental wars, produced a degree of distress in the British manufacturing districts, which was becoming almost intolerable. Apprehensive of the still greater miseries which must ensue if an American war really occurred, the manufacturers raised their voices in protest, and the Orders in Council were finally annulled, but, as we have seen, a few days too late to arrest the whirlwind of war. The contest began with but little enthusiasm, for many of 356 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1812 the American people believed that the aggressions of France had been equally as great as those of England, and, that either there should have been no fighting at all, or that France also should have been declared an enemy. The first movements of the American army proved signally disastrous. General HULL, the governor of Michigan terri tory, had command at Detroit of about 2000 troops. Upon the Canada side of the Detroit river, where its waters flow into Lake Erie, was the British fort at Maiden. Hull crossed the river, and was about to attack the fort, when he became alarmed at some successes of the Indians under Tecumseh ; and, having heard also of the arrival of General Brock, the British commander, concluded to retire again to Detroit. Here, being quickly besieged by Brock s forces, and doubting his ability to make a successful resistance, fearful also of an Indian massacre, Hull agreed to a capitulation, 8th month (August) 1 6th. At Niagara, a body of regular troops and of New York state militia under General Van Rensselaer, crossed the Niagara river, purposing an invasion of Canada. They advanced a few miles, as far as the heights of Queenstown, but, un able to withstand the onset of the British and Indians, were forced to surrender. Brock, the British commander, was killed in the engagement. Van Rensselaer s successor re newed the attempt at invasion, but the movement only resulted in another capitulation. Upon the ocean, however, the navy of the Americans met with several successes. The chief of these were the capture of the British frigate Guerriere, off the banks of Newfoundland, by the American frigate Constitution com manded by Captain Hull; the capture of the Macedonian, a British frigate, by Commodore Decatur s vessel the United States, near the Azores ; and also, off the coast of Brazil, the capture of the British frigate Java by the Constitution, then in command of Commodore Bainbridge. i Si 2] THE WAR OPPOSED. 3-7 Large numbers of vessels, owned by private individuals, were likewise fitted out to depredate upon the commerce, and to contend with the navy of Britain. During the year 1812, about 250 British vessels and 3000 prisoners were taken by the American privateers. These vessels, which sailed under the sanction of the government, were provided with letters of marqite, or, commissions to make war upon and seize the property of their enemies. An act of war by a private vessel, without such a commission, was held to be piracy ; but in 1856, by the treaty of Paris, privateering itself was declared to be an offence against the law of nations, and was thereupon abol ished. The United States, however, was not a party to that treaty. Much opposition to the prosecution of the war was mani fested during the year. By the Connecticut assembly a dec laration was passed that " they believe it to be the deliberate and solemn sense of the people of these states, that the war was unnecessary ;" and, referring to the disposition to attempt the conquest of Canada, that " a spirit of acquisition and exten sion of territory appears to influence the councils of the na tion." Requisitions being made by the president upon the governors of Massachusetts and Connecticut, to furnish their quotas of militia, and to have them placed under regular officers of the army, objection was made that, although power is given by the constitution to Congress to call out the militia of a state, in cases of insurrection or invasion, yet no such exigency of fnvasion as yet existed. They also objected, that the men would be deprived of their constitutional right to be commanded by their own officers, and, being placed under the control of officers of the regular army, would be liable to be shut up in garrisons or sent out of the state to distant points of military operations, such as the attempted conquest of Canada, or wheresoever the president or General Dearborn might see fit to designate. The seacoast, they said, would then be undefended and their ports exposed to the depreda tions of the English navy. This controversy was morally valuable for two reasons, to 35 8 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1813 wit : in manifesting the repugnance of the people to a large standing army ; and also, as exhibiting a cautious disposition against readily furnishing troops upon calls of exigency, which might be wrongfully used for purposes of ambition, despotism or conquest. 1813. OPERATIONS ON THE CANADA FRONTIER. RED JACKET AND CORNPLANTER. CREEK WAR. The election of James Madison to a second presidential term, indicated that, unpopular as the war was in some quar ters, it was the wish of the majority that it should be contin ued. In -the beginning of the year the army was disposed in three divisions : the westernmost, under General Harrison, was near the west end of Lake Erie ; the centre, under Dear born, was at the east end of the lake ; while the third, com manded by General HAMPTON, was in the neighborhood of Lake Champlain. In the latter part of the First month, at a time of severe cold and when the ground was covered with snow, a detach ment of Harrison s force under General Winchester, was sur prised at Frenchtown, on the river Raisin, by a party of British under Colonel Proctor, assisted by a thousand Indians led by Roundhead, a Wyandotte chief. Winchester was taken pris oner by Roundhead himself; but his men having laid down their arms, many of the wounded, in the absence of Proctor, were massacred by the Indians, and the village set on fire. In the spring, Proctor advanced against Fort Meigs at the rapids of the Miami, where Harrison was posted ; but, although several hundred Americans were killed in an am buscade laid for them by Tectimseh, the British commander failed to secure possession of the fort, and retreated to his headquarters at Maiden, on the Canada side of the Detroit river. The confederacy of the Six Nations and some other tribes 1813] RED JACKET AND CORNPLANTER. 359 of Indians, took part with the Americans in their contest with the British. Prominent in the councils of the Senecas, were the chiefs RED JACKET and CORNPLANTER. Red Jacket, who was renowned for his oratory, resided near Buffalo. His best known speech was one delivered several years previous to the war, upon the occasion of the visit of a missionary, who de sired a conference of the chiefs and warriors. In narrating their grievances at the hands of the whites, Red Jacket said " Wars took place, Indians were hired to fight against Indians, and many of our people were destroyed. They also brought strong liquors among us : it was strong and powerful and has slain thousands." And in dismissing the missionary, he said: "Brother, we have been told that you have been preaching to white people in this place : these people are our neighbors we are acquainted with them we will wait a little while and see what effect your preaching has upon them. If we find it does them good, makes them honest and less disposed to cheat Indians, we will then consider again what you have said." When, in 1813, Red Jacket concluded to take up the hatchet, he told the American agent that it was only to defend their homes in a contest, with the bringing on of which the Indians had nothing to do. In after life this celebrated chief, who had once been noted for the dignity of his presence and his eloquence and wisdom in council, became a drunken sot, remaining to the last opposed to the preach ing of Christianity to his nation. Cornplanter, who was a half-breed, was of a more peaceable disposition than Red Jacket, his rival. Devoting himself to labors for the benefit of his people, he took no active part in the war. Unlike Red Jacket, while he deplored the evils of intemperance, he was not himself overcome by the thirst for strong drink. On the contrary, he exerted himself to suppress its use, and therein was a good example to his followers, as he was never known to have been intoxicated. Furthermore, he 3 6o HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1813 was a total abstainer. "The Great Spirit," he said, "has ordered me to quit drinking any intoxicating drink." He encouraged the benevolent efforts of the missionaries among his people, yet made no profession of Christianity, probably having more regard for the civilizing effects of the white man s mode of living than for any looked-for good through change of heart. He stumbled at a religion which professed to be a peaceful one, while it apparently permitted the brethren to shed each others blood. Cornplanter received an allotment of land on the upper Alleghany, just south of the New York border, where he built a village and followed the pursuits of agricultural life. H.e attained the ripe age of one hundred years. "It was gratifying to notice," said a visitor in 1816, "the agricultural habits of the place, and the numerous enclosures of buckwheat, corn and oats. We saw also a number of oxen, cows and horses, and many logs designed for the saw-mill and the Pittsburg market." The reservations of the Senecas are still extant, and have long been evidence that the aboriginal Indian life is susceptible of radical alteration and improvement. The operations of Harrison and Proctor, in the locality of Detroit, have already been alluded to. General Dearborn, about the same time, made an effort to invade Canada, having landed a small army at York (now Toronto) on the northern shore of Lake Ontario. But the attempt at invasion proving unsuccessful, the troops returned to Niagara. Another expe dition, which proceeded from Sackett s Harbor, at the eastern end of the lake, likewise failed in an attempt to reach Mont real. The British general, PREVOST, relieved of the fear of attack, then advanced on Niagara, captured the place, and, in retaliation for the burning of a Canada village by the Americans, despoiled the country around the fort for several miles, and laid several settlements in ashes. One of these was BUFFALO, then a mere village. On Lake Erie, the American fleet of nine vessels, com- 1813] BATTLE OF LAKE ERIE. 361 manded by Commodore Perry, engaged and captured, pth month (September) roth, the British squadron of nearly equal force, after a severe conflict of three hours. This result gave the Americans entire control of the lake, and consequently afforded them ready entrance into Canada. Harrison at once occupied Maiden and Detroit, and advancing into Canada as far as the Moravian village on the Thames, a distance of 80 miles, gave battle to the forces of Proctor and Tecumseh. The scene of this engagement was a swamp near the river, skirted by a thick woodland. The ground was well-chosen for the display of Indian tactics, but Tecumseh having received his death-wound while the battle was at its height, his warriors fled, and were followed by such of the British as could elude capture. The Ottawas, Miamis and several other tribes, dis heartened at the death of their great chieftain, entered into a treaty of peace and alliance with General Harrison. On the ocean, there were several severe naval encounters, the earliest of which was that between the American ship Hornet, commanded by Captain Lawrence, and the British war-sloop Peacock. The latter vessel was captured, but it sank while the wounded were being removed. Lawrence being afterward placed in command of the frigate Chesapeake, sailed out of Boston harbor in chase of the British frigate Shannon. The Chesapeake proving to be no match for its opponent, was obliged to surrender. Lawrence and most of his officers were killed. In the Irish sea, the American sloop-of-war Argus, was captured by the British sloop Pelican, the commander of the former being mortally wounded. Finally, off Portland harbor, two hostile brigs, the Enterprise and Boxer, came into fierce collision, and, both commanders having been killed, the British vessel (the Boxer) surrendered. Of these two commanders who went down to death together, each guilty of the other s blood, an account says that "their bodies were received at Portland with tokens of the highest respect." Q 31 362 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1814 What a mockery of the divine-given precept to "Love your enemies," seems the bestowal of such honor as this ! In the meantime, troubles arose with the Creek Indians inhabiting the territory of the Alabama. None of the Indian tribes was more advanced in civilization than was this nation. They were estimated to number 25,000 persons, and were mostly engaged in the pursuits of agriculture, being also skilled in weaving and in some of the simpler sorts of handicraft. Animated by the bad counsels of one of their number, called WEATHERFORD, they followed the example of Tecumseh in a hopeless attempt to rid their country of the whites. Their first serious onslaught was directed against Fort Mimms, sit uated in the Tensau district, north of the gulf of Mobile. The Creek warriors, entering the open gate of the fort, which had been left unguarded, were met by the garrison, when a terrible scene of confusion and carnage ensued. Knives, tomahawks, swords and bayonets, did their deadly work, until only 17 out of the 275 persons within the works remained alive. Of those who were killed, many were women and children. "Blood for blood" was the cry that arose when the news of this massacre was received. Troops from Tennessee, Georgia and Mississippi, under Generals Jackson, Coffee and others, were quickly on the march toward the Alabama country. Battles were fought at Talladega, Autossee, and other places, all of which resulted in the discomfiture of the Indians, until finally, in the spring of 1814, they made a stand at Tohopeka called by the whites the "Horse-shoe Bend" of the Tal- lapoosa. It is north-east of the present city of Montgomery. The Indians, about a thousand in number, had thrown up a breastwork across the entrance to the peninsula. But Jack son was, as he wrote, "determined to exterminate them," and, having surrounded the bend with a cavalry force so that none of them could escape by crossing the river, he com- i8i4] BATTLES NEAR NIAGARA. 363 manded the breast-work to be stormed. The resistance of the Indians proving ineffectual, their extermination began : 550 were killed on the peninsula, and many who endeavored to cross the river were shot down by the mounted troops, so that it was not believed that more than 20 of the warriors escaped. " We continued," wrote Jackson, in his report, " to destroy many who had concealed themselves under the banks of the river, until we were prevented by night: this morning we killed 16 who had been concealed." The Creek nation made peace, according to the terms dictated by their conquerors, ceding the larger part of their territory to the United States. General Jackson was rewarded by receiving the appointment of commander of the forces at New Orleans. 1814. BATTLES NEAR NIAGARA AND PLATTSBURG. WASHING TON CITY TAKEN. HARTFORD CONVENTION. The downfall of Napoleon and the partial pacification of Eu rope, enabled the British government to detach a greater force than previously, for the protection of Canada: consequently, in the beginning of 1814, an army of 14,000 men who had fought with Wellington in Spain, was embarked at Bordeaux, to join the army gf Sir George Prevost in Canada. The English naval force was likewise increased, and was ordered to effectually blockade the Atlantic coast of the Republic, and to devastate the sea-coast cities as occasion should permit. In the yth month (July) an American army of 3500 men under General Brown, crossed the Niagara river, and obtained possession of the British post of Fort Erie. The Americans then advanced along the west bank of the Niagara to the mouth of the Chippewa river, where they encountered a strong force of the British, commanded by General Rial!. The battle of Chippewa, which ensued, terminated in favor of the Ameri cans, the British commander being obliged to fall back until 3 6 4 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1814 he reached Fort George, where he was reinforced by General Drummond. His army then amounting to 5000 men, Riall advanced to Queenstown and thence to Lundy s Lane, where a hard-fought battle took place, in which the thunder of artil lery, the curses of the combatants, the shrieks and groans of the wounded and dying, mingled with the roar of the adjacent cataract. Finally, the Americans, after great sacrifice of life, obtained possession of an important fortified eminence, and being successful in other directions, obliged their opponents to give way. The British generals Riall and Drummond, were both wounded ; so also, on the side of the Americans, were Generals Brown and WINFIELD SCOTT, beside over fifty of their officers. The command of the American army then devolved upon General Ripley, who retreated to Fort Erie. The British endeavored to dislodge the Americans from the fort, but the attempt did not succeed. While these active operations were transpiring along the Niagara river, Prevost with a formidable army had invaded the territory of the United States, and, marching down the west side of Lake Champlain, had laid siege to Plattsburg. Before attempting to capture the place, Prevost awaited the result of the contest between the British and American squad rons, both of which had taken positions in Plattsburg bay. The British fleet was commanded by Commodore Downie, the American by Commander Macdonough. The engagement, which happened pth month (September) nth, resulted in the defeat and capture of the British vessels ; whereupon Prevost withdrew his army from before Plattsburg, and, leaving be hind him a large quantity of military stores, retreated hastily into Canada. Farther to the eastward, however, the governor of New Brunswick had invaded the district of Maine (which was yet an appendage of Massachusetts) and, aided by a British fleet, had taken possession of the country as far as the Penobscot 1814] WASHINGTON CITY TAKEN. ^ 365 river. Another British fleet also appeared on the Connecticut coast, but their predatory attempts did not meet with much success. A far more formidable invasion occurred at the southward, having for its initial object the capture of the national capital. One part of the British fleet ascended the Potomac, but the main portion, under Admiral COCHRANE, proceeded up the Patuxent. The Americans burnt all but one of their squadron of 17 vessels, to prevent their falling into the hands of the invaders. At Bladensburg, the militia under General Winder, unavail- ingly disputed the advance of the British. On the evening of the 24th day of 8th month (August), the British army under General Ross entered Washington. The Capitol, the president s house and other public buildings and works, were committed to the flames. But, meeting with no display of royalist sentiment on the part of the populace, Ross evacuated the city the next day, and re-embarked on the fleet in the Patuxent. Designing to attack Baltimore, Cochrane s fleet sailed up the Chesapeake to North Point, at the entrance of the Patapsco, where Ross troops were again landed, and marched toward the city. In a skirmish which ensued the British general was killed. The admiral, finding that the en trance to the harbor was obstructed by sunken vessels, while Fort McHenry resisted his efforts at capture, gave the com mand to retire. Of several naval encounters which occurred during the year, the most important was that between the American frigate Essex, commanded by Commodore Porter, and the British frigate Phebe. The former vessel had proved very destructive to British commerce, but was at last blockaded in the port of Valparaiso. Having been detained several weeks, Porter en deavored to make his escape, but the Phebe and another vessel disputing the attempt, a fierce contest ensued. Finally the Essex caught fire and part of the ammunition exploded ; when, HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1814 the larger part of the crew being killed or wounded, Porter surrendered. As the war between the United States and Great Britain grew out of the great European quarrel, it was not believed that it would continue long after the European powers had made peace. Indeed, as early as the spring of 1813, Alexan der, the emperor of Russia, had offered to mediate between the two countries. The United States government, accepting the offer, had sent three commissioners John Quincy Adams, Albert Gallatin and James A. Bayard to negotiate with those to be appointed by England ; but the latter power preferred that their commissioners should treat directly with the com missioners of the Republic, without the intervention of Russia, and accordingly it was agreed that negotiations should be entered into at Ghent. But as that year and the next wore away without anything being accomplished, .the discontent of the opposition party in the United States increased. This opposition, as already intimated, was greatest in the New England states, whose capitalists, perceiving no necessity for the war, refused to loan their money for its prosecution, and were hence accused of being enemies to their country. While it is not unlikely that self-interest and party feeling on the part of many had much to do with this antagonism to the administration, yet there is no doubt of the fact that a large number were sincere in their convictions that the continuation of the struggle, as well as its beginning, was absolutely wrong in principle. A Near the close of the year (i2th month, isth) an impor tant convention of delegates from several of the New England states was held at Hartford, for the purpose of considering the defenceless condition of their sea-port towns, the state of the country generally, and also to suggest sundry amendments to the constitution. The amendments which they agreed to re port were seven in number, to wit : that all acts placing 1814] BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS. 367 restrictions on commerce, as also declarations of war, should only be valid upon the concurrence of two-thirds of both houses of Congress; that a similar majority should be requisite for the admission of new states ; that no embargo should be laid for a longer period than sixty days ; that naturalized per sons should not be eligible to the national offices ; that the office of president should not be held by the same individual oftener than for one term ;, and that representation and direct taxes should be apportioned among the respective states according to the number of free persons therein. The reso lutions adopted by the convention, and the proposed amend ments, were forwarded by a committee to Congress; but about the same time news arrived that a treaty of peace had been signed. The proposed amendments were subsequently sub mitted to the several states, but were concurred in by only three of them. BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS AND END OF THE WAR. Although the treaty of peace had been signed by the com missioners at Ghent, on the 24th day of i2th month, 1814, yet it was not until after a great battle had been fought at New Orleans that the joyful news of the treaty was received in this country. Information of a projected attack by the British, somewhere upon the gulf-coast, had been divulged to Governor Claiborne, of Louisiana. It also became known that a large quantity of arms and ammunition, for arming the Indians against the United States forces, had been landed at Pensacola. Florida still being a Spanish province, General Jackson marched against Pensacola and captured it, alleging that the Spaniards had violated their neutrality in allowing that harbor to be used for hostile purposes. Meanwhile, the British squadron, having entered the Gulf of Mexico, directed its course to the north of the Mississippi 3 68 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1815 delta, so as to approach New Orleans on the east, by the way of Lake Borgne. The flotilla of the Americans was soon over come. A part of the British troops, having been landed at the west end of the lake, marched, in a few hours, across to the bank of the Mississippi, and posted themselves below the city. General Jackson had caused to be thrown up a para pet of earth and cotton bales, along the front of which was a ditch containing five feet depth of water. The British army, numbering about 10,000 men, and commanded by Sir Edward Pakenham, made two unsuccessful attempts to dislodge Jack son from his position. Finally, having received further rein forcements, a decisive battle was fought on the 8th day of the ist month (January), 1815. Pakenham was killed, and two of his principal generals were disabled. So severe was the loss of the British that, ten days later, they abandoned their position and retreated, leaving behind them their wounded and artillery. The TREATY OF GHENT was immediately ratified by the American government, yet the result of the contest was but another instance of the foolishness and crime of resorting to war for the establishment of justice. It was stipulated by the treaty that all places which had been captured during the war, and which were yet occupied by either of the late contestants, should be restored to their respective owners. But, the vexed subject of impressment, which, since the abrogation of the Orders in Council, was the only pretext for war, remained unsettled and unprovided for in any way. It is worthy of remark that a better treaty could have been secured before the war; for the British government was then willing to disclaim all arbitrary acts of impressment, and to leave the topic open for debate and probable settlement at a future time. James Monroe, our minister to England before the war, stated as follows : " By this paper [the one prepared by the British commis- I8i6] LIBERIA. ^69 sioners] it is evident that the rights of the United States were expressly to be reserved, and not abandoned, as has been most erro neously supposed ; that the negotiation on the subject of impress ment was to be postponed for a limited time, and for a special object only, and to be revived as soon as that object was accomplished ; and in the interim, that the practice of impressment was to corre spond essentially with the views and interests of the United States." A few weeks after the peace had been ratified, the United States government issued a declaration of war against Algiers, that country having, like Tripoli a few years earlier, been guilty of depredating upon American commerce and exacting tribute. Two fleets, commanded respectively by Commodores Bain- bridge and Decatur, were accordingly despatched to the Mediterranean. Having effected the capture of two Algerian war-vessels, they sailed into the harbors of the capital cities of Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli. The dey of Algiers submitted, and the rulers of the other two states agreed to faithfully observe the former treaties which had been entered into with the United States. Commodore Decatur, who was greatly applauded for his victories, was killed a few years afterward in a duel with Commodore Barron. In 1816, the territory of Indiana was admitted, the nine teenth state, into the Union. In the same year there was projected the American Colonization Society, for the purpose of founding, in Africa, a colony to which free blacks could be removed, and where they would be afforded favorable oppor tunities for self-improvement. HENRY CLAY was its first pres ident. In consequence of the unhealthy location of the land first chosen for settlement, this interesting experiment did not at first meet with success; but in 1821, a much more suitable tract of territory on the Grain Coast of west Africa was selected, and here arose the republic of LIBERIA. The num ber of colored immigrants from the United States has never Q* 37 o HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1817 in any one year exceeded eight hundred ; nevertheless, there have been considerable accessions of Africans from regions contiguous to the republic, and its total population is now (1876) upward of 700,000. Schools and places of worship have steadily increased, newspapers are published, a postal system is in regular operation, and in some of the neighbor ing states slavery has been abolished. Palm-oil and coffee are the chief articles of export. Much aid to the enterprise has been afforded by Great Britain. The charter of the first Bank of the United States had expired in 1811. Numerous state banks were thereupon established to supply the commercial need of ready money. But during the war which immediately ensued, there was an expansion in the currency, followed very soon by a suspension of specie payments. Bills, small notes and tickets were then issued, not only by the banks, but also by the cities, counties, towns, and even by individuals. All these had their own local currencies, bearing no fixed proportionate value to one another, and, as a consequence, there arose an extensive class of brokers. Counterfeiting also became frequent. As a sub stitute for this monetary confusion, Congress chartered the second United States Bank (1816), with a capital of 35 mil lion dollars. It was authorized to continue incorporated for the term of twenty years. Nevertheless, a rigorous commer cial pressure prevailed, especially in the five years from 1816 to 1820. Manufactures were so greatly depressed that mills and workshops were everywhere closed. With flour as low at one time as a dollar per barrel and sheep at a dollar per head, it is not surprising that farms fell into the hands of the mortgage-holders at one-half or one-third their proper values. This depression in production and trade continued, until alle viated (for a while at least), by the general demand for inter nal improvements. CHAPTER XXVII. PRESIDENCIES OF MONROE AND J. Q. ADAMS. 1817 1829. FIRST SEMINOLE WAR. FLORIDA CEDED BY SPAIN. THE presidential office for the next two terms was filled by James Monroe, of Virginia. DANIEL D. TOMPKINS, of New York, was continued as. vice-president for the same period. They were elected, almost without opposition, by the same political party (the Democratic-Republican) which elected Jefferson and Madison. It was a time when the one political party was so strong, and had everything so much the one way, that it was called "the era of good feeling." The president, upon his inauguration in 1817, visited all the northern and eastern states, and was there cordially received. Monroe was of a cautious and conciliatory disposition, care ful to avoid coming into conflict with any strong opposing interests. According to Jefferson, he was indeed slow, but give him time, and his judgment was very accurate. As a good token for the beginning of the new administra tion, an agreement was entered into with Great Britain, regu lating and reducing the naval force of each power upon the Great Lakes. It was mutually agreed that, upon Lakes Ontario and Champlain, but one armed vessel should be kept in service, by either party; and that on either Lakes Erie, Huron or Superior, there should be no more than two such maintained by each nation, and those armed with a single gun only. It 37 2 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1817 is not to be believed that the people of Canada or the United States have ever seriously regretted this almost complete abandonment of their lake armaments ; and it will be a year to rejoice in when their ocean armaments are similarly cur tailed. Let the national vessels be increased, if need be, for every purpose of progress, enlightenment and of international good will, but let the menacing cannon be speedily abolished from every sea ! Several important treaties were made with the Indians. The Delawares, Wyandottes, Shawnees and other tribes, hold ing lands within the limits of the state of Ohio, ceded the same to the United States; being permitted, if they chose, to remain on the land, subject, however, to the national and state laws. Soon afterward the lands of the Chickasaws, west of the Tennessee river, in the states of Tennessee and Kentucky, were ceded by that tribe to the government. But with the Seminoles, occupying the southern border of Georgia and the Spanish territory of Florida, a serious conflict took place in 1817 and 1818. This first war with the Seminoles was owing to several causes, the chief of which were, that that tribe had harbored Creek Indians, as well as slaves who had escaped from their masters, and that there had been several murders upon the Florida border, which called for punishpent. The hope of getting the land readily cleared of the It , ; ^m title and of the Indians themselves, was a moving motive lor a campaign, The enmity on the part of the Indians was intensified by one of their prophets, as well as by two English traders, who had their homes with the tribe. In the latter part of 1817, a detach ment of forty United States soldiers was sent to the mouth of the Apalachicola river for the purpose of removing some military stores from there to Fort Scott. On their return they fell into an ambuscade of the Seminoles, and alt but six were killed. General GAINES, commanding in that quarter, de- I8i 9 ] FlfiST SEMINOLE WAR. 373 manded the offenders, but the tribe refused to give them up. Whereupon General Jackson, with a body of Tennesseans, hastened to the spot. The reader will remember that a little prior to the battle of New Orleans, Jackson had taken temporary possession of Pensacola, on the ground that the Spanish had violated their neutrality in permitting the English to land guns and ammu nition there for the Indians. But now, the Americans had themselves landed military stores at a Spanish port ; while the Indians, resenting the conveyance of material intended for their destruction through territory claimed by them, under took their defence in the same savage way that Jackson him self would probably have resorted to. But our country s dealings with the Indians have been proverbially inconsistent. The Seminoles were soon defeated and driven southward, and Jackson, entering Florida, took possession of the Spanish forts St. Mark s and Pensacola, because he alleged that they har bored the hostile Indians. The two English emissaries were captured, and, being tried by a court-martial, were sentenced to death, on the charge of inciting the Indians to war.- Jackson then ordered St. Augustine to be occupied, but this high-handed measure was countermanded by the government. In the year following the defeat of the Seminoles (1819), a treaty was negotiated at Washington between JOHN QUINCY ADAMS, secretary of state, d Don On is, the Spanish min ister, by which the atter agreed, on behalf of his government, to cede Florida to the United States for the sum of five million dollars. It was provided, however, that the money, instead of being paid directly to Spain, should be used to satisfy the claims of United States citizens against Spain for spoliations. The president and Senate agreed to the treaty at once. Upon its being sent to Spain, the king refused to ratify it; but, after delaying more than a year, he gave it his sanction, probably concluding that it would be wiser to cancel the 32 374 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1820 claims by ceding a possession which had proved of so little profit, than to expend any money in its defence. Florida be came a territory of the Republic in 1821, with General Jackson, as governor. It was first divided into two districts or counties \ the one east of the Suwanee river being called St. John s, and the other west of that river, Escambia. MISSISSIPPI had been admitted, the twentieth state, in 1817; ILLINOIS in 1818; Alabama in 1819; and Maine (upon sepa rating from Massachusetts) in 1820. But the petition to Con gress in the latter year, for the admission of Missouri, gave rise to a highly acrimonious debate, growing out of the question whether it should be admitted with or without slavery. Missouri s chief city, ST. Louis, was built on the site of a trading- post which had been established there (1763) during the French domination. The founder was La Clede, a Frenchman, who had been granted a monopoly of the fur trade of the upper Mississippi and Missouri. THE MISSOURI COMPROMISE. THE SLAVE TRADE PROHIBITED. Although at the period of the Revolution, slavery really existed in all the states, Massachusetts alone excepted, yet in the forty years which had since elapsed, it had been grad ually abolished from all the section north and east of Maryland and the Delaware. Likewise, as a condition of the cession by Virginia to the Union, of all the territory claimed by it between the Ohio and the Mississippi, slavery was to be ex cluded therefrom ; and hence Ohio, Indiana and Illinois had been admitted as free states. On the other hand, when North Carolina ceded to the government its right of possession to the territory of Tennessee, and Georgia its claim to the Mississippi territory, it was with the understanding that the institution of slavery should continue therein undisturbed. 1 820] THE MISSOURI COMPROMISE. 375 Hence the important question which arose in Congress, when the admission of Missouri was debated, was, whether such admission should be accompanied by any restriction as to slavery. The advocates of restriction affirmed, that every new state, had, like those just instanced, been subject to some conditions, and that the power of Congress to impose such had not been before denied. The states of the North-West had quietly acquiesced in just such conditions, and the rule appeared to be properly settled on the ground of usage. But the oppo nents of the measure held the opinion that any such curtail ment of a domestic practice was invidious to the slave-holding states by abridging their share of political power, at the same time that it was a usurpation of the sovereign rights of the states : that a state even if admitted with such a restriction, could still establish slavery, because the constitution did not forbid it ; and moreover, that it was both unwise and unsafe to confine the keeping of slaves within the original territory where it prevailed, because, while the whites would be emi grating to the new states of the West, the blacks would all remain and by natural increase would eventually outnumber and perhaps overwhelm the remaining white population. The votes of the members upon this subject were, neverthe less, largely influenced by another question, namely, the policy of protecting home manufactures by imposing a tax upon foreign importations. The slave states were almost altogether agricultural ; and, inasmuch as manufactured goods could be imported from Europe cheaper than they could be made and sold at home, it therefore became their interest to declare for free trade. But in New England, the interference with commerce prior to, and during the war of 1812, had stimulated home manufactures, principally in iron, woollen and cotton. Many mills were erected, especially in Rhode Island, and large profits, chiefly from the making of coarse 376 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1821 cotton goods, were realized. Upon the conclusion of the war, however, cheaper English goods began to compete with the American, and consequently the mills of the latter were obliged to suspend operations. Then a tariff was asked for, and to defeat that measure, the agricultural and commercial interests were mostly combined against the manufacturing, in a contest for the possession of political power. The result of the long and exciting debate in Congress, was a resolution of compromise, intended to reconcile the two great parties who were struggling, the one to promote, , the other to restrict, the extension of slavery.. The resolution was to the effect that Missouri should be admitted without any restriction, that is, that it might, if it chose, be a slave- holding state ; but that in the future, no slave state should be erected out of United States, territory, north of the parallel of 36 30 north latitude, the northern boundary line of ARKANSAS. The latter territory had been separated from Missouri the year previously. Before Missouri was finally admitted, in 1821, a constitu tion for the state had been formed, but it met with great opposition in Congress in consequence of its containing the clause that free negroes and mulattoes should be prohibited from coming to or settling in the state. So strenuously did the friends of that unrighteous provision contend for its pas sage, that it was not defeated until its discussion had occupied a large part of the session ! The important decision at last arrived at was, that all free citizens of the United States should be entitled to all the rights guaranteed them by the federal constitution, where it declares " that the citizens of each state shall be entitled to all the privileges and immu nities of the several states ;" and therefore that no state law infringing those fundamental rights should be passed. The ultimate solution of the question of slavery, as affecting the peace of the Union, must have been very different had the system 1 822] SLAVE-TRADE PROHIBITED, 377 been abolished at that time from all the states in which it existed north of the parallel of 36 30 . It is that parallel which forms the southern boundary of Kentucky and Virginia, as well as of Missouri. Some of the foremost men of Virginia strongly favored the ex tinction of slavery. Washington wrote as follows, in 1786 : " I never mean, unless some particular circumstances should compel me to it, to possess another slave by purchase, it being among my first wishes to see some plan adopted by which slavery in this country may be abol ished by law." And again, he says : "There are in Pennsylvania, laws for the gradual abolishing of slavery, which neither Virginia nor Maryland have at present, but which nothing is more certain than they must have, and at a period not remote." By his will he directed that all the slaves which he held in his own right should receive their freedom. Patrick Henry and Thomas Jefferson were similarly persuaded of the injustice and immorality of the system. At London, during the year 1822, was held a conference of English and American commissioners, for the purpose of arriving at a mutual understanding with regard to the slave- trade. Articles of convention were agreed to, which author ized the commissioned officers of either nation to treat the " slave-traders as pirates, permitting them to seize and con demn the vessels of either country engaged in the traffic, without liability of interference by their respective govern ments." It will be proper to mention in this place, a few facts, as exhibiting the change in public opinion since Sir John Haw kins, in the year 1563, brought the dishonor of the slave- traffic upon the English name. The wicked commerce con tinued increasing, until in the twenty years between 1680 and 1700, not less than 300,000 natives of Africa had been ex ported by Englishmen. From 1700 to 1780, about 600,000 were exported to Jamaica alone, and with accompaniments of cruelty and a terrible disregard for life, such as have been already sufficiently set forth. 32* 37 3 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1822 Aiming at the suppression of so notorious an evil, a society, of which GRANVILLE SHARP and THOMAS CLARKSON were among the most active members, was organized in London in 1787. They established the little colony of Sierra Leone on the west coast of Africa, for the same purposes that the Amer ican Colonization Society subsequently purchased the Liberia tract. In parliament, their philanthropic views found able supporters in WILBERFORCE and PITT ; the first fruit of their labor being an order of the crown in the following year, di recting an inquiry into the state of the slave-trade. An act was also passed for the amelioration of the horrors of the "middle passage." But it was not until the year 1807, that a bill making the slave-trade illegal, received the royal assent. Accordingly, the subjects of Britain were forced to carry on their nefarious traffic under the cover of the flags of Spain and Portugal; and the slave ships being now more crowded than ever, it occasionally happened that the miserable negroes were thrown overboard when the risk of capture seemed imminent. Four years afterward an act was passed, which made the slave- trade a felony and punishable with transportation or long imprisonment at hard labor; and at last, in 1822, it was de clared to be piracy, and the participants therein guilty of a capital crime. The United States announced its abolition of the African slave-trade immediately after Great Britain (1807). In 1822, the English parliament declared the ports of the West Indies opened to trade with the United States. For some years previous, American commerce in the West Indian seas had suffered considerably from the depredations of pirates; and, now that an impulse was given to trade in that quarter, measures were taken to suppress the evil. Commodore Porter was placed in command of a squadron, and sailed to the Carib bean seas. The pirates, prevented from making captures, fre quented the shallow waters of the numerous islands of the Antilles, and changed their system of freebootery by depre- 1 824] MONROE DOCTRINE. 379 dating upon the settlements or engaging in the slave-trade. Hence, the evil was not so much suppressed, as it was scat tered. In the same eventful year (1822), a part of the northern boundary line between the United States and the British pos sessions, was settled by commissioners appointed in accordance with the Treaty of Ghent. The line began at the intersec tion of the northern boundary of New York state with the St. Lawrence, thence up the middle of that river, and through the middle of Lakes Ontario, Erie, Huron and Superior. But the continuation of the line from the west end of Lake Superior to the Pacific, was left undetermined. On the Pacific coast there was as yet no settlement but that of Astoria, founded in 1811, by JohijLjacob Astor, as a trading-post of the American Fur Company. . A few years earlier, the Rus sians had established a trading-depot of the Russian-American Fur Company at New Archangel, on the island of Sitka, In the President s Message to Congress in 1823, was con tained that announcement of national policy which has since been widely known as the " Monroe Doctrine." Alluding to the recent formation of the South American republics, he said that "we could not view any interposition for the purpose of oppressing them, or controlling, in any manner, their destiny by Europeans, in any other light than the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition towards the United States." " Neither entangling ourselves in the broils of Europe, nor suffering the powers of the Old World to interfere with the affairs of the New," he declared to be the American policy, and that "any attempt to extend their system [of monarchical government] to any portion of this hemisphere, would be dangerous to our peace and safety." In the 8th month (August), 1824, General Lafayette arrived at New York, having received from Congress an invitation to visit the United States. He spent upward of a year in the 3 So HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1824 country, and visited nearly all the states of the Union, being everywhere received with much applause. Congress made him a grant of $200,000, besides presenting him with a town ship of land in Florida, in consideration of his Revolutionary services. JOHN QUINCY ADAMS, SIXTH PRESIDENT. INTERNAL IM PROVEMENTS. Four candidates for the presidential office appeared in the canvass of 1824. A plurality of votes was given by the elec tors for Jackson, but as the constitution required a majority of the whole number of votes cast, and the people had failed of a choice, the election devolved upon the House of Repre sentatives. The result was the election of John Quincy Adams, who received the votes of 13 states, while Jackson obtained those of but 7. Henry Clay, who had also been a candidate for the presidency, was appointed by Adams his secretary of state. John Q. Adams of Massachusetts, was the son of John Adams, the second president. With the political views of his father he was in perfect accord. During Jefferson s ad ministration, he occupied for awhile the professorship of rhetoric at Harvard University, but soon turned his attention again to politics, and, apparently favoring the cause of Presi dent Madison, he was sent by the latter on an embassy to Europe, and aided in effecting the treaty with England- He was recalled by Monroe, who made him his secretary of state. In his inaugural address as president, he made a strong appeal to men of all parties to lay aside their political animosities, and to cherish those virtues, talents and Christian principles which rightly become an enlightened people. In marked contrast with the unimpassioned demeanor of Adams, the irascible temperament of the "hero of New Orleans" was prominently displayed during the recent exciting i8i;] INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. ^gj contest for office. With one political opponent he fought a duel ; another he grossly insulted ; and to a third, sent a challenge. As might be inferred from his quarrelsome dis position, Jackson s conversation was very much marred by profanity. The subject of the construction of substantial roads and the improvement of the navigation of the great rivers, had enlisted very general attention, and, either by states or private corporations, several important works, such as the great central canal systems of New York and Pennsylvania, were already in progress. There were many citizens, however, who desired that the internal, inter-state improvements, should partake of a national character. With this object in view, a committee of Congress had, in 1817, at the close of Madi son s administration, recommended the construction of mili tary roads, from the military and naval depots, such as Erie, Detroit, St. Louis and New Orleans ; also post-roads to con nect the chief cities; as well as improvements in the inland navigation, by the use of water-locks in the principal rivers, or by the construction of canals. But no action was then taken. Next, President Monroe, while conceding the great impor tance of the works asked for in the preceding administration, was nevertheless of the opinion that Congress did not possess the constitutional power to proceed therein. He advised, as the safest course in all such doubtful cases, that the constitu tion should be so amended as to meet the requirements of the case. Yet, there were many in Congress who believed that that body had already sufficient power granted it for the pur pose, providing that the assent of the states through which such roads or canals were proposed to be constructed, was first obtained. In support of their position they cited certain clauses from Section viii., Article I., of the Constitution, wherein are enu- 382 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1817 merated the various powers conferred upon the national legis lature, and amongst them the following : To provide for the common defence and general welfare of the United States. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states, and with the Indian tribes. To establish post-offices and post-roads. They also contended that the constitutionality of a principle may be settled (even though it be not sanctioned by the written law) by the rule of precedent ; in other words, by showing that the principle had obtained repeated recognition under the different branches of government. As examples of such precedents, they instanced the government road from Cumberland on the Potomac to the state of Ohio, the one from Nashville in Tennessee, and still another from Plattsburg on Lake Champlain. Similarly, Congress had passed sundry acts which were perhaps not strictly warranted by the written law, among which were those authorizing the purchase of the Li brary ; the commission to the artist Trumbull, of Connecticut, to execute four large paintings for the capitol ; the grants of aid to sufferers in Venezuela ; and the sending of an exploring expedition to the Pacific Ocean.. On the other hand, the opponents of the power in question asserted, that the constitutional right to " establish post-roads" merely meant that Congress might designate such roads, but not construct them ; that money expended for such a purpose was for the local and not the " general welfare/ If it was assumed, because of the greater facilities which would be afforded for trade, that therefore the power was conferred under the right to "regulate commerce," then the same interpretation would justify interference in the business of agriculture or any other occupation of profit^ and finally, that the utility and permanency of the Union depended on the proper regulation of power as between the states and the 1826] JOHN QUINCY ADAMS, SIXTH PRESIDENT. 383 national government, and that Congress should be ever as prompt to guard against the assumption of any powers not distinctly conferred, as it should be ready to exercise those which have been certainly granted. Nevertheless, the result of the debate in the House of Rep resentatives was a resolution affirming that Congress had power, under the constitution, "to appropriate money for the con struction of post-roads, military and other roads, and of canals, and for the improvement of water-courses." At a subsequent session, President Monroe was authorized to have surveys and estimates made for such roads and canals as in his judgment seemed of prime importance. But it remained for Monroe s successor, actually to carry out a number of these national improvements. Adams was an outspoken champion of the system, as appeared from his mes sage to Congress in the first year of his presidency, in which, recommending that the proceeds of the public lands should be devoted to public improvements, he affirmed his belief that the enhanced value of those lands would amply compensate for the expenditures. Grants were therefore made for the construction of a canal across the state of Delaware, to con nect the Chesapeake and Delaware bays ; for the Louisville and Portland canal, at the Falls of the Ohio ; and for the Dismal Swamp canal in Virginia. Surveys were also made for a road from Washington to New Orleans ; beside other works. On the 4th day of yth month (July), 1826, died John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, the former in his gist year, and the latter in his 84th. The two ex-presidents had been first and second on the committee of five appointed by the Continental Congress to prepare the Declaration of Indepen-, dence. Subsequently, they had stood at the head of the two opposing political parties, but now on the 5oth anniversary of the nation s natal day, they passed out of the world together. 3 8 4 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1825 The feeling of awe which overspread the people s minds on a day when they were indulging in patriotic jubilations and festivities, was renewed on the same day of the following year, when the death of James Monroe also occurred. DIFFICULTIES WITH GEORGIA AND THE CREEKS. A NEW TARIFF. By the compact entered into in 1802 between the United States government and the state of Georgia, the former agreed, in consideration of receiving the grant of all the territory between the Chattahoochee and the Mississippi, to extinguish at its own expense, and for the benefit of Georgia, all the Indian claims to land within that state "as early as the said lands could be peaceably obtained upon reasonable terms-." Except the north-western portion, which was held by the Cherokees, by far the larger part of the territory was claimed by the Creeks. Previous to 1825, the United States had suc ceeded in purchasing more than one-half of the Creek territory, but, after that, the tribe began to prize their lands more highly, and were naturally averse to parting with their pleasant homes altogether. Early in 1825, a council fraught with very important results to the Creeks, was held at a place called Indian Springs. Most of the chiefs would not agree to the proposition of the United States government for a cession of their lands ; but a minority of them, the principal one of whom was a half-breed named General MACINTOSH, were anxious to sell, and thereby obtain most of the pay for the lands to share among them selves. In direct violation of the laws of their nation, this small body executed the treaty, while the government, against the protest of the Creek agent and the large majority of the tribe, accepted and ratified it. The Indians who signed the 1828] GEORGIA AND THE CREEKS. 385 treaty represented but 8 villages or towns : those of 48 towns had nothing to do with it. The majority of the Indians were highly exasperated when it was known among them that the treaty had been ratified. Fearful of the consequences of their displeasure, Macintosh, accompanied by a few chiefs, hastened to Milledgeville, and craved the protection of Governor Troup, as well as of the United States authorities. That protection was promised, and Macintosh accordingly returned; but his house being soon afterward surrounded and set on fire by the Indians, he was shot as he was escaping therefrom, and his body thrown back into the flames. The Indians claimed that they had but punished the delinquent chief according to their law. The governor was about to execute vengeance on the perpetrators, but finding that the government was opposed to that course and was in favor of retarding the execution of the treaty, he desisted~- Nevertheless, the Creek lands were duly surveyed. Over one hundred surveyors were commissioned to perform the work, so that it might be done right speedily ; and two years subse quently, the entire territory acquired from them was disposed of for settlement by lottery. But in the meantime the gov ernment negotiated another and more equitable treaty with the Creeks, by which it was agreed to pay, for the lands owned by them in Georgia, the sum of $217,000, to be di vided between the chiefs and warriors ; likewise to give them a perpetual annuity of $20,000. Separate provision was also made for the friends and followers of Macintosh, who were required to remove to land to be purchased for them farther westward. The Congress of 1828, for the better encouragement of native manufactures, enacted a new tariff law, by which en hanced duties were laid on iron, wool, hemp, distilled spirits, etc. This was received with much dissatisfaction by the com- R 33 3 S6 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1828 mercial and agricultural portions of the community. In the canvass for a new president, the passage of the act was made use of with great effect in exciting public indignation, especi ally in the Southern states. In South Carolina and Georgia, where the feeling against it was strongest, their legislatures declared the act unconstitutional, unjust and oppressive, and that it was not binding on those states which were opposed to its operation. Adams and Jackson being again candidates for the presidency, the latter was elected by a considerable majority. JOHN C. CALHOUN, of South Carolina, was chosen vice-president. CHAPTER XXVIII. JACKSON S TROUBLOUS ADMINISTRATION. VAN BUREN AND HARRISON. 1829 1841. REMOVAL OF THE CHEROKEES. IT has been shown in the preceding chapter, how that the difficulties between the United States government, the Creeks, and the state of Georgia, resulted finally in the purchase of all the Creek territory within the latter state. But the dispute with the Cherokees was not so soon adjusted. That tribe then occupied all the north-western portion of the state, which thence became generally spoken of as " Cherokee Georgia." Having a printed constitution and code of laws, they had declared themselves independent ; while the Amer ican government, by solemn treaty stipulations had guaranteed to respect their nationality, and to secure peaceful possession of the land to them and their heirs for ever. The general government, in pursuance of its right to regulate intercourse with the Indian tribes, prohibited any United States citizens from settling in the territory, or from trading with the Indians without a special license. But the state of Georgia, having extended the jurisdiction of her criminal courts over the territory, became extremely anxious that the red men should depart, and made repeated efforts to induce them to barter their territory for land beyond the Mississippi. The Cherokees, however, were not a roving nation like the wild Pawnees and Comanches of the plains, 387 3 38 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1831 and inasmuch as they cherished a fondness for the name of home, they refused to acquiesce in the wishes of their en croaching neighbors. Endeavors were made by the Georgians to accomplish their purpose by congressional legislation, but they soon perceived that any coercive measure would meet with disfavor so long as Adams remained president. Nevertheless, in 1828, a bill passed Congress, allotting lands beyond the Mississippi, as reservations thereafter for all the Indians remaining in the states and territories east of that river. Upon the installation of President Jackson the following year, the authorities of Georgia experienced less difficulty than hitherto in carrying out their designs. Aware that the white missionaries among the Cherokees were mostly opposed to the removal of the tribe, a bill was passed by the Georgia legislature that no whites would be per mitted within the te r rritoryv The missionaries refusing to take the hint, were arrested, treated with much indignity, and being brought before a state court, two of them were sen tenced to four years confinement with hard labor, in the penitentiary. In 1831, the governor ordered the survey of the Cherokee lands to be made; ^the next year they were all disposed of by lottery, and the year afterward were divided and organized as ten counties of the state of Georgia. As had been done in the case of the Creeks, a treaty, not accept able to the majority of the nation, was made by United States commissioners, with a part of the Cherokees. Notwithstanding the strenuous opposition of JOHN Ross, the principal chief, Congress ratified the treaty. Its principal conditions were as follows : The Cherokee nation, in consideration of the sum of 5,000,000 dollars, were to relinquish all their lands east of the Mississippi.. There was granted to them, west of that river, a tract of seven million acres of land, which the government 1832] NULLIFICATION. $8$ /7>. v /^Vj stipulated should in future time be included within the lrnt~f \ + its of any state or territory. The Cherokees, whenever Con- J gress made provision therefor, were to be entitled to one delegate in the House of Representatives. The removal was stipulated to take place within two years from the ratification of the treaty. It was in the spring of 1838 that troops of the militia began to gather the Cherokees into camps, preparatory to their re moval to the far west, but it was late in the summer before the tribe, to the number of 16,000, sorrowfully departed from their homes. The journey occupied five months. Although the exiles were not harshly treated, yet, as a necessary conse quence of such a removal, many of them perished. Upon reaching their reservation, it was found that not less than 4000 had died on the way ! The history of the Chickasaws and Choctaws in Alabama and Mississippi ; the work of missionaries among them ; their advancement in civilization ; and the successful efforts of the whites to obtain their lands, were similar in character to what has been said of the Cherokees and Creeks, and need not be repeated here. NULLIFICATION. THE BLACK HAWK AND SECOND SEMINOLE WARS. BANK TROUBLES. Jackson s accession to the presidency was marked by a more general dismissal of office-holders and the appointment of party favorites, than had been practiced by any of his prede cessors. Intelligence, integrity and faithfulness in the dis charge of duties, were forced to succumb to the unpatriotic dictum that " to the victors belong the spoils." Whilst under all the presidents who preceded him, there had been but 64 persons removed from office, Jackson, during his eight years rule, removed 690, and filled their places with his political partisans. 39 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1832 In the Congress of 1832 there was introduced and carried, an act for the revision of the tariff, by which the duties upon many articles were increased. This gave great dissatisfaction to the cotton-growing states, but it was only in South Carolina that open resistance was offered to the collection of the duties. A nullification ordinance was passed by a convention of dele gates, who declared the law to be unconstitutional, and asserted that the government had no authority to enforce such against the will of any state. A proclamation was then issued by President Jackson announcing that he would not permit the law to be disregarded. Calhoun, the vice-president, resigned his office, and, having been at once elected to the Senate, counselled opposition. Governor Hayne, of South Carolina, likewise called upon the people of that state not to heed the proclamation of the president The legislature of the state passed laws forbidding the collection of the revenue within its limits, threatening also to secede and organize a separate government if the attempt was made. While the government was preparing to carry out measures of coercion, and South Carolina was organizing troops and providing munitions of war, a warm debate upon the principles and powers of the general government was carried on in the national Congress* DANIEL WEBSTER, of Massachusetts, and Henry Clay, of Kentucky, were two of the most prominent speakers upon that occasion. In opposition to the doctrine of nullification, it was strongly declared that the national government was not a mere compact of independent, sovereign^ states, any one of which had power to withdraw from the ^ Union at pleasure, but that the Constitution was the work of the people of the states collectively, and that they had con ferred upon the Supreme Court alone the authority to decide in cases of dispute between any of the states and the general government. The excitement was finally allayed by the passage of a 1832] FAILURE OF UNITED STATES BANK. 39 ! Compromise Bill, which was introduced by Henry Clay. It provided for a gradual reduction of the impost rate for the succeeding ten years, until it should reach the revenue standard contended for by the opponents of the original bill. The night of the I3th day of nth month (November), 183 2, is memorable on account of the occurrence of a wonderful nat ural phenomenon, a great shower of aerolites or "shooting- stars." This remarkable display was witnessed with great astonishment, and even trepidation, throughout all the United States. The meteors, which varied in size from a moving point of light to globes of the moon s apparent diameter, were estimated to have numbered several hundred thousand. The popular ferment accompanying the nullification pro ceedings was scarcely allayed, when a new occasion of excite ment arose, growing out of the action of the president in regard to the Bank of the United States. The bank, according to its charter, was the legal depository for the public funds ; and, by a late resolution of Congress, that body had expressed the opinion that the funds were safe in the bank s keeping. But the president being of a different opinion, issued an order to the secretary of the treasury, Wm. J. Duane, to remove the government deposits to certain State banks. The secre tary refusing to obey the order, Jackson dismissed him from office, and appointed Roger B. Taney in his place ; and by the latter, orders were issued to the collectors, forbidding them to deposit the public funds in the United States Bank. This action resulted in the failure of that institution, and sub sequently in widespread financial distress, the effects of which will be presently considered. In the meantime, a war had arisen with the Sacs and Foxes and the Winnebagoes of Wisconsin. A chief named BLACK HAWK was the leader in this contest, which was brought about- by an irruption of miners into the territory of the Winneba goes, upon the discovery of the Galena lead-mines. Red Bird, , 9? HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATED [1835 a chief, retaliated by murdering several whites, but he and others were captured by the troops sent against them. The chief dying in prison, Black Hawk, his friend, continued the unequal quarrel. After several battles had been fought, Black Hawk and other chiefs being also taken prisoners, were brought to Washington and the principal eastern cities, that they might take note of the power of their captors. The Win- nebagoes, with the Sacs and Foxes, then made a treaty, ceding their ten million acres of land to the government, for an annuity and a yearly supply of provisions. In 1835, a second war broke out with the Seminoles, who had refused to emigrate to the trans-Mississippi lands which had been set apart for them. Many of the troops sent against them perished in ambuscades, or by diseases generated by the miasma of the swamps ; while the Indians, readily retreating to their hiding-places in the Everglades, were enabled to con tinue the war for seven years. A noted chief, OSCEOLA, was captured, and being confined in Fort Moultrie, died there of a fever. The war terminated after a cost to the government of 30,000,000 dollars, beside the loss of many lives.-. In the same year that the Seminole war broke out, there occurred a great fire in the city of New York, The principal buildings in the commercial part of the city were destroyed, involving a loss of seventeen million dollars. Since 1835, there have been other very destructive fires : in Philadelphia (1850), Portland (1866), Chicago (1871), and Boston (1872). The locality of the city of CHICAGO was first visited by Marqtiette. In 1795 tne United States government purchased of the Indians several acres of land on which to build a stockade fort. This structure was destroyed in the war of 1812, and the garrison massacred by the Indians. Fort Dear born, on its site, was then built: but it was not until 1832, at the time of the Black Hawk war, when traders and others followed a detachment of troops thither, that Chicago began 1837] FINANCIAL TROUBLES. 393 to be settled. Its rapid growth, since then, has been unpre cedented in the history of American cities. FINANCIAL TROUBLES DURING VAN BUREN S ADMINISTRA TION. HARRISON. MARTIN VAN BUREN of New York, who had held the office of vice-president the preceding four years, succeeded Jackson as president, in 1837. The period of his administration was marked by a great commercial revulsion. The national debt, it is true, had been entirely paid off, and the finances of the country appeared to be in a prosperous condition. But upon the failure of the United States Bank, great numbers of State banks sprang into existence, which, by making liberal loans and fostering the spirit of speculation, caused the busi ness of the country to receive a very unhealthy stimulus. A principal object of speculation were the public lands, the sales of which amounted even to millions of dollars in a month. The tide of immigration from Europe had begun ; cities and villages were laid out by hundreds, and large improvements were started by the states. At the same time foreign mer chandise was imported in great quantities, much to the detri ment of home industries. But Congress having passed a law to distribute among the states their respective proportions of the surplus treasury funds, the banks in which these funds had been deposited, were called upon to pay the same. President Jackson, also, just before his term expired, had issued an order making the pur chase-money of public lands payable in specie only. This double demand for the funds on deposit and the specie, of which latter indeed the banks had very little, caused their suspension. Hence the business of the country was prostrated at a blow ; the great improvements ceased, and many thou sand men were thrown out of employment ; while suspen- R* 394 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1837 sions and failures in business followed each other quickly. The failures in New York city alone, aggregated 100 million dollars. By the states, loans to the amount of 100 million dollars had been made, chiefly for the purpose of developing their resources by making internal improvements. Several of the states failed for awhile to pay their interest on the bonds, Florida and Mississippi utterly repudiating their obligations. As a large part of the money had been obtained in Europe, the credit of our nation received a shock from which it did not recover for many years. The failure of the banks necessarily involved the government itself in the prevailing financial embarrassment, and accord ingly an extra session of Congress was called by President Van Buren, to provide measures for meeting the exigency. He recommended the issue of Treasury notes to the amount of 10 million dollars, receivable in payment of the public dues. Also, that there should be an independent treasury and sub- treasuries, as depositories for the government funds. The bill passed the Senate, but failed in the House. A few years later, however, it received the sanction of both houses of Congress. In 1837, a rebellion against the British government broke out in Canada. Citizens of Vermont and New York took part with the insurgents ; but as the government had no wish to become entangled in a war with Great Britain, a proclama tion was issued by the president, admonishing those who had violated their duties as citizens, to return peaceably to their homes, warning them of the consequences of their failure so to do. Happily the advice was heeded, and the Canadian insurrection soon came to nought. Arkansas, which had been detached from Missouri in 1819, was admitted into the Union in 1836. MICHIGAN was ad mitted in 1837, the twenty-sixth state. For the purpose of making researches in the Pacific and 1841] WILKES EXPLORING EXPEDITION. 395 Antarctic regions, Lieutenant CHARLES WILKES, accompanied by a number of men of science, was placed in command of an exploring expedition of six vessels. They discovered numerous islands in the Pacific, and sailed along 1700 miles of the coast of the Antarctic continent. After an absence of four years the expedition returned, having made many dis coveries, not only of lands, but in all departments of natural history. The " Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition," in five large volumes, was published soon after ward at the expense of the government. General Wm. Henry Harrison, of Ohio, was the choice of the people for president, to succeed Van Buren. JOHN TYLER, of Virginia, was elected vice-president. This election was char acterized by more excitement and enthusiasm than had been witnessed upon any similar occasion preceding. High hopes were indulged by the people generally, that the new adminis tration would inaugurate some change of policy which would inure to the well-being of the country at large. Harrison at once called a special session of Congress, but, being taken suddenly ill, he died just one month after the day of inaugu ration. John Tyler, the vice-president, succeeded him. CHAPTER XXIX. ADMINISTRATIONS OF TYLER AND POLK. THE MEXI CAN WAR. 1841 1849. THE NORTH-EASTERN BOUNDARY. ANNEXATION OF TEXAS. AT the special session which had been called by the late president, Congress repealed the Sub-Treasury act, as it was believed that the locking up of the public funds exerted a continued pressure upon the money market to the prejudice of the business of the country. A general Bankrupt Law was also passed, but it did not continue long in force. It had been the general supposition that Tyler was in favor of the establishment of a National Bank, and it was upon that issue, which met with the popular favor, that he and Harrison had been elected. But when a bill was passed by both houses of Congress, chartering such a bank, the president refused to sign it. Another bill was passed, modified mostly in a^ord- ance with his suggestions, but this also was vetoed. All the members of his cabinet, except Daniel Webster, the secretary of state, immediately resigned their places. Webster was then engaged in negotiations with the British government upon the subject of our north-eastern boundary, that question appearing likely to give occasion for serious dis pute. On the part of Great Britain, a special minister, Lord Ashburton, was sent over to the United States, to arrange a compromise, and also to settle the controversy which had grown out of the Canadian-border disturbances. Had not a mutual spirit of conciliation prevailed, a war between the two 39 6 1 824] THE NORTH-EASTERN BOUNDARY. 397 countries would have been precipitated. Commissioners from Maine and Massachusetts being invited to Washington, to confer with Webster and the English minister, the boundary line between Maine and New Brunswick was very soon ar ranged. Two other important matters were provided for in the ASHBURTON TREATY, namely, the rendition of fugitives from justice, and an agreement that the two nations should maintain armed vessels on the coast of Africa to aid in the suppression of the slave trade. But the most important event of Tyler s administration was the annexation of TEXAS. That State had for years been much coveted by the people of the Southern states, as a region in which slavery ought to flourish. As early as 1819, a certain James Long, accompanied by about 75 lawless adventurers from Mississippi, entered the state, and issued a proclamation calling upon the people to unite their territory with the American Union. Long styled himself "President of the Supreme Council of Texas;" but his party, after some of them had been killed, was quickly dispersed by the Spaniards. A similar attempt, headed by a man named Edwards, was made a few years later, but it resulted in the same manner as the first. I, 1821, the Spanish authorities granted to MOSES AUSTIN, ,pf Missouri, the privilege of introducing 300 families into Texas, one of the conditions of the concession being that the immigrants should be Catholics. Austin dying, the grant was renewed to his son, who settled a slave-holding colony on the Rio Brazos. But in 1824, Mexico, to which Texas was sub ject, became a republic, free from the dominion of Spain ; and, five years later, its congress passed a decree manumitting every slave in Mexican territory. The hopes of the slave holders of the Southern states were dampened by this act, and accordingly, there being no pretext for a war with Mexico, propositions were made for the purchase of Texas. The sum 34 39 S HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1836 of one million dollars was first offered by President Jackson, and then five million ; but both offers were promptly rejected. The plans for acquiring the state by lawless irruption and by purchase, having failed, the next method tried was that of colonization ; in other words, making the country, by immi gration, so decidedly American, that its future acquisition would be assured. Several joint-stock companies were also formed in the city of New York, who dealt in the Texan land-scrip, and hence the interested holders of this scrip constituted a party who were very desirous that Texas, whatever the means em ployed, should be brought into the Union. In the year 1836, the American settlers, finding themselves fully in power, issued a declaration of independence of Mexico; and only fifteen days later, adopted a constitution establishing perpetual slavery in the province. Fifty of the 57 signers of this declaration were emigrants from the slave states, and only three were Mexicans by birth. At the time of the declaration, SANTA ANNA, who had made himself dictator of Mexico, demanded that Texas should return to its allegiance. This being refused, a contest resulted, in the course of which Santa Anna was taken prisoner by the Texans, who were led by General SAMUEL HOUSTON. The Mexican general, however, was soon re leased. Houston was inaugurated president of Texas in the same year (1836), and the independence of the state was acknowledged the following year by the United States gov ernment. In the meantime, demand was made upon Mexicq for a settlement within two weeks, of certain alleged wrongs and indignities committed against United States citizens. Mexico offered to submit them to arbitration, but our govern ment appeared to be so anxious to have a plea for a war by which Texas could be secured, that it delayed four months before accepting this equitable method of settling the difficulty. i344] TEXAS ANNEXED. 399 As to the nature of these claims, their extravagant character may be inferred from the fact that of n million dollars demanded as damages, the umpire allowed the United States less than one- fifth of that sum. As an instance : a certain Mexican schoolmaster and printer, who afterward became a naturalized citizen of the United States, produced a bill of nearly $400,000, for damages in having to leave his school and press during one of the revolution ary struggles in Mexico. The umpire cut down the claim to one- eighth of the original demand. Another, claimed the astonishing sum of over $8000 for the loss of 56 dozen of bottled porter, proba bly worth not over $200. Such was the aspect of Mexican and Texan matters when Tyler became president. But Mexico itself had claims for damages against the United States, which it, also, requested should be settled by arbitration ; and that, as the referees in the previous case had met in Washington, they should in the present instance convene in the city of Mexico. A treaty to this effect was agreed to, but the Senate of the United States refused to accept the proposition. A motion in the Senate to ratify a treaty with Texas, providing for its annexation to the Union, was defeated in 1844; but, in the following year, was carried. This act, however, was only secured by the subterfuge of voting on a resolution of annexation, which merely required a majority of the votes ; whereas the ratifi cation of a treaty would have required two-thirds of the whole number. Under the old colonial charter of Rhode Island, only those of its citizens owning a certain amount of property were en titled to vote. In order to effect the abrogation of this re strictive law, the " Suffrage" party arose in the state. At the election of 1842, the candidate of the "Law and Order" party was defeated, and DORR, the governor-elect, took pos session of the state arsenal, so as to be prepared to maintain his position. But the militia being called out by the party of Law and Order, the Suffragist governor sought safety in 4 oo HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1846 flight. Subsequently, the Suffragists were overpowered by United States troops, and Dorr was arrested, tried for treason, and sentenced to imprisonment for life. He was, however, afterward pardoned, and in the meantime a new and more liberal constitution was adopted by the people. Iowa and Florida were admitted into the Union as states in 1845. I n tne same vear > JAMES K. POLK, of Tennessee, the nominee of the party of annexation, was inaugurated president. WAR WITH MEXICO. ANNEXATION OF CALIFORNIA AND NEW MEXICO. It was riot only the territory of Texas which had been cov eted by many of the people of the United States, but also those parts of the Mexican possessions known as California and New Mexico. An envoy who was sent to Mexico to treat for the latter provinces, was also instructed to offer, in part pay for the said territory, the extravagant claims for damages made by United States citizens. But the envoy, Slidell, not being promptly received by the Mexicans, General ZACHARY TAYLOR was ordered, in the spring of 1846, to proceed with an army to the Rio Grande. Now, the Mexican government asserted that the Nueces river (east of the Rio Grande), was the true Texan boundary, and consequently that the United States troops had invaded their territory. A Mexican army which had assembled at Matamoras, near the mouth of the Rio Grande, having crossed that river, a battle was fought with the army of General Taylor, at Palo Alto ; but the Mexicans were badly defeated. The follow ing day they were routed again, at Resaca de la Palma, and General Taylor crossing the Rio Grande, occupied Mata moras. The party of annexation, in Congress, rejoicing that they had forced the Mexicans to strike the first blow, and being aided by the votes of most of the opposition, who 1846] WAR WITH MEXICO. 40 r had not the moral courage to stand by their convictions of right, at once declared war, voted money for carrying it on, and authorized the president to order out an army of 50,000 volunteers. Nearly at the same time that war was declared against Mexico, a treaty was concluded with Great Britain relative to the Oregon boundary. The settlement of the north-western boundary, like that of the north-east, had long been a subject of negotiation, and for awhile the discussion wore a threat ening aspect. The United States, by virtue of the treaty of 1819 with Spain, claimed all the " Florida" territory on the Pacific, north of the 426. parallel or northern boundary of California as far as the Russian possessions. Their claim was also based on the explorations of LEWIS and CLARKE (1804-1806), and the founding of the colony of Astoria. On the other hand, the claim of Great Britain rested upon the fact of settlements having been made by subjects of that country, on the north branch of the Columbia, and on Fra- ser s river. By the treaty of 1846, the 49th degree of north latitude was agreed upon as the international boundary-line. There being now no fear of a disagreement with Great Britain, the war against Mexico was prosecuted with vigor. General Taylor advanced his army to Monterey, the capital of the province of New Leon, and after a sanguinary struggle of three days^ the Mexican general Ampudia agreed to terms of capitulation. At this juncture the existing government of the country was overthrown by Santa Anna (who had been previously banished by his political enemies), whose influ ence it was thought would be exerted in favor of peace. Yet such, was not the result, for he soon appeared at the head of an army of 20,000 men not far from the American lines at Buena Vista. But, the Mexicans were again repulsed, and, abandoning their camp in great disorder, retreated south ward. 34* 402 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1847 In the early part of 1847, General Winfield Scott, who had been appointed to the chief command of the American forces, landed an army near Vera Cruz, and began to invest that place. Although strongly defended by the fortress of San Juan d Ulloa, the city was taken after a few days bombard ment. About 3000 bombshells and the same number of round shot were thrown into the devoted city during its brief in vestment. The loss of life among the women, children and non-combatants was reported to have been greater than was that of the soldiery. The invading army, leaving this scene of havoc, began its march westward toward the Mexican capital. At Cerro Gordo, fifty miles distant from Vera Cruz, they again encountered and defeated the forces of Santa Anna, and thence advanced with little opposition to Puebla. At Contreras, and Churubusco, where desperate battles were fought, Santa Anna being still further discomfited, requested an armistice. But, although granted, it continued in force only two weeks. The army of General Scott then continued its advance. Another fierce struggle ensued at Molino del Rev, and a final one at Chapultepec, a rocky fortress close to the capital. The remnant of the Mexican army, seeing that their city would be unable to withstand the assault of the invaders, fled precipitately, and on the i4th day of Qth month (September) the American army occupied the capital. While these events were transpiring in the heart of the Mexican republic, its possessions in the north were being also invaded by United States troops. An army under General KEARNEY set out from Missouri, and crossing the plains, a distance of a thousand miles, arrived at Santa Fe, which city was occupied without opposition. Kearney issued a procla mation declaring himself governor of the province, and ab solving the inhabitants from their allegiance to Mexico. From Santa Fe, a small force under Colonel Doniphan in- 1848] WAR WITH MEXICO. 4 o 3 vaded the state of Chihuahua, and having defeated the Mexicans at Bracito and at the Pass of Sacramento, they took possession of Chihuahua, the capital. A small party under Captain JOHN C. FREMONT was ex ploring the territory of California when the war broke out. Fremont had, previous to this, explored the Rocky Mountain region from the South Pass to the Three Peaks of Colorado, and also the Great Basin from the Rocky Mountains to the Sierra Nevada. Uniting his forces with the American settlers, and co-operating with Commodore Stockton who commanded the Pacific fleet, they soon overcame the opposition of the natives. In a few months all California was in their possession. Early in 1848 a treaty was concluded with Mexico. New Mexico and California were ceded to the United States, and the Rio Grande accepted by Mexico as the boundary sepa rating it from Texas. In return, the United States agreed to pay Mexico 15 million dollars, and to assume the claim for damages, amounting to three and a half million dollars, said to be due to United States citizens. The money cost of the Mexican war was about 100 million dollars. Although comparatively few soldiers of the Americans were killed in battle, yet thousands died of the vomito and other diseases. At Perote, there were 2600 American graves of the victims of disease, and at the city of Mexico, the deaths, for awhile, were 1000 a month. For nearly two years as many as 140,000 men were employed as soldiers, teamsters, artificers, etc., and hence the otherwise useful labor of many of these was lost to the country. WILLIAM JAY remarks on the needlessness of this war : " It is impossible to resist the conviction that, by honest negotiation, we might have become the masters of these territories without crime, without human butchery, and at a far less cost in money than the sum we have paid. * * We should, however, take a most errone ous and limited view of the cost of this war to the United States, were we to confine our estimates to the millions which have been 404 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1848 expended in its prosecution, or to the personal sufferings it has occasioned. Before we can sum up the total cost, we must add to the blood, and the groans, and the treasure we have bartered for victory and conquest, the political and moral evils the war has be queathed to the nation evils as extensive as the bounds of the Republic, and whose effects upon the happiness of individuals will continue to be felt when time shall be no more." During the exciting debates in Congress upon the acquisi tion of California and New Mexico, a proposition was intro duced by David Wilmot, of Pennsylvania, which provided that neither slavery nor involuntary servitude should be per mitted in any ceded territory. This amendment to the bill was termed the " Wilmot Proviso," and the discussion which was provoked thereby, made it apparent that the true object of the war on the part of the pro-slavery party was not to avenge imputed wrongs on the part of Mexico, but simply to add to the extent of slave territory. The Proviso passed the House, but failed in the Senate. Just before the ratification of the treaty with Mexico, rumors of the discovery of gold in California, reached the eastern states. The shining particles were first noticed (1847) by a laborer who was engaged at work upon a mill-race on one of the tributaries of the river Sacramento. Intense excitement followed the intelligence, and shortly, thousands of emigrants for the Eldorado of the West were on their way, some going in caravans across the plains and over the Rocky Mountains; others by ship to the isthmus of Panama, and thence by the Pacific ; and others again by the long route around Cape Horn. SAN FRANCISCO at once became the favorite city and port. Speculation was rife in the land, and, along with the intense thirst for gold, gambling, intemperance and ruffianism prevailed there for a number of years. Silver and quicksilver were also discovered, while the teeming products of a fertile soil soon passed out through the "Golden Gate" to other less favored quarters. [848] GADSDEN PURCHASE. 405 The TREATY OF GUADALOUPE-HIDALGO (1848) had resulted in the cession by Mexico of 545,000 square miles of territory. By the "Gadsden Purchase" of 1853, the Pima silver region and Mesilla Valley, south of the Gila river, comprising 45,000 square miles, were also acqujred upon payment of the further sum of ten million dollars. Wisconsin was admitted into the Union in 1848. The presidential election of that year resulted in the choice of General Zachary Taylor, of Louisiana, for the chief office. MILLARD FILLMORE, of New York, was chosen vice-president. CHAPTER XXX. TAYLOR. FILLMORE. PIERCE. BUCHANAN. 1849 1861. THE SLAVERY AGITATION. FOR twelve years following the passage of the Missouri Compromise act, the subject of slavery was not agitated in Congress. Public opinion, however, at the North, was by no means at rest, and the Anti-Slavery party or Abolitionists were yearly gaining in numbers. The American Anti-Slavery Society was organized at Philadelphia, in 1833, with ARTHUR TAPPAN as its first president. A few years previous, Benjamin Lundy, of Baltimore, had published a small journal, "The Genius of Universal Emancipation," while William Lloyd Garrison, in Boston, issued "The Liberator." During the presidency of Jackson, prohibition memorials began to be presented to Congress, while papers and illustrated publica tions, designed to generate a feeling in favor of emancipation, were mailed to the slave-owners and others at the South. When Jackson recommended to Congress that a law should be passed prohibiting the use of the mails for the latter pur pose, the excitement became intense ; exhibiting itself at the North, in violent attacks upon the Abolitionists, and at the South, in the breaking open of some of the post-offices and the destruction of the unwelcome documents. The debates upon the annexation of Texas and upon a war with Mexico, showed that the extension of slavery was viewed 406 1 850] THE SLA VER Y A GIT A TION. 40 7 with favor by the administrations of Tyler and Polk. The opponents of slavery now brought the subject forward as one which should properly find expression through the medium of the ballot-box. The Abolitionists, or those who were in favor of the utter extinction of slavery, were comparatively few in number. The Free-Soil party, although equally persuaded with the Abolitionists of the moral wrong of the slave system, favored the recognition of the constitutional limits of slavery as established by the Missouri Compromise, but were opposed to the creation of new slave states. At the presidential elec tion of 1840, this party polled but 7600 votes; but in 1848 their candidate received the suffrages of nearly 300,000 citizens. In 1849, California, which had rapidly increased in popu lation, following the discovery of gold, adopted a constitu tion prohibiting slavery, and asked to be admitted as a state. Such a result of the acquisition of Mexican territory had not been looked for by the advocates of slavery. There were violent debates in Congress, with threats of secession, and protests that as slavery was a domestic institution, it should not be interfered with. The Anti-Slavery party, on their side, also advocated separation, declaring that a republic like the United States could not with any consistency support so un righteous a custom as slavery, and that the obligation on the part of the Northern states to return fugitive slaves ought not to be assented to. The first message of President Taylor to Congress, and the only one which he lived to submit, recommended that Cali fornia should be at once admitted into the Union. Also, that NEW MEXICO and UTAH should be organized as territories, and, when prepared to be received into the Union, that they be allowed to settle the question of slavery to suit themselves. A few months later, on the gth day of 7th month (July), 1850 the day of the great fire at Philadelphia the president died. 4 o8 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1850 The following day, Millard Fillmore, the vice-president, was inaugurated as chief magistrate. In the meantime a compromise measure, which, on account of the diversity of its provisions was styled the Omnibus Bill, was introduced by Henry Clay, and, after a lapse of several months, was passed. It provided for the admission of Cali fornia; the organization, without mention of slavery, of the territories of New Mexico and Utah ; the adjustment of tne Texas boundary ; the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia, and the enactment of a Fugitive Slave Law, more stringent in its provisions than was the act of 1787. The legislatures of some of the free states had forbidden the use of their jails for the confinement of fugitive slaves, and jus tices of the peace had refused to take any action in such cases ; but, by the new bill, these were referred to the adjudication of United States commissioners, specially appointed. Henry Clay was really an opponent of slavery, but he was also an earnest advocate of federal union, and hence, being anxious to allay the slavery agitation, was willing to compromise a good principle by favoring a temporizing meas ure. Utah, or " Deseret," as it was first called, was organized as a territory, with BRIGHAM YOUNG, an elder of the Mormons, as its first governor. The Mormon sect was founded in 1827 by JOSEPH SMITH, a native of Vermont, who pretended that he had received revelations from heaven, by means of which he was put in possession of a number of golden plates covered with Egyptian characters, which he alone could decipher. The "Book of Mormon," framed therefrom, contained the tenets of the new religion. Smith and several hundred fol lowers settled in Missouri ; but becoming obnoxious to the inhabitants, they took up their abode in Illinois, where they founded a city called Nauvoo, on a bluff overlooking the Mis sissippi. The "prophet" being slain in a trouble which arose, the Mormons again took to flight. Led by several of their 1852] THE KANSAS-NEBRASKA BILL. 409 chosen elders, they crossed the Rocky Mountains and settled in the Great Basin of Utah T chiefly at their city of Great Salt Lake, which was founded in 1847. Polygamy, a favorite domestic institution of the Mormon sect, being opposed to the law of the land, the territory of Utah has not yet been received as a state of the Union. THE KANSAS-NEBRASKA BILL. TROUBLES IN KANSAS. General Scott was nominated by the Whig party for presi dent, in 1852 } but the popular vote was given in favor of his Democratic opponent FRANKLIN PIERCE, of New Hampshire. W. R. KING, of Alabama, was elected vice-president. The most important measure of Pierce s administration was the bill to organize the territories of Kansas and Nebraska. They comprised that part of the original Louisiana purchase west of Missouri and north of the parallel of 36 30 ; and consequently, in accordance with the provisions of the Mis souri Compromise, slavery was excluded therefrom. Portions of it had been allotted to sundry Indian tribes who had re moved from the territory north-west of the Ohio, but their presence was not desired by the white settlers who now began to locate in those parts. A bill to organize the territories of Kansas and Nebraska was introduced into the Senate by STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS, of Illinois. An important clause of the bill was a provision for the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. It provided that any territory, no matter whether north or south of the compromise parallel, should be privileged, upon adopting a constitution and becoming a state, either to permit or to exclude the in stitution of slavery^. Numerous petitions were presented to Congress, requesting that body not to make any alteration in the lavr as it stood. Nevertheless, the bill, after a long dis- s 35 4 io HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1856 cussion, received the sanction of Congress and the signature of the president. Upon the passage of the bill, in the spring of 1854, active measures were taken by adherents of both the Free-Soil and Pro-Slavery parties, to people the territory of Kansas with set tlers favoring their respective views. Aid societies were formed in several of the Northern states to assist emigrants to reach the territory and to establish homes there. At the elections held for the purpose of choosing a delegate to Congress and to elect members to the territorial legislature, each party claimed that its candidates were successful. The members chosen by the Pro-Slavery party met, but their assembly being declared by the Free-Soil party illegal, their acts were repudiated on the ground that armed men from Missouri had controlled the polls. A convention of Free-Soil men then assembled at Topeka and framed a constitution rejecting slavery, which, being submitted to the people, was ratified by them. Meanwhile, outrages of every kind were frequent, murders, robberies, illegal assaults and destruction of property, in all, or most of which, the Free-Soil settlers were the worst sufferers, The delegate to Congress was also refused a seat by that body , but a committee being appointed to proceed to Kansas, the charge was established that the elections had been carried by fraud. Order was partially restored in the territory in 1856, when JOHN W. GEARY was appointed governor by the presi dent. At that time the whole country was thrown into a fever of excitement upon receiving intelligence of a brutal assault made by Preston Brooks, a member from the South, upon the person of Charles Sumner, senator from Massachusetts. It occurred while the Senate was in session. At the next presidential election (1856), there were presented the nominees of three political parties: that of the Repub licans, the opponents of the extension of slavery into the 1857] EMANCIPATION SCHEME. 41 1 territories; that of the Democrats, who favored slavery in the territories, if it was so willed by the people ; and that of the American, or so-called Know-Nothing" party, who were opposed to popery and foreign influence. JAMES BUCHANAN, of Pennsylvania, the candidate of the Democrats, was elected. JOHN C. BRECKENRIDGE, of Kentucky, was chosen vice- president. Buchanan had served in both houses of Congress, had been minister to Russia and to Great Britain, and also secretary of state under President Polk. But the Kansas troubles were not yet ended. Governor Geary having resigned, the president appointed as his sue cessor, ROBERT J. WAJ^KER, of Mississippi. Walker ordered a new election for delegate to Congress and for members to compose a territorial legislature. The Free-Soil candidates were elected, In the meantime, however, delegates of the Pro-Slavery party met at Lecompton, and framed a constitution adopting slavery. This they submitted to the people, and claiming that it was ratified, sent it to Congress; but that body having ordered a new election, the Lecompton constitu tion was rejected by a heavy majority; The decision of the Supreme Court, announced by Chief- justice Taney (1857), in the case of the negro Dxed-Scott to wit, that slaves in every part of the national territory were to be accounted property tended to intensify the feeling at the North in opposition to slavery.. MINNESOTA was received into the Union in 1857; OREGON, the thirty-third state, in 1859. THE SCHEME OF COMPENSATED EMANCIPATION. SECESSION. The efforts made by the government to carry out the pro visions of the Fugitive Slave law, produced a feeling of con tinual irritation on the part of the North, which was in no wise 4I2 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1857 lessened by the condition of affairs in Kansas, where the con tests between the two political parties frequently resulted in bloodshed. Hence it became increasingly evident to think ing minds that a far more terrible struggle would ensue, filling the whole land with mourning and desolation, unless endeavors were quickly put forth to compass the difficulty. Unquestionably, slavery must be abolished, but as yet the methods of Unconditional Abolition and of Gradual Eman cipation found few supporters. The Liberia scheme of Col onization had withdrawn but a few thousands of freed blacks from the American soil, and did not materially affect the question of slavery. But the plan of Compensated Bwianci- pation, which was now brought to the notice of the people, appeared to offer an equitable solution of the formidable problem. The friends of this movement contended that the founders of the Republic had not established a union in fact, however it had been so declared in name, and that, before the sections North and South could be confederated in one compact and homogeneous nationality, the true union of the states would have to be won. The method by which this was to be at tained was to remove the cause of the estrangement, to wit, slavery; but furthermore, this boon of union and peace was vfOrt\\payingfor, if it could be secured in no other way. In brief, what would the friends of the slave, of union, and of peace, be willing to give, to avert disunion and civil strife ? It was proposed by the advocates of this measure, in order to secure the immediate, and at the same time peaceful, liberation of the slaves, that emancipation should take the form of a national act. In making this proposition they did not concede that the slave-owner was really and morally en titled to any pay for the human chattels whom he held, but they believed that it would be preferable to concede such a point rather than that the slaves should either continue many 1857] EMANCIPATION SCHEME. 4! 3 years in servitude, or that their fetters should be stricken off through a fratricidal strife which must bring numberless evils in its train. They therefore proposed that " all the public lands west of the Mississippi river to the Pacific ocean should be set apart for defraying the expense of the complete and imme diate emancipation of all the slaves in the Union, and for pro viding a fund for their education and elevation after their manumission." As has been shown in the preceding pages, the moral responsibility for the existence of slavery in the United States, rested upon the North as well as the South. Northern ship-owners and merchants participated in the gains of the slave traffic, while cotton, tobacco and rice, the products of slave labor, largely passed through the hands of northern fac tors, yielding them lucrative profits. Likewise, the merchants of the North either imported or made almost all the manu factured goods which were used by the South. Therefore, said the advocates of compensation, as the North had formed an alliance with the South in the fostering and perpetuation of slavery, whereby the system had become nationalized, so should it be willing to pay its proportion of the price of ex tinguishing slavery, whatever might be the pecuniary expense involved. In carrying out the plan of national indemnifica tion, a brotherly partnership would be formed and a glorious consummation arrived at, which would bless equally both sec tions of the Republic. Estimating the number of slaves at 4,000,000, and assuming the sum of $250 as an equivalent of value for each man, woman and child, the purchase-price of their freedom would have been a thousand million dollars. The sale of the pub lic lands would have paid the interest and gradually the principal of this total, and have left a large sum to be devoted to the education and improvement of the subjects of manu mission. The money received would also have served as a 35* 4 i 4 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1860 stimulus to Southern labor and manufactures. Possibly this view of the case may not have been acceptable to many of the manufacturers of the North. However that may be, the scheme of Compensated Emancipation of which ELIHU BURRITT, of Connecticut, was the foremost advocate was received with but little favor by the people at large. The nation was not prepared to listen to such calm and philan thropic counsel, and, choosing to follow the bent of passion, the price it paid in the end has been the proof of its folly. The border troubles had scarcely ended, when, in the loth month (October), 1859, arash undertaking, having for its object the liberating of the slaves by a general uprising on their part, was attempted by a certain JOHN BROWN and his sons, who had been prominently engaged in the Kansas troubles. Ac companied by a very few followers, they crossed the Potomac at Harper s Ferry, expecting to be joined by the blacks. Not receiving the immediate co-operation which they had looked for, they took possession of one of the shops of the United States Arsenal at Harper s Ferry, but were very soon overpowered and captured by government troops. They were handed over to the authorities of Virginia, and were tried and executed before the end of the year. The presidential election of 1860, was one of momentous import. The Democratic and pro-slavery party which had mostly controlled the government from the beginning of the century, perceived that public opinion had undergone a change and that their power was likely to be disturbed when submitted to the decision of the ballot. At the Democratic nominating convention which was held at Charleston, the Southern delegates withdrew, and named as their candidate John C. Breckenridge, of Kentucky. Those who remained, nominated Stephen A. Douglas. The American party nomi nated John Bell, of Tennessee ; the Republicans, ABRAHAM LINCOLN, of Illinois. The latter receiving a plurality of votes 1861] SECESSION. 415 was elected. HANNIBAL HAMLIN, of Maine, was chosen vice- president. There had been many undisguised declarations on the part of people at the South, that if Lincoln was elected, it would be the signal for the states of that section to withdraw from the Union. Accordingly, no sooner was the result of the election known, than the legislature of South Carolina called a convention, which, on the 2oth day of the i2th month declared by a unanimous vote that "the union now subsisting between South Carolina and other states, under the name of the United States, is hereby dissolved." In the First month of 1861, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama and Georgia, followed the example set by South Carolina, and shortly afterward the rest of the Southern states cast their lot for secession. In the Second month, delegates from the se ceded states met at Montgomery, Alabama, and having adopted a constitution similar to that of the United States, they organized the "Confederate States of America," with JEFFERSON DAVIS, as president, and ALEXANDER H. STEPHENS, vice-president. Richmond, Virginia, was designated the capital. The senators and representatives from the South in the national Congress, resigned their seats, and most of the officers in the army from that section also gave in their resig nations, and joined the cause of the Confederacy. CHAPTER XXXI. PRESIDENCY OF LINCOLN. THE CIVIL WAR. 18611865. THE states of the South had now carried into practice the right which had been always claimed by the Anti-Federalist or States-Rights party, namely, that any state, might, in ac cordance with the terms of the federal constitution, withdraw from the Union, without hindrance on the part of any or all of the remaining states. But the majority of the people were imbued with the opinion that the compact between the various states was intended to be more national in its character that it was not a simple federation or league of sovereign states and therefore that there could be no severance of any of the integral parts of the Republic. Such also was the opinion of President Lincoln. Concerning slavery, he said^ in his inaugu ral address (1861) : " I have no purpose, directly or indirectly, to interfere with the institution of slavery in the states where it exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so." But the institution of slavery was, nevertheless, the impel ling cause of secession, and for its perpetuation the states of the South had thus united together. They also believed that their sympathizers at the North were so many in number, that coercion would not be seriously attempted. But when, a month after Lincoln s inauguration, a fleet was ordered to the relief of Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor, and the bom bardment of the fort by Confederate batteries was followed by 416 i86i] BULL RUN. 417 its surrender, there arose a sudden outburst of excitement at the North, and tumultuous outcries for vengeance. Through out the land the press and the pulpit joined in the mad demand for war. Had those who called themselves " leaders of the flock" exerted themselves as peacemakers, the war might still have been averted. But, their fealty to Christ was overborne by the passion of the hour ; and hence it was that the churches both North and South, untrue to the peaceful testimonies of the gospel, became the strongest bulwarks of this wicked strife. A call for 75,000 volunteers was at once issued by the gov ernment. The foremost of these, in passing through Balti more en route to the national capital, 4th month (April) i9th, were mobbed by Southern sympathizers, and several lives lost on each side. About the same time, the government arsenal at Harper s Ferry was seized by the Confederates, and great quantities of arms and ammunition were secured. To prevent the navy yard and the war vessels at Norfolk from falling into the same hands, they were destroyed by the United States officers stationed there. The place was then evacuated. The first important engagement of the war south of the Po tomac, occurred near Fortress Monroe, on Hampton Roads, where General Butler was in command. This engagement, known as the battle of Big Bethel, resulted in defeat to the Union troops. But a far greater check to the cause was ex perienced, when the main army of volunteers, commanded by General McDowell, met the Confederates under General Beauregard, at Bull Run, a few miles south-west of Washing ton, 7th month (July) 2ist. A panic seized the Union troops, who fled in disorder toward the capital, leaving a great quan tity of artillery and stores on the field. About 3500 of their number were killed, wounded or missing. In consequence of the discomfiture at Bull Run, it became apparent to the president and Congress that the suppression s* 4I 3 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1861 of the rebellion by force of arms would require a much larger levy of militia than had been anticipated, and accordingly a call was issued for an army of 500,000 men. General Scott, at his own request, was relieved from the chief direction of the armies, and his place was filled by General McCLEL- LAN, who also had immediate command of the army of the Potomac. A part of this army, under Generals McCall and Stone, was stationed on the Maryland side of the river not far from Edwards Ferry. Upon hearing that Leesburg had been evacuated by the Confederates, the Union army crossed the Potomac, opposite the steep declivity of Ball s Bluff, but were surprised by the Confederates and routed. Upon reaching the water, many of the Unionists who attempted to escape by swimming, were shot ; others, being swept away by the cur rent, in the darkness were drowned. The battle of Ball s Bluff occurred on the 2oth of loth month (October), 1861. In west Virginia, the Unionists, under General Rose- crans, were mostly successful. In Missouri, although the number of slaves was less than one-tenth of the population, the bias of the people was not decidedly in favor of the Union. The pro-slavery politicians were active and influential, and by their exertions a secession governor (C. F. Jackson) was elected. General Harney was sent to take command of the Western Department, and having established at St. Louis his headquarters, that city was kept out of the hands of the Secessionists. He was soon succeeded by General Fremont, and the latter again by General Halleck. Missouri was the scene of much partisan or guerilla warfare. In a desperate battle which was fought at Wilson s Creek, near Springfield, General Lyon, in command of the Union army, was killed. The state was cleared, for awhile, of Confederate troops, by an army under General Curtis. The national navy having been greatly increased, the Southern coast from Virginia to Texas was blockaded ; while 1 862] MASON AND SLIDELL. 419 gun -boats were constructed for the Western rivers, to carry on offensive operations against the fortifications which the Con federates quickly erected thereon. Before the end of 1861, the Confederate defences at Port Royal entrance, South Carolina, were captured by the fleet of Captain Dupont, assisted by the land forces of General Sherman; and in the 2d month of 1862, an expedition under General Burnside and Commodore Goldsborough, captured the forts on Roanoke Island. The Confederate flotilla withdrew to Elizabeth City, and being followed by the Union fleet, was there burnt to escape cap ture. Nearly at the same time Fort Henry on the Tennessee river, and Fort Donelson on the Cumberland, were taken by the gun-boats of Commodore Foote, assisted by the army of GENERAL GRANT ; and a few weeks later, Nashville, the capital of Tennessee, was occupied by the Union army. ANDREW JOHNSON, formerly chief magistrate of the state, was appointed military governor. The Confederates being anxious to obtain a recognition of their cause on the part of Great Britain and France, James M. Mason and John Slidell were appointed to lay their case before those powers. To elude the blockade, the two ambas sadors made their way first to Cuba, and then by another steamer, the Trent, took passage for St. Thomas intending to leave for England in the next packet from that island. But on their way out, when not far north of the island of Cuba, the Trent was intercepted by the National steamer San Jacinto, in command of Captain Charles Wilkes. Mason and Slidell were taken on board, and sent to Fort Warren in Boston harbor. Much elation was manifested by the people of the North at this important capture ; but the president, aware of the fact that it was a violation of the very principle concerning the rights of neutrals, for which America had formerly contended with England, did not endorse the act. Hence, when a demand was made by the British government for the restoration of the 420 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1862 captives, they were given up and a suitable acknowledgment made; not, however, without some delay, during which pre cautionary preparations for war were made by Great Britain, involving that country in an expenditure of several million dollars. Often have the embers of war been fanned into a flame by the reckless representations and evil surmisings of the daily press ! When Louis Napoleon elevated himself to the imperial throne of France, the alarm was sounded by the daily journals of England, encouraged by reports from their correspondents at Paris, that the country was in imminent danger from the sinister designs of the up start ruler. The British parliament thereupon assumed a bellige rent attitude, and passed an act for enrolling 80,600 militia. Mean while, lest the journals should really push the country into war, earnest measures on the part of sober-minded people were put for ward to stay the foolish panic. " One of the expedients adopted," says Burritt, "was the instituting of a direct correspondence be tween 50 of the largest towns in Great Britain, and the same number of towns in France. Manuscript communications, signed by a large number of influential citizens, deprecating most earnestly the senti ments of the British press toward the French government and people, were sent across the channel, and were responded to most generously. One of these Friendly Addresses, as they were called, was signed by 4000 of the first merchants and bankers of London. All these communications asked the French people not to regard the sentiments expressed towards them by the British journals as the sentiments of the English nation. A few weeks passed away, and this bubble of suspicion burst." In the 3d month (March), 1862, the Confederate iron-clad ram, the Merrimack, came out of Norfolk harbor, and attacked the National fleet which was lying in Hampton Roads. The Cumberland received such a severe blow from the beak of the Merrimack, that she began at once to fill with water. All who could, made their escape; but the dead, the sick and wounded, to the number of about 100, were engulfed be neath the waters. The Congress was set on fire by red-hot shot from the Merrimack, and the other National vessels were 1862] McCLELLAN S REPULSE. 421 obliged to withdraw. The Merrimack returned to Norfolk ; but the next day, there arrived in Hampton Roads, an iron vessel of novel construction, lying very low in the water and surmounted with a turret. It was called the Monitor. This vessel engaged the Merrimack, which, becoming considerably disabled, withdrew from the encounter. Norfolk was shortly afterward taken possession of by National troops under Gen eral Wool. A movement upon Richmond, the Confederate capital, being determined on, General McClellan decided on making the approach by way of the James river peninsula. Large bodies of troops and military stores were embarked for For tress Monroe, and early in the 4th month (April), the army began its march toward Yorktown. The Confederates under Generals Magruder and Johnston, slowly retreated, while McClellan s forces continued up the peninsula, until they had arrived within a few miles of Richmond, where General ROBT. E. LEE was in command. At Fair Oaks a battle was fought, which resulted in severe loss to both sides. Finally, in the latter part of the 6th month (June), there ensued a series of sanguinary engagements, lasting six days, at the end of which time McClellan, being continuously repulsed, gained the cover of his gun-boats at Harrison s Landing on the James river. The attempt of the Nationals had ended in total failure. In the meantime, the Shenandoah valley was the scene of active operations. A National army under Generals Pope and Banks, endeavored to keep the Confederates there in check, and prevent them from uniting their forces with the army of General Lee. But in several battles and many skirmishes which took place, the Confederate forces of Generals Ewell and "Stonewall" Jackson were mainly victorious. Lee s army also, relieved by the withdrawal of McClellan, pressed northward, and when near the Potomac, defeated the army of 36 422 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1862 Pope at the second Battle of Bull Run, or Manassas. The Nationals then withdrew within the fortifications around Washington. Shortly after, the president issued a call for several hundred thousand additional troops. Lee s army, exultant at their late successes, having crossed the Potomac by the fords in the vicinity of Point of Rocks, prepared to advance either against Washington or into Penn sylvania. But at South Mountain and Antietam, their onward march was checked by the troops of McClellan, and on the i9th of the 9th month (September), Lee re-crossed the Potomac. Evacuating Harper s Ferry, which Jackson s army had recently captured, Lee retreated up the Shenandoah valley. General Burnside was placed in command of a National army, and directed to make a third advance upon Richmond, but being signally defeated in a battle fought at Fredericksburg near the close of the year, he withdrew into winter-quarters on the north bank of the Rappahannock. In the West, the National cause, subsequent to the occupa tion of Forts Henry and Donelson, had been more successful. The Confederates, evacuating their strong position at Columbus, on the Mississippi below Cairo, intrenched themselves at Island Number Ten, still farther down the river. Under the superintendence of General Beauregard, the island fortifica tions had been placed in a condition for defence which was considered almost impregnable. After they had sustained a bombardment of several weeks by the gun-boats of Commo dore Foote, the land forces of General Pope cut a canal through a bend of the river so as to flank the position, and the garrison was then obliged to surrender. General Beauregard, however, escaped, with a considerable body of troops, and moved to the relief of the army of General A. S. Johnston, at Shiloh and Pittsburg Landing, on the Tennessee. The Union army, under General Grant, was temporarily repulsed there, but being joined by reinforcements under General Buell, they 1 862] CAREER OF THE ALABAMA. 423 drove the Confederates to their defences at Corinth, an im portant railway junction in north-eastern Mississippi. Here, on the 3(1 and 4th days of the xoth month (October), a great battle was fought, which resulted in the further retreat of the Confederates southward. Rosecrans, the Union commander, returned into Kentucky, and on the last day of the year en gaged and defeated the Confederate army under General Bragg at Murfreesboro. Meanwhile, the fleet of Commodore Foote had continued down the Mississippi, captured Fort Pillow, and on the 6th day of the 6th month (June), had taken possession of Memphis. New Orleans was already in possession of the Nationals, having been captured by the fleets of Admirals Farragut and Porter, after several severe encounters with Confederate gun boats, and a terrific bombardment of Forts Jackson and St. Philip. General Butler, commander of the troops, was placed in charge of the city. Fort Pulaski, the chief defence of Savannah, and the forts on the Florida coast, at Fernandina, Jacksonville and St. Augustine, were likewise given up to the National forces. Fort Pickens, at the entrance of Pensacola bay, had not fallen into the hands of the Confederates. The latter, although not in a condition to maintain a regu lar navy on the ocean, succeeded, with the co-operation of sundry ship-builders and sympathizers in England, in fitting out a number of privateers, which proved very destructive to the commercial vessels of the North. The principal of these cruisers were the Nashville, Sumter, Florida, Shenandoah and Alabama. Of these, the Alabama, under Captain Semmes, achieved the greatest notoriety. For a year and a half, avoid ing contact with armed vessels, it continued its career of burning the merchant-ships belonging to the Unionists. Owing to the fact of its being a British vessel, manned chiefly by British subjects, and armed and supplied in a British port, the losses by its depredations were the occasion of a heavy 424 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1862 claim upon Great Britain, as will be hereafter considered. The Alabama was finally captured in the English Channel, off the harbor of Cherbourg, by the National vessel Kearsarge. During 1862, Congress passed a law abolishing slavery in the District of Columbia. As a conciliatory measure toward the slave-holders of the border states, a plan of partial and gradual emancipation, with compensation for the slaves, also passed Congress, and received the approval of the president, who believed that it would detach the border slave-labor states from the Confederacy, and hence speedily effect an end of the war. There was likewise proposed a plan for colonizing the freedmen somewhere on the American continent. But those plans not meeting with any strong demonstrations of approval, the president, after considerable hesitation, agreed to issue a proclamation decreeing absolute emancipation to the slaves in any state which should be in rebellion on the first day of the year 1863. He also declared it would be the purpose of the government not to repress any efforts which the slaves might make to secure their freedom. It was sup posed that the slaves would take advantage of the procla mation to band together and aid in putting down the rebel lion. The foregoing preliminary proclamation was issued the 22d day of Qth month (September), 1862. None of the states having accepted its provisions within the one hundred days allowed therefor, there accordingly appeared, on the first day of the ensuing year, the Proclamation of Universal Emanci pation. During the first few years of the war, large loans for defray ing the expenses thereof, had been authorized by Congress. But the great and increasing expenditures which the war entailed, the decline in revenue and public credit, caused a distrust of paper money and a consequent appreciation in the value of coin. The banks thereupon suspended spe cie payments the last day of the year 1861. For the pur- 1863] GETTYSBURG. 425 pose of providing a national currency, Congress passed a bill early in the following year, authorizing the issue of legal ten der Treasury notes ; while, to increase the revenue, taxes were imposed on goods imported and manufactured, on incomes, bills of exchange, legal papers, etc. Finally, in 1863, a law was enacted for the formation of National banks (their cur rency guaranteed by the government), in lieu of the former state banks. In the spring of 1863, forty-eight counties of northern and western Virginia, not sympathizing with the secession of the eastern section of the state, formed a provisional government, and were admitted into the Union under the title of the state of WEST VIRGINIA. Kansas had been admitted .in 1861. NEVADA, the thirty-sixth state, followed in 1864. General Hooker, who had superseded Burnside in command of the army of the Potomac, crossed the Rappahannock with his army, purposing to flank the army of Lee at Fredericks- burg. The battle of Chancellorsville on the 2Qth of the 4th month (April) ensued, terminating again in disaster to the army of the assailants, of whom over 12,000 were killed and wounded : the Confederate loss was not quite so heavy. Hooker retreated across the river, and the armies for a short time resumed their former respective positions. Lee being then reinforced by the army of General Long- street, took the offensive, and leaving his position at Freder- icksburg, crossed the Potomac, advanced to Hagerstown, and thence up the Cumberland valley to Chambersburg. This sudden invasion produced great consternation at the North, and the militia of Pennsylvania were called for in large num bers. General Meade was placed in command of the Union army, in place of Hooker. At Gettysburg, on the first three days of the 7th month (July), was fought a decisive battle the most important of the war ending in the defeat of the Confederates, and their retreat across the Potomac. 36* 426 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1864 After the capture of New Orleans (1862), the flotillas of Farragut and Porter ascended the Mississippi, and, co-ope rating with the army of General Grant, laid siege to the strong fortifications of Vicksburg, where the Confederate general, Pemberton, was in command. The attempt at that time was not successful; but, during all the first six months of 1863, unintermitted endeavors to effect its capture were carried on, and at last on the 4th day of the yth month (the day after the battle of Gettysburg) the garrison of Vicksburg, nearly ex hausted by starvation, surrendered to the Nationals. Port Hudson, farther down the river, the last possession of the Confederates on the Mississippi, surrendered to the army of General Banks five days after the fall of Vicksburg. The army of Rosecrans had remained for six months at Mur- freesboro, when, being reinforced by cavalry, an advance was made south-eastward toward Chattanooga. General Bragg, the Confederate commander, retreated to that place, and gave battle to his pursuers at the Chickamauga creek, in the imme diate neighborhood (9th mo. 2oth). Rosecrans, although de feated, took possession of Chattanooga. Here General Grant assumed command, and being joined by the divisions of Hooker and Sherman, the Confederates, after a severe strug gle, were driven from the commanding positions of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. During most of the year, Charleston was closely besieged by land and naval forces under the command of General Gilmore and Admirals Dupont and Dahlgren. Forts Wagner and Gregg on Morris island, were taken, and Fort Sumter was battered to pieces. The city itself was occasionally bom barded, and, although not captured, blockade running was entirely prevented. In the early part of 1864, General Grant was made general - in-chief of all the armies. General Banks, with the army in Louisiana, moved up the Red river toward Shreveport, but he 1864] GRANTS ADVANCE. 427 was defeated and driven back to New Orleans. Fort Pillow was re-taken by a large force of Confederate cavalry under General Forrest. Its capture was marked by signal atrocity, as no quarter was given to the garrison, half of whom were colored troops : men, women and children were indiscrimi nately massacred. The army of the Potomac was placed under command of General Meade, although personally superintended by General Grant. In the 5th month (May), the final advance was made on Richmond. Immediately after crossing the Rapidan, the march of the Nationals was disputed by the army of Lee. The terrible battle of " The Wilderness" ensued, but although Grant s loss was very heavy, he continued on, and a second great battle was fought at Spottsylvania Court-house. Lee again fell back, and the Nationals advanced to the Chicka- hominy. The battle of Cool Arbor followed, resulting in a fearful sacrifice of life on the part of the Nationals, who then advanced to the James river, and, part of them crossing that stream, effected a junction with Butler s army at Bermuda Hundred, 6th mo. (June) i5th. The capture of Petersburg by assault was attempted, but its intrenchments proved to be so strong, that regular siege works were ordered to be constructed. While Grant was thus besieging Petersburg, Lee endeavored to effect a withdrawal of at least a portion of his antagonists, by ordering General Early to make an invasion north of the Potomac. The Union general, Hunter, had made a raid up the Shenandoah valley to Lynchburg, and thence moved into West Virginia, so that Early found his way nearly unob structed. Martinsburg and Harper s Ferry being evacuated by the Nationals, Early advanced with confidence into Mary land, but was checked at the battle of the Monocacy. A por tion of his army meanwhile moved toward the Susquehanna, and arriving at Chambersburg, threatened the destruction of the town unless $200,000 tribute was paid, to insure its safety. 428 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1865 The demand being refused, the town was set on fire, and one- half of it laid in ashes. The raiders then hurried back to Virginia, and were followed by a large" cavalry force under General Sheridan. Early was defeated at Winchester, and retreating toward Staunton, was followed by Sheridan s cav alry, who, in retaliation for the destruction of Chambersburg, wantonly burned large numbers of barns in the Shenandoah valley. Sherman, with an army of nearly 100,000 men, having left Chattanooga, defeated General Hood, and occupied Atlanta, 9th mo. (September) 4th. Leaving General Thomas to carry on the campaign in Tennessee, Sherman prepared to evacuate Atlanta; but, before departing on his "march to the sea," ordered the city to be set on fire. Two hundred acres of ground, covered with buildings, were thus destroyed, a mili tary band playing triumphantly while the fiery desolation was at its height ! Sherman then advanced through Georgia to Savannah, which place he also captured. The harbor de fences of Mobile had, in the meantime, been taken by the fleet of Farragut, so that at the end of 1864, Wilmington (North Carolina), and Charleston, were the only seaports of consequence in possession of the Confederates. Abraham Lincoln was re-elected president, and Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee, was chosen vice-president (1864). Congress, in response to the message of the president, passed the 1 3th Amendment to the constitution, which prohibited slavery forever in the republic. It was the constitutional supplement to the Proclamation of Emancipation, and was duly ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the states, as required by law. In the early part of 1865, the army of Sherman took up its march through the Carolinas, advancing first from Savannah to Columbia. The Confederate general, Wade Hampton, upon leaving Columbia, had given orders that all the cotton 1865] SHERMAN S MARCH. 429 should be taken into the streets and burned. But, a large part of the beautiful city itself was laid in ashes. Whether this wanton act was to be attributed to the Nationals, or whether to the Confederates themselves, is a matter of controversy. Charleston, being now flanked by Sherman and invested by the fleet, was set on fire by the Confederate garrison, who then hurried northward to join the army of Johnston, and to oppose Sherman s further advance. Wilmington, likewise, after Fort Fisher, its strong defence, had been taken by the fleet, was evacuated. Meanwhile, Sherman s army swept on ward into North Carolina, its broad track of thirty miles in width being marked by utter desolation. Food for his great army, forage for the horses, fresh animals to replace the worn- out ones, were all taken from the inhabitants. In the latter part of the 3d month (March), 1865, Goldsboro in eastern North Carolina was reached, and there Sherman established his headquarters. In the 2d month, three commissioners from the Confederate States, one of whom was Alexander H. Stephens, vice-president of the Confederacy, were appointed, to try to negotiate terms of peace. President Lincoln, and secretary of state, SEWARD, met the commissioners at Fortress Monroe. The Confed erates, although wishing peace, still insisted on a recognition of their independent rights, which the president replied would not be accorded them. The discussion was amicably proceeded with, but, like several other preceding attempts in the same direction, it failed to accomplish its purpose. In the 3d month, while Sherman was marching in the di rection of Goldsboro, Sheridan with a strong force of cavalry, left Winchester, ascended the Shenandoah valley to Staunton, and advancing thence toward Richmond, destroyed the rail road communications of the Confederates west and north of that city. Lee then essayed to break through Grant s army before Petersburg, in order to effect a junction with the army 43 o HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1865 of Johnston in North Carolina. Failing in his attempt, he at once sent word to Richmond that that city must be evacuated. Davis and his cabinet, and others who had been actively en gaged in the rebellion, left the city ; while General Ewell, after ordering the destruction of the cotton and tobacco, which were stored in several large warehouses, departed with his troops. The conflagration, however, spread widely, so that the principal business portion of the city was destroyed. The arsenal was also set fire to, and the Confederate iron-clads were blown up. On the 3d day of the 4th month (April) the Union troops entered the late capital of the Confederacy. On the Qth instant, Lee, after further futile endeavors to es cape, surrendered the shattered remnant of his army to Gen eral Grant. Two weeks later, Johnston surrendered to Sher man, and the rebellion came to an end. Before the latter event transpired, a terribly tragic event occurred at Washington, being the assassination of the presi dent, at a theatre. Secretary Seward was also attacked by an accomplice, and narrowly escaped death. The assassin of the president, John Wilkes Booth, an actor by profession, was pursued and killed, and several of his co-conspirators being captured, were tried, convicted and executed. Jefferson Davis was taken prisoner near Macon, Georgia, while in the act of escaping from a party in pursuit. Pie was sent thence to Fortress Monroe, but after a confinement of a year and a half, was released without trial. Andrew John son, the vice-president, assumed the chief magistracy upon the death of President Lincoln. No more than a mere outline of the War of the Rebellion has been given. There were numerous cavalry raids, hun dreds of battles and skirmishes, and many encounters upon the rivers and ocean, of which no mention can here be made. Neither has anything been said of the work of the Sanitary Commission ; of the employment of colored soldiers in the i86 5 ] WHAT THE WAR COST. 431 army ; of the conscription, and the disturbances in Northern cities in opposition to it ; of the great riot in New York and the massacre of negroes ; of the terrible privations and suffer ings of the Union prisoners confined in the warehouses and prison-pens of the South, and, in a less degree, of the suffer ings of Confederates at the North, together with a hundred GROWTH OF THE NATIONAL DEBT. Years. Millions. i366 186" 2773 186.1 iSic l86q 1119 In 1870. 1 86^ 1861 1860 1855 1850 1845 1840 1835 1830 1825 1820 1816 1815 1814 In 1870. 1813 64 35 6 3 -i5 -5 o -48 83 91 127 99 8 1 -56 45 -48 53 PUBLIC SCHOOLS, jg^ #64,000,000. l8lo WHEAT CHOP, $245,000,000. WAR: Army; Navy; Annua Pensions; Interest on War-Debt, $245,000,000. R.U M: st cost ; also, cost in Prisons, mpers, Tribunals, Asylums j *ss of Wages and Products, $1,300,000,000. other of the dire consequences of the war. A few statistics will merely be adduced for the purpose of comparison, that we may see whether the whole country would not have been a great gainer if it had adopted the plan of compensated eman cipation, and extirpated the evil of slavery at a money price 432 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1865 far greater even than the thousand million of dollars which it was proposed should be paid. The whole number of men enrolled in the Northern army was about 2,650,000. It is estimated that 300,000 men of each army perished in battle, or by disease in camps and hospitals ; and that the number crippled, or permanently disabled by disease, amounted altogether to 400,000. This would make a total of 1,000,000 men as the actual loss to the country. The money cost of the war, to both sides, is estimated at six thousand million dollars ($6,000,000,000). In order to meet the yearly interest on the National Debt, which was increased from 60 millions in 1860, to 2600 millions in 1865, the people were taxed to an extent to which the taxation by the British crown, in the preceding century, bore no comparison. Stamps were required on deeds, leases, receipts, checks and many other documents, beside on a great variety of manufac tured goods. A moiety of the debt incurred for, and the loss sustained by, the war, would have paid for all the slaves; would have provided all the illiterate whites and blacks of the South with the requisite facilities for obtaining an education ; would have built half-a-dozen railways from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and would have paid for the completion of as many water-ways connecting the streams of the Mississippi valley with those of the Atlantic slope and the Great Lakes. In brief, had wise and peaceful counsels prevailed, we might have been a really united people, and thus the fearful record of loss in men and in money, in social and political morality, would not be now what we know too well that it is. LIBRA It i UNIVERSITY OF ^ CALIFORNIA.^! CHAPTER XXXII. ADMINISTRATIONS OF JOHNSON AND GRANT. 1865 1876. RECONSTRUCTION. IMPEACHMENT OF PRESIDENT JOHNSON. ALASKA. THE administration of Andrew Johnson was not a tranquil one. Holding views as to the policy to be pursued in the re-organization of the late rebellious states, different from those of the majority in Congress, many of the measures passed by that body received his veto. The president ap pointed provisional governors for seven of the Southern states, and the same year (1865) conventions in five of them ratified the constitutional amendment as to slavery, formed constitu tions for their respective states, and ordered the election of representatives to Congress. These elections mostly resulted in returning to office men who had taken a leading part in the rebellion. Congress refused, under the powers granted it to "judge of the elections, returns and qualifications of its own members," to admit them. It judged that they were not quali fied to take their seats as legislators, by reason of the animosity which they had exhibited to the general government. Upon the appointment of a committee of fifteen, known as the "Reconstruction Committee," authorized to inquire into the condition of the states lately in rebellion, and whether any of such were entitled to representation in Congress, the president openly expressed his opposition. He believed that T 37 433 434 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1868 the representatives should be admitted without question. Later in the year 1866, when the president made a journey to Chicago to be present at some public ceremonies, he lost no opportunity for declaring his opinions upon the subject of reconstruction, and arraigned members of Congress by name for the part they had taken in the measures which had been adopted. All the members of his cabinet, except Stanton, the secretary of war, resigned. In the 2d month (February), 1868, the president ordered Secretary Stanton also to surrender his office, and directed Ad jutant-General Lorenzo Thomas to take his place. Stanton refused to comply. On the following day, the House of Representatives, believing the action of the president to be in violation of the law, resolved, by a large majority, "that Andrew Johnson, president of the United States, be impeached of high crimes and misdemeanors." Accordingly, articles of impeachment were presented to the House. They charged the president with making inflammatory and odious speeches during his journey from Washington to Chicago; with de claring that Congress was not a constitutional body; and with endeavoring to prevent the execution of laws which it had passed. The Senate, according to the provisions of the constitution, was organized as a jury for the trial of the president, and Chief-Justice CHASE presided. The president s counsel asked for delay, and ten days were granted. The examination of witnesses was then proceeded with, and the arguments of counsel followed. The trial lasted more than two months, closing with a vote of 35 in favor of impeachment, and 19 for acquittal. As the vote lacked i of the requisite majority of two-thirds, the president was acquitted. Soon after the close of the impeachment trial, a i4th amend ment to the constitution having passed Congress, was ratified by a sufficient number of the states, and became a law. Seven 1867] RECONSTRUCTION. 435 of the recently re-organized states also ratified it, and, Con gress having approved of their respective state constitutions, their senators and representatives were admitted into the Na tional Legislature. The Fourteenth Amendment provides that " No state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States ; nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty or property, without due process of law ; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws." This measure was especially intended to secure the freedmen in their rights as citizens. It declares " that representation shall be apportioned among the several states according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each state." It gave to Congress the power to remove the political disabilities of any who were lately in rebellion, and also affirmed the validity of the National Debt, while it de clared the debt incurred by the South to be void and illegal. The territory of ALASKA, formerly known as Russian America, containing an area of about 400,000 square miles, was purchased from the Russian government in 1867, for the sum of $7,200,000. The climate of the country, except in the southern part, is too rigorous to admit of very successful agri culture, but the rock formations are believed to be rich in mineral wealth, while the seal fisheries are of considerable value. It cannot be said, however, that our acquisition of the territory of Alaska has proved a beneficial change to the few thousand Indians who comprise the population of that country. In a report submitted to Congress (1872) upon " Fatal obstacles to the Christian civilization of the Indians," the Medical Director of Alaska, at Sitka, testifies that " a greater mistake could not have been made than stationing troops in their midst. * * Whiskey has been sold in the streets by government officials at public auc tions, and examples of drunkenness are set before them almost daily, so that in fact the principal teaching they at present are re ceiving is that drunkenness and debauchery are held by us, not as 4 ^6 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1871 criminal and unbecoming a Christian people, but as indications of our advanced and superior civilization. These Indians are a civil and well-behaved people ; they do not want bayonets to keep them in subjection, but they do want honest, faithful, and Christian workers among them ; those that will care for them, teach and in struct them in useful arts, and that they are responsible beings." Another one witnesses as follows: "The accounts I have re ceived from time to time, of the conduct of the soldiers in the Indian camps of the coast of Alaska, are truly shocking. If the United States government did but know half, I am sure they would shrink from being identified with such abominations, and the cause of so much misery." Nebraska was admitted into the Union, the 37th state, in 1867. In the same year there was passed a general Bankrupt Law, which was amended in 1874, and is still in force. GRANT S ADMINISTRATION. THE FREEDMEN. EDUCATION. The election of 1868 resulted in the choice of General Ulysses S. Grant, of Illinois, for president, and SCHUYLER COLFAX, of Indiana, for vice-president. In 1872, Grant was re-elected president, while HENRY WILSON, of Massachusetts, was chosen to the second office. During the first years of Grant s administration, political affairs in the South did not exhibit the improvement which, by many, had been antici pated. Unfortunately, many of those from the North, who, immediately after the war, were placed in office at the South, were men quite unfit for those responsible positions, where integrity and impartiality were especially required. On the other hand, there were numerous cases of harsh treatment both to persons from the North and to the recently enfran chised bondsmen. Murders by masked men of a secret order, called Ku-Klux, were of frequent occurrence in some quarters. In 1871 there occurred a great fire at Chicago. The loss of property was estimated at 200 million dollars; 18,000 houses were burned ; 200 persons perished, and many fhou- 1870] CHICAGO FIRE. 437 sands were left homeless. Much sympathy for the sufferers by the dreadful calamity, was manifested throughout this country and in Great Britain. About the same time, fires were prevalent in the forest regions of Minnesota, Michigan, Wisconsin and other states. A number of villages were burnt to the ground, numerous lives were lost, and the suf fering and pecuniary distress were great. Contributions for their relief also, were forwarded from all parts of the land. The terrible distress caused by the failure of the potato crop in Ireland, in 1848, moved the American people, the very slaves even, to deep sympathy. Substantial assurances of the reality of this feeling were sent over in the shape of shiploads of food. Upon the occasion of the devastating inundations in France, in 1856, the English people were deeply stirred by the harrowing recitals of suffering and loss, and sent generous offerings to the afflicted people. Says Burritt, in commenting upon the moral influence of national calamities: "The earthquake that engulphed Lisbon thrilled the civilized world with a fellow-feeling in the great catastrophe, and, like Moses rod at Horeb, smote the rock-ribbed boundaries of jealous nations and set them running with rivulets of benevolence toward the suffering city." A general Amnesty Bill, in favor of those who had borne an active part in the rebellion, was passed by Congress, in 1872. COLORADO was admitted into the Union in 1875. I D the latter part of the same year Vice-President Wilson died. In the year 1870, Congress passed the i5th Amendment to the constitution. It enacts that (Section i) "The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state, on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude." (Section 2) "The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article." All citizens of 37* 43 8 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1871 the United States, except untaxed Indians, were thence ad mitted to the franchise. To resume: By the i3th Amend ment, slavery had been constitutionally abolished ; by the I4th Amendment, the freedmen were declared to be citizens; by the i5th, they were invested with the right of suffrage. To carry out the second section of the i5th Amendment, Con gress passed the so-called Enforcement Act." In several of the reconstructed states, and especially in South Carolina and Louisiana, grave disturbances arose, which the president believed himself called upon to quell by applying the power provided for in said act.* With the object of relieving the immediate necessities of those who -were either escaping or had escaped from slavery, and for the help of needy white refugees from the South, the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen and Abandoned Lands usually styled the " Freedmen s Bureau" had been estab lished by act of Congress a few months prior to the close of the war. It continued in operation until 1871. General HOWARD was appointed commissioner. An organized system of relief went into operation, which administered not only the aid afforded by government, but also the large contri butions forwarded by societies and individuals. Transporta tion was afforded to many thousand freedmen and refugees, hospitals and dispensaries were established and provisions sup plied. Over 2000 freedmen s schools were also opened. The most prominent of these was the Howard University, near Washington. But the aid afforded to the freedmen, and especially the opening of schools, was not left entirely to the Freedmen s Bureau. Ignorant slaves had suddenly been made citizens, invested with the right to vote, and, obviously, there was a responsibility which must be at once met in making provi sion for their intellectual and moral advancement. By most of the religious denominations at the North, aid was extended 1 87 1] PEA BODY FUND. 439 to begin the work. The gift of two million dollars bestowed by GEORGE PEABODY for the specific purpose of promoting education in the Southern states, proved a very efficient help. Only the income of the Peabody fund amounting to $120,000 per annum is annually expended. Not a single state of the South possessed a modern system of public schools at the time this trust was created ; but now, no state is with out such a system. This favorable result has been owing in a considerable measure to the timely aid extended by the trustees of the fund. In order to receive such aid, it is a re quirement that the school assisted shall have at least 100 pupils, with one teacher for every 50 scholars ; that it shall be properly graded ; and that it shall be continued during ten months of the year, with an average attendance of 85 in the hundred. These provisions have operated to keep the schools well attended. The district in which any aided school is situated, is expected to contribute at least twice the amount received from the Peabody fund, and usually much more than twice. The money is available for the schools of either white or colored pupils who shall have fulfilled the conditions. Government land grants in behalf of public education were made as far back as 1785. From that time to the present, the extent of grants for such purpose has amounted to 140 million acres. Since 1862, when Congress passed a law dis tributing the proceeds of the sale of five million acres among the different states, more attention has been paid to the estab lishment of normal institutes, agricultural colleges, and schools for instruction in the useful arts. The money thus received by the states from the general government, has been largely increased by grants from the states themselves, from towns, and from private individuals. Prior to the Revolution there had been ten colleges or col legiate institutions chartered in the colonies, the first of which, 440 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1875 already referred to, were Harvard College, at Cambridge (1638), and William and Mary College, at Williamsburg (1693). Next were founded Yale College, at New Haven (1701), the College of New Jersey, at Princeton (1746), and Washington and Lee University, at Lexington, Virginia (1749). Columbia College, New York City, was founded in *754; the University of Pennsylvania, at Philadelphia, the following year ; Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, in 1764; Dartmouth College, at Hanover, New Hampshire, in 1769; and Rutgers College, at New Brunswick, in 1770. Classics and theology were specially taught in most of these institutions. At the University of Pennsylvania particular attention was early given to medical science. Dartmouth was founded for the especial benefit of Indian youth, but did not succeed in that course. At the beginning of the Revo lution the number of students in all the colleges probably did not number more than 300. In the century following 1770 the colleges and universities established numbered 290, with a total enrollment in 1870 (including those in the ten institu tions named) of 54,000 pupils. The necessity for providing free public schools was early recognized in the New England colonies. In Massachusetts it was ordered, as early as 1647, that every township of 50 householders should maintain such a school at the public expense; and that every township of 100 householders should maintain a grammar-school. The system of free education, however, continued defective in its operation until the year 1834, when the sum of one million dollars was raised to aid the towns in providing the requisite accommodations. Five years later the first normal school was established at Lexing ton. Of the other New England states, Connecticut and Rhode Island have made corresponding progress. HORACE MANN, of Massachusetts, and HENRY BARNARD, of Connec ticut, were diligent laborers in behalf of common school 1876] PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM. 441 education. In Pennsylvania a public school was organized at Philadelphia by the Friends, eight years after the city was laid out ; and now free education, in its widest extent, has been adopted throughout that commonwealth. In the state of New York, Governor GEORGE CLINTON hav ing recommended (1795) the general adoption of the system of common schools, the proposition found favor and was adopted. In 1812, renewed efforts were put forth by earnest friends of the measure, most prominent of whom was DE WITT CLINTON, who advocated the founding of normal schools, the higher education of women, increased salaries for the teachers, and absolute freedom of instruction by the aboli tion of the payment of rates. The latter provision, however, was not adopted until 1862. In 1840 a notable struggle be gan with the Romanists, who insisted that part of the state funds should be diverted to the support of their own denomi national schools. But the American system, it was finally au thoritatively decided, was unsectarian in its provisions, in this important respect differing from European usage, where aid is principally extended in the interest of the established religion. In the West, free, unsectarian schools prevail. The total number of public schools throughout the Union in 1870 was 125,000, with nearly 200,000 teachers (somewhat more than half of whom were females), and about 6,000,000 pupils enrolled. Unlike the state instruction provided in Germany, government aid ceases with the liberal land- grants in aid of the state institutions, except with respect to the collecting and distribution of information through the Department of Education at Washington. Beyond this, the states themselves, through properly-elected school-boards, control entirely the raising and application of school-funds and the courses of studies to be followed. But there still remains a vast amount of illiteracy unpro vided for, especially at the South. Upon the abolishment of T * 44 2 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1868 the Freedmen s Bureau in 1871, it was estimated that not more than one freedman s child in six was being provided with school education. This is a sad as well as an alarming state ment : that five-sixths of the colored race on our soil should be allowed to grow up without the knowledge of how to read and write ! To provide against so undesirable a contingency, there is now pending in Congress an " Educational Fund Bill." It proposes to set apart for a perpetual Education Fund, the net proceeds of so much of the public lands as are not taken up under the homestead or soldiers bounty acts. The money, it is proposed, shall be distributed among all the states and territories, for the purposes of free education, irrespective of race or color ; but for the first ten years after the passage of the act, the money to be distributed according to the propor tion of illiteracy. That is to say, the most money to be ap plied for the present where the need is most urgent, namely, in the Southern states. THE NEW INDIAN POLICY. The consideration of a better method of dealing with the Indians than that which had hitherto prevailed, was early brought to the attention of President Grant. In an official report at that time, it was stated, that "while it cannot be denied that the United States government, in the general terms and temper of its legislation, has evinced a desire to deal justly with the Indians, it must be admitted that the actual treatment they have received has been unjust and iniquitous beyond the power of words to express." BISHOP WIIIPPLE, of Minnesota, an earnest and tried friend of the red men, remarks : " I have travelled on foot and in the saddle, over every square mile of my diocese. I know every Indian settlement in it. Some of the Indians will drink and some of them will steal, and they are of our race, for they have the same vices ; but in every 1869] THE AEIV INDIAN POLICY. 443 difficulty that has occurred in these twelve years of my residence, between the Indians and the government, the government has always been wrong and the Indians have always been right." A prominent military officer, General HARNEY, stated that " he never knew an Indian chief to break his word, and in no instance in which a war broke out with the tribes, that the tribes were not in the right." Furthermore, as regards the matter of expense, it appears by governmental statistics, that since the year 1820 the policy of extin guishment had cost the government for each Indian killed, the lives of twenty white men and one million dollars ! In the first annual message of President Grant to Congress (1869), he announced the inauguration of what is now gener ally known as the Quaker Policy" of Indian treatment, in these words : "I have attempted a new policy toward these wards of the nation (they cannot be regarded in any other light than as wards), with fair results so far as tried, and which I hope will be attended ultimately with great success. The Society of Friends is well known as having succeeded in living in peace with the Indians in the early settlement of Pennsylvania, while their white neighbors of other sects, in other sections, were constantly embroiled. They were also known for their opposition to all strife, violence and war. * * These con siderations induced me to give the management of a few reser vations of the Indians to them, and to throw the burden of the selection of agents upon the society itself." But other religious societies, beside the Friends, were properly included in this arrangement. The president s reasons for favoring this important change were, in the first place, to avoid the horrors as well as the ex pense of a border warfare. The government being already deeply in debt, the president perceived the absolute necessity of inaugurating measures of retrenchment. Likewise, the great Pacific railroad, the construction of which had just been 444 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1869 completed, would be seriously jeopardized by a general Indian outbreak ; while the protection of so long a line of railway from the onsets of hostile Indians, would be only possible at great expense, and would also necessitate a large increase of the army. " Finally, it was doubtless hoped that a just and humane treatment of the Indians in the future, would tend in some degree to obliterate the odium which, in the eyes of the Christian world, justly attaches to our government, because of the violence and heartlessness and bloodshed which have too often characterized its administration of Indian affairs." The disgraceful circumstances connected with the Sioux war of 1862, and the Cheyenne war of 1865, most likely exercised an influ ence in bringing about the new policy. The origin of the CHEY ENNE war was as follows : About five hundred Indians of that body, who, though charged with being offenders, protested that they did not wish to fight, were gathered under the protection of their agent, near Fort Larned. In the gray of the morning they were attacked by a body of Colorado volunteers, and the awful " Chivington mas sacre" resulted. An official report says : " It was a massacre that scarcely has its parallel in the records of Indian barbarity. Fleeing women, holding up their hands and praying for mercy, were brutally shot down ; infants were killed and scalped in derision ; men were tortured and mutilated in a manner that would put to shame the savage ingenuity of Africa. No one will be astonished that a war ensued which cost the government 30 million dollars, and carried conflagration and death to the border settlements." In organizing the new policy, the management of the In dians (who had been placed under the control of the Depart ment of the Interior as early as 1849), was m P art intrusted to a Board of Indian Commissioners composed of men of recognized integrity and ability, selected by the president. For the trial of the experiment, the entire territory from the state of Missouri to the Rocky mountains, and from the Red river of Texas to the line of the British provinces, was set apart, and divided into six districts or superintendencies. 1874] THE NEW INDIAN POLICY. 445 Subsequently, agencies were also established for the Indians west of the Rocky mountains. The following are the names and locations of the principal tribes which were intrusted to the care of thirteen of the religious denominations : Congregational. Arickarees, Mandans, and Gros Ventres, of Dacotah ; Chippewas, of Minnesota ; Menomonees and Oneidas, of Wisconsin. Methodist. Blackfeet and Crows, of Montana; western Shoshones, of Idaho ; also, in part, the Pacific coast Indians. Episcopalian. Sioux or Dacotahs, and the northern Chey- ennes and Arapahoes, of Dacotah ; and the eastern Shoshones, of Wyoming Territory. Roman Catholic. Flatheads of Montana, and a number of small tribes in Oregon, Washington Territory, and Dacotah. Presbyterian. Apaches and Navajoes, of New Mexico ; the Uintahs, of Utah ; Nez Perces, of Idaho. Dutch Reformed. Papagos, Pimas and Apaches, of the Gila and Colorado rivers, of Arizona. Hicksite Friends. Pawnees and Winnebagoes, lowas, Otoes and Omahas, of Nebraska. Orthodox Friends. Pottawatomies, of Kansas ; southern Cheyennes and Arapahoes, Kiowas and Comanches, Osages and Delawares, of the Indian Territory. There are about 25 tribes under the care of Friends, in the " Central Superinten- dency." Baptist. The Utes of Nevada and northern Arizona. The Mobilian tribes in the Indian Territory, to wit, the Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws and Seminoles, were considered sufficiently civilized to have agents of their own ; but in 1874 these agencies were consolidated into one, the Union, and placed under care of the Baptists. The Free- Will Baptists, United Presbyterians, Christian Union and Unitarians, also have agencies, but smaller than- 33 446 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1876 the above. The Moravians have missions in Kansas and the Indian Territory, but, as yet, no agency. The method of organization adopted by the Friends was as follows. Two members from each of their several Yearly Meeting districts were appointed, to constitute an "Associated Executive Committee on Indian Affairs." This committee nominated one superintendent, and also agents for the different tribes under their charge; all of whom were accepted by the president and confirmed by the senate. The committee was divided into four standing sub-committees, namely, on Instruc tion ; the Religious Interests of the Indians ; Industrial Pur suits; and the Washington committee, the duty of conferring directly w"ith the United States authorities devolving on the latter. Each agent was (and is) required to make a quarterly financial report to transmit to Washington, as well as an an nual report to the superintendent, of the condition of the Indians in his charge. The agents of the various religious societies who entered upon the beneficent work of civilizing and christianizing the Indians, found themselves speedily confronted by many dis heartening influences. They found there was not so much difficulty experienced in restraining turbulent Indians, as there was in keeping white outlaws away from the reservations, the greedy speculators, horse thieves and whiskey-dealers. But, notwithstanding the continuous opposition of those whose business it had been to thrive off the Indians, and in spite of the predictions of failure in attempting a policy of peace with "savages," the religious bodies have pressed forward in the work which was given into their hands, and now (1876), after a seven years trial, have proved it to be as much of a suc cess as could have been reasonably looked for. The Indians, for the most part, have been kept on the reservations allotted them ; many of them have tilled the soil and followed the employments of the white man ; they have been brought in a 1876] THE NEW INDIAN POLICY. 447 degree under the benign influences of the Christian religion, while many schools have been organized where instruction has been imparted to the children. Under the previous system of Indian management, the Indians had been systematically defrauded out of large quantities of the flour, beef, etc., due to them under government treaties. A notable illustration of the way in which the red men were thus robbed by the whites, is that afforded in the case of the Sioux. For the five months previous to the establishment of the reformed agency (Episcopalian), the average weight of the cattle furnished to the In dians was certified to be over 1500 pounds: the method being to weigh a few of the heaviest cattle and to assume that the remainder of the herd were of the same weight. But under honest agents who succeeded, the average weight for the next three months was found to be but a little over 1000 pounds ; thus showing that formerly the government had paid for one-third more pounds than the Sioux had really received. In restraining refractory Indians as well as unprincipled white men, the peace principles advocated by the Friends have been put to a severe test. They cannot make, use of deadly weapons themselves, and they feel a hesitancy in calling upon the military in cases which may issue in bloodshed ; while they as firmly believe that if the government was strictly just toward the Indians as well as prompt in its manifestation, there would be no excuse whatever for the use of such weapons. As a practical measure which may overcome the difficulty, they favor the establishment of a United States court in the Indian Territory, so that the civil force, namely, the United States marshal and his assistants, may be made use of, in stead of recourse being had to the military. The president, secretary of the Interior and many members of Congress, warmly approve of this plan, and it is to be hoped that, the Indians consenting, it may be carried into effect. Recently, a small band of MODOCS, from south-western Oregon, was placed upon the Quapaw reservation in the In- 448 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1876 dian Territory. In 1852, eighteen men of this tribe, while under a flag of truce, had been murdered by a Captain Wright and his company of soldiers. A difficulty again arose with the tribe in 1873, and troops were sent against them. Under the leadership of a warrior named Captain Jack (whose father was one of those murdered by Wright s company), they strongly entrenched themselves among what are known as the "lava beds." A truce was agreed upon, and General Can by and three other commissioners visited them, hoping to arrange a settlement. Captain Jack first demanded the return of some mules which had been stolen, and also that the soldiers them- selve should be removed back to where they were when the truce was agreed upon. The Modocs were strenuous on these points, which being refused, a signal was given, and General Canby and one of the other commissioners were killed. Captain Jack was captured, and executed without a trial, and his band, as stated above, were removed to the In dian Territory. The report of the Friends for 1875 savs f them : " The jVEodocs have been total abstainers from alco holic drinks since they have been on this reservation ; their children are in school, making good progress; they have land assigned to them by government, and are already fencing and cultivating it." Upon several occasions, strenuous efforts have been made to transfer the control of the Indians from the Department of the Interior to the War Department. Especially was this the case, during the congressional session of 1869-70. Very early in the latter year, however, it happened that an attack was made by United States troops upon the camp of the PIEGAN tribe of the Blackfeet Indians. There were nearly 250 natives in the camp, many of them suffering severely from the ravages of the smallpox. Nevertheless, four-fifths of them were killed ; ninety of whom were women, and about fifty, children, under twelve years of age. The news of this massacre effectually 1 845] THE TEMPERANCE QUESTION. 449 defeated the proposition to transfer these wards of the nation to the tender mercies of the military. The whole number of Indians in the United States is esti mated to be 300,000; of whom 100,000 are classed as civil ized; 125,000 partially civilized ; and 75,000 uncivilized or barbarous. THE TEMPERANCE QUESTION. Probably the greatest drawback to the happiness of our people, is to be found in the general use of intoxicating liquors. Half-a-century ago the public first became thoroughly aroused to the enormity of the evil, and a great effort was made to bring it under control. It was in 1826, at a time of much popular enthusiasm upon the subject, that the American Temperance Society was formed at Boston. In the course of five years, as many as 7000 tem perance associations were in operation, comprising a million and a quarter of members. But in the meantime, beer and cider, in place of rum, became popular drinks, and very many of those who had apparently reformed, gave way. In 1840, the " Washingtonian" temperance movement was started at Baltimore, and enthusiasm again ran high ; the excitement upon the subject being increased by the visit of Father Mat thew, a Romanist priest, who was an earnest advocate of total abstinence. The failure of the Washingtonian plan appears to have been owing to a too-exclusive reliance on man s strength, and a consequent ignoring of the aid of the Almighty Arm. Meanwhile, the subject of the liquor traffic was made a political question in several of the states. Licenses to sell were refused in many of the counties and towns of Massa chusetts, New York and Connecticut. The effects of the partial prohibition in Massachusetts, were thus stated in 1845 : " From more than 100 towns the traffic is entirely re moved, and a reduction is already visible in the public taxa- 38* 450 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1851 tion. In one town, with a population of 7000, there were, four years since, 469 paupers ; no license has reduced them to ii." In Potter county, Pennsylvania, where the judge re fused to grant any license, the report stated that, " The prison has become tenantless ; there is not a solitary pauper in the county ; the business in the criminal court has ceased, and taxes have been reduced one-half." A more recent instance of the excellent effect of a thorough pro hibitory law, is that afforded in the case of VINELAND, New Jersey. Out of a population of 10,000, the overseer of the poor reported that; for the space of six months, no settler or citizen had received relief. During an entire year there was but a single indictment, and that for a trifling case of assault. The fires are so infrequent that there appears to be no need of a fire department. The police ex penses amount to but $75 per year. By way of contrast to this ex hibit, the constable of the same place states, that in the town of New England from which he came, and which had scarcely as large a population as Vineland, there were maintained 40 liquor shops. To preserve order there was required a police judge, two marshals and ten watchmen and policemen. There were four fire companies of forty men each, while the fires, which were mostly incendiary, averaged one every two weeks. Numerous paupers also had to be supported. Owing to the facility with which liquors could usually be smuggled into a no license town or county, the prohibitory laws in New England were but partially successful. But in 1846, there was enacted by the legislature of Maine, the first state prohibitory law. Yet this law lacked practical force, because, while the liquor-dealer was subject to fines for the offence of selling, the liquor itself remained untouched. The large profits from his business would enable him to pay the fine and go on selling as before. However, a majority of tem perance men who favored a more stringent enactment, having been elected to the legislature, that body in 1851, by a vote of two to one, passed the act known as the Maine Liquor 1873] THE TEMPERANCE QUESTION. 45I Law." This law conferred upon the officers summary power to destroy the liquor, the liquor itself being received in evi dence against the dealer, the same as are the implements of the gambler or of the coiner of counterfeit money. NEAL Dow, mayor of Portland, was actively instrumental in procuring the passage of this law and also in maintaining its observance. Before 1856, the six New England states and six other states, enacted prohibitory laws ; but in none of them has the law continued in force except in the state of Maine. There, the palpable results of the prohibition law in lessening pauperism and crime, have produced a strong and settled public senti ment in its favor, which is not likely to be set at naught unless it be through the subtle machinations of the liquor-dealers. Notwithstanding the ill-success of the prohibitory move ment in most of the states, the opposition to the liquor traffic did not cease, but was brought to operate in a different man ner. Seeing that to the evil agency of rum are directly owing the greater part of the crimes which are committed ; the vagrancy and pauperism which prevail ; the cost of providing officers of the law, and maintaining penitentiaries and other institutions made necessary thereby, it became a question whether those who took part in the traffic were not equally amenable with the drunkard for the wretched consequences of his acts. Hence arose the principle of the Civil Damage laws, which of late years have been enacted in several of the states. The Civil Damage act, of Ohio, gives the right to any one who shall be injured in consequence of the intoxication, habitual or other- wise, of any person, to bring an action for all damages sustained, as well against the person who shall have sold the liquor which pro duced the intoxication, as against the owner or tenant of the build ing in which said liquor was sold. The Indiana Temperance law of 1873 provides that a petition for a permit to sell spirituous liquors must be signed by a majority of legal voters in the ward or township ; that the applicant must give 45 2 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1874 a bond, with two other persons as sureties, making themselves sev erally liable for damages suffered by reason of the sale of liquor; that it shall be unlawful for any one to get intoxicated (a penalty of five dollars being charged for the offence) ; that any one injured in person, property, or means of support by any intoxicated person, or by reason of such intoxication, shall have a right of action for damages against the person who sold the liquor, and against the landlord of the premises. In the winter of 1873 and 74, a Women s Temperance movement began in Ohio, and soon spread to Indiana and others of the western states, as well as the eastern cities. "Prayer, persuasion and personal influence," were declared to be the watchwords. Whole counties in Ohio were swept free of the saloons. In the city of Brooklyn, many of the liquor-dealers gave up the demoralizing business and united with the friends of temperance in endeavors to put down the traffic. " Workingmen s Coffee-Houses" and " Holly Tree Inns" have been started in many of the cities, to serve the purpose of substitutes for the taverns which have been re moved. At those places, non-intoxicating beverages, such as coffee and milk, can be had of excellent quality, at less than the price of ardent spirits. In England, as at Manchester and Liverpool, cocoa has been largely employed as a substitute for beer and spirituous liquors. During the session of 1874, the Senate of the United States passed a bill providing for a National Commission to inquire into the results of the liquor traffic ; but the House of Repre sentatives has not, as yet, concurred therein. The general government, in permitting the manufacture of intoxicating liquors simply upon the payment of a tax, becomes in a meas ure a party to the monstrous evil. Again, the dealers feel that, having settled the tax, they ought not to be hindered in dispensing their vile manufactures. But, compare the revenue received by the government, with the cost to the country. 1 874] THE TEMPERANCE QUESTION, 453 The amount of receipts of internal revenue arising from the tax on spirituous and fermented liquors, was, in 1874, 58 million dollars. This is the annual gain. There are 13,000 distilleries, breweries and wholesale stores, and 140,000 saloons, employing over half a million men in this work so destructive to body and soul. Were these distil leries and saloons ranged in a single line, side by side, it would probably take a man the space of forty days, walking fifteen miles per day, to get beyond the last of those doors of death ! About 100,000 persons, at an expense of 100 million dol lars, are annually imprisoned for crime, a large part of which is directly due to the use of strong drink. Briefly stated : the annual waste in grain, fruit, etc., which are turned into intoxi cating liquors ; in the cost of pauperism and crime, produced by intemperance ; in the loss of productive industry ; in the loss of wages or value of time of those employed in the busi ness; in the support of insane, idiots and disabled, are to gether estimated at 1300 million dollars. In other words, for every dollar which the government receives, the country loses over 220. The exhibit on page 431 is instructive. Consider the loss in a single state. In Virginia, where the yearly taxation of property for state purposes amounts to about 3^ mil lion dollars, it is estimated that the value of intoxicating liquors consumed amounts to as much as 12 million dollars per annum : equal to the value of the whole wheat crop of the state (8,000,000 bushels) for the year 1870 ! It seems, as yet, to be very imperfectly understood, that the dis tilled product of grain and fruit, is a veritable poison when taken into the human system. How greatly the food resources of the nation are worse than wasted by thus changing them into a subtle intoxicant, is pointedly set forth in the following brief testimony of a leading American physican, Dr. Willard Parker : "Alcohol is a poison when introduced into a healthy system ; it is a foreign substance, and, of itself, incapable of making any repair, ultimately inducing diseases of the system as surely as malaria or 454 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1872 any other poison. Our life insurance companies have settled this point. It is now established that a young man who is sober at twenty and continues so, has an average chance of life of 64 years and 2 months ; but the drinker at twenty, if he continues to drink alcoholic liquors, has an average of life of 35* years." A difference, in favor of temperance, of 285 years. But when we turn to contemplate the moral loss which the traffic entails, it must be confessed to be altogether beyond computation. Whoever has heard the sad details in the case of but a single victim of intemperance, must admit that no adequate conception can be formed of the sum total of wretch edness and crime which mark the career of the 6o ,ooo or more in this land alone, who yearly go down to the drunkard s grave. ARBITRATION AND PEACE. One of the most cheering events in the history of our country, was the peaceful settlement of the Alabama question by arbitration. Upon the conclusion of the Civil War, the American government demanded of England re-imbursement for the damages inflicted upon its shipping by the Alabama and other Confederate cruisers which had been fitted out in English ports. For six years this claim was resisted, and, at times, such was the feeling of irritation produced by the dis cussion, that it appeared as though a war would certainly follow. But finally, in 1871, representatives of the two powers met at Washington to arrange a treaty. One of the provisions of this treaty was, that a Court of Arbitration should be ap pointed, which should convene at Geneva, in Switzerland, and determine the amount of damages properly due to this country. Accordingly, the arbitrators met (1872) at the place ap pointed, and chose Count Sclopis, of Italy, their presiding officer. Three principles of law formed the basis of the 1872] ARBITRATION AND PEACE. 455 TREATY OF WASHINGTON : ist. That a neutral government is bound to use due diligence to prevent the fitting out, within its jurisdiction, of armed vessels intended to injure a friendly nation ; ad. That a neutral government must not allow its ports to be used as a basis of naval operations; and 3d. That a neutral government is responsible for the violation of these provisions. Much of the time of the sessions was taken up in the consideration of "indirect damages" claimed by the United States. These, however, being finally rejected, the arbitrators awarded to the United States the sum of $15.500,000 in full for all claims. England, greatly to her honor, acquiesced in the award without demur. As the consideration of the methods by which wars may be averted, forms one of the most important topics which can engage the attention of the student of history, it will be worth our while to make inquiry as to what measures have been pro posed, or efforts put forth, in this and in other countries, for the preservation of international peace. There are at least four ways open to nations for establishing their rights, without having recourse to the sword. I. NEGOTIATION. The settlement of all causes of disagree ment by the parties themselves. II. ARBITRATION. When the parties become too much excited by passion to reason, they may agree to choose an umpire. III. MEDIATION. When rulers become impressed with the belief that they must solve the matters in dispute by force of arms, the friendly mediation of a third power may be offered. IV. A CONGRESS OF NATIONS. For many reasons, this is by far the preferable plan. In the matter of economy, for instance, it would save the enormous yearly outlay for military preparations in times of peace, as well as the extra expendi tures which are incurred whenever a disagreement, likely to culminate in war, arises. HISTORY Of THE UNITED STATES. [1872 In the history of our own country, when direct Negotiation has failed, wars have been frequently averted by Mediation and Arbitration. The following are instances : 1822. The question of restitution for certain damages in flicted by Great Britain during the war of 1812, was referred for arbitration to the emperor of Russia. 1827. The north-eastern Boundary Dispute between this country and Great Britain, was referred to the king of the Netherlands. His decision not being satisfactory, it was sub sequently settled by the Ashburton Treaty. 1838. Matters in controversy with Mexico, were referred to the king of Prussia. 1853. All outstanding claims which had arisen between Great Britain and the United States, were referred to two commissioners, who chose an umpire to decide the case. 1858. Claims against Chili for the seizure of private prop erty, were referred for settlement to the king of the Belgians. 1860. Claims against New Grenada, and also against Costa Rica, were referred to commissions mutually appointed. 1863. Two claims against Peru were referred, one of them to the king of the Belgians, the other to a commission. 1864. A serious dispute with Great Britain concerning property about Puget Sound, was referred to a commission. 1871. Claims for damages arising out of the troubles in Cuba, were referred to a commission at Washington, who chose the Austrian ambassador to be umpire. The excellent moral effect of the Geneva Arbitration of 1872, has been evidenced in the increasing number of inter national disputes which have been similarly adjusted. Of these may be instanced the four following, as having occurred within the last two years. a. A dispute between the Swiss and Italian governments, respecting a portion of their frontier, was referred to two ar bitrators, by whom an umpire was chosen. 1872] ARBITRATION AND PEACE. 457 b. Between China and Japan a trouble arose, growing out of the murder of some Japanese on the island of Formosa. The demand for compensation was not acceded to ; an angry controversy ensued ; and preparations for hostilities on a large scale were made on both sides. But the British minister at Pekin offering to mediate, his friendly services were ac cepted. c. A dispute between Japan and Peru, growing out of the seizure of a vessel belonging to the latter country, which was engaged in the coolie trade, was referred to the emperor of Russia for decision. d. A controversy between England and Portugal relative to the possession of the country around Delagoa bay, South Africa, was settled by referring the case to the adjudication of the president of the French Republic. But, unhappily, while many possible contests have been by these means avoided, such has not been the result in all the cases of dispute which have recently arisen. The wars of the last twenty years have been as baseless in their causes, and as bloody in execution, as any which preceded them. Thus the terrible war of 1870 between France and Germany, was brought about simply by a personal affront offered by the French ambas sador to the Prussian king ! But let us now inquire what are the peculiar merits of method IV., a Congress of Nations. The plan of such a congress, which was favored by Henry the Fourth, of France, found an able and more consistent exponent in William Penn. At a time (1693) when most of the nations of Europe were engaged in a general war, Penn made an effort to impress the minds of his contemporaries with a much more rational method of settling their differences. With this end in view, he produced "An Essay toward the present and future peace of Europe, by the establishment of an European diet, parliament or estates." In this remarkable essay, the writer, after contrasting the advantages of peace, tf 39 458 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1872 with the evils, expenses and desolations of war, shows that it should be the chief object of government to preserve the peace among its members, and, with that intent, the redress of grievances should be intrusted to impartial hands. Having suggested the expediency of applying to the controversies between nations the same principles as are applied to those between individuals, he therefore recommends the institution of a General Congress, by whom a code of laws for the regu lation of their mutual intercourse should be agreed upon, and to which all should be required to submit. Penn s plan was taken but little notice of until about the year 1835, when it was revived by WILLIAM LADD, of New England, who added to the original proposition the sugges tion of an International Court. This amended plan, which has been received with so much favor by all lovers of peace, is as follows : i. A Congress of Ambassadors, from all those Christian and civilized nations who choose to send them, for the purpose of settling the principles of international law by a mutually binding compact and agreement ; and also of devising and promoting plans for the preservation of peace and amelio rating the condition of man. 2. A High Court of Nations , composed of the most able civilians in the world, to arbitrate or judge such cases, as, by the mutual consent of two or more contending nations, should be brought before it. These propositions were afterward extensively advocated by Elihu Burritt, and were presented by him at the great Peace Congresses which were held at Brussels, Paris, Frankfort and London, in the four years from 1848 to 1851. In 1849, RICHARD COBDEN, in response to more than 200,000 petitioners, presented a motion in the British House of Commons, in favor of stipulated arbitration as a substitute for war, but it was not carried. The measure was also ear- 1873] ARBITRATION AND PEACE. 459 nestly advocated by JOHN BRIGHT. Three years later, the legislatures of several of our states before whom the subject was brought, gave their votes in its favor. Little was then heard of the matter for the succeeding twenty years, until the success of the Geneva Arbitration, together with the consid eration of the folly which led to the Franco-Prussian war and the barbarities accompanying it, brought the subject again prominently forward. In 1873, the House of Commons, on motion of HENRY RICHARD, adopted a resolution recommending the Queen to take steps " to enter into communication with foreign powers, with a view to the further improvement of international law ; and the establishment of a general and permanent system of international arbitration." And in the following year, the House of Representatives of the United States recommended, by a unanimous vote, that arbitration should be made a national substitute for war ; and that thereafter, in all treaties between the United States and foreign powers, provision should be made, if practicable, that war shall not be declared by either of the contracting parties against the other until efforts have been made to adjust all alleged causes of difficulty by impartial arbitration." In continuation of the above favorable action on the part of the governments of Great Britain and the United States, the Italian parliament at Rome, without a dissenting voice, passed a motion in favor of international arbitration. The lower house of the Swedish Diet, as well as the parliament of Holland, have likewise cast their votes in its favor, while a similar resolution is pending in the Belgian Chamber of Representatives. Meanwhile, in 1873, a conference was held at Brussels, composed of thirty-five eminent publicists and jurists of different nations, who organized the "Association for the Reform and Codification of the Law of Nations;" and Eng- 4 6o HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1875 lish, French and Italian branches were formed. The following year, the association met at Geneva, in the same hall in which the Arbitration Court had convened to decide the Alabama question. Finally, in 1875, a meeting was held at the Hague, whereat committees were appointed to bring the subjects of arbitration and a proportionate reduction of armaments before the governments of Christendom. Thus rests this vital matter to-day. The Christian duty of nations herein, may be com prised in the one word forbearance. Not alone between individuals, but between states and nations, is that admoni tion of Scripture obligatory, which says, " Forbearing one another in love." Notwithstanding what has here been said, the army and navy constitute, in many of their offices, too valuable a portion of the public service to be entirely dispensed with. But while we may with advantage give up the fortifications and gun-boats, and all munitions of war, yet an efficient and well-organized body of men will still be needed to carry on the operations of the land and coast survey, the weather signal service, the maintenance of lighthouses and life-saving stations, the re moving of river and harbor obstructions, and other useful and beneficial public works. Our navy, too, may become the "white-winged messengers of peace," carrying timely aid to far-:ofT lands to sufferers by famine and the flood. SCIENCE IN AMERICA. THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, originated at Phila delphia in 1743, but not formally organized until 1769, owed its formation, in great measure, to the exertions of Benjamin Franklin. Franklin, who was elected its first president, was then engaged upon those highly interesting experiments in electricity and meteorology which caused him to be as widely known as a scientific investigator as he subsequently iS75] SCIENCE IN AMERICA. 461 was as a statesman. It is from that period also that our record of scientific progress dates. A clockmaker s apprentice, David Rittenhouse, who had turned his attention to astronomical study, constructed two remarkable orreries (still to be seen at the College of New Jersey and the University of Pennsylvania), which give the movements and relative positions of the heavenly bodies for each year, month, day and hour for the period of 5000 years. This American Ferguson, who succeeded Franklin in the presidency of the Philosophical Society, was engaged upon the first work undertaken by that body the year it was formed, namely, in observations upon the transit of Venus (1769). Rittenhouse was also employed to superin tend the running of the boundary-lines between several of the States. Robert Hare, following the lead of Franklin, demonstrated (1801) the use of the oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe as a. generator of intense heat, improved the voltaic battery by the construc tion of his deflagrator (1820), and likewise introduced many other ingenious appliances in connection with chemistry and electro-magnetism. John W. Draper, of New York, in continuation of researches into the properties of light, applied photographic methods to obtaining pictures of the human countenance, to the study of spectrum analysis, and in securing views of the moon. Improved results in the same direction were obtained by his son, Henry Draper, and by Lewis M. Rutherford. General interest in chemical science had been fostered by the publication of the Journal of Science and Arts (1814), long edited thereafter by Benjamin Silliman, Sr. ; also by Silliman s public lectures, and by those delivered before his class at Yale College. Analytic chemistry owes much to the recent labors of Gibbs and Genth ; theoretic chemistry, to Professors Hunt and Cooke. In mineralogy, the name of James D. Dana is widely known through his text- 39* 462 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1875 books, the first of which appeared as early as 1837. The gyratory or cyclonic movement of storms was described by Redfield, of New York (1827), and later by Espy, of Pennsyl vania, in his treatise on the Philosophy of Storms (1841) ; the nature of star-showers, by Denison Olmsted, of New Haven, (1834); cometary orbits and auroral phenomena, by Elias Loomis, also of New Haven ; sun-spots and solar physics, by Professor Young, of Dartmouth. John Bartram, whose botanic garden, near Philadelphia, became such an object of interest to lovers of plants in this country, and to visitors from Europe, made numerous excur sions in the Southern seaboard states, and, returning there from with many rare and beautiful botanic treasures, freely bestowed them upon his correspondents in both hemispheres. By Linnaeus he was spoken of as " the greatest natural botanist in the world." He died in 1777, leaving a son William, who had been his companion in travel, and was similarly interested in botanical pursuits. The trees of the United States were described by F. A. Michaux (1803). Pursh also published a flora (1814), which was followed by the manual of Eaton. All of these, however, adhered to the artificial classification of Linnaeus. But in 1831 appeared the work of John Torrey, arranged according to the natural system of Lindley, the method now universally adopted. The manuals of Asa Gray, of Harvard, published during the last forty years, are familiar to all. Alexander Wilson, a schoolmaster of Philadelphia, of Scotch nativity, becoming infected with his friend Bartram s love for natural science, took up the special study of birds, and between the years 1804 and 1817 made those extensive observations in field and forest which resulted in the publi cation of his American Ornithology, in seven volumes, hand somely illustrated. An eighth volume, in continuation of the series, was afterward published by Charles Lucien Bona- 1 875] SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 463 parte, a nephew of Napoleon while, a few years later, the rival work of John James Audubon appeared. Audubon, in association with John Bachman, also published (1846- 5 4) a similar finely illustrated work upon the Viviparous Quadru peds of America. Whilst Audubon was thus engaged, a Swiss scholar, Louis Agassiz, came to this country (1846) ; and having accepted the chair of zoology and geology at Harvard College, his researches in the studies named, and in other allied branches, together with his thorough methods of im parting instruction to his pupils, resulted in raising up many enthusiastic students of natural science. Of late years the study and classification of American birds and insects have been pursued by Cassin, Packard, Brewer, Baird, the Le Contes, and others. In medical practice and surgery, probably the most import ant recent discovery has been that of the use, as anaesthetics, of nitrous oxide gas and of sulphuric ether. The first was suc cessfully administered by Horace Wells, a dentist of Hartford, Connecticut, in 1844; the ether very soon afterward by Dr. W. T. G. Morton (a pupil of Wells), and by Charles T. Jackson, a Boston chemist. THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, organized at Washington (1846) by Act of Congress, and intrusted to a Board of Regents, derives its revenue from a large fund bequeathed by James Smithson, an Englishman, "for the increase and dif fusion of knowledge among men." It has greatly helped the cause of science by affording assistance in the publication of scientific memoirs, the expenses of which could not have been defrayed by the investigators themselves. The varied and valuable researches of Joseph Henry, the Secretary of the Institution, have extended over a period of half a century. As early as 1830, being engaged in experimenting upon statical electricity, he demonstrated the practicability of an electric telegraph a year before the perfected invention of 464 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1875 Professor Morse, mention of which will be found in the next section. The explorations and surveys undertaken by the Bureau of Topographical Engineers (i853~ 56) "to ascertain the most practicable and economical route for a railroad from the Missouri river to the Pacific ocean ;" the geological survey of the 4oth parallel, under the superintendence of Clarence King (1867- 69); the similar surveys of the Western terri tories, in charge of George M. Wheeler and Dr. F. V. Hay- den, now in progress, have added much to our knowledge, not only of the topography of the country, but of its plants, animals, rock-formations, etc. Especially has the study of palaeontology been advanced by the discovery of extensive fossil remains in that region. The first of these, publicly noticed, were the mammalian fauna found in the Mauvaises Terres of Nebraska (1847), ar >d described by Joseph Leidy. Very many new species of fossil saurians and fishes, as well as of mammals, have been described by Professors Leidy, Cope and Marsh. The YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK with its grand canon, waterfall, lakes and spouting springs was set apart by act of Congress (1872), for the public use and enjoyment for ever. It is situated in the north-west corner of Wyoming Territory , and comprises an area of 3575 square miles. A FEW STATISTICS OF PROGRESS. In the year 1820, the population of the twenty states then comprising the United States, was 5,300,000; of which number, 1,000,000 were persons of color. By the census of 1870, with 37 states and TO territories, the population was as certained to be upward of 38,500,000 ; of which total, 4,900,- ooo were colored. The number of Chinese was 63,000 ; five- sixths of them being located in California, and the rest mostly in Oregon and Nevada. A FEW STATISTICS OF PROGRESS. 465 Much of this rapid increase of population has, of course, been due to immigration ; the largest accessions coming from the British Isles and Germany. The business prostration which prevailed in Great Britain after the great wars with Napoleon, together with the dissatisfaction caused by the op pressive operation of the Corn Laws, led many of the laboring classes to seek homes elsewhere. The repeal of the Corn Laws by parliament, in 1846 (removing thereby the import duty on grain), happened too late to arrest the outflow of emigrants, most of whom came to America. Still further impetus was, moreover, given to the movement, by the British commercial crisis of 1847, an d by the prevalence, at the same time, of the potato disease. Whilst, in 1845, tne number of emigrants leaving the United Kingdom amounted to but 93,000, in 1851 the number had increased to 368,000, of whom just two-thirds (244,000) settled in this country. The harsh usages of war, but especially compulsion to per form military service, have, since the Franco-Prussian war of 1870, driven tens of thousands of Germans to America, where there are no such statute requirements in operation. The plains of Pomerania in eastern Prussia, have lost large numbers of their inhabitants upon this account ; and so alarming became the movement for awhile, that the German government threat ened to use coercive measures to prevent this wholesale de population. The like causes, operating in Russia, have resulted in a similar expatriation of the MENNONITES from the southern portion of that kingdom. Between 1873 an d 1876, over 10,000 of that sect have settled in America, principally in Kansas, Nebraska, Dacotah and Minnesota, and in the Mani toba province of the Dominion of Canada. So great an influx of population, accompanied, as it was, by the building of railways and other internal improvements, exercised a great influence in rapidly developing the states u* 466 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1870 of the West. At the same time reaping and mowing machines began to come into use. The first patent for a reaper was taken out in 1833, by Schnebly, of Maryland. The first suc cessful mower, which came into use in 1831, was that of Manning, of New Jersey, followed by Ambler s improvement in 1834. These were greatly surpassed by those of Hussey and McCormick, which have gained a world-wide reputation. Other improved machinery, such as horse-rakes, and horse- and steam-threshers, have wonderfully facilitated the in-gath ering of crops. The yield of the principal food crops of 1870, was as follows: Indian Corn . . . 992 million Bushels. Oats 255 " Wheat .... 230 " Barley .... 26 " Rye 15 Buckwheat . . . 81 " Potatoes . . . . 1 20 " These seven crops were planted on 66^ million acres. Nearly all of the product of barley, and a large portion of the rye, were converted into malt for beer and whiskey. Of tobacco there were 356,000 acres planted, yielding 263 million pounds. But as the ways in which the hurtful weed can be usefully employed, are extremely limited, a decrease in this crop would be advantageous to the people generally. Cotton is the most valuable single product of American soil. An enormous increase in its production resulted, upon the invention of the cotton-gin or cleaner, by Eli Whitney. A native of Massachusetts, Whitney graduated at Yale College in 1792, and, the same year, went to Georgia as a teacher. Ob serving how slow and difficult was the work of separating by hand the cotton from the seed, he sought to devise some mechanical contrivance for this purpose, and in a few months was rewarded with success. By reason of this discovery, in 1870] A FEW STATISTICS OF PROGRESS. 467 the eight years from 1792 to 1800, the exports of cotton in creased from 138,000 Ibs., worth $30,000, to 18,000,000 Ibs., worth $3,000,000. By the census of 1870, the cotton crop amounted to 3,100,000 bales, averaging 440 Ibs. to the bale. Nearly two-thirds of this was exported ; the remainder was consumed in American mills. The number of cotton-manufacturing establishments, by the census, was 956. Massachusetts had the greatest number, 191. Georgia stood first of the Southern states, having 34. Of woolen factories there were 2891. Pennsylvania came first, with 457 ; in the South, Kentucky led, with 125. Notwithstanding the laws which have been passed in New England, to prevent the employment of children in the cotton and woolen mills at too early an age, the indifference and cu pidity of parents and employers have caused the statutes to be almost entirely disregarded. A Massachusetts report (1870) says, " The mills all over the state, the shops in city and town, are full of children deprived of their right to such education as will fit them for the possibilities of their after-life, and no body thinks of obeying the school laws." In Rhode Island, it appeared by the census of 1870, that the number of those who could neither read nor write was five times greater than it was in 1850 ! Not ignorance alone, but depravity and overt crime result from this species of semi-enslavement. To obvi ate these evils, compulsory education is generally recommended, in addition to the enactment and enforcement of stringent laws to prevent the too early employment of the children. The first patent for a sewing-machine, was granted to J. J. Greenough, of Washington, but the first really practical one, was that patented by Elias Howe in 1846. This was followed by the machines of Wheeler and Wilson, Grover and Baker, Singer and Co., and several others. In 1870, the numbei manufactured in this country amounted to nearly 500,000. The coal yield of 1870 was estimated at 37 million tons 468 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1870 Pennsylvania producing three-fourths of the total. The yield of iron ore was very nearly 2 million tons, one-third of it being mined in Pennsylvania. The discovery, made in 1861, that coal-oil or petroleum, existed in the western part of Penn sylvania and in West Virginia, in such great quantities as to become a valuable commercial product, caused for a time a high state of excitement and much speculation. A great number of companies were organized, but the stock of many soon became of little or no value. Nevertheless, the business assumed large proportions, so that petroleum presently became one of the principal articles of export. Of precious metals, the yield of 1871 was estimated at 66 million dollars. Nevada and California each produced nearly a third of the total ; the territories of Montana, Idaho and Colorado, most of the remainder. The first patent issued by the government was one to William Pollard (1790) for an improved spinning-machine. At the expiration of fifty years the annual issues amounted to about 500; but in the single year 1876, the number had risen to upward of 17,000. Of the very great number of American inventions useful in the arts, none has proved capable of such extensive and varied applications, as the vulcanization of india-rubber : that is to say, its hardening by combination with sulphur. This dis covery was made by Charles Goodyear, of New Haven, about the year 1835. A few of the many uses to which this sub stance can be applied, are the manufacture of water-proof boots and overshoes, flexible gas-pipes and water-pipes, buffers for railway carriages, mats for doors and rooms, machinery- belts, braces, telegraph cables, hats, harness, wheels, and as washers in the fitting of countless sorts of apparatus and ma chinery. The rubber, combined with finely divided sand, as well as sulphur, is made into ink-erasers ; with tar and sulphur, it forms a mixture which is run into moulds, and hardens with . ,. 1870] A FEW STATISTICS OF PROGRESS. 469 - the lustre and blackness of jet. In this manner are made brackets, combs, pencil-cases, thimbles, and a great variety of useful and ornamental articles. The Electric Telegraph was invented by Samuel T. B. Morse, of New York, in 1832, and exhibited to Congress in 1837; but it was not until 1843 tnat tnat body agreed to ex tend aid for an experimental line to be built from Washington to Baltimore. The alphabet of Morse is a series of dots and dashes. It has been superseded in. many places by House s instrument, which prints the letters themselves. There are now over 75,000 miles of telegraph in operation in this country. The first ocean telegraph cable between Europe and America was successfully laid and operated in 1866. Five lines are now in operation, four from Ireland and one from France. Experiments upon the transmission of musical tones by telegraphy were made (1873- 76) by E. P. Gray, of Chicago. This harmonic process, as it is called, allows several simul taneous transmissions to be made over the same wire. By the duplex and quadruple* methods, which are adaptations of the harmonic process, the working capacity of the lines may, at a trifling expense, and without the use of additional wires, be greatly augmented. Prof. Graham A. Bell, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, invented, in 1876, the telephone, an attachment to the electro-magnetic battery, by which articulate sounds are made audible through the vibra tions of a metallic disk responding to the sounds uttered by the sender. In other words, telephony is the conversion of the electric current effect into sound. Perhaps more wonder ful as an invention than any of the above (but not as yet used in connection with telegraphy) is the phonograph, or sound- writer, an instrument which records upon metal foil impres sions of spoken words, and, by the use of the impressed foil, will itself audibly repeat them. This it may do, apparently, 40 470 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1875 centuries after the words were first uttered. This ingenious piece of mechanism is the invention of T. A. Edison, of Newark, New Jersey. The first steamboat constructed in the United States to carry passengers, was built at Philadelphia in 1787, by John Fitch. The motor was a low-pressure engine, and the boat was propelled by a paddle-wheel at the stern. Oliver Evans, of the same city, in 1804, first practically applied to a boat, the high-pressure engine ; but this craft was merely used for dock-dredging purposes. The first really successful applica tion of the power, was that of Robert Fulton, whose boat, the Clermont, a small side-wheel steamer, in 1807 ascended the Hudson, from New York to Albany. Improvements made in 1815 by Robert L. Stevens, resulted in securing a higher rate of speed. In 1838, the first ocean steamship from England, the Sirius, arrived in the harbor of New York. The first railroad in the United States was constructed in 1826. It connected the town of Quincy, Massachusetts, with Neponset, and was but three miles in length. It was built to supply the granite for Bunker Hill monument. The cars were drawn by horses. A railway was built the next year, 1827, at Mauch Chunk, Pennsylvania, the cars being raised by horse power to the summit of the mountain, and descending by gravity. In 1828, twelve miles of the Baltimore and Ohio railroad were built and operated as a passenger railway. The same year the first locomotive engine used in America (but built in England, by Stephenson), was run upon a short road of the Delaware and Hudson Canal Company, connecting with their mines. At the West Point foundry, New York, the first American built locomotive was constructed. It was operated on the South Carolina railway in 1831. Other roads were constructed in that and the preceding year. The total length 1876] A FEW STATISTICS OF PKOGKESS. 471 of railway lines open for traffic in 1875, was about 70,000 miles. The first Pacific Railroad was built principally between the years 1866 and 1868. Lavish grants of money and of land were conceded by the government to two chartered companies: the Union Pacffic, controlling the eastern section of 1032 miles from Omaha, Nebraska, to Ogden City, Utah ; and the Central Pacific, or western section of 88 1 miles, from Ogden to San Francisco. The money bounty advanced by the government in aid of the construction, and for which second mortgage bonds were issued by the companies, aver aged $30,000 per mile ; making a total of 50 million dollars. The company had also issued first mortgage bonds to the same amount. Portions of the road were constructed with extraor dinary celerity, as much as a mile or more of track being laid in one day. The cost of construction, however, of the Union Pacific railroad, was not so great as the means in hand. The company therefore, having a plethora of resources, by a fraudu lent process contracted with itself for an ostensible price, to build its own road. Many members of Congress were impli cated in furthering this disgraceful transaction, which involved millions of dollars, and was known as the " Credit Mobilier" scheme. The Northern Pacific railway, projected a little later, was intended to connect Duluth, at the west end of Lake Superior, with Puget Sound. Congress granted, in aid of it, over 50 million acres of land, an area equal to ten states of the size of Massachusetts. Bonds of the company, to a very large amount, were disposed of, when, in 1873, i ts chief projectors failed. Much financial distress and many failures followed, and business generally experienced greater depression than had been known since the termination of the Civil War. This depressed condition of affairs still continues. Never before, in our country s history, have the lamentable results 47 2 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1876 of overtrading, speculation, the haste to be rich even at the sacrifice of integrity, been so marked as is the case at this day. Gambling in gold and stocks, and even in wheat and corn the very necessaries of life is largely prevalent in the leading cities ; while startling defalcations by officers high in places of trust, are of every-day occurrence". And now, in this Centennial Year of American Independence, when our country will exhibit the evidences of her progress to all the nations of the globe, what have we to show of a more exalted sentiment of honor and integrity than prevailed of yore, or of a more faithful administration of public duties? Further more, while we behold exhibited the products of our mines, the fabrics from our factories and looms, do we feel that we have sufficiently regarded the low estate of the toilers who have helped us to all this wealth ? that we have equally desired for ourselves and for them, a growth in holiness and in the knowledge of Him from whom all blessings flow ? It is of small moment that we should be accounted great, if we be not earnestly engaged to reap those riches which are more enduring. INDEX. ABERCROMBIE. General, 286. Acadie, colonization of, 107. French Neutrals of, 275. Adams, John, 304, 328, 332. second president, 337. death of, 383. Adams, J. Q., negotiates, 366, 373. president, 380. Agassiz, Louis, 463. Aix-la-Chapelle, peace of, 268. Alabama admitted, 374. Alabama, territorial, 332. Alabama, career of the, 423. Claims Commission, 454. Alarcon, expedition of, 61. Alaska, 379, 435. Albany, settlement of, 134. Albemarle settlements, early, 176, 179. Alexander, Sir William, 143. Algiers, war with, 369. Algonquins, account of the, 37. Amendment, Thirteenth, 428. Fourteenth, 434. Fifteenth, 437. America, discovery of, 14, 25. American Philosophical Society, 460. Amerigo Vespucci, 45. Amherst, General, 287. Amidas and Barlow at Roanoke, 84. Anresthetics, application of, 463. Andre, Major, 314. Andros, Sir Edmund, 187, 209, 229. Antinomian controversy, 141, 145. Anti-Slavery agitation, 406. Arbitration and peace, 454. Archdale, John, of Carolina, 230. Argall, Samuel (Captain), 99, 109. Arkansas admitted, 394. Arnold, treason of, 314. Ashburton Treaty, 397. Assiento, the, 251. Astoria, 379, 401. Audubon, the naturalist, 463. Atlanta, Sherman at, 428. BACON S Rebellion, 171. Balboa discovers the Pacific, 56. Baltimore founded, 268. Baltimore, Lord, 161, 218. Bank of North America, 316. of the United States, 370, 391. troubles, 393, 396. Bankrupt laws, 396, 436. Banks and bills of credit, 244. Banks, National, 425. Baptist Indian agencies, 445. Baptists in Rhode Island, 145. Bartram, the botanist, 462. Benezet, Anthony, 270. Bennington, battle of, 306. Bennington settled, 259, 330. Berkeley in Virginia, 164, 168. Black Hawk war, 391. Blair, commissary, 229. Boone, Daniel, 296. Boston Massacre, 292. Port Bill, 293. settlement of, 140. great fire at, 392. siege of, 301. Braddock s defeat, 275. Brainerd, David and John, 263. Brandy wine, battle of, 307. Brazil, discovery of, 45. Brazilian coast, the French on, 69. Breckenridge, John C., 411, 414. British-Spanish war of 1739, 257. Brooklyn, settlement of, 127. Brown, John, raid of, 414. Buchanan, James, 411. Bull Run or Manassas, 417, 422. Bunker Hill, battle of, 301. Burgoyne s surrender at Saratoga, 307. Burlington Woods, treaty in, 188. Burr, Aaron, 340, 342, 345. 40* 473 474 INDEX. CABEZA DE VACA, adventures of, 61. Cabot, John, 42. Cabot, Sebastian, 42, 79. Calhoun, John C., 386, 390. California, emigration to, 404. admitted as a state, 408. California coast, Cabrillo on the, 83. Drake on the, 83. Canada conquered from the French, 285. French occupation of, 106. rebellion of 1837, 394. Cancello, the monk, in Florida, 66. Cape Cod discovered by Gosnold, 89. Caribs, extinction of the, 58. Carolina settled, 176. Cartier, voyages of, 47. Castin, Baron, of Acadie, 221. Census of United States, 464. Centennial Celeb ration, 472. Chambersburg, burning of, 428. Champlain in Canada, 107, no. Lake, battle of, 364. Chancellorsville, battle of, 425. Charleston, fire of 1740, 258. settled, 181. sieges of, 303, 426, 429. Charters, colonial, demanded, 208. Cherokees, removal of the, 387. Cheyenne war, 444. Chicago founded, 392. fire, 436. Chickasaws, French war with the, 250. Chickasaws, De Soto and the, 64. Children in mills, employment of, 467. Chinese in the United States, 464. Choctaws, 39, 250, 389. Cincinnati founded, 341. Civil damage acts, 451. Civil War, American, 416. Clay, Henry, 369, 380, 390. Clay s Omnibus Bill, 408. Clayborne, of Kent Island, 162, 165. Clinton, De Witt, 441. Coal and coal-oil yield, 468. Colfax, Schuyler, 436. Coligny, the Huguenot chief, 68. Colleges in United States, 440. Colonization Society, American, 369. English, 378. Colorado admitted as a state, 437. early dwellers in, 31. Columbus, Christopher, 21. Compensated emancipation, 411. Congregational Indian agencies, 445. Congfjegationalists oppose slavery, : 270. Connecticut, settlement of, 123, 127, 133, 146, 197. Constitution formed, the, 323. Constitutional government, 326. Corinth, battle of, 423. Cornplanter, the Seneca, 359. Coronado, march of, 61. Cortereal, voyage of, 45. Cortez conquers Mexico*, 54. Cotton gin invented, 466. Cotton in Virginia, first, lor. Cotton, sea-island, 233. yield of, 466. Credit Mobilier scheme, 471. Creek war, 362. Creeks, removal of the, 384. Cuba, conquest of, 28. discovery of, 25. Culpeper in Virginia, 170, 174. Currency, early colonial, 151, 164. DACOTAHS, account of the, 39. Dare, Virginia, 88. Davis, Jefferson, 415, 430. De Ayllon s voyage for slaves, 59. Decatur, Stephen, 344, 369. Declaration of Independence, 304. Deerfield, massacre of, 235. De Fuca, Juan, on Oregon coast, 83. De Gourgues in Florida, 77. De Kalb, Baron, 314. Delawares, tribe of, 188, 214, 260, 278, 280, 289. Delaware, Lord, 96, 100. Delaware organized, 219, 226. De Monts colonizes Acadie, 107. _De Soto, Ferdinand, 63. Detroit founded by the French, 235. District of Columbia, 335. Douglas, Stephen A., 409, 414. Drake, Sir Francis, 82, 87. Draper, J. W. and Henry, 461. Dred Scott decision, 411. Duelling, 343. Dunmore, Lord, 295, 301. Dutch Reformed Indian agencies, 445. in Carolina, 182. EDUCATION, 438. compulsory, 467. Educational fund bill, 442. INDEX. 475 Edwards, Jonathan, 263. Effingham, governor of Virginia, 175, 195- Eliot and the Praying Indians, 200. Emancipation, compensated, 411. proclamation, 424. Embargo Act, 347. Emigration to America, causes of, 465. Endicott, John, 139, 148, 155. Episcopalian Indian agencies, 445. Established religion constitutionally forbidden, 328. Erie, Lake, battle of, 361. Eutaw Springs, battle of, 316. FACTORIES, children in, 467. Fernandez discovers Yucatan, 53. Fillmore, Millard, 405, 408. Financial troubles, 244, 320, 370, 393, 472. Fires, great, 392, 436. Five Nations. See Iroquois. Fletcher, the royal governor, 220, 224. Florida admitted as a state, 400. ceded to the United States, 373. discovered by Ponce de Leon, 52. interior, 57. Fox, George, in America, 180, 199. Franklin, Benjamin, 267, 270, 294. as a scientist, 460. Franklin s negotiations, 297, 308, 318. plan of a federal Union, 274. Freedmen s Bureau, 438. Fremont, John C., 403, 418. French and English colonies at war, 221, 234, 265, 273. French Neutrals of Acadie, 275. occupy Canada, 106. Friends Indian agencies, 445. Indian policy, 442. in Maryland and Va., 168, 169. in New England, persecution of, *53- in North Carolina, 177, 179. in West Jersey, 187. prohibit slavery, 270. Frobisher, expeditions of, 80. Frontenac, gov. of Canada, 193, 222. Fugitive slave law, 408. GADSDEN PURCHASE, 405. Gallatin, Albert, 335, 366. Gama, Vasco da, 45. Geneva Court of Arbitration, 454. Georgia founded by Oglethorpe, 253. German immigration, 216, 237, 465. Germantown, battle of, 307. Gettysburg, battle of, 425. Gilbert, Humphrey, voyages of, 81. Gilbert, Raleigh, voyage of, 90. Gnadenhutten, massacre at, 283. Gomez, voyages of, 59. Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, 90, 141. Gosnold, Bartholomew, voyage of, 89. Grant, General, 419, 426, 436. Great awakening, the, 256. Greenland, discovery of, 16. Grenville, Sir Richard, at Roanoke, 85. Grijalva, voyage of, 53. Guadaloupe-Hidalgo, treaty of, 405. Guilford Court-House, battle of, 316. HACKENSACKS, massacre of, 128. Halifax, construction of Fort, 273. Hamilton, Alexander, 328, 342. Hare, Robert, inventions of, 461. Harrison, General, 353, 358, 395. Hartford Convention, 366. Hartford settled, 123, 147. Harvard College founded, 150. Hawkins, Sir John, 75. Hayden, F. V., surveys by, 31, 464. Hayti, or Hispaniola, discovery of, 25. Hennepin, explorations of, 193. Henry, Patrick, 291. Henry, Prince, of Portugal, 20. Hessians, hiring of the, 302. Historical study, purposes of, u. Hopkins, Samuel (Dr.), 270. Hudson, Henry, 118. Huguenots, the, 67, 182. Hurons, Champlain assists the, no. dispersed by the Iroquois, 116. ICELAND and the Northmen, 14. Illinois admitted, 374. Indian policy, new, 442. Indian walk, the, 260. Indiana admitted into the Union, 369. Indians and rum, 116, 119, 128, 189, 202, 281, 285, 359, 435. North American, account of, 34. Internal improvements, 381. Intemperance. See Temperance Iowa admitted into the Union, 400. Iron ore yield, 468. Iroquois, account of the, 38. 476 INDEX. Iroquois disperse the Hurons, 116. French wars with the, no, 195. treaties, 195, 226, 247, 265, 274, 281. Isles of Shoals, 107. JACKSON, ANDREW, 362, 367 373 380. elected president, 386. Jamaica, Columbus wrecked on, 28. Jamestown burnt, 173. founded, 93. Jefferson, Thomas, 304, 328, 337. president, 340, 345. death of, 383. Jesuits in New France, 109, 114, 190. in Paraguay, 115. not tolerated in New England, 153- Johnson, Andrew, 419, 428, 433. Sir William, 267, 277, 288. Joliet on the Mississippi, 192. Jones, John Paul, 312. KANSAS admitted, 425. border troubles, 410. Kansas-Nebraska bill, 409. Keith, George, 219. Kentucky admitted, 330. Boone in, 296. Kidd, Captain, 225. Kieft s Indian wars, 126. King, Clarence, survey by, 464. King Philip s war, 202. King s Mountain, battle of, 314. Kosciusko, 306. LABRADOR discovered by the Cabots, 43- Lafayette, Marquis de, 307, 379. La Salle, voyages of, 193. Laudonniere in Florida, 73. Law of nations, codification of, 458. Law s Mississippi Company, 242. Lay, Benjamin, 270. Lee, Robert E., 421, 425, 427, 430. Leisler-Milbourne faction, 223. Lescarbot in Acadie, 108. Lewis and Clarke, explorations of, 401. Lexington, battle of, 300. Liberia, colonization of, 369. Lincoln, Abraham, 414, 424, 428. assassination of, 430. Locke s Carolina constitution, 178. Logan and Dunmore s war, 295. Lookout Mountain, battle of, 426. Louisburg, sieges of, 266, 286. Louisiana, acquisition of, 341. named by La. Salle, 194. settled by the French, 234. Louisville founded, 330. Lundy s Lane, battle of, 364. MADISON, JAMES, 340, 352, 358. Madoc, voyages of, 17. Magellan, voyage of, 60. Maine settled, 142, 187, 206, 208. admitted into the Union, 374. boundary, 397. Liquor Law, 450. Mann, Horace, 440. Marquette on the Mississippi, 192. Maryland, settlement of, 161, 228. boundary, 217, 294. Mason and Gorges, 141. Mason andSlidell, capture of, 419. Mason s-and-Dixon s line, 294. Massachusetts Bay colony, 139. McClellan, General, 418, 421. Menendez in Florida, 75. Mennonites in Pennsylvania, 267. coming of the, 465. Merrimack and Monitor, 420. Meteoric shower of 1832, 391. Methodist Indian agencies, 445. Mexico, Spanish conquest of, 54. war with, 400. Miami war, 332. Michigan admitted as a state, 394. Minnesota admitted, 411. Mississippi admitted, 374. Company, Law s, 242. discovery of the, 63, 192. Territory, 332. Missouri compromise, 379, 405. Mobile located by the French, 235. Modocs, the, 447. Molasses act, 272. Monmouth C. H., battle of, 308. Monroe, James, 350, 368. elected president, 371. death of, 384. Doctrine, 379. Mont Desert island, 107, 109. Montcalm, Marquis of, 279, 286. Montreal named, 49. Moravian Indian missions, 263, 280. INDEX. 477 Moravians settle Bethlehem, 259. settle in Georgia, 255. Morris, Robert, 316. Mound-Builders, 29. NARVAEZ in Florida, 60. Natchez tribe, account of the, 39. exterminated, 249. National Banks organized, 425. National Debt, 432. Navigation acts, 168, 180, 225. Nebraska admitted, 436. Nevada admitted, 425. New Albion, Ployden s, 186. New England, settlement of, 135. Newfoundland, discovery of, 16, 45. early fisheries of, 81. New France, settlement of, 47. New Hampshire settled, 141, 208, 225, 247, 259. Indian wars in, 207, 247. grants, 295, 330. New Haven founded, 131, 147. merged with Connecticut, 198. New Jersey settled, 186. New Jersey Indian missions, 263. New Mexico, early explorations in, 61, 82. ceded to the U. S., 403. New Netherland, settlement of, 118, 185. New Orleans founded, 243. battle of, 367. taken by Unionists, 423. New Sweden, 124, 132, 167, 214. New York settled, 118, 133, 185. great fire at, 392. Washington at, 303, 328. Nicholson, Francis, 229, 236, 244. Norridgewock war, 245. North Carolina settled, 176, 269. regulators, 296. North-Eastern boundary, 396. North-Western boundary, 401. North-West Territory, 332.-. Northmen s discovery of America, 14. Nova Scotia grant, 143. Nova Scotia, Northmen visit, 16. Nullification, 390. OGLETHORPE, founder of Georgia, 254- Ohio admitted into the Union, 341. company, 273. Ohio territory, 332. Oregon boundary, 401. admitted into the Union, 411. PACIFIC railroads, 471. Paine, Thomas, 304, 320. Papal claim to the New World, 41. Paris, Peace of (1763), 288. Party patronage, 340, 389. Pastorius, the protest of, 270. Patents, issues of, 468. Paxton Boys, 282. Peabody Fund, 439. Peace, arbitration and, 454. Penn, William, and New Jersey, 187. in Pennsylvania, 210, 225. Penn s essay on Arbitration, 457. Pennsylvania, settlement of, 210. opposed to war, 224, 236, 267. Peonage in Virginia, 104. Pequod war, 148. Peru, conquest of, 57. Philadelphia founded by Penn, 215. capital removed from, 339. great fire at, 392. Phipps, Sir William, 223, 227. Phonograph, Edison s, 469. Physical aspect of the country, 13. Pierce, Franklin, president, 409. Pilgrims, landing of the, 137. Pilgrims, compact of the, 327. Pineda in the Gulf of Mexico, 55. Piracy suppressed, 241, 379. Pittsburg founded, 287. Pizarro conquers Peru, 57. Pocahontas, 95, 99. Polk, James K., president, 400. Ponce de Leon, invader of Florida, 52. Pontiac, conspiracy of, 282, 289. Popham s voyage to Maine, 90. Population, statistics of, 464. Portland, great fire at, 392. Port Royal (N. S.), 107, 109, 236. (S. C ), named by Ribault, 71. Portuguese explorations, 45. Presbyterian Indian agencies, 445. Presbyterians settle East Jersey, 190. Pring, Michael, voyage of, 89. Printing-press in Massachusetts, 150. in Virginia, forbidden, 175. Providence founded, 145. Public school system, 440. Pueblos, or Village Indians, 40. Pulaski, Count, 307, 311. 478 INDEX. Puritans, arrival of the, 139. banish Roger Williams, 144. persecute Quakers, 153. favor free schools, 440. favor republicanism, 326. QUAKERS. See Friends. Quebec founded by Champlain, no. taken from the French, 113, 287. Queenstown, battle of, 352. RAILROADS, first American, 470. Raleigh and Newfoundland expedi tions, 81. and Roanoke settlements, 84. Recollets in New France, 112, 191, 193- Reconstruction of the South, 433. Redemptioners, 271. Regulators in Jvforth Carolina, 296. Red Jacket, the Seneca, 359. Regicides in New England, 197. Rhode Island, 143, 198, 225. religious liberty in, 198, 327. Suffragists, 399. Ribault, expeditions of, 70, 75, 76. Rice introduced into South Carolina, 233- Richmond, advances oh, 417, 421, 425, 427- settled, 97. Right of search, 335, 349. Rittenhouse, David, 461. Roberval, viceroy of New France, 50. Roman Catholic Indian agencies, 445. Romanists and school funds, 441. found Maryland, 161. Rum prohibited in Georgia, 256. See Temperance question and In dians and rum. Ryswick, peace of, 224. SABLE ISLANDERS, 106. Salem witchcraft, 226. San Francisco harbor named, 83. Santander s colonization plan, 66. Saratoga, Burgoyne s defeat at, 307. Savannah founded, 255. Science in America, 460. Schwenckfelders, the, 268. Scott, Winfield, 364, 402, 405, 418. Sergeant and the Housatonics, 263. Secession of the South, 415. Seminoles, the, 233, 372, 392. Seven Cities of Cibola, 61. Seward, Secretary, 429, 430. Sewing-machine, invention of, 467. Shackamaxon, treaty at, 214. Shays Rebellion, 321. Shenandoah Valley raids, 427, 428. Sherman s " march to the sea," 428. Silliman, Benjamin, 461. Sioux, account of the, 39. Six Nations. See Iroquois. Slave trade, African, 252. Newport and the, 270. prohibited, 374, 378, 397. Slaves, English decisions as to, 295. Slavery agitation, 374, 406. and the Constitution, 324. at St.. Augustine, 76. in Carolina, 182, 240. in Georgia, 257. in New York, 132. in San Domingo, 58. introduced by Columbus, 27. in Virginia, 103, 170. prohibited by Congregationalists and Friends, 270. Smith, John, Captain, 93, 135. Smithsonian Institution, 463. South Carolina settled, 181. Spanish conquests in America, 51. Spottswood, governor of Virginia, 239, 241. 259. Stamp Act, 291. Standish, Miles, 138. States, new, formation of, 332. Statistics of progress, 464. St. Augustine founded, 76. Steamboats in America, first, 470. Stephens, Alexander H., 415, 429. Steuben, Baron, 308. Sterling, Earl of, 127, 142, 143. St. Lawrence, Gulf of, explored, 45. Cartier ascends the, 47. St. Louis founded, 374. Stuyvesant, Peter, 131, Sugar-cane introduced, 342. Sumner and Brooks, 410. Swedes in Delaware, 124, 132, 214. TARIFF, 385, 390. Taylor, General, 400, 405. Tea refused by the Americans, 293. Tecumseh, 353, 358, 361. Telegraph, invention of the, 469. Telephone, invention of the, 469. INDEX. 479 Temperance question, the, 449. Tennessee admitted, 332. early settlements in, 296. Ft. Loudoun in, 279. Territories, erection of, 332. survey of the, 464. Texas, annexation of, 397. Tippecanoe, battle of, 354. Tobacco crop in 1870, 466. discovered in Carolina, 86. in Virginia and Maryland, 99, 163. Trenton, battle of, 305. Tripoli, war with, 344. Tuscaroras join the Iroquois, 238. Tyler, John, 395. UNITED BRETHREN S Greenland mission, 18. colonies of New England, 150. Utah organized as. a territory, 408. Utrecht, peace of, 237. VAN BUREN, MARTIN, 393. Van Twiller, Walter, 125. Vane, Sir Henry, 141, 152. Velasquez in Cuba, 28, 54. Vermont settled, 247, 295. declares its independence, 323. admitted as a state, 330. Verrazzani, discoveries of, 46. Vespucci, Amerigo, 45. Vicksburg, siege of, 426. Villegagnon, Nicholas de, 67. Vincennes settled, 251. Virginia, colonization of, 91. Indian massacres, 102, 165. so called by Raleigh, 85. society, organization of, 169. under Andros, 229. under Berkeley, 168, Vulcanization of India-rubber, 468. WALDRON and the Indians, 207, 221. War, cost, 206, 238, 319, 403, 431, 443. War, immigration resulting from, 465. of the Revolution, 300. of 1812, 355. of the Rebellion, 416. Polynesians forsake, 170. provoked by the press, 420. Washington before the Revolution, 274, 275, 287. declared president, 328, 332. retires to Mount Vernon, 318. death of, 339. Washington City laid out, 339. burnt (1814), 365. treaty of, 454. Wayne, Anthony, 312, 333. Webster, Daniel, 390, 396. Wesleys in Georgia, 255. West Virginia admitted, 425. West Indies named by Columbus, 41. Weymouth, voyage of, 90. Whiskey Insurrection, 334. Whitefield in America, 256. White Plains, battle of, 305. Wilkes exploring expedition, 395. William and Mary College, 229. Williams, Roger, 143, 149, 152, 198. Wilmot Proviso, 404. Wilson, the naturalist, 462. Wilson, vice-president, 436, 437. Winthrop of Connecticut, 146, 197. of Massachusetts, 139. Wisconsin admitted, 405. Wolfe, General, 286, 287. Women s temperance movement, 452. Woolman and slavery, 270, 271. Wyoming, massacre of, 309. YALE COLLEGE founded, 440. Yeamans, Sir John, 177, 181. Yellowstone National Park, 464. Yorktown, Cornwallis at, 317. Yucatan coast explored, 53. ZEISBERGER, DAVID, 280. Zeni, voyages of the, 18. THE END. OF THE UNIVERSITY OF { UNIV \ %^U \J