PE 1109 M67 1852 MAIN UC-NRLF B M 013 MIT ■»'-'i?:«'si THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES EXPLAINED AND SYSTEMATISED. AFTER THE PLAN OF BECKER'S GERMAN GRAMMAR. J. D. MORELL, A.M. Author of an Historical and Critical View of the Speculative Philosophy of Europe, in the xixth Century, &c,, and one of Her Majesty's Inspectors of Schools. LONDON: ROBEBT THEOBALD, 26, PATERNOSTER ROW. MANCHESTER: SIMMS AND DINHAM. EXCHANGE-STREET. PFIic>9 M6-7 1852.. PREFACE. The publication of this little work has been suggested, and in a sense necessitated by a deficiency experienced in the course of my official duties, as an Inspector of Schools. This deficiency was most felt in the collective examinations of Pupil Teachers, where, beyond the ordinary modes of parsing, I found it almost impossible to give out any questions on Syntax and the analysis of sentences, to which a common meaning was attached by the pupils assembled, or any number of distinct answers returned. The capacity of parsing individual words with accui-acy is now expected of all the more advanced scholars in every well conducted school. It has not yet, however, been well understood that this is but the Alphabet of Grammar; and that the mental advantage to be derived from the science can only be secured, by leading the pupil to a further analysis of language, of which the separate words give us merely the elements. To guide the pupil through such a course of grammatical analysis is the object I have had in view in the following pages ; which, although brief, will be found lo contain general principles that may be expanded by the intelligent teacher into innumerable examples and illustrations. IV. PREFACE. '■ The first part treats of the elements wliich enter into the simple ► \ sentence. The methods in which the essential parts of the sentence may be expanded are here classified, and the mode of analysing them ; illustrated by examples. The second part treats of the complex and j compound sentence ; embi-acing their various contractions, and also j exhibiting, by further examples, the most convenient methods of ] analysis. The third part treats of the logical analysis of sentences, ' and shews in what way the fundamental rules of Syntax may i 1 be deduced from it.* | The pupil who goes sj'stematically through the course thus i pointed out, with copious examples and exercises, judiciously j selected, will realise the same kind of mental discipline as we ' generally expect to derive from the study of the ancient languages. I do not mean that the discipline will be by any means equally > complete or valuable with that, which is derived from classical . j culture ; but the necessity of gaining some insight into the structure ' of sentences, and the lavrs of thought there involved (which are the \ main advantages of studying the ancient languages), is here, to : some extent, provided for, without departing fi-om the usages and ' i diom of our own tongue. ^ ' * I may here state how, in the case of Pupil Teachers, the course of study can be best regulated. All Pupil Teachers at the close of the first year should be able to parse correctly according to the plan exhibited at the end of Part III. At the close of the second year they should thoroughly compi-ehend the analysis of the simple sentence as shown in the examples at the end of Part 1. At the close of the third year they should be able to analyse complex and compound sentences, with their contractions, according to the method j exhibited at the end of Part II. At the close of the fourth and fifth years ■ they might add some general knowledge of the logical analysis of language; ' proportioned, of course, to their cafjacity of entering into the more abstract j ideas of the science. i PREFACE. V. The method of analysis I have adopted is that which has been applied to the German language with so much advantage by Dr. Karl Ferdinand Becker. Since the publication of his celebrated grammar, in Germany, every enlightened teacher in that country has seen the advantage of proceeding upon the principles there inculcated. In addition to this, however, I have also compared the plans of several other school grammars, particularly that by Dr. A. Heussler, of Basel, which, though based entirely on Becker's principles, shews many excellencies of its own in point of concen- tration and arrangement. These, then, are the literary authorities I have followed in reference to the method of analysis. "What I have done over and above this is, chiefly, to adapt the method to the usages of our own tongue — to furnish it with examples in the English idiom — and to remodel the whole form, in which the subject is presented, so as to make it as accessible as possible to the youth of our own country. The chief advantage I look for from pursuing grammar on these principles is to shew the folly, in education, of putting Etymology over the head of Syntax, and of inculcating the mere study of individual words, and their structure, in preference to the investi- gation of language as the great complex organ of human thought. I have long been convinced that the proper study of language is the preparatory discipline for all abstract thinking, and that if the intellect is to be strengthened in this direction, vre must begin the process here. CONTENTS. Introduction § 1 to 3 PART I. ON THE PARTS OF SENTENCES. On the simple Subject § 5 to 6 On the Enlarged Subject § 7 to 8 On the Predicate § 9 The Simple Predicate § 10 The Enlai-ged Predicate § II to 12 Completion of Predicate § 13 to 15 Extension of Predicate § 16 to 22 PART II. ON THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF SENTENCES. The Simple Sentence § 24 to 25 The Complex Sentence § 26 to 27 Substantive Clause § 28 to 30 Adjective Clause . . , § 31 to 33 Adverbial Clause § 34 to 40 i 8 COXTENTS. The Compound Sentence § 41 to 42 i Copulative Relation § 43 ^ Adversative Relation § 44 | Causative Relation § 45 Contraction of Compound Sentences § 46 to 49 \ i PART III. " i ON THE LOGICAL ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. ! Explanation § 50 to 52 ■ Of Notional Words § 53 to 54 i Of the Substantive § 55 j Of the Verb § 56 1 Of the Adjective § 57 ; Of Relational Words § 58 to 60 ] Relation of Action to Being § 61 „ of Being to Action § 62 to 63 I „ of Action to the Speaker § 64 to 68 ; „ of Being to the Speaker §69 ' DEDUCTION OF FUNDAMENTAL RULES OF SYNTAX. ( The Predicative Relation § 70 to 74 , The Objective Relation § 75 to 79 | The Atti-ibutive Relation § 80 to 81 j Syntax of the Compound Sentence § 82 ,; ■« J THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES, &0. INTRODUCTION. § 1' Language is the utterance of our thoughts in words. When we make an assertion, the words that we employ are said to form a sentence. A sentence accordingly may be defined to be : Any num- ber of tvords conveying a complete assertion. The word assertion must here be taken in its widest extent, to signify ariy distinct utterance, whether of a judgment or a wish. Thus the asser- tion may be — 1. A.flarmative, Birds fly. 2. Interrogative, Are you hungry ? 3. Imperative, Come away. 4. Optative, May it please your Majesty. The grammatical construction in all these cases is precisely similar, though the order of the words may differ. We shall take the ajjirmative sentence, therefore, being the most important, as a t3'pe of the whole. 10 THE ANALYSIS OF SEXTKXCES. That respecting which an assertion is made is called the subject. That which is affirmed of the subject is called the predicate. The tree is green. The rain falls. Here " the tree" aud " the rain" are the subjects of which something is asserted; " is green" and " falls" are the predicates, expressing that which we severally affirm respecting them. When the predicate is a transitive verb, the assertion is not complete without specifying the thing to which the action passes over. The word or words employed in such cases to complete the assertion, is usually called the object. William defeated Harold. Here " William defeated" would be an incomplete affirmation. By adding the word " Harold" we complete the sense, and thus perfect the sentence. PAKT THE FIEST. Oi\ THE Parts of Sentences. §4. The essential parts of every sentence are the subject, and the predicate ; and when the latter is a transitive verb, it requires an object to complete it. In addition to these three parts, however, certain adjuncts may be employed with each, in order to render the sentence either more distinct, or more specific in its signification. Each of these parts will require distinct consideration. The error is often committed of enumerating the copula amongst the essential parts of a sentence. The employment of this term belongs properly only to the science of formal logic. The meaning of the copula is the link that binds two notions together into 07ie complete thought. This link in grammar is supplied sometimes by the in- flexion of the verb, sometimes by the verb "to be," and sometimes by other auxiliaries. In every case, however, it is included in the grammatical definition of the predicate, and consequently has no distinct place in the sentence grammatically considered. )2 ON THE FABTS OF SENTENCES. I. Of the Subject. § 5. When the subject consists of a single word, with or without the article, it is called a simple subject ; when adjuncts are employed to define its signification more fully, it is called an enlarged subject. A. The Simple Subject. The simple subject is always a word standing in the nomi- native case, and answers to the question, Who or What ? Brutus perislied. It may consist of any of the following hinds of words : — 1. A noun, Ccesar fell. 2. A pronoun, He fell bravely. 3. Any other part of speech used as a noun, such as — a. An adjective, Many are called, but few chosen. b. A participle, Walk'ng is healthy. c. An infinitive mood, To walk is healthy. KEMABK. The infinitive mood of the verb has all the essential characteristics of a noun. Hence, it may stand either as the subject or the object of a sentence, and be virtually in the nominative, or in the objective case. In the sentence " He loves to ivalh" the phrase to walk is really the object, being equivalent to " He loves toalking." B. The Enlarged Subject. § 7. The idea contained in the simple subject may be further ON THE PAKT3 OP SENTENCES. 13 determined, and the subject itself, consequently, enlarged, in the following ways ; — 1. By an adjective — • The good man is happy. Now came still evening on. — Milton. 2. By a noun in apposition — William, the Conqueror, ascended the throne. 3. By a participle, or participial clause — William having died, left the kingdom to his son. Harold, being shot, perished in the hattle. She, iveeping, turned away. Encinciured in a twine of leaves, A lovely hoy was plucking fruits.— Coleridge. 4. By a noun in the possessive case — A father's care protects the child. 5. By a preposition and its case — The love of money is the root of all evil. The desire of learning is commendable. 6. The subject may be a phrase or a quotation — " God wills it," was Peter's watchword. REMARKS. 1. Several adjuncts may be employed to enlarge the subject, if so used as to qualify the same noun. Good, old, red wine is the best. In the same way, several nouns may also stand in apposition with it. 2. When a participle is used to enlarge the subject, it may have its object attached to it. William, having conquered Harold, ascended the throne. Remote from towns, he ran his godly race. — Goldsmith. 14 0\ THE PARTS OF SENTEX0E8. j 3. Several participles, or several prepositional cases may also be em- \ ployed to enlarge the subject. ; Cffisar, having conquered Gaul, disciplined his legions, and equipped his = fleet, sailed over to Britain. ( A man of wisdom, truth, and goodness, is not to be despised. ■: • §8. The subject may be enlarged by employing any number of the methods, above mentioned, at the same time. No longer Autumn's glowing red Upon your forest hills is shed. — Scott. Socrates, a man of tcisdom, beloved by his friends, and feared by his enemies, having been condemned by his judges, and having refused submission to them, perished in prison. Here the subject, Socrates, is enlarged — fii-st, by a noun in apposi- tion, and a prepositional phrase depending on it; secondly; by three passive participles each followed by a preposition and its case ; and thirdly, by an active participle with its object. 11. Of the Predicate. §9. The predicate affirms respecting the subject either — 1st. What it is ; or, 21y. What it does ; or, Sly. What it suifers. Man is mortal. The snow falls. The child was neglected. The predicate may be simple, or it may be enlarged. OF THE PARTS OF SENTENCES. 15 A. The Simple Predicate. § 10. The simple predicate is either, 1st, A single verb ; or, 2ndly, The verb "to be," with a noun, an adjective, or some equivalent phrase. Autumn departs. Man is mortal. Europe is a Continent. He is of sound mind. §11. The verb, which forms the predicate, may be either active, or passive ; it may be in the indicative, the subjunctive, the potential, or the imperative mood ; and it may be of any number or any person. The infinitive mood, hoivever, and the participles can never form the predicate of a sentence. The former only takes the place of a substantive ; the latter of an adjective. REMARK. Verbs are often called finite, to distinguish them from the infinitive and the participial forms. Employing that term, we might say— The pre- dicate always requires a finite verb, otherwise it tvoidd fail of conveying an assertion. B. The Enlarged Predicate. § 12. The simple predicate is enlarged in two ways — 1. When we complete the assertion. 16 OF THE PARTS OF SENTENCES. 2. When we more accurately define or determine the assertion. Plato wrote dialogues magnificently. Subject Predicate Completion of Predicate Extension of Predicate. Plato wrote 1 dialogues 1 magnificently 1. On the Completion of the Predicate. § 13. The predicate requires to be completed, whenever the verb does not suffice to convey an entire notion of the action which we affirm of the subject. This always takes place when the verb is strictly transitive, as well as in some other instances, that have yet to be pointed out. The completion of the predicate is then termed the object. A transitive verb is often used intransitively. In such cases a completion is not necessary. E. G. The boy reads. § 14. The predicate may be completed in the following ways 1. By a. noun in the objective case. Brutus killed Ccesar. 2. By a noun in the nominative case. Howard was called a philanthropist. Edward became kino. ON THE PARTS OF SENTENCES. 17 REMARK. Where there is no action passing from the subject to the object, but both refer to the same person or thing, they must both be in the nomi- native case. The latter nominative is still, however, strictly speaking, the object of the verb, inasmuch as it expresses that to which the action of the verb is directed. 3. By a pronoun or any other part of speech used as a substantive — Pronoun, Him the Almighty power hurled headlong.— Milton. Adjective, He commiserated the wretched. Infinitive mood. He loved to muse. 4. By a preposition and its case — Pyrrho despaired o/^rM••••• The King freed from all uncertainty enlai-ged by .... participial Clause displayed completed by ... . enlarged Object a gi-eater degree of vigor extended by adjunct of Time on hearing these arrange- ments. EXAMPLE 2. Subject enlarged by qualified participial Phrase .... The two armies separated only by some ditches Predicate passed completed by ... . qualified Object two hours extended by a adjunct of Place . . b adjunct of Manner .. c adjunct of Manner. . almost within musket shot of each other, motionless. in complete silence. 24 ON THE PARTS OF SENTENCES. EXAMPLE 3. Tart ot Sentence. | Modification. | Example. Subject qualified Sober evening. Confessed from yonder slow extinguished cloud all ether softening enlarged by a Pass. part, phrase . . b Act. part, phrase. . . . Predicate completed by .... qualified object her wonted station extended by a adjunct of place b accompanying cir- cnmstance in the middle air a thousand shadows at her back EXAMPLE 4. Subject • • Qualified •••. the Almighty power hurled completed by . . . qualified Object him flaming extended by adjunct of headlong from the sky . with hideous ruin down to bottomless per- dition. 2 Place from 3 Consequence 4 Place to Or the Analysis might be arranged more compactly in the following manner : — ON THE PARTS OF SENTENCES. 25 s g^ *= aj tiS ^ ■"T" § 2 ft^ s o 2 "^ 1-^ i Ph a 1^ .2 w O a ^ CD '-^ ^ • iH a -1 O o ^ g o ix ^ 03 c6 Q ^ H w w s H ■ 1 1 H -si fi >> nri -ti [^ O) -5 §1 b1> 3 o CD ID 'm 1 To 'a w :5i _^ ga CD 1 < i 1 § g Si. (a CD H H 73 -JD < C-l 1 ^ . ^ « 1> J 1 ^- ^1 ' V ^1 w r-i •r* 1 < CJ ^ 1 o 1 J PART THE SECOND On the Different Kinds of Sentences. §23. Sentences are of three kinds ; — simple, complex, and compound. § 24. 1. The Simple Sentence. A sentence is called simple when it contains only one finite verb. EEMARK. A simple sentence contains one main assertion, without any subordi- nate or conditional assertions to modify it. The parts, however, of which it consists may be indefinitely enlarged so long as a separate clause is not employed. §25. A simple sentence may consist of : — 1. A simple subject and a simple predicate — Moses died. 28 ON THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF SENTENCES. 2. An enlarged subject and simple predicate — Moses, the man of God, died. Hung, was a sxoeet scented garland, new tioined by the hands of affection.— Longfellow. 3. A simple subject and enlarged predicate : — a. Enlarged by an object — Evening sheds her gems of dew. — Bums. b. Enlarged by determining circumstances — At my feet tlie city slumbered. c. Enlarged both by an object and by determining circumstances — But knowledge to their eyes her ample page. Rich with the spoils of time, did we'cr unroll. 4. An enlarged subject and enlarged predicate— The lowing herd wind sloioly o'er the lea. — Gray. « Somewhat apart from the village, and near the basin of Minas, Benedict Bellefontaine, the xoealthiest farmer of Grand Pre, Dwelt on his goodly acres. — Longfellow. X faint erroneous ray, Glanced from the imperfect surfaces of things, Flings half an image on the straining eye. — Thomson. 2. The Complex Sentence. § 26. A sentence is termed complex, when, with only one principal subject and predicate, it contains two or more finite verbs. The part containing the main subject and predicate, is called the jprincipal sentence ; that which contains any of the other finite verbs is called a subordinate sentence. ON THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF SENTENCES. 29 PRINCIPAL. SUBORDINATE. He drove the horse. Which I bought yesterday. SUBORDINATE. PRINCIPAL. If you go, I shall soon follow. In yonder cot, [along whose mouldering walls, In many a fold, the mantling woodbine falls,] The village matron kept her little school.— ^zVAe White. Here the portion in brackets is the subordinate sentence. § 27. Subordinate sentences or clauses are of three kinds : — A. Substantive clauses ; B. Adjective clauses ; C. Adverbial clauses. A simple sentence, it should here be explained, is rendered complex when any part of it is detached from the close relation in which it stood to the original construction, and is made to assume the form of a separate though subordinate clause. If the part thus de- tached be a noun, the corresponding sentence will be a substan- tive clause; if an adjective, an adjective clause; if an adverb, an adverbial clause. From this we derive the basis of the above classification. The principal sentence could not part with its verb without ceasing to be a sentence ; hence, we have no such thing as a "verbal clause." A. On the Substantive Clause. §28. A substantive clause is a subordinate sentence, which, in reference to the principal sentence, occupies the place, and follows the construction of a noun substantive. It is a law of nature, that water should congeal by cold. 30 ON THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF SENTENCES. Instead of — The congelation of water by cold is a law of nature. What you can do to-day, put not off till to-morrow. Here the subordinate phrase is the subject of the whole sentence. It should be remarked that a subordinate sentence, as containing a finite verb, may have a subject, predicate, and object of its own, with all their several extensions. § 29. As the substantive clause occupies the place of a noun in the structure of the entire sentence, of which it forms a part, it may take either of the following places : — 1. The place of the subject — It is wise, that we should obey the laws of the country. Subject, [Obedience to the laws of the country] is wise. It cannot be determined lohere Attila was buried. Subject, [The burial place of Attila] cannot be determined. In sentences like these, the subordinate clause, grammatically speaking, holds the place of a noun in apposition to the pronoun " it." It (viz. : that we should obey the laws of the country) is wise. It (viz. : where Attila was buried) cannot be determined. 2. The place of the object — Duty requires of us, that ice should relieve the suffering. 1. E. Duty requires of us [the relief of the suffering]. Object. He rejoices that ice are free. 1. E, He rejoices at [our freedom]. Object. I ON THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF SENTENCES. 31 § 30. The substantive clause is introduced either by the con- junction "that;" or by interrogative particles, such as " Where ? " " When ?" " How V &c. ; or by the interrogative pronouns " Who ? " and " What 1 " I know, that he is willing. Where he is, I cannot say. Who did it, is a profound mystery. The character of the English language allows us often to omit the con- junction " that" in introducing a substantive clause. I fear he will not succeed. He said he would go. §31. B. On the Adjective Clause. An adjective clause is a subordinate sentence, which, in reference to the principal sentence, occupies the place, and follows the construction of an adjective. The man, who is prudent, looks to the future. i, e. The [prtident] man looks to the future. They deserve to lose their liberties, ivho will not spare time from selfish pursuits, to guard them. § 32. The adjective clause is introduced by the relative pronoun who or wJiich : or by any other word that can be used in place of the relative, such as that, how, ivherein, ivhither, ivhy, wherefore, &c. 32 ON THE DIFFEKENT KINDS OF SENTENCES. The house that I have built, is very convenient. I do not know the way, how we must set about it. The country, wherein they dwelt, was fertile. The reason, wherefore I came, is obvious. In all these cases the relative and its clause explains or describes something respecting the antecedent noun, and therefore performs the function of an adjective to the whole sentence. The nature of the English language allows the relative, in many in- stances, to be omitted without disturbing either the construction or the sense. The home / left was a happy one. We must make the best terms we can. § 33. As the adjective clause may qualify any noun in the principal sentence ; and as nouns are used to designate either the subject or the object, or any of the numerous cir- cumstances relating to the predicate, it is manifest that this clause may be attached to either of the three. a. To the subject — The merchants, who dwell there, are wealthy. b. To the object — They consumed all the provisions, which we had collected. c. To an extension of the predicate — We found him in the house, that he had formerly inhabited. ON THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF SENTENCES. 33 C. On the Adverbial Clause. § 34. An adverbial clause is a subordinate sentence, which, in reference to the principal sentence, occupies the place and follows the construction of an adverb : — Where thou goesf, I will go. We love him, because he first loved us. § 35. As the adverb is designed primarily to give extension to the predicate, by determining any of the circumstances con- nected with it, so the adverbial clause is mainly employed to qualify the predicate of the principal sentence, by specifying the same conditions of time, place, manner, and causality. Adverbial Clauses Relating to Time. § 36. The adverbial clauses relating to time specify some event which takes place either before that which is affirmed in the principal sentence, or at the same time with it, or after it : — a. Before it — When he has finished his lesson, he goes out to play. b. At the same time with it — When war rages, the people always suffer. c. After it — He arranges his books, he/ore he leaves the study. C 34 ON THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF SENTENCES. § 37. With reference to events which are contemporaneous with that of the principal sentence, some adverbial clauses specify the point or period of time in which they occur ; others, the duration of the time ; and others, the repetition of the co- incidence : — a. Point or period of time — As we were going down the hill, the horse fell. When I was in America, the election of the President took place. When at length the centre of the army approached, the enthusiasm of the people knew no bounds. b. Duration of time — Whilst the Danes were revelling, Alfred entered their camp. I stood by, whilst it was being done. c. Repetition of the coincidence — Whenever he saio a subject in distress,the king always relieved him. These clauses may be abbreviated either by changing the particle and verb into a. participle ; or by omitting the verb altogether. The horse fell covfiing down the hill. He learned Greek, when an old man. Adverbial Clauses Relating to Plage. §38. Like the adverbs of place, the adverbial clauses also specify three different relations in reference to the principal affirmation : — ON THE DIFFEBENT KIXDS OF SENTENCES. Oi> a. Rest in a place— I cannot tell, ivhere they have laid him. b. Motion to a place — Tell me, whither he has gone. This is expressed colloquially by " where. . . .to." c. Motion from a place — Thou canst not tell, ivhence it cometh, or whither it goeth. Adverbial Clauses Relating to Manner. § 39. Adverbial clauses relating to manner are employed to insti- tute a comparison with the fact stated in the principal affirmation. The comparison may assume various shades of meaning, such as — a. Likeness and analogy. He succeeds, as his father did before him. As the hart panteth after the water brooks, So panteth my soul after thee, O God. We are such stuff, as dreams are made of And our Uttle life is rounded with a s]eep.— Shahspeare. b. Proportion — Wisdom is easier to attain, the longer you pursue it It becomes colder, the higher you ascend. c. Dissimilarity — The spire is not so lofty as it appears. The eagle flies higher, than the eye of man can reach. 36 ON THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF SENTENCES. ! Adverbial Clauses op Cause and Effect. ' §40. i Adverbial clauses of cause and eflfect are employed to ■ designate some reason, condition, concession, purpose, or j consequence relating to the principal sentence : — i I a. Ground or reason — i The stars appear small, because they are distant Jrom us. \ Because they have no changes, therefore they fear not God. ' 1 b. Condition — If Alfred had not made good laws, he would not have been called i the father of his country. 1 I will not let thee go, except thou bless me. \ c. Concession — 1 Although we disregard it, the evil day will come. j However Juir his promises may he, yet he is not to be trusted. \ \ d. Purpose — ] I Honour thy father and mother, that it may he xcell with thee. j i In order that he might escape, he changed his dress. ; e. Consequence — He labours so diligently, that he ivill he sure to succeed, \ He is not man, that he should lie. 1 REMARKS. , 1* The infinitive mood is often used in English to express a /^wrpo^e — ; He expended large sums of money to viake himself popular. i 2. The adverbial clause is often expressed by a nominative absolute— I Summer departing, the swallows disappear. \ ON THK DIFFEKENT KINDS OF SENTENCES. 37 CLASSIFICATION OF PARTICLES USED INTRODUCE SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. TO 1. Substantive Clause. Adjective Cause. fThat I Who, what, which -l Where, whither, whence I Wherein, whereto, &c. I Why, wherefore f AVlio, which, that J Where, whither, whence 1 Wliether LWhy, wherefore Used indirectly. Used as the relative. 3. Adveebial Clause. Time. Place. Point of Time. Duration of Time. Repetition. Eest in Before, ere As, now that, as soon as ^ After, when (Whilst \ As long as rWhen ■I Whenever ( As often as ■f Where ? Manner. -{ Cause. H Motion to I Whither ? I Motion from | Whence ? r C So as Comparison. -I As if (As though (The . . , the (with comparative ] So far as According as ^. . ., ., (Than Dissimilarity I j^^^^^^^^ Ground f Because or Reason. (Inasmuch (If Condition. A Unless, Except ( In case of Concession -f ^^^^St"* altho', indeed ncession. | j (For 2. Ground or) reason. | ^^ I Because 42 ox THE DIFFERENT KIXDS OF SEXTENCES. Contraction of Compound Sentences. § 46 It often happens that the different clauses of a compound sentence have either the same subject, or the same predicate, or the same object, or the same extensions. In such cases the part ivliich is common to each co-ordinate clause is not necessarily repeated, and the sentence is then said to be contracted. § 47. Contractions may take place equally well whether the connexion of the clauses be copulative, adversative, or causative : — a. Copulative — The crocus and the tulip close their blossoms in the evening. God sustains and governs the world. b. Adversative — Not an enemy, hut a friend has done this. c. Causative — Lions have claws, and co7isequently were intended to seize their prey. He knows algebra, much more arithmetic. §48. In compound sentences there may be : — 1. Two or more subjects with one predicate — The trade winds and monsoons are permanent. Neither gold nor silver can purchase peace of mind. 2. Two or more predicates and one subject — The air expands and becomes lighter by heat. ON THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF SENTENCES. 43 3. Two or more objects to one predicate — The sun illumines the mountains and the valleys. He makes his sun to shine on the good and the evil. 4. Two or more similar extensions to one predicate — Moisture is evaporatedy/om the ivaier, and even from the snow. Without application and study, we caa never obtain knowledge. EhMARK. We often find a manifold extension not only of the predicate, but also of the subject and the object. In many cases, however, it is better to regard the sentence as simple, and to look upon the extensions merely r.s an enlargement of the one idea, to which they are attached. We admire the writings of the Greeks and Romans. Instead of regarding this as a compound sentence abbreviated, we may regard the phrase " Of the Greeks and Romans'^ as an enlarge- ment of the simple object, viz., " writings." The sentence will then bo simple. § 49. fc'everal of the above contractions may be combined in one sentence. With every effort, with every breath, and with every motion voluntary or involuntary, a part of the muscular substance becomes dead, separates from the living part, combines with the remaining portions of inhaled oxygen, and is removed. Here there are four predicates, having but one subject, and three extensions of those pi-edicates distinct from each other. To express the entire meaning of this passage in separate sentences, we should have to repeat the subject with each predicate, making four simple sentences, and then repeat each of those sentences with each of the extensions, making twelve sentences in all. The following method of analysing complex, compound, and contracted sentences is recommended : — • 44 0» THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF SENTENCES. CO ft H o < 03 H ^ O o o o >f W H? o o o _S5 JS ^ ,23 SiD ^ U .2 o ei5 3 W3 ^ 1 •S •43 © Ol g ^ a » o ^ 3 o ^ if- < a w ,a so o a ^ ■§ ',3 tS &. 1/7 -^ z> ^ •^ tc o s ^ '3 § ^ o a, -tJ c3 i— 1 p^ ^ ^ a •s •n cS 'S a 2 1— ( -^r c2 -a w 3 o .«\ c » o t3 ^ H 12; o cc pa r:j o cc fl p a ^ O >^ pi FM a _

►. s ^ -^ ^ ^ p O S 35 ,Q O rs ON THE ini-Fr.nENT KINDS OF SENTENCES. 47 > rQ •i3 ^ ci 'B ej S3 Cl, o o g s 0) s qT « sS o C5 a 5*; 48 ON THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF SENTENCES. o § 1^ © fl g B ^ cS •i3 e4_| .2 J g 0) ctf S ft OS ^ ^ -^ O (D '33 o o o o 6 o O O "ta J CS rQ O rzi a Ph O H pk p^ O ."^ > © ^ CO v. ri ^ S3 oT r^ TO a ?s i %.; be ,cj i PAET THE THIED On the Logical xInalysis of Sentences. § 50. Grammatical analysis teaches us to view all the parts of a sentence, according as they are related to each other by the laws and usages of language. Logical analysis teaches us to view them according to the relation of the thoughts, which the various forms of speech, employed in them, involve. § 51. There are two elements involved in every complete thought : — A material and a formal. The matter of a thought is the object itself, whether real or imaginary, about which the mind is employed ; the form of the thought is the relation, in which that object is for the time conceived to exist, whether in regard to ourselves, or to any other object. Thus, in the sentence " John is within," the word John expresses the matter or subject we are thinking about ; the phrase "is within," expresses the relation in which that subject is for the time conceived to exist. .52 ON THE LOGICAL ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. §52. Language is the expression of thought ; and must, there- fore, contain the same elements and the same characteristics as thought itself. Hence, we may divide all words, and parts of words, into two great classes, — those which express the matter of our thoughts, and those which express the forms or relations of them. The former class of words we term notional, the latter we term relational. Thus, the words man, speak, good, convey each a determinate notion, which we can think of apart from any thing else. On the other hand, such words as he, to, therefore, have no force in themselves, but derive all their signification from the con- nexion in which they stand to other words, and the relations they indicate between them. I. Of Notional Words. §53. The whole sum of our notions may be reduced to two great classes : — Those which relate to being, and those which relate to power or activity. All notional words, accordingly, must be words denoting either, 1st, some real or supposable existence ; or, 2ly, some real or supposable action. §54. "Words that imply existence have, on that account, been termed substantives. Of those that imply action, there are two kinds : 1st,, When the word denotes, in addition to the action, a judgment or wish of the speaker respecting it, it is called a verb. Sly. When the word, on the other hand, involves no immediate judgment of the speaker, it is called an adjective. The sun shines. .J\ ON THE LOGICAL ANALYSfS OF SENTENCES. 53 Here we have an action and a judgment respecting it. The bright sun. Here we have an action belonging to the sun, denoted by the word "bright;" but no im7nediate judgment exi^ressed. All the qualities of objects, are properly s^eakmg powers residing in them ; for when an object has the power of affecting us in a certain way, we term that power an attribute or quality of the object. OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. § 55. When a substantive is used to note a single individual, it is called a proper noun. When it is used to denote all the individuals of a class, it is called a commvn noun. If a given action or quality, whether of mind or matter, is separated from the substance to which it belongs, and regarded as a real existence by itself, then the word denoting it is called an abstract noun : — Proper nouns, John, London, Saturn. Common nouns, Tree, book, star. Abstract nouns, Brightness, life, virtue. Becker makes those words which denote materials, such as water, air, honey, &c., a separate class of nouns. They may be allowed, how- ever, to take their place without any violence under the head of com- mon nouns. The names are, in this case, common to such materials> in all their possible varieties. Adjectives and adverbs are sometimes used as substantives. 54 ON THE LOGICAL ANALYSIS OF SENXEXCEH. OF THE VERB. i § 56. I The action denoted by the verb may be regarded from j various points of view : — 1. When it is regarded as terminating in the actor, and ■ producing no effect upon any thing else, the verb is | called neuter or intransitive — j I walk. He sits. They work. ] 2. When the action is regarded as affecting something i beyond the actor, the verb is called active or ; transitive — I hurt my hand. He carried a large burden. j 3. In the case of any action which passes from an agent • to an object, we may direct our attention to what is j suffered by the object, instead of considering what \ is done by the agent. To express this we may use \ the verb in such a way as to signify suffering instead i of doing; making the object which suffers the ] subject of the affirmation. When a transitive verb ; is thus used, it is said to be in the passive voice — ■ ; Active, Brutus hilled Csesar. ^ i Passive, Csesar was hilled by Brutus. \ 4. When the agent is regarded as being the object of his j n, the verb is calk Judas killed himself. own action, the verb is called reflective — j The verb " to be " is not properly a notional word, but a relational; except when used in the sense of " to exist." J ON THE LOGICAL ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES OF THE ADJECTIVE. § 57. The adjective is used in two different relations, 1st, When it expresses an attribute to a noun ; 2ndly, When it forms part of the predicate in a sentence. In the former case it is termed attributive ; in the latter it is csdled predicative. Attributive, Yellow gold. Predicative, Gold is yellow. The predicative adjective, together with the verb to be, is precisely equivalent to an ordinary finite verb. The adjective in this case expresses the action, the verb to be conveys the assertion. The following Table exhibits a complete Classijicalion oj all Notional Words used in our Lanfjuacje : — r II. Notional words signifying actio n b. Verb. Adjective Notional words signifying existence. Noun- Sub- stantive . . r 1. Transitive or objective 2. Intransitive or subjective 3. Reflective Predicative Attributive 1 . Proper 2. Common 3. Abstract 56 ON THE LOGICAL ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. II. Of Relational Forms. § 58. Relational forms are those, which, without having any independent meaning of their own, bind together our notions into complete and determinate thoughts, and thus give rise to complete sentences. The sun has already risen. Here the notions are " sun" and " risen." The word " has" con- nects the one with the other, binding them together into one complete thought; while the word ^* already" expresses a relation of time in regard to the person who is supposed to make the affirmation. REMARK. It is proper here to explain the difference between a complete thought and a mere notion. A complete thought is an act of the mind, which involves a judgment between two notions made at the very time when they come into consciousness. The expression of such a judgment must assume the form of an assertion; so that in uttering a complete thought we must always have both a subject and a predicate. On the other hand, a notion does not involve any judgment made by the speaker at the time. The judgment involved in it is one which has been previously made, and is now expressed simply as an existing fact. Thus when I say, "The man is wise," I express a judgment made by my mind at the very time, and this judgment is a complete thought. On the other hand, when I use the phrase " The wise man," there is no zmmerfiafe judg- ment implied, but simply a recognised fact, the cognizance of which depends upon a previous mental process. The adjective, therefore, used as an attribute to a noun, gives rise simply to a notion more specific than the noun itself. The adjective used, with the verb " to be," as a predicate, expresses a complete thought. § 59. The relations which language expresses, are of two kinds : — ON THE LOGICAL ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 57 1, The relations which our notions bear to each other. 2. The relations which they bear to the speaker. e. cj. The general has marched into the enemies country. Here we have one relation between the general and marched; ano- ther between marched and country ; and a third between enemies and country. The first of these relations is expressed by the agreement between the nominative case and the verb; the second by the preposition into ; the third by the flexion of the possessive case. In addition to this we have the relation of past time, between the event and the speaker, as indicated by the tense-flexion. §60. As there are two kinds of notions expressed in language, and two kinds oj relations in which they are each placed, it follows, that there are in all four distinct relations, which are presented to us in the structure of sentences. a. The relation of notions which signify action, to notions which signify existence. b. The relation of notions which signify existence, to notions which signify action. c. The relation of notions which signify action to the speaker. d. The relation of notions which signify 'existence to the speaker. A careful analysis of these four relations will give us all the rela- tional forms now used in the English language. A. The Relation op Notions, which Signify Action to THOSE WHICH SiGNIFY EXISTENCE. § 61. Of the notions which signify action, there are two kinds, denoted severally by the verb and the adjective. 58 ON THE LOGICAL ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 1. When a given action is affirmed respecting a given subject, a verb is necessarily employed. The rela- tion thus expressed between the subject and the action is termed " the predicate relation ;" and the two related notions are then combined together into one comjjiete thought. The tree blossoms. Here, the nouu " tree" expresses a given existence ; and the verb " blossoms " a given action. The agreement formed between them (indicated by the inflexion of the third person of the verb) unites the two notions together into one complete thought, or mental judgment. 2. When the action is merely attrihutecl to the subject by virtue of a judgment passed at some previous time and not now renewed, an adjective is employed. The relation is then termed attributive, and the two related notions are combined into one more specific notion. A bright sun. Here the word'" sun" expresses a given existence, and word " bright" a given action. The agreement between the two (indicated in English by the contiguity of the words) unites the two notions into one more specific notion. The relations of action to existence, accordingly, are expressed in English \st., hij the j^ersonal inflexions of the verb ; and, 2ly., by the position of the adjective. N.B. In languages where the adjective is declined, the relation between the subject and attribute is expressed by its inflexions. ON THE LOGICAL ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 59 B, The Relation op Notions, which Signify Existenck TO those -which Signify Action. § 62. When a given existence is made the object towards which any given action is directed, the relation between them is termed the objective relation. Objective relations are of two kinds, those which complete our idea of the action, and those which merely extend it. 1. When a verb or an adjective indicates an action directed to something apart from the agent, we can only complete the idea of the action by speci- fying what the object is. Bees produce honey. He is worthy of regard. Here the terms " honey" and " regard" complete the idea of the action expressed by the words "produce" and " ivorthy." The relation between them is termed a completion of the predicate; and is indicated in the first case by the position of the noun to the verb, and in the second by the preposition " of." REMARK. In languages where the noun is declined, the objective relation is ex- pressed by the inflexion of the objective case. In English a distinct grammatical form for the subject, and the object is only employed in the case of pronouns : — / love my father. My father loves me. 2. When the idea of the action is not conqjleted but only more accurately determined by an object, then the relation between them is termed an extension of the predicate. He rode to London. of an action in relation 60 ON THE LOGICAL ANALYSIS Of SENTENCES. Here the word London does not complete our idea of the action, but only determines its direction, this objective relation being indicated by the preposition " to" § 63. The idea of the action may be extended by means of an object in any of the following ways : — 1. By indicating the tiine. 2. By indicating the jJ^ace. 3. By indicating the manner. ^^ ^^^^^ object. 4. By indicating the cause. J The relations of existence to action, accordingly, are expressed in English, 1st., hy the objective case ; 2ndly., by prepositions; and, Srdly., by adverbs, or adverbial phrases. C. The Relation of Notions Signifying Action to the Speaker. § 64. When a speaker utters an assertion respecting an action, there are various circumstances connected with it, which may have some specific relation to himself. For example, a. He may describe the action as a reality, a non-reality, or a pos- sibility, &c. Or, b. he may define the time at which it oc- curred in relation to the time in which he is himself describ- ing it. Or, c. he may describe the locality of the action as it stands related to his own locality. Or, d. he may describe the magnitude or intensity of the action according to his own standard of judgment. All these relations have a proper mode of expression in the construction of the sentence. ON THE LOGICAL AXALYSIS OF SENTEXCES. 61 § 65. a. The first class of the above relations in which an action is conceived to stand to the speaker, is that which we most com- monly designate by the mood of the verb. There are three fun- damental distinctions in reference to the mode, in which an action is conceived of. It is conceived of — 1. As a reality or non-reality. This relation is expressed by the verb in the indicative mood, whether affirma- tive or negative : — The bird sings. The sun does not shine. 2. As a possibility : — 1. A conditional possibility — The snow win melt, if the sun shines. 2. A questionable possibility — Does the tree blossom ? 3. A wished for possibility — May he soon arrive. 3. As a necessity : — 1. A physical necessity — The house must fall. 2. A moral necessity — You must be there. 3. A logical necessity — He must have already completed his engagement. The difi'erent relations of mood are expressed in various ways : — 1. By modal inflexions ; 62 ON THE LOGICAL ANALYSIS OF SENTENCEa. 2. By auxiliary verbs ; 3. By adverbs of manner ; 4. By the position of the words, as in the interrogative form. §66. b. The second class of the above mentioned relations, in which an action is supposed to stand to the speaker, is designated in grammar by the word tense. Under the rela- tion of tense we distinguish — 1. Present time. 2 Past time. 3. Future time. The time in which an action is conceived to occur in rela- tion to the speaker, is denoted either — 1. By the inflexion of the tenses, or, 2. By auxiliary verbs. 3. By adjuncts of time. § 67 c. The third class of the above relations in which an action is conceived to stand to the speaker is expressed by a peculiar class of adverbs, which define the locality of an object or event in reference to the person observing or speaking of it — Here are the flowers. The scholars are below. My friend is behind. § 68. d. The fourth class of the above relations, in which an action is considered to stand to the speaker, is that expressed. ON THE LOGICAL ANALYSIS OF SEXTENCES. (>3 1 . By adverbs of degree — I am very sorry. 2. B7 the comparative and superlative forms of the adjective, when they express a judgment of the speaker — Csesar was a greater man than Pompey. Alfred was the greatest sovereign of his age. D. The Relation of Notions, Signifying Existence to THE Speaker. § 69. Existences may be divided into two great classes : persons and things. Each of these, when expressed in a sentence, may stand in a given relation to the speaker : — 1. The personal relations are indicated by the pronouns I, thou, he, (fee, and by the corresponding inflexions of the verb ; for, the same individual, it is evident, may be designated either by the first, second, or tliird personal pronoun, according to the relation he bears to the speaker. 2, Things bear a relation to the speaker, according to their number and multitude. When several things of the same kind are thought of, the plural number, or certain numeral adjectives indicate the process of thought, which has been employed in doing so : — Twenty men. When indefinite multitude is thought of it is expressed by indefinite numeral adjectives : — Much corn. A few nuts. To give a general view of all the above relations, the following table is subjoined : — 64 ON THE LOGICAL ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. .2 » 2 1) Predicative Relation 2. Attributive Relation *" 1. Personal flexion of the verb 2. The verb " to be " .Position of the adjective to the noun CO O Objective Relation Completing the predicate Extending the predicate .... Objective case .... Preposition Prepositions and Adverbs 1. Mood. 2. Tense 3. Place Reality Possibility Necessity J Present i Past ( Future • J Locality and I [ direction f 4. Degree . . J Intensity ( Frequency Moods of verb Auxiliaries of mood Adverbs of Mood Tense forms of verbs Auxiliaries of tense Adverbs of time Adverbs of place Adverbs Comparison of adjectives Person 2. Number. .- 1. Person speaking 2. Spoken to 3. Spoken of Numerals Indefinite numeral adjective Personal inflexion of verbs Personal pronouns ON THE DEDUCTION OF THE, &C. 65 Deduction of the Fundamental Rules of Syntax. § 70. The fundamental rules of syntax are not arbitrary. They spring from the laws of thought, as embodied in the various languages of mankind ; and may be at once classified and ex- plained by means of the logical analysis we have just con- cluded. Solongas we deal with individual words, and express by them only individual notions, the province of syntax is untouched. Syntax first commences, and its laws become first applicable when two or more notions are combined so as make a couh- plete thought. We have already shown that there are two great classes of notions expressed in language ; — those indicating leiiig, and those indicating activity. The fundamental laws of syntax express the relations which exist between these two classes of ideas. There are various rules of syntax which spring- from the relation of these ideas to the speaker. But these are only secondary. 1l\\q funda- mental principles arise from the relation of ideas to each other. 71. The primary relations which exist between the two great classes of ideas above mentioned, are the following : — 1. The relation between a given action and a given ex- istence the latter being viewed as the agent or sub- ject of the action : — The sun shines. Ob ON THE DEDUCTION OF THfi n 2, The relation between a given action and a given ex- ] istence the latter being viewed as the object towards > which the action tends : — ' It dazzles my eyes. I 3. The relation between an action previously noticed, and i the existence to which it is attributed : — The shining sun. | The first is called the predicative relation, the second the I objective relation, the third the attributive relation. All the \ laws of syntax, with the exception of those which relate to I the connexion of sentences, fall under one of these three \ heads. • When the predicate is either a verb or an adjective, the fact of its expressing action is obvious. When, however, it is a common noun coupled with the verb to be, this fact is not so manifest. It must be remembered in this case that the word action is employed in a very wide sense, meaning any power, that resides in an object, of affect- ing us ; i. e. any phenomenon distinct from the existence to which it belongs. When I say "John is a man," the real meaning of the assertion is : — that John presents phenomena, to ivhich we attach the idea " human." Thus, the phrase " is a man" really denotes a phe- nomenon ; i. e. it denotes an action in the sense in which all attributes denote it. 1. The Predicate Relation, The subject expresses a given existence, the predicate ex- \ presses a given action. So long as these stand unrelated to i each other, we have simply two isolated notions. Unite them i KUANDMKNTAL RULES OV SYiNTAX. 67 SO that the given action is referred to the given existence as its subject, and we have a complete thought : — Gold. Glitter. Two notions. Gold glitters. One thought. § 73. The predicative relation between two notions is indicated as follows ; — 1. By the subject being in a given case, called the nomi- native. In mauy languages, as the Latin, Greek, &c., the nominative case of all nouns is distinguished by a peculiar form or inflexion. In English this only occurs in the pronouns, where the words I, thou, we, &c., as distinguished from me, thee, us, always mark the subject of an asser- tion. In other instances the nominative is determined by its position in the sentence. 2. By the agreement as to number and person between the subject and the verb : — The man instructs the boy. Here, 1st., the nominative case is indicated by the position of the word man ; and, 2ndly., the relation between the sub- ject " man" and the action " instructs,''' is marked by the final «, which indicates the singular number and the third person. Unless such an agreement existed, the thought, implied in the assertion, would be incongruous and absurd. § 74. The two fundamental rules of the predicative relation therefore, are as follows : — 68 ox THE DEDUCTION OF THE "■ The subject of the verb must stained in the nomi- ^ native case. ' ! r 1 iHE VERB MUST AGREE WITH ITS NOMINATIVE IN NUMBER 1 I AND PERSON. 1 j REMARKS. 'i \ As these two fundamental rules arise from the cougruity of the two ' notions in every assertion ; so all the minor modifications of them arise ■ from certain modifications of the thought to be expressed. For \ example : — i \ 1. Two singular nouns will have a verb in the plural, if so com- i bined as to form a plural idea, and not otherwise : — ^ John and Thomas are running, John or Thomas is running. ' 2. A singular noun, if it convey a plural idea, will have a plural ; verb, and not otherwise : — | The nation are happy. The nation is prosperous. ; 3. Adjectives, infinitive moods, phrases, &c , may form the subject i of a sentence, when they are put in the form of a notion im- - plying existence. In all such cases they are treated gramma- i tically exactly like a noun in the nominative case. \ II. The Objective Relation. § 75. In this relation we have the same elements as in the one just explained. A given action is expressed, as before, by a verb ; but instead of considering the source from which the action springs, we now consider the point to which it tends. In other words, we connect action with its object instead of its subject. FUNDAMENTAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 69 §76. The direction or course of an action may refer either, 1st., to tlie object itself, tvhicJi the action immediately affects; or, 2ndly., to the circumstances of time, place, manner, and causality, by which that course or direction is modified. In the first instance the objective relation is said to compUte the predicate ; in the second simply to extend it. § 77. 1. Completion of predicate. — The relation between the action expressed by the verb, and the object which that action imme- diately affects is indicated by the employment of the objec- tive case. Hence the fundamental rule respecting the com- pletion of the predicate runs as follows : — Active verbs govern nouns or pronouns in the objec- tive CASE. The objective case in many languages is expressed by the form or hiflexion of the word. In English a change of form only takes place in the pronouns. Tn other instances it is indicated by the position of the word, which is generally placed immediately after the predicate. Where emphasis is required, however, it is often put before the subject :— Such happiness I can never hope for. Whom not having seen, we love. There are several exceptions to the general rule respecting the object of the verb, all of which are grounded on some peculiarity in the thought : — 70 CN THE DEDUCTION OF THK 1. When the subject and the object express the same thing, the latter is in the nominative case as well as the former : — John becomes a man. Here the course of the action is not away from the subject ; and consequently the objective case, which indicates such a course, is not employed. In reflective verbs, however, the objective case is retained, because a distinction is implied between the agent as subject, and the agent as object. 2. The object is often apparently governed by a prepo- sition : — I ho^efor success. He despairs of the victory. Here " success" and " victory" are, strictly speaking, the objects of the two verbs ''hope for, "and "despair of," inas- much as they evidently complete the assertion. They stand quite in a different relation to a word governed by a prepo- sition, which indicates some circum stance of time, place; manner, and csauality. 3. Sometimes the infinitive mood is employed as the ob- ject of a verb. Here, however, it is, grammatically speaking, exactly equivalent to a noun in the objec- tive case. — Yid. Sec. 5, a. Some verbs have two objects, one denoting the person, the other the thing. This takes place when both the person and the thing, to which the action relates, must be expressed in order to complete the predicate : — He gave me a hook. J FUNDAMENTAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 71 b. Adjectives and nouns, which imply action in the transitive sense, may express their object in the objective case, with and sometimes without a preposition. The subject is worthy our consideration. § 79. 2. Extension of predicate. — The relations of an action in regard to the time ivhen, the place where, the manner hoiv, and the cause wherefore, it was done, forming the various extensions of the predicate are expressed by adverbs, prepositions, and the inflexions of mood and tense. Hence the following rules relating to the extension of the pre- dicate : — 1, Adverbs modify the meaning of ant words which convey the idea of action. The words expressing action in various forms are the verb the adjective, and the acUerh ; consequently, any of these may be modified by the use of adverbs : — He runs quickly. An exceedingly good horse. An exceedingly good horse runs very quickly. 2. Prepositions govern nofns and pronouns in the objective case. The use of the objective case with prepositions arises from their pointing out the direction or tendency of an action ; i. e. from their expressing one of its objective relations. The inflexions and the auxiliaries of mood and tense, point out for th most part, the relation of a given action to the speaker 752 OS THE DEDUCTION OF THE III. The Attributive Relation. §80. In the attributive relation, as in the other two, we have a word implying action, and a word implying existence. The word implying action, however, is not, in this instance, assertive. It simply expresses the notion of an action derived from some previous judgment : — The shining sun. Here the whole phrase, '' the shining sun," expresses simply one specific notion. This notion, however, is derived from a previous judgment, viz. : " The sun shines." Hence the following fundamental rule : — Every adjective qualifies some noun. The qualification of the noun is, in fact, the expression of a pre- < vious judgment, of which that noun was the subject, and the action, now attributed to it, the predicate. In languages where the adjective is inflected, this relation is shown by the inflexions. In English it is in- '. dicated by its position immediately before the noun. j § 81- I The general rule respecting the attribute of a noun unde- \ goes various modifications, which are indicated in various j ways : — i 1. Attributes of number are expressed by the numeral i adjectives : — i Twenty men. The twelfth day. Many thanks. ; FUNDAMENTAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 73 2. Attributes of possession are expressed by the posses- sive pronouns, and the possessive case of the noun — My mother. 'My father's house. 3. Attributes of distinction are expressed by the article and the demonstrative ^rowow^w : — The man. This man. That man. 4. Attributes are expressed by a participle, with or with- out adjuncts : — The sun, shining in its strength. 5. Attributes are expressed by -means of an adjective clause, introduced by the relative pronoun. In this case the relation is marked by the gender and the number of the relative : — The man, whom I saw. The houses, which I built. KEMAKK. The case of the relative, as of the noun, indicates whether it be the subject or the object of the clause in which it stands: — The man, ivhom I saved. The man, ivho saved me. 6. Attributes are expressed by prepositions with their case — The son of Adam. A man of wisdom. The- fear of hurting him prevented me. 7. Attributes are expressed by a noun in apposition — William, the Conqueror. 74 ON THE DEDUCTION OF THE An tiiese cases are modifications of the general rule, and may easily be understood as belonging to the attributive relation from the fact of their expressing the result of a previous judgment. § 82, The only remaining rules of syntax of a fundamental cha- racter are those which relate to the connexion of sentences. These are all grounded in the one principles, that conjunc- tions MAY COUPLE TOGETHER ANY NOTIONS OR ASSERTIONS, WHEN THEY EACH HOLD THE SAME RELATION IN A SENTENCE. The application of., this rule is obvious. If conjunction couple two nouns, they must both be subjects or objects; if two verbs, they must both be predicates of the same mood and tense ; if two sentences, they must both be principal sen- tences, or both subordinate ones of the same kind. All the laws of syntax should be studied as being expres- sions either of the predicative, the objective, or the attribu- tive relations of words, or of the mode of their connexion in clauses and sentences. I FUNDAMENTAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 75 The foUotviny mode of Parsinf/ is recommended :- Word. A Kind of Word. Part of Word. Part of Sentence. Article .. Indefinitive Nominative case .. censorious Adjective- Pos. degi-ee Nominative case .. •Subject. disposition Noun .... Abstract . . Nominative case.. casts Verb .... Transitive.. Ind.pres.3rd per. s. Predicate. every .... Adjective.. Distributive Objective case . . Completn. of Predicate. character.. Noun Abstract . . Objective case . . into Preposition Extension of Predicate. the Article . . Definitive.. Objective case . . darkest . . Adjective.. Sup. degree Objective case . . shade .... Noun .... Comparitive Objective case . . which Pronoun... Relative .. Objective case . . it Pronoun... 3rd j)erson. Nominative case... will Verb .... Auxiliary. . Indicatingfut.tense bear Verb .... Transitive.. Ind. fut. 3rd p. s... Printed by A. Ireland and Co., Manchester. ^ CO o CO I CN UJ s < il li 3S <^CN — O UCN CO It CO CM Qui UJ CL o lO U. C. BERKELEY LIBRARIES CD51=mb43T