MADONNA AND CHILD By Courtesy of J. W. Hughes, Detroit. STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT A MANUAL FOR MOTHERS AND MOTHERS' CLUBS BT JULIA CLAKK HALLAM CHICAGO NEW YOEK ROW, PETERSON AND COMPANY COPYRIGHT, 1913 ROW, PETERSON & COMPANY DEDICATION To Mrs. Florence Russell and each and every member of the Mothers' Child Study Club of Sioux City, Iowa, whose love and patience in cooperative study, made this book pos- sible, it is affectionately dedicated. JULIA CLARK HALLAM. 601395 PREFACE During the past twelve years, in connection with the work of Mothers' Child Study clubs, I have spoken many times to audiences composed of mothers. Among the things which have impressed me most strongly in this work is the fact that there are hundreds of mothers, espe- cially young mothers, who appreciate the importance of securing a broader knowledge of their children, but do not know where to look for it. They know in a general way that experiments and investigations are being made along the line of child study and that books are being written upon the subject, but this material is slow in making its way into the public libraries and even there it is often not in a form as to be really available. Per- haps the first question asked when a mothers' club has been organized is, "What book shall we use as a basis for our study ?" For a number of years I searched for such a book but failed to find it. Most of the volumes on child study contain valuable material, but either present it in too technical a form for the average mother, or present too much of the theoretical and too little of the practical to adapt the work to everyday conditions. At last I deter- mined to prepare a book which should contain such mate- rial as seemed to be most needed and most often called for, a book which should answer the questions that have been asked me most frequently by mothers. The first question which the mother asks concerning 5 6 PREFACE child study is usually, What use shall I make of it? The mere scientific statement of the results of investigations or experiments is not enough for her. Her standpoint is always practical. It is not the purpose of the present volume to offer anything original, but simply to present certain material from the best and most reliable sources, in such a form as to be immediately helpful to the busy mother. In other words, it is not offered as a contribution to the psychology of child development, but rather as a popularization of physiological and pedagogical principles already familiar to students in this field. The arrangement of the material is, from the view- point of the scientists, open to criticism for to classify children by age is not a strictly scientific procedure. The age classification, however, was adopted in the belief that it is the more practical for the present purpose. The fact which every mother knows about her child is his age. Under the present arrangement, she will be directed with- out loss of time to the chapters which contain what she is seeking. It may be noted that, in view of the many sources from which the material of this book has been drawn, there are comparatively few quotation marks. The reason for this is that, in most cases, it has seemed necessary to adapt the material in a greater or less degree to the pur- pose of the book. I trust, however, that there has been no failure to give full credit to each and every author from whom the ideas or data have been drawn. For the most part the references will be found at the foot of the page. In some chapters, however, the entire discus- sion has been based upon the work of one or more authors. PREFACE 7 The Beginnings (with tables) is thus based upon the work of Dr. J. P. C. Griffith; Language Development upon that of Dr. M. V. O'Shea; Physical Development upon that of Francis Warner, Stuart H. Rowe, and Professor J. M. Tyler; Foods and Feeding, Professor R. H. Chit- tenden; Psychology, Professors J. R. Angell, William James, and C. H. Judd; Imitation, Professor J. M. Bald- win; Adolescence, Dr. G. Stanley Hall, Professor E. G. Lancaster, Mary Wood Allen, Professor J. M. Tyler, and Dr. W. B. Forbush. JULIA CLARK HALLAM. University of Chicago, 1913. TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE CHAPTER I. WHERE CHILD STUDY BEGINS n Sec. i. Earliest Conditions and Their Requirements n Sec. 2. Food for the Baby 16 Sec. 3. Every Day Problems 21 Sec. 4. The Baby's Teeth 27 Sec. 5. Important Data 29 Sec. 6. The Baby's Mind 34 CHAPTER II. THE PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHILD FROM Two TO SEVEN YEARS 39 . Sec. I. Introductory 39 Sec. 2. Nutrition 41 ^^ Sec. 3. Signs of Good and Bad Nourishment 55 Sec. 4. Eyes, Ear and Throat 58 Sec. 5. The Nervous Child 61 Sec. 6. Fatigue 66 CHAPTER III. THE MENTAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHILD FROM Two TO SEVEN YEARS 68 Sec. i. How the Mind Grows 68 Sec. 2. Some Things Which Prevent Normal Development 74 Sec. 3. Avenues of Approach to the Child's Mind 76 x Sec. 4. Language as a Sign of Brain Development 79 Sec. 5. Play as a Factor in Mental Development 90 Sec. 6. Instincts 07 Sec. 7. School Life 109 CHAPTER IV. THE PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHILD "FROM SEVEN TO TWELVE YEARS 116 Sec. i. General Physical Condition 116 Sec. 2. The Muscular System 121 Sec. 3. The Eyes ,.,,.. 124 I0 CONTENTS PAGE Sec. 4. The Ears 125 Sec. 5. The Nose and Throat 126 Sec. 6. The Teeth 128 Sec. 7. Interaction of Mind and Body 131 Sec. 8. Parent and Teacher 142 CHAPTER V. THE MENTAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHILD FROM SEVEN TO TWELVE YEARS 150 Sec. i. Points of Contact Between Mother and Child 150 Sec. 2. Some Prominent Mental Traits of this Period 157 Sec. 3. Memory 166 Sec. 4. Children's Faults 170 Sec. 5. Truth and Untruth 182 CHAPTER VI. CHILD TRAINING 190 Sec. i. The Parents' Equipment for Training 190 Sec. 2. Imitation, the First Training 192 Sec. 3. Training Through Habit Formation 196 Sec. 4. The Will 201 Sec. 5. Discipline 206 Sec. 6. Religious Training 215 CHAPTER VII. THE ADOLESCENT BOY 225 Sec. i. The Approach of Adolescence 225 Sec. 2. The Parents' Duty to the Adolescent Boy 231 Sec. 3. General Characteristics of the Period 233 Sec. 4. Later Physical Changes 236 Sec. 5. The Boy's Greatest Danger 239 Sec. 6. How to Conquer this Disastrous Habit 242 Sec. 7. Mental Phases of Adolescence 246 Sec. 8. Later Spiritual Changes 251 CHAPTER VIII. THE ADOLESCENT GIRL 255 Sec. i. The Development of Sex 255 Sec. 2. The Mother's Duty to the Adolescent Girl 258 Sec. 3. The Health of the Adolescent Girl 263 Sec. 4. Mental Changes During Adolescence 269 Sec. 5. Spiritual Development at Adolescence 273 Sec. 6. The Education of Girls 276 Sec. 7. General Summary 278 Studies in Child Development CHAPTER I WHERE CHILD STUDY BEGINS i. EARLIEST CONDITIONS AND THEIR REQUIREMENTS Child study is full of meaning. It affects the life of the individual, the family, the state. It has special sig- nificance for the mother, since not one single fact con- nected with the child from either the physical, mental, or spiritual standpoint is unimportant. Child study deals with these facts, from the beginning to the end of the child's life. "Carry him to his mother," said the Shu- namite of old. Many people are saying the same thing today. Believing as we do that child study by mothers is one of the fundamental needs of the present time, we may properly begin our study with the most fundamental personage connected with the study, namely, the baby. Let us then take him as soon as he has announced his arrival by a hoarse little squeal which is not really a cry, but simply the reaction of the atmosphere upon his lungs. First Needs. The first needs of the baby are entirely physical. There is no need to worry about him, for everything that can be done will be better done, if the mother will keep herself calm and quiet. The first thing to do for the baby is to anoint him thoroughly with sweet oil. After this, wrap him carefully in a soft, warm- 11 12 StUblES*' IN' CHILD DEVELOPMENT cover, and lay him in a warm corner to experience that first long quiet sleep, which means much in many ways. Now, while the baby is resting, let us take just a moment to consider what we may look for in him when he wakes up. Points to be Noted. The points to be particularly noted in the child's body are as follows : l The size and shape of the head; the diamond-shaped soft spot on the top of the head and the smaller one at the back; the girth of the chest and the breadth across the shoulders; the size and shape of the trunk; the length and shape of the limbs ; the length and shape of the entire body. Finally, the scales will have to be resorted to, to see how much the body weighs. Let us consider these points in order. The Head. The head will be large in proportion to the rest of the body, and will usually exhibit a gradual slope from just above the eyes to the extreme point of the crown. When it assumes its normal shape, as it will in a few days, it will measure about thirteen and one-half inches, just above the ears. The contour of the head will be round or oval. The brain is relatively large at birth. It forms over twelve per cent of the weight of the body at this time, as against about two per cent in the adult. 2 The Soft Spots. The soft spots on the top and back of the head are known as the anterior and posterior fon- tanelles. In these places, only the skin and a thin mem- brane covers the brain which can be seen pulsating through them. The larger one of the two areas is the only one which needs to concern the mother. This should measure 1 Dr. J. P. C. Griffith, Care of the Baby, Chapter n. 3 Prof. J. M. Tyler, Growth and Education, p. 71, WHERE CHILD STUDY BEGINS 13 about one inch from edge to edge, and must always be > protected with the greatest care. It should neither be depressed nor bulging; a depression indicates weakness or lack of development, while a bulging is sometimes a sign of water on the brain. If either of these conditions occurs it is best to seek the advice of a physician as soon as the discovery is made. The Skin. The baby's skin is delicate and covered * with a soft down. Its normal color is a reddish pink. If * the skin is mottled or bluish, the baby is either cold or ill. During the first two weeks, the outside skin with its down is shed, leaving the under skin soft and rose-colored* Dr. Griffith suggests that if a faint yellowish tinge comes over the flesh at about the end of the first week, it may indicate a touch of jaundice, but need occasion no alarm. Eyebrows and eyelashes are not present. The Chest. The girth of the chest, which should be taken just above the nipples, will be practically the same as the size of the head. Dr. Griffith's table shows the chest to be a trifle smaller than the head at first. The* girth of the head and of the chest remains about equal for the first two years. 1 The breadth across the shoulders - should be about one- fourth the height. The chest girth * is nearly two-thirds the height at birth. 2 Lower Trunk. We next come to the lower part of the trunk. It goes without saying that this is a very important part of the outfit of the little traveler, con- taining things which are more vital to him than the conventional contents of a traveler's luggage. In this 1 Prof. J. M. Tyler, Growth and Education, p. 115. 2 Prof. J. M. Tyler, Growth and Education, p. 82. I 4 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT trunk, which is nearly cylindrical, the baby carries his intestines, his lungs, kidneys, liver and heart. These organs all have important work to do from the very start, and must not on any account be interfered with. The intestines and liver are relatively large. * This is what makes the new baby's stomach protrude. The heart is heavy as compared with the weight of the body. The Limbs. The limbs are relatively short in propor- tion to the trunk, the legs measuring slightly more than the trunk in length. These little legs are always crooked at first, and have the power of bending so that the soles of the feet easily come together. The length of the body is from seventeen to twenty inches. Dr. Griffith's table makes the average length nineteen inches. 4 Weight. As to weight, if the child is a boy, it will weigh at birth from seven to ten pounds; if a girl, from six to nine pounds. Dr. Griffith places the average weight at seven pounds and eight ounces, including both boys and girls. Special Senses at Birth. Among the special senses, 'the taste is the first to be established after birth; then 'comes the power to smell. Every new-born child is com- pletely deaf, and is wholly incapable of seeing. There is in some cases a response of the organization to the vibra- tions caused by a loud noise. This is often interpreted as ability to hear. Also, there is a sensitiveness in the ' eye to a strong light, which is taken by some to indicate the power of sight. The sensation which comes first to the new-born infant through his ears and eyes is all exceedingly vague and confused. 1 W. Preyor, Mental Developments of the Child, pp. 2, 3, 5, 7, 8. WHERE CHILD STUDY BEGINS 15 It will also be of interest to the mother to know that, in the case of a baby born from four to six weeks too soon, the special senses, particularly those of sight and hearing, develop much more slowly than in the case of a normal infant. However, sight and hearing develop rapidly. The vision is nearly perfect at two months.. Keep Baby Clean. For the new-born baby the first bath should be a gentle rubbing with olive or sweet oil. Continue this treatment until the cord comes off. The oil is better for the skin than water, and also serves as nourishment for the baby's system. Wash only the head and genital parts with soap and water, using lukewarm water and castile soap. After bathing the parts, anoint them carefully with a mild solution of boric acid. Great care is needed in cleansing the eyes, ears, nose and mouth. For this purpose, use the boric solution just mentioned, applied with an absolutely clean and sterilized piece of raw cotton. The cotton can be sterilized by placing it in a hot oven for a few minutes. Use a fresh piece of cotton for each eye. Rub the body carefully about the navel cord. Lay the cord to one side and dress it with boracic acid powder and antiseptic cotton. If there is a tendency on the part of the cord to become dry and hard, apply a bit of vaseline to the dry portions. The cord should slip off about the fifth or sixth day. If there is a slight dis- charge from the navel after the cord has come off, keep it carefully cleansed and dressed as above. If the first rectal movements cause soreness, as is often the case, this may easily be overcome by the application of a soft linen cloth covered with aristol powder. Clothing. After the bath wrap the little body, not too. 16 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT tightly, with an unhemmed flannel band, six or eight inches wide and long enough to reach around the stomach at least twice. The diaper of bird's eye, not too bulky, and a shirt of soft woolen material come next to the band. A petticoat of outing flannel, sleeveless but high- necked and extending five or six inches below the feet, and a gown of the same material and length, but having sleeves, will complete .this first costume. It is always well to keep the body wrapped in a soft comforter for the first few days, even though the weather is not cold. 2. FOOD FOR BABY We come now to the feeding of the baby. Mothers who are able to supply the natural nourishment which the child needs are most fortunate. Regularity of feed- ing with frequent drinks of water between times is always important. Substitutes for Mother's Milk. If artificial food is required, either wholly, or in part, each mother must make a careful study of her own baby with reference to his particular condition and needs. There are many ex- cellent baby foods available, and it is not possible to select any one as best adapted to all cases. But do not let the baby fret himself thin because he is hungry. Something is wrong if he is not gaining in weight. But even if he is gaining in weight, the mother must be on her guard, for some of the artificial foods tend to produce fat rather than solid flesh and bone, and the baby may not be thriv- ing as well as he seems to be. Again, some of the most popular substitutes for mother's milk abound in starch, for the digestion of WHERE CHILD STUDY BEGINS 17 which there is, in early infancy, only imperfect provision. Foods which are entirely free from starch are more desir- able than those containing it. The mother may satisfy herself as to whether or not starch is present in any par- ticular food by dissolving a portion of the food in hot water and adding a few drops of tincture of iodine in a tablespoon of water. If starch is present a blue color will appear. 1 An experienced nurse or physician must be relied upon ultimately to decide which food is best. Dr. Griffith thinks that, in spite of the many infants' foods now upon the market, the safest substitute for mother's milk can be prepared at home. Below is given the formula which he recommends. This, of course, requires the best of everything in the way of ingredients, and can be made of varying strength to suit the demands of the child. GRIFFITH'S FORMULA FOR MILK MIXTURE 2 Milk ., 2 ounces Cream, skimmed (16 per cent fat) iy 2 ounces Lime water y 2 ounce Milk sugar y 2 ounce Water $y 2 ounces (One ounce equals two tablespoon fuls) Care of Food. Too much emphasis cannot be laid upon the necessity of keeping the baby's food free from infec- tion. Even sterilized milk will not remain sterilized under exposure, and if it has once become contaminated, steriliz- ing will not always free it from bacterial poisons. The intestine of the baby is peculiarly sensitive to the pres- 1 Griffith, Care of the Baby, p. 160. 2 Same, p. 143. !8 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT ence of bacteria, and the rapidity with which babies suc- cyrnb to intestinal diseases is a matter of record. Con- firmation of this is found in the tremendous death rates of babies in the crowded districts of our large cities. Specialists who have made a study of the subject declare that the large death rate among babies is due principally to impure milk. Since the matter of perfectly pure milk is of such supreme importance to the well-being of the baby, the mother, when she is uncertain as to the quality of the milk which she must use, should sterilize it. The prin- ciple of sterilizing is the early killing of germs present in the milk and the preventing of other germs from enter- ing or developing. Milk properly sterilized and protected will retain its purity for months. Boiling the milk de- stroys germs, but it also changes the taste of it and affects the chemical character in such a way as to make it less digestible. Sterilizing can be done most thoroughly with the regular apparatus made for the purpose. However, in the absence of a sterilizer, the following method is suggested : Place the milk mixture, the formula for which has already been given, in bottles tightly corked with raw cotton which shall not come in contact with the milk itself. Heat a kettle of water to the boiling point, remove it from the stove, place the bottles of milk in the kettle, cover all closely, and allow it to remain forty-five minutes. At the end of this time cool the bottles as rapidly as possible and keep them on ice until used. It is well, also, to boil and cool the water which the baby drinks. The water should be kept covered after it is boiled, just as the milk is. WHERE CHILD STUDY BEGINS 19 Times of Feeding. All physicians advocate regularity * of feeding, whether the baby is nursed or fed from the bottle. 1 Once in three hours is sufficient for the first two* or three months. After this, the interval may gradually be increased to four hours. The longer periods between feeding conduce to the health of both mother and child. The baby will have less colic and less tendency to throw - up his food; the mother's milk will last longer. It is also best to skip one night feeding from the first, say the one about three in the morning. It is advisable to awaken the baby if asleep when his time for feeding comes. As to the amount of food a baby should be given at one time, the mother should remember that at birth the stomach holds two tablespoonfuls. The stomach could hardly increase in size at such a rate as to comfortably dispose of the great bottles of milk which are often given to the baby during the first few months. Estimating two table- spoons as an ounce, the following program is advised: * 2 For the first two weeks from two to four tablespoons at a meal ; from one to three months, from four to eight tablespoonfuls; from three to five months, eight to six- teen tablespoonfuls. These amounts should be modified in the case of an unusually large or small baby. Discontinue Night Feeding. When the baby is about - four months old some nurses suggest an earlier date it is wise to stop feeding him at night. There is usually quite a struggle before the question of night feeding is settled, and if the child is persistent and "spunky/' the mother may find it necessary to exhibit similar qualities 1 Griffith, Care of the Baby, p. 153. 2 Same, p. 134. 20 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT in order to carry her point. But those mothers who have succeeded in establishing this habit find themselves more than repaid for the effort. Of course, each mother will have her own way of doing this, but the experience of one mother may be suggestive, especially as it was tried successfully with several different members of a numerous family. Feed the baby when you retire yourself, even though you waken him to do so. Then lay him down in his crib and prepare yourself for a siege. Have your slippers and kimono ready and be sure, if the weather is cold, that there is one room into which you can take the baby when he wakes up for his usual nightly meal. Be prepared to heat some water. It may be wise to sweeten the water a little if the baby refuses to take it without its being sweetened. When he wakes up to be fed, offer him only warm water and hold him until he falls asleep again. This sounds simple enough, but there have been cases where the cold gray dawn of the morning crept in at the window before the baby gave up. Some babies will cry as long and loud as their strength admits and will slap away the cup or bottle of water when they find it does 'not contain the accustomed food. Two or possibly three nights may be needed before everything goes smoothly. Let the morning meal come about six or seven o'clock. Gradual Changes in Method and Diet. Do not let the baby use the bottle after he is a year old. With a little patient effort he can be taught to drink from a cup, which is much more hygienic and satisfactory. Begin by plac- ing the food in the baby's mouth with a teaspoon. Most of it will run out at first, and for a day or two the little one may not seem to get enough to eat. But it will not WHERE CHILD STUDY BEGINS 21 be long before he not only learns how to take the food from the spoon but to drink directly from the cup. Towards the end of the first year a little fat is a desirable addition to the baby's diet. This may come in the way of an occasional piece of bacon to suck. He will also profit by the use of bread and butter with his meals. Second Year. The diet of the baby during his second year will probably include a goodly portion of milk. But he will also enjoy bread in the milk and some of the numerous good breakfast foods which are now on the market. Soft boiled eggs, rice, tapioca, and sago are* excellent. Dish gravy and beef juice are recommended. Towards the end of the second year, a little. meat and fish may be added to the child's dietary. 1 3. EVERYDAY PROBLEMS Keeping Baby Warm. As the days of the baby's life / stretch out into weeks and months many problems arise. Perhaps none of these is more perplexing than that of keeping the baby warm. The little body contains a large amount of water. This is nature's provision for the dif- fusion of nourishment to the tissues. It increases growth but decreases the power of resistance to cold. The sur- t face of the body is large in proportion to the size and efficiency of the circulatory system, and it is difficult to get heat to the extremities. This is practically a vegeta- tive period of life and the most important processes are those of digestion, assimilation, and the removal of waste. Very little of the food which the baby takes is used for 1 J. P. C. Griffith, Care of the Baby, p. 164. 22 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT fuel. 1 When the temperature is warm for an adult, the baby will be cold. External heat must constantly be provided. Some babies show that they are cold by looking blue, but many babies suffer from cold even when they are sufficiently well-nourished not to look blue. Any indica- tion of this condition should receive the prompt attention of the mother. Sometimes there is not sufficient clothing, or the clothing is too tight. This can easily be remedied by putting more on and exercising care in its adjustment, especially in the case of the band. But often the baby needs more warmth than can be supplied even by an abun- dance of well-placed clothing. When this is the case, a hot water bottle is a safe and reliable resource. N Hot Water Bottle. No pre-natal outfit is complete which does not contain a small-sized rubber bottle. This should be encased in a cover of soft texture. When thus protected on the outside, and partially filled with warm (not hot) water and placed upon the baby's stomach and bowels, it will bring untold hours of comfort and rest. A* bag at the soles of the feet will often prove helpful. This use of hot water bottles is especially urged upon the mother during the night. The bedroom grows cold and the circulation of the sleeping infant is not vigorous. By the use of the bottles, the baby is kept comfortable and quiet. Put the bottles in the cab when you take the baby out of doors in cold weather. Fresh air is a real need to the child before the physical organism is adapted to resist the cold. You may safely take him out for his airing in all but the coldest days, if you have the bottles 1 J. M. Tyler, Growth and Education, p. 86. WHERE CHILD STUDY BEGINS 23 at his stomach and feet. Also, if thus equipped, baby will have a good chance of escaping the paroxysm of pain and crying which so often follows the delight of the outing. Warmth While Bathing. When bathing the baby, too, the question of warmth is an important one. Some babies are so sensitive to cold that the removal of the clothing brings on a chill which causes pain, with the result that the little one shrieks during the entire bath and until he is dressed, warmed, and fed. Eighty degrees is not too * warm for the room where the baby is being bathed. Keep - the baby naked for the shortest possible time and bathe and wipe portions of the body consecutively. Vomiting. Mothers are sometimes alarmed by baby's vomiting. There is no cause to worry unless the vomiting is excessive, and the expelled food smells sour. 1 The muscles closing the stomach are weak and if too large a supply of food is taken the vomiting is the natural way of restoring proper balance. Constipation. Watch the baby's bowels from the first. There seems to be more tendency to constipation when* the food is artificial than when it is natural. However, I know one baby whose tendency to constipation during the nursing period was entirely overcome by the gradual use of artificial food. In this case, the mother had suf- fered for weeks before the baby's birth with obstinate constipation. Some of the remedies for colic are consti- pating, but not all of them. Peppermint is often found to be so, but not catnip. An enema of warm water con- taining a little calendula is often effective. Incidentally, 1 J. P. C. Griffith, Care of the Baby, p. 120. 24 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT let me say the latter treatment is good to relieve colic. Do not let more than twenty- four hours pass without a move- ment. The use of mild physic is better than the dangers which attend constipation. If the baby continues to have this tendency, secure from your family physician some mild cathartic and use it when necessary. A small dose of castor oil will always be safe and helpful. * Chafing. If the baby chafes, apply talcum powder and r sweet oil. Mild boracic acid is very healing, as is also bismuth powder. All of the things suggested here are very simple and can do no harm. Nursery Chair. Regularity in the use of the nursery chair is one of the things which all mothers seek. When the baby is strong enough to sit up (he may be held up even earlier than that), place him upon the chair after the morning bath and feeding. If his bowels are likely to move at other times, for example as soon as he awakens in the morning, place him upon the chair at that time. Be careful not to let the child sit too long. Toys and simple eatables, which are allowed only at this time, have helped to secure the desired results. As the baby grows older, especially when he begins to walk and talk, the mother's own ingenuity will suggest proper expedients to secure those habits of cleanliness and regularity, the establishment of which is simple justice to the child. % First Tears. The baby's first crying is not attended with tears. The tear ducts are not in working order at first. Even when the tears do appear they are not a sign of grief. When the tear ducts are developing and becom- ing adjusted, there is an overflow quite unconnected with WHERE CHILD STUDY BEGINS 25 emotion. The combination of real tears, prompted by real grief, comes a little later. Breathing. The establishment of proper breathing is an important factor in the child's well-being. It is likely to be regular during sleep, but irregular during the waking hours. The same rule holds good of the pulse and will probably continue as the child grows older. Some chil- dren have a way of holding the breath for an appreciable length of time. This is likely to startle the mother, but it is done unconsciously, and is attended with no danger. Breathing, besides its function of respiration, constitutes much of the child's first exercise. Locomotion. Locomotion will be attempted soon after* the first half year, but do not be discouraged if many months pass before success is achieved. Watch the cloth- ing with special care at this time, and be sure that no part of the body is impeded. It will be noticed that when the baby falls he is likely to fall into a sitting position rather than upon his face. This is because the muscles in the back of his legs are stronger than those in front, and so tend to draw him down. The impulse to grasp and climb has been developing all this time, because strength comes to the arms first. Many babies begin their locomotive process by creeping backwards, and for this reason learn to go down stairs more easily than to mount them. An unfortunate result of this tendency to creep backwards was shown in the case of one child which I knew. He invariably succeeded in getting himself under the bed and usually into the ex- treme corner. He did not know enough to turn around after he had reached the wall, neither could he make a 26 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT single forward movement. Not knowing what else to do, he would proceed to exhibit his discomfort by setting up a howl which continued until such time as his mother or some other interested adult would assume the prostrate position which was necessary to extricate him. Clothing. The character of the garments which com- pose the baby's wardrobe will depend to a large extent upon the individual taste of the mother. Let us hope for the baby's sake that the clothing will be sufficient and suitable. Consider for yourself what will best protect but not impede the tiny soft body. The clothing should be evenly distributed and the number and weight of the garments necessary will depend upon the time of the year and the climate in which the baby is born. There should be an entirely different set of garments for night and day wear. Woolen materials give the most warmth with the least weight. If the baby's skin is so sensitive as to be irritated by even very soft wool, then let an outing flannel or stockinet garment come first, and the woolen garment outside of that. Even the first clothing should be only a few inches longer than the baby. The small limbs ought to begin to move very soon, and to move a great deal. Long heavy garments will retard development. Cover the little feet with socks or stockings of such thickness as the season demands. Night skirts of cotton flannel, low neck and sleeveless, and gowns of heavy, outing flannel will be found very serviceable, as the constant wetting to which night gar- ments are subjected discolors flannel and causes it to become stiff and hard. WHERE CHILD STUDY BEGINS 27 4. THE BABY'S TEETH If we examine the baby's mouth when he is nearing his fourth month we shall find that the anterior edges of the gums have grown slightly broader and more prominent. The gums may possibly be a little red and inflamed. Per- haps not until two or three months later will first one and then a second tiny tooth be noted in the middle of the lower jaw. Teeth come in groups and these two lower central incisors are the first group to appear. You will have to wait from three to eight weeks before seeing any more teeth. Second Group. When the next group appears, it will consist of four teeth instead of two, and they will be in the middle of the upper jaw. They are the four upper incisors. Of course, these four teeth do not all come through the gums in a day or in a night. They simply come near enough together to be considered as one group, their coming sometimes being separated by only a few days. Third Group. After this, the period of waiting will be , from one to three months and the next group of teeth will number six. But these six teeth do not stand to- gether in the mouth. Appearing, as they do, at intervals of several days or even weeks, the mother hardly associ- ates them. Two of the number of this third group are - the lower lateral incisors. You will be glad to see them come, for they will help to fill up the mouth and greatly improve the appearance of the child. The other four are known as the anterior molars. These are what we call double teeth and one stands a little way from each lateral 28 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT incisor. Then there is another rest of from two to three months. ' Fourth Group. The child will have passed his eight- eenth month, and perhaps several more, before the fourth group makes its appearance. The group consists of four i sharp pointed canines which fill the little gaps left between I the incisors and the first molars. Fifth Group. Then, after another rest of from two to four months, the careful mother, who makes it a point to know what is taking place in the child's mouth, will find that he has four new double teeth, two in each jaw, directly back of the first molar. I speak of the careful mother in this way because it often happens that these second molars, being so completely out of sight and the time of their arrival being so often unknown, appear in the mouth and sometimes decay before the mother knows they have come. Then they have a way of forcing atten- tion upon themselves most disagreeably by beginning to ache. By this time the child has passed his second birthday ''and has twenty teeth. Each jaw contains two central incisors, two lateral incisors, two canines and four molars. The canine teeth of the upper jaw are called the eye teeth, those of the lower jaw are called the stomach teeth. These twenty teeth are known as the temporary, or milk teeth, and in time come out to make room for the permanent teeth. The permanent teeth will be spoken of in a later chapter. Importance of Care of the Teeth. The importance of taking the utmost care of these first teeth need hardly be emphasized. In the first place nothing is more distressing WHERE CHILD STUDY BEGINS 29 than to see a child with unclean or discolored teeth. But the most pathetic part of the neglect of the teeth is that the child is tormented by a toothache which the careful forethought of the mother might have spared him. It is so easy to forget about the regular visits to the dentist which one fully intended to make. Also, these visits are sometimes postponed because the child rebels and dreads them. Nails. Besides the teeth, there are in the same class the finger nails and toe nails which require attention. The finger nails should not be trimmed very closely at the corners, and if the toe nails are cut straight across there will be less danger of their ingrowing. 5. IMPORTANT DATA In the early part of the chapter there were given the general measurements of the body at birth. It is of the utmost importance that these measurements continue to be carefully taken during the weeks and months which fol- low. The mother can provide herself with nothing which will result in greater ultimate good for the baby than an adequate equipment for taking these measurements. Many a baby has elaborate and expensive garments in his wardrobe, which could very profitably be exchanged for a good measuring outfit. Equipment for Taking Measurements. Let a tape measure be part of the furnishing of baby's basket, and do not allow it to stray away. A grocer's scales in one of the smaller sizes, but provided with an ample basin, will meet the requirements of weighing the little one. There are all kinds of devices for the almost impossible 3 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT task of accurately finding the baby's length. The best, I believe, is a measure similar to that which a shoemaker uses in measuring the foot. 1 It is something like a rule with an upright piece that will slide back and forth. By placing the stationary end-piece above the baby's head as he lies on the bed or, better still, on a flat solid like a table and moving the sliding gauge until the feet touch it, you can be practically sure that your measurements are accurate. The measure should be about forty-six inches long with uprights eight inches long. A carpenter will make such a measure at a small expense, and, after having once used it, you will find it indispensable. Details of measurements and weight may seem unimportant and hence uninteresting. But I trust you will realize why these things are emphasized when I give you an incident, which is typical of many other similar cases. Illustration from Experience. There was born into the home of a friend of mine, a beautiful baby boy. His head was unusually large. His parents were very ambi- tious for his advancement and very proud of the mentality which he rapidly developed. They were absolutely unin- formed as to the possible dangers of such a condition and the relation which the size of the head should prop- erly bear to the other parts of the body. No measure- ments were taken. Everything possible was done to stimulate the baby's mind. He was taken into exciting environments and frequently urged to "show off." At six months of age this child with his immense forehead and wise look had the appearance of many children sev- eral times that age. As he approached the end of his 1 J. P. C. Griffith, Care of the Baby, p. 58. WHERE CHILD STUDY BEGINS 31 first year, it became evident that all was not right with him. His mind continued to develop, but his body became feeble and nervous. The advice of a physician was sought and all possible care given, but the little fellow hardly lived to pass his first birthday. How Child Study Helps. Child study would have shown the parents that an infant of this type should have been kept absolutely quiet and free from mental excite- ment; that his physical development should have been ministered to with more than the usual care ; and that the open air should have been his constant abiding place. With such precautions, the body would at least have had a chance to develop sufficient strength to sustain what seemed to have been an unusually strong mentality. Everyone realizes how absolutely fascinating a baby is in these first days of his dawning intelligence. The tempta- tion to hover over him and make him "do things" is almost irresistible. In many cases this method may be the best thing for the little one. I trust that the results of investigation upon this subject which have been col- lected here will help you to know what is best in the case of your baby. The Head. The weight of the brain probably doubles * during the first year, and there are some changes in the exterior of the head which go along with this increase. 1 As shown by the table below, the circumference of the head becomes proportionately larger during the first six months than at any later period. The anterior fontanelle ' increases slightly in size up to the ninth month. After / 1 J. M. Tyler, Growth and Education, p. 118. 32 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT that, the bones begin gradually to grow over it. At seven- 'teen or eighteen months it should be entirely closed. Dr. Griffith's table for head and chest will be found useful here. 1 CIRCUMFERENCE OF HEAD AND CHEST Age Head Chest Birth 1^/2 inches 13 inches 6 months 17 inches 16^2 inches 1 year i8j4 inches 18 inches 2 years 19 inches 18^2 inches Baby Must Grow. Too much emphasis cannot be laid upon the importance of a consistent increase in weight on the part of the body. While a standstill of a week may not prove serious, it should serve to put the mother on her guard. But do not let a second week go by without increase in weight. Investigate the food and general processes. If nothing can be done there, look for some organic trouble. Right here I am reminded of a mother whom child study would have helped. This mother ex- claimed to me a short time ago, "I wish I had known enough to weigh my baby every week! Had I realized that he was not gaining, but gradually losing in weight, I would have changed his food, and not let him undergo a process of slow starvation, as he has been doing for some time/' This mother is typical of many other mothers. On the other hand, one cannot fail to rejoice over those cases where the careful knowledge of the mother, in regard to the matter under discussion here, has served to bring the baby through these periods of serious lack of vitality. 1 J. P. C. Griffith, Care of the Baby, p. 60. WHERE CHILD STUDY BEGINS 33 'Another Illustration. A definite illustration of this is at hand. A mother, whose six-months-old baby boy to all outward appearances was well, found that he had failed to gain in weight at the end of a certain week; then the second and third and even fourth week passed without gain. By this time the baby began to look pale. The mother, from the first sign of danger, was up and doing. Baby's food was changed, the doctor was con- sulted, the food was still more carefully studied, the baby spent days and almost nights in the open air, the scales were faithfully resorted to. Time was slipping into the second month, bringing anxiety to parents and friends, when a combination of foods was found upon which the child began to increase in weight. The boy is a sturdy yearling now and is growing normally, but a knowledge of conditions makes it seem reasonable to infer that his mother's care in the matter of measurements had much to do with the happy outcome. Dr. Griffith's table of height and weight is given here. DR. GRIFFITH'S TABLE OF HEIGHT AND WEIGHT Age Height Weight Birth 19 inches 7 Ibs. 8 oz. 1 week 19 'inches 7 Ibs. 7^ oz. 2 weeks 19 inches 7 Ibs. 10^2 oz. 3 weeks 19 inches 8 Ibs. 2 oz. 1 month 20^2 inches 8#J pounds 2 months 21 inches io$4 pounds 3 months 22 inches I2J4 pounds 4 months 23 inches 13^4 pounds 5 months 23^ inches 15 pounds 6 months 24 inches i6j pounds 7 months 24^ inches 17^ pounds 8 months 25 inches i8K pounds 34 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT Age Height Weight 9 months 25^ inches 18^ pounds 10 months 26 inches 19^ pounds 11 months 26^ inches 20^ pounds 1 year 27 inches 21^2 pounds 2 years 31 inches 27 pounds Generalizations. We see from the first table that the baby loses weight during the first week, but more than regains during the second week. The table shows several things. 1 During the last three weeks of the first month and the entire second month the gain is about an ounce a day; in the third and fourth months about three- fourths of an ounce a day. In the fifth and sixth months it increases two-thirds of an ounce a day, and from the seventh to the twelfth month the gain is at the rate of about a pound a month, or a trifle more than half an ounce a day, except in the ninth and eleventh months when the increase is somewhat less. In length, we note that from the second to the fourth month the increase is one inch a month, and after this up to one year it is half an inch a month. After the first year there is a proportional decrease in the number of pounds as well as in the number of inches gained, five pounds being gained in weight and four inches in height in the second year. 6. THE BABY'S MIND So far our entire attention has been absorbed by the physical part of the baby's life, and emphasis has been laid upon the fact that at birth mental traits were strictly lacking. Mothers often resent what seems to them dis- 1 J. P. C Griffith, Care of the Baby, p. 53. WHERE CHILD STUDY BEGINS 35 paragement of their baby's equipment along mental lines. But the joy of watching the mind develop from nothing will more than compensate for the disappointment of knowing that the baby is born without active mentality. Cortex the Seat of Consciousness. The part of the human brain where it is known that all acts of conscious- ness are carried on is the outer covering called the cortex. This outer covering is made up of many overlapping folds, thus affording wonderfully large areas for mental processes. An important fact is that, according to the * testimony of scientific investigations, the greater part of the cortex is positively inactive during the first three months of the child's life. 1 It is said that nearly every- thing which the child does at this time is done better when he is asleep. In fact a child born without brains has very nearly the same movements at first as the normal child. Therefore, the behavior of the infant during these months, while often having the appearance of being rational and while extremely interesting for many reasons, cannot be looked upon as being rational or as prompted by mental activity. Special Senses Imperfect? But whether the cortex is active or inactive, during these first months makes but little difference to the baby's mental state because the senses through which impressions must come to the brain are so very imperfect. At best, the world presents itself to the eyes of the new-born baby as a general blur of light and shadow ; to the ears it comes as dull vibrations. It is not many days before the baby will follow an 1 Francis Warner, The Nervous System, p. 24. 2 Irving King, Psychology of Child Development, p. 21. 36 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT object with his eyes and even turn his head to do so. The head also turns in response to sounds very early. But for the first few weeks even these manifestations cannot be construed as mental processes. Real Development. As the weeks go by during which real mentality is becoming established the baby has many ways of showing it. For example, the first real smile, which comes almost any time after the third week, can easily be distinguished from the former unconscious con- tractions of the small mouth; there is the dawning look of pleasure at sight of the mother's face or the sound of her voice, or the voice of the father, the first reaching out of the arms and similar demonstrations. The instinct to tear things, which may come as early as the fifth month, indicates a stage -of development, and, tedious as it is to pick up the scraps, the mother may help the advancement of the child by supplying newspapers or similar valueless things. Keep books away from the baby until he is old enough to discriminate between what may and what may not be torn. Close upon the develop- ing consciousness of the little one comes the responsibility of the parents for his behavior. This chapter will close with a few words in regard to discipline, for even very little folks are likely to require it. Discipline. When the child, even the very young one, does those things which are disturbing to the peace and order of the home he should be corrected. The method to be used must be determined by the individual parent. Bodily punishment is more effective than moral suasion at this period, since the undeveloped mental life of the child makes it almost necessary to appeal to him on the WHERE CHILD STUDY BEGINS 37 physical side. A slapping of the hands has the advan- tage of being prompt and definite, two very necessary attributes of successful punishment, especially for young children. Tying the little hands which stray from the way of obedience is often effective in securing it. There are many children who can be more immediately reached by being deprived of something of which they are very fond. This may be a cherished toy, an article of clothing, a favorite pleasure, or even temporarily the society of the mother. It is easier to establish relations of obedience now than it will be later. The individuality of each child should be noted, and a study should be made of what is the most effective way of discipline. But some method must be adopted. Self -Control. The rules of society demand self-con- trol, and this self-control should be taught as early as possible. It has been claimed that self-control in the parents will beget self-control in the child. I have not observed it to work that way. Self-control in the parent is no doubt one of the conditions for a self -controlled child, but it is not the only condition. Where the child is wisely but surely taught obedience to home discipline he is under better self-control and much more amenable to the demands of school and society than when the law of imitation is entirely relied upon. Moral suasion with children under two years of age is more than likely to render parenthood a farce and society pandemonium. Im- pose obedience in whatever way you think best upon your little folks, and they, as well as society, will rise up and call you blessed, 38 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT QUESTIONS FOR USE IN CLUB STUDY 1. Tell why child study is important. 2. What is the baby's first need? 3. Name the first points to be noted, and tell which you think is the most important. 4. Discuss each topic referred to in question three. 5. How do these measurements compare with those of your baby? 6. Describe the condition of the special senses at birth. 7. Explain the proper conditions for the baby's first bath and first costume. 8. Discuss the presence of starch in baby's food. 9. Give Dr. Griffith's formula for milk mixture. 10. Explain proper care of the milk. 11. Discuss times of feeding. 12. Suggest diet for baby during his second year. 13. Make suggestions about keeping the baby warm. 14. Give your experience with reference to the "everyday problems." 15. Describe the different groups of teeth. 16. Describe a good equipment for measuring the baby; tell why the mothers should have it. 17. Describe the cortex and its condition in the new baby. 18. When do you think discipline should begin? Why? CHAPTER II THE CHILD FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS i. INTRODUCTORY Physical Life Our Basis. Physical and mental growth are closely allied. Modern physiology and psychology are laying much emphasis upon the fact of the oneness of the human organism. Just what the nature of this mysterious intimacy which links our bodies and our minds is, we do not know, but the fact of the unity is beyond question. It was Montaigne who said very wisely, "It is not the mind, it is not the body, we are training; it is the man, and we must not divide him into parts; one should not be fashioned without the other." It will, how- ever, be a matter of convenience for us to continue to study the next five years along the same lines which have been followed, almost from necessity during the first two years, considering the external or physical development of the organism first, and the mental development as largely conditioned by the physical development. Every mother desires that her child shall be normal and healthy in the best and broadest sense. But, judging from the testimony of those who have investigated widely, it is far from safe to assume that all children are normal or in normal health. Hence we are justified in making it our serious purpose to consider how we may best judge as to the physical condition of our children, and how we may most surely make and keep them well. 39 40 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT In watching for possible defects, the mother must not allow herself to fall into a state of nervous apprehen- sion in which she sees and dreads imaginary diseases ; but she should intelligently apply the knowledge which she, in common with all good mothers, ought to possess. Thus she will be able thoroughly to enjoy the health of her child as well as to forestall and correct any evidences of the opposite condition. We have spoken of the normal child. It may be well to inquire just what that means. A Normal Child. A normal child may be defined as one that does not present any visible defects in develop- ment, nutrition, or physical condition; one with no ab- normal nerve signs, or not dull or backward mentally. The normal child is not the perfect child, for we do not expect to find human perfection among our children. Yet it may be interesting to mothers to know what a perfect child would look like and be like, if he existed. He has been thus defined by Warner : A Perfect Child. "The body of the perfect child must be well proportioned, the head of good size and well- shaped, with each feature well made. The nutrition of the body must be normal. Sight and hearing should be perfect. The signs of brain action must be good, as indi- cated by the movements. Expression lively, speech clear and distinct. He must show intelligent appreciation, judgment and a proper use of language. He must have the faculty of expressing himself, of thinking and of remembering. His ancestry and inheritance must be of the best. His habits in social life, and his tastes and enjoyments must be of a high order." 1 1 Francis Warner, A Study of Children, p. 156. FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS 41 2. NUTRITION One of the first problems of the mother, from the physical standpoint, is the problem of nutrition. Atwater has truly observed, "The health and strength of all are intimately dependent upon their diet. Yet most people understand very little about what their food contains and whether or not it is rightly fitted to the demands of their bodies." While every mother, in arranging the diet of her family, is in a measure limited to the foods which she finds in her local market, it is self-evident that a knowledge of the composition of the various foods and of the effect which their component elements have upon the body will give her a much wider range than she would otherwise have in the work of planning this diet. How Food Nourishes. ' We learn in our study of phys- iology that the various organs of the body are made up of tiny cells, joined compactly together by means of a delicate tissue into which penetrates the blood in a most wonderful fashion of its own. These cells may be strong and well-nourished or they may be weak and ill- fed. Growth can only be normal, and energy and vitality great when the cells are strong and perfect. There is not a great difference between the number of these cells in the child and in the adult. Development comes from their enlargement. 1 Nourishment is carried to all parts of the body by means of the blood. The nourishment contained in the blood is absorbed by the cells as it is needed, and they are thus built up. The source whence the blood secures 1 Francis Warner, A Study of Children, p. 156, 42 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT this nourishment for the enrichment of the tissues through which it flows is the food which is taken into the stomach. It will be worth while to recall briefly the manner in which food is converted into nourishment and distrib- uted throughout the body. After having been duly treated in the mouth, the food passes into the stomach. Here it is acted upon by the gastric juice and subjected to a series of wavelike motions which at once knead it and carry it onward through the pylorus into the small intestine. When it passes into the small intestine it is known as chyme and consists of minute solid masses suspended in a liquid, the consistency of the whole being that of moderately thick pea soup. 1 In the small intestine this fluid is acted upon by still other juices and the nour- ishment extracted from it through the myriads of thread- like villi which form the lining of this important organ. The villi send it on through other tubes into the blood and it is distributed throughout the whole organism. If the blood does not secure the nourishment which is needed it becomes impoverished and, as a matter of course, can- not build up the cells which are constantly breaking down and which depend upon the blood for their renewal. This means either that growth must stop altogether or at the best be slow and uncertain. In other words, every act of growth is provisional; when nutritive material fails to be supplied growth must cease. 2 Professor Chittenden, in discussing this fact, says, "Development, growth, and vital activity all depend upon the availability of food in proper amounts and of the proper quality. " 1 Hough and Sedgwick. The Human Mechanism, p. 1 12. 2 R. H. Chittenden, Nutrition of Man, Chapter I. FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS 43 Cause for Watchfulness. We are sometimes deceived because the child does not show at once the effects of a lack of nourishment. What the blood does not find fur- nished it in the normal and proper way, it will try to secure in other ways. The stronger organs may thus become a drain upon the weaker ones, and serious harm be done which will show itself in adult life. The mother of the growing child must be very sure that he has nour- ishing food, even though she detect no signs of ill-nour- ishment. It is simply the fact that the child's body requires a daily supply of material adapted to its nature, if it is to live, grow, and perform work. 1 Professor Tyler says, in this connection, that for the young child the table and the meal are more important than the school and the book. Since the digestive system is the founda- tion of all life and activity, the growing child must have material for ( i ) growth, both for the organic tissue and the inorganic bones, (2) energy, (3) heat. The bulk of the food will be organic matter, but the inorganic ele- ments are not to be overlooked. Professor Chittenden says: "The inorganic substances are an integral part of the essential tissues and organs of the body, being com- bined with the organic constituents of the living cells. Perhaps these inorganic substances in certain forms are what put life and fundamental power into certain very important forms of organic matter." Classes of Foods. Foods are divided into three classes : proteids, carbohydrates, and fats. This division is not based strictly upon the dominant element which each class contains, but rather upon the effect which the food has 1 J. M. Tyler, Growth and Education, p. 87. 44 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT upon the body. Each class is very important in its own peculiar way. Proteids. The proteids, or albuminous foods, are usu- ally considered first, because they are the most funda- mental. It is in the proteids, and only in them, that nitrogen is found. Although nitrogen is not the pre- dominating element in the proteids, since it forms only sixteen per cent of them, yet so important a factor is it that the proteids are sometimes known as the nitrogenous foods. Nitrogen is such a quiet sort of element that we would never realize without critical study how dependent we are upon it in a physical way. Nitrogen may be called "the power behind the throne," because, while so much depends upon it, it always seems to keep in the back- ground and practically out of sight. Nitrogen, in its elemental form, is a gas, tasteless, odorless, and colorless. It forms four-fifths of the air which we breathe. As it is a component part of all animal substances, we easily infer that it is found to a large extent in the tissue of the living body, and such is the case. As a matter of fact, we are ourselves fundamentally proteids. To quote again from Professor Chittenden: "The organic substance of all organs and tissues is made up principally of proteid matter. Proteids constitute the class of essential food stuffs, without which life is im- possible. For tissue building, and for the renewal of tissues and organs, proteids are an absolute requirement. The vital part of all tissue is proteid, and only proteid food can serve for its growth or renewal. Hence, no matter how generous the supply of carbohydrates and fats, without some mixture of proteid foods, the body FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS 45 will weaken and undergo nitrogen starvation. Every living cell, whether of heart, muscle, brain or nerve, re- quires its due allowance of proteid material to maintain its physiological rhythm. No other food stuff stands in such intimate relationship to the vital processes." 1 But there must be a grouping of the nitrogen, or pro- teid element, with other elements, and this grouping must be of a certain definite nature in order that the waste proteid tissues may be made good. The largest element in proteid is carbon. This amounts to fifty-two per cent. Next comes oxygen, of which there is twenty-three per cent. Besides these, and the sixteen per cent of nitrogen already referred to, there is seven per cent of hydrogen, with a little sulphur and, in some forms, a small amount of phosphorus. Carbohydrates. Food stuffs of the second class are the carbohydrates, or the starches and sugars. These foods contain no nitrogen but are made up of oxygen (49.4 per cent), carbon (44.4 per cent), and hydrogen (6.2 per cent). They are called the fuel food stuffs. The word fuel, in connection with the carbohydrates, is not used in its generally accepted sense; i. e., as a heat producer. It is used more as it would be in connection with the running of a steam engine. In other words, the carbohydrates are used to supply energy. They can- not build tissue. When they seem to be doing so, it is because they are being taken into the body in excess of need, and are transformed into fat, which is only tem- porary. The reason why carbohydrates serve to produce energy is that they oxidize easily and quickly. 1 Prof. R. H. Chittenden, The Nutrition of Man, pp. 3 and 4. 46 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT Fats. The third class of foods consists of the fats. They are made up of three- fourths carbon and a little more than eleven per cent each of oxygen and hydrogen. It is evident that the fats, with their large proportion of carbon, are preeminently the heat-makers. The carbo- hydrates produce some heat, as does anything which will oxidize or partly oxidize in the body, but the fats, be- cause they contain a larger percentage of carbon, yield more heat per pound than any other food. It has already been mentioned that all three classes of organic foods contain their quota of the inorganic salts which are needed for the bones and teeth, and possibly for other purposes. Foods which have the larger pro- portion of inorganic matter will be mentioned later. Grouping of Food Stuffs. While a knowledge of the composition of our food stuffs is important and interest- ing, it will avail but little for the mother, in a practical way, unless she can learn how these three classes of foods are grouped in the ordinary articles of diet. Hence an effort will be made here to group the different kinds of food stuffs according as they abound in one or the other of the different food principles. The mother must always bear in mind that the growing child needs all three of the so-called typical groups of food. But his predomi- nating needs change as he grows and develops, and cer- tain elements are needed in relatively larger proportions at one time than at another. Moreover, any child may show abnormal physical signs which indicate unusual needs in the way of food. In many of our natural products, all three of the food FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS 47 principles appear. But 1 Professor Chittenden points out that by physiological analysis there is shown to be a difference in the availability of these different elements. I have tried to group the foods not only with reference to their actual content, but also with reference to the availability of nutritive elements. We will begin with a consideration of the first class of foods; namely, the proteids. Proteid Foods. All kinds of lean meats are concen- trated proteid food. Round steak, canned dried beef, and roast turkey stand at the head of the list as given in the revised data of the United States Department of Agriculture. 2 Any kind of fish is essentially proteid. Bluefish and codfish head the list. Both meat and fish are peculiar in that they contain no carbohydrates. Other strongly proteid foods are eggs and cheese. The former contains no carbohydrates and the latter very little. This short list by no means embraces the only foods which contain much proteid matter. They are, however, the typ- ical proteid foods. Some of the vegetables are very rich in proteids, and form a fine diet for children, because they contain a better balance of all the elements than do these almost purely proteid foods. Carbohydrate Foods. In the second, or carbohydrate, class, are the vegetables. As has just been said, many of these contain a considerable proportion of the proteid element, but as this proteid is not so available as in foods of the animal type it is not taken so largely into consid- eration. At the head of the list of carbohydrates stands 1 R. H. Chittenden, The Nutrition of Man, Chapter I. 2 Bulletin 28, United States Department of Agriculture. 48 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT shredded wheat. Then come macaroni, cornmeal, prunes, soda crackers, whole wheat, oatmeal, dried beans and peas, white bread, brown bread, tapioca, boiled rice, pea- nuts, bananas, potatoes, green corn, almonds, apples, oranges, cranberries, peaches, and strawberries. The list given here is in the order of the relative amount of the carbohydrates which the different articles contain, rang- ing 77.9 per cent in shredded wheat to 7.4 per cent in strawberries. Boiled rice and peanuts, which stand near the middle of list, each contain the same amount, namely, 24 per cent. A consideration of the entire list of foods shows that the article having the largest amount of carbo- hydrates is raw rice. This contains 79 per cent. But, as raw rice could hardly be considered a suitable diet for our children, even though it be so rich in carbohydrates, it does not seem a suitable article with which to head the list. Note that when the rice is cooked the carbo- hydrates decrease to 24 per cent. This does not mean, however, that cooking always decreases the carbohydrates which an article contains. The statistics show that raw potatoes do not contain so large a proportion of carbo- hydrates as do boiled potatoes. The vegetables which were referred to a moment ago as containing, with the carbohydrates, the greatest amount of available proteid are beans, peas, oats, and wheat. Fat Foods. Let us now see what part of our ordi- nary table diet contains the largest portion of the third kind of foods, the fats. We find butter in the lead, with eighty-five per cent of fat. Next come the common nuts in the following order : Brazil nuts, soft shell wal- nuts, almonds, and peanuts. It should be noted that all FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS 49 of these nuts contain, together with the great amount of fat, a good proportion of proteid, while peanuts, almonds, and walnuts have a noticeable proportion of carbohy- drates. Brazil nuts have very little of the carbohydrates. It must be evident from this analysis of nuts that they are exceedingly valuable food stuff. In fact, they have not until quite recently been estimated at their full food value. After nuts, cheese takes its place as an important fatty food. Among meats which are rich in fat, smoked ham has more than fifty per cent of this substance; corned beef and lamb more than twenty-five per cent; mutton, turkey, porterhouse and tenderloin steaks, roast beef and mackerel more than twenty per cent; and sweetbreads, chicken, salmon, and eggs more than ten per cent. Most of the other common articles of food contain a small amount of fat, the smallest being found in vegetables. The only article in the revised list from the United States bulletin which contains absolutely no fat is dried prunes; while potatoes, cooked beets, peaches, and boiled rice contain but one-tenth of one per cent. Milk. Milk is mostly water. Good, standard milk is eighty-seven per cent water, and poor milk no one can tell about that. Of the thirteen per cent of solid matter found in standard milk, five per cent consists of carbo- hydrates, four per cent fat, three and three-tenths per cent proteids, and seven-tenths of one per cent mineral matter. Mineral Matter in Foods. It still remains to mention the foods which are richest in mineral matter. Codfish contains nearly twenty-five per cent and mackerel thir- teen and two-tenths per cent mineral matter. After these So STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT come sardines, corned beef, dried beans, cheese, smoked ham, butter, apples and nuts, with from five to three per cent. Next come salmon, shredded wheat, brown bread, soda crackers, peas, prunes, peanuts, and almonds with from three to two per cent of mineral matter. Selection of Foods. After obtaining an idea of the elements contained in our foods, and the purposes which they serve in the human body, the most important thing for the mother is to learn how these different foods may be made to minister to the growth and development of her child. When should proteid foods be emphasized? When should most attention be given to the carbohy- drates ? When are the fats of most importance ? Should special attention be given to the foods containing mineral matter? The laying down of definite rules is difficult, and in a sense impossible, but there are certain general principles which may be wisely considered. As has been said before, all children require a daily portion of the three organic food principles as well as some of the in- organic salts. Much can be done for the nutrition of the child by seeing that his diet includes a variety of food and that this variety contains some of all the essential elements. It is not well to offer many kinds of food at the same meal, but it is important to see that during each day some portion of each element enters into the food which is consumed. As to the amount of food to be eaten at any one time, there is probably little danger that it will be too great if anything like a proper proportion is maintained. Tyler says that the young child may properly eat twice as much food per pound of weight as the adult, because growth FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS 51 consumes more nutriment than exercise. Proteids will supply the material for the new tissue, and for building up the loss from wear and tear; the carbohydrates will supply the energy for activity and work, with some heat ; and the fats will yield a large supply of heat. Attention is called by Mendal in his Childhood and Growth, to the fact that the increase in weight of the growing child bears a very small proportion to the weight of the food which he takes into the body. The portion of the food which actually goes to build up the tissue is only about one one-hundredth of the intake. The greater part is excreted as waste material. The tremendous food re- quirements of children are caused by the heightened chemical activities of the growing organism. Adaptation of Foods. Again, the uses of foods differ at different ages. In the earliest stages of infancy the growth is comparatively slow, and much material is needed for warmth. We find that the mother's milk, while con- taining all the elements, has the largest proportion of car- bohydrates and fats. In the rapidly growing periods of childhood there is a definite call for proteid food, but the muscular activity also makes a large demand for the car- bohydrates. The craving for sugar, which is so common among children, is entirely normal. Sugar yields readily to combustion and supplies abundant energy. Much stress is now being laid upon the value to the growing body of the natural sugars and starches. The reason why the excessive use of candy is to be discouraged is that in candy the sugar is too concentrated. The sweet fruits are especially commended for young children. Professor Chittenden names the fruits as desirable in about the fol- 52 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT lowing order : Oranges, grapes, prunes, dates, plums, and bananas. In the second class are placed peaches, apricots, pears, apples, figs, strawberries, raspberries, and blue- berries. "In all of these fruits, it is the sugar which gives them their value, while the mild acid and the water they contain help in other ways to maintain health. Apples are above reproach if properly masticated/' 1 This same writer thinks that the acid fermentation from which some chil- dren suffer when using foods abounding in sugar and starch may be avoided by a more moderate use of proteid foods. So much for food stuffs for the healthy child. But if the child, instead of being active is listless and tired, it will be well to arrange a bill o.f fare for him which shall include stewed prunes, shredded wheat and macaroni. Have, also, plenty of baked beans, whole- wheat bread, and butter. Dried peas contain more of all the substantial ele- ments than canned peas, for they are more condensed. Tapioca is good and may be made most attractive. Soda crackers have usually been considered poor diet, but they contain seventy-three per cent of carbohydrates, and hence are valuable as producers of energy. A child who is inclined to be too warm-blooded will do well to avoid the fats, that is butter, cheese, and nuts. A better diet will be lean meats, codfish and mackerel, with rice, macaroni, whole wheat bread, potatoes and apples. For the thin, nervous child, with cold hands and feet, a diet which includes some fat meat is desirable. If this is not palatable, as is often the case, encourage the use of 1 R. H. Chittenden, The Nutrition of Man, p. 291. FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS 53 cheese, nuts, and plenty of butter on the bread. Porter- house and tenderloin steaks, turkey, chicken, mutton, sweetbreads, salmon, and eggs, will surely offer a variety from which to choose. All children should drink much water. The moisture which is thus taken into the body aids the diffusion of nutriment and the removal of waste. Most children have an almost unlimited craving for water, which the parent may safely allow to be satisfied. If the child is not natur- ally thirsty, it will be wise to find some way of stimulat- ing his thirst, for reasons which have just been mentioned. A Danger. The need of the system for a certain quan- tity of mineral matter was mentioned a moment ago, and there are doubtless cases where it is best to encourage the eating of such things as mackerel, codfish, and dried beef, which are quite rich in mineral matter. But the mother should notice that these salty things affect the kidneys, for the salt is not entirely changed in the body, and too much of it will burden sensitive kidneys. This is also true of an excess of proteids for, while they are the tissue builders and hence absolutely necessary for growth, an immoderate use of them should be avoided. The danger to the child from too large a proportion of proteids is shown not only in its effect upon the kidneys, but also upon the liver. That nutritious portion of the proteids which is taken from the small intestine through the villi is never completely assimilated as are the soluble por- tions of the carbohydrates and fats. Held in suspension with the soluble portion is what has been called, "a solid ash which must be raked down by the liver and thrown out by the kidneys/' If these most useful organs become 54 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT impaired from overwork there will be sure to ensue the dread evils of indigestion, liver troubles, bilious attacks, and rheumatism. The harm which comes from overload- ing the kidneys is not felt until it is too late to fully avoid the consequences. Professor Chittenden has shown that the excess of the child's food, in proportion to body weight, may more safely be in carbohydrates and fats. The only exception to this rule would be in the case of the hot, flabby child, when the fats should be used sparingly or omitted entirely. How to Eat. We have discussed what to eat, but the subject of eating should not be passed over without a few words upon how to eat. The process by which the food is transformed into tissue is, as has been already said, a chemical process, and has been compared to the burning of fuel in an engine. The first change comes about through the action of the saliva. Food should be eaten slowly and thoroughly masticated in order to obtain the full value of this process. Especially is this true in the case of the starchy foods. If the saliva has a chance to do its work the burden upon the other organs will be less. Remember that all carbohydrates contain starch. If you have found that your child cannot digest starchy food, it is probable that he has acquired the habit of eating too rapidly, and of not chewing his food thoroughly. The food should be kept in the mouth as long as possible in order that it may mingle with the saliva, and because the finer the mastication the more easily it will be acted upon by the other digestive juices. Thorough mastication, especially in the case of starchy foods, has been referred to as "physiological good sense." FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS 55 Milk should be sipped, not taken in large swallows. The reason for this is that when the milk reaches the stomach it is turned into solid curd. If it enters the stomach in small quantities it is curdled in small masses which are easily digested. If it enters in large quantities at a time, it is curdled in large masses, which are acted upon more slowly by the juices of the stomach, and which frequently become very sour during the process. Last but not least, the mother should always arrange to secure pleasant and restful conditions at the home meal time. It has been proved by experiments upon both human beings and animals that the process of assimilation is more rapid and more thorough when one is happy and contented. Anger, worry, and excitement all check diges- tion. 3. SIGNS OF GOOD AND BAD NUTRITION It will be worth while to consider next the signs of good or bad nourishment in the child. What are some of the forms of behavior which will serve as an index to the physical conditions? It is a matter upon which a mother cannot afford to relax her watchfulness. There have been instances without number when the very famil- iarity of daily intercourse has rendered the mother unable to see signs of bad nutrition until it was too late to remove the cause of it. There are four simple ways by which the mother may discover if her child is being well-nourished. First, by his color; second, by his attitude; third, by his movements; fourth by his growth. 56 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT Color. The color of a healthy, well-nourished child, is pinkish. The lips are pink and the flesh under the finger nails is pink. If you press the flesh at almost any point the white spot which results will disappear at once. The color of a badly nourished child is bluish or sallow. The lips have a tinge of blue; so has the flesh under the finger nails. The white spot resulting from pressure remains several seconds. Attitude and Movements. The attitude of a well- nourished child is erect and suggestive of energy, while that of an ill-nourished child is listless and limp. The movements of a well-nourished child, while in some cases almost constant, are always under control of the will. Those of a badly nourished child are automatic, uncon- scious and jerky. Among the latter movements are twitching of the muscles, especially those of the face and shoulders, biting the nails and chewing the tongue. Nature puts out no more sure and inevitable danger sign than these unconscious movements, and the wise mother will not neglect them. Growth. The growth should be continuous. It is necessary for a child to increase in size and weight. 1 Ces- sation of growth may be produced by lack of nutrition, but if, after all possible care has been taken with the child's diet as well as with his general habits of living, he still fails to grow, then there may be some organic disease which demands the advice of a careful physician. Dr. Griffith's tables of normal weight and height, already quoted, will prove useful in this connection : 1 E, A. Kirkpatrick, Fundamentals of Child Study, p. 22. FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS 57 GROWTH IN HEIGHT AND WEIGHT BETWEEN THE AGES OF TWO AND SEVEN YEARS 1 Age Height Weight 2 years 31 inches 27 pounds 3 years .35 inches 32 pounds 4 years 37^2 inches 36 pounds 5 years 40 inches 40 pounds 6 years 43 inches 44 pounds 7 years 45 inches 48 pounds The noticeable fact about this table is that, while there is a constant increase during the entire period, the gain in both height and weight are greater during the earlier part of the period than during the latter part; also, that the difference in height is proportionately greater than in weight. Of course there will be variations from this gen- eral average, but the normal, healthy child will not fall much below the standard except perhaps in cases where the parents are small, and on this account the child's expectancy of size is less than the average. Dr. Griffith's table showing the average size of the child's head and chest, up to the fifth year, will also be interesting and useful. Age Size of Head Size of Chest 2 years 19 inches 18^ inches 3 years 19^2 inches 20 inches 5 years 21 inches 22 inches Coordination. The muscles of the normal child will at this time be for the most part under the control of the will. The control of the larger freer movements come first, while special control of the smaller and more delicate manipulations, notably those of the fingers, will not come 1 J. P. C. Griffith, Care of the Baby, p. 53. 58 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT until after the close of this period. The earlier ability to control the larger muscles does not come because the larger muscles develop sooner than the smaller ones, for even in a very young infant, it is noticeable how much strength there is in the tiny fingers. Probably there is more strength in a baby's fingers, in proportion to their size, than there is in his arms. But the nerves which con- trol the larger muscles are the first ones to coordinate or become organized in the brain, and this is the condition of voluntary control. 1 4. EYES, EARS, AND THROAT We may now pass to a consideration of the eyes and ears, the importance of which it is not necessary to empha- size. From the time when the baby first begins to use his eyes the mother can learn much about their condition by the unconscious use which he makes of them. The ex- pression "eye-minded" is used to indicate that the child receives the larger share of his impressions through the eyes. "Ear-minded" indicates the same with reference to the ears. There is a third type known as the "motor- minded" child. This kind of child does not seem to receive his impressions more through one sense than an- other, but develops by means of his general contact with the activities of life. In all probability, the eye-minded child does not hear quite as well as does the average child, while the ear-minded child does not see quite as well. Watch carefully for incipient deafness or imperfect vision, as they are often suggested by the above mani- festations. 1 Dr. C. H. Judd, Class Lecture, University of Chicago, Feb., 1910. FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS 59 Eye Troubles. There are three common eye troubles, besides ordinary weak eyes. Weak eyes are often de- pendent upon general physical conditions, and the eye may give the first positive indication that your child is not well. Bathe weak eyes in warm water and witch hazel or a solution of boracic acid. Either will bring relief. The three common eye troubles referred to are near- sightedness ( myopia ) , farsightedness ( hypermetropia ) , and the imperfect focusing of the eyes (astigmatism). 1 Every home where there are children should have a copy of the card known as "Snellen's Vision Test." It can be obtained for a few cents from F. A. Hardy & Com- pany, 131 Wabash Avenue, Chicago. This should be used at least once a month during the growing years of the child's life. The card will explain itself. In using the card test, try one eye at a time. The radiating lines upon the card should look alike. Otherwise there is astigmatism. If the test is not satisfactory, and if there are marked unfavorable conditions, which you cannot affect by diet and the general care of the child, he should be taken to an oculist. Ear Troubles. As to the ears, the mother will be able to discover incipient deafness both by eye-mindness, as mentioned above, and by the slowness with which the child responds to the voice. If, however, these tests are not enough, take a watch and note how far from the ear 1 a person with perfect hearing can detect its ticking in a quiet room. If there is much difference between this and the distance at which the child can hear the ticking, 1 Francis Warner, Study of Children, p. 29. 60 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT take the child to an aurist and have a thorough test made. It will sometimes be discovered that the tonsils have be- come enlarged and hard and that their removal is neces- sary in order that the ear may be properly treated. Adenoids and growths of a similar nature should be re- moved as soon as discovered. Any investigation of the condition of the ear leads usually by a direct route into the mouth and throat. 1 Breathing. It is almost impossible to overcome mouth- breathing, when once the habit has become fixed. It is both the cause and the effect of an abnormal condition of the nose or throat. This condition may be the result of catarrh, polypi, or adenoids. Watch carefully and see if your mouth-breathing child is not slightly deaf. See if he detects odors quickly. Find if there is a dull pain between his eyes. Any one of these symptoms indicates a condition which requires the advice of a physician. If mouth-breathing is not the result of improper conditions, it is sure to be the cause of them. The nose is the proper entrance and exit for the air which is taken into the lungs. If the air is habitually taken in through the mouth, it is inevitable that obstructions should occur in the passage through which it ought to go and does not. In nasal- breathing the air entering the lungs is warmed, moistened and purified. Nasal-breathing is an important factor in the nutrition of the brain, and without it decreased mental ability is frequently observed. 2 There are a few simple methods of treatment which 1 Francis Warner, Study of Children, p. 22. 2 W. H Burnham, Hygiene of the Nose, Pedagogical Seminary, 1900. FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS 6l experience has shown to be helpful in the breaking up of mouth-breathing. If taken in the first stages, closing the child's mouth as often as you see it open will often correct the difficulty. Or the child may be placed in such a position that the head inclines toward the chest. As soon as the child is old enough to appreciate for himself the bad effects of the habit, you may accomplish much by talking with him about it and securing his cooperation in overcoming it. 5. THE NERVOUS CHILD We must now consider a type of child which is becom- ing more and more common. I refer to the nervous child. The nervous system is the connecting link between the body and the mind. It has been called the coordinat- ing organ of the entire mechanism. So closely is the nervous system linked with the consciousness that modern psychological works begin their discussion with a careful description and analysis of the nervous system. We who live our lives from day to day, hardly giving a thought to the question of how we happen to be able to feel and think and act, do not realize the wonderful complexity of this most wonderful part of the human system, nor how serious may be the consequences of any interference with its normal functioning. The Nerves. Running throughout the body and prac- tically touching every part of it are what might be called innumerable little paths. 1 These paths lead from the surface of the body to its center and back again. They consist of bundles of tiny fibers wrapped in tissue. These 1 Dr. C. H. Judd Psychology, Chapter III. 62 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT fibers know how to speed a message from the outside straight to headquarters and never pause until an answer has been hurried on to some other portion of the body. The whole process requires less time than it takes to tell it. Exactly how this transit back and forth is accom- plished no one has yet been able to discover. When an impression is received through any of the senses, it darts like a flash to the spinal cord. From here it may carry a message of motion to some particular muscle. Or, if its mission is a more complex one, it may speed to the brain, where in an instant, either alone or joined with another impulse from some other part of the body, it passes back again along the established channels until it reaches the muscle which it is to move. Everywhere there are paths for the reception, continuation and discharge of these impulses. The outer tissue of the brain, which is known as the cortex, is the signal station where impulses are received. 1 It is thought that upon this cortical area can be localized the different centers which control sensory impulses and motor responses. There are also areas where it is likely that these impulses coordinate or work together. These latter are called association areas. Conscious processes depend upon the organized activity of these areas. It is interesting to note that while the paths for the simple sensory impulses and motor responses are well developed from the first, those parts of the cortex known as the association areas are left unfinished in order that they may receive the development which comes through indi- vidual experience. These association areas continue to 1 J. M. Tyler, Growth and Education, pp. 34, 35, 36. FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS 63 be subject to the impressions which come from individual experience well on into life. 1 The Nervous Child. Any interference with the normal functioning of the nervous system is known as nervous- ness. The nervous child is one whose nervous system is not doing its full duty in one or more of a countless number of ways. It may be the inability to control the output of nervous energy. This may be shown in excita- bility, irritability, restlessness, and impatience. Or on the other hand, the nervous system may show its derange- ment by a lack of the normal amount of activity. In this case the child will appear listless and tired. Nervousness may pass beyond the symptomatic stage into actual dis- ease, as in chorea or St. Vitus' dance, and in a nervous breakdown. In chorea there are convulsive twitchings of the muscles or limbs. 2 Among the signs of a nervous breakdown are depression of the angles of the mouth, horizontal furrows across the forehead. The eyes are fixed or wandering. The pupils may be dilated. There may be a blue coloration under the eyes and a broad white line about the mouth with red spots on the cheeks. The pulse will be either too fast or too slow. The head may be bent forward and the shoulders carried at different heights. What movements there are will be jerky and unnatural. It is impossible for one suffering in this way to concentrate his attention upon anything for long. In- vestigations have shown that large numbers of nervous breakdowns of this kind are due to poor nutrition and 1 Warner, Study of Children, p. 70 ; Swift, Mind in the Making, p. 148. 2 S. H. Rowe, Physical Nature of the Child, p. 70. 64 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT bad air. Contributing causes are lack of sleep, irregu- larity in eating, excitement, shocks, the use of tobacco, and heredity. Of course, all children are full of nerves which may declare themselves at times, but the watchful mother will notice and improve unfavorable conditions before the extreme point is reached. The Outward Signs. Ask your child to extend his hands in front of him in as nearly a horizontal position as possible, with the palms down. Notice if the arms droop, if the fingers quiver and twitch, if the thumbs sag. Notice also if at the small of the back there is a definite curvature inward. 1 These are all signs of a nervous tem- perament and may be accompanied by further and per- haps less well-defined indications, as an impulsive man- ner, strong social instinct, a tendency to wake fulness at night, especially when over-tired or excited, a grinding of the teeth during sleep, and a twitching of the muscles. The hand of a nervous child will droop at the wrist with the thumb more or less widely separated. Stammering. The stammering child is always of the nervous type. The child stammers because, when he attempts to speak, the muscles required in articulation become rigid and are not under the control of the will. This rigidity may spread to other parts of the face, and in some instances affects the expression. Stammering is purely a nervous trouble, and the best remedy is to im- prove as far as possible the general nervous condition. Regular physical exercises with repeated full breathing will be helpful. Strive to have the child speak slowly, especially when beginning to speak. 1 Francis Warner, Study of Children, p. in. FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS 65 Preventives. What are some of the things which may be done for the nervous child at the very outset, before his condition becomes serious? He should have plenty of sleep, plenty of good, nourishing food, and plenty of fresh air. I am inclined to believe that no American child has enough sleep. The child who needs the most sleep is the very one who will not take it. It is much the same in eating. No parent, however anxious, can force food down a child's throat, and this would not be a wise procedure even if the nourishment were neces- sary. As for fresh air, it is often difficult for a family living in the city to so arrange its habits that the child can be out of doors as much as he should be. Sending him into the country to live apart from his parents is a heroic remedy and has many obvious disadvantages. But much can be done under the ordinary conditions of home life to assist the child in strengthening his nerves. To provide enough sleep, the mother may take advantage of every opportunity that is presented. She will set the regular bedtime at an early hour and not deviate from it. If the child, when put to bed at seven o'clock, tosses about and gets wider and wider awake, she will try half past seven. Every child under seven years of age should be in bed at half past seven, except perhaps in the longest days of summer. The mother can also arrange the food in new and at- tractive ways. When one kind of nourishing food is rejected, she may try another kind that is equally nour- ishing but more palatable. It is worth much care and effort to establish the habit of eating plain and nourishing foods. 66 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT For fresh air, secure just as many bare-headed, bare- footed, tree-climbing, romping summers as you possibly can for both the boy and the girl. In later life, every such summer will prove to be one of the most precious gifts which the child could have received at your hands. Also, do not fail to provide every possible facility for fresh air at night. Care in this respect during the grow- ing years will prove an invaluable aid to sound health. Frequent rubbings of the spinal column, and especially the small of the back, are always beneficial to the nervous child. Make the palm of your hand as flat as possible. While doing this, press the different vertebrae in turn with the tips of your fingers. Any growing child will like this rubbing, whether he is nervous or not. 6. FATIGUE The subject of fatigue is also much under discussion at the present time. This is undoubtedly a more impor- tant item in the schoolroom than in the home. General physical weariness need cause no anxiety unless in your judgment it comes with too little exertion or remains too long. Ordinary children will give up to physical fatigue long before it injures them. Nature has wisely provided this condition. It is even doubtful if the unstimulated child will tire his eyes to a dangerous extent, especially if they are normally strong. In the case of mental fatigue, also, it is seldom that the ordinary healthy, unstimulated child will be injured by it. He yields easily to mental fatigue, as he does to physical, even under the stimulus of the schoolroom. I do not mean that the child will not become tired, but that the average child will not become FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS 67 too tired. With the nervous child it is different. Here the action, both physical and mental, is spasmodic and it is impossible to be certain just how much work can be done before the danger point is reached. This danger point may be reached before you are conscious of it. QUESTIONS FOR USE IN CLUB STUDY 1. Give an outline of the previous chapter. 2. What is said of the connection between the mind and body? 3. How does Warner define the normal child ? The perfect child ? 4. What is said of the problem of the child's diet? 5. Describe briefly the process of digestion. 6. What three specific needs of the growing child does the food fulfil? 7. What are the three main classes of foods? 8. Describe the proteids; the carbohydrates; the fats. Give examples of each. 9. Name the foods containing the most mineral matter. 10. What do you know about different foods for different ages of the child? 11. What would you feed the listless child? the warm-blooded child? the thin; nervous child? 12. What precaution is needed in the case of salty foods? 13. What is the danger in too much proteid? 14. How should milk be taken? Why? 15. Explain four ways to discover if the child is well nourished. 16. Explain the development of the muscles and nerves. 17. What is meant by the expressions "eye-mindedness," "ear- mindedness," "motor-mindedness" ? 18. What is said about eye troubles ? Ear troubles ? 19. Explain the bad effects of mouth breathing. 20. What is the work of the nerves? 21. What are the signs of nervousness? 22. What can be done for the nervous child? CHAPTER III THE CHILD FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS i. How THE MIND GROWS We now proceed to a more exclusive consideration of the child's mental life during this same period. The child has, almost imperceptibly to the mother during the second twelve months of his life, begun to build up 'his own little individual existence. Of course, he is yet de- pendent upon the mother for almost everything, but he does not seem to be altogether conscious of the fact. He performs all kinds of acts directed by his own will. It is a delight to him to find how much control he has over his own body and over the things with which he comes in contact. The study of his development now becomes more interesting because more things are happening. Let us see how this baby mind receives material for its growth. The mind is connected with the outside world by means of the bodily senses. Through the data which is brought to the mind by way of impressions upon the senses of sight, sound, touch, taste and smell, the mind gradually becomes able to interpret the meaning of the experiences which the body is undergoing each day. On the other hand the states or processes of the mind can be expressed and interpreted through the behavior of the body. A study of the body then, as pursued in the preceding chapter, and necessarily to some extent in the present chapter, will reveal much more than mere facts 68 FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS 69 about the body. As was said above, the senses are chan- nels along which impressions from without are crowding in upon the brain. If as the child passes his second mile post on the journey of life, these senses, especially the eyes and ears, are on duty, the little mind is having all it can do to handle the experiences which every day and hour are bringing to it. It is of intense interest to the mother to watch and see how rapidly her two-year-old is becoming sensible of the outside world. The development of the infant mind from a condition which is practically one of vacancy or nothingness to a state where all the normal mental processes are carried on, follows regular laws. Sensations. The very earliest impressions are called sensations. These sensations include not only a con- sciousness of the existence of things in general, but also the consciousness that these things have the fundamental qualities which appeal to the different senses. For exam- ple, the eyes note the color and shape of things. The ear discovers whether the object makes any sound. The taste finds that they are sweet, sour or bitter. The touch tells whether they are hard, soft, hot or cold, smooth or> rough, while the nose is conscious of a pleasant or offensive odor. Perception. During the first weeks of the infant's life these simple unassociated sensations become associ- ated with other elements; namely, time and place. In other words, there is not only a consciousness of things with color, shape, hardness, sweetness, etc., but there is a consciousness of when and where these sensations were experienced. This association of sensation with time and 70 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT place forms a mental process of a different character from the first, and is now called a perception. Idea. After the first dawning of perception there fol- lows a period when this is the highest process of which the mind is capable. Gradually another element creeps in, the presence of which indicates that the mind has reached the third stage in its enlargement. This next element is a thought of a cause for what has been per- ceived. The perception to which the thought of a cause has been joined is called an idea. The mind, equipped with the idea, even though very simple at first, is on the high road to fullest mentality. But it must not be forgotten at any time that the impres- sions which the child is absorbing through his senses and the use which he is making of the impressions are becom- ing the basis of his future ideas and future habits. The Special Senses. The question then, as to whether the child's senses are perfect, becomes one of vital im- portance. The eyes and ears play the largest part here. If any trouble is suspected in these important organs during infancy, it will be well to consult a specialist. In the case of older children, simple home tests will often yield the desired information. Eyes. One of the most familiar manifestations of imperfect eyes is nearsightedness. This is shown by hold- ing the book too near the eyes in reading or looking at pictures. Squinting and wrinkling the forehead are symptoms of the same defect. Notice if your child rec- ognizes easily people whom you are sure he knows, or if he seems indifferent to manifest beauty either in nature or art. Satisfy yourself whether he looks at things as FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS 71 other children do. Any redness in the eyeball or lid indicates some abnormal condition. Probably simple treatment by a specialist will remove the difficulty if taken in time. If the defect is organic and can only be reached by the fitting of glasses, this should not be delayed. Re- member that early treatment of imperfect eyes may save your child from a difficult and dangerous operation in after life. Let me illustrate by an actual experience. An Illustration. Several years ago, when I was visit- ing one of the rooms in a public school, I noticed two boys sitting at a table in the front part of the room. The teacher observed my look of inquiry and hastened to explain : "These are my two nearsighted boys/' she said. "They have been failing in their lessons ever since they came into this room. It was only the other day I dis- covered that they could not see what was written on the board. Now, I have them right up in front where they can see everything I do, and they are doing finely. They are going to be fitted with glasses soon, and then every- thing will be all right." These boys were ten or twelve years of age, members of representative families of the city. This incident shows how serious eye defects may be overlooked even by careful parents. Both of these boys have suffered great handicaps in their life work on account of their defective eyes, and one of them is still threatened with permanent blindness. Ears. Indications of ear defects are perhaps not so numerous, but the watchful mother will detect them. A child often seems disobedient because he does not hear your voice or that of a teacher when he is spoken to. A child who has ever suffered from earache cannot be too 72 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT closely watched for signs of deafness. Do not wait long before consulting a specialist after you have satisfied your- self that your child's ears are not absolutely perfect. The Nervous System. The nervous system and the importance of its proper functioning have been spoken of in the previous chapter, but I will illustrate a little further here. Many things, which in the growing child pass simply for disagreeable habits, are manifestations of nervousness. Among these are standing on one foot and changing quickly to the other, jerking of hands and arms, inattention when spoken to, quick glancing about of the eyes when evidently no particular object is being looked at, thoughtless and foolish questioning, failure in obedience, unconscious fumbling with any article within reach or paroxysms of uncontrollable crying. Illustrations. Let me give you an illustration of the last tendency, and of the part which was thoughtlessly taken by the parents. A nervous boy of eleven brought home from school a very unsatisfactory report card. His mother glanced at it and without premeditation issued a forcible and extended reprimand. The boy passed out of the room and the incident passed from the mother's mind. After the child had retired for the night, his mother heard him crying as if his heart would break. Upon going to him and asking him the cause of his grief, he sobbed out, "Oh, that awful card, that awful card. I wish I was dead. I can never do anything right." The mother, realizing too late the danger of the boy's condi- tion, at once set about trying to repair the mischief she had done. She found it impossible to get him quiet in Jess than an hour. Any reference to the card brought FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS 73 fresh signs of grief. Finally, his mind was led entirely away from the painful subject and centered upon an excursion into the country which had been planned for the next day. Then he fell asleep. There is another word upon this point. A nervous child asked his father for a dime to buy what the father considered an unnecessary article. Finally, the father grudgingly threw the dime upon the table, saying, "What is the use of giving you money? You don't know how to take care of it." Later, the child was heard sobbing in the next room. Upon being questioned, he declared through his tears, "Oh, papa thinks I am so bad! I don't know what to do." Of course, children must be told of their faults and corrected for them. That is a manifest part of the par- ent's duty. But there should always be the object in view of helping the child to overcome his faults. No parent has ever, or ever can, justify himself in flinging ouf miserable little derogatory references to the weakness of the child with no other object in view than to relieve his or her own irritability. In the case of a nervous child, it is impossible to estimate the harm which may result from such action. The normal development of the mind cannot take place under abnormal nervous conditions. A child should receive attention for any manifestation of nervous disturbances such as have just been mentioned, as promptly as he would if he should begin to limp or put his hand to his side. Environment. As it is of supreme importance that the senses of the child be in good condition, it is also imperative that the environment of the child, out of which 74 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT comes the 'material whence the senses draw their impres- sions, be both physically and mentally wholesome. The responsibility of the mother for this environment is mani- festly great. The question often arises in this connec- tion whether the environment of the child should be made more stimulating than it naturally is. In answering a question of this kind, the disposition and the original physical and mental equipment of the child must be the controlling factor. The average normal child needs no stimulus except that which is supplied to him by whole- some surroundings. Great rapidity of development is neither necessary nor desirable. If, on the other hand, the mother, by means of observation or comparison, dis- covers that her child is not developing with the normal rapidity, it may be the wisest thing for her to cultivate a more stimulating environment. She should find out if possible, what is the cause of the delay in development. 2. SOME THINGS WHICH RETARD NORMAL DEVELOPMENT Shyness. There is one peculiar trait of character which, in the growing child, often tends to retard normal development. We will call it shyness here, and will only refer to it briefly by way of illustration, as it is treated at some length in a later chapter. The mother may do much at a very early age towards preventing abnormal shyness from becoming a handicap to her child's mental development. Take unusual pains to have him express himself freely when in the company of those with whom he feels perfectly at home, and do not urge him to do so in the presence of strangers until he is old enough to FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS 75 be reasoned with beforehand. Above all things, strive not to let the child know that he is shy. Self-Consciousness. In studying the child's mental growth we cannot be too careful to preserve in him lack of self -consciousness. He must not consider himself an object of special or unusual interest. Self-consciousness comes altogether too soon, at the best. With some chil- dren it seems to be present inherently regardless of any outside influence. It has often been shown to interfere with normal growth. We shall be greatly helped in our effort to obtain natural conditions if we remember that the most intimate personal matters may be discussed by mother and child, personal questions may be asked and answered frankly and truthfully without the slightest embarrassment to either, since there is probably nothing in the mind of the child to prompt the discussion or the asking of the questions except the simplest motives. Physical Weakness. In regard to physical weakness, there are countless ways in which it affects a child's mental development. It has been accepted as an almost unfailing rule that mental defects, and in many cases moral defects, may be traced back to a physical defect. Very often the physical weakness shows itself in advance of any mental sign. As has been suggested above, the most common of these manifestations are weakness of eyes, ears, nose, throat, and nervous system. But, on the other hand, school children often show conspicuous mental dullness when it is difficult to find any connection with a physical cause. But the physical defect, although it may keep itself hidden for years, will sooner or later make itself prominent. 76 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT An understanding of this close connection between the mental and physical parts of the child is of vital impor- tance to the mother. For example, suppose that a child who has been considered normally healthy and on that account has received no special attention, begins to do (or has always done) poor work in school. The teacher appeals to the home. Perhaps in the majority of cases the child receives a reprimand or some other form of discipline, and that is the end of it. Such procedure has repeatedly been shown to be a great mistake. The mother should search for the physical cause of the trouble and continue to search until she finds it. In some cases she will find causes which may be removed at once, surfi as eye, ear, and throat troubles. In other cases, she will find incipient nervous deterioration or organic diseases which will require special and consistent attention to diet, exercise, sleep, and fresh air. 3. AVENUES OF APPROACH TO THE CHILD'S MIND Besides the general knowledge of conditions and be- havior which we are all supposed to have of our children, we find there are more technical avenues of approach, which in many cases are of very great aid, in knowing them mentally. Under this class come the head, the face, the eyes, and the mouth. Head. We will first take the head as a whole. It is usually admitted that a well-shaped head is an indication of mental ability, but there are so many exceptions to this rule that one is hardly safe in relying upon it. The head should not be too large. Warner mentions twenty-one inches as a good head circumference for a child of eight FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS 77 years. As we are considering the child at a period slightly younger than that, he may fall a trifle short of the twenty- one inches, although the head varies but slightly during these years, even through periods of many months. A wide and high forehead is a fine characteristic. There should not be lumps on the forehead either on the side or down the middle. There will be a definite projection on the back of the head, just above the nape of the neck. Face. The method of studying the mind through the face has become an important one among educators, and has been known to artists for a long time. It is called "physiognomy" and has been defined as "the art and science of discovering the predominant temper and other characteristic qualities of the mind by the outward ap- pearance, especially by the features of the face." 1 Special important features are noted below and the face makes up the "toute ensemble" of these features. Their com- bination in the face, together with certain muscular mani- festations not connected with any particular feature, brings out points not evident in any single feature. Eyes. The eyes of the normal child will be wide open and frank. The eyes should look out upon their own level rather than up or down. They respond very quickly to mental conditions and for that reason are great helps in child study. The familiar figure of the eyes as the windows of the soul is more than a mere fancy. There is a condition of brain-exhaustion in which the expres- sion of the eye changes. Not only that, but brain ex- haustion is sometimes accompanied by an uncontrollable twitching of the muscles around the eyes. Dilated pupils 1 Francis Warner, A Study of Children, p. 58. 78 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT indicate excitement. Frequently repeated indications of brain exhaustion and excitement refer us back again to unsettled nervous conditions, just as did the irregularity in mental development. Just a word here as to the mother's duty when she has noted by the expression of the child's face, especially dilated eyes, that he is under unusual nervous excitement. If he is of a slow and slug- gish temperament, such an experience may tend to wake him up and make him see things not noticed before, and so be an actual aid to development. But even in such a case, it will be wise to watch him after the excitement has subsided and see if there is any unfavorable reaction, such as listlessness, sleeplessness, or lack of appetite. But when your naturally high-strung child comes to you with his eyes bulging and his nerves trembling, do not wait to watch for after effects, for they are almost sure to be serious. Get the child away from the exciting environ- ment as quickly as possible and hasten to divert his atten- tion from the cause of the excitement. If you take him wisely in the beginning, you may save him from any number of more or less permanent nervous troubles. The Mouth. The mouth responds to mental states nearly as promptly as do the eyes. When the mouth is held open unconsciously, it may be a sign of dullness. The nerve centers of the brain do not respond promptly to what should be the normal call of the senses to close the mouth. Hold your own mouth open for a few sec- onds and see how stupid it makes you feel. Besides this, the open mouth will encourage mouth-breathing, the evils of which have already been discussed. If the child holds his mouth open try to stimulate or even startle him by FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS 79 saying something to him unexpectedly that will greatly interest him and see if he does not close his mouth. If allowing the mouth to remain open is merely a habit into which the child has fallen, simple expedients and appeals will overcome it. But if the habit persists after careful attention, there is strong likelihood that some physical obstruction exists in the nose or throat such as adenoid growths. A careful examination by a physician is then indispensable. The habit of grinning when the child is evidently not amused shows that the muscles are not under the control of the brain as they should be. Do not let this tendency become fixed. Ask the child gently what he is smiling about and when he admits there is nothing amusing in his mind, suggest that he only smile when pleased. Draw his mind to something serious and see if the muscles of his face do not respond by relaxing. There is almost sure to be a reaction of the facial expression upon the brain. The mother may know that she has affected the brain favorably when she has secured the desired facial expression. 4. LANGUAGE AS A SIGN OF BRAIN DEVELOPMENT Words and Ideas. There is another manifestation at this period which affords an index of the child's mental development. This is his method and progress in acquir- ing control of language. It is said that development along this line helps to make thoughts and ideas clear. It is even asserted that the number of words used during this early period corresponds with the number of ideas which are forming in the child's mind. But, while it is doubt- less true that the ideas become clearer with the growing 80 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT ability to express them, we may be sure that the child has ideas or at least is able to connect some ideas with words which are spoken to him before he is able to use the words himself. However this may be, it has been shown in many instances that the child's failure to begin to talk at the proper age (any time after twelve or four- teen months) has been the first indication of an abnormal mentality of which later years have furnished more conclusive proofs. Records. It is particularly desirable to keep records of the child's progress in language, noting the words which he uses and even the ideas associated with words used by yourself and directed to him. This is a much simpler matter than it is to tabulate his mental advance in almost any other respect. It will also be helpful to jot down opposite the word (with the exact age at which it was first used) something of the idea which you think this word represented in the child's mind, as he himself used it. Besides helping you to note your child's advance- ment, this record will be useful in comparing the ad- vancement of your different children, and should a sufficiently large number of mothers be induced to keep such records they would form valuable data for students of psychology and child study. For example, Miss Shinn says in regard to her little niece that at eleven months of age there were eighty- four words which they felt sure she understood, and with which she associated ideas. But even during the last four days of the tenth month, all they dared suspect in the way of actual language was "a faint consistency in the use of several of the most common PROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS 8l sounds, da, ma, developing through a series like gang, gong, a gon to 'gone/' Why the Baby Learns to Talk. The use of language is an evolutionary process, and, while the child begins at the bottom of the scale, he is the heir of this linguistic evolution in the sense that he comes into the world with a predisposition to talk. The language develops as a result of the child's wants, along the line of the greatest service, after the manner of biological development. An insidious social pressure and his own unanalyzed social need urge the little fellow on to his task of conquering these obstinate words. By many repetitions, joined with the kindly assistance of interested adults, who imagine they know what he means and hasten to tell him, the child makes progress. Each word mastered and con- nected with its object or experience helps to form a back- ground upon which to group new, words. Difficulties. Step by step the baby advances in his struggle with the problem of learning to talk. Some- times the advance is rapid. Sometimes it is very slow, but every phase of it from first to last is of peculiar in- terest to the mother. Perhaps few mothers realize the difficulties which confront the child as he comes to the time of adopting conventional symbols or words. Imag- ine yourself trying to learn an entirely new and foreign language and you will be able to sympathize with the baby's trials and efforts. At first the baby has a language of his own in intonation and gesture, and inherently the symbols which he must acquire have no connection with the objects and ideas with which he is expected to asso- ciate them. 82 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT General Laws. Carefully recorded observations indi- cate that there are certain general lines along which the language of all children may be expected to grow. 1 The first few months of the baby's life are the pre-linguistic period. This does not mean strictly that there is no lan- guage, but no verbal language. The first language of the baby, like his first movements, is unconscious. The first language has been classically denominated "the pri- mordial squall," which expresses all possible states of dis- comfort that the baby can be imagined as having. In the course of a few weeks these cries are differentiated into expressions of hunger, cold, internal pain, pleading and anger. This very new infant, when perfectly com- fortable, utters no sound, or no awareness of an environ- ing world. But very soon, out of the primordial squall the "primordial babble" is developed, by means of which, in innumerable ways of his own, the baby expresses pleasurable feelings. The primordial squall still finds work to do and the two proceed side by side. The first vocal utterances will be some play upon the vowel a and will soon be followed by prefixing to it the consonant sound of b, p and m. The first attempt upon the part of the baby to frame real words is probably only a mus- cular reaction in imitation of the lips of the mother. Somewhere about the second month, the child's utterances become vaguely purposeful. First Smile. Dr. O'Shea thinks that the baby's smile, which probably does not become a conscious effort until about the third month, is the baby's first effort of vocali- zation. This same writer suggests that probably "this 1 Dr. M. V. O'Shea, Linguistic Development and Education, p. 20. FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS 83 first true smile" is the expression of a marked change taking place in the child's adjustment to his environments. Earliest Expressions. Standing out quite definitely among the efforts of the baby to express himself in lan- guage are the "call tones." These may often be heard when the child is entirely alone. They seem to express desire for and satisfaction in some form of muscular achievement. These call tones are reproductions of the auditory images received from the voices of those about him. One or two will be taken up and repeated almost ad infinitum. Perhaps when these have been thoroughly mastered, the tiny linguist puts them aside and takes up another pair. No definite words are uttered unless by accident, but the vocal organs are being exercised and adjusted. First Word Formations. The process of actual word formation begins not far from the eighth month and proceeds with such rapidity that, in all probability, as the little fellow passes his first annual mile post he is being borne on in the struggle faster than either he or his mother is aware. With the first mastery of words comes the fascinating voice play, when words are uttered over and over again with no evident object except the pleasure of uttering them. This is associated but not identical with the later linguistic invention where the child forms orig- inal words adapted to his own experience. The extent to which the latter process is carried on depends much upon the character of the child's mind. An imaginative child will go on for years inventing not only new terms but new experiences to which the new terms shall apply. Nouns. The first real words (or attempts at real 84 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT words) are usually nouns such as mamma, papa, bye-bye, milk, water, etc. These do duty for entire sentences. As the months of the child's life multiply, he finds himself possessed of ideas which require a larger vocabulary for their expression. Verb. He still makes one word suffice for a whole sentence, but now it is likely to be a verb. The subject modifiers are added by means of gestures, or the subject or modifiers may be given and the verb supplied by ges- tures. Thus, take may mean / want papa to take me. Down stands for I want to get down. Innumerable ex- pressions of similar import show clearly where the em- phasis is falling in the enlarging mental processes. As the time goes by and experience has created new wants and new ways of 'expressing them, new words are added to those already mastered. The image is much more complete than the verbal ex- pression. My little son, at the age of two years, used to run to his father when he came home at night, extend his arms and exclaim, "Go down fy, papa, go down fy." What the child meant was, "I want you to carry me down stairs with you when you go to fix the fire in the furnace." Such expressions as hat on, go bye-bye are familiar to mothers and can easily be interpreted. Personal Pronoun. The use of the personal pronoun is difficult and is often not attempted until after the third year. When it is taken up, there is usually one form used for all cases, and probably this first form will not be I, but more often me. For example, Me hurt baby, meaning I hurt myself. Other expressions, such as Me cold, Me tired, are familiar to all mothers. FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS 85 Irregular Forms. When the inflected forms are needed, the regular ones are chosen, but the irregular ones come only by experience and practice. The following examples illustrate this tendency : / see some mans. My foots are cold. I oughted to have gone. I dag in the sand. It is noticeably easier for the child to use the past tense of the verb than to acquire the future tense. This is doubt- less due to the psychological fact that it is more difficult for the child to apprehend future time than either past or present time. The question as to how the child does eventually come into recognition of either future or past time involves some exceedingly delicate psychological theories. I won- der if all mothers have noticed the puzzled look which comes over the little face when either of these ideas first presents itself to him. The phases of consciousness which are passed through before the matter is satisfactorily adjusted are surely too subtle to be followed by the most discerning observer. It is probably true that from the child's first conscious- ness the struggle to interpret the meaning of past impres- sions by the aid of memory helps to give him his notion of the past time, while his experience of having to wait for desired objects or results help him along in his grasp of the idea of future time. Later Forms. Other forms or expressions which are slow in coming to the child are the possessive case, the comparative degree, the relative pronoun, the use of the negative, and the proper uses of may and can. In noting these forms of the language which are the most difficult, and hence the last to be acquired, it is entirely significant 86 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT that they lie along the line of the lingual lapses of unedu- cated or careless adults. The meaning of abstract words is acquired slowly. Probably the majority of children do not attempt the use of such words until the seventh or eighth year, and their first use is likely to be associated with visual imagery. An illustration of this connection of visual imagery with so-called abstract words came to me very recently. I asked a bright little girl of nine years the meaning of certain abstract nouns. The first one was pride. Her answer was, "He thinks he is very smart." The next word was right. "Things are done the way they ought to be." Beauty. "It is awfully pretty." "What is pretty?" I asked. "Why, my hair ribbon," was the answer. Sweetness. "The flower smells so sweet." There was probably some particular object in the child's mind with each word as in the case of the hair ribbon. There is much help here for both parent and teacher touching the question of what kind of appeal to make to a child. During this period of immaturity, enthusiasm for any desired quality will be more quickly gained by reference to a particular person, known and admired by the child, who exhibits this quality in a marked degree, than any amount of appeal to the abstract quality by itself. SUMMARY Before leaving this subject, a brief summary of the linguistic steps will be interesting. i. The primordial squall. This lasts about two weeks and expresses discomfort. FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS 87 \ 2. The modified primordial squall. This interesting activity is differentiated into sounds expressing pain, hunger, pleading, anger, etc. It continues anywhere from the second to the twelfth week. 3. The primordial babble. This is the sound which is used to express pleasure, and is a variation of one of the sounds of the letter a, soon followed by prefixing the consonants b, p, and m. These sounds are purposeful and include the baby's first real smile. They prevail from the third to the sixth month. 4. Motor imitation and word formation. This is pur- poseful and is supplemented by gesture and intonation. It begins about the eighth month. 5. Effort at conventional symbols. At one year there will probably be more than twenty-five in use, and for part of these the parent must supply the meaning. 6. Irregular voice play. Linguistic invention. 7. Sentence-word with gestures. Largely imitation. 8. One or two other words added to sentence, which may be subject, modifier, or verb. All lack supplied by gesture and grimace. 9. The personal pronoun. Me usually precedes /. This is about the third year. 10. Inflected forms. Future tenses and irregular forms are retarded. 11. Possessive case. Comparative. Relative pro- noun. Negative properly used. May and can. 12. Abstract terms, accompanied by incomplete and visual imagery, from seventh to tenth year. There is a large individual difference in the age at which children begin to talk, but the very early talker 88 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT cannot be said to develop into a brighter child than the one who acquires the use of language more slowly. How to Help. The question as to what the mother may do when her child does not advance normally in the use of language is one which has come to me many times. While it is probably. true, as was said above, that retarded language indicates retarded mental processes, these mental processes may not be retarded permanently. The child who, up to the fourth, fifth, or sixth year, has not learned to express himself clearly, will probably never become a fluent talker, but he may develop into a clear, though probably slow, thinker. Considering what an important asset the ready use of language becomes in adult life, it is worth while for the mother to make an effort in the direction of assisting the development of the language and with it the ideas. If, as time goes on, the child makes marked mistakes in the pronunciation of words the mean- ing of which he evidently knows, it may be possible that there is some defect either in articulation or hearing. The habit of mispronunciation, however, is often the result of mental carelessness on the part of both the child and the parent. Whatever its cause, it will be more easy to cor- rect if taken before it becomes firmly established. Warner says, "All children need cultivation of good speech and pronunciation." On an earlier page reference was made to the undesira- bility of stimulating the child's mental processes. But I think that in the case of a child who is retarded in his mastery of language, it will be agreed by everyone that any danger which might come from an attempt to stimu- late him mentally will be negligible. When the child FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS 89 seems slow in getting control of language it will be well for the mother to talk to him a good deal about things which are within his range of thought. Read to him from books which seem nearest his interests. Try to stimulate his ideas by introducing things which will be associated with pleasure. This will be slow work, and there may be months before there will be any tangible results. But by thus enlarging the child's interest and increasing the number of his ideas, you will surely do much toward better mental adjustment. The enlarge- ment of his power of language will be a result and proof of the success of your efforts. Pointing. Do not allow the child to point to the things which he wants instead of asking for them. Pointing as a substitute for speaking inclines to mental laziness and operates against the acquisition of language. It has already been said that one fundamental cause for learning to talk is the fact that language is impera- tive in securing the necessities of life. The mother should merely let this law have its perfect work by not respond- ing to requests unless they are made in words and enun- ciated distinctly. Clearness of expression as well as a liberal vocabulary aids clearness of ideas. Baby Talk. It is well to avoid baby talk for the rea- sons that have just been mentioned. Also the; reaction of mixed enunciation upon the child's clearness of ideas will tend to confusion in mental processes. We owe it to our children to pronounce our words distinctly and correctly. A dear little girl of six has just been visiting me. "I must dough home," she remarked. She blushed and hung her head when I asked her if she could not say 90 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT go. She had been allowed to use baby talk beyond all reasonable limits (if there are any reasonable limits) and as a result will be very fortunate if she does not exhibit mental sloppiness in her early school life. 5. PLAY AS A FACTOR IN MENTAL DEVELOPMENT Having dwelt somewhat at length upon the interesting subject of how the child learns to talk, we pass naturally to another subject of great importance to both mother and child. I refer to the child's instinct for play. 1 This instinct is a very fundamental one, and in any discussion of children it must always find a prominent place. The healthy child begins to play about as soon as he knows himself, and perhaps even earlier. We cannot speak with authority upon this point, since no one knows when the child does know himself. In some senses perhaps he never does. The mother's manifest duty is, so far as possible, to allow the play to be natural by not interfering with it. The child in his natural play imitates what he sees about him. There will be building, planting, cooking, parties, schools, clubs, dolls, buying and selling, and any number of other things. The motions which are required to go through with all of these things are simply legion. "A normal child is necessarily active in a muscular way, and much of his activity is not in accord with the demands of his environment." 2 6. WHY A CHILD PLAYS Dr. Judd, in speaking of the number of unnecessary motions which a child makes before he finally finds his 1 W. B. Forbush, The Boy Problem, p. g ; Amy Tanner, The Child, p. 29. 2 M. V. O'Shea, Dynamic Factors in Education, Chap. I. FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS 91 place in the universe, says that this possibility or rather necessity for diffusion of effort is nature's way of giving scope and opportunity for individual development. 1 These diffuse and seemingly superfluous movements on the part of the child come about because of the presence in the brain of the unharmonized and uncombined nerve proc- esses which were spoken of in the last chapter. When there is complete harmony and combination between the nerve centers of the brain, no motions will be made which are not directed by the brain. It follows, then that all motions will have a purpose, and no motions will be made without a purpose. These unnecessary movements are what differentiate the child from the lower animals. The brain centers of a chicken are practically combined and adjusted as soon as it leaves its shell and it makes no unnecessary movements in picking up its food. All possi- bility of further individual development is ended. The child, through his life experiences, through his needs, his desires and his ambitions, by repeated trial and failure, comes in time to effect the harmony of the originally un- harmonized activities and by so doing makes himself a different being from any other member of the race. It is this very possession of unlinked forces which makes it possible for a child to be educated. In fact, education has been defined as "the transition of the immature individual from a state of diffuseness to a state of coordination or organization." 2 Nervous Response. Anojther phase of the tendency of the child to constant movement is the fact that it is in the 1 Dr. C. H. Judd, Class Lectures, Feb., 1910. 2 Dr. G. Stanley Hall, Youth, p. 17. 9 2 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT nature of the nervous organism to respond to all forms of sensation. As an example of this you will notice that you yourself will turn your head on hearing an unusual sound. The sight of an object inspires a desire to reach for it. As an adult you have trained yourself not to reach for things, but the child will follow his instinct and try to get hold of all he sees. The basis of his tendency is the inherent human instinct to add to one's experience in all available ways. While, later on, the development of the judgment suggests proper and improper ways of adding to the experience, nature sees to it that the little fellow records some experiences of permanent usefulness before conventionality, laden with her burden of "consideration for the rights of others," swoops down upon him with resistless force. I believe there is no mother who has not wondered and possibly grieved because her child seemed so much more adept in scattering his playthings and break- ing and pulling to pieces his belongings, and those of other people than he was in picking them up and putting them together. In other words, why does the small girl lose interest in her doll as soon as she has succeeded in getting its clothes off ? Why does the boy lose interest in his en- gine when he has taken it all to pieces ? Scattering is dif- fusion : restoring is coordination. We have tried to show that diffusion must come first in order to make possible individual development, and harmony and adaptation in the brain. ^Helps to Brain Building. To be sure, there may be a question as to how greatly a knowledge of the facts briefly indicated here will help the weary mother over some of the almost impossible days when the child seems wound up to FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS 93 go indefinitely with arms, legs, voice or anything else that will make motion and noise. But there are some ways by which coordination may be assisted and the friction les- sened. Things which demand construction will be likely to attract the child's attention, if the construction is so- simple as to make but little demand upon his ingenuity. It is good to place thought-provoking games and toys within the child's reach, where he will come upon them himself. If he finds them and works them out himself he will get more out of them than if you show him how to handle them. He may reject the thought-provoking plays for those which require no mental effort. This may be because his mind is not yet sufficiently developed to under- stand them. In a general way, however, the kinds of plays which a child selects himself tend to forecast his future tastes. Among the simplest construction toys are blocks. Large ones, such as will stay on top of each other without being accurately placed, should come first, then the more com- plicated sets, leading up eventually, as the mind of the child expands, to the complete architectural puzzles which toy markets offer. Cut-up pictures and maps; drawing, painting and weaving, are all constructive plays. Out of door plays include the sand-pile, with the sand wet enough to allow of the construction of houses, fences and parks. If you live near a stream of running water small enough to permit of the child's building a dam in it, or a bridge across it, such a procedure will be most beneficial for his own brain construction. Electrical toys and steam-en- gines ; batteries with appliances to be attached with bands, are mind builders for older boys. Tools can be added as 94 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT soon as the child develops the sense to use them safely. In addition to the above occupations, some of which appeal to both boys and girls, there are some plays which seem to appeal more strictly to the feminine mind. For exam- ple, at a certain age, playing with dolls, planning for their supposed amusement and necessary costumes develop the mind in certain directions. Later on, such games as au- thors, checkers, and chess will contribute to normal devel- opment. Timeliness in Plays. There is another point of interest in this connection. Educators are laying emphasis upon the fact that all powers have a time for coming to perfec- tion. If the proper conditions are not provided at this time, the development may be retarded. On the other hand, when the period for a certain kind of exercise is past, the child will naturally turn to something else which is needed for his development. Thus it is unwise to en- courage a child to continue in childish plays after the time when he follows them spontaneously. If kept engaged in them too long there is a possibility that he may settle down to the level of the plays, instead of moving on to some- thing more complex. Most mothers dread to see their little girls lay aside their dolls and are often tempted to urge the continuation of the "little mother" attitude. But there may be an unsuspected danger in doing so. The little girl must experience very important mental development before she enters the estate of the real mother. If she lingers too long on the "play mother" plane, she may never reach her highest capabilities. So when your daughter drops her doll, and has evidently for- gotten it, simply pick it up and put it away. It will be FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS 95 only human to drop a tear upon its battered face and well worn clothing. But the face of the little girl is toward the future. The wise mother will go before her, not lag behind. Companionship. The average child craves companion- ship in play. This craving is the incipient social instinct, one of nature's laws for the betterment of the race. In early childhood bad companionship is not to be feared. A child under seven years, although he may be extremely naughty, is not bad. Moreover, if there are children in your neighborhood who, you think, will not influence your children for good, it may be you have a duty toward them. The expression, "I do not allow my child to go to other houses to play. I prefer to have other children come here and play with him," is both selfish and absurd. The one- sided sociability which is here inculcated will work harm somewhere. It is taken for granted that you know the mothers of your children's companions and that you visit in all homes where your children visit. Under these condi- tions and with due regard for times and seasons, a rather free exchange of sociability will tend to the normal devel- opment of all children concerned. The Mother as Play Fellow. There is a word to be said about the extent to which the mother should become the companion and play fellow of her young child. Froebel said, "Come, let us live with our children." But there is a danger here which is not always apprehended. If the mother adapts herself mentally to her young child for any length of time, especially if she is somewhat shut off from the companionship of adults, as mothers are likely to be at this time, her mind may not react directly or completely 96 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT to her own adult ideals and ways of thinking. The healthy, growing child may outstrip the mother. This state of things is to be deplored. It is pathetic to go into a home where, as between mother and child, the child is the master mind. The deliberate adaptation of the adult mind of the mother to an undeveloped form of mind has no connection with the almost inevitable period of mental inactivity accompanying childbirth, from which the intel- ligent mother emerges with a mental rebound. Again, if the mother becomes the constant play fellow of her child she is almost sure to interpolate her own ideas about how- things should be done. This will detract from the spon- taneity and independence of the child. But let there be, by all means, a daily romp with the child, by the father or mother or both. The daily romp is a grand thing physically and mentally for all concerned in it. Forbush declares truly that parents do not have enough fun with their children. Quarreling. Whenever children of strong wills and dif- ferent tastes play together, there will be frequent quarrels. The child is a young animal and a natural despot. The instinct for quarreling does not spring from malice, but it is like the appetite for food, a sort of undefined craving. Much ordinary quarreling of children, disagreeable as it is for the parents, is physically healthy for the children. It is stimulating for both body and mind. So, while we agree with the old song, "Your little hands were never made To scratch each other's eyes." we still recognize the fact that in a family of energetic children there will be lively tilts, and many of them. FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS 97 The quarreling of two children indicates strength of character. When two children of the same age, and espe- cially of the same sex, are together most of the time and do not quarrel, the probability is that one of them is the master. How much of this kind of companionship is the best thing for either party is a subject to which the mother should give her thoughtful attention. Do not understand me to suggest that quarreling should be encouraged by the parents. It is an animal character- istic and should and will be left behind as soon as self- control develops, and the manly and womanly qualities assume their proper place in the character of the individ- ual. Be sure that you are doing all in your power to keep the home harmonious, but do not be unhappy over the petty conflicts. One Method. One successful method of dealing with two children who insisted upon quarreling was to make a good-natured agreement with them that when they quar- reled, since they thus infringed upon the peace and har- mony of the household, they should be considered in the light of public offenders. The parent, in the capacity of an officer, should, upon each offense, place them under arrest, and fine them to the extent of five cents each, which sum should Be paid from their own pocket money. It required but a few days of strict adherence to this plan to arouse the inhibitive powers in both of the children and the quarreling ceased. 1 7. INSTINCTS. We now pass to the consideration of certain manifesta- tions of the child mind, which may perhaps be properly 1 Professor J. H. Tufts, Class Lectures, Feb., 1910. 9 8 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT classed as instincts. Some of these instincts result in forms of conduct with which the mother finds it difficult to deal. Fear. The first to be taken up will be fear. Kirkpat- rick classifies fear as one of the most fundamental of the instincts. 1 It is the animal instinct of self-preservation, and still persists with little or no cause in both children and adults. The period of greatest fear is about the third or fourth year of age. Sounds more often than sights occasion fear. The starting at sounds and the evident fear of falling seen in the child of a few weeks is probably largely reflex and never rises into the sphere of conscious- ness. Under proper treatment, fear will be largely over- come as the child goes on in years. Fear, in the sense used here, is declared to be "injurious physically, stupefy- ing mentally, and degenerative morally. It makes one's life miserable, weak and unworthy. Every effort should be made to eradicate it." One difficulty in dealing with fear is its intangibility. The word may apply to emotions varying from a slight timidity or instinctive dread to an actual terror caused by some real experience of physical or mental pain. -There is little doubt that the presence of fear in the mind of the child is affected by prenatal influences, id the mother must take these influences into account in dealing with the child. While each child must ultimately be dealt with as a separate case, there are a few general rules which will apply for all. Some General Rules. Assume by your bearing that your child has no fear. I do not mean by this to ignore the pos- 1 E. A. Kirkpatrick, Fundamentals of Child Study, pp. 99, 100, 103. FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS 99 sibility of fear, or to say there is nothing in the world for the child to be afraid of. But I do mean to say that there is a great deal more fear in the world than is necessary. It is the duty and privilege of the wise mother, by begin- ning in the right way and at the right time, to reduce this fear to the minimum. Assume that your child has no fear and, so far as possible, act upon that basis. Never ask your child if he is afraid. If it is necessary for you to send him into a dark room to bring you some- thing, do not let the thought of fear enter your mind or his. You know there is nothing that will hurt him and you should take it for granted that he also knows it. You may safely follow the same rule if you wish him to go to the neighbor's after dark, provided that you yourself are satisfied it is safe for him to go. I speak of these in- stances because darkness has always been the prime in- spirer of dread in children. The fear of the dark is the instinctive fear of the unknown. But it can be controlled by the reason in due time, if the child's nerves are in a normal condition. Never exhibit fear yourself in the presence of the child. This may be a difficult feat for some mothers, but if any- thing can make a timid mother brave it is the knowledge that her action will make a life-long impression upon the child. The appearance of storm clouds in the sky, a sud- den rap at the door, a noise in the cellar, the fire alarm, a telegram, will often cause the mother to lose her self- control in the presence of the child. The life of a mother with a family of little children is almost sure to be con- fined within narrow limits, and, as has already been sug- gested, there is a natural tendency to adapt herself to her 100 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT child's range of thought in certain ways. As a result of these things her normal power of reaction in the case of emergencies may become weakened. But she should con- trol her feelings at any cost, and not allow those keen little eyes, which seem to see right through her, to discern any- thing but calmness and equanimity. If the incipient fears oi the child are thus reduced, and he is not allowed to be frightened in any artificial way, much unnecessary dis- comfort, not to speak of actual suffering, will be avoided. Illustration. An actual illustration bearing upon this point is at hand. A group of mothers were gathered at the home of a friend for a social evening. The* son of the family, twelve years of age, happened to be present. The conversation drifted to the subject of fear. The following were some of the sentiments expressed by different mem- bers of the company: "No, indeed, I would not go out to lock the back door after nine o'clock at night. I am afraid to. I always make my husband do it." Another declared, "I wouldn't stay alone in the house for anything." Still another, "Neither would I. You could not hire me to." Another, "Of course, I am not going home alone. I am as afraid as death to be out after dark." After the child had retired, the mother said, "I am sorry my boy heard you talking of being afraid. So far as I know this is the first time he has heard expressions of per- sonal fear on the part of adults." "Hasn't he ever been afraid?" asked one. "Several years ago," the mother an- swered, "we found that he seemed to have a fear of dark- ness. Since then we have been doing everything within our power to eliminate that tendency, and we seemed to have been successful, but I do not know what effect your FROM TWO TO SEVEN Y&ARS ioi conversation will have upon him." The mother certainly had reasonable grounds for her anxiety. Timidity in the mother fastens itself upon the mind of the child at the time when she represents to him so much of the outside world. Even after the child comes to the age when he sees the unreasonableness of this fear it clings to him with marked tenacity. Two Phases. But there are still two phases of the sub- ject to be considered. The first one has reference to the child who, after all of these things have been tried, still remains an arrant little coward. When this happens, in- sist that he tell you definitely what he is afraid of. Often the object of his fear is imaginary, and when brought out into the daylight will disappear. For example, the child hears the water dripping in the bathroom and thinks it is a person trying to get into the house. He hears a tree branch sweeping against the house and thinks it is a bear. Take the child in where he can see and hear the water dripping at the same time. Show him the tree in the day- light. One mother quieted her child's incipient dread of "bears" by telling her that if there was a bear prowling about the house or neighborhood, it must be a tame one, which had escaped from a show, as the wild ones had been driven away long ago. Of course, the owner would be looking for it and would pay a large sum of money to any- one who would catch it for him. "We will watch and see if we can't get it to come into our shed and keep it for the owner. Then the owner will like us, besides giving us the money/' The fear of dogs which possesses many chil- dren can often be alleviated by bringing a friendly dog close to the fearful one and putting one's own hand or the 102 ' 'STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT hand of the child into the dog's mouth. It is often wise for parents to buy a dog in order to overcome this sort of fear. Sometimes, of course, the object of the child's fear is a really dangerous thing, such as a street car track to be crossed, speeding automobiles or a vicious dog. In that case you will have made a great gain when you discover just what it is. If you cannot explain it away, you can show, perhaps, how to avoid it and thus dispel that haunt- ing dread which surrounds some sensitive children. Occa- sionally a child can be ridiculed out of his fears, but the mother should go slowly along this line and watch the effect. Ridicule, on the part of the mother, may result in cutting off confidential relations with her child. A basis of mutual confidence is the safest ground upon which to proceed. The other case is at the opposite extreme. It refers to the child who has not enough of the element of fear, or prudence, in his disposition to make him ordinarily cau- tious. What shall the mother do then ? First of all, re- joice. There are limitations and even dangers in such a disposition, but there is also a freedom in it which means much for the future of the child. It will be wise to ex- plain to such a child the nature of any real danger which cannot be romoved, and an acceptance of the conditions without fear is generally safer than to be always trying to avoid them. Moral Dangers. It may also be said that these physical dangers bear no comparison to the moral dangers which will soon be found lying in wait for your children. I have in mind the case of a boy for whose physical welfare his FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS 103 mother was frantically solicitous. If he went swimming or engaged in any rough sport she was unhappy, and made all her friends unhappy, until he had returned to her. But perhaps her extreme solicitation for his physical welfare rendered her moral insight less keen. Perhaps, also, this foolish, over-carefulness destroyed her influence over her boy. At all events, she was not successful in guarding him from moral dangers, and as he grew older he fell into gross dissipation. This brings me to say what has seemed already to have said itself, namely, that there is just one kind of fear we want to see in our children; that is, the fear of wrong-doing, of sinking to a low level, of failure to attain the highest possible. If a real fear of moral dangers has once secured a firm grip upon the child's mind he may be trusted to go hunting and swimming without dread of the consequences. Other Instincts. The remainder of this group of in- stincts to which reference has been made seem to have little in common except that their indulgence results in bad manners and a general lack of harmony with conven- tional environment. They are curiosity, ownership, boast- fulness, cruelty, bad language and fighting. Under recog- nized standards of polite society these instincts tend to defeat the purpose for which they originally came into existence. They are, in their primitive form, simply the method by which the child is impelled to seek the control of his environment, and this control must be secured by everyone who is to make a success of life. Curiosity. 1 Normal curiosity expresses intellectual hun- ger. It is a yielding to the impulse to secure and test new 1 E. A. Kirkpatrick "Fundamentals of Child Study" pp. 59, 166. 104 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT sensations. Reference has been made to the universal in- stinct to reach for what one sees. Curiosity adds the mental impulse to investigate these objects of sensation and thereby build up new experiences. The instinct of curiosity proves its owner to be alive. Rightly directed and controlled it will eventuate in happiness and growth. Curiosity will prove a detriment only if it is allowed to remain upon the level of a mere animal instinct. Every effort should be made to train it into a habit of painstak- ing search for new truths and patient investigation of them. These efforts can be made in countless ways. Al- ways answer questions truthfully and clearly. If the questions are foolish ones, explain that they are so, and why. If they are good questions, commend them. Try to keep the expression of curiosity open and frank and make the child feel that you are the most satisfactory source which he knows of for all information which he craves. It will often "put you about" to keep up with the questions, but if you are sincere in your desire to help your child you will find yourself equal to the situation. Ownership. The instinct of ownership comes next. When successfully directed, it gives to the child essential control of at least a portion of his surroundings. With- out it the child will be at a disadvantage both in his earlier and in his later life. This instinct of ownership has large possibilities both for good and for ill. If a child has a strong propensity in this direction, the mother should wisely direct it so that his future may not be imperiled. It is a help in the acquisition of such desirable traits as industry, orderliness, proper pride, carefulness and pains- taking. But, on the other hand, there is a pitfall of sel- FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS 105 fishness, and the more dreaded danger just at hand of a weakened sense of the significance of "mine and thine." It is needless to emphasize the mother's responsibility there. It is imperative that you know where the child secures the articles which he has in his possession. His perfectly laudable desire for ownership may lead him to take arti- cles which are not his. This always comes as a shock to the parent, and rightly should so come if a shock is neces- sary to rouse you to action. Appeal to the child's sense of justice and the "put yourself in his place" argument, "his place" being the place of the person from whom the article has been taken. Very often the child who has a large bump of ownership will also have a strong sense of justice. If milder methods fail to bring the child to a realizing sense of the situation, severe punishment must be resorted to, for every child has the right to be taught to be honest. Boastfulness. Boastfulness comes next in order. This is not a pleasant characteristic, yet it has as its basis an entirely proper desire for social recognition. When a child indulges in boasting it is fair to suppose that he is carrying in his mind a somewhat highly colored picture of his own personality and achievements. The mother may meet the case by asking for an exact statement of the child's achievements and helping him form a correct estimate of their worth. Care should be taken not to discourage a child or minimize the importance of his efforts, for praise is a strong incentive. He should sim- ply be taught to leave to others the opportunity of praising him, 106 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT Cruelty. The instinct of cruelty shows the narrowness of the child's mental range. 1 He knows little of the sense of pain in others and he has an intense love of activity and excitement. A child is in a sense the master of that to which he is cruel. The possibility of cruelty, wherever it occurs, involves a kind of mastery. The pleasure gained by the child comes from the delight in mastery, not from the delight in another's pain. It is the mother's task to develop a recognition of the pain which has been inflicted, and to implant a desire in the child to become master of a situation in which happiness rather than pain and suf- fering shall be the ruling element. A practical instance of a cruel child came under my observation. A little boy of five seemed to take delight in hurting every living thing which came within his range. He squeezed the cat, kicked the dog, and pinched and bit his little sister. The family discipline was lax and con- ventional, and the occasional scolding which he received served in no way to abate his desire to inflict pain. I found him unusually bright and intelligent and very re- sourceful. He did not hate the animals which he tor- tured, and he dearly loved his little sister, who was also very devoted to him. Probably as this child grows older social convention and popular opinion will enforce a meas- ure of self-control, but it is regrettable that this tendency, in reality a form of strength, could not be so directed as to result in actual strength. Does child study suggest any help in such a case ? The mother knows the child's heredity and any circumstances 1 Irving King, Psychology of Child Development, p. 151 ; G. Stan- ley Hall, Adolescence, Vol. 2, p. 359. FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS 107 which might accentuate or modify his tendency to cruelty. She should make the strongest possible appeal to his sense of justice, at the same time inflicting such bodily pain upon him as he has inflicted upon others. But she should not stop there. Let her appeal to his desire for mastery, and develop his resourcefulness, by showing him how to teach the cat and dog to "do things." He can teach the cat to come at his call, even though he has hidden him- self. The same is true of the dog, which can be taught all manner of tricks. He can secure loyal devotion from his sister, as well as from the other children of the neigh- borhood, by inventing interesting games and showing them how to play them. Be especially watchful that the child does not resort to cruelty in enforcing his plans, as he will be tempted to do. Remember that this is not the correct- ing of a single fault, but the effort to change an inherent tendency so that, instead of being a future handicap, it shall be a help in attaining a splendid character. Bad Language. Bad language appeals to the child, with his limited vocabulary, as a forcible way of expressing himself. 1 He has, at least in his earlier years, no ulterior associations to suggest its undesirability. The mandates of his parents as to what kind of language it is proper or improper to use must have as little real meaning for him as did the conventional symbols by means of which he originally strove to master the language situation. But in both cases the conventional methods must be enforced. Fortunately, intellectual and moral reinforcements will soon become available through the child's developing ob- servation and moral sense. 1 Irving King, Psychology of Child Development, p. 146. 108 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT Fighting. The last instinct to be mentioned, namely, fighting, is considered hardly within the pale of respecta- bility. In fact, it is relegated to the sphere of brute char- acteristics. Curiously enough, it may be regarded, in a way, as a survival of one of nature's means of developing self-control. 1 A study of those primitive social conditions where superiority in a hand-to-hand combat meant self- preservation as against annihilation show that one could not fight as well when angry as when all his powers were under perfect control. Hence the survivor was the one who, other things being equal, best controlled himself. In our day the conditions are reversed, and one fights, not to learn to keep his temper, but usually because he has al- ready lost it. Even this unsocial instinct may be made to minister to the highest good of its possessor, if the parent but understands how to treat it. "If you crush the fight- ing instinct, you have the coward; if you let it grow wild, you have the bully; if you train it, you have the strong, self -controlled man of will." 2 If you have a child with a tendency to fight, make it your business to see what kind of children he fights. Does he pick on boys smaller than himself and so rouse them to resistance, or does he resist by showing fight when larger boys try to impose on him? If the former is the case, there may be some help- ful suggestions under what Child Study says about cru- elty. But in the latter case, my advice is that you let the child work it out for himself if possible. An Example. I will give one instance where this method worked out for the best, and which may be sug- 1 E. A. Kirkpatrick, Fundamentals of Child Study, p. 105. 2 W. Forbush, The Boy Problem, p. 12, FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS 109 gestive even under different circumstances. Two boys of about the same age lived from boyhood in adjacent houses. They were warm friends and constant play fellows. When they were about ten years of age one of them was larger and stronger than the other. The larger one liked to dom- ineer. The smaller one resented it, and frequent fights ensued. The outcome was always against the smaller boy, who, upon being vanquished, repaired to his mother in muddy tears and soiled garments. This went on for some time, during which time the smaller boy gained in strength. One day the mother of the latter child discovered the two boys fighting. She was about to follow the natural im- pulse and separate them, when she noticed the smaller boy was holding his own. So, instead of offering any re- straint, she called out words of encouragement to her son, who in a few minutes had his opponent down and " whipped." That was the last fight the boys ever had, although they were play fellows and friends for a score or more of years after. 8. SCHOOL LIFE We now come to the consideration of a phase of the child's life that may come near the close of the period which we are studying. He begins to go to school. This very important experience comes to the majority of Amer- ican children before the age of seven. When the child is sent to kindergarten it comes earlier still. The real sig- nificance of entering school is not appreciated by the child himself. Perhaps only a small proportion of the mothers appreciate it. When a child, in addition to being a mem- ber of the family, has become a member of the school, his 1 10 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT relation to society has changed. Little by little he comes to show the effects of this change in his bearing. His mental habits are undergoing transformation. The Mother's Relation to the School. How soon a child shall be sent to school after having reached the minimum age required by the laws of the state in which he lives depends very much upon circumstances. If the school conditions are good as regards sanitation, lighting and heating; if the character and equipment of the teacher are satisfactory, and if your child corresponds in age and de- velopment with most of the other children in the class, it is probable that he will develop normally if he is put into school at the accepted school age. It ought to go without saying that every mother should know her child's teacher. But, unfortunately, it does not even go with saying. I believe there is a wider interest in this direction at the pres- ent time than ever before, but there is still room for im- provement, not only in the number of mothers who take an interest in the schools, but in the way in which they manifest their interest. In other words, there should be not only a quantitative but a qualitative improvement in the matter. Effect of School Life. It is, of course, the mother's duty to watch carefully the effect of school life upon the child in these first school days. It may be that the food and clothing which sufficed at home will not be adequate for the demands of the new conditions. It will be wise, also, to follow sympathetically the effect of the formal discipline of the school upon the child's mind. Even after the child is well started, it is a good plan to visit the school as often as possible, not to criticise, but to commune. It FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS m may seem a strange condition, but I think it is true, that when the mother sees her child in the schoolroom she learns many things about him which were unknown to her before. He appears in a new light, as a member of a broader society. This subject of school-life will be dis- cussed more fully in a later chapter. Reading and Writing. When the child starts upon his school life he will be set about learning to read and to write. It is a very open question as to how much reading and writing should be done by the child in these early years. The motor brain centers of the finer muscles of the fingers, which are used in writing, and in some kinder- garten exercises, also, do not mature until the age of ten years. 1 When the fingers are forced into work for which they are not fitted ; that is, when the child cannot control his motor expression, the result is painful and unsatisfac- tory. The writing is strained and awkward and bad writ- ing habits become fixed which are often never outgrown. As to reading, one writer says, "The delicate eye move- ments, which reading involves, require a finer degree of motor adjustment, and consequently a more rapid disin- tegration of nerve tissue than the adjustment involved in listening. To require children who have but recently ac- quired the art of reading to read for any great length of time is certainly unhygienic." 2 Professor Angell says that while the muscles of the eye and hand are developed at five years of age, they are not developed for the fine, close work which is involved in reading and writing. Professor Tyler, speaking of the 1 J. M. Tyler, Growth and Education, p. 155. 2 W. C. Bagley, The Educative Process, p. 269. 112 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT first years of school life, says, "Make the exercise general, stimulating all the areas and powers of the brain suc- cessively. It would seem to be a time for much variety of work rather than for close correlation, which quickly fatigues." Crowding. Therefore, do not crowd young children. If they cannot do the work by going over it once, have them go back and take it over again. The fact must not be overlooked, however, that there is an element of danger in having a child take his school work a second time. There is likely to be a sense of humiliation because of having to fall back into a lower class. Then the work may lack interest on account of the loss of novelty. I believe it is possible for the mother to overcome both of these obstacles and bring about splendid results from a repetition of the unsatisfactory work. But it is better still that the child should be mature enough to do the work well when he first comes to it. Illustration. An actual case will illustrate the method of one mother. At the end of the fourth grade her child had failed in arithmetic. He had passed well in his other studies and the problem arose as to what was the best thing to be done. There was consultation with the teacher, and she, fearing the above mentioned evils, expressed a willingness to allow the child to try the advanced grade for one month. The mother was not satisfied with this plan, and decided to take the matter into her own hands. She talked with her son about taking the work over with the next class. (As the promotions were semi-annual, this meant losing a half year.) At first the boy declared he could not possibly stand it to go back; that he would FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS 113 rather die; he would stay out of school and work, or al- most anything rather than go back. The mother persisted. She finally succeeded in making the boy, who was very loyal to his parents, understand that his parents wished him to take the work over; that it could never be humil- iating to do what is right; that he could make the work interesting to himself if he chose to dp so. The boy accepted the parent's viewpoint and entered into a repeti- tion of his work with enthusiasm. The outcome was suc- cessful in every way. The review of the studies, especially arithmetic, brought a clear understanding of them. The boy remarked repeatedly that he enjoyed his work now "because he understood it," and was very glad that he had taken it over. From being one of the poorest members of the arithmetic class, this boy became one of the best, and continued to be so throughout his school course. The question is not how much the children can endure, but what and how much will best promote growth. Do not allow a child in the first year of school to study at home unless he is conspicuously weak in some one study and strong in the others. In such a case there may be justification in giving home help in the difficult study. Perhaps there is an unusual condition which the mother can remove if she understands it. But under ordinary circumstances the child needs all his hours out of school for play, meals, and sleep. The Parents' Duty. In all matters pertaining to school life be patient, but not too patient. If at times your ulti- mate judgment tells you that things are wrong, if you are satisfied that they could and should be changed, have the moral courage to do your part towards effecting the 114 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT change. Perhaps it is true that the prevailing public apathy towards public school matters is better for the schools than an unwise and unconsidered interest. To the school people the fault-finding parent is a grievous thorn in the flesh, but the truly interested, sympathetic, cooper- ating parent may perform a real part in the vital partner- ship of home and school. What we all wish for the schools, and no one more earnestly than the mother when she first comes in touch with them through her own child, is that wisely directed and intelligent interest on the part of parents which will really be able to contribute some- thing towards the ultimate solving of the many problems which now confront us. QUESTIONS FOR USE IN CHILD STUDY 1. Describe the process from the simple sensation to the idea. 2. Explain the need of perfect eyes and ears for normal brain development. 3. Illustrate the effect of an imperfect nervous system. 4. Name three conditions which prevent normal brain develop- ment. 5. What would you do to help remove those conditions? 6. Describe the normal head of a child as to size and shape. 7. How do the face, eyes, and mouth indicate mental conditions? 8. Why does the baby learn to talk? 9. Trace the different steps of language development. 10. What can be done to help a child who is slow in learning to talk? 11. Why does a child play? 12. How does play help brain building? 13. Discuss the value of companionship in play. 14. Discuss the uses and abuses of the impulse to quarrel. FROM TWO TO SEVEN YEARS 115 15. What are the causes and preventives of fear? 16. How should the mother deal with the following instincts: (i) Curiosity. (2) Ownership. (3) Boastfulness. (4) Cruelty. (5) Bad language. (6) Fighting. 17. Give suggestions for the child's early school life. 18. What is the mother's duty in relation to the school? 19. What principles are laid down regarding the early learning of reading and writing? CHAPTER IV PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF THE CHILD FROM SEVEN TO TWELVE YEARS i. GENERAL PHYSICAL CONDITIONS In the present chapter we pass on to the next period of the child's life. We find first that he is no longer a baby. In many ways this is a relief. The worry about childish diseases which is so likely to hover over the mother, espe- cially if her child is inclined to be delicate, will soon cease to trouble her greatly, since the period of contagious and infectious ailments passes mostly with early childhood. 1 Again, since the child has become a pupil in school, he has developed a self-reliance which was unknown to him before. In a general way, it has been said of the period which we are now discussing that it is more free from storm and stress than any other period in the entire life. The long, helpless infancy, beset with its many dangers, is past. Early childhood, when so many things had to be learned and so many habits established, is safely over, while adolescence, with its great physical changes and its mental and moral upheavals, has not yet begun. It is true that the approach of adolescence cannot be definitely timed. It often gives warning of its approach earlier than the twelfth year. But the period under discussion 1 J. M. Tyler, Growth and Education, p. 95. 116 PHYSICAL CONDITIONS 117 is the pre-adolescent period, and will close for any par- ticular child as soon as adolescence arrives. The growth at this time is likely to be regular. Unless there is some unusual happening, such as a severe fit of sickness which is not likely or an accident, which, if the child is a boy, is more common as said above, the mother may rely with considerable confidence upon the fact that Dame Nature will exercise care in making these years safe and comfortable ones for the child of either sex. I have referred to the fact that these are the years when we may expect good things for our children on the physical side at least. This is especially true of the latter part of the period. Says Dr. Tanner: "The period immediately preceding adolescence is the healthiest time of life." 1 A Menace. But it is unfortunately true that, under our present ways of living, children undergo some ex- periences at this time which are so entirely artificial and so abnormal from the standpoint of proper physical and hygienic conditions that Mother Nature, although she does her best, is in great danger of being defeated in the very shadow of her own stronghold. I refer particu- larly to the fact that the school-life of the children of the present day, as shown by statistics, is not only a great strain upon the physical organism, but that in many cases it is proving a peril to present happiness and a menace to future usefulness. The health record of children who do not attend school is higher than that of children who attend school. 2 The records also show a gradual dete- 1 Amy Tanner, The Child, p. 26, p. 280. 2 S. H. Rowe, Physical Nature of the Child, p. 147 ; Tyler, p. 101 Il8 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT rioration in the health of children who have been in school for a number of years. It is a condition that demands thoughtful consideration, and one to which we shall return later. Prominent Manifestations. I have spoken of the regu- larity and comparative routine of the physical life during these years. On this account it should not be difficult to maintain systematic habits of eating, sleeping and exer- cise, and in most cases it is not so. Because of this very regularity, and of a certain sameness in physical and mental manifestations among children, the period has been found by some to be less interesting than other periods. Not only this, but nature shows a tendency at this point to lead her children into a state of semi-savagery which is most trying to their elders. It may be considered as a reversion to a "state of nature," in which we often describe their manner of behavior by saying that they "act like little animals." This is literally true. Con- ventional standards and ideals are ignored, and individual preferences and inclinations insist upon having full play. The result is that while in some children we meet with a sameness and monotony which are uninteresting, in others we find an uncouthness which is absolutely dis- agreeable. Dr. G. Stanley Hall has well expressed this condition in the following words: "In spite of all that the theorist can say, I fear that even the fond mother must put on her rose-colored glasses to see much that is lovable in the boy or girl at this age. There is less sentiment and more selfishness displayed. It is not that the child is depraved or retrograding, but the heavier animal type seems to predominate, as though the PHYSICAL CONDITIONS 1 19 higher and more spiritual qualities were resting in prep- aration for their triumphant appearance during the next period. 1 "During these years a child, especially a boy, should fight and be fought, be in many scraps and have bad asso- ciates, have many forms of ethical mumps and measles. He is fortunate if he can have them in mild form now and still be rendered immune from later and more dan- gerous attacks. Something is amiss with a lad of ten who is very good, studious, industrious, truthful, altru- istic, polite, respectful, obedient, gentle, manly, orderly, always in good toilet, always turns away from stories that reek with gore, prefers adult companionship to that of his mates, refuses all low associates, speaks standard English, is pious and deeply in love with religious serv- ices. Such a boy is either undervitalized and anaemic or a repressed, over-trained manikin; a hypocrite, as one can become under pressure even at this early age, or else a genius of some kind." Probably many mothers have experienced the truth in the above sentiment. So clear a statement of facts is helpful to everyone who is trying to deal with children in an intelligent way. Therefore, while we recognize the characteristics of crude and incipient savagery in our children, we need not accept them as final or permanent. We recognize that these little half-animals have been given to us to be trained. In other words, our duty is to train out the animal and train in the man; to so foster self -develop- ment and so teach self-control that the lower qualities 1 G. Stanley Hall, Adolescence, Vol. II, p. 452. 120 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT shall be subordinated and the higher ones shall become the masters. Measurements. One of the first considerations in the physical development of this period will be the child's stature. Below are the tables compiled by Dr. G. Stanley Hall, showing the average height, weight and chest girth of American boys and girls between the ages of seven and twelve years. 1 AGE HEIGHT WEIGHT Years Inches Inches Pounds Pounds Boys Girls Boys Girls 6^ 43-9 43-3 45-2 434 7*A 46 457 49-5 477 8K 48.8 477 54-5 52.5 9 1 /* 50 497 59-6 574 10^ 51.9 517 65.4 62.9 "54 53-6 53-8 707 69.5 i2*/ 2 554 56.1 76.9 787 AGE CHEST GIRTH Average between expiration and inspiration. Boys Girls 6 years 23.24 inches 22.97 inches 7 years 23.87 inches 23.41 inches 8 years 24.48 inches 23.94 inches 9 years 25.16 inches 24.61 inches 10 years 25.80 inches 24.81 inches 1 1 years 26.47 inches 25.92 inches 12 years 27.07 inches 26.89 inches Significance of This Data. These tables are suggestive and helpful in showing what are the average dimensions for normal boys and girls, but their greatest value is that they show what increase should be expected from year to year. As has already been said, the index of a child's i S. H. Rowe, Physical Nature of the Child, p. 124, PHYSICAL CONDITIONS 121 good bodily condition is his normal growth. The growth is more rapid in summer than in winter. Spring and early summer show a greater increase in height; late summer and fall show more increase in weight. 1 During the early part of this period, i. e., not far from the seventh year, we find that the heart is at its minimum in proportion to the size of the body. It has but little more than one- fourth its adult weight, while the body has two-thirds of its adult weight. The increase of the body over the heart causes an increased drain upon this organ and a drain that may be out of proportion to its ability. On this account there are often what seem to be signs of heart weakness at this period. But these are only temporary and disappear when, a little later, the relative sizes are again adjusted. The other organs of the body seem, in a way, to be resting too. This seeming rest is in possible anticipation of the unusually large in- crease which comes to them during the approaching adolescent years. 2. THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM Relative Weight of Muscles. The muscles increase in size and strength quite rapidly during this period. The vital connection between the muscular and the nervous systems has been dwelt upon in an earlier chapter. Dur- ing the entire time from infancy to maturity the weight of the muscular system increases thirty-seven to forty- eight times its weight at birth. We realize what a large increase this is when we learn that the fully developed 1 J. M. Tyler, Growth and Education, p. 66. 122 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT t lungs are but twenty times heavier than those of the new- born baby, 1 while the liver and the kidneys of the adult are only twelve or thirteen times heavier than they were at birth, and the adult heart is twelve and one-half times heavier than that of the infant. 2 The entire adult weight of the average person is from eighteen to twenty times his baby weight. From this we see that most of the .other parts of the body as a whole have a better start when the child is born than the muscles do. This large increase during youth in weight of the muscles does not come for nothing. Nature sends a loud call to the parents to cooperate with her in the important work of muscle building. Given an adequate supply of food, fresh air, exercise and sleep Nature will do the rest, but she cannot work successfully unaided. Location of Muscles. In a study of the different parts of the muscular system we find that there are, first, the large, heavy muscles of the trunk; second, those of the lower limbs, which are involved in walking and running; third, there are the muscles of the upper and fore arm, which are used by the child in all kinds of climbing, tug- ging and pulling; and fourth, last of all, there are the more delicate muscles of the hand and fingers. All these muscles have their regular time for developing as well as their regular order of coordination with brain centers. For, as we have already seen, the effectiveness of the muscles depends not only upon their own health and strength but upon the proper coordination of those brain areas in which they center. 1 E. A. Kirkpatrick, Fundamentals of Child Study, p. 19. 2 Dr. G. Stanley Hall, Youth, p. 57. PHYSICAL CONDITIONS 123 Motor Ideals. On account of muscle development, the ideals of the period are largely motor, and properly so, for the chief business of the child is to grow and store up strength and vitality. By the expression "motor ideals" is meant the state of mind in the child when the thing which seems to be the most desirable is great bodily strength and the ability to do things by means of supe- riority of the body. Motion of all kinds is attractive. Pictures and stories involving movement best hold the attention; activity in real life, such as performing animals and human gymnastics, never fails to rouse enthusiasm. Both boys and girls are affected by these ideals, but the conventionalities of modern society place before the grow- ing girl a quite different form of ideals, so that the normal motor one seldom becomes as strong as in the boy, and often fades away and practically disappears. The desira- bility of encouraging these motor ideals, and of giving them the freest possible scope of development is apparent. Adequate Play. The best results along this line come from simple play as an end in itself, distinguished from work on the one hand, where there is an objective end, and amusement, on the other, where the child is only a passive factor. It is all too true that for our city-bred children there is little or no place for the carrying out of this normal instinct. But this very condition makes it all the more imperative that the parents secure what shall serve as reasonable substitutes for the large yards and ample vacant lots of former days. The physical life of this period demands such games as baseball, basket ball, chalk chase, hare and hounds, hide and seek, jumping rope, pull-away, bean bags, and many more. 124 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT Then there are many plays of the children's own mak- ing, into which they will enter when they are free from critical supervision. We must always remember that healthful play involves much noise, and provision must be made for it. If the play space is small, and it is likely to be in closely settled communities, see that it is equipped with dry goods boxes, pieces of boards and old rugs. These will suggest to the active mind of the child all man- ner of interesting things to do. Tyler says, "Nature does not ask for athletics, but for sufficient suitable exercise to promote the healthy growth of the muscles and vital organs, and through these, of the brain. She is now intent upon producing a well-grown and healthy body, the first essential step toward men and women of power and efficiency." 3. THE EYES Increase of Eye Troubles. Eye troubles develop quite insidiously during these uninterrupted years of school attendance. Griffith says that the ten-year-old child should see and hear better than the adult. Hence when we learn that eye troubles increase at the rate of twenty per cent in some of the school grades, 1 we may feel certain that there is something wrong in the conditions which surround the child. The probability is that the trouble here, as in other cases which will be enu- merated, is the joint product of carelessness in both home and school. As far as the home is concerned, the mother is surely the one to remedy the evils, and she as surely will when she comes to understand them. According to school tests which have been recently made, the larger 1 S. H. Rowe, Physical Development of the Child, Chap. II. PHYSICAL CONDITIONS 125 number of eye troubles are reported as simple "weakness" and shortsightedness. Signs and Causes of Eye Trouble. One of the first indications of eye trouble, but one which is not usually recognized as such, is headache. Other signs are watering of the eyes, swollen lids, pus discharge and a strained look. The eye tests mentioned in an earlier chapter will be available here. Among the causes of these bad conditions in the eyes are using the eyes in a dim light, reading fine print, wear- ing tight collars, smoking cigarettes, breathing impure air, lack of nourishing food, and improper clothing. As to these last two items, it has been found that the wealth or poverty of the home is by no means a criterion. Children in the homes of the rich are often allowed to eat food which is poor in its nourishing qualities, while the clothing of the children of the well-to-do, especially that of the girls, is notably insufficient and unhygienic. As in the case of many other ills, if the mother finds that her child's eyes are not in the best condition, she must go back to the fundamental requirements of food, clothing, and sleep. An earlier chapter took up some specific points in the treatment of the eyes. 4. THE EARS Large Amount of Deafness. Taking up next the sub- ject of hearing, we find that twenty-five per cent of the school children from seven to twelve are somewhat deaf. Marked deafness is of course easily noticed, but slight deafness, which is only shown by what sometimes seems to be inattention, is often overlooked. The ear tests re- 126 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT ferred to in a previous chapter will be very useful here. Causes of Deafness. Among the common causes of deafness are the after effects of scarlet fever and measles, nasal catarrh, enlarged tonsils, and adenoids. These are all accentuated by an unwholesome home life. The last three are removable as causes of deafness. Do not delay in consulting a physician at the first signs of deafness. Nasal catarrh in its early stages will yield to local treat- ment. The operation for removing tonsils and adenoids is comparatively simple. 5. THE NOSE The nose is somewhat intimately connected with the ears and is often the seat of ear difficulties. The en- largement of the nasal pharynx is what has been referred to as adenoid growths. The nasal pharynx is a tissue lying between the eustachian tubes, which connect the ears and the throat. This tissue is only temporary and should be absorbed at about the sixteenth year. But if, as is often the case, it becomes diseased, it enlarges. In its enlarged state it has the appearance of half a walnut with the shell removed, and is in the nature of enlarged tonsils. The size diminishes in warm weather and increases when the child takes cold. The clefts of the tissue become inflamed and discharge muco-pus. These adenoid growths are likely to be the culmination of repeated attacks of in- flammation of the lining of the nose, or nasal catarrh. Catarrhal colds are largely infections, and exposure to dampness and drafts are favoring conditions for their development. 1 Under these circumstances bacteria, which 1 Hough and Sedgwick, The Human Mechanism, p. 381. PHYSICAL CONDITIONS 127 are ordinarily inhaled without harm, gain a foothold, and the result is an inflammation of the tissues with attendant congestion. Causes of Adenoid Growths. This diseased condition of the tissues is very likely to occur with children who spend part of each day in overheated, ill-ventilated rooms, and the other part out of doors, dressed in insufficient clothing. The early stages of the inflammation are shown by constant or frequent running at the nose and repeated sniffing. Results. When it becomes chronic and adenoids de- velop, mouth-breathing is quite a common symptom; a dry deposit may appear about the teeth, and the tonsils may become inflamed. This condition has been some- times revealed in the school-room by bad enunciation. Later the enlarged nasal pharynx, or adenoid growth, may extend forward into the nose and close it as effectively as a stopper closes a bottle. It is then impossible to breathe through the nose, and the mouth breathing, which necessarily ensues, draws greatly upon the vitality of the child. Further, this enlarged tissue presses against the eusta- chian tubes and produces deafness. Statistics show that a very large per cent of defective hearing among children is caused by adenoids. Again, adenoids may affect the brain, or may result in the child becoming what is known as pigeon-breasted. In this case the sternum seems to project on account of a slight depression or groove which appears on each side of it. It is especially evident during sleep. The proper treatment for such conditions is to have the adenoids promptly removed. The child who goes 128 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT through his second dentition with nasal obstructions will bear the marks of it all his life. 1 Catarrhal Troubles. Catarrh is an inflammation of the mucous membrane which lines the respiratory channels of the throat and head. This inflammation results in too large an amount of secretion from the membrane. This abnormal condition is aggravated, and sometimes brought on, by the breathing of impure air. Nasal catarrh, as suggested by the name, affects the lining of the nose. The interior mechanism of the ear is closely connected with that of the nose, and the delicate ear passages are affected and obstructed by this disease. Hence, deafness is almost sure to follow an extreme case of nasal catarrh. In general it may be said that a tendency to catarrhal troubles should be met by good domestic hygiene and muscular exercise. Teach the child to take deep, slow inspirations, and the nose will become clear. Use all the ribs as well as the diaphragm in this process. A practice of deep breathing with good muscular exercise, not car- ried, however, to the point of weariness, may even cut short the common cold. 6. THE TEETH Since the range of this discussion is to include all parts of the child's body, let us now turn to the consideration of a portion of his anatomy which requires much atten- tion. I refer to the teeth. First Permanent Teeth. The permanent teeth are 1 Dr. Earnest B. Wiggett, Diseases of the Nose, p. 70. PHYSICAL CONDITIONS 129 likely to come in without any especially noisy announce- ment. But their quiet arrival is no guarantee of their subsequent good behavior. On the contrary they will make it their business to decay as soon as they possibly can, which may be very soon, unless the mother has been upon the lookout for their coming and has taken all pos- sible pains to keep them clean. The twenty teeth known as the temporary or milk teeth have been previously spoken of. When these begin to loosen and fall out, of course, you know that the second group is near at hand. These second teeth come in groups, just as the first did, but here, as in the other case, it is hard to identify the groups because the time of their appearance is so irregular. First Group. The first permanent teeth come before the beginning of this period; namely, in the sixth year. 1 They are known as the first four molars and come directly behind the posterior molars of the first set. There is almost sure to be some confusion about the teeth at this stage, for there are temporary and permanent teeth in the mouth at the same time, and it is sometimes quite impos- sible to distinguish them by their appearance. The aver- age child, too, is likely to object seriously to holding his mouth open for any length of time while the anxious mother gazes first below and then above in her desire to locate and identify each one of these important factors in her child's anatomy. Second Group. After the first four molars, which come at six years of age, we have the four central incisors, two above and two below, which come at seven years. Sometimes those in the upper jaw come first; sometimes 1 J. P. C. Griffith, Care of the Baby, p. 63. 130 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT those in the lower, but they always seem remarkably slow in coming, since they push their tiny predecessors out some weeks in advance of their own advent, and all mothers recognize that the toothless gums do not enhance the beauty of the face. Third Group. At eight years of age, four more teeth appear, one on each side of the central group. These are known as the four lateral incisors. It seems a long time before these eight front teeth are all fairly settled in their places. Fourth Group. At nine or ten years of age come the first four bicuspids. They take the places of the anterior molars of the first set. Fifth Group. At ten or eleven, the second four bicus- pids take the places of the posterior molars of the first set. Sixth Group. From eleven to thirteen, the canines may be looked for. Watch these canines from the start, for they are more often crooked than any of the other teeth. If they are out of place do not wait long before seeing a dentist. The pain and expense of straightening teeth are less when the work is done early. Seventh Group. From twelve to fifteen, the second four molars come in, back of all the other teeth. This makes fourteen permanent teeth in each jaw, all that will appear until the seventeenth or eighteenth year. Eighth Group. At this time the four wisdom teeth come, two in each jaw, back of the second molars. It is desirable not to have the first teeth drawn, but to let them remain in the mouth until pushed out by the second set, thus insuring to the second teeth the nourish- ment supplied by the roots of the first. If the first teeth PHYSICAL CONDITIONS 131 decay in spite of all efforts, have them filled. It is not expensive and it is well worth doing, even though the teeth remain in the mouth but a short time. Now that the teeth are in, let me advise every mother to watch them as she would watch her rarest jewels. They cannot be stolen away in a night, but before you know it the subtle forces of decay will take possession of them, and they can never be replaced. Pyorrhea. There is also a disease which attacks the gums, even of growing children. It is called pyorrhea. The mother should be on the lookout for it. The symp- toms are an unnatural redness and softness of the gums and a drawing away of the gums from the teeth. The accumulation of tartar on the teeth aggravates these symp- toms. Consult the dentist if you discover any signs of pyorrhea. The modern treatment of this disease often involves severe medicines, which it is hardly safe for the mother to handle. But in the meantime secure a bottle of lavoris from your druggist. Dilute it one-half for a child and use it as a mouth wash. Also ask your dentist for a bundle of orange wood sticks. These sticks are in such a shape as to enable you to work close down to the gums and polish away any substance which may be inclined to accumulate upon the teeth. 7. THE INTERACTION OF MIND AND BODY Posture. We find that during the period we are now studying, a lack of nervous force, and a condition of im- perfect nourishment, are often indicated by the posture 132 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT and carriage of the body. Posture not only shows the condition of the body, but the condition of mind as well. Watch the child and see if there is a balance and symmetry in his body. See if there is strength and force of move- ment with energy and activity. Carriage. The manner of a child's walking can be made a very practical study. An awkward, shuffling gait indicates a careless, irresponsible nature. Then, there is a sneaking gait which shows uncertainty and lack of frankness. The cowardly, over-submissive child walks with head forward and shoulders drooping. The confi- dent, frank child walks with head erect and shoulders back. The mother has a duty here, for the mind can be affected through the body. In other words, what is usu- ally the effect may be made the cause. If right attitudes of body are encouraged and accomplished, it will help to establish right habits of mind. We have all heard of the boy who whistled to keep up his courage. In like manner, smile and you will feel like smiling. Encourage the child to walk erect and forcefully and the very doing so will conduce to rectitude and force of mind and char- acter. The child who is naturally despondent can be brought out of such a state if you can persuade him to carry his head and chest up and his shoulders back. It has been said that custom precedes morality. Let the right physical habit be secured and it will go a long way towards perfecting the mental attitude. Behavior in Sleep. Beside the watchfulness over the child when he is awake, the mother should watch him while he is asleep. 1 See if he takes an easy posture in *S. H. Rowe, Physical Nature of the Ch'.d, p. 103. PHYSICAL CONDITIONS 133 sleep, and especially see that he has good air. He will rest more easily upon his side. Free heart action, as well as relief for congested and enlarged liver, is secured by sleeping on the right side. A flatulent stomach is relieved by lying on the left side. Mouth-breathing is more easily overcome if the child sleeps on the side. Dr. Griffith suggests that the habit of sleeping on the side can be secured by tying a spool securely to the small of the back. 1 Curvature of the Spine. Children of this period are sometimes affected with a curvature of the spine. 2 Long periods of sitting, without adequate change of posture, in seats which do not fit the shape of the hips and back, combine to induce this deformity. A large number of statistics compiled from German schools show that prac- tically all the cases of the curvature of the spine, and the number was alarmingly large, were contracted between the ages of five and fourteen. 3 Carrying heavy bundles always upon the same side, such as sacks of newspapers, may also produce curvature in the growing boy. The earliest symptoms are difficult to discover. If the child seems to be listless, pale or in any other way indicates deficiency in nerve force, it will be wise to make frequent and careful inspections of his back and hips. The more advanced stages will be shown by a definite leaning to one side and an irregularity in gait. The child with curvature of the spine should be taken out of school, kept in the open air and encouraged to engage in spontaneous active play. The usual nerve 1 Griffith, p. 351. 2 Tyler, p. 143. 3 S, H. Rowe, op. cit., p. 154. I 3 4 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT. remedies of regular sleep, exercise, and food should, of course, receive constant attention. It will be best to con- sult a physician as soon as you detect any signs of curvature. Nervous System and Brain. The close connection be- tween the nervous system and the brain has already been referred to. Warner says that all expression of mental action is but movement. We have already seen that the brain centers at first act separately, but as the mind de- velops the separate brain centers become capable of uniting by the formation of nerve paths between them. Later they become so connected as to act in unison or in a series one after the other, in an established order. For example : You have often noticed that a little child, even of con- siderable muscular ability, cannot throw a ball to a desig- nated point. As he grows older he finds that he can do so, especially after practice. An idiot or a weak-minded child does not learn to throw with accuracy. This is what has already been referred to as coordinated brain action. Illustration by Means of Telephone System. The in- teraction of these different brain centers is sometimes illustrated by the telephone system where all orders are given through a central exchange. The whole city con- taining the telephone system may be compared to the entire brain. The individual telephones represent the so- called brain centers. The order which is given to the operator corresponds to the sense impression, such as the sight of a red apple or the bite of a mosquito. At the given order (the impression) certain telephones are tem- porarily connected by the electric wires. These wires are analogous to the nerve paths between the brain centers. PHYSICAL CONDITIONS 135 By means of these paths the brain centers act in unison and in harmony with the impression. This illustration is inadequate, however, because of the time required to manipulate the telephone. The reaching for the red apple before training has taught self-restraint follows instantly upon the sight of it, as does the slapping of the mosquito after the bite is felt. Different centers may connect tem- porarily and then "ring off/' to be connected later with other centers. 1 Warner refers to this process as the nerve muscular mechanism indicating or expressing the thoughts arising in the mind. Movements produced by the muscles are thus indices of what goes on among the brain centers that produce them. Of course the process of thinking can go on without being expressed, just as the works of the clock could keep on going even though there were no hands to show what time they were making. But just as we need the hands to know if the clock is working correctly, so we need the movements of the body to tell us if the brain is working correctly. We see again in order to under- stand mental action in the brain we must study physio- logical processes. Good coordination of movements of the muscles indicates good coordination of brain centers which control these movements. A healthy body helps to make a healthy brain, and a well-regulated brain helps to keep the rest of the body in good health. Healthy lungs and good breathing afford a supply of pure blood to the brain. Here, again, we meet the fact that good food, well-digested, is necessary for a good condition of both body and brain. And, vice 1 Warner, Nervous System, 42, 107. 136 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT versa, a well-regulated brain promotes good digestion. A clear understanding of this close connection between the body and mind of the child gives the mother a fine background for her work. She is able to see promptly any manifestations of either physical or mental disturb- ances by a sort of double vision which will hardly allow her to go astray. That is to say, physical behavior indi- cates both bodily and mental states. Mental behavior indicates both mental and bodily states. Constipation. There are still other phases of physical life which greatly affect the development of the mind. They pertain to this period of life and are of sufficient importance to warrant mention. One very trying and persistent ailment is constipation. It sometimes becomes so fixed during these early years as to make it very diffi- cult to cure in later life. Lack of exercise, wrong diet, and insufficient sleep are again the causes. In this con- nection Dr. F. M. Rankin has called attention to the necessity of personal cleanliness. From one to two and one-half pints of effete matter pass off through the skin in twenty-four hours. Failure to bathe and change the clothing throws a dangerous strain upon the kidneys and the digestive organs. All but the most persistent cases of constipation will be corrected by proper diet, exercise, and care of the body. Fresh fruits and vegetables, oat- meal, prunes, whole wheat or graham bread and crackers in preference to those made from white flour, the avoid- ance of rice, cheese and other foods known to have a constipating tendency will all aid in establishing right habits in this particular. Clothing. Dr. Rankin says : "Strength of body at ma- PHYSICAL CONDITIONS 137 turity varies as the proper amount of guidance and atten- tion to the laws of hygiene." He says, further, that one great source of disease in children is the wearing of the same weight of clothing in warm and cold weather. Some parents think this is the proper way of hardening the child. His opinion upon this subject is as follows i 1 "The proper way to harden a child is by rigid adherence to the laws of health, which will be done by providing a suffi- cient amount of clothing, plenty of out-door exercise, pure air to breathe, simple and good food, ample amount of sleep." Some authorities even claim that inadequate clothing has proved an obstruction to normal physical and mental growth. Nature puts a warmer coat upon her special children, the animals, as soon as the weather becomes colder in the fall. In this respect the careful mother will follow nature, and those who live where the winter weather is extreme will cover the child from throat to ankles in a union suit of warm material, after, or even before, the genuine freeze-up comes. See that the head and neck as well as the body are carefully protected when the child is out of doors; but do not emulate those French mothers who bundle up the faces and heads of the children almost to suffocation, while they leave a portion of the little legs below the knee entirely bare. Let the stockings be especially warm and long, and the shoes thick and of adequate size. Cigarettes. We must now touch upon a habit which has grown to alarming proportions among the children of our country. Few mothers realize the extent to which it exists; perhaps fewer realize the extent of the injury 1 F. M. Rankin, p. 186, 138 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT which is being brought to those who indulge in it. I refer to cigarette smoking. One authority declares that in a single state 100,000 boys under twelve years of age use cigarettes. 1 Investigation shows that this practice is contracted in some cases as early as three years and usu- ally as a result of being taught by older boys. When the habit of cigarette smoking is once contracted, it is seldom broken off. The best thing that can be done is to substitute a pipe, which is somewhat less injurious, though by no means desirable. The habit of cigarette smoking shows itself in lustreless and often inflamed eyes, drawn lips, trembling hands, weak heart, disordered throat and stomach, hampered circulation and twisted spine, dwarfed condition of the entire body. On the intellectual side, cigarette smokers rank low in school, are slovenly, unreliable, and untruthful. 2 The logical person to save the boy from this habit, which threatens his body, mind, and soul, is the mother. There surely is a way to so watch, care for, and train every boy that he will not fall a victim to the cigarette habit. In the case of a child under twelve, and in many cases with an older child, the mother is justified in keeping close watch of his pockets both with eyes and nose, and of all places where he keeps his personal belongings. While many boys are told they must not smoke cigarettes, very few of them have any real understanding of the kind of injury they bring to themselves by so doing. A discovery of the tobacco will often open the way for 1 W. A. McKeever, Kansas State Agricultural School, Education, Vol. 29, p. 154. 2 Rowe, Physical Nature of the Child, p. 90. PHYSICAL CONDITIONS 139 a serious talk and an earnest appeal to the boy by the mother, even though one has previously been made. The maintenance of confidence between parent and child is always the safest way. The habit of smoking is one which may be practiced entirely away from home and hence concealed from the parents for a long time. In those unfortunate cases when the boy, refusing to accept or understand the attitude of his parents, continues to deceive and disobey them by the secret use of tobacco, prompt confiscation of the injurious article at all times and seasons, followed by drastic punishment, will be the kindest thing you can do for him. Society. While the danger just touched upon is con- fined for the most part to the boy, I want to say a word about an entirely different condition which pertains more largely to the girl. The outcome in this case may not be so serious, yet it is far from desirable. There is a tend- ency for girls in this period, especially those who live in cities, to despise their childhood and to join too early in the social dissipations of their elders. 1 In a former chapter reference was made to an unwise effort to keep the child young after the normal time, with possible injury to his development. Here we have the other extreme. The general question of how much time should be given to "society," in the ordinary acceptation of that term, has become a real problem to every thoughtful woman of today. When this problem comes to involve the young and developing daughter it assumes an added seriousness and cannot safely be ignored. When a child mingles 1 Fritz Koch, Elementary School Teacher, Vol. 9; Hall, Adoles- cence, Vol. i, p. 382. 140 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT much with adults, he or she comes to assume adult ways and to become sophisticated. Frequent dancing parties, theaters, and all sorts of artificial excitement rob the growing school girl of health and of the simple girlish charm which belongs to this period of life. Often she is encouraged in foolish notions of dress and is allowed to wear clothing which is entirely unsuitable to her years, and, in fact, to any years, since much of the so-called fashionable women's clothing is neither useful nor beau- tiful. But surely the clothing of the growing girl should be as simple and should offer as little restraint to the body as possible. Many little girls are overdressed and it is generally the vanity of the mother that is responsible for it. To be fashionable means to them more than to be refined. It is pitiable to see little girls robbed of the free life and the simple plays of childhood and either forced or allowed to force themselves into conditions for which they are not prepared. Real Dangers. In connection with this aping of adults, which is always bad, there is more likely to be a certain forcing of the attention of sexes, the over-stimu- lation of thought and emotion, late hours, unwholesome refreshments, and introduction of wrong ideals, and a distraction from things of real value. Here, again, it is the mother alone who can make and keep things right. The girl herself has little experience from which to draw lessons of modesty and simplicity. She cannot know the dangers which attend the lack of these qualities. The mother who does know of these dangers, and who still allows or encourages her daughter to actions or habits pot suitable to her age and perhaps not to any age, makes PHYSICAL CONDITIONS 141 a serious mistake. Many mothers have found it to be a fatal mistake. You can control the clothing of the daugh- ter by furnishing her with only such garments as you know to be adequate for warmth and freedom, and (in your judgment) appearance. Simplicity and suitableness in dress will help greatly in keeping the manners and thoughts simple and pure. Summing Up. In summing up the duties of the mother to her child during this period of his life, it will be useful to consider a few questions selected from a long list which Dr. Rankin has suggested as being applicable to all par- ents. If any of these questions must be answered in the negative it indicates the existence of conditions which will operate against the child's development : 1. Is the food eaten by the child simple, varied, well- cooked, eaten at regular times ? 2. Is the underwear always changed at night? 3. Is woolen material worn next the skin in winter, and are the girl's clothes suspended from the shoulders? 4. Does the child always breathe through the nose ? 5. Does the child from six to eight get eleven hours of sleep daily? Does the child from nine to eleven get ten hours? From twelve to fourteen, nine hours? 6. Does he sleep in a cool, well-ventilated room ? 7. Does he always have the best possible light when reading, and carefully avoid facing the light? 8. Is he encouraged to quickness and accuracy of movement at home ? 9. Are games of various sorts played at home? 10. Does he always hear carefully enunciated English at home? 142 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT 11. Is he generally kept from emotional excitement, such as theaters, parties, etc. ? 12. Does he stand erect and take good posture when walking ? 8. PARENT AND TEACHER Thus far the effort has been made to lay emphasis upon the duty of the mother in regard to the home life of the child. Before closing the chapter it will be well to ask to what extent the mother may hope to be of service in bettering the conditions which surround the child at school. There is a great shrinking on the part of most mothers from anything like what may be termed inter- ference in matters outside of their sphere. This feeling is natural and is, I think, a sufficient guarantee that what- ever is done in this line will be done carefully and tact- fully. The relation of the home and school involves many delicate points. Parent-Teachers' Associations. On this account it has occurred to many, including both parents and teachers, that this relation would be made more helpful through organization than if left to individual initiative and judg- ment. In an increasingly large number of cities and towns there exist what are known as Parent-Teachers' Associa- tions. As the name suggests, such organizations include the parents of any particular district and the teachers in the school of the district. Regular meetings are held in the schoolhouse. Questions of mutual interest to parent and teacher concerning the good of the children are dis- cussed. Such an organization has infinite possibilities for good in a community. By means of such an organiza- PHYSICAL CONDITIONS 143 tion the schoolhouse may and in many cases has become a social center, having a separate room for its use, equipped with comfortable chairs, library, piano, stage and curtains for school and neighborhood dramatics, con- certs, and lectures, and offering adequate provision for social gatherings. 1 Individual Parents. While a proposed cooperation be- tween parents and schools can be accomplished more easily through an organization than individually, yet, in the absence of such an organization, individual mothers can 1 A brief account of the details of how one school house became a social center may be helpful. A few ladies of the district called upon the principal of the building and secured her cooperation in the movement. Written invitations were sent put through the chil- dren to each mother in the district for a meeting on a certain day. Through the help of the city superintendent, school was dismissed upon that day one-half hour earlier than usual. Talks were given at this meeting by the superintendent, the principal and one or two of the mothers. The object of the organization (to promote a closer relation between home and school) was fully explained. A simple constitution was presented and adopted. A small membership fee was fixed upon. After this regular meetings were held once a month. Topics of mutual interest to parents and teachers were dis- cussed. Light refreshments were always served by a special com- mittee. Through the instrumentality of the association money was raised to place athletic equipments, such as swings, slides, etc., upon the school grounds. Up to this point the place of meeting had been in one of the schoolrooms. A request was sent to the school board to allow the use of the third floor of the building for a neighbor- hood hall and social center. This request was granted and the school board shared with the Parent-Teachers' Association the expense of adequately fitting and furnishing the hall. The room has a seating capacity of about four hundred. It is also used as an assembly room for the pupils of the school. It is equipped with a stage large enough to hold fifty persons; also with comfort- able chairs and tables, book cases, curtains, etc. A kitchen, with gas stove, cupboard and tables, is attached to the main hall; also a convenient cloak room. The work of the association is divided among a large number of committees, thus saving any one group from excessive labor and interesting a large number of mothers. The new hall was opened with a general reception to the fathers and mothers of the district. From time to time there are given here concerts, school dramatics, lectures and social gatherings. 144 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT help in many ways. The teachers in our schools are many of them young, they are constantly changing, and they have their hands full in looking after the general order and instruction of their crowded classes. Besides this, teachers are likely to be a little timid about suggesting changes which involve the expenditure of time, care and money by the school board, upon whom they depend for the stability of their positions. Suggestions of needed changes involve criticism upon the existing order of things, and the teacher who ventures to make such sug- gestions is in danger of being considered a bit trouble- some, with the possibility of her resignation being asked for. School Boards. Shall we look, then, to the members of our school boards to take care of our schoolhouses ? It is a regrettable fact that our school boards are, for the most part, composed of busy men who find it impossible to give to the care of the school buildings the personal supervision which is required in order to keep them in the best hygienic condition. Is any stronger proof of the truth of this statement needed than the figures already given as to the deterioration in the health of our public school children? Let us consider then, very briefly, some of the hygienic conditions of the ordinary schoolhouse in which the mother may properly interest herself and which she may hope to improve. School Conditions. In the lighting of a schoolroom the seats should be so arranged that the light shall fall upon the pupils from the rear or the left side, or from PHYSICAL CONDITIONS 145 both, if possible. 1 But the children should never sit so as to face the light, no matter how good other conditions may be. If the lighting is badly arranged, the eyes will suffer. Care of the eyes will involve a knowledge of the size of the print of the various text-books which the children use. If it is too fine the eyes will suffer from this cause. It is very difficult to keep the air of the schoolroom as pure as it should be. Children who spend much time in bad air are drowsy, stupid and tired. Schoolrooms are sometimes contaminated by impure air from damp base- ments and leaky water closets. Such conditions are fraught with great danger to all children and especially to those who may be delicate or whose nervous vitality is low. The room should always be ventilated during school hours, and it is better to have the air come in from the top of the windows; but at recess or when the room is empty the windows should be freely opened both above and below. The temperature should range between 65 and 70. The walls of the schoolroom, at least those portions which are on a level with the eyes of the pupils, are nearly always covered with blackboards. This is det- rimental to the eyes. Professor Rowe suggests the ad- visability of covering the large expanse of black wall with white curtains, which may be pushed back when the boards are in use. Such a service might be performed by the mothers of the district, each one taking a portion to make and keep clean. The floor of the schoolroom is a problem not usually 1 S. H. Rowe, Physical Nature of the Child, p. n. 146 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT to the janitor, to be sure, but to the teacher and superin- tendent. Even if it is kept clean as a whole, there are usually cracks where dirt accumulates. In one case where the dirt from the cracks of a schoolroom floor was ana- lyzed it was found to contain germs of twenty different diseases. If the floor is carefully swept once each day after having been strewn with chopped straw soaked in a weak solution of chloride of lime (one pound to four or five gallons of water), those germs will be destroyed. A better plan is to have all cracks filled, and kept filled. The matter of the water supply is very important. A simple test, which any mother can apply, is to secure a portion of the drinking water in a bottle, take it home and drop a lump of loaf sugar into it. Let it stand by the window for twenty- four hours. If at the end of that time the water is not clear it should not be used. 1 Under these circumstances you may be able to have the water tested by a practical chemist and so trace the pollution to its source. As to drinking cups and towels, hygienic safety insists that they be individual. Many states have already passed laws and others are following to abolish the common drinking cup, in which lurk germs of colds, fevers, and more serious diseases, which sometimes are the cause of untold suffering and death. No mother who understands the seriousness of the situation as I hope all mothers are rapidly coming to do will consider any inconvenience too great in securing and maintaining consistent individuality in the school drinking cup. These things and many others which are of a more personal nature suggest the great desirability of a regular 1 S. H. Rowe, Physical Nature of the Child, p. 149. PHYSICAL CONDITIONS 147 school physician whose duty it shall be to inspect the build- ings with the view to discovering general unhygienic con- ditions and any signs of communicable disease. The subject of play has already been spoken of. A great desideratum for the school equipment of the present day is a place for play, both outdoors and indoors. It is to be hoped that in the near future and the mothers can help to hasten the day our school playgrounds will be fitted up with modern gymnastic apparatus, and there will be at least one large room indoors for basket-ball and other health-giving exercise. Records. We have discussed in a former chapter the importance of records as an aid to child study. It may be useful here to take for comparison two specific records of children at about the close of the period which has been considered one of them a girl of twelve; the other, a boy of eleven. The girl selected is somewhat less favored than the boy, but her case may be none the less useful for comparison. REPORT ON DELICATE GIRL 1 Fidgety. Suffers from headaches. Needs spectacles. Age twelve years. Sixth grade. Head small, well-shaped, no ridges, circumference 19.5 inches. Face: Features well formed, good proportion. Ears, good. Nose, good. Palate, well-shaped. Size, slight, 57 inches tall. Bal- ance, mobile, fidgety. Expression bright ; intelligent eye- movements; good eyes, move well in looking. When looking at a coin 18 inches from eyes, eyes converge 1 Frances Warner, The Nervous System, p. 181. 148 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT slightly. Hands : Held out well and promptly. Physical health : Pale, thin, weight 70 pounds. Otherwise healthy. School report : Works well in school. Regular, except when sick with headache. Complains of eyes aching. Is fond of reading. General report on child: Small head, bright mentally, likely to remain so. Eyes should be examined. Prob- ably needs convex glasses for hypermetropia (near-sight- edness), the use of which may help to keep off headaches. Requires much sleep. REPORT ON A BOY Age, eleven years. Place in school, seventh grade. Circumference of head, twenty-two inches. No ridges on head. Eye openings normal. Mouth and lips medium in thickness. Ears medium, complete, slightly outstand- ing. Nose symmetrical and shapely. Palate medium, slightly pointed. Front teeth crowded. Height, 56^ inches. Weight, 87^/2 pounds. Balance of body good. Stands erect. Expression bright and cheerful. Eye in- telligent and thoughtful. Good tone about eyelids. No bagginess anywhere. Eyes follow object sharply. Head moves with eyes. Head-balance perfect. Arms level when extended. Left hand falls slightly after a pro- longed extension. Sight and hearing good. Response accurate and active. Good color in face and lips. School standing nearly perfect in all branches. Especially good in arithmetic. Reports in regard to application perfect. Has practically never missed a day at school. Body and mind under control. PHYSICAL CONDITIONS 149 QUESTIONS FOR USE IN CLUB STUDY 1. Summarize the characteristics of the period from seven to twelve years. 2. From what sources do dangers to health seem to come? 3. What does Mr. Hall say about this period? 4. What use can you make of the tables of height, weight, and chest measure for this period? 5. What is said about the increase in size of the different por- tions of the body? 6. What is further said about the value of play? 7. What is said of eye-troubles at this time? Of the ears? Of the nose? 8. What teeth may be expected at this time? 9. Prepare a report on the number and the condition of the teeth of one child of this period. 10. What should the mother learn from the child's posture and carriage ? 11. What may be learned about a child while he sleeps? 12. What other troubles may come at this time? 13. To what is the nervous system compared? 14. Quote Dr. Rankings thought on this point. 15. What is said of cigarette smoking? 16. Cite examples of children being injured by over dress, parties, night entertainments, late hours and the like. 17. What are some of the things which the mother may do to help in the child's school life? 18. How can you test the school water supply? 19. What are the questions which Dr. Rankin suggests asking of parents ? 20. Describe a typically healthy child, (b) a nervous child. If pos- sible take an actual child in each case. CHAPTER V THE MENTAL CONDITION OF THE CHILD FROM SEVEN TO TWELVE YEARS i. POINTS OF CONTACT BETWEEN MOTHER AND CHILD In the present chapter we are to consider some phases of the mental development of the child between the ages of seven and twelve. In order to make the scope of the study as broad as possible, and to touch upon the large number of ways in which the influence of the mother can be made effective, it will be necessary to group certain forms of behavior which, on the surface, seem to have no special connection. All the conditions treated, however, have this feature in common; namely, they offer present problems to the mother. In a gathering together of the results of recent investigation and interpretation, it is hoped there will be suggestions for the successful solving of a few of these problems. Attention has been called to the fact that, while the general development during this period is likely to be slow, it will, in the case of a normal child, be regular. 1 The outer world brings its daily stores of material for sensa- tion, and, little by little, as the mind learns to interpret these sensations, they become the foundation for ideas, judgments and reasoning. 1 Irving King, Psychology of Child Development, p. 181 ; Kirk- patrick, Fundamentals of Child Study, p. 17. 150 THE MENTAL CONDITION 15! The Child's Questions. One very prominent role played by the child is that of the questioner. 1 His ques- tions are constant and varied, and the mother sometimes comes to associate the very appearance of the child with a big interrogation point. It is quite the proper thing to say at this point that these youthful questions should be an- swered carefully and sympathetically, and of course many of the questions are of such a nature as to make such advice practical. A large proportion of the child's knowl- edge must come to him through the answers to questions, and if he is laughed at or scolded for asking them, or if the answers are indefinite or incorrect, the effect upon the child's mind will be disastrous. But there is no doubt that, through the original incentive of a desire for knowledge, many children come to bombard their parents with use- less and trivial questions, and it is often the duty of the mother to attempt at least to secure some kind of dis- crimination in questioning. Otherwise she may be tempted to meet the stereotyped question with a stereotyped "I don't know/' While such a reply is true in many cases, the habit of using it indiscriminately weakens the child's respect for his parent and he comes to suspect either her veracity or her intelligence. It is far wiser for the mother to point out how many cases there are in which, if he stopped to think, he could answer his own question. Influence of School Life. Many of these questions are brought home from school, and are a pointed indication of how strongly the work of the school is impressing the child's mentality. His mental tastes and inclinations can be discovered through his reaction to his various school 1 King, Psychology of Child Development, p. 173. 152 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT studies. If the mother will note the various signs which appear in this connection and carefully record them, they will assist both her and the child as he grows older. There is no way in which one may study the child's mental development and the effect of his school work upon this development so well as by visiting the school. A child tells whole volumes about himself during one of those class periods. Then the teacher often knows things about the child which are unknown to the mother, and it is very fortunate if mother and teacher stand to each other in the relation of personal friendship. Through this per- sonal friendship the teacher comes to know the child better and is able to help the mother in many ways. Many parents have found it a good rule never to allow a child to pass through the hands of a teacher without enter- taining that teacher in the home at least once. Companions. In this connection it will be fitting to say a few words upon the subject of companions. Dur- ing the period under consideration, especially its latter part, the social instinct has been developing. The child has built up for himself a goodly constituency in the way of companionship. It was said that the companionship of the young child was not a serious problem. But when he begins to go to school it is time to know who his companions are. He is really being educated by them now, for the in- stinct of imitation is insistent, and his companions are his models. Do not be deceived by surface indications, and consider good manners as the all important thing. The child whose manners seem rough may at heart be manly and true or womanly and sincere, while the child THE MENTAL CONDITION 153 of social polish, either boy or girl, may have low ideals and hypocritical tendencies. Your full quota of tactful- ness is needed just at this point. It seems commonplace to say that the mothers of a given neighborhood are responsible for the morals of the children, and yet it repeatedly happens that the mothers, who themselves have high ideals, are ignorant or careless of the moral tone which prevails among the children in the very group of which their own children form a part. The ultimate results of bad companion- ship upon the character of a child can hardly be estimated. The immediate results often fall most heavily upon the public school. Many a teacher has been overcome with anxiety and worn out in trying to cope with some phase of immorality in school, which never could have ap- peared if the mothers had been on duty. Every mother should ask herself the question, "Do I know the moral tone of the children with whom my own child associates?" It is not possible to keep the child from meeting objec- tionable children at school or on the street. We are so much a part of our environment that we cannot separate ourselves from it, even if we were inclined to do so; but it is possible and vitally important to prevent our children from becoming intimate with those who would corrupt their morals. The mothers should hold themselves as stewards of the moral tone of their neighborhood, and be ready always to render strict account of their stewardship. Stories Told by the Mother. Another and very impor- tant way in which the child is helped in his mental and moral advancement during these years is through the 154 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT stories which are told and read to him. "There is a world into which children may enter and find noble com- panionship. It is the world of books. Let your boy escape for a time from the meanness of the boy across the street, and let him roam the woods with Hiawatha, sail the seas with Sinbad, build stockades with Crusoe, fight dragons with Jason, joust with Galahad; let him play at quoits with Odysseus, and at football with Tom Brown. These are playmates who will never quarrel with him nor bully him, but from whom he will learn to be brave, self-reliant, manly." * The thoughtful mother begins very early with the telling of stories, even before the child can understand all she is trying to tell him. The "story hour" is invaluable, not only for the impart- ing of information, but for the mutual exchange of con- fidences and the establishment of sympathetic relations between mother and child. "The hour after sunset is the Sabbath of the day." Bedtime is a good place for the story, either told or read, and Sunday afternoon may be made a period of happiness to the child instead of restraint if he comes to associate it with an interesting story. "Next to evenings, Sundays are the times of the greatest opportunity in the home. I know how hard it is to abbreviate the afternoon nap for the sake of the boy, but it is better to be awake at some discomfort now than to be kept awake by anxiety later." 2 I wonder how many mothers have tried serializing a long story? Some narratives lend themselves beautifully to this plan, especially the different books of the Old 1 Walter Taylor Field, Fingerposts to Children's Reading, p. 10. 2 W. B. Forbush, The Boy Problem, p. 133. THE MENTAL CONDITION 155 Testament. The lives of the Old Testament heroes can be divided into chapters and given to the child upon successive evenings. Such stories will prove both fasci- nating and helpful. The Child's Own Reading. Following closely upon the subject of the mother reading to the child is that of the child reading to himself, and the question as to when he ought to begin doing so. It is probably true that most children, when they first begin to read to themselves, select the lighter kinds of reading. If the practice of the mother reading to the child overlaps his beginning to read to himself, as it should, it is a good plan for her to read such books as would present difficulties to the child if read alone, and to suggest other books of a lighter character which may be read by the child, between the mother's reading. Mr. Walter Taylor Field, in his Fingerposts to Chil- dren's Reading, suggests an excellent course of historical reading covering about four years, in which one of the parents reads aloud from a child's history, and the child himself reads, during the intervals, light and interesting stories referring to the period which is being covered. In this way the stories come to have a new meaning because the child understands them. "No college course in his- tory can ever give one quite so clear and permanent an impression as that gained in childhood by the boy or girl who reads history in this way/' 1 When a child shows no taste for books after he has reached the age when an interest might reasonably be expected, the mother may help to implant one. The reading aloud, already men- 1 Field, Fingerposts to Children's Reading, pp. 32, 37. 156 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT tioned, will be one way of doing this. Each mother, knowing the child's disposition, will find a different way. I know of a case where a boy who had been read to a good deal refused to read to himself when the time came for him to do so. The mother pondered long and finally decided upon an experiment. The next time the boy committed a breach of family discipline, not a very un- usual thing in his case, she required him to spend an hour all by himself in the library. She had previously placed several books which she felt sure he was capable of reading, upon the library table. Nothing was said about reading. At the end of the hour he was discovered deep in one of the books. This experiment was repeated, and it was not so very long before the boy was hunting for new books to read on his own motion. Eventually he developed a taste for good reading. This plan would not succeed with all boys. Some would come to regard the library as a prison and its con- tents would seem distasteful to them. It only illustrates the different treatment that is required by different dis- positions. I believe that the mother should allow no variation to the rule of always knowing what the child is reading. It may often seem tedious to take the time for even a rapid glance through the books or papers in which he is interested, but it is worth while in many ways. You will be very likely to secure good reading habits for your children if you see that there is always good reading matter, and such as is suited to their ages and interests, available for them at home. Music. There is another subject to which attention may profitably be called in this connection. What use THE MENTAL CONDITION 157 can the mother make of music in the training of the child ? It is claimed that there are no absolutely unmu- sical children, although they vary greatly in this respect. Music has an effect upon the emotional nature which is distinctly uplifting. If this be granted, the mother surely has a part to perform in bringing this influence to bear in the right way. When the mother is musically edu- cated herself she has unlimited resources, both through her voice and her ability to select such instruments for use in the home as shall best minister to and develop the child's higher nature. Plato excluded from his ideal re- public all music except that which stimulated courage and nobler emotions. The kind of music which did this was gladly welcomed as a definite factor in developing strong character. At the present time it is recognized that music has a refining influence which is particularly desirable at this period in the child's life. This influence ministers to the happiness of the home at all times. Music has been used as an educational force in many ways through all time. Those mothers who have neither talent nor education in this important art must, of course, depend upon others, but the musical training should not be neglected. 1 2. SOME MENTAL TRAITS AND POWERS OP THIS PERIOD Bashfulness. We are now ready to consider a few mental traits which attract the mother's attention and demand her thought. Bash fulness is a trait with which some of us have to deal. Baldwin says that the bash- fulness which comes to the child after the third year is a reaction of race origin. It is not reflective but instinc- 1 Tanner, The Child, p. 349. 158 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT tive, developing from fear up through hesitation to self- consciousness. 1 If not so extreme as to cause the child unhappiness, it may be safely ignored. It may, how- ever, be so extreme as not only to cause unhappiness, but to react in retarding development. It may even become a handicap in later years, if not overcome. If its cause can be discovered there will be found some way to con- quer it. Is the child bashful only under certain circum- stances and with certain people? Is his bashfulness increased by the fact that he thinks he is not good-looking or not well enough dressed, or not as bright and talented as some other children ? Try to have him meet these awe- inspiring persons and circumstances often, and under con- ditions which are particularly favorable to him. While looks and ability are hard to change, the matter of cloth- ing is largely within the power of the parent, and the bashful child will often be helped by feeling that he, or she, is well-dressed. If the tendency is to have few friends, as is often the case with the bashful child, make an effort to help him in this respect. Here, as in other cases, the result may be slow in coming, but will come in time. If bashfulness is persistent, a case cited by Baldwin, with its suggested treatment, may be worth consideration. He says : "The presence of other persons is trying to the nerves, there is increased rapidity in the heart beat, some slight setting of the blood to the head, more rapid breath- ing, general toning up of the muscular system, a peculiar static pressing in from the front of the abdominal muscles. 1 J. M. Baldwin, Social and Ethical Interpretations, p. 206. THE MENTAL CONDITION 159 To relieve this condition, expand the abdomen outward by a strictly muscular effort and at the same time breathe in as deeply as possible. It is probable that this action allows the body to fall and relieves the heart from arti- ficial pressure. The increased heart action requires all the space it can get." * Love of Praise. Another characteristic which affords the mother great opportunities is the love of praise. If parents are always honest in their praise, and do not bestow it unless it is deserved, nothing but good can come from it. Professor Angell tells a story which illus- trates the influence of praise upon the actions of children. I quote it partly by way of warning (for it is certainly not a safe principle to adopt), and partly by way of sug- gestion. A certain task was assigned to a group of chil- dren. When it was finished the teacher said, "You have done it very badly. You must do it all over again." The same task was at a later time assigned to a second group of children. They actually performed it less well than the first group, but, for the sake of the experiment, the teacher said, "You have done this splendidly, but now just try and see if you cannot do it a little better." The result was that the improvement in the second case was infinitely greater than it was in the first. Mr. Forbush also gives a bit of dialogue which carries with it the same idea: "Your son Tom seems to have gotten over being round shouldered. Every time I've seen him lately he's been standing up like a man." "Yes; after years of scolding him for his stooping, I tried a new plan. I said 1 J. M. Baldwin, Social and Ethical Interpretations, p. 214. 160 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT to him one day, 'Tom, what a magnificent chest you haveT" 1 Dominant Interests. The subject of the child's domi- nant interests has been a fruitful one for discussion of late. Much effort has been made to secure reliable data with regard to what these interests are. The child's interests interpret his personality and indicate along what line his activities lie. 2 A knowledge of the origin and nature of these interests and how they can be influenced is of great importance to the mother. The first interests of the child are to get control of his environment. 3 This is shown while he is still in the cradle, as he struggles to control his muscles and his speech fac- ulty. Success in these directions incites him to still greater efforts. In this way his control is broadened and his personality enriched. During the years from two until seven, the child is physically active and mentally questioning. The interests are narrow. From seven to nine, the physical development being slower, there is time for more delicate motor adjustments. 4 Mentally the child is more interested in details because more skillful and more influenced by success or failure. Heretofore he has been striving to control himself, which constituted his environment. Now he wishes to control his external environment. From nine to twelve there is usually in- terest in puzzles and collections. In his games he tends to the spirit of cooperation. What should be the attitude 1 The Boy Problem, p. 25. 2 J. M. Tyler, Growth and Education, p, 75. 3 M. V. O'Shea, Dynamic Factors in Education, p. 59. 4 Irving King, Psychology of Child Development. THE MENTAL CONDITION l6l of the mother towards the interests which are here de- veloping? If the child shows an interest in things which are good, and especially if he is interested in some par- ticular good thing, make it a cause of great rejoicing. Do all you can to encourage it even though it should last but a few years or even but a few months. It will not only develop the positive side of his nature, but will tend to preclude possible undesirable interests. But suppose your child has no dominant interest in anything, being rather inclined to take life as it comes and giving heed to the passing moment alone! Suppose that, as in the majority of cases, he shows nothing but ordinary reactions to everyday surroundings. Under these circumstances, first of all, find out whether he is culti- vating any interest of which you are not aware. Such interests sometimes attract the child on the passive side of his nature and he may be indulging them without any formulated intention to deceive. These things may be kept a secret from you through an instinctive feeling of parental disapproval. I know of one child of this age who seemed to have no dominant interest but, upon inves- tigation, was found to be secretly reading undesirable literature. If the matter had been carefully watched, and an abundance of good interesting reading matter had been provided, this condition might have been fore- stalled. Find out, if you can, what the child cares for most of all. It may not rise to the dignity of an interest, but it will be a starting point. Place opportunities for doing certain things in his way, thus using the principle of suggestion. If one thing is passed by try another, for if 162 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT the child is going to have any interest, now is the time for him to be working at it. The Instinct for Collecting. As has been said, this is the age for collecting things. Many children have spas- modic crazes in this line. Indeed, few escape the ten- dency. No mother who understands the meaning of a manifestation of this kind will look upon a collection of any kind as unworthy. If the child does not begin to make a collection for himself, suggest one to him along the line of his fancy, if you can find what that is, and help him to start it. It may be post cards, stamps, coins, badges, fobs, banners, buttons, autographs, but not bird's eggs or cigar tags. Collection in many of these lines are often exceedingly valuable from both the standpoint of art and of history. I know a young man who by the sale of a valuable collection of stamps, put himself through college. There may be a tendency to certain kinds of motor activity. In that case working with tools may arouse an interest. The child may be musical. If so, he will probably want to take lessons upon the piano, man- dolin, or violin. Lessons in drawing or painting may also be helpful. If the interest is for something alive, pro- vide different kinds of animals. Some one will be found to take them off your hands after they have served their purpose. Working in electricity has proved a most valu- able and stimulating interest for many boys. When manual training and domestic science are generally taught in our public schools many problems of seeming lack of interest will be solved. As has just been said, the par- ticular interests may be dropped in a comparatively short THE MENTAL CONDITION 163 time, but their developing effect upon the character will remain. Bad Interests. The child who spontaneously develops bad interests should be the mother's constant care. No methods can be too searching to discover what form these interests are taking. No time can be too early to break them up. If any mother will read Swift's chapter on Criminal Tendencies in Boys; Their Cause and Function* she will be satisfied that while a good environment may help, it cannot be relied upon to cure. Among these bad interests may be bad reading, bad companions, cheap thea- tres, secret use of tobacco, petty thieving, and others less flagrant but destructive to the child's best development. If the mother rs watchful these tendencies cannot go very far without discovery. If the child transgresses family regulations which are already well known, it ought not to be hard to know what to do. But when the bad habit is broken up, do not forget to rush in the good ones. 2 Or, better yet, crowd out the bad by establishing new and bet- ter ones. Do not stop with one, crowd in a half dozen if possible, and do not rest satisfied until you are quite sure that the new interests have become firmly established. Caution. There is one general caution to be observed in regard to children's interests. Beware of blocking out in advance too definitely what you wish your child to be interested in and what you wish him to be. There is a wide difference between tentative suggestion and arbitrary determination. Some children are so constructed that they will yield themselves to the will of the parent almost 1 E. J. Swift, Mind in the Making, p. 38. 2 James, Talks to Teachers; S. H. Rowe, Habit Formation, p. 214. 164 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT passively. This will do no harm for short-lived interests, but be careful that the child chooses his own life work. The Child's Idea of Money. The next problem, and one which may lie along the line of the interests, is the child's idea of money. How shall we teach our children its real value ? How shall we make them understand that the care and use of it is important and yet that it is not the most important thing. All children like money. The instinct of ownership and the wish to control environment is sufficient to account for the liking, apart from the pleas- ure derived from the things which it will procure. Chil- dren differ greatly in their use of money. While a few are inclined to be miserly, most are little spendthrifts. There is danger in giving too much money to children. There is also danger in withholding it too strictly. Much may be said against paying children for doing the ordinary home duties, and yet this has some advantage over giving them a regular allowance, as it teaches them that money does not come without effort. A better plan, where it is possible, is to have a child earn his spending money by doing odd jobs for others than members of the family, for this puts him into the actual conditions that obtain in life. By this is meant that there should be actual merit in the service, as there often is not in the case of "home made" employments. In other words, the child learns that there must be "value received" or else he loses his position to a competitor whose services are of greater value to the employer. One of the parents should advise as to the spending of such money as the child may earn; otherwise extravagant habits are likely to be acquired. One of the most fortunate conditions for a boy is that in which he is THE MENTAL CONDITION 165 able to help out the family income by means of his earn- ings. The moral effect upon him is excellent; the spirit of altruism is developed in him, and he ceases to regard money simply as a means of gratifying selfish wants. Harm is sure to result from a child's feeling that what he earns is so much for extra indulgence and that he may spend it upon himself in foolish and extravagant ways. Even where the circumstances of the family may warrant such expenditures, indulgence in them tends to encourage an already dangerous tendency. Where the child is too young or not fitted to earn any- thing outside of the home, try one of the following ways : Give him a regular sum each week out of which there are certain things for which he must provide, such as school supplies, the Sunday-school contribution, and possibly some smaller items in his clothing. 1 This is done on the ground that he is a part of the family and is rendering to the family such general service as is within his power. Another excellent plan is, while expecting the ordinary duties of the home to be done without remuneration, to pay for certain extraordinary duties, if well and patiently done. As soon as the child is able to keep simple accounts (which he will be able to do at about nine or ten years perhaps younger) furnish him with his own private ex- pense book in which he shall keep a careful account of all his receipts and expenses. It is a mistake to bring up a child from hand to mouth, on the subject of money, as is done when he is obliged to make a separate request for each portion of money he receives. 1 Earl Barnes, Studies in Education, p. 62. 166 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT 3. MEMORY There is a mental process which will be considered here, not because it is confined to this period, but because there seem to be some ways in which it responds to external stimuli during these years more readily than at any other time. I refer to the memory. Observation shows that this faculty is more retentive during the early school years than at any other period of life, and the school courses are usually arranged with this fact in view. While we may never understand all that memory means in the develop- ment of the child, we recognize the great importance of its cultivation and are constantly looking for suggestions as to how its effectiveness may be enlarged and its strength increased. Mrs. Cabot, in her chapter upon the ethical value of memory, calls it the power which holds our lives together and helps us to live with our whole selves. 1 We depend upon it for our connection with the past and the future. Through it we glean the largest harvest from our experi- ence. As to our moral life, memory is the center of it. Let us consider briefly the physiological side of memory before considering its possibilities in the intellectual sphere. The signs of memory during the first months of the child's life, if they exist, are very uncertain. The semi-conscious manifestations of it which the infant dis- plays can hardly be classed with the conscious efforts of an older child to fix words and ideas permanently in his mind. Recent psychology rejects the idea of memory as a general elementary faculty which can be exercised and trained like the muscles of the arms or legs. 1 Ella Lyman Cabot, Every Day Ethics, p. 400, THE MENTAL CONDITION 167 The Functions of Memory. The value of the old fashioned verbal memory work, intended to strengthen it, is seriously questioned. The function of memory is really two- fold : First, it is the storing away of impressions or experiences, and second, it is the process of restoring to consciousness some particular impression or group of im- pressions. The number of impressions which can be put into this storehouse of the mind depends upon the reten- tiveness of the nervous tissues. All conscious experience (that is, anything which we have ever known) brings about some modification of the cortical tissues. The cor- tical impression is a physical process, hence the conscious and physical processes are intimately connected. 1 It is thought that no impression once made upon the brain is ever eradicated. Although it may be entirely forgotten as an individual fact, it has an influence upon succeeding brain processes. The second function of memory, that of restoring to consciousness a particular impression, is also made up of two different processes. The first process is attention; i. e., the mind focalizes itself in the direction in which the desired impression lies. If the act of com- mitting to memory is in progress, the mind will be focal- ized upon the impression already made. This impression will be repeated until it becomes fixed. One writer refers to this repetition in memorizing as the mind imitating itself until the impression becomes fixed. The second process is association. One never recalls an isolated fact. 2 When you want to remember something you do not pop your mind down, now here, now there, like a boy spearing 1 J. R. Angell, Psychology, p. 237. 2 Baldwin, Social and Ethical Interpretations. 168 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT fish. You feel your way along from one thing to another until finally* you reach the thing which you are seeking. How to Strengthen the Memory. The only way in which the mother can help the child's memory in its first function (if she Can help it at all) is by keeping him in good physical condition. She may help the second func- tion of the memory to just such an extent as she can teach the child (a) to focalize his attention, and (b) to utilize readily his power of association. A failure at either of these points will affect the strength of the memory. It follows from the above, that the memory will be best along the line of the chief interests. But it will be good psychology to teach the child to fix his attention upon things in which he is not interested as well as upon those in which he is interested. 1 In the case of the normal child, the mother notices very early that the link of -memory is being established and that the impressions of one day are being carried over into the next. She also notices the difference in the endowment of children as regards the memory. Whenever a child shows that he possesses an unusually vigorous memory, there is generally a tendency to show it off. The child is encouraged to commit long pieces, both in and out of season, and to speak them upon all pos- sible occasions. The parent who indulges this very nat- ural impulse will live to regret it, if sufficiently intelligent to see results. In the showing off process other less desirable qualities are developed and the general mentality is not improved. It is the child with the poor and weak memory with whom we should work to secure the learn- 1 Rowe, Habit Formation, p. 218, THE MENTAL CONDITION 169 ing of the long pieces. But because most of us work along the line of least resistance, we do the former instead of the latter. If you are satisfied that your child has a good memory, let him alone. His ordinary school work will develop it normally. But if you have reason to think that the child's memory is below the average, there are ways in which you can help to gain for it greater efficiency. Memory Drill. While memory drill, as such, is some- what discredited, there is still a use to be made of facts in memorizing, and repeated effort to focalize the atten- tion and utilize the powers of association will have a tend- ency to crystallize into habit just as any other often repeated effort does. There is a stupendous array of facts, an exact verbal hold upon which will be of incal- culable value to any child in after life. The mother can be of great help by simply drilling the child's verbal memory upon groups of these, while he is at the retentive age, as he is during these years. Use care in the selection of the facts. Your own experience of what has been most useful will help you to choose wisely. Explain the meanings as you go along. Use names, dates, selections of poetry and prose, and especially portions of the Bible. Exercise both the visual and the auditory memory. To strengthen the association of ideas, read a story to the child, and have him repeat it in his own words. Memory will come in time to do what we patiently insist upon its doing. Remember, too, that there is a law of the mind by which the things which are first learned take precedence in the persistence of their hold. The mother who is will- ing to do even a little of this sort of work will spare her child the humiliation of coming to adult years with the I 7 o STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT possible acknowledgment that "the only date he can re- member is the date of his own birth and he sometimes has to stop and figure that out." It goes without saying that in any effort to help the memory, the child must pay strict attention. It has already been shown that the habit of inattention is of itself the chief factor in a poor memory. Mrs. Cabot's Definition. I have already referred to Mrs. Cabot's excellent definition of memory as "the power which holds our lives together." Before leaving the sub- ject I must give you her answer to the question, "How can one teach himself not to forget?" Although you will find her suggestion more helpful when the child is a little older, it will be useful even now. Mrs. Cabot says, "Observe your own method of recalling or fixing in your mind any important topic. Explain this to the child and see how much of it he can utilize. Show him how to classify what he naturally does remember. Teach him to use the following : i. Forethought. 2. Resolute interest. 3. Careful, systematic recall. With all this there should be the ability to put aside for the time all that will inter- fere with the definite aim." 1 4. CHILDREN'S FAULTS Under the influence of modern ideas and deductions, many things which were formerly classed as faults in children are now considered but the normal and reason- able manifestations of the laws of nature. But, even after due allowance has been made for the expected, there are some manifestations which are persistent and puzzling. These for want of a better name we will call faults. 1 Mrs. Cabot, Every Day Ethics, p. 400. THE MENTAL CONDITION 171 These may, for convenience, be divided into two classes; first, those which will be outgrown; second, those which if not dealt with definitely, will become worse and perma- nently injure the character. While all will agree that there are those two classes of faults, perhaps all will not agree as to where to make the division. Again, it is some- times difficult to tell just what permanent fault any certain manifestations may crystallize into. The first class of faults referred to, though not serious, are often very disagreeable. Sometimes they require great patience on the part of the mother, and sometimes a definite absence of patience on the part of the mother has a salutary effect. Among these so-called transient faults I would place many phases of bad manners. Lazi- ness, and one phase of untruth fulness, are faults which will probably disappear with advancing years. Petty meanness, unkindness and teasing, are things which will probably be crowded out in the enlargement and enrich- ing of the growing life. But disobedience, violent temper, selfishness, and general untruth fulness cannot safely be ignored by the parent. Each indulgence in these vices makes it harder to overcome them, and the resulting effect upon character is far-reaching. Bad Manners. As to bad manners, at this age they come as natural to many children as breathing. 1 It seems to relieve the child, both mentally and physically, to be rough and rude. The most careful training apparently counts for nothing. This condition is an outcropping of the natural savagery already referred to. Any child with a reasonable amount of self-respect will outgrow this 1 Forbush, The Boy Problem, p. 10, 172 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT phase of his life if he is living in an environment of good manners. The good teaching, and more especially the good example, will have its effect. Laziness. The indisposition to exertion which passes for laziness, is often more a matter of physical than of mental temperament. If carried to excess, the mother should find out if there is some physical condition which causes it. I have already mentioned constipation as a condition to be guarded against. Its existence, causing backache, and various other aches, will account for much apparent laziness. A low tone of the nervous system is another frequent cause. When a child is growing rapidly, more of his vitality is being used in tissue-building than we sometimes realize. On this account the child, without knowing why, finds himself without energy or initiative. If no physical cause is to be found, possibly the laziness is a habit into which the child has fallen. It has been pointed out that every child is much better for the stimu- lus which comes from activity. In fact, normal develop- ment is hardly possible without it. If the mother is satisfied that the child has no real reason for his lassitude she may invent ways to stimulate him, especially if a clue has been secured as to his interests, for the apparently lazy child is usually the child with no dominant interest. The mother should see to it that the child's ordinary duties are not neglected during this so-called "lazy" period, even though it should require much more effort on her part so to do than to perform them herself. A yielding to this inertia, even though there is a physical cause for it, will induce bad habits, both physical and mental, which may never be overcome in later life. THE MENTAL CONDITION 173 Apparent Untruthfulness Through Imagination. I have spoken of a form of untruthfulness which need not cause uneasiness to the parents. The form referred to is that which grows out of a vivid imagination. Children who possess such a power of mind are likely to give it full play when describing things which they have seen, and they often use it to describe things which they have not seen. It is unfortunate that so few parents understand this mental quality and its possibilities. Imagination has been described as the power to make anything real. 1 It gives foresight. We need it in whatever we undertake, for it has the power of rounding into perfection what we can only see in part with the other faculties. It has a supreme moral value. The child whose imagination has been rightly cultivated will never laugh at a deformed person, neither will he injure property. His imagination presents to him the object in its perfection and his mind is satisfied with what he thus pictures. The imagination lends itself readily to the aid of the other cognitive or intellectual processes, notably the memory and the reason- ing power. 2 An imaginative child is naturally a happy child. A happy child, if not spoiled in the making, will grow into a happy man or woman, and the world has great need of happy people. But this imagination must be controlled. The Mother's Part. Listen to the stories of your imagi- native child. Question him sympathetically. Do not reprove or punish him unless you are sure that the ele- ment of self-interest or ultimate personal advantage is 1 Mrs. Cabot, Every Day Ethics, p. 397. 2 J. R. Angell, Psychology, pp. 215, 216. 174 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT entering into his statements. If such is the case some- thing is wrong, and the condition will be best considered under the head of general untruth fulness. But do not confuse statements which come as the result of vivid imagination, with inaccuracies which are the result of inattention and mental laziness. The sluggish mind should be stimulated to attention, but a vivid imagination is a gift from God. Petty Meanness and Teasing. Petty meanness was mentioned as one of the traits which would probably dis- appear with advancing years. If this characteristic, with its accompanying faults, is carried to an extreme it may become downright cruelty, and in this serious phase will require careful attention. As has already been said, much childish meanness is merely the struggle for control of the environment, and will pass away as soon as better methods for so doing are discovered. But, even admitting that the outcome will be satisfactory for the given child himself, attention should be called to the effect of the teasing upon the child who is teased. I have in mind a case of two brothers who differed in age about two years. The older one was a persistent tease. No act of the younger boy (who by the way was exceedingly sensitive) was allowed to pass without ridicule. The mother was busy with other things and took little notice of the situation unless things culminated in an actual fight. The boys are young men now, and the teaser is such no longer, but has become a person of amiable disposition and fine manners. But the younger boy is still hampered in word and action by an insistent fear of ridicule. The inference is justifiable that this sensitiveness if not actually implanted by the action of THE MENTAL CONDITION 175 his older brother, when both were little fellows, was at least greatly strengthened by that early experience. If the mother has reason to forecast any such outcome as this just mentioned, she should not hesitate to terminate the teasing, even though drastic measures are required. Disobedience. Among the more serious faults, the first is disobedience. Obedience to law is one of the fundamentals of the universe, and parents make a great mistake, which it will be difficult to rectify, if they do not begin right at their own hearthstone to teach this law to their children. The opinion has been expressed that the enforcement of obedience endangers the individuality of the child. The exact opposite is the case. Absence of law always entails confusion, and individuality will not be an outgrowth of such a condition. No child of the age we are now considering is mentally equipped to make laws for himself. He must accept the laws imposed by those who have had more experience than he and more opportunities for observing the operation of law. There is no surer way to teach self-control than the enforcement of obedience, for a child must have self-control in order to obey and especially to obey promptly. To enforce obedience is one of the ways we have of teaching self- control to the child who is too young to be reasoned with. A child who lives harmoniously under the laws of his own home is in a fair way to live harmoniously under the laws of society, when the time comes for him to leave the home. Probably many parents, while admitting that obedience is a most desirable thing in the home, have found it diffi- cult to establish it with their own children. I believe the question of how to enforce obedience in the home is one 176 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT of the most personal and delicate of all subjects connected with child study. The suggestions given here are the result of a some- what extended experience combined with observation of cases where obedience was not enforced at all, or when the wrong spirit was allowed to prevail in enforcing it. It must not be overlooked that just in proportion as the ultimate end of obedience is emphasized (as well as the immediate end, which is the comfort and convenience of society) in that same degree is the necessity of obedience emphasized. Obedience may be secured in two ways: First, by precept and appeal. Second, by punishment. It goes without saying that when the first is successful, the second is not necessary. It is almost apparent that the very young child is more likely to respond to the second incentive than to the first. Among the general principles which have been found effective in the establishment of obedience are the following: 1. Be consistent, firm and reasonable in your require- ments of obedience. Do not demand one thing one day and another thing the next day ; do not yield your position if you know you are in the right, even though you find it a difficult one. Above all, be sure that your standard of conduct is reasonable. 2. Wherever natural punishments will follow the act of disobedience, allow them to do so; in those cases where the logical punishment does not follow of itself or is not prompt enough, make your own punishments as nearly in accord with the natural laws as possible. For example, suppose that the growing boy or girl declines to go to bed at the proper hour at night. Nature's punishment, namely, THE MENTAL CONDITION 177 a tired body, sluggish brain, poor recitations at school, and possible ultimate loss of health, are evils so unconnected with the child's range of experience as to lack immediate moral force. The mother can supply the necessary and timely moral force, and at the same time make the punish- ment logical by requiring the child to spend several of his active hours in bed the following day. The quarrelsome child should be banished to the loneliness of his own room on the ground that only those may mingle with the family who help to keep the family peace. The natural punish- ment for quarreling is rejection from one's social group. Here the mother should act for the social group of the child. 3. Always make the motives for obedience high. It is true that in the case of the very young child obedience must be enforced upon the ground that it is the parents' wish. But little by little the reason why the parent wishes it can be brought in, and what began as mere passive obedience to the parent's wishes eventuates in active cooperation with the parent's wishes. An example of this kind of obedience is attendance at religious services such as church and Sunday school. When the child is small and unable to think and reason for himself he goes because he is taken or compelled to do so. As the child grows older and understands why his parents believe in religious services, he assumes the responsibility of attend- ance at such services by an independent mental and moral process. The main requirement in a case of this kind is that the parents themselves are thoroughly sincere in their own religious beliefs; that their own doing of religious duties is impelled by the highest ideals. Other things 178 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT being equal, the normal child will respond to high moral ideals when they are presented with absolute sincerity. 4. From the very start, and especially as the child advances in years, keep in mind that all arbitrary enforce- ment of obedience should look to the ultimate end of indi- vidual self-control. For example, a child refrains from stealing cookies for fear of punishment. But in so doing he finds that he can control himself and is started upon the road to self-control from higher motives. The aim of the parent should be that the obedience which he requires to his personal self and his own author- ity lead out to obedience to the higher laws of nature and of God. In other words, the inner laws in the child's own soul should take the place of the outer laws imposed upon him by his parents. Hence we see that obedience in the home, although in a sense a temporary virtue, is nevertheless a foundation stone upon which is built up the character in which inheres obedience to and cooperation with the eternal laws of the universe. In the following chapter will be found a further refer- ence to obedience somewhat along this same line but from the standpoint of habit and the training of the will. Anger. The next trait to be considered is one which has puzzled and tried many parents. It is the tendency to give way to outbursts of bad temper. Anger is both physical and psychical. It undoubtedly dates back to an earlier stage of development, when it arose as a substitute for reflex responses of the organism to pain. 1 It is the result of very sudden organic changes and is rightly con- !Dr. G. Stanley Hall, Adolescence, Vol. I, p. 355; E. J. Swift, Mind in the Making, p. 37. THE MENTAL CONDITION 179 sidered the most actively unsafe of any of the faults. In its extreme manifestations it blinds the mind and incites to action which is almost unconscious. Outbursts of ten occur without much provocation. But even when there is prov- ocation, it is only an injury to the child to allow these outbursts to go unnoticed. The training to overcome a bad temper must be constant, consistent, painstaking and patient. One difficulty in such training is that the child often inherits his temper from the parent, and like begets like. It is always fortunate in the case of a quick temper, if the parent from whom the trait was not inherited can be the one to take the dominant hand in helping to over- come it. There are three ways of dealing with anger. The first, and lowest in order, is to attract the attention to some- thing else; the second is by imposing the idea of pun- ishment; the third is by arousing the idea of duty or responsibility. In the case of the young child, the best way to deal with anger is in the first way mentioned, namely, by diverting the attention into some other channel as soon as there is a sign of the approaching outburst. This requires a good supply of foresight and mental quickness. If the anger gets into full swing before the diversion takes effect, it will do no good to attempt diver- sion. Such an attempt is then more likely to prove a source of added irritation. Leave the child entirely alone until the storm has passed. If things have been done during the outburst which require attention, the age of the child and other circumstances will help you decide what to do. But this method of diversion is only tern- 180 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT porary and in a sense a makeshift. The root of the matter has not been touched. In the second case, whatever punishment it is thought best to inflict will, of course, have to be severe enough to serve as a sharp reminder when the impulse to anger is felt again. But the thing will never be settled until the child takes it in hand himself. This can be brought about only by the development of the child's sense of duty and responsibility. When these feelings are aroused, the child's own will begins to act. This is the one permanent force which can act effectively upon a fundamental trait like a violent temper. It is surely a task of great delicacy to effect a proper adjustment between temper and the will power to control it. The mother in her efforts to secure this, must first arouse the desire in the child for self- control. She should know best how to approach him, and to what motives to appeal. She must stand by him in his struggles, encourage him when he fails and help restore confidence and courage for further effort. All the laws of the child's being conspire to urge very prompt attention to settling the matter of a quick temper. If the discipline of the home does not accomplish the con- trol which is demanded, the severer discipline of experi- ence will have to do it. No mother who knows anything about what that means will be willing to send her child out into life, knowing that he must undergo it. Selfishness. Selfishness is another fault that demands attention. This appears contemporaneously with con- sciousness. Children have already been spoken of as little animals, and the selfishness which they exhibit is a form of the primitive law of self-preservation springing THE MENTAL CONDITION l8l up within them. Gross forms of physical selfishness will soon disappear. The mother can hasten their disappear- ance, and guard against a more refined and lasting form of the same trait, if she will make it a point to show the child upon every possible occasion that selfishness is not only ugly but that it "does not pay." In other words, show the child that what was necessary for the preserva- tion of existence in a former primitive state of life will, if indulged in at the present time, work against his high- est good. If this is done, the natural law of adaptation to environment will cooperate with the higher ethical law of unselfishness. It has been said that an unselfish mother makes a selfish child. This is an aphorism which expresses a broad truth, but it is true only if the mother is indulgent as well as unselfish. Children must be taught very soon to think of the rights of others. The home is preeminently the place in which to teach this. The mother is preeminently the one to do it. But before the mother can teach her children what are their right relations in the home she must her- self have the right idea of the home. She should teach her child from the start that he is a part of the home and that he owes it to the home to sacrifice his comfort and pleasure for the comfort and pleasure of the home. Dr. Bascom expresses this thought very pertinently when he says, "The first lesson of all human life is concession to the lives of others. The parent cannot advantageously lift all burdens from the children. The law of sacrifice is good for the child, as it is for the parent. Children have interests to sacrifice to the household strength. Search- ing and common responsibilities are the bracing atmos- 182 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT phere of a healthy home. Let love sink into weakness and it may appear in the children as intolerable selfishness." Love and service should be inseparable terms. No child was ever born with so sweet and unselfish a disposition that he could not be made selfish by constant sacrifice for his pleasure. But most children are not sweet and unself- ish and the help of the parents is necessary in order to develop a thought fulness of the rights and interests of others. The sense of justice which often inheres strongly in a selfish child can sometimes be called upon to prevent a selfish act. If this sense of justice is absent, try to instill it as early as possible. Teach the child unselfishness in the home, and the spirit will remain with him outside of the home and throughout life. 5. TRUTH AND UNTRUTH. Untruth fulness is the next of the serious faults to claim our attention. Mention has already been made of an excusable form of uhtruthfulness, but we must now con- sider that form which has no justification, but is a menace to character. Truth, in the broad sense, is a subject which should have the largest possible place in the consideration of every parent. The mother should begin early to teach it, and in doing this an important prerequisite is a clear idea of truth on her own part. What is Truth? Truth is the conscious act of making a statement (whether made in words, actions, or thoughts) correspond with the facts. Untruth is the conscious act of making statements which do not correspond with the facts. Truthfulness is the careful effort to convey the right impression. It does not demand literal accuracy, THE MENTAL CONDITION 183 neither need it run into brutal frankness. The child's first and untaught attitude towards truth is of the experimental order. He may have some moral code of his own, but it can hardly correspond to that of the adult. Most children will at first tell lies to further their own projects and interests. The child shows his moral standards very early. With him things are right if they come out right. They are wrong when they come out wrong. In other words, the utilitarian standpoint is responded to first ; that is, the idea that truth, like honesty, is "the best policy," will appeal to the mind sooner than that truth is right and must therefore be followed at all hazards. The normal child will somewhat later respond to sincere appeals for truthfulness; to the appeal to seek truth for truth's sake. There is underneath all seeming self-interest, an instinct for truth which can be counted upon as being present in every child. Causes of Untruthfulness. Cases of untruth fulness can be traced back to some one of a definite group of causes or conditions. If the mother can find out which one of these causes, or which set of conditions, is the impelling cause of the untruthfulness, she will be greatly aided in securing the right attitude toward truth on the part of the child. These causes can often be removed if understood. Probably the most common cause of lying is the fear of punishment in some form. Among other causes are the following: illusions, mistaken ideas as to facts, inaccuracies caused by mental laziness, forgetful- ness, dullness of moral perception, desire for gain, desire for notice or praise, desire for personal ease. These vari- ous causes will have to be dealt with in entirely different 184 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT ways, and much depends upon the natural disposition and temper of the child. The age of the child must be taken into account also, although, as all mothers know, children of the same age often show a great difference in their apprehension of moral truths. There are many ways in which the mother may foster in her child the truth loving spirit. A Specific Case. Let us consider specifically for a moment the untruth which is incited by fear of punish- ment. For example, the child has done something which he thinks will displease his parents, and result in punish- ment humiliation, and pain. He conceals his act, either passively by not telling about it when he would naturally be expected to do so, or actively by positively denying it when questioned. Under these circumstances the thought- ful mother will act slowly. Possibly the offense was not such as to involve punishment. Even so, the child has done a wrong by telling the untruth. If in the early stages of the tendency, that is, the first few times the child is guilty of the untruth, moral ends can be sub- served, and moral ideals remain unimpaired by advice rather than direct punishment, the mother will probably be safe in following such a course. One of the best ways to proceed under these circumstances is to find out about the child's fault in some other way than questioning him. When this is done, the incentive for an untruth has been removed from the child and the parent is free to admin- ister punishment without fear of encouraging untruthful- ness. There can be no doubt that persistent untruth fulness is itself a cause for punishment. In the 'case of young THE MENTAL CONDITION 185 children, corporal punishment has often proved successful in curing this fault. As the child grows older, the patient bringing to his mind both by example and precept of the fundamental principles of life will bear fruit in truth-telling even when the latter brings the dreaded punishment or ridicule. Fol- lowing out this thought there are here given some of the ways in which truthfulness has been established in the home, and untruth fulness overcome. General Principles. First : A high standard of truth in the home will be one of the most efficient factors in form- ing a high standard in character of the child. Live the truth before your child. As parents, we are likely to for- get how many little conventional lies we fall into the habit of telling both in word and in deed. The child, with his limited experience, does not realize the conditions which seem to us to call for these things, and there is to hirxi a discrepancy between precept and example. Society and the home would be much better if there were fewer of these conventional deceits. Second : Always appreciate and praise the right course in this respect, whether it be in your own home or outside of it. Always condemn the wrong course, no matter who may be the one who is following it. Third: The mother can accomplish much good work incidentally by seeing to it that the wrong action in her own child does come out wrong. In other words, by making the law breaker suffer the penalty of the broken law on all possible occasions. Fourth : A child who is inclined to untruthf ulness can often be made truthful and dependable by being placed 186 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT upon his honor. Arrange the circumstances so that he can see definitely that he could do either the right or the wrong, make him understand that you trust him to do the right. If this seems to fail in one case, do not be dis- couraged, but try it again. It has been said that truthful- ness, where it has been found fundamentally lacking, is the most difficult to teach of any of the virtues. Many parents and teachers have found this to be the case. But given time, all good and desirable qualities can be devel- oped in children, and no quality is better or more desirable than truthfulness. Fifth : Sometimes an untruthful child can be impressed by an appeal to him upon the ground of his duty to others. A mind which is slow to develop a sense of duty towards itself, will sometimes respond to the idea of unfairness in his conduct towards his companions and friends. Sixth: The truth-telling attitude can often be gained by asking the child to think what would happen if all people told lies. Show him how every lie poisons the character of the one who tells it and eats into the struc- ture of human society, just as a worm gnaws away at a leaf until nothing is left. Where a child has been untruth- ful the force of what has just been said will be impressed upon him if the mother refuses to believe what he says in regard to some other matters. She can place her action upon the reasonable ground that since he has told a lie in one instance he may tell one in other instances, and she is not able to judge in what cases he may think it best to be truthful, and in what cases untruthful. There may be a limit of time set during which he is not trusted. After THE MENTAL CONDITION that the child, if he has been perfectly truthful in the meantime, will again be trusted as before. The situation of finding himself not trusted when he knows he is telling the truth, will awaken the child to a realization of what society as a whole would be if distrust prevailed generally, and will show, as perhaps nothing else can, the difference between the solidity of truth and the rottenness of false- hood. We should try to show him that truth is the reality upon which all things rest. It is what gives meaning to speech. Seven: The negative side of truth may sometimes be made very strong in its appeal. That is, what are the con- sequences of untruth fulness? First, a person who is detected in a lie is, as suggested above, distrusted by others. He will be suspected even when telling the truth. Second, the person who tells lies to others increases the chances of others telling lies to him. Third, a lying habit once started, develops with wonderful rapidity, and the person who has such a habit finds himself lying when he really does not mean to. Fourth, a person who lies him- self will soon find it impossible to believe in the truthful- ness of others. But whatever is the cause of untruthfulness, there can be found a way to reach and remove it ; when this is done, there can be established an attitude toward truth which will grow more and more firm with the advancing years. Loyalty to truth is the keynote of character. Too much stress cannot be laid upon the cultivation of it. 1 1 Frank Chapman Sharp, Moral Instruction for the High School, P- 33- 188 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT QUESTIONS FOR USE IN CLUB STUDY 1. What is the general nature of the period discussed in the present chapter? 2. How should a child's questions be treated? 3. What should be the mother's attitude toward the child's teacher ? 4. Do you know the character and home life of your child's companions ? 5. What is said about the mother's reading to the child? What of the child's reading to himself ? 6. What is said about the telling of stories? 7. What relation has music to the child's development? 8. How would you help a bashful child? 9. How would you treat the child's love of praise? What two instances are given to illustrate this point? 10. What is said of a child's interests? Follow their develop- ment. 11. What can be done when a child seems to have no dominant interest? 12. What can be done for one who has developed bad interests? What caution is given about interests? 13. What is said about the child's idea of money? What about the use of money? 14. What specific suggestions are made in this line? 15. What is the two- fold function of memory? What two proc- esses are mentioned under the second function? 16. At what period of life is the memory most retentive? What does Mrs. Cabot call memory? 17. How can the mother help the child's memory? Give Mrs. Cabot's suggestions. 18. Into what two general classes are the faults of children divided here? 19. Speak of the faults of the first class. THE MENTAL CONDITION 189 20. Do you agree with the idea of laziness expressed here? 21. What faults are placed in the second class? 22. Describe the function of the imagination. 23. What is said of disobedience? Of bad temper? How would you deal with these? 24. What is said about selfishness? 25. What are some of the causes of untruthfulness? 26. Mention some ways of inculcating truthfulness. 27. What are Professor Sharp's four points? CHAPTER VI CHILD TRAINING i. THE PARENTS' EQUIPMENT FOR TRAINING We shall now take up the general subject of training, from the period of infancy to the close of the pre-adoles- cent period. This discussion covers much that has gone before, and in some cases the thought expressed in pre- vious chapters may seem to be repeated. When this is the case, it is because certain phases of character are more general in their nature than others, and their consideration demands a broader treatment than has been yet given them. Are Parents Equipped for Child Training? A very natural question to come at the outset of this discussion is as to the parents' equipment for child training. Are the majority of parents fitted to bring up their children? It can hardly be denied that many parents lack adequate equipment for this important duty. Of course it would be impossible to enumerate all of the qualifications for complete and perfect parenthood. No one parent could hope to possess them all. The points mentioned here are for the most part those which one would be expected to possess, who wished to make a success of any calling in life. The True Significance of the Home. Have you ever stopped to think why it is that things are so arranged that 190 CHILD TRAINING 191 a child is in the home for practically a generation ? It has taken many centuries to make a human being as he is today. Parents and children must be many years in the home together in order that the essential spiritual inherit- ance of the ages may be passed on from one to the other. Your child, in being born to you, and in being dependent upon you during all these long years of his early experi- ence, finds in you the most immediate and most important link in the chain which binds him to his rightful inherit- ance. Perhaps it is fortunate for us all that very much of this splendid accumulation passes on to our children by means of unseen forces over which we have but little con- trol. But even so, there is much in the lives of our children which we can and should control, if the relation of parent and child means anything at all. The child accepts absolutely and without question many things from his parents. Among these unquestioned acceptances are his language and his moral standards. It is a generally admitted fact that the person who finds it necessary to change his language later in life from the one he origin- ally learned, does so with considerable difficulty and with more or less loss in efficiency. It must be the same in the case of moral standards. Aim to give your child during these years of unquestioning acceptance the highest moral standard which has been worked out for your generation by previous generations. Fundamental Qualities Needed for Child Training. Among the fundamental qualities for which we look in the successful parent is intelligence plain, everyday com- mon sense. Thought, given liberally and when one is at her best, is constantly demanded by the problems of child 192 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT training. Continuity and consistency, both in training and in general conduct, are necessary qualities. If unusual expedients are sometimes required, they will be more effective if they have consistency and continuity as a back- ground. A further part of the parent's equipment is a sense of responsibility for the lives and conduct of the children. Again, the parent needs an understanding of the child's character and individuality. Last, but by no means least, we all need a clear conception of the object or end in view in the training of the child. The child reveals himself very slowly, and the parent has need to be patient, and often to suspend judgment. Sometimes, unfortunately, the mother finds that just when she has learned how to train the child for any special thing he has passed beyond the need of that particular kind of training. In other words, the knowledge which would have been of indefinite help to her often does not come until the opportunity to use it has passed. A good general is on the lookout for these strategic points in his cam- paign, and will not allow himself to be overreached with- out a struggle. The mother has need of all the qualities of a good general in her struggle to establish firmness of character and high ideals in the lives of her children. 2. IMITATION THE FIRST TRAINING The earliest training of the child is the unconscious training which comes through imitation. At first the child's muscles and nerves respond automatically to any stimulus from outside of itself, whether of eye, ear or touch. As the brain develops, and its different parts begin to work together, the child becomes at least partially con- CHILD TRAINING 193 scious that he is trying to reproduce what he sees and hears. But for some time the unconscious response of the senses to outward impressions continues to play a large part in the movements. This training through imitation never stops. No matter what we may plan to do for the child in later life we will do well to remember that first impressions take precedence of later ones in their per- sistency. What the child sees and hears the first few years of his life have a tremendous influence upon his character. If these things were always what they should be, the training of later years, which is often so hard, would be far and away easier and more successful. It has just been said that the child begins life by imitating, and, if Professor Baldwin is right, 1 the instinct never outlives its usefulness. It is characteristic of all mental growth, and seems to have been carefully pro- vided for in the instinctive equipment of the child. 2 The child imitates because he must. It is one of the laws of his being. What is Imitation? Imitation seems to be the uncon- scious effort on the part of the child to get himself into harmony with his environment. It is something like the case of water seeking its own level, or the chameleon changing his color to harmonize with the object near him. The child receives his own first experience in doing things when he almost unconsciously proceeds to copy the action of another person. So familiar are manifestations of imitation that they often pass unnoticed. 1 J. M. Baldwin, Mental Development in the Child and in the Race, Chapter XL 2 M. V. O'Shea, Dynamic Factors in Education, p. 105. 194 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT The hand and voice respond readily to this early instinct of imitation. When the child has once made a conscious sound it imitates itself in long drawn out monotones. The pursing of the lips in response to a similar action of the mother is a familiar example of early imitation. Speech is learned by direct imitation both auditory and visual. Some one has called attention to the great advan- tage which nature gives the child in this psychological "short cut" to learning to talk. If the child learned only one word at a time and that not until he knew the mean- ing of it, he would hardly have a working vocabulary at the end of his life. The imitation of the child in other ways than speech also provides a direct method of development. Deliberate Imitation. But imitation soon passes out of the unconscious stage and becomes a deliberate act. This occurs probably about the sixth or seventh month. The fundamental character of imitation is further emphasized by the fact that repeated imitative acts crystallize into habits. These voluntary, oft repeated acts, become or- ganic and form the foundation of memory and associa- tion. Thus we cannot fail to see how closely imitation is bound up with the very fiber of mentality. Imitation is not confined to the realm of the physical. It is a funda- mental social instinct. There is the intellectual, the emo- tional, the ethical, and especially the social imitation. 1 This latter is never outgrown. In fact, there are periods in the child's life when it seems largely to control him. Under its spell the peculiarities of his elders and of his 1 J. M. Baldwin, Mental Development in Child and Race, Chapter XL CHILD TRAINING 195 companions are copied. Speech, actions and moral stand- ards are copied. These often become fixed and affect the entire life. Much that is supposed to be inherited come^ through imitation. 1 Parents' Responsibility in View of Imitation. It is often a comfort to a mother, who has but little time to spend in instructing her children, to know that by her example she can give them lessons in industry, fidelity, cheerfulness, kindliness, reverence and honesty. The re- verse side of the picture is the greatest possible stimulus for right action in the mother's own life. From the stand- point of the child, imitation is not a mere copying process. For him it is attainment, pure and simple, but it often seems as if in this matter the life of the child were sim- ply going around in a circle. Professor King states the condition graphically and hopefully when he says that the child's life is really a spiral affair, each completed round bringing him a little higher up through what he has added of his own individuality. Reference has been made to the mother's responsibility in view of this instinct in the young child. But what shall we say of the child's later imitation of the parent's char- acter? Some have maintained that if the parents live right before their children, they have fulfilled their duty in the way of training. They contend that the training of a character is so delicate a matter that the safe way is to place a right model before the child and trust to nature to do the rest. The theory is a good one and the method has the advantage of being much easier than the more generally accepted one. Most parents, however, while 1 J. M. Tyler, Growth and Education, p. 149. 196 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT realizing how large a part their lives play in forming the characters of their children, are not satisfied to rest with that. For while imitation is always active, there are other forces which have a part in building the character of the child. The presentation of a worthy model may be called the negative or subjective side of training, for the parent only lives such a life as duty demands, after all, whether the child is present to copy his behavior or not. Training Through Imitation of Others. Another phase of the influence of imitation which the mother learns to recognize very early, is the child's imitation of others out- side of the home. Sometimes this process results in very great good and is of real help in the training of the child. When the effect is undesirable, the mother can often counteract it by arranging some unpleasant association in connection with either the undesirable action, or with the person imitated, or with both. Care is often necessary to find the person who has been imitated as well as the reason for the imitation. Investigation of this kind often reveals unsuspected traits of character in one's own child. 3. TRAINING THROUGH HABIT FORMATION Imitation is not nature's only way of carrying on her part of the child's training during the period of infancy. There is the law of habit. Habit may be defined in a general way as an involuntary tendency or aptitude to per- form certain actions, a tendency which is acquired by their frequent repetition. It leads us to do easily what we do often. There are good habits and bad habits. One dis- couraging fact to mothers is that in order to secure good habits there is need of constant and conscious effort, while CHILD TRAINING 197 in the case of bad habits the constant and conscious effort is needed in order to avoid them. Also there is a constant tendency for the bad habit to become a little more fixed and for the good habit to become a little less so. But it is not our purpose to enter into a discussion of the doctrine of original sin or of "gravitation downward." We must simply take the facts as we find them and make the best use we can of them. In a certain sense the child begins to form habits as soon as it is born. By taking note of these so-called habits, the mother can adjust many things in the life of the baby so as to minister to its health and comfort, and to her own convenience. Care in regulating these semi-unconscious habits will be a good beginning towards the regulating of the conscious habits when their time conies. Obedience Necessary. The formation of such habits as the mother may wish to establish in her child is dependent to a large extent upon the child's obedience. Therefore, one of the first habits which should be sought is the habit of obedience. Obedience has been spoken of on its nega- tive side in the previous chapter. For the purpose of this discussion of habit let us assume that the child is naturally obedient and wait until a little later to consider the posi- tive part which obedience, in its broadest sense, plays in his life. First, then, let us look at some things which are necessary in the formation of habit and then consider the importance of habit in the development of character. The Power of Attention. Suppose that the mother wishes to secure a certain good habit in her child. How shall she go about it? The first step toward inculcating a good habit in a child who has reached the thinking age 198 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT is to get his attention directed to the act which we desire to become habitual. Attention is involved in all processes of training and its acquirement will help all other proc- esses. It may be developed by practice, as other qualities are developed. Although it is primarily mental, it has its physical connection through the nervous system. The seat of the attention is in the neurones, or nerve cells, with their various filaments in the very front part of the brain. Here we get the power to fix our minds upon any one thing, instead of allowing it to wander aimlessly and to no purpose. Voluntary and Involuntary Attention. There are two kinds of attention which are of interest here, voluntary and involuntary attention. Voluntary attention requires conscious effort. Involuntary attention is given with- out conscious effort. Voluntary attention, or the ability to focalize the mind upon one particular thing, is an es- sential quality of a successful character. All mental prog- ress depends upon this ability. By voluntary attention a large and rich mentality is built up. In its highest develop- ment it is able to hold the mind to the desired point in spite of disturbing and distracting elements. Involuntary atten- tion, too, is a valuable factor in mental development. It is an outgrowth of successive acts of voluntary attention; that is, after the attention has been fixed in a voluntary way for a considerable number of times upon any one process, the act becomes habitual and unconscious, and voluntary attention passes over into involuntary. The Economy of Habit. It should be possible then to withdraw the conscious effort and the conscious purpose CHILD TRAINING 199 and still maintain the power of action whenever the cir- cumstances call for it. A life which does not get beyond purposeful attention is a life of chaos. In other words, the person who requires a separate mental process for each of the innumerable little routine acts of life is a nervously ill-balanced person. The larger the number of acts which can be transferred from the realm of the voluntary atten- tion to that of the involuntary, the more free energy will there be for other things. 1 Take, for example, the ordi- nary processes of a child's early years. It is desirable to form habits of dressing and undressing quickly instead of dawdling, of cleaning the feet at the door, of using the napkin at the table. The first step toward the acquire- ment of these ends is through active voluntary attention. If the mother sees to it that this is given it will in time pass into the involuntary state ; that is, it will become a habit. Not only is comfort and harmony secured in the home by prompt action here, but the possibility of giving voluntary attention to other, and perhaps more important things, is enlarged. Physiological Phase of Habit. Regarded from a physiological standpoint each repetition of a conscious act makes a definite impression upon the nerve tissues, or wears a path between certain neurones, or nerve-cells, with their attached fiber over which subsequent impressions pass more easily. The result is that in time the act ceases to require attention and becomes a habit. This funda- mental characteristic of habit formation is most impor- 1 Rowe, Habit Formation, p. 22. J. R. Angell, Class Lectures, Feb- ruary, 1909. 200 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT tant in all training, for a habit once formed remains fixed until outside circumstances render the person sensitive to the need of readjustment. Our whole lives are groups of habits, physical, emotional, intellectual. Moral Phase of Habit. The moral phase of habit has a vital bearing upon character formation. Some one has said that morality is a habit before it is a principle. This habit of morality, formed in childhood, may be looked at from two sides. First, it makes right doing easy if not natural to the child; second, owing to the antagonism between right and wrong, it makes the formation of bad habits difficult or impossible. Reference has already been made to Professor Rowe's work upon Habit Formation. In his chapter upon how to break up bad habits he refers to the fact that all habit-breaking is at the same time habit- forming. It is harder to break a habit than to form one, because it is a negative process and seems like a step backward. The joy of accomplishment that comes with positive attainment is lacking. This makes it better to crowd out bad habits by forming good ones. It is par- ticularly hard to break habits which have crept into being unconsciously, for the attention must first be centered upon them, or upon the inhibiting stimulus. A bad habit is usually formed because it is in the line of least resist- ance. Hence, if it is to be broken, the new habit which is substituted for it must have some decided advantage over the old. It is evident that there is a wide opportunity on the part of the mother to aid her child in the formation of good habits, in preventing the formation of bad habits, and in breaking up bad habits when they are once formed. 1 1 Rowe, Habit Formation, p. 232, CHILD TRAINING 2OI 4. THE WILL From this brief discussion of attention and habit, the transition to the consideration of the will is a natural one. A satisfactory definition of the will is not easy to give. The will is not a thing set off by itself or presiding over the mind and pushing it hither and yon as the notion takes it. The best definitions of the will are those which aim to describe its functions rather than to accurately charac- terize it. Professor Angell says, "The will is the whole range of the mental life viewed from the standpoint of its activity and control over movement/' 1 "The character/' said J. S. Mill, "is a completely fashioned will." "The original spring of the volitional faculty," says Professor James, "is the moral law/' or, in other words, moral sentiment arises around acts and attitudes of the will. The Function of Will. Mrs. Cabot says, "Ethics is the power of right choosing. If we were made to act the right mechanically, we should not be ourselves, for it is the moral life which makes us ourselves, and the moral life is the life of choice." It is true that the immediate motive for any act of willing may be a variety of things, but it is the deciding which one of these things shall be the impelling force which makes the act individual. We are accustomed to think that it is only the will that makes us act. As a matter of fact it is the tendency of all conscious states to act, that is, to do something. Professor Judd says, The action will be controlled by the total group of interests which one has built up in his individual life as representing the sum total of his personal relations to the world. Hence, the function of the will is two- fold, i. On 1 J. R. Angell, Psychology, p. 437. 202 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT the positive side, the will must see that the instinctive action is the proper one. 2. On the negative side, the will must be the restraining power to prevent acts of which the intellect disapproves. The act of the will on the positive side is called willing. The act on the negative side is called inhibition or self-control. Hence we see that the will is responsible both for what we do, and what we do not do. We find that the tendency of all action is to fol- low the line of least resistance. If, then, a higher action is to be chosen instead of a lower one, this order must be changed and the line of greater resistance followed. 1 Similarly, we found in the discussion of habit that, as the propensity to do wrong in ordinary humanity is stronger than the ideal to do right, if people are left to themselves, the former will triumph. Professor James says that peo- ple do not differ so much in their feelings and conceptions as to what is right, but where wrong is followed it is because moral knowledge does not act. The ego, the real self, the will, does not take the helm. "One of the saddest feelings which one can bear with him throughout this life is to habitually see the better way and do the worse." What Makes the Will Act? A very natural question here is, "What makes the will act?" What influence im- pels it? Professor Judd shows that the stimuli of the will change as the race develops. It is probable that the funda- mental incentive is individual interest. This interest, as has been suggested before, may be resolved into a broadly inclusive selfishness. But pleasure and pain, both in a broad and a narrow sense, have always been large factors 1 James, Psychology, pp. 435, 442, 443. CHILD TRAINING 203 in the impelling and in the inhibiting work of the will. 1 How Does the Will Act? The next question is, "How does the will act?" Every tendency to action is preceded by a conscious process or an idea. The will is the con- necting link between the idea and the action. It is the function of the will to bring the idea before the mind. If the will succeeds in getting the mind to accept the idea wholly and without reserve, the consciousness is bound to act upon it. The effort of the will, then, is to secure from the mind this complete acceptance of the idea, even though it may not be agreeable to the mind. "If reasonable ideas could once get a quiet hearing, motor consequences would ensue with the word now. The duty of the will is done when the idea really prevails in the mind. The remaining part is the physical act of doing the thing. Strengthening the Will. The ability of the individual to strengthen his will acts very slowly. It must be built up by degrees as the physical body is built up. If, then, the mother wishes to strengthen the child's volitional power and at the same time influence him to right action, she must first influence his motor images. By motor images are meant the ideas or mental pictures of things which fill the childs' mind and which usually form the incentive for his actions. If she can place before him motor ideas which interest him and are agreeable to him, he will act upon them. As was shown above, things nat- urally disagreeable may be accepted by bringing the child to see that they are preferable. By a constant holding of the right way before the mind, together with acceptable reasons for following this right way, a quiet but irre- 1 James, Psychology, p. 445. 204 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT sistible force will be brought to bear upon the strategic point in the citadel of character. Try to secure complete and unreserved acceptance of high ideals. If, as the intel- ligence of the child develops, he fixes his mind consciously upon high ideals, he will be likely to follow them. If the will is exercised in small things, it will be ready for the large ones. Professor James says that the whole of one's training to moral and prudential conduct is in training the will. Professor Angell declares that any purposeful men- tal occupation affords the means of developing certain powers of control. The best trained man is one who can command his own knowledge, his own attention, and his own action. Professor Tyler goes a step farther and says, "Those who wish to develop a strong character must go deeper than the intellect, must move the feelings to reach the will." 1 Applying the Will. Having considered the psychology of this wonderfully complex process of willing, we may turn to some of the practical applications of right willing. Earlier in the chapter we spoke of the necessity of obedi- ence in securing results from any system of training. I want to say a word here about the habit of obedience. That is, we will not consider obedience as a series of iso- lated acts but as a habit or attitude of the child. The consensus of opinion among those who have expressed themselves most frankly upon the subject is that the ideal relation of the child to its parents up to the close of the pre-adolescent period, is that of implicit obedience. In this day of the discussion of children's rights the para- doxical truth obtains that one of the child's paramount 1 Tyler, Growth and Education, p. 194. CHILD TRAINING 205 rights is to be taught to obey. 1 This does not mean obedi- ence in a craven or slavish sense; but simply a habit of willing and trustful obedience. The child who has such a habit will be started in life with the largest measure of self-control. Has it ever occurred to you that everybody is obeying something in every act which he performs? If the child, then, is not obeying his parents, whom or what is he obeying? We can hardly think that his own judg- ment is sufficiently developed to be a safe guide. He is then following the dictates of his impulses and desires, which are sure to be strong at this time and for the most part untrained. While the mother, in exacting obedience, must always recognize the personality of the child, she must also remember that she is his first law-giver and as such has much to do with establishing his future attitude towards law in general. Obedience to parents is obedi- ence to the child's wiser self. All right obedience is the expression of the child's self in the best service he knows. Obedience is a self-government without which there is no moral life. Thus, as was said in the previous chapter, harmony and order in the home are not the only outcome of obedience on the part of the children. There is devel- oped in the child himself, self-control and the power to inhibit wrong and unworthy action. As he advances in years his attitude is less that of obedience to the letter and more that of obedience to the spirit of his parent's wishes. His own conscience takes the place of external dictates. There is no more supreme moment for the parent than when he recognizes that the child is beginning to do from his own choice what he formerly did under authority. 1 A. E. Coe, Education in Religion and Morals, p. 273. 206 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT The relation of parent and child gradually changes as the years pass, and the parent becomes the confidential adviser and friend, rather than the law-giver. It has been well said that obedience to authority is discipline. Obedience to one's own higher nature is character. That parent shows the greatest insight who knows when the issue is not obedience to the parent by the child, but obedience of the child to himself. 1 5. DISCIPLINE The obedience of the child's early years, however, must, as has already been said, be an obedience to authority, and hence, discipline. Professor Garman has said that dis- cipline is the price we pay for our manhood. If this be true, it is neither safe nor honest to let the bill run up. We should adopt the motto, "Pay as we go." Discipline may be considered under three heads: i. Punishment. 2. Appeal. 3. Reason. Corporal Punishment. In taking up the subject of punishment, we think first of corporal punishment. This is usually taken to mean the infliction of some form of bodily pain. There is some prejudice against corporal punishment, especially in the form of spanking or whip- ping. This much may be said for the latter form, how- ever, when properly used: It has the advantage of promptness and definiteness and of saving the time and nervous energy of the parent. Nothing is so racking to the nerves of a sensitive mother as a long drawn out punishment to a child. It is also probably true that there are some children who will never reach their highest pos- 1 Forbush, The Boy Problem, pp. 204, 206. CHILD TRAINING 2Q7 sibilities in life without being whipped. They seem to need just this sort of external stimulus to get them started right. But even though the ultimate results were not affected by the whipping, the immediate relief to both parent and child is worthy of being considered. It is an accepted maxim that we go to war in order to secure the benefits of a lasting and well-grounded peace. For a somewhat similar reason a very mild and peaceful parent will often find it necessary to apply sharp bodily punishment, when other agencies have proved unavail- ing. I know a child, and I think he is an example of a class, to whom the sting of corporal punishment, and his own resulting cry, seem to act as a nervous relief. After the spanking, which was often deferred beyond reason, there was always a reign of quiet and peace. Dr. Hall speaks thus of bodily punishment: "Dermal pain is far from being the evil that sentimental, nervous adults re- gard it. To flog wisely should not become a lost art, although of course it should be supplemented by different influences." Evidence obtained from children shows that they do not as a rule look upon corporal punishment with the same horror that their elders do. There was a time when much was said about natural punishments. Such punishments have been spoken of in an earlier chapter. They refer to such unpleasant results as come naturally from the act. It has been said that, while nature is wise in her larger aspects, when it comes to life's detailed adjustments she is not altogether just. She often re- wards us for our misdeeds, and punishes us for praise- worthy toil. In other words, the measures of nature, when ineffective, must be reinforced by artificial meas- 208 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT ures. What the punishment shall be, in cases where there is no natural penalty, must depend very largely upon the nature of the child. It must be neither too severe nor too light. If the child does not yield to mild punish- ment, he lays himself open to more severe ones. The main object in punishment is to establish unpleasant asso- ciations with the doing of the wrong act. It should serve as a moral vaccination in the case of mild sickness to ward off a more dangerous one. 1 Threatening to Punish. Threatening to punish, when the threat is sincere and full of meaning, will often serve the purpose of the punishment itself. If the child abso- lutely knows that the threat will be carried out as uttered, that is usually enough, after one experience. But con- stant threatening, with little or no idea of execution, stultifies family discipline. As for scolding, it is usually a bad procedure. Scolding which is simply the outlet for the feelings of a nervous and irritable parent, with small idea of really affecting the conduct of the child, is always bad. Scolding which descends into nagging is also bad. But Dr. Hall suggests that there is a kind of scolding which has a place. He says, "Judicious and incisive scolding is a moral tonic, and if rightly admin- istered may be extremely effective." This is another indication that the way in which you do a thing is quite as important as the thing you do. Dr. O'Shea follows the same line when he speaks of punishing in anger. He declares that the element of anger should not be wholly eliminated from discipline, but that the anger of the par- ent is a part of the child's punishment, and a part which 1 Rowe, Habit Formation, p. 195. Tanner, The Child, p. 207. CHILD TRAINING ; 209 often proves more effective than anything else. Punish- ments of this kind are not adapted to later years, but between the ages of two and twelve, when, as Tyler says, the child is under the Old Testament dispensation, 1 ' authority should hold a large place in the family discipline. The Personal Appeal. We are now ready to consider the second kind of discipline or training, which is the personal and social appeal. This may be wisely used before the child is old enough to discriminate broadly in an intellectual way. Perhaps it is well to use it also after that time, but it should be used with caution,- for if obe- dience is asked from a child on the ground of personal feeling or affection after he has reached the stage of rationality, the appeal is sure to detract in the mind of the child from the dignity of these feelings as they exist in the person of the parent. The personal appeal is the appeal to the child's own feelings of love or sympathy or thought fulness for the mother. With children of a certain disposition it is very effective. With others it is not. Where the child is indifferent or antagonistic to the appeal it greatly weakens the position of the parent to make it. Where he is affectionate but thoughtless, the suggestion that he has hurt his mother's feelings will probably influence him not to repeat the act. But if, again, he does repeat the act it shows that the response was only a superficial one. The nature of the mind is such that whenever an appeal is made and unheeded the next response is weaker, and eventually the force of the appeal is entirely lost. The Social Appeal. The social appeal is different in 1 Tyler, Growth and Education, p. 148. 2io STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT character and calls upon the child's pride. When he has misbehaved, the parent may call his attention to one or more persons whom he respects and may suggest that he or she would not have done such a thing. This method has its limitations, and must not be used habitually, but it sometimes proves helpful, especially in the case of a child whose pride is more prominent than his affection. Reasoning Used in Training. When we come to the third kind of discipline, namely, the use of reason and ideals, we find ourselves upon a different plane. Indeed, the question might be asked whether reasoning with a child is discipline at all. 1 But it is undoubtedly a means of development and in that sense is discipline, although differing in kind from either of the two kinds of training mentioned. Appeals to the reason can be used effectively where the child's reason and sense of right have been developed, and probably, in many cases, help to develop these qualities. In adopting the use of reason the idea of authority on the part of the parent is presumably ex- cluded. The thought is that the child, in accepting or rejecting any course of conduct, is to follow his own choice. While, of course, the feelings may influence an act of reason, it is not, as in the former case, the feelings which are appealed to. Whatever results come from the choice shall be the ones which he freely accepted, in so far as he was able to anticipate what the results would be. There are here two elements with which to deal, though they sometimes overlap. The Appeal to the Intellect. The child must be shown from the intellectual standpoint why it will be preferable 1 Rowe, Habit Formation, p. 124. CHILD TRAINING 211 to follow one course rather than another. The reasons will probably be either immediately or remotely selfish, but the appeal is to the intellectual ideals, not to the senses. The situation may be illustrated by the following in- stances: A boy who is inclined to be quarrelsome and to fight with his schoolmates may be reasoned out of this course of conduct by being made to see that he will eventually meet some boy in combat who will be a better fighter than he is, and he will be badly hurt. A girl with a violent temper may be induced to control it if she is made to see that by it she will lose social prestige. A boy will sometimes refrain from the use of tobacco when he is shown that it will stunt his growth and lessen his chance of a successful manhood. The Appeal to the Moral Sense. The second element in the appeal to the reason is upon the moral side. The reasons for doing or not doing a certain act are that it is either right or wrong. Instances of this method are so common and so numerous as not to require mention. The appeal is to the moral ideals. The highest possible motive to action is the doing of right for right's sake, without reference to the consequences. But in the appeal to chil- dren, or young people, one cannot get away, and one does not wish to get away, from the feeling of satisfac- tion which will follow the right action and the feeling of unhappiness which will follow the wrong action. The quickening of the conscience is a long step towards the establishing of the higher ideals which can only come with maturity and experience. It is right here, in con- nection with the establishing of moral ideals as incentives to conduct, that the mother finds the real test of her 212 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT generalship. Can she, like Socrates, make what seems to the child's mind the worse appear the better reason? Here is the core of all child training. Can the mother present right ideals to the child's mind in such a way that they will appeal to him? Can she hold them there so persistently that in a sense he will act upon them in spite of himself? She has a splendid psychological basis for her efforts. When coupled with her knowledge of the child's heredity and environment there would seem to be every opportunity for her to lead him up into a life of strength and virtue. The Aim of All Training. This is the point towards which all her study has been aiming. It is really all of life brought within the sphere of the home and within the range of the mother's influence. In a sense, the world was created in order that each individual might learn, through its discipline, to choose from many possible ways the right way. In teaching the child to do right for right's sake, the mother has, then, reached the ultimate goal of all training. She is dealing with the highest phase of human thought. The reason and the ideals are the child's real self, the permanent self, the only self that is worth working for. It is evident, then, that when once this reasonable and moral self is put in control of the life processes, the whole question of character is set- tled. In other words, when your child reaches the point where, through his sense of reasonableness and right, he will choose the course which under other impulses he did not wish to choose, he has attained the "highest good." From this point on, it is simply a question of persistency in choosing the right until the doing of it CHILD TRAINING 213 falls into the realm of habit. Is this ideal higher than the mother dares to look? It is higher than many do look, but no mother should look any lower. Reasons for Apparent Failure. But some will urge that they have tried the appeal to reason and failed. Per- haps it was because the child was not yet ready for it; because the mind was not yet strong enough to be capable of responding to it. These higher powers come by de- velopment and experience and sometimes come very slowly. I knew of a case where a mother spent some time in reasoning with her boy, to get him to choose to do a certain thing which he did not want to do. The boy listened to her for a time with downcast eyes. When the grand climax had been reached, and the mother was waiting for his response, he slyly glanced up at her and said, "Well, have I got to do it?" The mother asked, "Won't you choose to do it?" "No," he said, "I won't choose to, but you know I will do it if you say I must." "Well, then, you must/' said the mother. Whereupon the boy remarked, quietly, "All right, but you might have saved yourself the trouble of talking so long." The mother had, as she thought, hitched her wagon to a star, only to find herself jogging along after the same old cob. Confusion of Ideals. Again, we confuse and mingle these highest appeals with other and lower motives. In so doing we deceive ourselves and confuse the moral sense of the child. This is especially likely to be the case when the mother herself is not very thoroughly imbued with the high ideals which she desires to have the child accept. Surely no parent can successfully make this appeal to the child if she does not order her own life in 214 STUDIES IN CHILD- DEVELOPMENT accordance with it. Yet many mothers flatter themselves that they are "appealing to the child's reason" when, as a matter of fact, they are appealing to something quite remote from this splendid faculty perhaps it is to his sense of self-interest, perhaps to his pride, perhaps to other motives which have been discussed under some of the foregoing heads. Adolescence Brings Response to Higher Ideals. While we started with the simplest methods of discipline and training, we have gone on in our study beyond the limits of the pre-adolescent period. The higher consciousness of moral standards will not be fully awakened until ideals are stirred through the transforming power of adoles- cence. But, if the child has been held with reasonable firmness during the first ten or twelve years of his life to the standards of the home, if the atmosphere has been one of absolute sincerity and high ideals, by the time he reaches the period of mental adolescence he should be ready to respond to the highest appeal. The years before twelve are the years for the sowing of the good seed of strong character. If this seed has not been sown in its proper time, there will be no need to look for a harvest; it will not come. That there may be partial responses and stages of development in the growth towards this ideal is, of course, true. The rapidity of the develop- ment will depend much upon the original endowment of the child. But, as will be shown in the next chapter, it is not until adolescence has been reached that the moral law can become an inward impulse. Whether or not it does so depends upon the material with which it has to work and the way in which this material has been pre- CHILD TRAINING 21$ pared. It is during the adolescent period that the mental and spiritual processes are developed which are capable of responding to and making real within the soul these highest ideals of the moral world. 6. RELIGIOUS TRAINING There is still one phase of training to be discussed. This is religious training. When we come to the con- sideration of conscience and the Divine Being, our duty lies along the nurture side of development rather than the disciplinary side. Hence it might perhaps be nearer the truth to speak of this as religious nurture than as religious training. But we will for convenience use the generally accepted term, giving it, however, the broadest interpretation. We will take up the subject first on its negative side. Function of the Home. In what ways is religious training being neglected in the home? While I do not want to be understood as identifying religious training with moral or ethical training, I am sure it will be ad- mitted that they are associated in very definite ways. With our miscellaneous population and our very proper separation of church and state, there is no place in our schools for religious training. So far, the introduction of moral instruction, by itself, has resulted in a cold formalism which has been far from satisfactory. Whether or not moral training of the young can be made effective without definite religious training, it is safe to say that so far it has not been made so. Religious in- struction and training must fundamentally be given in the home. If not given there it will probably not be 2i6 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT given at all. Whatever comes through church and Sun- day school life will be supplementary, but cannot be de- pended upon. If religion and its highest ideals are to really mean anything in the future life and thought of the child, these elements must be implanted in the home. Herbert Spencer has declared that our education is a failure in that it is not creating high ideals. What can be done to arouse fathers and mothers to a sense of their duty in the moral and religious training of their children? Dr. Hall says that the family has an educational function which cannot be transferred to the kindergarten, the public school, or the church school. In proportion as parents are doing or not doing their full duty there, they are promoting or holding back the coming of God's kingdom in the earth. 1 Idea of Right and Wrong. The ideas of right and wrong which we identify with conscience are very vague at first and, as was said in a former chapter, are closely interwoven with self-interest. But the mother has great influence in directing the conscience during these forma- tive years. The kind of conscience which the child is now developing will determine largely the conscience of his mature years. As time passes, conscience becomes embracing. Mrs. Cabot says, "It does not remain a mys- terious and separate faculty, but it is the real person himself when he is fully alive and thinking. Conscien- tiousness is the timely and serviceable will to do what is right." First Idea of God. The child's first ideas of God are implicit and naive. There is very little wondering or 1 G. A. Coe, Education in Religion and Morals, p. 39. CHILD TRAINING 217 questioning. God seems very near and intimate. Fear in this connection is seldom present. Religious services are adopted unconsciously. These early years of recep- tivity are of great significance to the mother, for there is no doubt that the child's idea of God, wherever it originated, will develop along whatever line it is trained. The height to which the child rises as a moral and relig- ious being will depend upon the moral and religious environment in which he grows up. 1 To the young child, the mother stands in the place of God, and the first religious training is the good care and patient watchfulness with which she inspires and responds to the implicit confidence of her little one. As the years go by, the child's mind reaches out after a power which shall be above and beyond the power of his parents. Then is the time for teaching about God. There is a ready response to the distinction between right and wrong. Professor J. B. Pratt tells of several cases where parents tried the experiment of bringing up their children, as far as possible, with no idea of God. But in spite of all efforts, the children were discovered to have a conception of an all-powerful being outside of themselves and stronger than their parents. The religious life of the child is, of course, more or less external at this time, but it is a period of preparation for the vital and internal religious life which will be a part of the adult character. Professor Starbuck speaks of the formal nature of the child's religion during the early years, and says his ideas of right and wrong are largely personal. Daily Life of Parents. The first religious training 1 Earl Barnes, Studies in Education, Vol. I, p. 283. 2i8 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT has been referred to as the mother's loving care. In close connection with this is the daily life of the parents. The child's instinct for imitation comes into play here. He may not imitate all of the good things you do, but he will probably imitate most of the bad ones. Yet per- sons who themselves have strong faith in God and who live their daily lives near to Him will in some manner be able to draw their children to God. Moral precepts count but little; in fact, they are likely to lead to moral confusion, whether received in the home or in the church, unless the life in the home corresponds with them. Only those homes are safe and happy where God is openly recognized and worshiped. Christian parents must live more with their children, and so live their religion into them. An undeveloped life is helped by mingling with it the interests and occupations of a developed life. Some one has said that children receive from their parents the tone and temper of their souls. Nothing is a sub- stitute to the child for the parent's self. A father was once told by the tutor of his son that the boy had gone wrong. "I do not understand that," said the father; "I have given him everything that he could wish for." It seemed that himself he had not given. The atmosphere and environment of the home are potent factors in the child's religious training. All good training is a prep- aration for religious training. The learning that obedi- ence brings pleasure, and disobedience brings pain, and other things along this line, prepare the mind for religious training. Definite Time for Religious Training. But, besides this, the mother must give definite training in religious CHILD TRAINING 219 matters. Every mother should have a definite period some time during the week for religious instruction. In those homes where the subject of how to make Sunday afternoon a pleasant and profitable period for the children is made prominent, the mother uses a portion of this time for systematic religious instruction. Many portions of the Bible are of untold value for accurate memory drill. Many of our bible houses and Sunday school pub- lishing companies issue scripture selections topically ar- ranged. 1 Also, there are some good modern catechisms in which religious history and precepts are collected and adapted for personal home use. If exercises of this kind appeal to the child as too tedious for enjoyment, the mother can easily overcome this condition and make the child look forward to the study time, by always following the drill with an hour of interesting reading aloud to the child. The reading can be varied by story telling, which will often run on into a quiet chat and expressions of personal opinion which bring great joy and help to both mother and child. The more carefully the child is trained in his religious life now, the more ready he will be to meet the later phases of it. The question is not so much, "When shall religious training be begun?" but "Of what kind shall it be?" In other words, what is to be your aim in the religious training of your child? Professor Coe gives his ideal for the ultimate aim of training as follows : "The child shall ultimately, through choice and habit, be controlled by the principle of love to God and love to 1 Dr. W. H. Day, 946 S. Union Ave., Los Angeles, California. Dr. C H. Richards, cor. 4th Ave. & 22d St., New York, N. Y. 220 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT his fellow men. He shall see and feel that this principle gives to life its meaning and value." Religious Services in the Home. We have spoken very briefly of two ways of giving religious culture in the home; viz., by personal example and by direct instruction. There is a third very important way, which, although indirect, has a deep significance in the child's develop- ment. I refer to formal religious services in the home. The child, while perhaps not directly conscious of it himself, is very sensitive to these things. These services include the daily blessing at meal time, family worship, and the child's own daily prayer. 1 In the strenuous life of the present day it often seems impossible, even in Christian families, to get the family together for the briefest possible prayer service. A few verses from the Bible and the Lord's prayer or twenty-third Psalm at the breakfast table is a splendid way to begin the day. If the family are not all present, the service will surely be of value to those who are there. These simple Chris- tian services, which seem so unimportant and which are so easily omitted, are of fundamental importance in the child's future. They remind him of the constant pres- ence of the Divine Being and develop an attitude of mind which will prove an anchor in times of doubt and dis- couragement. Church Attendance. The question of religious serv- ices in the home leads to the subject of attendance upon religious services outside the home. In every Christian family the question arises as to what extent the children should attend church. In this respect I believe the child 1 Coe, Education in Religion and Morals, p. 284. CHILD TRAINING 221 should conform to the custom of the family. Professor Coe says that the family as a whole, and not the indi- vidual, should be the unit of church attendance. On the part of the children there will often be remonstrance. They declare they do not understand the sermon; they get tired sitting so long, and many other things. The great majority of parents allow themselves to be con- vinced by the reasoning of the youngsters, with the result that our church pews are too frequently childless. But there is always a great deal in the service that they do understand, and an excellent way for them to learn to understand sermons is to keep hearing them. 1 Apart from the religious phase of church attendance, it is prob- ably the only opportunity which the child has, and often the adult as well, of hearing during the week a connected discourse in good form. After all, the church is an excellent place in which to be on Sunday. The child who is in church a great deal will find it harder to get very far away from that for which the church stands, than the one who enters it but seldom. I do not mean to say that habits of church attendance and of Sunday observance during these early years fix a child's character. I only wish they did. The way of the parent would then be comparatively easy. I simply mean that the boy and the girl who have attended church regularly with their parents are well started in the right direction, and the chances are greatly in favor of their keeping to it, or of ultimately returning to it should they ever stray away. The Sunday School. The Sunday school is one of the 1 Coe, Education in Religion and Morals, p. 217. 222 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT church's chief agencies for the religious education of the young. When manned with competent and sympathetic teachers, it is a mighty force for good. But no one who has not been engaged in Sunday school work knows how hard it is to get good teachers. We have all seen Sunday school classes in which there is no discipline, very little real instruction, and in which the bad influence of mis- chievous members of the class outweighs the negative influence of a weak, inexperienced, or incompetent teacher. The mother's first duty should be to find out what sort of teacher her boy or girl is to have in Sunday school not merely whether the teacher is a good man or woman, bait whether he or she is a real teacher, competent and able to influence the class for good. If these conditions are met, the Sunday school will be a great help in the religious training of your child; if they are not met, you will do better to teach the child at home, regardless of what your pastor, or Sunday school superintendent, or church friends may say or think about it. Conscience. In closing the chapter, I want to return for a moment to the subject of conscience. Occasionally a child is found who seems to be wilfully stifling his conscience. He does not respond to the ordinary appeals nor to the ordinary discipline of the home. He continues to commit wrongs for which no suitable punishment lies within the power of the parent. The pleasure received from the wrong doing seems to be greater than the pain from the punishment. Hence the punishment does not serve as a deterrent. Such a child may sometimes be roused to a sense of right by a stirring appeal to the fundamental laws of the moral world. The following CHILD TRAINING 223 will suggest the line of approach : "What you have done is wrong. That you say you do not care, does not affect the wrongness of it. That you are indifferent to the punishment given you by your parent or teacher does not affect the wrongness. Whether or not you receive any punishment at the present time does not affect the wrongness of it. Wrong is wrong, no matter who does it. The bad effect upon your character of this wrong doing and wrong thinking is absolutely certain. This bad effect upon your own life and character will be an infinitely greater punishment than anything which could be done to you here." If, by some such means as this, the child can be impressed with the idea that the responsi- bility for his wrong act rests upon and will react upon himself he may be roused from a seeming indifference to an active realization of moral values. Every child is a living soul, a conscious activity, and our aim should be so to train him that he will come to think of himself as he ought to be, and to put himself in the attitude of striving to become what he ought to be. QUESTIONS FOR USE IN CLUB STUDY 1. What is the true significance of the home? 2. What are some of the fundamental qualities necessary in the parent? 3. What is the child's first training? 4. Give an instance where you have known a child to be in- fluenced through imitations of a person outside his own family. 5. How may the mother train through habit? 6. How is obedience required in training the attention? 7. Sum up the discussion on attention. 8. What is the moral phase of habit? 224 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT 9. What is the will? Give different ideas about it. 10. What are some of the forms of punishment mentioned here? 11. How may training in its narrower sense be classified? De- scribe the personal and social appeal. 12. Mention a case where you have known this to be used, Was it successful? 13. Explain the appeal to reason. Why does this sometimes fail? 14. What is the function of the home in the matter of religious training? 15. What is said here about the child's first idea of God and of right and wrong? 16. Show the value of regular time for religious instruction in the home. 17. Why should there be religious services in the home? 18. Why should children attend church? CHAPTER VII THE ADOLESCENT BOY i. THE APPROACH OF ADOLESCENCE As we follow the progress of the child in the present chapter we find that he is growing large and strong in body and is developing certain mental traits which are new to us. In other words, he is coming to the all-im- portant period of his life known as adolescence. If, as Professor Lancaster says, the hygienic treatment of boys at adolescence has been almost criminally neglected, it is because the mothers have not known what to do and how to do it. Aim of the Discussion. Believing that the mother will be able to do her part at this time more efficiently if she has a broader knowledge of what is involved in it, both for the child and for the race, an effort will be made in the present chapter to gather together some of the re- sults of recent investigation and study upon this period in such a way as to make them easily available. In order to discuss more fully and systematically certain problems that apply to the sexes, we shall adopt a policy of segre- gation at this point and devote a chapter to each sex in turn. Much, however, that appears in these two chapters applies with equal force to either the adolescent boy or the adolescent girl. What is Adolescence? What, then, is adolescence? 225 226 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT and by what signs may we know of its coming? The word adolescence means a "growing up to," and is applied to the time in the child's life when he approaches matur- ity. This period is somewhere between the eleventh and the twentieth year. Adolescent symptoms will not be expected to continue during all these years, at least not continuous symptoms of the same nature, but the ado- lescent years will be included broadly within these limits. The child who becomes adolescent early will probably reach maturity early, while the child who shows no ado- lescent symptoms until later will be later in reaching his final development. In a general way adolescence is de- scribed as the boundary line, or better, boundary period, between childhood and maturity. Adolescence is quite the most critical and difficult age to deal with. Little by little new forces have been creeping into the life of the child. The changes may have come very gradually or they may have come suddenly. When they come gradually it is easier for both parent and child, but they are none the less significant on that account. Some day you look into the eyes of what you thought was your little boy or girl and you see looking out of them the free spirit of a new personality. But we can hardly help being anxious, when we realize that this new individual, who is filled with the spirit of independence, is still only -a child in foresight and judgment. 1 All the child's pre- vious life seems to have been a preparation for this period. As it gradually leads up to and prepares to merge into adolescence there is, as it were, a gathering together of forces in preparation for the approaching expansion. 1 Forbush, The Boy Problem, p. 31. THE ADOLESCENT BOY 227 Professor Lancaster says, suggestively, ' 'However we may look upon the origin of the human mind, it is easy to conceive that mind first awoke to self -consciousness at the adolescent period of the first man." * Adolescence is a time of new and large possibilities, but, unfortunately, while there is the possibility of better things than ever before, there is also the possibility of worse things. It is, therefore, a time of grave responsi- bility for .the mother. Professor Carman, in his lecture entitled Bringing Up a Boy, has said, "A crisis occurs in a boy's life early in his teens. His destiny is deter- mined by the discipline and instruction he receives at this time." The Mother's Preparation. It goes without saying that every mother has an imperative duty towards her son as he approaches this important period in his development. Nature has done her part in preparing the boy's body, the mother must be doing her part in preparing his mind for all of these new experiences. There are many things which the mother can do because she is the mother, and because her mind is mature while the mind of the boy is yet immature. The mother, through her study, comes to see that the adolescent boy is about to acquire new powers. Before, he was simply an individual. Now he is becoming a part of the race, because he is acquiring the power of conserving it. To the mother who has duly prepared herself for her child's adolescence, its appear- ance will bring the same mysterious thrill which she felt when she first saw the child as a new-born babe. It has 1 E. C. Lancaster, Psychology and Pedology of Adolescence, Fed. Seminary, Vol. I, p. 196. 228 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT been said in this connection, "When a baby is to be born, preparations for its advent are carefully made. But when, in future years, the most critical time comes when the child is to be re-born, a man or a woman, it is rare that intelligent suggestions or wise words of counsel tell him or her of the importance of this period." The Theoretical Part. This preparation on the part of the mother includes two things: i. The preparation of the mother herself. 2. The preparation of her boy. The preparation of the mother must be gained through reading and study. This is the theoretical part of her work. The skillful physician, before he goes out to prac- tice, learns, as we say, "all that is in the books." For the earnest student mother there will be need to gain a clear understanding of many scientific facts from the standpoint of biology, physiology, anatomy, and psychol- ogy. A broad knowledge of general laws ought to make any particular application of these laws a very simple and easy matter. We often say of a teacher, that in order to teach well he must know vastly more than he has to teach. So, also, in the case of the mother, she must know more of child-study than enough to meet the actual questions that arise day by day. Among other things the mother should have a knowl- edge of the sexual physiological changes which come with adolescence. The special organs of sex have existed in an embryonic condition ever since birth. The mother's responsibility at first was limited to the care of the ex- ternal parts, to see that cleanliness and privacy were maintained. Adolescence indicates by its very name that the time is at hand when the sexual organs, which are THE ADOLESCENT BOY 229 hidden within the body, are to develop and assume a definite place in the system. As will be pointed out a little later, the influence of these organs is not limited to the physical part of the individual. Their influence over the mind is supreme. A careful explanation of what these parts are, their growth and their uses, will be given under the discussion of the physical manifestations of adolescence. Delayed Preparation. Much effort is wasted by the mother during the time of actual adolescence, much that is good and true and earnest, because she has not made proper preparations for it at an earlier period. This preparation is easily ignored and neglected. The signs of the approaching change are sometimes so slight or so hidden that the mother, if she thinks about it at all, per- suades herself that there is no need of her thinking about it yet. Alas for those mothers who have, with their children, sailed peacefully over the pre-adolescent years! thank fortune, there are a few years of peaceful sailing but have failed to equip themselves for the period of storm and stress which is to follow; the period of troubled waters, when whole days are passed with hearts aching and anxious, and the tears are only just below the sur- face ; the period when the boy who used to be affectionate, kind, and confidential is rough and rude, and the girl who used to be sweet, loving and patient, is irritable, impudent, and troublesome. Alas, I say, for the mothers who reach, unawares and unprepared, this difficult and trying period! The Boy's New Needs, The river of the boy's life is 230 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT now widening out towards the ocean. While heretofore he has been under the safe shelter of the home, he will soon find himself his own pilot, steering an independent craft. He has but little knowledge of himself just at a time when there is so much to be known. He needs careful teaching in regard to his own physical possibili- ties. In addition to this instruction, there was never a time when he was in greater need of love, patience, and sympathy. He may seem at times to reject these offer- ings in unexpected ways, unexpected as much to himself as to you. But never cease on that account to bestow them unsparingly. Take the Boy Seriously. Do not allow yourself to make fun of any of the evidences of adolescence. No matter how much the boy eats, no matter how immense are his hands and feet, take it all as a matter of course and something to be proud of. There is at this time a keen sensitiveness to anything like ridicule, and there is danger that the boy will not show his full size unless encouraged to do so, but will stoop and slouch in order to appear smaller than he really is. The adolescent boy should not only walk straight, but should always sit erect. The bones of the pelvis, and even those of the thorax, are still in a formative state and may be pressed out of shape if a wrong position is habitually taken. Make the boy as comfortable as you can, for comfort increases height and weight. Foster and encourage all tendencies to work with the hands, as carpentering, gar- dening, and all kinds of gymnastics. Too much cannot be said in favor of the life in the country at this time. But be careful of the boy's companions, for a bad com- THE ADOLESCENT BOY 231 panion may effect more moral deterioration than the good air and healthful occupation will accomplish for the physical upbuilding. 2. THE PARENTS' DUTY TO THE ADOLESCENT BOY Frankness. This is the time when one of the parents should talk frankly with the boy about the significance of the changes which are taking place in him, and warn him against the temptations which will beset him. Some- times the father can do this best, often it is best done by the mother. Whether father or mother does it should depend upon the degree of confidence and sympathy which the boy feels toward each, and upon the ability of either to put the case to him effectively. One of the parents must surely do it if they have any regard for the boy's highest interests. If they have been frank with him as a young child and have told him something of the mystery of life, it will be much easier to talk to him now. Then, too, the child who has been told the truth in these matters of physiology has not the same prying curiosity and tend- ency to vulgar interpretation so often found in those who have been taught to consider the question a forbidden topic. The Origin of Life. Let us assume for a moment that your little boy, long before he was adolescent, learned from your lips that the baby, before any one saw it here, grew from a tiny speck, in a small nest under its mother's heart. At the proper time it was born into the world. This satisfies the child for the time. But as he grows older he is likely to inquire as to the father's part in the origin of the child. 232 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT Danger of Evasion and Reticence. Here, again, the rational interest is best satisfied by the truth. To tell a lie is corrupting. To evade the question is to send the eager child to some unfit teacher and to destroy confi- dence between parent and child. There is nothing shame- ful in the relation, and it should never be treated as a mystery of doubtful significance. The child owes his very being to the father as well as to the mother, and he should be told this by father or mother when asked. Perhaps this general statement will meet the demands of the searching intellect for several years. After that the whole truth must be told in season. The young inquirer should be trained to seek this kind of informa- tion only from parents. The time of this information must depend upon the nature of the child and his ques- tions. The reticence of children in speaking of these things to their parents is not due to any sense of moral wrong, but simply to an artificially induced fear of offending elders for some mysterious and unknown reason. Professor Coe says, "The facts and laws of nature, particularly the mystery of generation and birth, are in- cluded in the demand for information. What response shall we make to this demand ? Just as f asjt as the child's spontaneous interest calls for information a perfectly hon- est and open response should be made. To evade or deceive is not merely to put away a troublesome question ; it is to put away the child's personality also. An honest, painstaking answer to a question gives much more than information; it gives a self. This requires a high type of courage. To reveal one's self thus to a child is like standing before the judgment bar of God, Blessed is THE ADOLESCENT BOY 233 the child who receives such answers to his questions that he never ceases, during all his developing years, to bring his problems directly to his parents. 3. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PERIOD Having spoken of the nature of adolescence and the necessary equipment of the parents in order to deal with it adequately, we will now consider the general charac- teristics of this period. The period, as a whole, may for convenience be divided into three shorter and more or less overlapping periods as follows : First Early adoles- cence or puberty. This covers the period from the elev- enth to the fourteenth year. The characteristics of this period are largely but not wholly physical. There are evidently beginnings of the great mental changes which come later in the period. Second The middle adolescent period. This may be from the fifteenth to the eighteenth year. The adolescent characteristics of this period are both mental and physical. Third Later adolescence. This extends from the eighteenth year onward. Its mani- festations are mental and spiritual. The Physical Changes. While it cannot be definitely known whether the first stirring of adolescence is physical or mental, it is probable that the first visible signs will be physical. Therefore we may call the general charac- teristics of this period physical. Any time after your boy is eleven or twelve (with some boys even earlier) look for unusual physical manifestations; one of the earliest of these is rapid growth, especially of the limbs. Pro- fessor Lancaster calls our attention to the fact that some- times this rapid growth occurs before the child is really '\ 234 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT adolescent. In this case it is likely to be accompanied with ill-health. The rapid growth during adolescence, however, is perfectly normal and to be expected. It sometimes seems as if the size of hands and feet double within a few months. Height and Weight. Mention was just made of the rapid growth of the limbs at this time. Hence the first noticeable increase is usually in height, caused mainly by this lengthening of the legs. In order to meet the added length of the legs, the muscles, nerves, and arteries must all be stretched. The boy is awkward. Through this increase in height his weight has outgrown his strength. The muscles grow large first and strong later. Hence the boy of fifteen to seventeen lacks the strength which he seems to have. He stumbles and shambles and thinks he is somehow to blame for it all. It is probably true that many adults share his opinion. More often than not he knows that his mother thinks he is clumsy even though she does not say so. Internal Organs. The size of the internal organs does not keep pace with the external growth. Less oxygen is taken into the system and hence there is more unre- moved waste. The ratio of the chest girth to the standing height falls. Besides these changes in muscles and nerves, there has already been mentioned the .very significant growth and development of the organs of sex. Organs of Sex. Besides the external parts, which in- clude the organ for urinal excretion and the scrotum, there is the more important internal organism. First of all, incased in the tissues constituting the scrotum, are two THE ADOLESCENT BOY 235 small bodies known as the testicles. Each of these is connected by the spermatic cords with the seminal vesicles, or reservoirs, at the base of the bladder. Up to the adolescent period these organisms seem to have had no particular part in the life of the body. It would seem as if they might as well not be there. But experience has shown that if any harm comes to them or if their devel- opment is checked, it will become evident at adolescence, and both mind and body will fail to reach their normal strength. At the adolescent period, the testicles develop and begin to secrete a fluid, which, as fast as it is secreted, is passed up through the spermatic cords into the reser- voirs at the base of the bladder. Here it unites with another fluid which has been secreted in these sacs. A portion of this fluid is absorbed and enters the system, where it exercises a profound influence upon mental and physical development. When adolescence is thoroughly established, emissions of this fluid occur at more or less regular periods of from three to five weeks. They occur at night and usually during sleep. This manifestation may be omitted for several weeks, and then occur either for one or for several successive nights. These facts are purely normal and physiological, and may fairly be treated as are other facts about the body. The rapid growth of the external parts often results in an irritation which is very annoying to the boy, and if not understood will be the cause of bad habits. The application of any simple salve, such as vaseline, or, better still, a bathing of the parts in kerosene, will relieve the irritation and save both mother and child from much anxiety. 236 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT 4. LATER PHYSICAL CHANGES As the boy gets into what was noted as the second period of adolescence, we find that the physical changes, while not by any means completed, are less disturbing. There is a large muscular power, enlarged heart and lungs, well oxygenated blood, driven at high pressure. There is rapid combustion in the muscles and especially in the brain. The waste products are disposed of. Changes in the Brain. The brain has now reached its full size and weight. It would seem, from the usual manifestations in the way of behavior, that there must be decided changes taking place in the brain. There surely are changes, but so far it has not been possible to determine with any definiteness what organic changes have taken place in it. During childhood there were certain uncoordinated associative areas of the brain left open for development, through individual experience. It is thought by some that during adolescence there may be an increase of these associative fibers with the result of increasing the number of brain centers. It is agreed that some changes must take place in the brain at this time, to account for the changes in mental manifestations. But it has taken years of serious study and investigation to gain even an approximate idea of what may be taking place in the adolescent brain. We know that there is an intimate connection between mental and physical develop- ment. There seems to be an especially delicate connec- tion between the organs of reproduction and the brain, although just what this is it has not been possible to determine. All Organs Stronger. It is to be kept in mind that, THE ADOLESCENT BOY 237 with the growth of the parts which are external and visible, there is a corresponding growth of the general internal organs. Every organ of the body seems to wake up and vie with its fellows. The nutrition which is taken into the body is in a sense contested for by the different organs. If the nutrition is not sufficient, there is danger that those parts which gain the ascendency will grow at the expense of the slower ones, thus leaving some particu- lar weak part. Growing pains are produced by the rapid growth of the bones over the muscles. Tobacco and Liquor. The increasing demand for nu- trition throughout the entire body often gives rise to cravings for extra and unnatural food. The habit of using tobacco is often acquired at this time on account of this unusual craving. Ask an adolescent boy how he is affected by the smell of tobacco. In most cases, if he is honest, he will tell you that it arouses a strong craving to use it. In too many cases this craving is so strong as to put into the background the reasons which have been given to him for not using it. If the adoles- cent period is passed without the tobacco habit being contracted, it is by the exercise of greater self-control than we as adults have been in the habit of giving the boy credit for. In the case of liquor the craving may not be so marked unless there is an inherited tendency in that direction. But if the boy is exposed to repeated temptations to the use of liquor, there is more danger at this period than at any other. If he was normally strong and well before adolescence his health will prob- ably not be much affected by this change. If he shows it at all it will be by becoming somewhat listless and at 238 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT times displaying that "tired feeling" upon which patent medicine venders thrive. But a boy who has previously suffered from lack of nervous force may show his ado- lescence by an excess of movement. Twitching of the eyes, mouth, and hands; and the biting of the finger nails may also be observed. Such symptoms are signifi- cant and should not be passed over lightly. Plenty of exercise in the open air, good food, plenty of sleep, and plenty of play are the best possible restoratives for a defective nervous system at this time. Change in Face. While all these changes are taking place in the boy's body, there is often a marked change in the expression of the face. This comes about not only by the new mental experiences which are taking place, but because the bones of the face are enlarging, thus changing the proportion of the features. The downy fuzz on the boy's upper lip and below his ears is an indication of normal adolescent development. Behavior. The increase in growth is usually and almost unavoidably accompanied by unpleasant manifes- tations of behavior and manners. The behavior is not now so much the crude roughness of the earlier semi- animal stage; in fact, it is quite outside of the range of language to describe it. It varies greatly with the indi- vidual. In some boys it takes the form of a blunt and impulsive roughness. There is, sometimes, undue assert- iveness at this time, a probable reaction against the em- barrassment of the awkward feeling. With others there is a super-sensitive shyness. Mother Nature, who up to this time has carried on her development with more or less regularity, seems now to be using more unusual THE ADOLESCENT BOY 239 measures. There is a narrow social tendency; that is, the boy prefers the society of those of his own sex and age. He cannot tell why, he simply knows that he feels more at home with them. As the adolescent period ad- vances these social interests show a tendency to broaden. Much of the uncomfortable shyness which burdened him in the earlier stages seems gradually to disappear. There often comes a growth of genuine sentiment, which its owner is able to manage with considerable adroitness, and which commands the respect of his adult friends. 5. THE BOY'S GREATEST DANGER The greatest danger which threatens the boy at this period and it is one which affects body, mind, and char- acter is the habit of onanism or self -pollution. It is reported by physicians and others who have the best means of knowing, that the majority of boys during the adolescent period practice this vile and injurious habit to a greater or less extent. It can hardly be otherwise, if they are allowed to reach the time of temptation with little or no truthful information as to the results of the practice. 1 Many young men lose their lives each year by indulging in it to excess. Many more become idiotic or insane. Many more, who escape these extremes, shorten their lives and devitalize themselves, falling far short of what they might otherwise have been, both phys- ically and intellectually. The seminal fluid which is thrown off artificially in the habit referred to is charged 1 Coe, Education in Religion and Morals, p. 237. Kirkpatrick, Fundamentals of Child Study, p. 115. Tanner, The Child, p. 62. Forbush, The Boy Problem, p. 160. 240 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT with the vitality needed for the building up of the body. Every one has seen an electric battery which has spent its force. It is a dead thing. So the body, with its splendid vital forces wasted not to speak of the moral and spiritual degeneration which follows. It is one of the tragedies of life. Persistence of Habit. Although the ultimate results of the habit are so serious, unfortunately there are gen- erally no immediate and apparent effects. Therefore the boy fancies that it is not hurting him, and continues it until he has lost the power to stop. The difficulties of stopping after the habit has once become fixed are great, because it not only weakens the body but also enslaves the will. Dr. Hall speaks of the physical effects as slug- gishness of heart action and circulation, seen in cold ex- tremities, purple and dry skin, lassitude, clammy hands, anaemic complexion, dry cough t and many digestive trou- bles. He refers to the habit as the scourge of the human race. Mental and Moral Effects. Besides its physical effects, it induces a general mental and moral deterioration. Se- cretiveness, untruth fulness, hypocrisy, timidity, cowardice, all follow in its train. The power of self-control and of sympathy are often extinguished. The resolution to grapple with difficulties, to carry out work begun, is sure to decline. There is a lack of high enthusiasms. "Per- haps the most common psychological result," says Dr. Hall, "is a sense of unworthiness, sin and pollution, and the serious diminution of self-respect, often instinctively hidden by boisterous self-assertion. Consciousness of a vice so hated and despised takes away the joy of life. THE ADOLESCENT BOY 241 The struggle between what is felt to be right, pure, and honorable and the lusts of the flesh is not infrequently overwhelming. The influences which work against abso- lute purity at this time seem to spring from the prince of darkness and his abode." x This psychic struggle of the worse against the better personality diverts energy which would be otherwise available for study, exercise, and normal growth. Increase of Crime. We must view with alarm the fact that juvenile crime is constantly on the increase, and we cannot be indifferent when we learn that sex perver- sion is the cause of much of it. 2 Dr. Hall has observed that every society has just the kind and number of crim- inals that it deserves. What is deserved by parents who allow their boys to become slaves to this filthy and de- basing habit without giving them a word of warning? Dr. Forbush says, "I believe that sex perversions are the most common, subtle, and dangerous foes that threaten our American life. These perversions usually have their root and acquire their dominion in adolescence, when passion is most active, ignorance most great, and self- control most weak. This temptation is to be met in the home by stripping the subject of a mystery which it does not possess, by revealing frankly and simply the facts of sex as a part of general physiology. The effect of self- abuse upon the nerves, endurance, and energy of the growing boy should be explained and contempt expressed for it as a nasty habit. The place for doing this work is the home. It is strange that parents should be willing 1 Hall, Adolescence. 2 Hall, Adolescence, Vol. I, p. 325. 242 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT that stable boys, quacks, and villains should become the instructors and guides in those matters which have so much to do with personal purity, the morality of the commonwealth, and the future of the race." 1 Jane Addams says upon this subject, "We exalt the love of the mother and the stability of the home, but in regard to those difficult years between childhood and maturity we beg the question and, unless we repress, we do nothing. We are so timid and inconsistent that, al- though we declare the home to be the foundation of society, we do nothing to direct the force upon which the continuity of the home depends. 2 6. How TO CONQUER THIS DISASTROUS HABIT Wise Questioning. Either father or mother should find out whether the boy has become addicted to the habit. Usually, if the question is put to him in the right way, with an assurance that you are trying to help him and not to upbraid or scold him, he will tell the truth. Tell him what the habit will do to him if persisted in. Encourage him. Do not scare him, but make him see that it is for him to decide whether he shall be a strong and useful man, or a weakling or worse. It is a test of his will power. He must overcome the habit or it will overcome him. There is no compromise. If he conquers, he will come out of the struggle stronger for the experience. Cleanliness and Clothing. Suggest that he preserve absolute cleanliness of the sex organs, to prevent irrita- tion washing them every morning as regularly as he 1 Forbush, The Boy Problem, pp. 159, 160. 2 Jane Addams, Spirit of Youth and the City Streets, pp. 29, 31. THE ADOLESCENT BOY 243 washes his face, and pulling back the foreskin to remove all accumulations. Aside from this he should leave them absolutely alone, except that, when strongly tempted, he may sometimes help himself to overcome the impulse by plunging them into cold water. 1 A cold bath every morn- ing immediately upon rising is an excellent tonic, not only for the sex organs but for the entire body. If the boy is not strong enough to endure it at once, begin with a sitz-bath, also dashing the water on the chest and neck. Avoid too warm clothing or too heavy bed clothing, also hot baths and anything that tends to heat the sex organs. The ganglion especially concerned in the sex instinct is located in the lower part of the back. Hence sleeping on the back, or with the back against anything which induces heat, should be avoided. Dr. Griffith's plan of tying an empty spool to the back, at the middle of the spine, by a tape passing around the waist, has been men- tioned in another connection. It will also prove useful here. The period immediately after waking is one of temptation. The boy who does not wish to be tempted will make it a practice to get up as soon as he wakes. Mental Suggestion. If there is a tendency for the boy's thoughts to dwell upon his body more than is best for him, suggest that he interest himself in something else that will keep his mind busy. Making plans for future effort and achievement is a splendid method of keeping undesirable thoughts out of the mind. Any harm- less occupation which will absorb the thoughts and interests will be useful. 1 Dr. Wm. Lee Howard, Confidential Chats With Boys, p. 58. 244 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT Testimony of a Physkian. A short time ago I had occasion to give an address in a neighboring town upon growth and education, with special reference to the ado- lescent period. A few days after returning home I re- ceived a letter from a prominent physician of the town where the address was given, saying, among other things, "I should like to have told the members of the conven- tion how nearly you struck the keynote in regard to the true way to solve the greatest medical and social question which now confronts us. The great question for a num- ber of years in the medical conventions has been how to impart the necessary education along this line. The youth of that period of life is being educated on these ques- tions clandestinely. The new phase of the disease is, that it is very doubtful if it is ever cured. This ought to set every nerve of our social fabric to throbbing. From the mother must come the true education to lead a pure life and the warning of the great danger which follows the transgression. The mother can reach the child, on an average, better than the father/' Companions. Question your boy also about his com- panions and what their habits are. These companions exercise a vital influence upon him at this time. If they are older than he, they are especially to be watched. Things pass between boys of this age of which the par- ents never know. An older boy without principle or conscience may teach to younger companions habits the disastrous results of which in future years are incalculable. Confidences in these matters must be considered sacred and not told as ordinary tales. The boy who under- THE ADOLESCENT BOY 245 stands this and who trusts his parents will give them his confidence. Reading Matter. If you find it impossible to talk fully enough or frankly enough to your boy upon this subject, you may place in his hands one of the books which have been written to teach boys the essential facts of sex at this period. Confidential Chats with Boys, by Dr. Wm. Lee Howard; Almost a Man, by Mary Wood Allen, and What a Young Boy Ought to Know, by Sylvanus Stall, are all excellent. The last named is intended for younger boys than the first and would not appeal as strongly to a boy of more than twelve or thirteen. Be sure to read carefully each book yourself before giving it to the boy. This is for two reasons : First, that you may satisfy yourself that the subject is treated as you would wish it to be treated. Second, that you may know just what the boy has read in order to be able to answer any questions which he may raise. Another Frightful Evil. As to improper relations with the opposite sex, the boy should be made to see that this has all the evils of the solitary habit and the added danger of giving him a venereal disease which is so frightful in its effects that it should act as a check to any youth when its results are known. This disease is now generally understood to be incurable, and, though its outward mani- festations may be removed, it remains in the system, likely at any time to appear an effectual bar to marriage or, if the man is selfish or cruel enough to marry, a menace to his wife and an awful heritage to his children. 246 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT 7. MENTAL PHASES OF ADOLESCENCE In addition to all the manifestations which have taken place in connection with the adolescent changes, there is a group of characteristics which may properly be classed as mental. These mental changes make themselves known in a variety of ways. There is at this time a noticeable change in the boy's general bearing. It has already been said that there is a change in the features and expressions of the face. This change in facial expression is almost sure to be accompanied by a change in character. A curious development which has been noted as taking place at this time is the appearance of what is known as an- cestral traits. In other words, there is a strong proba- bility that during the adolescent changes the boy will develop traits of character similar to those of his parents, his grandparents, or even more remote ancestors. 1 Mental Confusion. One of the first normal mental signs of adolescence is mental confusion. Some one has said of this manifestation, "The bond between the mani- fold factors of the ego is temporarily lost." The par- ticular form in which the mental confusion appears differs in different children. The manifestations are often un- pleasant and often misunderstood. The boy does not understand himself, and the outcome of his behavior is often quite different from what he had planned it to be. It is difficult for the adult to realize this condition, since the boy's acts have all the appearance of being rational and in a certain sense they are so. The processes of the brain are dependent upon the quality of the blood sup- plied to it. Just as sure as the quality of the light from 1 Lancaster, Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. I, p. 196. * THE ADOLESCENT BOY 247 your lamp depends upon the quality of the oil upon which the wick burns, so surely does mental action, especially in the growing child, depend upon the quality of the blood which goes to the brain. Hence, at this period especially, the supply of brain nourishment must be abun- dant and of the best quality.. If this mental confusion of the adolescent boy is understood and rightly treated, it will disappear in good time. As the period of un- usually rapid growth draws to a close, the new brain cor- relations become adjusted and the normal supply of blood to the brain is re-established. Awakening of Individuality. Another mental charac- teristic of adolescence is the awakening of individuality. The boy really first becomes conscious of himself at this time. He looks out upon the universe and sees it no longer as a collection of unrelated things, but as a system in which he occupies a place. The signs of this change are so subtle and they creep into the boy's consciousness so gradually that their coming may be unnoticed. But observe the conversation of your adolescent boy and you will find that, while before he talked about things as sep- arate and unrelated objects, he is now making compari- sons. Men, books, countries, achievements, are compared. It is not an accident that your boy is thinking in this way, but an indication that he, all unconscious to himself, is following the natural law and acquiring the mental breadth and power of manhood. Introspection. Again, introspection is a marked char- acteristic of adolescence. 1 All manner of new and un- tried things crowd into the mind. Here, again, the boy 1 G. Stanley Hall, Adolescence, Vol. II, p. 84. 248 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT does not understand himself, but this he does not admit, least of all to his mother. This is a time when day dreams are indulged in, air castles are built, splendid imaginary feats of bravery and heroism are enacted, and large audiences eloquently addressed. For years I won- dered why it was that at adolescence something seemed to come between the boy and his mother. The fact is that the boy has passed through a period of mental trans- formation and that his mother is in a certain sense a stranger to him. His experience is something like that described in Gilbert Parker's story, in which a man, after having been struck upon the head and vitally injured, went to sleep, and when he awoke his past was blotted out. The Mother's Opportunity. The wise mother will recognize this condition as a normal phase of adolescence and will realize that if the happy relations of the later adolescent period are to be established, she must be the one to make the advances. She must find out what her boy is interested in, and herself become interested in the same things. In a sense, she must get acquainted with him all over again and possibly upon a somewhat differ- ent basis. She must not be discouraged if sometimes her advances seem to be repelled. The apparent self-suffi- ciency of the boy at this period often causes her to dis- continue many of the means of amusement and tokens of affection which have been customary until now. Often the lad, who is hungry for love and sympathy, is held at arm's length. This is the time when most parents are found wanting. 1 How to Keep in Touch. The bonds which will hold 1 Wm. Forbush, The Boy Problem, p. 32, THE ADOLESCENT BOY 249 the boy to his mother now may have to be different from those which held him as a child. If the mother has made the mistake of allowing her intellectual life to re- main at a standstill during the boy's childhood, if she has allowed herself to become entirely absorbed in sewing on his buttons, pressing his trousers and cooking his meals, important and fundamental as these things are, she must resign herself to parting company with him at the adolescent period. If you want to know your boy's real self, you must know and like what he likes. You must bring to him qualities which he will find attractive. Otherwise you may find yourself in the same relation to him as was the teacher to the small daughter of a friend of mine. It was the day for school promotions and the little girl was sent to school as usual. In about half an hour, the mother was surprised to see the child returning home, books in hand. "Why, Dolly, dear/' she exclaimed, "what is the matter? Are you sick?" "No," replied Dolly, "only they put me into another room, and I don't know the teacher, so of course I couldn't stay." Your introduction to your son may not be so simple a matter as was that of Dolly to her teacher. But knowledge and patience, tact and mother love will not fail of their reward. If you would preserve your intellectual life during the years that your boy is growing up, teach him from the start to sew on his own buttons, press his own trousers, and help you with the heavy parts of the housework. So you will have time and strength to put yourself in touch with his peculiar interests. Rebellion Against 'Authority. Another mental char- acteristic of the adolescent is rebellion against established 4 250 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT authority and conventional standards. Religious tenets are likely to be questioned. Watch carefully to see what direction this tendency is taking, but never blame the boy for his questioning. It is as natural as breathing. 1 Frank and reasonable discussions with regard to God, the universe, and the relation of the soul to them will do much good and will make a great difference in the future life of the boy. Experience has shown that the mind of the boy, in spite of his seeming indifference, is very sen- sitive to ethical influences. This will be spoken of more fully a little later in the chapter. Nature of Family Discipline. Allow the family disci- pline, which up to this time has been firm and unyielding, to be very elastic. Remember that it is a transition period and the boy's relation to everything is changing. By this I do not mean that your ideals should be lowered, but that an effort should be made to let the boy see things for himself, and do things because they appeal to him as being right rather than because he has been told to do them. Polarity of the Sexes. One more characteristic of the adolescent period has been called the "polarity of the sexes." The boy becomes sensible of the existence of the other sex. The mutual attraction of the sexes at this time is a perfectly natural process, and involves, among other things, the embodiment of certain ideals. For ex- ample, if your boy seems to be interested in a certain girl, it is because she corresponds to his ideals, either in form and feature, dress, hair, voice, behavior, or men- tality. There is a marked difference in individuals, both 1 Tanner, The Child, p. 59. Forbush, The Boy Problem, p. 19. THE ADOLESCENT BOY 251 as to the time and the degree of this manifestation of polarity, but whenever or however it manifests itself it should always receive consideration on the part of the parents. All normal manifestations should be respected. One important fact in this connection is that the presence of the other sex serves to emphasize all adolescent char- acteristics. The boy will either be a better boy or a worse boy because of this attraction. If pure-minded, the com- panionship of adolescent boys and girls, under proper supervision, is distinctly refining and inspiring to both sexes. But if there is, on either side, the taint of im- purity, even in thought, it is far better to prevent as far as possible the opportunities for meeting. Training of Sex Emotions. The sex emotions should be understood, educated, disciplined, and controlled. They are not to be annihilated but converted into higher forms of activity, as science has turned the destructive- ness of the thunderbolt into steam and motive power and so made it a blessing to our age. When we talk about these things to our boy we may teach him to regard the new emotion as a gift. As such it should be sacredly guarded. The emotional and religious characteristics of adoles- cence belong almost equally to both sexes and therefore a consideration of them will be reserved for the next chapter. 8. LATER SPIRITUAL CHANGES The later adolescent period has been called the period of reflection. The physical growth is accomplished. There is a settling down and adjusting of the new per- sonality to the environment. The life has been broad- 252 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT ened and deepened and wonderfully enriched by the experiences of adolescence. Whatever of nobility and manliness and largeness of soul have been gained by your son, either through nature or training, now makes itself felt. I have said that the period of adolescence is a trying one for the mother. Let me also say that her rewards come to her in the post-adolescent period. No mother has known life's supremest happiness, who has not lived through these years with a loyal son or daughter. The surprises now are not the disappointing ones of the earlier period, but are a constant succession of joy-giving revela- tions. The child has found himself in the true sense and is ready for the conflict and the connuests which are before him. Adolescence Complete. Professor Tyler has said of the boy at this period: "The attainment of full growth and large muscular power, the large heart and lungs, the well oxygenated blood driven at high pressure, the activity and young vitality of all the tissues and organs, give a buoyancy and courage, a sense of power and a longing for entire freedom. A new world has opened before the boy as fresh and fair as the morning of creation. The joy of mere liv- ing dawns upon him. He looks out upon a fair new life boundless in opportunity and endless in scope and time. Surely no parent who realizes the splendid significance of these adolescent years can fail to he filled with a high resolve to do his or her share towards making them count to the fullest possible extent, for a full grown, well- rounded out life for the boy or girl. Let us do our part to make the world really prove as fair as it seems to him THE ADOLESCENT BOY 253 now. Let us do our part towards helping him to hold to his buoyancy, his courage and his sense of power. If we, joining with the multitudes of other parents could carry out such high resolves, the bright side of adolescence would spread its radiance into many places where now only the tragic side of it holds sway. An Appeal. In closing this chapter this chapter towards which (together with the following one) all the other chapters have been converging, I want to ask some very earnest questions of every mother who has read it. Do you really believe the facts which are set down here? Are you convinced that the ignorance, indif- ference and, possibly sometimes, the indolence of mothers and fathers are responsible for a very large part of the terrible evils which come to the world from the misuse and abuse of the sexual powers? Do you now know that all the splendid possibilities for good which adolescence brings to every boy, may, through lack of proper care and instruction, become so many open avenues to a misspent, wretched, and even degrading career? If you do accept these statements as truths, or even as approximate truths, I ask you if there is, or can be anything too hard for you to do in order that the coming generation, the generation of which my boy and your boy are a part, may be saved from sexual degradation and to physical purity and sound moral living? Can there be anything more worth your while than learning how best to bring these wonderful facts of nature which you know to be absolutely true to the knowledge of your children in a simple pure way and with an emphasis that shall be effective and, moreover, be productive of true personal purity in the lives of your 254 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT sons? Will you not answer these questions for yourself and bring them to other mothers? And the world then will say, when your task you have done, "She has reaped what she sowed. Lo, this is her son." QUESTIONS FOR USE IN CLUB STUDY 1. What is the aim of the present discussion? 2. What is adolescence? 3. What is the nature of the mother's preparation for it? 4. What is the parents' duty to the adolescent boy? 5. How would you answer his questions as to the origin of life? 6. What are the dangers of evasion and reticence on this subject? 7. What are the divisions of the adolescent period? 8. What are the most prominent physical changes? 9. Describe the development of the sex mechanism. 10. How should the external parts be cared for? 11. Explain the craving for tobacco and liquor at this time. 12. What is the boy's greatest danger? 13. What are the physical effects of self-pollution? 14. What are its mental effects? 15. What are some ways of overcoming these habits? 16. Describe mental confusions. 17. What is meant by introspection? 18. How will the mother keep in touch with her boy at this time? 19. What should be the nature of the family discipline? 20. What is "polarity of the sexes"? 21. Describe the later spiritual changes of the adolescent period. 22. How will you answer the closing appeal of the author upon the facts given in this chapter? CHAPTER VIII THE ADOLESCENT GIRL i. THE DEVELOPMENT OF SEX In the ordinary treatment of adolescence, the interest is inclined to center about the boy more than about the girl. Much that is said upon this subject seems to apply more directly to boys than to girls, and it is often evident that when neither sex is mentioned, the speaker or writer has the boy in mind. Why is this so? Perhaps we are inclined to think that the girl is being slighted and is not receiving her just share of attention. But if we look into the matter closely, we shall see that there are psychological and biological reasons for the general attitude on this question. Let us go back for a moment to the beginning of all animal life. How Sex Developed. The lowest form of life has no sex at all, but reproduces itself, or rather, multiplies itself, by what seems to us, who are so highly organized, a very singular process. This process is nothing less than the dividing of each individual organism into smaller organisms which in their turn grow larger and are divided again. Out of this simple being there was evolved in process of time what is known as a one-sexed organism, or, rather, both sexes were rep- resented in one organism. Then, little by little, through a process the details of which I will not take time to 255 256 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT describe, it came about that there was a separation of the sexes into two differing organisms. The point which I want to emphasize, and which has been the reason for my speak- ing of this biological development here, is that the original one-sexed organism was the female. In the complex proc- ess of evolution during which the male has been devel- oped as a second sex and both sexes have become very highly organized, there have always been two prominent forces. First, the force which tends to preserve the char- acteristics already developed, or, in other words, to pre- vent the evolution from becoming retarded. This force has been called by scientists the conservative force. Sec- ond, the force which tends to introduce changes or new elements. The particular province of this force is to bring about variety and thus secure advance in the prog- ress of evolution. This has been called the radical force. The female sex represents the conservative force, the male sex represents the radical and progressive force. Relative Importance of Male and Female Organisms. Neither force can be called more important than the other. Neither can be called stronger than the other. Each one in its own line is absolutely essential to our best development. Each of these two different biological organisms has its own way of manifesting itself, quite in accordance with its sex nature. As has already been said, the period of adolescence in human beings is the period when the sex forces manifest themselves. There is in both sexes the rapid growth, the great mental upheaval, and the distinctive spiritual experiences, but the reaction of these experiences has a different tendency in the differ- ent sexes. THE ADOLESCENT GIRL 257 Difference in Adolescent Manifestations. The girl, on account of her conservative organization, accepts these changes more conservatively, more quietly, and keeps her feelings within herself. The tendency of the boy, on the other hand, especially of the boy with no previous training or preparation for this period, is to show his feelings in extreme forms of behavior. The dangers of the adolescent period in relation both to the individual and to the race, are ultimately as serious for girls as they are for boys. But because the dangers to boys are more immediate, more apparent, and more defiant, and because people always respond more quickly to immediate dangers than they do to remote ones, the adolescence of the boy attracts the larger attention. Then there is another rea- son why girls are less likely than boys to break through restraint and call attention to themselves. Public senti- ment demands a circumspection of conduct and character in a girl which it does not demand in a boy. The reasons for this I cannot stop to examine, but will only say in pass- ing that many a mother of boys has fervently wished that public sentiment would make the same demands upon the male sex. Such a condition would make it vastly easier for her to keep her boy pure in thought and action. In the case of the girl, however, much as she may reBel inwardly, however much she may be tempted to commit social or even moral improprieties, the parent may always count to a considerable extent upon the restraining in- fluence of public sentiment. Society as a whole accepts this state of affairs and hence the effort in behalf of girls is less marked. But, althought this sentiment is strong, we cannot afford to rely upon it implicitly. No social law 258 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT can be trusted to take the place of moral principle. Some- times there are girls who are not so sensitive to public opinion, or are ignorant of the strength of it. When such girls are left without personal influence and care, they are in great danger of going wrong. 2. THE MOTHER'S DUTY TO THE ADOLESCENT GIRL The adolescent period in the life of the girl follows in the main the three overlapping periods which are expected to show themselves in the life of the boy. They are: First, early adolescence or puberty, when the changes seem to be mainly physical; second, middle adolescence, when mental development accompanies the physical changes, and the physical manifestations are not so dis- turbing as in the first period ; third, later adolescence, when the physical changes have been completed and the mental and spiritual forces are adjusting themselves to life with an enthusiasm which is begotten of a sense of new powers and possibilities. General Physical Signs. It is difficult to say at just what age adolescence is to be expected in the girl. The tendency to an early or late adolescence often seems to be hereditary. If the mother was adolescent at an early age, she may look for her daughter to become so; if she was late in coming to maturity, the daughter is likely to be the same. It is possible that the first adolescent signs may manifest themselves soon after the tenth year, although probably several years will elapse before maturity is accomplished. As has already been said, adolescence usually comes earlier to the girl than to the boy, and as in case of the boy, the first visible sign of its approach is usually rapid physical growth. The growth in height THE ADOLESCENT GIRL 259 is as marked as the increase in weight. There is a round- ing out of the bust, and a broadening across the hips at this time. There is also a change in the features. This definite growth of the body is almost sure to be preceded and accompanied by numerous aches and pains. There will be headache, backache, aching in the bones and across the breast. These are, for the most part, what we call normal signs. Abnormal and extreme manifestations, together with their causes, and what it may be best for the mother to do in those cases will be spoken of later. Direct Information to Daughter. The mother's duty at this point involves the imparting to her daughter of a clear explanation of the physical processes and possibilities of womanhood. She must learn through study how the body is constructed and what the changes are which will naturally occur at this time. If, as was suggested in the case of the boy, the mother has the full confidence of the daughter, if the daughter has been encouraged to ask questions, and has always had them truthfully answered, the situation will be simplified. When the little girl and the little boy as well, asked where the baby came from, perhaps the mother told that it grew from a tiny speck, in a nest in the mother's body, and when it was large enough and strong enough it was born into the world. It must be explained that this act of the child of being born gave the mother a great deal of pain and suffering and made her ill for some time. The child accepts these things simply. The frank explanation of facts draws her to her mother in a close bond of sympathy. Hereafter she trusts the mother implicitly in all the other mysteries of life. So when the fulness of time has come, and the mother 260 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT discovers the stirring of adolescence in the daughter, the time has arrived for her to speak fully and frankly of the changes which are taking place. This must be done so carefully, so sympathetically, and yet so reasonably that the daughter will understand the meaning and impor- tance of it. If the daughter is clearly shown how critical is the period through which she is passing she will be forearmed against the dangers of the period. She will see how imperative it is that she should take care of her own health, and that she should guard herself from im- purity even in thought. Not only should the nature of the adolescent function be explained but the meaning of it as well. Every girl should understand that not only is imper- fect functioning a danger to her own personal health, but that it is a danger to posterity as well. Women Have a Grave Responsibility. It has been sug- gested that if our race deteriorates, it will be through the deterioration of the woman. No one individual can sepa- rate herself from the life and welfare of the race. We should be just as insistent that our daughters have an exact knowledge of their own physical organization and functions as we are that they learn their school lessons and understand their social duties. There is no knowledge which they will be called upon to use more often than this physical knowledge of themselves. And especially, too tnuch effort cannot be placed upon the dependence of the girl's future health and happiness upon the successful culmination of adolescence. Mistakes made here are fatal and final. There is no appeal from nature's verdict, no forgiveness for those who -even ignorantly have sinned against her laws. THE ADOLESCENT GIRL 26 1 Mother the Proper Teacher. Do not allow your daugh- ter to learn these things from any other person or to have only such knowledge as may come to her by intuition. One of the tragedies of adolescence is that girls should learn the most sacred truths of life in a distorted and un- truthful way. The emphasis is not rightly placed, and the importance of the care of the body is not fully realized. Sometimes it is difficult for mothers to talk with their daughters on this subject, but there is generally a way. It may be well to place in the hands of the girl a good book treating of the physiology of sex, and when she has read it discuss with her any question upon which she may wish further light. Almost a Woman, by Mary Wood Allen, will be helpful here. A simple physiological state- ment of some of the functional processes of the body will be helpful to both the mother and the daughter in this con- nection. Changes in Organs at Adolescence. When a girl is small she has within her body certain organisms which are necessary to keep her alive. The chief of these are the heart, the stomach, the lungs, the intestines or bowels, the liver, and the bladder. The part of the body known as the hips is really the pelvis, and is a bony case with nearly an open front, the function of which is to support and protect certain of these vital organs of the body. Down in the pelvis, between the bladder and the lower part of the bowels, is a small object about the size and shape of a pear. This little object is there at birth just as the other objects are. On one side of this little pear- shaped organ are tiny flat membranes, something like the wings of a bat, only much smaller. On the surface of 262 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT each of these membranes is a round spot which is harder than the rest and is connected with the pear-shaped object in the center by small tubes. This part of the child's anatomy seems to have no connection with any of the processes which are going on in the rest of the body, but when the girl becomes older and larger and reaches her eleventh, twelfth, or thirteenth year, the two small spots in the membranes; grow a little larger and all of these parts become important enough to be named. The central shaped organ is the uterus, and the two little bodies in the membranes at the sides are the ovaries. Soon after the growth of these parts has begun, a minute substance like a speck of the white of a raw egg, and called the ovum forms in the ovaries. When, as weeks go by, the time comes for this little ovum to ripen, it passes out of the ovary through its own little tube and into the uterus. A few days later, it passes on out of the body. But while all this was going on, something else was happening. The lining of the uterus is filled with very small blood vessels. These become full of blood during the process which has just been spoken of. At the proper time, as there seems to be a proper time for everything, these deli- cate blood vessels break and let out their contents, and it is within a few days after this happens that the ovum fol- lows. Four weeks from the time the first tiny ovum made its escape from its ovary, an ovum leaves the other ovary. The process is repeated thereafter regularly at intervals of four weeks, with the same filling and breaking of the blood vessels a few days before each ovum leaves the body. Relative Importance of These Organs in the Body. THE ADOLESCENT GIRL 263 While these parts do not help to support the life of the girl in any way, yet, if anything happens to them, and they are very sensitive and delicate, serious effects are likely to follow. Sometimes the process which has been described above and which is called menstruation, may happen once or twice and then be suspended for a number of months. In fact such a condition occurs very often, and under ordinary circumstances need occasion no anx- iety. If, however, the process is not established properly and regularly in the course of time, it becomes a very serious matter. Not only does the body then suffer, but the mind may fail to develop as it should. It would seem from a careful study of the situation that these organs are not placed in the body to help the body, as its other parts are, but in order that the other parts of the body may help them to become strong and efficient. For the newly adolescent girl, it will be a long time before these portions of the body will be strong enough to be called upon to bear their share of life's burdens, and perhaps they may never be so called upon. Yet it is her imperative duty to guard them sacredly. Their importance is as great in relation to the other parts of the body, as the importance of the race is great in relation to the individual. 3. THE HEALTH OF THE ADOLESCENT GIRL We may now assume that the adolescent period has been fairly entered upon and will consider certain characteris- tics which will appear as the daughter advances in it. The bodily growth has already been spoken of. This will con- tinue through middle adolescence. The average twelve year old girl will not be far from fifty-six inches tall, and 264 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT will weigh about eighty pounds. Size and weight are of course influenced largely by heredity. When the age of fifteen has been reached, the girl will often be practically full-grown, whatever her normal weight and height are to be. Tables of height and weight which apply to both girls and boys will be found in chapter three. There is one very important phase of our subject which presses upon us here. I refer to the health of the adolescent girl. Responsibility of Women. Professor Tyler calls our attention to the fact that American women ought to be healthy since the toughest, sturdiest and strongest Euro- pean populations have been sifted to plant our country. 1 Yet there is plainly a possibility that we have by artificial methods of life through several generations squandered our heritage. We shall have to admit that the health of girls at this period is more likely to be affected than that of boys. This may be partly accounted for by the fact that the nervous system of the girl is more highly orga- nized than that of the boy. The organs of reproduction are much more complex, and there is a close connection between the nervous system and the organs of reproduc- tion. Again, the present system of social life bears heavily upon women and for this reason, our girls are inheriting a tendency to nervous disorders. This tendency must be overcome if our race is to maintain its commanding posi- tion and influence. Things Which Affect Health. When a girl comes to adolescence in a good state of physical health and is prop- erly taken care of, there is no reason to expect that her 1 Tyler, Growth and Education, p. 174. THE ADOLESCENT GIRL 265 health will be seriously affected by the change. As has been said on another page, some pains are normal, and when the child seems well-nourished, has a good color and a good pose, she need cause the mother no uneasiness as regards health. But care should be taken not to undergo unusual fatigue or excitement and especially not to sit with cold and damp feet, or in damp clothing. The sys- tem is more sensitive to cold at this time, and inflammation of the delicate organs may be brought about, which it will be difficult to cure and which will cause great pain and weakness in future years. Some phases of ill health during adolescence are an abnormal paleness and listlessness, sleeplessness, and con- stipation. If the child has had some previous defect, either developmental or nervous, more serious disturbances to health are likely to occur. Anaemia and hysteria are the most common. 1 Anaemia is a condition of thin and im- poverished blood. The blood loses some of its red cor- puscles. These red corpuscles are very important, since they carry oxygen from the lungs to the brain and to all other parts of the body where blood circulates. An anae- mic person has little color in the face and lips, and becomes breathless in going up stairs. Among the causes of anaemia are living in hot, close rooms and wearing tight clothing. 2 Listlessness, and a general lack of strength are its symp- toms. Hysteria is a nervous trouble. Its symptoms are laugh- ing and crying alternately with no real occasion for doing either. There is often a choking sensation in the throat. 1 Francis Warner, A Study of Children, p. 195. 2 Warner, Study, of Children, p. 196, 266 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT The eyes are not under control, and there are other signs of nervousness, as the twitching of the muscles, and a tendency to bite the nails. These symptoms should not be neglected. If they do not yield to careful home treat- ment, and especially if the monthly function fails to be- come regularly established, as sometimes happens under these circumstances, a physician should be consulted. Many girls suffer from constipation during adolescence. This induces a feeling of sluggishness in the whole body. The brain also feels the effect of the stagnant physical proc- esses and becomes dull and heavy. Constipation can often be overcome by a proper diet, and such a course is far better than the practice of using drugs. The lighter meats, as poultry and lean pork, will have a laxative tendency with some girls. Among veg- etables, onions are excellent, and among fruits, apples, pears, bananas, oranges, figs and prunes, particularly the last two named, can be recommended. Graham bread and crackers, oatmeal and any food made from coarse unbolted flour or whole wheat, will usually be found helpful. If these things do not accomplish the purpose, a mild drug may be used, but do not allow the constipation to become chronic. The matter of regulating the diet at this period is not a simple one. The adolescent appetite is a "finicky" thing and not likely to be amenable to the judgment of the mother. Exercise. The question of exercise offers another diffi- cult problem. There can be little doubt that the tendency of American girls to ill-health, especially in the line of nervous and uterine disorders, is due not to over-study or brain fatigue, but to the lack of sufficient regular and sys- THE ADOLESCENT GIRL 267 tematic exercise in the open air. It may be that in some cases a too strenuous social life adds its quota of influ- ence to the already established condition, but the number of girls who suffer from social dissipations is much smaller than those who suffer from nervous troubles. When a girl's strength is depleted from lack of exercise and the evils which follow in its train, she undoubtedly does suffer from her study and from almost everything else which she tries to do. This condition often begins while she is in the lower grades at school, and becomes a habit which is likely to last through life unless measures are taken to correct it. If the girl, as she grows older, is called upon to assist in the duties of the home she may overcome the condition, although even then the problem of fresh air is still to be solved. But for the daughters of those homes where most, if not all, of the manual work is done by servants, insufficient exercise is a very real danger. Clothing Often Injurious. It is to be hoped that in the near future, the clothing of our girls will be universally adapted to healthful exercise. In a parents' meeting in one of our grade schools recently the subject of equiping the playground with gymnastic apparatus was discussed. It soon became evident that the apparatus which the girls could use was very limited. Everything which involved really vigorous exercise had to be eliminated on account of the ill-adaptation of the clothing of the girls. The pupils were from the first to the eighth grade, ranging in age from five to fourteen years. Perhaps we are discussing a very hopeless subject, since it is quite generally admitted that the clothing of women 268 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT as a whole, from the standpoint of health at least, is a failure. Yet we must struggle with this problem, for the clothing plays a large part in the health of the adolescent girl. To preserve the physical strength the clothing should not interfere with the three essential bodily functions, namely, circulation, respiration, and digestion. There are two arch enemies, for the adolescent girl, in the way of dress. If they could be vanquished, the chances for sturdy womanhood in the next generation would be greatly increased. They are corsets and high heels. The desire to wear corsets seizes the girl just at the time when she least ought to wear them, that is when the body is ten- der and soft, and when the most important vital organs she possesses are struggling for enlargement and strength. Nature's laws are blindly ignored and the dictates of fash- ion as to which part of the body should be squeezed in and which part padded out are cheerfully accepted. If the pattern sheet says that the waist must be long, then, the fatter the girl the harder she struggles to make her waist long. One girl must do it because the others do, and she cannot bear the humiliation of being "different/' What a change in all this unreasonable, harmful proced- ure could be brought about by a coterie of sensible moth- ers ! High heels are a menace to the body, literally from top to toe. The muscles of the neck, shoulders, back, hips and ankles are strained, by supporting the weight of the body in a position not intended for it; to say nothing of the vital organs in the pelvic cavity which are tipped out of their natural position, when high heels are worn. There are other dangers to be sure, as heavy skirts, high collars, thin waists with insufficient underclothing in cold THE ADOLESCENT GIRL 269 weather, but the two first named are the most persistent and general. The only thing to do with them is to have nothing to do with them. If the growing girl needs some support for her figure there are several styles of waists which will meet the needs and be free from the injurious effects of the corsets. To secure proper heels will require a struggle with the shoe man, but if you know what you want you can generally get it. Dr. Rankin, to whom reference was made in our dis- cussion of the health of school children, lays special em- phasis upon the matter of warm clothing in cold weather. He insists that the child can never reach maturity in per- fect health who does not wear a heavier grade of under- clothing in cold weather than in warm weather. The cus- tom which prevails among high school and college girls of wearing gauze underwear, and thin white waists through the coldest months of winter, will, according to this authority, eventuate in the serious impairment of adult health, even though no unfavorable results may be noticed at the time. If every mother could see to it that her daughter had plenty of exercise, plenty of nourishing food, and good healthful clothing between the ages of twelve and eighteen years, many things which are now most perplexing in our school and social life would drop into insignificance. 4. MENTAL CHANGES DURING ADOLESCENCE During adolescence the mind as well as the body is un- dergoing a great' upheaval. One writer says, "Changes in the brain are so rapid, development of the faculties of the mind are so remarkable, even in a few months, that the 270 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT wisest care must constantly be accorded, to insure per- fect and complete development." Professor Seerley, after calling attention to the physical dangers, says, "There are psychological results which are just as serious if neglected, and just as promising in returns, if cared for at the proper time." Introspection. I spoke in the last chapter of introspec- tion as a characteristic of the adolescent age. I am in- clined to think that the girl, because social convention pre- vents her from expressing herself in an open way, suffers more from this mental condition than does the boy. There is an abnormal desire to conceal herself from her elders. She seems to withdraw into herself and to be living a life of her own, apart from the family life about her. She will perform her duties and answer questions, but often it will be in a perfunctory way, which, coupled with a dreamy expression of the eyes, suggests that her thoughts are not upon her environment. The Mother's Part. This condition requires all a lov- ing mother's tact. The mother must decide when she may safely enter the precincts of her daughter's thought-life, and when she would better remain at a distance. The ability to see the invisible is more than we can hope for. There are certain intangible things which even thought and instinct cannot discover. There is a subtle play of the soul forces at this period of life which is beyond our ken. We are at best only partners with the great Divine Intel- ligence that knows and understands all; and there come times when we recognize that we must leave our child in the hands of the Unseen Power. Desire for Respect. Another mental characteristic of THE ADOLESCENT GIRL 271 this period is the desire to be respected, and to be treated as an older person would be treated. The girl's ideals have suddenly changed from those of a child to those of a woman, and she does not realize that her character and conduct have not also taken this sudden leap. This also, is a situation which requires tact. If the mother ridicules her daughter, for what may seem like silly pretensions, she will not only lose her confidence and sympathy but there is danger that the girl will seek the companionship of her inferiors, who will accord her the consideration which she craves and which she feels that she deserves. Emotional Sensitiveness. The emotional nature is pe- culiarly sensitive. Anger is quickly shown. Lovej and hate spring up suddenly and often unreasonably. Jeal- ousy is one of the most marked characteristics of adoles- cence. Together with these tendencies,, there is great sensitiveness to fault-finding in any form. Where these characteristics existed before, they are accentuated, and where they did not exist before they usually appear. They will in a proper environment, pass away during the quiet, reasonable years which follow adolescence, yet it cannot be denied that while they last they bring much unhappi- ness to the one who is subject to them, an unhappiness which the mother would gladly alleviate if it were in her power to do so. Love and hate have! been mentioned as likely to be strong at this time. It is an interesting fact that the first of these emotions is not always or generally displayed towards the opposite sex. The adolescent girl often becomes passionately attached to an adult of her own sex. It often^ happens that those about the child and even the recipient of the adoration have little idea of the 272 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT great happiness which comes to the life of the child through this ardent love. The! emotion is often shown also in an exaggerated form towards some favored girl companion. Mental Suggestion. Mental suggestion has been re- ferred to as an\ expedient in the case of young children. This process may be most hopefully employed also with the adolescent. Be with your daughter as much as you can and make an effort to keep your own mind in the state in which you wish her mind to be. Let your con- versation be of good will, unselfishness, and self-control. If you find that she is jealous of someone, take pains to find out the circumstances so as to be able to show her that no cause for jealousy exists. Constantly assume that there is good- will towards your child on the/ part of her classmates, especially on the part of those in whom she suspects a different feeling. It will often require much effort upon the part of the mother to gain these states of mind, but in the case of the adolescent, whether boy or girl, the establishing of right mental conditions is gener- ally the only means of help. Polarity. There is, to be sure, also in the adolescent girl what was called in a former chapter "the polarity of the sexes". Many girls are sensitive to its influence. The recognition of the opposite sex may be shown either by an unusual seeking for, or an unnatural avoidance of their society. It is also shown by a greater thought fulness for the clothing and the general personal appearance. Social Life. This question of the "polarity of the sexes," brings us to a consideration of the social life. It is impossible here to lay down definite rules, because each girl is different from every other in her disposition THE ADOLESCENT GIRL 273 and desires, and each mother has different ideals. I be- lieve, however, that it is every mother's duty to see that her daughter's social life does not deteriorate into social dissipation. She should constantly use her judgment as to the relation of the social life to her daughter's present and future well-being. We all know how often "society" interferes with the girl's best good, physically, intel- lectually, and morally. The mother, not the child, is the one to decide if this is happening, and the mother should dictate the course of action for the daughter to pur- sue. If the girl thinks too much of social life, she should be restrained; if, on the other hand, she thinks too little of it, there should be an effort to introduce as much as will be good for her. The attitude of the mother toward her daughter's boy friends must also depend largely upon the daughter's disposition. If the girl is inclined to have many boy friends, or, more especially, if she has but one, and that one very friendly, there should be a careful supervision. An eminent phy- sician has declared that in his judgment adolescent boys and girls should never be left in each other's company without adult supervision. If, on the other hand, the girl seems to care nothing for boys, the mother will be wise to encourage such friendship. I realize that this is hard to do under the present social conditions, but if one way fails, another may be found, and I am convinced that the result of the effort will be good. 5. SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT AT ADOLESCENCE Turning from the physical and mental to the spiritual nature of the adolescent girl, we find some quite dis- 274 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT tinctive characteristics. We spoke earlier of adolescence being a "new birth" in a physical way. It often seems to be such in a religious way. Dr. G. Stanley Hall says that from the psychological standpoint alone the church is jus- tified in laying the emphasis which it does upon regenera- tion. It is a well known fact that more enter the church during adolescence, than during any other equal period of time. The boy or girl seems to receive from nature what has been called a "new capital" in energized spiritual feel- ing. 1 The Religious Awakening. What is often called "change of heart" may justly be considered as a growth in spirituality, corresponding to the physical and mental growth. There comes with more definiteness than ever before a sense of the relation of right and wrong, purity and impurity, truth and falsehood. Ideas of right appear clothed with a new force, and are often exceedingly high. Sometimes they are so high as to cause discouragement at the impossibility of attainment. This personal realiza- tion of right and wrong now takes the place of mere rules. Conscience is hypersensitive. It has sometimes been called the voice of the race speaking within the individual. Conflicting Emotions. In speaking of the adolescence of boys, reference was made to their tendency to rebellion against authority and against all accepted standards and beliefs. With many girls there is this same rebellion and questioning, but for most girls the religious experiences, especially those of the later adolescent years, bring great happiness and peace. It is true that on account of the ab- normal sensitiveness of conscience this newly found peace 1 Lancaster, Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. I, p. 196. THE ADOLESCENT GIRL 275 is sometimes interrupted by the fear that the girl has committed some wrong. She sometimes spends unhappy hours a prey to such feelings. But, on the whole, God is never so real or duty so simple as to the newly awak- ened conscience of the adolescent girl. Dreams and Visions. Adolescence is the time for dreams and visions. The curtain of the future seems drawn back, and the girl lives much in the realm of the imagination. If the dreams are built on high ideals and pure desires they will prove a powerful uplift. Professor Starbuck, in his book, The Psychology of Religious Ex- perience, refers to the period of adolescence as the time when religion changes from a purely formal thing to a vital and living force. Five out of six young people pass through unusual religious experiences at this time. These experiences differ both in their nature and their intensity but they have the common characteristic of being sudden and self -revealing. There comes perhaps for the first time a sense of incompleteness, of imperfection and of sin. The feelings range from the highest exaltation to the lowest depression. The adolescent lives now on the "Delectable Mountains" and now in the "Valley of Hu- miliation." Spiritual Struggle. Some of the many young people who have been questioned by Professor Starbuck express themselves as having a sense of struggling with the au- thority and majesty of the world which is bearing in upon them from every side. "In this sudden budding of con- science and perception, of the moral worth of things, we are tracing one step further the ethical root of religion/' Girls are found, as a rule, to suffer more from brooding 276 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT depression and morbid introspection, while boys struggle more with rebellion against their environment and are ex- ercised in the effort to control their passions. If there is no religious awakening there is usually a quickened ethi- cal sense. Here the power of insight is often in advance of activity. In other words, the girl sees what is right before she has the power to make her behavior conform to it. Her daily life falls below her ideals. Mother in the Background. In the development of the religious ideas the mother should not take too prominent part. If she thinks her child's ideals are too high, she should not humiliate her by telling her so. For, after all, the girl may be more nearly right than the mother, and the enthusiasm of youth may help both mother and daugh- ter to a higher spiritual plane. Instead of allowing the girl to lower her ideals it is better to help her to live up to them. This is a time when she especially needs sym- pathy. A blunder may prove fatal, but care and love will reap a harvest in the coming years. 6. THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS The majority of parents accept the public school as the instrumentality through which their growing daughters shall be educated. Hence it is not until the daughter has finished the course offered by the common school and stands looking out into the future, that her education assumes the aspect of a problem. What shall we say of the higher education of girls? Some one has called the effort of women to gain the privileges of higher education a "holy war/' one of the most important of the many struggles that have been waged in modern times against ignorance THE ADOLESCENT GIRL 277 and custom. But the battle is now essentially won. The question, whether the girl should receive a higher educa- tion, is now looked upon as the same question in regard to the boy. Circumstances Not Sex the True Guide. That is, it depends upon individual needs and tastes, with some re- gard to the circumstances of the parents, and the probable future circumstances of the boy or girl. It is probably true that we have not yet found the best educational sys- tem for either boy or girl. The courses of our high schools and colleges will un- doubtedly keep changing and improving in usefulness and adaptability. It falls essentially within the province of all intelligent mothers of today to inquire what college courses of the present time are adapted to the needs of their sons and daughters. The subject must not be con- sidered in a narrow or technical sense, but from the stand- point of the greatest usefulness and happiness of all. United effort upon the part of college women will effect a more perfect adaptation of college courses to the needs of our girls especially. We rejoice in the equality of educational opportunities which exist in the United States today, and the question as to where you or I shall send our daughters will be answered by the personal needs of the daughters. In a general way, then, we may say that the key to the education of an adolescent girl is the ideal which we have for her future life. The Mothers Ideal -for Her Daughter. Every mother has her own ideals for her daughter's future. We must have a care that we look first to the girl's best good, and that we do not allow our personal desires or ambitions to 278 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT stand in the way of it. The woman of the present day has greater freedom than the woman of the last generation. Progress demands this for her and she is better for it. Keeping these new conditions in mind, the mother of to- day should see to it that during the impressionable years of adolescence her daughter receives such care as will fit her to assume the responsibilities and to use the discretion demanded by her larger freedom. 7. GENERAL SUMMARY This very brief and incomplete discussion of adoles- cence will perhaps be suggestive of the great number of lines along which the care and interest of the parents must extend in order to embrace all the opportunities which present themselves. In closing it may be well to gather together in condensed form, the chief suggestions for parents which have been made in the two chapters treat- ing of this period. 1. Be watchful and sympathetic. Consider no time lost which is spent with your child. The mother who un- derstands things which the child does not, must take the initiative in many matters. Do not be discouraged or im- patient if your efforts do not always seem to be appreci- ated. If they are not appreciated now they will some day be appreciated more than you can know. 2. Let the family discipline be elastic but not lax. 3. Encourage individuality. The development of the child's idea of self is one of the marked characteristics of the period, and interference with it will be disastrous. Try to secure that kind of individuality which shall be founded upon right and in harmony with the home life. THE ADOLESCENT GIRL 279 The child must learn that when he comes to be treated as an adult, he must share the responsibilities of the home, as do the other adult members of the household. No parent who has had any experience will discredit the diffi- culties and the delicacy of this transition period whether the adolescent is a boy or a girl. 4. High ideals in the mind of the adolescent boy or girl will prove a tower of strength. See that the ideals are distinct and rightly applied. 5. Watch the social organizations which your children form among themselves. Adolescents are naturally gre- garious. They form little groups, remain together for a time, separate and form other groups. Do not think that they are fickle and unstable if this happens. It is nature's way. However, it will be safer and better for all con- cerned if these groups of young people can have as a director and patron a sympathetic adult. Young people's organizations are inevitable, but by themselves are unstable and not always safe. Besides these categories of "do" and "don't" there are "remembers" which apply equally to the girl and boy : Remember that the power to appreciate is far beyond the power to express. Often we think that our efforts in behalf of our children are thrown away. But could you get close to their hearts as you sometimes do, in mo- ments of confidence you would find that the measure of appreciation is full and perhaps running over. Some in- explicable but obstinate barrier seems to block the power of expression and sometimes even impels the child to be- havior which is the very opposite of that which he intends. This lack of power to express oneself comes to every one 280 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT at times, but during the adolescent period, with many ex- periences new and strange, with the confusion of intellect that is stranger still, the power of expression fails to keep pace with the rest, and on this account the girl is often thought unappreciative, and the boy is declared thought- less and rude. 2. Remember, again, that in adolescence the soul is being equipped for time and for eternity. We parents who take such pains to have our homes beautifully fur- nished homes which we and our children occupy but for a few short years we who clothe our children's bodies with care and taste, how are we furnishing their souls? Souls are not like rooms. They will not stand vacant even though we take no pains to furnish them. Some one else will step in and furnish them if we have left them barren, and this furniture may be neither useful nor beautiful. 3. Remember that the home is a refuge and a resting place. The present life is a life of action, and as we strive to keep pace with it there should always be one place where we can find an opportunity for the building up of what has been torn down, one way in which we may lessen the strain of the world about us. This place is the home; this way is to make the atmosphere of the home an atmosphere of repose. Let us make our homes places where we and our children may rest and think and plan and regain the harmony and clear-headedness which we so often lose. If the homes of this generation are not made centers of harmony and restfulness, the children of this generation will not be equipped to go out into the complex life which is already crowding upon them THE ADOLESCENT GIRL 281 and hold their own. They must do more than hold their own, for it is to the children of educated parents that society must look to raise the standard of manhood and of womanhood and of Christian citizenship. QUESTIONS FOR CHILD STUDY 1. What is the general aim of the present chapter? 2. What is the difference between adolescent manifestations in the boy and the girl ? 3. Give the reasons for this. 4. What are the general physical signs of adolescence in the girl? 5. Why is the mother's part imperative? 6. Describe the change in the organs of reproduction at adoles- cence. 7. Why is the health of the girl more likely to be affected at this time than the health of the boy ? 8. Describe the dangers of imperfect development. 9. Name some prominent manifestations of ill-health often shown by the adolescent girl. 10. What is said in this chapter in regard to Hysteria? Con- stipation ? Exercise ? 11. Do you consider that the present mode of dress of the American woman is adequate for health, comfort, and protection? Why? 12. Describe the adolescent trait of introspection. 13. How does the adolescent girl show her emotional sensitive- ness? 14. What do you consider the proper relation between the social life on the one hand, and the home and school life on the other, for the growing girl? 15. Describe the religious awakening of the adolescent. 16. What should be the mother's attitude towards her daughter at this time? 282 STUDIES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT 17. What do you think should control the mother's plan for her daughter's education? 18. What are the five points in summing up? 19. What are the three things to be remembered? 20. Do you think the home life of the average family is meeting the social needs of the present time? Why? INDEX Addams, Jane, 242. Adenoids, 127. Adolescence, 225; mother's prepa- ration for, 227; boy's new needs, 229; general characteristics of period, 223; later physical changes, 236; greatest danger during, 239; mental phases of, 246; changes during, 261; men- tal changes during, 269. Adolescent girl, health of, 263; education of, 276. Angell, J. R., 167, 173, 201. Anger, 178. Attention, power of, 197. Authority, rebellion against, 249. Baby, keeping warm, 21, 23. Baldwin, J. M., 158, 159, 167, 193. Barnes, Earl, 165, 217. Bashfulness, 157. Bathing the baby, 15. Boastfulness, 105. Bottle, hot-water, 22. Brain, building, 92. Breathing, 25, 60. Burnham, W. H., 60. Cabot, Ella Lyman, 166, 170, 173. Carbohydrates, 45. Catarrh, 128. Chafing, 24. Chair, nursery, 24. Chest, at birth, 13. Child, a normal, 40; a perfect, 40; nervous, 61, 63. Child-training, qualities needed for, 191. Chittenden, R. H., 42, 44, 45, 47, 52. Church, attendance, 220. Cigarettes, 137. Clothing, first, 15; baby, 26; often injurious, 267. Coe, A. E., 205, 216, 220, 221. Companionship, 95, 152, 244. Conscience, 222. Constipation, infant, 23, 136. Cortex, 35. Crime, increase of, 241. Cruelty, 106. Curiosity, 103. Dangers, of forced social life, 140. Day, Dr. W. H., 219. Deafness, causes of, 126. Diet, changes in, 20; second year, Discipline, 36, 206; reasoning used in appeal to Intellect, 210; aim in all, 212; nature of family, 250. Disobedience, 175. Ears, 58, 71; troubles, 59, 125. Eating, 54. Environment, 73. Exercise, 266. Eyes, 58, 70, 77; troubles, 59; in- crease of troubles, 124; signs and causes of, 125. Face, 77. Fatigue, 66. Fats, 46. Faults, children's, 170. Fear, how to overcome, 98; moral dangers of, 102. Feeding, times of, 19; night, 19. Field, Walter Taylor, 154, 155. Fighting, 108. Food, for baby, 15; care of, 17; how nourishes, 41; classes of, 43; grouping of, 46; proteid, 47; carbohydrates, 47; fat, 48; min- eral matter in, 49; selection of, 50; adaptation of, 51. Forbush, W. B., 154, 171, 206, 226, 242, 248. God, idea of, 216. Griffith, J. P. C., 12, 17, 21, 23, 30, 32, 33, 57, 129, 133. Growth, 56. Habit, formation of, 196; economy of, 198; physiological phase of, 199; moral phase of, 200. Hall, G. Stanley, 119, 122, 139, 178, 241, 247. Head, at birth, 12; of baby, 31, 76. Health, effect of school life upon, 117. Home, significance of, 190; func- tion of in religious training, 215; religious services in, 220. Hough and Sedgwick, 42, 126. Imagination, apparent untruthful- ness through, 173. 283 284 INDEX Imitations, the first training, 192; deliberate, 194; parents' respon- sibility, 195. Individuality, awakening of, 247. Instincts, 97; for collecting, 162. Interests, dominant, 160; bad, 163. Introspection, 247. James, William, 163, 202, 203. Judd, Dr. C. H., 58, 61. King, Irving, 35, 150, 151, 160. Kirkpatrick, E. A., 56, 122. Kock, Fritz, 139. Lancaster, E. G'., 246, 274. Language, a sign of brain devel- opment, 79; general laws, 82; help in, 88; baby talk, 89; bad, 107. Laziness, 172. Limbs, at birth, 14. Liquor, 237. Locomotion, 25. Manners, bad, 171. McKeever, W. A., 138. Meanness, 174. Measurements, abnormal, 30. Measuring baby, 29. Memory, 166; function of, 167; how to strengthen, 168; drill, 169. Milk, 49. Milk mixture, 17. Money, child's idea of, 164. Motor-ideals, 123. Mouth, 78. Muscles, location of, 122. Muscular system, 121. Music, 156. Nails, 29. Needs, first, 11. Nerves, 61. Nervous, responses, 91. Nervous system, 72; and brain, 134. Nose, 126. Nutrition, 41; good and bad, 55. Obedience, 197. O'Shea, Dr. M. V., 82, 160, 193. Ownership, 104. Parent-teachers' associations, 142. Perception, 69. Physical conditions, 116. Physical life, 39. Physical weakening, 75. Play, a factor in mental develop- ment, 90; timeliness in, 94; with mother, 95; adequate, 123. Posture, 131. Praise, love of, 159. Preyor, W., 14. Proteids, 44. Punishment, corporal, 206; threat- ening, 208; personal appeal, 209; social appeal, 209. Pyorrhea, 131. Quarreling, 96. Questions, child's, 151. Rankin, F. M., 137. Reading, 111; the child's own, 155. Records, 80; of health of a deli- cate girl, 147; of a boy, 148. Richards, Dr. C. H., 219. Right, ideas of, 216. Rowe, S. H., 63, 120, 124, 132, 133, 138, 145, 146, 163, 168, 199, 200, 208, 210. School, mother's relation to, 110; effect of, 110; crowding in, 112; school boards, 144; conditions in, 144. School-life, 109; influence of, 151. Self-consciousness, 75. Self-control, 37. Self -pollution, danger in, 239; how to conquer, 242. Selfishness, 180. Sensations, 69. Senses, special at birth, 14; spe- cial, 35, 70. Sex, origin of, 255. Sexes, polarity of, 250; differences in manifestation, 257. Sharp, Frank Chapman, 187. Shyness, 74. Skin, at birth, 13. Smile, first, 82. Social life, 272. Society, 139. Soft spots, 12. Spine, curvature of, 133. Stories, told by mother, 153. Suggestion, 243; mental, 272. Sunday School, 221. Swift, E. J., 163. Tables, for head and chest, 32; height and weight, 33, 57, 120. Talk, learning to, 81. Tanner, Amy, 157. Teasing, 174. Teeth, first, 27; care of, 28; first permanent, 128. Throat, 58. Tobacco, 237. Training, reason for apparent failure, 213; religious, 215; re- ligions, time for, 218. Trunk, lower, 13. Truth and untruth, 182. Tyler, J. M., 12, 13, 22, 31, 43, 62, 121, 133, 160, 195, 204, 209, 264. INDEX 285 Untruthfulness. causes of, 183. Vnrnltine- 23 Will. the function of, 201; strengthening of, 203; applying, Warner, Francis, 35, 40, 60, 63, 64, 204 135 147 265. Words, first, 83. Watchfulness,' cause for, 43. Writing, 111. Weakness, physical, 75. Wrong, ideas of, 216. RETURN TO the circulation desk of any University of California Library or to the NORTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY Bldg. 400, Richmond Field Station University of California Richmond, CA 94804-4698 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS 2-month loans may be renewed by calling (510)642-6753 1 -year loans may be recharged by bringing books to NRLF Renewals and recharges may be made 4 days prior to due date. DUE AS STAMPED BELOW SENT ON ILL FEB 2 ^ 1999 U. C. 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