VOCATIONAL ENGLISH A TEXTBOOK FOR COMMERCIAL AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS BY WILLIAM R. BOWLIN, Ph. B. INSTRUCTOR IN KNGLISH, LINDBLOOM HIGH SCHOOL, CHICAGO GEORGE L. MARSH, Ph. D. ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO (CORRESPONDENCE-STUDY DEPARTMENT) SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY CHICAGO NEW YORK OOPTBIGHT, 1918 BT SOOTT. FORESMAN AND COMPANY I /W c M ^v BOOKWALTBR-BALL-GREATHOUSH PRINTING COMPANY PRINTING AND BINDING INDIANAPOLIS TO THE TEACHER Each year it becomes more difficult for an American to "get along in the world" unless he speaks and writes good English. This book is an attempt to provide the main essentials of an English training sufficient for competent work in any ordinary vocation. Part One presents the principles of correct English the laws of the language as to word formation, spelling, punctuation, and, above all, correct sentence making. The student who thoroughly masters Part One will not make the common blunders that mar the writing even of many college students blunders that sometimes give rise to the charge that our education fails to prepare young people for business. Part Two provides for practice in composition, both oral and written, of the kinds most directly useful in everyday life. It is not intended that Part One as a whole shall precede Part Two in teaching. Both parts will naturally be used to some extent side by side, the teacher assigning composition work from Part Two along with study of the principles developed in Part One. The following specific suggestions as to the use of the book may be helpful: (1) The first seven chapters make an obvious natural unit, providing a review of the grammatical foundation for correct speaking and writing. This study begins with the sentence and its main elements, because the fundamental necessity of intelligible composition is proper sentence structure. (2) .Chapter VIII (Punctuation) can be used at any time after the student has a fair knowledge of correct sen- tence making, and will be valuable for reference throughout the course. (3) Chapters IX-XI inclusive may be studied at the teacher's discretion in relation to other parts of the work; but the word study of Chapter IX will be help- ful as a basis for the spelling review in Chapter X. 3 \ v o i Q Q 4 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH (4) Chapter XII is merely a source for exercises, which tin teacher will assign whenever they fit. (5) The first few chapters of Part Two provide for a large amount of simple and practical composition, with a minimum of technical theory. The main essentials as to planning and paragraphing are given in Chapter XIV; practice directed toward the securing of good sentence structure is provided by the exercises of Chapter XVI ; sound principles as to choice of words and the avoidance of wordiness are elucidan ! m Chapter XVII. (6) Chapters XIX-XXI inclusive contain material as to the form and language of letters that may be used whenever the teacher wishes to assign letter writing. Chapters XXII and XXIII are especially adapted for the latter part of a business course. The book assumes the ordinary grammar-school train! MI: in English; but the material is so developed as to be teachable even to students who have rather hazy notions of grammar. For such students additional help will be found in the Glossary of Technical Terms in the Appendix (pages 351 ff.). The material of this book is the result of experience and ex- periment. The exercises were largely collected from the work of students, and nearly all of them have been used successfully in the classroom for several years. The choice of topics for treatment has been determined primarily by the necessities arising from bad English. The procedure in selecting material has been from observed faults back to the principles wjiich, once understood and diligently practiced, will eradicate those faults and establish right habits of expression. Material that does not function in this way has been rejected. It is believed, therefore, that the book presents d, minimum of fundamentals for a maximum of needs of the young person who must make a living. Teachers of "business English" or "commercial English" have generally found that their courses must be primarily TO THE TEACHER 5 English. Laying great stress on business forms for students who do not know the laws of the language is like teaching advanced rescue methods to a boy who cannot swim. Con- sequently the material of this book is mainly English, only secondarily business, and the English part of it, at least, will be practically useful to any class of students. Attention is invited to the following special features: (a) It presents a complete review of those portions of English grammar that are fundamental to correct spelling, punctuation, and especially sentence struc- ture. A Glossary of Technical Terms is provided for reference. (b) The grammatical exercises are all designed to cultivate right habits of expression and eradicate common faults in writing. These exercises are very numerous and comprehensive, illustrating all the material de- veloped in the text. (c) Abundant composition subjects of a simple and practi- cal character are given, in such variety as to enlist the interest of any student. (d) The list of common word roots (pages 151-153) pro- vides an effective method of enlarging the student's vocabulary. (e) The lists of words commonly misspelled or mispro- nounced (pages 174-179) were prepared with great care to include the most frequent offenders. (f ) Punctuation is treated in a new inductive manner, by showing why it is needed and thus leading to the methods adopted to meet the needs. Instead of a more or less arbitrary and disconnected set of rules, Chapter VIII develops principles that are observed in order to make the meaning clear with a minimum of effort for the reader. (g) All the technical material is treated in such a way that (with the aid of the very complete index) the book can be used for reference as to correct usage. 6 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH (h) The discussion of business letter writing in Chapters XIX-XXII inclusive is in harmony with the principles followed by the most successful correspondence man- agers in the large business houses of today. The authors wish to acknowledge their indebtedness to Professor Easley Jones, of the University of Illinois, for some effective theme subjects which they have used by permission. Thanks are also due LippincoWs Magazine for permission to use copyright material. CONTENTS PART ONE. PRINCIPLES OF CORRECT ENGLISH CHAP. PAGE I. THE SENTENCE 9 II. NOUNS 22 III. VERBS ' 31 IV. PRONOUNS * 62 V. ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 77 VI. PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS 90 VII. ERRORS THAT CAUSE OBSCURITY 103 VIII. PUNCTUATION 113 IX. How WORDS ARE MADE 149 X. CAPITALIZATION AND SPELLING 159 XI. SPOKEN ENGLISH 181 XII. EXERCISES FOR REVIEW .' . . 191 PART TWO. COMPOSITION LETTERS ADVERTISING XIII. COMPOSITION ORAL AND WRITTEN 197 XIV. ORGANIZING A COMPOSITION 203 XV. WRITING DEFINITE INSTRUCTIONS 217 XVI. TYPES OF ERRORS IN SCHOOL THEMES 227 XVII. THE VALUE OF THE WORD 240 XVIII. NEWSPAPER AND MAGAZINE WRITING 253 XIX. LETTER WRITING 263 XX. DETAILS OF LETTER FORM 274 XXI. MISTAKES IN THE LANGUAGE OF LETTERS 287 XXII. SPECIAL BUSINESS LETTERS 296 XXIII. ADVERTISING.. ..339 APPENDIX A. GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS 351 B. BUSINESS FORMS FOR TRANSMITTING MONEY .366 C. ABBREVIATIONS 369 D. BOOKS A MINIMUM REQUIREMENT 376 INDEX > 377 7 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH FART ONE PRINCIPLES OF CORRECT ENGLISH CHAPTER I THE SENTENCE 1. Importance of Good English. When you reply to an advertisement or write a letter to a stranger, nothing counts so much against you as a mistake in English. Your reader is striving to get an impression of you to classify you. He has, of course, little on which to base his judgment; and for this reason slovenly form or an error in spelling, punctuation, or grammar will generally work injury to you. In like manner you are judged by your speech. If your voice is loud or coarse, if your sentences are ungrammatical or your words mis- pronounced, you make an unfortunate impression. 2. Grammar and Everyday Usage* More than half the errors in our ordinary speech and writing are violations of grammatical principles. In English these principles are not really complicated or difficult; but they are very important. To violate them is to risk economic and social injury. This book does not include a systematic discussion of English grammar as a whole, but treats only those laws that bear directly upon common errors in the spoken or written language. The student need not fear that the following pages will con- tain much of the technical grammar he may have thought uninteresting or unrelated to his daily needs. There must be, however, considerable attention to the fundamental laws of the language. These constitute the ground plan on which all effective speech and writing rest. 10 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH 3. The Sentence. The purpose of all use of language is to communicate ideas to tell something to other people so that they cannot fail to understand it. The primary unit in accomplishing , this purpose is the sentence. Fragmentary groups of words may give some vague notion of what one has in mind, but ordinarily one does not really say anything until he forms a sentence. 4. Requirements for a Sentence. A properly constructed sentence divides naturally into two parts: (a) The subject, presenting the person or thing talked about ; (b) The predicate, telling what is said about the subject. Thus in a sentence of the simplest possible form, Birds | fly birds is the subject;^ is the predicate. In addition to having a subject and a predicate a sentence must express a complete thought. Unless their wings are clipped has a subject their wings and a predicate are clipped; but it is incomplete because it does not tell what happens "unless their wings are clipped." In sentences that give commands, the subject is often not expressed, but is readily understood to be you. EXAMPLE: Go. With this exception there should always be a clearly expressed subject; and without exception other than in exclamatory frag- ments (e. g., To the moat with him!) there should be a predicate. Expert writers sometimes treat fragmentary expressions as sentences, but ordinary students, stenographers, and business men cannot do so in their everyday writing without risk of being thought careless or ignorant. 1 A sentence like "Birds fly" may, of course, be expanded almost indefinitely by the addition of details, thus: Huge black birds of prey called vultures | fly in ever narrowing circles in the rear of the advancing herd. 1 A few kind; of writing, for soecial reason", do not demand complete sentences. Telegrams are much condensed because of the cost, and the text of advertisements often fragmentary *>entence8. t THE SENTENCE 11 Here the words before the vertical mark ( | ) make up the subject; the words after that mark, the predicate. 5. Subject Substantive and Predicate Verb. In the expanded example in the preceding section, one word of the complete subject is readily recognized as the most important. This word birds you know to be a noun; and you also know that the principal word of the subject is always a noun, a pronoun, or a word or group of words equivalent to a noun or pronoun. The principal word of the subject is technically called the subject substantive. Similarly, fly is readily recognized as the most important word the asserting word in the complete predicate, and is called the predicate verb. 6. Modifiers. All the words except birds before the vertical line in the last example in Section 4 tell something about the birds, and are therefore modifiers of the subject substantive. In the predicate all the words except fly tell how and where the birds fly, and are modifiers of the predicate verb. 7. Additional Elements of the Predicate. Besides such modifiers as are illustrated in the sentence about the birds, there may be other elements in the predicate, of which the following are the most important: (a) Sometimes the action expressed by the predicate verb operates directly upon some person or thing, and we have a direct object. EXAMPLES: John struck James. The ship struck a rock. (b) Sometimes, in addition to a direct object, there is a word indicating a person or thing to or for whom (or which) some- thing is done. This word is the indirect object. EXAMPLES: John gave me a book. I gave the canoe a push. (c) Sometimes (especially after the various forms of the verb be) there is a word in the predicate that defines or means rj VOCATIONAL ENGLISH the same person or thing as the subject. Such a word is called a predicate noun (or pronoun). EXAMPLES: Franklin was a printer. It was he who secured help from France. (d) Sometimes there is a word in the predicate (not a noun or pronoun) that describes some quality of the subject. Such a word is called a predicate adjective. EXAMPLE : Chalk is white. 8. Groups of Words as Elements in the Sentence. The groups of words known as phrases and clauses may serve as elements of the sentence. A phrase is a group of two or more related words, without a subject and predicate, which taken together are used as one of the elements of a sentence. EXAMPLES: (a) The phrase as subject: Keeping house is hard work . (b) The phrase as modifier of the subject substantive: The book on the table is mine. (c) The phrase as object: He denied going to the house. (d) The phrase as modifier in the predicate: He lived in a small town. The clause is a group of words containing a subject and a predicate. An entire clause may serve in the place more com- monly occupied by a single word that is, as an element of a sentence; or a principal clause a clause making a complete assertion may be a whole sentence. EXAMPLES: (a) The clause as subject: Whoever finds the money may keep it. (b) The clause as object: He appointed whoever was qualified. (c) The clause as predicate noun : That is what I want to know. (d) The clause as a modifier in the subject: The man who left the bundle may have it. (e) The clause as a modifier in the predicate: I will come when I can. Many other examples might be given. The important thing to remember is that a properly constructed group of THE SENTENCE 13 words may have the same grammatical uses in the sentence that single words have. 9. Kinds of Sentences. According to construction, there are three readily recognized kinds of sentences. (a) A simple sentence makes but one assertion, consists of but one clause. EXAMPLE: After the destruction of the Lusitania, indignation ran high in America. The subject of a simple sentence may include two or more nouns or pronouns connected by some such word as and, or the predicate may include two or more asserting words; but if there is only one clause, the sentence is simple. EXAMPLES of simple sentences with compound parts: (a) Compound subject: John and Mary ran. (b) Compound predicate: John ran and caught the car. (c) Compound subject and compound predicate: John and Mary ran and caught the car. (b) A complex sentence contains one principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses. Thus when a word in a sentence is modified by a clause in exactly the same way that a noun is modified by an adjective, or a verb by an adverb, we have a complex sentence. EXAMPLE : The man who knows himself to be dishonest seldom holds a steady eye. This is nearly equivalent to saying, The dishonest man, etc.; the group of words in italics is plainly used as an adjective to modify the noun man. This group of words, however, has a subject of its own the relative pronoun who, and a predicate verb of its own knows. Nevertheless, it cannot stand alone; it is dependent on man and is called a dependent or subordinate clause. The clauses in the examples in Section 8 are all sub- ordinate. The term complex also applies to sentences in which a clause 14 VOCATIONAL ENGL I s II b the subject, the object, the predicate noun, or has some other construction besides that of a modifier. EXAMPLES: (a) Subordinate clause as subject: That he should suffer thus seemed unjust. (b) Subordinate clause as object: Columbus proved that the world is round. (c) Subordinate clause as predicate noun: That is exactly what he did. (d) Subordinate clause governed by a preposition: Give one to whoever wants it. (c) A compound sentence is one in which two or more com- plete assertions of equal grammatical rank are combined, very often by the use of some such word as and or but. The clauses of such a sentence are said to be independent or co- ordinate. EXAMPLE: After the destruction of the Lusitani , indignation ran high in America, and the war seemed very near. Sometimes one or more of the members (clauses) of a com- pound sentence are com} EXAMPLE: When I found he was gone 1 started after him, and here I am. Here, plainly, we have two distinct and complete assertions, / started after him and here I am; and the first assertion contains a subordinate clause telling when the act took place. Such sentences should, of course, be recognized as primarily com- pound; but their twofold nature may be indicated by qualifying the term and calling them complex-compound. 10. Common Errors in Sentence Making. The most common errors in sentence structure made by students are of two kinds. (a) They run together two or more distinct and uncon- nected statements. EXAMPLE: My brother came home last night he works in Aurora. This group of words is clearly two sentences; hence a period should follow night, and he should be capitalized. Or a com- THE SENTENCE 15 plex sentence such as, "My brother, who works in Aurora, came home last night ," should be made. A failure to separate distinct statements is an elementary and illiterate blunder. EXAMPLE: We came home that evening about half past nine at the back of our yard we had a chicken coop running along the rear of the coop is an alley a prime place for thieves that night I heard a sound in the coop and I took my pistol and ran out there in the dim light I saw a large cat pulling at my revolver, etc. Often students seem to think that the insertion of a comma here and there will correct the obvious absurdity of such a jumble as the foregoing; but the fact is that, unless thought relations exist and grammatical connections are expressed, the commas are by no means sufficient. A period or a semicolon should be put at the end of each complete statement; or else some grammatical connection between the statements should be expressed. Compare the following sentences: (Incorrect} (Correct} It was a fine day, we decided to (1) It was a fine day. We decided go skating. to go skating. (2) It was a fine day; we decided to go skating. * (3) It was such a fine day that we decided to go skating. In the third example, observe the way in which relations have been expressed between the assertions. In the vast majority of cases it is best to follow some such method of cor- rection, rather than to have a series of very short statements without connecting words. This childish habit of running together unconnected com- plete assertions has been variously called the sentence error, the comma blunder, the baby blunder, etc. There is no worse error, and unfortunately none that is more common. (b) Pupils often wrongly set off as complete sentences, groups of words that do not make a complete assertion. Some- times the group lacks both subject and predicate. EXAMPLE: On Christmas Day with snow on the ground and holly wreaths in the window and a new sled from Santa Glaus. iSee Section 97. 16 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH Often a subject is lacking. EXAMPLE: Received your letter and in reply would say .... This crude error is especially common in hasty letters. Some- times it is due to mere laziness, sometimes to the notion that the first-person pronoun 7 should be suppressed for the sake of modesty. While it is desirable to avoid excessive use of /, grammatical completeness of sentences is more important. Sometimes the predicate (or part of it) is lacking. This error is particularly common in cases in which the writer thinks of something related to a previous statement, but sets it off by itself. EXAMPLE: Among my friends I have two favorites. One a doctor, the other a lawyer. ,The verb is must be inserted after one, if two smtmrcs are made of the example; but it would be proper to substitute ' a comma for the first period, begin one with a small 1< tt r. and leave the sentence otherwise unchanged. Sometimes a subordinate clause is punctuated as if it were a complete sentence. Such a clause, of course, has a subject and a predicate, but it lacks the third requirement of a sentence completeness and independence. EXAMPLE: That year we studied Shakspere. Who soon became my favorite author. The clause in italics plainly belongs with Shakspere and should be separated by a comma instead of a period, unless who is changed to he. In the latter case the assertion is complete. EXERCISE i Criticize the following quotations from students' themes. Write them correctly. 1. The first characteristic of an ideal woman to be considered is her amiable nature, and always more considerate of others than herself. (Make two sentences.) 2. I arrived just in time to see John pulling off my overshoes I stepped into the parlor. THE SENTENCE 17 3. The old house which from boyhood we had thought of as haunted and which we passed in the shades of evening on tiptoe. 4. I found my hat where I had left it. On the piano. ^5. In view of the fact that this record covered a period of general depres- sion in the mail order business. We consider this a very good showing. 6. He could not go back accordingly he set his teeth and faced about. 7. On the south side of the porch where as a child I had played many happy hours and where once my uncle found me in a spasm one hot July day after I had misused a faithful stomach in the orchard. 8. The water was freezing my stomach unused to the shock began to cramp no more miserable minutes have I ever felt. 9. Inanimate objects, glass for instance, in making the possessive you use the of phrase. 10. The internal combustion engine used now on alniost all automobiles and which has revolutionized travel through the aeroplane which was made possible by the invention of this engine and is now in use in every country. 11. We should build a strong navy, we need to protect the canal. 12. You will find the journey pleasant it costs little too. 13. After a while boys grow careless thus they drift into bad ways. 14. Where the roots are longest and most deeply imbedded and entangled. Of course we had to work harder. EXERCISE 2 Some of the following groups of words are nob even sen- tences; some are more than sentences. Others are simple, com- plex, or compound sentences. Examine each group carefully. Has it a subject and a predicate? What are they? Is the group independent; i. e., does it "make sense"? Which groups contain more than one sentence? 1. When I am caught out in the rain without an umbrella and the nearest house is a mile away. 2. Birds nest. Bird's nest. Birds! Nest. 3. How peanuts grow. How peanuts grow! 4. Honor the Light Brigade, Noble six hundred. Tennyson 5. Which is against the law. Which is against the law? 6. The truck is the cheaper it costs less in the long run. 7. Whenever the doctor calls. 18 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH 8. Truth crushed to earth shall rise again; The eternal years of God are hers: But error, wounded, writhes with pain, And dies among her worshipers. Bryant 9. Still sits the schoolhouse by the road, A ragged beggar sunn i in:. Whitticr 10. A year has gone as the tortoise goes, Heavy and slow. Whittier EXERCISE 8 Pick out the clauses in each of the following quotation?. When a passage seems difficult to comprehend, put in an under- stood word. 1. Leaves have their time to fall, And flowers to wither at the north wind's breath, And stars to set but all Thou hast all season* for thine own, O Death ! Mrs. Hemans 2. Teach me to feel another's woe, To hide the fault I see. That mercy I to others show, That mercy show to me. "The Universal Prayer, 1 ' Pope 3. Is there for honest poverty Wha hangs his head, and a' that? Burn* 4. Rich the treasure, Sweet the pleasure .... Dryden 5. I would not enter on my list of friends, Though graced with polished manners and fine sense, Yet lacking sensibility, the man Who needlessly sets foot upon a worm. William Cowper EXERCISE 4 Answer the following questions: 1. What elements are necessary to a sentence? Is an object necessary? Are modifiers necessary? 2. Must the subject be stated? When is a word "understood"? 3. What is the greatest danger resulting from a failure to indicate the end of a sentence? (Study Sentence 2, Exercise 1.) 4. In what sense may a clause be an adjective or an adverb? Illustrate. 5. Is a simple sentence always short? Is a compound sentence always long? Illustrate. 6. What is n complex-compound sentence? THE SENTENCE 19 7. What is a predicate noun? A predicate adjective? 8. Write sentences having subjects consisting of: (a) a noun (c) a phrase (b) a pronoun (d) a clause 11. The Parts of Speech. The thousands of words in our language are divided, according to their use in sentences, into eight classes called the parts of speech. It is assumed that the pupil knows these classes and, in general, their definitions. It is necessary to give some atten- tion, however, to various important matters for the purpose of refreshing the student's memory as to the parts of speech. The material will be presented in the following order: Nouns, Verbs, Pronouns, Adjectives and Adverbs, Conjunctions and Prepositions. (The eighth part of speech, Interjections, need not be treated here because they do not occur very often and no difficulties are involved in their use.) It must be remembered that a given word may be used as different parts of speech in different places. Man is usually a noun. But in the sentence, "We must man the boats," it is a verb. Up is most often an adverb. But in the sentence, "I am going up a hill," it is a preposition. Note also the following uses of up: 1. As an adjective: He failed on the up grade. 2. As a verb: While the old Dutch clock in the chimney place Up with its hands before its face. Field 3. As a noun! We have our ups and downs. Other words can similarly be used in various ways. The use in a given sentence always determines the part of speech. EXERCISE 5 Tell what part of speech each of the italicized words in the following sentences is: 1. The tree by the shed shed its leaves early. 2. The green is not so green as usual. Perhaps it will green up after a rain. 20 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH 3. He stayed for dinner, for it was a long way home. 4. For is a preposition. 5. It will snow tomorrow. 6. The best thing to do is to buy only the best. 7. lie prayeth best who loveth best. Coleridge 8. Wait a minute. Til go with you. The wait is lonesome in this cheerless waiting room. 9. Hold! The hold is full of water. in. Where should the where clause be? 1 1 . White and black alike resented the law. U. Down grade, soft down, first down, to down him, down a hill, going down. Down, please. (Why does the last word group begin with a capital and not the others?) 12. Inflection. Some of the parts of speech are inflected that is, changed (flex means to bend) at some point, usually the end, to serve special purposes. These changes are used to show how words are related in the sentence, thereby making the thought clear. English has comparatively few inflectional changes, but those few are very important. .EXAMPLES: Simple form An inflected form ( house houses Nouns | man men (Fred Fred's Adjective long longer Verb run runs Adverb quickly more quickly Pronoun who whom Prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections are not inflected; i. e., each has one form only. EXERCISE e 1. How would you change the following words (or word group) if you want to speak of more than one of each? House, he, it, key, sky, this, that, order of the day. 2. How would you change (inflect) the following words to mean more of the quality each denotes? White, beautiful, ill, swiftly, certain. THE SENTENCE 21 3. How would you inflect the following words to prepare them to take the place of the word John in the sentence, "Fred struck John"? I, they, she, who, we. 4. How would you inflect the following words so that they might properly fill the blank in the sentence, "The soldier every day"? Fly, come, run, fight, rest. QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER I 1. Why is good English important to a business or professional man! 2. Why is grammar important? 3. What is a direct object? An indirect object? 4. What is a substantive? Use a phrase as a substantive. A clause. 5. Illustrate: (a) a compound subject; (b) a compound predicate; (c) a compound object; (d) a compound modifier. 6. Give examples of: (a) a simple sentence; (b) a compound sentence; (c) a complex sentence; (d) a complex-compound sentence. 7. What are the most common errors in sentence making? 8. Illustrate the way in which a word may be used as different parts of speech. CHAPTER II NOUNS 13. Nouns as Names. Every high-school pupil knows that "nouns are names," but he must not allow himself to think of them as names of persons or things only. Every sort of nam is ordinarily a noun. Note, for instance, that the names of abstract ideas (often called abstract nouns) are nouns. EXAMPLES: love, fear, hope, silence, misfortune, loss, heat. Verb forms ending in ing often become names of actions and then are nouns. EXAMPLES: (1) Running is good exercise. (2) Most people njoy tinging. (3) All his being was filled with joy. 14. Inflection of Nouns; Person and Gender. Nouns are inflected for number, and to a limited extent for case and gender. Once there was some inflection of nouns for person, but now person and gender may be passed with very brief consideration. Person. Except in cases of direct address (second person; as, John, you are mistaken), and cases in which nouns are in apposition with pronouns of the first or second person (I, John, tell you this; you, William, must go) all nouns represent "person or thing spoken of," and are therefore third person. Moreover, even in t hese rare first-person or second-person uses, the form remains unchanged; hence, with nouns, it is need- less to consider inflection for person. Gender. While there are a good many nouns with the feminine ending ess (heiress, lioness, etc.), and some with other feminine endings borrowed from various languages (executrix, alumna, heroine, etc.), in general one who knows the meaning of a noun knows which sex it indicates, or whether it indicates sex at all. In other words, gender is usually only a matter of 22 NOUNS 23 vocabulary; hence the inflection of nouns for gender needs no special attention. 15. Number of Nouns. Nearly all nouns have different forms to indicate whether one or more than one is meant. A few exceptions having the same form for both singular and plural are: deer sheep fish 1 trout species 1 cannon 1 swine (usually plural) bass Japanese This list is not intended to be complete. The names of most kinds of game or fish may be the same in the plural as in the singular. 16. The Common ftf ethod of Making English Plurals. As every one knows, the overwhelming majority of English nouns form their plurals by adding s to the singular. Sometimes slight modifications are necessary along with the -addition of 5, but these seeming irregularities are easily accounted for. (a) Thus there are cases in which s alone does not readily combine with the last sound of the singular noun. EXAMPLES: church gas tax We cannot add the sound of s to such words without making an additional syllable, naturally spelled es. Accordingly we make the rule that nouns ending in ch (soft), sh, s, x, and z add es to form their plurals. (b) Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant change the y to i and add es. EXAMPLES: sky skies fly flies When a vowel precedes the final y, however, the plural is regular, simply adding s. EXAMPLES : monkey monkeys donkey donkeys (c) A number of nouns ending mforfe form their plurals by changing the / (or fe) to v and adding es (thief thieves) ; but ^Specie means money; fishes is a correct form when varieties of fish are meant; cannons h allowable. VOCATIONAL ENGLISH many nouns ending in / are regular, simply adding s (reef reefs). The student must learn the words that are irregular and assume that other nouns ending in/ are regular. Note the following list of nouns that end in ves in the plural: beef calf elf kmn leaf life wolf loaf self >h-.-if thief wharf wife shelf half (d) A number of nouns ending in o (preceded by a con- sonant) add es instead of . Here also one must learn the words that are irregular and assume that the others add only s. Note the following list of common words that add es: 1 buffalo cargo domino* echo embargo hero hobo mosquito motto mulatto Negro potato tomato tornado volcano 17. Some Special English Plurals. A few English words present special survivals of old plural forms not ending in s or es. In ox and child (and rarely in a few other words) an old plural ending en is used oxen, children. Brother has the regular plural brothers and also the form brethren. In the following cases the vowel of the root is changed : man men woman women tooth teeth goose geese foot feet louse lice mouse mice These words are all in such common use that errors seldom occur. Compound nouns form their plurals in various ways; some- times by making the first part plural (sons-in-law) , sometimes by making the last part plural (fellow-men), sometimes by making both parts plural (men-servants) . 18. Foreign Plurals. The case of foreign plurals involves more difficulty. The English language as it exists today is a composite of elements from many languages. Its basis from 1 Most words to which either es or may be added for the plural e. g., calico are omitted from the list. 'There is such a word as dominos. How does it differ in meaning from dominoctt NOUNS 25 which we get the prevailing plural ending s (es) is the lan- guage of the Anglo-Saxon invaders of Britain of about the fifth century A. D. But a great number of words from various languages more from Latin than any other have been adopted whenever they have been needed. Many of the nouns from these various sources have taken English plurals, but many have kept their foreign plurals. Some have both foreign and English plurals. These foreign plurals irregular from our English point of view, though the student of Latin, for example, may find them regular must usually be learned, just as one learns a new word. The list in Exercise 7 contains a number of the most important of these words of foreign origin, together with some examples of the classes discussed in Sections 15, 16, and 17. This list is very important; each student should learn the proper forms of every word in it now. Copy the plural forms in a column 1 beside the singulars; next cover the singulars and write the singular forms from the plurals. Know them all before you pass the page. Use the dictionary or a grammar as much as may be necessary. EXERCISE 7 Give the plurals of these words: alumna (1) halo louse automaton (8) alumnus (1) canto child (6) index fungus (2) rabbi pullman hippopotamus (9) potato scarf beau. man-servant piano axis madame spoonful synthesis (3} seraph forget-me-not focus (2) basis monkey red-coat genus (10) synopsis M nucleus datum Knight-Templar M. (5) appendix memorandum baby (4) Mr. analysis Henry dynamo Miss amanuensis (7) chief 1. What is the difference? 2. Watch your pronunciation. 3. Can you find its opposite in the list? 1 Is this pronounced "colyum"? Jo VOCATIONAL ENGLISH 4. What is the possessive? 5. Is this 1 ivneh for Mr. or is it the letter Mf How do you know? 6. How do you pronounce the plural? 7. What does this word mean? Is it related to manual training? 8. Related to automobile? 9. Look it up in the dictionary. 10. Is Edison a "genus"? 19. Singulars That Look Like Plurals. Errors sometimes occur in the use of words that look like plurals because they end in s, but which are really singular. , The most important of these words are: (a) Some names of sciences mathematics, physics, ethics, politics, economics, ct< . (b) Some names of diseases measles, mumps, shingles, etc. (c) A miscellaneous group of words news, aeries, United States, gallows. Note that ways does not belong to this group. "A little ways" is a gross blunder; the proper singular form is way. 20. Words Plural Chiefly Because of Form. The following words are usually treated as plural : oats vitals proceeds assets riches ashes shears trousers pincers tongs athletics scissors Some of these words are occasionally singular, however ; e. g., athletics. EXERCISE 8 For general review of the principles of forming plurals, answer the following questions: 1. A number of nouns relating to music end in o. How do these form their plurals? Give examples. 2. How do we form the plurals of most foreign words ending in of -Give examples. 3. What is the plural ending of most nouns ending with sis in the singular? Give examples. 4. What is the plural ending of most nouns ending in us in the singular? Give examples. 5. In what different ways do we form the plurals of compound words? Give examples. NOUNS 27 6. In what different ways do we form the plurals of words ending mforfe? Give examples. 7. Why are the plurals of sky and key formed differently? State the rule for plurals of nouns ending in y. 21. Case of Nouns. English nouns are not inflected for case except to indicate possession. The singular noun boy, for instance, retains the same form whether it is subject, or object, or predicate noun, or is governed by a preposition. EXAMPLES: (1) The boy is here (subject). (2) He hit the boy (object). (3) John is the boy I mean (predicate noun). (4) He threw a stone at the boy (with preposition). Only to show possession is the form changed boy's. This is the genitive (or possessive) case. 1 22. Genitive (Possessive) Forms of Nouns. Singular nouns are regularly changed to show possession just as boy is changed by the addition of an apostrophe and s ('s). EXAMPLES : child child's fox fox's father father's mouse mouse's The plural commonly ends in s already, so that the addition of an apostrophe and another s would usually be awkward and almost unpronounceable. We should not care to say fathers' s or mothers' s. If the plural ends in s, then, we simply add an apostrophe to indicate possession. EXAMPLES: Singular Plural brother's brothers' fox's foxes' But if the plural does not end in s, the possessive is formed as for the singular, by the addition of an apostrophe and s. EXAMPLES : Singular Plural child's children's mouse's mice's 1 For the sake of uniformity, the term genitive (long in use in Latin and other languages) has recently been adopted by the Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature, ap- pointed by the National Education Association, the Modern Language Association of America, and the American Philological Association. Because the term possessive is better known, however, it will be used freely in this book. 28 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH Nouns which in the singular end in a form their possessives in two ways. (a) If they are not very long, it is usually considered pref- erable to have them follow the regular rule for singulars, adding an apostrophe and s. EXAMPLES: Ordinary form . Possessive Burns Burns's Jones Jones's Dickens Dickens'e (b) But they may, especially if long, add only an apr phe. Thus Dickens' is an allowable form, and, since it would be very awkward to add an apostrophe and 8 to Demosthenes, the possessive is preferably Demosthenes 9 . It is a common but gross error to place the apostrophe before the s that belongs to the simple form of the name. EXAMPLES: 1. Burn's books are politics in poetic form. 2. I like Dicken's David Copperfield. 3. It was Wilkin's first attempt. Remember that Burn and Dicken and Wilkin are not the names meant here; the s belongs to the name in each case. Cultivate the habit of writing the full name (Burns, Dickens, Wilkins, Hopkins, Jones, Wittiams whatever it may be) and then adding the proper sign of possession. Compound nouns and names consisting of several words usually form their possessives regularly, by adding 's to the last part of a compound noun or the last word in a group. Firm names are generally treated in the same way. EXAMPLES: father-in-law's The Union League Club's Brown and Smith's 23. The Use of the Possessive. Names of inanimate objects should rarely be made possessive, for the simple reason that we do not readily think of inanimate objects as possessing NOUNS 29 owning anything. Instead of the possessive (genitive) form we use a phrase, generally with of, sometimes with another preposition. Note the following examples: (Undesirable) (Better) The ball's cover The cover of the ball A word's pronunciation The pronunciation of a word Some exceptions to this rule occur, chiefly in idiomatic 1 expressions like a day's work, last year's styles, etc. Likewise the possessive forms of month, week, fortnight, hour, minute, or any other noun designating time may be used. In these cases, as well as in some others not involving time (the heart's desire, the water's edge, at his wit's end, etc.), the possessive (genitive) form * indicates a connection between the nouns, rather than actual possession; so that the construction is technically called the genitive of connection. Care must be taken to avoid this construction unless you are sure of the idiom. 1 EXERCISE 9 (a) Write the possessive forms, or equivalents,' for the fol- lowing words: boy baby child National Education Association sky babies Jones Clark & Meyer Miss children father-in-law 2 John, the tailor (b) Answer the following questions: 1. How do we form the possessive of singular nouns? 2. How do we form the possessive of plural nouns? 3. How do we form the possessive of compound nouns? 4. How do we form the possessive of firm names? Of name^ consisting of three or more words? 5. Is the following rule correct: " Always form the possessive of plural nouns by adding the apostrophe only." How about children's? 6. How do you form the possessive when the plural does not end in s; for example, the plural possessive of mouse, goose, woman, etc.? 1 For explanation of idiom, see the Glossary of Technical Terms in the Appendix. 2 Note the difference between the plural and the possessive of compound words. Make a rule covering this difference. 30 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH EXERCISE 10 Use in sentences the possessive forms, or equivalents, of the following: Chicago Chicago Commercial Club misses book H:iukms K injj of Spain princesses they aide-de-camp Wright & Curtis )i|>lanes year Kelly and Millrr duchess life QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER II 1. Is a noun inflected (changed) for number? For case? For person? For gender? 2. Why do we have plurals of so many varieties? 3. Why, in general, do plural nouns add only the apostrophe to show possession? 4. How does the plural of man-of-war differ from the possessive? 5. Why do nouns representing inanimate things rarely have posses- sive forms? 6. What are idiomatic expressions? Give examples of several idiomatic expressions which employ possessive forms of nouns representing things without life. CHAPTER III VERBS 24. Inflection of Verbs. Verbs are inflected or conjugated for tense, person, number, and mood; moreover they are varied, by means of verb phrases, to show voice. 25. Tense: the Simple Tenses. The .most extensive and important inflection of verbs is for the purpose of indicating time tense. 1 There are three great divisions of time: the past, the present, and the future; for these the simple forms of run are as follows: PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE FUTURE TENSE 26. The Perfect Tenses. The simple tenses are not enough, however, for we often wish to speak of the completion of an act. We use the word perfect, in this connection, to mean completed. (a) Thus when we wish to express the completion of some- thing now in the present we use the present perfect tense. EXAMPLES: I have finished the work. You have finished the work, etc. (through all persons and both numbers). First person Second person Third person Singular (I) run (you) run (he) runs 2 Plural (we) run (you) run (they) run First person Second person Third person (I) ran (you) ran (he) ran (we) ran (you) ran (they) ran First person Second person Third person (I) shall run (you) will run (he) will run (we) shall run (you) will run . (they) will run time. 1 The word tense is related to tempo (music) and temporary, the root in all meaning 2 Italic because of points developed in Sections 31-33. 31 32 VOCATIONAL ENGL 1 s 1 1 (b) When we wish to say that an act was completed at some time in the past, we use the past perfect tense. EXAMPLE : He had left when the police arrived. Note that arrived is simple past tense, and that had left expresses an action that took place was completed before that moment in t he past when the police arrived; i. e., the past of the past is expressed by the past perfect. (c) Sometimes we look forward to a time when something is to be completed; that is, we look forward to a time when we shall be looking back at a completed act. The need of express- ing this idea led to our having A future perfect tense. EXAMPLE : I shall havt finished my first chart by tomorrow. 27. Have and the Perfect Tenses. Note that the examples of perfect tenses all begin with some form of the verb have, which in the main conforms with the conjugation of run given in Section 25. l Thus the present tense of have is as follows: Singular Plural First person (I) have (we) have Second person (you) have (you) have Third person (he) has* (they) have Accordingly the present perfect tense of run is as follows: Singular Plural First person (I) have run (we) have run Second person (you) have run (you) have run Third person (he) has* run (they) have run Since the past and the future of have are regular (/ had, I shall have, etc.), the forms of the past perfect and the future perfect need not be given in detail. 28. The Verb Be. The foregoing conjugation applies to most verbs, but not to the most important verb in the language the verb expressing existence, be. It has eight simple forms: be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been. 1 With a few verbs we have another form of the perfect tease, using be instead of hav*. EXAMPLE: He is gone (generally equivalent to he has gone). 1 Italic because of points developed in Sections 31-33. VERBS 33 The conjugation of be for the simple tenses is as follows: f First person PRESENT TENSE < Second person [ Third person f First person PAST TENSE j Second person ( Third person f First person FUTURE TENSE I Second person [ Third person Singular (I) am (you) are (he) is (I) was (you) were (he) was (I) shall be (you) will be (he) will be Plural (we) are (you) are (they) are (we) were (you) were (they) were (we) shall be (you) will be (they) will be The perfect tenses are formed as for run. 29. Progressive Tense Forms. / run is not the only form of the first person, singular, present tense. If we wish to express continued action at the present time, we say / am run- ning. This is called the progressive present form of the verb. A whole progressive conjugation is possible for most verbs, which may be readily worked out by use of the various forms of be with the form of the verb ending in ing the present participle. EXAMPLES: Past ordinary progressive Future ordinary progressive Present perfect ordinary progressive Past perfect ordinary progressive I ran I was running I shall run I shall be running I have run I have been running I had run I had been running 30. Emphatic Forms. Do and did are often used to make what are called emphatic forms of the verb. EXAMPLES: Present ordinary emphatic Past ordinary emphatic I strike I do strike I struck I did strike These forms occur only in the present and past tenses of active verbs. 1 1 See Section 37. 34 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH Besides the use for emphasis, do and did normally occur in questions. Thus we do not say, "Struck you him?" but, "Did you strike him?" We do not say, "Live you here?" but, "Do you live here?" In negative assertions, also, do and did are regularly used. We say, "I do not live here." "I did not strike him." 31. Person in Verbs. The remaining inflectional changes in verbs are few and can be greatly simplified by jf little study of the forms in Sections 25-27. Take now the matter of person, and omit from consideration at this time the future and the future perfect tenses, because these require special attention (Section 45) on account of their uses of shall and tr/7/. Look at the present and past tenses of run. Does the first person differ from the second at any point? Does the second person differ from the third? In which tense is there a differ- ence between the second and third persons? In which number? What is the nature of the difference? (There is a corresponding difference in the present perfect tense, due to the inflection for person of the verb have in the present tense. Explain this difference.) 32. Number in Verbs. In the matter of number, also, examine the forms in Section 25. Wherein is the singular different from the plural? Examine each tense separately (except the future and the future perfect). You should find a difference between the singular and the plural in but one place. Where is it? Likewise in the perfect tenses (present and past) there is no difference between the singular and plural forms, except the difference that exists in the verb have between the third person singular present and all other present forms. (See Section 27.) In other wofds, the singular and plural forms are all alike for the past tense; all alike for the past perfect tense; all alike for the present tense except that the third person singular usually adds an s; all alike for the present perfect tense except that the third person singular uses the auxiliary has instead of have. VERBS 35 33. Summary as to Person and Number. It is now clear that the inflection of the English active verb for person and number (except for the special uses of shall and will in the future and the future perfect) is noticeable only in the third person singular of the present and present perfect tenses, and the only variation consists in the addition of "s" for this form in the present indicative, and the use of has instead of have in the present perfect. This simplifies the whole matter of con- jugation greatly. Now since most plural nouns end in s, and no plural verb takes s, it is clear that two s's in subject and predicate seldom occur together. EXAMPLE: Boys run (one s only). On the contrary, sjngular nouns rarely end in s, but the letter appears at the end of most singular verbs of the third person. EXAMPLE: The boy runs (one s only). 34. Principal Parts of the Verb. All the inflectional forms we have been discussing may be made for any verb if we know three fundamental forms called the principal parts. Nearly always the first of these differs from the other two, and often the second and third are unlike each other. The principal parts are the present tense, the past tense, the past participle. EXAMPLES: Present Past Past Participle unite united united fill filled filled burn burned (burnt) burned (burnt) go went gone do did done The majority of English verbs form their principal parts regularly, adding d or ed (sometimes t) to the present to make the past tense and the past participle; but unfortunately a good many of the verbs in most common use are irregular and cause a great deal of trouble. 36 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH EXERCISE 11 Be sure you know the principal parts of the following verbs. Write them; use them in sentences. Don't think you know them; prove to yourself that you do. ask Always add ed (pronounced as if it PM I for the past tense and the past participle. be The most important verb in the language. ln-at Watch the third form. begin Don't say / begun, and don't say have began, bid (meaning to command) 1 The principal parts of the bid (meaning to offer money) / two verbs differ. blow Is there such a word as blowedt break Broke is the past tense, but is not to be usr.l with have, bring How about brungf burst Can you find a verb bust in the dictionary? catch Watch your pronunciation. Has a ball team a ketcherf come Watch the past, and don't use the past tense with have, curse How about custt j, rk . 10. (bid) I my old friend good-bye. 1 1 . (hang) The horsethief was promptly. 1'J. (flow) The river by the old city for two centuries. 13. (burst) The tank suddenly. 1 1. (drink) I have his health for the last time. 15. (show) I have him the errors. 16. (bid) I two hundred dollars, but it was not enough. 17. (beat) The driver his horses shamefully. 18. (steal) The burglars the automobile. 19. (lay) He his right hand on my shoulder. 20. (throw) The catcher quickly him out at first. 21. (grow) He has never up. 22. (come) I in suddenly. 23. (drag) They the cannon up the hill. (How many did they drag? Can you tell?) 24. (curse) The driver volubly. 25. (sow) The grain was early. 26. (lose loose) He knew he would the horse the minute it was 27. (swing) The woodman his ax. VERBS 30 37. Voice. Another important variation in verb forms is used to indicate whether the verb represents its subject as acting or acted upon. A verb is said to be in the active voice when its subject is the doer of the action. EXAMPLE : John struck James. The forms given in Section 25 are all active. A verb is said to be in the passive voice when its subject is the receiver of the action; in other words, the subject is acted upon instead of acting is passive. EXAMPLE : James was struck by John. The passive verb has a special conjugation, consisting of the forms of the verb be and the past participle the third of the principal parts. In the example just given we have the past passive, consisting of tjie past tense of be plus the past participle of strike struck. From this hint the full passive conjugation can easily be worked out. There are two ways of recognizing a passive. The first is based on form. Some form of the verb be and the past parti- ciple, or last principal part, are usually sufficient to mark a passive. The second method has to do with the meaning. If the subject names the receiver of the action expressed in the verb, the verb is passive. Recollection of this point will pre- vent confusion between the passive and the progressive forms (Section 29). Thus I am striking is progressive (and active), for I am acting; but I am struck is passive, for I am acted upon. The forms also help here, since striking is the present participle; struck, the past participle. It is the past participle that is used in making passives. 38. Changing from Active to Passive. On examining closely the examples in the preceding section, you will notice that in the first sentence in which the active is used, James, the name of the receiver of the action expressed by the verb struck, is the direct object. But when the verb is made passive, so that !) VOCATIONAL ENGLISH the sentence reads, "James was struck by John/ 1 James, the name of the receiver of the action, becomes the subject; and John, the name of the doer of the action, which was the subject of the active verb, becomes the principal word of a phrase telling by whom the action was performed. In other words, the subject of the passive verb is the same word that was the object of the corresponding active verb, for the reason that l>oth the subject of a passive verb and the object of an active verb are receivers of the action. In cases in which there are two objects of an active verb a lnvrt and an indirect object, for example the change to the passive may be made in two ways. EXAMPLE : John gave James a book. In this case book is the direct object, James the indirect object. Changing the verb to passive, we may write either, "James was given a book by John," or, "A book was given James by John." That is, either the direct or the indirect object may become the subject. In the first case, in which the indirect object becomes the subject, the direct object is retained after the passive verb and is called a retained object. In the second case, in which the direct object becomes the subject, the indirect object remains unchanged in construction and meaning, naming the person to whom the book was given. It should be noted that the sentences in this section con- taining passive verbs are rather indirect and awkward are longer and less forceful than the example with an active verb. This is generally true in English. While there are, of course, many cases in which a passive verb expresses the meaning more exactly than an active verb, it is wise to challenge each passive; to ask yourself whether the corresponding active form would not be less vague, more direct, more forcible. 39. Verb Signs. Now that we have discussed the main elements of inflection in verbs, it is possible to sum up the whole matter in such a way that the student can readily recognize and construct the most important forms of any VERBS 41 English verb. Learn the following signs of verb formation, aM you will have little difficulty in making any form you want : 1. Perfect have (has, had) and the past participle. 2. Future shall or will. (See Section 45.) 3. Infinitive to. 4. Present participle ing. 5. Passive some form of be and the past participle. 6. Emphatic forms do and did (only the present and past active) . 7. Progressive active some form of be and the present participle. 8. Progressive passive being between- the p r arts of the simple passive. With a little practice the use of the verb signs becomes easy. Let us form the present perfect passive of the verb drive. The principal parts of this verb are: Present drive Past drove Past participle driven According to 1, above, the present perfect calls for have and the past participle, driven. The passive calls for a form of be in this case, been, because of the use with have. Assembling our conclusions we have: have been driven. Again, suppose the past progressive passive of drive is wanted. By observation of the verb signs we find: For passive some form of be (was past) and the past participle (driven). Progressive passive being between the parts of the simple passive. Putting these forms together was being driven. 40. Recognition of Verb Forms. Similarly, any given verb form may be identified and named by use of the system explained in the preceding section. Suppose you are Jo decide what form shall have been driven is. By reference to the verb signs you note: shall future. have perfect. been (be) with past participle passive. Answer: the future perfect passive. 42 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH EXERCISE 13 1. Write the forms used with / for the verb drive, active and passive, 1 for the three simple tenses. 2. Do the same for the three perfect tenses. 3. Write the emphatic forms for drive. (Remember that these occur only in the present and past active.) 4. Write five participle forms for drive. (Include the past participle, which does not end in ing.) EXERCISE 14 Write the following forms of strike, by the aid of the vorl> signs: 1. Past perfect active, first person singular. 2. Past perfect passive, second person. Future perfect passive, third person singular. 4. Present active infinit 5. Present passive infinit i\. 6. Perfect passive participle. 1 7. Present passive participle. 8. Present perfect passive, first person singular. 9. Present act i\t- participle. 10. Future active, third person singular. 1 1. Future perfect active, second person. 12. Present active infinitive. EXERCISE 15 (a) Name the following verb forms. Use the method ex- plained in Section 40. I shall have struck being struck to have been struck I have been striking to strike I was struck to be struck I was being struck had struck I have been struck I am striking I shall have been struck I wtts, striking I do strike I shall be striking I am struck having struck I am being struck having been struck I did strike striking I had been striking 1 In forming a present passive, use the present of the verb be; in forming a past passive, use the past of the verb be, etc. See Sec. 28. ' Called phrasal past participle by the Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature. VERBS 43 (b) Write the names of the verb forms in (a) . Close the book and write the forms from the names. Compare with the book. Practice using the verb signs until you are thoroughly familiar with English verb forms. 41. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. Thus far in the dis- cussion of verbs we have been concerned with matters of inflectional form. There are certain classifications as to mean- ing, however, that require consideration. Some verbs, by their meaning, require an object. EXAMPLE : John struck James. As the verb is used here, the meaning is incomplete unless we are told whom John struck. Such a verb is called transitive. Trans means across; the action is carried across from John to James. Other verbs are complete without an object, a receiver of the action, and are said to be intransitive. EXAMPLES: (1) Birds fly. (2) The sun rises earlier in summer. Many verbs may be either transitive or intransitive, accord- ing to some variation in meaning. Thus fly, intransitive in the example just given, may be transitive. EXAMPLE : Boys fly kites. Since only transitive verbs imply a receiver of the action, a person or thing acted upon, only transitive verbs can be used- in the passive voice. Therefore whenever you see a passive construction you will know that the verb is transitive. A number of common errors in the use of verbs will dis- appear if one understands, and is careful to observe, the dis- tinction between transitive and intransitive. The following sections will deal with a few of the most troublesome of these. 42. Sit and Set. Sit is ordinarily intransitive cannot have a direct object and indicates that some person or thing takes a certain position. Set is transitive in its most common 44 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH uses and means to put or place some person or thing (it* object). The principal parts of these verbs are: Present Pott Past Participle Sit (intransitive) sit sat sat Set (transitive) set set srt Some people have the idea that things with life sit, find that inanimate objects set; but there is no such (list inct ion. The best test is usually the transitive test. Where a passive form is needed, only the transitive verb can be used. Why? Because only transitive verbs have passive voice. There are a number of idiomatic uses of set to which the distinction just emphasized does not apply. EXAMPLES: The sun set* at seven o'clock. We set out on A cold day. I set about my task at once. These are cases in which set does not have its most common meaning to place or put and in which confusion with sit seldom occurs. EXERCISE 16 Fill the blanks below with the proper forms of sit and set: 1. the inkstand on the window-sill, and let it there. 2. The fanner a trap for the fox, but caught instead his hen. 3. The practice of hens has given over to the incubator. 4. The hen was in the mow. 5. He had his heart on a new watch, and he up waiting for his father. 6. The man something by the side of the road. From where I I could not see him clearly. 7. I used to like to his slippers by the chair where he usually 8. The trees were out. 9. The edges were in about two inches. 10. They out for London at six o'clock. 11. The baby was in his high chair each morning and he patiently till noon. 12. I have the alarm for four o'clock. VERBS 45 13. He was in the ing room ing down the day's expenses. 14. down for a minute until I the table. 15 The sun far too soon that day. 43. Lie and Lay. Lie, like sit, is intransitive, and likewise means that some person or thing assumes or maintains a certain position. 1 Lay, like set, is transitive in its most common uses, and means to put or place. Difficulties occur here partly because the past tense of lie is spelled like the present tense of lay, and partly because many people are unable to distinguish between laid and lain. The principal parts must therefore be very carefully learned and fixed in the mind by exercises in the use of the correct forms. Present Past Past Participle Lie (intransitive) lie lay lain Lay (transitive) lay laid 2 laid 2 EXERCISE 17 Fill the blanks below with the proper forms of lay or lie: 1. I had the keys away and forgotten them. 2. The eggs were that day. 3. The cable at the bottom of the ocean. 4. Under the wide and starry sky, Dig the grave and let me Glad did I live and gladly die, And I me down with a will. Stevenson 5. But little he'll reck, if they let him sleep on In a grave where a Briton has him. Wolfe 6. Now I me down to sleep. 7. I down a few minutes yesterday. (Say this sentence five times.) 8. He came upon us suddenly and to hide we hurriedly down in the tall grass. 9. " down," said Mur>hy. I down instantly. 10. How long have the papers in that drawer? 11. He had something away for a rainy day. 12. ing in mud up to one's belt is not conducive to good fighting. 13. I like to in bed and hear the rain upon the roof. 14. The great ships were ing in port while the sailors were . the cable. 1 Lie, meaning to tell an untruth, is a different word, not requiring consideration here. 2 Never spell this form layed. 46 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH 44. Rise and liaise. The verb rise, meaning to move upward, is intniiiMtivr; raise, meaning to cause to move upward, to lift, is transitive. The principal parts are: Pra* Past Past Participle Rise (intransitive) rise rose 1 risen Raise (transitive) raise raised raised The use of raise as a noun (He got a raise in pay) is careless English; "He got (or received) an increase" is better. EXERCISE 18 Fill the blanks below with the proper forms of raise or rise: 1. They the old boat. 2. The deacon himself on his elbow and spoke. 3. The water had already to the top of the boat. 4. The men suddenly from the grass. 5. Truth crushed to eartn will again. Bryant 6. The lawyer to state that they had the money. 7. Corn is in Illinois. 45. Shall and Will. In the partial conjugations in Sections 25 and 28, the regular forms of the simple future tense are given 7 shall run, you will run, he will run; I shall be, you will be, he will be, etc. Because humanity is not inclined to discriminate in seemingly small matters, there is a tendency to drop the distinction between shall and will, and a great many people have lost all feeling of a difference. Errors occur mainly in the first person. Since will is the commoner form for the simple future, being used with both second and third persons, people use it also with / and we, in spite of the fact that / will or we will literally means, / intend or am determined; we intend or are determined. That is, will with the first person has a much stronger meaning than simple future. It is dan- gerous, therefore, to act on the assumption that it makes no difference which form you use. The use of will for shall is likely to make a bad impression. 1 Do you know three other words pronounced exactly like this verb form? VERBS 47 (a) Shall and will in independent statements. For simple futurity: For volition (desire), promise, or determination: (I, we) shall (I, we) will (you) will (you) shall* (he, they, and all nouns) will (he, they, and all nouns) shall* The starred forms are less common than the others. They show not only determination, but a degree of unpleasant insistence due, it might be, to anger. They would be used, for instance, by a father whose son has refused to do as he had been told. The father would say in a determined way, "He shall go." It would not be polite for a superior, in giving orders, to use the form "you shall," and it would doubtless cause resentment. He would use "you will," meaning, of course, to convey an order, but in a polite manner. Military orders read : "Captain Reynolds will march" at daybreak," etc. If, however, Captain Reynolds should refuse, his superior could insist by the less polite, but more forceful, "Captain Reynolds shall," etc. (b) Shall and will in questions. In the first person ordinarily use shall. 1 Will with the first person means want to. It would be nonsense for the speaker to ask of a second person, "Do I want to go?" But if one were asked, "Will you go with me?" one might answer, "Will I? I should say so!" i In the second and third persons use the word expected in the reply. That is, if the speaker wants a promise from another, he expects the words "I will." His question should be, accord- ingly, "Will you?" If the speaker wishes only to know about future probability, he will expect the reply, "I shall," and if he is careful he will use "shall you" in the question. EXAMPLES in second person: Q. Shall you be in Boston this month? A. No, I think I shall not go so far east, or, Yes, I shall be there next week. (The reply does not contain a promise, and none was asked.) 1 Will we would be allowable in putting a question to vote. Why? 48 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH Q. Witt you do me a favor? A. Of course I will. (In this case a promise was asked and given.} EXAMPLES in third person: Q. Will he come next week? A. I think he will (simple future). Q. Shall he mow the lawn today? (A request for directions.) A. He shall i (I wish it volition.) (c) Shall and will in subordinate clauses. Difficulties in most subordinate clauses will be solved if a form* is used corresponding to that required on a change of the subordinate to a principal clause. EXAMPLES: (1) Mr. Smith says he shall be down in a few minutes. 1 (Mr. Smith's direct statement of the matter was, "I shall be down in a few minutes.' 1 ) (2) Mr. Roberts says he will do your errand. (Mr. Roberts' state- ment was a promise, "I will/' etc.) (3) He thinks you will be elected. (He expressed his thought as simple future, "You will probably be elected.") (4) He fears he shall be defeated. 1 (He expressed his fear as simple fut u P. shall be defeat* (5) He is resolved that he will not go. (He expressed deter- mination, "I will not go.") 46. Should and Would. Should is in origin the past tense of shall, would the past tense of will; and in general the uses of the words correspond to these facts. Th'e same errors occur as with shall and will. Thus would is used altogether too much with the first person when it is not meant to imply intention or determination. For instance, "I wouldn't do it if I were you" is not a careful statement. Witt is too strong a word for the place; hence would is also too strong. "I shouldn't do it if I were you" is better unless the speaker feels very strongly on the subject. 1 A courteous reply would avoid the actual use of shall here, though it might really be meant. But in the question shall is necessary. * In this sentence will would very commonly be used, and could be defended because Mr. Smith may have expressed an intention. * In this case, perhaps because it immediately follows he, will would probably be used by all but the most careful speakers. VERBS 49 In subordinate clauses, especially in indirect discourse (expressing another's thought in your own words), use should if the form in the direct statement is shall; would if the form in the direct statement is will. Thus the examples near the end of the preceding section will read as follows if changed to past tense: 1. Mr. Smith said he should be down in a few minutes. 2. Mr. Roberts said he would do your errand. 3. He thought you would be elected. 4. He feared he should be defeated. 5. He was resolved that he would not go. Besides the uses of should and would as the past of shall and will, there are also some special uses to be distinguished. Thus should, even with the first person, may be equivalent to ought to. EXAMPLES: (1) He should pay his debts. (2) I should tell you but I won't. In speech this use of should is easily distinguished by emphasis 'from the should that merely corresponds to shall. In writing one has to judge by the context. Would is also used to mean habitual or customary action. EXAMPLE : He would sit on a cold stone all day and fish. EXERCISE 19 Fill in the blanks below with shall or will, or should or would: 1. I get my death of cold. 2. "I " is the motto of Chicago. 3. you see your brother in Clevela nd? 4. you give me some advice? 5. Hello, Mr. Jamison, you be busy tonight? If not, you help at the church fair? 6. I be working at the office tonight, but I help you tomorrow evening. 7. We succeed; on that we are determined. 8. The driver said he not go (should or would?) . 50 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH 9. We do our duty in this caae. 10. my men go to work for you now? 11. I not ha\'<' hrlirvrd it. 12. She feared they be lost on the hillside. 13. He pay the entire bill, or I sue him. 14. - ^he be expelled from school? Certainly, he ; I cannot have such boys about. 15. He said he go for you. 16. By this time it was late and I had to run or I . have been late at school. 17. By Heaven, he feel the force of my anger! 18. Tomorrow he feel sorry. Quote the following indirectly: 19. "I will go," said he. 20. "I shall be in Toledo Tuesday/' she told Allen. 21. "Shall you be going, too?" asked Tom. 22. 'They will go," said 47. Mood in Verbs. Thus far we have paid no attention to the mood of verbs the variations in form to indicate the manner of the action. The forms given in Sections 25-30 are all of the indicative mood, which is ordinarily used in making t assertions and asking questions. An overwhelming majority of the verbs in everyday speech and writing are indicative. In direct and forcible commands the imperative mood is used; but as this occurs only in the second person present (both singular and plural), and as it has but one form in each voice, which in the active is identical with the first of the principal parts, no difficulties occur in relation to it. EXAMPLES: (1) Goto your places. (2) "Strike while the iron is hot." (3) Be 1 men if you can. Difficulties in relation to mood center entirely around the subjunctive, which is used to express wish, condition, etc., in certain special ways explained in Sections 49 and 50. 48. Forms of the Subjunctive. While in theory there is a full subjunctive conjugation, it differs from the indicative in 1 Note that be ia an exception to the general rule that the imperative ia like the firat person, singular, present indicative. VERBS 51 so few places that the simplest manner of treatment is merely to fix the attention on these differences, as follows: (a) In all verbs except be there is no difference between the indicative and the subjunctive in the active voice, except in the third person, singular, present, where the subjunctive drops the final s of the indicative form; 1 and in the third person, singular, present perfect, where the subjunctive is made with have instead of has. EXAMPLES for present tense : Indicative Subjunctive He loves If he love He has the strength If he have the strength (b) The verb be has a more varied subjunctive conjugation. Examine carefully the following forms of the simple tenses : Present tense Indicative Subjunctive Singular 1st I am if I be 2d you are if you be 3d he is if he be Plural 1st we are if we be 2d you are if you be 3d they are if they be Note that the subjunctive form is be throughout in every case different from the indicative. The present progressive subjunctive and the present passive subjunctive of any transi- tive verb similarly have be throughout. EXAMPLES : If he be striking (progressive) If he be struck (passive) Past tense Indicative Subjunctive Singular 1st I was if I were 2d you were if you were 3d he was if he were Plural 1st we were f if we were 2d you were if you w ere 3d they were if they were 1 In the case of the verb have, the subjunctive is have where the indicative is has. 52 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH Note that the subjunctive form is were throughout, but that it varies from the indicative in only the first and the third person singular. The past progressive subjunctive and the past passive subjunctive similarly have were throughout. EXAMPLES: If I (he) were striking (progressive) If I (he) were struck (passive) To sum up the matter in a different way, the only cases in common use in which the subjunctive differs from the indicative are: (a) Present subjunctive of be be in all persons and both numbers, u here the indicative has am, w, are. This applies also to cases in which be is used as an auxiliary; i. e., in the progressive and passive conjugations. (b) Past subjunctive of be were in all persons and both numbers; different from the indicative only in the singular, first and third persons, u h< re the indicative is was. This applies to cases in which be (were) is an auxiliary. (c) Third person, singular, present subjunctive of all other verbs, with- out the 5 that marks the corresponding indicative form. In the case of have, this means that the subjunctive is have where the indicative is has. Consequently the present perfect subjunctive of ail verbs, both active and passive, makes use of have in the third person 49. Subjunctive in Principal Clauses. The use of the sub- junctive in modern English is very limited. In principal clauses it is practically confined to a few expressions of wish or volition, as in prayers. EXAMPLES: (1) God bless you! (4) Be that as it may. (2) Every one rise. (5) Heaven help us! (3) Suffice it to say. (6) Long live the king! The verbs in these examples may be recognized as subjunctives from the fact that the indicative, third person, singular forms would be blesses, rises, suffices, is, helps, lives. It is at once evident that these indicative forms would not at all express the intended meanings. Some of the verbs seem like imperatives; but in each case there is a subject' in the third person, whereas the imperative is used only in the second person in direct com- mands with you either expressed or understood as the subject. VERBS 53 50. Subjunctive in Subordinate Clauses. The use of the subjunctive in subordinate clauses is more extensive than in principal clauses; but here too there has been a decided tendency to abandon it in common speech and writing. It is much more common in the Bible, in Shakspere, and in literary English generally, than in daily use. Yet in certain cases it is very important to know the distinction between the indicative and the subjunctive and to use the latter effectively. A. In various clauses beginning with that, lest, and similar conjunctions, and expressing volition, wish, purpose, obligation, ^r propriety, the subjunctive is rather common. EXAMPLES : (1) I insist that he notify me. (2) Would that he were gone. (3) I move that the question be laid on the table. (4) The general ordered that the fort be blown up. (5) It is very desirable that the building be finished soon. (6) Give him food lest he perish. (7) Take heed that he escape not. The need for the subjunctive is particularly marked in sentences 1, 3, 4, and 5 above, where the present indicative cannot pos- sibly be substituted does not "make sense/' B. The subjunctive is also used in various clauses beginning with if, though, and similar conjunctions, and expressing con- dition, concession, etc. (a) The present subjunctive is used to indicate uncertainty. EXAMPLES: (1) If this be possible, I will do it. (2) Though he slay me, yet will I trust him. (3) Unless he confess, he cannot be pardoned. This is more a literary than a common use, yet occasions rise in which it is very desirable to introduce the shade of meaning contributed by the subjunctive. When the if clause is not in- tended to indicate uncertainty, however, the indicative is used. EXAMPLE : If stealing is a crime, why isn't food speculation punish- able as doubly criminal? :>4 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH In t he foregoing sentence stealing is regarded as unquestionably a crime, hence the indicative form. Yet stealing may not always be wrong. If % a widow steals for her hungry babies, there may be some question as to the criminality of the act and \M may properly say: If stealing for hungry babies be a crime, then mother love is criminal. In clauses of condition or concession without a conjunction (with if or though implied but not expressed), the need of the subjunctive is sometimes more obvious than when there is a conjunction. EXAMPLES: (1) Beit ever so humble, there's no place like home. ( J) Be that as it may, I can't go with you. (b) The past subjunctive is used to indicate a condition contrary to fact. EXAMPLES: (1) If that were possible, we could succeed. If John were here, I would scold him soundly. (3) He acts as if he were era (4) Were 1 asked, I should be glad to go. The foregoing sentences imply that it is not possible, that John is not here, etc. This use of were in conditions contrary to fact is perhaps the most important use of the subjunctive in subordinate clauses. There are few more positive marks of the careless speaker or writer than the use of was with the first or third person singular in if clauses such as the following: (Bad) (Good) If I was ready, I'd go. If I were ready, I'd go. I ! acts like 1 he was angry. He acts as if he were angry. It must be remembered, however, that there is a perfectly correct use of the past indicative in if clauses, just as there is of the present indicative. EXAMPLES*. (1) If he was ready, he was to go at once. (A matter of actual fact, not of condition contrary to fact.) (2) If I was at fault, why didn't you correct me? 1 Note here the additional error of using like as a conjunction, instead of at if. St-e Section 79. VERBS 55 The following poem by Edward Rowland Sill very neatly illustrates the differences of meaning between indicative and subjunctive: MOODS (From Hermione and Other Poems) Dawn has blossomed: the sun is nigh: Pearl and rose in the wimpled sky , Rose and pearl on a brightening blue: (She is true, and she is true!) The noonday lies all warm and still And calm, and over sleeping hill And wheat field falls a dreamy hue: (If she be true if she b.e true!) The patient evening comes, most sad and fair: Veiled are the stars : the dim and quiet air Breathes bitter scents of hidden myrrh and rue: (If she were true if she were only true!) In the morning the poet is optimistic; he uses the indicative to assert that "she is true." At noon he doubts; hence the subjunctive, "if she be true." Evening finds him discouraged and convinced that she is not true "if she were only true." 61. Verb Phrases Instead of the Subjunctive. One reason for the limited use of the subjunctive in English is the fact that in most cases a verb phrase 1 with some auxiliary may be sub- stituted for the subjunctive. The following table showing how examples from the preceding sections may be changed will illustrate this point fully: Subjunctives Verb Phrases 1. God bless you! May God bless you! 2. Every one rise. Let every one rise. 3. Suffice it to say. Let it suffice to say. 4. Heaven help us! May Heaven help us! 5. Long live the king! May the king live long! 6. I insist that he notify me. I insist that he shall (or must) notify me. 1 Any verb form consisting of two or more words is a verb phrase. 56 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH 7. The general ordered that the fort be blown up. 8. Give him food lest he perish. 9. Though he slay me, yet will I trust him. 10. Be it ever so humble, there's no place like home. 11. If that were possible, we could succeed. 12. Were I asked, I should be glad to go. The general ordered that the fort should be blown up. Give him food lest he should perish. Though he should slay me, yet \\ ill I trust him. Though it may be ever so humble, there's no place like home. If that should be possible, we could succeed. If I should be asked, I should be glad to go. The advantages of the subjunctive should be evident from a mere reading of the above. All the sentences containing subjunctives are briefer, and most of them seem more natural and idiomatic than the parallel sentences. EXERCISE 20 (a) Which form is better in the following sentences? 1. Whether he (spin, spins) his comedies in rime Or (scrawl, scrawls) , as Wood and Barclay walk, 'gainst time, His style in youth or age is still the same. Byron 2. If I (was t were) you, I wouldn't go. 3. But who may know \\ hcther smile or frown (be, is) fleeter. Tennyson 4. What good should follow this, if this (was, were) done? 5. Though I (am, be) a woman, have I no legal rights? 6. Govern well thy appetite, lest sin (surprise, surprises) thee. 7. If thy hand (offends, offend) thee, cut it off. 8. (/*, Be) it scroll or (is, be) it book, Into it, knight, thou must not look. Scott 9. I wish I (was, were) prepared. 10. Now if this (be, is) true, we are in danger. 11. Now if this (was, were) true, he wouldn't tell you. (b) Justify the following uses: 12. The leader of the rush (at the signal of the platoon leader, if the latter be not the leader of the rush) commands: Follow me. Infantry Drill Regulations, U. S. A. 13. Would that 1 were king. VERBS 57 (c) Either word may be used in sentence 14. What is the difference in meaning? 14. Even if this (is, be) true, I shall trust him still. 52. Agreement of Subject and Predicate. It is a funda- mental rule that a verb must agree with its subject in number. This ought to be a very simple rule to observe, for (except in the case of tie) the singular verb is different from the plural only in the tiiird person singular of the present and the present perfect tenses. Yet the fact is that few rules are so often violated To avoid such errors you should acquire the habit of instantaneous mental analysis of an uttered sentence. Attention to the following sources of difficulty is important: (a) Words intervening between the subject and the verb are sometimes allowed to cause confusion. EXAMPLES: (1) A range of mountains extend along the coast. (2) Each of the girls have permission. In the first example range is the subject; mountains is merely the noun of a prepositional phrase modifying range ; and since range is singular, the verb should be extends. In the second example each (singular) is the subject and the verb should be has. (b) Sometimes a plural predicate noun, nearer the verb than a singular subject, causes confusion. The student should remember that the verb agrees with the subject, not with the predicate noun. (Incorrect) (Correct) One of the most interesting sights ' One of the most interesting sights in Texas are the oil wells. in Texas is the oil wells. t In many cases the best way to avoid trouble is so to con- struct the sentence that there is no disagreement in number between the subject and a predicate noun. Thus the example just given would be rather more logical if it read: The oil wells are among the most interesting sights in Texas. (c) The treatment of collective nouns often puzzles the student. The verb with a collective noun may usually be either 58 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH singular or plural; singular if the persons or things named are thought of as a unit, plural if individuals of the group are meant. EXAMPLES : Our family is not very large. Our family are great lovers of sport. It is important to treat a collective noun consistently through-' out a given sentence; if the verb is made singular, for example. words that refer to the subject of the verb must also be singular. (Inconsistent) (Correct) The committee has made their The committee hag made its report, report. The committee have made their report. EXERCISE 21 Which of the following sentences are proper? Explain and correct all the errors you find. 1. Not one of the men was lost. 2. Each of the horses were cum iorninp. 3. An infinity of bountiful white snowflakes carry us back to our boyhood. 4. The method of choosing electors is not considered representative. 5. A set of twenty volumes sell for $40. 6. Either of the boys write well enough. 7. Neither of them take lessons. 8. Seventy thousand miles of railroad were built in 1900. 9. And Lennox with a gallant band waits but thy coming. Scotl 10. H:iv< either of your friends arrived? 11. A new code of rules and regulations are being made. 12. The preacher as well as the congregation were frightened. 13. Mrs. Henderson with her three children were captured. 63. The Compound Subject. When there is a compound subject usage varies. (a) Two or more words joined by and to make a subject usually take a plural verb. EXAMPLE: Havoc and spoil and ruin are my gain. Milton If, however, the words are taken together as one idea, the singular verb is used. EXAMPLES: (1) My old schoolmate and chum is here. (2) Bread and butter is good. VERBS 59 , (b) A subject consisting of two or more singular words joined by or or nor requires a singular verb. EXAMPLE : Neither John nor Mary has any time. But when the words differ in number, the verb generally agrees with the nearest part of the subject. EXAMPLES: Neither Fred nor the French boys have ever been in Chicago. Neither the French boys nor Fred has ever been in Chicago. (c) When the words of a compound subject are modified by each, 1 every, or no, the verb must be singular. EXAMPLES: (1) Each village and hamlet plays its part. (2) Every man, woman, and child has his opinion. (3) No man and no woman has been here. . 54. Agreement in Person. A verb must agree with its sub- ject in person. There is a peculiar error common in speech throughout the United States. It is the "I says" error. I is of the first person (person speaking). Says is of the third person; it goes properly with he. In I says the subject and predicate do not agree in person. (Incorrect} (Correct) And I goes over to him and I And I went over to him and said, says, says I, etc. etc. What is wrong with the following sentence? The trouble is not only a matter of number; person is involved, also. You was there, wasn't you? Are you sure your explanation is right? The error is exceed- ingly common among careless people. Don't is an abbreviation of do not, and is in good use as such. It must not be employed where do not is wrong. (Incorrect) (Correct) (1) He don't mind criticism at all. (1) He doesn't mind criticism at all. (2) The tree don't have much (2) The tree doesn't have much chance in the city. chance in the city. 1 Each, every, one, none, no, and any are usually singular. See Section 59. 60 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH Trouble in this matter is persistent and common. Catch yourself every time you use don't in the third person, singular, present. It may take dozens of self-administered punishments to break you of the habit, especially if you are so unfortunate as to hear the error at home, but the habit must be broken. 66. The Split Infinitive. When one or more words are placed between the to of an infinitive and the verb, the infinitive is said to be split (or cleft). Usually such an arrangement is awkward. N (Awkward) (Better) It pays to thoroughly do one's It pays to do one's- work thor- work. oughly. The correction just given may be applied to most split infini- tives; the adverb may be put either before to or after the whole infinitive phrase. Though split infinitives have occasionally hern usrl hy ^<><><1 writers, iii 0*061 in which it seemed less awkward to split the infinitive than to place the adverb outside the infinitive phrase, and though for this reason the construct i< >n has been defended by some good grammarians, there can be no questipn as to the desirability of avoiding the split infinitive when a simple rearrangement like that illustrated above is possible. In the vast majority of cases it is perfectly easy, and preferable, to avoid splitting the infinitive. EXERCISE 22 Which of the following sentences are proper? Correct all the errors you find. 1. The tumult and the shouting dies. Kipling 2. It don't seem right that a few men should have so great a power. 3. The deer flee before the hounds. 4. They have placed the piano in a room where no one but their family and the people upstairs hear it. 5. Don't an industrious and honest man have a chance now? 6. Well! I didn't know where you was. 7. Nor time nor tide affect him now. 8. Worth, not riches, win promotion. ft. J/y soul and my four-footed friend is all I have today. VERBS 61 10. And all the way, the joyous people sings And with their garments strews the paved streets. 11. It would not be wise for him to suddenly disappear. 12. Neither James nor John were able to eat their dinner. 13. Marie, accompanied by her circle of friends, is exceedingly happy. 14. Here comes Jones and his friends. 15. Are either Mary or Julia married? 56. Illiterate Verb Forms. Aint has no place in English. It is not a contraction of any phrase. Such forms as wa'n't (for was not) and bein's (bein's it's you) are illiterate and not to be tolerated. There is no such verb form as had ought; ought alone is correct. Nor are there any such forms as would of, had o/, etc. QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER III 1. What are the simple tenses; the compound (perfect) tenses? 2. What does the past perfect tense denote? The future perfect? 3. What are the eight different simple forms of the verb be? 4. What three present tense forms have we for a verb? Illustrate. 5. Are verbs inflected for person? Number? Voice? Mood? Tense? 6. Explain the meaning of the italicized clause in Section 33. 7. Why are certain verb forms called principal parts? 8. Explain the "I have saw" error; the "I seen" error. 9. Is be transitive or intransitive? Can it take an object? 10. What is the test for sit and set? Lay and lie? 11. What errors in the use of shall and will are most common? 12. What is the general relation between shall and should? Will and would? 13. Can you write a possible last line for a fourth stanza of "Moods" (p. 55), which shall be indicative and negative? 14. Explain the principles governing the agreement of subject and predicate. CHAPTER IV PRONOUNS 57. Inflection of Pronouns. The personal pronouns are inflected more than nouns. Their inflection, however, consists more in the use of different words, than in variations of form. EXAMPLES of inflection by the use of different words: I me we us EXAMPLE of inflection by variation of the same word: he him Every student knows the pronoun forms through daily use, but many need their attention called to the principles violated by their errors. 68. Person. The primary distinction in personal pronouns is in the matter of person. FIRST PERSON (Person speaking) : I. m\ l , mine, me; we, our, ours, us SECOND PERSON (Person spoken to) : You, your, yours THIRD PERSON (Person spoken of): He, his, him; she, her, hers; it, its; they, their, theirs, them The only common error involving person occurs when some careless speaker uses second person you with third (or first) person was. A verb must agree with its subject in person (Section 54). (Incorrect) (Correct) You was there, wasn't you? You were there, weren't you? A relative pronoun depends for its person on the word to which it refers its antecedent. EXAMPLES: (1) I who am, etc. (Who is first person.) (2) You who are, etc. (Who is second person.) (3^ He who is, etc. (Who is third person.) 1 The possessive forms are included in Sections 58 and 59 because they have been habitually associated with the other forms here placed with them. It should be noted, however, that the Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature has made a special class of possessive pronouns, including mine, ours, yours, his, hers, theirs, whose; and class- ifies my. our, your, his, her, its, their, and whose as possefsive adjectives when they modify substantives. 62 PRONOUNS 63 Sometimes, at first glance, who used in the first person may seem wrong, as in the following sentence : It is for me, who am the loser, to decide. This is correct, however, because who refers to me, first person, and am is the first person form of the verb. The other common relative pronouns which and that are similarly of the person of their antecedents, but they do not change in form. 59. Number. The singular and plural forms of the per- sonal pronouns are as follows: Singular Plural I, my, mine, 1 me we, our, ours, us you, your, yours you, your, yours he, his, him 1 she, her, hers > they, their, theirs, them it, its J Relative and interrogative pronouns are not inflected fof number, but are in construction of the same number as their antecedents. EXAMPLES: He who is afraid may stay (singular). They who are afraid may stay (plural). Who is the man you mean (singular)? Who arc the men you mean (plural)? Most of the indefinite pronouns are singular, but some are plural. Singular : each, either, neither, another, much, one (and all compounds made from it, including any one, every one, some one, etc.), aught, naught, anybody, everybody, nobody, anything (and all similar combinations with body or thing) Plural: both, others, few, some, many, several Sometimes singular; sometimes plural: all, any, more, most, such 1 See footnote on page 62. CA VOCATIONAL ENGLISH Note particularly the list of singular indefinites, especially the combinations with one and body. When a personal pronoun refers to an indefinite antecedent, probably a majority of people forget the rule that a pronoun must agree with its ante- cedent in number. The trouble can be traced in many cases to a feeling for gender. You begin, "If any one has a knifV, will" Here you don't want to say he, since that seems to exclude the other sex. She would be as bad. So you com- promise by finishing, "will they let me take it, please?" But any one is singular ; tin // is plural. The pronoun does not agree with its antecedent in number. The difficulty has led to several half-hearted attempts to coin new words. "Hiser" and "himer" for "his or her" and "him or her" have been suggested, to fill the need of singular forms that can serve either masculine or feminine gender. Yet such attempts are sure to fail. We must, then, fall back on the forms of either he or she. Since he refers to man meaning the race of n\an, both men and women it is the logical form to use. Hence, "If any one here has a knife, will he please let me take it?" is the form in good use. And this applies to pronouns and possessive adjectives in reference to all the indefinites listed on page 63 as singular, including those made by the use of one and body. Even every one and everybody, though they are collective and actually imply more than one person, are singular. You never think of saying, "Every one were there"; "Everybody were there." You instantly feel that was must go with every one and with everybody. Yet when you wish later to refer to the same word that you have instinctively felt to be singular, you say, nine times out of ten, "Every one was there with their golf clubs" ; "Everybody was there as soon as they could come." Singular indefinites, when used as adjectives instead of pro- nouns, and singular nouns used indefinitely, must be treated exactly like singular indefinite pronouns. EXAMPLES: (1) Each boy must do his (not their) part. (2) A person must be careful what he says (not they say). PRONOUNS 65 EXERCISE 23 Use the correct word in each of the following sentences. Do you understand each case fully? 1. Is everybody through with (his, their) work? 2. Each of the pupils told (his, their) story differently. 3. England expects every man to do (his, their) duty. 4. The committee brought in (their, its) report. 5. Every one in the crowd had to look out for (themselves, himself). 6. Almost every one thought (he, they) knew the answer. 7. Neither Helen nor Fred has a right to do as (he, they) please (s). 8. Each of the girls went to (their, her) room(s). 9. Neither of the boys did (his, their) work well. 10. If a person were to go there Sunday (they, he) could see the crowd. 60. Gender. In the personal pronouns all three genders exist; but the forms are so universally known that they require no consideration here. The gender of relative and interrogative pronouns, however, requires brief treatment. Who refers to a personal antecedent, either masculine or feminine. EXAMPLES : The man who .... The woman who .... This is true also of who as an interrogative pronoun. EXAMPLES : Who is that man? Who is that woman? Which refers now only to things and animals; that is, it is ordinarily neuter. EXAMPLES : My pen, which my father gave me .... The deer which I shot .... Formerly which sometimes had reference to persons "Our Father which art . . . ." As an interrogative it may now refer to persons Which of the boys did you mean? That may refer to persons or animals or things. EXAMPLES: The man that I meant .... The horse that ran away .... The house that Jack built .... (W \8. The book was hers. That pencil is your**. That pencil is yours. The gray house is our's. The gray house is ours. The brown one is their**. The brown one is theirs. Some of it's windows arc broken. Some of its windows arc broken. The most frequent error related to the possessive forms of pronouns occurs in connection with the verb forms ending in ing, called gerunds. There are gerunds identical in form \vith all the participles except the past participle (the third princi- pal part) . These forms are as follows for strike: Active Passive Present: striking being struck Perfect: having struck 1 having been struck 1 The uses of the participle and the gerund are entirely different, however, for the former is a verbal adjective, while the latter is a verbal noun. Now examine the sentence, "I heard of his having been struck." Why is his used and not himt Because having been struck, a gerund, is used as a noun with the preposition of. The sentence does not mean "I heard of him"; it means "I heard of the fact that he was struck."' A noun cannot be modified by an objective (accusative-dative) pronoun, like him; the possessive, an adjective, is required. 1 Called past and phrased past in the Report of the Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature. I PRONOUNS 69 The same principle applies when a form of a noun is the modifier of a gerund. The possessive (genitive) is necessary. EXAMPLE : What do you think of Tom's winning that race? EXERCISE 24 (a) Use the correct form in each of the following sentences. Give reasons. 1. What do you think of (father's, father) working so hard? 2. We had expected to hear of (your, you) startling the world with your invention. 3. I had not heard of (his, him) having been hurt. 4. Have you heard of (Harry, Harry's) losing his watch? 5. What do you think of (me, my) running for mayor? (b) Are the following sentences correct? 1. His father objects to us helping them. 2. They insist on every student making a map. 3. I knew of his having lost his mind. 4. His falling in love with the maid is real comedy. 5. Have you heard of Mary and my failing to meet each other? 6. The coach saw him running. 7. The policeman saw him running. 64. Objective Uses. The objective (accusative-dative) form of the pronoun is used: (a) When the pronoun is the direct object of a verb. We buried him darkly at dead of night, The sod with our bayonets turning. "The Burial of Sir John Moore," Wolfe Care is often needed when there is more than one object. (Incorrect) (Correct) He saw Helen and /. He saw Helen and me. In any such sentence omit all objects but the pronoun, and the blunder will usually be evident. 70 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH (b) When the pronoun is used with a preposition to form a phrase. To him who in the love of nature holds Communion with her visible forms, she speaks A various languai "Thanatopsis," Bryant Be sure to discover all the Words that go with the preposition. (Incorrect) (Correct) (1) He did it for Charles and /. (1) He did it for Charles and me. (2) That can easily be done by (2) That can easily be done by you and he. you and him. To test this construction, omit one of the words following the preposition. "He did it for I" is instantly felt to be wrong. The nominatives, I and he, must be replaced by the objectives, me and him. Be watchful as to what word goes with a preposition, even if it is some distance away. Whom did you say the messenger gave the letter to? 1 (c) When the pronoun is the indirect object of a verb. "Give us a song/ 1 the soldiers cried, The outer trenches guarding. "A Song of the Camp," Bayard Taylor The same blunder mentioned in (a) and (b) occurs in this case also. (Incorrect) (Correct) Give Harry and / the baD. Give Harry and me the ball. You would never think of saying, "Give I the ball/ 1 Why, then, "Give Harry and I"? (d) When the pronoun is in apposition with a noun or another pronoun in the objective (accusative) case. EXAMPLE: The broken will allowed the farm to pass to John him who had been so unkind to his father. 1 Some writers object to a preposition at the end of a sentence. Sometimes such a construction is awkward, but in many cases it is idiomatic and proper. PRONOUNS 71 Him agrees with John in case, being in apposition with John. . A relative pronoun is never in apposition with its ante- cedent. It should never be argued that since the antecedent is nominative and the pronoun "means the same" as the ante- cedent, the pronoun should be nominative also. EXAMPLE: It was I whom you saw. I is nominative; whom is the object of saw, hence objective. (e) When the pronoun is the subject or object of an infini- tive, or when it is the predicate pronoun after an infinitive. EXAMPLES: (1) Mother wanted me to meet him. (2) They thought him to be me. Examine the first example carefully. Me is not the object of the verb wanted. Mother did not want me: she wanted a meeting to take place'; she wanted me to meet him. Me to meet him is the object of wanted. It is an infinitive clause of which me is the subject and him the object. Both words are recognized at once as objective. The second example is to be analyzed in the same way except that to be cannot have an object. Me in this case is a predicate pronoun after the infinitive, and is objective to agree with the subject of the infinitive. Note that if we change the object clause so that it contains a finite verb (any verb of the indicative, imperative, or sub- junctive mood) instead of an infinitive, the case of the pro- nouns must be changed thus : They thought he was /. Any form of be, then, which is between the subject and a predicate noun or pronoun, is preceded and followed by the same case. This rule applies, however, only when be is the main verb. In the sentence, "He was striking me," was is only a helping (auxiliary) verb; strike is the main verb, appearing here in the past progressive form (see Section 29). Hence me (objective) is not required to agree with he (nominative), but is in the regular form for the direct obiect. 72 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH Infinitive clauses used as the object are very common after the verb let, and are sometimes puzzling because after this verb the sign of the infinitive to is omitted. EXAMPLE : Let us go. Replace let with its synonym, allow, and it may be more evident that go is an infinitive. Allow us to go. People sometimes forget the proper case for pronouns in an infinitive clause and make errors like the following: Let's you and I go to the post office. Us (let 1 s = let us) is the subject of the infinitive (to) go; hence it is objective. The other pronouns are in apposition with us and therefore should also be objective. .The sentence should read: Let's you and me go to the post office. Some other verbs also may be followed by infinitive clauses without to. EXAMPLES: (1) I bade him go. (2) I saw him go. (3) I heard him go. (4) Have him read the book. 1 EXERCISE 26 Which forms should be used in the following sentences? Explain your reasons each time. Repetition will do you no harm. 1. They decided to stop for my father and (/, me). 2. The recipients should be (us, we) and not (them, they) for (we, us) not (them, they) did the work. 3. The prize will be given to (whoever, whomever) proves himself most worthy. 4. With (whoever, whomever) serves his fellowmen I take my stand. 5. We agreed to allow (she, her) and Mary to stay a week. 6. The gifts are from (we, us) to you. i In this last example the infinitive has an object. PRONOUNS 73 7. I took (he, him) to be Harry. 8. (Me, I) and Harry won't go with (those, them) boys. 9. Let's you and (/, me) play ball. (Some writers object to us in this sentence; analyze it without the us.) 10. Miller sat between Charlie and (/, me), (he, him) (who, whom) (we, us) boys despised so heartily. 11. If I (was, were) (he, him), I would go. 12. This can easily be done by you and (she, her). 13. Teacher: "Will you recite?" Pupil: ("Mef" "If") 14. The first time I saw Holt he reminded me of some one; I couldn't remember (who, whom). 15. And Clarence, (who, whom) Nell thought handsome, was refused a place. 16. (Whom, who) the man serves at heart, he is responsible to. 17. They thought I was (he, him). 18. The thought of leaving saddened her, and I must admit, although I did not let her know it, (me, I) too. 19. Although I protested, they were stronger than (7, me) and their advice prevailed. (See page 100.) 20. They made me suffer more than (he, him). EXERCISE 26 Which form is correct in. each of the following sentences? 1. They chose my brother and (/, me) to go as delegates. 2. A large fortune was inherited by (her, she) and her sister. 3. It was (7, me) (who, whom) you met yesterday. 4. His hand is against all (who, whom) he cannot call friend. 5. She is better loved than (he, him). 6. Let (we, us) girls have a party. 7. That Smith should say it, (he, him) of all men, is hardest to believe. 8. Lay on, Macduff, and damned be (he, him) who first cries, "Hold, enough !" "Macbeth," Shakspere 9. (Whom, who) say men that I am? Bible 10. (Whom, who) do you think the child likes best? 11. I pointed out the man (who, whom) I thought was in command. 12. He pointed out the one (who, whom) he took to be (he, him). 13. Let (him, he) that is without sin cast the first stone. 65. Miscellaneous Points about Pronouns. (a) Distinguish between the demonstrative pronouns this, tfiat, these, those, and the same words used as adjectives. EXAMPLES: (a) This is my hat (pronoun). (b) That man is a neighbor of mine (adjective). 74 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH Remember that this and that are singular, these and those are plural ; hence it is a gross error to say these kind, those sort, etc. here and that there are also bad blunders. (b) The possessive of such forms as somebody else is prefer- ably somebody else's, not somebody's else. The reason for this is the fact that, especially when the noun modified by the pos- sessive immediately follows, it is less awkward to regard the whole expression as a sort of compound indefinite pronoun, with the sign of possession added at the end. EXAMPLES: (1) He was acting on some one eUe's behalf. (2) It is nobody else's business. (c) The reflexive or intensive pronouns the forms ending in self cannot properly be used as subjects, or as objects of a verb or after a preposition unless a corresponding noun or pronoun is the subject. ( / ncorrect) (Correct ) (1) M yself and wife wore in\ i (1) My wife nnd / were invited. (2) They invited myself and \\ (2) They invited my wife and me. (3) Did you hurt yout (3) Did you hurt yourself? The intensive pronouns may, however, be in apposition with a noun or a pronoun. EXAMPLES: John* himself was present. I myself saw him do it. There are no such words as hisself and theirsebes. Itself is the proper form, not its self. (d) Each other (as careful analysis of the parts will indicate) implies a reference to two persons or things; one another, to more than two. (Undesirable) (Better) The three men despised each other. The three men despised one another. The two boys loved one another. The two boys loved each other. (e) Learn the difference between aught, meaning "any- thing," and naught, meaning "nothing." With these words is PRONOUNS 75 sometimes confused the verb ought, which originally meant "owed" and is now used to express duty. EXAMPLE: If he had done aught wrong, he ought to let naught stand in the way of apology. (f ) The former and the latter (which are sometimes classed as pronouns when used independently of nouns) should be employed only in comparing two persons or things. If more than two are being considered, use first and last, or first, second, third, etc. (Incorrect) (Correct) I have read Ivanhoe, The Talisman, I have read Ivanhoe, The Talisman, and The Heart of Midlothian. and The Heart of Midlothian. I like the former better. I like the first best. EXERCISE 27 (a) Underscore adjectives and doubly underscore pronouns in the following sentences: 1. This is the first I have seen this year. 2. This fact does not appeal to those who hold these particular views. (b) Which word group is correct in each of the following? 1. The duel 1 was abandoned, the combatants [watch your pronunciation] agreeing to apologize to (each other, one another). 2. The twins resemble (each other, one another). 3. This ticket will admit (you and your partner, yourself and partner). (c) Are the following sentences correct? If not, correct them. 1. Nelson and Henderson left today for Little Rock and Memphis. The former will be visited first. 2. Leffler, who works for Wright & Browning, and his cousin Davis, of Miller & Co., returned to the latter's store before the detectives left. 3. They thought Stroup to be me. QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER IV 1. Are pronouns inflected for person? Gender? Number? Case? Illustrate. 2. How do we determine the person and number of a relative pronoun? 1 Notice the difference from dual. 76 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH 3. Name ten indefinite pronouns. 4. Why is they improper when used to refer to person or onef 5. Is us or girls "object" of the preposition to in the following sentence, "He gave it to us girls"? 6. Do personal pronouns ever use the apostrophe to show possession? Do indefinite pronouns? 7. Is a possessive pronoun really a pronoun or is it an adjective? 8. What is the greatest danger in using a compound object consisting of two or more pronouns? (Sec. 64.) 9. Explain in your own words the first paragraph on page 71. 10. Is the subject of a verb always nominative? 11. Is the object of a verb or a preposition always objective? 12. CHAPTER V ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 66. Position of Adjectives. An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun. There are two common positions for adjectives: (a) Near the noun or pronoun modified usually just before it. Thus gray in the following couplet modifies the noun trout. Where the pools are bright and deep, Where the gray trout lies asleep. "A Boy's Song," James Hogg (b) In the predicate. What is the predicate in the first line above? What do the adjectives bright and deep describe? That is, what idea is made clearer by these words? Since these words are in the predicate, though they describe the noun pools, they are called predicate adjectives. (See Section 7d). Be (see Section 28) is the verb most commonly followed by a predicate adjective, but many other verbs may be so followed. EXAMPLES: become, seem, appear, look, sound, smell, taste, feel. In general, a verb that can have a predicate noun can also have a predicate adjective. EXAMPLES: Predicate noun Predicate adjective 1. He was a fisherman. 1. He was angry. 2. He became president. 2. He became famous. 67. Comparison of Adjectives. Adjectives are inflected L* only one way to show different degrees of quality or quantity. For instance, one thing may be good, another may be better, while a third may be best. This inflection is called compari- son; the three degrees of comparison are positive, or the simple form, comparative, and superlative. EXAMPLES: Positive Comparative Superlative long longer longest fine finer finest lonely lonelier loneliest 77 78 VOCATIONAL ENGL 1 8 1 1 This method of adding er and est (or r and st if the positive form ends in e), with change of a final y to i if necessary, applies regularly to monosyllables and sometimes to longer adjectives; but many words of two syllables and practically all words of more than two syllables seem too long if er or est is added. Consequently a second common method of com- parison consists in preceding the positive form by mare for the comparative degree, and by most for the superlative. EXAMPLES: Positive Comparative Superlative beautiful more beautiful most beautiful faithful more faithful most faithful In many cases the choice between the first and the second methods of comparison is discretionary, based on euphony. Thus we find the following use by Coleridge: "The faithfulest of all the camp." A few adjectives use a different root in comparison. These are all very common words, however, and a complete list is not necessary. EXAMPLES: Po Comparative Superlative bad (ill, evil) worse worst good (well) better best little l'-s least much (many) men- most 68. Comparison of Adverbs. Adverbs are compared just like adjectives, except that the number adding er and est is much more limited than in the case of adjectives. These suf- fixes are not easily added to the most common adverbial ending, ly; so that more and most are used in the great majority of adverbial comparisons. EXAMPLES: Positive Comparative Superlative hard harder hardest suddenly more suddenly most suddenly 69. Difficulties Due to Inflection for Degree. Several important points depend upon the comparison of adjectives and adverbs. ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 79 (a) When only two persons, things, or ideas are being com- pared, we use the comparative form the one ending in er. EXAMPLES: (1) John is the taller of the boys. (2) Of the horses the darker is the better. Because of this rule it is often possible to indicate two without a direct statement. Thus in the examples above we know that only two boys are mentioned, and only two horses, though the word two does not occur. It is a bad error to use the superlative in relation to one of only two persons or things. (b) Sometimes a lack of clear thinking causes absurdity in the completion of a comparison. Examine the following sen- tence: (Incorrect) The elephant is larger than any animal in the world. Two inferences are possible from this statement: First, the elephant is an "animal in the world"; yet the elephant is larger than "any animal in the world." Therefore the elephant is larger than the elephant. Or, secondly, the elephant is not an "animal in the world." Both inferences, plainly, are non- sense. It would be correct, however, to say, "The elephant is larger than any animal in North America," because the elephant is not a native of North America. Obviously the error in the original sentence is to be corrected by inserting the word other. (Correct) The elephant is larger than any other animal in the world. Notice that it is only in the comparative degree that this trouble arises. We do not say that the elephant "is the largest of all other animals," for the elephant is not a member of the "other animals" group. Neither do we say, "The elephant is the largest of any animal in the world"; if we wish to use the superlative, we simply say, "The elephant is the largest animal in the world." (c) Beware of double comparison by the use of both er 80 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH and more, or both est and most. Shakspere speaks of "the most unkindest cut/' but this usage is not now sanctioned. (Incorrect) (Correct) He is less richer than he was last He is less rich than he was last year. year. ^ not so rich as he was last year. (d) There are certain adjectives and adverbs that in their positive forms really express superlative ideas, so that on careful analysis it seems illogical to compare them. Thus we can hardly speak of one dead person as deader than another, or a third as deadest of all. Or if a bucket is really empty, another bucket cannot be emptier. Other adjectives of similar char- acter are: unique eternal infinite mortal everlasting ni:ithl.>> universal omnipotent The natural tendency to compare is strong, however. Such adjectives as round, square, straight strictly interpreted would scarcely admit of comparison; yet one would not hesitate to say, "My apple is the roundest in the basket," or "This line is straighter than that." It is even proverbial to speak of some thing or person as "deader than a door-nail." One must be watchful to avoid absurdity, however. Often a comparison with more nearly, most nearly, will accurately express the mean- ing. Thus while there can hardly be degrees of omnipotence, one sovereign may be more nearly omnipotent than another. EXERCISE 28 (a} Discuss the following questions (as to English, not fact) : 1. Is God wiser than any man? 2. Is Rebecca (in Ivanhoe) sweeter than any character of fiction? 3. Is Clara Barton more noble (or nobler) than any character of fiction? 4. Is Charles the most favored of all the other contestants? 5. Is sentence 4 right even if we omit otherf Why? ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 81 (b) Make all necessary corrections in the following sen- tences: 1. The rounder half of a clam shell is the smoothest. 2. His left shoe is best. 3. He bought the most expensive half. 4. England is the strongest sea power in the Triple Entente. 5. John is the tallest of the twins. 6. Washington was more sedate than any of our presidents. 7. I like candy better than anything. , 8. God is most high most omnipotent. 9. The bin was becoming more empty day by day. 10. Fred, Laura, and Mary Brown visited Somerfield Tuesday, the former being on his way to Cumberland. 11. June 22 is the longest day in the year. 12. Currants are better for jelly than any small fruit. 70. Adjective or Adverb. Sometimes it seems difficult to decide whether an adjective or an adverb should be used; but if the student can determine the modifier and the word that is being modified, he will have little trouble. If the word modi- fied is a noun or a pronoun, use an adjective; otherwise, use an adverb. EXAMPLES : (a) The rose is sweet. (b) The ostrich runs swiftly. . In (a) rose evidently is the word modified, and since it is a noun we must use an adjective (here a predicate adjective). In (b) runs is modified; it is not a noun or a pronoun, but a verb hence the adverb swiftly. If all cases were as simple as the examples just given, there would be little trouble; but in such sentences as "The music sounds sweet (sweetly)" a question presents itself. Is the music sweet, or does it reach the hearer in a sweet manner i. e., sweetly? Usually the sweetness is regarded as primarily a quality of the music, and the adjective is used. Yet a slight change in the sentence will place the emphasis on the manner in which the sound travels, and thereby dictate the use of an adverb. Most people have enjoyed distant music across the water, when doubtless the sweetness of the music is enhanced 82 VOCATIONAL ENGLI s 1 1 by the way it reaches the hearer. That is, the sweetness is felt to be in part due to the sounding. Then sounds is the word modified and we have: ' 'The music sounds sweetly across the water/' In general, verbs of the five senses (look, feel, sound, taste, and smell) and a few others, including seem, appear, and stand, are followed by adjectives. EXAMPLES: (1) The rose smells tweet. (2) The candy tastes good. (3) They seem happy. (4) Patriots stand firm. In these cases, clearly, some form of be could be substituted as the verb without materially changing the meaning, showing unmistakably that predicate adjectives are called for. But when the same verbs place the emphasis on action, or the manner of acting, they are followed by adverbs. EXAMPLES: (1) The dog smelted suspiciously at the stranger's boots. (2) The blind man feels skillfully with his hands. (3) The sailor stands firmly on the deck. In these cases no form of be could be substituted as the verb without decided change of meaning. A handy rule, sufficiently exact for most occasions, is this: The verbs expressing the five senses are followed by adjectives unless they mean action. EXERCISE 20 Examine the following sentences carefully and decide (a) whether both forms may be correct; (b) if so, what the differences in meaning are; (c) if only one form is correct, which one. Give reasons in every case. 1. She felt (sick, sickly). 2. He looked (wretched, wretchedly). 3. He feels (gentle, gently). 4. Will you. help me? (Sure, surely). 5. I am (near, nearly) suffocated. 6. Do your work (thorough, thoroughly). 7. He looked up (sick, sickly). 8. He was hurt (bad, badly). ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 83 71. The "Flat Adverbs." While the great majority of adverbs that correspond to adjectives are formed by the addition of ly to the adjective form, many common words without the final ly are used as either adjectives or adverbs. In the latter use they are sometimes called "flat adverbs." EXAMPLES: (1) Go slow. (3) Digdeep. (2) Talk louder. (4) Look quick. In spite of objections by purists who would like to see street signs read "Proceed slowly 77 rather than "Go slow/ 7 the "flat adverbs," because of their brevity and directness, are in many cases idiomatic in conversation and in business usage. The student should not assume that he may use either the "flat adverb" or the form in ly at will, however. It is better to err on the side of conventional correctness than to give an impres- sion of carelessness in grammar by using a "flat adverb 77 that is not well established in idiomatic use. The following uses, however', are correct: 1. He studied hard till eleven o'clock. 2. He ran as fast as he could. 3. That is easier said than done. (The more formal adverb would be more easily.) 4. He sold his house cheap. 5. Strike as low as you can. 6. "Love me little, love me long." EXERCISE SO Which of the following are correct? In which cases would you prefer other forms? 1. Trains move swifter than boats. 2. Talk louder, please. (You is understood to be the subject of the verb talk.) 3. I can do it easier than I could last year. 4. She sewed much faster than I. 5. The music sounds loud. 6. The trumpet sounds loud. 7. The vault was emptier after each trip. 8. The ships came in safe and sound. 9. He got the answer quick. 10. He was near dead. 84 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH 72. Some Special Adjectives and Adverbs. In the follow- ing cases errors are very frequent: (a) Bad and badly. Bad is in very common use in the sense of ill or unwett, or perhaps uncomfortable, or in almost any meaning implying an unpleasant condition, as illustrated in the following sentences: 1. She felt bad yesterday. 2. My back feels bad today. 3. I felt bad not to be able to go to the game. These are colloquial uses and have often been criticized, but they are idiomatic and practically universal. The notion that such uses of the adjective bad are to be corrected by substitut ing the adverb badly is absurd, because in every such case the construction requires a predicate adjective, not an adverb at all. He feels badly cannot logically mean anything but that "He performs the act of feeling in a bad (or inefficient) manner." (b) Double negatives. One negative for one idea is enough in English. Everybody knows what a gross error it is to say, "He never did nothing to nobody," yet there is much carelessness in this matter. Another form of the error occurs in connection with such words as hardly, scarcely, and neither. (Incorrect) (Correct) (1) I hadn't hardly got there. (1) I had hardly got there. (2) I couldn't do it neither. (2) I couldn't do it either. The common expression, "Two negatives make an affirmative," is literally true in such combinations as not impossible, which means exactly the same thing as possible. (c) Good and well. Good is an adjective; well is an adverb except when it means in health. It is then an adjective. EXAMPLES: (1) He is a good man. (2) But he has not been well for years (adjective). (3) He manages to work well, however (adverb). There is a colloquial use of good, mainly with the verb feel, that is the exact counterpart of the colloquial use of bad; as ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 85 in, "I felt good yesterday." This meaning is hardly so neces- sary or so well established as the corresponding use of bad, since it is easier to find a satisfactory substitute for good. (d) Kind o' and sort 6*. The use of these expressions as adverbs is a very crude colloquialism. EXAMPLE : I feel kind a' (or o') tired tonight, and it's sort o' chilly here. The italicized words in such a sentence are exact equivalents of rather or somewhat adverbs modifying tired and chilly. There is a correct use for kind of and sort of, but kind and sort are then nouns. EXAMPLES: (1) Hydrox is a kind of water. (2) He is the right sort of man. The noun following kind of or sort of should not be modified by a or an; that is, we say, "I do not like that kind of girl," not "that kind of a girl." There could not be several kinds of one girl; the noun girl is used for the entire class. (e) Less and fewer. Less is used for quantity, without regard to the number involved. Fewer is used when one thinks of the individuals making a group. EXAMPLES: (1) The distance is less than forty miles. (2) Not fewer than forty men called on him. (f) Most and almost. Most is concerned with number or quantity; almost means nearly. Error often occurs because of the colloquial contraction of almost to most. Try substituting nearly for the word in question. If the sense permits the change, use almost; otherwise use most. EXAMPLES: (1) I was almost (nearly) tired out. (2) Most Americans care little for royalty. (g) Rarely and seldom with ever. Rarely ever, seldom ever? and even seldom or ever are sometimes used when rarely, seldom- 80 VOCATIONAL 1 and seldom if ever are meant. To avoid such errors it is only ssary to think a moment, about what the words really mean. (Incorrect) (Correct) He rarely ever comes to see us. He rarely comes to see us. I * If lorn ever get to New York. I seldom get to New York. She seldom or ever saw such a fine She seldom, if ever, saw such a fine garden. garden. (h) Real and very. Very is ordinarily an adverb. Some- times very seems too strong a word, and real is used as an adverb ii its place, though real is properly only an adjective. (Incorrect) (Correct) I am real glad to hear it. I am very glad to hear it. Really is a perfectly good adverb; but "I am really glad to hear it" is not equivalent to "I am very glad to hear it." (i) Some and somewhat. Some is an adjective or a pronoun in its ordinary uses; as an adverb in place of somewhat it is not accepted by careful speakers and writers. (Incorrect) (Correct) He was some better yesterday. He was somewhat better yesterday. ( j ) There and their. There is an adverb ; their is a possessive adjective, or the possessive form of the plural third-person pro- noun. Confusion between these words is primarily a matter of spelling or carelessness in spelling, for most pupils really know the difference. There may imply place. EXAMPLE: He went there yesterday. Or it may be used as a kind of spring-board for a sentence; this is called the expletive use. EXAMPLE : There is said to be much coal in Alaska. Their is always possessive and always used as an adjective. (k) Through as an adjective. The use of through as a predicate adjective in such sentences as "I was through before noon," where the meaning is "I had finished before noon," is ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 87 colloquial only. But through is correctly used as an adjective in such expressions as "a through train." (1) Too, to, and two. These three little words are the despair of the teacher. It matters not how many times they are explained; the pupil will' write, "He was to tired." The best corrective is to look carefully at what you have written. Too is an adverb, meaning (a) more than enough or (b) also. To is a preposition. Two is a number either noun or adjective. EXAMPLES: (a) My mind to me a kingdom is, Such present joys therein I find. Sir Edward Dyer (b) But such a tide as moving seems asleep, Too full for sound or foam. Tennyson (c) I too would bear my part. (m) Where adverbs. Anywhere, everywhere, nowhere, some- where are a group of accepted adverbs. Place cannot be used instead of where in these words; but place as a noun may be modified by the adjectives any, every, no, or some. In the latter case, of course, the noun and the adjective will be distinct words. EXAMPLES: I could not find him anywhere. (Anyplace would be wrong.) There wasn't any place for me. Somewhere the sun is shining. I should like to find some place where I can rest. EXERCISE 31 Choose the proper word for each of the following sentences, or in cases of error make the necessary corrections: 1. I can't write as (well, good) as you. 2. I had (nowhere, noplace) to go. 3. Does the dinner taste (good, well)? 4. It was a kind of a shame that you couldn't come. 5. I was kind of ashamed of myselt. 6. I felt so badly about it that I cried. 7. There were not (less, fewer) than ten thousand people present. 8. The stops are (less, fewer) between Chicago and Omaha than between New York and Chicago. 9. She sang so (bad, badly) that I could hardly bear to listen. 10. He hadn't been (good, well) in health for months. 88 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH EXERCISE 32 (a) Complete the following sentences with either most or almost: 1. of them came yesterday. 2. I i'as sure they would come. 3. every one believes he 1 could succeed as President. 4. men have little chance to become President. (b) Fill the blanks with real or very: 1. Is that a diamond? 2. I like your new suit welL 3. Those wax figures look . 4. We were glad to find the garment trimmed in point lace. (c) Fill the blanks with there or their: 1. _: are hats in the hammock. 2. And horses stood, reins under feet. (d) Fill the blanks with to, too 9 or two. After writing the exercise once, destroy the paper and write it again. Do not forget that the misuse of to or too is sure to call down the wrath of most employers. 1. him are many. 2. They gave him . 3. Then is many one address. 4. He came, from four p. m. 5. I see a machine is dangerous the lives of the men entrusted the commanders. QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER V 1. Adjectives occur in what two positions in a sentence? 2. Why are adjectives compared? 3. What two general methods of comparison are in use? 4. When should you use tallerf TaUestf 1 Resist any tendency to use they. ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 89 5. Are pickles sourer than anything? 6. How does the adverb usually differ in form from the adjective? 7. We should not say "kind of an apple." Why? (See p. 85.) 8. What is the distinction between less and fewer? Real and very? Good and well? 9. Is nearly a synonym for most or for almost? 10. Is anyplace an accepted word? What would you substitute for it? CHAPTER VI PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS 73. Definition of Preposition. The word preposition is made of pre and positus. These parts are found, respectively, in prefix and position. Evidently they mean placed before. A preposition, accordingly, is a word usually "placed before" a noun or pronoun (or some word used as such) to show a relation of that noun or pronoun with some other word. A preposition is said to "govern," grammatically, the noun or pronoun taken with it, and with that noun or pronoun it forms a phrase. To, with, /ram, of, upon, are common prepositions. Count- ing such combinations as according to, in regard to, on account of, etc., which may be called compound prepositions, there are about a hundred prepositions in common use in English. They are of great importance for several reasons. One of these is the extent to which English has lost its inflections; relations shown in many other languages by inflectional means must be indicated in English by a careful choice of prepositions. Again, a large part of the trouble with English idiom is due to a failure to understand the exact uses of prepositions. Prepositions are not inflected. Nouns and pronouns governed by prepositions, however, are objective (accusative). 74. Prepositions Sometimes Confused. The following pairs of prepositions often cause trouble because people fail to understand how they differ in meaning : (a) At and to. At implies a fixed position; to implies motion. Thus, "He's not to home," "When I was to school," are very bad errors. At should replace to. (b) Between and among. Between is used in relation to two persons or things; among in relation to more than two. EXAMPLES: Racine is between Chicago and Milwaukee. Among the cities of Wisconsin it is noted for manufacturing. 90 PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS 91 A careful use of these two prepositions will sometimes enable a writer or speaker to reduce the number of his words in expressing an idea. For example, what word can be omitted from the following sentence without any loss? She divided the apples between the two boys. In the following sentence what do you know as to the number of the heirs? The property was divided among the heirs. Avoid the following types of error: (1) Drink a glass of water between each meal. (2) There is an aisle between each row. Say "after each meal' 7 or "between meals/' and "between the rows/' (c) By and to. "I went by the post office" is sometimes heard when "to the post office" is meant. By is incorrect unless past is meant. (d) In and into. In implies a fixed position; into implies entrance. Thus the difference between these words resembles that between at and to. For example, "He walked into the room" means that he entered it from outside; while "He walked in the room" implies that he was already in the room and simply walked about in it. One gets into (not in) trouble. (e) Onto and upon. Onto has been formed on the model of into and is in very common colloquial use, but most careful writers prefer to avoid it. Usually on or upon may take its place. On to (two words) may be correct. EXAMPLE : We moved on to Hastings. In this case, however, on is an adverb modifying moved, and the preposition is to. EXERCISE 33 (a) Fill the blanks below with in or into: 1. He put his hat the box. 2. He found his hat the box. 3". " each li f e some rain must fall." 92 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH h over the quiet 1 city a single airplane drew sight. 6. The balloon came down a field of growing corn. 6. The great mine elevator sank silently the earth and was gone. 7. Let me live my house by the side of the road And be a friend to man. Sam Walter Fos$ (b) Correct errors in the following sentences: 1. Between you and I and the gatepost, I don't believe that tale. 2. Were you to the ball game yesterday? 3. Between each row of corn they planted pumpkins. 4. I went in the house and got a sandwich. 5. He climbed onto the roof and got the ball. 6. Mother divided the orange between her three children. 75. Idiomatic Use of Prepositions. Many errors are due to the use of wrong prepositions. Often there is no reason other than custom for a particular combination with a preposition, so that one simply has to "get the feel" of what is right. Foreign-born students usually need to learn each idiom sep- arately. The following list of correct uses of prepositions with various common words is based on actual errors made by students in composition: accompany He was accompanied by (not vrith) his two children. accord His views accord with (not to) mine (or, are in accord- ance with mine). acquit He was acquitted of (not from) the crime. advantage John had an advantage over James (or, took advantage o/him). agree I agree with him. I agree to his proposal. arrive She arrived at (or in; not to) Chicago yesterday. back Put it behind (not in back of) the desk. In front of is accepted as a sort of compound preposition, but in back of is a bad error. Back of is in colloquial use, however. bestow Parliament bestowed the crown upon (or on; not to) the dead king's nephew. blame He blames me for it; or, He lays the blame on me. The common expression blames it on is inexcusable. characteristic Tony had the fiery temper characteristic of (not to) Sicilians. * l*upila olten confuse guiet and quite. . Do you? PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS 93 charge He wag He was charged with (not of) this message. charged for ten pounds of sugar. I commented favorably on (not of) the book. I wish to comply with (not to) your desires. The emperor conferred a title on his aide-de-camp* He conferred with his ministers before acting. Because I confide in you (have confidence in you), I am going to confide my secret to you. The engine is connected with (not to) the car. Black contrasts with (is in contrast with) white. The practice is customary with (or among; not to) merchants. I deal with John Smith, who deals in groceries. Children are dependent on their parents, but later become independent of them. He died of (better than with or from) consumption. differ, different I differ with you in opinion because I differ from you in character. I am very different /row you. Differ- ent than is a very bad blunder, for than is not a preposition. "My mistake was due to a misunderstanding" is a correct sentence, in which due is a predicate adjective. "Due to a misunderstanding I made a mistake" is wrong, because here due to is improperly used as a compound preposition meaning because of or owing to. She is employed by Richard Roe in his office at a salary of $15 a week. She is in the employ of Mr. Roe. I am familiar with (not of) these facts. He gave his time to (not in) writing. I am glad of it. Or, I am glad at the news. hindrance A hindrance to (not in) one's progress. independent See dependent above. insight Shakspere had wonderful insight into (not in or of) character. listen Listen to (not at) him. One may also listen for something one expects to hear. live I live in New York at Broadway and 118th street. mention I made mention of (not on) it. Or, more briefly, I mentioned it. need I am not in need of (not for) anything. part He parted from his parents in tears, but he refused to part with his legacy. comment comply confer confide connect contrast customary deal dependent die due employ familiar give 94 UL, K ;>!>i>t I planned for (not on) a long journey. revenge He wished to be revenged on (not to) all hip enemies. search The miner searched for gold (or, was in search of p secret The secret of (not to) success is confidence. separation Byron's separation from (not with) his wifo <>ml him. set out We then set out for (not to) Italy. sick I am sick with (not of) the grippe. But sick of it is correct if the meaning is disgusted with it. similar This is similar to (not with) that. smil.- She smiled at (not to) the captain. student He was a student of chemistry in (or at) Amherst College. surprise I was surprised at (not of) her absence. surround He was surrounded by (not with) a mob. treatment His harsh treatment of (not to) his brother caused th<> trouble. wait I'll wait for (not on) you. (I am not your servant.) But a servant waits on his master. 76. Redundant Prepositions. There is a marked tendency to heap up prepositions needlessly. Sometimes a particular redundant preposition may be regarded as allowed by idiom; but on the principle of saving useless words a very important principle for successful business it is usually desirable to omit such needless words as are illustrated below: (Incorrect) (1) I went to home. (I went to my home would be correct, however.) (2) Keep off of the grass. (3) I don't remember of hear- ing it. (4) He would not accept of our hospitality. (5) Taste of this pie. (6) Put it inside of the room. (Correct) (1) 1 went home. (Home is an adverb here; the construction does not admit a preposition.) (2) Keep off the grass. (3) I don't remember hearing it. (4) He would not accept our hospitality. (5) Taste this pie. (6) Put it inside the room. (When inside is a noun, how- ever, of is required; e. g., 'The Inside of the Cup.") PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS 95 A good many prepositions are also adverbs, and are much used unnecessarily in their adverbial sense. Up is a particular- ly common offender in this way, being used needlessly with a great many verbs. Anyone interested in saving time for him- self or his employer may profitably consider whether the italicized words really add anything ki such combinations as the following: eat up, burn up (sometimes down), save up, settle up, finish up, open up, rest up, rose up, etc. In the following cases the italicized words are superfluous: (1) It is harder than you think for. (3) Where is my hat at? (2) He will continue on. (4) Where have you been to? An opposite error occurs in a few cases where a preposition is really needed. (Incorrect) Correct 1. That book is no use. 1. That book is of no use. (Use cannot be a predicate noun identical with book.) 2. Were you home yesterday? 2. Were you at home yesterday? 3. I had only a couple hours. 3. I had only a couple of hours (or, better, two hours). EXERCISE 34 Fill the blanks in the following sentences with prepositions : 1. I was the opera last night. 2. The word ingenious is different the word ingenuous. 3. The next day we set out Washington. 4. Go in. I'll wait you. 5. This light is connected the regular city service. 6. Many thousands of people die yearly consumption. 7. When we arrived New York, the Mauretania was already port. 8. She was very different her sister. 9. My father was very angry me. 10. We parted the Browns Naples. 11. He devoted his leisure golfing. 1 2. I cannot comply your wishes. Mti VOCATIONAL ENGLISH 77. Definition of Conjunctions. Conjunctions, as the word itself suggests, join something. They may join (a) words or (b) groups of words. EXAMPLE of (a) : Washington and Hamilton were friends. EXAMPLES of (b) : 1. The canoe floated under the bridge and down the rjver. 2. I paddled cautiously because the water was deep. Groups of words, of course, are either phrases (as in example 1) or clauses (as in 2). In the latter sentence, because connects two statements. What are they? Conjunctions are not inflected. 78. Kinds of Conjunctions. In matters of sentence struc- ture and punctuation, it is important to know the two classes of conjunctions, and to learn to distinguish them from adverbs. Conjunctions are coordinating or subordinating. (a) Coordinating conjunctions connect words of equal rank in the sentence, phrases of equal rank, or clauses of equal rank. EXAMPLES: (a) John and Mary went (connecting words). (b) They went across the bridge and through the field (connecting phrases). (c) John turned up his coat collar, but the wind chilled him (connecting clauses). (b) Subordinating conjunctions connect subordinate clauses with principal clauses. Because, in example (b) 2, Section 77, is a subordinating conjunction. Common subordinating con- junctions are as follows: (a) Denoting time: after, before, since, till (until), when, while, as long as, as soon as. (b) Denoting condition or concession: although (though), if, unless, whether. (c) Denoting cause or reason : as, because, for, since. (d) Denoting purpose or result: lest, so that, that, in order that. (e) Denoting comparison: as if , as though, than. 1 1 This list ignores the distinction sometimes made in grammars between subordinat- ing; conjunctions and relative (or conjunctive) adverbs, because there is no practical ad- vantage in making such a distinction. For is sometimes classed with coordinating con- junctions, but seems subordinating in the sense mentioned in (c). PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS 97 Students will be wise to distinguish carefully between the subordinating conjunctions in the foregoing list and the follow- ing words: accordingly hence moreover therefore also however nevertheless too besides indeed so consequently likewise then further, furthermore (in the sense of moreover) These words are usually adverbs; they indicate some thought relation between statements, but they do not express gram- matical connection between clauses as the subordinating con- junctions do. The distinction is of value mainly in punctua- tion. A true subordinating conjunction is preceded by a comma or possibly by no punctuation at all (see Sections 92 and 97); the words in the above list require a semicolon or some connective. EXAMPLES : (a) He walked slowly, since the meeting was not to begin for an hour. (Since is a conjunction.) (b) The meeting was not to begin for an hour; hence he walked slowly. (Hence is an adverb. Inserting and before hence would make the semicolon needless.) A very large percentage of sentence errors (see Section 10) occur through placing only a comma before one of the words in the list above. The commonest offender in the list is so (varied occasionally by consequently and therefore), which students are inclined to use loosely for almost aily sort of connection between thoughts. Sometimes so that, a legitimate subordinating conjunction of purpose or result, is meant and may be substituted; but more often the meaning really is that the preceding statement is a reason for the following statement. In such a case it is frequently better to change the construction, making the first statement dependent by the use of since or as or because, and omitting so. Thus, "It rained, so we did not go/ 7 would be avoided by any careful writer except in quoting simple con- 98 VOCATIONAL ENGL I s 1 1 versation, and even then a semicolon would probably replace the comma (see Section 97). This sentence may be varied in several ways, as follows: As it rained, we did not go. It rained, and so we did not go. We did not go, because it rained. It rained, so that we did not go. In most cases students can profitably adopt one of these ways of avoiding the use of so as a conjunction. (c) Certain conjunctions are used idiomatically in pairs, and are accordingly called correlative conjunctions. The pairs m most common use are: cither or both and n c i t her nor aa well as whether or at once (alike) and not only but also Some of the words before the dashes, taken alone, are strictly adverbs; it is only as part of the pair that they are classed with conj unctions. Two important cautions are desirable in relation to correlatives: 1. Neither should always be followed by nor never by or. 2. The construction following the second correlative should be like the construction following the first. (Bad) (Good) (1) He was not only surprised, but (1) Not only was he surprised, but his brother was also. his brother was also. (2) He either came late or not at (2) He came either late or not at all. all. In the first example in the left column, a whole clause follows but, though there has been only one word after not only. "He was not only surprised but indignant" would be proper, but when a complete assertion follows one balanced member, a complete assertion should also follow the other. 79. Notes on Conjunctions. The work of conjunctions is to indicate the exact relations between words, phrases, and clauses, and they are therefore exceedingly important. Try in PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS 99 the blank each word in the list below and note the variations in meaning that result: he drove fast, a wreck occurred. although because before after when whenever if A number of words may be either prepositions or sub- ordinating conjunctions. It is easy to decide which they are, however, because when subordinating conjunctions they must be followed by a subject and a predicate. EXAMPLES: (a) He went for the doctor. (b) He went, for it was very urgent. In (a) for is a preposition, showing the relation between the noun doctor and the verb went, and forming an adverbial phrase. In (b) it is a conjunction, because it is followed by a clause of which it is the subject and was very urgent is the predicate. Some other words that may similarly be either prepositions or conjunctions are after, before, since, till, and until. Difficulties and errors are frequent in the following cases: (a) And ought to connect words or groups of words of equal rank. It does not do this in such colloquial sentences as "Try and come/' "Be sure and vote for me." The real mean- ing of these sentences is, "Try to come/' "Be sure to vote for me." The substitution of and for to in cases like these is very common in conversation, but careful writers usually avoid it. (b) Except and without, in present use, are prepositions; unless is a conjunction. Formerly the first two words also were in use as conjunctions, with about the same meaning as unless; as in this example from Psalms, "Except the Lord build the house, they labor in vain that build it." Such usage sounds antiquated now and students should avoid it. EXAMPLES : (Incorrect) (Correct) (1) We cannot have our party (1) We cannot have our party without it stops raining. . unless it stops raining. (2) He had no friends except Tom (2) He had no friends unless Tom might be so considered. might be so considered. 100 VOCATIONAL ENGL 1 s 1 1 (c) // and whether. Do not use if in the place of whether in such a sentence as "I do not know if I can go." Whether is preferable here and or not may be added, if desired, to show an alternative. "I can go if he does" is perfectly correct, however. (d ) Like as a conj unction. The misuse of like as a conj unc- tion, in place of as or as if or as though, is very common in some parts of the United States. Yet no blunder is more likely to brand one in the eyes of those who are careful. EXAMPLES: " correct) (Correct) l It looks like it would run. (I) It looks as if it would rain. (2) I wish you could play like your (2) I wish you could play as your sister does. sister does. Probably some of the confusion in this matter is due to the fact that in example 2 (incorrect), like would be perfectly proper if does were omitted. In "I wish you could play like your sister," like performs the office of a preposition. But it has not been accepted by careful writers and speakers as a conjunction. (e) Than is a conjunction. For this reason we cannot say, "I am taller than him." making it a preposition followed by the objective (accusative) form him. We must say, "I am toller than he (is)." "I chose foer rather than him" is correct, however; not because than is a preposition, but because him is the object in the elliptical second clause, just as her is the object in the first clause. In other words, this sentence, fully expressed, means, "I chose her rather than (I chose) him." (f ) As .... as and so .... as. In a positive compari- son we use as .... as. EXAMPLE : Cleveland is as large as Cincinnati. In a negative comparison we generally use so .... as. EXAMPLE: Chicago is not so large as New York. EXERCISE 35 (a) Insert except or without or unless in the blanks below 1. One cannot win in the business field by making a careful study of each detail. 2. They all went fishing John. PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS 101 3. He never went his coat in warm weather. 4. One cannot hope to get more pay for his work he does more work for his pay. 5. when the editor accepts manuscripts, the writer a previous understanding does not hear from his paper he sends return postage. (b) Make whatever improvements you can in the connec- tives of the following sentences : 1. I don't know if I can go or not. 2. Your instructions are not clear and I failed to get the answer. (Try rearrangement with because.) 3. Do not decrease the time of exposure; cut down the light. (What word after the semicolon would help the sense?) 4. One should dress neatly. He should not be fastidious. (What word would connect these two sentences to advantage?) 5. He was hungry and he stole a loaf of bread. 6. It looks like I'd have to try again. 7. Let us try and find out what is good. EXERCISE 36 What conjunction would you use in each of the following sentences? List the conjunctions as coordinating and sub- ordinating. 1. He wore a heavy coat the day was warm. 2. He walked slowly he were lame. 3. He came in suddenly we had time to warn the family. 4. He left a dark mark he put his paws. 5. They paid their bills they had the money. 6. Mother put up lunch I got the car ready. 7. Father bought a hundred-dollar bond I bought a fifty. 8. He will be here on time the train is late. 9. John must come this way now the bridge is out at Dana. 10. We hurried along it was growing late. 11. Cider vinegar is not strong . distilled vinegar. 12. I wish I could skate Mary can. 13. I feel that John knows more _ Tom does. VOCATIONAL ENGLISH EXERCISE 37 A. Which of the following sentences need semicolons before the italicized words? (Read again Section 78b.) 1 lie came slowly through the hall as though nothing had happened. 2. He has a cold besides I feel the day is too raw. : ;. He was not well therefore his mother kept him at home. 4. He had no small change so he passed the beggar by. 5. He was dismissed because he was not able to carry bis v B. Choose the correct word in italics in each of the follow- ing sentences. 1 . I do not know (if, whether) he doesn't. 2. I do not know (if, whether) he knows. 3. Nobody else can yell (like, as) him. 4. Nobody else can yell (like, as) he does. 5. I think you can draw better than (he, him). 6. Be sure (to, and) take your time. QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER VI 1. Why is the English preposition so important an element in the language? 2. What is the distinction between between and among ? In and in/of 3. Without actually expressing number how can you indicate it by the use of between and among? Longer and longest? Each other and one anothert 4. Why is "between each row" illogical? What is a better statement? 5: Can you use the italicized words in Section 75 with the proper prepositions? Try it. 6. What is redundancy? When is a word superfluous? 7. How can you make the connecting word (conjunction) do a great deal of the work of the sentence? (Sec. 79.) 8. What is the proper punctuation mark between the members of a compound sentence when no conjunction is employed? 9. What is the distinction between except and without? If and whether? Like and as iff la "than him" good English? Why? CHAPTER VII ERRORS THAT CAUSE OBSCURITY 80. The Need of Clearness. The first purpose of speech or writing is, of course, the transmission of thought. But not all communications accomplish this end. What is the meaning of the following sentence? John told Charlie that his books were in his locker. Clearly it may mean several things. It may mean that John's books were in his own locker; that they were in Charlie's locker; that Charlie's books were in Charlie's locker; or that they were in John's locker. This sentence, therefore, is useless. It is not clear. What two meanings can you get from the following sentence? We were in danger of being killed more than once. Of course there is no danger of a real misunderstanding of this sentence; the worst that can happen is a laugh at the expense of the speaker. But it is not to one's credit to be an uncon- scious humorist. It is very necessary that a writer read over what he has written before he considers his task complete. Often small errors of the careless kind slip in perhaps the spelling of off with one /, or the omission of a or the omissions which leave the reader uncertain as to the meaning. Obscurities some- times result from a failure to make the first and last parts of a sentence agree in form or sense, owing in most cases to the superior speed of the mind over the hand. Clear, precise English is not easily written. It is often necessary to recast sentences and paragraphs to make sure that there is no pos- sibility of a misunderstanding. The preceding chapters have dealt with the fundamental laws of the sentence and the parts of speech. The following 103 104 VOCATIONAL I NCLISH sections will single out for special attention a number of com- mon errors that result in obscurity. 81. Misplaced Words, Phrases, or Clauses. The second bad sentence in the previous section illustrates the principle that modifiers should usually be placed as near as possible to the words they modify. Some very al^unl statements result from misplaced words. Why are the following sentences am- i iir'ious? Explain the change of position of the modifiers necessary to correct the trouble. 1 . Wanted: Girls to sew buttons on the 8th floor. 2. I saw a man digging a well with a large nose. Be especially careful to place the adverb near the word it modifies. Note the error in the following sentence: (Incorrect) (Correct) It is the largest fish I almost ever It is almost the largest fish I ever caught. (I "almost caught' 1 it.) caught. EXERCISE 38 Correct the following sentences, giving reasons for each correction: 1. I planned to have my suit pressed every day this week. 2. We hurriedly packed our tents as soon as the sun rose and cooked our breakfast. 3. Ericksen is to be tried for carrying concealed weapons on Friday. 4. Wanted: An attendant for an old lady who can walk rapidly. 5. He was untruthful; he even lied to his mother. 6. I should not pay for two meals; I only ate my breakfast. 7. She was the prettiest girl I almost ever met. 8. All the team were not present. 9. He was an ex-Italian banker. Are you sure that you have the feeling of error when you read the foregoing sentences? It is not enough that you see the error; you must have a feeling akin to intuition that "It was the best apple I almost ever ate" is really something very different from the idea you had in mind. ERRORS THAT CAUSE OBSCURITY 105 82. Understood Words. To save words and avoid repeti- tion, we often omit part of one construction that corresponds to another construction in the sentence. Thus we may have, for instance, one object for two prepositions, or one participle completing two verbs. EXAMPLES : (1) John was going to, and Charlie returning from town. (2) We are and shall be going to church each week. In the first example town is the object of both to and from. In the second, are going and shall be going are the full forms, but to avoid repetition of sound and to save words we omit the first going. Sometimes, however, the word following one construction will not logically complete the other. (Incorrect) (Correct) We have and will continue to defy We have defied and will continue him. to defy him. Defied is required to complete the first verb; to defy, the second; obviously to defy at the end of the sentence will not supply the. word defied needed to complete have. . Why is the following ambiguous? Are you sure that the reader will "understand" the same words you have in mind? Correct it in two different ways. She blames me more than you. One very common type of sentence in which an "under- stood" word needs to be supplied is of this sort: John is as tall, if not taller, than Frank. The words as tall require another as; than does not properly complete the construction. In many cases sentences like this are less awkward if the first comparison is completed and the second left incomplete, thus: John is as tall as Frank, if not taller. 106 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH EXERCISE 30 Correct the following. Take your time to allow the feeling of error to develop. Be careful to supply any word needed, but not found associated with a similar construction in the sentence. 1. Cleveland is as large, if not larger, than Cincinnati. He can do better or at least as well as John. 3. He has already, or if not, will soon go. 4. Whether he was going or returning from town I did not hear. 5. They will pay me more than you. 6. Nashville is nearer Kansas City than Chicago. 7. I have always, and I hope always will, t<>ll my mother the truth. 8. Dishonesty never has and never will dominate Americans. 9. I have never, and never will, defend the devil. Ingcrnoll 10. He sat on the wagon, loaded with beer. 83. Omission of a and the. A and an originally meant one. They are related to the German ein, meaning one. This explains the idiom of the Pennsylvania Dutch, "It's one fine day," "She's one fine girl." Fewer errors would occur in speech and writing if we kept the idea of one more in mind. "He employed a bookkeeper and stenographer" contains but one a; hence one .person was employed for the two duties. "He employed a bookkeeper and a stenographer" clearly has two ones in view. "A black and white dog, a black, and a white dog," mentions three dogs. Similarly it may be necessary to repeat the in order to indi- cate definitely the number of persons or things meant. EXAMPLES: The physician and surgeon for the railroad (ambiguous; it literally means but one person). The physician and the surgeon for the railroad {two persons unmistakably designated). In cases where there could be no doubt as to the meaning, however, the second article may be omitted. EXAMPLE: The father and mother of the boy. ERRORS THAT CAUSE OBSCURITY 107 EXERCISE 4O A. Study the following word groups. Exactly what do they mean? How would you write the plural of sentence 5? Of sentence 6? 1. A black and white dog. 2. A black and a white dog. 3. The black and white dogs. 4. The black and the white dogs. 5. The secretary and treasurer. 6. The secretary and the treasurer. B. Are the following statements clear? Why? 7. Found: A pair of silk ladies' gloves. 8. Tell me how old Mrs. Anderson is. 9. He wanted common sense. 10. I can't find one of my books. 11. For though they sing nicely, they cannot like thee. "The Gentle Shepherd" 84. Dangling Participial Constructions. What is called the "dangling" (or "loose" or "hanging") participle is a very fruitful source of misunderstanding or absurdity. EXAMPLE : Coming up the street the postoffice was seen. A participle ordinarily modifies the nearest noun or pronoun that it is possible for it to modify. When a participle comes at the beginning of a sentence, we generally understand it* to modify the subject of the sentence. But in the above example the postoffice is the subject; the sentence really says the post- office was coming up the street! The cause of most errors of this kind is a change in the "point of view" of the sentence. One may see an action from at least two positions: (a) as one of the actors; (b) as a witness, merely. For instance, a soldier may describe a battle in which he fought; or the same battle may be described by a watcher on the hills. The soldier would write, "We marched into 108 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH battle." The watcher might say, "The men were seen advanc- ing." The first sentence is active; the second is passive. 1 h point of view is entirely different. Amateur writers must realize with Mrs. Wiggs that they "can't be comin' and goin' at the same time." In other words, they can't be in and out of an action at the same time. "Coming up the street" is from the point of view of the one walking. It is in the active construction; i.e., the subject (it should be we or I) is the doer of the action. "The postoffice was seen" is from the point of view of an observer who had no part in "coming up the street." The subject, postoffice, is the receiver of the action. The construction is passive. There has been a change in construction from the active to the pas- sive within one sentence. Such a change in the general plan of construction within a sentence is almost sure to be bad. This error is not confined to participial constructions. Note the following sentences: 1. On cranking tho machine it refused to go. 2. In an agony of terror the door was burst open. 3. Although a great liar, we were forced to believe him. In sentence 1 cranking is not a participle, but a gerund (see Section 63) because, with its object, it is used in a phrase with the preposition on. We expect a gerund, like a participle, to refer to the nearest noun or pronoun or to the subject of the sentence. Example 1 is grammatically constructed so as to suggest that the machine cranked itself. In examples 2 and 3 we have, respectively, a phrase and a condensed clause that seem to modify the subjects; yet it is absurd to attribute "an agony of terror" to the door, and the third does not mean that we were "a great liar." One can- not be too careful to make certain that a phrase or a clause of any sort will be understood by every reader to apply to the word one means to apply it to. Corrections may be made in various ways by changing the subject to a word that the opening phrase or clause can logically refer to, by expanding ERRORS THAT CAUSE OBSCURITY 109 the first few words into a complete clause, etc. Study care- fully the following corrections of the bad examples on page 108: 1. On cranking the machine, we could not make it go. 2. In an agony of terror he burst open the door. 3. Although he was a great liar, we were forced to believe him. EXERCISE 41 Make all needed corrections in the following: 1. Emitting clouds of black smoke, we saw the steamer put out to sea. 2. Having hurriedly swallowed our breakfast, the old horse was whipped into a reckless trot. 3. After being declared of legal age my father made over the papers to me. 4. Well knowing this truth, located in a foreign district, teaching some of the two-year vocational classes . . . . , it occurred to us that we might be of assistance to the English teacher. 5. After trying in vain to reach me, I escaped from the horse by dodging. under the manger. 6. I bought a new bicycle, being equipped with a coaster brake. 7. In a fit of uncontrolled anger, the slave was beaten by his master. 8. Although a great sinner, the preacher told him that there was hope.. 9. If lost, H. K. Jones will pay a reward. 10. If right, mark the sentence "R." (What is the subject of mark?} 85. Obscure Reference. One of the greatest hindrances to clearness is the faulty use of pronouns. Since a pronoun takes the place of a noun, it is necessary that we should know what noun is being replaced by the pronoun, and if there is any doubt about this noun, called the antecedent, the sentence is not clear. No one can tell certainly the meaning of the follow- ing sentence: The nurse told Anna that she felt bad today, but that she would probably be better tomorrow. The choice of she with two possible antecedents makes the sentence obscure. Careless people often use a pronoun to refer to something they have in mind, but have not expressed. Be sure that the 110 \ "i . \TIONAL ENGLISH antecedent is definite. An advertisement of a transfer company in an Iowa newspaper reads: Don't lie awake fearing you'll miss your train. We'll attend to that. Study the following sentences. What is the antecedent of tit What should the antecedent be in each case? ( 1 ) Keep your head up. It makes you round-shouldered. (2) In the paper it says crops are fine in Montana. A relative pronoun is like other pronouns in the need of a clear antecedent. What is the antecedent of which in the following sentence? The Germans deprived the Belgian children of their food, which was very bad for their health. A particularly bad fault of this kind consists in having a pronoun refer to different antecedents in the same sentence (or sometimes in adjoining sentences). EXAMPLE: As long as we have good motion pictures, children should be allowed to attend them, for it enlightens them. How would you correct the sentence? A good device for avoiding trouble with the antecedent is often found in conversational arrangement. This allows the use of a new set of pronouns. "The man told Father his cows were in the corn" might have several meanings. But the sen- tence, "'Your cows are in my corn/ the man told Father, " or " 'My cows are in my corn/ said he to Father/' is very definite. EXERCISE 42 A. Write out a possible version of the following. It will be necessary to replace some of the pronouns with nouns. It will not do, however, to repeat Fred too often. All languages seek to avoid repetition. There are several names which might be applied in each case; viz.: . Fred, the son, the boy the father, the elder the horse, old Charlie, the animal, it 1 1 It is not desirable to carry substitute naming too far. Avoid such terms as pater familias for father, member of the equine family for horse, or young hopeful for son. Re- peating the simple word is better than using pompous or unnatural substitutes. ERRORS THAT CAUSE OBSCURITY 111 1. Fred came home from town and found the old horse caught in the fence. He was very much excited, and tried at first to kick down the post. Hearing the noise, his father came out and told him he could help him. When at last he got him out he was very tired. B. Rewrite the following: 2. It is desirable in developing a plate to have a stronger developer handy. If it is under-exposed place it in the strong developer if it is not too cold. Action can be increased if it is warmed to about 80. When the image shows plainly on the back it is time to put it in the hypo, which should be as strong as it can be made. 3. She told Mary that her mother was ill. 4. The sermon was short and after he had finished they sang a hymn. 5. The child plays with the dog when it is feeling well. 6. Dogs should not be allowed on the street with children unless they are muzzled. 7. The boys had to swim to the other shore which was dangerous. 8. They got a nurse for the baby who had recently come from Austria. 9. The boys removed their hats and soaked them in water after which they were much cooler. 10. Soldiers should keep their hands out of their pockets ; that is unmilitary . C. Can you find an antecedent for each italicized word in the following passage? Is the apparent antecedent in each case the logical one? How would you correct the passage? 11. A roll of films is first put into a box and as the man turns the handle it gives two short clicks and for each one two pictures are made. After they are taken out .... EXERCISE 43 Write a composition of a hundred words about Mother, little Mary, and a lady caller. Your problem will be to refer accurately to one or the other of the characters without an awkward repetition of the name. QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER VII 1. Where, in general, should a modifier be placed? 2. What is an understood word? What is the chief danger to clearness from omitting such words? 112 \H \TIONAL ENGLISH '. hen is a participle said to "dangle"? What should be the relation between an initial participial phrase and the noun or pronoun that follows if 4. What do we call the word for which a pronoun stands? What i& the relation between this word and its pronoun? 5. Why is it undesirable to make one part of a sentence active and another passive? 6. How far is it wise to carry substitute naming in order to avoid repeating? (Footnote, p. 110.) CHAPTER VIII PUNCTUATION 86. Why Punctuate? Punctuation exists for the purpose of enabling a reader to get the exact meaning of what is written or printed, as readily as possible and with the least possible chance of misunderstanding. Punctuation at the end of the sentence causes little trouble except from mere carelessness. Every schoolboy knows that a period is placed at the end of a declarative sentence, and at the end of an imperative sentence (unless it is so forceful as to be regarded as exclamatory). Likewise it is well understood that a direct question must be followed by a question mark, and an exclamation by an exclam- ation mark. Real trouble as to punctuation, then, occurs within the sentence and is due largely to a failure to realize the general principle that punctuation is an aid to clearness. The present tendency is to use much less internal punctuation than was formerly common and to confine it to cases of direct practical usefulness. Such cases will be found to account for the practices explained in this chapter. 87. Word Groups. In the great majority of our sentences there are no words entirely independent of other words. Like men, words have habits of association in groups and these word groups, like associations of men, have a value based not entirely upon the individuals of which they are composed, but partly upon the nature of each group as a whole. If we are to grasp the full meaning of a sentence, it will be necessary for us to appreciate more than the meaning of the words one by one; we shall have to understand what they mean in combina- tion. How shall our word groups be indicated? In conversa- tion, pauses and the inflection of the voice are sufficient. In writing and printing, words are separated from each other by a space; any two sentences, likewise, are kept apart by space, 113 114 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH in addition to the proper final mark for the one and the capital that indicates the beginning of the other. But how are we to show the groupings of words within a sentence? Sometimes, of course, the meaning is so simple that no mistake is possible; but often a sentence of twelve words may consist of two word groups of seven and five, or three groups of four each, or various other combinations. We might conceivably separate word groups by spaces wider than the space for words only. EXAMPLE: Farther down the stream branched. The wide space here is to prevent down and stream from coming together, because down belongs with farther and stream with branched] unless they are separated in some way there is danger of a misunderstanding. But expand this sentence a little and the grouping may be very different, thus: Farther down the stream branched the'great highway. Now stream belongs with down, not with branched' and branched is the predicate verb for the subject highway. But there is danger that the reader will see stream branched and think of stream as the subject of branched] hence the need of separating these words in some way. Of course the spacing of word groups is impractical, how- ever; for one reason, because different grades of spacing would be required. Sometimes we need to separate small groups of a few words each; sometimes combinations of such small groups. The result of an attempt to use space only would be that the reader would have to carry a ruler with him to measure accurate- ly the size of the spaces. 88. Indicating Word Groups by Punctuation. Instead of leaving wider space between word groups than between single words, then, we long ago adopted the custom of inserting punctuation marks. In ordinary writing there are three prin- cipal grades of separation between word groups, indicated by three principal types of punctuation: PUNCTUATION 115 1. The comma (,) indicating the smallest degree of separa- tion that needs to be marked. 2. The semicolon (;). 3. The period 1 '(.) or question mark (?) or exclamation mark (!), indicating usually the end of a sentence. USES OF THE COMMA 89. Words in a Series. Examine carefully the following sentence : s Harvard Yale Brown the University of Chicago William and Mary Leland Stanford Dartmouth and Washington and Jefferson are well known educational institutions. Unless you happen to know already the names of all these institutions, can you tell certainly how many are mentioned? One ignorant of college names might easily think of Leland Stanford as Leland and Stanford two institutions, or of Washington and Jefferson as two. (In fact there are a Wash- ington University and a Jefferson College, as well as Washing- ton and Jefferson College.) There are four kinds of names in the list: (a) Single words (e. g., Yale). (b) A phrase (the University of Chicago). (c) A double form (Leland Stanford). (d) Names joined by and (e. g., William and Mary). Obviously it is quite as necessary, in writing English as in selling groceries, to tie up different articles in separate packages; the method in this case is the use of commas according to the rule that words in a series are separated by commas. Properly punc- tuated, the sentence above reads as follows: Harvard, Yale, Brown, the University of Chicago, William and Mary, Leland Stanford, Dartmouth, and Washington and Jefferson are well known educational institutions. 1 Formerly the colon (:) occupied a position between the semicolon and the period, and rarely it may now be so used in rather elaborate writing; but commonly it is confined to certain special purposes to be dealt with in Section 99. For the dash, parentheses, quotation marks, etc., see Sections 100 S. 116 VOCATIONAL ENGLI s I ! There is a widespread idea, supported by some authority, that no comma is needed between the last two items of a series when a conjunction is used between tin -in. The omission of the final comma is illogical, however, and may result in ini<- understanding, as it would in the sentence just given. If the comma after Dartmouth were omitted, it would be impossible to tell whether Dartmouth and Washington and Jefferson" meant one or two or three institutions. Or take another example: We took canned milk, potatoes, beans, coffee, bacon, and eggs on the trip. Without the comma after bacon, the reader might be justified in thinking that the popular dish bacon and eggs (cooked to- gether) was meant. The only sound rule to follow is that words in a series are separated by commas, and that a comma is necessary before a connective expressed between the last two, unless those two are related more closely than the other items in the list. 1 A series of adjectives modifying one noun on equal terms are likewise separated by commas. EXAMPLE: We went through a long, hard, dreary winter. Note that dreary, standing next to the word modified, is not separated from it. A series of adjectives modifying one noun are not always separated, however. A short series in very common use as a word group pronounced together may go without punctuation. EXAMPLES: (1) He was a noble old man. (2) She was a beautiful little girl. In cases like these it can be argued that the two adjectives are not really equal modifiers. The first sentence does not exactly mean that the man was noble and old; it means that a certain old man (treated as if one word) was noble. Wherever this In business practice, however, the comma is often, though not always, omitted before and Company at the end of a firm name beginning with two or more personal names. EXAMPLES: Scott, Foresman and Company. Longmans, Green, and Company. PUNCTUATION 117 sort of interpretation is proper, the comma (or commas) may usually be omitted. Of course the principle governing a series of words applies also to phrases and clauses. Note the following sentence: He searched in vain through the house in the front yard and about the barn. Does this mean that he searched in two places or in three? It might mean either. Correct punctuation of the series will dispel all doubt. 1. He searched in vain through the house, in the front yard, and about the barn. (Three places) 2. He searched in vain through the house in the front yard, and about the barn. (Two places) Study the following: The prodigal son left his home and his father ran through his patrimony and repented when there was nothing else to do. Unless you know the story, you are likely to think that the father ran through either his own or his son's patrimony and repented; whereas the meaning really is that the son ran through his own patrimony and repented. We have here a series of predicates for the one subject son, and they should be separated by commas according to the rule for words and phrases in a series, thus: The prodigal son left his home and his father, ran through his patri- mony, and repented when there was nothing else to do. 90. The Comma in Compound Sentences. Conjunctions are used to join the clauses of compound sentences, but often words and phrases also are joined by conjunctions. Thus, if the punctuation is careless, it is not always easy to tell whether and, for instance, joins words or clauses. EXAMPLE : Serve faithfully your God and your conscience will be light. At first glance serve seems to have two objects, God and con- science. But when you come to will, you see that you have 118 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH misread. In other words, Cod and conscience belong in different groups and should be separated by a comma in order to avoid ambiguity. (Correct) Serve faithfully your God, and your conscience will be light. While not all compound sentences are in danger of being misunderstood in this way, it has come to be a very general practice to separate their clauses by commas. The practice is perfectly logical; we need to indicate the point where one clause ends and another begins, almost as much as we need to indicate the end of one sentence and the beginning of an- other. Yet there are often sentences in which the relation between short clauses is so close that a comma would be felt as an intrusion. EXAMPLES: (1) I haven't done it and I don't intend to do it. (One attitude of mind.) (2) He pulled and I pushed the car. (Really one act.) Of course if there are more than two clauses in a compound sentence and a conjunction is expressed between only the last two, the clauses are treated exactly like words or phrases in a series. EXAMPLE: I reached the ditch, I took one look behind, and then I made a frantic leap across. In general this section applies only to compound sentences in which conjunctions are expressed and the clauses are not very long and are not broken up within themselves by commas. When the clauses are not connected by conjunctions, or are very long and contain commas, a stronger mark of punctua- tion is needed the semicolon. The uses of the semicolon will be discussed in Sections 97 and 198, but one example is inserted here to make the point of this paragraph clear. EXAMPLE: If I had an automobile, I would make a long journey; I would drive to California. PUNCTUATION 119 EXERCISE 44 Punctuate the following sentences wherever you find punc- tuation necessary. Look for possible different meanings. 1. The menu offered turtle soup milk toast pineapple ice cream potatoes salmon halibut steak and mushrooms. 2. He put the liquid in a dirty dark red bottle. 3. They did not undertake the work because money was scarce. 4. I had oatmeal coffee toast and ham and eggs for breakfast. 5. He went to the bank for money was scarce. 6. Day after day I dropped the corn and father covered it. 7. Charles came home from college and Tom returned from the city. 8. Love rules the court the camp the grove And men below and saints above; For love is heaven and heaven is love. 9. The rain fell without prophets to the contrary. 10. Let every American every lover of liberty every well wisher to his posterity swear by the blood of the Revolution never to violate in the least particular the laws of his country. Lincoln 11. The British soldiers went after Hancock Adams and others. 12. We must work for our employer expects this task to be finished by noon. 13. She is the darling of my heart And she lives in our alley. Henry Carey 14. Men may come and men may go But I go on forever. Tennyson 15. Her first efforts were failures: the meat burned the eggs ran together and she forgot entirely to put baking powder in the biscuits. 16. Through the heat of day the chill of evening and even into the slow cold hours of early morning she watched by the cot. 17. Trust when you can but know your man. Adage 18. I returned for Modestine pushed her briskly forward and after a sharp ascent of twenty minutes reached the edge of the plateau Soon we were on the high road and surprise seized on my mind as I beheld a village of some magnitude close at hand. "Travels with a Donkey," Stevenson 91. Interruption of the Thought. A well constructed sen- tence has an onward movement like the flow of a river. Some- times, in a stream, we see an eddy in the current, and after a 120 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH little the water moves out again on its way. The sentence current, too, sometimes stops to allow the thought to wander a little way off the main course, and after a slight pause re- sumes its onward motion. Such an "eddy" is generally marked by commas before and after it. There is no such "eddy" in the following compound sentence; so, except for the comma between the clauses, it is uninterrupted by punctuation: The roads were sufficiently dry by noon, and we moved forward with considerable ease. Now suppose we break the movement in the first clause to add a bit of information, not necessary to a complete idea, but useful as explanation by the way. This "eddy" we set off by commas, thus: The roads, under the influence of the July sun, were sufficiently dry by noon, etc. Next let us put an "eddy" into the second member, and like- wise set it off by commas: .... and we moved forward, in spite of our wagon difficulties, with considerable eaae. The complete sentence now reads: The roads, under the influence of the July sun, were sufficiently dry by noon, and we moved forward, in spite of our wagon difficul- ties, with considerable eaae. Not infrequently the delay comes at the beginning of the sentence; that is, the flow of thought does not really commence until a kind of preparatory statement has been made. A comma usually follows such an expression. EXAMPLE: In the face of all opposition, he determined to trust his own judgment. Sometimes a complete assertion has been made before the extra thought is added. In such cases a comma usually pre- cedes the added idea. EXAMPLE: We moved forward slowly, the roads being very muddy. PUNCTUATION 121 Failure to set off properly such an added idea may result in ambiguity. EXAMPLE : Stevenson was carried into the house between his wife and his body servant Sosimo losing consciousness at once. At first glance we might read, "Sosimo losing consciousness/' etc. Then we see that Sosimo must be separated from losing because the last four words constitute an added phrase telling something more about Stevenson. The added thought, whether at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end, may consist of a single word, a phrase, or a clause. EXAMPLES: (a) He turned around, however, and started back (word). (b) I am sure, on the contrary, that you are wrong (phrase) . (c) The case, as I see it, is very plain (clause) . Single words such as therefore, nevertheless, indeed, perhaps, also, likewise, too, are not always set off by commas. When the connection is so close and the movement of the sentence so smooth that there is no natural pause in reading, any of these words, and others of similar kind, may be inserted without commas. EXAMPLES: (1) I was therefore late to the meeting. (2) What he says is nevertheless a fact. (3) He was very angry indeed. (4) I was perhaps a little hasty. (5) I also would like to hear him. Notice the difference between the foregoing examples and the following where commas are needed : 1. The truth, therefore, is that he was a traitor. 2. My contention, nevertheless, is well founded. 3. This, indeed, was a stronger position. One type of interruption that is often made the basis of a separate rule occurs when the name of a person or thing ad- dressed is inserted. Such a name is set off by commas. EXAMPLE : Tell me, John, what you think of this. 122 VOCATIONAL KN<;LISH Possible ambiguity resulting from a failure to observe this rule is very readily illustrated. Note the difference in meaning between the following sentences: 1. Strike John and I will follow you. 2. Strike, John, and I will follow you. 92. Restrictive and Non-restrictive Expressions. Some- times it is difficult to decide whether an idea is really added is an "eddy" distinct from the main current of the s< or is necessary to the meaning. For this reason some study of restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers is necessary. To restrict is to limit, or cut down. For instance, in the sentence, "A dog took the meat," we have a general statement that might apply to any dog. But if we add the adjective white, giving us the sentence, "A white dog took the meat/' we greatly limit the idea dog by excluding all dogs of colors other than white. A phrase or a clause, just as truly as a word, may limit or restrict the word it modifies. EXAMPLES: (a) The house with the large front yard is mine (phrase). (b) The house that has the large front yard is mine (clause). These sentences imply that, among several houses that might be mentioned, one particular house with a large front yard is meant. In other words, they restrict the meaning of the word house. Restrictive modifiers are not set off by commas. Now examine the following sentence: My uncle's house, which was built before the Civil War, is still in good repair. This sentence, as punctuated, does not imply that my uncle has several houses and that the particular one among them that was built before the Civil War is in good repair. The clause in italics, and between commas, adds an interesting fact about my uncle's house its age. Omit the inserted clause and the sen- tence is still clear, though not so interesting or complete; but omit the restrictive phrase or the restrictive clause in the pre- PUNCTUATION 123 ceding examples (a) and (b) and one immediately wonders, "What house?" The sentence seems incomplete without the restrictive phrase or clause. A non-restrictive phrase or clause, then, as its name suggests, does not restrict or limit; on the contrary, it adds to the idea of the word it modifies. And in adding to the idea, the non- restrictive phrase or clause forms an "eddy" that needs to be cut off from the main current by commas. This very important distinction between restrictive^ and non-restrictive applies to many kinds of phrases and clauses. We have had examples of a restrictive adjective phrase and a restrictive and a non-restrictive relative clause. Study also the following sentences : 1. Adjectives and adjective phrases. Restrictive Non-restrictive A damsel dark met me with a The little girl, red and angry, smile. frowned at me. 2. Participles and participial Restrictive The man waving his hat is my brother. (A particular man is indicated.) 3. Clauses with "where." Restrictive I found a place where we might rest. (A particular place.) 4. Clauses with "when." Restrictive I will come when I please. (At a particular time.) 5. Clauses with "if." Restrictive I shall go only if you will go too. phrases. Non-restrictive My brother, waving his hat wildly , called to me to hurry. Non-restrictive Galena, where Grant was born, is in northwestern Illinois. (An added detail about Galena.) Non-restrictive At nine o'clock, when all was quiet, they began their search. Non-restrictive // he had done as I suggested, h would be better off. 1 The Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature adopts the less familiar term determinative in place of restrictive, and calls non-restrictive clauses descriptive. ' 124 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH 6. Clauses with' 'because. 19 ' 1 1 t i ve Non-restrictive I ran because I was afraid. Don't go, because you might be (For a particular reason.) injured. (Note that omission of the com- ma would change the meaning.) EXERCISE 45 Punctuate the following sentences wherever necessary. Be on the lookout for double meanings. 1. The boat came down the river having gone back into its course. 2. The Italians pushing Austria beyond captured Gorizia are said to be duplicating the fighting at Verdun. 3. After an early breakfast at Morristown the tobacco peddler whose name was Dominicus Pike had traveled seven miles through a solitary piece of woods without speaking a word to anybody but himself :ml his little gray mare. Hawthorne 4. This principle too we must remember. 5. Months before John had come home drunk. 6. I ask you my friend what you mean. 7. The watch however i Ls not worth the money. 8. The watch however excellent it is is not worth the money. 9. Quick as it fell from the broken staff Dame Barbara snatched it up. Whiiiier 10. Wolfe on the eve of the capture of Quebec is said to have quoted from Gray's Elegy, "The paths of glory lead but to the grave." 11. Man made in the image of God should strive to keep his body phys- ically and morally clean. 12. Church bells particularly on a silent Sunday morning aroused within him a feeling akin to reverence. 13. The drum at any rate from its martial voice and notable physiological effect nay even from its cumbrous and comical shape stands alone among the instruments of noise. Irving 14. He who hesitates is lost. 15. The man who needs an alarm clock seldom has the price. 16. He chooses moreover to do his own thinking and certainly if you accept his estimate of himself he is capable. 17. A man who later proved to be an old friend stopped me at the door. 18. The girl who later became his wife stood laughing at him from the doorway. 19. Here then is one point at which danger may be expected. PUNCTUATION 125 20. While the Saxon was plunged in these painful reflections the door o* the prison opened. Scott 21. President Judson of the University of Chicago introduced the speaker. 22. Loveliest of all lovely things are they on earth that soon pass away. Bryant 23. The horse whose attention you can hold longest is most easily trained. 24. The horse whose ability to pay attention is relatively highly developed is more .easily trained than most animals. 25. The boy leaning against the pier is my brother. 26. The boy leaning against the pier unexpectedly pushed the boat from under his feet. 93. Appositives. Most appositives plainly interrupt the flow of the sentence to add a bit of explanation, and are for that reason non-restrictive. Therefore the general rule is that appositive expressions are set off by commas. EXAMPLE: Lincoln, the emancipator of the slaves, was President from 1861 to 1865. Not all appositives, however, are non-restrictive. Some- times an appositive is so closely attached that it really limits or restricts the word with which it belongs, and therefore is not set off by commas. There is a subtle difference in mean- ing between these two sentences : (a) Her daughter Mary was married last week. (b) Her daughter, Mary, was married last week. One of these sentences implies that she has only one daughter; the other allows the inference that she has more than one. Which is which? Before reading further, try to answer this question. Now examine sentence (b) again. Try leaving out Mary. You learn that some woman's daughter was married presum- ably her only daughter. The word Mary, being set off by commas, merely adds the girl's name a relatively unimportant matter. It is non-restrictive. But in sentence (a), her daughter Mary excludes her daughter Alice, and any other daughter she may have. That is, if some one asked the 126 VOCATIONAL ENOUS 1 1 question, "Is either of her daughters married?" the answer would be, "Yes, her daughter Mary is married. " Mary is here almost an adject i\< ; it restricts the meaning of the word daughter to her "Mary daughter," not her "Alice daughter." Being restrictive, it is not set off by commas. When, then, an appositive has this restrictive relation, or when a brief appositive is thought of or spoken as part of an unbroken phrase with the word it explains (as in the poet Tennyson, I myself, etc.), commas are not needed. An appositive noun clause directly following the word it explains is also not usually set off. EXAMPLE: The fact that I tros cold disturbed him very mm h. In this case, again, the restrictive rule applies; the clause clearly restricts the assertion to one particular fact. But the general rule for appositives remains, that unless there is some PMM! iv;iM.n f>r MM! -rttiim tln-ni <>ti~. th.-v :in- M-t <>IY I y mmma-. Study the following sentence carefully; it may not mean what you think it does. His wife did not like asparagus or parsnips, and he could not eat oyster plant or salsify. How many vegetables are named? Are you sure of your count? One of the vegetable names is an appositive; salsify is another name for oyster plant. Therefore we shall have to set off salsify block it away from the expression with which it is in apposition. His wife did not like asparagus or parsnips, and he could not eat oyster plant, or salsify. Can you be sure, on the first reading, what this sentence means? All came to see John as well as the others. Do you find two possible meanings? Is John the object of see, or is it in apposition with all, the subject of came? In the latter case, a comma before John is plainly needed. Punctuate PUNCTUATION 127 the sentence in this way and there is no possible doubt as to the meaning: All came to see, John as well as the others. 94. Commas at "Both Ends." One general principle, already stated, is so often violated, either through careless- ness or through failure to understand it, that it deserves the emphasis of a special section. Every sort of "eddy" that interrupts the flow of the sentence, if it is not at the beginning or the end, requires a comma both before it and after it. If a comma is required before such an interpolated expression, whether it be a word of address, an appositive, a non-restrictive phrase or clause, or any kind of word, phrase, or clause that makes an "eddy," there must also be a comma after it. Viola- tion of this principle is very careless, and may result in ambig- uity. Notice the following examples : (Ambiguous) (Clear) (1) The officer prepared to do his (1) The officer, prepared to do his duty, drew his revolver and duty, drew his revolver and stepped forth. stepped forth. (2) My brother, waving his hat (2) My brother, waving his hat wildly called to me to hurry. wildly, called to me to hurry. Or: My brother, waving his hat, wildly called to me to hurry. 95. Avoiding Ambiguity. In certain emergencies not pre- cisely covered by the foregoing sections, the comma may be needed to prevent misunderstanding or to warn the eye not to take certain words together. Examine this sentence: Toward the rich men who have dealings with them are always servile but ungrateful. Do you have a sensation of mild distraction as you try to read it? When you get to are, you see that something is wrong. You may read even to the end in search of a subject for are; then you reread an exasperating process. If you are diligent you may discover that rich is not here an adjective modifying US VOCATIONAL ENGLISH men, but the noun of a phrnsr < < >MMM ing of the first three words. In othet words, rich men is not here a word group, and should be divided because it looks so much like one. Placing a comma after rich corrects the difficulty. Toward the rich, m< n who have dealings with them are always servile but ungrateful. The following sentences illustrate similar emergencies: 1. In I'Ul, 895 cases were reported. 2. Toward little Fred, Brown was almost tender. 3. That God is, is true. 4. Months before, we had done it. 5. He went to the bank, for money was scarce. In some of these cases, the expressions that are set off can be accounted for as "eddies" before or after the main current of the sentence; but the chances of misunderstanding are so obvious that it seems worth while to give these as examples of punctuation to avoid ambiguity. 96. Some Conventional Uses of the Comma. (a) A comma is used after yes and no within a sentence, and usually after oh (though oh may be followed by an exclamation mark). is not usually set off by any mark. EXAMPLES: (1) Yes, I think I shall go. (2) Oh, how you startled me! (3) Oh! I thought you had gone. (b) A direct quotation of not more than a sentence is separated by a comma from the words that introduce it. If the main sentence is resumed after the quotation, a comma (inside the quotation mark) follows the quoted words unless the quotation requires some other punctuation mark. EXAMPLES : (1) He shouted warningly to the man at the wheel, "Look out for the tug!" (2) I heard him say, "That is all," and then I heard no more. (3) I heard him ask, "What is the matter?" and then I heard no more. PUNCTUATION 129 .A very short quotation a mere word or phrase woven closely into the structure of the main sentence need not be set off by commas. EXAMPLE: This is what he called his "house beautiful." (c) A comma is sometimes used to mark the omission of words needed for complete grammatical construction, but readily understood from what precedes. EXAMPLE: Fred chose New York; John, Chicago. There is a decided tendency, however, to abandon this old and often stated rule whenever there is no obvious awkwardness or ambiguity if the comma is omitted. EXAMPLE: One boy chose wealth, another fame, a third friends. (d) A comma is used in writing dates to separate the name pf the month, or some other time division, from the year; and in writing addresses, to separate the name of the state or country from the name of the town or city (and in other cases of similar nature). EXAMPLES: (1) It was Christmas, 1917. (2) January 2, 1918. (3) He lived in Bloomington, Illinois. EXERCISE 46 Punctuate the following: 1. Ramona fell in love with Alessandro the sheep-shearer. 2. There was little food for the hungry sick or well. 3. In the cellar steps were heard. 4. Attila the "Scourge of God" devastated Europe. 5. The authorities did not prohibit the sale of opium or cocaine. 6. The authorities did not prohibit the sale of sodium chloride or table salt. 7. In honor of the dead bells were tolled slowly. 8. King of the Khyber Rifles. 9. His brother Charles is ill. (Two inferences possible.) 10. In consideration of these ordinary contracts are preferable. 11. Napoleon the world's greatest strategist died at St. Helena an island off the coast of one of our own continents South America, 130 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH 12. Our forefathers sturdy and industrious founded a great commonweal t h 13. Our greatest inventions the flying machine the wireless and the electric light are not yet a generation old. 14. Do you want tea or coffee? (Two meanings.) 15. Blessings on thee little man Barefoot boy with cheek of tan. WhiUier 16. I will write your friend Miss Reed today. 17. "Yes" I told him "I feel that way too." 18. Uncle Silas "lowed" that I was "keerect" but warned me "You'd better go slow young man." 19. Suppose your task my little man Is very hard to get Will it make it any easier For you to sit and fret? Phoebe Cory USES OF THE SEMICOLON 97. In Compound Sentences. The semicolon (;) has been mentioned (Section 88) as a punctuation mark indicating a degree of separation between word groups intermediate be- tween the slight degree indicated by the comma, and the complete separation indicated by the three marks that are used at the ends of sentences. We have seen (Section 90) that the parts of a compound sen- tence, when a connective is used, are frequently separated by a comma. Often, however, no connective (or conjunction) is used. In such a case the two clauses are really two distinct statements that might be punctuated as separate sentences, but because of some thought relation between them the writer prefers to make them a single sentence by using a semicolon. EXAMPLE: He knows them thoroughly; he has spent months among them. When a semicolon is properly used in such a sentence, it is generally possible to supply a connective; and if a connective is supplied, the semicolon is usually replaced by a comma. EXAMPLE: He knows them thoroughly, for he has spent months among them. We might state this practice mathematically and our rule PUNCTUATION 131 would fit the great majority of cases: One comma plus one conjunction equals one semicolon. The student must not get the idea, however, that he can put any two clauses together and cement them with a semicolon. A compound sentence, like any other kind of sentence, must be unified; that is, its parts must be related. If they are not related, there is no true sentence. EXAMPLE : Edwin Booth had a great aversion to rehearsals; he was a relative of the man who shot Lincoln. Obviously, though both of these statements are about Edwin Booth, the actor, they have no such relation that they can be run together with a semicolon as a single sentence. One of the most common sources of error in students' composition is the notion that such words as accordingly, con- sequently, hence, however, indeed, moreover, nevertheless, still, then, therefore * are connectives of such a nature -that they may introduce a clause after a comma only. All these words, when introducing a second member of a compound sentence without some undoubted conjunction such as and, must be preceded by a semicolon; and even the word so (when equivalent to therefore or so that) ought to be preceded by a semicolon. EXAMPLES : (Incorrect, (Correct) (1) It was very cold, consequently (1) It was very cold; consequently I turned up my collar. . I turned up my collar. (2) The night was dark, neverthe- (2) The night was dark; neverthe- less she was not afraid. less she was not afraid. (3) I was tired, accordingly I sat (3) I was tired; accordingly I sat down. down. (4) He heard her cry, then he ran t (4) He heard her cry; then he ran to her aid. to her aid. In sentence four above, the comma would suffice before then if he were omitted in the second part; for the second part would then be, not an additional complete clause without a conjunc- tion, but merely the second part of a compound predicate. 'Compare Section 78. 132 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH It should be added that, though punctuation with the semi- colon, as in the right-hand column, corrects the errors, it K often best to rewrite sentences of this kind in such a way that they are made complex instead of compound, because it is possible to express the true relations between the parts more accurately and gracefully in complex sentences. Thus the following versions are better than the corresponding sen- tences in the right-hand colurtm on page 131. 1. It was so cold that I turned up my collar. 2. Though the night was dark, she was not afraid. 3. I was so tired that I sat down to rest. 98. Between Word Groups Broken by Commas. Often a sentence consists of two or more main parts which are them- selves broken up into smaller parts by commas. In such a case it is obviously desirable to distinguish between the smaller word groups and the larger ones; and the semicolon, as the mark intermediate between the comma and the freriod, is used to set apart the larger groups. In other words, a series of phrases or clauses of any kind are usually separated by semicolons if any of the members must be broken up by commas. EXAMPLE: If I could save the Union without freeing any slave, I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves, I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone, I would also do that. Lincoln The same principle is at the basis of the rule, frequently given, that e. g., i. e., namely, and viz., before a list, are usually preceded by a semicolon. The words after such a semicolon are separated by commas. EXAMPLE: I have three reasons for not going; namely, lack of funds, poor health, and important work. EXERCISE 47 Punctuate the following sentences: 1. We are not slow in our shipments on the contrary we are unusually prompt. 2. The day is cold and dark and dreary It rains and the wind is never weary. Longfellow PUNCTUATION 133 3. He knew the worst would happen he tried to meet it bravely. 4. He knew the worst would happen and he tried to meet it bravely. 5. He had fled as far as he could go accordingly he tried to build up his courage to face the other way. 6. He knew he should not take the money nevertheless when he found the roll in his pocket he lacked the courage to return it. 7. He thought of what his mother would say then there was another who might not understand. 8. He reasoned that he ought not to take a chance still men had risked all and won. 9. The moral side did not impress Tom indeed it may be questioned whether morals ever concerned him. 10. He had lost his reputation anyway so what was the difference? 11. No men living are more worthy to be trusted than those who toil up from poverty none less inclined to take or touch aught which they have not earned. Lincoln 12. He hoped to join Miller at South Bend there would be sufficient time. 13. He thought the case over between trains "Will it pay?" he asked himself. 14. With malice toward none with charity for all with firmness in the right as God gives us to see the right let us strive to finish the work we are in to bind up the nation's wounds to care for him who shall have borne the battle and for his widow and his orphan to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations. Lincoln USES OF THE COLON 99. The Colon. The colon (:) was formerly used as a mark intermediate between the semicolon and the period. EXAMPLE: It is sown in dishonor; it is raised in glory: it is sown in weakness; it is raised in power. I Corinthians, 15:43 Here we have a series of four clauses without any conjunctions. The second clause is clearly more closely related to the first than it is to the third; that is, the first two clauses make up a balanced pair and the third and fourth a similarly balanced pair. The colon separates the pairs. Such use of the colon, however, is generally abandoned at present. The practice would now be to use either commas and a semicolon, or semicolons and a period. 134 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH The main uses of the colon at present are: (a) to precede a list of particulars that is formally introduced; (b) to precede an extract or quotation of considerable length; and (c) some- times to precede an illustration or an explanation of a com- plete statement that has been given. EXAMPLES : (a) He took with him the following articles: a camera, a telescope, and two rifles. (Notice that the colon is not needed if the list is introduced less formally; e. g., He took with him a camera, a telescope, and two rifles.) (b) The Reverend Mr. Smith said : (Then follows a long quotation.) (c) His tongue, indeed, was a magic instrument: sometimes it rumbled like the thunder; sometimes it warbled like the sweetest music. (Notice that the last two clauses develop or explain the first %>ne.) Examine the following sentence carefully : Our young men in the cities are living too rapidly: at fifteen, when they should be abashed before girls, they are social lions; at twenty, when they should yet believe in the rewards of virtue, they have adopted the theory of success by "pull"; at thirty they are pre- maturely cynical. Notice that we have four main clauses, but they are not of equal value. The last three are given for the purpose of ex- plaining and illustrating the first one. A colon follows the first clause; semicolons separate the others. The relation of the first clause to the other three is very much like that of a father to his three sons. The colon has also various purely conventional uses, of which the most important are as follows: 1. After the salutation in a letter. EXAMPLE : Dear Sir : 2. Between chapter and verse in Scripture references. EXAMPLE : Matt. 4 : 8-16. 3. In indicating time. EXAMPLE: 4:35 p.m. PUNCTUATION 135 EXERCISE 48 Punctuate the following: 1. The spirit of the American people is little understood abroad Europeans generally believe that we put the dollar above morals and happiness or even mercy they believe that American demeanor while brilliant in ingenuity is uncomfortably tricky. 2. .The lawyer lectured on the following topics transfer of interests in lands contracts of sale conveyances wills descent to heirs landlord and tenant the lease defects and repairs subletting rent remedies for non-payment termination of the lease. 3. There are three simple tenses present past and future in English. 4. Kindly send us the following goods tliree copies of Lamb's Tales from Shakspere twelve copies of Ivanhoe one copy of Silas Marner. 5. Alphabets ancient Egyptian early Phoenician Greek Chinese English. 6. Matthew 68. 7 30 a.m. My dear Jones USES OF THE DASH 100. For Sudden Breaks or Interruptions. We have seen (Section 91) how slight interruptions of the forward movement of the sentence are marked by commas. Sometimes there are interruptions that cannot be called "slight/' but which turn the current of the sentence sharply away from its former direction. For sudden breaks of this kind, as well as a. few other uses to be discussed in the next section, the dash ( ) has been adopted as a useful mark. Proper uses of the dash may best be indicated by examples. (a). Abrupt change in construction, leaving the first part of the sentence incomplete. EXAMPLE: I want to tell you but that wouldn't be fair. (b) A break for the purpose of repeating or varying an expression for emphasis. EXAMPLES : We are tired yes, more than tired of your delay. Do we can we hope to succeed in such an undertaking? (c) An unexpected turn of thought. EXAMPLE : He was always anxious to pay his debts when he had no money. 136 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH The dash is also very much used to set off parenthetical expressions that are independent, both grammatically and in idea, of the main assertion; in other words, expressions that are decidedly more than "-liirht" int. nuptimis of the course of the sentence. EXAMPLE: I wanted to tell you but I must not detain you long- that I appreciate your careful work. In such sentences either dashes or marks of parenthesis () may be used, but dashes seem less formal and are now often pre- ferred to parent 1 H -r<. 101. Other Uses of the Dash. The dash is a convenient mark to set off a series of appositives that have to be separated from one another by commas. If commas were used to set off the whole series, as well as betwt < n the items of the series, it misfit be difficult to distinguish the relations. Examine the following sentence: He sold photographic chemicals, sulphite of soda, metol, and potassium bromide. Just how many things did he sell? You will want to know immediately whether the last three items in the list are, or are not, photographic chemicals. If they are photographic chemi- cals, the fact should be made clear by a dash, instead of a comma, after chemicals. If they are not photographic chemi- cals, the comma is sufficient. Examine also the following examples of this use of the dash: 1 (1) He had to buy three books a geography, a history, and a grammar. (2) Ringling Brothers displayed various animals of North America buffaloes, mountain lions, panthers, lynxes, and antelopes. Occasionally a single appositive may be set off by a dash (or dashes) instead of a comma or commas, when there is a feeling of unusual abruptness in turning to the explanation. EXAMPLES: (1) He gave it to the boss Murphy. (2) Efficiency that much overworked word is now heard even in our churches. 'These are cases in which colons might also be used, according to Section 99. PUNCTUATION 137 In a long sentence beginning with a series of phrases or clauses and ending with a summarizing statement, a dash is often used before the summarizing statement. The dash in this use is comparable to the line one draws under a column of figures preparatory to writing down the sum. EXAMPLE: That he might enjoy health, that he should have enough money for the necessities of life, that he might enjoy friends these were the life desires of Stevenson. A similar use may occur even in a short sentence. EXAMPLE: Money, position, reputation all seemed worthless now. There are also various mechanical uses of the dash which may be illustrated as follows: 1. My friend B 2. "The rank is but the guinea's stamp." Burns 3. During the years 1914-18. 4. pp. 28-30. 5. May-July. % Notice that in 3, 4, and 5 a shorter mark, called technically the en-dash, is used; the longer mark of 1 and 2 is the em- dash and is the one used ordinarily in sentences. One caution as to the dash is important. It used to be regarded as a rather extreme and sensational mark of punctua- tion, because of the abruptness or suddenness that it implied, and careful writers used it sparingly. It has, however, grown in favor, and there is now no objection to it where it really serves any of the purposes that have explained in this and the pre- ceding section. But the dash is not an indiscriminate substitute for the comma, the semicolon, or the colon, to be used because one is not sure exactly which of these other marks would be best ; it is a mark with distinctive characteristics of its own, and the chief thing to remember about it is that it usually indicates an abrupt or sudden turn of some kind, in thought or construc- tion. 138 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH Typewriters are not often equipped with both a hyphen and a dash; it is necessary to use the same character for these very different marks. In such a case stenographers should be care- ful to distinguish in some clear Avay. The hyphen, used between the parts of some compound words and at the end of the line when it is necessary to divide a word, should not be separated by any space from the preceding or following letters. But when the hyphen sign on a typewriter is to be interpreted as a dash, it must be separated from adjacent words by space both before and after it; or it may be struck twice to make it evident that a dash is meant. EXERCISE 40 Punctuate the following sentences: 1. The business of the administration should be in the hands of adminis- trative officers superintrndnit assistant superintendents and principals. 2. I was not a fellow-being of these explorers I was a curiosity I was a specimen. Lowell 3. These discoveries gunpowder and the compass opened a new world to a new idea democracy. 4. If the president refuse which God forbid we shall be lost. 5. "I thought you came from Oxford," I returned. "Not I" said Steer- forth "I have been seafaring better employed." "David Copperfield," Dickens 6. I was going by Tom's yesterday when but that's another story. 7. They are good they are bad they are weak they are strong Wise foolish so am I. Sam Walter Foss 8 Say not Good Night but in some brighter clime Bid me Good Morning. Anna L. Barbauld 9. You will sell this toy the kind the children cry for Structo. 10. It has the Rotex shutter that's all you need to know. 11. He was always looking for work for his wife. (How does a dash after work affect the meaning?) 102. Classification by Punctuation. The four internal marks of punctuation that we have been discussing comma, semi- colon, colon, and dash can be used very effectively to show a PUNCTUATION 139 systematic arrangement of topics. Doubtless the following systems of classification are familiar to students: [corn (2) Products of Illinois cereal < wheat (a) cereal [oats 1. corn 2. wheat 3. oats Products (1) of Illinois [coal /UN . , , (b) mineral mineral < lead 1. coal 2. lead (c) dairy (milk 1. milk dairy < butter 2. butter [cheese 3. cheese Sometimes it is not convenient to take the space required by such tabulation. In such a case the relations may be indicated almost as effectively by punctuation as follows: (3) Products of Illinois: cereal corn, wheat, oats; mineral coal, lead; dairy milk, butter, cheese. It is worth while to study this arrangement carefully and note the uses that are illustrated. The colon after Illinois is a colon preceding a list. The dashes after cereal, mineral, and dairy are dashes preceding groups of appositives, or subordinate lists. Colons in place of the dashes would be confusing because of the colon preceding the main list. The commas separate words in a series. The semicolons separate groups of words that are subdivided by commas. USES OF PARENTHESES 103. For Parenthetical Expressions. The parenthetical ex- pression is a kind of aside in writing, a statement not directly in the current of thought. EXAMPLE: That fall Jeremiah Courtney (he has since died) enter- tained all the country-side. Parenthetical expressions are often enclosed by dashes (Section 100) or by commas (Section 91). Such use of commas 140 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH is mainly confined to short expressions not far out of the course of thought. The choice between dashes and parentheses for longer and more marked interruptions is largely a matter of personal taste. Appositives and other bits of explanation are frequently set off by parentheses, as for example the references to sections in this book. Note also the following uses: (1) In one of your letters (May 24, 1911) you state .... (2) The Tussock larva (caterpillar) is about an inch and a ha)- long. (3) The rifle (the one father told you about last night) has been in our family for a hundred years. Parentheses are also used to enclose figures or letters in an enumeration of items run into a text. EXAMPLE: There are two main reasons for this condition: (a) his poverty, (b) his youth. Note that no other mark of punctuation follows the enclosed letter or figure. Pupils are sometimes told to enclose in parentheses words that they wish to cancel. This is an entirely wrong practi . however, and likely to mislead the reader. Parentheses have no canceling power. USES OF BRACKETS 104. Used Mainly in Printing. Brackets which are right- angled [] as distinguished from the curved parentheses, are not common except in technical work, and are more likely to be seen in printing than in writing. The main uses of brackets are as follows: (1) To enclose an explanation or note, as by an editor. (2) To set off words inserted in a quotation for the purpose of explaining something that is not clear from the quotation alone, or for the purpose of correcting an error. (3) To enclose a parenthesis within a parenthesis. For this purpose, however, parentheses within dashes may also be used. PUNCTUATION 141 i Such an involved construction is awkward and should generally be avoided. EXAMPLES: (1) "I was assisted in my work by Frederick Aiken, whose service was very much appreciated." [Mr. Aiken represented The Sun in Mexico during the occupation of Vera Cruz. The Editor.} (2) "He [the President] asserted that such action was [un]neces- sary." Brackets are like parentheses in having no canceling power. USES OF QUOTATION MARKS 105. Direct Quotation. When the exact words of a charac- ter in a story, or of any person other than the writer of the particular composition in hand, are run into the text, they should begin and end with quotation marks (" "). EXAMPLES : i (1) "Do you expect me to go alone?" she said to Maloney. (2) We must agree with the immortal words of Keats, "A thing of beauty is a joy forever." If a direct quotation continues through more than one paragraph, it is customary to place a quotation mark at the beginning of each paragraph, so that the eye will the more readily recognize that the quotation continues; but the quota- tion mark for the end does not occur until the whole quotation ends. Notice that the abbreviation etc., to indicate that only part of a passage is quoted, belongs outside the quotation marks. (Incorrect] . (Correct) He quoted the familiar proverb, He quoted the familiar proverb, "A rolling stone, etc." "A rolling stone," etc. Direct quotation should be carefully distinguished from indirect quotation. Indirect quotation merely states the sub- stance of a speaker's or writer's remark, without giving his exact words, and is not enclosed in quotation marks. Thus the 142 VOCATIONAL ENOUSB * first example in this section may be changed to indirect quota- tion as follows: She asked Maloney if he expected her to go alone. A quotation within a quotation is usually indicated by single marks (' ') If still another quotation occurs within the inner quotation, the double marks are used again. Cases like this last are rare and awkward, but the single marks for quotation within quotation are common. EXAMPLE : The speaker continued : "Buras's poetry is as applicable today as it was a century ago. 'A man's a man for a 1 that' preaches the always needed gospel of democracy." In printing, an extract that is set off by itself in different type from that of the body of the text is usually not put in quotation marks. This book contains many examples of this practice. 106. Other Uses of Quotation Marks* Among various special uses of quotation marks the following are worth illustration: (a) To enclose titles of books, articles, poems, pictures and other works of art. / EXAMPLES: (1) Dickens's "A Tale of Two Cities." (2) Hall's article in the Atlantic Monthly on "Kitch- ener's Mob." (3) Keats's "Ode to a Nightingale." (4) Rubens's "Descent from the Cross." In printed matter, however, the titles of books often occur in italics, unquoted; and therefore in manuscript they may be underlined and unquoted. Notice that the authors' or artists' names are not part of the quotation. Students are often careless in failing to put within the quotation an article that belongs at the beginning e. g., the A at the beginning of "A Tale of Two Cities" in example (1) above. Anything that is quoted at all should be quoted accurately. PUNCTUATION 143 (b) Unusual expressions of such a character that the writer wishes to indicate his recognition of the fact that they do not belong to the .standard English vocabulary are put in quota- tion marks. Slang, technical words, words used ironically or in some special sense, are included in this class. EXAMPLES: (1) His clothes were somewhat "ratty." (2) He was elected "master of the rolls." (c) Names of ships, trains, etc., are often quoted; or they may be printed in italics. EXAMPLES: The "Oriental Limited" makes connection with "The Empress of Japan" at Seattle. The Oriental Limited makes connection with The Empress of Japan at Seattle. (d) Words or phrases to which particular attention is directed, as for the purpose of definition or because they are spoken of as words merely, may be either quoted or printed in italics (as often in this book). EXAMPLES: The word "sanguine" is related to "sanguinary," but differs much from it in meaning. The word sanguine is related to sanguinary, but differs much from it in meaning. There is some reason for holding to the use of quotation marks for what is actually quoted, and using italics mainly for emphasis. 107. Other Marks in Connection with Quotations. The position of other punctuation marks in relation to the quota- tion marks at the end of quotations often causes trouble, but can be simplified under two general rules: (a) A period, or a comma, always precedes the quotation mark at the end of a quotation. EXAMPLES: (1) "Ah, Agnes," I said, "I have always known it." (2) "I cannot," he said, "go this month." This rule is probably due largely to considerations of appear- ance. 144 VOCATIONAL I NCIJSH (b) Other marks semicolon, colon, exclamation mark, question mark, dash, etc. go outside the quotation unless they plainly belong to the quoted words. EXAMPLES: (1) The following instruction is given under the head of "Business Correspondent : \\\n>\\ a firm is the addressee, the salu- tatory phrase should be "r;i 67. nom(en), Maine 56. mater, mother 68. nunci, announce 57. mens, measure 69. ocul, eye 58. men/, mind 70. part, divide 59. mere, pay 71. pater, father 60. meter, measure 72. ped, foot 61. miar, move 73. pell, puU, drive 62. mitt, miss, send 74. pen, repent EXERCISE 58 75. phono, sound 88. quadro, quar, four 76. photo, light 89. quer 9 complain 77. pig, pic/, paint 90. oner, ouir, ask 78. ptoc, please 91. guiesc, quiet, rest 79. plen, full 92. rod, root 80. pJic, ply, fold 93. radi, ray 81. polis, city, citadel 94. reg, red, rule 82. port, carry 95. rupt, break 83. por/, gate 96. sacr, holy 84. posit, pose, place 97. sal, salt 85. poten/, powerful 98. sane/, holy 86. prim, first 99. sa(0, enough 87. punct, point 100. scend, climb HOW WORDS ARE MADE 153 EXERCISE 59 101. sci, know 102. script, write 103. secut, sequ, follow 104. sen, old 105. sens, feel 106. sist, stand 107. sol, alone 108. sped, spic, see 109. spir, breathe 110. stell, star 111. struct, build 112. sim/, rise 113. to#, tact, touch 114. tegr, ted, cover 115. tel, far 116. temp, time 117. tens, tent, stretch 118. terra, earth 119. tors, tort, twist 120. typ, stamp 121. vad, walk 122. ven(t), come 123. ver, true 124. vert, turn 125. vid, vis, see 126. viv, live 127. voc, call 128. volo, desire 129. volv, volut, roll EXERCISE 6O What do the words mean in the following series of exercises (60-64 inclusive)? Do not use the dictionary, but refer to the lists of roots on the preceding pages. Your problem is to arrive at a meaning for each word through the syllables. primeval prima facie punctuate punctilious pedal pedometer linguistic magnify confident fidelity Genesis generate definite finite emigration Eugene sacrament mensuration mermaid commensurate portico abrupt deportment interruption potential eruption potentate Sacramento impotent sacrifice incredible sacrilegious creed stellar credit constellation cordial stelliform cordate migration manual immigration amanuensis capital manipulate decapitate jurisdiction caption adjudicate maritime judiciary portal factory porter facsimile portage de facto UM VOCATIONAL ENGLISH EXERCISE 61 fluent radical carnivorous superfluous eradicate incarnate confluence placate exsanguinated torture implacable versimilitude terra firma placid temporize Mediterranean revolve democracy terrestrial involve epidemic local involution demography locomotive radiate tensile in loco parentis radius tent conjunction. radiograph tension juncture primitive integument adjunct primordial protect plenty primogeniture sanctuary plenipotentiary tortuous sanctify replenish retort sanction enunciate quadruped salt announce auadrcnnial saline pronounce |MV quadrilateral tempus fugit radish carnal temporal EXERCISE 62 telescope regular contact telemeter correct convene telephone rectify advent query convert prevent inquiry revert evade verify versatile pervade VeraCrui vertebrae invade veritable vivacious quiet science vivisection (sect - cut) quiescent prescience revise requiem omniscient vocation requiescat in manuscript vocal pace prescribe revoke consecutive proscribe supervise sequacious scripture visit sequel circumscribe viz. (videlicit; the z satisfy sensation is from an old char- insatiable sensitive acter used as a sign satiated senile of abbreviation) resist senate tangent consist senescent intangible insistent HOW WORDS ARE MADE 155 EXERCISE 63 solitude euphony depict sole nominate picture solo nominal oculist inspiration nomenclature occult spiracle monitory binocular respire admonish metrical spectator premonition meter spectacle paternal comptometer conspicuous patriotism mortal surging expatriate mortgage resurgent matricide post mortem resurrect maternal loquacious deduce matrix elocution ductile propel eloquent induction dispel transfer education impel defer partition penitentiary fragile particle penance fracture phonic penal fraction phonograph pigment sense EXERCISE 64 project coronet benefactor trajectory dictionary animated projectile indict introspect literary dictaphone epidermis illiterate dormant malefactor lithograph dormitory polygamy monolith dormer (window) misled transmit dominion secession missionary domino retroactive missile corpse synthesis centennial Corpus Christi analysis century incorporate cataclysm centipede asteroid cataract annual astronomy dispel per annum asterisk ultra-conservative A. D. (anno domini) dentate superheated celerity dentist interurban accelerate indent eulogy corona chronometer circumnavigate coroner chronology visible 156 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH 113. The Use of the Dictionary. The foregoing exercises should not give the student the impression that he can get along without the dictionary. On the contrary, he will often need to verify his guessing, and he will profit by much study of the dictionary. But there are wrong ways to use the dictionary even when the searcher is diligent. The best possible use is that which will make further reference less necessary. The mere act of. looking up a word is very often unprofitable. A little study of a word, however, will almost always yield a rich return. The pupil should, first of all, look for the origin of the word. Next he should examine other words before and after to see if there are others from the same root, and last he should note carefully the meaning of the word, the meanings of words of the same family, and the use of these words in the illustrative sentences given. As he closes the dictionary he should forih a little unspoken sentence or sentence element employing his newly acquired knowledge. This entire process will hardly increase the time required to examine a word by ten per cent, but it will generally increase his power to use the word by several hundred per cent. For example, suppose the word is salvage. In Webster's International Dictionary (quoted only in part), he will find the following: salvage, (L[atin] salvarc, see save) 1. The act of saving a vessel, goods, or life from perils of the sea. Near the word salvage are these words: salvable capable of being saved. salvability quality of being salvable. salvation the act of saving; deliverance from destruction. salvatory a place where things are preserved. salve (saTve) hail (God save you). There are several other words from this root, not to mention save and safe. After the pupil has given a few seconds to the study of this group of words, he will probably be able to work out the meaning of the legal phrase salvo jure (jure law, jury), HOW WORDS ARE MADE 157 the right of being safe, without further use of the dictionary. Few people know the good things to be found in the diction- ary. Frequently people go to the trouble of writing questions to magazines and newspapers which could easily be answered by reference to any good dictionary. EXERCISE 65 Using an unabridged dictionary only, answer the following questions : 1. Who was Arachne (fiction)? Barkis ("Barkis is wfflin' ")? 2. What is the population of Rutland, Vermont? 3. What and where is Cremona? Tara? 4. Who was Jane Grey? What do you know about her? 5. How do you pronounce Zabadaias? (From the Bible.) 6. How do you pronounce Pisistratus? (Greek history.) 7. What is the meaning of the name Richard? Of Huldah? 8. What is the meaning of ad interim? Of Honi soit qui mat y pense? 9. Of what is F. R. C. P. E. an abbreviation? EXERCISE 66 It is not uncommon to find students who cannot alphabetize with accuracy. This exercise is to correct that fault. Bring to class slips of paper about one inch by two inches. From a list of the members, of the class which the teacher should have on the board, copy one name on each slip, in the order of the names on the board. At a signal begin to arrange the surnames in alphabetical order. An error in the spelling of a name will disqualify a contestant. Prepare thirty slips and on each copy a word from a single page of a dictionary. Shake the slips vigorously and then alphabetize them. \ QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER IX 1. From what languages come most of the words which can be ana- lyzed? 2. In what way is a knowledge of word formation an aid to spelling? 3. How can you sometimes bring to mind a word which you need but which you have temporarily lost? 168 VOCATIONAL ENGL I s 1 1 4. Can you explain how in-legal became illegal f How in-pious became impious? 5. What is the most profitable method of using the dictionary? 6. How do some men gain mastery over a great vocabulary? CHAPTER X CAPITALIZATION AND SPELLING 114. Rules for Capitalization. Pupils entering high schools are assumed to be familiar with the main rules as to the use of capitals that a sentence must begin with a capital, for example; that within a sentence proper nouns and proper adjectives begin with capitals, etc. For review and reference, however, the more important rules of capitalization are summed up below. 1. Capitalize the first word of every sentence. But do not capitalize the first word after a semicolon. The first word after a colon, however, is capitalized if a complete sentence or series of sentences follows, and if the colon accompanies, or is equivalent to, some such expression as as follows. EXAMPLE: My reasons were these: The road was badly paved; my car was light and not in good repair; there was a better road a few miles to the south. 2. Capitalize the first word of every line of poetry. 3. Capitalize the first word of every direct quotation that consists of one or more sentences and is formally introduced. EXAMPLE : We very distinctly heard the doctor say, "You are unfair." But do not capitalize a quoted word, phrase, or dependent clause that is worked closely into the structure of a sentence. EXAMPLES: Abigail thought it was a good "idear." They learned that "honesty is the best policy." 4. In the statement of formal resolutions or propositions for debate, capitalize the first word after Resolved or Whereas. EXAMPLE : Resolved, That the American government should take steps to acquire ownership of the coal lands. 5. Capitalize / and O when they are used as words. But oh, unless at the beginning of a sentence, is not capitalized. 159 160 VOCATIONAL EN'H.lsil 6. Capitalize proper nouns and adjectives derived from them. EXAMPLES: America, American; Elizabeth, Elizabethan. This rule seems very simple and is generally understood; hut practical difficulties often arise as to just what words are proper nouns, and which words require capitals in proper names con- sisting <>f two or more words. Attention is therefore called to the following specific cases: (a) Capitalize all names for the Supreme Being; for the Bible and Other sacred books and for the books of the Bible; for church functions. EXAMPLES:- The Almighty, the Savior; the Scriptures; Easter. (b) Capitalize the names of the days and the months, but not of the seasons. EXAMPLES: Thursday, August, spring. (c) Capitalize East, West, North, South, etc., when they mean peoples or sections of the country, but not when they mean directions points of the compass. EXAMPLES: I have always lived in the West. I saw a dark cloud coming from the west. (d) Names of studies are not ordinarily capitalized, except the proper names of languages. EXAMPLES: arithmetic, Latin. (e) The names of personified qualities or things or animals are usually capitalized. EXAMPLE: Thus Nature was his kind teacher. (f) Capitalize le, la, de, du, in French names, when no title or Christian name precedes them; but do not capitalize them when a title or given name precedes. EXAMPLES: De Bracy, Front de Boeuf. (g) Always capitalize Van in Dutch names; never capitalize von in German names. EXAMPLES: Van Houghton, von Bismarck. CAPITALIZATION AND SPELLING 161 It should be remembered, however, that one sometimes writes his name in a manner contrary to the general rule. Anybody addressing such a person should be very careful to write the name as he writes it, regardless of the rule. (h) Words that are primarily common nouns are often capitalized when made parts of proper names. The distinc- tions in usage brought out below should be very carefully observed. EXAMPLES : A Chicago high school (not a proper name), but the Hyde Park High School (the name of a particular school). Pennsylvania mountains (not a proper name), but the Allegheny Mountains. An Illinois canal, but the Illinois-Michigan Canal. A party of scouts, but the Boy Scouts (name of an organization). (i) Capitalize the first word and all the longer and more important words in titles of books, pictures, etc. This means that usually nouns, adjectives (but not articles except at the beginning), pronouns, verbs, and adverbs are capitalized; but not prepositions or conjunctions unless they are very long. 1 EXAMPLES: The Mark of the Beast Life's Little Ironies As You Like It Prue and I 7. As a general rule, capitalize the abbreviations of proper names; do not capitalize abbreviations of words that would not be capitalized. EXAMPLES: Illinois 111.; Principal (as a title) Prin.; quart qt.; candle-power c.p. There are some special cases, however. Thus abbreviations of titles are regularly capitalized even if the title may be used as a common noun. EXAMPLE: Ph. D.; but "He is a doctor of philosophy. 7 ' 2 1 Within recent years it has become customary in library catalogues and with some printers not to use capitals in the titles of books, except, of course, for the first word of each title and for proper nouns and adjectives. EXAMPLE: Mrs. Wiggs of the cabbage patch. 2 A title in connection with a name, however, is capitalized; e. g., Doctor Coulter. l ' -' VOCATIONAL ENGLISH Note also that the following abbreviations are capitalized, although the full forms employ small letters: P. O., post office; N. B., nota bene (note well); O. K, all correct; P. M., post master; C. O. D., cash on delivery. In general, abbreviations should be sparingly used except in technical work in which it is sometimes desirable to use them for the purpose of saving space and time. In writing of any literary quality, abbreviations are hardly at all used, except a few like etc., viz., i. e. t e. g., a. m., p. m., A. D., B. C. Students will be wise (o make very sure of the propriety of any use of abbreviations they are tempted to make, judging by the custom of the best authorities in the particular kind of writing they are doing. BXBRCISE 67 Write the following, with whatever capitals are necessary: Indian gods m. de la salle redeemer (deity) i.e. engliah van syckle pt. pull man Illinois river f.o.b. south pole mother p.p. russian empire my mother pp. empire of russia god e.g. the poet office autumn tex. a true democrat in the south etc. englewood high school Wednesday co. high schools of Chicago "you win" he said b/s. forty-fourth st. negro b/e. master of arts last days of pompeii o d (five hundred) an ohio river acct. book IV whereas GUI' friend jr. yours truly gypsy bbl. civilization von moltke god's mammon 115. Division of Words. Years ago, at the "three R's" period of education, spelling by syllable was very common. It was not unusual for oral spellers to pronounce, then spell, each syllable separately. The result is believed by some people to have been much superior to that of our present stress on written spelling. One thing evidently might be CAPITALIZATION AND SPELLING 163 gained by the old method correct division of words into syllables. Often children try to spell a word as a whole, with the result that they omit or misspell one or two syllables. Spelling by syllables has its advantages. Suppose the word is transubstantiation. If the pupil will concern himself first with Iran alone, he will not miss it; th^n. comes sub, which is easy. Syllable by syllable he will complete the word. To determine syllables the dictionary is, of course, the best authority and must often be consulted. A few general princi- ples, however, will be helpful even though there are occasional exceptions. 1. Prefixes and suffixes usually constitute distinct syllables. See the lists of prefixes and suffixes in the preceding chapter, Exercises 53 and 54. 2. When a consonant is doubled the syllabic division is usually between the two letters. This rule sometimes accounts for exceptions to number 1. EXAMPLES: run-ning, hop-ping. 3. Any group of letters not easily and naturally pronounced together should not be made a syllable. EXAMPLES (wrong) : Cat-holic, bac-kache, tob-acco. One particularly common blunder in syllabication (a viola- tion of both rule 1 and rule 3) consists in making a syllable of ion in such words as attention, dissension, production, etc. The final syllable in such words is pronounced as if spelled shun. The letters ion alone could not possibly account for such pronunciation; the preceding t or s belongs to the final syllable, which is tion or sion as the case may be. This applies to nearly all words with these very common endings. But of course a different principle applies to such a word as onion. It is pro- nounced un-yun; the syllables, therefore, are on-ion. Another common error is treating ed as a distinct syllable in words in which it is not a syllable. Liked, for example, is one syllable and cannot be divided. 164 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH 116. Dividing a Word at the End of a Line. Words should never be divided at the ends of lines except between syllables. This is an absolute rule and the violation of it makes a very bad impression on any reader. It does not follow, however, that any word may be divided between any two syllables. On account of misunderstandings that may result, at least for a moment, it is desirable to observe the following general in-t m< - ii<>ns regarding the division of words between syllables: 1. Do not divide very short words. There is no need of doing this and the result is awkward. EXAMPLES (undesirable) : He tried ev - cry door. Put down all the e - ven numbers. 2. Avoid division of surnames. EXAMPLE (undesirable) : He turned the work over to Mr. Camp - bell. 3. Be sure that the first part of the divided word does not give a wrong impression, or tend to cause mispronunciation. Thus in the first example below, the reader gets the idea of number ten and readjustment in the next line requires un- necessary labor; in the other examples the natural tendency, on seeing the first syllable alone, i- t<> mispronounce. EXAMPLES (misleading): (1) The squid has ten - tacles about the mouth. (2) The green bananas would not rip - en. (3) As it was, there was no - thing to be done. (4) That in itself was her - itage enough. 4. Avoid all strange-looking syllables resulting from division, even though the break is between syllables. EXAMPLES: hor-ses, reada-ble, une-ven. Correct division of words is a matter of watchfulness as, indeed, is correct English generally. It is every writer's duty to present his ideas with as few distracting elements as possible. A reader will resent receiving a wrong impression, even though he may not be conscious of the exact cause of his irritation CAPITALIZATION AND SPELLING 165 EXERCISE 68 Where would you divide the following words? Before using a dictionary try breaking each word as you would if it came at the end of a line. gallant uttered analyzed business loving nation question strength lovely omission invention running pictures Passover diaphragm unhesitatingly union audible active knowledge 117. Compound Words. Our customs with regard to compound words are so inconsistent that general rules cannot be given. The student will have to learn which words require the hyphen, which are run together without it, and which groups make two or more words. Pronunciation will often aid in determining the matter, but in many cases it will be necessary to consult the dictionary. The following observa- tions also will be of some help, even though there are unfor- tunately many exceptions to the general principles mentioned : 1. .Short words that have bepn associated for a long time and are pronounced with a single effort and unequal stress are very commonly made one word, without a hyphen. EXAMPLES: sidewalk, sheepskin, honeymoon. 2. When two words that are combined receive equal em- phasis and separate pronunciation, the hyphen is likely to be used. EXAMPLES: deaf-mute, cat's-paw. The general practice may be fairly well summed up as follows: Compounds of common words like book, house, shop, etc., when the prefixed word is of one syllable, are not hyphen- ated. When the preceding word consists of two syllables, the hyphen is used. When the preceding word consists of three or more syllables, the two words are written separately. EXAMPLES: toyshop tailor-shop electric shop storeroom cooling-room operating room While this is a valuable test it must be checked with the dictionary's record of common usage, for there are many iea VOCATIONAL EMiUMI exceptions. The following sections will deal with numerous specific examples of the different forms. 118. Words Sometimes Wrongly Combined. The follow- ing expressions consist of separate words and should not be used as single words or with the hyphen: every time in spite of no one on to per cent. some day all right (There is no such word as alright.) near by (Nearby and near-by are questionable forms.) 119. Words Written Without a Break. Each word'in the groups listed below is one word, written without the hyphen: . All combinations ending in self myself, yourself, themselves, etc. All combinations <-nding in body anybody, somebody, 1 nobody. All combinations ending in Min^- anything, something, nothing, every- thing, etc. All combinations ending in ever whatever, whoever, wherever, whenever, etc. All combinations ending in where elsewhere, nowhere, somewhere, etc. The following words are not divided: almost already (Do not confuse this with all [is] ready.) although altogether always apiece biennial (triennial, etc.) childhood everlasting extraordinary farewell forthcoming 1 In a different sense some body may be two words, some being then an adjective. EXAMPLE: The eclipse was caused by the passage of some body between the earth and the sun. 1 Sometime (one word, an adverb) should be distinguished from some time (two words, meaning a considerable period). EXAMPLE: Sometime 1 hope to go to Europe. My brother has spent some time there. * To-day, to-morrow, and to-night used to be considered the proper forms and are still preferred by some writers, but the forms without the hyphen are also in general use. inasmuch schoolboy inside (outside, onside, schoolmaster (but etc.) school teacher) instead semicolon midnight sometimes 1 moreover somewhat nevertheless surname nickname today' notwithstanding together nowadays tomorrow 1 outstretch tonight* railroad wardrobe rewrite without CAPITALIZATION AND SPELLING 167 120. Words Employing the Hyphen. Compounds beginning with the following words are almost always written with, hyphens : by by-laws, by-path, by-products, etc. extra extra-fine (but extraordinary). father (sister, son, etc.) mother-city, sister-church, brother-mason, son- in-law, etc. (but fatherland). fellow fellow-man, fellow-servant, etc. (but fellowship). half (and quarter) half -moon, half-mast, quarter-mile. self self-evident, self-supporting. world (worldly) world-empire, worldly-minded. A great many compound adjectives require the hyphen in order to prevent ambiguity or awkwardness. (Incorrect) (Correct) 1. Even ten story buildings are 1. Even ten-story buildings are rare in Europe. rare in Europe. 2. The home of the Anglo-Saxons 2. The home of the Anglo-Saxons was a low lying section. was a low-lying section. 3. My home made pickles are 3. My home-made pickles are delicious. delicious. 4. A tall, red haired man greeted 4. A tall, red-haired man greeted me. me. Many prefixes and some words are followed by the hyphen when they terminate in a letter the same as that beginning the root syllable or the next word. EXAMPLES: pre-eminent, co-ordinate, bell-like, head-dress, night- time, pale-eyed. In printing, the dieresis ( ) is sometimes used over the second of the two vowels that meet, instead of the hyphen between them. EXAMPLES: preeminent, cooperate. Notice the effect on the meaning secured by making one word out of two or more separate words. What are the dif- ferences between the following pairs? (1) A hot-bed and a hot bed. (2) A dancing-school and a dancing school. (3) A sidewalk and a side walk. ins VOCATIONAL ENGLISH How many meanings can you get from the following words 1)\ inserting hyphens? (1) Twenty five cent pieces. (2) A man eating tiger. EXERCISE 60 Correct all errors you find in the following list (some expressions are now correct) : self seeking frllowservant no-thing bookkeeping log book alright homelike any thing ail-though cannot everytime anywhere onto toyshop not withstanding book case byways today life blood cold drawn elsewhere school house percent life long world politics half turn church wedding moon shine water-tight any body ice-man nearby drugstore ice-cream over anxious sometime self-reliance moreover rabbitskin 121. Spelling Out Numbers. In general it is best to write out in words all numbers from one to one hundred inclusive, except as indicated in the next section; and likewise all large numbers that may be spoken of as hundreds, thousands, etc. EXAMPLES: The ( stance is about eighty-five miles, and there are two stations ab ut ten miles apart. It was possible to secure about nineteen hundred recruits from a county of twenty-five thousand population. Note, however, that while we write out twenty-five thousand, we preferably use figures to express 25,500, because it would be awkward to spell this all out. Some special points worth noting are: (a) Always spell out a number beginning a sentence. (Incorrect) (Correct) 109 men constituted the force. One hundred nine men constituted the force. Or: The force consisted of 109 men. CAPITALIZATION AND SPELLING 169 (b) Spell out the time of day (but figures are used in time tables). EXAMPLE : seven-thirty. (c) Spell out ages. EXAMPLE : eighteen years, seven months. (d) Spell out sums of money less than a dollar (except in lists containing sums of more than a dollar), and "round numbers" in larger amounts. EXAMPLES: It cost ninety cents. I paid thirty dollars for it. 122. When Figures May Be Used. The practice explained in the foregoing section applies to ordinary writing in which numbers are not extensively used. In writing that involves extensive use of statistics of any sort, figures are used much more freely, both to save space, and to save time for the reader. The general principle is not to spell out numbers of a^ com- plicated nature. Thus we use figures for: (a) Dates. EXAMPLE: May 24, 1895. (b) Dollars and cents. EXAMPLE: $4.72. (c) Street numbers of houses and other buildings. EXAMPLE: 753 Washington Street. (d) Numbers of three figures or more that are not even hundreds, thousands, etc. EXAMPLES: 204 (but two hundred), 11,260 (but eleven thousand). (d) Per cent and ratio (except in writing of a distinctly literary character). EXAMPLES: 6 per cent on loans; the ratio is 2 to 3. 170 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH (e) A list of articles, a group of dimensions, or any series of numbers or collection of statistics that would become tin - some to the reader if spelled out. EXAMPLES: Please send 2 doz. no. 4622 shirts, size 16. In 1896 there were 11 cases of small pox, 242 of measles, 112 of tetanus, etc. The living room was 16 by 24 feet; the dining room, 15 by 18; the kitchen, 12 by 14. 1 EXERCISE 7O Correct the following: 1. The Panama Canal is 50 miles long. It was begun in nineteen hundred and four. Lieut. Col. Geo. W. Goethals was made chief engineer in nmrtrrn hundred seven. The average depth is 42 feet. 2. His bill was seven dollars and eighteen cents for board and $.90 for laundry. There was a $5.00 charge extra for his 7-year-old boy. 3. 69 divorces per 100,000 were granted in Alabama in 1900, as against 10 for the same population in 1870. 4. At 7:30 the man died aged 87 yean, seven months, and 24 days. 5. The room was eighteen by six by 12 feet and would accommodate 10 machines costing eighteen dollars and sixty cents each on a daily outlay of $.80 each. 6. 6 or 7 of us fellows planned to go camping at 67th and the lake. I had only 2 dollars but my cousin had $3.15; so we decided to rent a tent. 123. Some Rules of Spelling. English spelling is notorious- ly inconsistent and confusing, so that in general the spelling of each word is learned by itself; nevertheless there are some rather simple rules that will be helpful in spite of the fact that there are exceptions to most of them. Rule I. Monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable, ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel. t EXAMPLES: run, running; admit, admitting. 1 In a story, however, if the dimensions were given at all, they would be spelled out. CAPITALIZATION AND SPELLING 171 But note that if the accent is not on the last syllable there is no doubling. EXAMPLE: profit, profiting. Note also that two vowels preceding the final consonant obviate the doubling. EXAMPLE: conceit, conceited. Rule II. Final silent e is generally dropped before a suffix beginning with a vowel and retained before a suffix beginning with a consonant. EXAMPLES: race, racing; hope, hoping; arrange, arrangement. EXCEPTIONS: judgment, acknowledgment, abridgment. A further group of exceptions to Rule II occur because c and g are generally hard before a, o, and u, and soft before^ e, i t and y. In such words as change and peace, the addition of able would, according to Rule II, bring g and c before a, making these letters hard. To indicate the soft pronunciation, it is necessary to retain the e at the end. Therefore we have changeable, peaceable, arid similar spelling of a few other words (traceable, etc.). Rule III. In general there are adjectives ending in able corresponding to nouns ending in ation; but if there is no noun ending in ation, the adjective ends in ible. In the latter case there is often a noun ending in ibility. EXAMPLES: accusable (adj.); accusation (n.) conformable (adj.); conformation (n.) admissible (adj.) There is no noun admissation. defensible (adj.) There is no noun defensation. Rule IV. To avoid confusion between ei and ie, the follow- ing jingle may be helpful: / before e Except after c, Or when sounded like a, As in neighbor or weigh. 172 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH In other words, when the sound is that of a long e (e) the common spell inu r i- ie except after c. EXAMPLES: Long e after c Long e in other cote* conceive brief belief field deceive < hi.f relief yield receive niral is he here laboratory particularly irrelevant that will do separate February (not Febuary) diamond last night idea (not idee) hundred indisputable cardinal history (three syllables'. SPOKEN ENGLISH 183 - 127. Purity of Vowel Sound. After indistinct enunciation, impure vowel sounds are probably the most objectionable element in our pronunciation. The sounds discussed in the following sections need constant attention. It is not enough to note them in passing. Our habits of speech have been with us many years and are not easily changed. Much good can be done by criticism among the group of classmates with whom you associate, but if any real progress is to be made against the customs of years, it must come through continual self-correc- tion. 128. Long u and Long oo. There is a marked difference between the vowel sounds in mule and moon. The former is long u (u); the latter, long double o (oo). Long u has a sugges- tion of a y before it, as if myule were the spelling. Many people find the insertion of this y sound difficult, particularly after t and d. Thus Tuesday becomes Toosday and duties becomes dooties. Or an exaggerated attempt to secure the proper pronunciation results in Choosday and juties. A long series of words ending in tute are very commonly mispronounced. EXAMPLES : (Incorrect) (Correct) institoot institute (tyute) constitootion constitution (tyution) / The word new is often pronounced, especially in the Middle West, as if it were noo. The correct sound resembles niew. Notice, however, that the following words are often wrong- ly given the sound of long u: conduit (kon'dit) coupon (koo'pon) ennui (on'we) acoustics (a koo'stics) A number of words that should have the double o sound are often mispronounced. Note the following correct pro- nunciations: soot (not siit) roof (not roof) coop (not coop) hoof (not hoof) route (root, not rowt) root (not root) spook (not spook) bouquet (bookay, not boulevard (boo) bokay) 184 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH EXERCISE 70 Pronounce the following words correctly: due stupid revenue suit reduce Tuesday tube avenue education duke student magnitude tune culinary nutriment tutor accurate contumely tumor institute bituminous 129. Short o. A disagreeable use of various sounds for short o (d) has received much attention from teachers. Many people pronounce it as if it were aw. Examples are hog and J<*hn, pronounced wrongly as if they were hawg and Jawn. The better pronunciation resembles o in hot. EXERCISE 8O How should the following words be pronounced? Pronounce them rapidly, giving o the short sound. dog (not "dawg") forest often gloss hog for. -luii office John coffee forehead doril*- from coral fossil globular frost 130. Short a, Short e, and Short i. Pronounce: catch, catcher; fresh (not frush); since (not sence). (But pretty is pronounced pritty, and been is bin.) 131. The Sound of wh. In many sections of the country, probably because of the influence of the speech of the north European, we find people unable to pronounce wh (really pronounced hw). Wheat is called weat; what, wat; and when, wen. A story is told of a boy who enunciated this remarkable sentence: "He hit his old wite horse a wack with a walebone wip and he went down the wite road and the weels just wizzed." This error of tongue has led to a confusion of the written forms, where, were, and wear. The trouble may be corrected by the following method : Pronounce ' 'huh weat" slowly. Then in- crease the speed until the two sounds become one in wheat. SPOKEN ENGLISH 185 EXERCISE 81 (a) Pronounce these sentences, filling in the blanks with where, were, or wear: 1. you when we decided to our new uniforms? 2 . you you could your raincoat? 3. He would not his working clothes the ladies (b) Pronounce the following words : soot wheat ennui where bouquet coffee rout wear conduit tutor . route due John boulevard fossil root (c) Speak the following sentences at your normal speed: 1. What white wheat did you mean? 2. Where did you put the bouquet? In the office? 3. John said that representative government might have produced suf- ficient revenue. 4. Can't you find indemnity in any dictionary in the library? 5. Because the soot in the bituminous coal affected his larynx, he instituted a suit against the American Wire Wheel Company. 132. Pronunciation Practice. The following lists contain only words that you are likely to meet in conversation or ordinary reading. They are not lists of "puzzle words" or "catch words/ 7 but words that you ought to know how to pro- nounce and how to use. In some cases, doubtless, there is disagreement among dictionary makers regarding the pro- nunciation; but this difference of opinion must not be an excuse for passing by the entire topic. In every case the pronuncia- tion here given has good authority, and in only a few cases is there disagreement among authorities. EXERCISE 82 Pronounce and use the following words: accent' (verb) accented syllable ac'cent (noun) place the accent accll mate become acclimated in Colorado ad'mirable admirable work 1st; \u( ATIONAL ENGLISH adult' again (agn t not agdn) alias (a'li as) ally (&1 to') alterca'tion (preferred to awl) amenable apparft tus tp'pUcable :i'p n ' !TCd) (ark tic) as'phalt (fait) aspirant (preferred to as'pirani) attache* (at ta shft') b&de bayou (bl 65) because (kaws, never kuz) been (bin) blas6 (bla z&') blatant, (bla'tant) bronchitis brooch (brOch) buoy (boi) casualty (kazl/ u ftltl; never casuality) catch (never A-<7cA) char^ d'affaires (sh&rzhft'daffar') chas tisement clique (kleek) c6l'umn (not colyumc) com'bative com'batant comp'arable condd'lence Gens) connoisseur (k&n'nls sur') consplr'acy (not splr) contrast' (verb) con'trast (noun) con versa nt coup d'etat (koo'da ta') coupon (koo, not ku) courtier (kort ySr) creek (never crick) data (never ddtta) dec'ade (deck) an adult person come again alias Charles Barnes army of the Allies noisy altercation amenable to discipline h miral apparatus applicable in this case apricot pie Arctic Ocean asphalt streets aspirant to honors attache* to the French Embassy bade adieu rivers and bayous because he could have been l.l:i>.' mien harsh and blatant many names of diseases end in liu gold brooch floating buoy casualty list catch a ball U. 8. charge* d'affaires in Mexico severe chastisement ument by a clique add the column combative nature two combatants fought comparable to sunshine letter of condolence art connoisseur Pontiac's conspiracy contrast colors contrast in color conversant with history coup d'etat of Napoleon interest coupons courtiers of a king cross the creek these (never this) data the past decade SPOKEN ENGLISH 187 def icit de'pot (preferred to day) des picable des'ultory disputable (preferred to disputable) deficit of a thousand dollars munition depot despicable actions desultory firing facts not disputable either (ether; th voiced; ither, in America, is generally thought affected) elm (not el-lum) an old elm tree err (like her) erring ways EXERCISE 83 Pronounce and use the following words: every (three syllables) exigency (not eggs) ex'quisite (never exquis'ite) expo nent fagade (fa sahd or fa sad ) February (not Febuary) fern inlne (not nine) fidelity (not fid) finale (fin ah'la) finance' (fin; never finance) forbade (bad) formidable (never accent mid) gape (gap is colloquial) gen ial (yal) gSn'uIne (never Ine) gigan'tic (uotjan) G6d (never Gawd) g6n dola government (not goverment) gran'ary (not grain) gratis (never use with free) griev ous (never three syllables) har'ass heinous (ha/nus) his tory (three syllables) hos'pitable hypoc'risy (not hy) illus'trate (verb) illustra tion (noun) im pious every day exigencies arise exquisite carving exponent of socialism fagade of Rheims feminine gender fidelity to ideals play the finale high finance forbade his going a formidable army to gape in astonishment genial disposition Genoa, Italy genuine diamonds (three syllables) gigantic liner gondolas of Venice government of Illinois oats granary the service is gratis grievous hurt to harass the enemy heinous sins history of America a hospitable reception act of hypocrisy illustrate a book impious person 188 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH incog'nlto incom' parable in'dicatory inex'orable inex piable inqulr'y (notice the accent) interesting inveigle (inveigle) in'ventory irre'v ocable Italian (short i) joust (just) l&m'entable lichen (ll'ken) lit'erature (never toor or choor) memoir (mCm war) meningl'tis (four syllables) mercantile (til or til) mis'chicvous (rus, not vius) miscon'strue (also misconstrue') muse'um (ze'um) nape New Or'le ans (A r fl, not Nod) nom'inative (not nomitive) 6ccult' the emperor incognito incomparable music indicatory of power inexorable anger inexpiable crime make inquiry interesting scenes inveigle one into wrong take inventory of stock irrevocable actions Italian emigrants to see the knights joust juvenile court lamentable ignorance lichens on the rock American literature memoirs of Grant spinal meningitis mercantile company mischievous boys misconstrue a statement Field Museum nape of the neck New Orleans, La. nominative case occult influence EXERCISE 84 Pronounce and use the following words: 6f 'fice (not awfuss) often (the t is silent) Gleomar'garlne (like Margaret) o'veralls (not halls) papy'rus (pi) partner (never pardner) pa'tron per'emptory (per'emp to rjO phonics plait (pleet) preced'ence (noun) precedent (adjective) prfc'edent (noun) prefate office boy to come often butter and oleomargarine overalls and trousers writing on papyrus business partner friends and patrons peremptory command phonics of a language plaits in a skirt takes precedence precedent to his going establish a precedent churchmen and prelates SPOKEN ENGLISH 189 pretense pretty (pritty) prb'cess (not pro) protege (pro ta zha ) puerile (pu er XI) pur port quay (kee) rapine (rap'in) recess regime (ra zhem ) rSg'ular (not regler) research resource resume (ra zu ma ) reveille (re 1 val ya; in U. S. Army, rev a le ) robust' romance' roof (sound as in boot) salmon (sam un) salve (sav) satiety (sa ti'e" ty) se'nile (but senil'ity) since (never sense) sleek (slick is vulgar) sloven (sluv en) s6l ace squalid (skw6lid) squa/lor status sts'lid subtle (suttle) suite (sweet) tep'id ticklish (not tickelish) vaga'ry vaudeville (vod'vil; never vaw) viscount (v! count) wheat (not weet) whether (differs from weather) where (not wear) yeast (yest; sound the y) zo&l'ogy (four syllables) make pretense pretty faces patented process a protege of Saint Gaudens puerile affectation in speech purport of the message the boats along the quay rapine, pillage, and murder recess time ancient regime regular verbs research in chemistry resources of a bank a resume of the report bugles sound reveille robust boy a modern romance roof of a house Columbia River salmon put salve on a wound to eat to satiety senile debility since yesterday the cat's sleek fur slovenly homes seek solace squalid huts squalor and decay the status of the case a stolid countenance a subtle, unseen influence suite of rooms tepid water ticklish business vagaries of fate a vaudeville entertainment veracious witnesses lords and viscounts wheat and corn whether or not where and when yeast for the bread zoology and botany I!N VOCATIONAL ENGLISH QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER XI 1 What are some of the faults of American speech? How can they be eradicated? 2. How does America of today differ from the America of a generation or two ago with regard to speech requirements? ">. What is the difference between enunciation and pronunciation? 4. Is poor enunciation the result of laziness or of hurry or of both? 5. What is the difference in sound between oo and tif Pronounce multitude, food. 6. How can one learn to pronounce correctly wheat, where, etc.? 7. Do you know the diacritical markings? If not, consult a good dictionary and familiarize yourself with these very necessary symbols now. CHAPTER XII EXERCISES FOR REVIEW This chapter consists of a series of exercises in review of the previous chapters of the book. The exercises are intentionally varied in the hope of cultivating alertness to all kinds of bad English. Reasons for every correction should be given. If you do not understand the trouble, in each case go back to the text and master the principle. "There is no royal road to geometry," said Euclid to the prince of Egypt; neither is there an easy road to correct English or, for that matter, to any- thing worth while. Only the penetrating force of your own mind will determine the degree of your success. Resolve now to understand the reasons for every correction you can make in Exercises 85 to 100. EXERCISE 85 Which of the alternative forms is correct in each of the following sentences? 1. Every person should be proud of (himself, themselves) and conscious of a power to do. (Sec. 59.) % 2. With her and (7, me) the case is somewhat different. (Sec. 64.) 3. The lawyers proved beyond doubt that it was (him, he) who forced the note. (Sec. 62.) 4. They chose alternately 1 (he, him) and (7, me) to stand guard. (Sec. 64.) 5. He (did, done) his work (quick and clean, quickly and cleanly 2 ). (Sees. 36, 70.) 6. It was only (him, his) having been warned that saved Tom and (7, me). (Sees. 63, 64.) 7. It (don't, doesn't) run now (like, as) it used to. (Sees. 54, 79 d.) 8. He looks (like he was, as if he were) discouraged. (Sees. 50, 79d.) 9. New York is not (as, so) large as London. (Sec. 79f.) 10. I had already (swam, swum) the river and returned the case back to its owner. (What other trouble is there in this sentence?) 'Watch your pronunciation. -There arc two words spelled cleanly. Use them both in sentences. J91 192 VOCATIONAL ENGLI s 1 1 EXERCISE 86 Which of the following sentences are 1 right? Correct those that are wrong and give reasons. 1. Each of them were doing all they could to save them. 2. Use three spoonsful of water to one of flour. t. 1 like Dicken's David Copper field exceedingly. 4. He was sick so I had to take his place. 5. The alumni of Vassar had a meeting with we D Ks. (Three errors.) 6. The forget-me-not's are blooming there today. 7. He made pictures of the fungi with both foci of his lens. 8. There's two sides to every question. 9. I could of done it but I was to tired. (Two errors bad ones, too.) 10. Have a pencil and paper ready so that it 1 can be used for taking orders. EXERCISE 87 Correct the following: 1. When was Greece and Rome great? 2. Children should be allowed to see motion pictures if they are good. 3. Why don't the rich man pay his taxes? 4. The k'ttle car with two of it's tires flat finished first. 5. Be sure and visit Mary when you are to Boston. 6. There was an argument as to whom should pay the bills. 7. When a person grows old they like to have their own way. 8. A person should not be of a nature, which when anyone criticizes them they get angry. 0. We couldn't hardly see the road. 10. He acts like he owned the earth. EXERCISE 88 Some of the following are right. Which are they? What is wrong with the others? Correct them. 1. I think- Henry is queer; he don't seem to notice his friends. 2. As soon as I had eaten the cake I felt sick. 3. 'this is one of the five best books which has come ou^ this year 4. It was the supremest effort of his life. 5. If there was only a bridge at the river! ! Should ore be chanced to itt EXERCISES FOR REVIEW 193 6. It was not Murphy but I who finally got the job. 7. One of the grandest sights in the world are the Pyramids. 8. This data must go to the printer immediately. (We have only two adjectives that are inflected for number; one of them is used , wrongly here.) 9. We left that night on one of the finest steamers on the lake and was, by daylight, within sight of Milwaukee. 10. He blamed it on his brother. EXERCISE 89 Which is the correct word in parentheses in each case below? Why? 1. Paris is not (as, so) large as London. 2. Either of the men (is, are) good in (their, his) own department. 3. When a person has hated much (they, he) (show, shows^ it in (their, his) face. 4. Which is the (largest, larger), Cleveland or Cincinnati? 5. (Wasn'tj weren't) you at school today? 6. What's the use of (us, our) keeping a horse? 7. I (lay, laid) down yesterday after lunch. 8. (She, her) and her sister were the only one's I knew. (Find an error in a plural.) 9. A large number of mules (was, were) shipped to Europe. 10. I had never (swum, swam) in the ocean before. EXERCISE 9O Which of the following are wrong? Why? Make correc- tions where they are necessary. 1. I was so scared I couldn't remember what my name was. (Has the name changed?) 2. I dislike to scold you more than any one. (Meaning?) 3. I expect you are too busy to read the paper. 4. He dove off of the pier in six foot of water. (Three errors.) 5. "Can I take your pencil?" I asked him, and he said I could. 6. The feet of a cat are much softer than a dog. 7. Don't forget to thoroughly analyze each sentence. (Sec. 55.) 8. I dislike those kind of people. 9. He criticized Mary and I for loosing the paper. (Two errors.) 10. He signed the letter: Your's respectively. (Two errors.) 104 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH EXERCISE 01 Fill the blanks with shall, witt, should, or would. Review Sections 45 and 46. 1. you be working tomorrow? 2. you do me a favor? 3. "Mr. Brown look after the east door," said the Principal. 4. "I shall not go," said Brown to Jones. Jones reports to Smitn. "Brown said he not go." 5. My son go to school tomorrow for I see to it myself. 6. My niece start to school next September and I take pleasure in making things pleasant for her. 7. He assured me that the price rise. 8. I don't believe he ever be well RK 9. He believes that he not be able to meet us. 10. If I go, they would be glad. EXERCISE 92 Correct the following and give reasons: 1. There is, at least in most civilized countries, more women than men. 2. Like a flash the animal had sprang from the raft and swam the narrow channel. 3. I asked mother if I could go with Jimmie. 4. His wife was whom? 5. The knife was carefully lain away. 6. He might employ only two helpers; accordingly he hired a bookkeeper and stenographer. 7. I wanted fudge so badly. 8. What's the French colors? 9. What sort of a coV is that? 10. The man who was dead was a negro. (Shorten this.) EXERCISE 03 Make all needed corrections in the following. Some of them are now correct. Tell why. 1. They took us to be them. 2. A baseball is more nearly round than a football. 3. Let you and me go swimming. 4. It was we whom the officer saw. 5. An example of generosity is seen in Richard the Lion-hearted, who, history tells us, forgave his brother John's rebellion. 6. They decided to raise the building about seven inches higher. EXERCISES FOR REVIEW 195 7. They wanted Charlie and I to play Indian. 8. We never worry now like we used to do. 9. "Will you help me?" "Sure." 10. Now you'll have to do it all over again. EXERCISE 94 Correct the following wherever necessary: 1. Finally she laid down in the water to escape detection. 2. Whom can I believe if not him? 3. We read of a king having lost his throne through the lack of a horse- shoe nail. 4. Prominent men like you and he cannot afford to be wrong. 5. The witness swore it was them, not us, whom Murphy saw. 6. Take one home for yourself and wife. 7. I'll walk a little way with you. 8. Everything from knives to scarves were marked down. 9. Potatoes sold for fifty cents a peck. 10. Walk quiet or you'll wake the baby. EXERCISE 95 Correct the following: 1. If we win today we will have made it five straight. 2. I think we will be able to go. 3. I seen my duty and I done it. 4. I dropped the ring in the water. 5. You can't go without he goes. 6. He found his hat in back of the dresser. 7. The man differed so violently from us that we were forced to part with him in London. 8. You can hire whoever you want to do it. 9. He is the tallest of the two brothers. 10. They chose me rather than they. EXERCISE 96 Correct the following: 1. Every one in the audience had tears in their eyes. 2. Hamilton and Burr fought a dual. 3. I got a gun, a phonograph, and a pair of skates for Christmas. I like the latter better. 4. I can pick cherries faster than anybody. 5. We felt kind a lonesome so Freddie stayed with mama and I. 6. There should be less than three errors per page; six are to many for there purpose. liu; VOCATIONAL ENGLISH 7. I fully expected to have been present. (A common error. Expect- ed looks toward the future. The infinitive here is perfect [have]; which way does it look?) 8. I never saw anything as beautiful as them roses. (Make two changes.) 0. The cup is neither made of copper or bronze. 10. A dog is the noblest of animals. (Is another the needed?) EXERCISE 07 Write the plurals of the following: echo elf mouse brother 13 die wife fox aviator parenthesis oasis zero reef hoof money hill of fare thesis loaf EXERCISE 08 Write sentences employing the following words: 1. principal and principle 1 1 . canvas and canvass 2. there and th< ir 12. compliment and complement 3. affect and effect (as a verb) 13. farther and further 4. purpose (as a verb) and propose 14. impassable and impassible 5. quite and quiet 15. allusion and illusion 6. advise and advice * 16. ingenious and ingenuous 7. devise and device 17. auger and augur 8. accept and except 18. council and counsel 9. to and too 19. grisly and grizzly 10. hung and hanged 20. cannon and canon EXERCISE 00 Complete the following words by adding ise or ize: advert merchand summar compr modern surpr temper. bapt chast enfranc real civil magne EXERCISE 100 Form the present participle of each of the following words. The rule is to be found in Section 123, II, but the starred forms are exceptions. Try to form a rule for the exceptions. change dye* awe tie* hope encourage return die* blue shoe* hoe* sing agree* make ice tinge* judge glue PART TWO COMPOSITION -LETTERS ADVERTISING CHAPTER XIII COMPOSITION ORAL AND WRITTEN 133. The Need of Practice in Composition. Every bit of talk for a purpose and every bit of writing for a purpose involves composition the putting together of ideas so that they will, if possible, accomplish the desired purpose. Effective self- expression demands, first of all, the power to use the means of expression correctly; but you may know all the principles of correct English developed in the first part of this book, and 3^et fail in composition through lack of practice. It is the pur- pose of this and the following chapters to provide the necessary practice. 134. The Opportunity of Conversation. Oral composition talk for a purpose is doubtless the most common kind of composition, though too often it is not thought of as composition at all. When you are going to make personal application for a position, do you plan what you shall say and how you shall say it? Do you try to imagine the questions the employer will ask you, and decide what answers you can give him? Do you give thought to the sort of impression you will make upon him by neatness of appearance, a self-respecting but modest man- ner, a clear voice and enunciation, and correct English? These are all elements of successful oral composition. Too many of us regard conversation as we do water something that is useful even necessary but very little prized because it is free. If we were limited in the use of words as we are in the spending of dollars, doubtless speech would be more careful and therefore more effective. We seem not to realize that through conversa- tion we can do a great deal for ourselves. Conversation, next 197 198 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH to appearance, is our greatest test in judging men. Your con- versation reveals to the world your home conditions, your education, your spirit, your ability. 135. The Need of Self-confidence. It was the idea of ancient peoples that a person was ill-looking chiefly because he knew himself to be unworthy. We hold this idea today in only a slightly different form. We distrust the man of shift- ing eyes because his glance seems to confess unmanliness. We despise the man who falters. But we respect the man who has confidence in himself; we trust him, and when he wills we generally obey him. Therefore, when you speak, try to show yourself master of what you are saying. Believe in yourself and do not entertain for a moment an idea that others do not value you too. This does not imply approval of an arrogant or belligerent air quite the contrary. A reasonable self-con- fidence based on knowledge of the subject under discussion may be demonstrated in a firm, quiet, inoffensive way, utterly unlike noisy self-assertion. If a worthy man would come to his own, then, let him look carefully to his speech. We withhold judgment generally until we have heard a man's voice and observed his manner. Successful men generally evince some of the following character- istics: (a) They know what they are talking about. (b) They speak slowly. We instinctively feel that over- hurried, careless speech indicates a hasty, uninformed mind. (c) They speak in a moderate tone. We lose confidence almost the instant that we discover the speaker is excited or in some other way not in complete control of himself. (d) They do not repeat; they say what they mean clearly and fully the first time. 136. The Manner of Speaking. Some excessive rudeness has found its way into English speech in the name of speed. Many men answer the telephone, for example, in a "what do you want" mood that is anything but polite. The rudeness is the greater for the very reason that the speaker is at a safe COMPOSITION ORAL AND WRITTEN 199 distance. This sort of thing "does not pay," however. No man can afford to be brusque. Employers will seldom tolerate impolite employees. The following excellent advice, which may be applied more widely than it was originally intended, is reprinted by permission of the Chicago Telephone Com- pany: COURTESY BETWEEN TELEPHONE USERS Would you rush into an office or up to the door of a residence and blurt out, "Hello! Hello! whom am I talking to?" and then when you receive a reply, follow up your wild, discourteous salutation with, "I don't want you; get out of my way. I want to talk with Mr. Jones"? Would you? That is merely a sample of the impolite and impatient con- versations that the telephone transmits many times a day. There is a most agreeable mode of beginning a telephone conversation which many people are now adopting, because it saves useless words and is, at the same time, courteous and direct. It runs thus: The telephone bell rings, and the person answering it says: "Morton & Company, Mr. Baker speaking." The person calling then says: "Mr. Wood of Curtis & Sons wishes to talk with Mr. White." When Mr. White picks up the receiver, he knows Mr. Wood is on the other end of the line, and without any unnecessary and undignified "hellos," he at once greets him with the refreshingly courteous salutation: "Good morning, Mr. Wood." That savors of the genial handshake Mr. Wood would have received had he called in person upon Mr. White. Undoubtedly there would be a far higher degree of telephone courtesy, particularly in the way of reasonable consideration for the operators, if the "face-to-face" idea were more generally held in the mind. The fact that a line of wire and two shining instruments separate you from the person with whom you are talking takes none of the sting out of unkind words. Telephone courtesy means answering the telephone as quickly as pos- sible when the bell rings not keeping the "caller" waiting until one gets good and ready to answer. Telephone courtesy, on party-lines, means being polite when some one else unintentionally breaks in not snapping, "Get off the line; I am using it." In a word, it is obviously true that that which is the correct thing to do in a face-to-face conversation, is also correct in a telephone conversa- tion, and any one has but to apply the rules of courtesy prescribed long years before the telephone was first thought of, to know the proper man- ners for telephone usage. Be forbearing, considerate, and courteous. Do over the telephone as you would do face-to-face. 200 VOCATIONAL 1 NCIJSH EXERCISE 101 Study some of the following subjects until you are sure you can say something interesting about them. Then plan what you have to say, with the hearer in mind. Make your talk so plain that the hearer cannot misunderstand. In other words, be sure you have something that he wants to hear and make sure that he hears it. Be ready, the day after tomorrow, to discuss before the class one of the topics. In talking remember the following points: (a) Speak slowly; don't use too many words. "Talk is cheap" the kind that requires many words for one idea. (b) Tell the first thing first. Remember that your hearer has no way of knowing what you have in mind except through your own words. (c) Speak confidently. You are the hian who knows, and for the time being you are the most important member of the class. (d) Stand erect, without leaning on anything. It is only weak things that need support. (e) Avoid "Wy's" (why's) and "ah's." Do not string your sentences together with "and's." (f) When you have finished, stop with a strong point. Many a good address has been spoiled by a half score of verbal postscripts. SUBJECTS 1. Why I Have a Right to Live. If a burglar were to come into your house and upon going away leave the house poorer for his visit, would you consider him within his rights? Had he a right to steal? When a man comes into our house (the world) and leaves us poorer when he dies, had he a right to what he took? 2. The Worst Quality a Man Can Have Cowardice. Why does a man lie? Is it because he is afraid of the consequences of something he has done, if the truth is known? Why will a man steal? Isn't it because he is afraid to meet other men on equal footing? 3. If You Want a Thing Well Done, Don't Do It Yourself. This is the age of specialization. COMPOSITION ORAL AND WRITTEN 201 4. ''Simon Says 'Thumbs Up.' " Simon (fashion) says "Tight sleeves"; all the girls comply. Simon says "New automobile shape"; Father mortgages the homestead. 5. Early to Bed Makes a Man Ignorant. 6. Good Results of Women's Gossip. EXERCISE 1O2 Arrange a debate with members of another class or with members of your own class. Ask your teacher to help you arrange your thoughts in a forceful way. Debating is like football: the winners must have "steam" and be able to concentrate on one spot. Suggested subjects follow: 1. Resolved: That the Sporting Page Does More Harm than Good. 2. Resolved : That the Comic Supplement Should Be Prohibited by Law. 3. Resolved: That Breaking Quarantine Should Constitute a Crime Punishable on a Par with Stealing. 4. Resolved : That a Stenographer Should Not Transcribe Letters Con- taining Lies. (People will call at the "rail" and ask her concerning these things; then she will have to lie directly.) 137. General Instructions as to Written Composition. Whatever our feeling as to mere "talk" may be, we all realize that when we sit down to write something, we are engaged in composition. Yet here also we are too careless; here also we need patient practice. Good English flows easily as if the writer were careless of form, allowing words to fall naturally into place. But this is only a seeming carelessness; writing even simple English requires a good deal of thought in phrasing and often considerable rephrasing to avoid misunderstandings. In the composition exercises that follow, these fundamental points as to form must be borne in mind: 1. Use ink (or typewriter) in all composition. Few permanent or important records are made in pencil. 2. Use only good paper of fairly large size. Eight and a half by eleven inches is a desirable size. 3. Be careful. Don't blot a page. Leave a margin at the left and don't crowd your words or lines too closely together. Take pride in the neatness and orderliness of your work. 202 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH 4. Give each piece of work an appropriate l>ri(f title, \\ritt. n in the middle of the top line of the first page; and leave a blank between the title and the composition. 5. Avoid especially these two blunders: (a) The use of a comma to hold together unconnected members of a compound sentence. (See Section 10.) (Incorrect) (Correct) First feed your engine gas, to do st feed your engine gas. To this turn down the lever on the . do this, turn down the lever on the steering wheel. steering wheel. Or First feed your engine gas; to do this, turn down the lever on the steering wheel. Remember that the semicolon may be used as in the second "correct" example only when there is a clear sense relation between the clauses. (See Section 97.) (b) The failure to build similar parts of a sentence on the same plan. (See Section 157.) (Incorrect) (Correct) To start a car give it gas and To start a car give it gas and then the starter is pushed. push the starter. Give it gas and push the starter are of similar construction. 138. The Simple Style in Writing. If you were to go to- morrow to an aviation school, should you attempt to fly alone within a month? Would it be advisable for you to attempt trick flying until you had learned simple flying? And isn't it probable that many boys and girls could never learn the more dangerous aerial work because they are physically unfit for it? Similarly, none but the writer of long and successful experience should attempt to write as did some of the masters of English prose. Ordinary persons should be content with plain state- ments and simple words. It is usually futile for the school boy or girl to attempt written eloquence. In fact, few of our great writers employed an elaborately sustained style. Even Stevenson, one of the best of stylists, COMPOSITION ORAL AND WRITTEN . 203 commonly used short words and direct sentences. His style is so natural that the reader is generally unconscious of any effort in reading. Note the simplicity of the following extract from Treasure Island. Are the words long or hard? Do you have any trouble in following the story? Can you picture the captain and the sea-shore? It was one January morning, very early a pinching, frosty morning the cove all gray with hoarfrost, the ripple lapping softly on the stones, the sun still low and only touching the hilltops and shining far to seaward. The captain had risen earlier than usual, and set out down the beach, his cutlass swinging under the broad skirts of the old blue coat, his brass telescope under his arm, his hat tilted back upon his head. I remember his breath hanging like smoke in his wake as he strode off, and the last sound I heard of him, as he turned the big rock, was a loud snort of in- dignation, as though his mind was still running upon Dr. Livesey. Well, mother was upstairs with father; and I was laying the breakfast table against the captain's return, when the parlor door opened, and a man stepped in on whom I had never set my eyes before. He was a pale, tallowy creature, wanting two ringers of the left hand ; and, though he wore a cutlass, he did not look much like a fighter. I had always my eye open for seafaring men, with one leg or two, and I remember this one puzzled me. He was not sailorly, and yet he had a smack of the sea about him, coo. I asked him what was for his service, and he said he would take rum ; but as I was going out of the room to fetch it he sat down upon a table and motioned me to draw near. I paused where I was with my napkin in my hand. "Come here, sonny," says he. "Come nearer here." I took a step nearer. "Is this here table for my mate Bill?" he asked, with a kind of leer . . 139. Expressive English. In general the style of writing which gives the most thought per word is best, just as the automobile tire which gives the most miles of service per dollar cost is best. Sometimes a single word will give a wealth of impression equal to that of a complete sentence or even half a page of ordinary composition. A pupil wrote of a young man as "going timidly up the exit of the elevated" (railroad). Now almost every one living in a large city has at times started up the exit stairs they 204 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH are just like the entrance stairs except for the signs but after a few steps the big blue and white "Exit only" has sent him down quickly. Going "timidly" up the exit, however, proves that the young man was not merely careless. 'Timidly" speaks of ignorance of the city, embarrassment, and general inexperience. That one word is worth several sentences. In the following sentence from David //arum, note the effect of the word lowered. Could you in half a page give as much information about David's manner of eating or his station in life as is expressed in the one word lowered? David threw back his head and lowered a stalk of the last asparagus of the year into his mouth. Note the words caved in in the following. Do they mean more than that his hat is out of shape? I come down here with my hat caved I'm goin' back home with a pocket full of tin. Song, "Camptown Races/ 1 Foster What do you know about a man who calls money tint Try, then, to write in a simple way, but to express as much as possible in a few words. Tell nothing that your reader will resent as needless information. And don't have the sun sink in resplendent glory into a sea of molten gold; have it set.. The remainder of this chapter consists of simple exercises in which the precepts that have been given are to be put into effect. EXERCISE 1O3 1. What qualities do you associate with the following word groups? For instance: Isn't a man with gray eyes generally cool given to taking care of his own money somewhat stern? large diamond ring stubby nails large watch charm gray eyes shuffling gait heavy beard bald head trousers tight over run-over shoes blue eyes knees cob pipe curly hair celluloid collar yellow teeth COMPOSITION ORAL AND WRITTEN 205 2. Use each of the following adjectives with some suitable noun: fantastic consummate illiterate luxuriant scintillating pusillanimous petulant pallid perturbed ramshackle torrid typical tallowy taut irritable credulous resolute malcontent solitary cunning EXERCISE 1O4 Write a short paper on one of the following subjects: 1. The Earliest Thing I Can Remember. 2. Things I Won't Do Again. 3. Buying Things You Don't Want. 4. Nicknames I Have Had. 5. Getting Out on the Wrong Side of the Bed. 6. The Kind of Boy I Think My Father Was. EXERCISE 1O5 Write a short paper on one of the following: 1. One Thing a Boy Scout Must Know. 2. Why a Bucket of Water Set in the Storage Room Will Help to Keep Vegetables from Freezing. (Ask some one who knows.) 3. The Purpose of a Silo. 4. What One Can Learn on a Street Car. 5. Why Salt on the Sidewalk Removes Ice. 6. Getting Something for Nothing. 7. Pleasures of Being Poor. 8. Should a Boy Know Art and Music? 9. Why Do Boys Have Buttons on Their Coat Sleeves? (Discuss the force of tradition.) 10. Swimming with the Australian Crawl Stroke. EXERCISE 1O6 Write several short paragraphs of advice on one of the following subjects. Begin with Always, or Never. 1. Taking Care of Baby. 2. Playing Baseball (or Tennis, Football, etc.) 3. Learning to Swim. 4. Taking a "Snap-shot." 5. Picking Mushrooms. 6. Running a Motor Car. 7. In Trouble with Father (or the Teacher, or the Preacher). 206 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH EXERCISE 107 After you have gathered the material necessary to a report for your history or commercial geography class, discuss with your English teacher the most effective way to organize it. Write the paper under the English teacher's direction. EXERCISE 108 Girls: Write a paper on the subject: Wall Paper Its Relation to the Use of the Room. Boys: Assume that you are the editor of a Question and Answer column in the sporting sheet of a great newspaper. Answer clearly but briefly the following questions: With the bases full the batter hits a short fly to the loft fi. -1 .1. r. Thinking it will be caught, the runners hug their bases. The fielder holds the ball a half second, drops it at his feet, and then throws home. The ball is quickly relayed to third and second. Are three men out? Has the fielder a right to drop a ball purposely? EXERCISE 109 What I Found M-t Interesting in the Advertisement- in this Month's (any magazine). Go carefully through the advertising pages, marking what interests you. Tell in a short paragraph just why you are interested. Do not include a discussion of two advertisements in one paragraph. EXERCISE no Write a composition of about two hundred words on one of the following subjects: 1. Benefits of Crying. 2. If I Were a "Movie" Censor. 3. Absence Makes the Grades Grow Poorer. 4. Ways of Sharpers. 5. Songs That Live. 6. What I've Thought Most About during the Last Week. COMPOSITION ORAL AND WRITTEN 207 EXERCISE 111 Write a paper on one of the following subjects. Don't explain too closely. Let the reader "see the point." 1. Why I Didn't Get There on Time. 2. On Forgetting a Friend's Name. 3. How I Feel after Seeing a "Movie." 4. Caught Talking to Myself. , 5. How My Aunt Wants Me to Act. 6. When Tom Didn't Think Far Enough. (For instance, when he decoyed Rover under a hornet's nest and threw a stone through it.) QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER XIII 1. Is knowledge of how a bicycle is balanced sufficient, or must one practice riding? Is composition practice necessary? 2. To what extent do you judge a stranger by his speech? 3. What is the difference between self-confidence and egotism? How can one show self-confidence without being thought "overbearing"? 4. Describe the manner of speech employed by men of force. 5. What is the correct way of answering the telephone? Why is dis- courtesy over the telephone worse than rudeness face to face? 6. What is meant by the instruction, "Tell the first thing first"? 7. Two special errors are noted in the general directions for written composition. What are they? 8. What are the salient features of the quotation from Stevenson on page 203? s 9. What is, "fine writing"? Why should one avoid it? CHAPTER XIV ORGANIZING A COMPOSITION 140. The Need of Organization. Writing should, first of all, transmit information from the writer to the reader. If the reader of a letter, for instance, fails to understand, the letter is a failure and represents lost time and money. The material must be discussed in a clear and systematic order if the purpose of writing is to be accomplished. But a letter lacking clearness is more than a waste of time and money; it often prejudices the reader against the writer. Business men are coming to recognize the fact that every letter going out from their houses is an advertisement, whether or not it contains "selling argument." A letter, like a man, makes an impression. A good impression leads to confidence and future business. On the other hand, after a busy man has wasted his valuable time puzzling over the meaning of a letter, he is not usually in a mood favorable to the writer. 141. The Paragraph. The writer who thinks clearly will naturally divide his subject into steps or divisions. Each of these divisions of thought should ordinarily hive a paragraph to itself. Accordingly each paragraph should treat only the one topic assigned to it. It should be so organized that the reader will know upon beginning it what the paragraph is about, and upon finishing, exactly what the writer's ideas upon the topic are. Furthermore, each paragraph will be set off so as to appeal to the eye at a glance. Its first line will be indented plainly and other lines will not be indented. All space will be filled to the right margin, except possibly the last line. 142. Paragraphing Business Correspondence. Not even in literature is correct paragraphing so important as in the business letter. Business is possible only by doing intensively one thing at a time. The successful business man develops to extra- ordinary efficiency the power of turning instantly from one 208 ORGANIZING A COMPOSITION 209 subject to another; but he wants these subjects to be complete in themselves and clearly distinguished from each other. Thus a business man will, on writing a letter dealing with three things, form three distinct sections, usually paragraphs. And when he passes from one topic to the next he will naturally give definite notice of the change. A clear t tinker will treat each subject so thoroughly that he will have no further need of saying anything about it unless a summary is needed. EXERCISE 112 Make such notes as the person dictating the following let- ter may have had before him. What plan had he in mind? Chicago, Illinois December 20, 19_ Mr. Howard Endren Hotel Henderson Columbus, Ohio My dear Endren: I was talking over the Youngstown business with Mr. Waldron yesterday, and he suggested that since you are in Columbus it will be a saving of time and money for you to run up to Youngstown and look after the cases there. He feels sure, as I do, that you will use the best of judg- ment, although the work is a little out of your line. If possible, get away from Columbus Monday night, for you may have trouble at Youngstown, and we cannot spare more than two days on the three cases there. Call on Mrs. James Wescott, 311 Front Street. Make a full settle- ment and collect waiver. The case is regular. Most of your time will be taken up with the Norton case. Ascertain the following points: Was he drunk the day of the accident? Find out from his neighbors, his employers, and any other sources, what his habits with regard to drink are. What is the reputation of the physician upon whose report the claim was made? If you are suspicious, have another medical report immediately. The third case is regular, except that Crumbaker has not read cor- rectly the terms of the policy. You will see the error. You will find letters and data under separate cover. Yours sincerely,- The Providing Accident Insurance Co. By _ Jio VOCATIONAL ENGLISH Consider the following points in relation to the foregoing letter- 1. How many paragraphs are there? 2. Why is the first so much longer than the second? 3.. Is Paragraph 4 a "brother" of Paragraph 2 or a "nephew"? Ex- plain. 4. What is the relation of Paragraph 3 to Paragraph 4? To Paragraph 2? 5. Why was not the 7th joined to the 6th instead of being made a separate paragraph? 143. Paragraphing in Ordinary Composition. A little study of any piece of good writing will reveal, not a hit-or-miss manner of presentation, but an orderly system based on clear thinking and careful organization. With this truth in mind, examine the following paragraphs; then state the subject of each: In 1870 I happened to be on a train that was stopped for three hours to let a herd of buffalo pass. We supposed they would soon pass by, but they kept nuniim. On a number of occasions in the earlier days the engineers thought th.-it they could run through the herds, and that, seeing the locomotive, the buffalo would stop or turn aside; but after a few loco- motives had been ditched by the animals the engineers got in the way of respecting the buffalo's idiosyncrasies. Up to within a few years, in northern Montana and southern Alberta, old buffalo trails have been readily traceable by the eye, even as one passed on a railroad train. These trails, fertilized by the buffalo and deeply cut so as to long hold moisture, may still be seen in summer as green lanes winding up and down the hills to and from the water courses. For many years I have held the opinion that in early days on the plains, as I saw them, antelope were much more abundant than buffalo. Buffalo, of course, being big and black, were impressive if seen in masses and were visible a long way off. Antelope, smaller and less conspicuous in color, were often passed unnoticed. 1 144. Indicating the Subject of a Paragraph. It is generally possible, in the case of writing intended mainly or merely to give information, to learn from the first sentence of a well-made paragraph what the paragraph is about. Such a title or subject 1 From an article by Dr. George Bird Grinnell in the National Geographic Magazine, November. 1917. ORGANIZING A COMPOSITION 211 sentence is called a topic sentence. Notice the following topic sentences from The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table, by Oliver Wendell Holmes: 1. "You don't know what I mean by the green state? Well, then, I will tell you." (Explanation of the green state follows.) 2. "There are two kinds of poets just as there are two kinds of blondes." (Explanation and comparison.) 3. "My friend the Professor began talking with me one day in a dreary sort of way." (Then follows an explanation that friends were beginning to regard him as old.) Example 3 was chosen to illustrate the fact that the topic sentence does not always indicate the subject matter of the paragraph; in this case the mood of the Professor is indicated. Topic sentences may occur at some other point than the beginning of a paragraph, but in most writing for practical purposes it is best to begin with a clear indication of the topic. EXERCISE 113 Consider the following questions in relation to the passage quoted from Doctor Grmnell in Section 143 : 1. What is discussed in each paragraph? 2. Study the first sentence in each paragraph. Does this sentence give you the substance of the paragraph? 3. What is the nature of the other sentences in each paragraph? 4. What do we call the first sentence of a paragraph of the sort illustrated? 5. What does the newspaper reporter call such a first sentence? (See Sec. 178.) 6. If you were trying to get the substance of an article hurriedly, what would you read? What would be your success in this particular case? Try the method in other articles. 145. The Making of a Plan. An extensive piece of com- position' usually has divisions larger than paragraphs. The author of a book generally decides upon his chapter subjects first; then he works out the details of each chapter, and finally he writes the chapter. 212 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH For illustration, suppose an author intends writing a book on the subject, "Making the Small Farm Pay." He decides that his book must treat the following topics: Live Stock Soil Fertility Location Poultry The Dairy Buildings Fruit Machinery Crops These subjects, he sees, must be chapter headings. He has yet to arrange them in logical order; i.e., he must decide which chapter is to come first, which second, etc. On think- ing the matter over and concluding that Location should come first, he letters it (a); Buildings (b); and so on through the list as indicated below: (g) Live Stock o) Soil Fertility (a) Location Poultry (h) The Dairy (b) Buildings (f) I (e) Machinery (d) Crops A letter or a short composition might be written without a rearrangement of these topics in logical order; but most writers, especially in the case of a book, would prefer to make a new plan in the order of the letters, as follows: (a) Location (d) Crops (g) Live Stock (b) Buildings (e) Machinery (h) The Dairy (c) Soil Fertility (f) Fruit (i) Poultry The writer's next task is the expansion of the chapter headings. He must think over the things he has to say about (f), for instance. Doubtless he would have material on insect pests, scales, pruning, setting, cultivating, variety, etc. He would have to arrange these subjects in logical order. Then further subdividing would be necessary. There are a possible dozen insect pests that would have to be described carefully. This outlining would be continued until the plan of each chapter had been worked out. Then the actual writing would begin. 146. Faults in the Planning of School Themes. Of course, no composition required of an ordinary student will need a plan so extensive as that described in the preceding section. Never- ORGANIZING A COMPOSITION 213 theless, a little experience will teach that the best way to make haste in composition is to plan thoroughly what you intend to say before you begin the actual writing. Do not be dis- couraged, either, if your first attempts are not entirely satis- factory. Be on your guard against three common faults in planning, as follows: 1. A too minute division of the subject. You must not forget that -each final division of your plan is usually to be a paragraph and should, therefore, represent a section of the subject large enough to need a paragraph. EXAMPLE of too minute division : Subject Central Park 1. Location 2. Size 3. Purpose etc. In a short theme, location and size may be very adequately treated in a single paragraph. 2. Too extensive planning. A very brief plan may call for a long composition; much depends on the scope of the different topics. A common tendency of the beginner is to try to deal with material sufficient for an extended essay. Thus he begins a plan for a short composition on cotton as follows : 1. Countries producing it 2. Kinds of cotton 3. The climate required 4. Planting 5. Picking 6. Ginning 7. Carding etc. Obviously there is sufficient material for a short composition in any one of these divisions, alone, if fully developed. This fact suggests 'the need of very definitely limiting one's subject and one's purpose in composition. 3. An illogical arrangement. Sometimes it is hard to decide what is the best order in which to present one's material. Thus, 214 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH in the final plan in Section 145, topic (f) might exchange places with (e), so far as one can tell from so general a plan; but (g), (h), and (i) are clearly a related series of topics that should not be separated by (f) or by any other topic in the list. The greatest care to keep related topics together is always necessary. 147. The Paragraphing of Conversation. The student has doubtless heard a ventriloquist taking a dual role in a vaude- ville act. A part, at least, of his deceptive art is due to the difference in pitch or quality of tone between the ventrilo- quist's own voice and that which seems to come from his dummy. In writim conversation there is no such natural means of indicating the speaker. Accordingly the writer must resort to some other method of showing who is talking. There are several devices regularly employed for this purpose; one of them is the paragraph. Note the paragraphing in the following extract from David Harum; observe: (1) That each paragraph continues until one speaker has finished a speech. (2) That explanation added by the author is in one case put into a separate paragraph (No. 4). In the first paragraph the explanation is included in the same paragraph with the quotation. (3) That quotation marks are used. "Where you ben?" asked Mrs. Bixbee of her brother as the three sat at the .one o'clock dinner. "I see you drivin' off somewheres." "Ben up the Lake Road to 'Lizer Howe's," replied David. "He's got a hoss 't I've some notion o' buyin'." "Ain't the week-days enough," she asked, "to do your horee-tradin' in 'ithout breakin' the Sabbath?" David threw back his head and lowered a stalk of the last asparagus of the year into his mouth. "Some o' the best deals I ever made," he said, "was made on a Sunday. Hain't you never heard the sayin', The better the day, the better the deal'?" Sometimes quotation marks and a new paragraph give the only indication of a change of speaker. Such omission of definite mention of the speaker should not continue long ORGANIZING A COMPOSITION 215 enough to cause any confusion in the reader's mind. Examine the following paragraphs : The time having come for her withdrawal for the night, and she having left us, I gave Mr. Wickfield my hand, preparatory to going away myself. But he checked me and said : "Should you liketostay with us, Trotwood, or go elsewhere?" "To stay," I answered quickly. "You are sure?" "If you please. If I may!" "Why, it's but a dull life that we lead here, boy, I am afraid," he said. "Not more dull for me than Agnes, sir. Not dull at all!" "Than Agnes!" he repeated, walking slowly to the great chimney- piece, and leaning against it. "Than Agnes!" "David Copperfield," Dickens EXERCISE 114 This exercise should take several days long enough to impress upon the student the necessity of order in plan and of concentration successively upon each step of the subject. The chief differences between a ten-thousand-dollar-a-year man and a ten-dollar-a-week man lie in ability to get at the skeleton of a task and in the power of concentration necessary to accom- plish it. You are, we shall assume, to write a book or a monograph on each one of three subjects chosen from the following list. Indicate just what you would have in each chapter or division. Be specific. Letter the divisions to show the order you think they ought to follow. 1. The Qualities of a Real Man (Woman). 2. How a Boy (Girl) Should Use Twenty-four Hours Each Day. 3. New Uses for the Automobile. 4. Courage the Greatest Asset in a Boy's Character. (Show that lying, for instance, is due to fear of consequences.) 5. Cement and Modern Industry. 6. What the Socialist Wants. 7. Things I Shouldn't Do and Why. 8. Advertising. 9. Influences Which Degrade Boys. 10. An Idea I Want to Try Out in Business. 11. The Instruments of a Band. 216 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH 12. The Future of Motion Picture*. 13. The Influences of the Motion Picture Theater. 14. The Man Who Thinks Our Town Is Slow. 15. Tree Surgery. 16. Your Front Room as an Indication of Your Personality. 17. Why I Have a Right to Live. 18. Learning by Accident. 19. What My Enemies Have Done for Me. 20. Why I Believe in Myself. 21. The Golden Rule and My Sister. 22. When a Boy Ought to Fight. 23. The Loss Resulting from a Change in the Fashions. 24. Means Employed by Advertisers to Attract Attention. EXERCISE 116 Imagine that you are in some specified business, and plan a letter to your customers, giving details of some display advertising material you have for them. Make at least seven paragraphs. Explain what you have to offer, suggest methods of display, and point out the value to be obtained from the advertising. Make this a matter of an entire recitation. QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER XIV 1. What is the chief use of the paragraph? 2. Why is organization of such great importance? 3. Will a well-organized piece of writing generally be correctly para- graphed? Explain. 4. What is the practice of business men regarding the paragraphing of business letters? 5. What is a topic sentence? Why the name topic? Find the topic sentences in the quotation on page 210. 6. What are the most common faults in the planning of school themes? CHAPTER XV WRITING DEFINITE INSTRUCTIONS 148. The Plan. Whether you become a merchant, a stenog- rapher, a carpenter, or a farmer, you will need often to write definite instructions to some one. This is by no means as simple as it might seem at first. Anyone who has tried to prepare instructions for operating a camera, for example, or even for making bread or candy, knows how many puzzles he has to solve. The chief difficulty, of course, is to decide to what extent your reader knows the names of the tools and processes involved, i.e., the nomenclature of the subject. For instance, in explaining the operation of a kodak you would need to con- sider your reader's difficulties very carefully and try to meet them. Always plan any composition of this nature with a definite body of readers in mind. (a) Example of a plan: 1. Opening the kodak. 2. Naming and pointing out the purpose of the parts shutter, lens, diaphragm (stop), trip, speed dial, finder, and distance scale. 3. Method of operation adjustment for distance, setting the trip, ad- justing the stop and the speed dial, tripping the shutter. 4. Exposure proper speed of the shutter in bright sunlight, when to stop down, etc. (This is not a complete plan; enough is given to show a good form and method.) (b) Execution of the plan. Be sure to treat processes in their natural order. You might write, following your plan: 1. The first step in operating a camera is to take the kodak from its case. Just above the top of the door you will find the opening spring a small projection covered by the leather. Press this gently and the door will fly partly open. Pull the door down until you hear it lock with a snap. To extend the bellows, press gently the two nickeled catches with thumb and finger, loosening their grip on the track, and pull gently forward along the track. 217 218 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH 2. The lens is, of course, glass. Everything surrounding it is shutter. Just inside the lens is a black adjustable curtain, the diaphragm or stop, operated by a lever at the bottom of the shutter .... (And so the explanation may continue.) The remainder of this chapter consists of specific exercises in composition, in which you will bear in mind the following directions: 1. Put yourself in the reader's place and discover what his difficulties are. 2. Don't forget to define all terms the reader may not know. 3. Be definite. Speak of one thing at a time, using short, direct sentences. Make a paragraph for each distinct division of your subject.* 4. Whenever necessary give the reasons underlying instructions. 5. Finish all sentences, and put in the a's, an's, and the's. Do not, however, use any unnecessary words. 6. Make careful drawings when they will be helpful; number or letter all important pai 7. Ask your brother or a classmate to read y6ur paper. If he doesn't understand, seek your trouble and remedy it. EXERCISE lie Boys: Explain and illustrate by drawings exactly how a baseball is made to curve. In this, as in any other exercise, do not attempt to write unless you know a good deal about the subject. In thfe case you should know not only which way the ball should turn for each curve, but why, after the spin is given, the ball curves. Girls: Using a diagram, plan an arrangement of furniture in a living room of the following description: Fireplace heavy brick. Beamed ceiling. Woodwork and furniture Flemish oak. Room large with bay window facing south. Walnut piano. WRITING DEFINITE INSTRUCTIONS 219 Write a theme of two paragraphs as follows: (a) Color scheme curtains, portieres, carpet. (b) Minor decorations bric-a-brac, lamps, small pictures, wall pictures. If the paragraphs resulting from this plan are too long, make new divisions. Under (a) discuss the tone (colors) in general in one paragraph and the details of this tone in a second para- graph. Under (b), if necessary, make a paragraph about bric-a-brac and another about pictures. NOTE. There are some exceedingly interesting books on household decoration, among them: House Planning and Decorating Calkins; The House in Good Taste De Wolfe; Art and Economy in Home Decora- tion Priestman; Decoration and Furnishing of Apartments Herst. EXERCISE 117 Boys: Organize and elaborate . the following rambling instructions for rifle shooting. Make several paragraphs. Decide, before beginning to write, just what each paragraph is to be about. SHOOTING THE RANGE AT 200 YARDS If you try with the eye to find the center of a dinner plate, you will miss it a quarter of an inch. A marksman cannot determine the center of a target with accuracy. The observer is only two feet from the dinner plate, but the marksman is two hundred yards from the "bull's-eye." Hold the rifle firmly not tightly. Move upward to the target. See that the gun is smoothly oiled and very clean. But you can easily determine the perpendicular line through the center of a dinner plate. You can easily locate the bottom point of the bull's-eye. Aim at the rim of the black at its lowest point. The front rifle sight does not then block the target field. Do not pull the trigger or you will move the gun; instead, squeeze the stock slowly with the whole hand. Don't close your eye when the gun "goes." In order to shoot higher than the bottom of the bull's-eye circle, allow the front sight to project its own width into the notch of the rear sight. Stand still on both feet and shoot with considerable air in the lungs. If the shot goes low, do not change the point of aim; take more of the front sight. (Information by a member of the American National Rifle Team.) 220 VOCATIONAL 1:\<;USH Girls: Organize and rewrite the following instructions. Put the facts in logical order. Make proper paragraphs after outlining the subject. GETTING USE* TO WINTER A broken arm is weak for months after the break is well. Muscles must be used or they will waste away. Carefully but persistently subject the neck and chest to changes of temperature by passing from the cold outside air to the warm house. A draft will not give the properly prepared girl a cold. There are many small muscles in the skin which should be given exercise. Why don't we catch cold when a draft strikes the face? The skin muscles in the face work almost instantly because they are kept exercised. A sudden draft on skin unaccustomed to it will cause a cold. In inuring yourself to the cold, don't stay out too long. Quick changes give the muscles the best exercise. The ankles and feet likewise should be inured to sudden changes. EXERCISE 118 * Girls : Make a drawing of the head of your sewing machine. Letter the important parts. Explain the threading process so carefully that an inexperienced person would have no difficulty in understanding it. EXERCISE 119 You are lending your cousin your camera. He is inexperi- enced. Explain the manner of "loading." EXERCISE 120 Give definite instructions for taking a picture of a group of friends on a summer day. Draw and letter the shutter detail, and explain the value of the stop, the operation of the time dial, etc. EXERCISE 121 Kxplain the process of printing from a negative. Give reasons for each bath, washing, etc. WRITING DEFINITE INSTRUCTIONS 221 EXERCISE 122 Your uncle is coming to visit you, but because of a sprained ankle you cannot meet him. Write a clear explanation, accompanied by a diagram if you desire, of the course he is to take to reach your home from the station. EXERCISE 123 Using the following sample form of ballot, explain exactly how a voter may indicate choice for one party in general but vote for several men of other parties. ODEMOCRATIC O REPUBLICAN O PROHIBITION For Governor Q JAS. A. DALTON For Lieutenant Governor Q F..R. SETTLE For Secretary of State LEWIS A. LEWIS For Governor Q DONALD BEEBE For Lieutenant Governor Q E. A. OSBORNE For Secretary of State A. FURLONG For Governor Q JOHN A. SYKES For Lieutenant Governor [J JOSEPH TURNER For Secretary of State []] F. B. RITZ For State Treasurer ] JOHN F. DUNN For State Auditor 1 CHARLES PIPER For State Treasurer Q L. E. PERRY For State Auditor n CLINTON HOWE For State Treasure! [] R. A. POORE For State Auditor n E. P. SEARS For Superintendent of Public Instruction M. E. HARLEY For Attorney General Q] L. P. STARE For Trustees of the State University Q MARY A. SMITH GEO. A. ROWE For Superintendent of Public Instruction Q SEWELL T. ADE For Attorney General Q OGDENV.GRE^NT For Trustees of the State University Q ANNE P. HAYES H. ARNOLD For Superintendent of Public Instruction Q N. 0. McGEE For Attorney General Q W.B.BEARDSLEY For Trustees of the State University Q] J. I. ADAMS [J EDITH JOHNSON VOCATIONAL ENGLISH EXERCISE 124 Suppose the cut accompanying this exercise is to be sent with a letter to the purchaser of the automobile; explain clearly to. A -Spark Control Lever B- Hand Throttle C- Ignition D - Accelerator Pedal E- Starter F -Foot Brake Pedal G Clutch Pedal H -GcarShift Lev -Emergency Brake a purchaser just how to start his engine "running idle." reasons for all necessary operations. Give EXERCISE 125 Assuming that the engine is running, explain carefully how to bring the car into "third speed ahead." Exercises 124, 125, and 126 are baaed upon automobile operation. Both boys and girls usually are eager to learn how to run an automobile. It would be profitable to take the class to the street for a demonstration. Teachers who do not understand driving will be repaid in three or four days of vigorous application by the class, for the few minutes required to master the theory. WRITING DEFINITE INSTRUCTIONS 223 \ EXERCISE 126 1 In three paragraphs explain exactly : (a) How to slow down while passing a wagon on the road. (b) How to stop suddenly to avoid an accident. (c) How to go down a very steep hill, using the engine as a brake. EXERCISE 127 Explain, with drawings, the proper method of mounting an automobile tire. In a paragraph give warnings against certain dangers in the use of force. EXERCISE 128 Write five paragraphs on the subject: Means Advertisers Use in Attracting Attention. Be sure that the paragraphs are on entirely different phases of the subject. EXERCISE 129 Read carefully the following from Victor Hugo's description of the field of Waterloo : Those who wish to picture neatly the battle of Waterloo have only to spread on the ground an imaginary capital A. The left leg of the A is the road to Nivelles, the right leg is the road to Genappe, the tie of the A is the sunken road from Ohain to Braine-FAlleud. The peak of the A is Mont St. Jean; there is Wellington. The lower left tip is Hougomont; there is Reille with Jerome Bonaparte. The lower right tip is La Belle Alliance; there is Napoleon. Write a description of some locality you have in mind a camp, perhaps, or your uncle's farm. Follow the general plan of Hugo, but do not imitate the sentence structure too closely. It is not necessary to compare the shape to a letter; Italy, for instance, is like a boot kicking a football Sicily. A lake may resemble a hatchet or a pear in shape. Make your descrip- tion so plain that the reader will readily understand what you have in mind. 1 See footnote on page 222. 224 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH EXERCISE 13O Explain accurately the working of an electric doorbell. EXERCISE 131 Girls: Explain, with the aid of simple drawings, how to knit some article. EXERCI9B 132 Boys: Explain definitely how to dig the pit for a camp fire and to build the fire. Use a drawing. EXERCISE 133 Explain, with the aid of drawings, how to tell three different species of maples by the leaves. EXERCISE 134 Plan a project for beautifying your school grounds, and explain your plan with the aid of a drawing. EXERCISE 136 Give details for the construction of a large American flag. EXERCISE 136 Explain carefully the cold pack method of canning fruit or vegetables. Illustrate, if possible, with pictures cut from a magazine. EXERCISE 137 Explain, with the help of a drawing, the working of the telegraph. WRITING DEFINITE INSTRUCTIONS 225 EXERCISE 138 Explain carefully the method of making camp ration- heaters out of newspapers and paraffin. EXERCISE 139 Explain the working and the merits of some standard automobile lock. EXERCISE 14O Explain accurately the process of putting a bandage on an arm or head wound. Illustrate. EXERCISE 141 Explain accurately the correct 'method of seizing a drown- ing man to prevent his drowning the rescuer. Illustrate. EXERCISE 142 Girls: Explain the process of folding, cutting, and sewing a comfort kit bag. EXERCISE 143 Explain why the passing of a "low" (low barometric area) is usually accompanied by rain succeeded by cool clear weather. * EXERCISE 144 Explain, with the aid of drawings, the proper way to bud or graft a tree. EXERCISE 145 Explain, illustrating if possible, the operation of the rotary mimeograph. EXERCISE 146 Give a beginner some definite advice concerning the use of the typewriter. 226 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH EXERCISE 147 Using the accompanying figure, explain in a simple way the working of the steam engine. CHAPTER XVI TYPES OF ERRORS IN SCHOOL THEMES 149. Review of Common Errors. The ordinary student does not go far in composition practice till he realizes that in some mysterious way he never can understand, he makes a good many mistakes. He may know perfectly well the princi- ples violated, but his attention must be called to them sometimes more than once. The exercises of this chapter are taken from the writing of high-school students. Some of the errors found in them have been discussed in previous chapters of this book; but others are here treated for the first time, and all are so common and so important as to be worth careful attention in direct con- nection with composition practice. Most of them result in some kind of incorrect or ineffective sentence structure. 150. Failure to Make a Sentence. Read again Section 10. Reread your written work to be sure that you have a subject and a predicate for each sentence. Bear in mind that an added thought must be an independent sentence unless it is properly joined to the preceding thought. Inexperienced writers often fail to indicate thought relations which are very clear to them, but confusing to one who has only the writing to depend on. Correct the following: 1. Dogs are valuable in many situations. For instance the blind man one sees walking down the street with a dog for his guide. 2. The camel which roams the desert and can do without water for several days. 151. "Grafted" Sentences. Sometimes a writer, after be- ginning a sentence, changes the form before he has finished. The result is a conflicting construction. Note that the writer of the following sentence evidently forgot his original plan after ' 227 228 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH a pause following the word soldier. Then he seems to have continued after rereading the American soldier only. One instance is the American soldier has proved his worth in bat t It . 152. Failure to Capitalize at the Beginning of a Sentence. This is almost an incurable disease in some cases and a great source of trouble to teachers. The pupil should bear in mind that foolish errors like this one may cost him dear. Most employers will overlook a failure to spell effervescence correctly, but few will tolerate a failure in the first rule of writing putting a capital at the beginning of a sentence. If you are addicted to this bad habit, make every effort to break it now, for if you persist in it, it will surely bring you sorrow. EXAMPLE of this error : "Return it tomorrow/' Jones said he went away whistling. RCISE 148 Correct the following sentences: 1. Standing in front of saloons is another bad habit of course there are always a few fellows in the crowd who drink. 2. I took my seat reluctantly as soon as I had sat down I felt better. (Add a conjunction.) 3. It was cold that day a day which, unless you had overcoat and mittens, you suffered sharply. (Add a preposition.) 4. He said he could not like her faults were too many. 5. The uses of cement are many, here are some of them. 6. How it started I cannot remember whether I was put up to it or not. 7. Sometimes a girl "lets out" something which was confidentially told to her. Probably when with a crowd of girls. 8. She must be a believer in suffrage. Because every woman has the welfare of her nation at heart. 9. He was told that we would come hack. Certainly the next day. 10. He is the kind of man that if he should get into a fight with a man of his size he would hack down. (Omit one word.) 153. Failure to Complete Words. Often an error in writing may be traced to careless pronunciation. For example, the pupil pronounces ask for both present and past, and accordingly does not vary the word in writing; or he fails to write a final TYPES OF ERRORS IN SCHOOL THEMES 229 letter that is not prominent in pronunciation. The following sentences illustrating this trouble are from the themes of second-year high-school pupils : The mother thank[ed] the stranger. The man ask[ed] for water. They stopped for the[y] were hungry. , He went an[d] came at will. When you lose you[r] way in the woods .... I use[d] to go skating. 154. The Repetition of Words. In general one should not repeat an important word while the memory of that word is still strong. EXAMPLE of bad repetition: Three fishermen set out to set their nets just at sunset. Words are often repeated for the sake of emphasis, however, especially in parallel constructions. It is impossible to make positive rules as to repetition; practice only will teach a writer to avoid a sameness of sound in one case and to seek it in another. EXAMPLE of repetition for emphasis: When that little dog got home he was a sorry little dog. 155. Use of Too Many Words. General wordiness and a typical correction of the fault may be illustrated by the following: (Wordy) (Improved) One night with some friends we With some friends we had to were' coming home from a dance walk home one evening from a which was given at a place about dance given two miles away, two miles from where we were (Seventeen words.) residing and which, as we had no buggy or vehicle in which to be conveyed home, necessitated our walking. (Forty-four words.) 156. Double Narrative. Do not take valuable time to tell an unimportant thing twice. Sometimes it is wise to repeat an 230 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH idea in order^to emphasize it or to give the reader a somewhat different point of view, but repetition due to vague though^ or a childish fear of leaving something unsaid is always bad. EXAMPLE: Then we had breakfast. After we had eaten our break- fast my cousin suggested that we take down the tent. After we had taken down the tent .... How many times are you told of breakfast? Of the tent? It is much better to leave sonn -tlmm to the reader's imagi- nation. Compare the preceding puerile narration with the following passage from a composition of a pupil in the same class: It is necessary to hit the nail cleanly; at first with a light, sharp stroke, then with force; After you have missed, hold the finger in warm water for ten seconds .... Just as it is in bad taste to explain a joke, so it is in a sense impolite to assume that the reader needs all small things ex- plained to him. EXERCISE 149 Criticize and correct the following: 1. People build houses now after odd plans. A house should be built to house people rather than to resemble a dog house and should be a sensible house in every way. 2. We ate our dinner ravenously as we were very hungry. (This telling of the obvious is characteristic of weak students.) 3. My uncle suggest that we go to a pitcher show. 4. When you want a thing badly why, go after it. (Not a question.) 5. When my cousin visited me last summer we thought we would take the car and go to Jackson Park to see the scenery. 157. Lack of Symmetry. To make half of a sentence active and the other half passive results in a lack of symmetry, just as different systems of pruning on opposite sides of a tree would leave it unbalanced. Likewise a phrase balanced against a clause, or an infinitive balanced against a gerund, will produce TYPES OF ERRORS IN SCHOOL THEMES 231 a lack of symmetry; or, as it is sometimes called, a violation of parallelism or balance. (Bad] * (Improved) I have many friends: some by in- I have many friends: some I have stinct and others have been tried found by instinct, and others I have and found true. learned to know by trial. In the bad example above, the incomplete clause, some by instinct, is opposed by the complete clause beginning with others. In the following sentence a participial phrase is balanced against a complete member of the compound sentence. Cor- rection may be made in two ways by making the inconsistent parts both participial phrases or both clauses. The train left the track at Maysville, killing several men, and it tore up the ties for two hundred yards. Criticize the following sentence. Correct it in two ways. He began yelling with all his might and to throw water on the fire. EXERCISE 15O Rewrite the following sentences, making them symmetrical. For instance, if there are two clauses, both modifying the same word, make them conform to the same model. 1. He planned to spend his vacation in two ways: to play tennis regularly and he would then take a swim each day. 2. He was a good man the kind of fellow who attends to his own business and he was kind to his family. 3. He was healthy, happy, and had two brothers. 4. We found the farm. They were boiling down sap and sirup was being made. 5. Meeting one's obligations promptly and to pay all debts, moral as well as in money matters, was his resolve. 6. The history tells of the success and death of Wolfe. (The trouble here is not primarily a lack of symmetry in construction, but success and death are so dissimilar in class that they should not go with one preposition.) 7. A small patch of rubber is cut and then add cement to the tire and the patch. (This is perhaps the most common error of this kind. The first part is passive and in the third person; the second part is active and in the second person.) 232 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH 8. Causes of obscurity: (a) Misplaced words. (b) Omitting a and the. (c) By failing to make the constructions symmetrical. (d) The reference is uncertain. [This is a remarkable example of variation where there ought to be similarity. In (a) there is a noun construction; in (b) a participial construction; in (c) a gerundive phrase; in (d) a complete sentence.] 168. Confusing Use of Pronouns. Avoid a needless change from third or first person to second person. Such a change usually amounts logically to introducing a new character, since he or I cannot possibly be you. (Incorrect) (Correct) At 12 o'clock I eat my lunch. It At 12 o'clock I eat my lunch. It takes sometimes a long time to get sometimes takes me a long time to what you want. get what I want. ^ One reason for this error is the frequent use of you in such a vague and general way that it really means third person is equivalent to the indefinite pronoun one. In general it is unwise to employ you in writing unless an address to the reader is intended. When the indefinite third person is really meant, one is preferable, but excessive use of it should be avoided. (Awkioard) (Better) One should take care of one's One should take care of his teeth teeth if one expects to keep one's if he expects to keep his health, health. Do not allow yourself to think of his and he in this use as masculine only; they refer to mankind in general, hence to both sexes. And above all do not refer to the indefinite singular one by the plurals they and their. (See Section 59.) The rule as to the agreement of a pronoun with its antecedent in number must never be forgotten. EXERCISE 151 Explain the errors and make corrections in the following sentences: 1. When one gets into a boat nowadays you don't know whether you are going, to get out or not. TYPES OF ERRORS IN SCHOOL THEMES 233 2. When Sunday comes some people take their book and sit down and read. 3. One must be exceedingly careful when he is discussing religion or politics unless you know the person you are talking to. 4. He knew some one would steal his gate if they had a chance. 5. The motion picture has great influence on me at times. They teach me a lesson. 6. Too many persons are willing to jump on a person when they're down and out. 7. The bear goes into its den in the winter and in the spring they sally forth lean and hungry. 8. If a woman laughs loudly on the street men are always ready to talk about them. 9. The cat caught its tail in the door and broke it. 159. Illogical Phrasing. The following sentence contains a statement that is not strictly true. To test its accuracy, find the subject, the verb, and the predicate noun. Some. prices we can mention at the sale are a good six-year-old cow at $115. A little thought will show you that the sentence is absurdly illogical because it says that "some prices are a cow." Note another example: English is where I fail. Is English where] i.e., a place? 160. Questions of Tense. Changing the tense within the narration of an event is of course illogical unless there is actual change in the time referred to. It is impossible for something both to have occurred in the past and to be occurring at present. Such confusion of tense as the following sentence illustrates is very crude: We go forward in the train and listen to some college boys singing. "Forty-third Street," hollered the conductor. Several people get off. It is seldom advisable for the inexperienced writer to use the present in telling about something that actually happened in the past. Great authors have been able to use the so-called 234 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH historical present effectively at times, but this fact does not help the novice in composition. A different sort of tense difficulty is to be found in the following: I met an old chum of mine who had opened a grocery store a month HP. Note that ago is past only; had opened is the past of the past, i.e., past perfect. Correct the sentence. Foreigners sometimes say, "I live in America five years." What should they say? 161. Confusion Between Direct and Indirect Quotation. Direct quotation employs the exact words of a speaker. Every direct quotation should be set off by quotation marks and should begin with a capital unless very short and informal (see Section Mi). Indirect quotations report the thoughts, merely, of a speaker, in the words of the reporter. No special capitals are needed and no quotation marks. (In correct ) (Correct ) I said yes I would go. (Direct ill go." (Direct) and indirect at the same time) I said I would go. (Indirect) 162. Failure to Paragraph Conversation. Pupils are often careless about giving a separate paragraph to each speaker in conversation (see Section 147). It adds greatly to ease of reading to have every change of speaker appear at once to the eye; and no feeling of a need of economy in paper should cause the writing of conversation in mass. Work that is too closely crowded always makes an unfavorable impression on the reader. 163. Troubles in Beginning. Students often feel that some "general remarks" are necessary at the beginning of a com- position, but this notion is usually wrong. A little observation will show that most good short stories "plunge right in" and the best practical articles begin at once with discussion of the subject. The writer of a business letter who feels that he must have an "introduction" generally wastes both his own and his readers' time, and makes a bad impression. It is, of TYPES OF ERRORS IN SCHOOL THEMES 235 course, necessary that the first sentences be self-explanatory, but if the student will start directly with the subject he means to discuss he will find writing much easier. 164. Miscellaneous Errors. Do not omit words necessary for complete grammatical expression. Be sure that you have all the a's and ike's. Do not omit the subject of a sentence on the theory that people will understand what the subject is. The following sort of incompleteness is inexcusable in anything except notes or a diary: Went to church Sunday. Saw Mary and Edith the first thing. On the other hand, avoid the use of words that have no place in the grammatical structure of the sentence. (Incorrect) (Correct) John he plays ball all day. John plays ball all day. Or: He plays ball all day. Note that there are two subjects for gives in the following sentence. How can you correct it? An automobile is a machine which when it runs well it gives great pleasure. Avoid errors of association. Bringing suddenly together two incongruous ideas is usually funny. EXAMPLE: Mrs. Bartlett sang "Sing Me to Sleep," after which the Rev. Mr. Jones preached a sermon. EXERCISE 152 Criticize and correct the following: 1. Father sat at the head of the table that night as usual. "Mary," he said, "Why don't you wear your hair down your back?" I felt it was coming so I said I just wanted to see how it would look. "Well, you can't look at it yourself, can you?" he asked. 2. She went to the store without permission after which she tells the teacher she had toothache. 3. A relative pronoun is where a pronoun has an antecedent and also a place in its own clause. 4. Why people are always hard up, in my opinion, is largely due to the changing of fashions. (Be sure that your subject is definite. A loosely expressed thought makes a poor subject.) VOCATIONAL ENGLISH 5. Many men work in the open air or other muscular positions. 6. I see where a man found a skeleton in an old trunk. 7. Arson is when one sets fire to a house with intent to destroy property. 8. I goes over to him and I said, "You're anotl 9. Letter H is the service brake. (Explanation of a diagram.) 10. Take the train which says Englewood. 1 1 . When Mother saw it she asked me what did I put in it. 12. Mary got a position for eight dollars a week. 13. But he replied "That a glass or two wouldn't hurt ." 14. I was here six months already. (Heard from the foreign-born.) EXERCISE 153 Correct the following sentences. They illustrate common errors. It is more than likely that many of these errors may sometimes have been made by you, since they are all taken from themes of high-school pupils. 1. Mother said put toothache gum on it. (Sec. 161.) J. 1 le removed the hands from the clocks and threw them (Sec. 158) into the river. 3. The hunter sold his horse because he was hungry. (Sec. 158.) 4. When the current is turned on it takes a strong nerve to get the coin from the water especially if it is cold. (Sec. 158.) 5. We had to wait until a policeman came along. Finally a kind old policeman came along. (Sec. 154.) 6. It started to turn so cold we turned up our coat collars. (Sec. 154.) 7. All I can do is sit around and try to read something my great-grand- father wYmld throw in the fire. (Sec. 160.) 8. I did not like to go up the stairs at night as I would hear all kinds of noises, it being of course my imagination. (Sec. 158.) 9. It was a funny thing: my grandfather and grandmother died on the same day. (Sec. 164.) 10. How this first started I don't know. (Sec. 155.) EXERCISE 164 Criticize the following: 1. It seems strange that when one sleeps overtime you should feel all the more sleepy. I once read an article by a great doctor in which he said "every minute a person sleeps overtime they are giving off vitality rather than putting it on." (Sec. 158.) 2. I got over that for I thought I was able to lick any of the bad men I use to read about. (Sec. 153.) TYPES OF ERRORS IN SCHOOL THEMES 237 3. "And I won't do that again." "Do what?" said the girl at the next locker. "What I why I'm so tired I can't tell you again." "Tired! what from?" (Sec. 162.) 4. Supper had been served some hours ago. (Sec. 160.) 5. Father sat on the couch reading his evening paper; mother sat nearby sewing, while I sat in a solitary condition by the window. (Sec. 164.) (There is an error in compounding a word in 5. Can you find it?) 6. Sister has lost her key. She didn't want to disturb us when she came home so she asked me to take my key. 7. Another thing is when I want a different dress than she wants me to have why it is always her that wins. If I was only big! (At least four errors; Sees. 159, 75, 62b, and 50b.) 8. You may rest assured that I did so gladly and resolving never to mount a horse again. (Sec. 157.) 9. We went home with here where we might change our clothes. 1 10. It was on New Year's Eve and a crowd of us girls were going out. I was to go to one of their houses to meet them. EXERCISE 155 Why are the following sentences wrong? Criticize them and explain fully your criticism. 1. The dog followed our wagon until we reached the farm house in safety. (Two meanings.) 2. I was not sure what they [tomatoes] were, but I thought they were apples. So my aunt went out of the room for a short time and I bit one. (Is the aunt's going out of the room due to the girl's mis- take? What word makes it so appear?) 3. I did not think I had time to get back to school before the night school opened. When I was sure what little chance I had of get- ting them [rings left in the wash room] would be gone. (Sec. 10.) 4. I was a little girl and my Mother always told me to stay near home. (Sec. 114. Would the sentence be correct if my were omitted?) 5. A crowd of girls and myself planned to put up our lunch and go to the park. (Sec. 65c.) 6. When quite small my grandfather and I went> visiting down at the farm. (Sec. 84.) 7. At last we found it [a suitcase] in the front car with some friends of ours. (Sec. 164.) JThis sentence contains an error due to allowing the spelling of a following word to influence what one writes. J:w VOCATIONAL ENGUSH 8. My mother took me down town where I tried on hats, finally I selected one I thought 1 liked. (Sec. 152.) 9. We took it back alright and was very happy when I got home that evening. (Error in spelling; Sec. 52.) 10. At about 9:30 that evening a trio of sun burnt dusty faces came strolling in to West Englewood. (Sec. 159; errors in failing to compound words.) EXERCISE 166 How would you correct the following? 1. A girl if walking down a dark street alone and hears a sound close to her will run her eyes wide open without once looking back. 2. Most all people are afraid in the dark some for instance the dope fiend who hides himself 'in fear. 3. Some people are so overcome with fear in the dark that they are afraid of their shadow. 4. One unfortunate day I did something that other children have often done and that was played hooky. 5. One of the most exciting days I have ever had occurred when about eight years old. 6. My father got passes to shows and etc. free. (Two errors.) 7. I hesitated about going on the coaster because mostly all people that came down look as white as ghosts. 8. When I got to the other side I was to 'call out one two three. 9. The new horse would stumble every few steps he took. (Sec. 155.) 10. She never thinks of asking me if she can wear my things. EXERCISE 157 Correct the following, explaining carefully the errors: 1. I was taught not to go anywhere without getting permission from mother or some one older than me. 2. In the mean while mother was looking for me. 3. This made John so furious that it was dangerous to be around him. (Preposition.) 4. It must be nice to be big and work downtown like Mary does. (Con- junction.) x 5. My big Sis is a boss. When she has company on Sunday night she thinks she has exclusive right to the parlor and us younger kids have to move to the back regions. (Sec. 62.) 6. I dislike to scold you more than any one. (Sec. 82.) 7. In going over the year's reports a gratifying detail has appeared. TYPES OF ERRORS IN SCHOOL THEMES 239 8. His errors are very obvious and quite absolutely unnecessary. 9. Never eat until the stomach is over-full. (Two meanings.) 10. The horse took sick. (Is the subject the actor?) 11. The greatest asset any boy can have is an appreciation of and a power to organize. (Sec. 82.) 12. She had an arm full of flowers. 13. I wanted you to know where they are so you didn't have to look for them. 14. How I wished we didn't come! QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER XVI 1. Why are the faulty word groups in Section 150 not sentences? 2. What is the cause of the "grafted" sentence? 3. Why is failure to capitalize at the beginning of a sentence a very bad error? 4. For what purpose is repetition sometimes a good device? 5. What is "double narrative"? 6. Why is it a good device to leave considerable for the reader to dis- cover for himself? 7. What is meant by "errors of association"? CHAPTER XVII THE VALUE OF THE WORD 165. Words as Tools. The carpenter or the jeweler is to a large extent dependent on his tools. With accurate and delicate instruments he can accomplish admirable work; with dull or unsuitable tools it would indeed be an exceptional work- man who could succeed. Among the important tools of the business man are words. Some men find themselves lacking in the number of words at their command. Others have not learned the exact uses of various words and hence often try to accomplish a desired result with the wrong tool. The following pages will be concerned with a study of the power and uses of certain of these instruments of business English words. 166. Misused Words. The crudest word error is, of course, the use of a wrong word. An old lady looked in at the door of a country store and made the following request, "If any of you folks sees Dr. Tompkins please inhale him for me." A coroner's jury is on record as reporting that "the deceased came to his death by assassinating his clothes with kerosene and setting them afire." Almost all of us are guilty of mis- using words. Among many such errors are the following: 1 1. The use of learn for teach. (Incorrect) (Correct) He couldn't learn him anything. He couldn't teach him anything. 2. The use of can for may. (Incorrect) (Correct) Can I go now? May I go now? 3. The use of again for against. (Incorrect) (Correct) Put it again the wall. Put it against the wall. -^^^^^ 'Some misuses of words have been treated in other parts of the book, pages 43-46, 84-87, 90, 91, 99, 100, etc. 240 THE VALUE OF THE WORD 241 4. The use of bring for take. (Incorrect) (Correct) May I bring this to the office? May I take this to the office? 5. The use of propose for purpose. (Incorrect) (Correct) I propose paying my own way. I purpose paying my own way. 6. The use of balance for remainder or rest. . (Incorrect) (Correct) I spent the balance of the day I spent the rest of the day swim- swimming, ming. 7. The use of posted for informed. (Incorrect) (Correct) He is well posted on current events. He is well informed on current events. EXERCISE 158 The following sentences contain misused words. The cor- rect word for each misuse is to be found in the list following the sentences. Make all the substitutions. 1. Mary was reticent and moody; on the other hand Edith was hopeful and thoroughly ingenious. 2. We were facilitating the groom upon his great good fortune. 3. Father, while not staunchly religious, insisted on our observation of the Sabbath. 4. Auntie was thoroughly aggravated by my action. 5. They accused the driver of inhuman treatment of his team. 6. Elizabeth answered not a word but dropped a courtesy and retired. (The spelling is allowed, but not the pronunciation kurtesy.) 7. " Yours truly" is a better complementary close than " Yours respect- ively." (Two errors.) 8. He told me that he did not consider onions healthy. 9. Filling his sore teeth was a tortuous process. 10. The world is being overwhelmed in a catechism of war. 11. The gift was. to perpetrate the memory of the giver. 12. Some of his letter was depleted by the censor. -3. From the tower they obtained a pantomimic view of the estate. 242 \ ( >CATIONAL ENGLISH 14. She went on bequest of her guardian. 15. He was an honest and voracious man. panoramic torturing exasperated healthful observance behest inhumane complimentary felicitating deleted curtsy (pref.) perpetuate ingenuous respectfully cataclysm veracious EXERCfSB 160 Use in sentences all words cast out of Exercise 158. 167. Our Dulled Sense of Word Values. Words come so easily that extravagance results. The pupil should learn to use strong words only when the thought or the feeling calls for them. The practice of using big words for small ideas is very objectionable to intrlli^rnt hearers or readers; besides, it dulls the appreciation of word values. Through much misuse, cer- taiu common words seem to have lost their essential meanings. "How's yer wife, Tom?" said one American to another. "Wai, she's ben enjoyin' bad health most o' the winter, but last week she complained o' feelin' bet As a result of the too common use of words without thought as to their real meaning, every sort of entertainment, from Forbes-Robertson's Hamlet to a "slap-stick movie," has be- come a show; everything pleasant is nice or fine or splendid; whatever needs repairs is fixed, even if it is a watch that must "keep moving"; a neighbor's yard is unkempt, though the word lit (Tally means uncombed; a bunch of girls are mad because it rains on their picnic. Such use of words takes all definiteness, all accuracy, all force out of them. EXERCISE 16O What words in the following sentences are not suited to the ideas they are meant to convey? 1. She has an awfully good mother. 2. The roads were terribly muddy. 3. He has a perfectly divine voice. 4. The new hats are disgusting. THE VALUE OF THE WORD 243 5. That is a splendid pen. 6. I hate fudge. 7. She had a horrid old cat. 8. We got up horribly early this morning. 9. I adore light hair. 10. I just love olives. 11. I loathe this year's fashions. 12. It's a funny thing how many children commit suicide in a year. Use in its correct sense each of the words misused above. 168. The Pompous Style. People who have read and ad- mired a little good literature, or pretentious literature which they suppose to be good, sometimes get the notion that they can write in a "literary" manner by avoiding simple and natural words. Thus, instead of "wash" we hear "perform their daily ablutions." "Retire to his couch" is used for "go to bed." Some people "perambulate" a while before "partaking of a sumptuous repast," while others take a walk before dinner. .The pompous tone of these expressions is very objectionable, and besides they are utterly worn out. A good rule for most writers is to use ordinary words for ordinary things, particularly if the extraordinary words they would like to use are copied from a book. i 169. Trite Phrases. Expressions that have been too much used are said to be trite. It is convenient to treat such expres- sions in two groups. (a) Commercial jargon. A large number of regularly used expressions have found their way into business letters. Some of them had a meaning at one time, but have long ago ceased to be more than forms. Business has no time for any expres- sion which will not bear its share of the work. Among these useless expressions are the following: beg to advise fine line valued favor esteemed favor of recent date the same hoping to hear from you in hand you due time, we are beg to remain This subject is treated more fully in Chapter XXI. 244 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH (b) Hackneyed expressions of a more general character. The love of personal independence is believed to be a quality characteristic of Americans. But the use of expressions not our own is hardly in keeping with this tradition. In general we should avoid using language belonging to others quite as much as we would avoid wearing other people's clothes. The trite phrase is not, of course, grammatically wrong; it is ineffective. Personality counts very much in modern business. Trite phrases tend to become impersonal formulas, and are therefore not efficient. Among hundreds of these expressions are the folio wing: "I don 1 ! care what they call me so they "what Paddy gave the drum" call me for dinner." "favor us with a selection" "Being neither sugar nor salt, I didn't "white as a sheet" melt." "1 shouldn't like to be in your "knock you into the middle of next shoes." week" "last but not least" "mad as a wet hen" "conventional black" "slow as molasses in January" "bated breath' (a solo) "so low you can't hear it" "piercing scream" "shut up like a clam" "dull thud" "deader than a door nail" "so near and yet so far" "Children should be seen, not heard." "innocent bystantJ VOCATIONAL EKGL1 s 1 1 t i is desired to write somewhat more fully on the topic of Exercise 169. There might well be two paragraphs: (a) The facts the collision, deaths, injuries. (b) The causes fog, making up lost time. If still more details were available, it would be possible to make, say, five paragraphs: (a) The collision time, trains involved, number and kind of coaches. (b) The damage dead (by name), the injured, extent of injuries, aid (ton. (c) Local conditions fog, switch tracks on both sides of the main Im<>. Engineer Brown learns from Station Agent Cummins that the express is fifteen minutes late out of Spellman, five miles beyond Horton. (d) Reasons for the fast train's making up time. (e) Station Agent Cummins to lose his job for giving out information to the operating department. Yardmaster MacGregor is to be questioned. EXERCISE 17O (a) Write a news item of one paragraph to go with the fol- lowing heading: Automobile Bandits Hold up a Cigar Store. (b) Write a two -paragraph news item suggested by the following subject: ^ Freddie Ryan, unseen, rides half a mile on the cowcatcher of the Limited. (c) Write a three-paragraph news item with appropriate headlines, on the subject: Famous French war aviator Joubert to lecture Friday evening at the Walker Opera House. (Give some imaginary details of his history.) 180. The "News Story." 1 The purpose of what we have been calling the "news item" is entirely practical. Often, how- ever, the value and interest of a piece of news may be increased if it is treated somewhat in the manner of a short story. Here 1 It is customary among newspaper men to call almost any sort of news article a "story," yet it seems worth while to discriminate aa in Section 180. NEWSPAPER AND MAGAZINE WRITING 257 interest, rather than information, is the main consideration. The beginning must attract attention, of course; but the story will usually be spoiled if the main point, the climax, the essence of the news, is given at the beginning, as in the ordinary sort of "lead." The story form is commonly used in humorous or very unusual and romantic articles. To distinguish them from plain news items with the practical sort of "lead," we shall call them, for convenience, "news stories." The following is an example: Dr. Jacobs will probably stop his engine the next time he leaves his car on the street while making a call. Yesterday afternoon he left his new sedan standing for a few minutes on the hillside in front of Rice's drug store, with the engine running to keep the car warm. Small boys, headed by eleven-year-old Claude Ballard, tried out the effect of several levers. The result surpassed their greatest expectations when the big car ran down the cigar store Indian in front of Kelley's and went half way through the plate-glass window of the Metropolitan grocery store. Note that the last sentence states the main fact. The first sentences are employed in leading up to the climax. Condensation can often be effected by omitting details at which the reader has a chance to guess. Note the skill with which the writer of the following telephone conversation omitted all of one speaker's remarks: AS TOLD OVER THE TELEPHONE "Please, marm, gimme number two hund'ed an' 'leven .... Is dat you, Marse Henry? .... Yessir, dis is Abe. I dun ring yer up, sir, ter tell you about Shoe. Shoe, he dun balk down yer on Broad Street, sir." "Bout a hour, sir." "Yessir, I bus' him in de head." "I dun wear de whip handle out on him, sir." "Yessir, I kick him 'bout eight times, sir." "Marse Henry, I would ha ; kick um some mo ; but I hu't me big toe on um de las' time I kick um." VOCATIONAL ENGLISH "Twis* he tail? No, sir, not dis chile. A gemman from New York, he twis' he tail." "No, sir, I don't think he dead. De doctor take him 'way in de amb'lanr. "Yessir, it was sure foolish." "Marse Henry, I done set fire under Shoe." "De harness? Dun bu'n de harness clean off urn." "De cart? Yea sir, dun bu'n de cart too, sir, all 'cept one wheel. "Yeasir, I git de feed out fust, sir." "Marse Henry, is you want me to come back to de store and go to work, or mus' I wait for Shoe to move?" 1 RCISB 171 Make a short "news story" to fit the following conditions: Hungry burglar sets down his bag of valuables to eat a piece of mince pie in the pantry of the third-story flat at 6126 Pleasant Avenue. Mrs. Steffan deftly locks the pantry door and telephones the police. Nothing lost but the pie. EXERCISE 172 Make a "news story' 1 of the following, ending with an explanation of what is being done. Give details, names, etc. Many poor children write to Santa Glaus. Postmaster Bred in opens these letters and puts them in the hands of people who will play Santa Glaus to the little ones. EXERCISE 173 Change the following "news item" into a "news story:" Chicago, Nov. 9. Patrick McGrath, a watchman on the Pennsylvania elevation, came home suddenly last night in time to attend his own wake. In a switch engine accident Monday at 90th Street, a laborer was killed. The remains were positively identified by Mrs. McGrath as those of her husband. L." in "Walnuts and Wine," Lippincott'*, Oct., 1906. NEWSPAPER AND MAGAZINE WRITING 259 EXERCISE 174 Change the following into a simple news item with a "lead": Little Mary Tolman wept bitterly last night over a very great mis- fortune. Her mother, too, could hardly keep back the tears, although she strove with all the power of a widow who has faced life with two small children. Just when Mary had finished school and secured a position, adding eight dollars a week to their little income, this misfortune had come upon them. Yesterday afternoon Mary had been sent hurriedly to the bank with three hundred dollars collected a few minutes before closing hours. In her hurry she had lost her handbag and the money. Frantic with fear and grief, she had not dared return to the office. Some one rapped at the door. It was Mrs. Barnes, who rents three rooms of her house at 224 E. 43rd Street to the Tolmans. "Some one wants Mary on the phone," she said. It was a stranger, Mrs. Louise Eastman, a nurse in the Ingleside Hospital, with the message that the handbag and contents were safe. Query: How did Mrs. Eastman get Mrs. Barnes's telephone number? Is it desirable to explain all details? What should be omitted? EXERCISE 175 Make a "news story' 7 of the following: At the close of the Easter concert of the Boston Symphony Orchestra last night, Hans Mahl, a poorly dressed, gray-haired man about seventy years old, was found unconscious in a gallery seat. He was probably starving, and the climb had been too much. He died at the Holy Cross Hospital an hour later. Papers found upon him proved that he had once been the conductor of the Municipal Orchestra at Strassburg. 181. The Editorial. Probably the simplest type of editorial takes the form of a sermon with a news item "lead" as a text. The sermon, of course, need not be religious; in fact it is seldom so, but is concerned generally with politics or public policy. An example of a simple form of editorial follows: In the Alexian Brothers' Hospital yesterday afternoon, little Charlie Myers died of hydrophobia. He had been bitten by a stray dog while playing in the street. How long are the people of this good city going to tolerate stray dogs at large? True, we already have an ordinance making muzzling L'tio \ < M ATIONAL ENGLISH of all dogs compulsory, but it is not enforced. The adage has it that everybody's business is nobody's business, but it certainly ought to be our affair as a great and rich city to see that every stray dog is killed and every other dog in the city properly muzzled. Note that the condition which inspired this editorial is simply the "lead" of a news item. Of course the "text" is not always exactly in the form of a "lead/' but in most cases the text could easily be put into the form of a news item. EXERCISE 176 Write a two-paragraph editorial on the following news item: Chicago, July 11. Dr. Raymond Stettson of the Health Depart- ment stated before the Ridge Woman's Club today that fully sixty per ' cent of the children in Chicago under sixteen years of age have teeth which, for the sake of the children's health, should be cared for by a dentist. Suggestion: In one paragraph urge the establishment of dental clinics in the schools. In the second paragraph urge the parents to sacrifice a vacation or other pleasure, for the good of the child's health. EXERCISE 177 Write an editorial of several paragraphs on the following news item: La Porte, Ind., Oct. 16. Charles Miller, a near-sighted fourteen- year-old boy, drove a big automobile through a crowd of children in front of the Raynard School today, seriously injuring Edna Bauer and Lillic Thomas. EXERCISE 178 Write an editorial on the following news item: A policeman found eleven-year-old Fred Watson and twelve-year- old "Butch" Baer hanging around a pool room and smoking at 11:30 Monday night. The boys were taken home, but their parents did not seem much disturbed by the matter. EXERCISE 179 Let every member of the class bring for the next recitation a news item (real or imaginary) which will serve as the text of an editorial. From the ten best, let the class choose for the subject of an editorial to be handed in the next day. NEWSPAPER AND MAGAZINE WRITING 261 EXERCISE 18O Let each pupil clip from a newspaper an editorial (not too long) and bring it to class. Let him practice reading the editorial until he is sure that he can make it interesting to the class. 182. Condensing the Magazine Article. Our good maga- zines are full of articles that are both valuable and interesting. Condensing or summarizing such an article on some timely subject is very valuable practice. The primary purpose of such a report is to bring out the most important facts of the original, but it is a failure if it does not also interest your classmates. First read the article very carefully. Try to grasp the things of importance. Next put them in their best order so that the hearer will get the thoughts in a succession easily understood. Plan one paragraph for each important point. Don't try to report on an article which you do not yourself enjoy. The class is to mention promptly any failure to hear or understand. EXERCISE 181 Oral. Report on some invention or instrument which can be illustrated by a drawing on the board. EXERCISE 182 Oral. Make a careful examination of the contents of a copy of the Literary Digest. Explain clearly to the class just what the publishers are trying to do. EXERCISE 183 Make a written condensation of some interesting article in a current magazine, using the method explained in the second paragraph of Section 182. EXERCISES 184, 185, 186 Arrange the following facts (184) as a news item, (185) as a news story, (186) as part of an editorial which you are to write. College prank. Hamlin, Ohio, Dec. 9. Sophomores haze freshman. 262 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH He was first blindfolded. He was told that he was to be branded with a hot iron. An icicle was drawn across his bare shoulders. He is in a sanitarium, suffering from nervous prostration. EXERCISE 187 Answer the following questions from observation of any issue of a good daily newspaper: 1. On what page are the editorials? 2. How many editorials do you find? 3. List the subjects of these articles. 4. Do you find the writer referring to himself as If As wet Why? 5. Outline the main points in one of the editorials. CHAPTER XIX LETTER WRITING 183. The Growth of Business. It is the fortune of the present generation to take part in the greatest business develop- ment of all time. To the pupil who reads this page the type- writer and the multigraph, the illustrated catalog, and the full-page advertisement must seem quite the established order of the world as if they, like trees and hills, had always been. But they have not always been in fact mpst of them are less than a quarter of a century old. With the telephone, the automobile, and the adding machine, they have made the last two or three decades seem to many the most wonderful of all the years. Within one generation, business outgrew its three- story shell and now calls for twenty, thirty, and even forty- story buildings to house it. In a single generation villages have grown to cities full of activity and opportunity. Truly this is a great age for boys and girls. A large part of the great increase of business is the result of the development of the business letter. Letter writing is old, reaching back beyond the dawn of history when men carved messages on stone and wood. But modern business letter writing is young so young that the most effective methods are not yet sufficiently understood. 184. Advantages of the Letter in Business. The letter has three great qualities cheapness, definiteness, and permanence. Often a hundred letters may be written at smaller cost and in less time than would be required for a single personal call. Even after two men have talked over a matter, oral agreement is not considered sufficiently definite, and the understanding is usually put in writing. The third great quality, permanence, is secured through the filing system, which involves the keeping of carbon copies of all important letters. "That will be all right 263 L'tii VOCATIONAL ENGLISH if you'll write me a letter about it," says one man to another. He wants his letter files to carry a complete history of tin transaction. Some business houses are adopting the practice of making carbon copies on the backs of the letters answered, and thus saving paper, filing space, and time. EXERCISE 188 Write a composition of two hundred words on: The History of the Postal Service in America. Get your information from more than one source. Do not under any circumstances copy an entire sentence from an encyclopedia or a history. 185. Appearance of Business Correspondence. All good firms are now very careful about the appearance of their letters. They know that the letter represents the firm, it- habits and its policies. They know that poor stationery and slovenly form put the business house under suspicion of being unreliable and careless. No one realizes today more keenly than the man of business, that first impressions of men and things are lasting, and he knows how long it takes to cor- rect an unfavorable impression. Routine letters of whatever length are now ordinarily written on the standard 8^ x 11 paper, which allows for a wide and orderly margin, and con- tained in the standard 3J^ x 6J^ envelope unless the letter is too bulky for three foldings. Sometimes, for very short letters, half sheets 8J^ x 5J/ are used. But most important, these letters bear no evidence of erasures and are not soiled. Neither are they freakish in form or color. The printer of today who is not an expert in balance and taste in business stationery can not long hold the better commercial trade. 186. The Writer of a Letter. There is an old saying that water cannot rise above its source; obviously a well written letter must have had a competent author. Or to put it the other way, only a person of some attainments can produce an effective letter. LETTER WRITING 265 The first quality required of a correspondent is, of course, intelligence, both of the natural kind sometimes called common sense, and the kind acquired by education. No business is entirely separate from all the other activities of the world; on the contrary, business interests cross one another in a very com- plicated way. The correspondent, then, needs to know men and measures and methods; in other words, he must be well- informed. But wealth of information alone is not enough; the corre- spondent must be able to write. He must be able to tell what he knows in an orderly, accurate way, so that others can under- stand. A report of the Bar Association of the City of New York gives as one big reason for the clogging of the courts, the inability of many lawyers so to frame the language of a case that the courts can proceed with dispatch. In other words, there are many lawyers who cannot put what they know on paper. And ther are many business men who know what they mean but "can't find words to express it." Too often the pupil in the public school leans helplessly against the seat and asserts that he knows but can't explain. Unless he learns to explain he cannot write good business letters. The main pur- pose of this book is to aid the pupil in gaining the power to make other people understand. Another desirable quality in business letters is human sympathy. We have always had well-informed men, and men who could express themselves in a masterful way; but few, until the last decade, have realized the tremendous power of human sympathy in business transactions. Business letters of a few years ago too often followed a set form; "esteemed favor," "the same/' "hand you herewith," "hoping to hear from you soon, we are," and other regular phrases were very common. Too often the old letter began somewhat after this manner, "Yours of recent date rec'd and contents noted, and in reply would say," etc. The chief fault with these stock expressions (aside from grammatical imcompleteness) is that they are too formal and too distant. They might be written as well by 266 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH an enemy as by a friend. Business letters must be friendly in tone: true, you need not stop to visit with your ijmn; on the other hand, a good business man is never so much in a hurry that he cannot be thoughtful and courteous. While business as a whole may seem heartless and harsh, you must not forget that it is operated by men and women who, like you, want friends and appreciate favors; who, like you, will try to return a smile or a thoughtful act; and if you would succeed in business you must learn to think of the stranger as your friend. 187. Qualities of a Good Business Letter. Business letters, of course, touch a thousand different subjects and register a hundred different moods, but there are several qualities which almost every one of them ought to show. The most important of these qualities are directness, completeness, individuality, punctuality, and courtesy. 188. Directness. Without being so abrupt as to seem discourteous (see Section 192), the business letter should come to the point in the first few lines. Most business men, at least those worth while, are busy and have little time for things off their usual course. You must not neglect, however, to make the first few lines self-explanatory, for in most cases your reader will have been thinking of other things and will need to be directed to the subject of the letter. Examine carefully the following examples: (A wordy introduction) (A better farm) Dear Sir: Dear Sir: We rearranged our office last We ask your pardon for our week in order to take care of the delay in answering your letter of increased business and to facilitate May 24, due to rearranging our handling the new business which office, will doubtless come to us by reason (Eighteen words.) of the new State law regarding Fire Insurance, and, in the consequent disorder, we are sorry to say we misplaced your letter of May 24. (Fifty-four words.) LETTER WRITING 267 (Criticism) (1) The introduction is too long. (2) It contains matter of doubtful interest to the receiver. (3) The writer should never force the reader to wade through an advertisement to get to the subject. (A poor letter) Dear Sir: The goods you sent our firm are not up to the standard you set in your letter. (Criticism) This is indefinite. To a small merchant it might be clear, but to a man who writes fifty letters a day will come these questions What goods? Which firm? What letter? When shipped? (Commendation ) (1) This opening is direct. (2) It makes all necessary planation. (A better form) Dear Sir: The chairs you sent Miller & Co. Nov. 4 (your invoice No. 47123) are not up to the standard you set in your letter to them of Oct. 28. (Commendation) All data necessary to set the case before the reader have been given. It may cost the writer a little effort to get this informa- tion together, but the resultant courtesy and directness are worth the effort. Letters will be very much more direct if paragraphed correctly. The habit of putting everything concerning one subject into one compact paragraph aids the reader in "getting at" the matter (see Section 142). "When you're through sit down," is good advice to the letter writer as well as to the after-dinner speaker. No general "Hoping to hear from you," etc., is needed at the end of a letter, merely as a concluding device (see Section 205). 189. Completeness. It is often difficult for us to realize that a topic which to us is perfectly clear, may be obscure to another.. There are two general causes of failure to give all necessary detail in a business letter. The first cause of incom-. pleteness is the result of a failure to realize the difficulties of the "other fellow." You may know a hundred times as much about your subject as he knows about it, and you must "put yourself in his place" to realize just what explanations should JUS VOCATIONAL ENGLISH be made. For instance, your language may be entirely technical for him. You must not forget that you are writing to the receiver. (A bad lctt the ordinary person as electrical language will permit. By far the greatest number of omissions come from a failure of the writer to think through his subject half thinking. It is a trick of the human mind to delude itself as to what it really understands. You can test this fault for yourself. You may, perhaps, think that because you have seen the clock thousands of times, you can sketch the face (Roman numerals) roughly, from memory. Try it. The chances are that you will make at least two errors. Often a person, because he knows some- thing about a subject, assumes that he knows a good deal about it, until he undertakes to explain it in detail. This half thinking has caused no end of trouble in business letters. Sometimes half thinking takes the form of extreme care- lessness. A large mail-order house finds it necessary to employ a force of girls to examine all incoming mail to make sure that each writer has given an address of sufficient accuracy for shipping purposes. Even with this precaution and the addi- tional help of experts in the 'correspondence departments, LETTER WRITING 269 hundreds of dollars come in with orders which cannot be directed to the buyer. Retail shoe merchants have a deal of trouble with letters of the following type : (A bad letter) Dear Sir: Send me one pair of shoes, size 8. Enclosed find eight dollars. (Criticism) No style, last, material, or color is stated. Nothing is said about the purpose is it a dress shoe or a work shoe that is wanted? (A better form) Dear Sir: Send me one pair of men's shoes, Style A242, patent leather, size 8D. Enclosed find eight dollars. (Commendation ) As far as it goes this letter is complete and there should be no difficulty in filling the order, pro- vided, of course, that the address is given. Before sealing a letter, examine it to make sure that it is dated, that your own address is clearly stated, that you have omitted no necessary detail of description or direction, and that the language is such that your correspondent cannot misunderstand. 190. Individuality. Some years ago it was not uncommon to find, occasionally in offices, but more often in homes, a book called by some such name as The Ready Letter Writer. This book was intended to furnish forms for business, friendly, and even love letters, and one wishing to write a letter had only to turn to the index to find, "a parent writing to a school teacher," "a nurse to her absent mistress/' "a gentleman to his banker," and copy what he found printed, with a few necessary changes to fit conditions. Such books have almost disappeared, for, needless to say, no one today would think of using a form letter for friendly correspondence. Probably nobody regards any two people with the same degree and kind of esteem; hence a form letter would fail to adapt itself to* the myriad differences and delicacies of friendship. Business, too, had its Ready Letter Writer , but more in a set of accepted forms and phrases than in any specific publication. These forms made use of "beg to advise," "in reply will say," etc. (see Section 205). Like their social contemporaries, such phrases are passing out 270 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH for one reason, because they are adapted to no particular individual, and hence are unsuited to modern requirements. A letter to a farmer should differ materially from a letter to a banker not that one is more important than the other, for that is not true; but because their likes and dislikes, their work, their wants, and their training are different. Suppose you were trying to sell an automobile. The farmer would want to know about its lasting qualities, the cost of operation, and the reliability of the car under hard service. The banker would care more for design and finish. You would need to hold up before the farmer the advantages of fast transportation from barn to field and from the farm to the express office and the grain elevator. Luxury and the chance to see the open country would appeal to the banker, who must spend hours indoors when he would rather be away across the hills. It was said in Section 186 that the business correspondent needs common sense and an education. He needs, in addi- tion, a wide experience. You must know the life of the farmer, of the country physician, of the miner, and of the sons of the rich, in order to discuss with them their own interests. You must know their faults, too, and especially their dislikes. The farmer is sensitive on the subject of the loneliness of country life. Avoid mentioning it, at least directly. The lawyer dislikes to be told that whoever wins he doesn't lose, and the teacher will resent any implication that he is not a success in financial matters. You must "know your man" and use the same tact in letters that you would use in talking to him. One of the best ways to put individuality into your letters is to visualize each class with which you have dealings. When you are writing to a farmer, see before you a strong man, care- ful in money matters, wary of tricks, a believer in hard work and the value of his own labor, and write him a personal letter. The merchant is a man of means, who is skilled in knowing the wants of the community in which he lives. He reads many letters and must be appealed to through proofs of success. See him as he stands behind his counter and write to him. LETTER WRITING 271 Don't forget, then, that in business letter writing your mind must be in two places. You must see distinctly your own plans and propositions, and then you must 'look across the miles to the other fellow and put yourself in his place and learn to appeal to him definitely and intelligently. 191. Punctuality. One phase of punctuality is really only courtesy. If a man considers a subject important enough to write to you about it, you are bound as a courteous individual to reply, and to reply soon. Delaying an answer is a kind of slur as if the letter or the writer were not to be taken seriously. Make it a practice to reply within hours rather than days. And it does not matter much whether the reply is important or not. Sometimes a reply has its only reason in courtesy. Some one has done you a favor perhaps you have done him favors before and you and he are only even now and you could easily accept the favor quietly without feeling ungrateful; but it is good fellowship and good business to thank him in a neat, well appointed letter. There is another reason for being punctual in correspond- ence. A man gets his mind set on some project. He writes you a letter while in this mood. But as things crowd in upon him, he tends to lose his interest in that particular matter, and if you delay your reply sufficiently long, it is very likely to find him entirely cold. Or perhaps your competitor replies quickly and your delayed letter reaches the scene after "the deal is closed." 192. Courtesy. "Never write a very brief letter unless you apologize for it," is the instruction given by a large Chicago manufacturer to his correspondence men. The curt letter has a tone of disrespect which, above all things, must be avoided. It would be possible to list a dozen don'ts touching courtesy, but a more profitable paragraph will treat of its source. Courtesy springs from good intentions toward all men. If you are cherishing hatred of any one, if you are accustomed to complain, or criticize, or gossip, you will be handicapped as a correspondent. Outside of business, courtesy consists, for 272 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH instance, in going out of your way to direct a traveler, or to inquire about a sick acquaintance. Courtesy in business consists in mentioning letters or order numbers to save your reader trouble in tracing a transaction, in repeating briefly the substance of a previous correspondence to refresh his mind, in enclosing a stamped envelope when you ask an unusual favor, and doing various thoughtful things by which one man can show his appreciation of another. Of the qualities of the business letter just treated direct- ness, completeness, individuality, punctuality, and courtesy- none makes so many friends in the long run or produces so much business as courtesy. EXERCISE 180 Discuss in cl&ss the following questions: 1 . What reply should be made to the man who says, "Oh, I don't care about style just so they know what I mean"? 2. Discuss the following: "Letters reveal unmistakably the writer's education and cultivation; that 'the style is the man' is never truer than in letters." Herrick and Damon's Composition and Rhetoric. 3. What is the basis of politeness? Is it advisable to be polite in order to get more business? Can a man learn politeness from books? 4. What is "half thinking"? Can the writer expect the reader to understand unless the letter originated in a clear-cut understanding? "It takes a long time to explain something you don't understand." 5. If individuality is a desirable quality of a letter, why not use square envelopes, address them across the end, and have them made of pink paper? 6. What would you say characterizes the gentleman in correspondence; i. e., what qualities should he have? EXERCISE 19O Write a brief letter explaining to a younger brother the qualities of a good business letter. QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER XIX 1. How long has the telephone been in commercial use? The type- writer? 2. What reasons can you advance for the tremendous growth in busi- ness during the last two decades? LETTER WRITING 273 3. What three advantages has the business letter? Explain. 4. Why is the appearance of a business letter so important? 5. What are some of the qualities of a good correspondent? 6. Can you name the qualities of a good business letter? 7. What is meant by directness? 8. When is a letter complete? 9. What must be the condition of the writer's thoughts to lead him to dictate a complete letter? 10. What is meant by individuality in a letter? 11. Why is it bad business to delay a business reply? 12. How can the writer show courtesy? CHAPTER XX DETAILS OF LETTER FORM 193. The Stenographer and the Employer. One of the really hopeless and helpless human beings is the poor sten- ographer who blots and misspells and mis-spaces and misimder- -t : i nds. She is a failure at the only thing she is expected to do. Whether it is her fault, or the fault of the school, or the fault of her parents, or of sickness or poverty, makes no difference when she brings a poor piece of work to a busy man. Whether or not she deserves censure, one thing is pretty sure she will get plenty of it. A busy man has not time to correct, to advise, and to instruct his stenographer, and it would be bad business for him to undertake teaching in addition to his other duties. The girl will be discharged, to begin again that most forlorn task looking for another position. The employer will try again and again, until he finds a stenographer whose judgment and knowledge he can trust. Morever, many employers are careless or unskilled in com- position; their letters, if written exactly as dictated, would make a bad impression. A competent stenographer, therefore, should be able to correct errors and improve awkward phrasing. There would be fewer incompetent stenographers if all knew the accepted principles of letter form explained in the following pages. These are matters of prevailing custom; serious departure from "good form" makes a writer seem careless or crude. 194. The Margin. All letters should have a substantial margin. The exact width is largely a matter of taste, but not less than an inch and a half on 8^ x 1 1 paper, the most common business size, is desirable. The width and arrangement of the margin must be considered with relation to the size and shape of the sheet, just as the mat about a picture is related to the picture. 274 DETAILS OF LETTER FORM 275 The following letter illustrates very well the proper balance of writing and margin: ^ V 10054 Wood Street \Chicago. Illinois ^Aprll 23, 1917 xMr. R. E. Tabor ^Confluence. Pa. Dear s r. Tabor: " I recall that i in 1892 there was much e: the southwestern part of the state, especially in Somerset and Payette counties . I have since been told that moat of this has been logged. i I left Pennsylvania cheap, aay along the Youghlogheny River, to make reforestation profitable? I am expecting now of course only a general answer. N -X urs ver> y truly, Note: 1. That neither the heading nor the signature runs into the margin. 2. That there is a margin at the bottom. It is better to use a second sheet than to crowd the lower margin. 3. Study the dotted line's. Note that part of the pleasing quality of the arrangement is due to the parallel slant of the lines. In the so-called "block form" these parallel lines are vertical. EXAMPLE : I Mr. R. E. Tabor | Confluence, Pa. 1 Dear Sir: j 10054 Wood Street | Chicago, Illinois ! April 23, 1917 276 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH EXERCISE 101 1. Study the margins (mats) on photographs and pictures (a) What is the relative area of picture and mat? Compute this for any three well-mounted pictures. (b) What do you learn about the lower margin? Is it larger or smaller than the upper margin? Measure three mounted photographs or pictures. (c) Which is larger, the upper or the lower part of thi printed letters B and St What is your conclusion regarding lower margins? 2. Does it pay to spend time and money for decorative effect only? Look about you. How much of architecture is decorative only? Why does a church have a spire? What useful purpose is served by the buttons on a man's coat sleeve? Would not a plain shirtwaist keep a girl just as warm as any other? Why should we spend time and paper on margins, alignments, and form in letters? 195. The Heading. When no printed letter-head is used, the heading should give three things: (a) the street and number (except in small towns); (b) the city and state; (c) the date. EXAMPLE : 10054 Wood Street Chicago, Illinois May 24, 1917 Observe these general instructions: 1. Write your address. This is an important matter. Big mail-order houses employ mail openers to examine the incoming letters to make sure that the writer has given his address. Where the address has been omitted they try to get the name of the city and state from the postmark on the envelope. But too often they fail and the customer complains bitterly, although the fault is really all his own. 2. Don't forget the date. Many letters are filed by the date of writing. Sometimes the date is very important. 3. Never employ figures for the month. Writing 5/24/17 for May 24, 1917, throws the burden of translating the figures upon the receiver of the letter. This increases the difficulty of DETAILS OF LETTER FORM 277 filing by date, since every date, must be thought out. Your reader will not appreciate anything which saves you work at his expense. 4. Don't forget that a period is required at the end of an abbreviation. 5. Commas may be located by the following device: Suppose the heading to be written out in full thus 10054 Wood St. [in] Chicago [in] Illinois [on] May '24 [of] 1917. Replace the bracketed words with commas, and the punctuation will be correct. There is now a tendency to omit punctuation at the ends of lines, both in the heading and in the salutation. This seems to be a reasonable tendency because the tabulated form indicates that each new line is another word group. This practice is adhered to throughout this book. There are, however, two exceptions: a colon is used after Dear Sir (or equivalent words) in the salutation, and an abbreviation is followed by a period even at the end of a line. EXAMPLES: Winfield, Mass. Mr. John Jones Dec. 22, 1910 Creston, Iowa Dear Sir: 6. Write May 24, 1881; not May 24th, 1881. It is not necessary to write th, st, or d after a date. (It may be neces- sary after a number e. g., 3d row; or in the body of a letter e. g., your letter of the 3d.) 7. It is better to write out city names. Abbreviations of names of cities are not well known. The greater accuracy is worth the effort and besides, abbreviations in business letters have fallen into disfavor. 196. The Decorative Heading. Some firms are willing, for the sake of the appearance of their letters, to go to con- siderable trouble in arranging the items of the heading in a decorative way. In general, novelty should not be attempted by any but persons of taste, it being far better to follow the custom, which, in most cases, is founded on reason. However, 278 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH if used wisely, the following arrangements of the heading will often justify the extra time required: December Wednesday Twelfth August Nineteen Twentieth Eighteen January 1915 Twenty-first Nineteen Eighteen December Tenth October Sixth 1916 Nineteen Nineteen March Ninth 1915 November FEBRUARY Fourth NINE 1914 1910 197. The Person Addressed. In business letters, always write the full address of the person or persons to whom you are writing, at the beginning of the letter. Often letters are opened by people for whom they were not meant. The address and name will help to set the reader right. EXAMPLE : Mr. Charles M. Clarke 321 Forty-fourth St. Des Moines, la. 1. Be sure to give every person a title. This applies also to personal firms. Corporate organizations (that is, companies wit h such a general name that one loses sight of the individuals) are addressed without a title. EXAMPLES: Dr. A. J. Kemp Mr. M. M. Wright Messrs. Bell & Fisher But: The Standard Oil Company DETAILS OF LETTER FORM 279 Do not employ two titles, except for churchmen. (Incorrect) (Correct) Mr. Charles M. Clarke, Esq. Mr. Charles M. Clarke (The form Dr. Charles M. Clarke, M.D. Esq. is disappearing in America.) Dr. Charles~M. Clarke Charles M. Clarke, M. D. The Reverend (not Rev.) James R. Stewart, D.D. But a description of the person's position may follow a name preceded by a title. EXAMPLE : Mr. Henry K. Ewalt, President Washington Heights Savings Bank Chicago, 111. 2. Be careful to write the addressee's name exactly as he writes it. This is one of the finer touches of politeness and is almost sure to be appreciated. Suppose the addressee signs his name Charles M. Clarke It would then be inadvisable to write any of the following forms : (a) Mr. Chas. M. Clarke (b) Mr. C. M. Clarke (c) Mr. Charles M. Clark Form (c) is decidedly impolite. Extreme care must be exercised in the spelling of a man's name. An error justifies the inference that the writer has paid very little attention to the reader, and no man likes a slight of this kind. In some cases the word Company is written out; in others it is abbreviated. Try to remember the individual use (or look it up when in doubt). Note the following correct names: The Crane Company Central Scientific Co. The Century Co. 280 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH 3. The punctuation and arrangement of the name and address should be as follows (unless the "block form" mentioned in 3, Section 194, is used) : Mr. Charles M. Clarke 321 Forty-fourth St. DCS Moines, Iowa 4. Do not allow the house number and the name of a numbered street to come together as figures. (Undesirable) (Correct) 321 44 St. (Why?) 321 Forty-fourth St. (Note the spelling of the street number.) 321 W. 44 St. (Why?) 5. When the "block form" is used, it should appear in both the heading and the address, as in the example in 3, Section 194. 198. The Salutation. Dear Sir is the common business salu- tation for one person, and Gentlemen, or Dear Sirs, for a firm. A woman, married or unmarried, should be addressed as Dear Madam. The plural is Dear Mesdames, or Ladies. The forms Dear Mr. Brown and Dear Miss Case are less formal and ordinarily are not used except where the relation is one of some degree of friendship or, at least, acquaintance. However, such forms are being employed by some good writers to give the much desired friendly tone. When business is transacted between friends, salutations, etc., may well be governed by the practices of friendly letters. Such forms as Friend John or Friend Jones should never be used. Dear Sir, Gentlemen, etc., are usually followed by the colon; less frequently by the comma. The salutation should begin flush with the left margin. 199. The Body of the Letter. Some writers begin the body of the letter with paragraph indention, but the practice of beginning the first sentence of the letter immediately below the end of the salutation is perhaps in most favor. This part of the letter is, of course, the most important. Most of the following points have already been discussed and are repeated here for review: DETAILS OF LETTER FORM 281 1. Be sure that you understand your subject fully. 2. Organize the subject; i.e., plan the letter. A mental plan may be sufficient in some cases. 3. Bear in mind the interests of the reader. 4. Come directly to the point. 5. Avoid all trite phrases; among them, same, esteemed favor, hand you herewith, please find enclosed, would say (es- pecially without an expressed subject), contents noted, beg to advise, etc. 6. Be careful of your sentence structure; i.e., your grammar. Finish all words and all sentences save rather in the exactness of your expressions. Avoid abbreviations unless, you are per- fectly sure they are used by the best writers in the sort of work you have in hand. 7. Be sure that each sentence cannot mean two things and does mean one thing. 8. Use simple words and plain sentence structure. 9. It is well to avoid the participial construction in the last sentence. Hoping to hear from you at an early date, etc., is ineffective because it has been overworked. May I hear from you within a week? or I shall await your reply with interest, is much better. * 10. Many firms use paper without heading for second sheets, but number the sheets and write in the upper left-hand corner, for example, To A. M. F. (initials of receiver). 11. A short typewritten letter is preferably double-spaced; but a letter so long as to require more than one page if double- spaced is preferably single-spaced, with double space between . paragraphs. 12. It should be the ambition of every man who writes a letter to make that letter entirely his own, and to express in it his exact meaning in a pleasant way. It should be his thought, phrased in an individual way, from the salutation to the con- clusion. 200. The Conclusion. The most common ending is Yours truly. It is proper for any business letter. A very common JS2 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH error is the capitalization of truly. Only the first word of the conclusion is capitalized. (Incorrect) (Correct) Yours Truly, Yours truly, The conclusion is always followed by a comma. Truly yours, Yours very truly, and Very truly yours are com- mon endings that are mere variants of Yours truly. Sincerely yours, Cordially yours, and Faithfully yours are proper when there is some friendliness in the relations of the correspondents. Yours respectfully has recently been dropped from the United States Army Manual; but it or some variation of it (Respect- fully yours or Yours very respectfully) may still be used with propriety in communications in which the writer wishes to indicate respect for a person or group of persons of higher authority than himself; e. g., in a petition to a school board or a city council. A common mistake results from the failure to make the words preceding the conclusion a sentence. (Incorrect) (Correct though trite) Hoping to receive more of your Hoping to receive more of your orders. orders, we are, Yours truly, Yours truly, 201. The Signature. Contrary to the general belief, an illeg- ible scrawl is easily forged; the fact that it is indecipherable makes forging the easier. The hardest name to imitate is one written plainly in a bold hand; and the better the penmanship, the harder the task. Besides, if the writer fails to sign his name in a legible hand, he may embarrass his reader in the reply, since the latter will not want to risk misspelling the name. Some business houses have their letters signed with the firm name typewritten, under which are the initials or the name of the writer signed with a pen. EXAMPLE: Empire Asphalt Company By 1 W. B. l By is preferable to per. DETAILS OF LETTER FORM 283 The use of the typewriter in signatures is of doubtful value. If the signature is not important, then the letter is of little concern. Some business men look for the signature first; if it is clear and forceful they read the letter. If the letter purports to come from a man but bears his signature in the hand of a feminine stenographer, or if it is signed by some clerk in a wavering script, they pay little attention to it. The signature must look genuine; except in form letters and letters depending for results on mass production, rubber-stamp signatures are a waste of time and money, while the stamp one sometimes sees, Dictated but not read by, ought not to be used if it can possibly be avoided. Women should sign their own names. Careful writers always avoid giving themselves a title in a signature even to the extent of putting in parentheses a title needed for correct address. EXAMPLE : Mary A. Klein, or (Miss) Mary A. Klein Miss can be omitted, for in the absence of indication to the contrary, Mary A. Klein is assumed to be unmarried. Mrs. Fannie B. Hunter is understood to be a widow. Mrs. W. P. Johnston is the name of a married woman. This signa- ture is not generally considered in good form, however; a wife should sign her own name followed, for greater precision in address, by Mrs. and her husband's name in parentheses. (Bad form) (Correct Jorm) Mrs. W. P. Johnston Effie R. Johnston (Mrs. W. P. Johnston) or (Mrs. W. P.) 202. The Envelope. Be sure to balance the address on the envelope. Writing the address too high or too far to the left always gives the impression of inexperience. The punctua- tion on the envelope is like that at the head of the letter. Some firms use the block form of address beginning the several items directly under the first. 284 VOCATIONAL . See that your name and address are on the envelope. I Vr- sonal stationery is often seen with the name and address of the sender on the flap on the back ot the envelope, where it is inconspicuous. While this is modest, it lays too much of a burden upon the postal employees. The following is a good model for ;i-in2 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH man is much more easily offended by undue familiarity than a working man. One does not read many letters, especially of the form or the "follow-up" kind, without meeting this objectionable type. Several examples of an objectionable sort follow. Dear Brown: Hello, old top, you look cold. You need a pair of wool mittens and a good overcoat. Get them at , etc. Dear Brown: When you opened up this morning did you see old shirt sleeves already at work across the street? And wasn't he going it? Now you'll have to beat him to it. Make up your mind that the next time old shirt sleeves looks in at your window, he'll turn green. Dear Brown: When you kick about a cold dinner, does your wife ever make it warm for you? The safe road is, of course, on middle ground. You can write a dignified letter without its sounding miles away and you can write an interesting letter without trespassing on another's dignity. 207. Undue Brevity. With the great rush of business correspondence, incident to the invention of the typewriter and to the practical use of stenography, came a theory that business letters should be as brief as possible. Brevity is, of course, a good quality, but it must not be bought at the price of courtesy. No possible gain in time can offset the discourtesy of the letter in the left column below: (A poor letter) (A better form) Dear Sir: Dear Sir: Can't fill order. Please give We must withhold your ship- size. Will hold shipment until ment for a few days because you you write us. forgot to give us the size of the Yours truly, shoes. We thank you for the order, and will ship the shoes just as soon as you send us exact directions. Yours truly, MISTAKES IN THE LANGUAGE OF LETTERS 293 Avoid the headless sentence; i. e., the sentence without a subject, usually omitted on the theory that the reader knows what it is. (Avoid) ' (Write) Received yours of June 16. We received your letter of June 16. Do not omit articles or other small words. (Avoid) . (Write) Will ship shoes soon as order We will ship the shoes as soon reaches us. as the order reaches us. Little is to be gained by using abbreviations; and the shortening of ordinary words gives the impression of impolite haste as if the writer did not consider you worth the time. (Avoid) (Write) Y'rs rec'd in re price cotton. We received your letter regard- ing the price of cotton. Seek to save by compactness of sentence structure and by good sense, rather than by the omission of phrase, word, or syllable. 208. A Too Heavy Style. We sometimes find among the half educated a feeling that large words indicate a high degree of intelligence and education. A little of this feeling is some- times found among letter writers. Business letters should be expressed in the simplest language in keeping with efficiency. (A poor letter) (A better form) Dear Sir : Dear Sir : In substantiation of my asser- In proof of my statement in a tion that the illumination in our letter to you on October 16 that municipal library is insufficient, as the lighting in the city library is detailed to you in my communica- poor, I .... ion of the 16th ultimo, I .... 209. A Too Indirect Style. Modern efficiency demands work from every word in a letter. A little care in shortening JIM VOCATIONAL ENGLISH expressions will often save a good deal of time without lessening their force. (Too many words) Dear Sir: In reference to the books you ordered in your letter of Aug. 14, we will say that we are shipping all but the Gulliver's Travels. (Twenty-four words.) Dear We are in receipt of your letter of June 10, and in reply will say that our supply of pearl wire screen which you ordered, June 1, is temporarily exhausted, and we regret very much that we have had to put you to this inconvenience. We can now promise shipment by the end of the week. (Fifty-four words.) Dear Sir: Replying to your letter of June 10, we wish to say that we do not any longer stock the goods you ordered. (Twenty-one words.) (Brief er forms) Dear Sir: \Vc are shipping the books of your Aug. 14 order, except the Gulliver's Travels. (Thirteen words.) Dear Sir: We regret that we had to delay filling your order of June 1, for pearl wire screen. Our stock is temporarily exhausted, but we can (ill your order by the end of the week. (Thirty-three words.) Dear Sir: \\ e regret that we no longer stock the goods you ordered June 10. (Twelve words.) Letters are weakened, too, by the use of an indirect and distant passive construction where the direct active would be more forceful. (Avoid) (1) Prints are being made. (2) A memorandum is being sent you. (Write) (1) We are having prints made. (2) We are sending you a mem- orandum. 210. "We," "the Writer," and "I." The feeling, due often to wrong teaching, that a writer should avoid / because it seems too egotistic, has caused considerable awkwardness in wording. There is no objection to / in a letter that is, it is not more objectionable in a letter than it is in conversation. MISTAKES IN THE LANGUAGE OF LETTERS 295 No one wants to talk long to anybody who shows by his con- versation that he thinks / the most important person in the world. Yet it is necessary for us to speak of ourselves, and the discreet use of / in business letters contributes much to their naturalness and force. The use of the writer to avoid I almost always results in awkwardness. (Distant and unnatural) i (Better) The writer spent a few days last I spent a few days last week week on his farm in Texas. on my Texas farm. We is, of course, proper in a letter coming from a firm or a company a^d not from some individual representing the com- pany; but we should not be used merely as a means of avoiding 7. It is unwise to put / or we before you. For instance, "You will be far more comfortable in our light weight suits" is stronger than "We can make you more comfortable if you will buy one of our light weight suits." It is neither good manners nor good business to think of yourself first. Translate every transaction into the experience of the reader, if possible. Keep the receiver's happiness or gain always before him. QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER XXI 1. What is a hackneyed expression? 2. Why is it impossible to give a definite substitute for such an ex- pression? 3. Can you give two reasons for avoiding the use of same? 4. Should the writer avoid the use of If Explain. 5. Letters which are meant to be "snappy" sometimes take on an objectionable quality. What is it? 6. Why is undue brevity bad? 7. Is it wise to use the writer to avoid If Discuss. CHAPTER XXII SPECIAL BUSINESS LETTERS 211. Two Lincoln Letters. Two letters of Abraham Lincoln are quoted here because, in their simple directness and unusual clearness, and in their broad human sympathy, they furnish excellent models for business correspondence. Note in the following letter, first the evidences of clear thinking, and second the orderly directness in the manner of expressing the thought. Executive Mansion, Washington February 3, 1862 Major-General McClellan: My dear Sir: You and I have distinct and different plans for a move- ment of the Army of the Potomac yours to be down the Chesapeake, up the Rappahannock to Urbana, and across land to the terminus of the railroad on York River; mine to move directly to a point on the railroad southwest of Manassas. If you will give me satisfactory answers to the following questions, I shall gladly yield my plan to yours. First. Does not your plan involve a greatly larger expenditure of time and money than mine? Second. Wherein is a victory more certain by your plan than mine? Third . Wherein is a victory more valuable by your plan than mine? Fourth. In fact, would it not be less valuable in this, that it would break no great line of the enemy's communications, while mine would? Fifth. In case of a disaster, would not retreat be more difficult by your plan than by mine? 1 Yours truly, Abraham Lincoln The second letter is given here to show the desirability of courteous explanation and a sympathetic attitude. As Pres- ident and Commander-in-chief of the armies of the United 'Note that McClellan 's plan failed disastrously, while that of Lincoln was carried out later by General Grant and won the war. 296 SPECIAL BUSINESS LETTERS 297 States, Lincoln might simply have ordered without comment what he went to some length to request. Thus the shortest letter is not always best. Even in giving orders it is often well to present reasons, provided, of course, they are such as con- cern the receiver. Executive Mansion, Washington March 1, 1864 Hon. Secretary of War: My dear Sir: A poor widow by the name of Baird has a son in the army, that for some offense has been sentenced to serve a long time without pay, or at most with very little pay. I do not like this punishment of withholding pay. It falls so very hard on poor families. After he had been serving this way for several months, at the tearful appeal of the poor mother, I made a direction that he be allowed to enlist for a new term, on the same conditions as the others. She now comes and says she cannot get it acted upon. Please do it. Yours truly, A. Lincoln Throughout your composition of various types of letters which are to follow, try to preserve the simple thoroughness of the Lincoln letters, along with their evident good will. 212. The Letter of Application. "Getting a job/' especially the first one, is a vital 'experience in the life of a boy or a girl. Yet it is said that only a small percentage of letters received in reply to an advertisement are fully read. This can be easily believed. An advertiser reports the following forms of replies to a "want ad": Twelve letters on paper torn from a permanent tablet chiefly from shorthand dictation pads. Seventeen letters on otherwise objectionable stationery. One letter on the margin of a newspaper. One telegram. Twenty-four unsatisfactory. These were cast aside because of unin- viting appearance poor writing, lack of neatness, bad spelling, glaringly bad English, etc. Nineteen possible. Of these nineteen, each of which was carefully read, six were chosen and the writers were interviewed. _>!)8 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH In spite of this report, however, the writer of an applica- tion, if he is careful, can make it certain that his letter will be read. He should: 1. Use excellent paper and envelope. The paper and envelope should match. The envelope might well be of the stamped kind sold in the post office. It should not be odd in shap or color. 2. The letter should be written on one side of the paper only. It should conform in general to the instructions given in Chapter XX as to margins, etc. If possible it should be typewritten. These things will insure notice. We shall now consider the subject matter of the letter. 213. The Content. The best asset any person can have, except of course character, is the power to organize. You must be able to get the first thing first and other things in due order. Demonstrate your ability by putting all about your education in one place usually a separate paragraph and all about your r\p< rimce in another place. Let us see in what order the topics should come. Naturally a statement of the position applied for comes first perhaps the employer is seeking help in a dozen different departments. Next he wants to know whether you are a boy or a girl, how old you are, and something about your nation- ality and your physical condition. These points are in a sense only preliminary to the three main qualifications experience, education, and reference. Always tell of your experience first; if you have had none, do not seek to hide the fact. The employer wants to know what you have done, for if some one has tried you, you have a record. Education is next in importance. Employers are steadily raising their educational requirements as experience demon- strates to them the superiority of the trained mind. At this point you can advantageously bring in a little of your own personality your attitude, for instance, toward the work you SPECIAL BUSINESS LETTERS 299 hope to do. If your experience and your education are satisfactory, and the form of the letter is pleasing, the em- ployer will, at this point, be striving to get a mental picture of you. He will be open to impression. Don't miss the opportunity of making this first impression favorable. Throughout the letter, and at this point especially, get away from any set form. Write your own letter in your own mode of expression; use the simplest and sincerest language you know. References should be intended for use; i. e., little is gained by referring vaguely to a half dozen people. It is better to name one or two persons qualified to speak of you, and if telephone communication is possible it is well to give the telephone numbers. The employer is a busy man, and he is almost sure, other things being equal, to try to get into touch with the applicant who offers the easiest line of inves- tigation. Honesty is always the best policy. No man can deceive for long, and few men have profited by deceit. Do not try to hide a limited experience or a poor education. Offer your- self frankly as you are. If you cannot do the work, you should be the last person to want it; if you can do the work, let your quiet confidence show through your letter. 214. One Possible Letter of Application. The following letter is not a form, but an illustration. *It is, therefore, not to be imitated except in a general way. The numbers in parentheses are not part of the letter, but references to Exercise 194. Chicago July 28, 1916 To (1)X 5 Chicago Tribune Dear Sir: (2) I want a position as a stenographer, and I submit the following facts for your consideration : The person: (3) I am a girl, eighteen years old and in excellent health. My parents are of Irish descent, but the family has lived in America for several generations. 300 \< M AT10NAL ENGLISH Experience: I was employed by H. A. Mueller A Co., importers of German optical goods, until the war forced them practically to suspend business. I have never worked for any other firm. (4) I was with Mm-lW & Co. seventeen months, at first filing letters and writing an occasional letter. When I left I was handling order detail. Education: I attended the Roeeville, Illinois, Township High School for a little more than two yean, but had to give up my schooling because of the death of my father. (5) I attended the Central Business College at Monmouth, Illinois, for six months, accomplishing a speed of seventy words on the typewriter and 115 at dictation. Ability: I have confidence in myself I have to have it. (6) I never did anything in your line, but I know I can learn. The first week at Mueller's I was lost in a maze of technical terms, but I learned the work and was given charge of letters in the most technical department. References: Mr. H. M. Queens, Principal of the Central Business College, Monmouth, Illinois Mr. H. A. Mueller, 220 8. Wabash Av< nu< Telephone Harrison (7) 4834 (8 a. m. to 1 p. m.); residence, Englewood 7184. Can you give me an interview at a time convenient to you? I can I reached through Wentworth 784. Yours truly, Mary A. Healy 0241 Eggleston Avenue EXERCISE 194 Consider the following notes and questions on the foregoing letter of application:. (1) It is better to use the word to here to avoid too great abruptness. (2) This is allowable in fact preferable. The habit of beginning without a salutation is unusual. (3) It is somewhat unusual to write the paragraph headings and these headings may be omitted. This is a business letter, however, and the headings show clearly the organization. The heading, indeed, is coming into increasingly frequent use in business letters of all sorts. (4) Is frankness a good quality? (5) Is reference to the death of her father proper in a business letter? (6) What does she mean? (7) What is the intention of Miss Healy regarding this reference? Is the letter sincere? Does Miss Healy very much need work? How do you know? Does she ask for charity? If you were the employer, would you ask Miss Healy to see you? Miss Healy has not mentioned salary. Should she have done so? SPECIAL BUSINESS LETTERS 301 215. Application in Person. The following material is from a newspaper interview: Things every boy or girl looking for a job in a large department store should know were told yesterday by Charles P. Avery, office employment manager of Marshall Field & Co., in a talk to the public schools depart- ment of the National Commercial Teachers' Federation and Allied Associa- tions, holding its twenty-first annual convention in the Hotel Sherman. "Probably 75 per cent of the applications made by commercial grad- uates are lacking in some essential," said Mr. Avery. "Teacfc your students that personal appearance is the first considera- tion. If a boy comes to us with his shoes unblacked and his hair uncombed, I am quite likely to conclude that he belongs in a factory rather than in the office department of a store. If a boy or girl doesn't make a good appearance, he or she won't even get an interview. "Then comes the manner of approach. If they will come to me just as they would come to their teacher at school or their parents, I shall be able to judge their qualifications. If a boy slouches in, holds the door open, and gives the impresssion that he has all the time in the world on his hands, I am likely to wonder if that is the way he would do if I sent him on an errand. "We give each applicant a blank application and tell him to go over to the desk and fill it out. Some boys say, Where?' Teach your students to think quickly and listen to what is told them. The employment manager does not want to repeat everything he says. "The appearance of the application, the spelling and the writing, all have significance for us. You would be surprised to see how dirty some of the applications are when they are handed back to us in about five minutes. Some of them are rolled or doubled up, with the marks of dirty fingers on them, so that the writing is almost illegible. I picture to myself that person taking a note to a section manager or the general manager and handing it in looking like that. "We find a tremendous number of misspelled words. Many of the applicants do not answer all the questions. "We are always looking for the boys and girls who can graduate quickly into more important work. One of the very first things we notice is whether they have 'pep.' We want promptness and responsibility. "But the boys and girls who want work are not coming to an ogre when they approach the employment manager. They are coming to a man or a woman who wants to hire them. They can sell their services to advantage if they have the material. "Also, we are sincerely anxious to see them get into the right groove. I am constantly directing boys and girls to other places where I believe they will make a better success than they could with us." 302 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH EXERCISE 105 1. List the qualities Mr. Avery (p. 301) wants to fin<> VOCATIONAL ENGLISH EXERCISE 2O2 In a Irttcr introduce the son of a neighbor or of a fri< n< written on a separate sheet. Some companies copy orders on prepared blanks, a sheet being sent to each department concerned. Other houses send the original order from depart- ment to department, each article being checked and signed for as it is sent to the shipping room. In every case, the description of the goods should be set in a narrower column than the rest of the letter, and tabulated. Note the difference in ease of reading between the following forms: (A bad order form) (A better form) Gentlemen : Gentlemen : Please send to the above address Please send to the above address, one fountain pen No. 37 A, price 1 Fountain Pen No. 37 A. $5.00 $5.00, and charge to my account. Charge to my account. Yours truly, Yours truly, (Hard to read almost impossible ' (Easily read note the space at the to check) left for check) Kindly send us by fast freight Kindly send us by fast freight the following goods: 5 gross Ian- the following goods: tern slide plates, contrasty; 1 doz. 5 gross lantern slide plates, 6)^x8)4 Seneca plate holders, contrasty. board slides ; 1 Ib. can hydrochinon; 1 doz. 6H*8^ Seneca plate 1 hundred Ib. keg pea hypo; 1 holders, board slides, gross Colona 8x10 medium, single 1 Ib. can hydrochinon. weight, glossy; H gross 10x12 1100 Ib. keg pea hypo. Cyko contrast, semi-matte, double 1 gross Colona 8x10 medium, weight. single weight, glossy. H gross Cyko, 10x12 contrast, semi-matte, double weight. SPECIAL BUSINESS LETTERS 311 226. A Correct Ordering Letter. Students should examine carefully the following model letter: ANDREWS & SABLE COMMERCIAL PHOTOGRAPHERS 357 W. 63d St., Chicago Order 1831 , Sept. 24, 1917 Messrs. Bauer & Kenyon 224 S. Wabash Avenue Chicago Gentlemen : Kindly ship us by Lincoln Express the following before September 26 if possible: 100 doz. 8x10 Medium Iso. 100 doz. 6^x8^2 Instantaneous Iso. 50 doz. 11x14 Crown. As a special favor we ask that this order be charged to our October account. Yours truly, Andrews & Sable By EXERCISE 2O6 1. Is the following description sufficient? Why? Kindly send me six roll films for my kodak, six exposure, extra rapid, non-curling. 2. Can the following order be filled? Why? November 10, 1916 McGuire & Brown Madison and State Sts. Chicago Gentlemen : Kindly send me C. O. D. the following goods: 1 box Holeproof hose, llj^, black. 1 Conklin fountain pen, fine, self -filler, $2.50 size. 1 Ib. box Quaker chocolates, bittersweet. Yours truly, Richard Henderson 312 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH 3. Criticize the following if necessary: 10054 Wood Street, Chicago November 10, 1916 Scott, Maynard A Co. 315 W. Jackson St. Denver, Colo. Gentlemen! Please send to me parcel post one raincoat, size 44. Yours truly, Henry Camp 4. How many and what conditions are necessary in ordering a watch? Arrange the conditions in logical order. 5. Criticize the following: Hall and Montague 6330 Yale Ave. Cleveland, Ohio Dear Sirs: Kindly sm.l rn<> tin* following goods: 1 man's shirt, 17H. full size, blue stripes or black dots $1.50 1 spool cotton thread, white 05 1 pair men's gloves, black ki< 1 1 50 Inclosed find my check for $3.05. Yours truly. Mrs. Andrew Cropper 6. Write a letter to Sumner, Field & Company, Chicago, ordering a pair of shoes. At first thought this may seem an uninteresting task; however, if you begin to check all the specifi- cations, you will find something to think about. 227. Letters Acknowledging Orders. All orders of what- ever size should be acknowledged unless shipment can be made very quickly. Acknowledging an order for a dollar's worth of goods seems hardly to pay. The writer, however, must look for his profit in the appreciation and good will of his customer. The next order may be worth while. An acknowledgment of an order should: 1. State the date the order was written and, if undue time has elapsed, the date of its receipt. SPECIAL BUSINESS LETTERS 313 2. Give the number of the customer's order if the number system is used, and the number assigned to it by the receiver. 3. State the general nature of the goods .ordered. 4. Give assurances regarding the time and manner of filling the order. 5. Thank the customer for his confidence. (Not regularly at the end, however, lest the statement become only a form.) 228. An Acknowledgment. Study the following model of a letter of acknowledgment: BAUER & KENYON PHOTOGRAPHERS' SUPPLIES, PRINTING AND DEVELOPING 224 SOUTH WABASH AVENUE, CHICAGO Sept. 25, 1917 Messrs. Andrews & Sable 357 W. 63d Street, Chicago Gentlemen : We have your order No 1831 of September 24, for 250 dozen plates, but regret that we cannot furnish the Crown until next week. However, we are hurrying our order No. A-231 lor 200 dozen Medium and Instantaneous Iso for shipment September 26 by Lincoln Express, and we shall back order 50 dozen 11x14 Crown for delivery not later than September 29, our order No. A-232. Thank you for the order. We have already notified the accounts department to bill it for October. Yours truly, Bauer & Kenyon By 229. Letters Transmitting Money. 1 Enclosures of money should never be made except when accompanied by a letter of which the sender keeps a copy. The letter should note the number of the draft, check, or money order, the amount, and the purpose. A carbon copy of these conditions has more than once enabled the sender to avoid paying bills a second time, and has led to the recovery of lost or stolen money. Very small amounts may be sent in postage stamps. No currency should be sent through the mail, for there are means of payment which are entirely safe. *For forms of checks, drafts, etc., see Appendix B, pages 366-368. 314 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH Thr post-office order is always safe. The exprrs- order is similar to the post-office money order. Personal checks should not be sent except locally. When a check gets far from home the holder has to pay exchange, which he always charges, mentally at least, to the maker. A certified check also involves exchange, but is much more desirable. A personal check is backed only by the horn-sty of one man. A bank stands back of the certified check. The process is simple. A duly authorized officer writes or stamps "certified" and his name and position across the face of the check and orders the amount withdrawn at once from the maker's checking account, thus insuring payment when the check is presented. Most payments at a distance are made by the bank draft, which is really only a check which one bank draws upon anot her. Just as in a check Smith orders the First National Bank to pay Jones, in a bank draft the First National Bank of Chicago orders the Manhattan Bank of New York to pay a bill in that city, upon presentation of the draft. Whenever the banks of oiie section of the country get a considerable indebtedness upon those of another section, currency is sent by express to discharge the debt. This does not often happen, because indebtedness ' in New York is balanced against indebtedness in Chicago, thereby canceling both. All drafts and money orders are known by number, and all good business men number their checks. The number of a check, its amount, the payee, etc., make a very valuable record. Examine the following example of a good letter of remittance: Gentlemen : In this letter you will find our check No. 62421 for $287.71 in payment of your invoice No. A-632. Yours truly, EXERCISE 2O7 Pay a firm at least five hundred miles away the sum of $350. Their invoice number was 5431. You are paying within ten days and may deduct 2%. SPECIAL BUSINESS LETTERS 315 230. The Adjustment Letter. The first thing for any busi- ness man to resign himself to is the certainty of letters of complaint. However much he may try always to satisfy, he will at times fail, sometimes through no fault of his, and at other times through oversight in his own office. A second fact to be kept in mind is that most people are honest. Successful business men have generally adopted a working rule that the customer is always right. Keeping the old customer is sound business sense. Small things have a way, too often, of causing great enmities; too of ten -a point, of no real consequence will break up business re- lations of years. Adjust such differences; keep the old customer. The most important quality in sustaining desirable business relations is tact. This word may need explanation. The dictionary defines it as a quick and intuitive appreciation of what is fit. In business, tact means changing places with the other fellow. It means sympathy with his point of view first, and, if necessary, argumentation afterward. (A letter lacking in tact) Dear Sir: Most of tlie damage of the kind you mention in your letter of June ^14, is the result of carelessness in uncrating. When a man rips open one end of a crate, he should make sure that the other end isn't digging into the furniture. Our packers are unusually careful to see that all delicate parts are fully protected. If you will return the damaged table leg, we will repair it. Yours truly, (Criticism) The carping tone of this letter is sure to aggravate an already unpleasant condition. The offer at the end seems to come as a petulant condescension rather than as an effort to assist. (A better form) Dear Sir: We were sorry to learn this morning of the damage to the table leg. Tracing the cause of this kind of damage is not worth the time, since the trouble may lie in the crating, shipping, draying, or uncrating. We shall, however, call our shippers' attention to the condition, and we suggest that you ask your men to be careful in uncrating; thus we may both help to avoid damage of this kind. If you will unbolt the leg and ship it to us, we will have it repaired immediately. Yours very truly, (Commendation) This letter is sympathetic, and yet it insists on care in uncrating. 316 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH A second quality of a good adjustment letter is one common to all business letters promptness. The necessity of quick reply in such cases is even more urgent than usual, because the man making the complaint is displeased, and consequently impatient of delay. A third quality is thoroughness. A well conducted business will be systematized to the point where records are quickly available, from which a thoroughly efficient letter may be written. Adjustments should be a part of the business just as service stations now belong to the automobile industry, not a necessary evil to be slighted whenever it seems possible. 231. The "Mean" Letter. It is human nature to want to strike back. Business men often receive mail of a very exas- perating kind; but the wise correspondent does not reply in kind, for he knows that anger is always undignified. He cannot afford to descend to the level of the brawler, thereby unfitting himself for courteous writing for several hours after. Two ways are open to the receiver of a "mean" letter: (a) He can fail (apparently) to notice that the letter differs at all from other adjustment requests, (b) He can return a soft answer to accusations and sarcasm. The. former is the better method of procedure in nine cases out of ten. The latter method ought to be tried only by the experienced correspondent. Charles Dickens once closed a letter to Sheridan Knowles, in reply to an angry letter Knowles had written him, with the following words: You write as few lines which, dying, you would wish to blot, as most men. But if you ever know me better, as I hope you may (the fault shall not be mine if you do not), I know you will be glad to have received the assurance that some part of your letter has been written on the sand, and that the wind has already blown over it. Faithfully yours always, Charles Dickens EXERCISE 2O8 Reply to the following. Explain that you bought some stock of a competitor and that an inexperienced clerk, failing SPECIAL BUSINESS LETTERS 317 to note that the competitor's numbers duplicated your own, had shipped the wrong goods. Gentlemen : We ordered from you August 24, our order No. 683, fifty-six lantern slides on agriculture. We were careful to give you the correct numbers, yet ten of these slides were views of types of architecture. We are sending you a copy of the order, on which we have checked the goods which we find satisfactory. Will you see to this at once, as our customer is impatient? Yours truly, Davis & Co. EXERCISE 2O9 Write explaining that there was some uncertainty as to your ability to fill the following order, and after settling this matter you had forgotten to acknowledge the order. Apologize and promise immediate shipment. 257 W. 84 St., Chicago June 24, 1917 Messrs. Donald, Andrews & Co. 327 Front St. Detroit, Michigan Gentlemen : More than a week ago I ordered a table and six dining chairs. I have heard nothing from you. Did you receive the order and the money? If so, why don't you let me know? When am I to get my table? Ever? Yours truly, Mrs. Mary Hazelton EXERCISE 21O You receive the following letter: Hazelhurst, la. Dec. 10, 1917 A. C. Knyht Co. 2046 Wood St. Chicago Sirs: More than three weeks ago I ordered a shotgun from you, and I sent the money, 18 dollars. I was in a hurry, and so I mailed the letter on the train. 1 haven't heard from you and I haven't received my gun or my money. You are a bunch of robbers. I'm going to get the post-office authorities after you. I want to do business with honest men. Fred Keim 318 \ M ATIONAL ENGLISH You find that Mr. Keim's order has been sent to the trouble department and that it reads: Nov. 18, 1917 A. C. Knyht Co. "2046 Wood St. Chicago Gentlemen: Please send me one shot Rim like that on page 16 of your catalog. I am sending you $18.00 in currency. Yours truly, FredKeim Reply to Mr. Keim's letter of Dec. 10. 232. The Sales Letter. The sections immediately following treat of the letter written to a person in an effort to interest h i i n in certain goods or service. The letter does not presuppose previous correspondence. The sales letter is the most difficult of all the business letters, because you have to create an interest. When a man writes to you inquiring about an article, you can count on his reading your reply, but when you write the first letter you must make it so interesting that he will read it. Otherwise your letter is a dead loss to you. Read again what was said in Section 190 regarding appeal, and adapting the letter to the receiver. Thousands of letters daily go straight into people's waste baskets because they fail to interest. 233. Divisions of a Selling Letter. There are four natural steps in a good selling letter. They are (a) getting attention and holding it until the main proposition can be presented; (b) explaining the product or proposition; (c) explaining how the proposition applies to the reader personally, how he will profit therefrom; and (d) "clinching the deal." This all looks easy so does playing the violin, in which all one needs to do is to put his fingers on the right spot and draw the bow across the proper string. Yet there are fiddlers and violinists. 234. Getting Attention. All men are curious; they will "try anything once." The man who opens your letter wants SPECIAL BUSINESS LETTERS 319 to know what it is about; but he must be interested or into the waste basket goes your "esteemed favor/' Bear in mind that it is your fault if he fails to read it. The opening lines must catch his attention. No openings like "We have in our new line of fall goods" will be effective. He hasn't time to give thought to your business; he is too much interested in his own. You must show him that your letter is his business, and to do this you must catch his interest at the first glance. "My dear Sir: We've just learned something you ought to know/' is a good beginning, because all men want to learn, especially about their business. "Burglars enter through a window nine times out of ten," will fix the attention of all women and most men long enough for the writer to get into his subject. "It takes twenty men to make a pin," will do very well, because it arouses curiosity; you read farther to find out what division of labor is made in so small a task. These catch phrases must be honest and related to the subject. It was the custom a few years ago to head patent medicine advertisements with a line which caught the eye and fooled the reader into reading an advertising paragraph. 'This practice is no longer common, probably because the adver- tisers learned that it does not pay to trick a reader. A mistaken letter writer began a phonograph sales letter with "Stop! Look! Listen!" but followed with not a word about danger or railroad crossings. The letter was unsuccessful, because it began with what was too evidently only a cheap device for attracting attention. The "attention compeller" need not be a startling statement. Often a mention of the goods, if phrased in a way to make the matter interesting, is sufficient. EXAMPLE: The ripe olive, full of its own rich oil, is a delight. The olives are picked, etc. The reader will follow readily into a description of olive raising. 235. The First Impression. The writer must change places mentally with the reader. He must try his writing upon himself and mark well his own feelings. If the words produce 320 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH anger, fear, or unpleasant memories, they must not be used. A phonograph salesman writing to a ranchman and desiring to point out the loneliness of the country and the lack of enter- tainment, wrote, "Are your children learning anything in Moon- ville?" Now if there is anything dear to a man it is his children . and the mere insinuation that they are growing up ignorant in a wild place, is the more likely to anger him because it may be true. Avoid seeming to notice any unpleasant conditions in a man's location or employment. Do not speak directly, for instance, of the hot weather of a particular section. You may with profit speak of hot weather, but you should make the n- dition general; otherwise the reader may resent your words. Use care in asking questions, for there may be the assump- tion of a negative answer which will be uncomplimentary "Are you an honest man?" is a bad start. Most men resent even a question of their honesty. A circular letter to a plumber began, "Do you want a good reputation as a plumber?" Probably most readers replied, at least mentally, "I have a good reputation, thank you!" and threw the letter away. Summed up, the impression the writer must give through his letter does not differ from that he would want to make in a face-to-face conversation. 236. Passing to the Explanation or Description. The transition from the opening sentence to the description of the article for sale is very important. If the first sentence is too far afield, the reader will feel that you have used it only to catch him, and he will not read farther. One way of passing from the "attention compeller" to the purpose of the letter is to tell a story' or to offer interesting information. Note the skill with which the writer of the following letter passed from Napoleon to the safety razor: Napoleon was deathly afraid of a razor. He never permitted any one near him with an open razor. He did his own shaving and, owing to a sensitive skin, never could get a razor that pleased him. The one that annoyed him least was picked up during the Peninsular Campaign and had a blade of Saracen steel. Today nearly all the World's Rulers use a Razor. . . . SPECIAL BUSINESS LETTERS 321 The interest every man has in his own business offers the writer a chance which he ought not to overlook. A business man is always interested in cutting down operating expenses. Note how the writer used this fact in the following letter to a large manufacturer: Dear Sir: Do you pay your men for useless walking? It may be that more of your money is slipping away with the shoe leather of your employees than you suspect. It takes time for a man to move forty feet and adjust himself to a new task, perhaps having to return for other tools or more supplies. And every time he shuffles about your shop he gets in another man's way and costs you some more money. Now we can stop all this. (Selling automatic traveling cranes.) EXERCISE 211 Which of these beginning lines are good and which are bad? Discuss each one carefully with your teacher. 1. Dear Sir: You carry life insurance of course. How about poison insurance? How do you know that your wife or your child won't take carbolic acid for cough medicine? You are careful, of course. But are you sure? (Selling a first-aid medicine cabinet.) 2. Dear Sir: Do you want to enjoy life? You cannot find better amusement than in one of our phonographs. 3. Are you willing to let the other fellow get ahead of you? One of your customers writes us that you don't carry our unexcelled line of soups. He may go elsewhere and you will lose his trade. 4. Dear Madam: A word about your children. Mothers know the importance of bringing up the child to appreciate good taste. The school years are vital and there's much for the child to learn besides arithmetic. (Talk on clothing.) 5. Dear Madam: Are you interested in your children? Do you want them to look decent? You know the school years are most important. (Selling clothing.) 6. Dear Sir: Railroads use sand; wise men wear rubber heels; but the wisest of them all is the man who equips his car with non-skid chains. EXERCISE 212 Begin a letter to a teacher in the grades intended to interest her in a summer resort. What one quality or condition do you want to stress? Is it rest and beauty, or freedom from little worries? Perhaps you want to emphasize health or cheapness. 322 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH Choose your best argument and give the proper impression in the first lines. 237. The Description. If you are a good writer, the reader is interested at this stage. He may be hoping that you can help him that you can save money for him or increase his efficiency or comfort; or perhaps he is merely interested. Your task now is to make him see the details you wish to present. If you are selling a machine, your description must be so clear that he will see the parts of the machine and understand why you are enthusiastic. If you are selling service, make the working details very plain. This is not so easy as it may at first seem. Business calls for imagination not the kind which pictures fanciful things, but that which sees real possibilities and describes them so clearly that the reader also sees. Avoid, then, any phrase or word that has lost its meaning. "That's what they all say" is a slang phrase, but it expresses well the state of mind of the man who reads, "Our product is best," "made of the highest grade oak," "quality unexcelled," etc. These phrases have lost their power. Business letters must be written with some- thing of the same force and freshness which literature has always demanded. Avoid explaining the merits of an article at too great length. Do not detail too many merits. Concentrate rather on one thing the comfort of a chair, or the accuracy of a watch. Compare the force of the description in the following advertising letters: The watch is a fine .... a watch that is both time keeper, durable and hand- ornament and instrument. A watch some the best "buy' 1 on the to be worn, not just "carried. 11 market today. A watch which shows on the face of it that it is heir to a fine old tradition and will beat true to it (Criticism) through life. Excessive use of commonplace (Commendation) adjectives like fine, durable, hand- Here is an original description. some, etc., has weakened this kind It carries conviction. But one qual- of description. ity, elegance, is here discussed. SPECIAL BUSINESS LETTERS 323 A packing house writes: "Do you remember the smell of hickory smoke that suggested biscuits to the boy of years ago? You get it again with our Plantation brand hams, cured," etc. That figure will not be so powerful as the generations change, but it brings to the man who remembers the old wood stove, the memory of good things to eat. And when you get a man's "mouth watering," you are near a sale. EXERCISE 213 Which of the following descriptions do you consider good? Criticize the others. Discuss each with your teacher. 1. Picture to yourself a handsome, high-grade, beautifully-finished, luxuriously easy-riding enclosed coach put as much quality into your picture as you can. 2. You want your medicine chest LOCKED. And when the accident is fresh you don't want to look for the key. Here's the solution. Let us make your combination any two numbers you choose numbers you and your wife can't forget baby's birthday, for instance. Antiseptic bandages, disinfectants, antidotes, first-aid book always ready. Always locked. You don't know how much you may appreciate this some day. 3. This is an easy car to drive. It is easily repaired, but seldom needs to be. It is durable for your line of business. It is also a car that you need not be ashamed of. 4. Our phonographs are made of the best seasoned wood. They stand about four feet high, but are on the highest grade ball-bearing castors, which permit them to be moved about the room at will. They have a fine tone. Don't buy any other. 5. There is no necessity for library paste to dry out. You need not try to use the hardened brush with its tin top attached. We have a simple container with a water division which keeps both brush and paste soft ready for instant use. 6. In no country in the world are the soil and climate better suited for growing pineapples than Hawaii. Here this rich, luscious fruit is grown in its highest state of perfection. It is allowed to ripen in the beautiful tropical sunshine and balmy winds, and is sweeter and more juicy than pineapples grown elsewhere. Great big pineapples, such as are pictured above, are selected for our Lexington brand. They are canned imme- diately after being picked and come to you full of the natural rich flavor, as tender and juicy as though just taken from the stem. We handle only the extra grade, the highest grade, of Hawaiian pineapple at lower prices than it is usually sold for. Try it. 324 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH % 238. The Application to the Individual. Let us suppose that by this time you have told your reader what you have to sell. Suppose you have explained to a woman the purity of the Montrose brand of canned soups how the vegetables are gathered and with what sanitary care they have been handled. You need now to connect all this directly with her life. You iniirht picture to her the advantages of a warm, instantly pre- pared dinner after a cold day's shopping. You might point out to her the comfort she will take in the thought of a delici* >us first course when company comes unexpectedly. Here is an opportunity to work "you" into your letters. Point out to the man who gets in from a hard day's work "How refreshed your feet feel, what a wonderful measure of comfort you experience, after you release them from the stiff leather shoes of an evening and slip into a soft, easy-fitting pair of . slippers!" EXERCISE 214 Discuss the following paragraphs with the teacher. These paragraphs are assumed to follow explanation of the articles. 1. To a general storekeeper in a small town: I heard a woman say the other day that she could get better bargains at the small store in spite of the higher price. "I can explain that easily," I told her. The small storekeeper must depend on come-back business. Eclectic knit goods brings 'em back. When you sell one of our union suits, point to the label Eclectic. Say to your customer, "Notice the name; you'll want another of these suits as soon ae you feel the snug warm fit." 2. To a poultry-raiser: (Could this be written by a man who doesn't know the poultry business?) There's no limit to what a man can make in the business except the limit of time in caring for the stock. When you have to carry a hundred frozen fountains to the service house, thaw them out, repair a few dozen breaks, refill and, carry them back to the units, you are paying a big price for something which ought to be free water. The Thermaq does all this while you care for the fowls and the eggs, and does it much better than you can. The Thermaq maintains a uniform temperature of from forty to sixty degrees throughout the coldest weather. SPECIAL BUSINESS LETTERS 325 EXERCISE 215 Explain to a real estate man how a camera will suit his purposes. Take it for granted that you have proceeded through the explanation of the mechanism. Or explain to a housewife how a can of Benton's delicious soup will aid dinner when company comes unexpectedly, or when she returns, chilled, from a shopping trip. 239. Making It Easy to Order. "Procrastination [putting things off] is the thief of time/' runs the old saying old because it has been recognized for centuries as a truth. A man, even when convinced, often gives up to more pressing affairs and puts aside your letter. Gradually he loses his interest, and your effort has failed. There's just one thing to do make ordering so easy and so natural that he will act in the next minute. If possible, it is wise to add a time element. Make it seem necessary to order quickly. "Only 300 sets left" is in keeping with the general idea, but overworked. A little thought will generally discover some time element that can be used. Some firms offer prizes to accompany the sale if the order is received by a certain date. Sometimes a time coupon is inclosed, good for credit before a given date. These devices originate in the knowledge that allowing a man to put a thing off is not good business. Most men are busy especially those who are worth while. Sometimes even a little task like writing a letter looms large before the man whose business is crowding him. You must do the ordering for him. "Give him something to sign.'' Many firms inclose order blanks which the purchaser may fill out and sign, or on which he may check what he wants. An addressed envelope helps. Within local distances the telephone may be suggested as an easy method of ordering, and many firms give the buyer authority to "wire collect." One of the best incentives for quick action is promised service. Make your customer see you ready to deliver to him instantly something that you want him to have and that he 326 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH wants to have. Make him feel that you are working for his interest and that you are ready to do him a favor at the first opportunity. It is never a wise plan to attempt to frighten or coerce a customer. A few years ago a large department store mailed thousands of numbered cards to prospective customers. Each number was said to correspond to a charge account in the customer's name, and the letter warned the receiver that he had better come in and be identified to prevent some one's learning his number and running a charge against him. That letter made enemies. EXERCISE a ie Study the following letter. How many paragraphs are there? Why? What is the work of each paragraph? BELL, BROWN A COMPANY PROJECTION APPARATUS AURORA, ILLINOIS December 16, 1917 The Reverend M. A. Baldwin Horttm, Kansas Dear Mr. Baldwin: When one considers that three out of four automobile bandits terroriz- ing our cities are boys from sixteen to twenty-one, he gets a spasm of attention. "Why?' 1 he asks himself. "Is it because the church and the school can't get hold of the boy?' 1 Doubtless you have studied this matter closely, and we wish we might talk with you about it. It must be true, though, that good influences were lacking. Since we must run competition with immoral or at best unmoral entertainment, we might better do it well. There is no reason why the church shouldn't have science on its side. Science can help wonderful! v. The Edison laboratories have produced a new incandescent light brighter than the arc, which can be used in the stereopticon. This at last solves the problem of projection, for fire ordinance prohibitions, special wirimr, and cracked slides belong to the past. There is no inferno of heat and smoke and no smudged hands and burnt fingers just a clear bright light, silent as any ordinary electric bulb, and safe. The minister will especially appreciate the safety. You will find this lantern invaluable in your work. It can be used in the Sunday-school room by unskilled operators and it is safe. It helps to keep the boy in Sunday-school one of our big problems. It can ! r SPECIAL BUSINESS LETTERS 327 carried about to the homes of your parishioners to add to the enjoyment of an .evening. It is strong enough to illustrate your Sunday evening lecture. You can use it in club talks and be free to focus your entire attention upon what you have to say. Every pastor who has a desire to be a power beyond his pulpit should own one. Why not arrange for a trial now? You can have a machine in Horton for next Sunday. In the course of a month you can give an entertainment and make the machine pay for itself in one night the entire cost is only $28.75, and we will give you sixty days to pay for it. Perhaps you had better wire us (at our expense) if you want a machine for Sunday. Other- wise use the inclosed form and send direct to us and we will make prompt delivery we await only your word. Yours very truly, Bell, Brown & Company, By EXERCISE 217 Begin letters to the following. Proceed only as far as the proposition (or description). 1. A man to whom you want to sell life insurance. 2. A widow whose husband has left her ten thousand dollars in life insurance. You have a 6% farm mortgage offer. Emphasize safety. (There are hundreds of men who induce women to buy bad stocks. It is said that on an average widows lose their life insurance money within four years.) 3. You hope to sell a man advertising space in the Saturday Evening Post. 4. You are soliciting funds for an orphan asylum. 5. You have an inquiry about your excellent burglar alarm system. EXERCISE 218 Explain exactly how one of the following articles saves labor or improves on older forms of a similar thing. Concen- trate on one quality; for instance, on the durability of cypress. 1. Lewis sectional book cases. 2. The Johnson hand fire extinguisher. 3. The Thomas acetylene unit light system for the home. 4. * 'Cypress the wood eternal." 5. Indian automatic revolvers. 6. Jones's metal lath. 7. Bauman's prepared soup. 8. The King safety razor. 328 VOCATIONAL, ENGLISH EXERCISE 210. Make a special application of one of the articles mentioned in Exercise 218 to the needs of one of the following persons: 1. A farmer living in Kentucky. 2. A doctor in a small country town in Montana. 3. A banker in Boston. 4. A civil engineer. 5. A housewife. 6. A lawyer. 7. A building contractor in Chicago. 8. A commercial salesman. 9. A policeman. 10. A man who writes "i seen." 11. A ranchman in Wyoming. EXERCISE 220 Write a "clincher" or "action paragraph" suited to the person addressed in Exercise 219. EXERCISE 221 Make the closing proposition for any combination of article and person in Exercises 218 and 219. Remember that you must make him buy. Get him to do something. EXERCISE 222 Write the complete selling letter prepared for in the pre- ceding exercises, attempting to make an easy and natural transition from one division to the other. See that the margins, spacing, details of necessary form, etc., are up to standard. EXERCISE 223 Write a letter to a druggist, trying to induce him to buy a automobile. 240. The Form Letter. A number of letters exactly alike, sent to different people, constitute the form letter type. The form letter cannot be so personal as the individual letter. It is therefore more difficult to make effective. Instead of the personal touch, .the writer must make good use of a thorough knowledge of the life of the class he is trying to reach. The SPECIAL BUSINESS LETTERS 329 "attention compeller" must be stronger than that of the per- sonal letter. It may be perhaps a little less dignified, since its results depend on its effect on the "average man." A form letter, to be worth anything, must be printed well with reference to the parts to be filled in by typewriter. A type of exactly the same kind and a ribbon which dries the same shade as the printed matter, are the first requirements. These requirements are not easily secured, although modern printing establishments can take care of a mailing list artfully. Some form letters have blanks in the body of the letter for the filling in of state, county, or other local condition. Form letters should always go sealed. The extra postage is well spent, for the open envelope is a blatant announcement of the advertisement. 241. The Circular Letter. The circular letter is like the form letter except that there is no attempt to make it seem personal. The salutation is Dear Sir or Dear Mr. Groceryman or the like. There would be little advantage in sending it in a sealed envelope. Sometimes it is well to announce that the letter is a form or a circular letter. Most people will read the proposition following a beginning like this: Dear Sir: This is a "form letter," yes, but just the same it contains two mighty human questions. People generally prefer to be addressed in a letter much as they would be addressed in forceful, but at the same time courteous, talk. - Therefore the ordinary colloquial contrac- tions, and even slang words that express the meaning more naturally and more directly than their "literary " substitutes, may sometimes be more desirable. However, don't overdo the slang; you had better use too little than too much. 242. The Follow-up Letter. The business man who advertises by means of letters knows the value of repetition. Some advertisements, for instance of the trade-mark variety, depend entirely upon the power of persistent suggestion. 330 VOCATIONAL l.NCIJSH A great mail-order house in a large western city is able to produce much business by the following type of letter based upon its filing records: Sept. 1, 1916 Mr. Henry M. Hood Dana, Illinois Dear Mr. Hood: It seems hardly two years since we heard from you, yet our hooks show that your last order was shipped August 24, 1914. We are wondering why we haven't had more of your business. It occurs to us that perhaps we have made some mistake in your order. Perhaps the goods did not give satisfaction. We want to know about all such cases in order to cast out any articles that do not please our customers. We want our customers to stand by us, and certainly we are doing everything we know about 'to aid them. Will it be asking too much of you to write us a letter, using the inclosed stamped envelope addressed to me personally, as I want to know all about your case? Write to me tonight. Yours very truly, Mead & Company, By Superintendent of Correspondence This is only a form letter. The letter is printed, not type- written, by one of the new processes. Printing can now be made to resemble typewriting so closely that only the expert can identify it. Blanks are left for the dates, and heading and dates are cleverly and quickly filled in. Each letter is signed by pen and has, for nine out of ten men, the force of a personal letter. Many good business houses follow up any inquiries from which orders do not result. Sometimes two or three letters are sent at intervals of about ten days; but it is probably of doubtful value to send more than one such letter, for the receiver will feel that he has brought upon himself a correspondence attack and will resent too many letters. A kindly question, with a statement that perhaps the house misunderstood what the writer wanted, is good business. There is no objection to following this with good sales talk. A form letter can be used. SPECIAL BUSINESS LETTERS 331 243. The Follow-up Campaign. Any campaign, to succeed, must be organized. A successful football team is more than half organization. The army with the most carefully worked- out system of supply, care of wounded, sanitation, etc., makes much the better showing. A business allowed to run without the guiding power of a controlling mind is fortunate if it escapes wreck. An assault upon a man's inclination to keep his money in his pocket is like any other attack. The mere power of reitera- tion is not enough the assault must be made from other angles in the form of new argument at unexpected places. The wise business general will therefore not use all his ammunition \n the first attack. Each attempt, however, must be complete m itself. Suppose the purpose of a series of three follow-up letters is to sell a medicine chest containing preventive drugs for use in the family. The "talking points" are as follows: 1. Accidents come unexpectedly be prepared with bandages and antiseptic chemicals. Often an accident is due to a child's spilling an acid or eating a dangerous drug. Prevent this by having the cabinet locked. 2. Infection must be treated in its early stages. What seems but a scratch may develop blood poisoning. Colds and sore throat develop pneumonia and diphtheria. Prevention is generally easy in the early stages use the Complete First Aid Equipment. 3. It is a great advantage to be able to diagnose diseases of children accompanying indexed book explains symptoms of scarlet fever, measles, chicken pox, diphtheria, with instructions for care, etc. Not intended 1 to take the place of the doctor, but to make doctors' calls fewer and insure intelligent care of contagious diseases. Three complete letters should be written and printed ready for the address. The first failing, the second is sent about two weeks later. Each letter must follow the natural steps described in Sections 231-235, namely: 1. Getting attention. 2. Explaining the proposition. 3. Adapting the case to the reader's needs. 4. "Closing the deal." VOCATIONAL ENGLISH 244. Getting Attention in Second and Third Letteis. In the second letter blanks may be left for dates. The following forms might be used effectively: Dear Sir: We have not heard from the letter we wrote you December 10. You probably have not got around to it yet. We who hear of so many acci- dents know the danger of delay, and we don't want misfortune to catch you unprepared. Or: Since writing you December 10 about our Complete First Aid 1 ment, we have cut more than a dozen clippings from the papers recording fatal accidents through misuse of drugs. The third letter also may begin in some such manner. It is unwise to take the attitude of injury because your reader has not replied to your letters. He owes you nothing. Follow-up letters must be written for classes of people. There are two main divisions: (a) People who receive many letters. Form letters to this class must be brief, pointed, and of some dignity, (b) People who receive few letters. Letters in this case may be made longer and more confidential. EXERCISE 224 Plan and write a series of three letters to business and professional men intended to sell the medicine cabinet dis- cussed in Section 243. EXERCISE 226 Plan and write a circular letter intended to induce grocery men to sell apples from the James River Apple Growers' Association. 245. The Collection Letter. Collection has become a separate business. The rates of collection companies are rather high, however, and it is better if possible to collect one's debts without their aid. On the other hand, if a firm does not have a collection department an unpleasant correspondence is costly in time and spirit. One of the best ways to be success- SPECIAL BUSINESS LETTERS 333 i'ul in the collection business is to prevent the necessity of much collecting. The collection letter differs from other business letters in that it often may with advantage be impersonal. What has been said in previous pages about getting in close touch with your correspondent may not well apply to the first letter or two asking for money. It is better to make the letter seem to be the routine thing rather than a direct personal request. If, however, nothing results from the distant formal notice, it is best to seek to awaken the debtor 's sense of duty by personal letters. It is wise to point out to the debtor that you are seek- ing to free him from an unpleasant situation. Show him how much happier he will be when the matter is settled. In other words, "sell him peace of mind. If this fails, there is nothing left to do but threaten, first to draw upon him through a bant and, if the draft be not honored, to place the account in the hands of a lawyer. The following is a good form of monthly statement: HART, MAYER & COMPANY MADISON AND CLARK STREETS CHICAGO July 1, 1917 The Markel Tailoring Co. 341 W. 63 St. Chicago June Acct. 29 00 Advertising material may be inclosed with such a statement. Most firms send a second plain statement or even a third. Finally it becomes necessary to write a letter. The business man is now confronted with two possible modes of procedure. He may think his customer is only temporarily delinquent and he may therefore value his business. In that case his letter should inclose advertising and sales talk. 334 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH If the business and previous experience promise little, the letter may be firmer. The following is a letter to a man whose business is valued: HART, MAYER & COMPANY MADISON AND CLARK STREETS CHICAGO Aug. 20, 1917 The M irk< 1 Tailoring Co. 341 W. 63 Street Chicago You have doubtless overlooked your small account of $29.00 due us July 1. We are writing now to recall the matter to your mind. May we have a remittance at least by September 1? Did you get our announcement of the purchase of the Watson bank- rupt stock? Now is your chance to share with us in the best bargain we've made for many moons. \\ c hope to see you at our display next week. Yours very truly, Hart, Mayer A Company, By ............. If the customer's business is not valued, the following letter might be written. Circumstances must rule. It is often possible for the creditor to write a personal letter with good results. But the writer should always maintain his dignity. Letters of the "We need the money" type do the writer harm, for in writing them the creditor surrenders his unassailable dignity almost in the way he loses caste by replying to a "mean" letter with angry words. Justice, not pity, should be the basis of demand. Gentlemen : You have ignored our requests for payment of your June account amounting to $29.00. We must ask you to give this your immediate attention, as the time you have taken is longer than we care to extend our terms. May we hear from you by return mail? Otherwise we shall draw upon you through the First National Bank of Chicago. Yours truly, SPECIAL BUSINESS LETTERS 335 Previous requests having been ignored, a final letter as follows may be written: Gentlemen : You have failed to meet our request for payment of your June indebted- ness. " The First National Bank of Chicago reports that you have refused to honor our draft of August 25. We are accordingly placing the account in the hands of the Thomas Collection Agency of Chicago. Yours truly, Conditions will differ and no series of collection letters should be considered as models. The steps, however, are generally as follows : 1. Send statements promptly perhaps as many as four. Inclose advertising material. 2. Write a letter assuming that your customer has forgotten the account or that your statements have not reached him. Inclose advertising or sales talk. 3. Write a courteous but firm request for the money. Threaten to collect through a bank. Inclose no advertising matter. 4. Inform the customer that you have turned the account over to a collection agency. In general, always be calm and courteous. EXERCISE 226 Write a series of three letters to Davis and Dulton, 146 Greenland Ave., Columbus, Ohio. You have previously sent them three statements requesting payment of $185 which they have now owed you four months. 246. The Telegram. Briefest and costliest of all forms of communication is the telegram. For an ordinary message that is supposed to go through as quickly as possible, there is a standard minimum rate for ten words (or less), varying according to the distance or difficulty of communication, and a fixed charge for each word above ten. Besides actual words, detached figures, letters, and punctuation marks in the body of the telegram are counted, together with any such following the signature; but no charge is made for the address and the 33(5 \ < M ATIONAL ENGLISH signature. Longer messages that do not require immediate transmission may be sent at lower than ordinary commercial rates as "night letters" or "day letters." Newspapers and other large users of telegraphic service are given special rates. Most people try to keep their telegrams within tire ten words of the minimum rate, with the result that no little skill in condensation is often required. The problem that confn i it - you in writing a telegram is to say exactly what you most ne<*d to say, in such a way that it cannot be misunderstood, yet in the most compact form. Fragmentary sentences, consist inn; mainly of nouns or pronouns and verbs, are the rule in telegrams. EXAMPLE: Lost pocketbook. Wire hundred Brent House Portland. Suppose you want to reduce the following letter to a tele- gram: Messrs. Jones and Warner 125 N. Dearborn St. Chicago Gentlemen: I closed the Miller deal yesterday, and he and I will be in Chicago for further instructions Tuesday morning. We shall probably reach your office about ten o'clock. Have Mr. Mason there if possible. Yours truly, Lawrence Henning A telegram of ten words may read thus: Jones and Warner 125 N. Dearborn St. Chicago Closed Miller meet us with Mason your office ten Tuesday. Henning 247. The Special Code. Some large business concerns work out a system of words to take the place of phrases, clauses, and even sentences for use among their various branches. Any firm can devise such a code without much difficulty. One hundred actual letters ought to furnish a pretty good list of phrases which are sufficiently common to varrant the assignment of a small word to each (a code word SPECIAL BUSINESS LETTERS 337 is counted as two if it exceeds five letters). The great tele- graph companies have a complete private code for the use of their patrons. A long telegram can, by the use of a good code, be reduced to a few disconnected words. EXERCISE 227 1. Write a telegram of not more than ten words (not in- cluding address), expressing the sense of the following letter: Mr. A. K. Lemont Hope, Arkansas Dear Mr. Lemont: Will you come to Chicago by Tuesday if possible? Mr. Jones leaves us, taking charge of the Cleveland office. We want you to remain in Chicago permanently. Yours truly, Bell Coil Co. A. M. Roberts, Mgr. 2. Reduce the following letter to a telegram of not more then ten words: Dear McMillan: We cannot find a copy of the Warner contract. Do you know where it is? Perhaps you have it with you. Will you wire us immediately? Yours truly, A. W. Lawrence 3. Write a telegram in answer to Mr. Lawrence's inquiry. Tell him that attorney N. M. Wallen took the contract to improve the wording if possible. You are McMillan. QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER XXII 1. What is most commendable in the Lincoln letter on page 296? On page 297? 2. Discuss the appearance , of a letter of application. What is the logical order of qualifications to be mentioned in such a letter? 3. How should an applicant act when applying for a position? Should he stare about the room? Why? 4. How can an applicant best avoid appearing ill at ease? 5. How should an applicant dress? % 6. What qualities are most important in the buying letter? 338 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH 7. What is the best form for the buying letter? 8. What points are to be remembered in acknowledging an order? 9. What are the best ways of transmitting money? 10. What two methods are common in replying to the "mean" letter? 1 1 . What art the natural divisions of the sales 1< ' l _. What should be the relation of the first sentence to the rest of the letter? l-i. Why is it generally unwise to begin a letter wit!. :i question? 14. What is the advantage of making a good first impression? 15. What are the qualities of a good description? 16. What is meant by putting you into a tetter? 17. Why is "closing the deal" so very important a part of the letter? 18. What is the difference between the form letter and the circular letter? 19. Should follow-up i< -tiers be planned in a aeries? Why? 20. What is a telegraphic code? CHAPTER XXII I ADVERTISING 248. The Growth of Advertising. Advertising is writing a letter to everybody. After all everybody doesn't differ much from anybody. In fact, everybody is more definite. We know more about the way people in general will act than we do about the course an individual will take. To that extent advertise- ment writing is easier than individual letter writing. In spite of this, experts tell us that almost half of the advertising now done is a waste of money. This waste is very great, for the estimate of the cost of advertising in the United States for one year is above a half billion dollars. Advertising is a young business. For this reason only a few advertisers know very much about the laws of appeal to the masses. In the period preceding the Civil War there was a feeling on the part of many merchants that advertising was an unfair way of treating a competitor. Nevertheless some competitors advertised, with the result that others had to do the same thing. At first advertising was more or less disreputable. There were impossible promises to lure the greedy, half truths or even lies to attract the credulous, and a general tendency to employ noise, much as does the "barker" at a street fair. Barnum is said to have advertised a "horse with its head where its tail ought to be" and collected a dime for the privilege of seeing a horse turned around in his stall. Ignorant people who, in the hope of seeing something for nothing, followed the sign, "This way to the Exit. Free," found themselves outside the tent and had to pay another entrance fee. Fortunately advertising has now pretty generally developed beyond dishonesty asnd trickery. The first good ten-cent magazine appeared in 1893. It was followed by hundreds of others of the wholesome type. People 339 % 940 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH began to read extensively, and with a great magazine circulation advertising took on its present gigantic proportions. There is a feeling among some thinking people that adver- t i -ing is a waste of money "a tax on production. 1 ' Doubtless it is a tax certainly the public has to pay. But these critics often fail to realize the tremendous educational value of adver- tiMiig. It is said that a friend sent Mr. Kipling in India a bundle of magazines with the advertising pages torn off. Mr. Kipling is said to have replied, 'The next time you send magazines please send the advertising pages too; I can write stories myself." In the current number of a monthly magazine information of the following kinds is found in the advertising: Comparison of the spinning wheel and the automobile history of each. Explanation of indirect lighting (office and home). Pictures showing a building saved by asbestos shingles. Diagrams and pictures illustrating concrete road building. A picture of a reception hall artistically furnished. One can learn much from even a small picture. Brief explanation of color photography. Interesting oriental rug designs. What may be seen about a hotel near Fortress Monroe. Explanation of how to get money while abroad. Characteristics of cypress wood. An attractive home costing little. How to cauterize a wound. A new type of electric light. Extent of the Bell telephone system. Liszt his life. Phonograph records of his work. Many interesting and instructive pictures. All of this information is valuable more so than much that is obtained in the schools, because it is "up to the minute." Advertising is the great national university which instructs and unitizes people from Maine to California. Advertising instructs in a more vital way. Often a man finds through an advertisement just what he needs to complete his comfort something for which he would gladly have paid ADVERTISING 341 ten times its value. Almost anyone, by thinking a minute, can recall advertisements which he remembers with considerable gratefulness. On the other hand, there is still some evil adver- tising. Some discussion of this phase of the subject will follow (Sections 258 and 259). EXERCISE 228 Bring to class and read three current advertisements from which you have gained real information. Find one advertise- ment which you think has had the effect of improving your taste for the artistic. 249. Types of Advertisements. There are two general types of advertisements (a) The suggestive display. (b) The explanatory or "reason why" copy. While we may find distinct examples of these types, most advertisements make use of characteristics of both. The suggestive display advertisement consists of an "atten- tion compeller" only. Attention is often secured by a picture and the name of the product or some phrase associated with it. A certain biscuit company advertises by a picture of three or four schoolbooks and a carton of biscuits strapped together, bearing the name of the product only. A breakfast food com- pany displays a picture of a smiling negro chef always in some relation to the food, the name of the product being practically the only wording employed. The second or "reason why" type will be considered in this book at some length, because it involves the writing of con- vincing English. It seeks to create a sale for a product through arousing a desire by means of explanation and adaptation to the needs of the reader. 250. General Observations on Writing Advertisements. This chapter can concern itself only with writing the adver- tisement, leaving questions of media (magazines, newspapers, etc.), testing of results, etc., to more extended studies. There are several general observations which affect the making of "copy." 342 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH (a) The advertiser must not talk to himself he must remember that the people's, not his, interests are uppermost. (b) He must remember that the people are not highly educated, that they know few big words, or technical won ; his business. (c) He should know that in t heir reading people are seeking, primarily, entertainment. (d) He must not forget that people are, as a mass, pitiless in criticism of what they read, and that only studied appeal will reach them. (e) He must, in general, picture or describe only pleasant things. Most readers of magazines are trying to forget the troubles of the day, and they will turn away from a life insurance advertisement picturing a hearse, with a shudder which does little good to*the advertiser. It would, however, be good a 1\< rising to picture the wife and children in comfort due to an insurance policy. (f) Advertisers must not forget the women. In general they do more than half of the buying, and since they are occupied usually with home-making, the task of adapting advertisements to them is not difficult. (g) The writer must beware of accidental bad impressions. A lunch room advertises, "Ernie's always crowded/' This h phrase is intended to give an impression of popularity, but really gives an unpleasant sense of lack of privacy. (h) Advertisements should not be in fine print. Eyesight generally begins to fail about the time a man reaches his greatest buying power. You must not allow the reader to quit reading because it is difficult to continue. 251. Construction of an Advertisement. The general laws of advertisement writing are very similar to those governing the selling letter; many things said in Sections 232-239 may be reviewed to advantage hero The chief steps in making a good advertisement are: 1. Catching the reader's attention and interesting him til! you can get in your talk. ADVERTISING 343 2. Explaining the proposition or article. 3. Making it easy to order. In general the advertisement is more condensed than the letter. Advertising is expensive and, besides, a reader will go more deeply into a letter than into an advertisement, because the letter is addressed to him personally. Often one or more of the steps is omitted in an advertisement. The question the writer must face is, "How would my average reader be im- pressed by this kind of advertisement?' 7 252. Methods of Catching Attention. By far the most effective type of advertisement employs a picture or pictures. Sometimes, as has been noted (Section 249), the picture alone constitutes the advertisement, but more often it is accompanied by explanatory matter. Sometimes the picture has little or no relation to the subject, although in general this is bad advertising. It is but another form of trick which the American reader has, from the past, learned to beware of. A current advertisement for breakfast food is headed "Tire troubles," and pictures a man and woman bending over a punctured tire. t The automobile enthusiast who begins reading is disgusted because he finds himself tricked. The housewife doesn't bother about automobile tires, hence fails to see the breakfast food advertisement. Another advertisement shouts above a picture of "Uncle Sam," "UNCLE SAM INSISTS. Install ventilation when you build." Now there is no United States law on ventilation and there probably never will be one. That field belongs to the state. There is here the mischievous principle of untruth. "If the heading is false," thinks the reader, "how can I trust any of the rest?" 253. The Use of Personal Appeal. Often the advertiser wishes to appeal to a certain class of people. He must under- stand their lives and their ambitions; he can then get their attention by playing upon their hopes and desires. Directed to a class, personal appeal is one of the most effective openings employed in advertisements. :n-i VOCATIONAL ENcusn Correspondence schools make a specialty of appealing to im-n who are anxious to get above their present p^it inn- ambitious young men generally. One such school uses the fol- lowing (usually associated with a picture) : Don't Envy Successful Men; Be One. Another school asks: Are You Boss or Bossed? One savings bank, in an appeal to thinking men to lay some- thing by, begins: Saving Is a Discipline. It Is More Than That It Is the Greatest Reward of Discipline. / Another savings bank asks on a street-car placard : As Your Income Increases,, Which Grows with It Your Saving or Your Spending? 254. The Appeal by Interesting Statement. Another type of advertisement bears an astonishing fact or a curt philo- sophical statement in the headline. When well done this makes a powerful appeal. This form of call is vastly superior to the "Ours is the best" type. Compare the force of these two extracts from advertisements in current magazines. Which is better? The Jenkins tires are best, 40 Million Miles a Day! 1600 made of fresh rubber used on the times around the world daily! best grade machines. What's the answer? Service. It is not, however, necessary that the advertisement contain startling information. The following is interesting: Safe for everybody but the burglar. Once in every man's life there comes a time when he needs a pistol. A filing cabinet company advertises: FILING THAT PUTS SPEED INTO FINDING. Filing Labor Costs Ten to Twenty Times As Much As Filing Equip- ment. ADVERTISING 345 Don't forget your product. No "attention compeller" should proceed far without definite mention of the product. The greatest value of advertising consists in making the name of your product a kind of "household word." EXERCISE 229 Begin an advertisement to one of the classes in Column B. Make choice of any business from Column A. A B Breakfast food manufacturer Society woman Automobile manufacturer School teacher Photographic equipment jobber Chauffeur Real estate salesman Grocery clerk Correspondence school Student Watch and clock manufacturer . Music teacher Diamond merchant Housekeeper Publishing company Reporter Perfume makers Lawyer 255. The Transition from Heading to Product. The advertiser must not let his "prospect" lose interest after reading the heading or looking at the picture. Some device must be employed information given, perhaps, or passing interest aroused to lead the reader on. A story is sometimes effectively used in this place. The following is from the advertisement of an insurance company (below an interesting old woodcut of a spinning wheel) : Side by side with the first advertisement of the Fire Insurance Company, printed in the Hartford Courant in 1810, Donald McAulay, Turner, announced that he "made and repaired all kinds of spinning wheels." Old Donald would look in vain through the pages of this magazine for advertisements of spinning wheels, and we can imagine his amazement at phonograph, telephone, or motor car. But one familiar friend he would find the announcement of the , as ready today to give protection from all the risks of a motor car as it was to insure a spinning wheel in 1810. :un VOCATIONAL ENGLISH An advertisement in a current magazine begins: "THINK BKY< >M> YOUR JOB " 'There is not a man in power at the Bethlehem Steel today," says Charles M. Schwab, in the American Magazine, "who did not begin at the bottom and work his way up. These leaders rose from the ranks. They won out by using their normal brains to think beyond their manifest daily duty. "Eight years ago was switching engines. II is ability to out-think his job, coupled with his sterling integrity, lifted him to the presidency of our corporation. Last year he earned more than a million dollars.' 1 266. Description and Application. Instead of the common- place in description, which merely enumerates the good qualit ies of an article, an automobile firm advertises beneath an attract i \ < picture: When snow is flying and all outdoors is wrapped in 1.1. ..k January's somber mantle, your coupe" warm and cozy takes you to the theater, tlnMlimuT party, or the evening reception in t lie same comfort you have just left in your living room. Snug in this fine new enclosed car richly upholstered and beautifully finished you are independent of weather, of street conditions, of chauffeur or escort. By day or night, alone or accompanied, you go and come safely, surely, silently. This description carries conviction. It creates a desire. It speaks of elegance, warmth, and % silence, not directly, but as the setting of a cozy picture. One can almost feel the balmy freshness of a good shampoo after reading the following. Instead of a flat statement that soap is good for the hair and scalp and is cleansing, we are given a description of luxurious feeling. Soap is good for the scalp because it cleans, soothes, heals and healthy scalps encourage healthy, lustrous hair. The mere operation of applying its fragrant, pine-laden lather to one's hair is beneficial. The pressing, the kneading, and all the other processes that constitute what is known as shampooing all help. And when the lather is rinsed out and the hair is once more dry, there remains a feeling, not only of absolute cleanliness, but of delightful exhilaration. ADVERTISING 347 257. Making It Easy to Order. Orders are the life-blood of a business. There is nothing but loss in catching a reader's attention, convincing him of the desirability of an article, and failing to get his order. Ordering must be made easy. Most advertisers use a coupon or form which needs only the filling in of a name and address. The following from Starch's Adver- tising explains one such plan: The Pedlar People, Ltd., of Oshawa, Ontario, manufacturers of architectural sheet-metal building material, are using a novel coupon in their farm-paper advertising, which they claim has practically doubled the inquiries. Briefly, the coupon includes a diagram of the two types of barns common in Canada, with dimension lines, so that the farmer can fill in the dimensions and get an estimate from the manufacturer as to the cost of sheathing his barn with steel shingles. In explaining the benefits of the coupon, A. T. Enlow, advertising manager of the concern, says: "Our long experience with the farmer has convinced us that he will read anything half-way interesting, but he will not go to a great deal of trouble writing letters. No doubt this is largely due to the fact that his stationery is of an uncertain quality, the ink dried up, and the pen rusted. We figure that by making it easy for him to write in and find out what it would cost to steel shingle his barn, we would save him a lot of figuring and at the same time the association of ideas would bring results. As a result we find we are getting more than twice the number of inquiries from the same space as we did before we adopted this diagram idea." A canvass of twenty-five advertisements in a modern magazine gives the following methods of inducing a prospective customer to act: Twelve use coupons written in letter form requiring only the name and address of the customer. Five offer a Catalog, booklet, or calendar. Four instruct the buyer to "ask your dealer. " Three urge a sample order. One offers to send a sample free. 258. Type of Advertisements. It would be impossible to catalog all the various forms and devices employed to sell goods. 348 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH There are, however, several kinds so often met that it seems profitable to mention them. A. The Prestige Advertisement. This form has little value except to great corporations or old businesses. It consists of a display of little more than the name or trade-mark of the advertiser and its effectiveness depends entirely upon the general knowledge of the public. Tiffany and Company of New York generally run only the firm name and "Silver* -u In small advertisements we frequently meet the "card" type; e. g., "J. J. Weber, Coal and Wood." While this type of sinall advertisement serves its purpose fairly well, it is probably true that a little thought would enable the writer to do much better. At best the announcement is only a passive kind of reminder. One enterprising coal man advertises, "\\ Vll make it hot for you, and we'll deliver it to you, too the best coal we can buy in all Pennsylvania." While this has in it a bit of a trick, the effect is not bad because the reader knows when he begins that it will "turn into" something Some trade-marks have become so well known that they are rated as worth many thousands of dollars to the business. Among them are "His Master's Voice," the blue bell of the Bell Telephone Company, the signature of Thomas A. Edison, the Gold Du^t Twins, and Uneeda Biscuit. The owners of these well known designs can advertise effectively by the mere display of the trade-mark. But one has only to look through any magazine to find dozens of trade-marks he doesn't remember having seen before and would not recognize if he saw again, thus showing the futility of any but the great corporations' using this method of advertising. B. The Jingle Type. The Spotless Town advertisements illustrate this sort. The advertiser seeks to associate some nursery rhyme or light verse with his product. The type is not practical for the small advertiser because its value depends on continued and widespread publicity. C. The Trick Advertisement. Advertisements are fast becoming honest they tell the truth about the goods. The ADVERTISING 349 old dishonest forms of the following kind, once common, have gone forever: THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES in a speech once said that many people are literally ASSASSINATED by failure to care for their health- Use - Pills. etc., etc. Such tricks to secure attention are practically sure to react against the advertiser. D. The Humorous Trick Advertisement. There is a type of trick advertisement which is fairly effective because it is recognized at a glance as a trick. The chief fault is lack of dignity. "Does your top leak?" heads an effective advertise- ment of an automobile top dressing. "Did you ever have a fit?" attracts a good deal of attention to a tailor's window. The good-natured trick is accepted good-naturedly, but the studied attempt to lead a reader into an advertisement by interest other than that which rightfully belongs to the subject is recognized as a form of dishonesty. 259. The Overdrawn Advertisement. Although there are people in the world who will believe anything in print, most people are suspicious of too great promises or other over-state- ment. Next to the trick advertisement, the over-stated adver- tisement is poorest. Over-statement may take the form of too great promises; e. g., "Why be content with 6% when you can make 30%," or "It will be the happiest day of your life when you put on Tearproof Hose." Sometimes it is found in extravagant description as in the advertisement of oleomargarine, "sweet as a lily and pure as the rain-washed buttercup." The hopes of thousands of sufferers are raised temporarily by statements like the following: "We positively guarantee to cure con- sumption." Any advertising value which such a statement has is due to the fact that it holds out a straw to the grasp of a sinking man. Advertisements in earlier days too often made extravagant claims. At one time fully half of them were dis- honest. 350 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH Fortunately we are coming into a saner phase. Most maga- zines and newspapers now refuse to publish advertisements which they know to be false. Recently one of the largest weeklies in America refused a full-page advertiser nt from an automobile company on the ground that the advertisement asserted impossible conditions. The automobile company insisted that the magazine investigate. Accordingly a jury of engineers was sent to the factory. They reported the asser- tions to be justified, and the advertisement was accepted. EXERCISE 23O Bring to class one example of each of the following adver- tising types: 1. A description that creates a desire. 2. An advertisement depicting misfortune or suffering. ' 3. An advertisement with the story type of beginning. 4. An advertisement addressed to ambitious men. 5. An advertisement intended for well-to-do men. EXERCISE 231 Bring to class examples of the following types of adver- tisement: 1. The trick advertisement bad typel 2. The good-natured trick. 3. The astounding fact advertisement. 4. A probably dishonest advertisement. 5. The jingle type. 6. Any advertisement you consider unusually good. EXERCISE 232 Cut from some newspaper or magazine any picture whicn will illustrate an advertisement you have in mind. Paste it upon a sheet of paper and write the advertisement. Exchange with other members of the class and vote by ballot for the best. Discuss with the teacher the three receiving the most votes. APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS * Absolute Nominative. The nominative case of a noun or pronoun, used with a participle in an independent phrase. EXAMPLE : The wind dying down, we started. Abstract Noun. The name of a quality or characteristic; or any noun that is not the name of some concrete person or thing. EXAMPLES: goodness, evil, anger, beauty. Accusative Case. See Case. Accusative-Dative Case. See Case. Active Voice. The forms of a verb representing the subject as the doer of an action. EXAMPLE : The fire burns the forest. Address, Nominative of. A noun or pronoun representing a person or thing directly addressed. See Case. EXAMPLE : John, come here. Adjective. A word used to modify the meaning of a noun or a pronoun. Adjective Clause. A clause used to modify a noun or a pronoun. EXAMPLE : The man whom you saw is my brother. Adjective Phrase. A phrase used to modify a noun or a pronoun. EXAMPLE: The man with the brown hat is my brother. Adjunct Accusative. An additional object used with a direct object after verbs of calling, choosing, making, naming, and some other verbs of similar meaning. An adjective, as well as a substantive, may* be in this construction (example 3). EXAMPLES: 1. Ye call me chief. 2. We chose Mr. Wilson President. 3. The boys painted the fence brown. This construction is also sometimes called the objective complement. Adverb. A word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Adverbs may represent degree, manner, place, time; they may affirm or deny or indicate uncertainty. See Expletives, Interrogative Adverb, Numerals, Relative Adverb. Adverbial Accusative (Objective). A noun used adverbially, without a preposition. EXAMPLE : He walked a mile. 351 352 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH Adverbial Clause. A clause used as an adverb. EXAMPLE: I came as toon as I could. Adverbial Phrase. A phrase used aa an adverb. EXAMPLE : I came in five minutes. Agreement The correspondence that should exist in such matters as number, gender, etc., between verbs and their subjects, pronouns and their antecedents, etc. See Sections 52-54, 58-60. Antecedent The word or words to which a pronoun (or pronominal adjective) refers. EXAMPLE: John quit because he was cold. Apostrophe. A comma-like mark used above the line to indicate (a) possession, (b) omission. EXAMPLES: (a) John's, (b) isn't. Appositive. A substantive placed beside another substantive for the purpose of explaining it, and denoting the same person, place, or thing. EXAMPLE: Franklin, the philosopher, was born in Boston. Articles. The adjectives the, a, and an. The is called definite; a and on indefinite. A is used before words beginning with consonants; an before words beginning with vowels or vowel sounds. Auxiliary Verb. A helping verb used with the main verb in forming a verb phrase. ' The principal auxiliary verbs are: be used in making passive and progressive forms. have used in male ing the perfect tenses. do (did) used in the emphatic forms (see Section 30). shall and will used in future and future perfect tenses and to express determination or volition. may, might used to express permission or possibility, can, could used to express ability or power. should used in conclusions of conditions, and to express duty or obligation. would used in conclusions of conditions, and to express determina- tion or customary action. ought used to express duty or obligation. must used to express necessity. let used in expressing a wish. Case. The inflection of nouns and pronouns to indicate construction in the sentence. English nouns do not vary in case-form except to show possession (see Section 21). Most of the personal pronouns and the APPENDIX 353 pronoun who, however, in addition to possessive forms, have different forms for the nominative and for the accusative-dative (objective) case (see Section 61). EXAMPLE: He hit him with his hand. Case-uses are more important than case-forms; for both nouns and pronouns the principal case-uses are as follows : Nominative: as subject, nominative of address, nominative of exclamation, absolute nominative, predicate nominative (predicate noun or pronoun). Accusative: as direct object, secondary object, retained object, adjunct accusative, subject or predicate of infinitive, adverbial accusative, with a preposition. Dative: as indirect object. Genitive : of possession and of connection. Clause. Any group of words having a subject and a predicate. If the clause "makes sense" standing alone, it is called independent, or a principal clause (example a). If it is incomplete except when taken with another clause, it is dependent or subordinate (example b). EXAMPLES: (a) The snow fell steadily while we were there, (b) The sight which he saw astonished him. Collective Noun. A noun singular in form, which is the name of a group or collection of persons or things. EXAMPLE s : herd , crew . Common Case. The common forms of a noun as distinguished from its possessive forms (singular and plural). The common case is used for all case-uses except the genitive. Common Gender. See Gender. Common Noun. Any noun that is not the individual name of some person, place, or thing. Comparative Degree. The second of the three forms of an adjective or an adverb denoting degrees of quality or quantity. EXAMPLES: long (positive degree) longer (comparative degree) longest (superlative degree) Comparison, The changes in the form of an adjective or an adverb to denote degree. See Comparative Degree. Complement. A word used to complete some construction in the predicate. Object Complement. See Object, Direct. Objective Complement. See Adjunct Accusative. Subjunctive Complement. See Predicate Nominative and Predicate Adjective. 354 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH Complete Predicate. The whole predicate part of a sentence or a clause, comprising the predicate verb and all complements and modifiers in the predicate. EXAMPLE: He gave me a book mth a torn cover. The predicate verb in this example is gave, only. Complete Subject The subject and all its modifiers; distinguished from the principal word of the subject, or the subject substantiv* EXAMPLE: The tall boy in the back seat is my broth* r The subject substantive in this example is boy, alone. Complete Verb. An intransitive verb that does not require a predicate noun or pronoun, or a predicate adjective, to complete its meaning. EXAMPLE: Ends fly. Complex Sentence. A sentence containing a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses. EXAMPLE: The boy who has the highest mark may stand. Complex-Compound Sentence. A compound sentence in which one or more of the parts contains one or more subordinate clauses. EXAMPLE: The boy who has the highest mark may stand, and I v. ill give him a prize. Compound Adjective. An adjective made up of two or more words, \\ it h or without a hyphen. EXAMPLES: everyday English, a two-seated vehicle. Compound Noun. A noun made up of two or more words, with or with- out a hyphen. EXAMPLES: iceberg, man-servant, son-in-law. Compound Personal Pronoun. A personal pronoun combined with self or selves; see Intensive Pronoun and Reflexive Pronoun. Compound Predicate. A predicate containing two or more verbs. EXAMPLE: It rained and hailed and lightened and thundered. Compound Preposition. A group of two or more words used together as a preposition. EXAMPLES: according to, because of. Compound Sentence. A sentence containing more than one independent or principal clause. EXAMPLE: He returned to his boyhood home, but he was not happy. APPENDIX 355 Compound Subject. A subject containing two or more principal words, or subject substantives. EXAMPLE: John and Mary were very happy. Concession, Clause of. A clause admitting something that may be granted without interfering with a certain conclusion which is stated in the principal clause. Though is the most common concessive conjunction. EXAMPLE : Though he slay me, yet will I trust him. Conditional Clause. A subordinate clause stating a certain condition on which a conclusion, stated in the principal clause, is based. // is the typical conditional conjunction. EXAMPLE : // you can come, I hope you will. Conjugation. The display of the inflectional forms of a verb. Conjunction. A word used to connect words or groups of words; distin- guished from a preposition by the fact that a preposition forms a phrase with the words that go with it. Conjunctions are of two kinds: (a) co- ordinating, connecting elements of equal rank; (b) subordinating, con- necting a subordinate clause with a principal clause. EXAMPLES: (a) Work and wealth are not commensurate, (b) We shall stay unless the river rises. Conjunctive Adverb See Relative Adverb. Connection, Genitive of. A use of the genitive (possessive) form of a noun by which possession is not actually implied. EXAMPLE: A day's work. Construction. The grammatical function of a word or group of words in the sentence. Coordinate. Words or groups of words that are equal in rank are called coordinate. Coordinating Conjunction. See Conjunction. Correlative Conjunctions. Conjunctions that are used in pairs. EXAMPLES: either or, neither nor, both and, not only but also. Dative. See Case. Declarative Sentence. A sentence that asserts or declares. EXAMPLE : Potatoes were costly that year. Declension. The orderly arrangement of the inflectional forms of nouns and pronouns. Definite Article. See Article. Degree. See Comparative Degree. Demonstrative Adjectives. See Demonstrative Pronouns. 356 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH Demonstrative Pronouns. This, thai, these, and those, when used instead of nouns. When modifying a substantive, they are Demonstrative Adjectives. EXAMPLES: That is the best one (pronoun). That book is best (adjective). Dependent Clause. See Subordinate Clause. Descriptive Adjective. An adjective that tells the kind or condition of some person or thing. Any adjective that is not Limiting (q. v.). Direct Object. See Object. Direct Question. See Indirect Question. Direct Quotation. See Indirect Quotation. Double Narrative. Unnecessary repetition in telling what has happened. See Section l.'.H. Double Negative. The use of two negatives when one is sufficient. EXAMPLE: (Wrong) (Right) I haven't had no dinner. I haven't had any dinner. Double Possessive. Use of of and the possessive sign in the same phrase. EXAMPLE: A friend of Brown's. Emphatic Verb Forms. Verb phrases formed by the auxiliary verb do (did) and a main verb, used in questions and negative statements as well as for emphasis. EXAMPLES: I did do it. I did not do it. Did he do it? Exclamation, Nominative of. The use of a noun or a pronoun independ- ently in exclamation. EXAMPLE: The rascal! 1 was afraid he could not be trusted. Exclamatory Sentence. A sentence expressing strong feeling, and followed by an exclamation mark. EXAMPLE: What a beautiful day it is! Expletives. The words there and it when used to introduce the verb before the subject. EXAMPLES: There were six of us. // is true that he cannot go. Feminine Gender. The form of a noun or pronoun denoting the female sex. EXAMPLES: woman, lioness, heroine, sultana, she. APPENDIX 357 Finite Verb. Any verb form except the infinitive, the participle, and the gerund. Future Perfect Tense. A verb form used to express the completion of an act in the future. See Section 26. Future Tense. A verb form used to denote time to come. Gender. The distinction between words to indicate sex, or lack of sex. There are three genders masculine, feminine, and neuter. Words that may be either masculine or feminine are often said to be of common gender. EXAMPLE : I did not know the person who came. Genitive Case. The forms of a noun that show possession; also called Possessive Case. See Case. Gerund. A verb form in ing when used partly as a verb and partly as a noun. EXAMPLE : Running foot-races is good for keeping one's health. Gerundive Phrase. A phrase consisting of a gerund and the words that go with it. Grammar. A systematic description of the laws and usages of a language. Idiom. "A mode of expression peculiar to a language; .... a phrase or form of words approved by the usage of a language." [Century Dictionary] Imperative Mood. A verb form identical with the infinitive (without to) and used to express a direct command. EXAMPLE : Go! you are not wanted here. Imperative Sentence. A sentence containing an imperative verb. EXAMPLE : Pass to the right. Impersonal Subject. It used as a subject when there is no definite ante- cedent. EXAMPLE : It rained nearly all day. Indefinite Adjective. An adjective which may also be used as an indefinite pronoun. EXAMPLE : Any true man will be welcome. Indefinite Article. See Article. Indefinite Pronoun. A pronoun that does not refer to any particular person, place, or thing. Such words as any, each, either, other, some, etc., when used in place of nouns, are indefinite pronouns. EXAMPLES: Any who come will be welcome. One must be careful of one's English. 358 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH Independent Clause. See Clause. Independent Elements in a Sentence. Words or groups of words that do not grammatically belong to either the subject or the predicate. These include words of address, exclamatory nominatives, interjections, nominative absolutes, parenthetical expressions. Indicative Mood. The verb forms employed in ordinary statements and in questions; the commonest forms of the verb. Indirect Object A noun or pronoun used without a preposition to name a person or thing to whom or for whom something is done. \\\\\\ active verbs, the indirect object usually immediately precedes the direct object. EXAMPLES: The boy's father gave Aim a watch. John bought his sister a present. Indirect Question. Questions are direct or indirect. The former employs the exact words of the person asking it. EXAMPLE: Where are you going? The indirect question does not use the questioner's exact words, but puts the substance of the question in a subordinate clause. EXAMPLE: lie asked me where I was going. Notice that the indirect question does not require a question mark. Indirect Quotation. A report of a statement in words other than those of the speaker. Direct Quotation: "/ will go," said Tom. Indirect Quotation: Tom said he would go. Note that an indirect quotation does not employ quotation marks. Infinitive. The first or dictionary form of a verb. In a sentence it is usually preceded by to, which is then called the sign of the infinitive. The infinitive is most frequently used as a noun, sometimes as an adjective or an adverb. EXAMPLES: To travel is to learn (noun). He is a man to be honored (adjective). That work is very hard to do (adverb). The gerund (q. v. ) is sometimes called the infinitive in ing. Infinitive Clause. A group of words consisting of an infinitive with a subject, in the accusative (objective) case, and perhaps a predicate noun or pronoun or a direct object. See Section 64 (e). Infinitive Phrase. A group of words containing an infinitive without a subject/ EXAMPLE: To travel so far was more than I could do. APPENDIX 359 Inflection. The variations in the form of a word according to its con- struction or meaning. Intensive Pronoun. A compound personal pronoun used for emphasis. EXAMPLE : I myself heard him. Interjection. An exclamatory word without grammatical construction in the sentence and not of any other part of speech. EXAMPLE : Hurrah! here comes the band. Interrogative Adjective. An adjective used in asking a question. EXAMPLE : Which girl do you mean? Interrogative Adverb. An adverb used in asking a question. EXAMPLE : Why do you ask me this? Interrogative Pronoun. A pronoun used to ask a question. The inter- rogative pronouns are who (including whose and whom), which, and what; sometimes with the suffix ever added to the simple forms. Interrogative Sentence. A sentence that asks a direct question. Intransitive Verb. See Transitive Verb. Inverted Order. The less common arrangement of a sentence, in which a part, or all, of the predicate precedes the subject; also called transposed order. Most direct questions and exclamations are in inverted order. EXAMPLES: Why did he not come? (Two words of the predicate precede the subject.) How cold it is today! (Two words of the predicate precede the subject.) Irregular Verb. See Regular Verb. Limiting Adjective. An adjective that points out or denotes number, as distinguished from a descriptive adjective. The demonstrative adjec- tives, indefinite adjectives, interrogative adjectives, numeral adjectives, pronominal adjectives, and the articles are limiting adjectives., Linking Verb. An intransitive verb that connects the subject with a predicate noun or pronoun, or a predicate adjective. EXAMPLE: The sky looks dark. Masculine Gender. The form of a noun or a pronoun denoting the male sex. EXAMPLES: man, lion, hero, sultan, he. Modifier. A word or group of words which changes the meaning of another word or group of words by adding to or limiting the meaning. 'Mood. Variations in the forms of a verb to indicate the manner of the assertion. Three moods are now recognized in English : indicative, subjunctive, imperative. 360 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH Natural Order. An arrangement of the sentence in which the subject precedes the predicate, as distinguished from inverted (or transposed) order. Natural Superlative. An adjective or adverb which in its simple form (positive degree) denotes the superlative (highest degree). EXAMPLE: omnipotent. Negative, Double. See Double Negative. Neuter Gender. The gender of an object without sex. EXAMPLES: book, street, it. Nominative Case. See Case. Non-Restrictive Modifier. See Restrictive Modifier. Noun. The name of a person, place, or thing. See Abstract Noun, Collective Noun, Common Noun, Proper Noun. Noun Clause. A clause that has the function of a noun in the sentence. EXAMPLE : I thought that he was insane. Number. The inflection of nouns, pronouns, and verbs to indicate one or more than one. Numerals. Words indicating number. They may be (a) nouns, (b) ad- jectives, (c) adverbs. EXAMPLES: (a) Put four in the first column. (b) Four singers make a quartet. (c) I saw him twice in a week. Object, Direct. The receiver of the action expressed by a transitive verb. EXAMPLE: They struck the bell. Object, Indirect See Indirect Object. Object, Secondary. See Secondary Object. Objective, Adverbial. See Adverbial Accusative (Objective). Objective Case. See Case. Objective Complement See Adjunct Accusative. Participle. A form of the verb used partly like an adjective. The past participle is the third of the principal parts of a verb. The present participle ends in ing. The forms in ing, however, may be gerunds (q. v.). EXAMPLES of participles: Finding him asleep, I left at once. I saw him fishing for bass. Participial Phrase. A phrase consisting of a participle and its comple- ments or modifiers. EXAMPLE : Finding him asleep, I left at once. APPENDIX 361 Parts of Speech. The classes of words as to use. They are eight in number: nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. Passive Voice. See Voice. Past Participle. The last of the principal parts of a verb; used in making the passive voice. EXAMPLE : go went gone. Past Perfect Tense. The tense of a verb that represents action completed in the past. EXAMPLE : He had gone when I arrived. Past Tense. A verb form used to indicate time past; the second of the principal parts. EXAMPLE : He went yesterday. Perfect Tenses. The verb phrases which show completion; they are indicated by various forms of the auxiliary verb have. Person. Inflection of a substantive or a verb to indicate whether the speaker (first person), a person spoken to (second person), or a person or thing spoken of (third person) is meant. Personal Pronouns. The common pronouns which represent first person, second person, and third person. See Sections 57-61. Phrase. A group of related words without a subject and a predicate. Pluperfect. Another name for the past perfect tense (q. v.). Plural Number. See Singular Number. Positive Degree. See Comparative Degree. Possession, Genitive of. See Case. Possessive Adjective. The possessive form of a pronoun when it is used adjectively. EXAMPLES: My books are in your desk. Her pencil fell to the floor. Possessive Case. See Genitive Case. Possessive Pronoun. The possessive form of a pronoun when it is used substantively. EXAMPLES: Mine is the green book. Yours is the red one. Predicate. The asserting or questioning part of a sentence. It most often follows the naming part, or the subject. The basis of a predicate is a verb. Predicate Adjective. An adjective in the predicate describing or limiting the subject. EXAMPLE: Grapes are purple. VOCATIONAL ENGL I s ! I Predicate Nominative. A noun or pronoun in the predicate that means, or refers to, the same person or thing as the subject; also called Predicate Noun or Predicate Pronoun. EXAMPLES: Washington was President. Would that I had been he. Predicate Verb. The verb, or asserting word, in a predicate. Preposition. A word used to show the relation of a substantive that depends on it grammatically, with some other part of the sentence. EXAMPLE: He came from the city. Prepositional Phrase. A phrase introduced by a preposition. EXAMPLE : He came from the city. Present Participle. The ing form of the verb when used adjectively. EXAMPLE : The sleeping man lay quiet. Present Perfect Tense. The forms of the verb representing completion of action in present time. EXAMPLE: I have seen many strange sights. Present Tense. The forms of a verb that make assertions in regard to present time. Principal Parts of a Verb. The three forms which furnish the basis for conjugation. They are the present indicative, the past indicative, and the past participle. EXAMPLE : Present see, Past saw, Past Participle seen. Progressive Tenses. Tenses representing continued action, formed by the use of the auxiliary be and the present participle of the main verb. EXAMPLE: I am walking. Pronominal Adjectives. Words that are used as adjectives, but which may also be used as pronouns. EXAMPLES: This hat is mine. . Either coat will serve. Pronoun. A word used instead of a noun. Proper Adjective. An adjective formed from a proper noun. EXAMPLE: American customs are uncertain. Proper Noun. The name of some particular person, place, or thing (as opposed to class names). EXAMPLE: America. APPENDIX 363 Question, Direct. See Indirect Question. Reflexive Pronoun. A compound personal pronoun used after a verb or a preposition to refer to the subject of the verb. EXAMPLE: He hurt himself. Regular Verb. A verb that forms its second and third principal parts by adding d or ed (sometimes t) to the first principal part. Verbs that form their second and third principal parts in other ways are called Irregular. EXAMPLES: hope, hoped, hoped (Regular) write, wrote, written (Irregular) Relative Adverb. A word that combines some of the force of an adverb with that of a subordinating conjunction. See Section 78, footnote. Relative Clause. A clause introduced by a relative pronoun. Relative Pronoun. A pronoun that is used in joining a subordinate clause to a principal clause. EXAMPLE : He is the man whom I saw. Restrictive Modifier. A word, phrase, or clause which narrows the application of the word it modifies. EXAMPLE: The man who has money can make money. A Non-Restrictive Modifier retards the progress of the sentence to add to the idea of the word modified. EXAMPLE : The old man, tired and discouraged, gave up the task. Retained Object. When an active sentence containing two complements of different kinds (direct and indirect objects, direct and secondary objects, etc.) is made passive, one of the objects (or complements) is kept after the passive verb and is called a retained object. EXAMPLE: Active They gave him a book (direct object). Passive He was given a book (retained object). Secondary Object. The verbs ask and teach sometimes take two objects: one, the direct object, indicating the person who receives the action; the other, the secondary object, indicating what is asked or taught. EXAMPLE: The teacher asked me (direct object) a question (secondary object). Sentence. See Complex Sentence, Complex-Compound Sentence, Com- pound Sentence, Declarative Sentence, Exclamatory Sentence, Impera- tive Sentence, Interrogative Sentence, Simple Sentence. Sign of the Infinitive. See Infinitive. :;iol biology B. L. (B. LL.)Bachelor of Law bot botany boul. (blvd.) -boulevard Bp Bishop* brig brigade; brigadier bro. (bros.) . . brother(s) B. S Bachelor of Science c about (circa); cubic C Centigrade (thermome- ter) Capt Captain car carats Card Cardinal Cath Catholic cav cavalry cc cubic centimeter(s) C.E Civil Engineer century cert certificate ( f compare (confer) C. H Court House chap (ch.) . . . chapter chem chemistry civ civil; civilian C.J Chief Justice cl clause r the time being prov province pub publisher; published punct pun-t u:iti. M q question ; quire Q. E. D which was to be proved (quod erat demon- strandum) Q. M quarterma*t r Q. M. G Quartermaster General q. v which see (quod vide) qy query I\. (Reaum.) . Reaumer (a thermo- metric system) R. A Rear Admiral; Royal Academy R. C Red Cross rec. sec recording secretry Rect Rector ref reference; reformed regt regiment rel relative Rep Representative; Repub- lican Rev. Ver Revised Version r. f rapid-fire R. F. D Rural Free Delivery rhet rhetoric APPENDIX 375 R. M. S Royal Mail Steamer R. N Royal Navy Rom. Cath. Roman Catholic R. P. O Railroad Post Office R. S. V. P... Reply if you please (French phrase with this meaning) Rt. Hon Right Honorable Rt. Rev Right Reverend S. (SS.) Saint(s); section(s) S. A Salvation Army Sab Sabbath Sat Saturday S. B Bachelor of Science s. c small capital sci science Script Scripture sculp he (or she) carved it (Lat. sculpsit) sec section; secretary Sen Senate; Senator Sept September sergt sergeant sh shilling Shak Shakspere sing singular S. J Society of Jesus S. O. S wireless distress signal sov sovereign sp spelling sp.gr specific gravity S. P. Q. R.. . .the Senate and the peo- ple of Rome Sr Senior St Saint; street ster sterling subj subject; subjunctive subst substantive suff suffix Sun Sunday Supt Superintendent surg surgeon syn synonym tech technical; technology tel telegram; telephone ter territory Test Testament Thurs Thursday tr trustee; transpose; translator treas treasurer Tues Tuesday Univ Universalist; university U. S. A United States Army; United States of America U. S.M United States Mail; United States Marine U. S. N United States Navy U. S. S United States Ship v verb var variant Vat .Vatican Ven venerable Vise Viscount vol volume V. P. Vice-President W.C.T.U Woman's Christian Temperance Union Wed Wednesday Xmas Christmas Y.M.C.A Young Men's Christian Association Zool Zoology APPENDIX D BOOKS A MINIMUM REQUIREMENT The great books have become so much a part of conversation and are referred to so often even in everyday affairs newspapers, business letters, advertising, etc. that a knowledge of them is necessary even from the mere standpoint of dollars and cents. If we add to the material advantage, the pleasure, the moral development, and the mental stimulation derived from the great books of the ages, we must feel that any young business man or woman cannot afford to be ignorant of the books which have had so great a part in building our civilization. The following list should be regarded as a minimum. The authors have chosen the list with the qualifications and limitations of the high- school student in mind, and have therefore omitted many great books for instance, many of the great plays of Shakspere because they might not hold the interest of youth. You should, during your high-school course, read every one of the following books: David Copperfield . . Dickens Jane Eyre . . Bronte ' John Halifax Mrs. Mulock-Craik Ben// ...,w. Wallace Ivanhoe ..Scott Silas Mamer. . .George Eliot Treasure Island Stevenson The Three Guardsmen . . . . . Dumas The Virginian \\ ister Robinson Crusoe Defoe The Last Days of Pompeii Ly tton Tom Sawyer ' Clemens Autobiography ... Franklin Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm Wiggin The Man Without a Country Hale The Sketch Book Irving Little Women Alcott The Lady of the Lake Scott Scottish Chiefs Porter Ramona Jackson The Little Shepherd of Kingdom Come Fox Lorna Doone Blackmore The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table Holmes The Golden Treasury Palgrave 376 INDEX References are to pages. a, the sound of, 184 A and an: distinction in use, 352 omission of, 106 Abbreviations: capitals in, 161 lists of, 369-375 periods after, 144, 277 to be used sparingly, 162, 281 Absolute nominative, 351 Abstract nouns, 22, 351 Accept and except, 176, 196 Accidentally (not acddently), 179 Accordingly an adverb, 97 semicolon needed before it, 131 Accusative case-uses, 90, 353 Accusative-dative case, 66, 69-72 Active voice: change from, to passive, 39, 40, 108, 230, 365 definition, 39, 351 progressive, signs of, 41 Address: commas with words of, 121 how punctuated, 129, 277 nominative of, 351 of person to whom one is writing, needed, 278 writer's, needed in letter, 276 Adjective (not ajetive), 182 Adjective: clause, 351 comparison, 77-80, 353 definition, 77, 351 hyphen in compound, 167 or adverb, 81 phrase, 351 position of, 77 possessive, 66, 68 predicate, 12, 77, 81, 82, 361 restrictive and non-restrictive, 123 series separated by commas, 116 Adjunct accusative, 351 Adjustment, letter of, 315 Adore, misuse of, 243 Adverb : adjective or, 81 comparison of, 78 definition, 351 "flat" adverbs, 83 redundant adverbs, 95 relative, 96 " where" adverbs, 87 Adverbial accusative (objective), 351 Adverbial clause, 352 Adverbial phrase, 352 Advertisements : catching attention in, 343 construction of, 342 interesting, 206 overdrawn, 349 personal appeal in, 343, 344 transition in, 345, 346 types of, 341, 347-349 writing of, 341, 342 Advertising: benefits from, 340 growth of, 339 Advice and advise, 176, 196 Advise trite in letters, 287 Aeroplane or airplane (not area- plane}, 179 Affect and effect, 176, 196 After, either preposition or con- junction, 99 Again, misused for agzinst, 240, 249 377 378 VOCATIONAL KNdUSll Aggravated, misufled for exasperated, 241 Agreement: defined, 352 of pronoun and antecedent, 62-65 of subject and verb, 57-60 Aint, 61, 348 All as indefinite pronoun, 63 All right two words, 166 Allusion and illusion, 196 Alphabetizing, exercise in, 157 Almost one word, 166 distinguished from most, 85 Already one word, 166 Alright no such word, 166 Also adverb, 97 not always set off by commas, 121 Altar and alter, 176 Although one word, 166 Altogether one word, 166 Always one word, 166 Ambiguity, commas to avoid, 127 American speech, faults in, 181 Among and between, 90, 91 And and to, 99 Angel and angle, 176 Antecedent: agreement of pronoun with, 62-65 denned, 352 disagreement between pronoun and, 232 every one, etc., as, 64 reference to uncertain, 109 Anybody as indefinite pronoun, 63 Any one as indefinite pronoun, 64 Anyplace, anywhere, etc., 87 Apiece one word, 166 Apostrophe: defined, 352 in possessive forms, 27, 28 wrongly used in pronouns, 68 Appear, when followed by adjec- tive, 82 Application for a position, letter of, 297-300 Application in person, 197, 301-303 Appositives: commas for, 125 dashes for, 136 defined, 352 nominative, 67 objective, 70 person of, 22 Arctic (not Artie), 179, 182, 186 Articles: defined, 352 distinction between, 352 omission of, 106 A* as, so as, 100 Ascent and assent, 176 Ask past is asked, 36, 179, 182, 228 Association, errors of, 235 At and to, 90 At about bad, 247 At hand trite, 287 Athletic (not athaletic), 179, 182 Athletics, number of, 26 Attack no such form as attackted, 249 Auger and augur, 176, 196 Aught as indefinite pronoun, 63 Aught, naught, and ought, 74 Auxiliary verbs: defined, 352 instead of subjunctive, 55, 56 Awfully, misuse of, 242 "Baby blunder," 15 Back of, in back of, 92 Bad and badly, 84 Balance, for rest or remainder, 241 Balance in a sentence, 202, 231 Bare and bear, 176 Base and bass, 176 Bdss no change for plural, 23 Be: as auxiliary verb, 352 INDEX 379 conjugation, 32, 33 eight simple forms of, 32 followed by predicate adjective, 77 imperative of, 50 subjunctive conjugation, 51 . use in passive, 39, 40, 41 use in progressive forms, 33, 41 Beat, 36, 38 Because, clauses with, 124 Before either preposition or con- junction, 99 Beg, as used in letters, 281, 288 Begin, 36, 38 Beginning a theme, 234 Behest, distinguished from bequest, 242 Bern's no such form, 61, 248 Believing, etc., in letters, 289 Berth and birth, 176 Beside and besides, 176 Besides adverb, 97 Between and among, 90, 91 Bible, capitalization in relation to, 160 Bid, 36, 38 Biennial one word, 166 Blames it on, 92 Blow no form blowed, 36, 38, 248 Body, combinations ending in one word, 166 combinations of, as indefinite pro- nouns, 63, 64 Body of a letter, 280 Born (never borned), 248 Born and borne, 176 Boundary (not boundry), 179 Brackets, 140, 141 Brake and break, 176> Break, 36 Brethren (not brethern), 179 Brevity, undue, in letters, 292 Bring, 36 confused with take, 241 no such form as brung, 36, 48 Bunch, misuse of, 242 Burst no such forms as busted or bursted, 36, 38, 248 Business correspondence : appearance of, 264 paragraphing, 208, 209 Business, the growth of, 263 advantages of the letter in, 263 Business letter, qualities of a good, 266-272 Buying letter, the, 309, 312 By as prefix followed by hyphen, 167 By and to, 91 Can, as auxiliary verb, 352 misused for may, 240 Cannon no change for plural, 23 Cannon and canon, 176, 196 Canvas and canvass, 176, 196 Capital and capitol, 176 Capitalization, rules for, 159-162 Capitalize, failure to, at beginning of sentence, 14, 228 Case: of nouns, 27-29 of pronouns, 66-72 defined, 352 Case-uses, list of, 353 Casualty (not casuality),l79, 186, 248 Cataclysm, distinguished from cate- chism, 241 Catch (not ketch, ketcher, etc.), 184, 186, 249 Cause, conjunctions denoting, 96 Ceiling and sealing, 177 Checks, bank, 314, 366, 367 Childhood one word, 166 Children (not childern), 179, 182 Choir and quire, 177 Choose and chose, 177 Chord and cord, 177 Circular letter, the, 329 880 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH City names, best not abbreviated, 277 Classification by punctuation, 138 Clauses: asH'HKMt- in the sentence, 12 defined, 12, 353 dependent or subordinate, 13 in a series, 117, 118 independent or coordinate, 14 infinitive. 71, 72 misplaced, 104 principal, 12 unattached, 108 Clearness, the need of, 103 Cleft infinitive, 60 Coarse and course, 177 Code, the telegraphic, 336 Collection letter, the, 332-335 Collective nouns, number of verbs with, 57, 58 Colloquial carelessness, 248 Colon: after "Dear Sir," etc., 134, 277 in classification, 139 uses of, 133, 134 when to capitalize first word after, 159 Colonel and kernel, 177 Come, 36, 38 "Comma blunder/' 15, 202 Commas: after yes, no, 'oh, 128 in classification, 139 in compound sentences, 117 in connection with quotations, 128 in dates, addresses, etc., 129 in headings of letters, 277 inside quotation mark at end of quotation, 143 to avoid ambiguity, 127 to indicate omissions, 129 to mark interruption of thought, 120 to separate words in series, 115 to set off appositives, 125 to set off non-restrictive modi- fiers, 123 to set off words of address, 121 Commercial jargon, 243 Committee on Grammatical No- menclature, 27, 42, 62, 66, 68, 123 Common gender, 357 Common noun, 353 Comparative degree: defined, 353 forms of, 77, 78 ' in dealing with two, 79 Comparison: application of, 78 conjunctions denoting, 96 definition, 77, 353 double, 79 of adjectives, 77-80 of adverbs, 78 Complected, 248 Complement defined, 353 Complement and compliment, 177, 196 Complementary for complimentary, 241 Complete thought, sentence must express, 10 Complete words, failure to write, 228 Completeness, a quality needed in business letters, 267-269 Complex sentence, 13, 354 Complex-compound sentence, 14, 354 Composition: need of practice in, 197 oral, 197-201 organizing a, 208 flf., 217 paragraphing in, 210 subjects for, 200, 201, 205-207, 215, 216, 218-226, 255-261 written, 201 flf. Compound adjective, 167, 354 INDEX 381 Compound noun: defined, 354 plural of, 24 possessive of, 28 Compound predicate, 13, 354 Compound prepositions, 90, 354 Compound sentence, 14, 117, 130, 354 Compound subject, 13, 66, 355 agreement of, with verb, 58 Compound words, 165-167 Concession: clause of, 355 conjunctions denoting, 96 subjunctive in clauses of, 53, 54 Conclusion of a letter, 281, 282 Condensation illustrated, 257 Condition: clause of, 355 conjunctions denoting, 96 subjunctive in clauses of, 53, 54 Confusion of past tense and past participle, 37 Conjugation of verbs, 31-35, 50-52 Conjunctions: adverbs distinguished from, 97 coordinating, 96 correlative, 98, 355 denned, 96, 355 not inflected, 20, 96 subordinating, 96 Conjunctive adverbs, 96 Connection, genitive of, 29, 355 Consequently adverb, 97 semicolon before, 131 Contents carefully noted trite in letters, 281, 288 Contrary to fact, clauses of condi- tion, 54 Conversation: as remedy for trouble with ante- cedent, 110 the opportunity of, 197 the paragraphing of, 214, 215, 234 Coordinate clauses, 14 Coordinating conjunctions, 96 Cordially yours, 282 Correlative conjunctions require parallel constructions, 98 Correspondent, needs of a, 265 Council and counsel, 177, 196 Courtesy in business letters, 271, 272 Creak and creek, 177 Currant and current, 177 Curse (not cuss), 36, 38, 248 Customary action, would to express, 49 Dangling participial constructions, 107 Dash, uses of, 135-139 Date, needed in a letter, 276 manner of writing, 129, 277 Dative case, 66, 353 Dear Sir, etc., as salutations, 280 Debate, subjects for, 201 Deceased and diseased, 177 Decorative heading, the, 277, 278 Deer no change for plural, 23 Definite instructions, writing, 217 ff. Degree of adjectives and adverbs, 77-80 Deleted, distinguished from depleted,, 241 Demonstrative adjectives and pro- nouns, 73, 356 Desert and dessert, 177 Desire, shall and will to express, 47 Determination, shall and will to express, 47 Device and devise, 177, 196 Dickens, letter to Knowles, 316 Dictionary, use of the, 156, 163, 165, 250 Dieresis, use instead of hyphen, 167 Different, idiom with, 93 Direct and indirect questions, 145, 358 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH Direct and indirect quotation, 111. 234,358 Direct object, 11, 69, 360 Directness, ' desirable in business letters, 266, 267 Disremember, 248 Dive, 36, 38, 248 Division of words at ends of lines, 162-164 Do, 36, 38 Do and did in emphatic verb forms, 33, 34, 41, 352 Don't for doesn't, 59 Doc. impolite abbreviation, 248 Double narrative, 229, 230, 356 Double negative, 84, 356 Double possessive, 356 Doubt expressed by question mark, 145 Doubtlessly bud, 248 Draft, the bank, 314, 367 Drag, 36, 88 Draw, 36 Drink, 36, 38 Drive, forms of, 41, 42 Drown no such form as drownded, 249 Due to, erroneous use of, 93 Duly, usually needless in letters, 288 Dyeing and dying, 177 e, the sound of, 184 Each, as indefinite pronoun, 63 agreement of verb with subjects modified by, 59 Each other and one another, 74 Eat, 36 ed often not a syllable, 163 "Eddies" in the sentence, 120 Editorial, the, 259, 260 Effect and affect, 176 e. g., semicolon before, 132 Either, as indefinite pronoun, 63 Ellipses a row of periods, 144 Else posseasive/'somebody else's," etc., 74 em-dash, the, 137 Emigrant and immigrant, 177 Emigration and immigration, 177 Emphasis, repetition for, 229 Emphatic forms of verb, 33, 34, 356 signs of, 41 Employer, the stenographer and the, 274 en-dash, the, 137 English, importance of good, 9 Enunciation, 182 Envelope, the, 283, 284 Equally CM bad, 247 Errors, types of. 14-16, 103-110, 227-235 Esteemed in letters, 281, 288 etc. not part of quotation, 141 Ever, combinations ending in one word, 16C wrong wit !i rarely or seldom, 85 Everlastingone word, 166 Every, agreement of verb with sub- jects modified by, 59 Everybody, as antecedent. 1 Every one as indefinite pronoun, 63,64 Every Jimer-two words, 160 Except not now used as conjunc- tion, 99 distinguished from accept, 176 Exclamation mark, 128, 111 Exclamation, nominative of, 356 Expletives, 356 Express money orders, 314, 338 Expressive English, 203, 204 Extra as prefix followed by hy- phen, 167 Extravagant use of words, 242 Facilitating for felicitating, 241 Facts in newspaper writing, 253 ff. Faint and feint, 177 INDEX 383 Faithfully yours, 282 Faker and fakir, 177 Familiarity in letters, 291 Farewell one word, 166 Farther and further, 177, 196 Faults, in American speech, 181 in planning a theme, 212-214 Favor, as used in letters, 281, 288 Favor, request for a, 307 February (not Febuary), 179, 182, 187 Feel, when followed by adjective, 82 Fellow, in compounds followed by hyphen, 167 Feminine gender, 22, 356 Fewer, distinguished from less, 85 Figures, use of, 169, 170, 276, 280 Finally and finely, 177 Fine, misuse of, 242 Firm names, possessive of, 28 Fish singular and plural alike, 23 Fix, misuse of, 242 "Flat" adverbs, 83 Flee, 36, 38 Flow, 36, 38 Fly, 36 may be transitive or intransitive, 43 Folding a letter, 284 Follow-up campaign, the, 331 Follow-up letter, the, 329 For either preposition or conjunc- tion, 99 Foreign plurals, 24, 25 Form letter, the, 328 method of printing, 330 Formally and fornerly, 177 Former, the, and the latter, 75 Forthcoming one word, 166 Forward (noifoward), 179 Fragmentary expressions as sen- tences, 10 Friend John, etc. bad salutation, 280 Funny, misuse of, 243 Further and furthermore adverbs, 97 Future perfect tense, 32 Future tense, 31, 33, 357 shall and will in, 46-48 signs of, 41, 42 Gait and gate, 177 Gender: denned, 357 in pronouns, 65 negligible in nouns, 22 Genitive case: form of, 27, 28 same as possessive, 27 use of, 28, 29 Gentlemen as salutation in letter, 280 Gentsbad, 248 Gerund: denned, 357 distinguished from participle, 68 possessive with, 68 unattached, 108 Gilt and guilt, 177 Give, 36 Go, 36, 37 God, names for, capitalized, 160 Good and well, 84 Government (not goverment), 179, 182, 187 * "Grafted" sentences, 227 Grammar and everyday usage, 9 Grammatical Nomenclature, Joint Committee on, 27, 42, 62, 66, 68, 123 Grammatical terms defined, 351-365 Grievous (not grevious), 179, 187 Grisly and grizzly, 177, 196 Grow, 36, 38, 248 Habitual action, would to express, 49 Hackneyed expressions, a list of, 244 Had ought, 61, 246 VTIONAL ENGLISH Haint no B\ich word, 248 Half, in compounds followed by hyphen, 167 Hand, compounds with, 24 s at hand and to hand in letters, 287 hand you in letters, 281, 288 Hang, 36, 38, 196 II inking participle, 107 Hate, misuse of, 243 Have: as auxiliary verb, 352 of misused for, 36, 61 subjunctive of, 51 tense forms, 32 use in perfect tenses, 32, 41 He to refer to uncertain gender, 64 Heading in a business letter, 276-278 Heal and heel, 177 Healthy for healthful, 241 Hear and here, 177 tfeo/,36 no such form as het, 249 Heavy style in letters, 293 Height (not heighth), 179 Hence adverb, 97 semicolon needed before, 131 Herewith overworked in letters, 289 Hew and ht, 177 Hisselfno such word, 74, 249 Historical present imadvisable, 234 History (not histry), 182, 187 Hoard and horde, 177 Homonyms, a list of, 176-179 Hoping, etc., in letters, 289 Horribly, misuse of, 243 Horrid, misuse of, 243 However adverb, 97 semicolon needed before, 131 Hundred (not hunderd), 182 Hyphen: use in compound words, 165-167 use in dividing a word at end of line, 164 7: capitalized when used as a \v ml, 159 when better than we, 294 when not better than we, 308 wrongly omitted, 16, 'J I, the sound of, 184 / am, in concluding letters, 289 Idea (not idee), 182 ' Idiom, 29, 83, 90, 92-94, 357 Idiomatic use of prepositions, 92-94 t. e., semicolon before, 132 // and whether, 100 //, subjunctive in clauses with, 53, 54 restrictive and non-restrictive . clauses with, 123 Illogical arrangement, 213, 214 Illogical phrasing, 233 Illy no such word, 248 Immigrant and emigrant, 177 Immigration and emigration, 177 Impassable and impassible, 178, 196 Imperative mood, 50, 357 Impression, first importance in letters, 319 In and into, 91 Inanimate objects, names of, rarely made possessive, 28 Inasmuch one word, 166 Incidentally (not incidently), 179 Incongruous ideas, 235 Indeed adverb, 97 semicolon needed before, 131 when set off by commas, 121 Indefinite adjectives, 64, 357 Indefinite pronouns: list of, 63 number in, 63, 64 possessive of else forms, 74 Indention of paragraphs, 208 Indicative mood, 50, 358 in if and though clauses, 53, 54 Indirect object, 12, 70, 358 Indirect questions, 145, 358 INDEX 385 Indirect quotation, 141, 234, 358 Indirect style in letters, 293 Individuality needed in business letters, 269-271 Individual, application to, in letters, 325 Infinitive: clause, 71, 358 objective subject of, 71 phrase, 358 split or cleft, 60, 364 to as sign of, 41 used as noun, adjective, adverb, 358 without to, 72 Inflection: denned, 20 of adjectives, 77 of adverbs, 78 of nouns, 22-28 of pronouns, 62 ff. of verbs, 31 ff. Information, letters asking, 306 Ingenious and ingenuous, 178, 196, 241 Inhuman and inhumane, 241 Inside one word, 166 Inside of, 94 In spite of three words, 166 Inst. in letters, 289 Instead one word, 166 Instructions, writing definite, 217 ff. Intensive pronouns, 74, 359 Interjections, 19, 20, 359 Interrogative adjective, 359 Interrogative adverb, 359 Interrogative pronoun, 65, 359 Interruption of thought, 119 Into and in, 91 Intransitive verbs, 43, 365 Introduction, usually needless, 234 letter of, 305 Inverted order, 359 ion usually not a syllable, 163 Irony, indicated by exclamation mark, 145 Irregular comparison, 78 Irregular verbs, 35, 36, 363 Irrelevant (not irrevelant), 179, 182 Italics, uses of, 142, 413 It is me, 67 Itself one word, 74 Japanese no change for plufal, 23 Kernel and colonel, 177 Kind and kindly trite in letters, 289 Kind 0' and sort o', 85 Kind of a, etc., 85 Kinds of sentences, 13 Knew and new, 178 Know, 36 Know and no, 178 Laboratory (not labratory), 179, 182 Larynx (not larnyx), 179, 182 Later and latter, 178 Latter, the, 75 Lay, 36, 38, 45 layed a wrong spelling, 45 Lead and led, 178 "Lead," the, in newspaper writing, 253 ff. Learn, misused for teach, 240 Leave wrong after just as, had as, etc., 248 Lengthways bad, 248 Less and fewer, 85 Lessen and lesson, 178 Lest, subjunctive in clauses with, 53 Let, uses as auxiliary, 55, 352 with infinitive, 72 Letter: advantages in business, 263 body of the, 280 folding the, 284 form of the, 274-285 981 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH language of the, 287-295 qualities of good business, 266-272 the "mean," 316 the writer of a, 264-266 Letter acknowledging orders, 312 type letter, 313 Letter, adjustment, 315 exercises on, 317 t\p( Irtt.T, .".I.". Letter of application, 297 content of, 298 exercises on, 302 stationery of, 298 type letter, 299 Letter, buying, 309 exercises on, 311 form of, 310 type letter, 311 Letter, the circular, 329 Letter, collection, 332-335 Letter, the follow-up, 329-332 letter, the form, 328 Letter of introduction, 305 type letter, 305 Letter of recommendation, 303 direct, 304 exercises on, 305 open letter, 303 type letter, 304 Letter, sales, 318-326 application to individual, 324 closing the deal, 325 description in, 320-323 divisions of, 318 exercises in, 321, 323, 327 getting attention in, 318 transition from first sentence, 320 type letter, 326 Letters asking information, 306 refusal of request, 308 request for favor, 307 routine, 306 Letters transmitting money, 313 type letter, 314 Library (not libary), 179, 182 Lie, 36, 38, 45 Lightened (not lightninged), 179 Like not a conjunction, 100, 248 Likewise adverb, 97 Limiting adjective, 359 Lincoln letters, two, 296, 297 Linking verb, 359 Loathe, misuse of, 243 Look, when followed by adjective, 82 Looky and lookit, 248 Loose participles, 107 Loose and lose, 38, 178 Low, 36, 38 Love, misuse of, 243 ly, adverbs not ending in, 83 Mad, misuse of, 242 Magazine article, condensing the, 261,262 Magazines, 251 Margin in letters, 274-276 Marten and martin, 178 Masculine gender, 359 May, uses as auxiliary, 55, 56, 352 May and can, 240 "Mean" letter, the, 316 Meat, meet, and mete, 178 Meningitis (not mengitis), 179 Midnight one word, 166 Might as auxiliary verb, 352 Militarism (not militaryism), 179 Military orders, shall and will in, 47 Miner and minor, 178 Mischievous (not mischievious), 179, 188 Misplaced words, phrases, clauses, 104 Misspelled words, lists of, 174-179 Modifiers: clauses as, 12 confusion in number due to, 57 definition, 11 INDEX 387 should be near words modified, 104 Money, letters transmitting, 313 Money orders, 314, 368 Mood in verbs, 50, 359 More, as indefinite pronoun, 63 use in comparison, 78 Moreover: adverb, not subordinating con- junction, 97 one word, 166 semicolon needed before, 131 Most, as indefinite pronoun, 63 use in comparison, 78 Most and almost, 85, 88 Much, singular as indefinite pro- noun, 63 Muchly no such word, 249 Must, used as auxiliary, 55, 352 Name, addressee's to be written as . he writes it, 279 Namely, semicolon before, 132 Narrative, double, 229, 230 Natural order, 360 Natural superlatives, 80, 360 Naught, singular as indefinite pro- noun, 63, 74 Near by two words, 166 Negative assertions, emphatic verb forms in, 34 Negatives, double, 84, 356 Neither, to be followed by nor, 98 singular as indefinite pronoun, 63 Nevertheless: adverb, 97 one word, 166 semicolon needed befors, 131 when set off by commas, 121 New and knew, 178 News items, practice in writing, 255, 256, 259 Newspaper, importance of the, 253 Newspaper writing, 253 ff. News "story," the, 256-259 Niagara (not Niagra}, 179 Nice, misuse of, 242 Nickname one word, 166 No and know, 178 No one two words, 166 No, agreement of verb with sub- jects modified by, 59 punctuation with, 128 Nominative (not nomitive), 179, 182, 188 Nominative uses of pronoun, 66, 67 Non-restrictive expressions, 122, 363 Nor, agreement of verb with sub- jects connected by, 59 should follow neither, 98 Not all, error in separation of, 104 Notwithstanding one word, 166 Nouns: abstract, 22, 351 case of, 27-29 collective, 57, 58, 353 compound, 24, 28, 165 ff. gender of, 22, 357 inflection of, 22 ing forms as, 22 number of, 23-26 person in, 22 predicate, 12, 66, 362 Nowadays one word, 166 Nowheres, etc., 249 Number: agreement of verb and subject in, 57-59 errors in, 63 of nouns, 23-26 - of pronouns, 63-65 of verbs, 34, 35 Numbers, spelling out, 168-170 Numerals, 360 0, capitalize when a word, 159 not followed by comma, 128 888 VOCATIONAL KNCLISH o, the sound of, 1 s i Object: becomes subject in change to passive, 40 clause as, 12, 14 direct, 11,69,71,360 errors in, 66, 69 indirect, 11,70,358 retained, 40, 363 secondary, 363 Objective complement, 351 Objective uses of pronoun, 69-72 < >Mi nut ion, should to express, 49 subjunctive in clauses to ex- press, 53 Oblige overworked in letters, 289 Obscure reference, 109 Observance and observation, 241 Occasionally (not occasionly), 179, 182 Of redundant in off of, etc., 94 wrong in place of have, 36, 61 Ojfo/,94, 247 Offhanded bad, 248 oh, not capitalized, 159 punctuation after, 128 Omission of necessary words, 106, 235 Once, 249 One, combinations of, as antece- dents, 64 excessive use of, 232 singular as indefinite pronoun, 63,232 One another, 74 On to two words, 166 Onto and upon, 91 oo, the sound of, 183 Or, agreement of verb with sub- jects connected by, 59 Ordering letter, a correct, 311 Orders, letters acknowledging, 312 Organization, the need of, 208 Ornery bad, 248 Other, in comparison, 79 Ought: had improper with, 61 should equivalent to, 49 Our Mr., in letters, 290 < > it line, making an, 212 U'ltttntctt -urn- won I, HM Overly no such word, 249 Panoramic, distinguished from pan- tomimic, 241 Panto bad form, 248 Paragraph, the: in business correspondence, 208, 209,267 in conversation, 214, 234 in news items, 156 in ordinary composition, 210, 214, 215 Parallel construction in similar part* of a sentence, 98, 202, 231 Parentheses, 139, 140 Parenthetical expressions, dashes for, 136 Participial constructions, at ends of 1. tiers, 281 Participial phrase, 360 Participle: "dangling", 107 definition, 360 distinguished from gerund, 68 ing as sign of present, 41 past, as one of principal parts, 35,37 restrictive and non-rot ri comparison, 79 Types of errors in school themes, 227-235 Typewriting style in letters, 281 Typewritten signatures, 283 , the sound of, 183 Uli. in letters, 289 Uncertainty, subjunctive in clauses of, 53/54 Unbeknownbad, 248 Under separate cover, 290 "Understood" words, 105 Unkempt, misuse of, 242 Unless, use of, 99 Until either preposition or con- junction, 99 Up as different parts of speech, 19 redundant uses of, 95 Upon and onto, 91 Use for used, 220 Valued in letters, 291 Variety in expression, need of, 287 Veracious, distinguished from vor- acious, 242 Verb phrases instead ot subjunc- tive, 55, 56 INDEX 395 Verbs : * active and passive, 39, 40, 365 agreement with subject, 57"6G conjugation, 31, 355 forms, recognition of, 41, 42 inflection of, 31 ff. mood in, 50 number in, 34, 35 person in, 34, 35 principal parts of, 35 regular and irregular, 35, 363 signs, 40, 41 transitive and intransitive, 43, 364, 365 Very, distinguished from real, 86 viz., semicolon before, 132 Vocabulary, increasing the, 149 ff., 250 Voice of verbs, 39, 40 Volition : shall and will to express, 47 subjunctive to express, 52, 53 Vowel sound, purity of, 183 Wa'n't not a proper form, 61 Want "ad," replies to, 297 Wardrobe no hyphen, 166 Ware, wear, and where, 179, 184 Ways improper form, 26 We, the writer, and / in letters, 291, 294, 295 Weak and week, 179 Well, distinguished from good, 84 Went the "I have went" error, 37 wh, the sound of, 184 When, clauses with, 123 Whence, from not needed with, 246 Where, combinations ending in one word, 166 adverbs, 87 clauses with, 123 Whereas capitalize first word after, 159 Whether and if, 100 Whether, while, etc. (not wether wile, etc.), 179, 189 Which, use of, 63. 65 Who, use of, 63, 65 forms of, 66 Will, 41, 46-48 Wish, subjunctive to express, 52. 53 Wish to inform, 291 Without: no hyphen, 166 not now a conjunction, 99 Women's names in signatures, 283 Word families, 149 Word groups, 113 Wordiness, 229, 230, 244-246 Words : as tools, 240 commonly misspelled, 174-179 compound, 165-167 division of, 162-164 failure to complete, 228- 229 in a series, 115 interesting, 249, 250 misplaced, 104 mispronounced, 182-189 misused, 240, 241 of address, 121 repetition of, 229 straining of meanings of, 242 superfluous, 246 "understood," 105 use of too many, 229, 244-246 World, in compounds followed by hyphen, 167 Would, 48, 49 Would say bad in letters, 281, 291 Write, 37 distinguished from right and rite, 178 Writer, used to avoid 7, 291, 295 Writer of a letter, the, 264-266 Written composition, general in- structions for, 201, 202 396 VOCATIONAL ENGLISH Ye* f punctuation with, 128 You-all, you-urw bad, 248 You bad use for one, 232 Yours (alone bad in letters), 291 understood as subject, 10 Your* truly, etc., 281, 282 THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO 3O CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. OCT 31 1937 OCT 31 1937 OE r. 14 1939 LD 21-95m-7/37 YB Olb64 478138 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY